,,transcriber',s ,,note ,original printed spelling and grammar is generally retained4 ,footnotes were renumbered and relocated to the end of the book1 into a new ,notes section1 ahead of the ,index4 ,original small caps font is indicated ,herein ,thus4 ,original italics1 thus4 ,the carot symbol means superscript4 ,see ,,endnote for more details4 ,,harmonies ,,of ,,political ,,economy4 ,,by ,,fr,d,,ric ,,bastiat4 ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,third ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,french1 ,,with ,a ,,notice ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,the ,,author1 ,,by ,,patrick ,,james ,,stirling1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,trade10 8,,the ,,gold ,,discoveries ,,and ,,their ,,probable ,,consequences10 ,,etc4 ,second ,edition4 ,,edinburgh3 ,,oliver ,,and ,,boyd1 ,,tweeddale ,,court4 ,,london3 ,,simpkin1 ,,marshall1 ,,and ,,co4 ,,edinburgh3 ,,printed ,,by ,,oliver ,,and ,,boyd1 ,,tweeddale ,,court4 ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ,the favour with which the ,english public has received the ,first ,edition of this translation of ,bastiat's ,harmonies conomiques1 published originally in separate parts1 has induced me to have the whole reprinted in a cheaper and more accessible form1 in the hope of giving the work a wider circulation1 and rendering it more generally useful4 ,the first ten chapters were all that appeared in the lifetime of the gifted author1 or that had the benefit of his finishing touch4 ,it was ,bastiat's intention1 had he lived1 to recast the work1 and to give it a wider and more comprehensive scope2 embracing in his design not only the principles of ,political ,economy1 but their applications to ,social ,philosophy4 ,prior to his departure for ,italy1 on what he foresaw might be his last journey1 he had communicated to his friends ,,mm4 de ,fontenay and ,paillottet a list of the new chapters in the order in which they will be found in the subjoined ,notice of his ,life4#a ,to the same friends1 in his last moments1 he entrusted the manuscripts intended for the continuation of the work4 ,the duty thus committed to them they discharged very judiciously1 by arranging the new portions in the order pointed out1 without altering the text1 and1 except in a very few instances1 without additions of their own1 contenting themselves with adding some explanatory notes1 consisting chiefly of references to the author's other works4 p#jjd ,some of the chapters thus added are unfortunately mere fragments1 but most of the others indicate very clearly ,bastiat's opinions on the subjects to which they relate1 and several of them display a breadth1 a vigour1 and an originality worthy of the best days of their lamented author4 ,many of the questions purely economical which are discussed in the posthumous portions of the work1--such1 for instance1 as those of ,wages1 ,population1 and the relations of ,labour and ,capital1 etc41--are still deeply engaging public attention in ,england1 as well as on the other side of the ,channel2 and on subjects of such vast practical importance it is surely desirable that the opinions of so profound and fearless a thinker as ,bastiat should be as widely disseminated as possible4 ,in conclusion1 ,i may perhaps be permitted to refer to the great interest taken in this translation by the late ,mr ,cobden1 who was the correspondent and personal friend of ,bastiat1 and was1 ,i need not say1 so eminently qualified to form and pronounce an opinion on the merits of his last great work4 ,a short time after the appearance of the first ten chapters 7#bfth ,march #ahfj71 writing from ,paris1 where he was then engaged in negotiating the ,commercial ,treaty1 ,mr ,cobden says1 8,my enthusiasm for ,bastiat1 founded as much on a love of his personal qualities as on an admiration for his genius1 dates back nearly twenty years4 ,i need not1 therefore1 express any astonishment at the warmth with which you speak of his productions4 ,they are doing their work silently but effectually4 ,m4 ,guillaumin the eminent publisher tells me the sale of the last edition has been steady and continuous1 and a new one is now in hand4 ,the works of ,bastiat1 which are selling not only in ,france1 but throughout ,europe1 are gradually teaching those who1 by their commanding talents1 are capable of becoming the teachers of others2 for ,bastiat speaks with the greatest force to the highest order of intellects4 ,at the same time1 he is almost the only political economist whose style is brilliant and fascinating1 whilst his irresistible logic is p#jje relieved by sallies of wit and humour which make his ,sophismes as amusing as a novel4 ,no critic who has read ,bastiat will dare to apply again to ,political ,economy the sarcastic epithet of the #8dreary science4' ,his fame is so well established1 that ,i think it would be presumptuous to do anything to increase it by any other means than the silent but certain dissemination of his works by the force of their own great merits40 ,a word as to my mode of rendering ,bastiat4 ,i have not aimed at giving a literal translation4 ,indeed1 the language often employed by ,bastiat hardly admits of literal translation4 ,but the more important object1 ,i trust1 has been attained of conveying fully1 plainly1 and intelligibly the author's precise meaning4 ,the materials of the following notice of the life and writings of ,bastiat have been borrowed partly from a short account of him in the ,dictionnaire de l'conomie ,politique1 partly from the ,memoir and ,correspondence prefixed to the author's uvres ,compltes1 and partly from an able article in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes from the pen of ,m4 ,louis ,reybaud4 ,p4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,contents4 ,page ,notice of the ,life and ,writings of ,frdric ,bastiat1 #i ,to the ,youth of ,france1 #cc ,chapter ,i4 ,natural and ,artificial ,organization1 #dg ,,ii4 ,wants1 ,efforts1 ,satisfactions1 #fc ,,iii4 ,wants of ,man1 #ge ,,iv4 ,exchange1 #ig ,v4 ,of ,value1 #aca ,,vi4 ,wealth1 #ahj ,,vii4 ,capital1 #aif ,,viii4 ,property--,community1 #bah ,,ix4 ,landed ,property1 #bdi ,x4 ,competition1 #bhh ,,xi4 ,producer--,consumer1 #cbc ,,xii4 ,the ,two ,aphorisms1 #cci ,,xiii4 ,rent1 #cdg ,,xiv4 ,wages1 #ceb ,,xv4 ,saving1 #cic ,,xvi4 ,population1 #cig ,,xvii4 ,private and ,public ,services1 #dbe ,,xviii4 ,disturbing ,causes1 #ddf ,,xix4 ,war1 #ded ,,xx4 ,responsibility1 #dfe ,,xxi4 ,solidarity1 #dhh ,,xxii4 ,social ,motive ,force1 #die ,,xxiii4 ,existence of ,evil1 #ejd ,,xxiv4 ,perfectibility1 #ejh ,,xxv4 ,relations of ,political ,economy with ,religion1 #eac ,index1 #eah ,,notice ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,fr,d,,ric ,,bastiat4 ,frdric ,bastiat1 whose last and greatest1 though1 alas6 unfinished work--the ,harmonies conomiques--,i now venture to introduce to the ,english public1 was born at ,bayonne1 on the #aith of ,june #ahja4 ,his father1 an eminent merchant of ,bayonne1 died young1 and his wife having died before him1 ,frdric1 their only child1 was left an orphan at the early age of nine years4 ,the care of his education devolved on his paternal grandfather1 who was proprietor of a land estate near ,mugron1 in the arrondissement of ,saint-,sever4 ,his aunt1 ,mademoiselle ,justine ,bastiat1 acted towards him the part of a mother1 and her affection was warmly reciprocated by ,bastiat1 who1 to the day of his death1 never ceased to regard her with filial love and reverence4 ,bastiat's education was begun at ,bayonne1 continued at ,saint-,sever1 and finished at the ,college of ,sorze4 ,here his course of study was occasionally interrupted by indisposition2 but1 on his recovery1 his quick parts and steady application soon enabled him to overtake and keep pace with his fellow-students4 ,at ,sorze4 ,bastiat formed a boyish friendship with ,m4 ,calmtes1 to whom his earliest letters are addressed4 ,the attachment of the youths was so remarkable1 that the masters permitted them to prepare their exercises together1 and sign them with their joint names4 ,in this way they gained a prize for poetry4 ,the prize was a gold medal1 which1 of course1 could not be divided4 8,keep it10 said ,bastiat to his friend3 8,i am an orphan2 you have both father and mother1 and the medal of right falls to them40 ,in #ahah1 ,bastiat left ,college1 and1 in compliance with the wishes of his family1 entered his uncle's counting-house at ,bayonne4 ,his p#jaj tastes1 however1 were for study rather than for business1 and while at ,bayonne he devoted his leisure hours by turns to ,french1 ,english1 and ,italian literature4 8,i aim at nothing less10 he said1 8than to become acquainted with politics1 history1 geography1 mathematics1 mechanics1 natural history1 botany1 and four or five languages40 ,he was fond of music1 sang agreeably1 and played well on the violoncello4 ,in #ahbd1 he began to study the works of the leading ,economists of ,france and ,england--,adam ,smith1 ,jean ,baptiste ,say1 and ,destutt de ,tracy2 and even at this early period he took an interest in the ,english free-trade measures of ,mr ,huskisson4 ,from this time he may be said to have devoted his life to his favourite science4 ,on the death of his grandfather1 in #ahbe1 he gave up commerce as a profession1 and took up his residence on his paternal estate at ,mugron1 in the cultivation of which he was at first induced to engage1 but without much success1 and he soon relinquished agriculture1 as he had before abandoned trade4 ,business1 in truth1 was not his vocation2 he had no turn for details2 he cared little for money2 his wants were few and simple2 and he had no intention1 as he says in one of his letters1 to undergo irksome labour for three-fourths of his life to ensure for the remainder a useless superfluity4 ,it was at this period1 and at ,mugron1 that he formed his lifelong friendship with ,m4 ,felix ,coudroy1 to whom so much of his correspondence is addressed1 and to whom1 a short time before his death1 he had thought of committing the task of finishing the second volume of the ,harmonies4 ,the two friends1 whose tastes and pursuits were the same1 were constantly together1--reading1 walking1 or conversing4 ,if ,bastiat1 whose ardent nature was impatient of plodding and systematic application1 received a new book from ,paris1 he immediately carried it to ,coudroy1 who examined it1 and noted the remarkable passages1 which he read afterwards to his friend4 ,bastiat would often content himself with such fragments2 and it was only when the book interested him deeply1 that he would carry it off to read it carefully by himself4 ,on these days1 says his biographer1 music was laid aside1 and the violoncello was mute4 ,it was thus1 he continues1 that the two friends passed their lives together1 lodging a few paces from each other1 seeing one another three times a-day1 sometimes in their chambers1 sometimes in long walks1 sauntering together1 book in hand4 ,works of philosophy1 history1 politics1 religion1 poetry1 travels1 biography1 political economy1 socialist p#jaa works of the day1--all passed under the ordeal of this double intelligence4 ,it was in these conversations that the ideas of ,bastiat were developed1 and his thoughts matured4 ,when anything struck him particularly1 he would set to work of a morning and put it into shape without effort4 ,in this way he wrote his ,sophismes1 his article on the ,french and ,english tariffs1 etc4 ,it was this literary friendship1 which lasted for more than twenty years1 without being once clouded by the slightest disagreement1 which prepared the mind of ,bastiat for the gigantic efforts he was destined afterwards to make1 and enabled him1 during the last five years of his life1 amid disease and distraction1 to give to the world that mass of original and varied ideas which compose the six volumes of his collected works4#b ,in the events to which the expulsion of the elder branch of the ,bourbons gave rise in #ahcj1 ,bastiat took an active interest4 ,bayonne had pronounced in favour of the new order of things4 ,the citadel alone held out1 and continued to display the white flag2 and a concentration of ,spanish troops on the frontier was spoken of4 ,bastiat did not hesitate4 ,quitting ,mugron1 he hurried to ,bayonne to take part in the movement4 ,in conjunction with some of his friends1 he prepared a proclamation1 formed an association of six hundred determined young men1 and did not despair of reducing the citadel by a coup de main4 ,happily their martial ardour was not put to the proof4 ,before the march of events all resistance gave way1 and that same day the citadel opened its gates4 ,in place of a battle1 there was a feast2--punch1 wine1 and ,branger enlivened the evening2--and the officers1 like horses just let loose from the stable1 were the merriest of the party4#c ,such was the beginning and the end of ,bastiat's military career4 ,in #ahca1 he became ,juge de ,paix of the ,canton of ,mugron1 and1 in #ahcb1 a ,member of the ,council-,general of the ,landes4 ,the confidence and esteem of his neighbourhood would have invested him with a trust still more important1 by sending him as a representative to the ,chamber of ,deputies2 but in this1 after three fruitless attempts1 his friends were defeated1 and ,bastiat did not succeed in becoming a legislator until after the ,revolution of ,february #ahdh4 ,he published1 in #ahcd1 ,rflexions sur les ,ptitions de ,bordeaux1 le ,havre et ,lyon1 concernant les douanes1--a brochure of great vigour1 and which contains the germ of the theory of ,value developed fifteen years afterwards in the ,harmonies4 p#jab ,in #ahdj1 ,bastiat visited ,spain and ,portugal2 and after a sojourn of some months at ,madrid1 and afterwards at ,lisbon1 with great benefit to his health1 he sailed thence for ,england1 and spent a few weeks in ,london4 ,on his return to ,mugron1 he wrote his pamphlet1 ,le ,fisc et la ,vigne1 in which he protests against certain new duties with which the wine-trade of his native province was threatened4 ,in this brochure#d he gives a characteristic anecdote of ,napoleon4 ,at the outset1 the duties imposed were so moderate that the receipts would scarcely defray the cost of collection4 ,the ,minister of ,finance remonstrated1 and represented that these imposts were making the ,government unpopular1 without any benefit to the revenue4 8,you are a noodle1 ,monsieur ,maret10 said the ,emperor2 8since the nation grumbles at some light burdens1 what would have been the consequence had ,i added heavy taxes8 ,accustom them1 first of all1 to the exercise2 and then we can reform the tariff40 ,the great captain1 adds ,bastiat1 was also a skilful financier4 ,begin by inserting the thin end of the wedge--accustom them to the exercise--such is the history of all taxes4 ,in #ahdc1 appeared another pamphlet1 entitled ,mmoire sur la question vinicole2 and in #ahdd1 ,mmoire sur la rpartition de l'impt foncier dans le ,dpartement des ,landes1--both productions of extraordinary ability1 but having reference principally to questions of local interest and importance4 ,the great subject of ,free ,trade1 to which he was afterwards to devote his vast powers1 had then assumed in his mind rather the form of a vague dream of what might perchance be realized under favourable circumstances at some far distant day1 than of a thing in sober reality to be expected or hoped for4 ,it was an accidental circumstance which first directed his attention to what was then passing in ,england under the auspices of the ,anti-corn-law ,league4 ,among the circle which ,bastiat frequented at ,mugron there prevailed a strong prejudice1 or rather an inveterate hatred1 against ,england2 and ,bastiat1 who had cultivated ,english literature1 and imbibed ,english ideas1 had often to break a lance with his acquaintances on the subject of this unfounded dislike4 ,one of these ,anglophobes1 accosting him one day1 handed him a newspaper4 8,read that10 said he with bitterness1 8and see how your friends are treating us60 ,it was a translation of a speech of ,sir ,robert ,peel in the ,house of ,commons1 which concluded with the words--8,if we adopt this course1 we shall fall1 like ,france1 to the lowest rank among nations40 ,his country was insulted1 and ,bastiat had not a word to say4 ,on reflection1 however1 it did p#jac appear strange to him that the ,prime ,minister of ,england should entertain such an opinion of ,france1 and still more so1 that1 entertaining it1 he should express it openly and offensively in his place in ,parliament4 ,to clear up the matter1 ,bastiat wrote instantly to ,paris1 and became a subscriber to an ,english newspaper1 requesting that all the numbers for the preceding month might be sent to him4 ,in a few days the ,globe and ,traveller made its appearance at ,mugron1 containing ,sir ,robert ,peel's speech1 when it was discovered that the words 8like ,france10 maliciously introduced into the ,french version of it1 were not there1 and1 in fact1 had never been uttered4 ,bastiat continued to read the ,globe1 and soon made the more important discovery that a formidable agitation was at that time going on in ,england to which the ,french newspapers never once alluded4 ,the ,anti-corn-law ,league was shaking the basis of the old commercial legislation of ,england4 ,for two years ,bastiat was thus enabled to watch the progress of the movement1 and at length began to entertain the idea of making known to his countrymen--and1 perhaps1 of inducing them to imitate--the important reform about to be accomplished on the other side of the channel4 ,it was this feeling which prompted him to send to the ,journal des conomistes his first contribution1 ,sur l'influence des tarifs ,anglais et ,franais4 ,this article1 bearing a signature till then unknown1 and coming from the remote ,department of the ,landes1 was at once accepted1 and created a profound impression4 ,like ,lord ,byron1 after the publication of ,childe ,harold1 ,bastiat 8awoke one morning and found himself famous40 ,compliments and encouragements showered in upon him from every side4 ,further contributions were solicited1 and were sent4 ,the ice was broken1 and he was fairly afloat as an author4 ,whilst contributing various articles to the ,journal--among others1 the first series of the ,sophismes conomiques--,bastiat began to write the history of the ,english ,anti-corn-law ,league2 and1 in order to obtain fuller information and more copious materials1 he opened a correspondence with ,mr ,cobden1 with whom he continued to exchange letters at frequent intervals during the remainder of his life4 ,it was in #ahde that ,bastiat went to ,paris to superintend the printing of this work1 which he entitled ,cobden et la ,ligue1 o l'agitation ,anglaise pour la libert des changes4 ,a luminous and spirited introduction1 giving an account of the economical and political state of ,england prior to the ,anti-corn-law agitation1 and describing the origin1 objects1 and progress of the league1 is p#jad followed by extracts from the more prominent speeches of ,cobden1 ,bright1 ,fox1 ,thompson1 and the other leaders4 ,all this was new in ,france1--to the popular mind of that country it might almost be called a revelation4 8,i have distributed a hundred copies in ,paris10 writes ,bastiat to ,cobden1 8and they have produced the best impression4 ,men who1 by their position and pursuits1 ought to know what is going on in ,england have been surprised on reading it4 ,they could not believe their eyes4 4 4 4 4 4 ,if ,i had combated directly their prejudices1 ,i should not have succeeded2 but1 by allowing the free-traders to speak and act for themselves--in a word1 by simply translating you--,i hope to have given these prejudices a blow which they cannot recover--if the book be read40 ,in a subsequent letter1 he says1--8,since my last letter an unexpected movement has manifested itself in the ,french press4 ,all the ,parisian1 and many of the provincial journals1 in reviewing my book1 have given an account of the ,anti-corn-law agitation4 ,they do not1 it is true1 perceive all its bearings1 but public opinion is awakened1 which is the essential point40 ,to this work1 and the service which it rendered to the cause of ,free ,trade1 and of sound economic ideas1 ,bastiat some months afterwards owed his nomination as a ,corresponding ,member of the ,institute4 8,i believe this nomination to be in itself of little importance10 he writes to ,m4 ,calmtes1 8and ,i fear many mediocrities have boasted of the title2 but the peculiar circumstances which preceded my nomination do not permit me to reject your friendly felicitations4 ,i have published only one book1 and of that book the preface alone is my work4 ,having returned to seclusion1 that preface has worked for me1 and unknown to me2 for the same letter which apprized me of my candidature announced my election4 ,i had never in my life dreamt of this honour4 ,the book is entitled ,cobden et la ,ligue4 ,i now send it to you1 which will save my saying more about it4 ,in #ahdb and #ahdc ,i endeavoured to attract attention to the subject of which it treats4 ,i addressed articles to the ,presse1 to the ,mmorial ,bordelais1 and other journals4 ,they were rejected4 ,i saw that my cause was about to break down under this conspiracy of silence1 and ,i had no resource but to write a book4 ,you see1 then1 why ,i have become an author4 ,and now1 engaged in that career1 ,i regret it extremely2 for although always fond of ,political ,economy1 ,i am reluctant to devote my attention exclusively to that science1 and would rather wander freely over the whole field of human knowledge4 ,yet in this science a single question--freedom of international relations--fascinates and is about to absorb me1--for1 perhaps1 you may p#jae have seen that ,i have been assigned a place in the association which has just been formed at ,bordeaux4 ,such is the age2 you can take no part in public life without being garrotted in a speciality40 ,at ,paris1 ,bastiat had been introduced to all the leading ,economists1 and he was delighted with his reception4 8,not one of these gentlemen10 he says to ,m4 ,coudroy1 8but had read1 re-read1 and perfectly understood my three articles4 ,i might have written a thousand years in the ,chalosse1 the ,sentinelle1 and the ,mmorial1 without finding a single true reader but yourself4 ,here one is read1 studied1 and understood40 ,by the whole circle ,bastiat was welcomed and feasted4 ,a desire was expressed that he should become conductor of the ,journal des conomistes1 and there was a proposal to find him a chair of ,political ,economy4 ,from ,paris he passed over to ,england1 where1 in ,july #ahde1 he met with ,mr ,cobden1 ,mr ,bright1 and the other chiefs of the ,anti-corn-law ,league4 ,in a letter to his friend ,coudroy1 he thus describes his reception in ,london3--8,having installed myself at the hotel 7at #ajs4 a-day71 ,i sat down to write six letters1 to ,cobden1 ,bright1 ,fox1 ,thompson1 ,wilson1 and the ,secretary of the ,league4 ,then ,i wrote six inscriptions on as many copies of my book1 and went to bed4 ,this morning ,i carried my six volumes to the apartments of the ,league1 desiring that they might be sent to the parties for whom they were intended4 ,i was told that ,mr ,cobden was in town1 and was to leave ,london to-day for ,manchester1 and that ,i should find him in the midst of preparations for his journey4 7,an ,englishman's preparations consist in swallowing a beef-steak1 and stuffing a couple of shirts into a carpet-bag47 ,i hastened to ,cobden's residence1 where ,i met him1 and had two hours' talk4 ,he knows ,french very well1 speaks it a little1 and1 moreover1 ,i understood his ,english4 ,i explained to him the state of opinion in ,france1 the effects ,i expected from my work1 etc4 ,he was sorry to leave ,london1 and was on the point of giving up his intended journey4 ,then he remarked1 #8,the ,league is free-masonry1 except that everything is public4 ,we have a house here1 which we have hired to accommodate our friends during the bazaar2 it is empty at present1 and we must instal you there4' ,i made some difficulty about this2 and he rejoined1 #8,this arrangement may not be agreeable to you1 but it will be of use to the cause1 for ,messrs ,bright1 ,moore1 and other members of the ,league pass their evenings there1 and we must have you always in the midst of them4' ,however1 as ,i am to join him at ,manchester the day after to-morrow1 ,i thought it p#jaf hardly worth while to shift my quarters for a couple of days4 ,he took me afterwards to the ,reform ,club1 a magnificent establishment1 and left me in the library while he took a bath4 ,he afterwards wrote letters to ,bright and ,moore1 and ,i accompanied him to the railway4 ,in the evening ,i called on ,mr ,bright4 4 4 4 4 4 ,obliged to speak slowly1 in order to make myself understood1 and upon subjects which were familiar to me1 and with men who had all our ideas1 ,i found myself placed in the most favourable circumstances4 ,he took me afterwards to the ,parliament10 etc4 ,on his return from ,england1 ,bastiat again took refuge in his retreat at ,mugron1 where he had his time entirely at his own disposal2 but he was not long suffered to enjoy his literary leisure4 ,in ,february #ahdf1 he assisted in organizing a ,free-,trade ,association at ,bordeaux1 and afterwards went to ,paris with a similar object4 ,in this he was destined to experience innumerable difficulties1 not the least of which arose from his supposed attachment to ,english opinions4 ,he imagined the reform of the ,english tariff might be the means of furthering a similar reform in ,france1 but in this he soon found that he was greatly mistaken4 8,of all the prejudices which reign among us10 says ,m4 ,louis ,reybaud1 in his admirable notice of ,bastiat in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1#e 8there is none more deeply rooted than distrust of ,england4 ,it is enough that ,england leans to one side to induce us to incline to the other4 ,everything which ,england proposes is suspected by us1 and we not unwillingly detect an ambush in all her measures4 ,in matters of trade this disposition is especially manifested4 ,in vain we imagine that ,england in her reforms has only her own interest in view1--her true object is only to mislead and ruin us by her seductions6 ,if we give way we shall be fools or dupes4 ,such is the language of national opinion2 and although enlightened men resist it1 that opinion does not the less prevail and exhibit itself on all occasions4 ,better informed in regard to this bias of public opinion1 ,bastiat would have seen that the moment was not opportune1 and that in the face of the ,english agitation he would have done better to delay1 than to hasten1 any agitation in ,france which might seem to be inspired by the spirit or example of ,england40 ,in fact1 it was upon this rock mainly that ,bastiat's ,free-trade enterprise ultimately foundered1 and he soon became convinced of the intensity of the prejudice against which he had to struggle4 ,in a letter to ,mr ,cobden1 written in ,december #ahdf1 he says1--8,this cry against ,england stifles us1 and gives rise to formidable p#jag obstacles4 ,if this hatred to perfidious ,albion were only the fashion of the day1 ,i should wait patiently until it passed away4 ,but it has deep root in men's hearts4 ,it is universal1 and ,i believe ,i told you that my friends dare no longer talk of me in my own village1 but en famille4 ,this blind passion1 moreover1 is found so convenient by protected interests and political parties1 that they avail themselves of it in the most shameless manner40 ,other circumstances contributed to discourage ,bastiat3 8,i suffer from my poverty10 he tells ,mr ,cobden4 8,if1 instead of running from one to another on foot1 splashed and bespattered to the back1 in order to meet only one or two people a-day1 and obtain evasive and dilatory answers1 ,i could assemble them at my table in a rich salon1 how many difficulties would be removed6 ,i want neither head nor heart1 but ,i feel that this superb ,babylon is not the place for me1 and ,i must hasten back to my solitude40 ,his heart was constantly reverting to the happy and peaceful days he had passed at ,mugron4 8,i suffer10 he says in a letter to ,coudroy1 8from leaving ,mugron1 and my old habits1 my desultory labours1 and our nice little chats4 ,it is a frightful dchirement2 but can ,i recede80 8,paris and ,i are not made for each other40 8,often ,i think of ,mugron1 its philosophic calm1 and its fruitful leisure4 ,here life is wasted in doing nothing1 or at least in producing nothing40 ,bastiat's appearance in ,paris at this epoch is thus described by one of his friends4 8,he had not had time to call in the assistance of a ,parisian hatter and tailor10 says ,m4 de ,molinari2 8and with his long hair1 his tiny hat1 his ample frock-coat1 and his family umbrella1 you would have been apt to mistake him for an honest peasant1 who had come to town for the first time to see the wonders of the metropolis4 ,but the physiognomy of this apparent clown was arch and spiritual2 his large black eye was luminous1 and his square well-proportioned forehead bore the impress of thought40 8,i remember1 as if it were yesterday10 says ,m4 ,louis ,reybaud1 8the impression which he produced4 ,it was impossible to see a more characteristic specimen of a provincial scholar1 simple in his manner1 and plain in his attire4 ,but1 under that homely garb1 and that air of bonhomie1 there were flashes of intelligence1 and a native dignity of deportment2 and you were not long in discovering an honest heart and a generous soul4 ,the eye1 above all1 was lighted up with singular brightness and fire4 ,his emaciated features and livid complexion betrayed already the ravages of that disease which1 in a few years1 was destined to carry him off4 ,his p#jah voice was hollow1 and formed a contrast with the vivacity of his ideas and the briskness of his gestures4 ,when the conversation was animated1 his voice became feebler1 and his lungs performed their office with difficulty4 ,better taken care of1 his constitution1 feeble as it was1 might have lasted a long time4 ,but ,bastiat took counsel only of his energy4 ,he never thought of how many days he had to live1 but how he might employ them well40#f 8,i accept resolutely the hard life on which ,i am about to enter10 he says in one of his letters4 8,what gives me courage is not the non omnis moriar of ,horace1 but the thought that1 perhaps1 my life may not have been useless to mankind40#g ,during the eighteen months that the ,free-trade ,association lasted1 ,bastiat's life was one of feverish activity and incessant unremitting toil4 ,before the doors of the ,association could be opened to the public1 a ,government autorisation had to be obtained2 and it was obtained at length with much difficulty and after long delay4 ,on ,bastiat1 as secretary1 the care of all the arrangements devolved4 ,he had to communicate with journalists1 wait upon ministers1 issue manifestoes1 organize committees1 obtain subscriptions1 correspond with branch associations1 undertake journeys to ,lyons1 to ,marseilles1 to ,havre1 attend meetings1 make speeches1 besides conducting a weekly newspaper1 called the ,libre-change--the organ of the ,association--and contributing numerous articles to other newspapers1 and to the ,journal des conomistes4 8,if at daybreak he observed a ,protectionist sophism appear in a newspaper of any reputation10 says ,m4 de ,molinari1 8he would immediately seize his pen1 demolish the sophism before breakfast1 and our language counted one chef-d'uvre the more40 ,it is to the marvellous exertions of this period that we owe the ,sophismes conomiques1--a work which arose out of the circumstances in which ,bastiat found himself placed2 and which1 although written from day to day1 amid the distractions we have described1 exhibits his genius in its most brilliant light4 8,as examples of dialectical skill in reducing an opponent to absurdity10 says ,professor ,cairnes1 8of simple and felicitous illustration1 of delicate and polished raillery1 attaining occasionally the pitch of a refined irony1 the ,sophismes conomiques may almost claim a place beside the ,provincial ,letters40 ,sprightly1 lucid1 and conclusive1 full of fire and irony1 playfulness and wit1 these two little volumes afford the most unanswerable reply ever given to the p#jai fallacies of the ,protectionist school2 and1 had ,bastiat written nothing else1 they would have conferred on him a just title to be regarded as the most distinguished economist of his day4 ,the ,sophismes have been translated into four languages1 and are the best known1 if not the most original1 of all the works of their lamented author4 ,the success of the work was instant and complete4 ,bastiat at first complained that 8three or four pleasantries had made the fortune of the book1 while the serious parts were neglected20 but he afterwards confessed that 8parables and pleasantries had more success1 and effected more good1 than the best treatises40 ,of these pleasantries1 ,the ,candlemakers' ,petition1 in the first series of the ,sophismes1 is perhaps the happiest1 and ,i cannot forbear presenting the reader with a translation of this choice morsel3-- ,petition of the ,manufacturers of ,candles1 ,wax-,lights1 ,lamps1 ,candlesticks1 ,street ,lamps1 ,snuffers1 ,extinguishers1 and of the ,producers of ,oil1 ,tallow1 ,rosin1 ,alcohol1 and1 generally1 of everything connected with ,lighting1 ,to ,messieurs the ,members of the ,chamber of ,deputies4 ,gentlemen1--,you are on the right road4 ,you reject abstract theories1 and have little consideration for cheapness and plenty4 ,your chief care is the interest of the producer4 ,you desire to emancipate him from external competition1 and reserve the national market for national industry4 ,we are about to offer you an admirable opportunity of applying your--what shall we call it8 your theory8 ,no2 nothing is more deceptive than theory2 your doctrine8 your system8 your principle8--but you dislike doctrines1 you abhor systems1 and as for principles1 you deny that there are any in ,social ,economy3 we shall say1 then1 your practice1 your practice without theory and without principle4 ,we are suffering from the intolerable competition of a foreign rival1 placed1 it would seem1 in a condition so far superior to ours for the production of light1 that he absolutely inundates our national market with it at a price fabulously reduced4 ,the moment he shows himself1 our trade leaves us--all consumers apply to him2 and a branch of native industry1 having countless ramifications1 is all at once rendered completely stagnant4 ,this rival1 who is no other than the ,sun1 wages war to the knife against us1 and we suspect he has been raised up by perfidious ,albion 7good policy as times go72 inasmuch as he displays towards that haughty island a circumspection with which he dispenses in our case4 ,what we pray for is1 that it may please you to pass a law ordering the shutting up of all ,windows1 ,sky-lights1 ,dormer-windows1 ,outside and ,inside ,shutters1 ,curtains1 ,blinds1 ,bull's-eyes2 in a word1 of all ,openings1 ,holes1 ,chinks1 ,clefts1 and ,fissures1 by or through which the light of the ,sun has been allowed to enter houses1 to the prejudice of the meritorious manufactures with which we flatter ourselves we have accommodated our country1--a country which1 in gratitude1 ought not to abandon us now to a strife so unequal4 ,we trust1 ,gentlemen1 that you will not regard this our request as a satire1 or refuse it without at least previously hearing the reasons which we have to urge in its support4 ,and1 first1 if you shut up as much as possible all access to natural light1 and create a demand for artificial light1 which of our ,french manufactures will not be encouraged by it8 ,if more tallow is consumed1 then there must be more oxen and sheep2 and1 consequently1 we shall behold the increase of artificial meadows1 meat1 wool1 hides1 and1 above all1 manure1 which is the basis and foundation of all agricultural wealth4 ,if more oil is consumed1 then we shall have an extended cultivation of the poppy1 of the olive1 and of rape4 ,these rich and exhausting plants will come at the right p#jbj time to enable us to avail ourselves of the increased fertility which the rearing of additional cattle will impart to our lands4 ,our heaths will be covered with resinous trees4 ,numerous swarms of bees will1 on the mountains1 gather perfumed treasures1 now wasting their fragrance on the desert air1 like the flowers from which they are derived4 ,no branch of agriculture but will then exhibit a cheering development4 ,the same remark applies to navigation4 ,thousands of vessels will proceed to the whale fishery2 and1 in a short time1 we shall possess a navy capable of maintaining the honour of ,france1 and gratifying the patriotic aspirations of your petitioners1 the undersigned ,candlemakers and others4 ,but what shall we say of the manufacture of articles de ,paris8 ,henceforth you will behold gildings1 bronzes1 crystals1 in candlesticks1 in lamps1 in lustres1 in candelabra1 shining forth1 in spacious warerooms1 compared with which those of the present day can be regarded but as mere shops4 ,no poor ,resinier from his heights on the sea-coast1 no ,coal-miner from the depth of his sable gallery1 but will rejoice in higher wages and increased prosperity4 ,only have the goodness to reflect1 ,gentlemen1 and you will be convinced that there is1 perhaps1 no ,frenchman1 from the wealthy coal-master to the humblest vender of lucifer matches1 whose lot will not be ameliorated by the success of this our ,petition4 ,we foresee your objections1 ,gentlemen1 but we know that you can oppose to us none but such as you have picked up from the effete works of the partisans of ,free ,trade4 ,we defy you to utter a single word against us which will not instantly rebound against yourselves and your entire policy4 ,you will tell us that1 if we gain by the protection which we seek1 the country will lose by it1 because the consumer must bear the loss4 ,we answer3 ,you have ceased to have any right to invoke the interest of the consumer2 for1 whenever his interest is found opposed to that of the producer1 you sacrifice the former4 ,you have done so for the purpose of encouraging labour and increasing employment4 ,for the same reason1 you should do so again4 ,you have yourselves obviated this objection4 ,when you are told that the consumer is interested in the free importation of iron1 coal1 corn1 textile fabrics1--yes1 you reply1 but the producer is interested in their exclusion4 ,well1 be it so2--if consumers are interested in the free admission of natural light1 the producers of artificial light are equally interested in its prohibition4 ,but1 again1 you may say that the producer and consumer are identical4 ,if the manufacturer gain by protection1 he will make the agriculturist also a gainer2 and1 if agriculture prospers1 it will open a vent to manufactures4 ,very well2 if you confer upon us the monopoly of furnishing light during the day1--first of all1 we shall purchase quantities of tallow1 coals1 oils1 resinous substances1 wax1 alcohol1--besides silver1 iron1 bronze1 crystal--to carry on our manufactures2 and then we and those who furnish us with such commodities1 having become rich1 will consume a great deal1 and impart prosperity to all the other branches of our national industry4 ,if you urge that the light of the ,sun is a gratuitous gift of nature1 and that to reject such gifts is to reject wealth itself under pretence of encouraging the means of acquiring it1 we would caution you against giving a death-blow to your own policy4 ,remember that hitherto you have always repelled foreign products1 because they approximate more nearly than home products to the character of gratuitous gifts4 ,to comply with the exactions of other monopolists1 you have only half a motive2 and to repulse us simply because we stand on a stronger vantage ground than others1 would be to adopt the equation1 -2 in other words1 it would be to heap absurdity upon absurdity4 ,nature and human labour co-operate in various proportions 7depending on countries and climates7 in the production of commodities4 ,the part which nature executes is always gratuitous2 it is the part executed by human labour which constitutes value1 and is paid for4 ,if a ,lisbon orange sells for half the price of a ,paris orange1 it is because natural1 and consequently gratuitous heat1 does for the one1 what artificial1 and therefore expensive heat1 must do for the other4 ,when an orange comes to us from ,portugal1 we may conclude that it is furnished in part gratuitously1 in part for an onerous consideration2 in other words1 it comes to us at half-price as compared with those of ,paris4 ,now1 it is precisely the gratuitous half 7pardon the word7 which we contend should be excluded4 ,you say1 how can national labour sustain competition with foreign labour1 when the former has all the work to do1 and the latter only does one-half1--the ,sun supplying the remainder8 ,but if this half1 being gratuitous1 determines p#jba you to exclude competition1 how should the whole1 being gratuitous1 induce you to admit competition8 ,if you were consistent1 you would1 while excluding as hurtful to native industry what is half gratuitous1 exclude1 a fortiori and with double zeal1 that which is altogether gratuitous4 ,once more1 when products1 such as coal1 iron1 corn1 or textile fabrics1 are sent us from abroad1 and we can acquire them with less labour than if we made them ourselves1 the difference is a free gift conferred upon us4 ,the gift is more or less considerable in proportion as the difference is more or less great4 ,it amounts to a quarter1 a half1 or three-quarters of the value of the product1 when the foreigner only asks us for three-fourths1 a half1 or a quarter of the price we should otherwise pay4 ,it is as perfect and complete as it can be1 when the donor 7like the ,sun in furnishing us with light7 asks us for nothing4 ,the question1 and we ask it formally1 is this1 ,do you desire for our country the benefit of gratuitous consumption1 or the pretended advantages of onerous production8 ,make your choice1 but be logical2 for as long as you exclude as you do1 coal1 iron1 corn1 foreign fabrics1 in proportion as their price approximates to zero1 what inconsistency would it be to admit the light of the ,sun1 the price of which is already at zero during the entire day6 ,in addition to his other engrossing avocations in ,paris1 ,bastiat1 in the end of #ahdg and beginning of #ahdh1 delivered a course of lectures to young men on the principles of ,political ,economy and the ,harmony of the ,social ,laws4 ,he had no opportunity of committing these lectures to writing1 as he wished1 but we have doubtless the substance of them in his published works1 especially in the ,harmonies conomiques4 8,something tells me10 he says in one of his letters to ,m4 ,coudroy1 8that this course addressed to the young1 who have logic in their heads1 and warmth and fervour in their hearts1 will not be useless40 8,my auditors10 he says elsewhere1 8are not very numerous2 but they attend assiduously1 and take notes4 ,the seed falls into good ground40 ,it was in the midst of these harassing occupations and herculean exertions that the ,revolution of ,february came to surprise ,bastiat1--to put an end to the ,free-trade ,association1--and to bring a far more formidable set of agitators--namely1 the ,socialists and ,communists--to the surface of society4 ,bastiat doubted if his country was ripe for a ,republic2 but when it came1 he gave in his adhesion to it1 and was returned by his native ,department of the ,landes as a ,deputy to the ,constituent1 and afterwards to the ,legislative ,assembly4 ,he took his seat on the left1 says his accomplished friend and biographer ,m4 de ,fontenay1 in an attitude of moderation and firmness2 and1 whilst remaining somewhat isolated1 he was surrounded with the respect of all parties4 ,a ,member of the ,committee of ,finance1 of which he was named ,vice-,president eight times in succession1 he exercised a very marked influence on that department1 although quietly and within doors4 ,the increasing feebleness of his lungs prevented his often ascending the tribune or addressing the ,assembly1 although it was often a hard trial for him to be thus1 as it were1 nailed to his seat4#h ,it is to this he alludes in the second chapter p#jbb of the ,harmonies3--8,if1 when the much-loved vessel of the ,state is beaten by the tempest1 ,i sometimes appear to absent myself from my post in order to collect my scattered thoughts1 it is because ,i feel my feeble hands unfitted for the work4 ,is it1 besides1 to betray my mission to reflect upon the causes of the tempest itself1 and endeavour to act upon these causes8 ,and then1 what ,i find ,i cannot do to-day1 who knows but it may be given me to accomplish to-morrow80 ,in a letter to ,m4 ,coudroy1 in ,june #ahdh1 ,bastiat thus describes his daily occupations3--8,i rise at six o'clock1 dress1 shave1 breakfast1 and read the newspapers2 this occupies me till seven1 or half-past seven4 ,about nine1 ,i am obliged to go out1 for at ten commences the sitting of the ,committee of ,finance1 of which ,i am a member4 ,it continues till one1 and then the public sitting begins1 and continues till seven4 ,i return to dinner1 and it very rarely happens that there are not after-dinner meetings of ,sub-,committees charged with special questions4 ,the only hour at my disposal is from eight to nine in the morning1 and it is at that hour that ,i receive visitors4 4 4 4 4 ,i am profoundly disgusted with this kind of life40 ,but the grand work of ,bastiat in #ahdh and #ahdi--;a work to which he devoted the best energies of his mind and genius--was the open and incessant war which he waged with the ,socialist and ,communist writers and agitators whom the ,revolution had let loose on ,french society1 and who were then shaking the social and political fabric to its centre4 ,bastiat1 like the porcupine1 had a quill pointed against every assailant4 ,to each error he opposed a pamphlet4 ,with ,louis ,blanc and the national workshops1 he did battle in the brochure entitled ,proprit et ,loi1 in which he exposes the illusions with which the public mind had been stuffed by the ,socialists4 ,the doctrine of ,concidrant he attacked in another little volume1 bearing the title1 ,proprit et ,spoliation4 ,in another1 ,justice et ,fraternit1 he demolished the absurdities of ,pierre ,leroux's democratic and social constitution4 ,proudhon's doctrine he disposed of in ,capital et ,rente1 where he refutes the foolish notions in vogue in #ahdh on the subject of gratuitous loans--a subject which he again discussed in #ahej1 in the larger volume entitled ,gratuit du ,credit4 ,in ,protectionisme et ,communisme1 ,bastiat demonstrated that what is called protection is nothing else than practical communism or spoliation4 ,paix et ,libert1 ou le ,budget ,rpublicain1 another brochure from his prolific pen1 is a brilliant and vigorous onslaught on the excessive taxation of that day1 and the overgrown military and naval armaments which gave p#jbc rise to it4 ,many passages of this admirable production1 full of force and practical good sense1 might be read with benefit at the present day1 as applicable not only to ,france as it was1 but to ,france as it is1 and not to ,france alone1 but to the other nations of ,europe4 ,in the tract entitled ,l'tat1 ,bastiat maintains his favourite doctrine that all which a ,government owes to its subjects is security2 that1 as it acts necessarily through the intervention of force1 it can equitably enforce nothing save ,justice2 and that its duty consists in holding the balance equal among various interests1 by guarding the liberty of all1 by protecting person and property1 by enforcing covenants1 and thereby upholding credit1 but leaving ,demand and ,supply in all cases to perform their appropriate functions without restraint and without encouragement4 ,he exposes the absurdity of men expecting everything from ,government1 and trusting to public employments rather than to individual exertion4 ,he shows that1 since the ,state is only an aggregate of individuals1 it can give nothing to the people but what it has previously taken from them4 ,tout le monde1 as he says elsewhere1 veut vivre aux dpens de l'tat1 et on oublie que l'tat vit aux dpens de tout le monde4 ,to this tract another is appended1 to which he gives the quaint title of ,maudit ,argent6 in which he exposes the popular errors which arise from confounding capital with money1 and money with inconvertible paper4 ,in this little work1 ,bastiat of course could not treat the subject systematically and in detail1 as ,m4 ,michel ,chevalier has since done in his philosophical treatise ,sur la ,monnaie2#i but ,bastiat's tract contains many excellent passages4 ,the effect of an enlargement of the volume of currency on the value of money1 for instance1 is thus happily illustrated3-- ,ten men sat down to play a game1 in which they agreed to stake #ajjj francs4 ,each man was provided with ten counters--each counter representing ten francs4 ,when the game was finished1 each received as many times ten francs as he happened to have counters4 ,one of the party1 who was more of an arithmetician than a logician1 remarked that he always found at the end of the game that he was richer in proportion as he had a greater number of counters1 and asked the others if they had observed the same thing4 ,what holds in my case1 said he1 must hold in yours1 for what is true of each must be true of all4 ,he proposed1 therefore1 that each should have double the former number of counters4 ,no sooner said than done4 ,double the number of counters were distributed2 but1 when the party finally rose from play they found themselves no richer than before4 ,the stake had not been increased1 and fell to be proportionally divided4 ,each man1 no doubt1 had double the number of counters1 but each counter1 instead of being worth ten francs1 was found to be worth only five2 and it was at length discovered that what is true of each is not always true of all4 ,the pamphlets1 ,baccalaurat et ,socialisme1 and ,ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas1 belong to the following year1 #ahej1 the last p#jbd of the author's life4 ,in the first of these1 ,bastiat complains of the monopoly of university degrees1 and the too exclusive addiction of his countrymen to classical learning--especially ,greek and ,roman history--to which he attributes much of that democratic and revolutionary fervour which was ever and anon breaking out in ,france4 ,the second1 ,ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas1 is a masterpiece worthy of the author of the ,sophismes1 and well deserves its second title of 8,political ,economy in ,one ,lesson40 ,the following extract from the first chapter of this admirable little work will give the reader some idea of the argument1 and of ,bastiat's lively manner of treating a subject in itself so dry and uninviting3-- ,the ,broken ,pane4 ,have you ever had occasion to witness the fury of the honest burgess1 ,jacques ,bonhomme1 when his scapegrace son has broken a pane of glass8 ,if you have1 you cannot fail to have observed that all the bystanders1 were there thirty of them1 lay their heads together to offer the unfortunate proprietor this never-failing consolation1--8,there is some good in every misfortune--such accidents give a fillip to trade4 ,everybody must live4 ,if no windows were broken1 what would become of the glaziers80 ,now1 this formula of condolence contains a theory1 which it is proper to lay hold of1 flagrante delicto1 in this very simple case1 because it is exactly the same theory which unfortunately governs the greater part of our economic institutions4 ,assuming that it becomes necessary to expend six francs in repairing the damage1 if you mean to say that the accident brings in six francs to the glazier1 and to that extent encourages his trade1 ,i grant it fairly and frankly1 and allow that you reason justly4 ,the glazier arrives1 does his work1 pockets his money1 rubs his hands1 and blesses the scapegrace son4 ,this is what we see4 ,but if1 by way of deduction1 you come to conclude1 as is too often done1 that it is a good thing to break windows1 that it makes money circulate1 and that encouragement to trade in general is the result1 ,i am obliged to cry halt6 ,your theory stops at what we see1 and takes no account of what we don't see4 ,we don't see that1 since our burgess has been obliged to spend his six francs on one thing1 he can no longer spend them on another--,we don't see that1 if he had not had this pane to replace1 he would have replaced1 for example1 his shoes1 which are down at the heels1 or placed a new book on his shelf4 ,in short1 he would have employed his six francs in a way in which he cannot now employ them4 ,let us see1 then1 how the account stands with trade in general4 ,the pane being broken1 the glazier's trade is benefited to the extent of six francs4 ,this is what we see4 ,if the pane had not been broken1 the shoemaker's 7or some other7 trade would have been encouraged to the extent of six francs4 ,that is what we don't see4 ,and if we take into account what we don't see1 which is a negative fact1 as well as what we do see1 which is a positive fact1 we shall discover that trade in general1 or the aggregate of national industry1 has no interest1 one way or other1 whether windows are broken or not4 ,let us see1 again1 how the account stands with ,jacques ,bonhomme4 ,on the last hypothesis--that of the pane being broken--he spends six francs1 and gets neither more nor less than he had before1--namely1 the use and enjoyment of a pane of glass4 ,on the other hypothesis1--namely1 that the accident had not happened1 he would have expended six francs on shoes1 and would have had the use and enjoyment both of the shoes and of the pane of glass4 ,now1 as the good burgess1 ,jacques ,bonhomme constitutes a fraction of society at large1 we are forced to conclude that society1 taken in the aggregate1 and after all accounts of labour and enjoyment have been squared1 has lost the value of the pane which has been broken4 ,whence1 on generalizing1 we arrive at this unexpected conclusion1 that 8,society loses the value of things uselessly destroyed20 and we arrive also at this aphorism1 which will make the hair of the prohibitionists stand on end1 that 8to smash1 break1 p#jbe and dissipate is not to encourage national industry20 or1 more briefly1 that 8there is no profit in destruction40 ,the reader will take notice that there are not two persons only1 but three1 in the little drama to which we have called his attention4 ,one of them--namely1 ,jacques ,bonhomme--represents the consumer1 reduced by destruction to one enjoyment in place of two4 ,the glazier represents the producer1 whose trade is encouraged by the accident4 ,the third is the shoemaker 7or some other tradesman71 whose trade is discouraged to the same extent by the same cause4 ,it is this third personage who is always kept in the shade1 and who1 as representing what we don't see1 is a necessary element in the problem4 ,it is he who enables us to discover how absurd it is to try to find profit in destruction4 ,it is he who will soon teach us that it is not less absurd to try to discover profit in restriction1 which is1 after all1 only partial destruction4 ,go to the bottom of all the arguments which are urged in favour of restriction1 and you will find only a paraphrase of the vulgar saying1--8,if no windows were broken1 what would the glaziers do80 ,the distinction thus established between immediate effects and ultimate consequences1 between surface appearances and substantial realities1 between what we see and what we don't see1 the author proceeds1 in the same happy vein1 to apply to taxation1 the proceeds of which are said to come back to the labour-market like refreshing showers1--to overgrown and unnecessary armaments1 and extravagant public works1 which are defended as affording employment to the working-classes1--to industrial and commercial restrictions1 which are justified on the same ground1--to the questions of machinery1 of credit1 of colonization1 of luxury and unproductive consumption1 etc4 ,the entire work does not extend to eighty pages1 and in every one of its twelve short chapters ,bastiat demolishes a specious fallacy or a pernicious error4 ,but ,bastiat had been for some time meditating a greater1 more elaborate1 and more systematic work than any of those of which we have hitherto spoken2 and it is curious to trace in his correspondence the progress of the ideas which were at length developed in the ,harmonies conomiques4 ,writing to ,m4 ,coudroy in ,june #ahde1 he says--8,if my little treatise of the ,sophismes conomiques is successful1 we may follow it up by another entitled ,harmonies ,sociales4 ,it would be of the greatest utility2 for it would meet the desires of an age in search of artificial harmonies and organizations1 by demonstrating the beauty1 order1 and progressive principle of the natural and providential harmonies40 ,in ,june #ahdf1 he writes to ,mr ,cobden1 8,i must bring out a second edition of my ,sophismes1 and ,i should wish much to write a little book to be entitled ,harmonies conomiques4 ,it will be the counterpart of the other--the first pulls down1 the second will build up40 ,in another letter1 written the year after1 he exclaims--8,oh1 that the ,divine ,goodness would give me yet one year of strength1 and permit me to explain to my young fellow-citizens what ,i regard as the true social theory1 under the twelve following heads3--,wants1 production1 property1 competition1 population1 liberty1 p#jbf equality1 responsibility1 solidarity1 fraternity1 unity1 province of public opinion4 ,i should then without regret1 with joy1 resign my life into ,his hands60 ,on the eve of being elected a ,deputy to the ,national ,assembly in #ahdh1 he writes from ,mugron1 8,here ,i am in my solitude4 ,would that ,i could bury myself here for ever1 and work out peacefully this ,economic synthesis which ,i have in my head1 and which will never leave it6 ,for1 unless there occur some sudden change in public opinion1 ,i am about to be sent to ,paris charged with the terrible mandate of a ,representative of the ,people4 ,if ,i had health and strength1 ,i should accept this mission with enthusiasm4 ,but what can my feeble voice1 my sickly and nervous organization1 accomplish in the midst of revolutionary tempests8 ,how much wiser it had been to devote my last days to working out in silence the great problem of the social destinies1 for something tells me ,i should have arrived at a solution6 ,poor village1 humble home of my fathers1 ,i am about to bid you an eternal adieu2 and ,i quit you with the presentiment that my name and my life1 lost amidst storms1 will not have even that modest utility for which you had prepared me60 4 4 4 4 ,in his letters to ,m4 ,coudroy at this period1 we discover the same idea working and fermenting in the mind of ,bastiat1 and struggling for vent and utterance4 ,amid the anxieties and distractions in which his duties as a ,deputy involved him1 he writes--8,i am still convinced that the practice of affairs excludes the possibility of producing a work truly scientific1 and yet ,i cannot conceal from you that ,i always retain that old chimera of my ,social ,harmonies2 and ,i cannot divest myself of the thought that1 if ,i had remained with you1 ,i should have succeeded in imparting to the world a useful idea4 ,i long much to make my retreat40 ,in another letter to the same friend1 after describing his feebleness1 and intimating his intention to leave ,paris to try what effect a change to his native air might produce1 he adds--8,i must renounce public life1 and all my ambition now is to have three or four months of tranquillity to write my poor ,harmonies conomiques4 ,they are in my head1 but ,i fear they will never leave it40 8,the crystal10 he says elsewhere1 8is formed drop by drop in silence and obscurity2 but retirement1 quiet1 time1 freedom from care--all are wanting to me40 ,in ,april #ahdi1 he writes again to ,m4 ,coudroy1 8,i have my theory to work out1 and powerful encouragements have reached me opportunely4 ,i read those words yesterday in an ,english ,review1--#8,in ,political ,economy1 the ,french school has had p#jbg three phases1 expressed by the three names1 ,quesnay1 ,say1 ,bastiat4' ,they assign me this rank and this part prematurely2 but it is certain that ,i have in my head a new and suggestive idea1 which ,i believe to be true4 ,this idea ,i have never developed methodically4 ,it runs accidentally through some of my articles1 and as that has been enough to attract the attention of the savants1 and as it has already had the honour conferred on it of being considered as forming an epoch in the science1 ,i am certain now that1 when ,i give that theory in its complete state to the world1 it will at least be examined4 ,is not that all ,i could desire8 ,with what ardour ,i am about to turn to account my retirement in order to elaborate that doctrine1 certain as ,i am to have judges who can understand it1 and who are waiting for it60 ,the three months of leisure1 so long and so anxiously wished for1 came at last2 and in the beginning of #ahej the ,harmonies 7or rather the portions which the author had intended should form the first volume of that work7 made their appearance4 ,the reception of the work was not at first what might have been expected2 and ,bastiat1 again in ,paris1 writes to his friend ,m4 ,coudroy1 8,the ,harmonies pass unnoticed here1 unless by some dozen connoisseurs4 ,i expected this--it could not be otherwise4 ,i have not even in my favour the wonted zeal of our own little circle1 who accuse me of heterodoxy2 but in spite of this1 ,i am confident that the book will make its way by degrees4 ,in ,germany it has been very differently received4 4 4 4 4 ,i pray ,heaven to vouchsafe me a year to write the second volume2 after which ,i shall sing1 ,nunc dimittis40 ,to ,mr ,cobden1 in ,august #ahej1 he writes--8,i went to my native country to try to cure these unfortunate lungs1 which are to me very capricious servants4 ,i have returned a little better1 but afflicted with a disease of the larynx1 accompanied with a complete extinction of voice4 ,the doctor enjoins absolute silence2 and1 in consequence1 ,i am about to pass two months in the country1 near ,paris4 ,there ,i shall try to write the second volume of the ,harmonies conomiques4 ,the first has been nearly unnoticed by the learned world4 ,i should not be an author if ,i gave in to that judgment4 ,i appeal to the future1 for ,i am conscious that that book contains an important idea1 une ide mre1 and time will come to my assistance40 ,this great work1 the child of ,bastiat's anxious hopes1 the subject of his dying thoughts1 although at first but coldly received1 is perhaps the most important and the most original contribution which the science of ,political ,economy has received since the days p#jbh of ,adam ,smith4 ,on that most abstruse and difficult subject1 the first principles of ,value1 it opens up entirely new views2 while on almost every other branch of the subject1 it either propounds a new theory1 or corrects and improves the nomenclature of the science4 ,throughout1 it treats ,political ,economy 7and it is perhaps the only work which does so1 at least systematically7 in connexion with final causes1 and demonstrates the ,wisdom and ,goodness of ,god in the economy of civil society4 ,on some questions we may venture to differ from ,bastiat4 ,on the question of ,rent1 for instance1 he would seem to have followed too implicitly the theory of ,mr ,carey1 the able ,american ,economist2 but ,bastiat's work1 as a whole1 has a freshness1 a vigour1 and an originality which all must admire4 ,he writes like a man thoroughly in earnest1--a devout believer in the doctrines which he teaches1 and he seldom fails to carry conviction to the mind of his readers4 ,the leading idea of the work--the harmony of the social laws--is admirable1 and is admirably worked out4 ,the motto of the book1 in fact1 might have been the well-known lines of ,dryden1-- ,from harmony1 from heavenly harmony1 ,this universal frame began3 ,from harmony to harmony ,through all the compass of the notes it ran1 ,the diapason ending full in ,man4 ,bastiat undertakes to demonstrate the harmony of the ,economic laws1--that is to say1 their tendency towards a common design1 which is the progressive improvement of the human race4 ,he proves convincingly that individual interests1 taken in the aggregate1 far from being antagonistic1 aid each other mutually2 and that1 so far is it from being true that the gain of one is necessarily the loss of another1 each individual1 each family1 each country has an interest in the prosperity of all others4 ,he shows that1 between agriculturist and manufacturer1 capitalist and labourer1 producer and consumer1 native and foreigner1 there is in reality no antagonism1 but1 on the contrary1 a community of interest2 and that1 in order that the natural ,economic laws should act constantly so as to produce this result1 one thing alone is necessary--namely1 respect for ,liberty and ,property4 ,his design is best explained in his own words3 8,i undertake in this work10 he says1 8to demonstrate the ,harmony of those laws of ,providence which govern human society4 ,what makes these laws harmonious and not discordant is1 that all principles1 all motives1 all springs of action1 all interests1 co-operate towards a grand final result1 which humanity will never reach by reason of its native imperfection1 p#jbi but to which it will always approximate more and more by reason of its unlimited capability of improvement4 ,and that result is1 the indefinite approximation of all classes towards a level1 which is always rising2 in other words1 the equalization of individuals in the general amelioration40 ,bastiat was not one of those pessimists who persist in looking at the existing fabric of ,society as if it were some ill-made1 ill-going clock1 requiring constantly to be wound up1 and to have its springs adjusted1 its wheels lubricated1 and its hands altered and set right4 ,far from this1 he regarded ,society as a self-acting1 self-regulating mechanism1 bearing the stamp of the ,divine hand by which it was constructed1 and subject to laws and checks not less wise1 not less immutable1 not less trustworthy1 than the laws which govern the inanimate and material world4 8,god made the country1 but man made the towns10 was the exclamation of an amiable but a morbid poet4 ,he might as well have said--,god made the blossom1 but bees make the comb4 ,reason asks1 who then made the bees8 ,who made man1 with all his noble instincts1 and admirable inventive reasoning and reflective faculties8 ,a manlier1 because a juster1 philosophy enabled ,bastiat rather to say with ,edmund ,burke1 8,art is man's nature40 ,looking at the existing fabric and mechanism of ,society1 and the beautiful harmony of the ,economic laws which regulate it1 he could see nothing to warrant constant legislative tampering with the affairs of trade4 ,he had faith in moral and material progress under the empire of ,freedom4 ,sweeping away all ,socialist ,utopias and artificial systems of social organization1 he pointed to ,society as it exists1 and exclaimed1 ,digitus ,dei est hic4 ,unlike the sickly poet1 he believed that the same ,good and ,wise ,being who created both town and country1 upholds and sustains them both2 and that the laws of ,value and ,exchange1 left to their own free and beneficent action1 are as much ,his ordinance1 as the laws of motion1 attraction1 or chemical affinity4#aj ,engaged upon the second volume of the ,harmonies1 ,bastiat found his subject growing upon him1 and discovered1 as he thought1 when too late1 that he had not in the first instance perceived all its bearings4 ,he felt1 as he said1 crushed by the mass p#jcj of harmonies which presented themselves to him on every side2 and a posthumous note1 found among his papers1 informs us that this expansion of his subject under his hand had led him to think of recasting the entire work4 8,i had thought at first10 he says1 8to begin with the exposition of ,economic ,harmonies1 and1 consequently1 to treat only of subjects purely economical--,value1 ,property1 ,wealth1 ,competition1 ,wages1 ,population1 ,money1 ,credit1 etc4 ,afterwards1 if ,i had had time and strength1 ,i should have directed the attention of the reader to the larger subject of ,social ,harmonies1 and treated of the ,human ,constitution1 ,social ,motives1 ,responsibility1 ,solidarity1 etc4 ,the work thus conceived#aa had been begun1 when ,i saw that it was better to mingle together than to separate these two classes of considerations4 ,but then logic required that the study of ,man should precede the ,economic investigations2 and--there was no longer time40 ,alas6 the hours of ,bastiat were numbered4 ,he ran a desperate steeple-chase with death1 to use the expression of his biographer1 and he lost the day4 ,his mind1 his genius1 shone as brightly1 worked as intensely1 as ever2 but the material frame-work was shattered and in ruins4 ,by the advice of his physicians1 after resorting to the waters of the ,pyrenees without benefit1 he repaired to ,italy in the autumn of #ahej1 and took up his residence at ,pisa4 ,scarcely had he arrived there1 when he read in the newspapers a premature announcement of his own death1 and common-place expressions of regret for the loss of the 8great ,economist0 and 8illustrious author40 ,he wrote immediately to a friend to contradict the report4 8,thank ,god10 he says1 8,i am not dead1 or even much p#jca worse4 ,and yet if the news were true1 ,i must just accept it and submit4 ,i wish all my friends could acquire in this respect the philosophy ,i have myself acquired4 ,i assure you ,i should breathe my last without pain1 and almost with joy1 if ,i were certain of leaving to the friends who love me1 not poignant regrets1 but a gentle1 affectionate1 somewhat melancholy remembrance of me40 ,after lingering some time at ,pisa without improvement1 he went on to ,rome4 ,from ,rome he writes to ,m4 ,coudroy--8,here ,i am in the ,eternal ,city1 but not much disposed to visit its marvels4 ,i am infinitely better that ,i was at ,pisa1 surrounded as ,i am with excellent friends4 4 4 4 4 ,i should desire only one thing1 to be relieved of the acute pain which the disease of the windpipe occasions4 ,this continuity of suffering torments me4 ,every meal is a punishment4 ,to eat1 drink1 speak1 cough1 are all painful operations4 ,walking fatigues me--carriage airings irritate the throat--,i can no longer work1 or even read1 seriously4 ,you see to what ,i am reduced4 ,i shall soon be little better than a dead body1 retaining only the faculty of suffering40 4 4 4 4 ,even in this state of extreme debility he was thinking of his favourite but unfinished work4 ,he adds1 8,if health is restored to me1 and ,i am enabled to complete the second volume of the ,harmonies1 ,i shall dedicate it to you4 ,if not1 ,i shall prefix a short dedication to the second edition of the first volume4 ,on this last hypothesis1 which implies the end of my career1 ,i can explain my plan1 and bequeath to you the task of fulfilling it40 ,bastiat's career was in reality fast drawing to a close4 ,his end was calm and serene4 ,he seemed himself to regard it as an indifferent spectator1 conversing with his friends on his favourite topics1--,political ,economy1 ,philosophy1 and ,religion4 ,he desired to die as a ,christian4 ,to his cousin the ,abb ,monclar1 and his friend ,m4 ,paillottet1 who stood by1 he said--8,on looking around me1 ,i observe that the most enlightened nations of the world have been of the ,christian faith1 and ,i am very happy to find myself in communion with that portion of the human race40 8,his eye10 says ,m4 ,paillottet1 8sparkled with that peculiar expression which ,i had frequently noticed in our conversations1 and which intimated the solution of a problem40 ,he beckoned his friends to come near him1 as if he had something to say to them--he murmured twice the words ,la verit--and passed away4 ,his death took place at ,rome1 on the #bdth of ,december #ahej1 in the fiftieth year of his age4 ,his obsequies were celebrated in the church of ,saint ,louis des ,franais4 ,it was in the year #ahde that he took up his residence in ,paris1 so that his career as an p#jcb ,economist had extended over little more than five years4 ,he died a martyr to his favourite science1 and we may well apply to him the beautiful lines of ,lord ,byron1-- ,oh6 what a noble heart was here undone1 ,when ,science' self destroy'd her favourite son6 ,yes1 she too much indulged his fond pursuit1 ,she sow'd the seeds1 but death has reap'd the fruit4 ',twas his own genius gave the final blow1 ,and help'd to plant the wound that laid him low3 ,so the struck eagle1 stretch'd upon the plain1 ,no more through rolling clouds to soar again1 ,view'd his own feather on the fatal dart1 ,and wing'd the shaft that quiver'd in his heart2 ,keen were his pangs1 but keener far to feel ,he nursed the pinion which impell'd the steel2 ,while the same plumage that had warm'd his nest ,drank the last life-drop of his bleeding breast4 ,,to ,,the ,,youth ,,of ,,france4 ,love of study1 and lack of fixed opinions1--a mind free from prejudice1 a heart devoid of hate1 zeal for the propagation of truth1--ardent sympathies1 disinterestedness1 devotion1 candour1--enthusiasm for all that is good and fair1 simple and great1 honest and religious1--such are the precious attributes of youth4 ,it is for this reason that ,i dedicate my work to you4 ,and the seed must have in it no principle of life if it fail to take root in a soil so generous4 ,i had thought to offer you a picture1 and all ,i have given you is a sketch2 but you will pardon me2 for who1 in times like the present1#ab can sit down to finish a grave and important work8 ,my hope is that some one among you1 on seeing it1 will be led to exclaim1 with the great artist1 ,anch' io son pittore6 and1 seizing the pencil1 impart to my rude canvas colour and flesh1 light and shade1 sentiment and life4 ,you may think the title of the work somewhat ambitious2 and assuredly ,i make no pretension to reveal the designs of ,providence in the social order1 and to explain the mechanism of all the forces with which ,god has endowed man for the realization of progress4 ,all that ,i have aimed at is to put you on the right track1 and make you acquainted with the truth1 that all legitimate interests are in harmony4 ,that is the predominant idea of my work1 and it is impossible not to recognise its importance4 ,for some time it has been the fashion to laugh at what has been called the social problem3 and no doubt some of the solutions which have been proposed afford but too much ground for raillery4 ,but in the problem itself there is nothing laughable4 ,it is the ghost of ,banquo at the feast of ,macbeth--and no dumb ghost either2 for in formidable accents it calls out to terror-stricken society--a solution or death6 p#jcd ,now this solution1 you will at once see1 must be different according as men's interests are held to be naturally harmonious or naturally antagonistic4 ,in the one case1 we must seek for the solution in ,liberty--in the other1 in ,constraint4 ,in the one case1 we have only to be passive--in the other1 we must necessarily offer opposition4 ,but ,liberty assumes only one shape4 ,once convinced that each of the molecules which compose a fluid possesses in itself the force by which the general level is produced1 we conclude that there is no surer or simpler way of seeing that level realized than not to interfere with it4 ,all1 then1 who set out with this fundamental principle1 that men's interests are harmonious1 will agree as to the practical solution of the social problem1--to abstain from displacing or thwarting those interests4 ,constraint1 on the other hand1 may assume a thousand shapes1 according to the views which we take of it1 and which are infinitely varied4 ,those schools which set out with1 the principle1 that men's interests are antagonistic1 have done nothing yet towards the solution of the problem1 unless it be that they have thrust aside ,liberty4 ,among the infinite forms of ,constraint1 they have still to choose the one which they consider good1 if indeed any of them be so4 ,and then1 as a crowning difficulty1 they have to obtain universal acceptance1 among men who are free agents1 for the particular form of ,constraint to which they have awarded the preference4 ,but1 on this hypothesis1 if human interests are1 by their very nature1 urged into fatal collision1 and if this shock can be avoided only by the accidental invention of an artificial social order1 the destiny of the human race becomes very hazardous1 and we ask in terror1 #ast1 ,if any man is to be found who has discovered a satisfactory form of ,constraint8 #b;d1 ,can this man bring to his way of thinking the innumerable schools who give the preference to other forms8 #c;d1 ,will mankind give in to that particular form which1 by hypothesis1 runs counter to all individual interests8 #dth1 ,assuming that men will allow themselves to be rigged out in this new attire1 what will happen if another inventor presents himself1 with a coat of a different and improved cut8 ,are we to persevere in a vicious organization1 knowing it to be vicious2 or must we resolve to change that organization every morning according as the caprices of fashion and the fertility of inventors' brains may dictate8 p#jce #eth1 ,would not all the inventors whose plans have been rejected unite together against the particular organization which had been selected1 and would not their success in disturbing society be in exact proportion to the degree in which that particular form of organization ran counter to all existing interests8 #fth1 ,and1 last of all1 it may be asked1 ,does there exist any human force capable of overcoming an antagonism which we presuppose to be itself the very essence of human force8 ,i might multiply such questions ad infinitum1 and propose1 for example1 this difficulty3 ,if individual interest is opposed to the general interest1 where are we to place the active principle of ,constraint8 ,where is the fulcrum of the lever to be placed8 ,beyond the limits of human society8 ,it must be so if we are to escape the consequences of your law4 ,if we are to intrust some men with arbitrary power1 prove first of all that these men are formed of a different clay from other mortals2 that they in their turn will not be acted upon by the fatal principle of self-interest2 and that1 placed in a situation which excludes the idea of any curb1 any effective opposition1 their judgments will be exempt from error1 their hands from rapacity1 and their hearts from covetousness4 ,the radical difference between the various ,socialist schools 7,i mean here1 those which seek the solution of the social problem in an artificial organization7 and the ,economist school1 does not consist in certain views of detail or of governmental combination4 ,we encounter that difference at the starting point1 in the preliminary and pressing question--,are human interests1 when left to themselves1 antagonistic or harmonious8 ,it is evident that the ,socialists have set out in quest of an artificial organization only because they judge the natural organization of society bad or insufficient2 and they have judged the latter bad and insufficient1 only because they think they see in men's interests a radical antagonism1 for otherwise they would not have had recourse to ,constraint4 ,it is not necessary to constrain into harmony what is in itself harmonious4 ,thus they have discovered antagonism everywhere3 ,between the proprietor and the proltaire2#ac ,between capital and labour2 ,between the masses and the bourgeoisie2 ,between agriculture and manufactures2 ,between the rustic and the burgess2 ,between the native and the foreigner2 ,between the producer and the consumer2 ,between civilisation and organization2 ,in a word1 ,between ,liberty and ,harmony4 ,and this explains why it happens that1 although a certain kind of sentimental philanthropy finds a place in their hearts1 gall and bitterness flow continually from their lips4 ,each reserves all his love for the new state of society he has dreamt of2 but as regards the society in which we actually live and move1 it cannot1 in their opinion1 be too soon crushed and overthrown1 to make room for the ,new ,jerusalem they are to rear upon its ruins4 ,i have said that the ,economist school1 setting out with the natural harmony of interests1 is the advocate of ,liberty4 ,and yet ,i must allow that if ,economists in general stand up for ,liberty1 it is unfortunately not equally true that their principles establish solidly the foundation on which they build--the harmony of interests4 ,before proceeding further1 and to forewarn you against the conclusions which will no doubt be drawn from this avowal1 ,i must say a word on the situations which ,socialism and ,political ,economy respectively occupy4 ,it would be folly in me to assert that ,socialism has never lighted upon a truth1 and that ,political ,economy has never fallen into an error4 ,what separates1 radically and profoundly1 the two schools is their difference of methods4 ,the one school1 like the astrologer and the alchemist1 proceeds on hypothesis2 the other1 like the astronomer and the chemist1 proceeds on observation4 ,two astronomers1 observing the same fact1 may not be able to arrive at the same result4 ,in spite of this transient disagreement1 they feel themselves united by the common process which sooner or later will cause that disagreement to disappear4 ,they recognise each other as of the same communion4 ,but between the astronomer1 who observes1 and the astrologer1 who imagines1 the gulf is impassable1 although accidentally they may sometimes approximate4 ,the same thing holds of ,political ,economy and ,socialism4 ,the ,economists observe man1 the laws of his organization1 and the social relations which result from those laws4 ,the ,socialists conjure up an imaginary society1 and then create a human heart to suit that society4 p#jcg ,now1 if philosophy never errs1 philosophers often do4 ,i deny not that ,economists may make false observations2 ,i will add1 that they must necessarily begin by doing so4 ,but1 then1 what happens8 ,if men's interests are harmonious1 it follows that every incorrect observation will lead logically to antagonism4 ,what1 then1 are the ,socialist tactics8 ,they gather from the works of ,economists certain incorrect observations1 follow them out to their consequences1 and show those consequences to be disastrous4 ,thus far they are right4 ,then they set to work upon the observer1 whom we may assume to be ,malthus or ,ricardo4 ,still they have right on their side4 ,but they do not stop there4 ,they turn against the science of ,political ,economy itself1 accusing it of being heartless1 and leading to evil4 ,here they do violence to reason and justice1 inasmuch as science is not responsible for incorrect observation4 ,at length they proceed another step4 ,they lay the blame on society itself3--they threaten to overthrow it for the purpose of reconstructing the edifice3--and why8 ,because1 say they1 it is proved by science that society as now constituted is urged onwards to destruction4 ,in this they outrage good sense--for either science is not mistaken1 and then why attack it8--or it is mistaken1 and in that case they should leave society in repose1 since society is not menaced4 ,but these tactics1 illogical as they are1 have not been the less fatal to economic science1 especially when the cultivators of that science have had the misfortune1 from a chivalrous and not unnatural feeling1 to render themselves liable1 singuli in solidum1 for their predecessors and for one another4 ,science is a queen whose gait should be frank and free3--the atmosphere of the coterie stifles her4 ,i have already said that in ,political ,economy every erroneous proposition must lead ultimately to antagonism4 ,on the other hand1 it is impossible that the voluminous works of even the most eminent economists should not include some erroneous propositions4 ,it is ours to mark and to rectify them in the interest of science and of society4 ,if we persist in maintaining them for the honour of the fraternity1 we shall not only expose ourselves1 which is of little consequence1 but we shall expose truth itself1 which is a serious affair1 to the attacks of ,socialism4 ,to return3 the conclusion of the ,economists is for ,liberty4 ,but in order that this conclusion should take hold of men's minds and hearts1 it must be solidly based on this fundamental principle1 that interests1 left to themselves1 tend to harmonious combinations1 and to the progressive preponderance of the general good4 p#jch ,now many ,economists1 some of them writers of authority1 have advanced propositions1 which1 step by step1 lead logically to absolute evil1 necessary injustice1 fatal and progressive inequality1 and inevitable pauperism1 etc4 ,thus1 there are very few of them who1 so far as ,i know1 have not attributed value to natural agents1 to the gifts which ,god has vouchsafed gratuitously to ,his creatures4 ,the word value implies that we do not give away the portion of it which we possess except for an equivalent consideration4 ,here1 then1 we have men1 especially proprietors of land1 bartering for effective labour the gifts of ,god1 and receiving recompense for utilities in the creation of which their labour has had no share--an evident1 but a necessary1 injustice1 say these writers4 ,then comes the famous theory of ,ricardo1 which may be summed up in a few words3 ,the price of the necessaries of life depends on the labour required to produce them on the least productive land in cultivation4 ,then the increase of population obliges us to have recourse to soils of lower and lower fertility4 ,consequently mankind at large 7all except the landowners7 are forced to give a larger and larger amount of labour for the same amount of subsistence2 or1 what comes to the same thing1 to receive a less and less amount of subsistence for the same amount of labour1--whilst the landowners see their rentals swelling by every new descent to soils of an inferior quality4 ,conclusion3 ,progressive opulence of men of leisure--progressive poverty of men of labour2 in other words1 fatal inequality4 ,finally1 we have the still more celebrated theory of ,malthus1 that population has a tendency to increase more rapidly than the means of subsistence1 and that at every given moment of the life of man4 ,now1 men cannot be happy1 or live in peace1 if they have not the means of support2 and there are but two obstacles to this increase of population which is always threatening us1 namely1 a diminished number of births1 or an increase of mortality in all its dreadful forms4 ,moral restraint1 to be efficacious1 must be universal1 and no one expects that4 ,there remains1 then1 only the repressive obstacles--vice1 poverty1 war1 pestilence1 famine2 in other words1 pauperism and death4 ,i forbear to mention other systems of a less general bearing1 which tend in the same way to bring us to a dead-stand4 ,monsieur de ,tocqueville1 for example1 and many others1 tell us1 if we admit the right of primogeniture1 we arrive at the most concentrated aristocracy--if we do not admit it1 we arrive at ruin and sterility4 p#jci ,and it is worthy of remark1 that these four melancholy theories do not in the least decree run foul of each other4 ,if they did1 we might console ourselves with the reflection that they are alike false1 since they refute each other4 ,but no1--they are in unison1 and make part of one and the same general theory1 which1 supported by numerous and specious facts1 would seem to explain the spasmodic state of modern society1 and1 fortified by the assent of many masters in the science1 presents itself with frightful authority to the mind of the confused and discouraged inquirer4 ,we have still to discover how the authors of this melancholy theory have been able to lay down1 as their principle1 the harmony of interests1 and1 as their conclusion1 ,liberty4 ,for if mankind are indeed urged on by the laws of ,value towards ,injustice1--by the laws of ,rent towards ,inequality1--by the laws of ,population towards ,poverty1--by the laws of ,inheritance towards ,sterility1--we can no longer affirm that ,god has made the moral as ,he has made the natural world--a harmonious work2 we must bow the head and confess that it has pleased ,him to base it on revolting and irremediable dissonance4 ,you must not suppose1 young men1 that the ,socialists have refuted and repudiated what1 in order to wound no one's susceptibilities1 ,i shall call the theory of dissonances4 ,no2 let them say as they will1 they have assumed the truth of that theory1 and it is just because they have assumed its truth that they propose to substitute ,constraint for ,liberty1 artificial for natural organization1 their own inventions for the work of ,god4 ,they say to their opponents 7and in this1 perhaps1 they are more consistent than the latter71--if1 as you have told us1 human interests when left to themselves tend to harmonious combination1 we cannot do better than welcome and magnify ,liberty as you do4 ,but you have demonstrated unanswerably that those interests1 if allowed to develop themselves freely1 urge mankind towards injustice1 inequality1 pauperism1 and sterility4 ,your theory1 then1 provokes reaction precisely because it is true4 ,we desire to break up the existing fabric of society just because it is subject to the fatal laws which you have described2 we wish to make trial of our own powers1 seeing that the power of ,god has miscarried4 ,thus they are agreed as regards the premises1 and differ only on the conclusion4 ,the ,economists to whom ,i have alluded say that the great providential laws urge on society to evil2 but that we must take care not to disturb the action of those laws1 because such action is happily impeded by the secondary laws which retard the final p#jdj catastrophe2 and arbitrary intervention can only enfeeble the embankment1 without stopping the fatal rising of the flood4 ,the ,socialists say that the great providential laws urge on society to evil2 we must therefore abolish them1 and select others from our inexhaustible storehouse4 ,the ,catholics say that the great providential laws urge on society to evil2 we must therefore escape from them by renouncing worldly interests1 and taking refuge in abnegation1 sacrifice1 asceticism1 and resignation4 ,it is in the midst of this tumult1 of these cries of anguish and distress1 of these exhortations to subversion1 or to resignation and despair1 that ,i endeavour to obtain a hearing for this assertion1 in presence of which1 if it be correct1 all difference of opinion must disappear--it is not true that the great providential laws urge on society to evil4 ,it is with reference to the conclusions to be deduced from their common premises that the various schools are divided and combat each other4 ,i deny those premises1 and ,i ask1 ,is not that the best way of putting an end to these disputes8 ,the leading idea of this work1 the harmony of interests1 is simple4 ,is simplicity not the touchstone of truth8 ,the laws of light1 of sound1 of motion1 appear to us to be all the truer for being simple--,why should it be otherwise with the law of interests8 ,this idea is conciliatory4 ,what is more fitted to reconcile parties than to demonstrate the harmony of the various branches of industry3 the harmony of classes1 of nations1 even of doctrines8 ,it is consoling1 seeing that it points out what is false in those systems which adopt1 as their conclusion1 progressive evil4 ,it is religious1 for it assures us that it is not only the celestial but the social mechanism which reveals the wisdom of ,god1 and declares ,his glory4 ,it is practical1 for one can scarcely conceive anything more easily reduced to practice than this1--to allow men to labour1 to exchange1 to learn1 to associate1 to act and react on each other1--for1 according to the laws of ,providence1 nothing can result from their intelligent spontaneity but order1 harmony1 progress1 good1 and better still2 better ad infinitum4 ,bravo1 you will say2 here we have the optimism of the ,economists with a vengeance6 ,these ,economists are so much the slaves of their own systems that they shut their eyes to facts for fear of seeing them4 ,in the face of all the poverty1 all the injustice1 all the oppressions which desolate humanity1 they coolly deny the existence of evil4 ,the smell of revolutionary gunpowder does not p#jda reach their blunted senses--the pavement of the barricades has no voice for them2 and were society to crumble to pieces before their eyes1 they would still keep repeating1 8,all is for the best in the best of worlds40 ,no indeed1--we do not think that all is for the best2 but ,i have faith in the wisdom of the laws of ,providence1 and for the same reason ,i have faith in ,liberty4 ,the question is1 ,have we ,liberty8 ,the question is1 ,do these laws act in their plenitude1 or is their action not profoundly troubled by the countervailing action of human institutions8 ,deny evil6 deny suffering6 ,who can8 ,we must forget that our subject is man4 ,we must forget that we are ourselves men4 ,the laws of ,providence may be regarded as harmonious without their necessarily excluding evil4 ,enough that evil has its explanation and its mission1 that it checks and limits itself1 that it destroys itself by its own action1 and that each suffering prevents a greater suffering by repressing the cause of suffering4 ,society has for its element man1 who is a free agent2 and since man is free1 he may choose1--since he may choose1 he may be mistaken1--since he may be mistaken1 he may suffer4 ,i go further4 ,i say he must be mistaken and suffer--for he begins his journey in ignorance1 and for ignorance there are endless and unknown roads1 all of which1 except one1 lead to error4 ,now1 every ,error engenders suffering2 but either suffering reacts upon the man who errs1 and then it brings ,responsibility into play1--or1 if it affects others who are free from error1 it sets in motion the marvellous reactionary machinery of ,solidarity4 ,the action of these laws1 combined with the faculty which has been vouchsafed to us of connecting effects with their causes1 must bring us back1 by means of this very suffering1 into the way of what is good and true4 ,thus1 not only do we not deny the existence of evil1 but we acknowledge that it has a mission in the social1 as it has in the material world4 ,but1 in order that it should fulfil this mission1 we must not stretch ,solidarity artificially1 so as to destroy ,responsibility1--in other words1 we must respect ,liberty4 ,should human institutions step in to oppose in this respect the divine laws1 evil would not the less flow from error1 only it would shift its position4 ,it would strike those whom it ought not to strike4 ,it would be no longer a warning and a monitor4 ,it would no longer have the tendency to diminish and die away by its own p#jdb proper action4 ,its action would be continued1 and increase1 as would happen in the physiological world if the imprudences and excesses of the men of one hemisphere were felt in their unhappy effects only by the inhabitants of the opposite hemisphere4 ,now this is precisely the tendency not only of most of our governmental institutions1 but likewise1 and above all1 of those which we seek to establish as remedies for the evils which we suffer4 ,under the philanthropical pretext of developing among men a factitious ,solidarity1 we render ,responsibility more and more inert and inefficacious4 ,by an improper application of the public force1 we alter the relation of labour to its remuneration1 we disturb the laws of industry and of exchange1 we offer violence to the natural development of education1 we give a wrong direction to capital and labour1 we twist and invert men's ideas1 we inflame absurd pretensions1 we dazzle with chimerical hopes1 we occasion a strange loss of human power1 we change the centres of population1 we render experience itself useless1--in a word1 we give to all interests artificial foundations1 we set them by the ears1 and then we exclaim that--,interests are antagonistic3 ,liberty has done all the evil1--let us denounce and stifle ,liberty4 ,and yet1 as this sacred word has still power to stir men's hearts and make them palpitate1 we despoil ,liberty of its prestige by depriving it of its name1 and it is under the title of ,competition that the unhappy victim is led to the sacrificial altar1 amid the applause of a mob stretching forth their hands to receive the shackles of servitude4 ,it is not enough1 then1 to exhibit1 in their majestic harmony1 the natural laws of the social order2 we must also explain the disturbing causes which paralyze their action2 and this is what ,i have endeavoured to do in the second part of this work4 ,i have striven to avoid controversy2 and1 in doing so1 ,i have no doubt lost an opportunity of giving to the principles which ,i desire to disseminate the stability which results from a thorough and searching discussion4 ,and yet1 might not the attention of the reader1 seduced by digressions1 have been diverted from the argument taken as a whole8 ,if ,i exhibit the edifice as it stands1 what matters it in what light it has been regarded by others1 even by those who first taught me to look at it8 ,and now ,i would appeal with confidence to men of all schools1 who prefer truth1 justice1 and the public good to their own systems4 ,economists6 like you1 ,i am the advocate of ,liberty2 and if ,i succeed in shaking some of those premises which sadden your generous hearts1 perhaps you will see in this an additional incentive to love and to serve our sacred cause4 p#jdc ,socialists6 you have faith in ,association4 ,i conjure you1 after having read this book1 to say whether society as it is now constituted1 apart from its abuses and shackles1 that is to say1 under the condition of ,liberty1 is not the most beautiful1 the most complete1 the most durable1 the most universal1 the most equitable1 of all ,associations4 ,egalitaires6 you admit but one principle1 the ,mutuality of ,services4 ,let human transactions be free1 and ,i assert that they are not and cannot be anything else than a reciprocal exchange of services1--services always diminishing in value1 always increasing in utility4 ,communists6 you desire that men1 become brothers1 should enjoy in common the goods which ,providence has lavished on them4 ,my aim is to demonstrate that society as it exists has only to acquire freedom in order to realize and surpass your wishes and your hopes4 ,for all things are common to all1 on the single condition that each man takes the trouble to gather what ,god has given1 which is very natural2 or remunerate freely those who take that trouble for him1 which is very just4 ,christians of all communions6 unless you stand alone in casting doubt on the divine wisdom1 manifested in the most magnificent of all ,god's works which have come within the range of our knowledge1 you will find in this book no expression which can shock the severest morals1 or the most mysterious dogmas of your faith4 ,proprietors6 whatever be the extent of your possessions1 if ,i establish that your rights1 now so much contested1 are limited1 like those of the most ordinary workman1 to the receiving of services in exchange for real and substantial services which have been actually rendered by you1 or by your forefathers1 those rights will henceforth repose on a basis which cannot lie shaken4 ,proltaires6 men who live by wages6 ,i undertake to demonstrate that you obtain the fruits of the land of which you are not the owners with less pain and effort than if you were obliged to raise those fruits by your own direct labour1--with less than if that land had been given to you in its primitive state1 and before being prepared for cultivation by labour4 ,capitalists and labourers6 ,i believe myself in a position to establish the law that1 in proportion as capital is accumulated1 the absolute share of the total product falling to the capitalist increases1 and his proportional share is diminished2 while both the absolute and relative share of the product falling to the labourer is augmented1--the reverse effects being produced when capital is lessened or dissipated4#ad ,if this law be established1 the obvious deduction is1 p#jdd a harmony of interests between labourers and those who employ them4 ,disciples of ,malthus6 sincere and calumniated philanthropists1 whose only fault has been in warning mankind against the effects of a law which you believe to be fatal1 ,i shall have to submit to you another law more reassuring3--8,cteris paribus1 increasing density of population is equivalent to increasing facility of production40 ,and if it be so1 ,i am certain it will not be you who will grieve to see a stumbling-block removed from the threshold of our favourite science4 ,men of spoliation6 you who1 by force or fraud1 by law or in spite of law1 batten on the people's substance2 you1 who live by the errors you propagate1 by the ignorance you cherish1 by the wars you light up1 by the trammels with which you hamper trade2 you who tax labour after having rendered it unproductive1 making it lose a sheaf for every handful you yourselves pluck from it2 you who cause yourselves to be paid for creating obstacles1 in order to get afterwards paid for partially removing those obstacles2 incarnations of egotism in its worst sense2 parasitical excrescences of a vicious policy1 prepare for the sharpest and most unsparing criticism4 ,to you alone ,i make no appeal1 for the design of this book is to sacrifice you1 or rather to sacrifice your unjust pretensions4 ,in vain we cherish conciliation4 ,there are two principles which can never be reconciled--,liberty and ,constraint4 ,if the laws of ,providence are harmonious1 it is when they act with freedom1 without which there is no harmony4 ,whenever1 then1 we remark an absence of harmony1 we may be sure that it proceeds from an absence of liberty1 an absence of justice4 ,oppressors1 spoliators1 contemners of justice1 you can have no part in the universal harmony1 for it is you who disturb it4 ,do ,i mean to say that the effect of this work may be to enfeeble power1 to shake its stability1 to diminish its authority8 ,my design is just the opposite4 ,but let me not be misunderstood4 ,it is the business of political science to distinguish between what ought and what ought not to fall under ,state control2 and in making this important distinction we must not forget that the ,state always acts through the intervention of ,force4 ,the services which it renders us1 and the services which it exacts from us in return1 are alike imposed upon us under the name of contributions4 p#jde ,the question then comes back to this3 ,what are the things which men have a right to impose upon each other by force8 ,now1 ,i know but one thing in this situation1 and that is ,justice4 ,i have no right to force any one whatever to be religious1 charitable1 well educated1 or industrious2 but ,i have a right to force him to be just1--this is a case of legitimate defence4 ,now1 individuals in the aggregate can possess no right which did not pre-exist in individuals as such4 ,if1 then1 the employment of individual force is justified only by legitimate defence1 the fact that the action of government is always manifested by ,force should lead us to conclude that it is essentially limited to the maintenance of order1 security1 and justice4 ,all action of governments beyond this limit is a usurpation upon conscience1 upon intelligence1 upon industry2 in a word1 upon human liberty4 ,this being granted1 we ought to set ourselves unceasingly and without compunction to emancipate the entire domain of private enterprise from the encroachments of power4 ,without this we shall not have gained ,freedom1 or the free play of those laws of harmony which ,god has provided for the development and progress of the human race4 ,will ,power by this means be enfeebled8 ,will it have lost in stability because it has lost in extent8 ,will it have less authority because it has fewer functions to discharge8 ,will it attract to itself less respect because it calls forth fewer complaints8 ,will it be more the sport of factions1 when it has reduced those enormous budgets and that coveted influence which are the baits and allurements of faction8 ,will it encounter greater danger when it has less responsibility8 ,to me it seems evident1 that to confine public force to its one1 essential1 undisputed1 beneficent mission1--a mission desired and accepted by all1--would be the surest way of securing to it respect and universal support4 ,in that case1 ,i see not whence could proceed systematic opposition1 parliamentary struggles1 street insurrections1 revolutions1 sudden changes of fortune1 factions1 illusions1 the pretensions of all to govern under all forms1 those dangerous and absurd systems which teach the people to look to government for everything1 that compromising diplomacy1 those wars which are always in perspective1 or armed truces which are nearly as fatal1 those crushing taxes which it is impossible to levy on any equitable principle1 that absorbing and unnatural mixing up of politics with everything1 those great artificial displacements of capital and labour1 which are the source of fruitless heartburnings1 fluctuations1 stoppages1 and commercial crises4 ,all these causes of trouble1 of p#jdf irritation1 of disaffection1 of covetousness1 and of disorder1 and a thousand others1 would no longer have any foundation1 and the depositaries of power1 instead of disturbing1 would contribute to the universal harmony1--a harmony which does not indeed exclude evil1 but which leaves less and less room for those ills which are inseparable from the ignorance and perversity of our feeble nature1 and whose mission it is to prevent or chastise that ignorance and perversity4 ,young men6 in these days in which a grievous ,scepticism would seem to be at once the effect and the punishment of the anarchy of ideas which prevails1 ,i shall esteem myself happy if this work1 as you proceed in its perusal1 should bring to your lips the consoling words1 ,i believe1--words of a sweet-smelling savour1 which are at once a refuge and a force1 which are said to remove mountains1 and stand at the head of the ,christian's creed--,i believe4 8,i believe1 not with a blind and submissive faith1 for we are not concerned here with the mysteries of revelation1 but with a rational and scientific faith1 befitting things which are left to man's investigation4--,i believe that ,he who has arranged the material universe has not withheld ,his regards from the arrangements of the social world4--,i believe that ,he has combined1 and caused to move in harmony1 free agents as well as inert molecules4--,i believe that ,his overruling ,providence shines forth as strikingly1 if not more so1 in the laws to which ,he has subjected men's interests and men's wills1 as in the laws which ,he has imposed on weight and velocity4--,i believe that everything in human society1 even what is apparently injurious1 is the cause of improvement and of progress4--,i believe that ,evil tends to ,good1 and calls it forth1 whilst ,good cannot tend to ,evil2 whence it follows that ,good must in the end predominate4--,i believe that the invincible social tendency is a constant approximation of men towards a common moral1 intellectual1 and physical level1 with1 at the same time1 a progressive and indefinite elevation of that level4--,i believe that all that is necessary to the gradual and peaceful development of humanity is that its tendencies should not be disturbed1 but have the liberty of their movements restored4--,i believe these things1 not because ,i desire them1 not because they satisfy my heart1 but because my judgment accords to them a deliberate assent40 ,ah6 whenever you come to pronounce these words1 ,i believe1 you will be anxious to propagate your creed1 and the social problem will soon be resolved1 for1 let them say what they will1 it is not of difficult solution4 ,men's interests are harmonious1--the solution1 then1 lies entirely in this one word--,liberty4 p#jdg ,,harmonies ,,of ,,political ,,economy4 ,i4 ,,natural ,,and ,,artificial ,,organization4#ae ,is it quite certain that the mechanism of society1 like the mechanism of the heavenly bodies1 or that of the human frame1 is subject to general laws8 ,does it form a harmoniously organized whole8 ,or rather1 do we not remark in it the absence of all organization8 ,is not an organization the very thing which all men of heart and of the future1 all advanced publicists1 all the pioneers of thought1 are in search of at the present day8 ,is society anything else than a multitude of individuals placed in juxtaposition1 acting without concert1 and given up to the movements of an anarchical liberty8 ,are our countless masses1 after having with difficulty recovered their liberties one after the other1 not now awaiting the advent of some great genius to arrange them into a harmonious whole8 ,having pulled down all1 must we not now set about laying the foundation of a new edifice4 ,and yet1 it may be asked1 have these questions any other meaning than this3 ,can society dispense with written laws1 rules1 and repressive measures8 ,is every man to make an unlimited use of his faculties1 even when in so doing he strikes at the liberties of p#jdh another1 or inflicts injury on society at large8 ,in a word1 must we recognise in the maxim1 laissez faire1 laissez passer1 the absolute formula of political economy8 ,if that were the question1 no one could hesitate about the solution4 ,the economists do not say that a man may kill1 sack1 burn1 and that society has only to be quiescent1--laisser faire4 ,they say that even in the absence of all law1 society would resist such acts2 and that consequently such resistance is a general law of humanity4 ,they say that civil and penal laws must regulate1 and not counteract1 those general laws the existence of which they presuppose4 ,there is a wide difference between a social organization1 founded on the general laws of human nature1 and an artificial organization1 invented1 imagined1--which takes no account of these laws1 or repudiates and despises them1--such an organization1 in short1 as many modern schools would impose upon us4 ,for1 if there be general laws which act independently of written laws1 and of which the latter can only regulate the action1 we must study these general laws4 ,they can be made the object of a science1 and ,political ,economy exists4 ,if1 on the other hand1 society is a human invention1 if men are regarded only as inert matter1 to which a great genius1 like ,rousseau1 must impart sentiment and will1 movement and life1 then there is no such science as ,political ,economy4 ,there are only an indefinite number of possible and contingent arrangements1 and the fate of nations must depend upon the ,founder to whom chance shall have committed their destinies4 ,in order to prove that society is subject to general laws1 no elaborate dissertation is necessary4 ,all ,i shall do is to notice certain facts1 which1 although trite1 are not the less important4 ,rousseau has said1 ,il faut beaucoup de philosophie pour observer les faits qui sont trop prs de nous--8,much philosophy is needed to observe accurately things which are too near us40 ,and such are the social phenomena in the midst of which we live and move4 ,habit has so familiarized us with these phenomena that we cease to observe them1 unless something striking and exceptional forces them on our attention4 ,let us take1 by way of illustration1 a man in the humble walks of life--a village carpenter1 for instance1--and observe the various services he renders to society1 and receives from it2 we shall not fail to be struck with the enormous disproportion which is apparent4 ,this man employs his day's labour in planing boards1 and making tables and chests of drawers4 ,he complains of his condition2 yet in truth what does he receive from society in exchange for his work8 p#jdi ,first of all1 on getting up in the morning1 he dresses himself2 and he has himself personally made none of the numerous articles of which his clothing consists4 ,now1 in order to put at his disposal this clothing1 simple as it is1 an enormous amount of labour1 industry1 and locomotion1 and many ingenious inventions1 must have been employed4 ,americans must have produced cotton1 ,indians indigo1 ,frenchmen wool and flax1 ,brazilians hides2 and all these materials must have been transported to various towns where they have been worked up1 spun1 woven1 dyed1 etc4 ,then he breakfasts4 ,in order to procure him the bread which he eats every morning1 land must have been cleared1 enclosed1 laboured1 manured1 sown2 the fruits of the soil must have been preserved with care from pillage1 and security must have reigned among an innumerable multitude of people2 the wheat must have been cut down1 ground into flour1 kneaded1 and prepared2 iron1 steel1 wood1 stone1 must have been converted by industry into instruments of labour2 some men must have employed animal force1 others water power1 etc42 all matters1 of which each1 taken singly1 presupposes a mass of labour1 whether we have regard to space or time1 of incalculable amount4 ,in the course of the day this man will have occasion to use sugar1 oil1 and various other materials and utensils4 ,he sends his son to school1 there to receive an education1 which1 although limited1 nevertheless implies anterior study and research1 and an extent of knowledge which startles the imagination4 ,he goes out4 ,he finds the street paved and lighted4 ,a neighbour goes to law with him4 ,he finds advocates to plead his cause1 judges to maintain his rights1 officers of justice to put the sentence in execution2 all which implies acquired knowledge1 and1 consequently1 intelligence and means of subsistence4 ,he goes to church4 ,it is a stupendous monument1 and the book which he carries thither is a monument perhaps still more stupendous1 of human intelligence4 ,he is taught morals1 he has his mind enlightened1 his soul elevated2 and in order to this we must suppose that another man had previously frequented schools and libraries1 consulted all the sources of human learning1 and while so employed had been able to live without occupying himself directly with the wants of the body4 ,if our artizan undertakes a journey1 he finds that1 in order to save him time and exertion1 other men have removed and levelled the soil1 filled up valleys1 hewed down mountains1 united the banks of rivers1 diminished friction1 placed wheeled carriages on blocks p#jej of sandstone or bands of iron1 and brought the force of animals and the power of steam into subjection to human wants4 ,it is impossible not to be struck with the measureless disproportion which exists between the enjoyments which this man derives from society and what he could obtain by his own unassisted exertions4 ,i venture to say that in a single day he consumes more than he could himself produce in ten centuries4 ,what renders the phenomenon still more strange is1 that all other men are in the same situation4 ,every individual member of society has absorbed millions of times more than he could himself produce2 yet there is no mutual robbery4 ,and1 if we regard things more nearly1 we perceive that the carpenter has paid1 in services1 for all the services which others have rendered to him4 ,if we bring the matter to a strict reckoning1 we shall be convinced that he has received nothing which he has not paid for by means of his modest industry2 and that every one who1 at whatever interval of time or space1 has been employed in his service has received1 or will receive1 his remuneration4 ,the social mechanism1 then1 must be very ingenious and very powerful1 since it leads to this singular result1 that each man1 even he whose lot is cast in the humblest condition1 has more enjoyment in one day than he could himself produce in many ages4 ,nor is this all4 ,the mechanism of society will appear still more ingenious1 if the reader will be pleased to turn his regards upon himself4 ,i suppose him a plain student4 ,what is his business in ,paris8 ,how does he live8 ,it cannot be disputed that society places at his disposal food1 clothing1 lodging1 amusements1 books1 means of instruction1 a multitude of things1 in short1 which would take a long time not only to produce1 but even to explain how they were produced4 ,and what services has this student rendered to society in return for all these things which have exacted so much labour1 toil1 fatigue1 physical and intellectual effort1 so many inventions1 transactions1 and conveyances hither and thither8 ,none at all4 ,he is only preparing to render services4 ,why1 then1 have so many millions of men abandoned to him the fruits of their positive1 effective1 and productive labour8 ,here is the explanation3--,the father of this student1 who was a lawyer1 perhaps1 or a physician1 or a merchant1 had formerly rendered services--it may be to society in ,china1--and had been remunerated1 not by immediate services1 but by a title to demand services1 at the time1 in the place and under the form that might be most suitable and convenient to him4 p#jea ,it is of these past and distant services that society is now acquitting itself1 and 7astonishing as it seems7 if we follow in thought the infinite range of transactions which must have had place in order to this result being effected1 we shall see that every one has been remunerated for his labour and services2 and that these titles have passed from hand to hand1 sometimes divided into parts1 sometimes grouped together1 until1 in the consumption of this student1 the entire account has been squared and balanced4 ,is not this a very remarkable phenomenon8 ,we should shut our eyes to the light of day1 did we fail to perceive that society could not present combinations so complicated1 and in which civil and penal laws have so little part1 unless it obeyed the laws of a mechanism wonderfully ingenious4 ,the study of that mechanism is the business of ,political ,economy4 ,another thing worthy of observation is1 that of the incalculable number of transactions to which the student owed his daily subsistence1 there was not perhaps a millionth part which contributed to it directly4 ,the things of which he has now the enjoyment1 and which are innumerable1 were produced by men the greater part of whom have long since disappeared from the earth4 ,and yet they were remunerated as they expected to be1 although he who now profits by the fruits of their labours had done nothing for them4 ,they knew him not2 they will never know him4 ,he who reads this page1 at the very moment he is reading it1 has the power1 although perhaps he has no consciousness of it1 to put in motion men of every country1 of all races1 ,i had almost said of all time--white1 black1 red1 tawny--to make bygone generations1 and generations still unborn1 contribute to his present enjoyments2 and he owes this extraordinary power to the services which his father had formerly rendered to other men1 who apparently had nothing in common with those whose labour is now put in requisition4 ,yet despite all differences of time and space1 so just and equitable a balance has been struck1 that every one has been remunerated1 and has received exactly what he calculated he ought to receive4 ,but1 in truth1 could all this have happened1 and such phenomena been witnessed1 unless society had had a natural and wise organization1 which acts1 as it were1 unknown to us8 ,much has been said in our day of inventing a new organization4 ,is it quite certain1 that any thinker1 whatever genius we may attribute to him1 whatever power we may suppose him to possess1 could imagine and introduce an organization superior to that of which ,i have just sketched some of the results8 p#jeb ,but what would be thought of it if ,i described its machinery1 its springs1 and its motive powers8 ,the machinery consists of men1 that is to say1 of beings capable of learning1 reflecting1 reasoning1 of being deceived and undeceived1 and consequently of contributing to the amelioration or deterioration of the mechanism itself4 ,they are capable of pleasure and pain2 and it is that which makes them not only the wheels but the springs of the mechanism4 ,they are also the motive power2 for it is in them that the active principle resides4 ,more than that1 they are themselves the very end and object of the mechanism1 since it is into individual pains and enjoyments that the whole definitely resolves itself4 ,now it has been remarked1 and it is unhappily obvious enough1 that in the action1 the development1 and even the progress 7by those who acknowledge progress7 of this powerful mechanism1 many of the wheels have been inevitably1 fatally injured2 and that1 as regards a great number of human beings1 the sum of unmerited suffering surpasses by much the sum of enjoyment4 ,this view of the subject has led many candid minds1 many generous hearts1 to suspect the mechanism itself4 ,they have repudiated it1 they have refused to study it1 they have attacked1 often with passion1 those who have investigated and explained its laws4 ,they have risen against the nature of things1 and at length they have proposed to organize society upon a new plan1 in which injustice and suffering and error shall have no place4 ,god forbid that ,i should set myself against intentions manifestly pure and philanthropical6 ,but ,i should desert my principles1 and do violence to the dictates of my own conscience1 did ,i not declare that these men are in my opinion upon a wrong path4 ,in the first place1 they are reduced1 by the very nature of their propagandism1 to the melancholy necessity of disowning the good which society develops1 of denying its progress1 of imputing to it all sufferings1 of hunting after these with avidity1 and exaggerating them beyond measure4 ,when a man believes that he has discovered a social organization different from that which results from the ordinary tendencies of human nature1 it is quite necessary1 in order to obtain acceptance for his invention1 to paint the organization he wishes to abolish in the most sombre colours4 ,thus the publicists to whom ,i am alluding1 after having proclaimed enthusiastically1 and perhaps with exaggeration1 the perfectibility of man1 fall into the strange contradiction of maintaining that society is becoming more p#jec and more deteriorated4 ,according to them1 men are a thousand times more unhappy than they were in ancient times under the feudal rgime1 and the yoke of slavery4 ,the world is become a hell4 ,were it possible to conjure up the ,paris of the tenth century1 ,i venture to think that such a thesis would be found untenable4 ,then they are led to condemn the very mainspring of human action--,i mean a regard to personal interest1 because it has brought about such a state of things4 ,let us remark that man is so organized as to seek for enjoyment and avoid suffering4 ,from this source ,i allow that all social evils take their rise--war1 slavery1 monopoly1 privilege2 but from the same source springs all that is good1 since the satisfaction of wants and repugnance to suffering are the motives of human action4 ,the business then is to discover whether this incitement to action1 by its universality--from individual becoming social--is not in itself a principle of progress4 ,at all events1 do the inventors of new organizations not perceive that this principle1 inherent in the very nature of man1 will follow them into their systems1 and that there it will make greater havoc than in our natural organization1 in which the interest and unjust pretensions of one are at least restrained by the resistance of all8 ,these writers always make two inadmissible suppositions--the first is1 that society1 such as they conceive it1 will be directed by infallible men denuded of this motive of self-interest2 and1 secondly1 that the masses will allow themselves to be directed by these men4 ,finally1 these system-makers appear to give themselves no trouble about the means of execution4 ,how are they to establish their system8 ,how are they to induce all mankind at once to give up the principle upon which they now act--the attraction of enjoyment1 and the repugnance to pain8 ,it would be necessary1 as ,rousseau has said1 to change the moral and physical constitution of man4 ,in order to induce men at once to throw aside1 as a worn-out garment1 the existing social order in which the human race has lived and been developed from the beginning to our day1 to adopt an organization of human invention and become docile parts of another mechanism1 there are1 it seems to me1 only two means which can be employed--,force1 or ,universal ,consent4 ,the founder of the new system must have at his disposal a force capable of overcoming all resistance1 so that humanity shall be in his hands only as so much melting wax to be moulded and p#jed fashioned at his pleasure--or he must obtain by persuasion an assent so complete1 so exclusive1 so blind even1 as to render unnecessary the employment of force4 ,i defy any one to point out to me a third means of establishing or introducing into human practice a ,phalanstre1#af or any other artificial social organization4 ,now1 if there be only two assumed means1 and if we have demonstrated that the one is as impracticable as the other1 we have proved that these system-makers are losing both their time and their trouble4 ,as regards the disposal of a material force which should subject to them all the kings and peoples of the earth1 this is what these dotards1 senile as they are1 have never dreamt of4 ,king ,alphonsus had presumption and folly enough to exclaim1 that 8,if he had been taken into ,god's counsels1 the planetary system should have been better arranged40 ,but although he set his wisdom above that of the ,creator1 he was not mad enough to wish to struggle with the power of ,omnipotence1 and history does not tell us that he ever actually tried to make the stars turn according to the laws of his invention4 ,descartes likewise contented himself with constructing a tiny world with dice and strings1 knowing well that he was not strong enough to remove the universe4 ,we know no one but ,xerxes who1 in the intoxication of his power1 dared to say to the waves1 8,thus far shall ye come1 and no farther40 ,the billows did not recede before ,xerxes1 but ,xerxes retreated before the billows2 and without this humiliating but wise precaution he would certainly have been drowned4 ,force1 then1 is wanting to the organizers who would subject humanity to their experiments4 ,when they shall have gained over to their cause the ,russian autocrat1 the shah of ,persia1 the khan of ,tartary1 and all the other tyrants of the world1 they will find that they still want the power to distribute mankind into groups and classes1 and to annihilate the general laws of property1 exchange1 inheritance1 and family2 for even in ,russia1 in ,persia1 and in ,tartary1 it is necessary to a certain extent to consult the feelings1 habits1 and prejudices of the people4 ,were the emperor of ,russia to take it into his head to set about altering the moral and physical constitution of his subjects1 it is probable that he would soon have a successor1 and that his successor would be better advised than to pursue the experiment4 ,but since force is a means quite beyond the reach of our p#jee numerous system-makers1 no other resource remains to them but to obtain universal consent4 ,there are two modes of obtaining this--namely1 ,persuasion and ,imposture4 ,persuasion6 but have we ever found two minds in perfect accord upon all the points of a single science8 ,how then are we to expect men of various tongues1 races1 and manners1 spread over the surface of the globe1 most of them unable to read1 and destined to die without having even heard the name of the reformer1 to accept with unanimity the universal science8 ,what is it that you aim at8 ,at changing the whole system of labour1 exchanges1 and social relations1 domestic1 civil1 and religious2 in a word1 at altering the whole physical and moral constitution of man2 and you hope to rally mankind1 and bring them all under this new order of things1 by conviction6 ,verily you undertake no light or easy duty4 ,when a man has got the length of saying to his fellows3 8,for the last five thousand years there has been a misunderstanding between ,god and man2 8,from the days of ,adam to our time1 the human race have been upon a wrong course--and1 if only a little confidence is placed in me4 ,i shall soon bring them back to the right way2 8,god desired mankind to pursue a different road altogether1 but they have taken their own way1 and hence evil has been introduced into the world4 ,let them turn round at my call1 and take an opposite direction1 and universal happiness will then prevail40 ,when a man sets out in this style it is much if he is believed by five or six adepts2 but between that and being believed by one thousand millions of men the distance is great indeed4 ,and then1 remember that the number of social inventions is as vast as the domain of the imagination itself2 that there is not a publicist or writer on social economy who1 after shutting himself up for a few hours in his library1 does not come forth with a ready-made plan of artificial organization in his hand2 that the inventions of ,fourier1 ,saint ,simon1 ,owen1 ,cabet1 ,blanc1 etc41 have no resemblance whatever to each other2 that every day brings to light a new scheme2 and that people are entitled to have some little time given them for reflection before they are called upon to reject the social organization which ,god has vouchsafed them1 and to make a definite and irrevocable choice among so many newly invented systems4 ,for what would happen if1 after having selected one of these plans1 a better should present itself6 ,can the institutions p#jef of property1 family1 labour1 exchange1 be placed every day upon a new basis8 ,are we to be forced to change the organization of society every morning8 8,thus1 then10 says ,rousseau1 8the legislator being able to employ effectively neither force nor persuasion1 he is under the necessity of having recourse to an authority of another kind1 which carries us along without violence1 and persuades without convincing us40 ,what is that authority8 ,imposture4 ,rousseau dares not give utterance to the word1 but1 according to his invariable practice in such a case1 he places it behind the transparent veil of an eloquent tirade4 8,this is the reason10 says he1 8which in all ages has forced the ,fathers of nations to have recourse to the intervention of heaven1 and to give the credit of their own wisdom to the gods1 in order that the people1 submitting to the laws of the state as to those of nature1 and acknowledging the same power in the formation of man and of the commonwealth1 should obey freely and bear willingly the yoke of the public felicity4 ,this sublime reason1 which is above the reach of vulgar souls1 is that whose decisions the legislator puts into the mouth of the immortals1 in order to carry along by divine authority those who cannot be moved by considerations of human prudence4 ,but it is not for every man to make the gods speak10 etc4 ,and in order that there may be no mistake1 he cites ,machiavel1 and allows him to complete the idea3 8,mai non fu alcuno ordinatore de leggi ,,straordinarie in un popolo che non ricorresse a ,dio40 ,but why does ,machiavel counsel us to have recourse to ,god1 and ,rousseau to the gods1 to the immortals8 ,the reader can answer that question for himself4 ,i do not indeed accuse the modern ,fathers of nations of making use of these unworthy deceptions4 ,but when we place ourselves in their point of view1 we see that they readily allow themselves to be hurried along by the desire of success4 ,when an earnest and philanthropical man is deeply convinced that he possesses a social secret by means of which all his fellow-men may enjoy in this world unlimited happiness1--when he sees clearly that he can practically establish that idea neither by force nor by reasoning1 and that deception is his only resource1 he is laid under a very strong temptation4 ,we know that the ministers of religion themselves1 who profess the greatest horror of untruth1 have not rejected pious frauds2 and we see by the example of ,rousseau p#jeg 7that austere writer1 who has inscribed at the head of all his works the motto1 ,vitam impendere vero71 that even a proud philosophy can allow itself to be seduced by the attraction of a very different maxim1 namely1 ,the end justifies the means4 ,why then should we be surprised that modern organisateurs should think also 8to place their own wisdom to the credit of the gods1 to put their decisions in the mouths of the immortals1 hurrying us along without violence and persuading without convincing us60 ,we know that1 after the example of ,moses1 ,fourier has preceded his ,deuteronomy by a ,genesis4 ,saint ,simon and his disciples had gone still farther in their apostolic senilities4 ,others1 more discreet1 attached themselves to a latitudinarian faith1 modified to suit their views1 under the name of nochristianisme2 and every one must be struck with the tone of mystic affectation which nearly all our modern reformers have introduced into their sermons4 ,efforts of this kind have served only to prove one thing1 and it is not unimportant--namely1 that in our days the man is not always a prophet who wishes to be one4 ,in vain he proclaims himself a god2 he is believed by no one2 neither by the public1 nor by his compeers1 nor by himself4 ,since ,i have spoken of ,rousseau1 ,i may be permitted to make here some observations on that manufacturer of systems1 inasmuch as they will serve to point out the distinctions between artificial and natural organization4 ,this digression1 besides1 is not out of place1 as the ,contrat ,social has again for some time been held forth as the oracle of the future4 ,rousseau was convinced that isolation was man's natural state1 and1 consequently1 that society was a human invention4 8,the social order10 he says in the outset1 8comes not from nature1 and is therefore founded on convention40 ,this philosopher1 although a passionate lover of liberty1 had a very low opinion of men4 ,he believed them to be quite incapable of forming for themselves good institutions4 ,the intervention of a founder1 a legislator1 a father of nations1 was therefore indispensable4 8,a people subjected to laws10 says he1 8should be the authors of them4 ,it belongs alone to those who associate to adjust the conditions of their association2 but how are they to regulate them8 ,by common consent1 or by sudden inspiration8 ,how should a blind multitude1 who frequently know not what they want1 because they rarely know what is good for them1 accomplish of themselves an enterprise so great and so difficult as the formation of a system p#jeh of laws8 4 4 4 ,individuals perceive what is good1 and reject it--the public wishes for what is good1 but cannot discover it3--all are equally in want of guides4 4 4 4 ,hence the necessity of a legislator40 ,that legislator1 as we have already seen1 8not being able to employ force or reason1 is under the necessity of having recourse to an authority of another kind20 that is to say1 in plain terms1 to deception4 ,it is impossible to give an idea of the immense height at which ,rousseau places his legislator above other men3 8,gods would be necessary in order to give laws to men4 4 4 4 ,he who dares to found a nation must feel himself in a condition to change human nature1 so to speak1 4 4 4 to alter the constitution of man in order to strengthen it4 4 4 4 ,he must take from man his own force1 in order to give him that which is foreign to him4 4 4 4 ,the lawgiver is in all respects an extraordinary man in the state1 4 4 4 his employment is a peculiar and superior function which has nothing in common with ordinary government4 4 4 4 ,if it be true that a great prince is a rare character1 what must a great lawgiver be8 ,the first has only to follow the model which the other is to propose to him4 ,the one is the mechanician who invents the machine--the other merely puts it together and sets it in motion40 ,and what is the part assigned to human nature in all this8 ,it is but the base material of which the machine is composed4 ,in sober reality1 is this anything else than pride elevated to madness8 ,men are the materials of a machine1 which the prince1 the ruling power1 sets in motion4 ,the lawgiver proposes the model4 ,the philosopher governs the lawgiver1 placing himself thus at an immeasurable distance above the vulgar herd1 above the ruler1 above the lawgiver himself4 ,he soars far above the human race1 actuates it1 transforms it1 moulds it1 or rather he teaches the ,fathers of nations how they are to do all this4 ,but the founder of a nation must propose to himself a design4 ,he has his human material to set in motion1 and he must direct its movements to a definite result4 ,as the people are deprived of the initiative1 and all depends upon the legislator1 he must decide whether the nation is to be commercial or agricultural1 or a barbarous race of hunters and fishers2 but it is desirable at the same time that the legislator should not himself be mistaken1 and so do too much violence to the nature of things4 ,men in agreeing to enter into an association1 or rather in associating under the fiat of a lawgiver1 have a precise and definite design4 8,thus10 says ,rousseau1 8the ,hebrews1 and1 more recently1 the ,arabs1 had for their principal object religion2 the p#jei ,athenians1 letters2 ,carthage and ,tyre1 commerce2 ,rhodes1 navigation2 ,sparta1 war2 and ,rome1 virtue40 ,what object is to determine us ,frenchmen to leave the state of isolation and of nature1 in order to form a society8 ,or rather--as we are only so much inert matter--the materials of a machine1--towards what object shall our great founder direct us8 ,following the ideas of ,rousseau1 there could be but little room for learning1 commerce1 or navigation4 ,war is a nobler object1 and virtue still more so4 ,but there is another1 the noblest of all3 8,the end of every system of legislation is liberty and equality40 ,but we must first of all discover what ,rousseau understands by liberty4 ,to enjoy liberty1 according to him1 is not to be free1 but to exercise the suffrage1 when we are 8borne along without violence1 and persuaded without being convinced20 for then 8we obey with freedom1 and bear willingly the yoke of the public felicity40 8,among the ,greeks10 he says1 8all that the people had to do they did for themselves1 they were constantly assembled in the market-place2 they inhabited a genial climate2 they were not avaricious2 slaves did all their work2 their grand concern was their liberty40 8,the ,english people10 he remarks in another place1 8believe themselves free1--they are much mistaken4 ,they are so only during the election of their members of parliament2 the moment the election is over1 they are slaves--they are nothing40 ,the people1 if they will be free1 must1 then1 themselves perform all duties in connexion with the public service1 for it is in that that liberty consists4 ,they must be always voting and electing1 always in the market-place4 ,woe to him who takes it into his head to work for his living6 the moment a citizen begins to mind his own affairs1 that instant 7to use ,rousseau's favourite phrase7 tout est perdu--all is over with him4 ,and yet the difficulty is by no means trifling4 ,how are we to manage8 for1 after all1 before we can either practise virtue1 or exercise liberty1 we must have the means of living4 ,we have already remarked the rhetorical veil under which ,rousseau conceals the word ,imposture4 ,we shall now see how1 by another dash of eloquence1 he evades the conclusion of his whole work1 which is ,slavery4 8,your ungenial climate entails upon you additional wants4 ,for six months of the year you cannot frequent the market-place1 your hoarse voices cannot make themselves audible in the open air1 and you fear poverty more than slavery40 8,you see clearly that you cannot be free40 p#jfj 8,what6 liberty maintain itself only by the aid of servitude8 ,very likely60 ,had ,rousseau stopt short at this dreadful word1 the reader would have been shocked4 ,it was necessary therefore to have recourse to imposing declamation1 and ,rousseau never fails in that4 8,all things that are unnatural 7it is society he is speaking of7 are inconvenient1 and civil society more so than all the rest4 ,there are unfortunate situations in which one man cannot maintain his liberty but at the expense of another1 and where the citizen cannot be entirely free unless the rigours of slavery are extreme4 ,as for you1 modern people1 you have no slavery1 but you are yourselves slaves4 ,you purchase other men's liberty with your own4 ,in vain you boast of this advantage4 ,i see in it rather cowardice than humanity40 ,i ask1 does not this mean3 ,modern people1 you would do infinitely better not to be slaves1 but to possess slaves8 ,i trust the reader will have the goodness to pardon this long digression1 which is by no means useless or inopportune4 ,rousseau and his disciples of the ,convention have been held up to us of late as the apostles of human fraternity4 ,men for materials1 a ruler for mechanician1 a father of nations for inventor1 a philosopher above them all--imposture for means1 slavery for result1--is this the fraternity which is promised us8 ,this work of ,rousseau to which ,i have referred--the ,contrat ,social--appears to me well fitted to exhibit the characteristics of these artificial social organizations4 ,the inventors of such systems set out with the idea that society is a state contrary to nature1 and they seek to subject humanity to different combinations4 ,they forget that its motive power1 its spring of action1 is in itself4 ,they regard men as base materials1 and aspire to impart to them movement and will1 sentiment and life2 placing themselves at an immeasurable height above the whole human race4 ,these are features common to all the inventors of social organizations4 ,the inventions are different--the inventors are alike4 ,among the new arrangements which feeble mortals are invited to make trial of1 there is one which is presented to us in terms worthy of attention4 ,its formula is3 ,association voluntary and progressive4 ,but ,political ,economy is founded exactly on the datum1 that society is nothing else than association 7such as the above three words describe it7--association1 very imperfect at first1 because man is imperfect2 but improving as man improves1 that is to say1 progressive4 p#jfa ,is your object to effect a more intimate association between labour1 capital1 and talent1 insuring thereby to the members of the human family a greater amount of material enjoyment--enjoyment more equally distributed8 ,if such associations are voluntary2 if force and constraint do not intervene2 if the cost is defrayed by those who enter these associations1 without drawing upon those who refuse to enter them1 in what respect are they repugnant to ,political ,economy8 ,is it not the business of ,political ,economy1 as a science1 to examine the various forms in which men may unite their powers1 and divide their employments1 with a view to greater and more widely diffused prosperity8 ,does trade not frequently afford us examples of two1 three1 or four persons uniting to form such associations8 ,is ,mtayage#ag not a sort of informal association of capital and labour8 ,have we not in recent times seen joint stock companies formed which afford to the smallest capitals the opportunity of taking part in the most extensive enterprizes8 ,have we not certain manufactures in which it is sought to give the labourers an interest in the profits8 ,does ,political ,economy condemn those efforts of men to make their industry more productive and profitable8 ,does she affirm anywhere that human nature has reached perfection8 ,quite the contrary4 ,i believe that there is no science which demonstrates more clearly that society is still in its infancy4 ,but whatever hopes we may entertain as to the future1 whatever ideas we may conceive as to the measures that men may adopt for the improvement of their mutual relations1 and the diffusion of happiness1 knowledge1 and morality1 we must never forget that society is an organization which has for its element a moral and intelligent agent1 endued with free will1 and susceptible of improvement4 ,if you take away ,liberty from man1 he becomes nothing else than a rude and wretched machine4 ,liberty would seem not to be wanted in our days4 ,in ,france1 the privileged land of fashion1 freedom appears to be no longer in repute4 ,for myself1 ,i say that he who rejects liberty has no faith in human nature4 ,of late the distressing discovery seems to have been made that liberty leads inevitably to monopoly4#ah ,this monstrous union1 this unnatural conjunction1 does not exist2 it is the imaginary fruit of an error which the light of ,political ,economy speedily p#jfb dissipates4 ,freedom engender monopoly6 ,oppression the offspring of liberty6 ,to affirm this is to affirm that the tendencies of human nature are radically bad--bad in themselves1 in their nature1 in their essence4 ,it is to affirm that the natural bent of man is to deterioration2 that the human mind is irresistibly attracted towards error4 ,to what end1 then1 our schools1 our studies1 our inquiries1 our discussions1 unless to accelerate our progress towards that fatal descent2 since to teach men to judge1 to distinguish1 to select1 is only to teach them to commit suicide8 ,and if the tendencies of human nature are essentially perverse1 where are the organizers of new social systems to place the fulcrum of that lever by which they hope to effect their changes8 ,it must be somewhere beyond the limits of the present domain of humanity4 ,do they search for it in themselves--in their own minds and hearts8 ,they are not gods yet2 they are men1 and tending1 consequently1 along with the whole human race1 towards the fatal abyss4 ,shall they invoke the intervention of the state8 ,the state also is composed of men4 ,they must therefore prove that they form a distinct class1 for whom the general laws of society are not intended1 since it is their province to make these laws4 ,unless this be proved the difficulty is not removed1 it is not even diminished4 ,let us not thus condemn human nature before studying its laws1 its forces1 its energies1 its tendencies4 ,newton1 after he discovered attraction1 never pronounced the name of ,god without uncovering his head4 ,yet the celestial mechanism is subject to laws of which it has no consciousness2 and the social world is as much superior to that which called forth the admiration of ,newton as mind is superior to matter4 ,how much more reason1 then1 have we to bow before ,omniscience when we behold the social mechanism1 which universal intelligence no less pervades 7mens agitat molem72 and which presents1 moreover1 this extraordinary phenomenon1 that every atom of which it is composed is an animated thinking being1 endued with marvellous energy1 and with that principle of all morality1 all dignity1 all progress1 the exclusive attribute of man--,liberty4 p#jfc ,,ii4 ,,wants1 ,,efforts1 ,,satisfactions4#ai ,what a profoundly afflicting spectacle ,france presents to us6 ,it would be difficult to say if anarchy has passed from ideas to facts1 or from facts to ideas1 but it is certain that it pervades all1 and abounds everywhere4 ,the poor rise up against the rich1 men without fortune or profession against property2 the populace against the bourgeoisie2 labour against capital2 agriculture against manufactures2 the country against the town2 the provinces against the metropolis2 the denizen against the stranger4 ,and theorists step in1 and form a system of this antagonism4 8,it is the inevitable result1 they say1 of the nature of things1 that is to say1 of ,liberty4 ,man is endued with self-love1 and hence comes all the evil2 for since he is endued with self-love1 he seeks to better his own condition1 and he can only do so by entailing misery on his brethren4 ,let us hinder him1 then1 from following his inclinations2 let us stifle his liberty1 change the human heart1 substitute other motives for those which ,god has placed there3 let us invent and constitute an artificial society60 ,when they have got this length1 an unlimited career opens itself to their reason or imagination4 ,if they are possessed of a disputatious turn and a peevish temper1 they enter with eagerness into an analysis of ,evil4 ,they dissect it1 they put it in the crucible1 they interrogate it1 they remount to its causes1 they pursue it to its consequences2 and1 as by reason of our native imperfection there is nothing in which ,evil is not present1 they asperse and disparage everything4 ,they exhibit to us ,property1 ,family1 ,capital1 ,labour1 ,competition1 ,liberty1 ,personal ,interest1 only in one of their aspects1 and always on the dark side1 the side which injures or p#jfd destroys4 ,their lectures on the natural history of man are1 if ,i may use the expression1 clinical lectures--the subject is always on his deathbed4 ,they impiously defy ,god to reconcile what is said of ,his infinite goodness with the existence of evil4 ,they stain and sully everything2 they disgust us with everything2 they dispute everything2 and yet they obtain only a melancholy and dangerous success with those classes whom suffering disposes but too much to despair4 ,if1 on the other hand1 such theorists have a heart open to benevolence1 a mind which is pleased with illusions1 they rush to the region of chimeras4 ,they dream of an ,oceania1 an ,atlantis1 a ,salente1 a ,spensonie1 an ,icarie1 a ,utopia1 a ,phalanstre1#bj and they people these imaginary regions with a docile1 loving1 devoted race who always avoid setting themselves up against the fancies of the dreamer4 ,he installs himself complacently in the seat of ,providence4 ,he arranges1 he disposes1 he moulds men after his own fancy4 ,nothing stops him4 ,he never encounters deceit4 ,he resembles the ,roman preacher1 who1 after having transformed his square cap into ,rousseau1 refuted warmly the ,contrat ,social1 and triumphantly reduced his adversary to silence4 ,it is thus that our ,reformers dazzle those who suffer by means of seductive pictures of ideal felicity1 well fitted to disgust them with the hard necessities of real life4 ,the theorist1 however1 rarely confines himself to such innocent chimeras4 ,the moment he aims at leading mankind1 he finds the people impatient of attempted transformations4 ,men resist1 they get angry4 ,in order to gain them over1 he harangues them not only on the happiness they reject1 but more especially on the evils from which he professes to deliver them4 ,he finds it impossible to make too striking a picture4 ,he is continually charging his palette and deepening his colours4 ,he hunts out the evils of existing society with as much zeal as another employs in discovering the good4 ,he sees nothing but sufferings1 rags1 leanness1 starvation1 pain1 oppression4 ,he is enraged that society has not a deeper sense of its misery4 ,he neglects no means of making it throw off its insensibility1 and1 having begun with benevolence1 he ends with misanthropy4#ba ,god forbid that ,i should call in question the sincerity of any one4 ,but1 in truth1 ,i cannot explain to myself how these writers1 p#jfe who see a radical antagonism in the natural order of things1 can ever taste a moment's calm or repose4 ,discouragement and despair would seem to be their unhappy portion4 ,for1 to sum up all1 if nature is mistaken in making personal interest the mainspring of human society 7and the mistake is manifest if it be admitted that the interests of society are fatally antagonistic71 how do they not perceive that the evil is without remedy8 ,being men ourselves1 and being able to have recourse only to men1 where can be our point d'appui for changing the tendencies of human nature8 ,shall we invoke the ,police1 the ,magistracy1 the ,state1 the ,legislature8 ,that would only be to invoke men1 that is to say1 beings subject to the common infirmity4 ,shall we address ourselves to ,universal ,suffrage8 ,that would be to give the freest course to the universal tendency4 ,only one expedient remains to these gentlemen4 ,it is to hold themselves out as discoverers1 as prophets1 made of different clay from their fellow-men1 and deriving their inspiration from a different source4 ,this is the reason1 no doubt1 why we find them so frequently enveloping their systems and their councils in a mystic phraseology4 ,but if they are ambassadors of ,god1 let them exhibit their credentials4 ,in effect1 what they demand is sovereign power1 despotism the most absolute that ever existed4 ,they not only wish to govern our acts1 but to revolutionize our thoughts4 ,do they hope that mankind will believe them on their word1 when they are not able to agree among themselves8 ,but before even examining their projects of artificial societies1 is there not one point upon which it is necessary to assure ourselves1 namely1 whether they are not mistaken in the very foundation of their argument8 ,is it quite certain that ,,men',s ,,interests ,,are ,,naturally ,,antagonistic2 that an irremediable cause of inequality is fatally developed in the natural order of human society under the influence of personal interest1 and that ,providence is manifestly in error in ordaining that the progress of man should be towards ease and competency8 ,this is what ,i propose to inquire into4 ,taking man as it has pleased ,god to constitute him1 capable of foresight and experience1 perfectible1 endued with self-love1 it is true1--but self-love qualified by the sympathetic principle1 and at all events restrained and balanced by encountering an analogous sentiment universally prevailing in the medium in which it acts1--,i proceed to inquire what social order must necessarily result from the combination and free play of such elements4 ,if we find that this result is nothing else than a progressive p#jff march towards prosperity1 improvement1 and equality1--a sustained approximation of all classes towards the same physical1 intellectual1 and moral level1 accompanied by a constant elevation of that level1 the ways of ,god to man will be vindicated4 ,we shall learn with delight that there is no gap1 no blank1 in creation1 and that the social order1 like everything else1 attests the existence of those harmonic laws before which ,newton bowed his head1 and which elicited from the ,psalmist the exclamation1 8,the heavens declare the glory of ,god40 ,rousseau has said1 8,if ,i were a prince or a legislator1 ,i should not lose my time in pointing out what was necessary to be done--,i should do it or hold my tongue40 ,i am not a prince1 but the confidence of my fellow-citizens has made me a legislator4 ,perhaps they will tell me that this is the time for me to act and not to write4 ,let them pardon me4 ,whether it be truth itself which urges me on1 or that ,i am the dupe of an illusion4 ,i have never ceased to feel the want of concentrating those ideas which have hitherto failed to find acceptance when presented in detached portions4 ,i think ,i discover in the play of the natural laws of society sublime and consoling harmonies4 ,what ,i see1 or think ,i see1 ought ,i not to try to exhibit to others1 in order to rally round a sentiment of concord and fraternity many unsettled minds1 many imbittered hearts8 ,if1 when the much-loved vessel of the state is beat by the tempest1 ,i sometimes appear to absent myself from my post1 in order to collect my scattered thoughts1 it is because ,i feel my feeble hands unfitted for the work4 ,is it1 besides1 to betray my mission1 to reflect upon the causes of the tempest itself1 and endeavour to act upon these causes8 ,and then1 what ,i find ,i cannot do to-day1 who knows but it may be given me to accomplish to-morrow8 ,i shall begin by establishing some ,economical ideas4 ,availing myself of the works of my predecessors1 ,i shall endeavour to sum up the science in one principle--true1 simple1 and prolific--of which we have had a glimpse from the beginning1 to which we are constantly drawing nearer and nearer1 and of which1 perhaps1 the time is now come to fix the formula4 ,by the light thus afforded1 ,i shall afterwards essay the solution of some yet disputed problems--,competition1 ,machinery1 ,foreign trade1 ,luxury1 ,capital1 ,rent1 etc4 ,i shall note some of the relations1 or1 ,i should rather say1 the harmonies of ,political ,economy1 with the other moral and social sciences1 glancing at the important subjects indicated by the terms--,personal ,interest1 ,property1 ,community1 ,liberty1 p#jfg ,equality1 ,responsibility1 ,solidarity1 ,fraternity1 ,unity4 ,last of all1 ,i shall invite attention to the artificial obstacles which the pacific1 regular1 and progressive development of human society encounters4 ,from these two ideas--,natural harmonic ,laws--,artificial disturbing ,causes--will be deduced the solution of the ,social ,problem4 ,it is easy to see that there are two rocks ahead upon which this undertaking may founder4 ,in the middle of the vortex in which we are carried along1 if this work is abstruse1 it will not be read2 if it obtains readers1 the questions of which it treats will be but glanced at4 ,how are we to reconcile the exactions of the reader with the requirements of science8 ,to satisfy all conditions both in form and substance1 each word would require to be weighed1 and have its proper place assigned to it4 ,it is thus that the crystal is formed drop by drop in silence and obscurity4 ,retirement1 quiet1 time1 freedom from care--all are wanting to me--and ,i am forced to trust to the sagacity of the public1 and throw myself on its indulgence4 ,the subject of ,political ,economy is ,man4 ,but it does not embrace the whole range of human affairs4 ,the science of morals has appropriated all that comes within the attractive regions of ,sympathy--the religious sentiment1 paternal and maternal tenderness1 filial piety1 love1 friendship1 patriotism1 charity1 politeness4 ,to ,political ,economy is left only the cold domain of ,personal interest4 ,this is unjustly forgotten when ,economical science is reproached with wanting the charm and unction of morals4 ,how can it be otherwise8 ,dispute its right to existence as a science1 but don't force it to counterfeit what it is not1 and cannot be4 ,if human transactions which have wealth for their object are vast enough1 complicated enough1 to afford materials for a special science1 leave to it its own attractions1 such as they are1 and don't force it to speak of men's ,interests in the language of ,sentiment4 ,for my own part1 ,i believe that little good has been effected of late in exacting from writers on ,political ,economy a tone of enthusiastic sentimentality which in their mouth can only be declamation4 ,of what do they treat8 ,of transactions which take place between people who know nothing of each other1 who owe each other nothing but common ,justice1 who seek to defend or advance certain interests4 ,it has to do with claims and pretensions which limit and restrain each other1 and with which disinterestedness and devotion have nothing to do4 ,take a lyre1 and chant such themes6 ,as well might ,lamartine sing his odes with the aid of the logarithm tables4 p#jfh ,not that ,political ,economy is without its poetry4 ,there is poetry wherever order and harmony exist4 ,but it is in the results1 not in the demonstrations4 ,it is brought out1 not created4 ,kepler did not give himself out as a poet1 and yet the laws which he discovered are the true poetry of mind4 ,thus1 ,political ,economy regards man only in one aspect1 and our first care must be to study man in that point of view4 ,this is the reason why we cannot avoid going back to the primary phenomena of human ,sensibility and ,activity4 ,start not1 gentle reader6 ,we shall not detain you long in those cloudy regions of metaphysics1 and we shall borrow from that science only such notions as are clear1 simple1 and1 if possible1 incontestable4 ,the soul1 or 7to get rid of the spiritual question7 man1 is endued with ,sensibility4 ,let this sensibility be either in the soul or in the body1 man1 as a passive being1 always experiences sensations either painful or agreeable4 ,as an active being1 he makes an effort to drive away the one set of sensations and to multiply the other4 ,the result1 which affects him again as a passive being1 may be called ,satisfaction4 ,the general idea of ,sensibility springs from other ideas which are more precise3 pain1 want1 desire1 taste1 appetite1 on one side2 and1 on the other1 pleasure1 enjoyment1 competence4 ,between these two extremes a middle term is interposed1 and from the general idea of ,activity spring the more precise ideas of pain1 effort1 fatigue1 labour1 production4 ,in analyzing ,sensibility and ,activity we encounter a word common to both2 the word ,pain4 ,to experience certain sensations is a pain1 and we cannot put an end to it but by an effort1 which is also a pain4 ,we feel pains2 we take pains4 ,this advertises us that here below we have only a choice of evils4 ,in the aggregate of these phenomena all is personal1 as well the ,sensation which precedes the effort1 as the ,satisfaction which follows it4 ,we cannot doubt1 then1 that ,personal interest is the great mainspring of human nature4 ,it must be perfectly understood1 however1 that this term is here employed as the expression of a universal fact1 incontestable1 and resulting from the organization of man1--and not of a critical judgment on his conduct and actions1 as if1 instead of it1 we should employ the word egotism4 ,moral science would be rendered impossible1 if we were to pervert beforehand the terms of which it is compelled to make use4 ,human effort does not always come necessarily to place itself between the sensation and the satisfaction4 ,sometimes the p#jfi satisfaction comes of its own accord4 ,more frequently the effort is exercised upon materials1 by the intervention of forces which nature has placed gratuitously at our disposal4 ,if we give the name of ,utility to all which effects the satisfaction of wants1 there are1 then1 utilities of two kinds3--one1 vouchsafed to us gratuitously by ,providence2 the other 7if ,i may use the expression71 requiring to be purchased by an ,effort4 ,thus the complete evolution embraces1 or may embrace1 these four ideas3 ,wants ,gratuitous ,utility1 ,onerous ,utility ,satisfaction4 ,man is endued with progressive faculties4 ,he compares1 he foresees1 he learns1 he reforms himself1 by experience4 ,if want is a pain1 effort is a pain also1 and there is therefore no reason why he should not seek to diminish the latter1 when he can do so without diminishing the satisfaction1 which is his ultimate object4 ,this is the reason of his success when he comes to replace onerous by gratuitous ,utility1 which is the perpetual object of his search4 ,it follows from the interested nature of the human heart1 that we constantly seek to increase the proportion which our ,satisfactions bear to our ,efforts2 and it results from the intelligent nature of our mind that we manage at each step to augment the proportion which gratuitous bears to onerous ,utility4 ,every time a success of this nature is achieved1 a part of our efforts is1 so to speak1 rendered disposable1 and we have the option of either indulging ourselves with longer repose1 or of working for the satisfaction of new desires1 if these are strong enough to stimulate our activity4 ,such is the principle of all economic progress2 and it is easy to see that it is the principle also of all deception2 for progress and error have both their root in that marvellous gift of ,god to man--,free will4 ,we are endued with the faculty of comparing1 of judging1 of choosing1 and of acting in consequence2 which implies that we may form a right or a wrong judgment1 and make a good or a bad choice4 ,it is never useless to remind men of this when they talk of ,liberty4 ,we never deceive ourselves1 it is true1 regarding the particular nature of our sensations1 and we discern with an infallible instinct whether they are painful or agreeable4 ,but how many various forms may our errors take6 ,we may be labouring under a mistake as to the cause1 and pursue with ardour1 as likely to afford us enjoyment1 what can only indict pain upon us2 or we may be p#jgj mistaken as to the chain of consequences1 and be ignorant that an immediate satisfaction will be followed by greater ulterior pain2 or1 again1 we may mistake the relative importance of our wants and our desires4 ,not only may we thus give a false direction to our efforts through ignorance1 but also through a perverse will4 8,man10 says ,m4 ,bonald1 8is an intelligence served by organs40 ,what6 is there nothing else in us8 ,have we no passions8 ,when we speak of harmony1 then1 we must not be understood to mean that the natural arrangement of the social world is such that error and vice have been excluded from it4 ,to maintain that thesis in the face of plain facts would be to carry the love of system to madness4 ,to have harmony without dissonance man must either be devoid of free will or he must be infallible4 ,all we say is this1 that the great social tendencies are harmonious1 inasmuch as--all error leading to deception and all vice to chastisement--the dissonances have a continual tendency to disappear4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a first and vague notion of property may be deduced from these premises4 ,since it is the individual who experiences the sensation1 the desire1 the want1--since it is he who makes the ,effort1--the satisfaction must necessarily redound to him1 for otherwise the effort would be without cause or reason4 ,the same may be said of ,inheritance4 ,no theory1 no declamation1 is required in order to make fathers love their children4 ,people who sit down to manufacture imaginary societies may think it strange1 but it is so2--a father makes as many ,efforts for the satisfaction of his children as for his own4 ,perhaps he makes more4 ,if1 then1 an unnatural law should interdict the transmission of property1 not only would that law violate property by the very act1 but it would hinder its formation by abandoning to inaction one-half at least of our ,efforts4 ,we shall have occasion to return to the subjects of ,personal interest1 ,property1 and ,inheritance4 ,let us1 in the first instance1 mark out the limits of the science with which we have more immediately to do4 ,i am not one of those who think that a science1 as such1 has natural and unalterable boundaries4 ,in the domain of ideas1 as in that of facts1 all things are bound up and linked together2 truths run into one another2 and there is no science which1 in order to be complete1 might not be made to include all4 ,it has been said with reason that to an infinite intelligence there is but a single verity4 ,it is1 then1 our weakness which obliges us to study separately a p#jga certain order of phenomena1 and the classifications which result from it cannot escape a certain decree of arbitrariness4 ,the true merit is to explain accurately the facts1 their causes1 and their consequences4 ,it is also a merit1 although a much less and a purely relative one1 to determine1 not rigorously--for that is impossible--but rationally1 the order of the facts which we propose to study4 ,i say this in order that it may not be supposed that ,i intend to criticise my predecessors if ,i give to ,political ,economy limits somewhat different from those which they have assigned to that science4 ,economists have of late been reproached with addicting themselves too much to the study of ,wealth4 ,it has been wished that they had found a place in their science for all that1 directly or indirectly1 contributes to the happiness or sufferings of humanity4 ,they have even been supposed to deny everything which they did not profess to teach--for example1 the phenomena of sympathy1 which is as natural to the heart of man as the principle of self-interest4 ,it is as if they accused the mineralogist of denying the existence of the animal kingdom4 ,what6 ,wealth1 the laws of its production1 of its distribution1 of its consumption1--is not this a subject vast enough1 and important enough1 to be made the object of a special science8 ,if the conclusions of the ,economist were at variance with those of morals and politics4 ,i could conceive ground for the accusation4 ,one might say to him1 8,in limiting your science you are mistaken1 for it is not possible for two verities to run counter to each other40 ,perhaps one result of the work which ,i now submit to the public may be1 that the ,science of ,wealth will be found to be in perfect harmony with all the other sciences4 ,of the three terms comprehended in the human destinies--,sensation1 ,effort1 ,satisfaction--the first and the last are always and necessarily confounded in the same individuality4 ,it is impossible to imagine them separated4 ,we can conceive a sensation unsatisfied1 a want unappeased1 but it is quite impossible to suppose the want to be in one man and the satisfaction to be in another4 ,if the same observation applied to the middle term1 ,effort1 man would be a being completely solitary4 ,the ,economic phenomena would then manifest themselves in an isolated individual4 ,there might be a juxtaposition of persons1 but there could be no society2 there might be a ,personal1 but not a ,political1 ,economy4 ,but it is not so4 ,it is very possible1 and very often happens1 that the wants of one owe their satisfaction to the efforts of p#jgb another4 ,this is a fact4 ,if any one of us were to pass in review all the satisfactions he enjoys1 he would acknowledge that he owes them chiefly to efforts which he has not himself made2 and in the same way1 the labour which we undergo1 each in his own profession1 goes almost always to satisfy the desires of others4 ,this tells us1 that it is neither in the wants nor in the satisfactions 7phenomena essentially personal and intransmissible71 but in the nature of the mean term1 human ,efforts1 that we must search for the social principle--the origin of ,political ,economy4 ,it is in fact to this faculty1 given to men1 and to men alone1 among all creatures1 to work the one for the other2 it is this transmission of efforts1 this exchange of services1 with all the infinite and involved combinations to which it gives rise1 through time and through space1 it is ,,this precisely which constitutes ,economic ,science1 points out its origin1 and determines its limits4 ,i say1 then3 ,every effort1 capable of satisfying1 on condition of a return1 the wants of a person other than the man who makes the effort1 and consequently the wants and satisfactions relative to this species of effort1 constitute the domain of ,political ,economy4 ,thus1 to give an example3 the act of breathing1 although it includes the three terms which constitute the ,economic phenomenon1 does not pertain to that science1 and we see the reason4 ,what we have here to do with is a series of facts1 of which not only the two extremes--want and satisfaction--are incapable of transmission 7they are always so72 but the mean term1 ,effort1 is also incapable of transmission4 ,to enable us to respire we invoke the assistance of no one2 in that there is neither a service to be received nor a service to render4 ,the fact is in its nature individual1 not social1 and consequently cannot enter into a science which is essentially one of relation1 as its very name indicates4 ,but if1 in peculiar circumstances1 people were to render each other assistance to enable them to breathe1 as when a workman descends in a diving-bell1 when a physician treats a patient for pulmonary complaints1 or when the police take measures for purifying the air1 in such cases there is a want satisfied by a person other than the person who experiences the want2 there is a service rendered2 and respiration itself1 as far at least as concerns assistance and remuneration1 is brought within the sphere of ,political ,economy4 ,it is not necessary that the transaction should be completed1 it is sufficient that it is possible1 in order to impart to the labour employed an economic character4 ,the labourer who raises corn p#jgc for his own use accomplishes an economic fact in this respect that the corn is capable of being exchanged4 ,to make an effort in order to satisfy another's wants is to render him a service4 ,if a service is stipulated in return1 there is an exchange of services2 and as this is the most ordinary case1 ,political ,economy may be defined the theory of ,exchange4 ,whatever may be for one of the contracting parties the urgency of the want1 or for the other the intensity of the effort1 if the exchange is free1 the two services exchanged are worth each other4 ,value1 then1 consists in the comparative appreciation of reciprocal services1 and ,political ,economy again may be defined the theory of ,value4 ,i have just defined ,political ,economy1 and marked out its domain1 without mentioning an essential element1 gratuitous ,utility4 ,all authors have remarked that we derive a multitude of satisfactions from this source4 ,they denominate these utilities1 such as air1 water1 the light of the sun1 etc41 natural wealth1 in contradistinction to social wealth1 and having done so1 they take no more notice of them2 and in fact it would seem that1 as they give rise to no effort1 to no exchange1 to no service1 as 7being destitute of value7 they figure in no inventory of goods1 they should not be admitted into the domain of ,political ,economy4 ,this exclusion would be rational if gratuitous utility were a fixed invariable quantity1 always separated from onerous utility2 but they are constantly mixed up1 and in inverse proportions4 ,man's constant endeavour is to substitute the one for the other1 that is to say1 to arrive1 by means of natural and gratuitous agents1 at the same results as by efforts4 ,he accomplishes by the wind1 by gravitation1 by heat1 by the elasticity of the air1 what he accomplished at first only by muscular exertion4 ,now what happens8 ,although the effect is equally useful1 the effort is less4 ,less effort implies less service1 and less service implies less value4 ,each step of progress1 then1 annihilates value2 but how8 ,not by suppressing the useful effect1 but by substituting gratuitous for onerous utility1 natural for social wealth4 ,in one sense the portion of value thus annihilated is excluded from the domain of ,political ,economy1 just as it is excluded from our inventories4 ,it is no longer exchanged1 bought1 or sold1 and mankind enjoy it without effort and almost without consciousness4 ,it is no longer accounted relative wealth1 but is ranked among the gifts of ,god4 ,but1 on the other hand1 if science takes it no longer into account1 the error is assuredly committed of losing sight of what p#jgd under all circumstances is the main1 the essential thing--the result1 the useful effect4 ,in that case we overlook the strongest tendencies towards community and equality1 and discover much less of harmony in the social order4 ,if this book is destined to advance ,political ,economy a single step1 it will be by keeping constantly before the eyes of the reader that portion of value which is successively annihilated1 and recovered1 under the form of gratuitous utility1 by mankind at large4 ,i shall here make an observation which will prove how frequently the sciences unite and nearly run into each other4 ,i have just defined service4 ,it is the effort in one man1 while the want and the satisfaction are in another4 ,sometimes the service is rendered gratuitously1 without remuneration1 without any service being exacted in return4 ,it proceeds1 then1 from the principle of sympathy rather than from the principle of self-interest4 ,it constitutes gift1 not exchange4 ,consequently it would seem to appertain not to ,political ,economy 7which is the theory of exchange71 but to morals4 ,in fact1 acts of that nature1 by reason of their motive1 are rather moral than economical4 ,we shall see1 however1 that1 by reason of their effects1 they concern the science which now engages us4 ,on the other hand1 services rendered for an onerous consideration1 on condition of a return1 and1 by reason of that motive 7essentially economic71 do not on that account remain excluded from the domain of morals1 in so far as their effects are concerned4 ,thus these two branches of knowledge have an infinite number of points of contact2 and as two truths cannot be antagonistic1 when the economist ascribes to a phenomenon injurious consequences1 and the moralist ascribes to it beneficial effects1 we may affirm that one or other of them is mistaken4 ,it is thus that the sciences verify and fortify one another4 p#jge ,,iii4 ,,wants ,,of ,,man4 ,it is perhaps impossible1 and1 at any rate1 it would not be of much use1 to present a complete and methodical catalogue of human wants4 ,nearly all those which are of real importance are comprised in the following enumeration3-- ,respiration 7,i retain here that want1 as marking the boundary where the transmission of labour or exchange of services begins7--,food--,clothing--,lodging--,pr eservation or re-establishment of ,health--,locomotion--,security--,instru ction--,diversion--,sense of the beautiful4 ,wants exist4 ,this is a fact4 ,it would be puerile to inquire whether we should have been better without wants1 and why ,god has made us subject to them4 ,it is certain that man suffers1 and even dies1 when he cannot satisfy the wants which belong to his organization4 ,it is certain that he suffers1 and may even die1 when in satisfying certain of his wants he indulges to excess4 ,we cannot satisfy the greater part of our wants without pain or trouble1 which may be considered as suffering4 ,the same may be said of the act by which1 exercising a noble control over our appetites1 we impose on ourselves a privation4 ,thus1 suffering is inevitable1 and there remains to us only a choice of evils4 ,nothing comes more home to us than suffering1 and hence personal interest--the sentiment which is branded now-a-days with the names of egotism and individualism--is indestructible4 ,nature has placed sensibility at the extremity of our nerves1 and at all the avenues to the heart and mind1 as an advanced guard1 to give us notice when our satisfactions are either defective or in excess4 ,pain has1 then1 a purpose1 a mission4 ,we are asked frequently1 whether the existence of evil can be reconciled with the infinite goodness of the ,creator--a formidable p#jgf problem that philosophy will always discuss1 and never probably be able to solve4 ,as far as ,political ,economy is concerned1 we must take man as he is1 inasmuch as it is not given to imagination to figure to itself--far less can the reason conceive--a sentient and mortal being exempt from pain4 ,we should try in vain to comprehend sensibility without pain1 or man without sensibility4 ,in our days1 certain sentimentalist schools reject as false all social science which does not go the length of establishing a system by means of which suffering may be banished from the world4 ,they pass a severe judgment on ,political ,economy because it admits1 what it is impossible to deny1 the existence of suffering4 ,they go farther--they make ,political ,economy responsible for it4 ,it is as if they were to attribute the frailty of our organs to the physiologist who makes them the object of his study4 ,undoubtedly we may acquire a temporary popularity1 attract the regards of suffering classes1 and irritate them against the natural order of society1 by telling them that we have in our head a plan of artificial social arrangement which excludes pain in every form4 ,we may even pretend to appropriate ,god's secret1 and to interpret ,his presumed will1 by banishing evil from the world4 ,and there will not be wanting those who will treat as impious a science which exposes such pretensions1 and who will accuse it of overlooking or denying the foresight of the ,author of things4 ,these schools1 at the same time1 give us a frightful picture of the actual state of society1 not perceiving that if it be impious to foresee suffering in the future1 it is equally so to expose its existence in the past or in the present4 ,for the infinite admits of no limits2 and if a single human being has since the creation experienced suffering1 that fact would entitle us to admit1 without impiety1 that suffering has entered into the plan of ,providence4 ,surely it is more philosophical and more manly to acknowledge at once great natural facts which not only exist1 but apart from which we can form no just or adequate conception of human nature4 ,man1 then1 is subject to suffering1 and consequently society is also subject to it4 ,suffering discharges a function in the individual1 and consequently in society4 ,an accurate investigation of the social laws discloses to us that the mission of suffering is gradually to destroy its own causes1 to circumscribe suffering itself within narrower limits1 and finally to assure the preponderance of the ,good and the ,fair1 by enabling us to purchase or merit that preponderance4 p#jgg ,the nomenclature we have proposed places material wants in the foreground4 ,the times in which we live force me to put the reader on his guard against a species of sentimental affectation which is now much in vogue4 ,there are people who hold very cheap what they disdainfully term material wants1 material satisfactions3 they will say1 as ,belise says to ,chrysale1 8,le corps1 cette guenille1 est-il d'une importance1 ,d'un prix mriter seulement qu'on y pense80 ,and although1 in general1 pretty well off themselves1 they will blame me for having indicated as one of our most pressing wants1 that of food1 for example4 ,i acknowledge undoubtedly that moral advancement is a higher thing than physical sustenance4 ,but are we so stuffed with declamatory affectation that we can no longer venture to say1 that before we can set about moral culture1 we must have the means of living4 ,let us guard ourselves against these puerilities1 which obstruct science4 ,in wishing to pass for philanthropical we cease to be truthful2 for it is contrary both to reason and to fact to represent moral development1 self-respect1 the cultivation of refined sentiments1 as preceding the requirements of simple preservation4 ,this sort of prudery is quite modern4 ,rousseau1 that enthusiastic panegyrist of the ,state of ,nature1 steered clear of it2 and a man endued with exquisite delicacy1 of a tenderness of heart full of unction1 a spiritualist even to quietism1 and1 towards himself1 a stoic--,i mean ,fnlon--has said that1 8,after all1 solidity of mind consists in the desire to be exactly instructed as to how those things are managed which lie at the foundation of human life--all great affairs turn upon that40 ,without pretending1 then1 to classify our wants in a rigorously exact order1 we may say1 that man cannot direct his efforts to the satisfaction of moral wants of the highest and most elevated kind until after he has provided for those which concern his preservation and sustenance4 ,whence1 without going farther1 we may conclude that every legislative measure which tells against the material well-being of communities injures the moral life of nations1--a harmony which ,i commend1 in passing1 to the attention of the reader4 ,and since the occasion presents itself1 ,i will here mark another4 ,since the inexorable necessities of material life are an obstacle to moral and intellectual culture1 it follows that we ought to find more virtue among wealthy than among poor nations and classes4 p#jgh ,good ,heaven6 what have ,i just said1 and with what clamour shall ,i be assailed6 ,but the truth is1 it is a perfect mania of our times to attribute all disinterestedness1 all self-sacrifice1 all which constitutes the greatness and moral beauty of man1 to the poorer classes1 and this mania has of late been still more developed by a revolution1 which1 bringing these classes to the surface of society1 has not failed to surround them with a crowd of flatterers4 ,i don't deny that wealth1 opulence1 especially where it is very unequally spread1 tends to develop certain special vices4 ,but is it possible to admit as a general proposition that virtue is the privilege of poverty1 and vice the unhappy and unfailing companion of ease8 ,this would be to affirm that moral and intellectual improvement1 which is only compatible with a certain amount of leisure and comfort1 is detrimental to intelligence and morality4 ,i appeal to the candour of the suffering classes themselves4 ,to what horrible dissonances would such a paradox conduct us6 ,we must then conclude1 that human nature has the frightful alternative presented to it1 either to remain eternally wretched1 or advance gradually on the road to vice and immorality4 ,then all the forces which conduct us to wealth--such as activity1 economy1 skill1 honesty--are the seeds of vice2 while those which tie us to poverty--improvidence1 idleness1 dissipation1 carelessness--are the precious germs of virtue4 ,could we conceive in the moral world a dissonance more discouraging8 ,or1 were it really so1 who would dare to address or counsel the people8 ,you complain of your sufferings 7we must say to them71 and you are impatient to see an end of these sufferings4 ,you groan at finding yourselves under the yoke of the most imperious material wants1 and you sigh for the hour of your deliverance1 for you desire leisure to make your voice heard in the political world and to protect your interests4 ,you know not what you desire1 or how fatal success would prove to you4 ,ease1 competence1 riches1 develop only vice4 ,guard1 then1 religiously your poverty and your virtue4 ,the flatterers of the people1 then1 fall into a manifest contradiction when they point to the region of opulence as an impure sink of egotism and vice1 and1 at the same time1 urge them on--and frequently in their eagerness by the most illegitimate means--to a region which they deem so unfortunate4 ,such discordances are never encountered in the natural order of society4 ,it is impossible to suppose that all men should aspire to competence1 that the natural way to attain it should be by the exercise of the strictest virtue1 and that they should reach it p#jgi nevertheless only to be caught in the snares of vice4 ,such declamations are calculated only to light up and keep alive the hatred of classes4 ,if true1 they place human nature in a dilemma between poverty and immorality4 ,if untrue1 they make falsehood the minister of disorder1 and set to loggerheads classes who should mutually love and assist each other4 ,factitious inequality--inequality generated by law1 by disturbing the natural order of development of the different classes of society--is1 for all1 a prolific source of irritation1 jealousy1 and crime4 ,this is the reason why it is necessary to satisfy ourselves whether this natural order leads to the progressive amelioration and progressive equalization of all classes2 and we should be arrested in this inquiry by what lawyers term a fin de non-recevoir1 a peremptory exception1 if this double material progress implied necessarily a double moral degradation4 ,upon the subject of human wants ,i have to make an important observation1--and one which1 in ,political ,economy1 may even be regarded as fundamental1--it is1 that wants are not a fixed immutable quantity4 ,they are not in their nature stationary1 but progressive4 ,we remark this characteristic even in our strictly physical wants2 but it becomes more apparent as we rise to those desires and intellectual tastes which distinguish man from the inferior animals4 ,it would seem that if there be anything in which men should resemble each other1 it is in the want of food1 for1 unless in exceptional cases1 men's stomachs are very much alike4 ,and yet aliments which are recherchs at one period become vulgar at another1 and the regimen which suits a ,lazzarone would subject a ,dutchman to torture4 ,thus the want which is the most immediate1 the grossest of all1 and consequently the most uniform of all1 still varies according to age1 sex1 temperament1 climate1 custom4 ,the same may be said of all our other wants4 ,scarcely has a man found shelter than he desires to be lodged1 scarcely is he clothed than he wishes to be decorated1 scarcely has he satisfied his bodily cravings than study1 science1 art1 open to his desires an unlimited field4 ,it is a phenomenon well worthy of remark1 how quickly1 by continuous satisfaction1 what was at first only a vague desire becomes a taste1 and what was only a taste is transformed into a want1 and even a want of the most imperious kind4 ,look at that rude artizan4 ,accustomed to poor fare1 plain p#jhj clothing1 indifferent lodging1 he imagines he would be the happiest of men1 and would have no farther desires1 if he could but reach the step of the ladder immediately above him4 ,he is astonished that those who have already reached it should still torment themselves as they do4 ,at length comes the modest fortune he has dreamt of1 and then he is happy1 very happy--for a few days4 ,for soon he becomes familiar with his new situation1 and by degrees he ceases to feel his fancied happiness4 ,with indifference he puts on the fine clothing after which he sighed4 ,he has got into a new circle1 he associates with other companions1 he drinks of another cup1 he aspires to mount another step1 and if he ever turns his reflections at all upon himself1 he feels that if his fortune has changed1 his soul remains the same1 and is still an inexhaustible spring of new desires4 ,it would seem that nature has attached this singular power to habit1 in order that it should be in us what a rochet-wheel is in mechanics1 and that humanity1 urged on continually to higher and higher regions1 should not be able to rest content1 whatever degree of civilisation it attains to4 ,the sense of dignity1 the feeling of self-respect1 acts with perhaps still more force in the same direction4 ,the stoic philosophy has frequently blamed men for desiring rather to appear than to be4 ,but1 taking a broader view of things1 is it certain that to appear is not for man one of the modes of being8 ,when1 by exertion1 order1 and economy1 a family rises by degrees towards those social regions where tastes become nicer and more delicate1 relations more polished1 sentiments more refined1 intelligence more cultivated1 who can describe the acute suffering which accompanies a forced return to their former low estate8 ,the body does not alone suffer4 ,the sad reverse interferes with habits which have become as it were a second nature2 it clashes with the sense of dignity1 and all the feelings of the soul4 ,it is by no means uncommon in such a case to see the victim sink all at once into degrading sottishness1 or perish in despair4 ,it is with the social medium as with the atmosphere4 ,the mountaineer1 accustomed to the pure air of his native hills1 pines and moulders away in the narrow streets of our cities4 ,but ,i hear some one exclaim1 ,economist1 you stumble already4 ,you have just told us that your science is in accord with morals1 and here you are justifying luxury and effeminacy4 ,philosopher1 ,i say in my turn1 lay aside these fine clothes1 which were not those of primitive man1 break your furniture1 burn your books1 dine on raw flesh1 and ,i shall then reply to your objection4 ,it is too much p#jha to quarrel with this power of habit1 of which you are yourself the living example4 ,we may find fault with this disposition which ,nature has given to our organs2 but our censure will not make it the less universal4 ,we find it existing among all nations1 ancient and modern1 savage and civilized1 at the antipodes as at home4 ,we cannot explain civilisation without it2 and when a disposition of the human heart is thus proved to be universal and indestructible1 social science cannot put it aside1 or refuse to take it into account4 ,this objection will be made by publicists who pride themselves on being the disciples of ,rousseau2 but ,rousseau has never denied the existence of the phenomenon4 ,he establishes undeniably the indefinite elasticity of human wants1 and the power of habit1 and admits even the part which ,i assign to them in preventing the human race from retrograding2 only1 that which ,i admire is what he deplores1 and he does so consistently4 ,rousseau fancied there was a time when men had neither rights1 nor duties1 nor relations1 nor affections1 nor language2 and it was then1 according to him1 that they were happy and perfect4 ,he was bound1 therefore1 to abhor the social machinery which is constantly removing mankind from ideal perfection4 ,those1 on the contrary1 who are of opinion that perfection is not at the beginning1 but at the end1 of the human evolution1 will admire the spring and motive of action which ,i place in the foreground4 ,but as to the existence and play of the spring itself we are at one4 8,men of leisure10 he says1 8employed themselves in procuring all sorts of conveniences and accommodations unknown to their forefathers1 and that was the first yoke which1 without intending it1 they imposed upon themselves1 and the prime source of the inconveniences which they prepared for their descendants4 ,for1 not only did they thus continue to emasculate both mind and body1 but these luxuries having by habit lost all their relish1 and degenerated into true wants1 their being deprived of them caused more pain than the possession of them had given pleasure3 they were unhappy at losing what they had no enjoyment in possessing40 ,rousseau was convinced that ,god1 nature1 and humanity were wrong4 ,that is still the opinion of many2 but it is not mine4 ,after all1 ,god forbid that ,i should desire to set myself against the noblest attribute1 the most beautiful virtue of man1 self-control1 command over his passions1 moderation in his desires1 contempt of show4 ,i don't say that he is to make himself a slave to this or that factitious want4 ,i say that wants 7taking a broad and general p#jhb view of them as resulting from man's mental and bodily constitution71 combined with the power of habit1 and the sense of dignity1 are indefinitely expansible1 because they spring from an inexhaustible source--namely1 desire4 ,who should blame a rich man for being sober1 for despising finery1 for avoiding pomp and effeminacy8 ,but are there not more elevated desires to which he may yield8 ,has the desire for instruction1 for instance1 any limits8 ,to render service to his country1 to encourage the arts1 to disseminate useful ideas1 to succour the distressed1--is there anything in these incompatible with the right use of riches8 ,for the rest1 whatever philosophers may think of it1 human wants do not constitute a fixed immutable quantity4 ,that is a certain1 a universal fact1 liable to no exception4 ,the wants of the fourteenth century1 whether with reference to food1 or lodging1 or instruction1 were not at all the wants of ours1 and we may safely predict that ours will not be the wants of our descendants4 ,the same observation applies to all the elements of ,political ,economy--,wealth1 ,labour1 ,value1 ,services1 etc41--all participate in the extreme versatility of the principal subject1 ,man4 ,political ,economy has not1 like geometry or physics1 the advantage of dealing with objects which can be weighed or measured4 ,this is one of its difficulties to begin with1 and it is a perpetual source of errors throughout2 for when the human mind applies itself to a certain order of phenomena1 it is naturally on the outlook for a criterion1 a common measure1 to which everything can be referred1 in order to give to that particular branch of knowledge the character of an exact science4 ,thus we observe some authors seeking for fixity in value1 others in money1 others in corn1 others in labour1 that is to say1 in things which are themselves all liable to fluctuation4 ,many errors in ,political ,economy proceed from authors thus regarding human wants as a fixed determinate quantity2 and it is for this reason that ,i have deemed it my duty to enlarge on this subject4 ,at the risk of anticipating1 it is worth while to notice briefly this mode of reasoning4 ,economists take generally the enjoyments which satisfy men of the present day1 and they assume that human nature admits of no other4 ,hence1 if the bounty of nature1 or the power of machinery1 or habits of temperance and moderation1 succeed in rendering disposable for a time a portion of human labour1 this progress disquiets them1 they consider it as a disaster1 and they retreat behind absurd but specious formulas1 such as these3 ,production is superabundant1--we suffer from plethora1--the power of producing outruns the power of consuming1 etc4 p#jhc ,it is not possible to discover a solution of the question of machinery1 or that of external competition1 or that of luxury1 if we persist in considering our wants as a fixed invariable quantity1 and do not take into account their indefinite expansibility4 ,but if human wants are indefinite1 progressive1 capable of increase1 like desire1 which is their never failing source1 we must admit1 under pain of introducing discordance and contradiction into the economical laws of society1 that nature has placed in man and around him indefinite and progressive means of satisfaction2--equilibrium between the means and the end being the primary condition of all harmony4 ,this is what we shall now examine4 ,i said at the outset of this work that the object of ,political ,economy is man1 considered with reference to his wants1 and his means of satisfying these wants4 ,we must then begin with the study of man and his organization4 ,but we have also seen that he is not a solitary being4 ,if his wants and his satisfactions are1 from the very nature of sensibility1 inseparable from his being1 the same thing cannot be said of his efforts1 which spring from the active principle4 ,the latter are susceptible of transmission4 ,in a word1 men work for one another4 ,now a very strange thing takes place4 ,if we take a general1 or1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 abstract view1 of man1 his wants1 his efforts1 his satisfactions1 his constitution1 his inclinations1 his tendencies1 we fall into a train of observation which appears free from doubt and self-evident1--so much so1 that the writer finds a difficulty in submitting to the public judgment truths so vulgar and so palpable4 ,he is afraid of provoking ridicule2 and thinks1 not without reason1 that the impatient reader will throw away his book1 exclaiming1 8,i shall not waste time on such trivialities40 ,and yet these truths which1 when presented to us in an abstract shape1 we regard as so incontrovertible that we can scarce summon patience to listen to them1 are considered only as ridiculous errors and absurd theories the moment they are applied to man in his social state4 ,regarding man as an isolated being1 who ever took it into his head to say1 8,production is superabundant--the power of consumption cannot keep pace with the power of production--luxury and factitious tastes are the source of wealth--the invention of machinery annihilates labour10 and other apophthegms of the same sort1--which1 nevertheless1 when applied to mankind in the aggregate1 we receive as axioms so well established that they are actually made the basis of our commercial and industrial legislation8 ,exchange produces in this respect an illusion of which p#jhd even men of penetration and solid judgment find it impossible to disabuse themselves1 and ,i affirm that ,political ,economy will have attained its design1 and fulfilled its mission1 when it shall have conclusively demonstrated this3--that what is true of an individual man is true of society at large4 ,man in an isolated state is at once producer and consumer1 inventor and projector1 capitalist and workman4 ,all the economic phenomena are accomplished in his person--he is1 as it were1 society in miniature4 ,in like manner1 humanity1 viewed in the aggregate1 may be regarded as a great1 collective1 complex individual1 to whom you may apply exactly the same truths as to man in a state of isolation4 ,i have felt it necessary to make this remark1 which ,i hope will be justified in the sequel1 before continuing what ,i had to say upon man4 ,i should have been afraid1 otherwise1 that the reader might reject1 as superfluous1 the following developments1 which in fact are nothing else than veritable truisms4 ,i have just spoken of the wants of man1 and after presenting an approximate enumeration of them1 ,i observed that they were not of a stationary1 but of a progressive nature2 and this holds true1 whether we consider these wants each singly1 or all together1 in their physical1 intellectual1 and moral order4 ,how could it be otherwise8 ,there are wants the satisfaction of which is exacted by our organization under pain of death1 and up to a certain point we may represent these as fixed quantities1 although that is not rigorously exact1 for however little we may desire to neglect an essential element--namely1 the force of habit--however little we may condescend to subject ourselves to honest self-examination1 we shall be forced to allow that wants1 even of the plainest and most homely kind 7the desire for food1 for example71 undergo1 under the influence of habit1 undoubted transformations4 ,the man who declaims against this observation as materialist and epicurean1 would think himself very unfortunate1 if1 taking him at his word1 we should reduce him to the black broth of the ,spartans1 or the scanty pittance of an anchorite4 ,at all events1 when wants of this kind have been satisfied in an assured and permanent way1 there are others which take their rise in the most expansible of our faculties1 desire4 ,can we conceive a time when man can no longer form even reasonable desires8 ,let us not forget that a desire which might be unreasonable in a former state of civilisation--at a time when all the human faculties were absorbed in providing for low material wants--ceases to be so when improvement opens to these faculties a more extended field4 ,a desire to travel at the rate of thirty miles an hour would have been unreasonable p#jhe two centuries ago--it is not so at the present day4 ,to pretend that the wants and desires of man are fixed and stationary quantities1 is to mistake the nature of the human soul1 to deny facts1 and to render civilisation inexplicable4 ,it would still be inexplicable if1 side by side with the indefinite development of wants1 there had not been placed1 as possible1 the indefinite development of the means of providing for these wants4 ,how could the expansible nature of our wants have contributed to the realization of progress1 if1 at a certain point1 our faculties could advance no farther1 and should encounter an impassable barrier8 ,our wants being indefinite1 the presumption is that the means of satisfying these wants should be indefinite also1 unless we are to suppose ,nature1 ,providence1 or the ,power which presides over our destinies1 to have fallen into a cruel and shocking contradiction4 ,i say indefinite1 not infinite1 for nothing connected with man is infinite4 ,it is precisely because our faculties go on developing themselves ad infinitum1 that they have no assignable limits1 although they may have absolute limits4 ,there are many points above the present range of humanity1 which we may never succeed in attaining1 and yet for all that1 the time may never come when we shall cease to approach nearer them4#bb ,i don't at all mean to say that desire1 and the means of satisfying desire1 march in parallel lines and with equal rapidity4 ,the former runs--the latter limps after it4 ,the prompt and adventurous nature of desire1 compared with the slowness of our faculties1 shews us very clearly that in every stage of civilisation1 at every step of our progress1 suffering to a certain extent is1 and ever must be1 the lot of man4 ,but it shews us likewise that this suffering has a mission1 for desire could no longer be an incentive to our faculties if it followed1 in place of preceding1 their exercise4 ,let us not1 however1 accuse nature of cruelty in the construction of this mechanism1 for we cannot fail to remark that desire is never transformed into want1 strictly so called1 that is1 into painful desire1 until it has been made such by habit2 in other words1 until the means of satisfying the desire have been found and placed irrevocably within our reach4#bc p#jhf ,we have now to examine the question1--,what means have we of providing for our wants8 ,it seems evident to me that there are two--namely1 ,nature and ,labour1 the gifts of ,god1 and the fruits of our efforts--or1 if you will1 the application of our faculties to the things which ,nature has placed at our service4 ,no school that ,i know of has attributed the satisfaction of our wants to ,nature alone4 ,such an assertion is clearly contradicted by experience1 and we need not learn ,political ,economy to perceive that the intervention of our faculties is necessary4 ,but there are schools who have attributed this privilege to ,labour alone4 ,their axiom is1 8,all wealth comes from labour--labour is wealth40 ,i cannot help anticipating1 so far as to remark1 that these formulas1 taken literally1 have led to monstrous errors of doctrine1 and1 consequently1 to deplorable legislative blunders4 ,i shall return to this subject4 ,i confine myself here to establishing1 as a fact1 that ,nature and ,labour co-operate for the satisfaction of our wants and desires4 ,let us examine the facts4 ,the first want which we have placed at the head of our list is that of breathing4 ,as regards respiration1 we have already shown that nature in general is at the whole cost1 and that human labour intervenes only in certain exceptional cases1 as where it becomes necessary to purify the atmosphere4 ,another want is that of quenching our thirst1 and it is more or less satisfied by ,nature1 in as far as she furnishes us with water1 more or less pure1 abundant1 and within reach2 and ,labour concurs in as far as it becomes necessary to bring water from a greater distance1 to filter it1 or to obviate its scarcity by constructing wells and cisterns4 ,the liberality of ,nature towards us in regard to food is by no means uniform2 for who will maintain1 that the labour to be furnished is the same when the land is fertile1 or when it is sterile1 when the forest abounds with game1 the river with fish1 or in the opposite cases8 ,as regards lighting1 human labour has certainly less to do when the night is short than when it is long4 ,i dare not lay it down as an absolute rule1 but it appears to me that in proportion as we rise in the scale of wants1 the co-operation of ,nature is lessened1 and leaves us more room for the exercise of our faculties4 ,the painter1 the sculptor1 and the author even1 are forced to avail themselves of materials and instruments which ,nature alone p#jhg furnishes1 but from their own genius is derived all that makes the charm1 the merit1 the utility1 and the value of their works4 ,to learn is a want which the well-directed exercise of our faculties almost alone can satisfy4 ,yet here ,nature assists1 by presenting to us in divers degrees objects of observation and comparison4 ,with an equal amount of application1 may not botany1 geology1 or natural history1 make everywhere equal progress8 ,it would be superfluous to cite other examples4 ,we have already shown undeniably that ,nature gives us the means of satisfaction1 in placing at our disposal things possessed of higher or lower degrees of utility 7,i use the word in its etymological sense1 as indicating the property of serving1 of being useful74 ,in many cases1 in almost every case1 labour must contribute1 to a certain extent1 in rendering this utility complete2 and we can easily comprehend that the part which labour has to perform is greater or less in proportion as ,nature had previously advanced the operation in a less or greater degree4 ,we may then lay down these two formulas3 #a4 ,utility is communicated sometimes by ,nature alone1 sometimes by ,labour alone1 but almost always by the co-operation of both4 #b4 ,to bring anything to its highest degree of ,,utility1 the action of ,labour is in an inverse ratio to the action of ,nature4 ,from these two propositions1 combined with what ,i have said of the indefinite expansibility of our wants1 ,i may be permitted to deduce a conclusion1 the importance of which will be demonstrated in the sequel4 ,suppose two men1 having no connexion with each other1 to be unequally situated in this respect1 that ,nature had been liberal to the one1 and niggardly to the other2 the first would evidently obtain a given amount of satisfaction at a less expense of labour4 ,would it follow that the part of his forces thus left disposable1 if ,i may use the expression1 would be abandoned to inaction8 and that this man1 on account of the liberality of ,nature1 would be reduced to compulsory idleness8 ,not at all4 ,it would follow that he could1 if he wished it1 dispose of these forces to enlarge the circle of his enjoyments2 that with an equal amount of labour he could procure two satisfactions in place of one2 in a word1 that his progress would become more easy4 ,i may be mistaken1 but it appears to me that no science1 not even geometry1 is founded on truths more unassailable4 ,were any one to prove to me that all these truths were so many errors1 ,i should not only lose confidence in them1 but all faith in evidence itself2 for what reasoning could one employ which should better deserve the acquiescence of our judgment than the evidence thus p#jhh overturned8 ,the moment an axiom is discovered which shall contradict this other axiom--that a straight line is the shortest road from one point to another--that instant the human mind has no other refuge1 if it be a refuge1 than absolute scepticism4 ,i positively feel ashamed thus to insist upon first principles which are so plain as to seem puerile4 ,and yet we must confess that1 amid the complications of human transactions1 such simple truths have been overlooked2 and in order to justify myself for detaining the reader so long upon what the ,english call truisms1 ,i shall notice here a singular error by which excellent minds have allowed themselves to be misled4 ,setting aside1 neglecting entirely1 the co-operation of ,nature in relation to the satisfaction of our wants1 they have laid down the absolute principle that all wealth comes from labour4 ,on this foundation they have reared the following erroneous syllogism3 8,all wealth comes from labour3 8,wealth1 then1 is in proportion to labour4 8,but labour is in an inverse ratio to the liberality of ,nature3 8,ergo1 wealth is inversely as the liberality of ,nature40 ,right or wrong1 many economical laws owe their origin to this singular reasoning4 ,such laws cannot be otherwise than subversive of every sound principle in relation to the development and distribution of wealth2 and this it is which justifies me in preparing beforehand1 by the explanation of truths very trivial in appearance1 for the refutation of the deplorable errors and prejudices under which society is now labouring4 ,let us analyze the co-operation of ,nature of which ,i have spoken4 ,nature places two things at our disposal--materials and forces4 ,most of the material objects which contribute to the satisfaction of our wants and desires are brought into the state of utility which renders them fit for our use only by the intervention of labour1 by the application of the human faculties4 ,but the elements1 the atoms1 if you will1 of which these objects are composed1 are the gifts1 ,i will add the gratuitous gifts1 of ,nature4 ,this observation is of the very highest importance1 and will1 ,i believe1 throw a new light upon the theory of wealth4 ,the reader will have the goodness to bear in mind that ,i am inquiring at present in a general way into the moral and physical constitution of man1 his wants1 his faculties1 his relations with ,nature--apart from the consideration of ,exchange1 which ,i shall enter upon in the next chapter4 ,we shall then see in what respect1 and in what manner1 social transactions modify the phenomena4 p#jhi ,it is very evident1 that if man in an isolated state must1 so to speak1 purchase the greater part of his satisfactions by an exertion1 by an effort1 it is rigorously exact to say that prior to the intervention of any such exertion1 any such effort1 the materials which he finds at his disposal are the gratuitous gifts of ,nature4 ,after the first effort on his part1 however slight it may be1 they cease to be gratuitous2 and if the language of ,political ,economy had been always exact1 it would have been to material objects in this state1 and before human labour had been bestowed upon them1 that the term raw materials 7matires premires7 would have been exclusively applied4 ,i repeat that this gratuitous quality of the gifts of ,nature1 anterior to the intervention of labour1 is of the very highest importance4 ,i said in my second chapter that ,political ,economy was the theory of value2 ,i add now1 and by anticipation1 that things begin to possess value only when it is given to them by labour4 ,i intend to demonstrate afterwards that everything which is gratuitous for man in an isolated state is gratuitous for man in his social condition1 and that the gratuitous gifts of ,nature1 whatever be their ,,utility1 have no value4 ,i say that a man who receives a benefit from ,nature1 directly and without any effort on his part1 cannot be considered as rendering himself an onerous service1 and1 consequently1 that he cannot render to another any service with reference to things which are common to all4 ,now1 where there are no services rendered and received there is no value4 ,all that ,i have said of materials is equally applicable to the forces which ,nature places at our disposal4 ,gravitation1 the elasticity of air1 the power of the winds1 the laws of equilibrium1 vegetable life1 animal life1 are so many forces which we learn to turn to account4 ,the pains and intelligence which we bestow in this way always admit of remuneration1 for we are not bound to devote our efforts to the advantage of others gratuitously4 ,but these natural forces1 in themselves1 and apart from all intellectual or bodily exertion1 are gratuitous gifts of ,providence1 and in this respect they remain destitute of value through all the complications of human transactions4 ,this is the leading idea of the present work4 ,this observation would be of little importance1 ,i allow1 if the co-operation of ,nature were constantly uniform1 if each man1 at all times1 in all places1 in all circumstances1 received from ,nature equal and invariable assistance4 ,in that case1 science would be justified in not taking into account an element which1 remaining always and everywhere the same1 would affect the services p#jij exchanged in equal proportions on both sides4 ,as in geometry we eliminate portions of lines common to two figures which we compare with each other1 we might neglect a co-operation which is invariably present1 and content ourselves with saying1 as we have done hitherto1 8,there is such a thing as natural wealth--,political ,economy acknowledges it1 and has no more concern with it40 ,but this is not the true state of the matter4 ,the irresistible tendency of the human mind1 stimulated by self-interest and assisted by a series of discoveries1 is to substitute natural and gratuitous co-operation for human and onerous concurrence2 so that a given utility1 although remaining the same as far as the result and the satisfactions which it procures us are concerned1 represents a smaller and smaller amount of labour4 ,in fact1 it is impossible not to perceive the immense influence of this marvellous phenomenon on our notion of value4 ,for what is the result of it8 ,this1 that in every product the gratuitous element tends to take the place of the onerous2 that utility1 being the result of two collaborations1 of which one is remunerated and the other is not1 ,value1 which has relation only to the first of these united forces1 is diminished1 and makes room for a utility which is identically the same1 and this in proportion as we succeed in constraining ,nature to a more efficacious co-operation4 ,so that we may say that mankind have as many more satisfactions1 as much more wealth1 as they have less value4 ,now1 the majority of authors having employed these three terms1 utility1 wealth1 value1 as synonymous1 the result has been a theory which is not only not true1 but the reverse of true4 ,i believe sincerely that a more exact description of this combination of natural forces and human forces in the business of production1 in other words1 a juster definition of ,value1 would put an end to inextricable theoretical confusion1 and would reconcile schools which are now divergent2 and if ,i am now anticipating somewhat in entering on this subject here1 my justification with the reader is the necessity of explaining in the outset certain ideas of which otherwise he would have difficulty in perceiving the importance4 ,returning from this digression1 ,i resume what ,i had to say upon man considered exclusively in an economical point of view4 ,another observation1 which we owe to ,j4 ,b4 ,say1 and which is almost self-evident1 although too much neglected by many authors1 is1 that man creates neither the materials nor the forces of nature1 if we take the word create in its exact signification4 ,these materials1 these forces1 have an independent existence4 ,man can only combine them or displace them1 for his own benefit or that p#jia of others4 ,if for his own1 he renders a service to himself1--if for the benefit of others1 he renders service to his fellows1 and has the right to exact an equivalent service4 ,whence it also follows that value is proportional to the service rendered1 and not at all to the absolute utility of the thing4 ,for this utility may be in great part the result of the gratuitous action of ,nature1 in which case the human service1 the onerous service1 the service to be remunerated1 is of little value4 ,this results from the axiom above established--namely1 that to bring a thing to the highest degree of utility1 the action of man is inversely as the action of ,nature4 ,this observation overturns the doctrine which places value in the materiality of things4 ,the contrary is the truth4 ,the materiality is a quality given by ,nature1 and consequently gratuitous1 and devoid of value1 although of incontestable utility4 ,human action1 which can never succeed in creating matter1 constitutes alone the service which man in a state of isolation renders to himself1 or that men in society render to each other2 and it is the free appreciation of these services which is the foundation of value4 ,far1 then1 from concluding with ,adam ,smith that it is impossible to conceive of value otherwise than as residing in material substance1 we conclude that between ,matter and ,value there is no possible relation4 ,this erroneous doctrine ,smith deduced logically from his principle1 that those classes alone are productive who operate on material substances4 ,he thus prepared the way for the modern error of the socialists1 who have never done representing as unproductive parasites those whom they term intermediaries between the producer and consumer--the merchant1 the retail dealer1 etc4 ,do they render services8 ,do they save us trouble by taking trouble for us8 ,in that case they create value1 although they do not create matter2 and as no one can create matter1 and we all confine our exertions to rendering reciprocal services1 we pronounce with justice that all1 including agriculturists and manufacturers1 are intermediaries in relation one to another4 ,this is what ,i had to say at present upon the co-operation of ,nature4 ,nature places at our disposal1 in various degrees1 depending on climate1 seasons1 and the advance of knowledge1 but always gratuitously1 materials and forces4 ,then these materials and forces are devoid of value2 it would be strange if they had any4 ,according to what rule should we estimate them8 ,in what way could ,nature be paid1 remunerated1 compensated8 ,we shall see afterwards that exchange is necessary in order to determine value4 ,we don't purchase the goods of ,nature--we gather them2 and if1 in order to appropriate them1 a certain amount of effort is p#jib necessary1 it is in this effort1 not in the gifts of ,nature1 that the principle of value resides4 ,let us now consider that action of man which we designate1 in a general way1 by the term labour4 ,the word labour1 like almost all the terms of ,political ,economy1 is very vague4 ,different authors use it in a sense more or less extended4 ,political ,economy has not had1 like most other sciences1 ,chemistry for example1 the advantage of constructing her own vocabulary4 ,treating of subjects which have been familiar to men's thoughts since the beginning of the world1 and the constant subject of their daily talk1 she has found a nomenclature ready made1 and has been forced to adopt it4 ,the meaning of the word labour is often limited exclusively to the muscular action of man upon materials4 ,hence those who execute the mechanical part of production are called the working classes4 ,the reader will comprehend that ,i give to this word a more extended sense4 ,i understand by labour the application of our faculties to the satisfaction of our wants4 ,wants1 efforts1 satisfactions1 this is the circle of ,political ,economy4 ,effort may be physical1 intellectual1 or even moral1 as we shall immediately see4 ,it is not necessary to demonstrate in this place that all our organs1 all or nearly all our faculties1 may concur1 and1 in point of fact1 do concur1 in production4 ,attention1 sagacity1 intelligence1 imagination1 have assuredly their part in it4 ,m4 ,dunoyer1 in his excellent work1 ,sur la ,libert du ,travail1 has included1 and with scientific exactness1 our moral faculties among the elements to which we are indebted for our wealth--an idea as original and suggestive as it is just4 ,it is destined to enlarge and ennoble the field of ,political ,economy4 ,i shall not dwell here upon that idea farther than as it may enable me to throw a faint light upon the origin of a powerful agent of production1 of which ,i shall have occasion to speak hereafter--,i mean ,capital4 ,if we examine in succession the material objects which contribute to the satisfaction of our wants1 we shall discover without difficulty that all or nearly all require1 in order to their being brought to perfection1 more time1 a larger portion of our life1 than a man can expend without recruiting his strength1 that is to say1 without satisfying his wants4 ,this supposes that those who had made those things had previously reserved1 set aside1 accumulated1 provisions1 to enable them to subsist during the operation4 p#jic ,the same observation applies to satisfactions which have nothing material belonging to them4 ,a clergyman cannot devote himself to preaching1 a professor to teaching1 a magistrate to the maintenance of order1 unless1 by themselves1 or by others1 they are put in possession of means of subsistence previously created4 ,let us go a little higher4 ,suppose a man isolated and forced to live by the chase4 ,it is easy to comprehend that if every night he consumed the whole game which his day's hunting had furnished1 he could never set himself to any other work1 to build a cottage1 for example1 or repair his arms or implements4 ,all progress would be interdicted in his case4 ,this is not the proper place to define the nature and functions of ,capital4 ,my sole object at present is to show that certain moral virtues co-operate very directly in the amelioration of our condition1 even when viewed exclusively with reference to wealth1--among other virtues1 order1 foresight1 self-control1 economy4 ,to foresee is one of our noblest privileges1 and it is scarcely necessary to say that1 in all situations of life1 the man who most clearly foresees the probable consequences of his acts and determinations has the best chance of success4 ,to control his appetites1 to govern his passions1 to sacrifice the present to the future1 to submit to privations for the sake of greater but more distant advantages--such are the conditions essential to the formation of capital2 and capital1 as we have already partially seen1 is itself the essential condition of all labour that is in any degree complicated or prolonged4 ,it is quite evident that if we suppose two men placed in identically the same position1 and possessed of the same amount of intelligence and activity1 that man would make the most progress who1 having accumulated provisions1 had placed himself in a situation to undertake protracted works1 to improve his implements1 and thus to make the forces of nature co-operate in the realization of his designs4 ,i shall not dwell longer on this4 ,we have only to look around us to be convinced that all our forces1 all our faculties1 all our virtues1 concur in furthering the advancement of man and of society4 ,for the same reason1 there are none of our vices which are not directly or indirectly the causes of poverty4 ,idleness paralyzes efforts1 which are the sinews of production4 ,ignorance and error give our efforts a false direction4 ,improvidence lays us open to deceptions4 ,indulgence in the appetites of the hour prevents the accumulation of capital4 ,vanity leads us to devote our efforts to factitious enjoyments1 in place of such as are real4 ,violence and p#jid fraud provoke reprisals1 oblige us to surround ourselves with troublesome precautions1 and entail a great waste and destruction of power4 ,i shall wind up these preliminary observations on man with a remark which ,i have already made in relation to his wants4 ,it is this1 that the elements discussed and explained in this chapter1 and which enter into and constitute economical science1 are in their nature flexible and changeable4 ,wants1 desires1 materials and powers furnished by ,nature1 our muscular force1 our organs1 our intellectual faculties1 our moral qualities1 all vary with the individual1 and change with time and place4 ,no two men1 perhaps1 are entirely alike in any one of these respects1 certainly not in all--nay more1 no man entirely resembles himself for two hours together4 ,what one knows another is ignorant of--what one values another despises--here nature is prodigal1 there niggardly--a virtue which it is difficult to practise in one climate or latitude becomes easy in another4 ,economical science has not1 then1 like the exact sciences1 the advantage of possessing a fixed measure1 and absolute unconditional truths--a graduated scale1 a standard1 which can be employed in measuring the intensity of desires1 of efforts1 and of satisfactions4 ,were we even to devote ourselves to solitary labour1 like certain animals1 we should still find ourselves placed in circumstances in some degree different2 and were our external circumstances alike1 were the medium in which we act the same for all1 we should still differ from each other in our desires1 our wants1 our ideas1 our sagacity1 our energy1 our manner of estimating and appreciating things1 our foresight1 our activity--so that a great and inevitable inequality would manifest itself4 ,in truth1 absolute isolation1 the absence of all relations among men1 is only an idle fancy coined in the brain of ,rousseau4 ,but supposing that this antisocial state1 called the state of nature1 had ever existed1 ,i cannot help inquiring by what chain of reasoning ,rousseau and his adepts have succeeded in planting ,equality there8 ,we shall afterwards see that ,equality1 like ,wealth1 like ,liberty1 like ,fraternity1 like ,unity1 is the end2 it is not the starting point4 ,it rises out of the natural and regular development of societies4 ,the tendency of human nature is not away from1 but towards1 ,equality4 ,this is most consoling and most true4 ,having spoken of our wants1 and our means of providing for them1 it remains to say a word respecting our satisfactions4 ,they are the result of the entire mechanism we have described4 ,it is by the greater or less amount of physical1 intellectual1 and moral satisfactions which mankind enjoy1 that we discover whether p#jie the machine works well or ill4 ,this is the reason why the word consommation consumption#bd1 adopted by our ,economists would have a profound meaning if we used it in its etymological signification as synonymous with end1 or completion4 ,unfortunately1 in common1 and even in scientific1 language1 it presents to the mind a gross and material idea1 exact without doubt when applied to our physical wants1 but not at all so when used with reference to those of a more elevated order4 ,the cultivation of corn1 the manufacture of woollen cloth1 terminate in consumption consommation4 ,but can this be said with equal propriety of the works of the artist1 the songs of the poet1 the studies of the lawyer1 the prelections of the professor1 the sermons of the clergyman8 ,it is here that we again experience the inconvenience of that fundamental error which caused ,adam ,smith to circumscribe ,political ,economy within the limits of a material circle2 and the reader will pardon me for frequently making use of the term satisfaction1 as applicable to all our wants and all our desires1 and as more in accordance with the larger scope which ,i hope to be able to give to the science4 ,political ,economists have been frequently reproached with confining their attention exclusively to the interests of the consumer4 8,you forget the producer10 we are told4 ,but satisfaction being the end and design of all our efforts--the grand consummation or termination of the economic phenomena--is it not evident that it is there that the touchstone of progress is to be found8 ,a man's happiness and well-being are not measured by his efforts1 but by his satisfactions1 and this holds equally true of society in the aggregate4 ,this is one of those truths which are never disputed when applied to an individual1 but which are constantly disputed when applied to society at large4 ,the phrase to which exception has been taken only means this1 that ,political ,economy estimates the worth of what we do1 not by the labour which it costs us to do it1 but by the ultimate result1 which resolves itself definitively into an increase or diminution of the general prosperity4 ,we have said1 in reference to our wants and desires1 that there are no two men exactly alike4 ,the same thing may be said of our satisfactions3 they are not held in equal estimation by all1 which verifies the common saying1 that tastes differ4 ,now it is by the intensity of our desires1 and the variety of our tastes1 that the direction of our efforts is determined4 ,it is here that the influence of morals upon industry becomes apparent4 ,man1 as an individual1 may be the slave of tastes which are factitious1 puerile1 and p#jif immoral4 ,in this case it is self-evident that1 his powers being limited1 he can only satisfy his depraved desires at the expense of those which are laudable and legitimate4 ,but when society comes into play1 this evident axiom is marked down as an error4 ,we are led to believe that artificial tastes1 illusory satisfactions1 which we acknowledge as the source of individual poverty1 are nevertheless the cause of national wealth1 as opening a vent to manufactures4 ,if it were so1 we should arrive at the miserable conclusion1 that the social state places man between poverty and vice4 ,once more1 ,political ,economy reconciles1 in the most rigorous and satisfactory manner1 these apparent contradictions4 p#jig ,,iv4 ,,exchange4 ,exchange is ,political ,economy--it is ,society itself--for it is impossible to conceive ,society as existing without ,exchange1 or ,exchange without ,society4 ,i shall not pretend in this chapter to exhaust so vast a subject4 ,to present even an outline of it would require the entire volume4 ,if men1 like snails1 lived in complete isolation1 if they did not exchange their ideas and exertions1 and had no bargain or transactions with each other1 we might have multitudes1 indeed--human units--individuals living in juxtaposition--but we could not have ,society4 ,nay1 we should not even have individuals4 ,to man isolation is death4 ,but then1 if he cannot live out of society1 the legitimate conclusion is that the social state is his natural state4 ,all the sciences tend to establish this truth1 which was so little understood by the men of the eighteenth century that they founded morals and politics on the contrary assertion4 ,they were not content with placing the state of nature in opposition to the social state--they gave the first a decided preference4 8,men were blessed10 said ,montaigne1 8when they lived without bonds1 without laws1 without language1 without religion40 ,and we know that the system of ,rousseau1 which exercised1 and still exercises1 so powerful an influence over opinions and facts1 rests altogether on this hypothesis--that men1 unhappily1 agreed one fine morning to abandon the innocent state of nature for the stormy state of society4 ,it is not the design of this chapter to bring together all possible refutations of this fundamental error1 the most fatal which has ever infested the political sciences2 for if society is the fruit of invention and convention1 it follows that every one may propose a new model1 and this1 since ,rousseau's time1 has in fact been the p#jih direction in which men's minds have tended4 ,i could easily demonstrate1 ,i believe1 that isolation excludes language1 as the absence of language excludes thought2 and man1 deprived of thought1 instead of being a child of nature1 ceases to be man at all4 ,but a peremptory refutation of the idea upon which ,rousseau's doctrine reposes1 flows naturally from some considerations on ,exchange4 ,want1 ,effort1 ,satisfaction1--such is man in an economical point of view4 ,we have seen that the two extreme terms are essentially intransmissible1 for they terminate in sensation1 they are sensation1 which is the most personal thing in the world1 as well the sensation which precedes the effort and determines it1 as the sensation which follows the effort and rewards it4 ,it is then the ,effort which is exchanged2 indeed1 it cannot be otherwise1 since exchange implies action1 and ,effort alone manifests the principle of activity4 ,we cannot suffer or enjoy for one another1 unless we could experience personally the pains and pleasures of others4 ,but we can assist each other1 work for one another1 render reciprocal services1 and place our faculties1 or the results of their exercise1 at the disposal of others1 in consideration of a return4 ,this is society4 ,the causes1 the effects1 the laws1 of these exchanges constitute the subject of political and social economy4 ,we not only can exchange efforts and render reciprocal services1 but we do so necessarily4 ,what ,i affirm is this1 that our organization is such that we are obliged to work for one another under pain of death1 of instant death4 ,if it be so1 society is our state of nature1 since it is the only state in which we can live at all4 ,there is one observation which ,i have to make upon the equilibrium between our wants and our faculties1 an observation which has always led me to admire the providential plan which regulates our destinies3-- ,in the state of isolation our wants exceed our powers2 ,in the social state our powers exceed our wants4 ,hence it follows that man in an isolated state cannot subsist1 whilst in the social state his most imperious wants give place to desires of a higher order1 and continue to do so in an ascending career of progress and improvement to which it is impossible to set limits4 ,this is not declamation1 but an assertion capable of being p#jii rigorously demonstrated by reasoning and analogy1 if not by experience4 ,and why can it not be demonstrated by experience1 by direct observation8 ,precisely because it is true--precisely because1 man not being able to exist in a state of isolation1 it becomes impossible to exhibit in actual nature the effects of absolute solitude4 ,you cannot lay hold of a nonentity4 ,you can prove to me that a triangle never has four sides1 but you cannot1 in support of your demonstration1 place before my eyes a tetragonal triangle4 ,if you could1 the exhibition of such a triangle would disprove your assertion4 ,in the same way1 to ask me for experimental proof1 to ask me to study the effects of isolation in actual nature1 is to palm a contradiction upon me2 for life and isolation being incompatible1 we have never seen1 and never shall see1 men without social relations4 ,if there are animals 7of which ,i am ignorant7 destined by their organization to make the round of their existence in absolute isolation1 it is very clear that nature must exactly proportion their wants and their powers4 ,it is possible to conceive that their powers have the superiority1 in which case these animals would be progressive and capable of improvement4 ,an equilibrium of wants and powers would render them stationary beings2 but the superiority of their wants to their powers it is impossible to conceive4 ,from their birth1 from their first appearance in life1 their faculties must be complete--relatively to the wants for which they have to provide1 or at least both must be developed in just proportion4 ,otherwise the species would die the moment they came into existence1 and1 consequently1 could not be the subject of our observation4 ,of all the species of living beings which surround us1 undoubtedly none have so many wants as man4 ,in none is infancy so long1 so feeble1 and so helpless--in none is maturity loaded with so much responsibility--in none is old age so frail and so liable to suffering4 ,and1 as if we had not enough of wants1 man has tastes also1 the satisfaction of which exercises his faculties quite as much as his wants4 ,scarcely has he appeased his hunger than he begins to pamper himself with dainties--no sooner has he clothed himself than he sighs for finery--no sooner has he obtained shelter than he proceeds to embellish and decorate his residence4 ,his mind is as restless as his body is exacting4 ,he seeks to fathom the secrets of nature1 to tame animals1 to control the elements1 to dive into the bowels of the earth1 to traverse broad seas1 to soar above the clouds1 to annihilate time and space4 ,he desires to know the motions1 the springs1 the laws1 of his mind and heart--to p#ajj control his passions--to conquer immortality--to become a god--to bring all things into subjection2 nature1 his fellow-men1 himself4 ,in a word1 his desires and aspirations expand continually1 and tend towards the infinite4 ,thus1 in no other species are the faculties so susceptible of vast development as in man4 ,it is his alone to compare and to judge1 to reason and to speak1 to foresee1 to sacrifice the present to the future4 ,he alone can transmit1 from generation to generation1 his works1 his thoughts1 the treasures of his experience4 ,he alone is capable of a perfectibility which is indefinite1 which forms a chain the countless links of which would seem to stretch beyond the limits of the present world4 ,let me here set down an observation which belongs properly to ,political ,economy4 ,however extended may be the domain of our faculties1 they do not reach the length of creating anything4 ,man cannot1 in truth1 augment or diminish the number of existing particles of matter4 ,his action is limited to subjecting the substances which he finds around him to modifications and combinations which fit them for his use4#be ,to modify substances1 so as to increase their utility in relation to us1 is to produce1 or rather it is one mode of producing4 ,from this ,i conclude that value 7as we shall afterwards more fully explain7 does not reside in these substances themselves1 but in the effort which intervenes in order to modify them1 and which exchange brings into comparison with other analogous efforts4 ,this is the reason why value is simply the appreciation of services exchanged1 whether a material commodity does or does not intervene4 ,as regards the notion of value1 it is a matter of perfect indifference whether ,i render to another a direct service1 as1 for example1 in performing for him a surgical operation1 or an indirect service1 in preparing for him a curative substance4 ,in this last case the utility is in the substance1 but the value is in the service1 in the effort1 intellectual and muscular1 made by one man for the benefit of another4 ,it is by a pure metonymy that we attribute value to the material substance itself1 and here1 as on many other occasions1 metaphor leads science astray4 ,i return to the subject of man's organization4 ,if we adhere to the preceding notions1 he differs from other animals only in the greater extent of his wants1 and the superiority of his powers4 ,all1 in fact1 are subject to the one and provided with the other4 ,a bird undertakes long journeys in search of the temperature which suits it best--the beaver crosses the river on a bridge of p#aja his own construction--the hawk pursues his prey openly--the cat watches for it with patience--the spider prepares a snare--all labour in order to live and multiply4 ,but while ,nature has established an exact proportion between the wants of animals and their faculties1 if she has treated man with greater bounty and munificence1 if1 in order to force him to be sociable1 she has decreed that in a state of isolation his wants should surpass his faculties1 whilst1 on the contrary1 in the social state1 his powers1 superior to his wants1 open to him an unlimited field for nobler enjoyments1 we ought to acknowledge that1 as in his relation with the ,creator man is elevated above the beasts by the religious sentiment1 in his relations with his fellow-creatures by his sense of justice1 in his relations with himself by the moral principle--in like manner1 in relation to the means of living and multiplying1 he is distinguished by a remarkable phenomenon1 namely1 ,exchange4 ,shall ,i essay to paint the state of poverty1 of destitution1 and of ignorance1 in which1 but for the power of exchanging1 the human species would have been sunk1 had it not1 indeed1 as is more likely1 disappeared altogether4 ,one of the most popular philosophers1 in a romance which has been the charm of the young from generation to generation1 has shown us man surmounting by his energy1 his activity1 his intelligence1 the difficulties of absolute solitude4 ,for the purpose of setting clearly before us what are the resources of that noble creature1 the author has exhibited him as accidentally cut off from civilisation4 ,it was part of ,defoe's plan to throw ,robinson ,crusoe into the ,island of ,juan ,fernandez alone1 naked1 deprived of all that the union of efforts1 the division of employments1 exchange1 society1 add to the human powers4 ,and yet1 although the fancied obstacles are but imaginary1 ,defoe would have taken away from his tale even the shadow of probability if1 too faithful to the thought which he wished to develop1 he had not made forced concessions to the social state1 by admitting that his hero had saved from shipwreck some indispensable things1 such as provisions1 gunpowder1 a gun1 a hatchet1 a knife1 cords1 planks1 iron1 etc42 a decisive proof that society is the necessary medium in which man lives1 and out of which not even a romance writer could figure him as existing4 ,and1 observe1 that ,robinson ,crusoe carried with him into solitude another social treasure1 a thousand times more precious than all these1 and which the waves could not engulf1 ,i mean his ideas1 his recollections1 his experience1 above all1 his language1 p#ajb without which he would not have been able to hold converse with himself1 that is to say1 to think4 ,we have the unfortunate and unreasonable habit of attributing to the social state the sufferings which we see around us4 ,we are right so far1 if our object be to compare society with itself in different degrees of advancement and improvement2 but we are wrong if our object be to compare the social state1 however imperfect1 with a state of isolation4 ,to authorize us to assert that society impairs the condition1 ,i do not say of man in general1 but of some men1 and these the poorest and most wretched of the species1 we must begin by proving that the worst provided of our fellow-creatures have to support in the social state a heavier load of privations and sufferings than the man whose lot has been cast in solitude4 ,now1 examine the life of the humblest day-labourer4 ,pass in review1 in all their details1 the articles of his daily consumption4 ,he is covered with some coarse clothing1 he eats a little common bread1 he sleeps under shelter1 and on boards1 at least1 if he has no better couch4 ,now1 let us ask if man in a state of isolation1 deprived of the resources of ,exchange1 could by any possibility procure for himself that coarse clothing1 that common bread1 that rude bed1 that humble shelter8 ,rousseau himself1 the passionate enthusiast of the state of nature1 avows the utter impossibility of it4 ,men dispensed with everything1 he says2 they went naked1 they slept in the open air4 ,thus ,rousseau1 to exalt the state of nature1 was led to make happiness consist in privation4 ,and yet ,i affirm that this negative happiness is a chimera1 and that man in a state of isolation would infallibly perish in a very few hours4 ,perhaps ,rousseau would have gone to the length of saying that that would have been the perfection of his system2 and he would have been consistent1 for if privation be happiness1 death is perfection4 ,i trust the reader will not conclude from what precedes that we are insensible to the social sufferings of our fellow-men4 ,because these sufferings are less even in an imperfect state of society than in a state of isolation1 it does not follow that we should not invoke1 with all earnestness1 that progress which constantly diminishes them4 ,but if isolation is something worse than all that is bad in the social state1 then ,i am justified in saying that it places our wants1 even the most imperious1 far above our faculties and our means of providing for wants4 ,in what way does ,exchange advantageously reverse all this1 and place our faculties above our wants8 ,and first this is proved by the very fact of civilisation4 ,if our p#ajc wants surpassed our faculties1 we should be beings invincibly retrograde2 if there were an equilibrium between them1 we should be invincibly stationary4 ,but we advance2 which shows that at every stage of social life1 as compared with the period that preceded it1 a certain portion of our powers1 relatively to a given amount of satisfactions1 is left disposable4 ,we shall endeavour to explain this marvellous phenomenon4 ,the explanation which ,condillac has given appears to me to be quite unsatisfactory and empirical--in fact1 it explains nothing4 8,from the very fact10 he says1 8that an exchange is made1 it follows that there must be profit for the two contracting parties1 for otherwise it would not take place4 ,then each exchange includes two gains for humanity40 ,holding this proposition as true1 we see in it only the statement of a result4 ,it is in this way that the ,malade ,imaginaire explains the narcotic virtue of opium3-- ,quia est in eo ,virtus dormitiva ,qu facit dormire4 ,exchange includes two gains1 you say4 ,how8 ,why8 ,it results from the fact that it takes place4 ,but why does it take place8 ,what motive has induced the contracting parties to effect the exchange8 ,has ,exchange in itself a mysterious virtue1 necessarily beneficial1 and incapable of explanation8 ,others make the advantage consist in this1 that the one gives away a commodity of which he has too much in order to receive another of which he has too little4 ,exchange1 they say1 is a barter of the superfluous for the necessary4 ,this is contradicted by facts which pass under our own eyes2 for who can say that the peasant1 in giving away the corn which he has raised1 but which he is never to eat1 gives away a superfluity8 ,i see in this axiom very clearly how two men may make an accidental arrangement1 but ,i see no explanation of progress4 ,observation gives us a more satisfactory explanation of the power of ,exchange4 ,exchange has two manifestations--namely1 union of forces1 and separation of occupations4 ,it is very clear that in many cases the united force of several men is superior1 all things considered1 to the sum of their individual forces4 ,suppose that what is wanted is to remove a heavy load4 ,where a thousand men in succession may fail1 it is possible that four men may succeed by uniting their efforts4 ,just let us reflect how few things were ever accomplished in this world without union6 p#ajd ,and yet this is only the concurrence of muscular forces in a common design4 ,nature has endued us with very varied physical1 intellectual1 and moral faculties4 ,there are in the co-operation of these faculties endless combinations4 ,is it wished to accomplish a useful work1 like the construction of a road1 or the defence of a country8 ,one gives the community the benefit of his strength1 another of his agility1 another of his courage1 another of his experience1 foresight1 imagination1 even of his reputation4 ,it is easy to comprehend that the same men acting singly could not have attained1 or even conceived1 the same results4 ,now1 union of forces implies ,exchange4 ,to induce men to co-operate1 they have the prospect of participating in the benefit to be obtained4 ,each makes the other profit by his ,efforts1 and he profits by the other's ,efforts in return1 which is ,exchange4 ,we see how ,exchange in this way augments our ,satisfactions4 ,the benefit consists in this1 that efforts of equal intensity tend1 by the mere fact of their union1 to superior results4 ,there is here no trace of the pretended barter of the superfluous for the necessary1 any more than of the double and empirical profit alleged by ,condillac4 ,the same remark applies to division of labour4 ,indeed1 if we regard the matter more closely1 we shall be convinced that the separation of employments is only another and more permanent manner of uniting our forces--of co-operating1 of associating2 and it is quite correct to say1 as we shall afterwards demonstrate1 that the present social organization1 provided ,exchange is left free and unfettered1 is itself a vast and beautiful association--a marvellous association1 very different1 indeed1 from that dreamt of by the ,socialists1 since1 by an admirable mechanism1 it is in perfect accordance with individual independence4 ,every one can enter and leave it at any moment which suits his convenience4 ,he contributes to it voluntarily1 and reaps a satisfaction superior to his contribution1 and always increasing--a satisfaction determined by the laws of justice and the nature of things1 not by the arbitrary will of a chief4 ,but this is anticipating4 ,all we have to do at present is to explain how the division of labour increases our power4 ,without dwelling much on this subject1 as it is one of the few which do not give rise to controversy1 a remark or two may not be out of place4 ,its importance has perhaps been somewhat disparaged4 ,in order to demonstrate the powerful effects of the ,division of ,labour1 it has been usual to describe its marvellous results in certain manufactures--in the making of pins1 for p#aje example4 ,but the subject admits of being viewed in a more general and philosophical light4 ,the force of habit has the singular effect of concealing from us1 and rendering us unconscious of1 the phenomena in the midst of which we live and move4 ,no saying is more profoundly true than that of ,rousseau1 8,much philosophy is needed for the observation of what we see every day40 ,it may not then be without use to recall what we owe to ,exchange1 without perceiving it4 ,in what way has the power of exchanging elevated mankind to the height of civilisation we have now attained8 ,i answer1 by the influence which it exerts on ,labour1 upon the co-operation of natural agents1 upon the powers and faculties of man1 and upon ,capital4 ,adam ,smith has clearly demonstrated its influence on ,labour4 8,the great increase in the quantity of work1 which1 in consequence of the division of labour1 the same number of people are capable of performing1 is owing to three circumstances10 says that celebrated ,economist3 8,first1 to the increase of dexterity in every particular workman2 secondly1 to the saving of time which is commonly lost in passing from one species of work to another2 thirdly1 to this1 that men are much more likely to discover easier and readier methods of attaining an object when the whole attention of their minds is directed to that single object1 than when it is dissipated among a great variety of things40 ,those who1 like ,adam ,smith1 see in ,labour the exclusive source of wealth1 confine themselves to inquiring in what way the division of labour increases its efficiency4 ,but we have seen in the preceding chapter that labour is not the sole agent in procuring us satisfaction4 ,natural forces co-operate4 ,that is beyond doubt4 ,thus1 in agriculture1 the action of the sun and of the rain1 the moisture of the earth1 and the gases diffused in the atmosphere1 are undoubtedly agents which co-operate with human labour in the production of vegetable substances4 ,manufacturing industry owes analogous services to the chemical qualities of certain substances1 to water-power1 to the elasticity of steam1 to gravitation1 to electricity4 ,commerce has turned to the profit of man the vigour and instincts of certain races of animals1 the force of the winds which fill the sails of his ships1 the laws of magnetism1 which1 acting on the compass1 direct the course of these ships through the pathless ocean4 ,there are two verities which are beyond all dispute4 ,the p#ajf first is1 that the more man avails himself of the forces of nature1 the better he is provided with everything he requires4 ,it is sufficiently evident that1 with equal exertion1 we obtain more corn from a rich loamy soil than from sterile rocks or arid sands4 ,the second is1 that natural agents are unequally diffused over the various countries of the world4 ,who would venture to maintain that all soils are equally well fitted for all kinds of culture1 or all countries for the same description of manufactures8 ,now1 if it be true on the one hand that natural forces are unequally diffused in the different countries of the world1 and on the other that men are richer in proportion as they avail themselves of them1 it follows that the faculty of ,exchange immeasurably augments the useful co-operation of these forces4 ,and here we recur once more to gratuitous and onerous utility1 the former being substituted for the latter by virtue of ,exchange4 ,is it not very clear1 that if men were deprived of the power of ,exchange1 and were obliged to produce ice under the equator1 and sugar at the poles1 they must spend much pains in doing what heat and cold do gratuitously1 and that for them an immense proportion of the ,forces of nature would remain inoperative8 ,thanks to ,exchange1 these forces are rendered useful to us wherever we encounter them4 ,corn land is sown with wheat--in wine-growing countries the land is planted with vines--there are fishermen on the coasts1 and wood-cutters among the mountains4 ,in one place a wheel which does the work of ten men is set in motion by water--in another1 by wind4 ,nature becomes a slave1 whom we have neither to feed1 nor to clothe1 nor to pay--who costs nothing either to our purse or our conscience4#bf ,the same amount of human efforts1 that is to say1 the same services1 the same value1 realizes a constantly increasing amount of utility4 ,for each given result a certain portion only of human exertion is absorbed2 the remainder1 by means of the intervention of natural ,forces1 is rendered disposable1 and it sets to work to overcome new obstacles1 to minister to new desires1 to realize new utilities4 ,the effects of ,exchange upon our intellectual ,faculties are so great1 that we can scarcely even imagine their extent4 8,knowledge10 says ,m4 de ,tracy1 8is the most precious of all our acquisition1 since it directs and governs the employment of our forces1 and renders them more prolific1 in proportion as it is sounder and more extensive4 ,no man can himself observe p#ajg everything1 and it is much easier to learn than to invent4 ,but when several men communicate with each other1 what is observed by one is soon known to the rest2 and if there be among them but one person of superior ingenuity1 precious discoveries speedily become the property of all4 ,in such circumstances1 knowledge is much more rapidly increased than it could be in a state of isolation1 without taking into account the power of preserving it1 and consequently of accumulating it from one generation to another40 ,if the resources which nature has accumulated around man and placed at his disposal are varied1 the human faculties themselves are not less so4 ,we are not all equally endowed with strength1 courage1 intelligence1 patience1 or with artistic1 literary1 and industrial aptitudes4 ,without exchange1 this diversity1 far from contributing to our well-being1 would contribute to our misery1 each feeling less the advantage of those ,faculties he possessed than the deprivation of those he wanted4 ,thanks to exchange1 a man possessed of bodily strength may1 up to a certain point1 dispense with genius1 and a man of intelligence with bodily strength2 for by the admirable community which the power of exchange establishes among men1 each individual participates in the distinctive qualities of his neighbours4 ,in order to obtain the satisfactions he desires1 it is not enough1 in most cases1 to work--to exercise his faculties upon1 or by means of1 natural agents4 ,he requires also to have tools1 instruments1 machines1 provisions--in a word1 ,capital4 ,suppose a small tribe1 composed of ten families1 each1 in working exclusively for itself1 being obliged to engage in ten different employments4 ,in that case each family must have ten sets of industrial apparatus4 ,the tribe would require to possess ten ploughs1 ten teams of oxen1 ten forges1 ten joiner's and carpenter's workshops1 ten looms1 etc42 while1 with the power of exchange1 a single plough1 a single team1 a single forge1 a single loom1 would be sufficient4 ,it is impossible to conceive the economy of ,capital which we owe to exchange4 ,the reader now sees clearly what constitutes the true power of exchange4 ,it is not1 as ,condillac says1 that it implies two gains1 because of each of the contracting parties valuing more highly what he receives than what he gives4 ,neither is it that each gives away what is superfluous for what is necessary4 ,it lies simply in this1 that when one man says to another1 8,do you only this1 and ,i shall do only that1 and we shall divide10 there is a better and more advantageous employment of labour1 of faculties1 of natural agents1 of capital1 and consequently there is more to divide4 ,and these results take place to a still greater extent when p#ajh three1 ten1 a hundred1 a thousand1 or several millions of men enter into the association4 ,the two propositions which ,i have laid down1 then1 are rigorously true1 viz43-- ,in isolation our wants exceed our powers2 ,in society our powers exceed our wants4 ,the first is true1 seeing that the whole surface of our country would not maintain one man in a state of absolute isolation4 ,the second is true1 seeing that1 in fact1 the population which is spread over that same surface multiplies and grows richer4 ,progress of ,exchange4--,the primitive form of exchange is ,barter4 ,two persons1 one of whom desires an object1 and is possessed of an object which the other desires1 agree to cede these objects reciprocally1 or they agree to work separately1 each at one thing1 but for the purpose of dividing the total product of their labour in arranged proportions4 ,this is ,barter1 which is1 as the ,socialists would say1 ,exchange1 traffic1 commerce in embryo4 ,we observe here two ,desires as motives--two ,efforts as means--two ,satisfactions as results1 or as the termination and completion of the entire cycle2 and this evolution is not essentially different from the same evolution accomplished in a state of isolation1 except that the desires and satisfactions have1 as their nature requires1 remained intransmissible1 and that ,efforts alone have been exchanged4 ,in other words1 the two persons have worked for each other1 and have rendered each other reciprocal services4 ,it is at this point that ,political ,economy truly begins1 for it is here that value first makes its appearance4 ,barter takes place only after an arrangement1 a discussion4 ,each of the contracting parties is governed by considerations of self-interest4 ,each of them makes a calculation1 which in effect comes to this1 8,i shall barter if the barter procures me the satisfaction ,i desire with a less ,effort40 ,it is certainly a marvellous phenomenon that diminished efforts can yet keep pace with undiminished desires and satisfactions2 and this is explained by the considerations which ,i have presented in the first part of this chapter4 ,when two commodities or two services are bartered1 we may conclude that they are of equal value4 ,we shall have to analyze afterwards the notion of value1 but this vague definition is sufficient for the present4 ,we may suppose a round-about barter1 including three contracting parties4 ,paul renders a service to ,peter1 who renders an equivalent service to ,james1 who in turn renders an equivalent service to ,paul1 by means of which all is balanced4 ,i need not say that this round-about transaction only takes place because it p#aji suits all the parties1 without changing either the nature or the consequences of barter4 ,the essence of ,barter is discovered in all its purity even when the number of contracting parties is greater4 ,in my commune the vine-dresser pays with wine for the services of the blacksmith1 the barber1 the tailor1 the beadle1 the curate1 the grocer2 while the blacksmith1 the barber1 the tailor1 in turn deliver to the grocer1 for the commodities consumed during the year1 the wine which they have received from the vine-dresser4 ,this round-about ,barter1 ,i cannot too often repeat1 does not change in the least degree the primary notions explained in the preceding chapters4 ,when the evolution is complete1 each of those who have had part in it presents still the triple phenomenon1 want1 effort1 satisfaction4 ,we have but to add1 the exchange of efforts1 the transmission of services1 the separation of employments1 with all their resulting advantages--advantages to which every one of the parties has contributed1 seeing that isolated individual labour is a pis aller1 always reserved1 and which is only renounced in consideration of a certain advantage4 ,it is easy to comprehend that ,barter in kind1 especially the indirect and round-about barter which ,i have described1 cannot be much extended1 and it is unnecessary to dwell upon the obstacles which set limits to it4 ,how could he manage1 for example1 who wished to exchange his house against the thousand articles which enter into his annual consumption8 ,in any case1 ,barter could never take place but among the few persons who happen to be acquainted with each other4 ,progress and the ,division of ,labour would soon reach their limits if mankind had not discovered the means of facilitating exchanges4 ,this is the reason why men1 from the earliest ages of society1 have employed an intermediate commodity to effect their transactions--corn1 wine1 animals1 and almost always1 the precious metals4 ,such commodities perform this function of facilitating exchanges more or less conveniently2 still any one of them can perform it1 provided that1 in the transaction1 ,effort is represented by value1 the transmission of which is the thing to be effected4 ,when recourse is had to an intermediate commodity1 two economic phenomena make their appearance1 which we denominate ,sale and ,purchase4 ,it is evident that the idea of sale and purchase is not included in direct ,barter1 or even in round-about ,barter4 ,when a man gives another something to drink1 in consideration of receiving from him something to eat1 we have a p#aaj simple fact which we cannot analyze farther4 ,now1 what we must remark in the very outset of the science is1 that exchanges which are effected by means of an intermediate commodity do not lose the nature1 the essence1 the quality of barter--only the barter is no longer simple1 but compound4 ,to borrow the very judicious and profound observation of ,j4 ,b4 ,say1 it is a barter of two factors troc deux facteurs1 of which the one is called sale and the other purchase--factors whose union is indispensable in order to constitute a complete barter4 ,in truth1 this discovery of a convenient means of effecting exchanges makes no alteration in the nature either of men or of things4 ,we have still in every case the want which determines the effort1 and the satisfaction which rewards it4 ,the ,exchange is complete only when the man who has made an effort in favour of another has obtained from him an equivalent service1 that is to say1 satisfaction4 ,to effect this1 he sells his service for the intermediate commodity1 and then with that intermediate commodity he purchases equivalent services1 when the two factors bring back the transaction to simple barter4 ,take the case of a physician1 for instance4 ,for many years he has devoted his time and his faculties to the study of diseases and their remedies4 ,he has visited patients1 he has prescribed for them1 in a word1 he has rendered services4 ,instead of receiving compensation from his patients in direct services1 which would have constituted simple barter1 he receives from them an intermediate commodity1 the precious metals1 wherewith he purchases the satisfactions which were the ultimate object he had in view4 ,his patients have not furnished him with bread1 wine1 or other goods1 but they have furnished him with the value of these4 ,they could not have given him money unless they had themselves rendered services4 ,as far as they are concerned1 therefore1 there is a balance of services1 and there is also a balance as regards the physician2 and could we in thought follow this circulation of services out and out1 we should see that ,exchange carried on by the intervention of money resolves itself into a multitude of acts of simple barter4 ,in the case of simple barter1 value is the appreciation of two services exchanged and directly compared with each other4 ,in the case of ,compound ,exchange the two services measure each other's value1 not directly1 but by comparison with this mean term1 this intermediate commodity1 which is called ,money4 ,we shall see by-and-by what difficulties1 what errors1 have sprung from this complication4 ,at present it is sufficient to remark that p#aaa the intervention of this intermediate commodity makes no change whatever in the notion of value4 ,only admit that exchange is at once the cause and the effect of the division of labour and the separation of employments2 only admit that the separation of occupations multiplies satisfactions in proportion to efforts1 for the reasons explained at the beginning of this chapter1 and you will comprehend at once the services which ,money has rendered to mankind1 by the simple fact that it facilitates ,exchanges4 ,by means of ,money1 ,exchange is indefinitely extended and developed4 ,each man casts his services into the common fund1 without knowing who is to enjoy the satisfactions which they are calculated to procure4 ,in the same way he obtains from society1 not immediate services1 but money with which he can afterwards purchase services1 where1 when1 and how it may best suit him4 ,in this way the ultimate transactions occur at various times and places1 between people totally unacquainted with each other1 and in the greater number of cases no one knows by whose efforts his wants will be satisfied1 or to the satisfaction of whose desires his own efforts will contribute4 ,exchange1 by the intervention of ,money1 resolves itself into innumerable acts of barter1 of which the contracting parties themselves are ignorant4 ,exchange1 however1 confers so great a benefit on society 7is it not society itself87 that it facilitates and extends it by other means besides the introduction of money4 ,in logical order1 after ,want and ,satisfaction united in the same individual with isolated ,effort--after simple barter--after barter deux facteurs1 or ,exchange composed of sale and purchase--come other transactions1 extended farther over time and space by means of credit1 mortgages1 bills of exchange1 bank notes1 etc4 ,by means of this wondrous machinery1 the result of civilisation1 the improver of civilisation1 and itself becoming more perfect at the same time1 an exertion made at the present hour in ,paris may contribute to the satisfaction and enjoyment of an unknown stranger1 separated from us by oceans and centuries2 and he who makes the exertion will not the less receive for it a present recompense1 through the intervention of persons who advance the remuneration1 and wait to be reimbursed in a distant country or at a future day4 ,marvellous and astonishing complication6 which1 when subjected to analysis1 shows us finally the accomplishment of the entire economic cycle--want1 effort1 satisfaction1 taking place in each individual1 according to a just law4 ,limits of ,exchange4--,the general character of ,exchange is to diminish the proportion which the ,effort bears to the satisfaction4 ,between our wants and our satisfactions obstacles are interposed1 p#aab which we succeed in diminishing by the union of forces or the division of occupations1 that is to say1 by ,exchange4 ,but ,exchange itself encounters obstacles and demands efforts4 ,the proof of this is the immense amount of human labour which it sets in motion4 ,the precious metals1 roads1 canals1 railways1 wheeled carriages1 ships--all these things absorb a considerable portion of human activity4 ,observe1 besides1 how many men are exclusively occupied in facilitating exchanges--how many bankers1 merchants1 shopkeepers1 brokers1 carriers1 sailors6 ,this vast and costly apparatus shows us1 better than any reasoning1 how much efficacy there is in the power of ,exchange1 for why otherwise should society be encumbered with it8 ,since it is the nature of ,exchange to save efforts and to exact them1 it is easy to understand what are its natural limits4 ,in virtue of that motive which urges man to choose always the least of two evils1 ,exchange will go on extending itself indefinitely as long as the effort it exacts is less than the effort which it saves4 ,and its extension will stop naturally when1 upon the whole1 the aggregate of satisfactions obtained by the division of labour becomes less1 by reason of the increasing difficulties attending ,exchange1 than if we procured them by direct production4 ,suppose the case of a small tribe4 ,if they desire to procure themselves satisfactions they must make an effort4 ,they may address themselves to another tribe1 and say to them1 8,make this effort for us1 and we shall make another for you40 ,the stipulation may suit all parties1 if1 for example1 the second tribe is in a situation to obtain greater assistance than the other from natural and gratuitous forces4 ,in that case it may be able to realize the result with an effort equal to eight1 while the first could only accomplish it by an effort equal to twelve4 ,there is thus an economy equal to four for the first4 ,but then come the cost of transport1 the remuneration of intermediate agents1 in a word1 the effort exacted by the machinery of ,exchange4 ,this cost must1 then1 clearly be added to the figure eight4 ,exchange will continue to take place as long as the ,exchange itself does not cost four4 ,the moment it reaches that figure it will stop4 ,it is quite unnecessary to make laws on this subject2 for either the law intervenes before this level is attained1 and then it is injurious--it prevents an economy of efforts--or it comes after it1 and then it is useless1 like an ordinance forbidding people to light their lamps at noonday4 ,when ,exchange is thus arrested from ceasing to be advantageous1 the slightest improvement in the commercial apparatus gives it a new activity4 ,between ,orleans and ,angoulme a certain p#aac number of transactions take place4 ,these towns effect an ,exchange as often as they can obtain a greater amount of enjoyments by that means than by direct production4 ,they stop short the moment the cost of obtaining commodities by means of exchange1 aggravated by the cost of effecting the exchange itself1 surpasses1 or reaches1 that of obtaining them by means of direct production4 ,in these circumstances1 if we improve the conditions under which ,exchanges are effected--if the merchants' profits are diminished1 or the means of transport facilitated--if roads and railways are made1 mountains levelled1 and bridges thrown over rivers--in a word1 if obstacles are removed1 the number of ,exchanges will be increased2 for men are always desirous to avail themselves of the great advantages which we have ascribed to ,exchange1 and to substitute gratuitous for onerous utility4 ,the improvement of the commercial apparatus1 then1 is equivalent to bringing two cities locally nearer to each other4 ,whence it follows that bringing men physically1 locally1 nearer each other is equivalent to improving the conditions of exchange4 ,this is very important4 ,it is1 in fact1 the solution of the problem of population2 and this is precisely the element in that great problem that ,malthus has neglected4 ,where ,malthus saw ,discordance1 attention to this element enables us to discover ,harmony4 ,when men effect an exchange1 it is because they succeed by that means in obtaining an equal amount of satisfaction at a less expense of effort2 and the reason of this is1 that on both sides services are rendered which are the means of procuring a greater proportion of what we have termed gratuitous utility4 ,now1 you have always a greater number of exchanges in proportion as you remove the obstacles which impede exchanges1 and diminish the efforts which these exchanges exact4 ,and ,exchange encounters fewer obstacles1 and exacts fewer efforts1 just in proportion as you bring men nearer each other1 and mass them more together4 ,a greater density of population1 then1 is accompanied by a greater proportion of gratuitous utility4 ,that density imparts greater power to the machinery of exchange2 it sets free and renders disposable a portion of human efforts2 it is a cause of progress4 ,now1 if you please1 let us leave generalities and look at facts4 ,does not a street of equal length render more service in ,paris than in a remote village8 ,is not a mile of railway of more use in the ,department of the ,seine than in the ,department of the ,landes8 ,is not a ,london merchant content with smaller profits p#aad on account of the greater amount of business which he transacts8 ,in everything we shall discover two sets of exchange agencies at work1 which although identical in kind1 act very differently1 according as they operate in a densely or a thinly peopled locality4 ,the density of population not only enables us to reap more advantage from the machinery of exchange1 it permits us to improve that machinery1 and increase its power4 ,where the population is condensed1 these improvements are advantageous1 because they save us more efforts than they exact2 but where the population is scattered and thin-spread1 they exact more efforts than they save4 ,on leaving the metropolis for a time1 and going to reside in a small provincial town1 one is astonished to find that in many instances the most ordinary services can only be obtained at great expense1 and with time and difficulty4 ,it is not the material part of the commercial mechanism only which is turned to account and improved by the single circumstance of the density of population1 but the moral part also4 ,when men are massed together1 they have more facility in dividing their employments1 in uniting their powers1 and in combining to found churches and schools1 to provide for their common security1 to establish banks and insurance companies1 in a word1 to procure themselves all the common enjoyments with a much smaller proportion of efforts4 ,we shall revert to these considerations when we come to enter on the subject of ,population4 ,at present we shall make only this remark3-- ,exchange enables men to turn their faculties to better account1 to economize capital1 to obtain more assistance from the gratuitous agencies of nature1 to increase the proportion of gratuitous to onerous utility1 to diminish1 consequently1 the ratio of efforts to results1 and to leave at their disposal a part of their forces1 so that they may withdraw a greater and greater portion of them from the business of providing for their primary and more imperious wants1 and devote them to procuring enjoyments of a higher and higher order4 ,if ,exchange saves efforts1 it also exacts them4 ,it extends1 and spreads1 and increases1 up to the point at which the effort it exacts becomes equal to the effort which it saves1 and it stops there until1 by the improvement of the commercial apparatus1 or by the circumstance exclusively of the condensation of population1 and bringing men together in masses1 it again returns to the conditions which are essential to its onward and ascending march4 p#aae ,whence it follows that laws which limit or hamper ,exchanges are always either hurtful or superfluous4 ,governments which persuade themselves that nothing good can be done but through their instrumentality1 refuse to acknowledge this harmonic law4 ,exchange develops itself ,,naturally until it becomes more onerous than useful1 and at that point it ,,naturally stops4 ,in consequence1 we find governments everywhere busying themselves in favouring or restraining trade4 ,in order to carry it beyond its natural limits1 they set to conquering colonies and opening new markets4 ,in order to confine it within its natural bounds1 they invent all sorts of restrictions and fetters4 ,this intervention of ,force in human transactions is the source of innumerable evils4 ,the ,increase of this force itself is an evil to begin with2 for it is very evident that the ,state cannot make conquests1 retain distant countries under its rule1 or divert the natural course of trade by the action of tariffs1 without greatly increasing the number of its agents4 ,the ,diversion of the public ,force from its legitimate functions is an evil still greater than its ,increase4 ,its rational mission was to protect ,liberty and ,property2 and here you have it violating ,liberty and ,property4 ,all just notions and principles are thus effaced from men's minds4 ,the moment you admit that ,oppression and ,spoliation are legitimate1 provided they are legal--provided they interfere only by means of the ,law or public ,force1 you find by degrees each class of citizens demanding that the interest of every other class should be sacrificed to it4 ,this intervention of ,force in the business of ,exchanges1 whether it succeeds in promoting or in restraining them1 cannot fail to occasion both the ,loss and ,displacement of labour and capital1 and1 of consequence1 a disturbance of the natural distribution of the population4 ,on one side1 natural interests disappear1 on the other1 artificial interests are created1 and men are forced to follow the course of these interests4 ,it is thus we see important branches of industry established where they ought not to be4 ,france makes sugar2 ,england spins cotton1 brought from the plains of ,india4 ,centuries of war1 torrents of blood1 the dissipation of vast treasures1 have brought about these results1 and the effect has been to substitute in ,europe sickly and precarious for sound and healthy enterprises1 and to open the door to commercial crises1 to stoppages1 to instability1 and finally to ,pauperism4 ,but ,i find ,i am anticipating4 ,what we ought first to do is to p#aaf acquaint ourselves with the free and natural development of human societies1 and then investigate the ,disturbances4 ,moral ,force of ,exchange4--,we must repeat1 at the risk of wounding modern sentimentalism1 that ,political ,economy belongs to the region of business1 and business is transacted under the influence of personal interest4 ,in vain the puritans of socialism cry out1 8,this is frightful2 we shall change all this40 ,such declamations involve a flat contradiction4 ,do we make purchases on the ,quai ,voltaire in the name of ,fraternity8 ,it would be to fall into another kind of declamation to attribute morality to acts determined and governed by self-interest4 ,but a good and wise ,providence may so have arranged the social order that these very acts1 destitute of morality in their motives1 may nevertheless tend to moral results4 ,is it not so in the case of labour8 ,now1 ,i maintain that ,exchange1 whether in the incipient state of simple barter1 or expanded into a vast and complicated commerce1 develops in society tendencies more noble than the motive which gives rise to it4 ,i have certainly no wish to attribute to only one of our powers all that constitutes the grandeur1 the glory1 and the charm of our existence4 ,as there are two forces in the material world--one which goes from the circumference to the centre1 the other from the centre to the circumference--there are also two principles in the social world1 self-interest and sympathy4 ,it were a misfortune indeed did we fail to recognise the benefits and joys of the sympathetic principle1 as manifested in friendship1 love1 filial piety1 parental tenderness1 charity1 patriotism1 religion1 enthusiasm for the good and the beautiful4 ,some have maintained that the sympathetic principle is only a magnificent form of self-love1 that to love others is at bottom only an intelligent way of loving ourselves4 ,this is not the place to enter on the solution of that problem4 ,whether these two native energies are distinct or confounded1 it is enough for us to know that1 far from being antagonistic1 as is constantly said1 they act in combination1 and concur in the realization of one and the same result1 the general good4 ,i have established these two propositions3-- ,in a state of isolation1 our wants exceed our powers2 ,in consequence of ,exchange1 our powers exceed our wants4 ,these propositions show the end and purpose of society4 ,there are two others which guarantee its indefinite improvement3-- ,in a state of isolation the gain of one may be the loss of another2 ,in consequence of ,exchange1 the gain of each is the gain of all4 ,is it necessary to prove that1 if nature had destined man to a p#aag solitary life1 the prosperity of one would have been incompatible with that of another1 and the more numerous men had been1 the less chance would they have had of attaining prosperity8 ,at all events1 we see clearly in what way numbers might have been injurious1 and we do not see how they could have been beneficial4 ,and then1 ,i would ask1 under what form could the principle of sympathy have manifested itself8 ,how1 or on what occasion1 could it have been called forth8 ,could we have even comprehended it8 ,but men exchange1 and ,exchange1 as we have seen1 implies the separation of employments4 ,it gives birth to professions and trades4 ,each man sets himself to overcome a certain class of obstacles1 for the benefit of the ,community4 ,each makes it his business to render a certain description of services4 ,now1 a complete analysis of value demonstrates that each service has value in the first instance in proportion to its intrinsic utility1 and afterwards in proportion to the wealth of those to whom it is furnished--that is to say1 in proportion as the community to whom the service is rendered has a greater demand for it1 and is in a better situation to pay for it4 ,experience shows us that the artizan1 the physician1 the lawyer1 the merchant1 the carrier1 the professor1 the savant1 derive greater returns from their services in ,paris1 in ,london1 or at ,new ,york1 than in the ,landes of ,gascony1 or the mountains of ,wales1 or the prairies of the ,far ,west4 ,and does not this confirm the truth1 that each man is more likely to prosper in proportion to the general prosperity of the community in which he lives8 ,of all the harmonies which have come under my observation1 this is beyond doubt the most important1 the finest1 the most decisive1 the most suggestive4 ,it sums up and includes all the others4 ,this is why ,i can give only a very incomplete demonstration of it in this place4 ,the whole scope and spirit of this work will establish it2 and ,i shall deem it a fortunate thing if its probability at least is made so apparent as to induce the reader to convince himself of its truth by farther inquiry and reflection4 ,for it is beyond question that on this turns our decision between natural and artificial ,organizations--that on this1 and this alone1 hangs the solution of the ,social ,problem4 ,if the prosperity of all be the condition of the prosperity of each1 then we can repose with confidence not only on the economic power of free trade1 but on its moral force4 ,if men only understood their true interests1 restrictions1 mercantile jealousies1 commercial wars1 monopolies1 would go down under the influence of public opinion2 p#aah and before soliciting the interposition of government in any case1 the question would be1 not 8,how am ,i to be benefited by it80 but 8,what advantage is likely to result from it to the community80 ,this last question1 ,i grant1 is sometimes elicited by the principle of sympathy2 but let men be once enlightened1 and it will be called forth by ,self-interest4 ,then we shall be enabled to say with truth that the two motive principles of our nature tend towards the same result--the ,general ,good2 and it will be impossible to deny ,moral ,power to self-interest1 and the transactions which spring from it1 as far at least as their effects are concerned4 ,consider the relations of man to man1 family to family1 province to province1 nation to nation1 hemisphere to hemisphere1 capitalist to labourer1 the man of property to the man of no property1--it seems evident to me that it is impossible to resolve the social problem from any one of these points of view1 or even to enter upon its solution1 before choosing between these two maxims3-- ,the profit of one is the loss of another2 ,the profit of one is the gain of another4 ,for if nature has arranged matters so that antagonism is the law of free transactions1 our only resource is to vanquish nature and stifle ,freedom4 ,if1 on the other hand1 these free transactions are harmonious1 that is to say1 if they tend to ameliorate and equalize the conditions of men1 our efforts must be confined to allowing nature to act1 and maintaining the rights of human ,liberty4 ,this is the reason why ,i conjure the young people to whom this work is dedicated to scrutinize with care the formulas which it lays down1 and to analyze the peculiar nature and effects of ,exchange4 ,i hope yet to find at least one among them who will be able to demonstrate rigorously this proposition3 8,the good of each tends to the good of all1 as the good of all tends to the good of each20 and who will1 moreover1 be able to impress this truth upon men's minds by rendering the proof of it simple1 lucid1 and irrefragable4 ,the man who does this will have resolved the social problem1 and be the benefactor of the human race4 ,depend upon it1 that according as this axiom is true or false1 the natural laws of society are harmonious or antagonistic2 and that according as they are harmonious or antagonistic1 it is our interest to conform to them or to deviate from them4 ,were it once thoroughly demonstrated1 then1 that under the empire of freedom men's interests harmonize and favour each other1 all the efforts which we now see governments making to disturb the p#aai action of these natural social laws we should see directed to giving them force1 or rather1 no efforts whatever would then be necessary1 and all they would have to do would be to abstain from interfering4 ,in what does the restraining action of governments consist8 ,we may infer it from the design they have in view4 ,what is that design8 ,to remedy the inequality which is supposed to spring from ,liberty4 ,now1 there is only one way of re-establishing the equilibrium1 namely1 to take from one in order to give to another4 ,such1 in fact1 is the mission which governments have arrogated to themselves1 or have received2 and it is a rigorous consequence of the formula1 that the gain of one is the loss of another4 ,if that axiom be true1 ,force must repair the evils of ,liberty4 ,thus governments1 instituted for the protection of liberty and property1 have undertaken the task of violating liberty and property in every shape2 and they have done so consistently1 if it be in liberty and property that the germ and principle of evil reside4 ,hence we see them everywhere engaged in the artificial displacement and redistribution of labour1 capital1 and responsibility4 ,on the other hand1 an incalculable amount of intellectual force is thrown away in the pursuit of artificial social organizations4 ,to take from one in order to give to another1 to violate both liberty and property1 is a very simple design1 but the means of carrying out that design may be varied to infinity4 ,hence arise multitudes of systems1 which strike the producing classes with terror1 since from the very nature of the object they have in view1 they menace all existing interests4 ,thus arbitrary and complex systems of government1 the negation of liberty and property1 the antagonism of classes and nations1 all these are logically included in the axiom1 that the gain of one is the loss of another4 ,and1 for the same reason1 simplicity in government1 respect for individual dignity1 freedom of labour and exchange1 peace among nations1 security for person and property1 are all contained and shut up in this truth--,interests are harmonious4 ,they are so1 however1 only on one condition1 which is1 that this truth should be generally admitted4 ,but it is very far from being so4 ,on reading what ,i have said on this subject many people will be led to say1 ,you break through an open door4 ,who ever thought of contesting seriously the superiority of ,exchange to ,isolation8 ,in what book1 unless indeed in the works of ,rousseau1 have you encountered this strange paradox8 ,those who stop me with this reflection forget only two things1 two p#abj symptoms1 or rather two aspects of modern society1 the doctrines with which theorists inundate us1 and the practice which governments impose on us4 ,it is quite impossible that the harmony of interests can be universally recognised1 since1 on the one hand1 public force is constantly engaged in interfering to disturb natural combinations1 while1 on the other1 the great complaint which is made against the ruling power is1 that it does not interfere enough4 ,the question is this1 ,are the evils 7,i do not speak here of evils which arise from our native infirmity7--are the evils to which society is subject imputable to the action of natural social laws1 or to our disturbance of that action8 ,now1 here we have two co-existent facts1 ,evil1--and ,public ,force1 engaged to counteract the natural social laws4 ,is the first of these facts the consequence of the second8 ,for my own part1 ,i believe so2 ,i should even say1 ,i am certain of it4 ,but at the same time ,i can attest this1 that in proportion as evil is developed1 governments invariably seek for a remedy in new disturbances of the natural laws1 and theorists reproach them with not going far enough4 ,am ,i not thence entitled to conclude that they have but little confidence in these laws8 ,undoubtedly1 if the question is between ,isolation and ,exchange we are at one4 ,but if the question be between free and compulsory exchange1 does the same thing hold8 ,is there nothing forced1 factitious1 restrained1 constrained1 in ,france1 in the manner in which services which have relation to trade1 to credit1 to conveyances1 to the arts1 to education1 to religion1 are exchanged8 ,are labour and capital distributed naturally between agriculture and manufactures8 ,when existing interests are disturbed1 are they allowed of their own accord to return to their natural channels8 ,do we not encounter trammels and obstacles on all sides8 ,are there not a hundred professions which are interdicted to the majority of the people8 ,is the ,roman-catholic not forced to pay for the services of the ,jewish ,rabbi1 and the ,jew for the services of the ,catholic priest8 ,is there a single man in ,france who has received the education which his parents would have given him had they been free8 ,are not our minds1 our manners1 our ideas1 our employments1 fashioned under the rgime of the arbitrary1 or at least of the artificial8 ,now1 ,i ask1 whether thus to disturb the free exchange of services is not to abjure and deny the harmony of interests8 ,on what ground am ,i robbed of my liberty1 unless it be that it is judged hurtful to others8 ,is it pretended that it is injurious to myself8 ,this would be but to add one antagonism the more4 ,and only think6 in what a situation p#aba should we find ourselves if nature had placed in each man's heart a permanent irrepressible spring of action1 urging him to injure those around him1 and at the same time to injure himself8 ,alas6 we have tried everything--when shall we make trial of the simplest thing of all--,liberty4 ,liberty in all that does not offend against justice--liberty to live1 advance1 improve--the free exercise of our faculties--the free interchange of services4 ,a beautiful and solemn spectacle it would have been1 had the ,power which sprang from the revolution of ,february thus addressed our citizens3-- 8,you have invested me with the public ,force4 ,i shall apply it exclusively to those things in which the intervention of ,force is permissible1 and there is but one--,justice4 ,i shall force every one to confine himself within the bounds of right4 ,you may work freely and as you please during the day1 and sleep in peace at night4 ,i have taken under my charge the security of person and property--that is my mission1 and ,i will fulfil it--but ,i accept no other4 ,let there then be no longer any misunderstanding between us4 ,henceforth you shall pay me only the light tribute which is necessary for the maintenance of order and the administration of justice4 ,keep in mind that henceforth every man must depend upon himself for his subsistence and advancement4 ,turn no longer your longing eyes to me4 ,ask me no longer for wealth1 for employment1 for credit1 for education1 for religion1 for morality4 ,never forget that the mainspring of your development is in yourselves4 ,as for me1 ,i never act but through the intervention of force4 ,i have nothing1 absolutely nothing1 but what ,i derive from you1 and for this reason ,i cannot confer even the smallest advantage on one except at the expense of another4 ,cultivate your fields1 then1 manufacture and export your products1 carry on trade1 afford each other credit1 render and receive services freely1 educate your children1 set them out in life1 cultivate the arts1 improve your minds1 refine and purify your tastes and sentiments1 unite1 form industrial and charitable associations1 join your efforts for your individual good and that of the public1 follow your inclinations1 fulfil your destinies by the free exercise of your powers1 your ideas1 and your foresight4 ,expect from me only two things--,liberty and ,security--and depend upon it you cannot ask me for a third without losing the other two40 ,i am thoroughly persuaded that if the revolution of ,february had proclaimed these principles we never should have had another revolution4 ,is it possible to conceive that citizens1 left perfectly free in all other respects1 would conspire to overturn a ,power p#abb whose action was limited to the satisfaction of the most pressing1 the most deeply felt of all our social requirements1 the requirements of ,justice8 ,but it was unfortunately impossible for the ,national ,assembly to adopt this course1 or make these sentiments heard4 ,they were not in accordance either with the ideas of the ,assembly or the expectations of the public4 ,they would have terrified society as much as the proclamation of ,communism4 ,to be responsible to ourselves1 forsooth6 ,to trust to the ,state only for the maintenance of order and peace6 ,to expect from it neither wealth nor knowledge6 ,to be able no longer to make it responsible for our faults1 our folly1 our imprudence6 ,to trust only to ourselves for the means of subsistence and physical amelioration1 or moral and intellectual improvement6 ,what on earth is to become of us8 ,is not society on the eve of being invaded by poverty1 ignorance1 error1 irreligion1 and perversity8 ,we allow that such undoubtedly would have been the fears which would have manifested themselves on all sides had the revolution of ,february proclaimed ,liberty1 that is to say1 the reign of the natural laws of society4 ,then we were either unacquainted with these laws1 or we wanted confidence in them4 ,we could not get rid of the idea that the motives and springs of action which ,god has implanted in the mind of man are essentially perverse2 that rectitude resides nowhere but in the views and intentions of the governing power2 that the tendencies of human nature lead to disorganization1 to anarchy1--in a word1 we believed in the inevitable antagonism of interests4 ,so far was the revolution of ,february from displaying any tendency towards a natural organization1 that never were the hopes and ideas of ,french society so decidedly turned to artificial combinations as at that epoch4 ,which of these combinations was in most favour8 ,i really cannot very well tell4 ,the business1 in the language of the day1 was to make experiments--,faciamus experimentum in corpore vili4 ,such was their contempt for individuality1 so thoroughly did they assimilate human nature to inert matter1 that they talked of making social experiments with men1 just as we make chemical experiments with acids and alkalies4 ,the first tentative was begun at the ,luxembourg1 we know with what success4 ,erelong the ,constituent ,assembly instituted a ,committee of ,labour1 in which a thousand social schemes were engulfed and swallowed up4 ,a ,fourierist representative seriously demanded lands and money 7he would soon have asked for men also7 to enable him to manipulate his model society4 ,another p#abc ,egalitaire representative offered his recipe1 which was rejected4 ,the manufacturers were more lucky1 and succeeded in maintaining theirs4 ,in the meantime1 the ,legislative ,assembly named a commission to organize 8assistance40 ,now1 what strikes us with surprise in all this is1 that the ,ruling ,power1 for the sake of its own stability1 did not from time to time thus enter its protest3--8,you are habituating thirty-six millions of men to regard the ,state as responsible for all the good or evil that may befall them in this world4 ,at this rate1 ,government is impossible40 ,at any rate1 if these various social inventions1 dignified with the high sounding title of organization1 differ from each other in their manner of proceeding1 they are all founded on the same principle3 ,take from one to give to another4 ,now such a principle clearly could not meet with such universal sympathy from the people1 unless they were thoroughly convinced that men's interests are naturally antagonistic1 and that the tendencies of human nature are essentially perverse4 ,to take from one to give to another6 ,i know well that things have gone on in this way for a long time4 ,but before you set yourselves to imagine various means of realizing this whimsical principle for the remedy of existing distress1 would it not be well to inquire whether that distress has not proceeded from the very fact that this principle in a certain form has been realized already8 ,before seeking a remedy in new disturbances of the natural social laws1 should you not make sure that such perturbations do not themselves constitute the very evil from which society suffers1 and which it is your object to cure8 ,to take from one in order to give to another6 ,just allow me to mark here the danger and the absurdity1 in an economical point of view1 of this so-called social aspiration1 which1 fermenting among the masses of our population1 broke forth with so terrific a force in the revolution of ,february4#bg ,where society consists of several grades1 we are apt to think that people of the highest rank enjoy ,privileges or ,monopolies at the expense of all the other members of the community4 ,this is odious1 but it is not absurd4 ,the second grade1 the class immediately below the first1 will not fail to attack and batter down monopolies2 and1 with the assistance of the masses1 they will succeed sooner or later in bringing about a ,revolution4 ,in that case1 power passes into their hands1 and they still think that power implies ,monopoly4 p#abd ,this is still odious1 but it is not absurd1 at least it is not impracticable2 for ,monopolies are possible as long as there is1 below the grade which enjoys them1 a lower stratum--namely1 the public at large1 which supports and feeds them4 ,if the third and fourth grade succeed1 in their turn1 in effecting a revolution1 they will1 if they can1 so arrange as to make the most of the masses1 by means of privileges or monopolies skilfully combined4 ,but then the masses1 emaciated1 ground down1 trampled upon1 must also have their revolution4 ,why8 ,what are they going to do8 ,you think1 perhaps1 that they are going to abolish all monopolies and privileges1 and to inaugurate the reign of universal justice2 that they are about to exclaim--away with restrictions--away with shackles and trammels--away with monopolies--away with ,government interferences for the profit of certain classes2 begone taxes and grinding impositions2 down with political and diplomatic intrigues8 ,not at all4 ,they have quite another aim4 ,they become their own solicitors1 and in their turn demand to be privileged6 ,the public at large1 imitating their superiors1 ask for monopolies6 ,they urge their right to employment1 their right to credit1 their right to education1 their right to assistance6 ,but at whose expense8 ,they are easy on that score4 ,they feel only that1 if they are ensured employment1 credit1 education for their children1 repose for their old days1 and all gratis1 they will be exceedingly happy2 and1 truly1 no one disputes it4 ,but is it possible8 ,alas6 no2 and this is the reason why ,i say that here the odious disappears1 and the absurd has reached its climax4 ,monopolies to the masses6 ,good people1 reflect a little on the vicious circle in which you are placing yourselves4 ,monopoly implies some one to enjoy it1 and some one to pay for it4 ,we can understand a privileged man1 or a privileged class1 but not a privileged people4 ,is there below you a still lower stratum of society upon which you can throw back the burden8 ,will you never comprehend the whimsical mystification of which you are the dupes8 ,will you never understand that the state can give you nothing with the one hand but what it has taken from you with the other8 that1 far from there being for you in this combination any possible increase of prosperity1 the final result of the operation must be an arbitrary ,government1 more vexatious1 more exacting1 more uncertain1 more expensive2--heavier taxes1--more injustice1 more offensive favouritism1--liberty more restrained1--power thrown away1--occupations1 labour1 and capital displaced1--covetousness excited1--discontent provoked1--and individual energy extinguished8 p#abe ,the upper classes have got alarmed1 and not without reason1 at this unhappy disposition of the masses4 ,they see in it the germ of incessant revolutions2 for what ,government can hold together which has ventured to say--8,i am in possession of force1 and ,i will employ it to support everybody at the expense of everybody8 ,i undertake to become responsible for the general happiness40 ,but is not the alarm which has seized these classes a just and merited punishment8 ,have they not themselves set the people the fatal example of that grasping disposition of which they now complain8 ,have they not had their own eyes perpetually turned to the treasury8 ,have they ever failed to secure some monopoly1 some privilege1 great or small1 to manufactures1 to banks1 to mines1 to landed property1 to the arts1 even to the means of diversion1 to the ballet1 to the opera1 to everything and everybody1 in short2 except to the industry of the people--to manual labour8 ,have they not multiplied beyond bounds public employments1 in order to increase1 at the expense of the people1 their own resources8 and is there at this day a single head of a family in ,france who is not on the outlook for a place for his son8 ,have they ever endeavoured to get rid of any one of the acknowledged inequalities of taxation8 ,have they not for a long time turned to account everything1 even the electoral franchise8 ,and yet they are astonished and horrified that the people should adopt the same course4 ,when the spirit of mendicity has so long infected the wealthy orders1 how can we suppose that it will not penetrate to the heart of the suffering masses8 ,however1 a great revolution has taken place4 ,political power1 the power of making the laws1 the disposal of the public force1 has passed virtually1 if not yet in fact1 into the hands of the people along with universal suffrage4 ,thus the people1 who have proposed the problem for solution1 will be called upon to solve it themselves3 and woe to the country1 if1 following the example which has been set them1 they seek its solution in ,privilege1 which is always an invasion of another's rights4 ,they will find themselves mistaken1 and the mistake will bring with it a great lesson2 for if it be possible to violate the rights of the many for the benefit of the few1 how can we violate the rights of all for the benefit of all8 ,but at what cost will this lesson be taught us8 ,and1 in order to obviate so frightful a danger1 what ought the upper classes to do8 ,two things--renounce all privileges and monopolies themselves1 and enlighten the masses1 for there are only two things which can save society--,justice and ,knowledge4 ,they ought to inquire with earnestness whether they do not enjoy p#abf some monopoly or other1 in order that they may renounce it--whether they do not profit by some artificial inequalities1 in order that they may efface them--whether ,pauperism is not in some measure attributable to a disturbance of the natural social laws1 in order that they may put an end to it4 ,they should be able to hold out their hands to the people1 and say to them1 ,these hands are full1 but they are clean4 ,is this what they actually do8 ,if ,i am not very much mistaken1 they do just the reverse4 ,they begin by guarding their monopolies1 and we have seen them even turning the revolution to profit by attempting to extend these monopolies4 ,after having deprived themselves of even the possibility of speaking the truth and appealing to principles1 they endeavour to vindicate their consistency by engaging to treat the people as they have treated themselves1 and dazzle them with the bait of ,privilege4 ,only1 they think themselves very knowing in conceding at present only a small privilege1 the right to 8assistance10 in the hope of diverting them from demanding a greater one--the right to employment4 ,they do not perceive that to extend and systematize more and more the maxim1 8,take from one to give to another10 is only to strengthen the illusion which creates difficulties for the present and dangers for the future4 ,we must not exaggerate1 however4 ,when the superior classes seek in privilege a remedy for the evils which privilege has caused1 they are sincere1 and act1 ,i am convinced1 rather from ignorance than from any desire to commit injustice4 ,it is an irreparable misfortune that the governments which have succeeded each other in ,france have invariably discouraged the teaching of ,political ,economy4 ,and it is a still greater misfortune that ,university ,education fills all our heads with ,roman prejudices2 in other words1 with all that is repugnant to social truth4 ,this is what leads the upper classes astray4 ,it is the fashion at present to declaim against these classes4 ,for my own part1 ,i believe that at no period have their intentions been more benevolent4 ,i believe that they ardently desire to solve the social ,problem4 ,i believe that they would do more than renounce their privileges1--that they would sacrifice willingly1 in works of charity1 a part of the property they have acquired1 if by that means they were satisfied that an end could be put to the sufferings of the working classes4 ,it may be said1 no doubt1 that they are actuated by interest or fear1 and that it is no great generosity to abandon a part of their fortune to save the remainder1--that it is1 in fact1 but the vulgar prudence of a man who insures his property against fire4 ,but let us not thus calumniate human nature4 ,why should we refuse to p#abg recognise a motive less egotistical8 ,is it not very natural that the democratic sentiments which prevail in our country should render men alive to the sufferings of their brethren8 ,but whatever may be the dominant sentiment1 it cannot be denied that everything by which public opinion is influenced--philosophy1 literature1 poetry1 the drama1 the pulpit1 the tribune1 the daily press1--all these organs of opinion reveal not only a desire1 but an ardent longing1 on the part of the wealthier classes to resolve the great problem4 ,why1 then1 is there no movement on the part of our ,legislative ,assemblies8 ,because they are ignorant4 ,political ,economy proposes to them this solution3--,public ,justice1--,private ,charity4 ,but they go off upon a wrong scent1 and1 obeying socialist influences1 without being aware of the fact1 they give charity a place in the statute-book1 thereby banishing justice from it1 and destroying by the same act private charity1 which is ever prompt to recede before a compulsory poor-rate4 ,why1 then1 do our legislators thus run counter to all sound notions8 ,why do they not leave things in their proper place1--,sympathy in its natural domain1 which is ,liberty1--,justice in its own1 which is ,law8 ,why do they not leave law to do its own exclusive work in furthering justice8 ,is it that they have no love of justice8 ,no2 it is that they have no confidence in it4 ,justice is ,liberty and ,property4 ,but they are socialists without knowing it2 and for the progressive diminution of poverty1 and the indefinite expansion of wealth1 let them say what they will1 they have no faith either in liberty or property1 nor1 consequently1 in justice4 ,this is why we see them1 in the sincerity of their hearts1 seeking the realization of what is ,good by the perpetual violation of what is ,right4 ,natural social laws are the phenomena1 taken in the aggregate1 and considered in reference both to their motives and their results1 which govern the transactions of men in a state of freedom4 ,that being granted1 the question is1 ,are we to allow these laws to act1 or are we to hinder them from acting8 ,the question1 in fact1 comes to this3 ,are we to leave every man master of his liberty and property1 his right to produce1 and exchange his produce1 as he chooses1 whether to his benefit or detriment2 or are we to interfere by means of law1 which is ,force1 for the protection of these rights8 ,or1 can we hope to secure a greater amount of social happiness by violating liberty and property1 by interfering with and regulating labour1 by disturbing exchanges1 and shifting responsibility8 ,in other words3 p#abh ,is ,law to enforce rigorous ,justice1 or to be the instrument of ,spoliation1 organized with more or less adroitness8 ,it is very evident that the solution of these questions depends upon our knowledge and study of the natural laws of society4 ,we cannot pronounce conclusively upon them until we have discovered whether property1 liberty1 the combination of services freely and voluntarily exchanged1 lead to improvement and material prosperity1 as the economists believe1 or to ruin and degradation1 as the socialists affirm4 ,in the first case1 social evils must be attributed to disturbances of the natural laws1 to legal violations of liberty and property1 and these disturbances and violations must be put an end to4 ,in that case ,political ,economy is right4 ,in the second case1 it may be said1 we have not yet had enough of ,government interference4 ,forced and factitious combinations have not yet sufficiently superseded free and natural combinations4 ,these three fatal principles1 ,justice1 ,liberty1 ,property1 have still too powerful a sway4 ,our legislators have not yet attacked them boldly enough4 ,we have not yet acted sufficiently on the maxim of taking from one in order to give to another4 ,hitherto we have taken from the many to give to the few4 ,now1 we must take from all to give to all4 ,in a word1 we must organize ,spoliation1 and from ,socialism must come our salvation4#bh ,fatal ,illusions which spring from ,exchange4--,exchange is society4 ,consequently1 economic truth consists in a complete view of ,exchange2 economic error in a partial view of it4 ,if man did not exchange1 each economic phenomenon would be accomplished in a single individual1 and it would be very easy to discover from observation its good and its bad effects4 ,but ,exchange has given rise to the separation of occupations1 or1 in other words1 to the establishment of trades and professions4 ,each service 7or each product7 has1 then1 two relations1 one with the person who furnishes it1 and the other with the person who receives it4 ,undoubtedly1 at the end of the evolution1 man in a social state1 like man in a state of isolation1 is at once producer and consumer1 but we must see clearly the difference4 ,man in an isolated state is always the producer of the very thing he consumes1 which almost never happens with man in the social state4 ,this is an unquestionable fact1 which every one can verify for himself4 ,it p#abi follows1 moreover1 from this that the social state consists in an interchange of services4 ,we are all producers and consumers1 not of the thing1 but of the value1 that we have produced4 ,in exchanging commodities we remain always possessed of their value4 ,it is this which gives rise to all economic errors and illusions1 and it may not be useless to mark here the progress of the human mind in this respect4 ,we give the general name of obstacle to everything which1 being interposed between our wants and our satisfactions1 calls for the intervention of our efforts4 ,the relations of these four elements--want1 obstacle1 effort1 satisfaction--are quite apparent1 and easily understood in isolated man4 ,we should never think of saying-- 8,it is a pity that ,robinson ,crusoe did not encounter more obstacles1 for in that case he would have had more opportunities of exerting his energies--he would have been richer40 8,it is unfortunate that the sea should have cast upon the shore of the desert island useful articles1 such as timber1 provisions1 arms1 books2 for this deprived him of the opportunity of exerting himself--it made him less rich40 8,it is to be regretted that ,robinson invented nets to take fish and game1 for that diminished by so much his efforts in relation to each given result--it made him less rich40 8,it is a pity that ,robinson was not more frequently sick1 for then he must have set to doctoring himself1 which is labour2 and as all wealth comes from labour1 he would have been more wealthy on that account40 8,it is a pity that he succeeded in extinguishing the fire which threatened his cabin4 ,he lost thus a precious opportunity of work--and was so much the poorer40 8,it is unfortunate that in the desert island the soil was not more ungrateful1 the spring at a greater distance1 the day shorter4 ,for then ,robinson must have exerted himself more to procure food1 drink1 and light1 and he would have been so much the richer by the exertion40 ,i say that no one in his senses would ever think of putting forth as oracles of truth propositions so absurd4 ,it would be too glaring an evidence that wealth does not depend upon the intensity of the effort in proportion to the satisfaction obtained1 and that it is just the contrary which is true4 ,we should then understand that wealth consists neither in the ,want1 nor in the ,obstacle1 nor in the ,effort1 but in the ,satisfaction2 and we should not hesitate to p#acj acknowledge that1 although ,robinson ,crusoe was both producer and consumer1 yet1 in order to judge of his progress1 we must have reference1 not to his labour1 but to its results4 ,in short1 in laying down the axiom that 8the paramount interest is that of the consumer10 we believe we are merely giving utterance to a truism4 ,happy will it be for nations when they discern clearly how and why what we have found true or false of man in a state of isolation is equally true or false of man in his social state6 ,it is absolutely certain1 however1 that the five or six propositions which have appeared to us not only false1 but absurd1 when applied to the island of ,juan ,fernandez1 appear1 when applied to our own country1 so incontestably true1 that they serve as the basis of our whole economic legislation4 ,on the other hand1 the axiom which appears to us to be truth itself when applied to an individual1 is never invoked in the name of society without calling forth a smile of contempt4 ,is it true1 then1 that ,exchange so alters our individual organization that what makes individual poverty constitutes social riches8 ,no1 it is not true1 but it is plausible--so very plausible as to be generally believed4 ,society consists in this--that we work for one another4 ,the more services we render1 the more services we receive1 and we receive more in proportion as our own are more appreciated--more in demand4 ,on the other hand1 the separation of occupations1 the division of labour1 causes each of us to apply his efforts to the removal of obstacles which stand in the way of the enjoyments of others4 ,the agricultural labourer combats the obstacle called hunger--the physician1 the obstacle called disease--the clergyman1 the obstacle called vice--the author1 the obstacle called ignorance--the coal miner1 the obstacle called cold1 etc41 etc4 ,and as those around us are more disposed to remunerate our services in proportion as they feel more keenly the particular obstacle which stands in their own way1 it follows that we are all disposed1 in this point of view1 and as producers1 to magnify the obstacle which it is our peculiar business to overcome4 ,we consider ourselves richer if such obstacles are multiplied1 and we reason from particulars to generals--from our own individual advantage to the public good4#bi 4 4 4 4 p#aca ,v4 ,,of ,,value4 ,all dissertations are wearisome--a dissertation on ,value the most wearisome of all4 ,what unpractised writer1 who has had to face an ,economic problem1 but has tried to resolve it without reference to any definition of value8 ,yet he soon finds he has engaged in a vain attempt4 ,the theory of ,value is to ,political ,economy what numeration is to arithmetic4 ,in what inextricable confusion would not ,bezout have landed himself1 if1 to save labour to his pupils1 he had undertaken to teach them the four rules and proportion1 without having previously explained the value which the figures derive from their form and position8 ,the truth is1 if the reader could only foresee the beautiful consequences deducible from the theory of ,value1 he would undertake the labour of mastering the first principles of ,economical ,science with the same cheerfulness that one submits to the drudgery of ,geometry1 in prospect of the magnificent field which it opens to our intelligence4 ,but this intuitive foresight is not to be expected2 and the more pains ,i should take to establish the distinction between ,value and ,utility1 or between ,value and ,labour1 in order to show how natural it is that this should form a stumbling-block at the very threshold of the science1 the more wearisome ,i should become4 ,the reader would see in such a discussion only barren and idle subtleties1 calculated at best to satisfy the curiosity of ,economists by profession4 ,you are inquiring laboriously1 it may be said1 whether wealth consists in the ,utility of things1 or in their ,value1 or in their rarity4 ,is not this like the question of the schoolmen1 ,does form reside in the substance or in the accident8 ,are you not afraid p#acb that some street ,molire will hold you up to public ridicule at the ,thtre des ,varits8 ,yet truth obliges me to say that1 in an economical point of view1 ,society is ,exchange4 ,the primary element of ,exchange is the notion of ,value1 so that every truth and every error which this word introduces into men's minds is a social truth or error4 ,i undertake in this work to demonstrate the ,harmony of those laws of ,providence which govern human society4 ,what makes these laws harmonious and not discordant is1 that all principles1 all motives1 all springs of action1 all interests1 co-operate towards a grand final result1 which humanity will never reach by reason of its native imperfection1 but to which it will always approximate more and more by reason of its unlimited capability of improvement4 ,and that result is1 the indefinite approximation of all classes towards a level1 which is always rising2 in other words1 the equalization of individuals in the general amelioration4 ,but to attain my object4 ,i must explain two things1 namely1 #ast1 ,that ,utility has a tendency to become more and more gratuitous1 more and more common1 as it gradually recedes from the domain of individual appropriation4 #b;d1 ,that ,value1 on the other hand1 which alone is capable of appropriation1 which alone constitutes property legitimately and in fact1 has a tendency to diminish more and more in relation to the utility to which it is attached4 ,such a demonstration--founded on ,property1 but only on the property of which ,value is the subject1 and on ,community1 but only on the community of utility1--such a demonstration1 ,i say1 must satisfy and reconcile all schools1 by conceding to them that all have had a glimpse of the truth1 but only of partial truth1 regarded from different points of view4 ,economists6 you defend property4 ,there is in the social order no other property than that of which ,value is the subject1 and that is immovable and unassailable4 ,communists6 you dream of ,community4 ,you have got it4 ,the social order renders all utilities common1 provided the exchange of those values which have been appropriated is free4 ,you are like architects who dispute about a monument of which each has seen only one side4 ,they don't see ill1 but they don't see all4 ,to make them agree1 it is only necessary to ask them to walk round the edifice4 ,but how am ,i to reconstruct the social edifice1 so as to exhibit to mankind all its beautiful harmony1 if ,i reject its two corner stones4 ,utility and ,value8 ,how can ,i bring about the desired p#acc reconciliation of various schools upon the platform of truth if ,i shun the analysis of these two ideas1 although the dissidence has arisen from the unhappy confusion which they have caused8 ,i have felt this kind of introduction necessary1 in order1 if possible1 to secure from the reader a moment's attention1 and relieve him from fatigue and ennui4 ,i am much mistaken if the consoling beauty of the consequences will not amply make up for the dryness of the premises4 ,had ,newton allowed himself to be repulsed at the outset by a distaste for elementary mathematics1 never would his heart have beat with rapture on beholding the harmonies of the celestial mechanism2 and ,i maintain that it is only necessary to make our way manfully to an acquaintance with certain first principles1 in order to be convinced that ,god has displayed in the social mechanism goodness no less touching1 simplicity no less admirable1 splendour no less magnificent4 ,in the first chapter we viewed man as both active and passive1 and we saw that ,want and ,satisfaction1 acting on sensibility alone1 were in their own nature personal1 peculiar1 and intransmissible2 that ,effort1 on the contrary1 the connecting link between ,want and ,satisfaction1 the mean term between the motive principle of action and the end we have in view1 proceeding from our activity1 our spontaneity1 our will1 was susceptible of conventions and of transmission4 ,i know that1 metaphysically1 no one can contest this assertion1 and maintain that ,effort also is personal4 ,i have no desire to enter the territory of ideology1 and ,i hope that my view of the subject will be admitted without controversy when put in this vulgar form3--,we cannot feel the wants of others--we cannot feel the satisfactions of others2 but we can render service one to another4 ,it is this transmission of efforts1 this exchange of services1 which forms the subject of ,political ,economy2 and since1 on the other hand1 economical science is condensed and summed up in the word ,value1 of which it is only a lengthened explanation1 it follows that the notion of value would be imperfectly1 erroneously1 conceived if we were to found it upon the extreme phenomena of our sensibility--namely1 our ,wants and ,satisfactions--phenomena which are personal1 intransmissible1 and incommensurable as between two individuals1 in place of founding it on the manifestations of our activity1 upon efforts1 upon reciprocal services1 which are interchanged because they are susceptible of being compared1 appreciated1 estimated1 and which are capable of being estimated precisely because they are capable of being interchanged4 ,in the same chapter we arrived at the following formulas3-- p#acd 8,utility 7the property which certain things and certain acts have of serving us1 of being useful to us7 is complex1--one part we owe to the action of nature1 another to the action of man40--8,with reference to a given result1 the more nature has done the less remains for human action to do40--8,the co-operation of nature is essentially gratuitous--the co-operation of man1 whether intellectual or muscular1 exchanged or not1 collective or solitary1 is essentially onerous1 as indeed the word ,effort implies40 ,and as what is gratuitous cannot possess value1 since the idea of value implies onerous acquisition1 it follows that the notion of ,value would be still erroneously conceived1 if we were to extend it1 in whole or in part1 to the gifts or to the co-operation of nature1 instead of restricting it exclusively to human co-operation4 ,thus1 from both sides1 by two different roads1 we arrive at this conclusion1 that value must have reference to the efforts which men make in order to obtain the satisfaction of their wants4 ,in the third chapter we have established that man cannot exist in a state of isolation4 ,but if1 by an effort of imagination1 we fancy him placed in that chimerical situation1 that state contrary to nature1 which the writers of the eighteenth century extolled as the state of nature1 we shall not fail to see that it does not disclose to us the idea of ,value1 although it presents the manifestation of the active principle which we have termed effort4 ,the reason is obvious4 ,value implies comparison1 appreciation1 estimation1 measure4 ,in order that two things should measure each other1 it is necessary that they be commensurable1 and1 in order to that1 they must be of the same kind4 ,in a state of isolation1 with what could we compare effort8 ,with want8 ,with satisfaction8 ,in that case1 we could go no farther than to pronounce that the effort was more or less appropriate1 more or less opportune4 ,in the social state1 what we compare 7and it is this comparison which gives rise to the idea of ,value7 is the effort of one man with the effort of another man1--two phenomena of the same nature1 and1 consequently1 commensurable4 ,thus1 the definition of the word ,value1 in order to be exact1 must have reference not only to human efforts1 but likewise to those efforts which are exchanged or exchangeable4 ,exchange does more than exhibit and measure values--it gives them existence4 ,i do not mean to say that it gives existence to the acts and the things which are exchanged1 but it imparts to their existence the notion of value4 ,now1 when two men transfer to each other their present efforts1 or make over mutually the results of their anterior p#ace efforts1 they serve each other2 they render each other reciprocal service4 ,i say1 then1 ,value is the relation of two services exchanged4 ,the idea of value entered into the world the first time that a man having said to his brother1 ,do this for me1 and ,i shall do that for you--they have come to an agreement2 for then1 for the first time1 we could say--,the two services exchanged are worth each other4 ,it is singular enough that the true theory of value1 which we search for in vain in many a ponderous volume1 is to be found in ,florian's beautiful fable of l',aveugle et le ,paralytique1-- ,aidons--nous mutuellement1 ,la charge des malheurs en sera plus lgre4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a nous deux ,nous possdons le bien chacun ncessaire4 ,j'ai des jambes1 et vous des yeux4 ,moi1 je vais vous porter2 vous1 vous serez mon guide3 ,ainsi1 sans que jamais notre amiti dcide ,qui de nous deux remplit le plus utile emploi1 ,je marcherai pour vous1 vous y verrez pour moi4 ,here you have value discovered and defined4 ,here you have it in its rigorous economic exactitude1 excepting the touching trait relative to friendship1 which carries us into another sphere1 that of sympathy4 ,we may conceive two unfortunates rendering each other reciprocal service1 without inquiring too curiously which of the two discharged the most useful employment4 ,the exceptional situation imagined by the fabulist explains sufficiently that the principle of sympathy1 acting with great force1 comes to absorb1 so to speak1 the minute appreciation of the services exchanged--an appreciation1 however1 which is indispensable in order to disengage completely the idea of ,value4 ,that idea would be complete if all men1 or the majority of them1 were struck with paralysis or blindness2 for the inexorable law of supply and demand would then predominate1 and1 causing the permanent sacrifice accepted by him who fulfils the more useful employment to disappear1 would restore the transaction to the domain of justice4 ,we are all blind or impotent in some respects1 and we soon come to understand that1 by assisting each other1 the burden of misfortune is lightened4 ,hence ,exchange4 ,we labour in order to feed1 clothe1 shelter1 enlighten1 cure1 defend1 instruct one another4 ,hence reciprocal ,services4 ,we compare1 we discuss1 we estimate or appreciate these services4 ,hence ,value4 ,a multitude of circumstances may augment the relative importance of a ,service4 ,we find it greater or less1 according as it is more or less useful to us--according as a greater or less number of p#acf people are disposed to render it to us--according as it exacts from them more or less labour1 trouble1 skill1 time1 previous study1--and according as it saves more or less of these to ourselves4 ,value depends not only on these circumstances1 but on the judgment we form of them2 for it may happen1 and it happens frequently1 that we esteem a service very highly because we judge it very useful1 while in reality it is hurtful4 ,this is the reason why vanity1 ignorance1 error1 exert a certain influence on the essentially elastic and flexible relation which we denominate value2 and we may affirm that the appreciation of services tends to approximate more to absolute truth and justice in proportion as men become more enlightened1 more moral1 and more refined4 ,hitherto the principle of ,value has been sought for in one of those circumstances which augment or which diminish it1 materiality1 durableness1 utility1 scarcity1 labour1 difficulty of acquisition1 judgment1 etc41 and hence a false direction has been given to the science from the beginning2 for the accident which modifies the phenomenon is not the phenomenon itself4 ,moreover1 each author has constituted himself the sponsor1 so to speak1 of some special circumstance which he thinks preponderates1--the constant result of generalizing2 for all is in all1 and there is nothing which we cannot comprehend under a term by means of extending its sense4 ,thus the principle of value1 according to ,adam ,smith1 resides in materiality and durability2 according to ,jean ,baptiste ,say1 in utility2 according to ,ricardo1 in labour2 according to ,senior1 in rarity2 according to ,storch1 in the judgment we form1 etc4 ,the consequence has been what might have been expected4 ,these authors have unwittingly injured the authority and dignity of the science by appearing to contradict each other2 while in reality each is right1 as from his own point of view4 ,besides1 they have involved the first principles of ,political ,economy in a labyrinth of inextricable difficulties2 for the same words1 as used by these authors1 no longer represent the same ideas2 and1 moreover1 although a circumstance may be proclaimed fundamental1 other circumstances stand out too prominently to be neglected1 and definitions are thus constantly enlarged4 ,the object of the present work is not controversy1 but exposition4 ,i explain what ,i myself see1 not what others have seen4 ,i cannot avoid1 however1 calling the attention of the reader to the circumstances in which the foundation of ,value has hitherto been sought for4 ,but1 first of all1 ,i must bring ,value itself before him in a series of examples1 for it is by divers applications that the mind lays hold of a theory4 p#acg ,i shall demonstrate how all is definitely resolved into a barter of services2 but it is necessary to keep in mind what has been said on the subject of barter in the preceding chapter4 ,it is rarely simple--sometimes it forms a circular or round-about transaction among several parties1--most frequently1 by the intervention of money1 it resolves itself into two factors1 sale and purchase2 but as this complication does not change its nature1 ,i may be permitted1 for the sake of perspicuity1 to assume the barter to be direct and immediate4 ,this will lead to no mistake as to the nature of ,value4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are all born with an imperious material want1 which must be satisfied under pain of death1 ,i mean that of breathing4 ,on the other hand1 we all exist in a medium which1 in general1 supplies that want without the intervention of any effort on our part4 ,atmospheric air1 then1 has utility without having value4 ,it has no ,value1 because1 requiring no ,effort1 it gives rise to no service4 ,to render a service to any one is to save him trouble2 and where it is not necessary to take pains in order to realize a satisfaction1 no trouble can be saved4 ,but if a man descend to the bottom of a river in a diving-bell1 a foreign substance is interposed between the air and his lungs1 and1 in order to re-establish the communication1 a pump must be employed4 ,here there is an effort to make1 pains to take1 and the man below desires the exertion1 for it is a matter of life or death1 and he cannot possibly secure to himself a greater service4 ,instead of making this effort himself1 he calls on me to make it for him1 and1 in order to induce me to do so1 he undertakes in turn to make an exertion from which ,i may reap satisfaction4 ,we discuss the matter1 and come to an agreement4 ,now1 what do we discover here8 two wants1 two satisfactions1 which are not inconsistent with each other2 two efforts1 which are the subject of a voluntary transaction2 two services1 which are exchanged1--and value makes its appearance4 ,now1 we are told that utility is the foundation of value2 and as utility is inherent in the air1 we are led to think that it is the same in regard to value4 ,there is here an evident confusion of ideas4 ,the air1 from its nature1 has physical properties in harmony with one of our physical organs1 the lungs4 ,the portion which ,i draw from the atmosphere in order to fill the diving-bell does not change its nature--it is still oxygen and azote4 ,no new physical quality is combined with it1 no reacting power brings out of it a new element called value4 ,that springs exclusively from the service rendered4 p#ach ,if1 in laying down the general principle1 that ,utility is the foundation of ,value1 you mean that the ,service has value because it is useful to him who receives it and pays for it1 ,i allow the truth of what you say4 ,it is a truism implied in the very word service4 ,but we must not confound the utility of the air with the utility of the service4 ,they are two utilities distinct from each other1 different in nature1 different in kind1 which bear no proportion to one another1 and have no necessary relation4 ,there are circumstances in which1 with very slight exertion1 by rendering a very small service1 or saving very little trouble1 ,i may bring within the reach of another an article of very great intrinsic utility4 ,take the case of the diving-bell1 and consider how the parties to the supposed bargain manage to estimate the value of the service rendered by the one to the other in supplying him with atmospheric air4 ,we must have a point of comparison1 and that point of comparison can only be in the service which the diver renders in return4 ,their reciprocal demands will depend on their relative situation1 on the intensity of their desires1 on the greater or less need they have of each other1 and on a multitude of circumstances which demonstrate that the value is in the ,service1 since it increases with the service4 ,the reader may easily vary the hypothesis1 so as to convince himself that the ,value is not necessarily proportionate to the intensity of the efforts1--a remark which ,i set down here as a connecting link in the chain of reasoning1 and of which ,i shall afterwards have occasion to make use2 for my object is to prove that ,value no more resides in labour than it does in utility4 ,nature has so constituted me that ,i must die if ,i am deprived of an opportunity1 from time to time1 of quenching my thirst1 and the well is a league from the village4 ,for this reason1 ,i take the trouble every morning to go thither to fetch the water of which ,i have need1 for in water ,i have recognised those useful qualities which are calculated to assuage the suffering called thirst4 ,want1 ,effort1 ,satisfaction--we have them all here4 ,i have found ,utility--,i have not yet found ,value4 ,but1 as my neighbour goes also to the fountain1 ,i say to him--8,save me the pains of this journey--render me the service of bringing me water4 ,during the time you are so occupied1 ,i shall do something for you1 ,i shall teach your child to spell40 ,this arrangement suits us both4 ,here is an exchange of two services1 and we are enabled to pronounce that the one is worth the other4 ,the things compared here are two efforts1 not two wants and two p#aci satisfactions2 for by what common standard should we compare the benefit of drinking water and that of learning to spell8 ,by-and-by ,i say to my neighbour--8,your child troubles me--,i should like better to do something else for you4 ,you shall continue to bring me water1 and ,i shall give you twopence40 ,if the proposal is agreed to1 the ,economist may1 without fear of mistake1 pronounce that the service ,,is ,,worth twopence4 ,afterwards1 my neighbour no longer waits to be requested4 ,he knows by experience that every day ,i want water4 ,he anticipates my wishes4 ,at the same time1 he provides water for the other villagers4 ,in short1 he becomes a water merchant4 ,it is then that we begin to say1 the water ,,is ,,worth twopence4 ,has the water1 then1 changed its nature8 ,has the ,value1 which was but now in the service1 become materialized and incorporated in the water1 as if it were a new chemical element8 ,has a slight modification in the form of the arrangement between my neighbour and me had the power to displace the principle of value and change its nature8 ,i am not purist enough to find fault with your saying that the water is worth twopence1 just as you say the sun sets4 ,but we must remember that metaphors and metonymies do not affect the truth of facts2 and that1 in strict scientific language1 value can no more be said to reside in the water than the sun can be said to go to rest in the sea4 ,let us attribute1 then1 to things the peculiar qualities which belong to them--to air1 to water1 utility--to services1 value4 ,we may say with propriety that water is useful1 because it has the property of allaying thirst2 and it is the service which has value1 because it is the subject of a convention previously debated and discussed4 ,so true is this1 that if the well is brought nearer1 or removed to a greater distance1 the ,utility of the water remains the same1 but its value is diminished or increased4 ,why8 because the service is less or greater4 ,the value1 then1 is in the service1 seeing that it is increased or diminished according as the service is increased or diminished4 ,the diamond makes a great figure in works of ,political ,economy4 ,it is adduced as an illustration of the laws of ,value1 or of the supposed disturbance of those laws4 ,it is a brilliant weapon with which all the schools do battle4 ,the ,english school asserts that 8,value resides in labour40 ,the ,french school exhibits a diamond1 and says--8,here is a commodity which exacts no labour and yet is of immense value40 ,the ,french school affirms that the foundation of value is utility1 and the ,english school immediately brings forward the diamond in opposition to the p#adj illustrations drawn from air1 light1 and water4 8,the air is very useful10 says the ,english ,economist1 8but it possesses no value2 the utility of the diamond is almost inappreciable1 and yet it possesses more value than the whole atmosphere20 and the reader is inclined to say with ,henri ,quatre--8,in sooth1 they are both right40 ,they end by landing themselves in an error more fatal than both the others1 and are forced to avow that value resides in the works of nature1 and that that value is material4 ,my definition1 as it seems to me1 gets rid of these anomalies1 and is confirmed rather than invalidated by the illustration which has been adduced4 ,i take a walk along the sea-beach1 and ,i find by chance a magnificent diamond4 ,i am thus put in possession of a great value4 ,why8 ,am ,i about to confer a great benefit on the human race8 ,have ,i devoted myself to a long and laborious work8 ,neither the one nor the other4 ,why1 then1 does this diamond possess so much value8 ,undoubtedly because the person to whom ,i transfer it considers that ,i have rendered him a great service1--all the greater that many rich people desire it1 and that ,i alone can render it4 ,the grounds of his judgment may be controverted--be it so4 ,it may be founded on pride1 on vanity--granted again4 ,but this judgment has1 nevertheless1 been formed by a man who is disposed to act upon it1 and that is sufficient for my argument4 ,far from the judgment being based on a reasonable appreciation of utility1 we may allow that the very reverse is the case4 ,ostentation makes great sacrifices for what is utterly useless4 ,in this case1 the value1 far from bearing a necessary proportion to the labour performed by the person who renders the service1 may be said rather to bear proportion to the labour saved to the person who receives it4 ,this general law of value1 which has not1 so far as ,i know1 been observed by theoretical writers1 nevertheless prevails universally in practice4 ,we shall explain afterwards the admirable mechanism by which value tends to proportion itself to labour when it is free2 but it is not the less true that it has its principle and foundation less in the effort of the person who serves than in the effort saved to him who is served4 ,the transaction relative to the diamond may be supposed to give rise to the following dialogue3-- 8,give me your diamond1 ,sir40 8,with all my heart2 give me in exchange your labour for an entire year40 p#ada 8,your acquisition has not cost you a minute's work40 8,very well1 ,sir1 try to find a similar lucky minute40 8,yes2 but1 in strict equity1 the exchange ought to be one of equal labour40 8,no2 in strict equity1 you put a value on your own services1 and ,i upon mine2 ,i don't force you2 why should you lay a constraint upon me8 ,give me a whole year's labour1 or seek out a diamond for yourself40 8,but that might entail upon me ten years' work1 and would probably end in nothing4 ,it would be wiser and more profitable to devote these ten years to another employment40 8,it is precisely on that account that ,i imagined ,i was rendering you a service in asking for only one year's work4 ,i thus save you nine1 and that is the reason why ,i attach great value to the service4 ,if ,i appear to you exacting1 it is because you regard only the labour which ,i have performed2 but consider also the labour which ,i save you1 and you will find me reasonable in my demand40 8,it is not the less true that you profit by a work of nature40 8,and if ,i were to give away what ,i have found for little or nothing1 it is you who would profit by it4 ,besides1 if this diamond possesses great value1 it is not because nature has been elaborating it since the beginning of time3 she does as much for a drop of dew40 8,yes2 but if diamonds were as common as dew-drops1 you could no longer lay down the law to me1 and make your own conditions40 8,very true2 because1 in that case1 you would not address yourself to me1 or would not be disposed to recompense me highly for a service which you could easily perform for yourself40 ,the result of this dialogue is1 that ,value no more resides in the diamond than in the air or in the water4 ,it resides exclusively in the services which we suppose to be rendered and received with reference to these things1 and is determined by the free bargaining of the parties who make the exchange4 ,take up the ,collection des conomistes1 and read and compare all the definitions which you will find there4 ,if there be one of them which meets the cases of the air and the diamond1 two cases in appearance so opposite1 throw this book into the fire4 ,but if the definition which ,i propose1 simple as it is1 solves1 or rather obviates1 the difficulty1 you are bound in conscience1 gentle reader1 to go on to the end of the work1 or it is in vain that we have placed an inviting sign-board over the vestibule of the science4 ,allow me to give some more examples1 in order to elucidate clearly my thoughts1 and familiarize the reader with a new definition4 ,by exhibiting this fundamental principle in different aspects1 p#adb we shall clear the way for a thorough comprehension of the consequences1 which ,i venture to predict will be found no less important than unexpected4 ,among the wants to which our physical constitution subjects us is that of food2 and one of the articles best fitted to satisfy that want is ,bread4 ,as the need of food is personal to me1 ,i should1 naturally1 myself perform all the operations necessary to provide the needful supply of bread4 ,i can the less expect my fellow-men to render me gratuitously this service1 that they are themselves subject to the same want1 and condemned to the same exertion4 ,were ,i to make my own bread1 ,i must devote myself to a labour infinitely more complicated1 but strictly analogous to that which the necessity of fetching water from the spring would have imposed upon me4 ,the elements of bread exist everywhere in nature4 ,as ,j4 ,b4 ,say has judiciously remarked1 it is neither possible nor necessary for man to create anything4 ,gases1 salts1 electricity1 vegetable life1 all exist2 my business is to unite them1 assist them1 combine them1 transport them1 availing myself of that great laboratory called the earth1 in which mysteries are accomplished from which human science has scarcely raised the veil4 ,if the operations to which ,i must devote myself in the pursuit of my design are in the aggregate very complicated1 each of them1 taken singly1 is as simple as the act of drawing water from the fountain4 ,every effort ,i make is simply a service which ,i render to myself2 and if1 in consequence of a bargain freely entered into1 it happens that other persons save me some of these efforts1 or the whole of them1 these are so many services which ,i receive4 ,the aggregate of these services1 compared with those which ,i render in return1 constitute the value of the ,bread and determine its amount4 ,a convenient intermediate commodity intervenes to facilitate this exchange of services1 and even to serve as a measure of their relative importance--,money4 ,but this makes no substantial difference1--the principle remains exactly the same1 just as in mechanics the transmission of forces is subject to the same law1 whether there be one or several intermediate wheels4 ,this is so true that1 when the loaf is worth fourpence1 for example1 if a good bookkeeper wishes to analyze its value1 he will succeed in discovering1 amid the multiplicity of transactions which go to the accomplishment of the final result1 all those whose services have contributed to form that value1--all those who have saved labour to the man who finally pays for it as the consumer4 ,he discovers1 first of all1 the baker1 who retains his five per cent41 p#adc and from that percentage remunerates the mason who has built his oven1 the wood-cutter who prepares his billets1 etc4 ,then comes the miller1 who receives not only the recompense of his own labour1 but the means of remunerating the quarryman who has furnished his millstones1 the labourer who has formed his dam1 etc4 ,other portions of the total value go to the thresher1 the reaper1 the labourer1 the sower1 until you account for the last farthing4 ,no part of it assuredly goes to remunerate ,god and nature4 ,the very idea is absurd1 and yet this is rigorously implied in the theory of the ,economists1 who attribute a certain portion of the value of a product to matter or natural forces4 ,no2 we still find that what has value is not the ,loaf1 but the series of services which have put me in possession of it4 ,it is true that1 among the elementary parts of the value of the loaf1 our book-keeper will find one which he will have difficulty in connecting with a service1 at least a service implying effort4 ,he will find of the fourpence1 of which the price is made up1 a part goes to the proprietor of the soil1 to the man who has the keeping of the laboratory4 ,that small portion of the value of the loaf constitutes what is called the rent of land2 and1 misled by the form of expression1 by the metonymy which again makes its appearance here1 our calculator may be tempted to think that this portion is allotted to natural agents--to the soil itself4 ,i maintain that1 if he exercises sufficient skill1 he will find that this is still the price of real services--services of the same kind as all the others4 ,this will be demonstrated with the clearest evidence when we come to treat of landed property4 ,at present1 ,i shall only remark1 that ,i am not concerned here with property1 but with value4 ,i don't inquire whether all services are real and legitimate1 or whether men do not sometimes succeed in getting paid for services which they do not render4 ,the world1 alas6 is full of such injustices1 but rent must not be included among them4 ,all that ,i have to demonstrate here is1 that the pretended value of commodities is only the value of services1 real or imaginary1 received and rendered in connexion with them--that value does not reside in the commodities themselves1 and is no more to be found in the loaf than in the diamond1 the water1 or the air--that no part of the remuneration goes to nature--that it proceeds from the final consumer of the article1 and is distributed exclusively among men1--and that it would not be accorded to them by him for any other reason than that they have rendered him services1 unless1 indeed1 in the case of violence or fraud4 ,two men agree that ice is a good thing in summer1 and coal a p#add still better thing in winter4 ,they supply two of our wants--the one cools1 the other warms us4 ,we do not fail to remark that the ,utility of these commodities consists in certain material properties suitably adapted to our material organs4 ,we remark1 moreover1 that among those properties1 which physics and chemistry might enumerate1 we do not find value1 or anything like it4 ,how1 then1 have we come to regard value as inherent in matter and material8 ,if the two men we have supposed wished to obtain the satisfaction of their wants1 without acting in concert1 each would labour to provide for himself both the articles wanted4 ,if they came to an understanding1 the one would provide coal for two from the coal-mine1 the other ice for two from the mountain4 ,this presupposes a bargain4 ,they must then adjust the relation of the two services exchanged4 ,they would take all circumstances into account--the difficulties to be overcome1 the dangers to be braved1 the time to be spent1 the pains to be taken1 the skill to be displayed1 the risks to be run1 the possibility of providing for their wants in some other way1 etc41 etc4 ,when they came to an understanding1 the ,economist would say1 ,the two services exchanged are worth each other4 ,in common language1 it would be said by metonymy--,such a quantity of coal is worth such a quantity of ice1 as if the value had passed physically into these bodies4 ,but it is easy to see that if the common form of expression enables us to state the results1 the scientific expression alone reveals to us the true causes4 ,in place of two services and two persons1 the agreement may embrace a greater number1 substituting a complex ,exchange for simple ,barter4 ,in that case1 money would intervene to facilitate the exchange4 ,need ,i say that the principle of value would be neither changed nor displaced8 ,but ,i must add here a single observation propos of coal4 ,it may be that there is only one coal-mine in a country1 and that an individual has got possession of it4 ,if so1 this man will make conditions2 that is to say1 he will put a high price upon his services1 or pretended services4 ,we have not yet come to the question of right and justice1 to the distinction between true and loyal services1 and those that are fraudulent and pretended4 ,what concerns us at this moment is1 to consolidate the true theory of value1 and to disembarrass it of one error with which ,economical science is infected4 ,when we say that what nature has done or given1 she has done or given gratuitously1 and that the notion of value is excluded1 we are answered by an analysis of the price of coal1 or some other natural product4 ,it is acknowledged1 indeed1 that the greater part of this p#ade price is the remuneration of the services of man4 ,one man has excavated the ground1 another has drained away the water1 another has raised the fuel to the surface1 another has transported it to its destination2 and it is the aggregate of these works1 it is allowed1 which constitutes nearly the entire value4 ,still there remains one portion of the value which does not correspond with any labour or service4 ,this is the value of the coal as it lies under the soil1 still virgin1 and untouched by human labour4 ,it forms the share of the proprietor2 and1 since this portion of ,value is not of human creation1 it follows necessarily that it is the creation of nature4 ,i reject that conclusion1 and ,i premonish the reader that1 if he admits it to a greater or less extent1 he cannot proceed a single step farther in the science4 ,no2 the action of nature does not create ,value1 any more than the action of man creates matter4 ,of two things one3 either the proprietor has usefully co-operated towards the final result1 and has rendered real services1 and then the portion of value which he has conferred on the coal enters into my definition2 or else he obtrudes himself as a parasite1 and1 in that case1 he has had the address to get paid for services which he has not rendered1 and the price of the coal is unduly augmented4 ,that circumstance may prove1 indeed1 that injustice has entered into the transaction2 but it cannot overturn the theory so as to authorize us to say that this portion of value is material1--that it is combined as a physical element with the gratuitous gifts of ,providence4 ,here is the proof of it4 ,cause the injustice to cease1 if injustice there be1 and the corresponding value will disappear1 which it assuredly would not have done had the value been inherent in matter and of natural creation4#cj 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us now pass to one of our most imperious wants1 that of security4 ,a certain number of men land upon an inhospitable coast4 ,they begin to work4 ,but each of them finds himself constantly drawn away from his employment by the necessity of defending himself against wild beasts1 or men still more savage4 ,besides the time and the exertion which he devotes directly to the work of defence1 he has to provide himself with arms and munitions4 ,at length it is discovered that1 on the whole1 infinitely less power and effort would be wasted if some of them1 abandoning other work1 were to devote themselves exclusively to this service4 ,this p#adf duty is assigned to those who are most distinguished for address1 courage1 and vigour--and they improve in an art which they make their exclusive business4 ,whilst they watch over the public safety1 the community reaps from its labours1 now no longer interrupted1 more satisfactions for all than it loses by the diversion of ten men from other avocations4 ,this arrangement is in consequence made4 ,what do we see in it but a new progress in the division of occupations1 inducing and requiring an exchange of services8 ,are the services of these soldiers1 guards1 militiamen1 or whatever you may call them1 productive8 ,undoubtedly they are1 seeing that the sole object of the arrangement is to increase the proportion which the aggregate ,satisfactions of the community bear to the general efforts4 ,have they ,value8 ,they must have it1 since we esteem them1 appreciate them1 estimate their worth1 and1 in fine1 pay for them with other services with which they are compared4 ,the form in which this remuneration is stipulated for1 the mode of levying it1 the process we adopt in adjusting and concluding the arrangement1 make no alteration on the principle4 ,are there efforts saved to some men by others8 ,are there satisfactions procured for some by others8 ,in that case there are services exchanged1 compared1 estimated2--there is ,value4 ,the kind of services we are now discussing1 when social complications occur1 lead sometimes to frightful consequences4 ,the very nature of the services which we demand from this class of functionaries requires us to put into their hands ,power1--power sufficient to subdue all resistance1--and it sometimes happens that they abuse it1 and turn it against the very community which employs them4 ,deriving from the community services proportioned to the want we have of security1 they themselves may cause insecurity1 in order to display their own importance1 and1 by a too skilful diplomacy1 involve their fellow-citizens in perpetual wars4 ,all this has happened1 and still happens4 ,great disturbances of the just equilibrium of reciprocal services are the result of it4 ,but it makes no change in the fundamental principle and scientific theory of ,value4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i must still give another example or two2 but ,i pray the reader to believe that ,i feel quite as much as he can how tiresome and fatiguing this series of hypotheses must be--throwing us back1 as they all do1 on the same kind of proof1 tending to the same p#adg conclusion1 expressed in the same terms4 ,he must understand1 however1 that this process1 if not the most interesting1 is at least the surest way of establishing the true theory of ,value1 and of thus clearing the road we have to traverse4 ,we suppose ourselves in ,paris4 ,in that great metropolis there is a vast fermentation of desires1 and abundant means also of satisfying them4 ,multitudes of rich men1 or men in easy circumstances1 devote themselves to industry1 to the arts1 to politics--and in the evening they are all eager to obtain an hour's recreation4 ,among the amusements which they relish most is the pleasure of hearing the music of ,rossini sung by ,malibran1 or the admirable poetry of ,racine interpreted by ,rachel4 ,there are in the world only two women who can furnish these noble and delicate kinds of entertainment1 and unless we could subject them to torture1 which would probably not succeed1 we have no other way of procuring their services but by addressing ourselves to their good will4 ,thus the services which we expect from ,malibran and ,rachel are possessed of great ,value4 ,this explanation is prosaic enough1 but it is true4 ,if an opulent banker should desire to gratify his vanity by having the performances of one of these great artistes in his salons1 he will soon find by experience the full truth of my theory4 ,he desires a rich treat1 a lively satisfaction--he desires it eagerly--and only one person in the world can furnish it4 ,he cannot procure it otherwise than by offering a large remuneration4 ,between what extreme limits will the transaction oscillate8 ,the banker will go on till he reaches the point at which he prefers rather to lose the satisfaction than to pay what he deems an extravagant price for it2 the singer to that point at which she prefers to accept the remuneration offered1 rather than not be remunerated at all4 ,this point of equilibrium determines the value of this particular service1 as it does of all others4 ,it may be that in many cases custom fixes this delicate point4 ,there is too much taste in the beau monde to higgle about certain services4 ,the remuneration may even be gracefully disguised1 so as to veil the vulgarity of the economic law4 ,that law1 however1 presides over this transaction1 just as it does over the most ordinary bargain2 and ,value does not change its nature because experience or urbanity dispenses with discussing it formally on every occasion4 ,this explains how artistes above the usual standard of excellence succeed in realizing great fortunes4 ,another circumstance favours them4 ,their services are of such a nature that they can render them1 at one and the same time1 and by one and the same effort1 to p#adh a multitude of individuals4 ,however large the theatre1 provided the voice of ,rachel can fill it1 each spectator enjoys the full pleasure of her inimitable declamation4 ,this is the foundation of a new arrangement4 ,three or four thousand people1 all experiencing the same desire1 may come to an understanding1 and raise the requisite sum2 and the contribution of each to the remuneration of the great tragedienne constitutes the equivalent of the unique service rendered by her to all at once4 ,such is ,value4 ,as a great number of auditors may combine in order to witness an entertainment of this description1 so a number of actors may combine in order to perform in an opera or play4 ,managers may intervene1 to save them the trouble of a multiplicity of trifling accessory arrangements4 ,value is thus multiplied1 ramified1 distributed1 and rendered complex--but it does not change its nature4 ,we shall finish with some exceptional cases4 ,such cases form the best test of a sound theory4 ,when the rule is correct1 exceptions do not invalidate1 but confirm it4 ,an aged priest moves slowly along1 pensive1 with staff in hand1 and breviary under his arm4 ,his air is serene1 his countenance expressive1--he looks inspired6 ,where is he going8 ,do you see that church in the distance8 ,the youthful village parson1 distrustful as yet of his own powers1 has called to his assistance the old missionary4 ,but first of all he has some arrangements to make4 ,the preacher will find1 indeed1 food and shelter at the parsonage--but he must live from one year's end to another4 ,mons4 le ,cur1 then1 has promoted a subscription among the rich people of the village1 moderate in amount1 but sufficient2 for the aged pastor is not exacting1 and answered the person who wrote to him--8,du pain pour moi1 voil mon ncessaire2 une obole pour le pauvre1 voil mon superflu40 ,thus are the economic preliminaries complied with2 for this meddling ,political ,economy creeps into everything1 and is to be found everywhere--,nil humani a me alienum puto4 ,let us enlarge a little on this example1 which is very apposite to what we are now discussing4 ,here you have an exchange of services4 ,on the one hand you have an old man who devotes his time1 his strength1 his talents1 his health1 to enlighten the minds of a few villagers1 and raise them to a higher moral level4 ,on the other hand1 bread for a few days1 and a hat and cassock1 are assured to the man of eloquence4 ,but there is something more here4 ,there is a rivalry of sacrifices4 ,the old priest refuses everything that is not absolutely indispensable4 ,of that poor pittance the cur takes one half on his p#adi own shoulders2 the village ,crsuses exempt their brethren from the other half1 who nevertheless profit by the sermons4 ,do these sacrifices invalidate our definition of value8 ,not at all4 ,each is free to render his services only on such terms as are agreeable to himself4 ,if these conditions are made easy1 or if none are stipulated for1 what is the consequence8 ,the service1 preserving its utility1 loses its value4 ,the old priest is persuaded that his services will find their reward in another world1 and he cares not for their being recompensed here below4 ,he feels1 no doubt1 that he is rendering a service to his auditors in addressing them1 but he also feels that they do him a service in listening to him4 ,hence it follows that the transaction is based upon advantage to one of the contracting parties1 with the full consent of the other4 ,that is all4 ,in general1 exchanges are determined and estimated by reference to self-interest2 but1 thank ,god1 that is not always the case3 they are sometimes based on the principle of sympathy1 and in that case we either transfer to another a satisfaction which we might have reserved for ourselves1 or we make an effort for him which we might have devoted to our own profit and advantage4 ,generosity1 devotion1 self-sacrifice1 are impulses of our nature1 which1 like many other circumstances1 influence the actual value of a particular service1 but they make no change on the general law of values4 ,in contrast to this consoling example1 ,i might adduce another of a very opposite character4 ,in order that a service should possess value1 in the economical sense of the word1 it is not at all indispensable that it should be a real1 conscientious1 and useful service2 it is sufficient that it is accepted1 and paid for by another service4 ,the world is full of people who palm upon the public services of a quality more than doubtful1 and make the public pay for them4 ,all depends on the judgment which we form in each case2 and this is the reason why morals will be always the best auxiliary of ,political ,economy4 ,impostors succeed in propagating a false belief4 ,they represent themselves as the ambassadors of ,heaven4 ,they open at pleasure the gates of heaven or of hell4 ,when this belief has once taken firm root1 8,here10 say they1 8are some little images to which we have communicated the virtue of securing eternal happiness to those who carry them about their persons4 ,in bestowing upon you one of these images1 we render you an immense service4 ,you must render us1 then1 certain services in return40 ,here you have a ,value created4 ,it is founded on a false appreciation1 you say1 and that is true4 ,we might say as much of many material things p#aej which possess a certain value1 for they would find purchasers if set up to auction4 ,economic science would become impossible if we admitted as values only values correctly and judiciously appreciated4 ,at every step we must begin a new course of the moral and physical sciences4 ,in a state of isolation1 depraved desires and a warped intelligence may cause a man to pursue with great effort and exertion a chimerical satisfaction--a delusion4 ,in like manner1 in the social state1 it sometimes happens1 as the philosopher says1 that we buy regret too dear4 ,but if truth is naturally more in keeping with the human mind than error1 all these frauds are destined to disappear--all these delusive services to be spurned and lose their value4 ,civilisation will1 in the long-run1 put everybody and everything in the right place4 ,but we must conclude this analysis1 which has already extended to too great a length4 ,among the various wants of our nature1 respiration1 hunger1 thirst--and the wants and desires which take their rise in our vanity1 in our heads1 hearts1 and opinions1 in our hopes for the future1 whether well or ill grounded--everywhere we have sought for ,value--and we have found it wherever an exchange of service takes place4 ,we have found it everywhere of the same nature1 based upon a principle clear1 simple1 absolute1 although influenced by a multitude of varying circumstances4 ,we might have passed in review all our other wants2 we might have cited the carpenter1 the mason1 the manufacturer1 the tailor1 the physician1 the officer of justice1 the lawyer1 the merchant1 the painter1 the judge1 the president of the republic1 and we should have found exactly the same thing4 ,frequently a material substance2 sometimes forces furnished gratuitously by nature2 always human services interchanged1 measuring each other1 estimating1 appreciating1 valuing one another1 and exhibiting simply the result of that ,valuation--or ,value4 ,there is1 however1 one of our wants1 very special in its nature1 the cement of society1 at once the cause and the effect of all our transactions1 and the everlasting problem of ,political ,economy1 of which it is necessary to say something in this place--,i allude to the want of ,exchanging4 ,in the preceding chapter we have described the marvellous effects of ,exchange4 ,they are such that men must naturally feel a desire to facilitate it1 even at the expense of considerable sacrifices4 ,it is for this end that we have roads1 canals1 railways1 carriages1 ships1 merchants1 tradesmen1 bankers2 and it is impossible to believe that society would submit to such enormous draughts upon its forces for the purpose of facilitating p#aea exchange1 if it did not find in exchange itself an ample compensation4 ,we have also seen that direct barter could give rise only to transactions at once inconvenient and restrained4 ,it is on that account that men have thought of resolving barter into two factors1 sale and purchase1 by means of an intermediate commodity1 readily divisible1 and1 above all1 possessed of value1 in order to secure public confidence4 ,this intermediate commodity is ,money4 ,and it is worthy of remark that what1 by an ellipsis or metonymy1 we designate the value of gold and silver rests on exactly the same foundation as that of the air1 the water1 the diamond1 the sermons of our old missionary1 or the roulades of ,malibran--that is to say1 upon services rendered and received4 ,the gold1 indeed1 which we find spread on the favoured banks of the ,sacramento1 derives from nature many precious qualities--ductility1 weight1 beauty1 brilliancy1 utility even1 if you will4 ,but there is one quality which nature has not given it1 because nature has nothing to do with that--,value4 ,a man knows that gold supplies a want which is sensibly felt1 and that it is much coveted4 ,he goes to ,california to seek for gold1 just as my neighbour went to the spring to fetch water4 ,he devotes himself to hard work--he digs1 he excavates1 he washes1 he melts down--and then he comes to me and says3 ,i will render you the service of transferring to you this gold2 what service will you render me in return8 ,we discuss the matter1 we weigh all the circumstances which should influence our determination2--at last we conclude a bargain1 and ,value is manifested and fixed4 ,misled by this curt form of expression1 8,gold is valuable10 we might suppose that the value resides in the gold1 just as the qualities of ductility and specific gravity reside in it1 and that nature has put it there4 ,i hope the reader is already satisfied that this is a mistake4 ,by-and-by he will be convinced that it is a deplorable fallacy4 ,another misconception exists on the subject of gold1 or rather of money4 ,as it is the constant medium which enters into all transactions1 the mean term between the two factors of compound barter1 it is always with its value that we compare the value of the two services to be exchanged2 and hence we are led to regard gold or money as a measure of value4 ,in practice it cannot be otherwise4 ,but science ought never to forget that money1 so far as its value is concerned1 is subject to the same fluctuations as any other product or service4 ,science does forget this sometimes2 nor is it surprising4 ,everything tends to make us consider money p#aeb as the measure of value1 in the same way as the litre 7or quart7 is the measure of capacity4 ,it plays an analogous part in actual business4 ,one is not aware of its own fluctuations1 because the franc1 like its multiples and sub-multiples1 always retains the same denomination4 ,and arithmetic itself tends to propagate the confusion by ranking the franc as a measure1 along with the measures of quantity in daily use4 ,i have given a definition of ,value1 at least of value according to my idea of it4 ,i have subjected that definition to the test of divers facts4 ,none of them1 so far as ,i can see1 contradict it2 and the scientific signification which ,i have given to the word agrees with its vulgar acceptation1 which is no small advantage1 no slight guarantee--for what is science but experience classified8 ,what is theory but the methodical exposition of universal practice8 ,i may now be permitted to glance rapidly at the systems which have hitherto prevailed4 ,it is not in a spirit of controversy1 much less of criticism1 that ,i enter upon this examination1 and ,i should willingly avoid it were ,i not convinced that it will throw new light upon the fundamental principles which ,i am advocating4 ,we have seen that writers on ,political ,economy have sought for the principle of ,value in one or more of the accidents which exercise a notable influence over it1 such as materiality1 conservability1 utility1 rarity1 labour1 etc42 just like a physiologist who should seek the principle of life in one or more of the external phenomena which are necessary to its development1 as air1 water1 light1 electricity1 etc4 ,materiality4--8,man10 says ,m4 de ,bonald1 8is mind served by organs40 ,if the economists of the materialist school had simply meant that men can render reciprocal services to each other only through the medium of their bodily organs1 and had thence concluded that there is always something material in these services1 and1 consequently1 in ,value1 ,i should not have proceeded a step farther1 as ,i have a horror at word-catching and subtilties1 which wit revels in4 ,but they have not thus understood it4 ,what they believe is that ,value has been communicated to matter1 either by the labour of man or by the action of nature4 ,in a word1 deceived by the elliptical form of expression1 gold is worth so much1 corn is worth so much1 they think they see in matter a quality called ,value1 just as the natural philosopher sees in it resistance and weight--and yet these attributes have been disputed4 ,be that as it may1 ,i dispute formally the existence of ,value as an attribute of matter4 p#aec ,and first of all1 it cannot be denied that ,matter and ,value are often found separated4 ,when we say to a man--,carry that letter to its destination--fetch me some water--teach me this science or that manufacturing process--give me advice as to my sickness1 or my law-suit--watch over my security1 while ,i give myself up to labour or to sleep1--what we demand is a ,service1 and in that service we acknowledge in the face of the world that there resides a ,value1 seeing that we pay for it voluntarily by an equivalent service4 ,it would be strange that we should refuse to admit in theory what universal consent admits in practice4 ,true1 our transactions have reference frequently to material objects2 but what does that prove8 ,why1 that men1 by exercising foresight1 prepare to render services which they know to be in demand4 ,i purchase a coat ready made1 or ,i have a tailor to come to my house to work by the day2 but does that change the principle of ,value1 so as to make it reside at one time in the coat and at another time in the service8 ,one might ask here this puzzling question--,must we not see the principle of ,value first of all in the material object1 and then attribute it by analogy to the services8 ,i say that it is just the reverse4 ,we must recognise it first of all in the services1 and attribute it afterwards1 if we choose1 by a figure of speech1 by metonymy1 to the material objects4 ,the numerous examples which ,i have adduced render it unnecessary for me to pursue this discussion further4 ,but ,i cannot refrain from justifying myself for having entered on it1 by showing to what fatal consequences an error1 or1 if you will1 an incomplete truth1 may lead1 when placed at the threshold of a science4 ,the least inconvenience of the definition which ,i am combating has been to curtail and mutilate ,political ,economy4 ,if ,value resides in matter1 then where there is no matter there can be no ,value4 ,the ,physiocrates#ca designated three-fourths of the entire population as sterile1 and ,adam ,smith1 softening the expression1 as unproductive classes4 ,but as facts in the long run are stronger than definitions1 it became necessary in some way to bring back these classes1 and make them re-enter the circle of economic studies4 ,they were introduced by way of analogy2 but the language of the science1 formed beforehand on other definitions1 had been so materialized as to render this extension repulsive4 ,what mean such phrases as these3 8,to consume an immaterial product8 ,man is accumulated capital8 ,security is a commodity80 etc41 etc4 p#aed ,not only was the language of the science materialized beyond measure1 but writers were forced to surcharge it with subtile distinctions1 in order to reconcile ideas which had been erroneously separated4 ,hence ,adam ,smith's expression of ,value in use1 in contradistinction to ,value in exchange1 etc4 ,a greater evil still has been that1 in consequence of this confusion of two great social phenomena1 property and community1 the one has seemed incapable of justification1 and the other has been lost sight of4 ,in fact1 if ,value resides in matter1 it becomes mixed up with the physical qualities of bodies which render them useful to man4 ,now1 these qualities are frequently placed there by nature4 ,then nature co-operates in creating ,value1 and we find ourselves attributing value to what is essentially common and gratuitous4 ,on what basis1 then1 do you place property8 ,when the remuneration which ,i give in order to obtain a material product1 corn for example1 is distributed among all the labourers1 near or at a distance1 who have rendered me a service in the production of that commodity1--who is to receive that portion of the value which corresponds to the action of nature1 and with which man has nothing to do8 ,is it ,providence who is to receive it8 ,no one will say so1 for we never heard of ,nature demanding wages4 ,is man to receive it8 ,what title has he to it1 seeing that1 by the hypothesis1 he has done nothing8 ,do not suppose that ,i am exaggerating1 and that1 for the sake of my own definition1 ,i am torturing the definition of the economists1 and deducing from it too rigorous conclusions4 ,no1 these consequences they have themselves very explicitly deduced1 under the pressure of logic4 ,thus1 ,senior has said that 8those who have appropriated natural agents receive1 under the form of rent1 a recompense without having made any sacrifice4 ,they merely hold out their hands to receive the offerings of the rest of the community40 ,scrope tells us that 8landed property is an artificial restriction imposed upon the enjoyment of those gifts which the ,creator has intended for the satisfaction of the wants of all40 ,j4 ,b4 ,say has these words3 8,arable lands would seem to form a portion of natural wealth1 seeing that they are not of human creation1 and that nature has given them to man gratuitously4 ,but as this description of wealth is not fugitive1 like air and water1--as a field is a space fixed and marked out which certain men have succeeded in appropriating1 to the exclusion of all others who have given their consent to this appropriation1 land1 which was natural p#aee and gratuitous property1 has now become social wealth1 the use of which must be paid for40 ,truly1 if it be so1 ,proudhon is justified in proposing this terrible question1 followed by an affirmation still more terrible3-- 8,to whom belongs the rent of land8 ,to the producer of land1 without doubt4 ,who made the land8 ,god4 ,then1 proprietor1 begone60 ,yes1 by a vicious definition1 ,political ,economy has handed over logic to the ,communists4 ,i will break this terrible weapon in their hands1 or rather they shall surrender it to me cheerfully4 ,the consequences will disappear when ,i have annihilated the principle4 ,and ,i undertake to demonstrate that if1 in the production of wealth1 the action of nature is combined with the action of man1 the first--gratuitous and common in its own nature--remains gratuitous and common in all our transactions2 that the second alone represents services1 value2 that the action of man alone is remunerated2 and that it alone is the foundation1 explanation1 and justification of ,property4 ,in a word1 ,i maintain that1 relatively to each other1 men are proprietors only of the value of things1 and that in transferring products from hand to hand1 what they stipulate for exclusively is value1 that is to say1 reciprocal services3--all the qualities1 properties1 and utilities1 which these products derive from nature being obtained by them into the bargain4 ,if ,political ,economy hitherto1 in disregarding this fundamental consideration1 has shaken the guardian principle of property1 by representing it as an artificial institution1 necessary1 indeed1 but unjust1 she has by the same act left in the shade1 and completely unperceived1 another admirable phenomenon the most touching dispensation of ,providence to the creature--the phenomenon of progressive community4 ,wealth1 taking the word in its general acceptation1 results from the combination of two agencies--the action of nature1 and the action of man4 ,the first is gratuitous and common by the destination of ,providence1 and never loses that character4 ,the second alone is provided with value1 and1 consequently1 appropriated4 ,but with the development of intelligence1 and the progress of civilisation1 the one takes a greater and greater part1 the other a less and less part1 in the realization of each given utility2 whence it follows that the domain of the ,gratuitous and the ,common is continually expanding among men relatively to the domain of ,value and ,property2 a consoling and suggestive view of the subject1 entirely hidden from the eye of science1 so long as we continue to attribute ,value to the co-operation of nature4 p#aef ,men of all religions thank ,god for ,his benefits4 ,the father of a family blesses the bread which he breaks and distributes to his children--a touching custom1 that reason would not justify were the liberality of ,providence other than gratuitous4 ,durableness1 conservability--that pretended sine qu non of ,value1 is connected with the subject which ,i have just been discussing4 ,it is necessary to the very existence of value1 as ,adam ,smith thinks1 that it should be fixed and realized in something which can be exchanged1 accumulated1 preserved1 consequently in something material4 8,there is one sort of labour which adds#cb to the value of the subject upon which it is bestowed4 ,there is another which has no such effect40 8,the labour of the manufacturer10 he adds1 8fixes and realizes itself in some particular subject or vendible commodity1 which lasts for some time at least after the labour is past4 ,the labour of the menial servant1 on the contrary0 7to which the author assimilates in this respect that of soldiers1 magistrates1 musicians1 professors1 etc471 8does not fix or realize itself in any particular subject or vendible commodity4 ,his services perish in the very instant of their performance1 and leave no trace of value behind them40 ,here we find ,value connected rather with the modifications of matter than with the satisfactions of men--a profound error2 for the sole good to be obtained from the modification of material things is the attainment of that satisfaction which is the design1 the end1 the consommation#cc of every ,effort4 ,if1 then1 we realize that satisfaction by a direct and immediate effort1 the result is the same2 and if that effort can be made the subject of transactions1 exchanges1 estimation1 it includes the principle of ,value4 ,as regards the interval which may elapse between the effort and the satisfaction1 surely ,adam ,smith attributes far too much importance to it1 when he says that the existence or non-existence of ,value depends upon it4 8,the value of a vendible commodity10 he says1 8lasts for some time at least40 ,undoubtedly it lasts until the commodity has answered its purpose1 which is to satisfy a want2 and exactly the same thing may be said of a service4 ,as long as that plate of strawberries remains on the sideboard it preserves its value4 ,why8 ,because it is the result of a service p#aeg which ,i have designed to render to myself1 or that another has rendered to me by way of compensation1 and of which ,i have not yet made use4 ,the moment ,i have made use of it1 by eating the strawberries1 the value will disappear4 ,the service will vanish and have no trace of value behind4 ,the very same thing holds of personal services4 ,the consumer makes the value disappear1 for it has been created only for that purpose4 ,it is of little consequence1 as regards the principle of value1 whether the service is undertaken to satisfy a want to-day1 to-morrow1 or a year hence4 ,take another case4 ,i am afflicted with a cataract4 ,i call in an oculist4 ,the instrument he makes use of has value1 because it has durability2 the operation he performs1 it is said1 has none1 and yet ,i pay for it1 and ,i have made choice of one among many rival operators1 and arranged his remuneration beforehand4 ,to maintain that this service has no value is to run counter to notorious facts and notions universally received4 ,and of what use1 ,i would ask1 is a theory which1 far from taking universal practice into account1 ignores it altogether8 ,i would not have the reader suppose that ,i am carried away by an inordinate love of controversy4 ,if ,i dwell upon these elementary notions1 it is to prepare his mind for consequences of the highest importance1 which will be afterwards developed4 ,i know not whether it be to violate the laws of method to indicate these consequences by anticipation1 but ,i venture to depart slightly from the regular course1 in order to obviate the danger of becoming tedious4 ,this is the reason why ,i have spoken prematurely of ,property and ,community2 and for the same reason ,i shall here say a word respecting ,capital4 ,as ,adam ,smith made value to reside in matter1 he could not conceive ,capital as existing otherwise than in an accumulation of material objects4 ,how1 then1 can we attribute ,value to ,services not susceptible of being accumulated or converted into capital8 ,among the different descriptions of ,capital1 we give the first place to tools1 machines1 instruments of labour4 ,they serve to make natural forces co-operate in the work of production1 and1 attributing to these forces the faculty of creating value1 people were led to imagine that instruments of labour1 as such1 were endowed with the same faculty1 independently of any human services4 ,thus the spade1 the plough1 the steam-engine1 were supposed to co-operate simultaneously with natural agents and human forces in creating not only ,utility1 but ,value also4 ,but all value is remunerated by exchange4 ,who1 then1 is to receive that portion of value which is independent of all human service8 p#aeh ,it is thus that the school of ,proudhon1 after having brought the rent of land into question1 has contested also the interest of capital--a larger thesis1 because it includes the other4 ,i maintain that the ,proudhonian error1 viewed scientifically1 has its root in the prior error of ,adam ,smith4 ,i shall demonstrate that capital1 like natural agents1 considered in itself1 and with reference to its own proper action1 creates utility1 but never creates value4 ,the latter is essentially the fruit of a legitimate service4 ,i shall demonstrate also that1 in the social order1 capital is not an accumulation of material objects1 depending on material durability1 but an accumulation of ,values1 that is to say1 of services4 ,this will put an end 7virtually at least1 by removing its foundation7 to the recent attack upon the productiveness of capital1 and in a way satisfactory to the objectors themselves2 for if ,i prove that there is nothing in the business of exchange but a mutuality of services1 ,m4 ,proudhon must own himself vanquished by my victory over his principle4 ,labour4--,adam ,smith and his disciples have assigned the principle of ,value to ,labour under the condition of ,materiality4 ,this is contrary to the other opinion that natural forces play a certain part in the production of ,value4 ,i have not here to combat the contradictions which become apparent in all their fatal consequences when these authors come to discuss the rent of land and the interest of capital4 ,be that as it may1 when they refer the principle of ,value to ,labour1 they would be very near the truth if they did not allude to manual labour4 ,i have said1 in fact1 at the beginning of this chapter1 that ,value must have reference to ,effort1--an expression which ,i prefer to the word ,labour1 as more general1 and embracing the whole sphere of human activity4 ,but ,i hasten to add that it can spring only from efforts exchanged--from reciprocal ,services2 because value is not a thing having independent existence1 but a relation4 ,there are then1 strictly speaking1 two flaws in ,adam ,smith's definition4 ,the first is1 that it does not take exchange into account1 without which value can be neither produced nor conceived4 ,the second is1 that it makes use of too restricted a term--labour2 unless we give to that term an unusual extension1 and include in it the ideas not only of intensity and duration1 but of skill1 sagacity1 and even of good or bad fortune4 ,the word service1 which ,i substitute in my definition1 removes these defects4 ,it implies1 necessarily1 the idea of transmission1 for no service can be rendered which is not received2 and it implies p#aei also the idea of ,effort1 without taking for granted that the value is proportionate4 ,it is in this1 above all1 that the definition of the ,english ,economists is vicious4 ,to say that ,value resides in ,labour induces us to suppose that ,value and ,labour are proportional1 and serve as reciprocal measures of each other4 ,this is contrary to fact1 and a definition which is contrary to fact must be defective4 ,it often happens that an exertion1 considered insignificant in itself1 passes with the world as of enormous value4 7,take1 for example1 the diamond1 the performance of the prima donna1 a dash of a banker's pen1 a fortunate privateering adventure1 a touch of ,raphael's pencil1 a bull of plenary indulgence1 the easy duty of an ,english queen1 etc47 ,it still more frequently happens that laborious and overwhelming labour tends to what is absolutely valueless2 and if it be so1 how can we establish co-relation and proportion between ,value and ,labour8 ,my definition removes the difficulty4 ,it is clear that in certain circumstances one can render a great service at the expense of a very small exertion1 and that in others1 after great exertion1 we render no service at all4 ,and this is another reason why1 in this respect1 it is correct to say that the ,value is in the ,service rendered1 rather than in the ,labour bestowed1 seeing that it bears proportion to the one and not to the other4 ,i go further4 ,i affirm that value is estimated as much by the labour saved to the recipient as by the labour performed by the cdant the man who cedes or makes it over4 ,let the reader recall the dialogue which we supposed to take place between the two parties who bargained for the diamond4 ,in substance1 it has reference to no accidental circumstances1 but enters1 tacitly1 into the essence and foundation of all transactions4 ,keep in mind that we here take for granted that the two parties are at entire liberty to exercise their own will and judgment4 ,each of them1 in making the exchange1 is determined by various considerations1 among which we must certainly rank1 as of the greatest importance1 the difficulty experienced by the recipient in procuring for himself1 by a direct exertion1 the satisfaction which is offered to him4 ,both parties have their eyes on that difficulty1 the one with the view of being more yielding1 the other with the view of being more exacting4 ,the labour undergone by the cdant also exerts an influence on the bargain4 ,it is one of the elements of it1 but it is not the only one4 ,it is not1 then1 exact to say that value is determined by labour4 ,it is determined by a multitude of considerations1 all comprised in the word service4 p#afj ,what may be affirmed with great truth is this2 that1 in consequence of competition1 ,value tends to become more proportioned to ,effort--recompense to merit4 ,it is one of the beautiful ,harmonies of the social state4 ,but1 as regards ,value1 this equalizing pressure exercised by competition is quite external1 and it is not allowable in strict logic to confound the influence which a phenomenon undergoes1 from an external cause1 with the phenomenon itself4#cd ,utility4--,j4 ,b4 ,say1 if ,i am not mistaken1 was the first who threw off the yoke of materiality4 ,he made out value very expressly p#afa to be a moral quality1--an expression which perhaps goes too far1 for value can scarcely be said to be either a physical or a moral quality--it is simply a relation4 ,but the great ,french ,economist has himself said1 that 8,it is not given to any one to reach the confines of science1 and ,philosophers mount on each other's shoulders to explore a more and more extended horizon40 ,perhaps the glory of ,m4 ,say 7in what regards the special question with which we are now occupied1 for his titles to glory in other respects are as numerous as they are imperishable7 is to have bequeathed to his successors a view of the subject which is prolific and suggestive4 ,m4 ,say's principle was this--8,value is founded on ,utility40 ,if we had here to do with utility as connected with human services1 ,i should not contest this principle4 ,at most ,i could only observe that it is superfluous1 as being self-evident4 ,it is very clear1 as matter of fact1 that no one consents to remunerate a service1 unless right or wrong1 he judges it to be useful4 ,the word service includes the idea of utility--so much so that it is nothing else than a literal reproduction of the ,latin word uti2 in ,french1 servir4 ,but1 unfortunately1 it is not in this sense that ,say understands it4 ,he discovers the principle of value not only in human services1 rendered by means of material things1 but in the useful qualities put by nature into the things themselves4 ,in this way he places himself once more under the yoke of materiality1 and is very far1 we are obliged to confess1 from clearing away the mist in which the ,english ,economists had enveloped the question of ,property4 ,before discussing ,say's principle on its own merits1 ,i must explain its logical bearing1 in order to avoid the reproach of landing myself and the reader in an idle discussion4 ,we cannot doubt that the ,utility of which ,say speaks is that which resides in material objects4 ,if corn1 timber1 coal1 broad cloth1 have value1 it is because these products possess qualities which render them proper for our use1 fit to satisfy the want we experience of food1 fuel1 and clothing4 ,hence1 as nature has created ,utility1 it is inferred that she has created also ,value--a fatal confusion of ideas1 out of which the enemies of property have forged a terrible weapon4 ,take a commodity1 corn for example4 ,i purchase it at the ,halle au ,bl for sixteen francs4 ,a great portion of these sixteen francs is distributed--in infinite ramifications1 and an inextricable complication of advances and reimbursements--among all the men1 p#afb here or abroad1 who have co-operated in furnishing this corn4 ,part goes to the labourer1 the sower1 the reaper1 the thrasher1 the carter1--part to the blacksmith and plough-wright1 who have prepared the agricultural implements4 ,thus far all are agreed1 whether ,economists or ,communists4 ,but ,i perceive that four out of the sixteen francs go to the proprietor of the soil1 and ,i have a good right to ask if that man1 like the others1 has rendered me a ,service to entitle him incontestably1 like them1 to remuneration4 ,according to the doctrine which the present work aspires to establish1 the answer is categorical4 ,it consists of a peremptory yes4 ,the proprietor has rendered me a service4 ,what is it8 ,this1 that he has by himself1 or his ancestor1 cleared and enclosed the field--he has cleared it of weeds and stagnant water--he has enriched and thickened the vegetable mould--he has built a house and a homestead4 ,all this presupposes much labour executed by him in person2 or1 what comes to the same thing1 by others whom he has paid4 ,these are services1 certainly1 which1 according to the just law of reciprocity1 must be reimbursed to him4 ,now1 this proprietor has never been remunerated1 at least to the full extent4 ,he cannot be so by the first man who comes to buy from him a bag of corn4 ,what is the arrangement1 then1 that takes place8 ,assuredly the most ingenious1 the most legitimate1 the most equitable arrangement which it is possible to imagine4 ,it consists in this--,that whoever wishes to purchase a sack of corn shall pay1 besides the services of the various labourers whom we have enumerated1 a small portion of the services rendered by the proprietor4 ,in other words1 the ,value of the proprietor's services is spread over all the sacks of corn which are produced by this field4 ,now1 it may be asked if the supposed remuneration of four francs be too great or too small4 ,i answer that ,political ,economy has nothing to do with that4 ,that science establishes that the value of the services rendered by the landed proprietor are regulated by exactly the same laws as the value of other services1 and that is enough4 ,it may be a subject of surprise1 too1 that this bit-by-bit reimbursement should not at length amount to a complete liquidation1 and1 consequently1 to an extinction of the proprietor's claim4 ,they who make this objection do not reflect that it is of the nature of ,capital to produce a perpetual return1 as we shall see in the sequel4 ,i shall not dwell longer on that question in this place2 and shall p#afc simply remark1 that there is not in the entire price of the corn a single farthing which does not go to remunerate human services1--not one which corresponds to the value that nature is supposed to have given to the corn by imparting to it utility4 ,but if1 adhering to the principle of ,say and the ,english ,economists1 you assert that1 of the sixteen francs1 there are twelve which go to the labourers1 sowers1 reapers1 carters1 etc4--two which recompense the personal services of the proprietor2 and finally1 that there are two others which represent a value which has for its foundation the utility created by ,god1 by natural agents1 and without any co-operation of man1 do you not perceive that you immediately lay yourself open to be asked1 ,who is to profit by this portion of value8 ,who has a title to this remuneration8 ,nature does not demand it1 and who dare take nature's place4 ,the more ,say tries to explain ,property on this hypothesis1 the more he exposes himself to attack4 ,he sets out by justly comparing nature to a laboratory1 in which various chemical operations take place1 the result of which is useful to man4 8,the soil1 then10 he adds1 8is the producer of utility1 and when ,,it 7the soil7 receives payment in the form of a profit or a rent to its proprietor1 it is not without giving something to the consumer in exchange for what he pays ,,it 7the soil74 ,it 7still the soil7 gives him the utility it has produced1 and it is in producing this utility that the earth is productive as well as labour40 ,this assertion is unmistakable4 ,here we have two pretenders1 who present themselves to share the remuneration due by the consumer of corn--namely1 the earth and labour4 ,they urge the same title1 for the soil1 ,m4 ,say affirms1 is productive as well as labour4 ,labour asks to be remunerated for a service2 the soil demands to be remunerated for a utility1 and this remuneration it demands not for itself 7for in what form should we give it87 but for its proprietor4 ,whereupon ,proudhon summons the proprietor1 who represents himself as having the powers of the soil at his disposal1 to exhibit his title4 ,you wish me to pay2 in other words1 to render a service1 in order that ,i may receive the utility produced by natural agents1 independently of the assistance of man1 already paid for separately4 ,but1 ,i ask again1 ,who is to profit by my service8 ,is it the producer of utility1--that is to say1 the soil8 ,that is absurd--the fear of any demand from that quarter need give no great uneasiness4 p#afd ,is it man8 but by what title does he demand it8 ,if for having rendered me a service1 well and good4 ,in that case1 we are at one4 ,it is the human service which has value1 not the natural service2 and that is just the conclusion to which ,i desire to bring you4 ,that1 however1 is contrary to your hypothesis4 ,you say that all the human services are remunerated with fourteen francs1 and that the two francs which make up the price of the corn correspond to the value created by nature4 ,in that case1 ,i repeat my question--,by what title does any one present himself to receive them8 ,is it not1 unfortunately1 too clear that if you give specially the name of proprietor to the man who claims right to these two francs1 you justify the too famous saying that ,property is theft8 ,and don't imagine that this confusion between utility and value shakes only the foundation of landed property4 ,after having led you to contest the rent of land1 it leads you to contest also the interest of capital4 ,in fact1 machines1 the instruments of labour1 are1 like the soil1 producers of utility4 ,if that utility has value1 it is paid for1 for the word value implies right to payment4 ,but to whom is the payment made8 ,to the proprietor of the machine1 without doubt4 ,is it for a personal service8 ,then say at once that the value is in the service4 ,but if you say that it is necessary to make a payment first for the service1 and a second payment for the utility produced by the machine independently of the human action1 which has been already recompensed1 then ,i ask you to whom does this second payment go1 and how has the man who has been already remunerated for all his services a right to demand anything more8 ,the truth is1 that the utility which is produced by nature is gratuitous1 and therefore common1 like that produced by the instruments of labour4 ,it is gratuitous and common on one condition1 that we take the trouble1 that we render ourselves the service of appropriating it2 or1 if we give that trouble to or demand that service from another1 that we cede to him in return an equivalent service4 ,it is in these services1 thus compared1 that value resides1 and not at all in natural utility4 ,the exertion may be more or less great--that makes a difference in the value1 not in the utility4 ,when we stand near a spring1 water is gratuitous for us all on condition that we stoop to lift it4 ,if we ask our neighbour to take that trouble for us1 then a convention1 a bargain1 a value makes its appearance1 but that does not make the water otherwise than gratuitous4 ,if we are an hour's walk from the spring1 the basis of the transaction will be different2 but the difference is one of degree1 not of principle4 ,the value has not1 on that account1 passed into p#afe the water or into its utility4 ,the water continues still gratuitous on condition of fetching it1 or of remunerating those who1 by a bargain freely made and discussed1 agree to spare us that exertion by making it themselves4 ,it is the same thing in every case4 ,we are surrounded by utilities1 but we must stoop to appropriate them4 ,that exertion is sometimes very simple1 and often very complicated4 ,nothing is more easy1 in the general case1 than to draw water1 the utility of which has been prepared by nature beforehand4 ,it is not so easy to obtain corn1 the utility of which nature has equally prepared4 ,this is why these two efforts differ in degree though not in principle4 ,the service is more or less onerous2 therefore more or less valuable--the utility is1 and remains always1 gratuitous4 ,suppose an instrument of labour to intervene1 what would be the result8 ,that the utility would be more easily obtained4 ,the service has thus less value4 ,we certainly pay less for our books since the invention of printing4 ,admirable phenomenon1 too little understood6 ,you say that the instruments of labour produce ,value--you are mistaken--it is ,utility1 and gratuitous ,utility1 you should say4 ,as to ,value1 instead of producing it1 they tend more and more to annihilate it4 ,it is quite true that the person who made the machine has rendered a service4 ,he receives a remuneration by which the value of the product is augmented4 ,this is the reason why we fancy we recompense the utility which the machine produces4 ,it is an illusion4 ,what we remunerate is the services which all those who have co-operated in making and working the machine have rendered to us4 ,so little does the value reside in the utility produced1 that even after having recompensed these new services1 we acquire the utility on easier and cheaper terms than before4 ,let us accustom ourselves to distinguish ,utility from ,value4 ,without this there can be no ,economic science4 ,i give utterance to no paradox when ,i affirm that ,utility and ,value1 so far from being identical1 or oven similar1 are ideas opposed to one another4 ,want1 ,effort1 ,satisfaction3 here we have man regarded in an ,economic point of view4 ,the relation of utility is with ,want and ,satisfaction4 ,the relation of ,value is with ,effort4 ,utility is the ,good1 which puts an end to the want by the satisfaction4 ,value is the ,evil1 for it springs from the obstacle which is interposed between the want and the satisfaction4 ,but for these obstacles1 there would have been no ,effort either to make or in exchange2 ,utility would be infinite1 gratuitous1 and common1 without condition1 and the notion of ,value would never have p#aff entered into the world4 ,in consequence of these obstacles1 ,utility is gratuitous only on condition of ,efforts exchanged1 which1 when compared with each other1 give rise to ,value4 ,the more these obstacles give way before the liberality of nature and the progress of science1 the more does utility approximate to the state of being absolutely common and gratuitous1 for the onerous condition1 and1 consequently1 the value1 diminish as the obstacles diminish4 ,i shall esteem myself fortunate if1 by these dissertations1 which may appear subtle1 and of which ,i am condemned to fear at once the length and the conciseness1 ,i succeed in establishing this encouraging truth--the legitimate property of value1--and this other truth1 equally consoling--the progressive community of utility4 ,one observation more4 ,all that serves us is useful 7uti1 servir71 and in this respect it is extremely doubtful whether there be anything in the universe 7whether in the shape of forces or materials7 which is not useful to man4 ,we may affirm at least1 without fear of mistake1 that a multitude of things possess a utility which is unknown to us4 ,were the moon placed either higher or lower than she is1 it is very possible that the inorganic kingdom1 consequently the vegetable kingdom1 consequently also the animal kingdom1 might be profoundly modified4 ,but for that star which shines in the firmament while ,i write1 it may be that the human race had not existed4 ,nature has surrounded us with utilities4 ,the quality of being useful we recognise in many substances and phenomena2--in others1 science and experience reveal it to us every day1--in others1 again1 it may exist in perfection1 and yet we may remain for ever ignorant of it4 ,when these substances and phenomena exert upon us1 but independently of us1 their useful action1 we have no interest in comparing the degree of their utility to mankind2 and1 what is more1 we have scarcely the means of making the comparison4 ,we know that oxygen and azote are useful to us1 but we don't try1 and probably we should try in vain1 to determine in what proportion4 ,we have not here the elements of appreciation--the elements of value4 ,i should say as much of the salts1 the gases1 the forces which abound in nature4 ,when all these agents are moved and combined so as to produce for us1 but without our co-operation1 utility1 that utility we enjoy without estimating its value4 ,it is when our co-operation comes into play1 and1 above all1 when it comes to be exchanged1--it is then1 and then only1 that ,estimation and ,value make their appearance1 in connexion not with the utility of the substances or phenomena1 of which we are often ignorant1 but with the co-operation itself4 p#afg ,this is my reason for saying that 8,value is the appreciation of services exchanged40 ,these services may be very complicated2 they may have exacted a multitude of operations recent or remote2 they may be transmitted from one generation or one hemisphere to another generation or another hemisphere1 embracing countless contracting parties1 necessitating credits1 advances1 various arrangements1 until a general balance is effected4 ,but the principle of value is always in the services1 and not in the utility of which these services are the vehicle1--utility which is gratuitous in its nature and essence1 and which passes from hand to hand1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 into the bargain4 ,after all1 if you persist in seeing in ,utility the foundation of ,value1 ,i am very willing1 but it must be distinctly understood that it is not that utility which is in things and phenomena by the dispensation of ,providence or the power of art1 but the utility of human services compared and exchanged4 ,rarity4--,according to ,senior1 of all the circumstances which determine value1 rarity is the most decisive4 ,i have no objection to make to that remark1 if it is not that the form in which it is made presupposes that value is inherent in things themselves--a hypothesis the very appearance of which ,i shall always combat4 ,at bottom1 the word rarity1 as applied to the subject we are now discussing1 expresses in a concise manner this idea1 that1 cteris paribus1 a service has more value in proportion as we have more difficulty in rendering it to ourselves2 and that1 consequently1 a larger equivalent is exacted from us when we demand it from another4 ,rarity is one of these difficulties4 ,it is one obstacle more to be surmounted4 ,the greater it is1 the greater remuneration do we award to those who surmount it for us4 ,rarity gives rise frequently to large remunerations1 and this is my reason for refusing to admit with the ,english ,economists that ,value is proportional to ,labour4 ,we must take into account the parsimony with which nature treats us in certain respects4 ,the word service embraces all these ideas and shades of ideas4 ,judgment4--,storch sees value in the judgment by which we recognise it4 ,undoubtedly1 whenever we have to do with relation1 it is necessary to compare and to judge4 ,nevertheless1 the relation is one thing and the judgment is another4 ,when we compare the height of two trees1 their magnitude1 and the difference of their magnitude1 are independent of our appreciation4 ,but in the determination of value1 what is the relation of which we have to form a judgment8 ,it is the relation of two services exchanged4 ,the business is to discover what the services rendered p#afh are worth in relation to those received1 in connexion with acts or things exchanged1 and taking all circumstances into account1--not what intrinsic utility resides in these acts or things1 for this utility may1 to some extent1 be altogether independent of human exertion1 and1 consequently1 devoid of value4 ,storch falls into the error which ,i am now combating when he says1-- 8,our judgment enables us to discover the relation which exists between our wants and the utility of things4 ,the determination which our judgment forms upon the utility of things constitutes their value40 ,and1 farther on1 he says1-- 8,in order to create a value1 we must have the conjunction of these three circumstances3--#ast1 ,that man experiences or conceives a want2 #b;d1 ,that there exists something calculated to satisfy that want2 and1 #c;d1 ,that a judgment is pronounced in favour of the utility of the thing4 ,then the value of things is their relative utility40 ,during the day ,i experience the want of seeing clearly4 ,there exists one thing calculated to satisfy that want--namely1 the light of the sun4 ,my judgment pronounces in favour of the utility of that thing1 and 4 4 4 it has no value4 ,why8 ,because ,i enjoy it without calling for the services of any one4 ,at night ,i experience the same want4 ,there exists one thing capable of satisfying it very imperfectly1 a wax candle4 ,my judgment pronounces in favour of the utility1 but far inferior utility1 of that thing--and it has value4 ,why8 ,because the man who has taken the trouble to make the candle will not give it to me except upon condition of my rendering him an equivalent service4 ,what we have1 then1 to compare and to judge of1 in order to determine ,value1 is not the relative utility of things1 but the relation of two services4 ,on these terms1 ,i do not reject ,storch's definition4 ,permit me to recapitulate a little1 in order to show clearly that my definition contains all that is true in the definitions of my predecessors1 and eliminates everything in them which is erroneous either through excess or defect4 ,the principle of ,value1 we have seen1 resides in a human service1 and results from the appreciation of two services compared4 ,value must have relation to ,effort4 ,service implies a certain ,effort4 ,value supposes a comparison of ,efforts exchanged1 at least exchangeable4 ,service implies the terms to give and to receive4 p#afi ,value is not1 however1 in fact proportional to the intensity of the ,efforts4 ,service does not necessarily imply that proportion4 ,a multitude of external circumstances influence value without constituting value itself4 ,the word service takes all these circumstances in due measure into account4 ,materiality4--,when the service consists in transferring a material thing1 nothing hinders us from saying1 by metonymy1 that it is the thing which has value4 ,but we must not forget that this is a figure of speech1 by which we attribute to things themselves the value of the services which produced them4 ,conservability4--,without reference to the consideration of materiality1 value endures until the satisfaction is obtained1 and no longer4 ,whether the satisfaction follows the effort more or less nearly--whether the service is personal or real1 makes no change in the nature of value4 ,capability of ,accumulation4--,in a social point of view1 what is accumulated by saving is not matter1 but value or services4#ce ,utility4--,i admit1 with ,m4 ,say1 that ,utility is the foundation of ,value1 provided it is granted me that we have no concern with the utility which resides in commodities1 but with the relative utility of services4 ,labour4--,i admit1 with ,ricardo1 that ,labour is the foundation of ,value1 provided1 first of all1 the word labour is taken in the most general sense1 and that you do not afterwards assert a proportionality which is contrary to fact2 in other words1 provided you substitute for the word labour the word service4 ,rarity4--,i admit1 with ,senior1 that rarity influences value4 ,but why8 ,because it renders the service so much more precious4 ,judgment4--,i admit1 with ,storch1 that value results from a judgment formed1 provided it is granted me that the judgment so formed is not upon the utility of things1 but on the utility of services4 ,thus ,i hope to satisfy ,economists of all shades of opinion4 ,i p#agj admit them all to be right1 because all have had a glimpse of the truth in one of its aspects4 ,error is no doubt on the reverse of the medal2 and it is for the reader to decide whether my definition includes all that is true1 and rejects all that is false4 ,i cannot conclude without saying a word on that quadrature of ,political ,economy--the measure of value2 and here ,i shall repeat1 and with still more force1 the observation with which ,i terminated the preceding chapters4 ,i said that our wants1 our desires1 our tastes1 have neither limit nor exact measure4 ,i said also that our means of providing for our wants--the gifts of nature1 our faculties1 activity1 discernment1 foresight--had no precise measure4 ,each of these elements is variable in itself--it differs in different men--it varies from hour to hour in the same individual1--so that the whole forms an aggregate which is mobility itself4 ,if1 again1 we consider what the circumstances are which influence value--utility1 labour1 rarity1 judgment--and reflect that there is not one of these circumstances which does not vary ad infinitum1 we may well ask why men should set themselves so pertinaciously to try to discover a fixed measure of ,value8 ,it would be singular1 indeed1 if we were to find fixity in a mean term composed of variable elements1 and which is nothing else than a ,relation between two extreme terms more variable still6 ,the ,economists1 then1 who go in pursuit of an absolute measure of value are pursuing a chimera2 and1 what is more1 a thing which1 if found1 would be positively useless4 ,universal practice has adopted gold and silver as standards1 although practical men are not ignorant how variable is the value of these metals4 ,but of what importance is the variability of the measure1 if1 affecting equally and in the same manner the two objects which are exchanged1 it does not interfere with the fairness and equity of the exchange8 ,it is a mean proportional1 which may rise or fall1 without1 on that account1 failing to perform its office1 which is to show the ,relation of two extremes4 ,the design of the science is not1 like that of exchange1 to discover the present ,relation of two services1 for1 in that case1 money would answer the purpose in view4 ,what the science aims at discovering is the ,relation between ,effort and ,satisfaction2 and for this purpose1 a measure of value1 did it exist1 would teach us nothing1 for the effort brings always to the satisfaction a varying proportion of gratuitous utility which has no value4 ,it is because this element of our well-being has been lost sight of that the p#aga majority of writers have deplored the absence of a measure of ,value4 ,they have not reflected that it would not enable them to answer the question proposed--,what is the comparative ,wealth or prosperity of two classes1 of two countries1 of two generations8 ,in order to resolve that question1 the science would require a measure which should reveal to it not only the relation of two services1 which might be the vehicle of very different amounts of gratuitous utility1 but the relation of the ,effort to the ,satisfaction1 and that measure could be no other than the effort itself1 or labour4 ,but how can labour serve as a measure8 ,is it not itself a most variable element8 ,is it not more or less skilful1 laborious1 precarious1 dangerous1 repugnant8 ,does it not require1 more or less1 the intervention of certain intellectual faculties1 of certain moral virtues8 and1 according as it is influenced by these circumstances1 is it not rewarded by a remuneration which is in the highest degree variable8 ,there is one species of labour which1 at all times1 and in all places1 is identically the same1 and it is that which must serve as a type4 ,i mean labour the most simple1 rude1 primitive1 muscular1--that which is freest from all natural co-operation--that which every man can execute--that which renders services of a kind which one can render to himself--that which exacts no exceptional force or skill1 and requires no apprenticeship1--industry such as is found in the very earliest stages of society3 the work1 in short1 of the simple day-labourer4 ,that kind of labour is everywhere the most abundantly supplied1 the least special1 the most homogeneous1 and the worst remunerated4 ,wages in all other departments are proportioned and graduated on this basis1 and increase with every circumstance which adds to its importance4 ,if1 then1 we wish to compare two social states with each other1 we cannot have recourse to a standard of value1 and for two reasons1 the one as logical as the other--first1 because there is none2 and1 secondly1 because1 if there were1 it would give a wrong answer to our question1 neglecting1 as it must1 a considerable and progressive element in human prosperity--gratuitous utility4 ,what we must do1 on the contrary1 is to put ,value altogether out of sight1 particularly the consideration of money2 and ask the question1 ,what1 in such and such a country1 and1 at such and such an epoch1 is the amount of each kind of special utility1 and the sum total of all utilities1 which correspond to a given amount of unskilled labour8 ,in other words1 what amount of material comfort and prosperity can an unskilled workman earn as the reward of his daily toil8 p#agb ,we may affirm that the natural social order is harmonious1 and goes on improving1 if1 on the one hand1 the number of unskilled labours1 receiving the smallest possible remuneration1 continues to diminish2 and if1 on the other1 that remuneration1 measured not in value or in money1 but in real satisfactions1 continues constantly on the increase4#cf ,the ancients have well described all the combinations of ,exchange3-- ,do ut des 7commodity against commodity71 ,do ut facias 7commodity against service71 ,facio ut des 7service against commodity71 ,facio ut facias 7service against service74#cg ,seeing that products and services are thus exchanged for one another1 it is quite necessary that they should have something in common1 something by which they can be compared and estimated--namely1 ,value4 ,but value is always identically the same4 ,whether it be in the product or in the service1 it has always the same origin and foundation4 ,this being so1 we may ask1 is ,value originally and essentially in the commodity1 and is it only by analogy that we extend the notion to the service8 ,or1 on the contrary1 does ,value reside in the service1 and is it not mixed up and amalgamated with the product1 simply and exclusively because the service is so8 ,some people seem to think that this is a question of pure subtilty4 ,we shall see by-and-by4 ,at present ,i shall only observe1 that it would be strange if1 in ,political ,economy1 a good or a bad definition of ,value were a matter of indifference4 ,i cannot doubt that1 at the outset1 ,political ,economists thought they discovered value rather in the product1 as such1 than in the matter of the product4 ,the ,physiocrates the conomistes of ,quesnay's school attributed value exclusively to land1 and stigmatized as sterile such classes as added nothing to matter1--so strictly in their eyes were value and matter bound up together4 ,adam ,smith ought to have discarded this idea1 since he makes value flow from labour4 ,do not pure services1 services per se1 exact labour1 and1 consequently1 do they not imply value8 ,near to the truth as ,smith had come1 he did not make himself master of it2 for1 besides pronouncing formally that labour1 in order to possess value1 must be applied to matter1 to something physically p#agc tangible and capable of accumulation1 we know that1 like the ,physiocrates1 he ranked those who simply render services among the unproductive classes4 ,these classes1 in fact1 occupy a prominent position in the ,wealth of ,nations4 ,but this only shows us that the author1 after having given a definition1 found himself straitened by it1 and1 consequently1 that that definition is erroneous4 ,adam ,smith would not have gained his great and just renown had he not written his magnificent chapters on ,education1 on the ,clergy1 and on ,public ,services1 and if he had1 in treating of ,wealth1 confined himself within the limits of his own definition4 ,happily1 by this inconsistency1 he freed himself from the fetters which his premises imposed upon him4 ,this always happens4 ,a man of genius who sets out with a false principle never escapes inconsistency1 without which he would get deeper and deeper into error1 and1 far from appearing a man of genius1 would show himself no longer a man of sense4 ,as ,adam ,smith advanced a step beyond the ,physiocrates1 ,jean ,baptiste ,say advanced a step beyond ,smith4 ,by degrees ,say was led to refer value to services1 but only by way of analogy4 ,it is in the product that he discovers true value1 and nothing shows this better than his whimsical denomination of services as 8immaterial products0--two words which absolutely shriek out on finding themselves side by side4 ,say1 in the outset1 agrees with ,smith2 for the entire theory of the master is to be found in the first ten lines of the work of the disciple4#ch ,but he thought and meditated on the subject for thirty years1 and he made progress4 ,he approximated more and more to the truth1 without ever fully attaining it4 ,moreover1 we might have imagined that ,say did his duty as an ,economist as well by referring the value of the service to the product1 as by referring the value of the product to the service1 if the ,socialist propaganda1 founding on his own deductions1 had not come to reveal to us the insufficiency and the danger of his principle4 ,the question ,i propose1 then1 is this3--,seeing that certain products are possessed of value1 seeing that certain services are possessed of value1 and seeing that value is one and identical1 and can have but one origin1 one foundation1 one explanation1--is this origin1 this explanation to be found in the product or in the service8 ,the reply to that question is obvious1 and for this unanswerable p#agd reason1 that every product which has value implies service1 but every service does not necessarily imply a product4 ,this appears to me mathematically certain--conclusive4 ,a service1 as such1 has value1 whether it assume a material form or not4 ,a material object has value if1 in transferring it to another1 we render him a service1--if not1 it has no value4 ,then value does not proceed from the material object to the service1 but from the service to the material object4 ,nor is this all4 ,nothing is more easily explained than this pre-eminence1 this priority1 given to the service over the product1 so far as value is concerned4 ,we shall immediately see that this is owing to a circumstance which might have been easily perceived1 but which has not been observed1 just because it is under our eyes4 ,it is nothing else than that foresight which is natural to man1 and in virtue of which1 in place of limiting himself to the services which are demanded of him1 he prepares himself beforehand to render those services which he foresees are likely to be demanded4 ,it is thus that the facio ut facias transforms itself into the do ut des1 without its ceasing to be the dominant fact which explains the whole transaction4 ,john says to ,peter1 ,i want a cup4 ,i could make it for myself1 but if you will make it for me1 you will render me a service1 for which ,i will pay you by an equivalent service4 ,peter accepts the offer1 and1 in consequence1 sets out in quest of suitable materials1 mixes them1 manipulates them1 and1 in fine1 makes the article which ,john wants4 ,it is very evident that here it is the service which determines the value4 ,the dominant word in the transaction is facio4 ,and if1 afterwards1 the value is incorporated with the product1 it is only because it flows from the service1 which combines the labour executed by ,peter with the labour saved to ,john4 ,now1 it may happen that ,john may make frequently the same proposal to ,peter1 and that other people may also make it2 so that ,peter can foresee with certainty the kind of services which will be demanded of him1 and prepare himself for rendering them4 ,he may say1 ,i have acquired a certain degree of skill in making cups4 ,experience tells me that cups supply a want which must be satisfied1 and ,i am therefore enabled to manufacture them beforehand4 ,henceforth ,john says no longer to ,peter1 facio ut facias1 but facio ut des4 ,if he in turn has foreseen the wants of ,peter1 and laboured beforehand to provide for them1 he can then say do ut des4 p#age ,but in what respect1 ,i ask1 does this progress1 which flows from human foresight1 change the nature and origin of value8 ,does service cease to be its foundation and measure8 ,as regards the true idea of value1 what difference does it make whether ,peter1 before he makes the cup1 waits till there is a demand for it1 or1 foreseeing a future demand1 manufactures the article beforehand8 ,there is another remark which ,i would make here4 ,in human life1 inexperience and thoughtlessness precede experience and foresight4 ,it is only in the course of time that men are enabled to foresee each other's wants1 and to make preparations for satisfying them4 ,logically1 the facio ut facias must precede the do ut des4 ,the latter is at once the fruit and the evidence of a certain amount of knowledge diffused1 of experience acquired1 of political security obtained1 of a certain confidence in the future1--in a word1 of a certain degree of civilisation4 ,this social prescience1 this faith in a future demand1 which causes us to provide a present supply2 this sort of intuitive acquaintance with statistics which each possesses in a greater or less degree1 and which establishes a surprising equilibrium between our wants and the means of supplying them1 is one of the most powerful and efficacious promoters of human improvement4 ,to it we owe the division of labour1 or at least the separation of trades and professions4 ,to it we owe one of the advantages which men seek for with the greatest ardour1 the fixity of remuneration1 under the form of wages as regards labour1 and interest as regards capital4 ,to it we are indebted for the institution of credit1 transactions having reference to the future1 those which are designed to equalize risk1 etc4 ,it is surprising1 in an ,economical point of view1 that this noble attribute of man1 ,foresight1 has not been made more the subject of remark4 ,this arises1 as ,rousseau has said1 from the difficulty we experience in observing the medium in which we live and move1 and which forms our natural atmosphere4 ,we notice only exceptional appearances and abnormal facts1 while we allow to pass unperceived those which act permanently around us1 upon us1 and within us1 and which modify profoundly both individual men and society at large4 ,to return to the subject which at present engages us4 ,it may be that human foresight1 in its infinite diffusion1 tends more and more to substitute the do ut des for the facio ut facias2 but we must never forget that it is in the primitive and necessary form of exchange that the notion of value first makes its appearance1 that this primitive form is that of reciprocal service2 and that1 after all1 p#agf as regards exchange1 the product is only a service foreseen and provided for4 ,but although ,i have shown that value is not inherent in matter1 and cannot be classed among its attributes1 ,i am far from maintaining that it does not pass from the service to the product1 so as 7if ,i may be allowed the expression7 to become incorporated with it4 ,i hope my opponents will not believe that ,i am pedant enough to wish to exclude from common language such phrase as these--gold has value1 wheat has value1 land has value4 ,but ,i have a right to demand of science why this is so8 and if ,i am answered1 because gold1 wheat1 and land possess in themselves intrinsic value1 then ,i think ,i have a right to say--8,you are mistaken1 and your error is dangerous4 ,you are mistaken1 for there are gold and land which are destitute of value1 gold and land which have not yet had any human labour bestowed upon them4 ,your error is dangerous1 for it leads men to regard what is simply a right to a reciprocity of services as a usurpation of the gratuitous gifts of ,god40 ,i am quite willing1 then1 to acknowledge that products are possessed of value1 provided you grant me that it is not essential to them1 and that it attaches itself to services1 and proceeds from them4 ,this is so true1 that a very important consequence1 and one which is fundamental in ,political ,economy1 flows from it--a consequence which has not been1 and indeed could not be remarked4 ,it is this3-- ,where value has passed from the service to the product1 it undergoes in the product all the risks and chances to which it is subject in the service itself4 ,it is not fixed in the product1 as it would have been had it been one of its own intrinsic qualities4 ,it is essentially variable2 it may rise indefinitely1 or it may fall until it disappears altogether1 just as the species of service to which it owes its origin would have done4 ,the man who makes a cup to-day for the purpose of selling it a year hence1 confers value on it1 and that value is determined by that of the service--not the value which the service possesses at the present moment1 but that which it will possess at the end of the year4 ,if at the time when the cup comes to be sold such services are more in demand1 the cup will be worth more1 or it will be depreciated in the opposite case4 ,this is the reason why man is constantly stimulated to exercise foresight1 in order to turn it to account4 ,he has always in p#agg perspective a possible rise or fall of value1--a recompense for just and sagacious prevision1 and chastisement when it is erroneous4 ,and1 observe1 his success or failure coincides with the public good or the public detriment4 ,if his foresight has been well directed1 if he has made preparations beforehand to give society the benefit of services which are more in request1 more appreciated1 more efficacious1 which supply more adequately wants which are deeply felt1 he has contributed to diminish the scarcity1 to augment the abundance1 of that description of service1 and to bring it within the reach of a greater number of persons at less expense4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he is mistaken in his calculations for the future1 he contributes1 by his competition1 to depress still farther those services for which there is little demand4 ,he only effects1 and at his own expense1 a negative good1--he advertises the public that a certain description of wants no longer call for the exertion of much social activity1 which activity must now take another direction1 or go without recompense4 ,this remarkable fact--that value1 incorporated in a product1 depends on the value of the kind of service to which it owes its origin--is of the very highest importance1 not only because it demonstrates more and more clearly the theory that the principle of value resides in the service1 but because it explains1 easily and satisfactorily1 phenomena which other systems regard as abnormal and exceptional4 ,when once the product has been thrown upon the market of the world1 do the general tendencies of society operate towards elevating or towards depressing its value8 ,this is to ask whether the particular kind of services which have engendered this value are liable to become more or less appreciated1 and better or worse remunerated4 ,the one is as possible as the other1 and it is this which opens an unlimited field to human foresight4 ,this we may remark at least1 that the general law of beings1 capable of making experiments1 of acquiring information1 and of rectifying mistakes1 is progress4 ,the probability1 then1 is1 that at any given period a certain amount of time and pains will effect greater results than were effected by the same agency at an anterior period3 whence we may conclude that the prevailing tendency of value1 incorporated with a commodity1 is to fall4 ,if1 for example1 we suppose the cup which ,i took by way of illustration1 and as a symbol of other products1 to have been made many years ago1 the probability is that it has undergone depreciation1 inasmuch as we have at the present day more resources for the manufacture of such articles1 more skill1 better tools1 capital p#agh obtained on easier terms1 and a more extended division of labour4 ,in this way the person who wishes to obtain the cup does not say to its possessor1 ,tell me the exact amount of labour 7quantity and quality both taken into account7 which that cup has cost you1 in order that ,i may remunerate you accordingly4 ,no1 he says1 ,now-a-days1 in consequence of the progress of art1 ,i can make for myself1 or procure by exchange1 a similar cup at the expense of so much labour of such a quality2 and that is the limit of the remuneration which ,i can consent to give you4 ,hence it follows that all labour incorporated with commodities1 in other words1 all accumulated labour1 all capital1 has a tendency to become depreciated in presence of services naturally improvable and increasingly and progressively productive2 and that1 in exchanging present labour against anterior labour1 the advantage is generally on the side of present labour1 as it ought to be1 seeing that it renders a greater amount of service4 ,this shows us how empty are the declamations which we hear continually directed against the value of landed property4 ,that value differs from other values in nothing--neither in its origin1 nor in its nature1 nor in the general law of its slow depreciation1 as compared with the labour which it originally cost4 ,it represents anterior services1--the clearing away of trees and stones1 draining1 enclosing1 levelling1 manuring1 building3 it demands the recompense of these services4 ,but that recompense is not regulated with reference to the labour which has been actually performed4 ,the landed proprietor does not say4 8,give me in exchange for this land as much labour as it has received from me40 7,but he would so express himself if1 according to ,adam ,smith's theory1 value came from labour1 and were proportional to it47 ,much less does he say1 as ,ricardo and a number of economists suppose1 8,give me first of all as much labour as this land has had bestowed upon it1 and a certain amount of labour over and above1 as an equivalent for the natural and inherent powers of the soil40 ,no1 the proprietor1 who represents all the possessors of the land who have preceded him1 up to those who made the first clearance1 is obliged1 in their name1 to hold this humble language3-- 8,we have prepared services1 and what we ask is to exchange these for equivalent services4 ,we worked hard formerly1 for in our days we were not acquainted with your powerful means of execution--there were no roads--we were forced to do everything by muscular exertion4 ,much sweat and toil1 many human lives1 are buried under these furrows4 ,but we do not expect from you p#agi labour for labour--we have no means of effecting an exchange on those terms4 ,we are quite aware that the labour bestowed on land now-a-days1 whether in this country or abroad1 is much more perfect and much more productive than formerly4 ,all that we ask1 and what you clearly cannot refuse us1 is that our anterior labour and the new labour shall be exchanged1 not in proportion to their comparative duration and intensity1 but proportionally to their results1 so that we may both receive the same remuneration for the same service4 ,by this arrangement we are losers as regards labour1 seeing that three or four times more of ours than of yours is required to accomplish the same service2 but we have no choice1 and can no longer effect the exchange on any other terms40 ,and1 in point of fact1 this represents the actual state of things4 ,if we could form an exact estimate of the amount of efforts1 of incessant labour1 and toil1 expended in bringing each acre of our land to its present state of productiveness1 we should be thoroughly convinced that the man who purchases that land does not give labour for labour--at least in ninety-nine cases out of the hundred4 ,i add this qualification1 because we must not forget that an incorporated service may gain value as well as lose it4 ,and although the general tendency be towards depreciation1 nevertheless the opposite phenomenon manifests itself sometimes1 in exceptional circumstances1 as well in the case of land as of anything else1 and this without violating the law of justice1 or affording adequate cause for the cry of monopoly4 ,services always intervene to bring out the principle of value4 ,in most cases the anterior labour probably renders a less amount of service than the new labour1 but this is not an absolute law which admits of no exception4 ,if the anterior labour renders a less amount of service than the new1 as is nearly always the case1 a greater quantity of the first than of the second must be thrown into the scale to establish the equiponderance1 seeing that the equiponderance is regulated by services4 ,but if it happen1 as it sometimes may1 that the anterior labour renders greater service than the new1 the latter must make up for this by the sacrifice of quantity4 p#ahj ,,vi4 ,,wealth4 ,we have seen that in every commodity which is adapted to satisfy our wants and desires1 there are two things to be considered and distinguished3 what nature does1 and what man does1--what is gratuitous1 and what is onerous--the gift of ,god and the service of man--utility and value4 ,in the same commodity the one may be immense1 and the other imperceptible4 ,the former remaining invariable1 the latter may be indefinitely diminished2 and is diminished1 in fact1 as often as an ingenious process or invention enables us to obtain the same result with less effort4 ,one of the greatest difficulties1 one of the most fertile sources of misunderstanding1 controversy1 and error1 here presents itself to us at the very threshold of the science-- ,what is wealth8 ,are we rich in proportion to the utilities which we have at our disposal1--that is1 in proportion to the wants and desires which we have the means of satisfying8 8,a man is rich or poor10 says ,adam ,smith1 8according as he possesses a greater or smaller amount of useful commodities which minister to his enjoyments40 ,are we rich in proportion to the values which we possess1--that is to say1 the services which we can command8 8,wealth10 says ,j4 ,b4 ,say1 8is in proportion to ,value4 ,it is great if the sum of the value of which it is composed is great--it is small if the value be small40 ,the vulgar employ the word ,wealth in two senses4 ,sometimes we hear them say--8,the abundance of water is ,wealth to such a country40 ,in this case1 they are thinking only of utility4 ,but when one wishes to reckon up his own wealth1 he makes what is called an ,inventory1 in which only commercial ,value is taken into account4 ,with deference to the savants1 ,i believe that the vulgar are p#aha right for once4 ,wealth is either actual or relative4 ,in the first point of view1 we judge of it by our satisfactions4 ,mankind become richer in proportion as they acquire a greater amount of ease or material prosperity1 whatever be the commodities by which it is procured4 ,but do you wish to know what proportional share each man has in the general prosperity2 in other words1 his relative wealth8 ,this is simply a relation1 which value alone reveals1 because value is itself a relation4 ,our science has to do with the general welfare and prosperity of men1 with the proportion which exists between their ,efforts and their ,satisfactions1--a proportion which the progressive participation of gratuitous utility in the business of production modifies advantageously4 ,you cannot1 then1 exclude this element from the idea of ,wealth4 ,in a scientific point of view1 actual or effective wealth is not the sum of values1 but the aggregate of the utilities1 gratuitous and onerous1 which are attached to these values4 ,as regards satisfactions1--that is to say1 as regards actual results of wealth1 we are as much enriched by the value annihilated by progress as by that which still subsists4 ,in the ordinary transactions of life1 we cease to take utility into account1 in proportion as that utility becomes gratuitous by the lowering of value4 ,why8 because what is gratuitous is common1 and what is common alters in no respect each man's share or proportion of actual or effective wealth4 ,we do not exchange what is common to all2 and as in our every-day transactions we only require to be made acquainted with the proportion which value establishes1 we take no account of anything else4 ,this subject gave rise to a controversy between ,ricardo and ,j4 ,b4 ,say4 ,ricardo gave to the word ,wealth the sense of ,utility--,say1 that of ,value4 ,the exclusive triumph of one of these champions was impossible1 since the word admits of both senses1 according as we regard wealth as actual or relative4 ,but it is necessary to remark1 and the more so on account of the great authority of ,say in these matters1 that if we confound wealth 7in the sense of actual or effective prosperity7 with value2 above all1 if we affirm that the one is proportional to the other1 we shall be apt to give the science a wrong direction4 ,the works of second-rate ,economists1 and those of the ,socialists1 show this but too clearly4 ,to set out by concealing from view precisely that which forms the fairest patrimony of the human race1 is an unfortunate beginning4 ,it leads us to consider as annihilated that portion of wealth which progress renders common to all1 and exposes us to the danger of falling into a petitio principii1 and studying p#ahb ,political ,economy backwards1--the end1 the design1 which it is our object to attain1 being perpetually confounded with the obstacle which impedes our efforts4 ,in truth1 but for the existence of obstacles1 there could be no such thing as ,value1 which is the sign1 the symptom1 the witness1 the proof of our native weakness4 ,it reminds us incessantly of the decree which went forth in the beginning--8,in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread40 ,with reference to ,omnipotence1 the words ,effort1 ,service1 and1 consequently1 ,value1 have no meaning4 ,as regards ourselves1 we live in an atmosphere of utilities1 of which utilities the greater part are gratuitous1 but there are others which we can acquire only by an onerous title4 ,obstacles are interposed between these utilities and the wants to which they minister4 ,we are condemned either to forego the ,utility1 or vanquish these obstacles by ,efforts4 ,sweat must drop from the brow before bread can be eaten1 whether the toil be undergone by ourselves or by others for our benefit4 ,the greater the amount of value we find existing in a country1 the greater evidence we have that obstacles have been surmounted1 but the greater evidence we also have that there are obstacles to surmount4 ,are we to go so far as to say that these obstacles constitute ,wealth1 because1 apart from them1 ,value would have no existence8 ,we may suppose two countries4 ,one of them possesses the means of enjoyment to a greater extent than the other with a less amount of ,value1 because it is favoured by nature1 and it has fewer obstacles to overcome4 ,which is the richer8 ,or1 to put a stronger case1 let us suppose the same people at different periods of their history4 ,the obstacles to be overcome are the same at both periods4 ,but1 now-a-days1 they surmount these obstacles with so much greater facility2 they execute1 for instance1 the work of transport1 of tillage1 of manufactures1 at so much less an expense of effort that values are considerably reduced4 ,there are two courses1 then1 which a people in such a situation may take1--they may content themselves with the same amount of enjoyments as formerly1--progress in that case resolving itself simply into the attainment of additional leisure2 and1 in such circumstances1 should we be authorized to say that the ,wealth of the society had retrograded because it is possessed of a smaller amount of value8 ,or1 they may devote the efforts which progress and improvement have rendered disposable to the increase and extension of their enjoyments2 but should we be warranted to conclude that1 because the amount of values had remained p#ahc stationary1 the wealth of the society had remained stationary also8 ,it is to this result1 however1 that we tend if we confound the two things1 ,riches and ,value4 ,political ,economists may here find themselves in a dilemma4 ,are we to measure wealth by ,satisfactions realized1 or by ,values created8 ,were no obstacles interposed between utilities and desires1 there would be neither efforts1 nor services1 nor ,values in our case1 any more than in that of ,god and nature4 ,in such circumstances1 were wealth estimated by the satisfactions realized1 mankind1 like nature1 would be in possession of infinite riches2 but1 if estimated by the values created1 they would be deprived of wealth altogether4 ,an economist who adopted the first view might pronounce us infinitely rich1--another1 who adopted the second view1 might pronounce us infinitely poor4 ,the infinite1 it is true1 is in no respect an attribute of humanity4 ,but mankind direct their exertions to certain ends2 they make efforts1 they have tendencies1 they gravitate towards progressive ,wealth or progressive ,poverty4 ,now1 how could ,economists make themselves mutually intelligible if this successive diminution of effort in relation to result1 of labour to be undergone or to be remunerated2 in a word1 if this successive diminution of ,value were considered by some of them as a progress towards ,wealth1 and by others as a descent towards ,poverty8 ,did the difficulty1 indeed1 concern only ,economists1 we might say1 let them settle the matter among themselves4 ,but legislators and governments have every day to introduce measures which exercise a serious influence on human affairs2 and in what condition should we be if these measures were taken in the absence of that light which enables us to distinguish ,riches from ,poverty8 ,i affirm that the theory which defines ,wealth as ,value is only the glorification of ,obstacles4 ,its syllogism is this3 8,wealth is in proportion to ,value1 value to efforts1 efforts to obstacles2 ergo1 wealth is in proportion to obstacles40 ,i affirm also that1 by reason of the division of labour1 which includes the case of every one who exercises a trade or profession1 the illusion thus created is very difficult to be got rid of4 ,we all of us see that the services which we render are called forth by some obstacle1 some want1 some suffering1--those of the physician by disease1 those of the agricultural labourer by hunger1 those of the manufacturer of clothing by cold1 those of the carrier by distance1 those of the advocate by injustice1 those of the soldier by danger to his country4 ,there is not1 in fact1 a single obstacle1 the disappearance of which does not p#ahd prove very inopportune and very troublesome to somebody1 or which does not even appear fatal in a public point of view1 because it seems to dry up a source of employment1 of services1 of values1 of wealth4 ,very few ,economists have been able to preserve themselves entirely from this illusion2 and if the science shall ever succeed in dispelling it1 its practical mission will have been fulfilled4 ,for ,i venture to make a third affirmation--namely1 that our official practice is saturated with this theory1 and that when governments believe it to be their duty to favour certain classes1 certain professions1 or certain manufactures1 they have no other mode of accomplishing their object than by setting up ,obstacles1 in order to give to particular branches of industry additional development1 in order to enlarge artificially the circle of services to which the community is forced to have recourse1--and thus to increase ,value1 falsely assumed as synonymous with ,wealth4 ,and1 in fact1 it is quite true that such legislation is useful to the classes which are favoured by it--they exult in it--congratulate each other upon it1--and what is the consequence8 ,why this1 that the same favours are successively accorded to all other classes4 ,what more natural than to confound ,utility with ,value1 and ,value with ,riches6 ,the science has never encountered a snare which she has less suspected4 ,for what has happened8 ,at every step of progress the reasoning has been this3 8,the obstacle is diminished1 then effort is lessened1 then value is lessened1 then utility is lessened1 then wealth is lessened1--then we are the most unfortunate people in the world to have taken it into our heads to invent and exchange1 to have five fingers in place of three1 and two hands in place of one2 and then it is necessary to engage government1 which is in possession of force1 to take order with this abuse40 ,this ,political ,economy rebours--this ,political ,economy read backwards--is the staple of many of our journals1 and the life of legislative assemblies4 ,it has misled the candid and philanthropic ,sismondi1 and we find it very logically set forth in the work of ,m4 de ,saint-,chamans4 8,there are two kinds of national wealth10 he tells us4 8,if we have regard only to useful products with reference to their quantity1 their abundance1 we have to do with a species of wealth which procures enjoyments to society1 and which ,i shall denominate the ,wealth of enjoyment4 8,if we regard products with reference to their exchangeable ,value1 or simply with reference to their value1 we have to do with p#ahe a species of ,wealth which procures values to society1 and which ,i call the ,wealth of value4 8,it is this last species of ,wealth which forms the special subject of ,political ,economy1 and it is with it1 above all1 that governments have to do40 ,this being so1 how are ,economists and ,statesmen to proceed8 ,the first are to point out the means of increasing this species of riches1 this wealth of value2 the second to set about adopting these means4 ,but this kind of wealth bears proportion to efforts1 and efforts bear proportion to obstacles4 ,political ,economy1 then1 is to teach1 and ,government to contrive1 how to multiply obstacles4 ,m4 de ,saint-,chamans does not flinch in the least from this consequence4 ,does exchange facilitate our acquiring more of the wealth of enjoyment with less of the wealth of value8 ,we must1 then1 counteract this tendency of exchange4#ci ,is there any portion of gratuitous ,utility which we can replace by onerous ,utility2 for example1 by prohibiting the use of a tool or a machine8 ,we must not fail to do so2 for it is very evident1 he says1 that if machinery augments the wealth of enjoyment1 it diminishes the wealth of value4 8,let us bless the obstacles which the dearness and scarcity of fuel in this country has opposed to the multiplication of steam-engines40#dj ,has nature favoured us in any particular respect8 ,it is our misfortune2 for1 by that means1 we are deprived of the opportunity of exerting ourselves4 8,i avow that ,i could desire to see manufactured by manual labour1 forced exertion1 and the sweat of the brow1 things that are now produced without trouble and spontaneously40#da ,what a misfortune1 then1 is it for us that we are not obliged to manufacture the water which we drink6 ,it would have been a fine opportunity of producing the wealth of value4 ,happily we take our revenge upon wine4 8,discover the secret of drawing wine from springs in the earth as abundantly as you draw water1 and you will soon see that this fine order of things will ruin a fourth part of ,france40#db ,according to the ideas which this ,economist sets forth with such navet1 there are many methods1 and very simple methods too1 of obliging men to create what he terms the wealth of value4 ,the first is to deprive them of what they have4 8,if taxation p#ahf lays held of money where it is plentiful1 to distribute it where it is scarce1 it is useful1 and far from being a loss1 it is a gain1 to the state40#dc ,the second is to dissipate what you take4 8,luxury and prodigality1 which are so hurtful to individual fortunes1 benefit public wealth4 ,you teach me a fine moral lesson1 it may be said--,i have no such pretension--my business is with ,political ,economy1 and not with morals4 ,you seek the means of rendering nations richer1 and ,i preach up luxury40#dd ,a more prompt method still is to destroy the wealth which you take from the tax-payer by good sweeping wars4 8,if you grant me that the expenditure of prodigals is as productive as any other1 and that the expenditure of governments is equally productive1 4 4 4 you will no longer be astonished at the wealth of ,england after so expensive a war40#de ,but1 as tending to promote the creation of this ,wealth of value1 all these means--taxes1 luxury1 wars--must hide their diminished heads before an expedient infinitely more efficacious--namely1 conflagration4 8,to build is a great source of wealth1 because it supplies revenues to proprietors1 who furnish the materials1 to workmen1 and to divers classes of artisans and artists4 ,melon cites ,sir ,william ,petty1 who regards1 as a national profit1 the labour employed in rebuilding the streets of ,london after the great fire which consumed two-thirds of the city1 and he estimates it 7the profit67 at a million sterling per annum 7in money of #afff7 during four years1 and this without the least injury having been done to other branches of trade4 ,without regarding this pecuniary estimate of profit as quite accurate10 adds ,m4 de ,saint-,chamans1 8it is certain at least that this event had no detrimental effect upon the wealth of ,england at that period4 4 4 4 ,the result stated by ,sir ,w4 ,petty is not impossible1 seeing that the necessity of rebuilding ,london must have created a large amount of new revenues40#df ,all ,economists1 who set out by confounding wealth with value1 must infallibly arrive at the same conclusions1 if they are logical2 but they are not logical2 for on the road of absurdity men of any common sense always sooner or later stop short4 ,m4 de ,saint-,chamans seems himself to recede a little before the consequences of his principle1 when it lands him in a eulogium on conflagration4 ,we see that he hesitates1 and contents himself with a negative panegyric4 ,he should have carried out his principle to p#ahg its logical conclusions1 and told us roundly what he so clearly indicates4 ,of all our ,economists1 ,m4 de ,sismondi has succumbed to the difficulty now under consideration in the manner most to be regretted4 ,like ,m4 de ,saint-,chamans1 he set out with the idea that value forms an element of wealth2 and1 like him1 he has built upon this datum a ,political ,economy rebours1 denouncing everything which tends to diminish value4 ,sismondi1 like ,saint-,chamans1 exalts obstacles1 proscribes machinery1 anathematizes exchange1 competition1 and liberty1 extols luxury and taxation1 and arrives at length at this conclusion1 that the more we possess the poorer we become4#dg ,from beginning to end of his work1 however1 ,m4 de ,sismondi seems to have a lurking consciousness that he is mistaken1 and that a dark veil may have interposed itself between his mind and the truth4 ,he does not venture1 like ,m4 de ,saint-,chamans1 to announce roughly and bluntly the consequences of his principle--he hesitates1 and is troubled4 ,he asks himself sometimes if it is possible that all men from the beginning of the world have been in error1 and on the road to self-destruction1 in seeking to diminish the proportion which ,effort bears to ,satisfaction1--that is to say1 value4 ,at once the friend and the enemy of liberty1 he fears it1 since the abundance which depreciates value leads to universal poverty1 and yet he knows not how to set about the destruction of this fatal liberty4 ,he thus arrives at the confines of socialism and artificial organization1 and insinuates that government and science should regulate and control everything4 ,then he sees the danger of the advice he is giving1 retracts it1 and ends by falling into despair1 exclaiming--8,liberty leads to the abyss of poverty--,constraint is as impossible as it is useless--there is no escape40 ,in truth and reality1 there is none1 if ,value be ,riches2 in other words1 if the obstacle to prosperity be prosperity itself1--that is to say1 if ,evil be ,good4 ,the latest writer1 as far as ,i know1 who has stirred this question p#ahh is ,m4 ,proudhon4 ,it made the fortune of his book1 ,des ,contradictions conomiques4 ,never was there a finer opportunity of seizing a paradox by the forelock1 and snapping his fingers at science4 ,never was there a fairer occasion of asking--8,do you see in the increase of value a good or an evil8 ,quidquid dixeris argumentabor40 ,just think what a treat6#dh 8,i call upon any earnest ,economist to explain to me1 otherwise than by varying and repeating the question1 why value diminishes in proportion as production increases1 and vice versa4 4 4 4 ,in technical phrase1 value in use and value in exchange1 although necessary to each other1 are in an inverse ratio to each other4 4 4 4 4 ,value in use and value in exchange remain1 then1 fatally enchained1 although in their own nature they tend to exclude each other40 8,for this contradiction1 which is inherent in the notion of value1 no cause can be assigned1 nor is any explanation of it possible4 4 4 ,from the data1 that man has need of a great variety of commodities1 and that he must provide them by his labour1 the necessary conclusion is1 that there exists an antagonism between value in use and value in exchange1 and from this antagonism a contradiction arises at the very threshold of ,political ,economy4 ,no amount of intelligence1 no agency1 divine or human1 can make it otherwise4 ,in place1 then1 of beating about for a useless explanation1 let us content ourselves with pointing out clearly the necessity of the contradiction40 ,we know that the grand discovery of ,m4 ,proudhon is1 that everything is at once true and false1 good and bad1 legitimate and illegitimate1 that there exits no principle which is not self-contradictory1 and that contradiction lurks not only in erroneous theories1 but in the very essence of things1--8it is the pure expression of necessity1 the peculiar law of existence10 etc42 so that it is inevitable1 and would be incurable1 rationally1 but for progression1 and1 practically1 but for the ,banque du ,peuple4 ,nature is a contradiction1 liberty a contradiction1 competition a contradiction1 property a contradiction1--value1 credit1 monopoly1 community1 all contradictions4 ,when ,m4 ,proudhon achieved this wonderful discovery his heart must have leaped for joy2 for since contradiction is everywhere and in everything1 he can never want something to gainsay1 which for him is the supreme good4 ,he said to me one day1 8,i should rather like to go to heaven1 but ,i p#ahi fear that everybody there will be of one mind1 and ,i should find nobody to argue with40 ,we must confess that the subject of ,value gave him an excellent opportunity of indulging his taste4 ,but1 with great deference to him1 the contradictions and paradoxes to which the word ,value has given rise are to be found in the false theories which have been constructed1 and not at all1 as he would have us believe1 in the nature of things4 ,theorists have set out1 in the first instance1 by confounding ,value with ,utility1--that is to say1 evil with good2 for utility is the desired result1 and value springs from the obstacle which is interposed between the desire and the result4 ,this was their first error1 and1 when they perceived the consequences of it1 they thought to obviate the difficulty by imagining a distinction between value in use and value in exchange--an unwieldy tautology1 which had the great fault of attaching the same word--,value--to two opposite phenomena4 ,but if1 putting aside these subtilties1 we adhere strictly to facts1 what do we perceive8 ,nothing1 assuredly1 but what is quite natural and consistent4 ,a man1 we shall suppose1 works exclusively for himself4 ,if he acquire skill1 if his force and intelligence are developed1 if nature becomes more liberal1 or if he learns how to make nature co-operate better in his work1 he obtains more wealth with less trouble4 ,where is the contradiction1 and what is there in this to excite so much wonder8 ,well1 then1 in place of remaining an isolated being1 suppose this man to have relations with his fellow-men4 ,they exchange2 and ,i repeat my observation1--in proportion as they acquire skill1 experience1 force1 and intelligence1--in proportion as nature 7become more liberal or brought more into subjection7 lends them more efficacious co-operation1 they obtain more wealth with less trouble2 they have at their disposal a greater amount of gratuitous utility2 in their transactions they transfer to one another a greater sum of useful results in proportion to a given amount of labour4 ,where1 then1 is the contradiction8 ,if1 indeed1 following the example of ,adam ,smith and his successors1 you commit the error of applying the same denomination--value--both to the results obtained and to the exertion made2 in that case1 an antinomy or contradiction will show itself4 ,but be assured that that contradiction is not at all in the facts1 but in your own erroneous explanation of those facts4 ,m4 ,proudhon ought1 then1 to have shaped his proposition thus3 p#aij ,it being granted that man has need of a great variety of products1 that he can only obtain them by his labour1 and that he has the precious gift of educating and improving himself1 nothing in the world is more natural than the sustained increase of results in relation to efforts2 and there is nothing at all contradictory in a given value serving as the vehicle of a greater amount of realized utility4 ,let me repeat1 once more1 that for man ,utility is the fair side of the medal and ,value the reverse4 ,utility has relation only to our ,satisfactions1 ,value only with our ,pains4 ,utility realizes our enjoyments1 and is proportioned to them2 ,value attests our native weakness1 springs from obstacles1 and is proportioned to those ,obstacles4 ,in virtue of the law of human perfectibility1 gratuitous utility tends more and more to take the place of onerous utility1 expressed by the word value4 ,such is the phenomenon1 and it presents assuredly nothing contradictory4 ,but the question recurs--,should the word ,wealth comprehend these two kinds of utility united1 or only the last8 ,if we could form1 once for all1 two classes of utilities1 putting on the one side all those which are gratuitous1 and on the other all those which are onerous1 we should form1 at the same time1 two classes of ,wealth1 which we should denominate1 with ,m4 ,say1 ,natural ,wealth and ,social ,wealth2 or else1 with ,m4 de ,saint-,chamans1 the ,wealth of ,enjoyment and the ,wealth of ,value2 after which1 as these authors propose1 we should have nothing mere to do with the first of these classes4 8,things which are accessible to all10 says ,m4 ,say1 8and which everyone may enjoy at pleasure1 without being forced to acquire them1 and without the fear of exhausting them1 such as air1 water1 the light of the sun1 etc41 are the gratuitous gifts of nature1 and may be denominated ,natural ,wealth4 ,as these can be neither produced nor distributed1 nor consumed by us1 they come not within the domain of ,political ,economy4 8,the things which this science has to do with are things which we possess1 and which have a recognised value4 ,these we denominate ,social ,wealth1 because they exist only among men united in society40 8,it is the ,wealth of ,value10 says ,m4 de ,saint-,chamans1 8which forms the special subject of ,political ,economy1 and whenever in this work ,i mention ,wealth without being more specific1 ,i mean that description of it40 ,nearly all ,economists have taken the same view4 p#aia 8,the most striking distinction10 says ,storch1 8which presents itself in the outset1 is1 that there are certain kinds of value which are capable of appropriation1 and other kinds which are not so4#di ,the first alone are the subject of ,political ,economy1 for the analysis of the others would furnish no result worthy of the attention of the statesman40 ,for my own part1 ,i think that that portion of utility which1 in the progress of society1 ceases to be onerous and to possess value1 but which does not on that account cease to be utility1 and is about to fall into the domain of the common and gratuitous1 is precisely that which should constantly attract the attention of the statesman and of the ,economist4 ,if it do not1 in place of penetrating and comprehending the great results which affect and elevate the human race1 the science will be left to deal with what is quite contingent and flexible--with what has a tendency to diminish1 if not to disappear--with a relation merely2 in a word1 with ,value4 ,without being aware of it1 ,economists are thus led to consider only labour1 obstacles1 and the interest of the producer2 and1 what is worse1 they are led to confound the interest of the producer with the interest of the public1--that is to say1 to mistake evil for good1 and1 under the guidance of the ,sismondis and ,saint-,chamans1 to land at length in the ,utopia of the socialists1 or the ,systme des ,contradictions of ,proudhon4 ,and1 then1 is not this line of demarcation1 which you attempt to draw between the two descriptions of utility1 chimerical1 arbitrary1 and impossible8 ,how can you thus disjoin the co-operation of nature and that of man when they combine and get mixed up everywhere1 much more when the one tends constantly to replace the other1 which is precisely what constitutes progress8 ,if economical science1 so dry in some respects1 in other aspects elevates and fascinates the mind1 it is just because it describes the laws of this association between man and nature1--it is because it shows gratuitous utility substituting itself more and more for onerous utility1 enjoyments bearing a greater and greater proportion to labour and fatigue1 obstacles constantly lessening1 and1 along with them1 value2 the perpetual mistakes and miscalculations of producers more than compensated by the increasing prosperity of consumers2 natural wealth1 gratuitous and common1 coming more and more to take the place of wealth which is personal and appropriated4 ,what6 are we to exclude from ,political ,economy what constitutes its religious ,harmony8 p#aib ,air1 light1 water1 are gratuitous1 you say4 ,true1 and if we enjoyed them under their primitive form1 without making them co-operate in any of our works1 we might exclude them from ,political ,economy just as we exclude from it the possible and probable utility of comets4 ,but observe the progress of man4 ,at first he is able to make air1 light1 water1 and other natural agents co-operate very imperfectly4 ,his satisfactions were purchased by laborious personal efforts1 they exacted a large amount of labour1 and they were transferred to others as important services2 in a word1 they were possessed of great value4 ,by degrees1 this water1 this air1 this light1 gravitation1 elasticity1 calorie1 electricity1 vegetable life1 have abandoned this state of relative inactivity4 ,they mingle more and more with our industry4 ,they are substituted for human labour4 ,they do for us gratuitously what labour does only for an onerous consideration4 ,they annihilate value without diminishing our enjoyments4 ,to speak in common language1 what cost us a hundred francs1 costs us only ten--what required ten days' labour now demands only one4 ,the whole value thus annihilated has passed from the domain of ,property to that of ,community4 ,a considerable proportion of human efforts has been set free1 and placed at our disposal for other enterprises2 so that with equal labour1 equal services1 equal value1 mankind have enlarged prodigiously the circle of their enjoyments2 and yet you tell me that ,i must eliminate and banish from the science this utility1 which is gratuitous and common1 which alone explains progress1 as well upward as forward1 if ,i may so speak1 as well in wealth and prosperity as in freedom and equality6 ,we may1 then1 legitimately attach to the word ,wealth two meanings4 ,effective ,wealth1 real1 and realizing satisfactions1 or the aggregate of utilities which human labour1 aided by the co-operation of natural agents1 places within the reach of ,society4 ,relative ,wealth1--that is to say1 the proportional share of each in the general ,riches1 a share which is determined by ,value4 ,this ,economic ,harmony1 then1 may be thus stated3 ,by labour the action of man is combined with the action of nature4 ,utility results from that co-operation4 ,each man receives a share of the general utility proportioned to the value he has created1--that is to say1 to the services he has rendered2 in other words1 to the utility he has himself produced4#ej p#aic ,morality of ,wealth4--,we have just been engaged in studying wealth in an economical point of view2 it may not perhaps be useless to say something here of its ,moral effects4 ,in all ages1 wealth1 in a moral point of view1 has been the subject of controversy4 ,certain philosophers and certain religionists have commanded us to despise it2 others have greatly prided themselves on the golden mean1 aurea mediocritas4 ,few1 if any1 have admitted as moral an ardent longing after the goods of fortune4 ,which are right8 ,which are wrong8 ,it does not belong to ,political ,economy to treat of individual morality4 ,i shall make only one remark3 ,i am always inclined to think that in matters which lie within the domain of everyday practice1 theorists1 savants1 philosophers1 are much less likely to be right than this universal practice itself1 when we include in the meaning of the word practice1 not only the actions of the generality of men1 but their sentiments and ideas4 ,now1 what does universal practice demonstrate in this case8 ,it shows us all men endeavouring to emerge from their original state of poverty1--all preferring the sensation of satisfaction to the sensation of want1 riches to poverty2 all1 ,i should say1 or almost all1 without excepting even those who declaim against wealth4 ,the desire for wealth is ardent1 incessant1 universal1 irrepressible4 ,in almost every part of the globe it has triumphed over our natural aversion to toil4 ,whatever may be said to the contrary1 it displays a character of avidity still baser among savage than among civilized nations4 ,all our navigators who left ,europe in the eighteenth century1 imbued with the fashionable ideas of ,rousseau1 and expecting to find the men of nature at the antipodes disinterested1 generous1 hospitable1 were struck with the devouring rapacity of these primitive barbarians4 ,our military men can tell us1 in our own day1 what we are to think of the boasted disinterestedness of the ,arab tribes4 ,on the other hand1 the opinions of all men1 even of those who do not act up to their opinions1 concur in honouring disinterestedness1 generosity1 self-control1 and in branding that ill-regulated1 inordinate love of wealth which causes men not to shrink from any means of obtaining it4 ,the same public opinion surrounds with esteem the man who1 in whatever rank of life1 devotes his honest and persevering labour to ameliorating the lot and elevating the condition of his family4 ,it is from this combination of facts1 ideas1 and sentiments1 it would seem to me1 that we must form our judgment on wealth in connexion with individual morality4 p#aid ,first of all1 we must acknowledge that the motive which urges us to the acquisition of riches is of providential creation1--natural1 and consequently moral4 ,it has its source in that original and general destitution which would be our lot in everything1 if it did not create in us the desire to free ourselves from it4 ,we must acknowledge1 in the second place1 that the efforts which men make to emerge from their primitive destitution1 provided they keep within the limits of justice1 are estimable and respectable1 seeing that they are universally esteemed and respected4 ,no one1 moreover1 will deny that labour is in itself of a moral nature4 ,this is expressed in the common proverb which we find in all countries1--,idleness is the parent of vice4 ,and we should fall into a glaring contradiction were we to say1 on the one hand1 that labour is indispensable to the morality of men1 and1 on the other1 that men are immoral when they seek to realize wealth by their labour4 ,we must acknowledge1 in the third place1 that the desire of wealth becomes immoral when it goes the length of inducing us to depart from the rules of justice1 and that avarice becomes more unpopular in proportion to the wealth of those who addict themselves to that passion4 ,such is the judgment pronounced1 not by certain philosophers or sects1 but by the generality of men2 and ,i adopt it4 ,i must guard myself1 however1 by adding that this judgment may be different at the present day from what it was in ancient times1 without involving a contradiction4 ,the ,essenians and ,stoics lived in a state of society where wealth was always the reward of oppression1 of pillage1 and of violence4 ,not only was it deemed immoral in itself1 but1 in consequence of the immoral means employed in its acquisition1 it revealed the immorality of those who possessed it4 ,a reaction1 even an exaggerated reaction1 against riches and rich men was to be expected4 ,modern philosophers who declaim against wealth1 without taking into account this difference in the means of acquiring wealth1 believe themselves ,senecas1 while they are only parrots1 repeating what they do not understand4 ,but the question which ,political ,economy proposes is this3 ,is wealth for mankind a moral good or a moral evil8 ,does the progressive development of wealth imply1 in a moral point of view1 improvement or decadence8 ,the reader anticipates my answer1 and will understand that ,i must say a few words on the subject of individual morality1 in order to get quit of the contradiction1 or rather of the impossibility1 p#aie which would be implied in asserting that what is individual immorality is general morality4 ,without having recourse to statistics1 or the records of our prisons1 we must handle a problem which may be enunciated in these terms3-- ,is man degraded by exercising more power over nature--by constraining nature to serve him--by obtaining additional leisure--by freeing himself from the more imperious and pressing wants of his organization--by being enabled to rouse from sleep and inactivity his intellectual and moral faculties1--faculties which assuredly have not been given him to remain in eternal lethargy8 ,is man degraded by being removed from a state the most inorganic1 so to speak1 and raised to a state of the highest spiritualism which it is possible for him to reach8 ,to enunciate the problem in this form is to resolve it4 ,i willingly grant1 that when wealth is acquired by means which are immoral1 it has an immoral influence1 as among the ,romans4 ,i also allow that when it is developed in a very unequal manner1 creating a great gulf between classes1 it has an immoral influence1 and gives rise to revolutionary passions4 ,but does the same thing hold when wealth is the fruit of honest industry and free transactions1 and is uniformly distributed over all classes8 ,that would be a doctrine which it is impossible to maintain4 ,socialist works1 nevertheless1 are crammed with declamations against the rich4 ,i really cannot comprehend how these schools1 so opposite in other respects1 but so unanimous in this1 should not perceive the contradiction into which they fall4 ,on the one hand1 wealth1 according to the leaders of these schools1 has a deleterious and demoralizing action1 which debases the soul1 hardens the heart1 and leaves behind only a taste for depraved enjoyments4 ,the rich have all manner of vices4 ,the poor have all manner of virtues--they are just1 sensible1 disinterested1 generous1--such is the favourite theme of these authors4 ,on the other hand1 all the efforts of the ,socialists' imagination1 all the systems they invent1 all the laws they wish to impose upon us1 tend1 if we are to believe them1 to convert poverty into riches4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,morality of wealth proved by this maxim2 the profit of one is the profit of another4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 p#aif ,,vii4 ,,capital4 ,the economic laws will be found to act on the same principle1 whether we take the case of a numerous agglomeration of men or of only two individuals1 or even of a single individual condemned by circumstances to live in a state of isolation4 ,such an individual1 if he could exist for some time in an isolated state1 would be at once capitalist1 employer1 workman1 producer1 and consumer4 ,the whole economic evolution would be accomplished in him4 ,observing each of the elements of which that evolution is made up--want1 effort1 satisfaction--gratuitous utility1 and onerous utility--he would be enabled to form an idea of the entire mechanism1 even when thus reduced to its greatest simplicity4 ,one thing is obvious enough1 that he could never confound what was gratuitous with what exacted efforts2 for that would imply a contradiction in terms4 ,he would know at once when a material or a force was furnished to him by nature without the co-operation of his labour1 even when his own labour was assisted by natural agents1 and thus rendered more productive4 ,an isolated individual would never think of applying his own labour to the production of a commodity as long as he could procure it directly from nature4 ,he would not travel a league to fetch water if he had a well at his door4 ,for the same reason1 whenever his own labour was called into requisition1 he would endeavour to substitute for it1 as much as he possibly could1 the co-operation of natural agents4 ,if he constructed a canoe1 he would make it of the lightest materials1 in order to take advantage of the specific gravity of water4 ,he would furnish it with a sail1 that the wind might save him the trouble of rowing1 etc4 p#aig ,in order to obtain in this way the co-operation of natural agent1 tools and instruments would be wanted4 ,and here the isolated individual would begin to calculate4 ,he would ask himself this question3 ,at present ,i obtain a satisfaction at the expense of a given effort3 when ,i am in possession of the proper tool or instrument1 shall ,i obtain the same satisfaction with less effort1 taking into account the labour required for the construction of the instrument itself8 ,no one will throw away his labour for the mere pleasure of throwing it away4 ,our supposed ,robinson ,crusoe1 then1 will be induced to set about constructing the instrument only if he sees clearly that1 when completed1 he will obtain an equal satisfaction at a smaller expense of effort1 or a greater amount of satisfaction with the same effort4 ,one circumstance will form a great element in his calculation--the number of commodities in the production of which this instrument will assist while it lasts4 ,he has a primary standard of comparison--the present labours to which he is subjected every time he wishes to procure the satisfaction directly and without assistance4 ,he estimates how much labour the tool or instrument will save him on each occasion2 but labour is required to make the tool1 and this labour he will in his own mind spread over all the occasions on which such an instrument can be made available4 ,the greater the number of these occasions1 the stronger will be his motive for seeking the co-operation of natural agents4 ,it is here--in this spreading of an advance over an aggregate of products--that we discover the principle and foundation of ,interest4 ,when ,robin ,crusoe has once made up his mind to construct the instrument1 he perceives that his willingness to make it1 and the advantage it is to bring him1 are not enough4 ,tools are necessary to the manufacture of tools--iron must be hammered with iron--and so you go on1 mounting from difficulty to difficulty1 till you reach the first difficulty of all1 which appears to be insuperable4 ,this shows us the extreme slowness with which ,capital must have been formed at the beginning1 and what an enormous amount of human labour each satisfaction must originally have cost4 ,again1 in order to construct the instruments of labour1 not only tools1 but materials are wanted4 ,if these materials1 as for instance stones1 are furnished gratuitously by nature1 we must still combine them1 which costs labour4 ,but the possession of these materials supposes1 in almost every case1 anterior labour both long and complicated1 as in the manufacture of wool1 flax1 iron1 lead1 etc4 ,nor is this all4 ,whilst a man is thus working for the exclusive p#aih purpose of facilitating his ulterior labour1 he can do nothing to supply his present wants4 ,now1 here we encounter an order of phenomena in which there can be no interruption4 ,each day the labourer must be fed1 clothed1 and sheltered4 ,robinson will perceive1 then1 that he can undertake nothing for the purpose of procuring the co-operation of natural forces until he has previously accumulated a stock of provisions4 ,he must every day redouble his activity in the chase1 and store up a portion of the game he kills1 and subject himself to present privations1 in order that he may have at his disposal the time requisite for the construction of the instrument he has projected4 ,in such circumstances1 it is most probable that all he will accomplish will be the construction of an instrument which is rude and imperfect1 and not very well fitted for the purpose he has in view4 ,afterwards1 he will obtain greater facilities4 ,reflection and experience will teach him to work better2 and the first tool he makes will furnish him with the means of fabricating others1 and of accumulating provisions with greater promptitude4 ,tools1 materials1 provisions--these1 doubtless1 ,robinson will denominate his ,capital2 and he will readily discover that the more considerable his capital becomes1 the greater command will he obtain over natural agents--that the more he makes such agents co-operate in his labour1 the more will he augment his satisfactions in proportion to his efforts4 ,let us now vary the hypothesis1 and place ourselves in the midst of the social order4 ,capital is still composed of instruments of labour1 materials1 and provisions1 without which no enterprise of any magnitude can be undertaken1 either in a state of isolation1 or in a social state4 ,those who are possessed of capital have been put in possession of it only by their labour1 or by their privations2 and they would not have undergone that labour 7which has no connexion with present wants71 they would not have imposed on themselves those privations1 but with the view of obtaining ulterior advantages--with the view1 for example1 of procuring in larger measure the future co-operation of natural agents4 ,on their part1 to give away this capital would be to deprive themselves of the special advantage they have in view2 it would be to transfer this advantage to others2 it would be to render others a service4 ,we cannot1 then1 without abandoning the most simple principles of reason and justice1 fail to see that the owners of capital have a perfect right to refuse to make this transfer unless in exchange for another service1 freely bargained for and voluntarily agreed to4 ,no man in the world1 ,i believe1 will dispute p#aii the equity of the mutuality of services1 for mutuality of services is1 in other words1 equity4 ,will it be said that the transaction cannot be free and voluntary1 because the man who is in possession of capital is in a position to lay down the law to the man who has none8 ,but how is a bargain to be made8 ,in what way are we to discover the equivalence of services if it be not in the case of an exchange voluntarily effected on both sides8 ,do you not perceive1 moreover1 that the man who borrows capital1 being free either to borrow it or not1 will refuse to do so unless he sees it to be for his advantage1 and that the loan cannot make his situation worse8 ,the question he asks himself is evidently this3 ,will the employment of this capital afford me advantages which are more than sufficient to make up for the conditions which are demanded of me8 ,or this3 ,is the effort which ,i am now obliged to make1 in order to obtain a given satisfaction1 greater or less than the sum of the efforts which the loan will entail upon me--first of all1 in rendering the services which are demanded of me by the lender1 and afterwards in procuring the special satisfaction ,i have in view with the aid of the capital borrowed8 ,if1 taking all things into account1 there be no advantage to be got1 he will not borrow1 he will remain as he is1 and what injury is done him8 ,he may be mistaken1 you will say4 ,undoubtedly he may4 ,one may be mistaken in all imaginable transactions4 ,are we then to abandon our liberty8 ,if you go that length1 tell us what we are to substitute for free will and free consent4 ,constraint8 for if we give up liberty1 what remains but constraint8 ,no1 you say--the judgment of a third party4 ,granted1 on these conditions3 ,first1 that the decision of this third party1 whatever name you give him1 shall not be put in force by constraint4 ,secondly1 that he be infallible1 for to substitute one fallible man for another would be to no purpose2 and the parties whose judgment ,i should least distrust in such a matter are the parties who are interested in the result4 ,the third and last condition is1 that this arbitrator shall not be paid for his services2 for it would be a singular way of manifesting his sympathy for the borrower1 first of all to take away from him his liberty1 and then to lay on his shoulders an additional burden as the recompense of this philanthropical service4 ,but let us leave the question of right1 and return to ,political ,economy4 ,a ,capital which is composed of materials1 provisions1 and instruments1 presents two aspects--,utility and ,value4 ,i must have failed in my exposition of the theory of value1 if the reader does not understand that the man who transfers capital is paid only for its value1 that is to say1 for the service rendered in p#bjj creating that capital2 in other words1 for the pains taken by the cdant combined with the pains saved to the recipient4 ,capital consists of commodities or products4 ,it assumes the name of capital only by reason of its ulterior destination4 ,it is a great mistake to suppose that capital1 as such1 is a thing having an independent existence4 ,a sack of corn is still a sack of corn1 although one man sells it for revenue1 and another buys it for capital4 ,exchange takes place on the invariable principle of value for value1 service for service2 and the portion of gratuitous utility which enters into the commodity is so much into the bargain4 ,at the same time1 the portion which is gratuitous has no value1 and value is the only thing regarded in bargains4 ,in this respect1 transactions which have reference to capital are in no respect different from others4 ,this consideration opens up some admirable views with reference to the social order1 but which ,i cannot do more than indicate here4 ,man1 in a state of isolation1 is possessed of capital only when he has brought together materials1 provisions1 and tools4 ,the same thing does not hold true of man in the social state4 ,it is enough for the latter to have rendered services1 and to have thus the power of drawing upon society1 by means of the mechanism of exchange1 for equivalent services4 ,i mean by the mechanism of exchange1 money1 bills1 bank-notes1 and even bankers themselves4 ,whoever has rendered a service1 and has not yet received the corresponding satisfaction1 is the bearer of a warrant1 either possessed of value1 as money1 or fiduciary1 like bank-notes1 which warrant gives him the power of receiving back from society1 when he will1 where he will1 and in what form he will1 an equivalent service4 ,this impairs neither in principle1 nor in effect1 nor in an equitable point of view1 the great law which ,i seek to elucidate1 that services are exchanged for services4 ,it is still the embryo barter1 which has been developed1 enlarged1 and rendered more complex1 but without losing its identity4 ,the bearer of such a warrant as ,i have just described may then demand back from society1 at pleasure1 either an immediate satisfaction1 or an object which1 in another aspect1 may be regarded as capital4 ,the person who lends or transfers has nothing to do with that4 ,he satisfies himself as to the equivalence of the services--that is all4 ,again1 he may transfer this warrant to another1 to use it as he pleases1 under the double condition of restitution1 and of a service1 at a fixed date4 ,if we go to the bottom of the matter1 we shall find that in this case the person who lends or transfers capital p#bja deprives himself1 in favour of the cessionary or recipient1 either of an immediate satisfaction1 which he defers for some years1 or of an instrument of labour which would have increased his power of production1 procured him the co-operation of natural agents1 and augmented1 to his profit1 the proportion of satisfactions to efforts4 ,he strips himself of these advantages1 in order to invest another with them4 ,this is undoubtedly to render a service1 and in equity this service is entitled to a return4 ,mere restitution at the year's end cannot be considered as the remuneration of this special service4 ,observe that the transaction here is not a sale1 where the delivery of the thing sold is immediate1 and the return or remuneration is immediate also4 ,what we have to do with here is delay4 ,and this delay is in itself a special service1 seeing that it imposes a sacrifice on the person who accords it1 and confers an advantage on the person who asks for it4 ,there must1 then1 be remuneration1 or we must give up that supreme law of society1 service for service4 ,this remuneration is variously denominated1 according to circumstances--hire1 rent1 yearly income--but its generic name is ,interest4#ea ,every service then is1 or may become1 a ,capital1 an admirable phenomenon due to the mechanism of exchange4 ,if workmen are to commence the construction of a railway ten years hence1 we could not at the present moment store up in kind the corn which is to feed them1 the stuff which is to clothe them1 and the barrows and implements of which they will have need during that protracted operation4 ,but we can save up and transmit to them the value of these things4 ,for this purpose it is enough that we render present services to society1 and obtain for these services the warrants1 in money or credits of which ,i have spoken1 which can be converted into corn or cloth ten years hence4 ,it is not even necessary that we should leave these warrants dormant and unproductive in the interval4 ,there are merchants1 bankers1 and others in society who1 for the use of our services or their results1 render us the service of imposing upon themselves these privations in our place4 ,and it is still more remarkable that we can effect an inverse operation1 however impossible at first sight this may appear4 ,we can convert into instruments of labour1 into railways1 into houses1 a capital which as yet has no existence--thus making available at once services which will not be actually rendered till the twentieth century4 ,there are bankers who are ready to make present advances on the faith that workmen and railway travellers of the p#bjb third and fourth generation will provide for their payment1 and these drafts upon the future are transmitted from hand to hand1 without remaining for a moment unproductive4 ,i confess ,i do not believe that the numerous inventors of artificial societies ever imagined anything at once so simple and so complex1 so ingenious and so equitable1 as this4 ,they would at once abandon their insipid and stupid utopias if they but knew the fine harmonies of the social mechanism which has been instituted by ,god4 ,it was a king of ,aragon who bethought him what advice he should have given to ,providence on the construction of the celestial mechanism1 had he been called to the counsels of ,omniscience4 ,newton never conceived so impious a thought4 ,we thus see that all transmissions of services from one point of time or of space to another repose upon this datum1 that to accord delay is to render service2 in other words1 they repose on the legitimacy of ,interest4 ,the man who1 in our days1 has wished to suppress interest1 does not see that he would bring back exchange to its embryo form1--barter1 present barter1--without reference either to the future or the past4 ,he does not see that1 imagining himself the most advanced1 he is in reality the most retrograde of men1 since he would reconstruct society on its most primitive model4 ,he desires1 he says1 mutuality of services4 ,but he begins by taking away the character of services exactly from that kind of services which unite1 tie together1 and solidarize all places and all times4 ,in spite of the practical audacity of his socialist aphorisms1 he has paid an involuntary homage to the present order of things4 ,he has but one reform1 which is negative4 ,it consists in suppressing in society the most powerful and marvellous part of its machinery4 ,i have explained in another place the legitimacy and perpetuity of ,interest4 ,i shall content myself at present with reminding the reader-- #ast1 ,that the legitimacy of interest rests upon the fact that he who accords delay renders service4 ,interest1 then1 is legitimate in virtue of the principle of service for service4 #b;d1 ,that the perpetuity of interest reposes on this other fact1 that he who borrows must pay back all that he has borrowed at a fixed date4 ,when the thing lent1 or its value1 is restored to its owner1 he can lend it anew4 ,when returned to him a second time1 he can lend it a third time1 and so on to perpetuity4 ,which of the successive and voluntary borrowers can find fault with this8 ,but since the legitimacy of interest has been contested so p#bjc seriously in our day as to put capital to flight1 or force it to conceal itself1 ,i may be permitted to show how utterly foolish and insensate this controversy is4 ,and1 first of all1 let me ask1 would it not be absurd and unjust either that no remuneration should be given for the use of capital1 or that that remuneration should be the same1 whether the loan were granted and obtained at one year's1 or two years'1 or ten years' date4 ,if1 unhappily1 under this doctrine of pretended equality1 such a law should find a place in our code1 an entire category of human transactions would be suppressed on the instant4 ,we should still have barter1 and sales for ready money1 but we could no longer have sales on credit1 nor loans4 ,the advocates of equality would relieve borrowers from the burden of paying interest2 but they would1 at the same time1 balk them of their loans4 ,at the same rate1 we might relieve men from the inconvenient necessity of paying for what they buy4 ,we should only have to prohibit them from purchasing2 or1 what would come to the same thing1 declare prices illegal4 ,there is levelling enough1 in all conscience1 in this pretended principle of equality4 ,first of all1 it would put a stop to the creation of capital2 for who would desire to save when he could reap no advantage from saving8 ,then it would reduce wages to zero1 for where there is no capital 7instruments1 materials1 and provisions71 there can be neither future work nor wages4 ,we should very soon arrive at the most perfect of all equalities1 the equality of nothingness4 ,but is there any man so blind as not to see that delay is in itself a circumstance which is onerous1 and1 consequently1 entitled to remuneration8 ,apart1 even1 from the consideration of loans1 would not every one endeavour to abridge delays8 ,it is the object of our perpetual solicitude4 ,every employer of workmen lays great stress on the time which must elapse before his returns come in4 ,he sells dearer or cheaper according as his returns are more or less distant4 ,were he indifferent on that subject1 he must forget that capital is power2 for if he is alive to that consideration1 he must naturally desire that it should perform its work in the shortest possible time1 so as to enable him the oftener to engage it in a new operation4 ,they are but short-sighted ,economists who think that we pay interest for capital only when we borrow it4 ,the general rule is1 that he who reaps the satisfaction should bear all the charges of production1 delay included1 whether he renders the service to himself1 or has it rendered to him by another4 ,a man in a state of p#bjd isolation1 who has no bargains or transactions with any one1 would consider it an onerous circumstance to be deprived of the use of his weapons for a year4 ,why1 then1 should an analogous circumstance not be considered as onerous in society8 ,but if a man submits to it voluntarily for the sake of another who agrees voluntarily to remunerate it1 what should render that remuneration illegitimate8 ,nothing would be transacted in the world2 no enterprise requiring advances would be undertaken2 we should neither plant1 nor sow1 nor labour1 were not delay considered as in itself an onerous circumstance1 and treated and paid for as such4 ,universal consent is so unanimous on this point1 that no exchange takes place but on this principle4 ,delays1 hindrances1 enter into the appreciation of services1 and1 consequently1 into the constitution of value4 ,thus1 in their crusade against interest1 the advocates of equality not only trample under foot the most obvious notions of equity--they ignore not only their own principle of service for service1 but also the authority of mankind and universal practice4 ,how can they1 in the face of day1 exhibit the overweening pride which such a pretension supposes8 ,is it not1 indeed1 a very strange and a very sad thing1 that these sectaries should adopt not only tacitly1 but often in so many words1 the motto1 that1 since the beginning of the world1 all men have been mistaken except themselves8 ,omnes1 ego non4 ,pardon me for thus insisting on the legitimacy of interest1 which is founded on this principle1 that1 since delay is costly1 it must be paid for--to cost and to pay being correlative terms4 ,the fault lies in the spirit of our age4 ,it is quite necessary to defend vital truths1 admitted generally by mankind1 but attacked and brought into question by a few fanatical innovators4 ,for a writer who aspires to demonstrate the harmony of phenomena in the aggregate1 it is a painful thing1 you may believe1 to be constantly stopped by the necessity of elucidating the most elementary notions4 ,would ,laplace have been able to explain the planetary system in all its simplicity1 if1 among his readers1 there had not existed certain common and received ideas1--if it had been necessary for him1 in order to prove that the earth turns upon its axis1 to begin by teaching numeration8 ,such is the hard fate of the ,economist of our day4 ,if he neglects the rudiments1 he is not understood--if he explains them1 the beauty and simplicity of his system is lost sight of in the multiplicity of details4 ,it is a happy thing for mankind that ,interest can be shown to be legitimate4 ,we should otherwise be placed in a miserable p#bje dilemma--we must either perish by remaining just1 or make progress by means of injustice4 ,every branch of industry is an aggregate of ,efforts4 ,but1 as regards efforts1 there is an important distinction to be made4 ,some efforts are connected with services which we are presently engaged in rendering2 others with an indefinite series of analogous services4 ,let me explain myself4 ,the day's work of the water-carrier must be paid for by those who profit by his labour4 ,but his anterior labour in making his barrow and his water-cask must1 as regards remuneration1 be spread over an indeterminate number of consumers4 ,in the same way1 ploughing1 sowing1 harrowing1 weeding1 cutting down1 thrashing1 apply only to the present harvest2 but clearing1 enclosing1 draining1 building1 improving1 apply to and facilitate an indefinite number of future harvests4 ,according to the general law of service for service1 those who receive the ultimate satisfaction must recompense the efforts which have been made for them4 ,as regards the first class of efforts1 there is no difficulty4 ,they are bargained for and estimated by the man who makes them1 and the man who profits by them4 ,but how are those of the second class to be estimated8 ,how is a just proportion of the permanent advances1 the general costs1 and what the ,economists term fixed capital1 to be spread over the whole series of satisfactions which they are destined to realize8 ,by what process can we distribute the burden among those to whom the water is furnished down to the time when the barrow shall be worn out1 and among all the consumers of corn until the period when the field will produce no more8 ,i know not how they would resolve this problem in ,icarie1 or at the ,phalanstre4#eb ,but ,i am inclined to think that the gentlemen who manufacture artificial societies1 and who are so fertile in arrangements and expedients1 and so prompt to compel their adoption by ,law 7or constraint71 could imagine no solution more ingenious than the very natural process which men have adopted since the beginning of the world1 and which it is now sought to prohibit them from following4 ,here is the process--it flows from the law of ,interest4 ,suppose a thousand francs to be laid out on agricultural improvements1 the rate of interest to be five per cent41 and the average return fifty hectolitres of corn4 ,in these circumstances1 each hectolitre would be burdened with one franc4 p#bjf ,this franc is obviously the legitimate recompense of an actual service1 rendered by the proprietor 7whom we might term a labourer71 as well to the person who shall acquire a hectolitre of corn ten years hence as to the man who buys it to-day4 ,the law of strict justice1 then1 is observed here4 ,but if the agricultural improvement1 or the barrow and the water-barrel1 have only a limited duration1 which we can appreciate approximately1 a sinking fund must be added to the interest1 in order that1 when these portions of capital are worn out1 the proprietor may be enabled to renew them4 ,still it is the law of justice which governs the transaction4 ,we must not suppose1 however1 that the franc with which each hectolitre is burdened as interest is an invariable quantity4 ,it represents a value1 and is subject to the law of values4 ,it rises or falls with the variation of supply and demand1--that is to say1 according to the exigencies of the times and the interests of society4 ,it is generally thought that this species of remuneration has a tendency to rise1 if not in the case of manufacturing1 at least in the case of agricultural improvements4 ,supposing this rent to have been equitable at the beginning1 it has a tendency1 it is said1 to degenerate into abuse2 because the proprietor1 sitting with his hands across1 sees it increase year after year1 solely in consequence of the increase of population and the enlarged demand for corn4 ,i allow that this tendency exists1 but it is not peculiar to the rent of land1--it is common to all departments of industry4 ,in all1 value increases with the density of population1 and even the common day-labourer earns more in ,paris than he could in ,brittany4 ,and then1 as regards the rent of land1 the tendency to which we have referred is powerfully counterbalanced by another tendency--that of progress4 ,an amelioration1 realized at the present day by improved processes1 effected with less manual labour1 and at a time when the rate of interest has fallen1 saves our paying too dearly for improvements effected in former times4 ,the fixed capital of the landed proprietor1 like that of the manufacturer1 is deteriorated in the long-run by the invention of instruments of equal value and greater efficiency4 ,this is a magnificent ,law1 which overturns the melancholy theory of ,ricardo2 and it will be explained more in detail when we come to the subject of landed property4 ,observe1 that the problem of the distribution of the services which form the remuneration of permanent improvements can be resolved only by a reference to the law of interest4 ,the capital p#bjg itself cannot be spread over a succession of purchasers1 for this is rendered impossible by their indeterminate number4 ,the first would pay for the last1 which would be unjust4 ,besides1 a time would arrive when the proprietor would become possessed both of the capital laid out in the improvement1 and of the improvement itself1 which would be equally unfair4 ,let us acknowledge1 then1 that the natural mechanism of society is too ingenious to require the substitution of artificial contrivances4 ,i have presented the phenomenon in its simplest form1 in order to render it intelligible2 but1 in practice1 things do not take place quite as ,i have described them4 ,the proprietor does not regulate the distribution himself1 or determine that each hectolitre shall be charged with one franc1 more or less1 as in the hypothetical case which ,i have put4 ,he finds an established order of things1 as well with reference to the average price of corn as to the rate of interest4 ,upon these data he decides how he shall invest his capital4 ,he will devote it to agricultural improvements1 if he finds that the average price of corn will return him the ordinary rate of interest4 ,if not1 he will devote his capital to a more lucrative branch of industry--a branch of industry which1 just because it is more lucrative1 presents1 happily for society1 greater attractions for capital4 ,this movement of capital from one department to another1 which is what actually takes place1 tends to the same result1 and presents us with another ,harmony4 ,the reader will understand that ,i confine myself to a special instance only for the sake of elucidating a general law1 which applies to all trades and professions4 ,a lawyer1 for example1 cannot expect1 from the first suit of which he happens to have charge1 to be reimbursed the expense of his education1 of his course of probation1 of his establishment in business1 which we may suppose to amount to #bj1jjj francs4 ,not only would this be unjust--it would be impracticable2 for were he to make such a stipulation1 his first brief would never make its appearance1 and our ,cujacius would be obliged to imitate the gentleman who1 on taking up house1 could get nobody to come to his first ball1 and declared that next year he would begin with his second4 ,the same thing holds with the merchant1 the physician1 the shipowner1 the artist4 ,in every career we encounter these two classes of efforts--the second imperatively requires to be spread over an indeterminate number of consumers1 employers1 or customers1 and it is impossible to imagine such a distribution without reference to the mechanism of interest4 p#bjh ,great efforts have been made of late to remove the hatred which exists in the popular mind against capital1--infamous1 infernal capital1 as it is called4 ,it has been exhibited to the masses as a voracious and insatiable monster1 more destructive than cholera1 more frightful than revolution1 exercising on the body politic the action of a vampire1 whose power of suction goes on increasing indefinitely4 ,vires acquirit eundo4 ,the tongue of this blood-sucker is called usury1 revenue1 hire1 rent1 interest4 ,a writer1 who might have acquired reputation by his great powers1 and who has preferred to gain notoriety by his paradoxes1 has been pleased to scatter these paradoxes among a people already in the delirium of a revolutionary fever4 ,i1 too1 have an apparent paradox to submit to the reader2 and ,i beg him to examine it1 and see whether it be not in reality a great and consoling truth4 ,but1 first1 ,i must say a word as to the manner in which ,m4 ,proudhon and his school explain what they term the illegitimacy of interest4 ,capital is an instrument of labour4 ,the use of instruments of labour is to procure us the co-operation of the gratuitous forces of nature4 ,by the steam-engine we avail ourselves of the elasticity of air2 by the watch-spring1 of the elasticity of steel2 by weights or waterfalls1 of gravitation2 by the voltaic pile1 of the rapidity of the electric spark2 by the sun's rays1 of the chemical and physical combinations which we call vegetation1 etc41 etc4 ,now1 by confounding ,utility with ,value1 we suppose that these natural agents possess a value which is inherent in them2 and that1 consequently1 those who appropriate them are paid for their use1 inasmuch as value implies payment4 ,we imagine that products are burdened with one item for the services of man1 which we admit to be just2 and with another item for the services of nature1 which we reject as iniquitous4 ,why1 it is asked1 should we pay for gravitation1 electricity1 vegetable life1 elasticity1 and so forth8 ,the answer to this question is to be found in the theory of value4 ,those ,socialists who take the name of galitaires confound the legitimate value of the instrument1 which is the offspring of human labour1 with its useful result1 which1 under deduction of that legitimate value1 or of the interest which represents it1 is always gratuitous4 ,when ,i remunerate an agricultural labourer1 a miller1 a railway company1 ,i give nothing1 absolutely nothing1 for the phenomena of vegetation1 gravitation1 or the elasticity of steam4 ,i pay for the human labour required for making the instruments by means of which these forces are constrained to act2 or1 what suits my purpose better1 ,i pay interest for that labour4 ,i render p#bji service for service1 by means of which the useful action of these forces is turned gratuitously to my profit4 ,it is the same thing as in the case of ,exchange1 or simple barter4 ,the presence of capital does not at all modify this law1 for capital is nothing else than an accumulation of values1 of services1 to which is committed the special duty of procuring the co-operation of nature4 ,and now for my paradox4 ,of all the elements of which the total value of any product is made up1 the part which we should pay for most cheerfully is that element which we term the interest of the advances1 or capital4 ,and why8 ,because that element enables us1 by paying for one1 to save two4 ,because1 by its very presence1 it shows clearly that natural forces have concurred in the final result1 without our having had to pay for their co-operation2 and the consequence is1 that the same general utility is placed at our disposal1 while at the same time a certain portion of gratuitous utility has1 happily for us1 been substituted for onerous utility2 and1 in short1 the price of the product has been reduced4 ,we acquire it with a less proportion of our own labour1 and1 what happens to society at large1 is just what would happen to an isolated individual who should succeed in realizing an ingenious invention4 ,suppose the case of a common artisan1 who earns four francs a-day4 ,with two francs1--that is to say1 with half-a-day's labour1 he purchases a pair of cotton stockings4 ,were he to try to procure these stockings by his own direct labour1 ,i sincerely believe that his whole life would not suffice for the work4 ,how1 then1 does it happen that his half-day's work pays for all the human services which have been rendered to him on this occasion8 ,according to the law of service for service1 why is he not forced to give several years' labour8 ,for this reason1 that the stockings are the result of human services1 of which natural agents1 by the intervention of ,capital1 have enormously diminished the proportion4 ,our artisan1 however1 pays not only for the actual labour of all those who have concurred in the work1 but also the interest of the capital by means of which the co-operation of nature was procured2 and it is worthy of remark1 that1 without this last remuneration1 or were it held to be illegitimate1 capital would not have been employed to secure the assistance of the natural agents4 ,there would have been in the product only onerous utility2 for in that case the commodity would have been the exclusive result of human labour1 and our artisan would have been brought back to the point whence he started1--that is to say1 he would have been placed in the p#baj dilemma of either dispensing with the stockings1 or of paying for them the price of several years' labour4 ,if our artisan had learnt to analyze phenomena1 he would soon get reconciled to ,capital1 on seeing how much he is indebted to it4 ,he would be convinced1 above all1 that the gratuitous nature of the gifts of ,god has been completely preserved1 and that these gifts have been lavished on him with a liberality which he owes not to his own merit1 but to the beautiful mechanism of the natural social order4 ,capital does not consist in the vegetative force which has made cotton germinate and flower1 but in the pains taken by the planter4 ,capital is not the wind which fills the sails of the ship1 or the magnetism which acts upon the needle1 but the pains taken by the sailmaker and the optician4 ,capital is not the elasticity of steam which turns the spindles of the mill1 but the pains taken by the machine-maker4 ,vegetation1 the power of the winds1 magnetism1 elasticity1--all these are purely gratuitous2 and hence the stockings have so little value4 ,as regards the pains taken by the planter1 the sailmaker1 the optician1 the shipbuilder1 the sailor1 the manufacturer1 the merchant1 they are spread--or1 rather1 so far as capital is concerned1 the interest of that capital is spread--over innumerable purchasers of stockings2 and this is the reason why the portion of labour given by each of these purchasers is so small4 ,modern reformers6 when ,i see you desiring to replace this admirable natural order by an arrangement of your own invention1 there are two things 7although they are in reality one and the same7 which confound me1--namely1 your want of faith in ,providence1 and your faith in yourselves--your ignorance1 and your presumption4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it follows from what ,i have said that the progress of mankind coincides with the rapid creation of ,capital2 for to say that new capital is formed1 is just to say1 in other words1 that obstacles1 formerly onerously combated by labour1 are now gratuitously combated by nature2 and that1 be it observed1 not for the profit of the capitalist1 but for the profit of the community4 ,this being so1 the paramount interest of all 7in an economical point of view1 and rightly understood7 is to favour the rapid creation of capital4 ,but capital1 if ,i may say so1 increases of its own accord under the triple influence of activity1 frugality1 and security4 ,we can scarcely exercise any direct influence on the activity and frugality of our neighbours1 except through the medium of public opinion1 by an intelligent communication of our antipathies and our sympathies4 ,but as regards security we can do much1 for1 p#baa without security1 capital1 far from being formed and accumulated1 conceals itself1 takes flight1 and perishes2 and this shows us how suicidal that popular ardour is which displays itself in disturbing the public tranquillity4 ,let the working-classes be well assured that the mission of ,capital from the beginning has been to set men free from the yoke of ignorance1 of want1 and of despotism2 and that to frighten away ,capital is to rivet a triple chain on the energies of the human race4 ,the vires acquirit eundo may be applied with rigorous exactitude to capital1 and its beneficent influence4 ,capital1 when formed1 necessarily leaves disposable both labour and the remuneration of that labour4 ,it carries in itself1 then1 a power of progression4 ,there is in it something which resembles the law of velocities4 ,this progression economical science has omitted hitherto to oppose to the other progression which ,malthus has remarked4 ,it is a ,harmony which we cannot explain in this place1 but must reserve for the chapter on ,population4 ,but ,i must here put the reader on his guard against a specious objection4 ,if the mission of capital1 it may be said1 is to cause nature to execute work which has been hitherto executed by human labour1 whatever good it may confer upon mankind1 it must do injury to the working-classes1 especially to those classes who live by wages2 for everything which throws hands out of employment1 and renders them disposable1 renders competition more intense2 and this1 undoubtedly1 is the secret reason of the antipathy of the working-classes to men of capital4 ,if this objection were well founded1 we should have a discordant note in the social harmony4 ,the illusion arises from losing sight of this1 that capital1 in proportion as its action is extended1 sets free and renders disposable a certain amount of human efforts1 only by setting free and rendering disposable a corresponding fund of remuneration1 so that these two elements meet and compensate one another4 ,the labour is not paralyzed4 ,replaced in a special department of industry by gratuitous forces1 it sets to work upon other obstacles in the general march of progress1 and with more certainty1 inasmuch as it finds its recompense prepared beforehand4 ,recurring to our former illustration1 it is easy to see that the price of stockings 7like that of books1 and all things else7 is lowered by the action of capital1 only by leaving in the hands of the purchaser a part of the former price4 ,this is too clear for illustration4 ,the workman who now pays two francs for what he paid six francs for formerly1 has four francs left at his disposal4 ,now1 it is exactly p#bab in that proportion that human labour has been replaced by natural forces4 ,these forces1 then1 are a pure and simple acquisition1 which alters in no respect the relation of labour to available remuneration4 ,it will be remembered that the answer to this objection was given formerly1#ec when1 observing upon man in a state of isolation1 or reduced once more to the primitive law of barter1 ,i put the reader on his guard against the illusion which it is my object here to dispel4 ,we may leave capital1 then1 to take care of itself1 to be created and accumulated according to its own proper tendencies1 and the wants and desires of men4 ,do not imagine that1 when the common labourer economizes for his old days1 when the father of a family sets his son up in business1 or provides a dower for his daughter1 they are exercising to the detriment of the public that noble attribute of man1 ,foresight2 but it would be so1 and private virtues would be in direct antagonism with the general good1 were there an incompatibility between ,capital and ,labour4 ,far from mankind being subjected to this contradiction1 or1 ,i might rather say1 this impossibility 7for how can we conceive progressive evil in the aggregate to result from progressive good in individual cases87 we must acknowledge that ,providence1 in justice and mercy1 has assigned a nobler part to ,labour than to ,capital in the work of progress1 and has afforded a stimulant more efficacious1 a recompense more liberal1 to the man who lives by the sweat of his brow1 than to the man who subsists upon the exertions of his forefathers4 ,in fact1 having established that every increase of capital is followed by a necessary increase of general prosperity1 ,i venture to lay down the following principle with reference to the distribution of wealth1--a principle which ,i believe will be found unassailable3-- 8,in proportion to the increase of ,capital1 the absolute share of the total product falling to the capitalist is augmented1 and his relative share is diminished2 while1 on the contrary1 the labourer's share is increased both absolutely and relatively40 ,i shall explain this more clearly by figures3-- ,suppose the total products of society1 at successive epochs1 to be represented by the figures #ajjj1 #bjjj1 #cjjj1 #djjj1 etc4 ,i maintain that the share falling to the capitalists will descend1 successively1 from #ej per cent41 to #dj1 #ce1 #cj per cent41 and that the share of the labourers will rise1 consequently1 from #ej per cent41 to #fj1 #fe1 #gj per cent41--so that the absolute share of the p#bac capitalist will be always greater at each period1 although his relative share will be smaller4 ,the division will take place in this way1-- ,total ,share of ,share of ,product4 ,capitalist4 ,labourer4 ,first period1 #ajjj #ejj #ejj ,second period1 #bjjj #hjj #abjj ,third period1 #cjjj #ajej #aiej ,fourth period1 #djjj #abjj #bhjj ,such is the great1 admirable1 reassuring1 necessary1 and inflexible law of ,capital4 ,to demonstrate it1 appears to me to be the true way to strike with discredit the declamations which have so long been dinned into our ears against the avidity1 the tyranny1 of the most powerful instrument of civilisation and of equality which has ever proceeded from the human faculties4 ,the demonstration is twofold4 ,first of all1 we must prove that the relative share of the product falling to the capitalist goes on continually diminishing4 ,this is not difficult2 for it only amounts to saying that the more abundant capital becomes1 the more interest falls4 ,now1 this is a matter of fact1 incontestable and uncontested4 ,not only does science explain it--it is self-evident4 ,schools the most eccentric admit it4 ,it forms the basis of their theory1 for it is from this very fall of interest that they infer the necessary1 the inevitable annihilation of what they choose to brand as infernal ,capital4 ,now1 say they1 inasmuch as this annihilation is necessary1 is inevitable1 and must take place in a given time2 and1 moreover1 implies the realization of a positive good1 it is incumbent on us to hasten it and insure it4 ,i am not concerned to refute these principles1 or the deductions drawn from them4 ,it is enough that ,economists of all schools1 as well as socialists1 egalitaires1 and others1 all admit1 in point of fact1 that interest falls in proportion as capital becomes more abundant4 ,whether they admit it or not1 indeed1 the fact is not the less certain4 ,it rests upon the authority of universal experience1 and on the acquiescence1 involuntary it may be1 of all the capitalists in the world4 ,it is a fact that the interest of capital is lower in ,spain than in ,mexico1 in ,france than in ,spain1 in ,england than in ,france1 in ,holland than in ,england4 ,now1 when interest falls from #bj to #ae per cent41 and then to #aj1 to #h1 to #f1 to #e1 to #d1 to #d1 to #c1 to #c per cent41 what does that mean in relation to the question which now engages us8 ,it means that capital1 as the recompense of its co-operation in the work of production1 in the realization of wealth1 is content1 or1 if you will1 is forced to be content1 with a smaller and smaller share of the product in proportion as capital increases4 ,does it constitute one-third of the value of corn1 of cloth1 of houses1 of ships1 of p#bad canals8 in other words1 when these things are sold1 does one-third of the price fall to the capitalist1 and two-thirds to the labourer8 ,by degrees1 the capitalist receives no more than a fourth1 a fifth1 a sixth4 ,his relative share goes on diminishing1 while that of the labourer goes on increasing in the same proportion2 and the first part of my demonstration is complete4 ,it remains for me to prove that the absolute share falling to the capitalist goes on constantly increasing4 ,it is very true that the tendency of interest is to fall4 ,but when1 and why8 ,when1 and because1 the capital becomes more abundant4 ,it is then quite possible that the total product should be increased while the percentage is diminished4 ,a man has a larger income with #bjj1jjj francs at four per cent41 than with #ajj1jjj francs at five per cent41 although1 in the first case1 he charges less to the manufacturer for the use of his capital4 ,the same thing holds of a nation1 and of the world at large4 ,now1 ,i maintain that the percentage1 in its tendency to fall1 neither does nor can follow a progression so rapid that the sum total of interest should be smaller when capital is abundant than when it is scarce4 ,i admit1 indeed1 that if the capital of mankind be represented by #ajj and interest by #e1--this interest will amount to no more than #d when the capital shall have mounted to #bjj4 ,here we see the simultaneousness of the two effects4 ,the less the relative part1 the greater the absolute part4 ,but my hypothesis does not admit that the increase of capital from #ajj to #bjj is sufficient to make interest fall from #e to #b per cent41 for example2 because1 if it were so1 the capitalist who had an income of #ejjj francs with #ajj1jjj francs of capital1 would have no greater income than #djjj francs with #bjj1jjj francs of capital4 ,a result so contradictory and impossible1 an anomaly so strange1 would be met with the simplest and most agreeable of remedies2 for then1 in order to increase your income1 it would only be necessary to consume half your capital4 ,a happy and whimsical age it would be when men could enrich by impoverishing themselves6 ,we must take care1 then1 not to lose sight of the combination of these two correlative facts4 ,the increase of capital1 and the fall of interest1 take place necessarily in such a way that the total product is continually augmented4 ,and let us remark in passing1 that this completely exposes the fallacy of those who imagine that because interest falls1 it tends to annihilation4 ,the effect of that would be1 that a time would arrive when capital would be so much increased as to yield nothing to its possessors4 ,keep your mind easy on that score--before p#bae that time comes1 capitalists will dissipate the stock in order to ensure the reappearance of interest4 ,such is the great law of ,capital and ,labour in what concerns the distribution of the product of their joint agency4 ,each of them has a greater and greater absolute share1 but the proportional share of the capitalist is continually diminished as compared with that of the labourers4 ,cease1 then1 capitalists and workmen1 to regard each other with an eye of envy and distrust4 ,shut your ears against those absurd declamations which proceed from ignorance and presumption1 which1 under pretence of insuring future prosperity1 blow the flame of present discord4 ,be assured that your interests are one and identical2 that they are indisputably knit together2 that they tend together towards the realization of the public good2 that the toils of the present generation mingle with the labours of generations which are past2 that all who co-operate in the work of production receive their share of the produce2 and that the most ingenious and most equitable distribution is effected among you by the wise laws of ,providence1 and under the empire of freedom1 independently altogether of a parasite sentimentalism1 which would impose upon you its decrees at the expense of your well-being1 your liberty1 your security1 and your self-respect4 ,capital has its root in these attributes of man--,foresight1 ,intelligence1 and ,frugality4 ,to set about the creation of capital we must look forward to the future1 and sacrifice the present to it--we must exercise a noble empire over ourselves and over our appetites2 we must resist the seduction of present enjoyments1 the impulses of vanity and the caprices of fashion and of public opinion1 always so indulgent to the thoughtless and the prodigal4 ,we must study cause and effect1 in order to discover by what processes1 by what instruments1 nature can be made to co-operate in the work of production4 ,we must be animated by love for our families1 and not grudge present sacrifices for the sake of those who are dear to us1 and who will reap the fruits after we ourselves have disappeared from the scene4 ,to create capital is to prepare food1 clothing1 shelter1 leisure1 instruction1 independence1 dignity1 for future generations4 ,nothing of all this can be effected without bringing into play motives which are eminently social1 and1 what is more1 converting these virtues into habits4 ,and yet it is very usual to attribute to capital a sort of fatal efficacy1 the effect of which is to introduce egotism1 austerity1 ,machiavelism1 into the hearts of those who aspire to possess it4 ,but let us not be misunderstood4 ,there are countries where p#baf labour is of little value1 and the little that is earned is shared by the government4 ,in order to snatch from you the fruit of your toil1 what is called the ,state surrounds you with a multitude of trammels4 ,it interferes with all your actions1 and mixes itself up in all your concerns4 ,it domineers over your mind and your faith4 ,it disarranges all interests1 and places them in an artificial and precarious position4 ,it enervates individual energy and activity1 by usurping the direction of all affairs4 ,it makes the responsibility of actions fall upon people with whom it amounts to nothing1 so that by degrees all notions of what is just or unjust are effaced4 ,by its diplomacy it embroils the nation in quarrels with all the world1 and then the army and navy are brought into play4 ,it warps the popular mind as much as it can upon all economical questions2 for it is necessary to make the masses believe that its foolish expenditure1 its unjust aggressions1 its conquests1 its colonies1 are for them a source of riches4 ,in such countries it is difficult to create capital by natural means4 ,the great object is to purloin it by force or by fraud from those who have created it4 ,we there see men enriching themselves by war1 by places at court1 by gambling1 by purveying1 by stockjobbing1 by commercial frauds1 by hazardous enterprises1 by public contracts1 etc4 ,the qualities requisite for thus snatching capital from the hands of those who create it are precisely the opposite of those necessary for its formation4 ,it cannot surprise us1 then1 that in countries so situated an association is established between these two ideas--capital and egotism2 and this association becomes ineradicable when all the moral ideas of the country exhaust themselves on ancient and medival history4 ,but when we turn our regards1 not to this abstraction and abuse of capital1 but to its creation by intelligence and activity1 foresight and frugality1 it is impossible not to perceive that a moral and social virtue is attached to its acquisition4 ,nor is there less moral and social virtue in the action of capital than in its formation4 ,its peculiar effect is to procure us the co-operation of nature1 to set us free from all that is most material1 muscular1 brutal1 in the work of production2 to render the intelligent principle more and more predominant2 to enlarge the domain1 ,i do not say of idleness1 but of leisure2 to render less imperious the physical wants of our nature1 by rendering their satisfaction more easy1 and to substitute for them wants and enjoyments of a nature more elevated1 more delicate1 more refined1 more artistic1 more spiritual4 ,thus1 in whatever point of view we place ourselves1 whether p#bag we regard ,capital in connexion with our wants1 which it ennobles2 with our efforts1 which it facilitates2 with our enjoyments1 which it purifies2 with nature1 which it enlists in our service2 with morality1 which it converts into habit2 with sociability1 which it develops2 with equality1 which it promotes2 with freedom1 in which it lives2 with equity1 which it realizes by methods the most ingenious--everywhere1 always1 provided that it is created and acts in the regular order of things1 and is not diverted from its natural uses1 we recognise in ,capital what forms the indubitable note and stamp of all great providential laws1--,harmony4 p#bah ,,viii4 ,,property--,,community4 ,recognising in the soil1 in natural agents1 and in instruments of labour1 what they incontestably possess1 the gift of engendering ,utility1 ,i have endeavoured to denude them of what has been erroneously attributed to them1 namely1 the faculty of creating ,value1--a faculty which pertains exclusively to the ,services which men exchange with each other4 ,this simple rectification1 whilst it strengthens and confirms ,property1 by restoring to it its true character1 brings to light a most important fact1 hitherto1 if ,i am not mistaken1 overlooked by ,economic science--the fact that there exists a real1 essential1 and progressive ,community1--the natural result of every social system in which liberty prevails1 and the evident design of which is to conduct all men1 as brethren1 from primitive ,equality1 which is the equality of ignorance and destitution1 towards an ultimate ,equality in the possession of truth and material prosperity4 ,if this radical distinction between the ,utility of things and the value of services be true in itself1 and in the consequences which have been deduced from it1 it is impossible to misunderstand its bearing2 for it leads to nothing less than the absorption of utopian theories in science1 and the reconcilement of antagonistic schools in a common faith1 which satisfies all minds and all aspirations4 ,men of ,property and leisure6--whatever be your rank in the social scale1 whatever step of the social ladder you may have reached by dint of activity1 probity1 order1 and economy--whence come the fears which have seized upon you8 ,the perfumed but poisoned breath of ,utopia menaces your existence4 ,you are loudly told that the fortune you have amassed for the purpose of securing a little repose in your old age1 and food1 instruction1 and an outset in life for your children1 has been acquired by you at the expense of your brethren2 that you have placed yourselves p#bai between the gifts of ,god and the poor2 that1 like greedy tax-gatherers1 you have levied a tribute on those gifts1 under the name of ,property1 of ,interest1 and of ,rent2 that you have intercepted the benefits which the common ,father has bestowed on his children1 in order to make merchandise of them4 ,you are called upon for restitution2 and what augments your terror is1 that your advocates1 in conducting your defence1 feel themselves too often obliged to avow that the usurpation is flagrant1 but that it is necessary4 ,such accusations ,i meet with a direct and emphatic negative4 ,you have not intercepted the gifts of ,god4 ,you have received them gratuitously1 it is true1 at the hands of nature2 but you have also gratuitously transferred them to your brethren without receiving anything4 ,they have acted the same way towards you2 and the only things which have been reciprocally compensated are physical or intellectual efforts1 toils undergone1 dangers braved1 skill exercised1 privations submitted to1 pains taken1 services rendered and received4 ,you may perhaps have thought only of yourselves and your own selfish interest1 but that very selfish interest has been an instrument in the hand of an infinitely prescient and wise ,providence to enlarge unceasingly among men the domain of ,community2 for without your efforts all those useful effects which you have obtained from nature1 in order to distribute them without remuneration among your brethren1 would have remained for ever inert4 ,i say without remuneration1 because what you have received is simply the recompense of your efforts1 and not at all the price of the gifts of ,god4 ,live1 then1 in peace1 without fear and without misgiving4 ,you have no other property in the world but your right to services1 in exchange for other services1 by you faithfully rendered1 and by your brethren voluntarily accepted4 ,such property is legitimate1 unassailable2 no ,utopia can prevail against it1 for it enters into the very constitution of our being4 ,no theory can ever succeed in blighting or in shaking it4 ,men of toil and privations6 you cannot shut your eyes to this truth1 that the primitive condition of the human race is that of an entire ,community1--a perfect ,equality1--of poverty1 of destitution1 and of ignorance4 ,man redeems himself from this estate by the sweat of his brow1 and directs his course towards another ,community1 that of the gifts of ,god1 successively obtained with less effort1--towards another ,equality1 that of material prosperity1 knowledge1 and moral dignity4 ,the progress of men on the road of improvement is unequal1 indeed2 and you could not complain were the more hurried and precipitate march of the vanguard of progress to retard in some measure your own advance4 ,but in p#bbj truth it is quite the reverse4 ,no ray of light penetrates a single mind without in some degree enlightening yours4 ,no step of progress1 prompted by the conscious possession of property1 but is a step of progress for you4 ,no wealth is created which does not tend to your enfranchisement2 no capital1 which does not increase your enjoyments in proportion to your labour2 no acquisition1 which does not increase your facilities of acquisition2 no ,property1 which does not tend to enlarge1 for your benefit1 the domain of ,community4 ,the natural social order has been so skillfully arranged by the ,divine ,architect1 that those who are more advanced on the road of civilisation hold out to you1 voluntarily or unconsciously1 a helping hand2 for the order of things has been so disposed that no man can work honestly for himself without at the same time working for all4 ,and it is rigorously true to affirm that every attack upon this marvellous order would on your part be not only a homicide1 but a suicide4 ,human nature is an admirable chain1 which exhibits this standing miracle1 that the first links communicate to all the others a progressive movement more and more rapid1 onwards to the last4 ,men of philanthropy6 lovers of equality6 blind defenders1 dangerous friends of the suffering classes1 who are yet far behind on the road of civilisation1 you who expect the reign of ,community in this world1 why do you begin by unsettling all interests and shaking all received opinions8 ,why1 in your pride1 should you seek to subjugate men's wills1 and bring them under the yoke of your social inventions8 ,do you not see that this ,community after which you sigh1 and which is to inaugurate the kingdom of ,god upon earth1 has been already thought of and provided for by ,god himself8 ,does ,he want your aid to provide a patrimony for his children8 ,has ,he need either of your conceptions or of your violence8 ,do you not see that this ,community is realized more and more every day1 in virtue of ,his admirable decrees2 that for the execution of these decrees ,he has not trusted to your chance services and puerile arrangements1 nor even to the growing expression of the sympathetic principle manifested by charity2 but that ,he has confided the realization of ,his providential designs to the most active1 the most personal1 the most permanent of all our energies--,self-interest1--a principle imbedded in our inmost nature1 and which never flags1 never takes rest8 ,study1 then1 the social mechanism as it comes from the hand of the ,great ,mechanician1 and you will find that it testifies to a universal solicitude1 which far outstrips your dreams and chimeras4 ,you will then1 ,i hope1 in place of presumptuously pretending p#bba to reconstruct the divine workmanship1 be content to admire and to bless it4 ,i say not that there is no room in this world of ours for reforms and reformers4 ,i say not that mankind are not to call to their service1 and encourage with their gratitude1 men of investigation1 of science1 and of earnestness1--hearts faithful to the people4 ,such are still but too much wanted1--not to overturn the social laws1--but to combat the artificial obstacles which disturb and reverse the action of these laws4 ,in truth1 it is difficult to understand why people should keep repeating such commonplaces as this3 8,political ,economy is an optimist1 as far as existing facts are concerned2 and affirms that whatever is is right4 ,at the sight of what is evil1 as at the sight of what is good4 ,economists are content to exclaim1 ,laissez faire40 ,optimists with reference to existing facts6 ,then we must be ignorant that the primitive condition of man is poverty1 ignorance1 the reign of brute force6 ,we must be ignorant that the moving spring of human nature is aversion to all suffering1 to all fatigue2 and that labour being fatigue1 the earliest manifestation of selfishness among men is shown in their effort to throw this painful burden on the shoulders of each other6 ,the words cannibalism1 war1 slavery1 privilege1 monopoly1 fraud1 spoliation1 imposture1 must either have never reached our ears1 or else we must see in these abominations the necessary machinery of progress6 ,but is there not in all this a certain amount of wilful misrepresentation1 a confounding of all things for the purpose of accusing us of confounding them8 ,when we admire the providential laws which govern human transactions--when we assert that men's interests are harmonious--when we thence conclude that they naturally tend and gravitate towards the realization of relative equality and general progress--it is surely from the play and action of these laws1 not from their perturbations and disturbances1 that we educe harmony4 ,when we say laissez faire1 we surely mean1 allow these laws to act1 not1 allow these laws to be disturbed4 ,according as we conform to these laws or violate them1 good or evil is produced2 in other words1 men's interests are in harmony1 provided right prevail1 and services are freely and voluntarily exchanged against services4 ,but does this imply that we are ignorant of the perpetual struggle of ,wrong against ,right8 ,does this imply that we lose sight of1 or approve1 the efforts which have been made in all ages1 and which are still making1 to alter1 by force or fraud1 the natural equivalence of services8 ,this is exactly when we repudiate as a violation of the natural social laws1 as an attack upon property1--for1 in our view1 the terms1 free exchange of services1 justice1 property1 liberty1 p#bbb security1 all express the same idea under different aspects4 ,it is not the principle of ,property which we contest1 but the antagonistic principle of ,spoliation4 ,proprietors of all ranks6 reformers of all schools6 this is the mission which should reconcile and unite us4 ,it is time1 high time1 that this crusade should begin4 ,a mere theoretical war against ,property is by no means the most virulent or the most dangerous4 ,since the beginning of the world there has existed a practical conspiracy against it which is not likely soon to cease4 ,war1 slavery1 imposture1 oppressive imposts1 monopolies1 privileges1 commercial frauds1 colonies1 right to employment1 right to credit1 right to assistance1 right to instruction1 progressive taxation imposed in direct or inverse proportion to our power of bearing it1 are so many battering-rams directed against the tottering edifice2 and if the truth must come out1 would you tell me whether there are many men in ,france1 even among those who think themselves conservative1 who do not1 in one form or another1 lend a hand to this work of destruction8 ,there are people to whose optics property never appears in any other form than that of a field or a bag of crown-pieces4 ,if you do not overstep sacred landmarks1 or sensibly empty their pockets1 they feel quite comfortable4 ,but is there no other kind of ,property8 ,is there not the ,property of muscular force and intellectual power1 of faculties1 of ideas--in a word1 the ,property of ,services8 ,when ,i throw a service into the social scale1 is it not my right that it should be held there1 if ,i may use the expression1 suspended1 according to the laws of its natural equivalence2 that it may there form a counterpoise to any other service which my neighbour may consent to throw into the opposite scale and tender me in exchange8 ,the law of common consent agreed to establish a public force for the protection of property thus understood4 ,but in what situation are we placed if this very force assumes to itself the mission of disturbing the equilibrium1 under the socialist pretext that liberty gives birth to monopoly1 and that the doctrine of laissez faire is odious and heartless8 ,when things go on in this way1 individual theft may be rare1 and may be severely punished1 but spoliation is organized1 legalized1 and erected into a system4 ,comfort yourselves1 ,reformers6 your work is not yet done--only try to understand what that work really is4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but before proceeding to analyze spoliation1 whether public or private1 legal or illegal1 and to consider its bearing as an element in the social problem1 and the part which it plays in the business p#bbc of the world1 it is necessary to form just ideas1 if possible1 of ,community and ,property2 for1 as we shall by-and-by see1 spoliation forms a limit to property1 just as property forms a limit to community4 ,from the preceding ,chapters1 especially that which treats of ,utility and ,value1 we may deduce this formula3 ,every man enjoys ,,gratuitously all the utilities furnished or created by nature1 on condition of taking the trouble to appropriate them1 or of returning an equivalent service to those who render him the service of taking that trouble for him4 ,here we have two facts combined and mixed up together1 although in their own nature distinct4 ,we have the gifts of nature--gratuitous materials1 gratuitous forces4 ,this is the domain of ,community4 ,we have also human efforts devoted to the appropriation of these materials1 to the direction of these forces1--efforts which are exchanged1 estimated1 and compensated4 ,this is the domain of ,property4 ,in other words1 as regards both1 we are not owners of the ,utility of things1 but of their ,value1 and value is simply the appreciation of reciprocal services4 ,property1 ,community1 are two ideas correlative to the ideas of onerosity and gratuitousness1 on which they are founded4 ,that which is gratuitous is common1 for every one enjoys a portion of it1 and enjoys it unconditionally4 ,that which is onerous is appropriated1 because trouble taken1 effort made1 is the condition of its enjoyment1 as the enjoyment is the reason for taking the trouble1 or making the effort4 ,does an exchange intervene8 ,it is effected by a comparative estimate of the two efforts or the two services4 ,this reference to trouble1 to pains1 implies the existence of an ,obstacle4 ,we may then conclude that the object sought for approximates more nearly to the gratuitous and the common1 in proportion as the obstacle is less2 as1 by hypothesis1 the complete absence of obstacle would render it perfectly gratuitous and common4 ,now1 with reference to human nature1 which is progressive and perfectible1 the obstacle can never be regarded as an absolute and invariable quantity4 ,it diminishes4 ,then the pains taken diminish along with it--and the service with the pains--and value with the service--and property with value4 ,and the ,utility remains the same4 ,then the gratuitous and the common have gained all that onerosity and property have lost4 p#bbd ,to determine man to labour he must have a motive1 and that motive is the satisfaction he has in view1 or utility4 ,his undoubted and irrepressible tendency is to realize the greatest possible satisfaction with the least possible labour1 to cause the greatest amount of utility to correspond with the greatest amount of property4 ,whence it follows that the mission of ,property1 or rather of the spirit of property1 is to realize1 in a greater and greater degree1 ,community4 ,the starting point of the human race being the maximum of poverty1 or the maximum of obstacles to be overcome1 it is clear that for all that is gained from one age to another we are indebted to the spirit of property4 ,this being so1 is there to be found in the world a single theoretical adversary of the institution of property8 ,is it possible to imagine a social force at once so just and so popular8 ,the fundamental dogma of ,proudhon himself is the mutuality of services4 ,on this point we are agreed4 ,what we differ upon is1 that ,i give this the name of ,property1 because1 on going to the root of the matter1 ,i am convinced that men1 if they are free1 neither have1 nor can have1 any other property than that of value1 or of services4 ,on the contrary1 ,proudhon1 like most ,economists1 thinks that certain natural agents have a value which is inherent in them1 and that in consequence of that they are appropriated4 ,but as regards property in services1 far from contesting it1 he adopts it as his creed4 ,do you wish to go still farther8 to go the length of asserting that a man should not have a right of property in his own exertions8 ,will it be said that by exchange it is not enough to transfer gratuitously the co-operation of natural agents1 but also to cede gratuitously one's own efforts8 ,this is indeed a dangerous doctrine2 it is to glorify slavery2 for to assert that certain men must render1 is to assert that other men must receive1 services which are not remunerated1 and that is slavery4 ,but if you say that this gratuitous interchange must be reciprocal1 you get into an incomprehensible logomachy2 for either there is some equity in exchange1 and then the services will1 in one way or another1 be estimated and compensated2 or they will not be estimated and compensated1--in which case the one party will render a great amount of service1 and the other a small amount1 and you will fall back again into slavery4 ,but it is impossible to contest the legitimate nature of ,property in services which are exchanged on the principle of equivalence4 ,to explain their legitimacy we have no need to have recourse to philosophy1 or jurisprudence1 or metaphysics4 ,socialists1 ,economists1 p#bbe ,advocates of ,equality and ,fraternity1--,i defy the whole body1 numerous as it is1 to raise even the shadow of an objection against the legitimate mutuality of voluntary services1 and consequently against ,property1 such as ,i have defined it1 such as it actually exists in the natural social order4 ,i know very well that in practice the reign of ,property is far from being an undivided sway1 and that we have always to deal with an antagonistic fact4 ,there are services which are not voluntary2 there is remuneration which is not freely stipulated2 there are services whose equivalence is impaired by force or by fraud2 in a word1 there is ,spoliation4 ,the legitimate principle of ,property1 however1 is not thereby invalidated but confirmed4 ,the very fact of its being violated proves its existence4 ,if we put faith in anything in this world--in facts1 in justice1 in universal assent1 in human language--we must admit that these two words1 ,property and ,spoliation1 express ideas which are as opposite1 as irreconcilable1 as far from being identical as yes and no1 light and darkness1 good and evil1 harmony and discord4 ,taken literally1 the celebrated formula that property is theft is absurd in the very highest degree4 ,it would not be more monstrous to say that theft is property1 that what is legitimate is illegitimate1 that what is is not1 etc4 ,the author of this whimsical aphorism probably wished to show how ingeniously he could support a paradox1 and meant no more than this1 that certain men are paid not only for work which they do but for work which they don't do1 thus appropriating to themselves1 exclusively1 gratuitous utility--the gifts vouchsafed by ,god for the good of all4 ,in this case all that we have to do is to prove the assertion1 and substitute the truism that theft is theft4 ,to steal means1 in ordinary language1 to appropriate1 by force or fraud1 a value1 to the prejudice and without the consent of the person who has created that value4 ,it is easy to see how a false ,political ,economy has succeeded in enlarging the sense of that ugly word steal4 ,you begin by confounding utility with value4 ,then1 as nature co-operates in the creation of utility1 you conclude that nature also concurs in the creation of ,value1 and you say that this portion of value1 being the fruit of no one's labour1 belongs to all4 ,at length1 finding that value is never transferred without remuneration1 you add1 that the man who exacts a recompense for a value which is the creation of nature1 which is independent of all human labour1 which is inherent in things1 and is by the destination of ,providence one of their intrinsic qualities1 like weight or porosity1 form or colour1 commits a robbery4 ,an exact analysis of value overturns this scaffolding of p#bbf subtilties intended to prop up a monstrous assimilation of ,property with ,spoliation4 ,god has placed certain ,materials and certain ,forces at the disposal of man4 ,in order to obtain possession of these materials and forces1 ,labour is necessary1 or it is not4 ,if it be not necessary1 no one will voluntarily consent to purchase from another1 by means of an effort1 what1 without any effort1 he can obtain from the hands of ,nature4 ,in this case1 services1 exchange1 value1 ,property1 are out of the question4 ,if1 on the other hand1 labour be necessary1 in equity it falls upon the person who is to receive the satisfaction2 whence it follows that the satisfaction is the recompense of the pains taken1 the effort made1 the labour undergone4 ,here you have the principle of ,property4 ,this being so1 a man takes pains1 or submits to labour1 for his own benefit1 and becomes possessed of the whole utility realized by this labour co-operating with nature4 ,he takes pains1 or submits to labour1 for another1 and in that case he bargains to receive in return an equivalent service1 which is likewise the vehicle of utility1 and the result exhibits two ,efforts1 two ,utilities which have changed hands1 and two ,satisfactions4 ,but we must not lose sight of this1 that the transaction is effected by the comparison1 by the appreciation1 not of the two utilities 7they cannot be brought to this test71 but of the two services exchanged4 ,it is then exact to say that1 in a personal point of view1 man1 by means of labour1 becomes proprietor of natural utility 7that is the object of his labour71 whatever be the relation 7which may vary ad infinitum7 of labour to utility4 ,but in a social point of view1 or in reference to each other1 men are never proprietors except of value1 the foundation of which is not the liberality of nature1 but human service1 pains taken1 danger encountered1 skill displayed1 in securing that liberality4 ,in a word1 in what concerns natural and gratuitous utility1 the last acquirer1 the person who is the recipient of the satisfaction1 is placed1 by exchange1 in the shoes of the first labourer4 ,the latter has found himself in presence of a gratuitous utility which he has taken the pains to appropriate2 the former returns him an equivalent service1 and thus substitutes himself in the other's right and place2 utility is acquired by him by the same title1 that is to say1 by a gratuitous title1 on condition of pains taken4 ,there is here1 neither in fact nor in appearance1 any improper interception of the gifts of ,god4 ,i venture1 then1 to lay down this proposition as unassailable3 ,in relation to one another1 men are proprietors only of values1 and values represent only services compared1 and voluntarily received and rendered4 p#bbg ,that1 on the one hand1 the true meaning of the word value is what ,i have already demonstrated it to be 7,chapter ,v472 and that1 on the other1 men are never1 and never can be1 as regards each other1 proprietors of anything but value1 is evident as well from reasoning as from experience4 ,from reasoning--for why should ,i go to purchase from a man1 by means of an effort1 what1 without any effort1 ,i can obtain from nature8 ,from universal experience1 which is too weighty to be despised in this question1--nothing being more fitted to give us confidence in a theory than the rational and practical acquiescence of men of all ages and all countries4 ,now ,i say that universal consent ratifies the sense which ,i give here to the word ,property4 ,when a public officer makes an inventory after a death1 or by authority of justice1 of when a merchant1 manufacturer1 or farmer does the same thing for his own satisfaction1 or when it is done by officials under a bankruptcy--what do they inscribe on the stamped rolls as each object presents itself8 ,is it its utility1 its intrinsic merit8 ,no1 it is its value1 that is to say1 the equivalent of the trouble which1 any purchaser taken at random would have in procuring himself a similar commodity4 ,does a jury named by a judge to report upon a work or a commodity inquire whether it be more useful than another work or commodity8 ,do they take into consideration the enjoyments which may be thereby procured8 ,do they esteem a hammer more than a china jar1 because the hammer is admirably adapted to make the law of gravitation available to its possessor8 or a glass of water more than a diamond1 because the former is capable of rendering more substantial service8 or the work of ,say more than the work of ,fourier1 because from the former we can draw more rational enjoyment and more solid instruction8 ,no1 they value1 they set down the value1 in rigorous conformity1 observe1 with my definition1 or1 to say better1 it is my definition which is in conformity with their practice4 ,they take into account1 not the natural advantages1 or the gratuitous utility1 attached to each commodity1 but the exertion which each acquirer should have to make for himself1 or to require another to make for him1 in order to procure it4 ,they never think of the exertion which nature has made1 if ,i may hazard the expression1 but upon the exertion which the purchaser would have had to make4 ,and when the operation is terminated1 when the public is told the sum total of ,value which is carried to the balance-sheet1 they exclaim with one voice1 ,here is the wealth which is available to the ,proprietor4 ,as property includes nothing but value1 and as value expresses only a relation1 it follows that property itself is only a relation4 p#bbh ,when the public1 on the inspection of two inventories1 pronounces one man to be richer than another1 it is not meant to say that the relative amount of the two properties is indicative of the relative absolute wealth of the two men1 or the amount of enjoyments they can command4 ,there enters into positive satisfactions and enjoyments a certain amount of common and gratuitous utility which alters this proportion very much4 ,as regards the light of day1 the air we breathe1 the heat of the sun1 all men are equal2 and ,inequality--as indicative of a difference in property or value --has reference only to onerous utility4 ,now ,i have often said1 and ,i shall probably have occasion frequently to repeat the remark 7for it is the finest and most striking1 although perhaps the least understood1 of the social harmonies1 and includes all the others71 that it is of the essence of progress--and indeed in this alone progress consists--to transform onerous into gratuitous utility--to diminish value without diminishing utility--to permit each individual to procure the same things with less effort1 either to make or to remunerate2 to increase continually the mass of things which are common1 and the enjoyment of which1 being distributed in a uniform manner among all1 effaces by degrees the ,inequality which results from difference of fortune4 ,we must not omit to analyze very carefully the result of this mechanism4 ,in contemplating the phenomena of the social world1 how often have ,i had occasion to feel the profound justice of ,rousseau's saying3 8,il faut beaucoup de philosophie pour observer ce qu'on voit tous les jours60 ,it is difficult to observe accurately what we see every day2 ,custom1 that veil which blinds the eyes of the vulgar1 and which the attentive observer cannot always throw off1 prevents our discerning the most marvellous of all the ,economic phenomena3 real wealth falling incessantly from the domain of ,property into that of ,community4 ,let us endeavour to demonstrate and explain this democratic evolution1 and1 if possible1 test its range and its effects4 ,i have remarked elsewhere that if we desire to compare two epochs as regards real wealth and prosperity1 we must refer all to a common standard1 which is unskilled labour measured by time1 and ask ourselves this question--,what difference in the amount of satisfaction1 according to the degree of advancement which society has reached1 is a determinate quantity of unskilled labour--for example1 a day's work of a common labourer--capable of yielding us8 p#bbi ,this question implies two others3 ,what was the relation of the satisfaction to unskilled labour at the beginning of the period8 ,what is it now8 ,the difference will be the measure of the advance which gratuitous utility has made relatively to onerous utility--the domain of community relatively to that of property4 ,i believe that for the politician no problem can be proposed more interesting and instructive than this2 and the reader must pardon me if1 in order to arrive at a satisfactory solution of it1 ,i fatigue him with too many examples4 ,i made1 at the outset1 a sort of catalogue of the most common human wants3 respiration1 food1 clothing1 lodging1 locomotion1 instruction1 amusement1 etc4 ,let us resume the same order1 and inquire what amount of satisfactions a common day-labourer could at the beginning1 and can now1 procure himself1 by a determinate number of days' labour4 ,respiration4--,here all is completely gratuitous and common from the beginning4 ,nature does all1 and leaves us nothing to do4 ,efforts1 services1 value1 property1 progress1 are all out of the question4 ,as regards utility1 ,diogenes is as rich as ,alexander--as regards value1 ,alexander is as rich as ,diogenes4 ,food4--,at present1 the value of a hectolitre of corn in ,france is the equivalent of from #ae to #bj days' work of a common unskilled labourer4 ,this is a fact which we may regard as unimportant1 but it is not the less worthy of remark4 ,it is a fact that in our day1 viewing humanity in its least advanced aspect1 and as represented by a penniless workman1 enjoyment measured by a hectolitre of corn can be obtained by an expenditure of #ae days' unskilled labour4 ,the ordinary calculation is1 that three hectolitres of corn annually are required for the subsistence of one man4 ,the common labourer1 then1 produces1 if not his subsistence1 what comes to the same thing1 the value of his subsistence1 by an expenditure of from #de to #fj days' labour in the year4 ,if we represent the type of value by one 7in this case one day's unskilled labour71 the value of a hectolitre of corn will be expressed by #ae1 #ah1 or #bj1 according to the year4 ,the relation of these two values is1 say1 one to fifteen4 ,to discover if progress has been made1 and to measure it1 we must inquire what this relation was in the early days of the human race4 ,in truth1 ,i dare not hazard a figure1 but there is one way of clearing up the difficulty4 ,when you hear a man declaiming against the social order1 against the appropriation of the soil1 against rent1 against machinery1 lead him into the middle p#bcj of a primitive forest and in sight of a pestilential morass4 ,say to him1 ,i wish to free you from the yoke of which you complain1--,i wish to withdraw you from the atrocious struggles of anarchical competition1 from the antagonism of interests1 from the selfishness of wealth1 from the oppression of property1 from the crushing rivalry of machinery1 from the stifling atmosphere of society4 ,here is land exactly like what the first clearers had to encounter4 ,take as much of it as you please--take it by tens1 by hundreds of acres4 ,cultivate it yourself4 ,all that you can make it produce is yours4 ,i make but one condition1 that you will not have recourse to that society of which you represent yourself as the victim4 ,as regards the soil1 observe1 this man would be placed in exactly the same situation which mankind at large occupied at the beginning4 ,now ,i fear not to be contradicted when ,i assert that this man would not produce a hectolitre of corn in two years3 ,ratio #ae to #fjj4 ,and now we can measure the progress which has been made4 ,as regards corn--and despite his being obliged to pay rent for his land1 interest for his capital1 and hire for his tools--or rather because he pays them--a labourer now obtains with #ae days' work what he would formerly have had difficulty in procuring with #fjj days' work4 ,the value of corn1 then1 measured by unskilled labour1 has fallen from #fjj to #ae1 or from #dj to #a4 ,a hectolitre of corn has for man the same utility it had the day after the deluge--it contains the same quantity of alimentary substance--it satisfies the same want1 and in the same degree4 ,it constitutes an equal amount of real wealth--it does not constitute an equal amount of relative wealth4 ,its production has been transferred in a great measure to the charge of nature4 ,it is obtained with less human effort4 ,it renders less service in passing from hand to hand1 it has less value4 ,in a word1 it has become gratuitous--not absolutely1 but in the proportion of #dj to #a4 ,and not only has it become gratuitous--it has become common to the same extent4 ,for it is not to the profit of the person who produces the corn that #ci-djths of the effort have been annihilated1 but to the advantage of the consumer1 whatever be the kind of labour to which he devotes himself4 ,clothing4--,we have here again the same phenomenon4 ,a common day-labourer enters one of the warehouses at the ,marais1#ed and there obtains clothing corresponding to twenty days of his labour1 which we suppose to be unskilled4 ,were he to attempt to make p#bca this clothing himself1 his whole life would be insufficient4 ,had he desired to obtain the same clothing in the time of ,henri ,quatre1 it would have cost him three or four hundred days' work4 ,what then has become of this difference in the value of these stuffs in relation to the quantity of unskilled labour8 ,it has been annihilated1 because the gratuitous forces of nature now perform a great portion of the work1 and it has been annihilated to the advantage of mankind at large4 ,for we must not fail to remark here1 that every man owes his neighbour a service equivalent to what he has received from him4 ,if1 then1 the art of the weaver had made no progress1 if weaving were not executed in part by gratuitous forces1 the weaver would still be occupied two or three hundred days in fabricating these stuffs1 and our workman would require to give him two or three hundred days' work in order to obtain the clothing he wants4 ,and since the weaver cannot succeed1 with all his wish to do so in obtaining two or three hundred days' labour in recompense for the intervention of gratuitous forces1 and for the progress achieved1 we are warranted in saving that this progress has been effected to the advantage of the purchaser or consumer1 and that it is a gain to society at large4 ,conveyance4--,prior to all progress1 when the human race1 like our day-labourer1 was obliged to make use of primitive and unskilled labour1 if a man had desired to have a load of a hundredweight transported from ,paris to ,bayonne1 he would have had only this alternative1 either to take the load on his own shoulders1 and perform the work himself1 travelling over hill and dale1 which would have required a year's labour1 or else to ask some one to perform this rough piece of work for him2 and as1 by hypothesis1 the person who undertook this work would have to employ the same means and the same time1 he would undoubtedly demand a remuneration equal to a year's labour4 ,at that period1 then1 the value of unskilled labour being one1 that of transport was #cjj for the weight of a cwt4 and a distance of #bjj leagues4 ,but things are changed now4 ,in fact there is no workman in ,paris who cannot obtain the same result by the sacrifice of two days' labour4 ,the alternative indeed is still the same4 ,he must either do the work himself1 or get others to do it for him by remunerating them4 ,if our day-labourer perform it himself1 it will still cost him a year of fatigue2 but if he applies to men who make it their business1 he will find twenty carriers to do what he wants for three or four francs1 that is to say1 for the equivalent of two days' unskilled labour4 ,thus the value of such labour being p#bcb represented by one1 that of transport1 which was represented by #cjj1 is now reduced to two4 ,in what way has this astonishing revolution been brought about8 ,ages have been required to accomplish it4 ,animals have been trained1 mountains have been pierced1 valleys have been filled up1 bridges have been thrown across rivers1 sledges and afterwards wheeled carriages have been invented1 obstacles1 which give rise to labour1 services1 value1 have been removed2 in short1 we have succeeded in accomplishing1 with labour equal to two1 what our remote ancestors would have effected only by labour equal to #cjj4 ,this progress has been realized by men who had no thought but for their own interests4 ,and yet1 who profits by it now8 ,our poor day-labourer1 and with him society at large4 ,let no one say that this is not ,community4 ,i say that it is ,community in the strictest sense of the word4 ,at the outset the satisfaction in question was1 in the estimation of all1 the equivalent of #cjj days' unskilled labour1 or a proportionally smaller amount of skilled labour4 ,now #bih parts of this labour out of #cjj are performed by nature1 and mankind are exonerated to a corresponding extent4 ,now1 evidently all men are in exactly the same situation as regards the obstacles which have been removed1 the distance which has been wiped out1 the fatigue which has been obviated1 the value which has been annihilated1 since all obtain the result without having to pay for it4 ,what they pay for is the human effort which remains still to be made1 as compared with and measured by two days' work of an unskilled labourer4 ,in other words1 the man who has not himself effected this improvement1 and who has only muscular force to offer in exchange1 has still to give two days' labour to secure the satisfaction he wishes to obtain4 ,all other men can obtain it with a smaller sacrifice of labour4 ,the ,paris lawyer1 earning #cj1jjj francs a year1 can obtain it for a twenty-fifth part of a day's labour1 etc41--by which we see that all men are equal as regards the value annihilated1 and that the inequality is restrained within the limits of the portion of value which survives the change1 that is1 within the domain of ,property4 ,economical science labours under a disadvantage in being obliged to have recourse to hypothetical cases4 ,the reader is taught to believe that the phenomena which we wish to describe are to be discovered only in special cases1 adduced for the sake of illustration4 ,but it is evident that what we have said of corn1 clothing1 and means of transport1 is true of everything else4 ,when an author generalizes1 it is for the reader to particularize2 and p#bcc when the former devotes himself to cold and forbidding analysis1 the latter may at least indulge in the pleasures of synthesis4 ,the synthetic law may be reduced to this formula3 ,value1 which is social property1 springs from ,effort and ,obstacle4 ,in proportion as the obstacle is lessened1 effort1 value1 or the domain of property1 is diminished along with it4 ,with reference to each given satisfaction1 ,property always recedes and ,community always advances4 ,must we then conclude with ,m4 ,proudhon that the days of ,property are numbered8 ,because1 as regards each useful result to be realized1 each satisfaction to be obtained1 ,property recedes before ,community1 are we thence to conclude that the former is about to be absorbed and annihilated altogether8 ,to adopt this conclusion would be to mistake completely the nature of man4 ,we encounter here a sophism analogous to the one we have already refuted on the subject of the interest of capital4 ,interest has a tendency to fall1 it is said2 then it is destined ultimately to disappear altogether4 ,value and property go on diminishing2 then they are destined1 it is now said1 to be annihilated4 ,the whole sophism consists in omitting the words1 for each determinate result4 ,it is quite true that men obtain determinate results with a less amount of effort--it is in this respect that they are progressive and perfectible--it is on this account that we are able to affirm that the relative domain of property becomes narrower1 looking at it as regards each given satisfaction4 ,but it is not true that all the results which it is possible to obtain are ever exhausted1 and hence it is absurd to suppose that it is in the nature of progress to lessen or limit the absolute domain of property4 ,we have repeated often1 and in every shape1 that each given effort may1 in course of time1 serve as the vehicle of a greater amount of gratuitous utility1 without our being warranted thence to conclude that men should ever cease to make efforts4 ,all that we can conclude from it is1 that their forces1 thus rendered disposable1 will be employed in combating other obstacles1 and will realize1 with equal labour1 satisfactions hitherto unknown4 ,i must enlarge still farther on this idea4 ,these are not times to leave anything to possible misconstruction when we venture to pronounce the fearful words1 ,property and ,community4 ,man in a state of isolation can1 at any given moment of his existence1 exert only a certain amount of effort2 and the same thing holds of society4 p#bcd ,when man in a state of isolation realizes a step of progress1 by making natural agents co-operate with his own labour1 the sum of his efforts is reduced by so much1 in relation to the useful result sought for4 ,it would be reduced not relatively only1 but absolutely1 if this man1 content with his original condition1 should convert his progress into leisure1 and should abstain from devoting to the acquisition of new enjoyments that portion of effort which is now rendered disposable4 ,that would take for granted that ambition1 desire1 aspiration1 were limited forces1 and that the human heart was not indefinitely expansible2 but it is quite otherwise4 ,robinson ,crusoe has no sooner handed over part of his work to natural agents1 than he devotes his efforts to new enterprises4 ,the sum total of his efforts remains the same1--but one portion of these efforts1 aided by a greater amount of natural and gratuitous co-operation1 has become more productive1 more prolific4 ,this is exactly the phenomenon which we see realized in society4 ,because the plough1 the harrow1 the hammer1 the saw1 oxen1 and horses1 the sail1 water-power1 steam1 have successively relieved mankind from an enormous amount of labour1 in proportion to each result obtained1 it does not necessarily follow that this labour1 thus set free and rendered disposable1 should lie dormant4 ,remember what has been already said as to the indefinite expansibility of our wants and desires--and note what is passing around you--and you will not fail to see that as often as man succeeds in vanquishing an obstacle by the aid of natural agents1 he sets his own forces to grapple with other obstacles4 ,we have more facility in the art of printing than we had formerly1 but we print more4 ,each book corresponds to a less amount of human effort1 to less value1 less property2 but we have more books1 and1 on the whole1 the same amount of effort1 value1 property4 ,the same thing might be said of clothing1 of houses1 of railways1 of all human productions4 ,it is not the aggregate of values which has diminished2 it is the aggregate of utilities which has increased4 ,it is not the absolute domain of ,property which has been narrowed2 it is the absolute domain of ,community which has been enlarged4 ,progress has not paralyzed labour2 it has augmented wealth4 ,things that are gratuitous and common to all are within the domain of natural forces2 and it is as true in theory as in fact that this domain is constantly extending4 ,value and ,property are within the domain of human efforts1 of reciprocal services1 and this domain becomes narrower and narrower as regards each given result1 but not as regards the aggregate of results2 as regards each determinate satisfaction1 but not p#bce as regards the aggregate of satisfactions1 because the amount of possible enjoyments is without limit4 ,it is as true1 then1 that relative ,property gives place to ,community1 as it is false that absolute ,property tends to disappear altogether4 ,property is a pioneer which accomplishes its work in one circle1 and then passes into another4 ,before property could disappear altogether we must suppose every obstacle to have been removed1 labour to have been superseded1 human efforts to have become useless2 we must suppose men to have no longer need to effect exchanges1 or render services to each other2 we must suppose all production to be spontaneous1 and enjoyment to spring directly from desire2 in a word1 we must suppose men to have become equal to gods4 ,then1 indeed1 all would be gratuitous1 and we should have all things in common4 ,effort1 service1 value1 property1 everything indicative of our native weakness and infirmity1 would cease to exist4 ,in vain man raises himself in the social scale1 and advances on the road of civilisation--he is as far as ever from ,omnipotence4 ,it is one of the attributes of the ,divinity1 as far as we can understand what is so much above human reason1 that between volition and result no obstacle is interposed4 ,god said1 ,let there be light1 and there was light4 ,and it is the powerlessness of man to express that to which there is so little analogous in his own nature1 which reduced ,moses to the necessity of supposing between the divine will and the creation of light the intervention of an obstacle in the shape even of a word to be pronounced4 ,but whatever advance man1 in virtue of his progressive nature1 may be destined yet to make1 we may safely affirm that he will never succeed in freeing himself entirely from the obstacles which encumber his path1 or in rendering himself independent of the labour of his head and of his hands4 ,the reason is obvious4 ,in proportion as certain obstacles are overcome1 his desires dilate and expand1 and new obstacles oppose themselves to new efforts4 ,we shall always1 then1 have labour to perform1 to exchange1 to estimate1 and to value4 ,property will exist until the consummation of all things1 increasing in mass in proportion as men become more active and more numerous2 whilst at the same time each effort1 each service1 each value1 each portion of property1 considered relatively1 will1 in passing from hand to hand1 serve as the vehicle of an increasing proportion of common and gratuitous utility4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the reader will observe that we use the word ,property in a very extended sense1 but a sense which on that account is not the p#bcf less exact4 ,property is the right which a man possesses of applying to his own use his own efforts1 or of not giving them away except in consideration of equivalent efforts4 ,the distinction between ,proprietors and ,proltaires1 then1 is radically false1 unless it is pretended that there is a class of men who do no work1 who have no control over their own exertions1 or over the services which they render and those which they receive in exchange4 ,it is wrong to restrict the term ,property to one of its special forms1 to capital1 to land1 to what yields interest or rent2 and it is in consequence of this erroneous definition that we proceed afterwards to separate men into two antagonist classes4 ,analysis demonstrates that interest and rent are the fruit of services rendered1 and have the same origin1 the same nature1 the same rights as manual labour4 ,the world may be regarded as a vast workshop which ,providence has supplied abundantly with materials and forces of which human labour makes use4 ,anterior efforts1 present efforts1 even future efforts1 or promises of efforts1 are exchanged for each other4 ,their relative merit1 as established by exchange1 and independently of gratuitous forces and materials1 brings out the element of value2 and it is of the value created by each individual that each is owner or proprietor4 ,but what does it signify1 it may be said1 that a man is proprietor only of the value1 or of the acknowledged merit of his service8 ,the possession of the value carries along with it that of the utility which is mingled with it4 ,john has two sacks of corn4 ,peter has only one4 ,john1 you say1 is twice as rich in value4 ,surely1 then1 he is also twice as rich in utility1 even natural utility4 ,he has twice as much to eat4 ,unquestionably it is so3 but has he not performed double the labour8 ,let us come1 nevertheless1 to the root of the objection4 ,essential1 absolute wealth resides1 as we have said1 in utility4 ,the very word implies this4 ,it is utility alone which renders service 7uti--in ,french servir74 ,it alone has relation to our wants1 and it is it alone which man has in view when he devotes himself to labour4 ,utility at all events is the ultimate object of pursuit2 for things do not satisfy our hunger or quench our thirst because they include value1 but because they possess utility4 ,we muse take into account1 however1 the phenomenon which society exhibits in this respect4 ,man in a state of isolation seeks to realize utility without p#bcg thinking about value1 of which1 in that state1 he can have no idea4 ,in the social state1 on the contrary1 man seeks to realize value irrespective of utility4 ,the commodity he produces is not intended to satisfy his own wants1 and he has little interest in its being useful or not4 ,it is for the person who desires to acquire it to judge of that4 ,what concerns the producer is1 that it should bear as high a value as possible in the market1 as he is certain that the utilities he has to receive in return will be in proportion to the value of what he carries thither4 ,the division of labour and of occupation leads to this result1 that each produces what he does not himself consume1 and consumes what he does not himself produce4 ,as producers1 what we are in quest of is value2 as consumers1 what we seek is utility4 ,universal experience testifies to this4 ,the man who polishes a diamond1 or embroiders lace1 or distils brandy1 or cultivates the poppy1 never inquires whether the consumption of these commodities is good or bad in itself4 ,he gives his work1 and if his work realizes value1 that is enough for him4 ,and let me here remark in passing1 that the moral or immoral has nothing to do with labour1 but with desire2 and that society is improved1 not by rendering the producer1 but the consumer1 more moral4 ,what an outcry was raised against the ,english on account of their cultivating opium in ,india for the deliberate purpose1 it was said1 of poisoning the ,chinese6 ,this was to misunderstand and misapply the principle of morality4 ,no one will ever be effectually prevented from producing a commodity which1 being in demand1 is possessed of value4 ,it is for the man who demands a particular species of enjoyment to calculate the effects of it2 and it is in vain that we attempt to divorce foresight from responsibility4 ,our vine-growers produce wine1 and will produce it as long as it possesses value1 without troubling themselves to inquire whether this wine leads to drunkenness in ,europe or to suicide in ,america4 ,it is the judgment which men form as to their wants and satisfactions that determines the direction of labour4 ,this is true even of man in an isolated state2 and if a foolish vanity had spoken more loudly to ,robinson ,crusoe than hunger1 he would1 in place of devoting his time to the chase1 have employed it in arranging feathers for his hat4 ,it is the same with nations as with individuals--serious people have serious pursuits1 and frivolous people devote themselves to frivolous occupations4 ,but to return3 ,the man who works for himself has in view utility4 p#bch ,the man who works for others has in view value4 ,now ,property1 as ,i have defined it1 is founded on ,value1 and value being simply a relation1 it follows that property is also a relation4 ,were there only one man upon the earth1 the idea of ,property would never enter his mind4 ,monarch of all he surveyed1 surrounded with utilities which he had only to adapt to his use1 never encountering any analogous right to serve as a limit to his own1 how should it ever come into his head to say ,this is mine8 ,that would imply the correlative assertion1 ,this is not mine1 or ,this belongs to another4 ,meum and tuum are inconsistent with isolation1 and the word ,property necessarily implies relation2 but it gives us emphatically to understand that a thing is proper to one person1 only by giving us to understand that it is not proper to anybody else4 8,the first man10 says ,rousseau1 8who having enclosed a field1 took it into his head to say ,this is mine1 was the true founder of civil society40 ,what does the enclosure mean if it be not indicative of exclusion1 and consequently of relation8 ,if its object were only to defend the field against the intrusion of animals1 it was a precaution1 not a sign of property4 ,a boundary1 on the contrary1 is a mark of property1 not of precaution4 ,thus men are truly proprietors only in relation to one another2 and this being so1 of what are they proprietors8 ,of value1 as we discover very clearly in the exchanges they make with each other4 ,let us1 according to our usual practice1 take a very simple case by way of illustration4 ,nature labours1 and has done so probably from all eternity1 to invest spring water with those qualities which fit it for quenching our thirst1 and which qualities1 so far as we are concerned1 constitute its utility4 ,it is assuredly not my work1 for it has been elaborated without my assistance1 and quite unknown to me4 ,in this respect ,i can truly say that water is to me the gratuitous gift of ,god4 ,what is my own proper work is the effort which ,i have made in going to fetch my supply of water for the day4 ,of what do ,i become proprietor by that act8 ,as regards myself1 ,i am proprietor1 if ,i may use the expression1 of all the utility with which nature has invested this water4 ,i can turn it to my own use in any way ,i think proper4 ,it is for that purpose that ,i have taken the trouble to fetch it4 ,to dispute my right would be to say that1 although men cannot live without p#bci drinking1 they have no right to drink the water which they have procured by their own exertions4 ,i do not believe that the ,communists1 although they go very far1 will go the length of asserting this1 and even under the rgime of ,cabet1 the lambs of ,icaria would be allowed to quench their thirst in the limpid stream4 ,but in relation to other men1 who are free to do as ,i do1 ,i am not1 and cannot be1 proprietor except of what is called1 by metonymy1 the value of the water1 that is to say1 the value of the service which ,i render in procuring it4 ,my right to drink this water being granted1 it is impossible to contest my right to give it away4 ,and the right of the other contracting party to go to the spring1 as ,i did1 and draw water for himself1 being admitted1 it is equally impossible to contest his right to accept the water which ,i have fetched4 ,if the one has a right to give1 and the other1 in consideration of a payment voluntarily bargained for1 to accept1 this water1 the first is then the proprietor in relation to the second4 ,it is sad to write upon ,political ,economy at a time when we cannot advance a step without having recourse to demonstrations so puerile4 ,but on what basis is the arrangement we have supposed come to8 ,it is essential to know this1 in order to appreciate the whole social bearing of the word ,property1--a word which sounds so ill in the ears of democratic sentimentalism4 ,it is clear that1 both parties being free1 we must take into consideration the trouble ,i have had1 and the trouble ,i have saved to the other party1 as the circumstances which constitute value4 ,we discuss the conditions of the bargain1 and1 if we come to terms1 there is neither exaggeration nor subtilty in saying that my neighbour has acquired gratuitously1 or1 if you will1 as gratuitously as ,i did1 all the natural utility of the water4 ,do you desire proof that the conditions1 more or less onerous1 of the transaction are determined by the human efforts and not by the intrinsic utility8 ,it will be granted that the utility remains the same whether the spring is distant or near at hand4 ,it is the amount of exertion made1 or to be made1 which depends upon the distance2 and since the remuneration varies with the exertion1 it is in the latter1 and not in the utility1 that the principle of relative value and ,property resides4 ,it is certain1 then1 that1 in relation to others1 ,i am1 and can be1 proprietor only of my efforts1 of my services1 which have nothing in common with the recondite and mysterious processes by which nature communicates utility to the things which are the subject p#bdj of those services4 ,it would be in vain for me to carry my pretensions farther--at this point we must always in fact encounter the limit of ,property2--for if ,i exact more than the value of my services1 my neighbour will do the work for himself4 ,this limit is absolute and unchangeable4 ,it fully explains and vindicates ,property1 thus reduced to the natural and simple right of demanding one service for another4 ,it shows that the enjoyment of natural utility is appropriated only nominally and in appearance2 that the expression1 ,property in an acre of land1 in a hundredweight of iron1 in a quarter of wheat1 in a yard of cloth1 is truly a metonymy1 like the expression1 ,value of water1 of iron1 and so forth2 and that so far as nature has given these things to men1 they enjoy them gratuitously and in common2 in a word1 that ,community is in perfect harmony with ,property1 the gifts of ,god remaining in the domain of the one1 and human services forming alone the very legitimate domain of the other4 ,but from my having chosen a very simple example in order to point out the line of demarcation which separates the domain of what is common from the domain of what has been appropriated1 you are not to conclude that this line loses itself and disappears1 even in the most complicated transactions4 ,it continues always to show itself in every free transaction4 ,the labour of going to fetch water from the spring is very simple1 no doubt2 but when you examine the thing more narrowly1 you will be convinced that the labour of raising corn is only more complicated because it embraces a series of efforts quite as simple1 in each of which the work of nature co-operates with that of man1 so that in fact the example ,i have shown may be regarded as the type of every economical fact4 ,take the case of water1 of corn1 of cloth1 of books1 of transport1 of pictures1 of the ballet1 of the opera1--in all1 certain circumstances1 ,i allow1 may impart such value to certain services1 but no one is ever paid for anything else than services1--never certainly for the co-operation of nature1--and the reason is obvious1 because one of the contracting parties has it always in his power to say1 ,if you demand from me more than your service is worth1 ,i shall apply to another quarter1 or do the work for myself4 ,but ,i am not content to vindicate ,property2 ,i should wish to make it an object of cherished affection even to the most determined ,communists4 ,and to accomplish this1 all that is necessary is to describe the popular1 progressive1 and equalizing part which it plays2 and to demonstrate clearly1 not only that it does not monopolize and concentrate in a few hands the gifts of ,god1 but that its special mission is to enlarge continually the sphere of p#bda ,community4 ,in this respect the natural laws of society are much more ingenious than the artificial systems of ,plato1 ,sir ,thomas ,more1 ,fnlon1 or ,monsieur ,cabet4 ,that there are satisfactions which men enjoy1 gratuitously and in common1 upon a footing of the most perfect equality1--that there is in the social order1 underlying ,property1 a real ,community1--no one will dispute4 ,to see this it is not necessary that you should be either an ,economist or a ,socialist1 but that you should have eyes in your head4 ,in certain respects all the children of ,god are treated in precisely the same way4 ,all are equal as regards the law of gravitation1 which attaches them to the earth1 as regards the air we breathe1 the light of day1 the water of the brook4 ,this vast and measureless common fund1 which has nothing whatever to do with ,value or ,property1 ,j4 ,b4 ,say denominates natural wealth1 in opposition to social wealth2 ,proudhon1 natural property1 in opposition to acquired property2 ,considrant1 natural capital1 in opposition to capital which is created2 ,saint-,chamans1 the wealth of enjoyment1 in opposition to the wealth of value4 ,we have denominated it gratuitous utility1 in contradistinction to onerous utility4 ,call it what you will1 it exists1 and that entitles us to say that there is among men a common fund of gratuitous and equal satisfactions4 ,and if wealth1 social1 acquired1 created1 of value1 onerous1 in a word1 ,property1 is unequally distributed1 we cannot affirm that it is unjustly so1 seeing that it is in each man's case proportional to the services which give rise to it1 and of which it is simply the measure and estimate4 ,besides1 it is clear that this ,inequality is lessened by the existence of the common fund1 in virtue of the mathematical rule3 the relative inequality of two unequal numbers is lessened by adding equal numbers to each of them4 ,when our inventories1 then1 show that one man is twice as rich as another man1 that proportion ceases to be exact when we take into consideration their equal share in the gratuitous utility furnished by nature1 and the inequality would be gradually effaced and wiped away if this common fund were itself progressive4 ,the problem1 then1 is to find out whether this common fund is a fixed invariable quantity1 given to mankind by ,providence in the beginning1 and once for all1 above which the appropriated fund is superimposed1 apart from the existence of any relation or action between these two orders of phenomena4 ,economists have concluded that the social order had no influence upon this natural and common fund of wealth2 and this is their reason for excluding it from the domain of ,political ,economy4 p#bdb ,the ,socialists go farther4 ,they believe that the constitution of society tends to make this common fund pass into the region of ,property1 that it consecrates1 to the profit of a few1 the usurpation of what belongs to all2 and this is the reason why they rise up against ,political ,economy1 which denies this fatal tendency1 and against modern society1 which submits to it4 ,the truth is1 that ,socialism1 in this particular1 taxes ,political ,economy with inconsistency1 and with some justice too2 for after having declared that there are no relations between common and appropriated wealth1 ,economists have invalidated their own assertion1 and prepared the way for the socialist grievance4 ,they did so the moment that1 confounding value with utility1 they asserted that the materials and forces of nature1 that is to say1 the gifts of ,god1 had an intrinsic value1 a value inherent in them1--for value implies1 always and necessarily1 appropriation4 ,from that moment they lost the right and the means of logically vindicating ,property4 ,what ,i maintain--and maintain with a conviction amounting to absolute certainty--is this3 that the appropriated fund exerts a constant action upon the fund which is common and unappropriated1 and in this respect the first assertion of the ,economists is erroneous4 ,but the second assertion1 as developed and explained by socialism1 is still more fatal2 for the action in question does not take place in a way to make the common fund pass into the appropriated fund1 but1 on the contrary1 to make the appropriated fund pass incessantly into the common domain4 ,property1 just and legitimate in itself1 because always representing services1 tends to transform onerous into gratuitous utility4 ,it is the spur which urges on human intelligence to make latent natural forces operative4 ,it struggles1 and undoubtedly for our benefit1 against the obstacles which render utility onerous4 ,and when the obstacle has been to a certain extent removed1 it is found that1 to that extent1 it has been removed to the profit and advantage of all4 ,then indefatigable ,property challenges and encounters other obstacles1 and goes on1 raising1 always and without intermission1 the level of humanity1 realizing more and more ,community1 and1 with ,community1 ,equality1 among the great family of mankind4 ,in this consists the truly marvellous ,harmony of the natural social order4 ,this harmony ,i am unable to describe without combating objections which are perpetually recurring1 and without falling into wearisome repetitions4 ,no matter1 ,i submit--let the reader also exercise a little patience on his side4 p#bdc ,make yourself master1 first of all1 of this fundamental idea1 that when1 in any case1 there is no obstacle between desire and satisfaction 7there is none1 for instance1 between our eyes and the light of day7--there is no effort to make1 no service to render1 either to ourselves or to other people1 and value and ,property have no existence4 ,when an obstacle exists1 the whole series comes into play4 ,first1 we have ,effort--then a voluntary exchange of efforts or ,services--then a comparative appreciation of those services1 or ,value2 lastly1 the right of each to enjoy the utilities attached to these values1 or ,property4 ,if in this struggle against obstacles1 which are always uniform1 the co-operation of nature and that of labour were also always in equal proportion1 ,property and ,community would advance in parallel lines1 without changing their relative proportions4 ,but it is not so4 ,the universal aim of men in all their enterprises is to diminish the proportion between effort and result1 and for that purpose to enlist more and more in their work the assistance of natural agents4 ,no agriculturist1 manufacturer1 merchant1 artisan1 shipowner1 artist1 but makes this his constant study4 ,in that direction all their faculties are bent4 ,for that purpose they invent tools and machines1 and avail themselves of the chemical and mechanical forces of the elements1 divide their occupations1 and unite their efforts4 ,to accomplish more with less1 such is the eternal problem which they propose to themselves at all times1 in all places1 in all situations1 in everything4 ,who doubts that in all this they are prompted by self-interest8 ,what other stimulant could excite them to the same energy8 ,every man1 moreover1 is charged with the care of his own existence and advancement4 ,what1 then1 should constitute the mainspring of his movements but self-interest8 ,you express your astonishment1 but wait till ,i have done1 and you will find that if each cares for himself1 ,god cares for us all4 ,our constant study1 then1 is to diminish the proportion which the effort bears to the useful effect sought to be produced4 ,but when the effort is lessened1 whether by the removal of obstacles or the intervention of machinery1 by the division of labour1 the union of forces1 or the assistance of natural agents1 etc41 this diminished effort is less highly appreciated in relation to others2--we render less service in making the effort for another4 ,there is less value1 and we are justified in saying that the domain of ,property has receded4 ,is the useful effect on that account lost8 ,by hypothesis it is not4 ,where then has it gone to8 ,it has passed into the domain of ,community4 ,as regards that portion of human effort p#bdd which the useful effect no longer absorbs1 it is not on that account sterile--it is turned to other acquisitions4 ,obstacles present themselves1 and will always present themselves1 to the indefinite expansibility of our physical1 moral1 and intellectual wants1 to an extent sufficient to ensure that the labour set free in one department will find employment in another4 ,and it is in this way that the appropriated fund remaining always the same1 the common fund dilates and expands1 like a circle the radius of which is always enlarging4 ,apart from this consideration1 how could we explain progress or civilisation1 however imperfect8 ,let us turn our regards upon ourselves1 and consider our feebleness4 ,let us compare our own individual vigour and knowledge with the vigour and knowledge necessary to produce the innumerable satisfactions which we derive from society4 ,we shall soon be convinced that were we reduced to our proper efforts1 we could not obtain a hundred thousandth part of them1 even if millions of acres of uncultivated land were placed at the disposal of each one of us4 ,it is positively certain that a given amount of human effort will realize an immeasurably greater result at the present day than it could in the days of the ,druids4 ,if that were true only of an individual1 the natural conclusion would be that he lives and prospers at the expense of his fellows4 ,but since this phenomenon is manifested in all the members of the human family1 we are led to the comfortable conclusion that things not our own have come to our aid2 that the gratuitous co-operation of nature is in larger and larger measure added to our own efforts1 and that it remains gratuitous through all our transactions2 for were it not gratuitous1 it would explain nothing4 ,from what we have said1 we may deduce these formulas3 ,property is ,value1 and ,value is ,property2 ,that which has no ,value is gratuitous1 and what is gratuitous is common2 ,a fall of ,value is an approximation towards the gratuitous2 ,such approximation is a partial realization of ,community4 ,there are times when one cannot give utterance to certain words without being exposed to false interpretations4 ,there are always people ready to cry out1 in a critical or in a laudatory spirit1 according to the sect they belong to3 8,the author talks of ,community--he must be a ,communist40 ,i expect this1 and resign myself to it4 ,and yet ,i must endeavour to guard myself against such hasty inferences4 ,the reader must have been very inattentive 7and the most p#bde formidable class of readers are those who turn over books without attending to what they read7 if he has not observed the great gulf which interposes itself between ,community and ,communism4 ,the two ideas are separated by the entire domain not only of property but of liberty1 right1 justice1 and even of human personality4 ,community applies to those things which we enjoy in common by the destination of ,providence2 because1 exacting no effort in order to adapt them to our use1 they give rise to no service1 no transaction1 no ,property4 ,the foundation of property is the right which we possess to render services to ourselves1 or to others on condition of a return4 ,what ,communism wishes to render common is1 not the gratuitous gift of ,god1 but human effort--service4 ,it desires that each man should carry the fruit of his labour to the common stock1 and that afterwards an equitable distribution of that stock should be made by authority4 ,now1 of two things one4 ,either the distribution is proportional to the stake which each has contributed1 or it is made upon another principle4 ,in the first case1 ,communism aims at realizing1 as regards result1 the present order of things--only substituting the arbitrary will of one for the liberty of all4 ,in the second case1 what must be the basis of the division8 ,communism answers1 ,equality4 ,what6 ,equality1 without regard to the difference of pains taken1 of labour undergone6 ,you are to have an equal share whether you have worked six hours or twelve--mechanically1 or with intelligence6 ,of all inequalities surely that would be the most shocking2 besides it would be the destruction of all liberty1 all activity1 all dignity1 all sagacity4 ,you pretend to put an end to competition1 but in truth you only transform it4 ,the competition at present is1 who shall work most and best4 ,under your regime it would be1 who should work worst and least4 ,communism misunderstands or disowns the very nature of man4 ,effort is painful in itself4 ,what urges us to make it8 ,it can only be a feeling more painful still1 a want to satisfy1 a suffering to remove1 a good to be realized4 ,our moving principle1 then1 is self-interest4 ,when you ask the ,communists what they would substitute for this1 they answer1 by the mouth of ,louis ,blanc1 ,the point of honour1 and by that of ,monsieur ,cabet1 ,fraternity4 ,enable me1 then1 to experience the sensations of others1 in order that ,i may know what direction to impress upon my industry4 ,i should like to have it explained what this point of honour1 p#bdf this fraternity1 which are to be set to work in society at the instigation and under the direction of ,messieurs ,louis ,blanc and ,cabet1 really mean4 ,but it is not my business in this place to refute ,communism1 which is opposed in everything to the system which it is my object to establish4 ,we recognise the right of every man to serve himself1 or to serve others on conditions freely stipulated4 ,communism denies this right1 since it masses together and centralizes all services in the hands of an arbitrary authority4 ,our doctrine is based upon ,property4 ,communism is founded on systematic spoliation4 ,it consists in handing over to one1 without compensation1 the labour of another4 ,in fact1 did it distribute to each according to his labour1 it would recognise property1 and would be no longer ,communism4 ,our doctrine is founded on liberty4 ,in truth1 property and liberty are in our eyes one and the same thing1 for that which constitutes a man the proprietor of his service is his right and power of disposing of it4 ,communism annihilates liberty1 since it leaves to no one the free disposal of his labour4 ,our doctrine is founded on justice--,communism on injustice4 ,that follows clearly from what has been already said4 ,there is only one point of contact1 then1 between the communists and us--it is the similarity of two syllables1 in the words communism and community4 ,but this similarity of sounds should not mislead the reader4 ,whilst communism is the negation of ,property1 we find in our doctrine of ,community the most explicit affirmation and the most positive demonstration of property4 ,if the legitimacy of property has appeared doubtful and inexplicable1 even to men who are not communists1 the reason is1 that they believe that it concentrates in the hands of some1 to the exclusion of others1 those gifts of ,god which were originally common4 ,we believe we have entirely dissipated that doubt by demonstrating that what is common by providential destination remains common in all human transactions1--the domain of property never extending beyond that of value--of right onerously acquired by services rendered4 ,thus explained1 property is vindicated2 for who but a fool could pretend that men have no right to their own labour--no right to receive the voluntary services of those to whom they have rendered voluntary services8 ,there is another word upon which ,i must offer some explanation1 p#bdg for of late it has been strangely misapplied--,i mean the word gratuitous4 ,i need not say that ,i denominate gratuitous1 not what costs a man nothing because he has deprived another of it1 but what has cost nothing to anyone4 ,when ,diogenes warmed himself in the sun1 he might be said to warm himself gratuitously1 for he obtained from the divine liberality a satisfaction which exacted no labour either from himself or his contemporaries4 ,nor does the heat of the sun's rays cease to be gratuitous when the proprietor avails himself of it to ripen his corn and his grapes1 seeing that in selling his grapes or his corn he is paid for his own services and not for those of the sun4 ,this may be an erroneous view 7in which case we have no alternative but to become communists72 but at any rate this is the sense in which ,i use the word gratuitous1 and this is what it evidently means4 ,much has been said1 since the establishment of the ,republic1 of gratuitous credit1 and gratuitous instruction4 ,but it is evident that a gross sophism lurks under this phraseology4 ,can the ,state shed abroad instruction like the light of day without its costing anything to anybody8 ,can it cover the country with institutions and professors without their being paid in one shape or another8 ,instead of leaving each individual to demand and to remunerate voluntarily this description of service1 the ,state may lay hold of the remuneration1 taken by taxation from the pockets of the citizens1 and distribute among them instruction of its own selection1 without exacting from them a second remuneration4 ,this is all that can be effected by government interference--and in this case1 those who do not learn pay for those who do1 those who learn little for those who learn much1 those who are destined to manual labour for those who embrace learned professions4 ,this is communism applied to one branch of human activity4 ,under this rgime1 of which ,i am not called upon here to give an opinion1 it might very well be said that instruction is common1 but it would be ridiculous to say that instruction is gratuitous4 ,gratuitous6 ,yes1 for some of those who receive it1 but not for those who have to pay for it1 if not to the teacher1 at least to the tax-gatherer4 ,for that matter1 there is nothing which the ,state can give gratuitously2 and if the word were not a mystification1 it is not only gratuitous education which we should demand from the ,state1 but gratuitous food1 gratuitous clothing1 gratuitous lodging1 etc4 ,let us take care4 ,the people are not far from going this length1 and there are already among us those who demand gratuitous credit1 gratuitous tools and instruments of labour1 etc4 ,dupes of a word1 p#bdh we have made one step towards ,communism2 why should we not make a second1 and a third1 until all liberty1 all justice1 and all property have passed away8 ,will it be urged that instruction is so universally necessary that we may depart somewhat from right and principle in this instance8 ,but then1 are not food and sustenance still more necessary than education8 ,prim vivere1 deinde philosophari1 the people may say2 and ,i know not in truth what answer we can make to them4 ,who knows8 ,those who charge me with ,communism for having demonstrated the natural community of the gifts of ,god1 are perhaps the very people who seek to violate justice in the matter of education1 that is to say1 to attack property in its essence4 ,such inconsistencies are more surprising than uncommon4 p#bdi ,,ix4 ,,landed ,,property4 ,if the leading idea of this work is well founded1 the relations of mankind with the external world must be viewed in this way3 ,god created the earth4 ,on it1 and within it1 he has placed a multitude of things which are useful to man1 inasmuch as they are adapted to satisfy his wants4 ,god has1 besides1 endued matter with forces--gravitation1 elasticity1 porosity1 compressibility1 heat1 light1 electricity1 crystallization1 vegetable life4 ,he has placed man in the middle of these materials and forces1 which he has delivered over to him gratuitously4 ,men set themselves to exercise their activity upon these materials and forces2 and in this way they render service to themselves4 ,they also work for one another1 and in this way render reciprocal services4 ,these services1 compared by the act of exchange1 give rise to the idea of ,value1 and ,value to that of ,property4 ,each man1 then1 becomes an owner or proprietor in proportion to the services he has rendered4 ,but the materials and forces given by ,god to man gratuitously1 at the beginning1 have continued gratuitous1 and are and must continue to be so through all our transactions2 for in the estimates and appreciations to which exchange gives rise1 the equivalents are human services1 not the gifts of ,god4 ,hence it follows that no human being1 so long as transactions are free1 can ever cease to be the usufructuary of these gifts4 ,a single condition is laid down1 which is1 that we shall execute the labour necessary to make them available to us1 or1 if any one makes this exertion for us1 that we make for him an equivalent exertion4 ,if this account of the matter be true1 ,property is indeed unassailable4 p#bej ,the universal instinct of mankind1 more infallible than the lucubrations of any individual1 had adopted this view of the subject without refining upon it1 when theory began to scrutinize the foundations of ,property4 ,theory unhappily began in confusion1 mistaking ,utility for ,value1 and attributing an inherent value1 independent of all human service1 to the materials or forces of nature4 ,from that moment property became unintelligible1 and incapable of justification4 ,for utility is the relation between commodities and our organization4 ,it necessarily implies neither efforts1 nor transactions1 nor comparisons4 ,we can conceive of it per se1 and in relation to man in a state of isolation4 ,value1 on the contrary1 is a relation of man to man4 ,to exist at all1 it must exist in duplicate4 ,nothing isolated can be compared4 ,value implies that the person in possession of it does not transfer it except for an equivalent value4 ,the theory1 then1 which confounds these two ideas1 takes for granted that a person1 in effecting an exchange1 gives pretended value of natural creation for true value of human creation1 utility which exacts no labour for utility which does exact it2 in other words1 that he can profit by the labour of another without working himself4 ,property1 thus understood1 is called first of all a necessary monopoly1 then simply a monopoly1--then it is branded as illegitimate1 and last of all as robbery4 ,landed ,property receives the first blow1 and so it should4 ,not that natural agents do not bear their part in all manufactures1 but these agents manifest themselves more strikingly to the eyes of the vulgar in the phenomena of vegetable and animal life1 in the production of food1 and of what are improperly called matires premires raw materials1 which are the special products of agriculture4 ,besides1 if there be any one monopoly more revolting than another1 it is undoubtedly a monopoly which applies to the first necessaries of life4 ,the confusion which ,i am exposing1 and which is specious in a scientific view1 since no theorist ,i am acquainted with has got rid of it1 becomes still more specious when we look at what is passing around us4 ,we see the landed ,proprietor frequently living without labour1 and we draw the conclusion1 which is plausible enough1 that 8he must surely be remunerated for something else than his work40 ,and what can this something else be1 if not the fecundity1 the productiveness1 the co-operation of the soil as an instrument8 ,it is1 then1 the rent of land which we must brand1 in the language p#bea of the times1 with the names of necessary monopoly1 privilege1 illegitimacy1 theft4 ,we must admit that the authors of this theory have encountered a fact which must have powerfully tended to mislead them4 ,few land estates in ,europe have escaped from conquest and all its attendant abuses2 and science has confounded the violent methods by which landed property has been acquired with the methods by which it is naturally formed4 ,but we must not imagine that the false definition of the word value tends only to unsettle landed property4 ,logic is a terrible and indefatigable power1 whether it sets out with a good or a bad principle6 ,as the earth1 it is said1 makes light1 heat1 electricity1 vegetable life1 etc41 co-operate in the production of value1 does not capital in the same way make gravitation1 elasticity1 the wind1 etc41 concur in producing value8 ,there are other men1 then1 besides agriculturists who are paid for the intervention of natural agents4 ,this remuneration comes to capitalists in the shape of ,interest1 just as it comes to proprietors in the shape of ,rent4 ,war1 then1 must be declared against ,interest as it has been against ,rent6 ,property has had a succession of blows aimed at it in the name of this principle1 false as ,i think1 true according to the ,economists and ,egalitaires1 namely1 that natural agents possess or create value4 ,this is a postulate upon which all schools are agreed4 ,they differ only in the boldness or timidity of their deductions4 ,the ,economists say that property 7in land7 is a monopoly1 but a monopoly which is necessary1 and which must be maintained4 ,the ,socialists say that property 7in land7 is a monopoly1 but a monopoly which is necessary1 and which must be maintained1--and they demand compensation for it in the shape of right to employment le droit au travail4 ,the ,communists and ,egalitaires say that property 7in general7 is a monopoly1 and must be destroyed4 ,for myself1 ,i say most emphatically that ,,property ,,is ,,not ,a ,,monopoly4 ,your premises are false1 and your three conclusions1 although they differ1 are false also4 ,property is not a monopoly1 and consequently it is not incumbent on us either to tolerate it by way of favour1 or to demand compensation for it1 or to destroy it4 ,let us pass briefly in review the opinions of writers of various schools on this important subject4 ,the ,english ,economists lay down this principle1 upon which they appear to be unanimous1 that value comes from labour4 ,were they consistent in their use of terms1 it might be so2 but are they consistent8 ,the reader will judge4 ,he will see whether they p#beb do not always and everywhere confound gratuitous ,utility1 which is incapable of remuneration1 and destitute of ,value1 with onerous ,utility1 which we owe exclusively to labour1 and which according to them is alone possessed of value4 ,adam ,smith4--8,in agriculture nature labours along with man2 and although her labour costs no expense1 its produce has its value1 as well as that of the most expensive workmen40#ee ,here we have nature producing value4 ,the purchaser of corn must pay for it1 although it has cost nothing to anybody1 not even labour4 ,who then dares come forward to demand this pretended value8 ,substitute for that word the word utility1 and all becomes clear1 ,property is vindicated1 and justice satisfied4 8,this rent10 proceeds ,smith1 8may be considered as the produce of those powers of nature1 the use of which the landlord lends to the farmer4 4 4 4 4 ,it 7rent67 is the work of nature1 which remains after deducting or compensating everything which can be regarded as the work of man4 ,it is seldom less than a fourth1 and frequently more than a third of the whole produce4 ,no equal quantity of productive labour employed in manufactures can ever occasion so great a reproduction4 ,in them nature does nothing2 man does all40#ef ,is it possible in as few words to include a greater number of dangerous errors8 ,at this rate a fourth or a third part of the value of human subsistence is due exclusively to the power of nature4 ,and yet the proprietor is paid by the farmer1 and the farmer by the corn-consumer1 for this pretended value which remains after the work of man has been remunerated4 ,and this is the basis on which it is desired to place ,property6 ,and1 then1 what becomes of the axiom that all value comes from labour8 ,next1 we have nature doing nothing in ,manufactures6 ,do gravitation1 the elasticity of the air1 and animal force1 not aid the manufacturer8 ,these forces act in our manufactures just as they act in our fields2 they produce gratuitously1 not value1 but utility4 ,were it otherwise1 property in capital would be as much exposed to the attacks of ,communism as property in land4 ,buchanan4--,this commentator1 adopting the theory of his master on ,rent1 is pressed by logic to blame him for having represented it as advantageous3 8,in dwelling on the reproduction of rent as so great an advantage to society1 ,smith does not reflect that rent is the effect of high price1 and that what the landlord gains in this way1 he gains at the expense of the community at large4 ,there is no absolute gain to society by the reproduction of rent4 ,it is only one class profiting at the expense of another class40#eg ,here the logical deduction makes its appearance--rent is an injustice4 ,ricardo4--8,rent is that portion of the produce of the earth which is paid to the landlord for the use of the original and indestructible powers of the soil40 p#bec ,and1 in order that there may be no mistake1 the author adds3 8,it is often confounded with the interest and profit of capital4 4 4 4 4 ,it is evident that a portion only of the money annually to be paid for the improved farm would be for the original and indestructible powers of the soil1 the other portion would be paid for the use of the capital which had been employed in ameliorating the quality of the land1 and in erecting such buildings as were necessary to secure and preserve the produce4 4 4 4 ,in the future pages of this work1 then1 whenever ,i speak of the rent of land1 ,i wish to be understood as speaking of that compensation which is paid to the owner of land for the use of its original and indestructible powers40#eh ,m',culloch4--8,what is properly termed ,rent is the sum paid for the use of the natural and inherent powers of the soil4 ,it is entirely distinct from the sum paid for the use of buildings1 enclosures1 roads1 or other amelioration4 ,rent is then always a monopoly40 ,scrope4--8,the value of land1 and its power of yielding ,rent1 are due to two circumstances1--#ast1 ,the appropriation of its natural powers2 #b;d1 ,the labour applied to its amelioration40 ,we are not kept long waiting for the consequence3 8,under the first of these relations rent is a monopoly4 ,it restricts our usufruct and enjoyment of the gifts which ,god has given to men for the satisfaction of their wants4 ,this restriction is just1 only in as far as it is necessary for the common good40 ,in what perplexity must those good souls be landed who refuse to admit anything to be necessary which is not just8 ,scrope ends with these words3 8,when it goes beyond this point1 it must be modified on the same principle which caused it to be established40 ,it is impossible for the reader not to perceive that these authors lead us to a negation of ,property1 and lead us to it very logically1 in setting out with the proposition that the proprietor is paid for the gifts of ,god4 ,here we have rent held up as an injustice established by ,law under the pressure of necessity1 and which laws may modify or destroy under the pressure of another necessity4 ,the ,communists have never gone farther than this4 ,senior4--8,the instruments of production are labour and natural agents4 ,natural agents having been appropriated1 proprietors charge for their use under the form of ,rent1 which is the recompense of no sacrifice whatever1 and is received by those who have neither laboured nor put by1 but who merely hold out their hands to accept the offerings of the rest of the community40 ,after giving this heavy blow to property1 ,mr ,senior explains that one portion of ,rent resolves itself into the ,interest of ,capital1 and then adds3 8,the surplus is taken by the proprietor of the natural agent1 and is his reward1 not for having laboured or abstained1 but simply for not having withheld what he was able to withhold2 for having permitted the gifts of nature to be accepted40 ,you will observe that this is still the same theory4 ,the proprietor is supposed to interpose himself between the hungry mouth and the food which ,god has vouchsafed under the condition of p#bed labour4 ,the proprietor who has co-operated in the work of production1 charges first of all for his co-operation1 which is just1 and then he makes a second charge for the work of nature1 for the use of natural agents1 for the indestructible powers of the soil1 which is iniquitous4 ,this theory of the ,english ,economists1 which has been farther developed by ,mill1 ,malthus1 and others1 we are sorry to find making its way also on the ,continent4 8,when a franc's worth of seed10 says ,scialoja1 8produces a hundred francs' worth of corn1 this augmentation of value is mainly due to the soil40 ,this is to confound ,utility with value2 ,he might just as well have said1 when water which costs only one sou at ten yards' distance from the spring1 costs ten sous at #ajj yards1 this augmentation of value is due in part to the intervention of nature4 ,florez ,estrada4--8,rent is that portion of the agricultural product which remains after all the costs of production have been defrayed40 ,then the proprietor receives something for nothing4 ,the ,english ,economists all set out by announcing the principle that value comes from labour1 and they are guilty of inconsistency when they afterwards attribute value to the inherent powers of the soil4 ,the ,french ,economists in general make value to consist in utility2 but1 confounding gratuitous with onerous utility1 they have not the less assisted in shaking the foundation of ,property4 ,j4 ,b4 ,say4--8,land is not the only natural agent which is productive1 but it is the only one1 or almost the only one1 that man has been able to appropriate4 ,the waters of the sea and of our rivers1 by their aptitude to impart motion to machines1 to afford nourishment to fishes1 to float our ships1 are likewise possessed of productive power4 ,the wind and the sun's rays work for us2 but happily no one has been able to say1 ,the wind and the sun are mine1 and ,i must be paid for their services40 ,m4 ,say appears from this to lament that any one should be able to say1 ,the land belongs to me1 and ,i must be paid for the service which it renders4 ,happily1 say ,i1 it is no more in the power of the proprietor to charge for the services of the soil than for the services of the sun and the wind4 8,the earth10 continues ,m4 ,say1 8is an admirable chemical workshop1 in which are combined and elaborated a multitude of materials and elements which are produced in the shape of grain1 fruit1 flax1 etc4 ,nature has presented to man1 gratuitously1 this vast workshop divided into a great number of compartments fitted for various kinds of production4 ,but certain individual members of society have appropriated them1 and proclaimed1--,this compartment is mine1--that other is mine1 and all that is produced in it is my exclusive property4 ,and the astonishing thing is1 that this usurped privilege1 far from having been fatal to the community1 has been found productive of advantage to it40 ,undoubtedly this arrangement has been advantageous2 but why8 ,just because it is neither a privilege nor usurped1 and p#bee that the man who exclaims1 8,this domain is mine10 has not had it in his power to add1 8,what has been produced on it is my exclusive property40 ,on the contrary1 he says1 8,what has been produced is the exclusive property of whoever desires to purchase it1 by giving me back simply the same amount of labour which ,i have undergone1 and which in this instance ,i have saved his undergoing40 ,the co-operation of nature in the work of production1 which is gratuitous for me1 is gratuitous for him also4 ,m4 ,say indeed distinguishes1 in the value of corn1 the parts contributed by ,property1 by ,capital1 and by ,labour4 ,he has with the best intention been at great pains to justify this first part of the remuneration which accrues to the proprietor1 and which is the recompense of no labour1 either anterior or present2 but he fails2 for1 like ,scrope1 he is obliged to fall back on the last and least satisfactory of all grounds of vindication1 necessity4 8,if it be impossible10 he remarks1 8for production to be effected1 not only without land and without capital1 but without these means of production previously becoming property1 may it not be said that proprietors of land and capital exercise a productive function1 since1 without the employment of these means1 production would not take place8--a convenient function no doubt1 but which1 in the present state of society1 presupposes accumulation1 which is the result of production or saving10 etc4 ,the confusion here is palpable4 ,the accumulation has been effected by the proprietor in his character of ,capitalist--a character with which at present we have no concern4 ,but what ,m4 ,say represents as convenient is the part played by the proprietor1 in his proper character of proprietor1 exacting a price for the gifts of ,god4 ,it is this part which it is necessary to vindicate1 and it has no connexion with either accumulation or saving4 8,if1 then1 property in land and in capital0 7why assimilate the two87 8be the fruit of production1 ,i am warranted in representing such property as a working and productive machine1 for which its author1 although sitting with his hands across1 is entitled to exact a recompense40 ,still the same confusion4 ,the man who constructs a machine is proprietor of a capital1 from which he legitimately derives an income1 because he is paid1 not for the labour of the machine1 but for his own labour in constructing it4 ,but land1 or territorial property1 is not the result of human production4 ,what right1 then1 have we to be paid for its co-operation8 ,the author has here mixed up two different kinds of property in the same category1 in order that the same reasons which justify the one may serve for the vindication of the other4 ,blanqui4--8,the agriculturist who tills1 manures1 sows1 and reaps his field1 furnishes labour1 without which nothing would be produced4 ,but the action of the soil in making the seed germinate1 and of the sun in bringing the plant to maturity1 are independent of that labour1 and co-operate in the formation of the value represented by the harvest4 4 4 ,smith and other ,economists pretend that the labour of p#bef man is the exclusive source of value4 ,assuredly the industry of the labourer is not the exclusive source of the value of a sack of corn or a bushel of potatoes4 ,his skill can no more succeed in producing the phenomenon of germination than the patience of the alchymist could succeed in discovering the philosopher's stone4 ,this is evident40 ,it is impossible to imagine a more complete confusion than we have here1 first between utility and value1 and then between onerous and gratuitous utility4 ,joseph ,garnier4--8,the rent of the proprietor differs essentially from the wages of the labourer and the profits of the capitalist1 inasmuch as these two kinds of remuneration are the recompense1 the one of trouble or pains taken1 the other of a privation submitted to1 and a risk encountered1 whilst ,rent is received by the proprietor gratuitously1 and in virtue alone of a legal convention which recognises and maintains in certain individuals the right to landed property40--7,elments de l'conomie ,politique1 #b;e edition1 p4 #bic47 ,in other words1 the labourer and capitalist are paid1 in the name of equity1 for the services they render2 and the proprietor is paid1 in the name of law1 for services which he does not render4 8,the boldest innovators do not go farther than to propose the substitution of collective for individual property4 ,it seems to us that they have reason on their side as regards human right2 but they are wrong practically1 inasmuch as they are unable to exhibit the advantages of a better ,economical system40 4 4 4 --7,ibid41 pp4 #cgg1 #cgh47 8,but at the same time1 in avowing that property is a privilege1 a monopoly1 we must add1 that it is a natural and a useful monopoly4 4 4 4 8,in short1 it seems to be admitted by ,political ,economy0 it is so1 alas6 and here lies the evil 8that property does not flow from divine right1 demesnial right1 or any other speculative right1 but simply from its utility4 ,it is only a monopoly tolerated in the interest of all10 etc4 ,this is precisely the judgment pronounced by ,scrope1 and repeated in modified terms by ,say4 ,i think ,i have now satisfactorily shown that ,political ,economy1 setting out with the false datum1 that 8natural agents possess or create value10 has arrived at this conclusion1 8that property 7in as far as it appropriates and is remunerated for this value1 which is independent of all human service7 is a privilege1 a monopoly1 a usurpation2 but that it is a necessary monopoly1 and must be maintained40 ,it remains for me to show that the ,socialists set out with the same postulate1 only they modify the conclusion in this way3 8,property is a necessary monopoly2 it must be maintained1 but we must demand1 from those who have property1 compensation to those who have none1 in the shape of ,right to ,employment40 ,i shall1 then1 dispose of the doctrine of the ,communists1 who1 arguing from the same premises1 conclude that 8,property is a monopoly1 and ought to be abolished40 ,finally1 and at the risk of repetition1 ,i shall1 if ,i can1 expose the fallacy of the premises on which all the three conclusions are based1 namely1 that natural agents possess or create value4 ,if ,i succeed in p#beg this1 if ,i demonstrate that natural agents1 even when appropriated1 produce1 not ,value1 but ,utility1 which1 passing from the hands of the proprietor without leaving anything behind it1 reaches the consumer gratuitously1--in that case1 all--,economists1 ,socialists1 ,communists--must at length come to a common understanding to leave the world1 in this respect1 just as it is4 ,m4 ,considrant4#ei--8;,in order to discover how and under what conditions private property may ,legitimately manifest and develop itself1 we must get possession of the fundamental principle of the ,right of ,property2 and here it is3 8,every man ,,possesses ,,legitimately ,,the ,,things which have been ,,created by his labour1 his intelligence1 or1 to speak more generally1 ,,by ,,his ,,activity4 8,this ,principle is incontestable1 and it is right to remark that it contains implicitly the acknowledgment of the ,right of all to the ,soil4 ,the earth not having been created by man1 it follows in fact1 from the fundamental principle of ,property1 that the ,soil1 which is a common fund given over to the species1 can in no shape legitimately become the absolute and exclusive property of this or that individual who has not created this value4 ,let us establish1 then1 the true ,theory of ,property1 by basing it exclusively on the unexceptionable principle which makes the legitimacy of ,property hinge upon the fact of the ,,creation of the thing1 or of the value possessed4 ,to accomplish this we must direct our reasoning to the origin of industry1 that is to say1 to the origin and development of agriculture1 manufactures1 the arts1 etc41 in human society4 8,suppose that on a solitary island1 on the territory of a nation1 or on the entire surface of the earth 7for the extent of the field of action makes no difference in our estimate of facts71 a generation of mankind devotes itself for the first time to industry--for the first time engages in agriculture1 manufactures1 etc4 ,each generation1 by its labour1 by its intelligence1 by the exertion of its own proper activity1 creates products1 develops value1 which did not exist on the earth in its rude and primitive state4 ,is it not perfectly evident that1 among the first generation of labourers1 ,property would conform to ,right1 ,,provided the value or wealth produced by the activity of all were distributed among the producers ,,in ,,proportion ,,to ,,the ,,co-,,operation of each in the creation of the general riches8 ,that is beyond dispute4 8,now1 the results of the labour of this generation may be divided into two categories1 which it is important to distinguish4 8,the first category includes the products of the soil1 which belong to this first generation in its character of usufructuary1 as having been increased1 refined1 or manufactured by its labour1 by its industry4 ,these products1 whether raw or manufactured1 consist either of objects of consumption or of instruments of labour4 ,it is clear that these products belong1 in entire and legitimate property1 to those who have created them by their activity4 ,each of them1 then1 has ,,right1 either to consume these products immediately1 to store them up to be disposed of afterwards at pleasure1 or to employ them1 exchange them1 give them away1 or transmit them to any one he chooses1 without receiving authority from anyone4 ,on this hypothesis1 this ,property is evidently ,legitimate1 respectable1 sacred4 ,we cannot assail it without assailing ,justice1 ,right1 individual liberty1--without1 in short1 being guilty of ,spoliation4 8,second category4 ,but the creations attributable to the industrious activity of this first generation are not all included in the preceding category4 ,this generation has created not only the products which we have just described 7objects of consumption and instruments of labour71--it has also added an additional value to the primitive value of the soil1 by cultivation1 by erections1 by the permanent improvements which it has executed4 8,this additional value constitutes evidently a product1 a value1 due to the activity of the first generation4 ,now1 if by any means 7we are not concerned at present with the question of means71--if by any means whatever the property of this additional value is equitably distributed among the different members of society1 that is to say1 is distributed among them proportionally to the co-operation of each in its creation1 each will possess legitimately the portion which has fallen to him4 ,he may1 then1 dispose of this individual ,property1 legitimate as he sees it to be1 exchange it1 give it away1 or transmit it without control1 society having over these values no right or power whatsoever4 p#beh 8,we may1 therefore1 easily conceive that when the second generation makes its appearance1 it will find upon the land two sorts of ,capital3 8#ast1 ,the primitive or natural capital1 which has not been created by the men of the first generation--that is1 the value of the land in its rough1 uncultivated state4 8#b;d1 ,the capital created by the first generation3 including 7#a71 the products1 commodities1 and instruments1 which shall not have been consumed or used by the first generation2 7#b71 the additional value which the labour of the first generation has added to the value of the rough1 uncultivated land4 8,it is evident1 then1 and results clearly and necessarily from the fundamental principle of the ,right of ,property1 which ,i have just explained1 that each individual of the second generation has an equal right to the primitive or natural capital1 whilst he has no right to the other species of capital which has been created by the labour of the first generation4 ,each individual of the first generation may1 then1 dispose of his share of this created capital in favour of whatever individual of the second generation he may please to select1 children1 friends1 etc41 and no one1 not even the ,state itself1 as we have just seen1 has the slightest right 7on pretence of ,property7 to control the disposal which1 as donor or testator1 he may have made of such capital4 8,observe that on this hypothesis the man of the second generation is already in a better situation than the man of the first1 seeing that1 besides his right to the primitive capital1 which is preserved to him1 he has his chance of receiving a portion of the created capital1 that is to say1 of a value which he has not produced1 and which represents anterior labour4 8,if1 then1 we suppose things to be arranged in society in such a way that1 8#ast1 ,the right to the primitive capital1 that is1 the usufruct of the soil in its natural state1 is preserved1 or that an ,,equivalent ,,right is conferred on every individual born within the territory2 8#b;d1 ,that the created capital is continually distributed among men1 as it is produced1 in proportion to the co-operation of each in the production of that capital2 8,if1 we say1 the mechanism of the social organization shall satisfy these two conditions1 ,,property1 under such a rgime1 would be established ,,in ,,its ,,absolute ,,legitimacy1 and ,fact would be in unison with ,right40--7,thorie du droit de proprit et du droit au travail1 #c;e edition1 p4 #ag47 ,we see here that the socialist author distinguishes between two kinds of value1 created value1 which is the subject of legitimate property1 and uncreated value1 which he denominates the value of land in its natural state1 primitive capital1 natural capital1 which cannot become individual property but by usurpation4 ,now1 according to the theory which ,i am anxious to establish1 the ideas expressed by the words uncreated1 primitive1 natural1 exclude radically these other ideas1 value1 capital4 ,this is the error in ,m4 ,considrant's premises1 by which he is landed in this melancholy conclusion3 8,that1 under the rgime of ,property1 in all civilized nations1 the common fund1 over which the entire species has a full right of usufruct1 has been invaded--has been confiscated--by the few1 to the exclusion of the many4 ,why1 were even a single human being excluded from his ,right to the ,usufruct of this common fund1 that very exclusion would of itself constitute an attack upon ,right by the ,institution of ,property1 and that institution1 by sanctioning such invasion of right1 would be unjust and illegitimate40 ,m4 ,considrant1 however1 acknowledges that the earth could not be cultivated but for the institution of individual property4 ,here1 then1 is a necessary monopoly4 ,what can we do1 then1 to reconcile all1 and preserve the rights which the proltaires1 or men of no property1 have to the primitive1 natural1 uncreated capital1 and to the value of the land in its rough and uncultivated state8 p#bei 8,why1 let ,society1 which has taken possession of the land1 and taken away from man the power of exercising1 freely and at will1 his four natural rights on the surface of the soil1--let this industrious society cede to the individual1 in compensation for the rights of which it has deprived him1 the ,right to ,employment40--,le ,droit au ,travail4 ,now1 nothing in the world is clearer than that this theory1 except the conclusion which it seeks to establish1 is exactly the theory of the ,economists4 ,the man who purchases an agricultural product remunerates three things3 #ast1 ,the actual labour--nothing more legitimate2 #b;dly1 the additional value imparted to the soil by anterior labour--still nothing more legitimate2 #c;dly1 and lastly1 the primitive1 or natural1 or uncreated capital1--that gratuitous gift of ,god1 which ,m4 ,considrant denominates the value of the land in its rough and natural state2 ,adam ,smith1 the indestructible powers of the soil2 ,ricardo1 the productive and indestructible powers of the land2 ,say1 natural agents4 ,this is the part which has been usurped1 according to ,m4 ,considrant2 this is what has been usurped1 according to ,j4 ,b4 ,say4 ,it is this which constitutes illegitimacy and spoliation in the eyes of the ,socialists2 which constitutes monopoly and privilege in the eyes of the ,economists4 ,they are at one as to the necessity and the utility of this arrangement4 ,without it the earth would produce nothing1 say the disciples of ,smith2 without it we should return to the savage state1 re-echo the disciples of ,fourier4 ,we find that in theory1 and as regards right 7at least with reference to this important question71 the understanding between the two schools is much more cordial than we should have imagined4 ,they differ only as to the legislative consequences to be deduced from the fact on which they agree4 8,seeing that property is tainted with illegitimacy1 inasmuch as it assigns to the proprietor a part of the remuneration to which he has no right2 and seeing1 at the same time1 that it is necessary1 let us respect it1 but demand indemnities4 ,no1 say the ,economists1 although it is a monopoly1 yet seeing that it is a necessary monopoly1 let us respect it1 and let it alone40 ,and yet they urge this weak defence but feebly2 for one of their latest organs1 ,m4 ,j4 ,garnier1 adds1 8,you have reason on your side1 as regards human right1 but you are wrong practically1 inasmuch as you have failed to point out the effects of a better system40 ,to which the ,socialists immediately reply1 8,we have found it2 it is the ,right to ,employment--try it40 ,in the meantime ,m4 ,proudhon steps in4 ,you imagine1 perhaps1 that this redoubtable objector is about to question the premises on which the ,economists and ,socialists ground their agreement4 ,not at all4 ,he can demolish property without that4 p#bfj ,he appropriates the premises1 grasps them1 closes with them1 and most logically deduces his conclusion4 8,you grant10 he says1 8that the gifts of ,god are possessed not only of utility but of value1 and that these gifts the proprietor usurps and sells4 ,then ,property is theft2 and it is not necessary to maintain it2 it is not necessary to demand compensation for it2 what is necessary is to abolish it40 ,m4 ,proudhon has brought forward many arguments against landed ,property4 ,the most formidable one--indeed the only formidable one--is that with which these authors have furnished him1 by confounding utility with value4 8,who has the right10 he asks1 8to charge for the use of the soil1--for that wealth which does not proceed from man's act8 ,who is entitled to the rent of land8 ,the producer of the land1 without doubt4 ,who made it8 ,god4 ,then1 proprietor1 begone4 8 4 4 4 4 ,but the ,creator of the earth does not sell it--he gives it2 and in giving it he shows no respect of persons4 ,why1 then1 among all his children1 are some treated as eldest sons1 and some as bastards8 ,if equality of inheritance be our original right1 why should our posthumous right be inequality of conditions80 ,replying to ,j4 ,b4 ,say1 who had compared land to an instrument1 he says3 8,i grant it that land is an instrument2 but who is the workman8 ,is it the proprietor8 ,is it he who1 by the efficacious virtue of the right of property1 communicates to it vigour and fertility8 ,it is precisely here that we discover in what consists the monopoly of the proprietor1--he did not make the instrument1 and he charges for its use4 ,were the ,creator to present ,himself and demand the rent of land1 we must account for it to ,him2 but the proprietor1 who represents himself as invested with the same power1 ought to exhibit his procuration40 ,that is evident4 ,the three systems in reality make only one4 ,economists1 ,socialists1 ,egalitaires1 all direct against landed proprietors the same reproach1 that of charging for what they have no right to charge for4 ,this wrong some call monopoly1 some illegitimacy1 others theft--these are but different phases of the same complaint4 ,now ,i would appeal to every intelligent reader whether this complaint is or is not well founded8 ,have ,i not demonstrated that there is but one thing which comes between the gifts of ,god and the hungry mouth1 namely1 human service8 ,economists say1 that 8,rent is what we pay to the proprietor for the use of the productive and indestructible powers of the soil40 ,i say1 ,no--,rent is like what we pay to the water-carrier for the pains he has taken to construct his barrow1 and the water would cost us more if he had carried it on his back4 ,in the same way1 corn1 flax1 wool1 timber1 meat1 fruits1 would have cost us more if the proprietor had not previously improved the instrument which furnishes them4 ,socialists assert that 8originally the masses enjoyed their right p#bfa to the land on condition of labour1 but that now they are excluded and robbed of their natural patrimony40 ,i answer1 ,no--they are neither excluded nor robbed--they enjoy1 gratuitously1 the utility contributed by the soil on condition of labour1 that is to say1 by repaying that labour to those who have saved it to them4 galitaires allege that 8the monopoly of the proprietor consists in this1 that not having made the instrument1 he yet charges for its use40 ,i answer1 ,no--the land-instrument1 so far as it is the work of ,god1 produces utility1 and that utility is gratuitous2 it is beyond the power of the proprietor to charge for it4 ,the land-instrument1 so far as it is prepared by the proprietor1--so far as he has laboured it1 enclosed it1 drained it1 improved it1 and furnished it with other necessary instruments1 produces value1 and that value represents actual human services1 and for these alone is the proprietor paid4 ,you must either admit the legitimacy of this demand1 or reject your own principle--the mutuality of services4 ,in order to satisfy ourselves as to the true elements of the value of land1 let us attend to the way in which landed property is formed--not by conquest and violence1 but according to the laws of labour and exchange4 ,let us see what takes place in the ,united ,states4 ,brother ,jonathan1 a laborious water-carrier of ,new ,york1 set out for the ,far-west1 carrying in his purse a thousand dollars1 the fruit of his labour and frugality4 ,he journeyed across many fertile provinces1 where the soil1 the sun1 and the rain worked wonders1 but which nevertheless were entirely destitute of value in the economical and practical sense of the word4 ,being a little of a philosopher1 he said to himself--8,let ,adam ,smith and ,ricardo say what they will1 value must be something else than the natural and indestructible productive power of the soil40 ,at length1 having reached the ,state of ,arkansas1 he found a beautiful property of about #ajj acres1 which the government had advertised for sale at the price of a dollar an acre4 ,a dollar an acre6 he said--that is very little1 almost nothing4 ,i shall purchase this land1 clear it1 and sell the produce1 and the drawer of water shall become a lord of the soil6 ,brother ,jonathan1 being a merciless logician1 liked to have a reason for everything4 ,he said to himself1 ,but why is this land worth even a dollar an acre8 ,no one has yet put a spade in it1 or has bestowed on it the least labour4 ,can ,smith and ,ricardo1 and the whole string of theorists down to ,proudhon1 be right after all8 ,can land have a value independent of all labour1 all service1 p#bfb all human intervention8 ,must ,i admit that the productive and indestructible powers of the soil have value8 ,in that case1 why should they have no value in the countries through which ,i have passed8 ,and1 besides1 since the powers of the soil surpass so enormously the powers of men1 which1 as ,blanqui well remarks1 can never go the length of creating the phenomena of germination1 why should these marvellous powers be worth no more than a dollar8 ,but he was not long in perceiving that this value1 like all other values1 is of human and social creation4 ,the ,american government demanded a dollar for the concession of each acre2 but1 on the other hand1 it undertook to guarantee to a certain extent the security of the acquirer2 it had formed in a rough way a road to the neighbourhood1 facilitated the transmission of letters and newspapers1 etc4 ,service for service1 said ,jonathan2--the government makes me pay a dollar1 but it gives me an adequate equivalent4 ,with deference to ,ricardo1 ,i can now account naturally for the value of this land1 which value would be still greater if the road were extended and improved1 the post more frequent and regular1 and the protection more efficacious and secure4 ,while ,jonathan argued1 he worked2 for we must do him the justice to say that he always made thinking and acting keep pace4 ,he expended the remainder of his dollars in buildings1 enclosures1 clearances1 trenching1 draining1 improving1 etc42 and after having dug1 laboured1 sowed1 harrowed1 reaped1 at length came the time to dispose of his crop4 8,now ,i shall see10 said ,jonathan1 still occupied with the problem of value1 8if in becoming a landed proprietor ,i have transformed myself into a monopolist1 a privileged aristocrat1 a plunderer of my neighbour1 an engrosser of the bounties of divine ,providence40 ,he carried his grain to market1 and began to talk with a ,yankee3--,friend1 said he1 how much will you give me for this ,indian corn8 ,the current price1 replied the other4 ,the current price6 but will that yield me anything beyond the interest of my capital and the wages of my labour8 ,i am a merchant1 said the ,yankee1 and ,i know that ,i must content myself with the recompense of my present and former labour4 ,and ,i was content with it when ,i was a mere drawer of water1 replied the other1 but now ,i am a landed proprietor4 ,the ,english and ,french ,economists have assured me that in that character ,i p#bfc ought1 over and above the double remuneration you point at1 to derive a profit from the productive and indestructible powers of the soil1 and levy a tax on the gifts of ,god4 ,the gifts of ,god belong to all1 said the merchant4 ,i avail myself of the productive power of the wind for propelling my ships1 but ,i make no one pay for it4 ,still1 as far as ,i am concerned1 ,i expect that you will pay me something for these powers1 in order that ,messieurs ,senior1 ,considrant1 and ,proudhon1 should not call me a monopolist and usurper for nothing4 ,if ,i am to have the disgrace1 ,i may at least have the profit1 of a monopolist4 ,in that case1 friend1 ,i must bid you good morning4 ,to obtain the maize ,i am in quest of1 ,i must apply to other proprietors1 and if ,i find them of your mind1 ,i shall cultivate it for myself4 ,jonathan then understood the truth1 that1 under the empire of freedom1 a man cannot be a monopolist at pleasure4 ,as long as there are lands in the ,union to clear1 said he1 ,i can never be more than the simple setter in motion of these famous productive and indestructible forces4 ,i shall be paid for my trouble1 that is all1 just as when ,i was a drawer of water ,i was paid for my own labour1 and not for that of nature4 ,i see now very clearly that the true usufructuary of the gifts of ,god is not the man who raises the corn1 but the man who consumes it4 ,some years afterwards1 another enterprise having engaged the attention of ,jonathan1 he set about finding a tenant for his land4 ,the dialogue which took place between the two contracting parties was curious1 and would throw much light on the subject under consideration were ,i to give it entire4 ,here is part of it3 ,proprietor4 ,what6 you would give me no greater rent than the interest1 at the current rate1 of the capital ,i have actually laid out8 ,farmer4 ,not a cent more4 ,proprietor4 ,why so1 pray8 ,farmer4 ,just for this reason1 that1 with the outlay of an equal capital1 ,i can put as much land in as good condition as yours4 ,proprietor4 ,that seems conclusive4 ,but consider that when you become my tenant1 it is not only my capital which will work for you1 but also the productive and indestructible powers of the soil4 ,you will have enlisted in your service the marvellous influences of the sun and the moon1 of affinity and electricity4 ,am ,i to give you all these things for nothing8 ,farmer4 ,why not1 since they cost you nothing1 and since you derive nothing from them1 any more than ,i do8 p#bfd ,proprietor4 ,derive nothing from them8 ,i derive everything from them4 ,zounds6 without these admirable phenomena1 all my industry could not raise a blade of grass4 ,farmer4 ,undoubtedly4 ,but remember the ,yankee you met at market4 ,he would not give you a farthing for all this co-operation of nature any more than1 when you were a water-carrier1 the housewives of ,new ,york would give you a farthing for the admirable elaboration by means of which nature supplied the spring4 ,proprietor4 ,ricardo and ,proudhon1 however1 4 4 4 4 ,farmer4 ,a fig for ,ricardo4 ,we must either treat on the basis which ,i have laid down1 or ,i shall proceed to clear land alongside yours1 where the sun and the moon will work for me gratis4 ,it was always the same argument1 and ,jonathan began to see that ,god had wisely arranged so as to make it difficult for man to intercept ,his gifts4 ,disgusted with the trade of proprietor1 ,jonathan resolved to employ his energies in some other department1 and he determined to put up his land to sale4 ,it is needless to say that no one would give him more for it than it cost himself4 ,in vain he cited ,ricardo1 and represented the inherent value of the indestructible powers of the soil--the answer always was1 8,there are other lands close by20 and these few words put an extinguisher on his exactions and on his illusions4 ,there is1 moreover1 in this transaction a fact of great ,economic importance1 and to which little attention has been paid4 ,it is easy to understand that if a manufacturer desires1 after ten or fifteen years1 to sell his apparatus and materials1 even in their new state1 he will probably be forced to submit to a loss4 ,the reason is obvious4 ,ten or fifteen years can scarcely elapse without considerable improvements in machinery taking place4 ,this is the reason why the man who sends to market machinery fifteen years old cannot expect a return exactly equal to the labour he has expended2 for with an equal expenditure of labour the purchaser could1 owing to the progress subsequently made1 procure himself machinery of improved construction--which1 we may remark in passing1 proves more and more clearly that value is not in proportion to labour1 but to services4 ,hence we may conclude that machinery and instruments of labour have a tendency to lose part of their value in consequence of the mere lapse of time1 without taking into account their deterioration by use--and we may lay down this formula1 that 8one of the effects of progress is to diminish the value of all existing instruments40 p#bfe ,it is clear1 in fact1 that the more rapid that progress is1 the greater difficulty will the former instruments have in sustaining the rivalry of new and improved ones4 ,i shall not stop here to remark the harmony exhibited by the results of this law4 ,what ,i desire you to observe at present is1 that landed property no more escapes from the operation of this law than any other kind of property4 ,brother ,jonathan experiences this4 ,he holds this language to the purchaser--8,what ,i have expended on this property in permanent improvements represents a thousand days' labour4 ,i expect that you will1 in the first place1 reimburse me for these thousand days' work1 and then add something for the value which is inherent in the soil and independent of all human exertion40 ,the purchaser replies3 8,in the first place1 ,i shall give you nothing for the value inherent in the soil1 which is simply utility1 which the adjoining property possesses as well as yours4 ,such native superhuman utility ,i can obtain gratis1 which proves that it possesses no value4 8,in the second place1 since your books show that you have expended a thousand days' work in bringing your land to its present state1 ,i shall give you only #hjj days' labour2 and my reason for it is1 that with #hjj days' labour ,i can now-a-days accomplish the same improvements on the adjoining land as you have executed with #ajjj days' labour on yours4 ,pray consider that in the course of fifteen years the art of draining1 clearing1 building1 sinking wells1 designing farm-offices1 transporting materials1 has made great progress4 ,less labour is now required to effect each given result1 and ,i cannot consent to give you ten for what ,i can get for eight1 more especially as the price of grain has fallen in proportion to this progress1 which is a profit neither to you nor to me1 but to mankind at large40 ,thus ,jonathan was left no alternative but to sell his land at a loss1 or to keep it4 ,undoubtedly the value of land is not affected by one circumstance exclusively4 ,other circumstances--such as the construction of a canal1 or the erection of a town--may act in an opposite direction1 and raise its value1 but the improvements of which ,i have spoken1 which are general and inevitable1 always necessarily tend to depress it4 ,the conclusion to be deduced from all ,i have said is1 that as long as there exists in a country abundance of land to be cleared and brought under cultivation1 the proprietor1 whether he cultivates1 or lets1 or sells it1 enjoys no privilege1 no monopoly1 no exceptional p#bff advantage1--above all1 that he levies no tax upon the gratuitous liberality of nature4 ,how could it be so1 if we suppose men to be free8 ,have not people who are possessed of capital and energy a perfect right to make a choice between agriculture1 manufactures1 commerce1 fisheries1 navigation1 the arts1 or the learned professions8 ,will not capital and industry always tend to those departments which give extraordinary returns8 ,will they not desert those which entail loss8 ,is this inevitable shifting and redistribution of human efforts not sufficient to establish1 according to our hypothesis1 an equilibrium of profit and remuneration8 ,do agriculturists in the ,united ,states make fortunes more rapidly than merchants1 shipowners1 bankers1 or physicians1--as would necessarily happen if they received the wages of their labour like other people1 and the recompense of nature's work into the bargain8 ,would you like to know how a proprietor even in the ,united ,states could establish for himself a monopoly8 ,i shall try to explain it4 ,suppose ,jonathan to assemble all the proprietors of the ,united ,states1 and hold this language to them3 8,i desired to sell my crops1 and ,i found no one who would give me a high enough price for them4 ,i wished then to let my land1 and encountered the same difficulty4 ,i resolved to sell it1 but still experienced the same disappointment4 ,my exactions have always been met by their telling me1 that there is more land in the neighbourhood2 so that1 horrible to say1 my services are estimated by the community like the services of other people1 at what they are worth1 in spite of the flattering promises of theorists4 ,they will give me nothing1 absolutely nothing1 for those productive and indestructible powers of the soil1 for those natural agents1 for the solar and lunar rays1 for the rain1 the wind1 the dew1 the frost1 which ,i was led to believe were mine1 but of which ,i turn out to be only the nominal proprietor4 ,is it not an iniquitous thing that ,i am remunerated only for my services1 and at a rate1 too1 reduced by competition8 ,you are all suffering under the same oppression1 you are all alike the victims of anarchical competition4 ,it would be no longer so1 you may easily perceive1 if we organized landed property1 if we laid our heads together to prevent anyone henceforward from clearing a yard of ,american soil4 ,in that case1 population pressing1 by its increase1 on a nearly fixed amount of subsistence1 we should be able to make our own prices and attain immense wealth1 which would be a great boon for all other classes2 for being rich1 we should provide them with work40 ,if1 in consequence of this discourse1 the combined proprietors p#bfg seized the reins of government1 and passed an act interdicting all new clearances1 the consequence undoubtedly would be a temporary increase of their profits4 ,i say temporary1 for the natural laws of society would be wanting in harmony if the punishment of such a crime did not spring naturally from the crime itself4 ,speaking with scientific exactitude1 ,i should not say that the new law we have supposed would impart value to the powers of the soil1 or to natural agents 7were this the case1 the law would do harm to no one72--but ,i should say1 that the equilibrium of services had been violently upset2 that one class robbed all other classes1 and that slavery had been introduced into that country4 ,take another hypothesis1 which indeed represents the actual state of things among the civilized nations of ,europe--and suppose all the land to have passed into the domain of private property4 ,we are to inquire whether in that case the mass of consumers1 or the community1 would continue to be the gratuitous usufructuary of the productive powers of the soil1 and of natural agents2 whether the proprietors of land would be owners of anything else than of its value1 that is to say1 of their services fairly estimated according to the laws of competition2 and whether1 when they are recompensed for those services1 they are not forced like everyone else to give the gifts of ,god into the bargain4 ,suppose1 then1 the entire territory of ,arkansas alienated by the government1 parcelled into private domains1 and subjected to culture4 ,when ,jonathan brings his grain or his land to market1 can he not now take advantage of the productive power of the soil1 and make it an element of value8 ,he could no longer be met1 as in the preceding case1 with the overwhelming answer4 8,there is more uncultivated land adjacent to yours40 ,this new state of things presupposes an increase of population1 which may be divided into two classes3 #ast1 ,that which furnishes to the community agricultural services2 #b;dly1 ,that which furnishes manufacturing1 intellectual1 or other services4 ,now this appears to me quite evident4 ,labourers 7other than owners of land7 who wished to procure supplies of grain1 being perfectly free to apply either to ,jonathan or to his neighbours1 or to the proprietors of adjoining states1 being in circumstances even to proceed to clear lands beyond the territory of ,arkansas1 it would be absolutely impossible for ,jonathan to impose an unjust law upon them4 ,the very fact that lands which have no value exist elsewhere would oppose to monopoly an invincible obstacle1 and we should be landed again in the preceding hypothesis4 ,agricultural services are subject to the law of ,universal ,competition1 p#bfh and it is quite impossible to make them pass for more than they are worth4 ,i add1 that they are worth no more 7cteris paribus7 than services of any other description4 ,as the manufacturer1 after charging for his time1 his anxiety1 his trouble1 his risk1 his advances1 his skill 7all which things constitute human service1 and are represented by value71 can demand no recompense for the law of gravitation1 the expansibility of steam1 the assistance of which he has availed himself of1--so in the same way1 ,jonathan can include in the value of his grain only the sum total of the personal services1 anterior or recent1 and not the assistance he has derived from the laws of vegetable physiology4 ,the equilibrium of services is not impaired so long as they are freely exchanged1 the one for the other1 at an agreed price2 and the gifts of ,god1 of which these services are the vehicle1 given on both sides into the bargain1 remain in the domain of community4 ,it may be said1 no doubt1 that in point of fact the value of the soil is constantly increasing2 and this is true4 ,in proportion as population becomes more dense and the people more wealthy1 and the means of communication more easy1 the landed proprietor derives more advantage from his services4 ,is this law peculiar to him8 ,does the same thing not hold of all other producers8 ,with equal labour1 does not a physician1 a lawyer1 a singer1 a painter1 a day labourer1 procure a greater amount of enjoyments in the nineteenth than he could in the fourth century8 in ,paris than in ,brittany8 in ,france than in ,morocco8 ,but is this increased enjoyment obtained at the expense of any other body8 ,that is the point4 ,for the rest1 we shall investigate still farther this law of value 7using the word metonymically7 of the soil1 in a subsequent part of the work1 when we come to consider the theory of ,ricardo4 ,at present it is sufficient to show that ,jonathan1 in the case we have put1 can exercise no oppression over the industrial classes1 provided the exchange of services is free1 and that labour can1 without any legal impediment1 be distributed1 either in ,arkansas or elsewhere1 among different kinds of production4 ,this liberty renders it impossible for the proprietors to intercept1 for their own profit1 the gratuitous benefits of nature4 ,it would no longer be the same thing if ,jonathan and his brethren1 availing themselves of their legislative powers1 were to proscribe or shackle the liberty of trade1--were they to decree1 for example1 that not a grain of foreign corn should be allowed to enter the territory of ,arkansas4 ,in that case the value of services exchanged between proprietors and non-proprietors would no longer be regulated by justice4 ,the one party could no longer control the p#bfi pretensions of the other4 ,such a legislative measure would be as iniquitous as the one to which we have just alluded4 ,the effect would be quite the same as if ,jonathan1 having carried to market a sack of corn1 which in other circumstances would have sold for fifteen francs1 should present a pistol at the purchaser's head1 and say1 ,give me three francs more1 or ,i will blow out your brains4 ,this 7to give the thing its right name7 is extortion4 ,brutal or legal1 the character of the transaction is the same4 ,brutal1 as in the case of the pistol1 it violates property2 legal1 as in the case of the prohibition1 it still violates property1 and repudiates1 moreover1 the very principle upon which property is founded4 ,the exclusive subject of property1 as we have seen1 is value1 and ,value is the appreciation of two services freely and voluntarily exchanged4 ,it is impossible1 then1 to conceive anything more directly antagonistic to the very principle of property1 than that which1 in the name of right1 destroys the equivalence of services4 ,it may not be out of place to add1 that laws of this description are iniquitous and injurious1 whatever may be the opinions entertained by those who impose them1 or by those who are oppressed by their operation4 ,in certain countries we find the working-classes standing up for these restrictions1 because they enrich the proprietors4 ,they do not perceive that it is at their expense1 and ,i know from experience that it is not always safe to tell them so4 ,strange6 that people should listen willingly to sectaries who preach ,communism1 which is slavery2 for when a man is no longer master of his own services1 he is a slave2--and that they should look askance at those who are always and everywhere the defenders of ,liberty1 which is the ,community of the gifts of ,god4 ,we now come to the third hypothesis1 which assumes that all the land capable of cultivation throughout the world has passed into the domain of individual appropriation4 ,we have still to do with two classes--those who possess land--and those who do not4 ,will the first not oppress the second8 and will the latter not be always obliged to give more labour in exchange for the same amount of subsistence8 ,i notice this objection merely for argument's sake1 for hundreds of years must elapse before this hypothesis can become a reality4 ,everything forewarns us1 however1 that the time must at last come when the exactions of proprietors can no longer be met by the words1 ,there are other lands to clear4 ,i pray the reader to remark1 that this hypothesis implies another--it implies that at the same epoch population will have reached p#bgj the extreme limit of the means of subsistence which the earth can afford4 ,this is a new and important element in the question4 ,it is very much as if one should put the question1 ,what will happen when there is no longer enough of oxygen in the atmosphere to supply the lungs of a redundant population8 ,whatever view we take of the principle of population1 it is at least certain that population is capable of increase1 nay1 that it has a tendency to increase1 since in point of fact it does increase4 ,all the economic arrangements of society appear to have been organized with the previous knowledge of this tendency1 and are in perfect harmony with it4 ,the landed proprietor always endeavours to get paid for the natural agents which he has appropriated1 but he is as constantly foiled in this foolish and unjust pretension by the abundance of analogous natural agents which have not been appropriated4 ,the liberality of nature1 which is comparatively indefinite1 constitutes him a simple custodier4 ,but now you drive me into a corner1 by supposing a period at which this liberality reaches its limit4 ,men have then no longer anything to expect from that quarter4 ,the consequence is inevitable1 that the tendency of mankind to increase will be paralyzed1 that the progress of population will be arrested4 ,no economic rgime can obviate this necessity4 ,according to the hypothesis we have laid down1 every increase of population would be repressed by mortality4 ,no philanthropy1 no optimism1 can make us believe that the increase of human beings can continue its progression when the progressive increase of subsistence has conclusively terminated4 ,here1 then1 we have a new order of things and the harmony of the social laws might be called in question1 had they not provided for a state of matters the existence of which is possible1 although very different from that which now obtains4 ,the difficulty we have to deal with1 then1 comes to this3 ,when a ship in mid-ocean cannot reach land in less than a month1 and has only a fortnight's provisions on board1 what is to be done8 ,clearly this1 reduce the allowance of each sailor4 ,this is not cruelty--it is prudence and justice4 ,in the same way1 when population shall have reached the extreme limit that all the land in the world can maintain1 a law which1 by gentle and infallible means prevents the further multiplication of mankind1 cannot be considered either harsh or unjust4 ,now1 it is landed property still which affords us solution of the difficulty4 ,the institution of property1 by applying the stimulant of self-interest1 causes the land to produce the greatest possible p#bga quantity of subsistence1 and by the division of inheritances puts each family in a situation to estimate the danger to itself of an imprudent multiplication4 ,it is very clear that any other rgime--,communism1 for example--would be at once a less effective spur to production1 and a less powerful curb to population4 ,after all1 it appears to me that ,political ,economy has discharged her duty when she has proved that the great and just law of the mutuality of services operates harmoniously1 so long as human progress is not conclusively arrested4 ,is it not consoling to think that up to that point1 and under the empire of freedom1 it is not in the power of one class to oppress another8 ,is economic ,science bound to solve this further problem3 ,given the tendency of mankind to multiply1 what will take place when there is no longer room in the world for new inhabitants8 ,does ,god hold in reserve for that epoch some creative cataclasm1 some marvellous manifestation of ,his almighty power8 ,or1 as ,christians1 do we believe in the doctrine of the world's destruction8 ,these evidently are not economical problems1 and there is no science which does not encounter similar difficulties4 ,natural philosophers know well1 that all bodies which move on the surface of the earth have a tendency to descend1 not to ascend4 ,after all1 a day must come when the mountains shall have filled up the valleys1 when the embouchure of our rivers will be on the same level as their source1 when the waters can no longer flow1 etc41 etc4 ,what will happen then8 ,is ,natural ,science to cease to observe and to admire the harmony of the actual world because she cannot divine by what other harmony ,god will provide for a state of things far distant1 no doubt1 but inevitable8 ,it seems to me that at this point the ,economist1 like the natural philosopher1 should substitute for an exercise of curiosity an exercise of faith4 ,he who has so marvellously arranged the medium in which we now live1 knows best how to prepare another medium suitable to other circumstances4 ,we judge of the productiveness of the soil and of human skill by the facts of which we are witnesses4 ,is this a rational mode of proceeding8 ,then1 adopting it1 we may say1 ,since it has required six thousand years to bring a tenth part of the earth to the sorry state of cultivation in which we find it1 how many hundreds of ages must elapse before its entire surface shall be converted into a garden8 ,yet in this appreciation1 comforting as it is1 we suppose merely the more general diffusion of our present knowledge1 or rather our present ignorance1 of agriculture4 ,but is this1 ,i repeat1 an p#bgb admissible rule8 ,does not analogy tell us that an impenetrable veil conceals from us the power--the indefinite power it may be--of art8 ,the savage who lives by the chase requires a square league of territory4 ,what would be his surprise were he told that the pastoral life enables ten times the number of men to subsist upon the same space8 ,the nomad shepherd would1 in like manner1 be quite astonished to be told that a system of triennial cultivation la culture triennale admits easily of a population ten times greater still4 ,tell the peasant accustomed to this routine that the same progress will again be the result of alternate culture#fj la culture alterne1 and he will not believe you4 ,alternate culture is for us the latest improvement--,is it the latest improvement for the human race8 ,let us comfort ourselves regarding the future destiny of the species--a long tract of ages is before us4 ,at all events1 let us not require ,political ,economy to resolve problems which are not within her domain--and let us with confidence commit the destinies of future races to the keeping of that great and good and wise ,being who shall have called them into existence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us recapitulate the ideas contained in this chapter4 ,these two phenomena1 ,utility and ,value--the co-operation of nature and the co-operation of man1 consequently ,community and ,property--are combined in the work of agriculture1 as in every other department of industry4 ,in the production of corn which appeases our hunger1 we remark something analogous to what takes place in the formation of water which quenches our thirst4 ,the ocean1 which is the theme of the poet's inspiration1 offers to the ,economist also a fine subject of meditation4 ,it is this vast reservoir which gives drink to all human creatures4 ,and yet how can that be1 when many of them are situated at a great distance from its shores1 and when its water is besides undrinkable8 ,it is here that we have to admire the marvellous industry of nature4 ,we mark how the sun warms the heaving mass1 and subjects it to a slow evaporation4 ,the water takes the form of gas1 and1 disengaged from the salt1 which rendered it unfit for use1 it rises into the high regions of the atmosphere4 ,gales of wind1 increasing in all directions1 drift it towards inhabited continents4 ,there it encounters cold1 which condenses it1 and attaches it in a solid form to the sides of mountains4 ,by-and-by the gentle heat of spring melts it4 ,carried along by its weight1 p#bgc it is filtered and purified through beds of schist and gravel4 ,it ramifies and distributes itself1 and supplies and feeds refreshing springs in all parts of the world4 ,here we have an immense and ingenious industry carried on by nature for the benefit of the human race4 ,change of form1 change of place1 utility1 nothing is wanting4 ,but where is value8 ,value has not yet come into existence2 and if what we must call the work of ,god is to be paid for 7it would be paid for if it possessed exchangeable value7--who could tell the value of a single drop of this precious liquid8 ,all men1 however1 have not a spring of pure water at their door4 ,in order to quench their thirst they must take pains1 make efforts1 exert foresight and skill4 ,it is this supplementary human labour which gives rise to arrangements1 transactions1 estimates4 ,it is here1 then1 that we discover the origin and foundation of value4 ,man is originally ignorant4 ,knowledge is acquired4 ,at the beginning1 then1 he is forced to carry water1 to accomplish the supplementary labour which nature has left him to execute with the maximum of trouble4 ,it is at this stage that water has the greatest value in exchange4 ,by degrees the water-carrier invents a barrow and wheels1 trains horses1 constructs pipes1 discovers the law of the siphon1 etc42 in short1 he transfers part of his labour to the gratuitous forces of nature2 and1 in proportion as he does so1 the value of water1 but not its utility1 is diminished4 ,there is here1 however1 a circumstance which it is necessary thoroughly to comprehend1 if we would not see discordance where there is in reality only harmony4 ,it is this1 that the purchaser of water obtains it on easier terms1 that is to say1 gives a less amount of labour in exchange for a given quantity of it1 each time that a step of progress of this kind is gained1 although in such circumstances he has to give a remuneration for the instrument by means of which nature is constrained to act4 ,formerly he paid for the labour of carrying the water2 now he pays not only for that1 but for the labour expended in constructing the barrow1 the wheel1 and the pipe--and yet1 everything included1 he pays less2 and this shows us how false and futile the reasoning is which would persuade us that that part of the remuneration which is applicable to capital is a burden on the consumer4 ,will these reasoners never understand that1 for each result obtained1 capital supersedes more labour than it exacts8 ,all that ,i have said is equally applicable to the production of corn4 ,in that case also1 anterior to all human labour1 there has p#bgd been an immense1 a measureless1 amount of natural industry at work1 the secrets of which the most advanced science can yet give no account of4 ,gases1 salts1 are diffused through the soil and the atmosphere4 ,electricity1 affinity1 the wind1 the rain1 light1 heat1 vegetable life1 play successively their parts1 often unknown to us1 in transporting1 transforming1 uniting1 dividing1 combining these elements2 and this marvellous industry1 the activity and utility of which elude our appreciation and even our imagination1 has yet no value4 ,value makes its appearance at the first intervention of the labour of man1 who has1 in this1 more perhaps than in the other instance we have given1 a supplementary labour to perform1 in order to complete what nature has begun4 ,to direct these natural forces1 and remove the obstacles which impede their action1 man takes possession of an instrument1 which is the soil1 and he does so without injury to anyone2 for this instrument had previously no value4 ,this is not a matter of argument1 but a matter of fact4 ,show me1 in any part of the world you choose1 land which has not been subjected directly or indirectly to human action1 and ,i will show you land destitute of value4#fa p#bge ,in the meantime1 the agriculturist1 in order to effect1 in conjunction with nature1 the production of corn1 executes two kinds of labour which are quite distinct4 ,the one kind is applicable directly and immediately to the crop of the year--is applicable only to that1 and must be paid for by that--such as sowing1 weeding1 reaping1 etc4 ,the other1 as building1 clearing1 draining1 enclosing1 is applicable to an indefinite series of crops1 and must be charged to and spread over a course of years1 and calculated according to the tables of interest and annuities4 ,the crops constitute the remuneration of the agriculturist if he consumes them himself4 ,if he exchanges them1 it is for services of another kind1 and the appreciation of the services so exchanged constitutes their value4 ,now it is easy to see that this class of permanent works executed by the agriculturist upon the land is a value which has not yet received its entire recompense1 but which cannot fail to receive it4 ,it cannot be supposed that he is to throw up his land and allow another to step into his shoes without compensation4 ,the value has been incorporated and mixed up with the soil1 and this is the reason why we can with propriety employ a metonymy and say the land has value4 ,it has value1 in fact1 because it can be no longer acquired without giving in exchange the equivalent for this labour4 ,but what ,i contend for is1 that this land1 on which its natural productive power had not originally conferred any value1 p#bgf has no value yet in this respect4 ,this natural power1 which was gratuitous then1 is gratuitous now1 and will be always gratuitous4 ,we may say1 indeed1 that the land has value1 but when we go to the root of the matter we find1 that what possesses value is the human labour which has improved the land1 and the capital which has been expended on it4 ,hence it is rigorously exact to say that the proprietor of the land is1 after all1 the proprietor only of a value which he has created1 of services which he has rendered2 and what property can be more legitimate8 ,it is property created at no one's expense1 and neither intercepts nor taxes the gifts of ,god4 ,nor is this all4 ,the capital which has been advanced1 and the interest of which is spread over the crop of successive years1 is so far from increasing the price of the produce1 and forming a burden on the consumers1 that the latter acquire agricultural products cheaper in proportion as this capital is augmented1 that is to say1 in proportion as the value of the soil is increased4 ,i have no doubt that this assertion will be thought paradoxical and tainted with exaggerated optimism1 so much have people been accustomed to regard the value of land as a calamity1 if not a piece of injustice4 ,for my own part1 ,i affirm1 that it is not enough to say that the value of the soil has been created at no one's expense2 it is not enough to say that it injures no one2 we should rather say that it benefits everybody4 ,it is not only legitimate1 but advantageous1 even to those who possess no property4 ,we have here1 in fact1 the phenomenon of our previous illustration reproduced4 ,we remarked that from the moment the water-carrier invented the barrow and the wheel1 the purchaser of the water had to pay for two kinds of labour3 #ast1 ,the labour employed in making the barrow and the wheel1 or rather the interest of the capital1 and an annual contribution to a sinking fund to replace that capital when worn out2 #b;d1 ,the direct labour which the water-carrier must still perform4 ,but it is equally true that these two kinds of labour united do not equal in amount the labour which had to be undergone before the invention4 ,why8 because a portion of the work has now been handed over to the gratuitous forces of nature4 ,it is1 indeed1 in consequence of this diminution of human labour that the invention has been called forth and adopted4 ,all this takes place in exactly the same way in the case of land and the production of corn4 ,as often as an agriculturist expends capital in permanent ameliorations1 it is certain that the successive crops are burdened with the interest of that capital4 ,but it is p#bgg equally certain that the other species of labour--rude1 unskilled1 present1 direct labour--is rendered unnecessary in a still greater proportion2 so that each crop is obtained by the proprietor1 and consequently by the consumer1 on easier terms1 on less onerous conditions--the proper action of capital consisting precisely in substituting natural and gratuitous co-operation for human labour which must be paid for4 ,here is an example of it4 ,in order to obtain a good crop1 it is necessary that the field should be freed from superfluous moisture4 ,suppose this species of labour to be still included in the first category4 ,suppose that the cultivator goes every morning with a jar to carry off the stagnant water where it is productive of injury4 ,it is clear that at the year's end the land would have acquired no additional value1 but the price of the grain would be enormously enhanced4 ,it would be the same in the case of all those who followed the same process while the art of draining was in this primitive state4 ,if the proprietor were to make a drain1 that moment the land would acquire value1 for this labour pertains to the second category--that which is incorporated with the land--and must be reimbursed by the products of consecutive years2 and no one could expect to acquire the land without recompensing this work4 ,is it not true1 however1 that it would tend to lower the value of the crop8 ,is it not true that although during the first year it exacted an extraordinary exertion1 it saves in the long-run more labour than it has occasioned8 ,is it not true that the draining thenceforth will be executed by the gratuitous law of hydrostatics more economically than it could be by muscular force8 ,is it not true that the purchasers of corn will benefit by this operation8 ,is it not true that they should esteem themselves fortunate in this new value acquired by the soil8 ,and1 having reference to more general considerations1 is it not true1 in fine1 that the value of the soil attests a progress realized1 not for the advantage of the proprietor only1 but for that of society at large8 ,how absurd1 then1 and suicidal in society to exclaim3 ,the additional price charged for corn1 to meet the interest of the capital expended on this drain1 and ultimately to replace that capital1 or its equivalent1 as represented in the value of the land1 is a privilege1 a monopoly1 a theft6 ,at this rate1 to cease to be a monopolist and a thief1 the proprietor should have only to fill up his drain and betake himself to his jar4 ,would the man who has no property1 and lives by wages1 be any gainer by that8 ,review all the permanent ameliorations of which the sum total makes up the value of land1 and you will find that to each of them p#bgh the same remark applies4 ,having filled up the drain1 demolish the fence1 and so force the agriculturist to mount guard upon his field2 destroy the well1 pull down the barn1 dig up the road1 burn the plough1 efface the levelling1 remove the artificial mould2 replace in the field the loose stones1 the weeds1 the roots of trees2 you will then have realized the ,utopia of ,equality4 ,the land1 and the human race along with it1 wall have reverted to the primitive state1 and will have no longer any value4 ,the crops will have no longer any connexion with capital4 ,their price will be freed from that accursed element called interest4 ,everything1 literally everything1 will be done by actual labour1 visible to the naked eye4 ,political ,economy will be much simplified4 ,our country will support a man to the square league4 ,the rest of her inhabitants will have died of hunger2--but then it can no longer be said that property is a monopoly1 an injustice1 and a theft4 ,let us not be insensible1 then1 to those economic harmonies which unfold themselves to our view more and more as we analyze the ideas of exchange1 of value1 of capital1 of interest1 of property1 of community4--,will it indeed be given me to describe the entire circle1 and complete the demonstration8--,but we have already1 perhaps1 advanced sufficiently far to be convinced that the social world1 not less than the material world1 bears the impress of a ,divine hand1 from which flows wisdom and goodness1 and towards which we should raise our eyes in gratitude and admiration4 ,i cannot forbear reverting here to the view of this subject taken by ,m4 ,considrant4 ,setting out with the proposition1 that the soil has a proper value1 independent of all human labour1 that it constitutes primitive and uncreated capital1 he concludes1 in perfect consistency with his own views1 that appropriation is usurpation4 ,this supposed iniquity leads him to indulge in violent tirades against the institutions of modern society4 ,on the other hand1 he allows that permanent ameliorations confer an additional value on this primitive capital1 an accessory so mixed up with the principal that we cannot separate them4 ,what are we to do1 then8 for we have here a total value composed of two elements1 of which one1 the fruit of labour1 is legitimate property2 and the other1 the gift of ,god1 appropriated by man1 is an iniquitous usurpation4 ,this is no trifling difficulty4 ,m4 ,considrant resolves it by reference to the ,right to ,employment ,droit au travail4 8,the development of ,mankind evidently demands that the ,soil shall not be left in its wild and uncultivated state4 ,the destiny of the human race is opposed to property in land retaining its rude and primitive form4 8,in the midst of forests and savannas1 the savage enjoys four natural rights1 p#bgi namely1 the rights of ,hunting1 of ,fishing1 of ,gathering the fruits1 of ,pasturing4 ,such is the primitive form of property in land4 8,in all civilized societies1 the working-classes1 the ,proltaires1 who inherit nothing and possess nothing1 are simply despoiled of these rights4 ,we cannot say that the primitive ,right has changed its form1 for it no longer exists4 ,the form and the substance have alike disappeared4 8,now in what ,form can such ,rights be reconciled with the conditions of an industrial ,society8 ,the answer is plain3 8,in the savage state1 in order to avail himself of his ,right1 man is obliged to act4 ,the labour of ,fishing1 of ,hunting1 of ,gathering1 of ,pasturing are the conditions of the exercise of his ,right4 ,the primitive ,right1 then1 is a ,right to engage in these employments4 8,very well1 let an industrial ,society1 which has appropriated the land1 and taken away from man the power of exercising freely and at will his four natural ,rights1 let this society cede to the individual1 in compensation for those ,rights1 of which it had despoiled him1 the ,right to ,employment4 ,on this principle1 rightly understood and applied1 the individual has no longer any reason to complain4 8,the condition sine qu non1 then1 of the ,legitimacy of ,property is1 that ,society should concede to the ,proltaire--the man who has no property--the ,right to ,employment2 and1 in exchange for a given exertion of activity1 assure him of means of subsistence1 at least as adequate as such exercise could have procured him in the primitive state40 ,i cannot1 without being guilty of tiresome repetition1 discuss this question with ,m4 ,considrant in all its bearings4 ,if ,i demonstrate1 that what he terms uncreated capital is no capital at all2 that what he terms the additional value of the soil1 is not an additional value1 but the total value2 he must acknowledge that his argument has fallen to pieces1 and1 with it1 all his complaints of the way in which mankind have judged it proper to live since the days of ,adam4 ,but this controversy would oblige me to repeat all that ,i have already said upon the essentially and indelibly gratuitous character of natural agents4 ,i shall only remark1 that if ,m4 ,considrant speaks in behalf of the non-proprietary class1 he is so very accommodating that they may think themselves betrayed4 ,what6 proprietors have usurped the soil1 and all the miracles of vegetation which it displays6 they have usurped the sun1 the rain1 the dew1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and azote1 so far at least as these co-operate in the production of agricultural products--and you ask them to assure to the man who has no property1 as a compensation1 at least as much of the means of subsistence1 in exchange for a given exertion of activity1 as that exertion could have procured him in the primitive and savage state6 ,but do you not see that landed property has not waited for your injunctions in order to be a million times more generous8 for to what is your demand limited8 ,in the primitive state1 your four rights of fishing1 hunting1 gathering the fruits1 and pasturing1 maintain in existence1 or rather in a state of vegetation1 amid all the horrors of destitution1 nearly one man to the square league of territory4 ,the usurpation of the p#bhj land will then be legitimate1 according to you1 when those who have been guilty of that usurpation support one man for every square league1 exacting from him at the same time as much activity as is displayed by a ,huron or an ,iroquois4 ,pray remark1 that ,france consists of only thirty thousand square leagues2 that consequently1 if its whole territory supports thirty thousand inhabitants in that condition of existence which the savage state affords1 you renounce in behalf of the non-proprietary class all farther demands upon property4 ,now1 there are thirty millions of ,frenchmen who have not an inch of land1 and among the number we meet with many--the president of the republic1 ministers1 magistrates1 bankers1 merchants1 notaries1 advocates1 physicians1 brokers1 soldiers1 sailors1 professors1 journalists1 etc4--who would certainly not be disposed to exchange their condition for that of an ,ioway4 ,landed property1 then1 must do much more for us than you exact from it4 ,you demand from it the ,right to ,employment1 up to a certain point--that is to say1 until it yields to the masses--and in exchange for a given amount of labour1 too--as much subsistence as they could earn in a state of barbarism4 ,landed property does much more than that--it gives more than the ,right to employment--it gives ,employment itself1 and did it only clear the land-tax1 it would do a hundred times more than you ask it to do4 ,i find to my great regret that ,i have not yet done with landed property and its value4 ,i have still to state1 and to refute1 in as few words as possible1 an objection which is specious and even formidable4 ,it is said1 8,your theory is contradicted by facts4 ,undoubtedly1 as long as there is in a country abundance of uncultivated land1 the existence of such land will of itself hinder the cultivated land from acquiring an undue value4 ,it is also beyond doubt1 that even when all the land has passed into the appropriated domain1 if neighbouring nations have extensive tracts ready for the plough1 freedom of trade is sufficient to restrain the value of landed property within just limits4 ,in these two cases it would seem that the ,price of land can only represent the capital advanced1 and the ,rent of land the interest of that capital4 ,whence we must conclude1 as you do1 that the proper action of the soil and the intervention of natural agents1 going for nothing1 and not influencing the value of the crops1 remain gratuitous1 and therefore common4 ,all this is specious4 ,we may have difficulty in discovering the error1 and yet this reasoning is erroneous4 ,in order to be convinced of it1 it p#bha is sufficient to point to the fact1 that there are in ,france cultivated lands which are worth from #ajj francs to #fjjj francs the hectare1 an enormous difference1 which is much easier explained by the difference of fertility than by the difference of the anterior labour applied to these lands4 ,it is vain to deny1 then1 that fertility has its own value1 for not a sale takes place which does not attest it4 ,every one who purchases a land estate examines its quality1 and pays for it accordingly4 ,if1 of two properties which lie alongside each other1 the one consists of a rich alluvium1 and the other of barren sand1 the first is surely of more value than the second1 although both may have absorbed the same capital1 and to say truth1 the purchaser gives himself no trouble on that score4 ,his attention is fixed upon the future1 and not upon the past4 ,what he looks at is not what the land has cost1 but what it will yield1 and he knows that its yield will be in proportion to its fertility4 ,then this fertility has a proper and intrinsic value which is independent of all human labour4 ,to maintain the contrary is to endeavour to base the legitimacy of individual appropriation on a subtilty1 or rather on a paradox40 ,let us inquire1 then1 what is the true foundation of the value of land4 ,i pray the reader not to forget that this question is of grave importance at the present moment4 ,hitherto it has been neglected or glossed over by ,economists1 as a question of mere curiosity4 ,the legitimacy of individual appropriation was not formerly contested1 but this is no longer the case4 ,theories which have obtained but too much success have created doubts in the minds of our best thinkers on the institution of property4 ,and upon what do the authors of these theories found their complaints8 ,why1 exactly upon the assertion contained in the objection which ,i have just explained--upon the fact1 unfortunately admitted by all schools1 that the soil1 by reason of its fertility1 possesses an inherent value communicated to it by nature and not by human means4 ,now value is not transferred gratuitously4 ,the very word excludes the idea of gratuitousness4 ,we say to the proprietor1 then--you demand from me a value which is the fruit of my labour1 and you offer me in exchange a value which is not the fruit of your labour1 or of any labour1 but of the liberality of nature4 ,be assured that this would be a fearful complaint were it well founded4 ,it did not originate with ,messieurs ,considrant and ,proudhon4 ,we find it in the works of ,smith1 of ,ricardo1 of ,senior1 of all the ,economists without exception1 not as a theory p#bhb merely1 but as a subject of complaint4 ,these authors have not only attributed to the soil an extra-human value1 they have boldly deduced the consequence1 and branded landed property as a privilege1 a monopoly1 a usurpation4 ,no doubt1 after thus branding it1 they have defended it on the plea of necessity4 ,but what does such a defence amount to1 but an error of reasoning which the ,communist logicians have lost no time in rectifying8 ,it is not1 then1 to indulge an unhappy love for subtilties that ,i enter on this delicate subject4 ,i should have wished to save both the reader and myself the ennui which even now ,i feel hovering over the conclusion of this chapter4 ,the answer to the objection now under consideration is to be found in the theory of ,value1 explained in the fifth chapter of this work4 ,i there said that value does not essentially imply labour2 still less is it necessarily proportionate to labour4 ,i have shown that the foundation of value is not so much the pains taken by the person who transfers it as the pains saved to the person who receives it2 and it is for that reason that ,i have made it to reside in something which embraces these two elements--in service4 ,i have said that a person may render a great service with very little effort1 or that with a great effort one may render a very trifling service4 ,the sole result is1 that labour does not obtain necessarily a remuneration which is always in proportion to its intensity1 in the case either of man in an isolated condition1 or of man in the social state4 ,value is determined by a bargain between two contracting parties4 ,in making that bargain1 each has his own views4 ,you offer to sell me corn4 ,what matters it to me the time and pains it may have cost you to produce it8 ,what ,i am concerned about is the time and pains it would have cost me to procure it from another quarter4 ,the knowledge you have of my situation may render you more or less exacting2 the knowledge ,i have of yours may render me more or less anxious to make the purchase4 ,there is no necessary measure1 then1 of the recompense which you are to derive from your labour4 ,that depends upon the circumstances1 and the value which these circumstances confer upon the two services which we are desirous to exchange4 ,by-and-by we shall call attention to an external force called ,competition1 whose mission is to regulate values1 and render them more and more proportional to efforts4 ,still this proportion is not of the essence of value1 seeing that the proportion is established under the pressure of a contingent fact4 ,keeping this in view1 ,i maintain that the value of land arises1 fluctuates1 and is determined1 like that of gold1 iron1 water1 the p#bhc lawyer's advice1 the physician's consultation1 the singer's or dancer's performance1 the artist's picture--in short1 like all other values2 that it is subject to no exceptional laws2 that it constitutes a property the same in origin1 the same in nature1 and as legitimate1 as any other property4 ,but it does not at all follow1 as you must now see1 that1 of two exertions of labour applied to the soil1 one should not be much better remunerated than the other4 ,let us revert again to that industry1 the most simple of all1 and the best fitted to show us the delicate point which separates the onerous labour of man from the gratuitous co-operation of nature4 ,i allude to the humble industry of the water-carrier4 ,a man procures and brings home a barrel of water4 ,does he become possessed of a value necessarily proportionate to his labour8 ,in that case1 the value would be independent of the service the water may render4 ,nay more1 it would be fixed2 for the labour1 once over1 is no longer susceptible of increase or diminution4 ,well1 the day after he procures and brings home this barrel of water1 it may lose its value1 if1 for example1 it has rained during the night4 ,in that case every one is provided--the water can render no service1 and is no longer wanted4 ,in economic language1 it has ceased to be in demand4 ,on the other hand1 it may acquire considerable value1 if extraordinary wants1 unforeseen and pressing1 come to manifest themselves4 ,what is the consequence8 that man1 working for the future1 is not exactly aware beforehand what value the future will attach to his labour4 ,value incorporated in a material object will be higher or lower1 according as it renders more or less service1 or1 to express it more clearly1 human labour1 which is the source of value1 receives according to circumstances a higher or lower remuneration4 ,such eventualities are an exercise for foresight1 and foresight also has a right to remuneration4 ,but what connexion is there1 ,i would ask1 between these fluctuations of value1 between these variations in the recompense of labour1 and that marvellous natural industry1 those admirable physical laws1 which without our participation have brought the water of the ocean to the spring8 ,because the value of this barrel of water varies according to circumstances1 are we to conclude that nature charges sometimes more1 sometimes less1 sometimes nothing at all1 for evaporation1 for carrying the clouds from the ocean to the mountains1 for freezing1 melting1 and the whole of that admirable industry which supplies the spring8 p#bhd ,it is exactly the same thing in the case of agricultural products4 ,the value of the soil1 or rather of the capital applied to the soil1 is made up not of one element but of two4 ,it depends not only on the labour which has been employed1 but also on the ability which society possesses to remunerate that labour--on ,demand as well as on ,supply4 ,take the case of a field4 ,not a year passes1 perhaps1 in which there is not some labour bestowed upon it1 the effects of which are permanent1 and of course an increase of value is the result4 ,roads of access1 besides1 are improved and made more direct1 the security of person and property becomes more complete1 markets are extended1 population increases in number and in wealth--different systems of culture are introduced1 and a new career is opened to intelligence and skill2 the effect of this change of medium1 of this general prosperity1 being to confer additional value on both the present and the anterior labour1 and consequently on the field4 ,there is here no injustice1 no exception in favour of landed property4 ,no species of labour1 from that of the banker to that of the day-labourer1 fails to exhibit the same phenomenon4 ,no one fails to see his remuneration improved by the improvement of the society in which his work is carried on4 ,this action and reaction of the prosperity of each on the prosperity of all1 and vice versa1 is the very law of value4 ,so false is the conclusion which imputes to the soil and its productive powers an imaginary value1 that intellectual labour1 professions and trades which have no connexion with matter or the co-operation of physical laws1 enjoy the same advantage1 which in fact is not exceptional but universal4 ,the lawyer1 the physician1 the professor1 the artist1 the poet1 receive a higher remuneration for an equal amount of labour1 in proportion as the town or country to which they belong increases in wealth and prosperity1 in proportion as the taste or demand for their services becomes more generally diffused1 in proportion as the public is more able and more willing to remunerate them4 ,the acquisition of clients and customers is regulated by this principle4 ,it is still more apparent in the case of the ,basque ,giant and ,tom ,thumb1 who lived by the simple exhibition of their exceptional stature1 and reap a much better harvest1 from the curiosity of the numerous and wealthy crowds of our large towns1 than from that of a few poor and straggling villagers4 ,in this case1 demand not only enhances value1 it creates it4 ,why1 then1 should we think it exceptional or unjust that demand should also exert an influence on the value of land and of agricultural products8 p#bhe ,is it alleged that land may thus attain an exaggerated value8 ,they who say so have never reflected on the immense amount of labour which arable land has absorbed4 ,i dare affirm1 that there is not a field in this country which is worth what it has cost1 which could be exchanged for as much labour as has been expended in bringing it to its present state of productiveness4 ,if this observation is well founded1 it is conclusive4 ,it frees landed property from the slightest taint of injustice4 ,for this reason1 ,i shall return to the subject when ,i come to examine ,ricardo's theory of ,rent1 and ,i shall show that we must apply to agricultural capital the law which ,i have stated in these terms3 ,in proportion as capital increases1 products are divided between capitalists or proprietors and labourers1 in such a way that the relative share of the former goes on continually diminishing1 although their absolute share is increased1 whilst the share of the latter is increased both absolutely and relatively4 ,the illusion which has induced men to believe that the productive powers of the soil have an independent value1 because they possess ,utility1 has led to many errors and catastrophes4 ,it has driven them frequently to the premature establishment of colonies1 the history of which is nothing else than a lamentable martyrology4 ,they have reasoned in this way3 ,in our own country we can obtain value only by labour1 and when we have done our work1 we have obtained a value which is only proportionate to our labour4 ,if we emigrate to ,guiana1 to the banks of the ,mississippi1 to ,australia1 to ,africa1 we shall obtain possession of vast territories1 uncultivated but fertile2 and our reward will be1 that we shall become possessed not of the value we have created1 but also of the inherent and independent value of the land we may reclaim4 ,they set out1 and a cruel experience soon confirms the truth of the theory which ,i am now explaining4 ,they labour1 they clear1 they exhaust themselves2 they are exposed to privations1 to sufferings1 to diseases2 and then if they wish to dispose of the land which they have rendered fit for production1 they cannot obtain for it what it has cost them1 and they are forced to acknowledge that value is of human creation4 ,i defy you to give me an instance of the establishment of a colony which has not at the beginning been attended with disaster4 8,upwards of a thousand labourers were sent out to the ,swan ,river ,colony2 but the extreme cheapness of land 7eighteenpence1 or less than two francs1 an acre7 and the extravagant rate of wages1 afforded them such facilities and inducements to become landowners1 that capitalists could no longer get any one to cultivate their lands4 ,a capital of #bjj1jjj 7five millions of francs7 was lost in consequence1 and the colony became a scene of desolation4 ,the labourers having left their employers from the delusive desire to become landowners1 agricultural implements were allowed to rust--seeds rotted--and sheep1 cattle1 and horses perished for want of attention4 ,a frightful famine p#bhf cured the labourers of their infatuation1 and they returned to ask employment from the capitalists2 but it was too late40--,proceedings of the ,south ,australian ,association4 ,the association1 attributing this disaster to the cheapness of land1 raised its price to #abs4 an acre4 ,but1 adds ,carey1 from whom ,i borrow this quotation1 the real cause was1 that the labourers1 being persuaded that land possesses an inherent value1 apart from the labour bestowed on it1 were anxious to exercise 8the power of appropriation10 to which the power to demand ,rent is attributed4 ,what follows supplies us with an argument still more conclusive3 8,in #ahcf1 the landed estates in the colony of ,swan ,river were to be purchased from the original settlers at one shilling an acre40--,new ,monthly ,magazine4 ,thus the land which was sold by the company at #abs4--upon which the settlers had bestowed much labour and money--was disposed of by them at one shilling6 ,what then became of the value of the natural and indestructible productive powers of the soil8#fb ,i feel that the vast and important subject of the ,value of ,land has not been exhausted in this chapter1 written by snatches and amid many distractions4 ,i shall return to it hereafter2 but in the meantime ,i cannot resist submitting one observation to my readers1 and more especially to ,economists4 ,the illustrious savants who have done so much to advance the science1 whose lives and writings breathe benevolence and philanthropy1 and who have disclosed to us1 at least in a certain aspect1 and within the limits of their researches1 the true solution of the social problem--the ,quesnays1 the ,turgots1 the ,smiths1 the ,malthuses1 the ,says--have not however escaped1 ,i do not say from refutation1 for that is always legitimate1 but from calumny1 disparagement1 and insult4 ,to attack their writings1 and even their motives1 has become fashionable4 ,it may be said1 perhaps1 that in this chapter ,i am furnishing arms to their detractors1 and truly the moment would be ill chosen for me to turn against those whom ,i candidly acknowledge as my initiators1 my masters1 and my guides4 ,but supreme homage is1 after all1 due to ,truth1 or what ,i regard as ,truth4 ,no book was ever written without some admixture of error4 ,now1 a single error in ,political ,economy1 if we press it1 torture it1 deduce from it rigorously its logical consequences1 involves all kinds of errors--in fact1 lands us in chaos4 ,there never was a book from which we could not extract one proposition1 isolated1 incomplete1 false1 including consequently a whole world p#bhg of errors and confusion4 ,in my conscience1 ,i believe that the definition which the ,economists have given of the word ,value is of this number4 ,we have just seen that this definition has led them to cast a serious doubt on the legitimacy of property in land1 and1 by consequence1 in capital2 and they have only been stopped short on this fatal road by an inconsistency4 ,this inconsistency has saved them4 ,they have resumed their march on the road of ,truth2 and their error1 if it be one1 is1 in their works1 an isolated blot4 ,then the ,socialists have come to lay hold of this false definition1 not to refute it1 but to adopt it1 strengthen it1 make it the foundation of their propaganda1 and deduce from it all its consequences4 ,hence has arisen in our day an imminent social danger2 and it is for that reason that ,i have thought it my duty to be explicit on this subject1 and trace the erroneous theory to its source4 ,if you conclude that ,i have separated myself from my masters ,smith and ,say1 from my friends ,blanqui and ,garnier1 because1 by an oversight in their learned and admirable works1 they have made1 as ,i think1 an erroneous application of the word value2 if you conclude from this that ,i have no longer faith in ,political ,economy and ,political ,economists1 ,i can only protest1 and appeal to the very title of the present volume4 p#bhh ,x4 ,,competition4 ,there is not in the whole vocabulary of ,political ,economy a word which has roused the fury of modern reformers so much as the word ,competition1 which1 in order to render it the more odious1 they never fail to couple with the epithet anarchical4 ,what is the meaning of anarchical competition8 ,i really don't know4 ,what could we substitute for it8 ,i am equally ignorant4 ,i hear people1 indeed1 calling out ,organization6 ,association6 ,what does that mean8 ,let us come to an understanding1 once for all4 ,i desire to know what sort of authority these writers intend to exercise over me1 and all other living men2 for ,i acknowledge only one species of authority1 that of reason1 if indeed they have it on their side4 ,is it their wish then to deprive me of the right of exercising my judgment on what concerns my own subsistence8 ,is their object to take from me the power of comparing the services which ,i render with those which ,i receive8 ,do they mean that ,i should act under the influence of restraint1 exerted over me by them and not by my own intelligence8 ,if they leave me my liberty1 ,competition remains4 ,if they deprive me of freedom1 ,i am their slave4 ,association will be free and voluntary1 they say4 ,be it so4 ,but then each group of associates will1 as regards all other groups1 be just what individuals now are in relation to each other1 and we shall still have ,competition4 ,the association will be integral4 ,a good joke truly4 ,what6 ,anarchical ,competition is now desolating society1 and we must wait for a remedy1 until1 by dint of your persuasion1 all the nations of the earth--,frenchmen1 ,englishmen1 ,chinese1 ,japanese1 ,caffres1 ,hottentots1 ,laplanders1 ,cossacks1 ,patagonians--make up their minds to unite in one of the forms of association which you have devised8 ,why1 this is just to avow that competition is indestructible2 and will you venture to say that a phenomenon which p#bhi is indestructible1 and consequently providential1 can be mischievous8 ,after all1 what is ,competition8 ,is it a thing which exists and is self-acting like the cholera8 ,no1 ,competition is only the absence of constraint4 ,in what concerns my own interest1 ,i desire to choose for myself1 not that another should choose for me1 or in spite of me--that is all4 ,and if any one pretends to substitute his judgment for mine in what concerns me1 ,i should ask to substitute mine for his in what concerns him4 ,what guarantee have we that things would go on better in this way8 ,it is evident that ,competition is ,liberty4 ,to take away the liberty of acting is to destroy the possibility1 and consequently the power1 of choosing1 of judging1 of comparing2 it is to annihilate intelligence1 to annihilate thought1 to annihilate man4 ,from whatever quarter they set out1 to this point all modern reformers tend--to ameliorate society they begin by annihilating the individual1 under the pretext that all evils come from this source--as if all good did not come from it too4 ,we have seen that services are exchanged for services4 ,in reality1 every man comes into the world charged with the responsibility of providing for his satisfactions by his efforts4 ,when another man saves us an effort1 we ought to save him an effort in return4 ,he imparts to us a satisfaction resulting from his effort2 we ought to do the same for him4 ,but who is to make the comparison8 for between these efforts1 these pains1 these services exchanged1 there is necessarily a comparison to be made1 in order to arrive at equivalence1 at justice2--unless indeed injustice1 inequality1 chance1 is to be our rule1 which would just be another way of putting human intelligence hors de cause4 ,we must1 then1 have a judge2 and who is this judge to be8 ,is it not quite natural that in every case wants should be judged of by those who experience them1 satisfactions by those who seek them1 efforts by those who exchange them8 ,and is it seriously proposed to substitute for this universal vigilance of the parties interested1 a social authority 7suppose that of the reformer himself71 charged with determining in all parts of the world the delicate conditions of these countless acts of interchange8 ,do you not see that this would be to set up the most fallible1 the most universal1 the most arbitrary1 the most inquisitorial1 the most insupportable--we are fortunately able to add1 the most impossible--of all despotisms ever conceived in the brain of pasha or mufti8 ,it is sufficient to know that ,competition is nothing else than p#bij the absence of an arbitrary authority as judge of exchanges1 in order to be satisfied that it is indestructible4 ,illegitimate force may no doubt restrain1 counteract1 trammel the liberty of exchanging1 as it may the liberty of walking2 but it can annihilate neither the one nor the other without annihilating man4 ,this being so1 it remains for us to inquire whether ,competition tends to the happiness or misery of mankind2 a question which amounts to this1--,is the human race naturally progressive1 or are its tendencies fatally retrograde8 ,i hesitate not to say that ,competition1 which1 indeed1 we might denominate ,liberty1 despite the repulsion which it excites1 despite the declamations to which it has given rise1 is a law which is democratical in its essence4 ,of all the laws to which ,providence has confided the progress of human society1 it is the most progressive1 levelling1 and communautaire4 ,it is this law which brings successively into the common domain the use and enjoyment of commodities which nature has accorded gratuitously only to certain countries4 ,it is this law1 again1 which brings into the common domain all the conquests which the genius of each age bequeaths to succeeding generations1 leaving them only supplementary labours to execute1 which last they continue to exchange with one another1 without succeeding1 as they desire1 in obtaining a recompense for the co-operation of natural agents2 and if these labours1 as happens always in the beginning1 possess a value which is not proportionate to their intensity1 it is still ,competition which1 by its incessant but unperceived action1 restores an equilibrium which is sanctioned by justice1 and which is more exact than any that the fallible sagacity of a human magistracy could by possibility establish4 ,far from ,competition leading to inequality1 as has been erroneously alleged1 we may assert that all factitious inequality is imputable to its absence2 and if the gulf between the ,grand ,lama and a ,paria is more profound than that which separates the ,president from an artisan of the ,united ,states1 the reason is this1 that ,competition 7or ,liberty71 which is curbed and put down in ,asia1 is not so in ,america4 ,this is the reason why1 whilst the ,socialists see in ,competition the source of all that is evil1 we trace to the attacks which have been made upon it the disturbance of all that is good4 ,although this great law has been misunderstood by the ,socialists and their adepts2 although it is frequently harsh in its operation1 no law is more fertile in social harmonies1 more beneficent in general results2 no law attests more brilliantly the measureless superiority of the designs of ,god over the vain and powerless combinations of men4 p#bia ,i must here remind the reader of that singular but unquestionable result of the social order to which ,i have already invited his attention1#fc and which the power of habit hides too frequently from our view4 ,it is this1 that the sum total of satisfactions which falls to each member of society is much superior to those which he could procure for himself by his own efforts4 ,in other words1 there is an evident disproportion between our consumption and our labour4 ,this phenomenon1 which all of us can easily verify1 if we turn our regards upon ourselves1 ought1 it seems to me1 to inspire some gratitude to society1 to which we owe it4 ,we come into this world destitute of everything1 tormented with numerous wants1 and provided with nothing but faculties to enable us to struggle against them4 ,a priori1 it would seem that all we could expect would be to obtain satisfactions proportionate to our labour4 ,if we obtain more1 infinitely more1 to what do we owe the excess8 ,precisely to that natural organization against which we are constantly declaiming1 when we are not engaged in seeking to subvert it4 ,in itself the phenomenon is truly extraordinary4 ,that certain men consume more than they produce is easily explained1 if in one way or other they usurp the rights of other people--if they receive services without rendering them4 ,but how can that be true of all men at the same time8 ,how happens it that1 after having exchanged their services without constraint1 without spoliation1 upon a footing of equivalence1 each man can say to himself with truth1 ,i consume in a day more than ,i could produce in a century8 ,the reader has seen that the additional element which resolves the problem is the co-operation of natural agents1 constantly becoming more and more effective in the work of production2 it is gratuitous utility falling continually into the domain of ,community2 it is the labour of heat and of cold1 of light1 of gravitation1 of affinity1 of elasticity1 coming progressively to be added to the labour of man1 diminishing the value of services by rendering them more easy4 ,i must have but feebly explained the theory of value if the reader imagines that value diminishes immediately and of its own accord1 by the simple fact of the co-operation of natural forces1 and the relief thereby afforded to human labour4 ,it is not so2 for then we might say with the ,english ,economists that value is proportional to labour4 ,the man who is aided by a natural and gratuitous force renders his services more easily2 but he does not p#bib on that account renounce voluntarily any portion whatever of his accustomed remuneration4 ,to induce him to do that1 external coercion--pressure from without--severe but not unjust pressure--is necessary4 ,it is ,competition which exerts this pressure4 ,as long as ,competition does not intervene1 as long as the man who has availed himself of a natural agent preserves his secret1 that natural agent is gratuitous1 but it is not yet common4 ,the victory has been gained1 but to the profit only of a single man1 or a single class4 ,it is not yet a benefit to mankind at large4 ,no change has yet taken place1 except that one description of services1 although partly relieved from the pain of muscular exertion1 still exacts all its former remuneration4 ,we have1 on the one hand1 a man who exacts from all his fellows the same amount of labour as formerly1 although he offers them a limited amount of his own labour in return4 ,on the other1 we have mankind at large1 who are still obliged to make the same sacrifice of time and of labour in order to obtain a product now realized in part by nature4 ,were things to remain in this state1 a principle of indefinite inequality would be introduced into the world with every new invention4 ,not only could we not say that value is proportional to labour2 we could not even say that value tends to become proportional to labour4 ,all that we have said in the preceding chapters about gratuitous utility and progressive community would be chimerical4 ,it would not be true that services are exchanged against services1 in such a way that the gifts of ,god are transferred gratuitously from one man to another1 down to the ultimate recipient1 who is the consumer4 ,each would continue to be paid1 not only for his labour1 but for the natural forces which he had once succeeded in setting to work2 in a word1 society would be constituted on the principle of universal ,monopoly1 in place of on the principle of progressive ,community4 ,but it is not so4 ,god1 who has bestowed on all ,his creatures heat1 light1 gravitation1 air1 water1 the soil1 the marvels of vegetable life1 electricity1 and countless other benefits which it is beyond my power to enumerate1--,god1 who has placed in the human breast the feeling of personal interest1 which1 like a magnet1 attracts everything to itself1--,god1 ,i say1 has placed also in the bosom of society another spring of action1 which ,he has charged with the care of preserving to ,his benefits their original destination1 which was1 that they should be gratuitous and common4 ,this spring of action is ,competition4 ,thus1 ,personal ,interest is that irrepressible force belonging to the individual which urges us on to progress and discovery1 which p#bic spurs us on to exertion1 but leads also to monopoly4 ,competition is that force belonging to the species which is not less irrepressible1 and which snatches progress1 as it is realized1 from individual hands1 and makes it the common inheritance of the great family of mankind4 ,these two forces1 in each of which1 considered individually1 we might find something to blame1 thus constitute social ,harmony1 by the play of their combinations1 when regarded in conjunction4 ,and we may remark1 in passing1 that we ought not to be at all surprised that the individual interests of men1 considered as producers1 should from the beginning have risen up against ,competition1 should have rebuked it1 and sought to destroy it--calling in for this purpose the assistance of force1 fraud1 privilege1 sophistry1 monopoly1 restriction1 legislative protection1 etc4 ,the morality of the means shows us clearly enough the morality of the end4 ,but the astonishing and melancholy thing is1 that science herself--false science1 it is true--propagated with so much zeal by the socialist schools1 in the name of philanthropy1 equality1 and fraternity1 should have espoused the cause of ,individualism1 in its narrowest and most exclusive manifestation1 and should have deserted the cause of humanity4 ,let us see now how ,competition acts3-- ,man1 under the influence of self-interest1 is always1 and necessarily1 on the outlook for such circumstances as may give the greatest value to his services4 ,he is not long in discovering that1 as regards the gifts of ,god1 he may be favoured in three ways3 #a4 ,he may appropriate to his own exclusive use these gifts themselves2 or1 #b4 ,he may alone know the process by which they can be made useful2 or1 #c4 ,he alone may possess the instrument by means of which their co-operation in the work of production can be secured4 ,in any of these cases1 he gives little of his own labour in exchange for much of the labour of other men4 ,his services have a high relative value1 and we are led to believe that this excess of value resides in the natural agent4 ,if it were so1 this value would not be subject to fall4 ,now1 what proves that the value is in the service is1 that we find ,competition diminishing both value and service simultaneously4 #a4 ,natural agents--the gifts of ,god--are not distributed uniformly over the different countries of the world4 ,what an infinite variety of vegetable productions are spread over the wide range p#bid extending from the region of the pine to the region of the palm tree6 ,here the soil is more productive1 there the heat is more vivifying4 ,in one quarter we meet with stone1 in another with lime1 in another with iron1 copper1 or coal4 ,water-power is not to be found everywhere1 nor can we everywhere avail ourselves to an equal extent of the power of the winds4 ,distance1 from the objects we find essential1 of itself makes a vast difference in the obstacles which our efforts encounter4 ,even the human faculties vary in some measure with climate and races4 ,it is easy to see that1 but for the law of ,competition1 this inequality in the distribution of the gifts of ,god would lead to a corresponding inequality in the condition of men4 ,whoever happened to have within reach a natural advantage would profit by it1 but his fellow-men would not4 ,he would not permit other men to participate in it through his instrumentality1 without stipulating an excessive remuneration1 the amount of which he would have the power of fixing arbitrarily4 ,he could attach to his services any value he pleased4 ,we have seen that the extreme limits between which it must be determined are1 the pains taken by the man who renders the service and the pains saved to the man who receives it4 ,competition alone hinders its being always raised to the maximum4 ,the inhabitant of the tropics1 for example1 would say to the ,european--8,thanks to the sun's rays1 ,i can1 with labour equal to ten1 procure a given quantity of sugar1 coffee1 cocoa1 or cotton1 whilst you1 obliged in your cold climate to have recourse to hot-houses1 stoves1 and shelter1 cannot obtain the same quantity but with labour equal to a hundred4 ,you wish to obtain my coffee1 sugar1 or cotton1 and you would not be sorry were ,i to take into account in the transaction only the pains which ,i have taken1 the labour ,i have expended4 ,but what ,i regard principally is the pains1 the labour1 ,i have saved you2 for1 aware that that is the limit of your resistance1 ,i make it the limit of my exaction4 ,as what ,i produce with an amount of labour equal to ten1 you could produce only with labour equal to a hundred1 were ,i to demand in exchange for my sugar a commodity which cost you labour equal to #aja1 you would certainly refuse2 but all that ,i ask is labour equal to #ii4 ,you may higgle and look gruff for a little1 but you will come to my terms2 for at this rate you have still an advantage by the exchange4 ,you think these terms unfair2 but1 after all1 it is not to you but to me that ,god has vouchsafed the advantage of a higher temperature4 ,i know that ,i am in a position to take advantage of this gift of ,providence1 by depriving you of it unless you pay me a tax1 for p#bie ,i have no competitors4 ,here1 then1 are my sugar1 my cocoa1 my coffee1 my cotton--take them on the conditions ,i impose--or raise them for yourself--or do without them40 ,it is true that the ,european might hold to the inhabitant of the tropics some such language as this3 8,turn over your soil1 dig pits1 search for iron and coal1 and felicitate yourself if you find any2 for if not1 it is my determination to push my exactions to an extreme also4 ,god has vouchsafed to us both precious gifts4 ,we appropriate as much of them as we require1 but we will not suffer others to touch them without paying us a tax40 ,even if things took place in this way1 scientific exactness would not allow us to attribute to natural agents that ,value which resides only in services4 ,but the error would be harmless1 for the result would be absolutely the same4 ,services would still be exchanged against services1 but they would exhibit no tendency to conform to efforts1 or labour1 as a measure4 ,the gifts of ,god would be personal privileges1 not common benefits2 and we might perhaps have some reason to complain that the ,author of things had treated us in a way so incurably unequal4 ,should we1 then1 be brethren8 ,could we regard ourselves as the children of a common ,father8 ,the absence of ,competition1 that is to say of ,liberty1 would in the first instance be an insuperable bar to ,equality4 ,the absence of ,equality would exclude all idea of ,fraternity--and nothing of the republican motto#fd would then be left4 ,but let ,competition be introduced1 and we shall see it instantly present an insuperable barrier to all such leonine bargains1 to all such forestalling of the gifts of ,god1 to all such revolting pretensions in the appreciation of services1 to all such inequalities with efforts exchanged4 ,and let us remark1 first of all1 that ,competition acts forcibly1 called forth as it is by these very inequalities4 ,labour betakes itself instinctively to the quarter where it is best remunerated1 and never fails to put an end to this exceptional advantage1 so that ,inequality is only a spur which urges us on in spite of ourselves towards ,equality4 ,it is in truth one of the most beautiful final intentions observable in the social mechanism4 ,infinite ,goodness1 which manifests beneficence everywhere1 would seem to have made choice of the avaricious producer in order to effect an equitable distribution among all2 and truly it is a marvellous sight this1 of self-interest realizing continually what it ever desires to avoid4 ,man1 as a producer1 is necessarily1 inevitably1 attracted by p#bif excessive returns1 which he thus reduces to the ordinary rate4 ,he pursues his own interest2 and without knowing it1 without wishing it1 without seeking it1 he promotes the general good4 ,thus1 to recur to our former example1 the inhabitant of the tropics1 trafficking in the gifts of ,god1 realizes an excessive remuneration1 and by that very means brings down upon himself ,competition4 ,human labour exerts itself in proportion to the magnitude of the inequality1 if ,i may use the expression1 and never rests until that inequality is effaced4 ,under the action of ,competition1 we see the tropical labour1 which was equal to ten1 exchanged successively for ,european labour equal to #hj1 #ej1 #dj1 #bj1 and finally to #aj4 ,under the empire of the natural laws of society1 there is no reason why this should not take place2 that is to say1 there is no reason why services exchanged should not be measured by the labour performed1 the pains taken1--the gifts of ,god on both sides being gratuitous and into the bargain4 ,we have only to consider1 in order to appreciate and bless the revolution which is thus effected4 ,in the first instance1 the labour undergone on both sides is equal1 and this satisfies the human mind1 which always desires justice4 ,then what has become of the gift of ,god8 ,attend to this1 reader4 ,no one has been deprived of it4 ,in this respect we have not allowed ourselves to be imposed upon by the clamours of the tropical producer4 ,the ,brazilian1 in as far as he is himself a consumer of sugar1 or cotton1 or coffee1 never ceases to profit by the sun's rays--his good fortune does not cease to aid him in the work of production4 ,what he has lost is only the unjust power of levying a tax upon the consumption of the inhabitants of ,europe4 ,the beneficence of ,providence1 because gratuitous1 has become1 as it ought to become1 common2 for common and gratuitous are in reality the same thing4 ,the gift of ,god has become common--and the reader will observe that ,i avail myself here of a special fact to elucidate a phenomenon which is universal--this gift1 ,i say1 has become common to all4 ,this is not declamation1 but the expression of a truth which is demonstrable4 ,why has this beautiful phenomenon been misunderstood8 ,because community is realized under the form of value annihilated1 and the mind with difficulty lays hold of negations4 ,but ,i ask1 ,is it not true that when1 in order to obtain a certain quantity of sugar1 coffee1 or cotton1 ,i give only one-tenth of the labour which ,i should find it necessary to expend in producing the commodity myself1 and this because the ,brazilian sun performs the other nine-tenths of the work1--,is it not true1 ,i say1 that in that case ,i still exchange labour for labour1 and p#big really and truly obtain1 over and above the ,brazilian labour1 and into the bargain1 the co-operation of the climate of the tropics8 ,can ,i not affirm with rigorous exactitude that ,i have become1 that all men have become1 in the same way as the ,indians and ,americans1 that is to say gratuitously1 participators in the liberality of nature1 so far as the commodities in question are concerned8 ,england possesses productive coal mines4 ,that is no doubt a great local advantage1 more especially if we suppose1 as ,i shall do for the sake of argument1 that the ,continent possesses no coal mines4 ,apart from the consideration of exchange1 the advantage which this gives to the people of ,england is the possession of fuel in greater abundance than other nations1--fuel obtained with less labour1 and at less expense of useful time4 ,as soon as exchange comes into operation--keeping out of view ,competition--the exclusive possession of these mines enables the people of ,england to demand a considerable remuneration1 and to set a high price upon their labour4 ,not being in a situation to perform this labour ourselves1 or procure what we want from another quarter1 we have no alternative but to submit4 ,english labour devoted to this description of work will be well remunerated2 in other words1 coal will be dear1 and the bounty of nature may be considered as conferred on the people of one nation1 and not on mankind at large4 ,but this state of things cannot last2 for a great natural and social law is opposed to it--,competition4 ,for the very reason that this species of labour is largely remunerated in ,england1 it will be in great demand there1 for men are always in quest of high remuneration4 ,the number of miners will increase1 both in consequence of the sons of miners devoting themselves to their fathers' trade1 and in consequence of men transferring their industry to mining from other departments4 ,they will offer to work for a smaller recompense1 and their remuneration will go on diminishing until it reach the normal rate1 or the rate generally given in the country for analogous work4 ,this means that the price of ,english coal will fall in ,france2 that a given amount of ,french labour will procure a greater and greater quantity of ,english coal1 or rather of ,english labour incorporated and worked up in coal2 and1 finally 7and this is what ,i pray you to remark71 that the gift which nature would appear to have bestowed upon ,england has in reality been conferred on the whole human race4 ,the coal of ,newcastle is brought within the reach of all men gratuitously1 as far as the mere material is concerned4 ,this is neither a paradox nor an exaggeration1--it is brought within their reach like the p#bih water of the brook1 on the single condition of going to fetch it1 or remunerating those who undertake that labour for us4 ,when we purchase coal1 it is not the coal that we pay for1 but the labour necessary to extract it and transport it4 ,all that we do is to give a corresponding amount of labour which we have worked up or incorporated in wine or in silk4 ,so true is it that the liberality of nature has been extended to ,france1 that the labour which we refund is not greater than that which it would have been necessary to undergo had the deposit of coal been in ,france4 ,competition has established equality between the two nations as far as coal is concerned1 except as regards the inevitable and inconsiderable difference resulting from distance and carriage4 ,i have given two examples1 and1 to render the phenomenon more striking1 ,i have selected international transactions1 which are effected on a great scale4 ,i fear ,i may thus have diverted the reader's attention from the same phenomena acting incessantly around us in our every-day transactions4 ,let him take in his hand the most familiar objects1 a glass1 a nail1 a loaf1 a piece of cloth1 a book4 ,let him meditate on such ordinary products1 and reflect how great an amount of gratuitous utility would never but for ,competition have become common for humanity at large1 although remaining gratuitous for the producer4 ,he will find that1 thanks to ,competition1 in purchasing his loaf he pays nothing for the action of the sun1 nothing for the rain1 nothing for the frost1 nothing for the laws of vegetable physiology1 nothing even for the powers of the soil1 despite all that has been said on that subject2 nothing for the law of gravitation set to work by the miller2 nothing for the law of combustion set to work by the baker2 nothing for the horse-power set to work by the carrier2 that he pays only for the services rendered1 the pains taken1 by human agents2 and let him reflect that1 but for ,competition1 he must have paid1 over and above1 a tax for the intervention of all these natural agents2 that that tax would have had no other limit than the difficulty which he might himself have experienced in procuring the loaf by his own efforts1 and that consequently a whole life would not have been sufficient to supply the remuneration which would have been demanded of him4 ,let him think farther1 that he does not make use of a single commodity which might not give rise to the same reflections1 and that these reflections apply not to him only1 but to all mankind1 and he will then comprehend the radical error of those socialist theories which1 looking only at the surface of things1 the epidermis of society1 have been set up with so much levity against ,competition1 in other words1 against human ,liberty4 ,he will then regard p#bii ,competition1 which preserves to the gifts of nature1 unequally distributed1 their common and gratuitous character1 as the principle of a just and natural equalization2 he will admire it as the force which holds in check the egotism of individual interest1 with which at the same time it is so artistically combined as to serve both as a curb to avarice and a spur to exertion2 and he will bless it as a most striking manifestation of ,god's impartial solicitude for the good of all ,his creatures4 ,from what has been said1 we may deduce the solution of one of the problems which have been most keenly controverted1 namely1 that of free trade as between nation and nation4 ,if it be true1 as seems to me incontestable1 that ,competition leads the various countries of the globe to exchange with one another nothing else than labour1 exertion more and more equalized1 and to transfer at the same time reciprocally1 and into the bargain1 the natural advantages that each possesses2 how blind and absurd must those men be who exclude foreign products by legislative measures1 under the pretext that they are cheap1 and have little value in proportion to their aggregate utility2 that is to say1 precisely because they include a large proportion of gratuitous utility6 ,i have said1 and ,i repeat it1 that ,i have confidence in a theory when ,i find it in accordance with universal practice4 ,now1 it is certain that countries would effect many exchanges with each other were they not interdicted by force4 ,it requires the bayonet to prevent them2 and for that reason it is wrong to prevent them4 #b4 ,another circumstance places certain men in a favourable and exceptional situation as regards remuneration--,i mean the personal and exclusive knowledge of the processes by means of which natural agents can alone be appropriated4 ,what we term invention is a conquest by human genius2 and these beautiful and pacific conquests1 which are1 in the first instance1 a source of wealth for those who achieve them1 become by-and-by1 under the action of ,competition1 the common and gratuitous patrimony of all4 ,the forces of nature belong indeed to all4 ,gravitation1 for instance1 is common property2 it surrounds us1 pervades us1 commands us4 ,and yet were there but one mode of making gravitation co-operate towards a useful and determinate result1 and but one man acquainted with that mode1 this man might set a high price upon his work1 or refuse to work except in exchange for a very high remuneration4 ,his demands would have no limit p#cjj until they reached the point at which the consumers must make greater sacrifices than the old processes entailed upon them4 ,he may have contrived1 for example1 to annihilate nine-tenths of the labour necessary to produce a certain commodity1 x4 ,but x has at present a current market-price determined by the labour which its production by the ordinary methods exacts4 ,the inventor sells x at the market-price2 in other words1 his labour receives a recompense ten times higher than that of his rivals4 ,this is the first phase of the invention4 ,so far we discover nothing unjust or unfair4 ,it is just and equitable that the man who makes the world acquainted with a useful process should be rewarded for it2--,a chacun selon sa capacit4 ,observe1 too1 that as yet mankind1 with the exception of the inventor1 have gained nothing unless virtually1 and in perspective1 so to speak1 since in order to procure the commodity x1 each acquirer must make a sacrifice equal to the former cost4 ,now1 however1 the invention enters its second phase--that of imitation4 ,excessive remuneration awakens covetousness4 ,the new process is more generally adopted2 the price of the commodity x continues to fall1 and the remuneration goes on diminishing in proportion as the imitation becomes more distant in date from the original invention1 that is to say1 in proportion as it becomes more easy1 and for that reason less meritorious4 ,surely there is nothing in all this that cannot be avowed by a legislation the most advanced and the most impartial4 ,at length the invention reaches its third phase1 its final stage1 that of universal diffusion1 when it becomes common and gratuitous4 ,the cycle has been completed when ,competition has brought back the remuneration of the producers of x to the general and normal rate yielded by all analogous work4 ,then the nine-tenths of the labour1 which by the hypothesis we supposed to be saved by the invention1 become an acquisition to mankind at large4 ,the utility of the commodity x remains the same2 but nine-tenths of that commodity are now the product of gravitation1 a force which was formerly common to all in principle1 but has now become common to all in this special application4 ,so true is this1 that all the consumers of that commodity throughout the world may now acquire it with one-tenth of the labour which it formerly cost4 ,the surplus labour has been entirely annihilated by the new process4 ,if we consider that there is no human invention which has not described this circle1 that x is here an algebraical sign which represents corn1 clothing1 books1 ships1--in the production of which an p#cja incalculable amount of ,labour or ,value has been annihilated1 by the plough1 the spinning-jenny1 the printing-press1 and the sail2 that this observation is applicable to the humblest of tools as well as to the most complicated mechanism1 to the nail1 the wedge1 the lever1 as well as to the steam-engine and the electric telegraph1 we shall come1 ,i trust1 to understand the solution of this grand problem of human society1 that an amount of utility and enjoyment1 always greater1 and more and more equally distributed1 comes to remunerate each determinate quantity of human labour4 #c4 ,i have shown how ,competition brings into the domain of the common and gratuitous both natural agents and the processes by which they are made operative4 ,it remains to show that ,competition executes the same function with reference to the instruments by means of which we set these agents to work4 ,it is not enough that there should exist in nature a force1 such as heat1 light1 gravitation1 electricity2 it is not enough that intelligence conceives the means of making that force available2--there must be instruments to realize this conception of the mind1 and provisions to maintain those who devote themselves to it during the operation4 ,as regards remuneration1 there is a third circumstance which favours a man1 or a class of men1 namely1 the possession of ,capital4 ,the man who has in his hands the tools necessary for labour1 the materials to work upon1 and the provisions for his subsistence during the operation1 is in a situation to determine his own remuneration4 ,the principle of this is equitable1 for capital is only anterior labour which has not yet been remunerated4 ,the capitalist is in a good position to impose terms2 but observe that1 even when free from ,competition1 there is a limit which his demands never can exceed--this limit is the point at which his remuneration would absorb all the advantages of the service which he renders4 ,in these circumstances1 it is unreasonable to talk1 as is so often done1 of the tyranny of capital1 seeing that even in the most extreme cases neither its presence nor its absence can injure the condition of the labourer4 ,like the inhabitant of the tropics1 who has an intensity of heat at his disposal which nature has denied to colder regions--or like the inventor1 who possesses the secret of a process unknown to other men--all that the capitalist can say is3 8,would you profit by my labour--,i set such a price upon it2 if you find it too high1 do as you have done hitherto--do without it40 ,but ,competition takes place among capitalists4 ,tools1 materials1 and provisions1 contribute to the creation of utilities only p#cjb when employed4 ,there is an emulation1 then1 among capitalists to find employment for their capital4 ,all that this emulation forces them to abate from the extreme demand1 of which ,i have just assigned the limits1 resolving itself into a reduction of the price of the commodity1 is so much clear profit1 so much gratuitous gain1 for the consumer1 that is to say1 for mankind4 ,this gain1 however1 can clearly never be absolutely gratuitous2 for1 since capital represents labour1 that capital must always possess in itself the principle of remuneration4 ,transactions relative to ,capital are subject to the universal law of exchanges2 and exchanges take place only because there is an advantage for the two contracting parties in effecting them1--an advantage which has no doubt a tendency to be equalized1 but which accidentally may be greater for the one than for the other4 ,there is a limit to the remuneration of capital1 beyond which limit no one will consent to borrow it4 ,this limit is the minimum of service for the borrower4 ,in the same way1 there is a limit beyond which no one will consent to lend1 and this limit is the minimum of remuneration for the lender4 ,this is self-evident4 ,if the requirements of one of the contracting parties are pushed so far as to reduce to zero the benefit to be derived by the other from the transaction1 the loan becomes impossible4 ,the remuneration of capital oscillates between these two extreme terms1 pressed towards the maximum by the ,competition of borrowers1 brought back towards the minimum by the ,competition of lenders2 so that1 by a necessity which is in harmony with justice1 it rises when capital is scarce1 and falls when it is abundant4 ,many ,economists imagine that the number of borrowers increases more rapidly than it is possible to create capital to lend to them1 whence it would follow that the natural tendency of interest is to rise4 ,the fact is decidedly the other way1 and on all sides accordingly we perceive civilisation lowering the return for capital4 ,this return1 it is said1 is #cj or #dj per cent4 at ,rome1 #bj per cent4 in ,brazil1 #aj per cent4 in ,algeria1 #h per cent4 in ,spain1 #f per cent4 in ,italy1 #e per cent4 in ,germany1 #d per cent4 in ,france1 #c per cent4 in ,england1 and still less in ,holland4 ,now all that part of the return for capital which is annihilated by progress1 although lost to the capitalist1 is not lost to mankind4 ,if interest1 originally at #dj per cent41 is reduced to #b per cent41 all commodities will be freed from #ch parts in #dj of this element of cost4 ,they will reach the consumer freed from this charge to the extent of nineteen-twentieths4 ,this is a force which1 like natural agents1 like expeditive processes1 resolves itself into abundance1 equalization1 p#cjc and1 finally1 into an elevation of the general level of the human race4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have still to say a few words on the ,competition of labourer with labourer1--a subject which in these days has given rise to so much sentimental declamation4 ,but have we not already exhausted this subject8 ,i have shown that1 owing to the action of ,competition1 men cannot long receive an exceptional remuneration for the co-operation of natural forces1 for their acquaintance with new processes1 or for the possession of instruments by means of which they avail themselves of these forces4 ,this proves that efforts have a tendency to be exchanged on a footing of equality1 or1 in other words1 that value tends to become proportionate to labour4 ,then ,i do not see what can justly be termed the ,competition of labourers2 still less do ,i see how it can injure their condition1 since in this point of view workmen are themselves the consumers4 ,the working class means everybody1 and it is precisely this vast community which reaps ultimately the benefits of ,competition1 and all the advantage of values successively annihilated by progress4 ,the evolution is this3 ,services are exchanged against services1 values against values4 ,when a man 7or a class7 appropriates a natural agent or a new process1 his demands are regulated1 not by the labour which he undergoes1 but by the labour which he saves to others4 ,he presses his exactions to the extreme limit1 without ever being able to injure the condition of others4 ,he sets the greatest possible value on his services4 ,but gradually1 by the operation of ,competition1 this value tends to become proportioned to the labour performed2 so that the evolution is brought to a conclusion when equal labour is exchanged for equal labour1 both serving as the vehicle of an ever-increasing amount of gratuitous utility1 to the benefit of the community at large4 ,in such circumstances1 to assert that ,competition can be injurious to the labourer1 would be to fall into a palpable contradiction4 ,and yet this is constantly asserted1 and constantly believed2 and why8 ,because by the word labourer is understood not the great labouring community1 but a particular class4 ,you divide the community into two classes4 ,on one side you place all those who are possessed of capital1 who live wholly or partly on anterior labour1 or by intellectual labour1 or the proceeds of taxation2 on the other1 you place those who have nothing but their hands1 who live by wages1 or--to use the consecrated expression--the proltaires4 ,you look to the relative position of these two classes1 p#cjd and you ask if1 in that relative position1 the ,competition which takes place among those who live by wages is not fatal to them8 ,the situation of men of this last class1 it is said1 is essentially precarious4 ,as they receive their wages from day to day1 they live from hand to mouth4 ,in the discussion which1 under a free rgime1 precedes every bargain1 they cannot wait2 they must find work for to-morrow on any terms1 under pain of death4 ,if this be not strictly true of them all1 it is at least true of many of them1 and that is enough to depress the entire class2 for those who are the most pressed and the poorest capitulate first1 and establish the general rate of wages4 ,the result is1 that wages tend to fall to the lowest rate which is compatible with bare subsistence--and in this state of things1 the occurrence of the least excess of ,competition among the labourers is a veritable calamity1 for1 as regards them1 the question is not one of diminished prosperity1 but of simple existence4 ,undoubtedly there is much that is true1 much that is too true1 in fact1 in this description4 ,to deny the sufferings and wretchedness of that class of men who bear so material a part in the business of production1 would be to shut our eyes to the light of day4 ,it is1 in fact1 this deplorable condition of a great number of our brethren which forms the subject of what has been justly called the social problem2 for although other classes of society are visited also with disquietudes1 sufferings1 sudden changes of fortune1 commercial crises1 and economic convulsions1 it may nevertheless be said with truth that liberty would be accepted as a solution of the problem1 did mere liberty not appear powerless to cure that rankling sore which we denominate ,pauperism4 ,and although it is here1 pre-eminently1 that the social problem lies1 the reader will not expect that ,i should enter upon it in this place4 ,its solution1 please ,god1 may be the result of the entire work1 but it clearly cannot be the result of a single chapter4 ,i am at present engaged in the exposition of general laws1 which ,i believe to be harmonious2 and ,i trust the reader will now begin to be convinced that these laws exist1 and that their action tends towards community1 and consequently towards equality4 ,but ,i have not denied that the action of these laws is profoundly troubled by disturbing causes4 ,if1 then1 we now encounter inequality as a stubborn fact1 how can we be in circumstances to form a judgment regarding it until we have first of all investigated the regular laws of the social order1 and the causes which disturb the action of these laws8 p#cje ,on the other hand1 ,i have ignored neither the existence of evil nor its mission4 ,i have ventured to assert1 that free-will having been vouchsafed to man1 it is not necessary to confine the term harmony to an aggregate from which evil should be excluded2 for free-will implies error1 at least possible error1 and error is evil4 ,social harmony1 like everything which concerns man1 is relative4 ,evil is a necessary part of the machinery destined to overcome error1 ignorance1 injustice1 by bringing into play two great laws of our nature--responsibility and solidarity4 ,now1 taking pauperism as an existing fact1 are we to impute it to the natural laws which govern the social order1--or to human institutions which act in a sense contrary to these laws1--or1 finally1 to the people themselves1 who are the victims1 and who1 by their errors and their faults1 have brought down this severe chastisement on their own heads8 ,in other words1 does pauperism exist by providential destination1--or1 on the contrary1 by what remains of the artificial in our political organization1--or as a personal retribution8 ,fatality1 ,injustice1 ,responsibility--to which of these three causes must we attribute this frightful sore8 ,i hesitate not to assert that it cannot be the result of the natural laws which have hitherto been the subject of our investigations1 seeing that these laws all tend to equalization by amelioration2 that is to say1 to bring all men to one and the same level1 which level is continually rising4 ,this1 then1 is not the place to seek a solution of the problem of pauperism4 ,at present1 if we would consider specially that class of labourers who execute the most material portion of the work of production1 and who1 in general1 having no interest in the profits1 live upon a fixed remuneration called wages1 the question we have to investigate is this3 ,apart from the consideration of good or bad economic institutions--apart from the consideration of the evils which the men who live by wages the proltaires bring upon themselves by their faults--what is1 as regards them1 the proper effect of ,competition8 ,for this class1 as for all1 the operation of ,competition is twofold4 ,they feel it both as buyers and as sellers of services4 ,the error of those who write upon these subjects is never to look but at one side of the question1 like natural philosophers1 who1 if they took into account only centrifugal force1 would never cease to believe and to prophesy that all was over with us4 ,grant their false datum1 and you will see with what irrefragable logic they conduct you to this sinister conclusion4 ,the same may be said of the p#cjf lamentations which the ,socialists found upon the exclusive consideration of centrifugal ,competition1 if ,i may be allowed the expression4 ,they forget to take into account centripetal ,competition2 and that is sufficient to reduce their doctrines to puerile declamation4 ,they forget that the workman1 when he presents himself in the market with the wages he has earned1 becomes a centre towards which innumerable branches of industry tend1 and that he profits then by that universal ,competition of which all trades complain in their turn4 ,it is true that the labourer1 when he regards himself as a producer1 as the person who supplies labour or services1 complains also of ,competition4 ,grant1 then1 that ,competition benefits him on one side1 while it pinches him on the other1 the question comes to be1 ,is the balance favourable or unfavourable--or is there compensation8 ,i must have explained myself very obscurely if the reader does not see that in the play of this marvellous mechanism1 the action of ,competition1 apparently antagonistic1 tends to the singular and consoling result1 that there is a balance which is favourable to all at the same time2 caused by gratuitous ,utility continually enlarging the circle of production1 and falling continually into the domain of ,community4 ,now1 that which becomes common is profitable to all without hurting any one2 we may even say--for this is mathematically certain--is profitable to each in proportion to his previous poverty4 ,it is this portion of gratuitous utility1 forced by ,competition to become common1 which causes the tendency of value to become proportioned to labour1 to the evident benefit of the labourer4 ,this1 too1 renders evident the social solution which ,i have pressed so much on the attention of the reader1 and which is only concealed by the illusions of habit1--for a determinate amount of labour each receives an amount of satisfactions which tends to be increased and equalized4 ,moreover1 the condition of the labourer does not depend upon one economic law1 but upon all4 ,to become acquainted with that condition1 to discover the prospects and the future of the labourer1 this is ,political ,economy2 for what other object could that science have in view8 4 4 4 ,but ,i am wrong--we have still spoliators4 ,what causes the equivalence of services8 ,liberty4 ,what impairs that equivalence8 ,oppression4 ,such is the circle we have still to traverse4 ,as regards the condition of that class of labourers who execute the more immediate work of production1 it cannot be appreciated until we are in a situation to discover in what manner the law of p#cjg ,competition is combined with that of ,wages and ,population1 and also with the disturbing effects of unequal taxes and monopolies4 ,i shall add but a few words on the subject of ,competition4 ,it is very clear that it has no natural tendency to diminish the amount of the enjoyments which are distributed over society4 ,does ,competition tend to make this distribution unequal8 ,if there be anything evident in the world1 it is that after having1 if ,i may so express myself1 attached to each service1 to each value1 a larger proportion of utility1 ,competition labours incessantly to level the services themselves1 to render them proportional to efforts4 ,is ,competition not the spur which urges men into profitable branches of industry1 and urges them out of those which are unprofitable8 ,its proper action1 then1 is to realize equality more and more1 by elevating the social level4 ,let us not misunderstand each other1 however1 on this word equality4 ,it does not imply that all men are to have the same remuneration1 but that they are to have a remuneration proportioned to the quantity1 and even to the quality of their efforts4 ,a multitude of circumstances contribute to render the remuneration of labour unequal 7,i speak here only of free labour1 subject to ,competition72 but if we look at it more narrowly1 we shall find that this fancied inequality1 almost always just and necessary1 is in reality nothing else than substantial equality4 ,cteris paribus1 there are larger profits in those trades which are attended with danger than in those which are not so2 in those which require a lengthened apprenticeship1 and expensive training long unremunerated--which imply the patient exercise of certain domestic virtues--than in those where mere muscular exertion is sufficient2 in professions which demand a cultivated mind and refined taste1 than in trades which require mere brute force4 ,is not all this just8 ,now1 ,competition establishes necessarily these distinctions--and society has no need of the assistance of ,fourier or ,louis ,blanc in the matter4 ,of all these circumstances1 that which operates in the greatest number of cases is the inequality of instruction4 ,now here1 as everywhere else1 we find ,competition exerting its twofold action1 levelling classes1 and elevating society4 ,if we suppose society to be composed of two layers or strata1 placed one above another1 in one of which the intelligent principle prevails1 and in the other the principle of brute force2 and if we study the natural relations of these two layers1 we shall easily discover a force of attraction in the one1 and a force of aspiration in the other1 which co-operate towards their fusion4 ,the very inequality p#cjh of profits breathes into the inferior ranks an inextinguishable ardour to mount to the region of ease and leisure2 and this ardour is seconded by the superior knowledge which distinguishes the higher classes4 ,the methods of teaching are improved2 books fall in price2 instruction is acquired in less time1 and at a smaller cost2 science1 formerly monopolized by a class or a caste1 and veiled in a dead language1 or sealed up in hieroglyphics1 is written and printed in the vulgar tongue2 it pervades the atmosphere1 if ,i may use the expression1 and is breathed as freely as the air of heaven4 ,nor is this all4 ,at the same time that an education more universal and more equal brings the two classes of society into closer approximation1 some very important economic phenomena1 which are connected with the great law of ,competition1 come to aid and accelerate their fusion4 ,the progress of the mechanical arts diminishes continually the proportion of manual labour4 ,the division of labour1 by simplifying and separating each of the operations which concur in a productive result1 brings within the reach of all1 branches of industry which could formerly be engaged in only by a few4 ,moreover1 a great many employments which required at the outset much knowledge and varied acquirements1 fall1 by the mere lapse of time1 into routine1 and come within the sphere of action of classes generally the least instructed1 as has happened in the case of agriculture4 ,agricultural processes1 which in ancient times procured to their discoverers the honours of an apotheosis1 are now inherited and almost monopolized by the rudest of men2 and to such a degree1 that this important branch of human industry is1 so to speak1 entirely withdrawn from the well-educated classes4 ,from the preceding observations it is possible that a false conclusion may be drawn4 ,it may be said--8,we perceive1 indeed1 that ,competition lowers remuneration in all countries1 in all departments of industry1 in all ranks1 and levels1 by reducing1 it2 but in that case the wages of unskilled labour1 of physical exertion1 must become the type1 the standard1 of all remuneration40 ,i must have been misunderstood1 if you have not perceived that ,competition1 which labours to bring down all excessive remuneration towards an average more and more uniform1 raises necessarily this average4 ,i grant that it pinches men in their capacity of producers1 but in so doing it ameliorates the condition of the human race in the only way in which it can reasonably be elevated1 namely1 by an increase of material prosperity1 ease1 leisure1 moral and intellectual improvement1 in a word1 by enlarging consumption4 p#cji ,will it be said that1 in point of fact1 mankind have not made the progress that this theory seems to imply8 ,i answer1 in the first place1 that in modern society ,competition is far from occupying the sphere of its natural action4 ,our laws run counter to it1 at least in as great a degree as they favour its action2 and when it is asked whether the inequality of conditions is owing to its presence or its absence1 it is sufficient to look at the men who make the greatest figure among us1 and dazzle us by the display of their scandalous wealth1 in order to assure ourselves that inequality1 so far as it is artificial and unjust1 has for foundation conquests1 monopolies1 restrictions1 privileged offices1 functions1 and places1 ministerial trafficking1 public borrowing1--all things with which ,competition has nothing to do4 ,moreover1 ,i believe we have overlooked the real progress which mankind have made since the very recent epoch to which we must assign the partial enfranchisement of labour4 ,it has been justly said that much philosophy is needed in order to discern facts which are continually passing before us4 ,we are not astonished at what an honest and laborious family of the working class daily consumes1 because habit has made us familiar with this strange phenomenon4 ,if1 however1 we compare the comfortable circumstances in which such a family finds itself1 with the condition in which it would be placed under a social order which excluded ,competition--if statisticians1 armed with an instrument of sufficient precision1 could measure1 as with a dynamometer1 the relation of a working man's labour to his enjoyments at two different periods1 we should acknowledge that liberty1 restrained as it still is1 has accomplished in his favour a prodigy which its very permanency hinders us from remarking4 ,the contingent of human efforts which1 in relation to a given result1 has been annihilated1 is truly incalculable4 ,time was when the artisan's day's labour would not have sufficed to procure him the most trumpery almanac4 ,at the present day1 for a halfpenny1 or the fiftieth part of his day's wages1 he can obtain a gazette containing the matter of a volume4 ,the same might be said of clothing1 locomotion1 carriage1 lighting1 and a multitude of other satisfactions4 ,to what is this result owing8 ,to this1 that an enormous proportion of human labour1 which had formerly to be paid for1 has been handed over to be performed by the gratuitous forces of nature4 ,it is a value annihilated1 and to be no longer recompensed4 ,under the action of ,competition1 it has been replaced by common and gratuitous utility4 ,and it is worthy of remark1 that when1 in consequence of progress1 the price of any commodity comes to fall1 p#caj the labour saved to the poor purchaser in obtaining it is always proportionally greater than the labour saved to the rich purchaser4 ,that is demonstrable4 ,in fine1 this constantly increasing current of utilities which labour pours into all the veins of the body politic1 and which ,competition distributes1 is not all summed up in an accession of wealth4 ,it is absorbed1 in great part1 by the stream of advancing numbers4 ,it resolves itself into an increase of population1 according to laws which have an intimate affinity with the subject which now engages us1 and which will be explained in another chapter4 ,let us now stop for a moment and take a rapid glance at the ground over which we have just travelled4 ,man has wants which are unlimited--desires which are insatiable4 ,in order to provide for them he has materials and agents which are furnished to him by nature--faculties1 instruments1 all things which labour sets in motion4 ,labour is the resource which has been most equally distributed to all4 ,each man seeks instinctively1 and of necessity1 to avail himself to the utmost of the co-operation of natural forces1 of talents natural and acquired1 and of capital1 in order that the result of this co-operation may be a greater amount of utilities produced1 or1 what comes to the same thing1 a greater amount of satisfactions acquired4 ,thus1 the more active co-operation of natural agents1 the indefinite development of intelligence1 the progressive increase of capital1 give rise to this phenomenon 7which at first sight seems strange7--that a given quantity of labour furnishes an always increasing amount of utilities1 and that each man can1 without despoiling anyone1 obtain a mass of consumable commodities out of all proportion to what his own efforts could have realized4 ,but this phenomenon1 which is the result of the divine harmony which ,providence has established in the mechanism of society1 would have been detrimental to society1 by introducing the germ of indefinite inequality1 had there not been combined with it a harmony no less admirable1 namely1 ,competition1 which is one of the branches of the great law of human solidarity4 ,in fact1 were it possible for an individual1 a family1 a class1 a nation1 possessed of certain natural advantages1 of an important discovery in manufactures1 or of the instruments of production in the shape of accumulated capital1 to be set permanently free from the law of ,competition1 it is evident that this individual1 this family1 this nation1 would have for ever the monopoly of an exceptionally high remuneration1 at the expense of mankind at large4 ,in what situation should we be if the inhabitants of the tropical p#caa regions1 set free from all rivalry with each other1 could exact from us1 in exchange for their sugar1 their coffee1 their cotton1 their spices1 not the equivalent of labour equal to their own1 but an amount of labour equal to what we must ourselves undergo in order to produce these commodities under our inclement skies8 ,what an incalculable distance would separate the various conditions of men1 if the race of ,cadmus alone could read1 if the direct descendants of ,triptolemus alone could handle the plough1 if printing were confined to the family of ,gutenberg1 cotton-spinning to the children of ,arkwright1 and if the posterity of ,watt could alone work the steam engine6 ,providence has not ordered things thus1 but1 on the contrary1 has placed in the social machine a spring whose power is only less surprising than its simplicity--a spring by the operation of which all productive power1 all superiority in manufacturing processes1 in a word1 all exclusive advantages1 slip from the hands of the producer1 having remained there1 in the shape of exceptional remuneration1 only long enough to excite his zeal1 and come at length to enlarge the common and gratuitous patrimony of mankind1 and resolve themselves into individual enjoyments always progressive1 and more and more equally distributed--this spring is ,competition4 ,we have already seen its economical effects--and it now remains for us to take a rapid survey of its moral and political consequences4 ,i shall confine myself to the more important of these4 ,superficial thinkers have accused ,competition of introducing antagonism among men4 ,this is true and inevitable1 if we consider men only in the capacity of producers1 but1 regarded from another point of view1 as consumers1 the matter appears in a very different light4 ,you then see this very ,competition binding together individuals1 families1 classes1 nations1 and races1 in the bonds of universal fraternity4 ,seeing that the advantages which appear at first to be the property of certain individuals become1 by an admirable law of ,divine beneficence1 the common patrimony of all2 seeing that the natural advantages of situation1 of fertility1 of temperature1 of mineral riches1 and even of manufacturing aptitude1 slip in a short time from the hands of producers1 by reason of their competition with each other1 and turn exclusively to the profit of consumers1 it follows that there is no country which is not interested in the advancement and prosperity of all other countries4 ,every step of progress made in the ,east is wealth in perspective for the ,west4 ,fuel discovered in the ,south warms the men of the ,north4 ,great ,britain makes progress in her spinning mills2 p#cab but her capitalists do not alone reap the profit1 for the interest of money does not rise2 nor do her operatives1 for the wages of labour remain the same4 ,in the long-run1 it is the ,russian1 the ,frenchman1 the ,spaniard2 in a word1 it is the human race1 who obtain equal satisfactions at a less expense of labour1 or1 what comes to the same thing1 superior satisfactions with equal labour4 ,i have spoken only of the advantages--,i might say as much of the disadvantages--which affect certain nations and certain regions4 ,the peculiar action of ,competition is to render general what was before exclusive4 ,it acts exactly on the principle of ,insurance4 ,a scourge visits the fields of the agriculturist1 and the consumers of the bread are the sufferers4 ,an unjust tax is laid upon the vines of ,france1 and this means dear wine for all wine-drinkers4 ,thus1 advantages and disadvantages1 which have any permanence1 only glance upon individuals1 classes1 or nations4 ,their providential destination in the long-run is to affect humanity at large1 and elevate or lower the condition of mankind4 ,hence to envy a certain people the fertility of their soil1 or the beauty of their harbours and rivers1 or the warmth of their sun1 is to overlook the advantages in which we are called to participate4 ,it is to contemn the abundance which is offered to us4 ,it is to regret the labour which is saved to us4 ,hence national jealousies are not only perverse feelings2--they are absurd4 ,to hurt others is to injure ourselves4 ,to place obstacles in the way of others--tariffs1 wars1 or workmen's strikes--is to obstruct our own progress4 ,hence bad passions have their chastisement1 just as generous sentiments have their reward4 ,the inevitable sanction of an exact distributive justice addresses itself to men's interests1 enlightens opinion1 proclaims and establishes among men these maxims of eternal truth3 that the useful is one of the aspects of the just2 that ,liberty is the fairest of social ,harmonies2 and that ,honesty is the best ,policy4 ,christianity has introduced into the world the grand principle of human fraternity4 ,it addresses itself to our hearts1 our feelings1 our noble instincts4 ,political ,economy recommends the same principle to our cool judgment2 and1 exhibiting the connexion of effects with their causes1 reconciles in consoling harmony the vigilant calculations of interest with the inspirations of the sublimest morality4 ,a second consequence which flows from this doctrine is1 that society is truly a ,community4 ,messieurs ,owen and ,cabet may save themselves the trouble of seeking the solution of the great p#cac ,communist problem--it is found already--it results not from their arbitrary combinations1 but from the organization given by ,god to man1 and to society4 ,natural forces1 expeditive processes1 instruments of production1 everything is common among men1 or has a tendency to become so1 everything except pains1 labour1 individual effort4 ,there is1 and there can be1 but one inequality--an inequality which ,communists the most absolute must admit1--that which results from the inequality of efforts4 ,these efforts are what are exchanged for one another at a price bargained for4 ,all the utility which nature1 and the genius of ages1 and human foresight1 have implanted in the commodities exchanged1 we obtain into the bargain4 ,reciprocal remunerations have reference only to reciprocal efforts1 whether actual under the name of ,labour1 or preparatory under the name of ,capital4 ,here then is ,community in the strictest sense of the word1 unless we are to pretend that the personal share of enjoyment should be equal1 although the quota of labour furnished is not so1 which indeed would be the most iniquitous1 the most monstrous1 of inequalities1--,i will add1 the most fatal2 for it would not destroy ,competition--it would only give it a retrograde action4 ,we should still compete1 but the ,competition would be a rivalry of idleness1 stupidity1 and improvidence4 ,in fine1 the doctrine--so simple1 and1 as we think1 so true--which we have just developed1 takes the great principle of human perfectibility out of the domain of declamation1 and transfers it to that of rigorous demonstration4 ,this internal motive1 which is never at rest in the bosom of the individual1 but stirs him up to improve his condition1 gives rise to the progress of art1 which is nothing else than the progressive co-operation of forces1 which from their nature call for no remuneration4 ,to ,competition is owing the concession to the community of advantages at first individually obtained4 ,the intensity of the labour required for the production of each given result goes on continually diminishing1 to the advantage of the human race1 which thus sees the circle of its enjoyments and its leisure enlarging from one generation to another1 whilst the level of its physical1 intellectual1 and moral improvement is raised2 and by this arrangement1 so worthy of our study and of our profound admiration1 we behold mankind recovering the position they had lost4 ,let me not be misunderstood1 however4 ,i do not say that all fraternity1 all community1 all perfectibility1 are comprised and included in ,competition4 ,i say only that ,competition is allied and combined with these three great social dogmas--that it forms part p#cad of them1 that it exhibits them1 that it is one of the most powerful agents of their realization4 ,i have endeavoured to describe the general effects of ,competition1 and consequently its benefits1 for it would be impious to suppose that any great law of nature should be at once hurtful and permanent2 but ,i am far from denying that the action of ,competition is accompanied with many hardships and sufferings4 ,it appears to me that the theory which has just been developed explains at once those sufferings1 and the inevitable complaints to which they give rise4 ,since the work of ,competition consists in levelling1 it must necessarily run counter to all who proudly attempt to rise above the general level4 ,each producer1 in order to obtain the highest price for his labour1 endeavours1 as we have seen1 to retain as long as possible the exclusive use of an agent1 a process1 or an instrument1 of production4 ,now the proper mission and result of ,competition being to withdraw this exclusive use from the individual1 in order to make it common property1 it is natural that all men1 in their capacity of producers1 should unite in a concert of maledictions against ,competition4 ,they cannot reconcile themselves to ,competition otherwise than by taking into account their interests as consumers1 and regarding themselves1 not as members of a coterie or a corporation1 but as men4 ,political ,economy1 we must say1 has not yet exerted herself sufficiently to dissipate this fatal illusion1 which has been the source of so much heartburning1 calamity1 and irritation1 and of so many wars4 ,this science1 from a preference not very philosophical1 has exhausted her efforts in analyzing the phenomena of production4 ,the very nomenclature of the science1 in fact1 convenient as it is1 is not in harmony with its object4 ,agriculture1 manufactures1 commerce1 may be an excellent classification1 when the object is to describe the processes of art2 but that description1 however essential in technology1 has little connexion with social economy2--,i should even say that it is positively dangerous4 ,when we have classed men as agriculturists1 manufacturers1 and merchants1 of what can we speak but of their class interests1 of those special interests to which ,competition is antagonistic1 and which are placed in opposition to the general good8 ,it is not for the sake of agriculturists that agriculture exists1 of manufacturers that we have manufactures1 or of merchants that we have exchanges1 but in order that men should have at their disposal the greatest amount of commodities of every kind4 ,consumption1 its laws1 what favours it1 and renders it equitable and moral--that is the interest which is truly social1 and which truly affects the human p#cae race4 ,it is the interest of the consumer which constitutes the real object of ,political ,economy1 and upon which the science should concentrate its clearest lights4 ,this1 in truth1 forms the bond which unites classes1 nations1 races--it is the principle and explanation of human fraternity4 ,it is with regret1 then1 that we see ,economists expending their talents and sagacity on the anatomy of production1 and throwing into the fag-end of their books1 or into supplementary chapters1 a few common-places on the phenomena of consumption4 ,have we not even seen a justly celebrated professor suppressing entirely that branch of the science1 confining himself to the means1 without ever speaking of the result1 and banishing from his course everything in connexion with the consumption of wealth1 as pertaining1 in his opinion1 to morals rather than to ,political ,economy8 ,can we be surprised that men are more struck with the inconveniences of ,competition than with its advantages1 since the former affect them specially as producers1--in which character they are constantly considered and talked of2 while the latter affect them only in their capacity of consumers1--a capacity which is altogether disregarded and overlooked8 ,i repeat that ,i do not deny or ignore1 on the contrary ,i deplore as much as any one can1 the sufferings attendant on ,competition2 but is this any reason for shutting our eyes to its advantages8 ,and it is all the more consoling to observe these advantages1 inasmuch as ,i believe ,competition1 like all the great laws of nature1 to be indestructible4 ,had it been otherwise1 it would assuredly have succumbed to the universal resistance which all the men who have ever co-operated in the production of commodities since the beginning of the world have offered to it1 and more especially it would have perished under the leve en masse of our modern reformers4 ,but if they have been foolish enough to attempt its destruction1 they have not been strong enough to effect it4 ,and what progressive principle1 ,i would ask1 is to be found in the world1 the beneficent action of which is not mingled1 especially in the beginning1 with suffering and misery8 ,the massing together of human beings in vast agglomerations is favourable to boldness and independence of thought1 but it frequently sets private life free from the wholesome restraint of public opinion1 and gives shelter to debauchery and crime4 ,wealth and leisure united give birth to mental cultivation1 but they also give birth to pride and luxury among the rich1 and to irritation and covetousness among the poor4 ,the art of printing brings home knowledge and truth to all ranks of society1 but it has brought also afflicting doubt and subversive error4 ,political liberty has unchained p#caf tempests and revolutions1 and has modified the simple manners of primitive nations1 to such a decree as to induce thinking men to ask themselves whether they would not have preferred tranquillity under the cold shade of despotism4 ,christianity herself has cast the noble seed of love and charity into a soil saturated with the blood of martyrs4 ,why has it entered into the designs of ,infinite ,goodness and ,justice that the happiness of one region or of one era should be purchased at the expense of the sufferings of another region or of another era8 ,what is the ,divine purpose which is concealed under this great law of solidarity1 of which ,competition is only one of the mysterious aspects8 ,human science cannot answer4 ,what we do know is this1 that good always goes on increasing1 and that evil goes on diminishing4 ,from the beginning of the social state1 such as conquest had made it1 when there existed only masters and slaves1 and the inequality of conditions was extreme1 the work of ,competition in approximating ranks1 fortunes1 intelligences1 could not be accomplished without inflicting individual hardships1 the intensity of which1 however1 as the work proceeded1 has gone on diminishing1 like the vibrations of sound and the oscillations of the pendulum4 ,to the sufferings yet in reserve for them1 men learn every day to oppose two powerful remedies--namely1 foresight1 which is the fruit of knowledge and experience2 and association1 which is organized foresight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the first part of this work--alas6 too hastily written--,i have endeavoured to keep the reader's attention fixed upon the line of demarcation1 always flexible1 but always marked1 which separates the two regions of the economic world--natural co-operation1 and human labour--the bounty of ,god1 and the work of man--the gratuitous1 and the onerous--that which in exchange is remunerated1 and that which is transferred without remuneration--aggregate utility1 and the fractional and supplementary utility which constitutes value--absolute wealth1 and relative wealth--the co-operation of chemical or mechanical forces1 constrained to aid production by the instruments which render them available1 and the just recompense of the labour which has created these instruments themselves--,community and ,property4 ,it is not enough to mark these two orders of phenomena which are so essentially different1 it is necessary also to describe their relations1 and1 if ,i may so express myself1 their harmonious evolutions4 ,i have essayed to explain how the business of ,property consists in conquering utility for the human race1 and1 casting it p#cag into the domain of ,community1 to move on to new conquests--so that each given effort1 and consequently the aggregate of efforts1 should continually be delivering over to mankind satisfactions which are always increasing4 ,human services exchanged1 while preserving their relative value1 become the vehicle of an always increasing proportion of utility which is gratuitous1 and1 therefore1 common2 and in this consists progress4 ,the possessors of value1 then1 whatever form it assumes1 far from usurping and monopolizing the gifts of ,god1 multiply these gifts1 without causing them to lose the character which ,providence has affixed to them1 of being--,gratuitous4 ,in proportion as the satisfactions which are handed over by progress to the charge of nature fall by that very fact into the domain of ,community1 they become equal--it being impossible for us even to conceive inequality except in the domain of human services1 which are compared1 appreciated1 and estimated with a view to an exchange2 whence it follows that ,equality among men is necessarily progressive4 ,it is so1 likewise1 in another respect1 the action of ,competition having for its inevitable result to level and equalize the services themselves1 and to bring their recompense more and more into proportion with their merit4 ,let us now throw a glance back on the ground over which we have passed4 ,by the light of the theory1 the foundation of which has been laid in the present volume1 we shall have to investigate3 ,the relations of man with the ,economic phenomena1 in his capacity of producer1 and in his character of consumer2 ,the law of ,rent2 ,that of ,wages2 ,that of ,credit2 ,that of ,taxation1 which1 introducing us into the domain of ,politics1 properly so called1 will lead us to compare those services which are private and voluntary with those which are public and compulsory2 ,the law of ,population4 ,we shall then be in a situation to solve some practical problems which are still disputed--,free-trade1 ,machinery1 ,luxury1 ,leisure1 ,association1 ,organization of ,labour1 etc4 ,i hesitate not to say1 that the result of this exposition may be expressed beforehand in these terms3 ,the constant approximation of all men towards a level which is always rising--in other terms3 ,improvement and ,equalization2 in a single word1 ,harmony4 ,such is the definitive result of the arrangements of ,providence--of p#cah the great laws of nature--when they act without impediment1 when we regard them as they are in themselves1 and apart from any disturbance of their action by error and violence4 ,on beholding this ,harmony1 the ,economist may well exclaim1 like the astronomer who regards the planetary movements1 or the physiologist who contemplates the structure and arrangement of the human organs--,digitus ,dei est hic6 ,but man is a free agent1 and consequently fallible4 ,he is subject to ignorance and to passion4 ,his will1 which is liable to err1 enters as an element into the play of the economic laws4 ,he may misunderstand them1 forget them1 divert them from their purpose4 ,as the physiologist1 after admiring the infinite wisdom displayed in the structure and relations of our organs and viscera1 studies these organs likewise in their abnormal state when sickly and diseased1 we shall have to penetrate into a new world--the world of social ,disturbances4 ,we shall pave the way for this new study by some considerations on man himself4 ,it would be impossible for us to give an account of social evil1 of its origin1 its effects1 its design--of the limits1 always more and more contracted1 within which it is shut up by its own action 7which constitutes what ,i might almost venture to call a harmonic dissonance71 did we not extend our investigation to the necessary consequences of ,free-,will1 to the errors of ,self-,interest1 which are constantly corrected1 and to the great laws of human ,responsibility and ,solidarity4 ,we have seen the germ of all the social ,harmonies included in these two principles--,property1 ,liberty4 ,we shall see that all social ,dissonances are only the development of these two antagonistic principles--,spoliation1 ,oppression4 ,the words ,property and ,liberty1 in fact1 express only two aspects of the same idea4 ,in an economical point of view1 ,liberty is allied to the act of production--,property to the things produced4 ,and since ,value has its foundation in the human act1 we may conclude that ,liberty implies and includes ,property4 ,the same relation exists between ,oppression and ,spoliation4 ,liberty6 here at length we have the principle of harmony4 ,oppression6 here we have the principle of dissonance4 ,the struggle of these two powers fills the annals of the human race4 ,and as the design of ,oppression is to effect an unjust appropriation1 as it resolves itself into and is summed up in spoliation1 it is ,spoliation that must form the subject of our inquiry4 ,man comes into this world bound to the yoke of ,want1 which is pain4 p#cai ,he cannot escape from it but by subjecting himself to the yoke of ,labour1 which is pain also4 ,he has1 then1 only a choice of pains1 and he detests pain4 ,this is the reason why he looks around him1 and if he sees that his fellow-man has accumulated wealth1 he conceives the thought of appropriating it4 ,hence comes false property1 or ,spoliation4 ,spoliation6 here we have a new element in the economy of society4 ,from the day when it first made its appearance in the world down to the day when it shall have completely disappeared1 if that day ever come1 this element has affected and will affect profoundly the whole social mechanism2 it will disturb1 and to the extent of rendering them no longer recognisable1 those laws of social harmony which we have endeavoured to discover and describe4 ,our duty1 then1 will not have been accomplished until we have completed the monography of ,spoliation4 ,it may be imagined that we have here to do with an accidental and exceptional fact1 a transient derangement unworthy of the investigations of science4 ,but in truth it is not so4 ,on the contrary1 ,spoliation1 in the traditions of families1 in the history of nations1 in the occupations of individuals1 in the physical and intellectual energies of classes1 in the schemes and designs of governments1 occupies nearly as prominent a place as ,property itself4 ,no2 ,spoliation is not an ephemeral scourge1 affecting accidentally the social mechanism1 and which economical science may disregard as exceptional4 ,the sentence pronounced upon man in the beginning was1 ,in the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread4 ,whence it appears that effort and satisfaction are indissolubly united1 and that the one must be always the recompense of the other4 ,but on all sides we find man revolting against this law1 and saying to his brother1 ,thine be the labour1 and mine the fruit of that labour4 ,repair to the hut of the savage hunter1 or to the tent of the nomad shepherd1 and what spectacle meets your eyes8 ,the wife1 lank1 pale1 disfigured1 affrighted1 prematurely old1 bears the whole burden of the household cares1 while the man lounges in idleness4 ,what idea can we form of family ,harmonies8 ,the idea has disappeared1 for ,strength here throws upon ,feebleness the weight of labour4 ,and how many ages of civilizing effort will be needed to raise the wife from this state of frightful degradation8 ,spoliation1 in its most brutal form1 armed with torch and sword1 p#cbj fills the annals of the world4 ,of what names is history made up8 ,cyrus1 ,sesostris1 ,alexander1 ,scipio1 ,csar1 ,attila1 ,tamerlane1 ,mahomet1 ,pizarro1 ,william the ,conqueror--pure ,spoliation from beginning to end in the shape of ,conquest4 ,hers are the laurels1 the monuments1 the statues1 the triumphal arches1 the song of the poet1 the intoxicating enthusiasm of the fair6 ,the ,conqueror soon finds that he can turn his victories to more profitable account than by putting to death the vanquished2 and ,slavery covers the earth4 ,down to our own times1 all over the world this has been the form in which societies have existed1 bringing with it hates1 resistance1 internal struggles1 and revolutions4 ,and what is ,slavery but organized oppression--organized for the purpose of ,spoliation8 ,but ,spoliation not only arms ,force against ,feebleness--she turns ,intelligence against ,credulity4 ,what hard-working people in the world has escaped being sweated by sacerdotal theocracies1 ,egyptian priests1 ,greek oracles1 ,roman auguries1 ,gallic druids1 ,indian brahmins1 muftis1 ulemas1 bonzes1 monks1 ministers1 mountebanks1 sorcerers1 soothsayers1--spoliators of all garbs and of all denominations4 ,assuming this guise1 ,spoliation places the fulcrum of her lever in heaven1 and sacrilegiously prides herself on the complicity of the gods6 ,she enslaves not men's limbs only1 but their souls4 ,she knows how to impress the iron of slavery as well upon the conscience of ,side#fe as upon the forehead of ,spartacus--realizing what would seem impossible--,mental ,slavery4 ,mental ,slavery6 what a frightful association of words6 ,o ,liberty6 we have seen thee hunted from country to country1 crushed by conquest1 groaning under slavery1 insulted in courts1 banished from the schools1 laughed at in saloons1 misunderstood in workshops1 denounced in churches4 ,it seems thou shouldst find in thought an inviolable refuge4 ,but if thou art to surrender in this thy last asylum1 what becomes of the hopes of ages1 and of what value is human existence8 ,at length1 however1 the progressive nature of man causes ,spoliation to develop in the society in which it exists1 resistance which paralyzes its force1 and knowledge which unveils its impostures4 ,but ,spoliation does not confess herself conquered for all that2 she only becomes more crafty1 and1 enveloping herself in the forms of government and in a system of checks and counterpoises1 she gives birth to ,politics1 long a prolific resource4 ,we then see her usurping the liberty of citizens1 the better to get hold of their wealth1 p#cba and draining away their wealth to possess herself more surely of their liberty4 ,private activity passes into the domain of public activity4 ,everything is transacted through functionaries1 and an unintelligent and meddling bureaucracy overspreads the land4 ,the public treasury becomes a vast reservoir into which labourers pour their savings1 to be immediately distributed among placemen4 ,transactions are no longer regulated by free bargaining and discussion1 and the mutuality of services disappears4 ,in this state of things the true notion of ,property is extinguished1 and every one appeals to the ,law to give his services a factitious value4 ,we enter then upon the era of privileges4 ,spoliation1 ever improving in subtilty1 fortifies herself in ,monopoly1 and takes refuge behind ,restrictions4 ,she displaces the natural current of exchanges1 and sends capital into artificial channels1 and with capital1 labour--and with labour1 population4 ,she gets painfully produced in the ,north what is produced with facility in the ,south2 creates precarious classes and branches of industry2 substitutes for the gratuitous forces of nature the onerous fatigues of labour2 cherishes establishments which can sustain no rivalry1 and invokes against competitors the employment of force2 provokes international jealousies2 flatters patriotic arrogance2 and invents ingenious theories1 which make auxiliaries of her own dupes4 ,she constantly renders imminent industrial crises and bankruptcies1 shakes to its foundation all confidence in the future1 all faith in liberty1 all consciousness of what is just4 ,at length1 when science exposes her misdeeds1 she stirs up against science her own victims1 by proclaiming a ,utopia6 and ignores not only the science which places obstacles in her path1 but the very idea of any possible science1 by this crowning sentence of scepticism--,there are no principles6 ,under the pressure of suffering1 at length the masses rise1 and overturn everything which is above them4 ,government1 taxes1 legislation1 everything is at their mercy1 and you imagine perhaps that there is now an end to the reign of ,spoliation2--that the mutuality of services is about to be established on the only possible or even imaginable basis--,liberty4 ,undeceive yourself4 ,the fatal idea1 alas6 has permeated the masses1 that ,property has no other origin1 no other sanction1 no other legitimacy1 no other foundation1 than ,law2 and then the masses set to work legislatively to rob one another4 ,suffering from the wounds which have been inflicted upon them1 they undertake to cure each of their members by conceding to him the right to oppress his neighbour1 and call p#cbb this ,solidarity and ,fraternity4 8,you have produced--,i have not produced--we are solidaires--let us divide40 8,you have something--,i have nothing--we are brethren--let us share40 ,it will be our duty then to examine the improper use which has been made in these latter days of the terms association1 organization1 labour1 gratuit du crdit1 etc4 ,we shall have to subject them to this test--,do they imply ,liberty or ,oppression8 ,in other words1 are they in unison with the great ,economical laws1 or are they disturbances of those laws8 ,spoliation is a phenomenon too universal1 too persistent1 to permit us to attribute to it a character purely accidental4 ,in this1 as in many other matters1 we cannot separate the study of natural laws from the study of their ,perturbations4 ,but1 it may be said1 if spoliation enters necessarily into the play of the social mechanism as a dissonance1 how can you venture to assert the ,harmony of the ,economic laws8 ,i must repeat here what ,i have said in another place1 namely1 that in all which concerns man1 a being who is only perfectible because he is imperfect1 ,harmony consists1 not in the absolute absence of evil1 but in its gradual diminution4 ,the social body1 like the human body1 is provided with a curative force1 a vis medicatrix1 the laws and infallible power of which it is impossible to study without again exclaiming1 ,digitus ,dei est hic4 p#cbc ,,xi4 ,,producer--,,consumer4 ,if the level of the human race is not continually rising1 man is not a perfectible being4 ,if the social tendency is not a constant approximation of all men towards this progressive elevation1 the economic laws are not harmonious4 ,now1 how can the level of humanity be rising1 if each given quantity of labour does not yield a constantly increasing amount of enjoyments1 a phenomenon which can be explained only by the transformation of onerous into gratuitous utility4 ,and1 on the other hand1 how can this utility1 having become gratuitous1 bring men nearer and nearer to a common level1 if the utility has not at the same time itself become common8 ,here1 then1 we discover the essential law of social harmony4 ,i should have been pleased had the language of ,political ,economy furnished me with two words other than the terms production and consumption1 to designate services which are rendered and received4 ,these terms savour too much of materiality4 ,there are evidently services1 like those of the clergyman1 the professor1 the soldier1 the artist1 which tend to the furtherance of morality1 education1 security1 taste1 which have nothing in common with mechanical or manufacturing industry1 except this1 that the end to be attained is satisfaction or enjoyment4 ,the terms ,i have referred to are those generally employed1 and ,i have no wish to become a neologist4 ,but let it be understood that by production ,i mean what confers utility1 and by consumption the enjoyment to which that utility gives rise4 ,let the protectionist school--which is in reality a phase of ,communism--believe that in employing the terms producer and consumer we are not absurd enough to wish to represent the human race as divided into two distinct classes1 the one engaged p#cbd exclusively in the work of producing1 the other exclusively in that of consuming4 ,the naturalist divides the human race into whites and blacks1 or into men and women1 and the economist1 forsooth1 is not to classify them as producers and consumers1 because1 as the protectionist gentlemen sagely remark1 producer and consumer make but one person6 ,why1 it is for the very reason that they do make but one that each individual comes to be considered by the science of ,political ,economy in this double capacity4 ,our business is not to divide the human race into two classes1 but to study man under two very different aspects4 ,if the protectionists were to forbid grammarians to employ the pronouns ,i and thou1 on the pretext that every man is in turn the person speaking and the person spoken to1 it would be a sufficient answer to say1 that although it be perfectly true that we cannot place all the tongues on one side1 and all the ears on the other1 since every man has both ears and a tongue1 it by no means follows that1 with reference to each proposition enunciated1 the tongue does not pertain to one man and the ear to another4 ,in the same way1 with reference to every service1 the man who renders it is quite distinct from the man who receives it4 ,the producer and consumer are always set opposite each other1 so much so that they have always a controversy4 ,the very people who object to our studying mankind under the double aspect of producers and consumers have no difficulty in making this distinction when they address themselves to legislative assemblies4 ,we then find them demanding monopoly or freedom of trade1 according as the matter in dispute refers to a commodity which they sell1 or a commodity which they purchase4 ,without dwelling longer1 then1 on this preliminary exception taken by the protectionists1 let us acknowledge that in the social order the separation of employments causes each man to occupy two situations1 sufficiently distinct to render their action and relations worthy of our study4 ,in general1 we devote ourselves to some special trade1 profession1 or career1 and it is not from that particular source that we expect to derive our satisfactions4 ,we render and receive services2 we supply and demand values2 we make purchases and sales2 we work for others1 and others work for us2 in short1 we are producers and consumers4 ,according as we present ourselves in the market in one or other of these capacities1 we carry thither a spirit which is very different1 or rather1 ,i should say1 very opposite4 ,suppose1 for example1 that corn is the subject of the transaction4 ,the same man has very p#cbe different views when he goes to market as a purchaser1 from what he has when he goes there as a seller4 ,as a purchaser1 he desires abundance2 as a seller1 scarcity4 ,in either case1 these desires may be traced to the same source--personal interest2 but as to sell or buy1 to give or to receive1 to supply or to demand1 are acts as opposite as possible1 they cannot but give rise1 and from the same motive1 to opposite desires4 ,antagonistic desires cannot at one and the same time coincide with the general good4 ,in another work1#ff ,i have endeavoured to show that the wishes or desires of men in their capacity of consumers are those which are in harmony with the public interest2 and it cannot be otherwise4 ,for seeing that enjoyment is the end and design of labour1 and that the labour is determined only by the obstacle to be overcome1 it is evident that labour is in this sense an evil1 and that everything should tend to diminish it2 that enjoyment is a good1 and that everything should tend to increase it4 ,and here presents itself the great1 the perpetual1 the deplorable illusion which springs from the erroneous definition of value1 and from confounding value with utility4 ,value being simply a relation1 is of as much greater importance to each individual as it is of less importance to society at large4 ,what renders service to the masses is utility alone2 and value is not at all the measure of it4 ,what renders service to the individual is still only utility4 ,but value is the measure of it2 for1 with each determinate value1 he obtains from society the utility of his choice1 in the proportion of that value4 ,if we regard man as an isolated being1 it is as clear as day that consumption1 and not production1 is the essential thing2 for consumption to a certain extent implies labour1 but labour does not imply consumption4 ,the separation of employments has led certain economists to measure the general prosperity1 not by consumption1 but by labour4 ,and by following these economists we have come to this strange subversion of principle1 to favour labour at the expense of its results4 ,the reasoning has been this3 ,the more difficulties are overcome the better4 ,then augment the difficulties to be conquered4 ,the error of this reasoning is manifest4 ,no doubt1 a certain amount of difficulties being given1 it is fortunate that a certain quantity of labour also given should p#cbf surmount as many of these difficulties as possible4 ,but to diminish the power of the labourer or augment that of the difficulties1 in order to increase value1 is positively monstrous4 ,an individual member of society is interested in this1 that his services1 while preserving even the same degree of utility1 should increase in value4 ,suppose his desires in this respect to be realized1 it is easy to perceive what will happen4 ,he is better off1 but his brethren are worse off1 seeing that the total amount of utility has not been increased4 ,we cannot then reason from particulars to generals1 and say3 ,pursue such measures as in their result will satisfy the desire which all individuals entertain to see the value of their services augmented4 ,value being a relation1 we should have accomplished nothing if the increase in all departments were proportionate to the anterior value2 if it were arbitrary and unequal for different services1 we should have done nothing but introduce injustice into the distribution of utilities4 ,it is of the nature of every bargain or mercantile transaction to give rise to a debate4 ,but by using this word debate1 shall ,i not bring down upon myself all the sentimental schools which are nowadays so numerous8 ,debate implies antagonism1 it will be said4 ,you admit1 then1 that antagonism is the natural state of society4 ,here again ,i have to break another lance2 for in this country economic science is so little understood1 that one cannot make use of a word without raising up an opponent4 ,i have been justly reproached for using the phrase that 8,between the seller and buyer there exists a radical antagonism40 ,the word antagonism1 when strengthened by the word radical1 implies much more than ,i meant to express4 ,it would seem to imply a permanent opposition of interests1 consequently an indestructible social dissonance2 while what ,i wished to indicate was merely that transient debate or discussion which precedes every commercial transaction1 and which is inherent in the very idea of a bargain4 ,as long as1 to the regret of the sentimental utopiast1 there shall remain a vestige of liberty in the world1 buyers and sellers will discuss their interests1 and higgle about prices2 nor will the social laws cease to be harmonious on that account4 ,is it possible to conceive that the man who offers and the man who demands a service should meet each other in the market without having for the moment a different idea of its value8 ,is that to set the world on fire8 ,must all commercial transactions1 all exchanges1 all barter1 all liberty1 be banished from this earth1 or are we to allow each of p#cbg the contracting parties to defend his position1 and urge and put forward his motives8 ,it is this very free debate or discussion which gives rise to the equivalence of services and the equity of transactions4 ,by what other means can our system-makers ensure this equity which is so desirable8 ,would they by legislation trammel the liberty of one of the parties only8 ,then the one must be in the power of the other4 ,would they take away from both the liberty of managing their own affairs1 under the pretext that they ought henceforth to buy and sell on the principle of fraternity8 ,let me tell the ,socialists that it is here their absurdity becomes apparent1 for1 in the long-run1 these interests must be regulated and adjusted4 ,is the discussion to be inverted1 the purchaser taking the part of the seller and vice versa8 ,such transactions would be very diverting1 we must allow4 8,please1 sir1 give me only #aj francs for this cloth40 8,what say you8 ,i will give you #bj for it40 8,but1 my good sir1 it is worth nothing--it is out of fashion--it will be worn out in a fortnight10 says the merchant4 8,it is of the best quality1 and will last two winters10 replies the customer4 8,very well1 sir1 to please you1 ,i will add #e francs--this is all the length that fraternity will allow me to go40 8,it is against my ,socialist principles to pay less than #bj francs1 but we must learn to make sacrifices1 and ,i agree40 ,thus this whimsical transaction will just arrive at the ordinary result1 and our system-makers will regret to see accursed liberty still surviving1 although turned upside down and engendering a new antagonism4 ,that is not what we want1 say the organisateurs2 what we desire is liberty4 ,then1 what would you be at8 for services must still be exchanged1 and conditions adjusted4 ,we expect that the care of adjusting them should be left to us4 ,i suspected as much4 4 4 4 4 4 ,fraternity6 bond of brotherhood1 sacred flame kindled by heaven in man's soul1 how has thy name been abused6 ,in thy name all freedom has been stifled4 ,in thy name a new despotism1 such as the world had never before seen1 has been erected2 and we are at length driven to fear that the very name of fraternity1 after being thus sullied1 and having served as the rallying cry of so many incapables1 the mask of so much ambition1 and proud contempt of human dignity1 should end by losing altogether its grand and noble significance4 ,let us no longer1 then1 aim at overturning everything1 domineering over everything and everybody1 and withdrawing all--men and things--from the operation of natural laws4 ,let us leave the world as ,god has made it4 ,let us1 poor scribblers1 not imagine p#cbh ourselves anything else than observers1 more or less exact1 of what is passing around us4 ,let us no longer render ourselves ridiculous by pretending to change human nature1 as if we were ourselves beyond humanity and its errors and weaknesses4 ,let us leave producers and consumers to take care of their own interests1 and to arrange and adjust these interests by honest and peaceful conventions4 ,let us confine ourselves to the observation of relations1 and the effects to which they give rise4 ,this is precisely what ,i am about to do1 keeping always in view this general law1 which ,i apprehend to be the law of human society1 namely1 the gradual equalization of individuals and of classes1 combined with general progress4 ,a line no more resembles a force or a velocity1 than it does a value or a utility4 ,mathematicians1 nevertheless1 make use of diagrams2 and why should not the economist do the same8 ,we have values which are equal1 values the mutual relations of which are known as the half1 the quarter1 double1 triple1 etc4 ,there is nothing to prevent our representing these differences by lines of various lengths4 ,but the same thing does not hold with reference to utility4 ,general utility1 as we have seen1 may be resolved into gratuitous utility and onerous utility1 the former due to the action of nature1 the latter the result of human labour4 ,this last being capable of being estimated and measured1 may be represented by a line of determinate length2 but the other is not susceptible of estimation or of measurement4 ,no doubt in the production of a measure of wheat1 of a cask of wine1 of an ox1 of a stone of wool1 a ton of coals1 a bundle of faggots1 nature does much4 ,but we have no means of measuring this natural co-operation of forces1 most of which are unknown to us1 and which have been in operation since the beginning of time4 ,nor have we any interest in doing so4 ,we may represent gratuitous utility1 then1 by an indefinite line4 ,now1 let there be two products1 the value of the one being double that of the other1 they may be represented by these lines3-- ,i ,a ,b 4444444444444444------------------------ ---------------- ,i ,c ,d 4444444444444444-------------------- ,,ib1 ,,id1 represent the total product1 general utility1 what satisfies man's wants1 absolute wealth4 p#cbi ,,ia1 ,,ic1 the co-operation of nature1 gratuitous utility1 the part which belongs to the domain of community4 ,,ab1 ,,cd1 human service1 onerous utility1 value1 relative wealth1 the part which belongs to the domain of property4 ,i need not say that ,,ab1 which you may suppose1 if you will1 to represent a house1 a piece of furniture1 a book1 a song sung by ,jenny ,lind1 a horse1 a bale of cloth1 a consultation of physicians1 etc41 will exchange for twice ,,cd1 and that the two men who effect the exchange will give into the bargain1 and without even being aware of it1 the one1 once ,,ia1 the other twice ,,ic4 ,man is so constituted that his constant endeavour is to diminish the proportion of effort to result1 to substitute the action of nature for his own action2 in a word1 to accomplish more with less4 ,this is the constant aim of his skill1 his intelligence1 and his energy4 ,let us suppose then that ,john1 the producer of ,,ib1 discovers a process by means of which he accomplishes his work with one-half the labour which it formerly cost him1 taking everything into account1 even the construction of the instrument by means of which he avails himself of the co-operation of nature4 ,as long as he preserves his secret1 we shall have no change in the figures we have given above2 ,,ab and ,,cd will represent the same values1 the same relations2 for ,john alone of all the world being acquainted with the improved process1 he will turn it exclusively to his own profit and advantage4 ,he will take his ease for half the day1 or else he will make1 each day1 twice the quantity of ,,ib1 and his labour will be better remunerated4 ,the discovery he has made is for the good of mankind1 but mankind in this case is represented by one man4 ,and here let us remark1 in passing1 how fallacious is the axiom of the ,english ,economists that value comes from labour1 if thereby it is intended to represent value and labour as proportionate4 ,here we have the labour diminished by one-half1 and yet no change in the value4 ,this is what constantly happens1 and why8 ,because the service is the same4 ,before as after the discovery1 as long as it is a secret1 he who gives or transfers ,,ib renders the same service4 ,but things will no longer be in the same position when ,peter1 the producer of ,,id1 is enabled to say1 8,you ask me for two hours of my labour in exchange for one hour of yours2 but ,i have found out your process1 and if you set so high a price on your service1 ,i shall serve myself40 ,now this day must necessarily come4 ,a process once realized p#ccj is not long a mystery4 ,then the value of the product ,,ib will fall by one-half1 and we shall have these two figures4 ,i ,a ,a ,b 444444444444444444444444444444444------- ----------------- ,i ,c ,d 444444444444444444444444444444444------- ----------------- ,,aa represent value annihilated1 relative wealth which has disappeared1 property become common1 utility formerly onerous1 now gratuitous4 ,for1 as regards ,john1 who here represents the producer1 he is reinstated in his former condition4 ,with the same effort which it cost him formerly to produce ,,ib1 he can now produce twice as much4 ,in order to obtain twice ,,id1 we see him constrained to give twice ,,ib1 or what ,,ib represents1 be it furniture1 books1 houses1 or what it may4 ,who profits by all this8 ,clearly ,peter1 the producer of ,,id1 who here represents consumers in general1 including ,john himself4 ,if1 in fact1 ,john desires to consume his own product1 he profits by the saving of time represented by the suppression of ,,aa4 ,as regards ,peter1 that is to say as regards consumers in general1 they can now purchase ,,ib with half the expenditure of time1 effort1 labour1 value1 compared with what it would have cost them before the intervention of natural forces4 ,these forces1 then1 are gratuitous1 and1 moreover1 common4 ,since ,i have ventured to illustrate my argument by geometrical figures1 perhaps ,i may be permitted to give another example1 and ,i shall be happy if by this method--somewhat whimsical1 ,i allow1 as applied to ,political ,economy--,i can render more intelligible to the reader the phenomena which ,i wish to describe4 ,as a producer1 or as a consumer1 every man may be considered as a centre from whence radiate the services which he renders1 and to which tend the services which he receives in exchange4 ,suppose then that there is placed at ,a 7,fig4 #a7 a producer1 a copyist1 for example1 or transcriber of manuscripts1 who here represents all producers1 or production in general4 ,he furnishes to society four manuscripts4 ,if at the present moment the value of each of these manuscripts is equal to #ae1 he renders services equal to #fj1 and receives an equal value1 variously spread over a multitude of services4 ,to simplify the demonstration1 ,i suppose only p#cca four of them1 proceeding from four points of the circumference ,,bcde4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,value produced #fj ,value received #fj ,utility produced #d ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,value produced #fj ,value received #fj ,utility produced #f ,this man1 we now suppose1 discovers the art of printing4 ,he can thenceforth produce in #dj hours what formerly would have cost him #fj4 ,admit that competition forces him to reduce proportionally the price of his books1 and that in place of being worth #ae1 they are now worth only #aj4 ,but then in place of four our workman can now produce six books4 ,on the other hand1 the fund of remuneration proceeding from the circumference1 amounting to #fj1 has not changed4 ,there is remuneration for six books1 worth #aj each1 just as there was formerly remuneration for four manuscripts1 each worth #ae4 ,this1 let me remark briefly1 is what is always lost sight of in discussing the question of machinery1 of free-trade1 and of progress in general4 ,men see the labour set free and rendered disposable by the expeditive process1 and they become alarmed4 ,they do not see that a corresponding proportion of remuneration is rendered disposable also by the same circumstance4 ,the new transactions we have supposed are represented by ,fig4 #b1 where we see radiate from the centre ,a1 a total value of #fj1 spread over six books1 in place of four manuscripts4 ,from the circumference still proceeds a value1 equal to #fj1 necessary now as formerly1 to make up the balance4 ,who then has gained by the change8 ,as regards value1 no one4 ,as regards real wealth1 positive satisfactions1 the countless body of consumers ranged round the circumference4 ,each of them can now purchase a book with an amount of labour reduced by one-third4 ,but the consumers are the human race4 ,for observe that p#ccb ,a himself1 if he gains nothing in his capacity of producer1--if he is obliged1 as formerly1 to perform #fj hours' labour in order to obtain the old remuneration1--nevertheless1 in as far as he is a consumer of books1 gains exactly as others do4 ,like them1 if he desires to read1 he can procure this enjoyment with an economy of labour equal to one-third4 ,but if1 in his character of producer1 he finds himself at length deprived of the profit of his own inventions1 by competition1 where in that case is his compensation8 ,his compensation consists1 #ast1 in this1 that as long as he was able to preserve his secret1 he continued to sell #ae of what he produced at the cost of #aj2 #b;dly1 ,in this1 that he obtains books for his own use at a smaller cost1 and thus participates in the advantages he has procured for society4 ,but1 #c;dly1 ,his compensation consists above all in this1 that just in the same way as he has been forced to impart to his fellow-men the benefit of his own progress1 he benefits by the progress of his fellow-men4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,just as the progress accomplished by ,a has profited ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 the progress realized by ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e has profited ,a4 ,by turns ,a finds himself at the centre and at the circumference of universal industry1 for he is by turns producer and consumer4 ,if ,b1 for example1 is a cotton-spinner who has introduced improved machinery1 the profit will redound to ,a as well as to ,c1 ,d4 ,if ,c is a mariner who has replaced the oar by the sail1 the economy of labour will profit ,b1 ,a1 ,e4 ,in short1 the whole mechanism reposes on this law3-- ,progress benefits the producer1 as such1 only during the time necessary to recompense his skill4 ,it soon produces a fall of value1 and leaves to the first imitators a fair1 but small1 recompense4 ,at length value becomes proportioned to the diminished labour1 and the whole saving accrues to society at large4 ,thus all profit by the progress of each1 and each profits by the progress of all4 ,the principle1 each for all1 all for each1 put forward by the ,socialists1 and which they would have us receive as a novelty1 the germ of which is to be discovered in their organizations founded on oppression and constraint1 ,god himself has given us2 and ,he has educed it from liberty4 p#ccc ,god1 ,i say1 has given us this principle1 and ,he has not established it in a model community1 presided over by ,m4 ,considrant1 or in a ,phalanstre of six hundred harmoniens1 or in a tentative ,icarie1#fg on condition that a few fanatics should submit themselves to the arbitrary power of a monomaniac1 and that the faithless should pay for the true believers4 ,no1 ,god has established the principle each for all and all for each generally1 universally1 by a marvellous mechanism1 in which justice1 liberty1 utility1 and sociability are mingled and reconciled in such a degree as ought to discourage these manufacturers of social organizations4 ,observe that this great law of each for all and all for each is much more universal than my demonstration supposes it4 ,words are dull and heavy1 and the pen still more so4 ,the writer is obliged to exhibit successively1 and one after the other1 with despairing slowness1 phenomena which recommend themselves to our admiration only in the aggregate4 ,thus1 ,i have just spoken of inventions4 ,you might conclude that this was the only case in which progress1 once attained1 escapes from the producer1 and goes to enlarge the common fund of mankind4 ,it is not so4 ,it is a general law that every advantage of whatever kind1 proceeding from local situation1 climate1 or any other liberality of nature1 slips rapidly from the hands of the person who first discovered and appropriated it--not on that account to be lost1 but to go to feed the vast reservoir from which the enjoyments of mankind are derived4 ,one condition alone is attached1 which is1 that labour and transactions should be free4 ,to run counter to liberty is to run counter to the designs of ,providence2 it is to suspend the operation of ,god's law1 and limit progress in a double sense4 ,what ,i have just said with reference to the transfer of advantages holds equally true of evils and disadvantages4 ,nothing remains permanently with the producer--neither advantages nor inconveniences4 ,both tend to disseminate themselves through society at large4 ,we have just seen with what avidity the producer seeks to avail himself of whatever may facilitate his work2 and we have seen1 too1 in how short a time the profit arising from inventions and discoveries slips from the inventor's hands4 ,it seems as if that profit were not in the hands of a superior intelligence1 but of a blind and obedient instrument of general progress4 ,with the same ardour he shuns all that can shackle his action2 and this is a happy thing for the human race1 for it is to mankind p#ccd at large that in the long-run obstacles are prejudicial4 ,suppose1 for example1 that ,a1 the producer of books1 is subjected to a heavy tax4 ,he must add the amount of that tax to the price of his books4 ,it will enter into the value of the books as a constituent part1 the effect of which will be that ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e must give more labour in exchange for the same satisfaction4 ,their compensation will consist in the purpose to which ,government applies the tax4 ,if the use to which it is applied is beneficial1 they may gain instead of losing by the arrangement4 ,if it is employed to oppress them1 they will suffer in a double sense4 ,but as far as ,a is concerned1 he is relieved of the tax1 although he pays it in the first instance4 ,i do not mean to say that the producer does not frequently suffer from obstacles of various kinds1 and from taxes among others4 ,sometimes he suffers most seriously from the operation of taxes1 and it is precisely on that account that taxes tend to shift their incidence1 and to fall ultimately on the masses4 ,thus1 in ,france1 wine has been subjected to a multitude of exactions4 ,and then a system has been introduced which restricts its sale abroad4 ,it is curious to observe what skips and bounds such burdens make in passing from the producer to the consumer4 ,no sooner has the tax or restriction begun to operate than the producer endeavours to indemnify himself4 ,but the demand of the consumers1 as well as the supply of wine1 remaining the same1 the price cannot rise4 ,the producer gets no more for his wine after1 than he did before1 the imposition of the tax4 ,and as before the tax he received no more than an ordinary and adequate price1 determined by services freely exchanged1 he finds himself a loser by the whole amount of the tax4 ,to cause the price to rise1 he is obliged to diminish the quantity of wine produced4#fh 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the consumer1 then1--the public1--is relatively to the loss or profit which affects in the first instance certain classes of producers what the earth is to electricity--the great common reservoir4 ,all proceeds from it1 and after some detours1 longer or shorter as the case may be1 and after having given rise to certain phenomena more or less varied1 all returns to it again4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have just shown that the economic effects only glance upon the producer1 so to speak1 on their way to the consumer1 and that consequently all great and important questions of this kind must p#cce be regarded from the consumer's point of view if we wish to make ourselves masters of their general and permanent consequences4 ,this subordination of the interests of the producer to that of the consumer1 which we have deduced from the consideration of utility1 is fully confirmed when we advert to the consideration of morality4 ,responsibility1 in fact1 always rests with the initiative4 ,now where is the initiative8 ,in demand4 ,demand 7which implies the means of remuneration7 determines all--the direction of capital and of labour1 the distribution of population1 the morality of professions1 etc4 ,demand answers to ,desire1 while ,supply answers to ,effort4 ,desire is reasonable or unreasonable1 moral or immoral4 ,effort1 which is only an effect1 is morally neuter1 or has only a reflected morality4 ,demand or ,consumption says to the producer1 8,make that for me40 ,the producer obeys4 ,and this would be evident in every case if the producer always and everywhere waited for the demand4 ,but in practice this is not the case4 ,is it exchange which has led to the division of labour1 or the division of labour which has given rise to exchange8 ,this is a subtle and thorny question4 ,let us say that man makes exchanges1 because1 being intelligent and sociable1 he comprehends that this is one means of increasing the proportion of result to effort4 ,that which results exclusively from the division of labour and from foresight1 is that a man does not wait for a specific request to work for another4 ,experience teaches him tacitly that demand exists4 ,he makes the effort beforehand which is to satisfy the demand1 and this gives rise to trades and professions4 ,beforehand he makes shoes1 hats1 etc41 or prepares himself to sing1 to teach1 to plead1 to fight1 etc4 ,but is it really the supply which precedes the demand1 and determines it8 ,no4 ,it is because there is a sufficient certainty that these different services will be demanded that men prepare to render them1 although they do not always know precisely from what quarter the demand may come4 ,and the proof of it is1 that the relation between these different services is sufficiently well known1 that their value has been so widely tested that one may devote himself with some security to a particular manufacture1 or embrace a particular career4 ,the impulse of demand is then pre-existent1 seeing that one may calculate the intensity of it with so much precision4 p#ccf ,moreover1 when a man betakes himself to a particular trade or profession1 and sets himself to produce commodities1 about what is he solicitous8 ,is it about the utility of the article which he manufactures1 or its results1 good or bad1 moral or immoral8 ,not at all2 he thinks only of its value4 ,it is the demander who looks to the utility4 ,utility answers to his want1 his desire1 his caprice4 ,value1 on the contrary1 has relation only to the effort made1 to the service transferred4 ,it is only when1 by means of exchange1 the producer in his turn becomes the demander that utility is looked to4 ,when ,i resolve to manufacture hats rather than shoes1 ,i do not ask myself the question1 whether men have a greater interest in protecting their heads or their heels4 ,no1 that concerns the demander1 and determines the demand4 ,the demand in its turn determines the value1 or the degree of esteem in which the public holds the service4 ,value1 in short1 determines the effort or the supply4 ,hence result some very remarkable consequences in a moral point of view4 ,two nations may be equally furnished with values1 that is to say1 with relative wealth 7see chap4 vi71 and very unequally provided with real utilities1 or absolute wealth2 and this happens when one of them forms desires which are more unreasonable than those of the other--when the one considers its real wants1 and the other creates for itself wants which are factitious or immoral4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among one people a taste for education may predominate2 among another a taste for good living4 ,in such circumstances we render a service to the first when we have something to teach them2 to the other1 when we please their palate4 ,now1 services are remunerated according to the degree of importance we attach to them4 ,if we do not exchange1 if we render these services to ourselves1 what should determine us if not the nature and intensity of our desires8 ,in one of the countries we have supposed1 professors and teachers will abound2 in the other1 cooks4 ,in both1 the services exchanged may be equal in the aggregate1 and may consequently represent equal values1 or equal relative wealth1 but not the same absolute wealth4 ,in other words1 the one employs its labour well1 and the other employs it ill4 ,and as regards satisfactions the result will be this1 that the one people will have much instruction1 and the other good dinners4 ,the ultimate consequences of this diversity of tastes will have considerable influence not only upon real1 but upon relative wealth2 p#ccg for education may develop new means of rendering services1 which good dinners never can4 ,we remark among nations a prodigious diversity of tastes1 arising from their antecedents1 their character1 their opinions1 their vanity1 etc4 ,no doubt there are some wants so imperious 7hunger and thirst1 for example7 that we regard them as determinate quantities4 ,and yet it is not uncommon to see a man scrimp himself of food in order to have good clothes1 while another never thinks of his dress until his appetite is satisfied4 ,the same thing holds of nations4 ,but these imperious wants once satisfied1 everything else depends greatly on the will4 ,it becomes an affair of taste1 and in that region morality and good sense have much influence4 ,the intensity of the various national desires determines always the quantity of labour which each people subtracts from the aggregate of its efforts in order to satisfy each of its desires4 ,an ,englishman must1 above all things1 be well fed4 ,for this reason he devotes an enormous amount of his labour to the production of food1 and if he produces any other commodities1 it is with the intention of exchanging them abroad for alimentary substances4 ,the quantity of corn1 meat1 butter1 milk1 sugar1 etc41 consumed in ,england is frightful4 ,a ,frenchman desires to be amused4 ,he delights in what pleases his eye1 and in frequent changes4 ,his labours are in accordance with his tastes4 ,hence we have in ,france multitudes of singers1 mountebanks1 milliners1 elegant shops1 coffee-rooms1 etc4 ,in ,china1 the natives dream away life agreeably under the influence of opium1 and this is the reason why so great an amount of their national labour is devoted to procuring this precious narcotic1 either by direct production1 or indirectly by means of exchange4 ,in ,spain1 where the pomp of religious worship is carried to so great a height1 the exertions of the people are bestowed on the decoration of churches1 etc4 ,i shall not go the length of asserting that there is no immorality in services which pander to immoral and depraved desires4 ,but the immoral principle is obviously in the desire itself4 ,that would be beyond doubt were man living in a state of isolation2 and it is equally true as regards man in society1 for society is only individuality enlarged4 ,who then would think of blaming our labourers in the south of ,france for producing brandy8 ,they satisfy a demand4 ,they dig their vineyards1 dress their vines1 gather and distil the grapes1 without concerning themselves about the use which will be made of the product4 ,it is for the man who seeks the enjoyment to p#cch consider whether it is proper1 moral1 rational1 or productive of good4 ,the responsibility rests with him4 ,the business of the world could be conducted on no other footing4 ,is the tailor to tell his customer that he cannot make him a coat of the fashion he wants because it is extravagant1 or because it prevents his breathing freely1 etc41 etc4 ,then what concern is it of our poor vine-dressers if rich diners-out in ,london indulge too freely in claret8 ,or can we seriously accuse the ,english of raising opium in ,india with the deliberate intention of poisoning the ,chinese8 ,a frivolous people requires frivolous manufactures1 just as a serious people requires industry of a more serious kind4 ,if the human race is to be improved1 it must be by the improved morality of the consumer1 not of the producer4 ,this is the design of religion in addressing the rich--the great consumers--so seriously on their immense responsibility4 ,from another point of view1 and employing a different language1 ,political ,economy arrives at the same conclusion1 when she affirms that we cannot check the supply of any commodity which is in demand2 that as regards the producer1 the commodity is simply a value1 a sort of current coin which represents nothing either good or evil1 whilst it is in the intention of the consumer that utility1 or moral or immoral enjoyment1 is to be discovered2 consequently1 that it is incumbent on the man who manifests the desire or makes the demand for the commodity to weigh the consequences1 whether useful or hurtful1 and to answer before ,god and man for the good or bad direction which he impresses upon industry4 ,thus from whatever point of view we regard the subject1 we see clearly that consumption is the great end of ,political ,economy2 and that good and evil1 morality and immorality1 harmonies and dissonances1 all come to centre in the consumer1 for he represents mankind at large4 p#cci ,,xii4 ,,the ,,two ,,aphorisms4 ,modern moralists who oppose the maxim1 ,chacun pour tous1 tous pour chacun1 to the old proverb1 ,chacun pour soi1 chacun chez soi1 have formed a very incomplete1 and for that reason a very false1 and1 ,i would add1 a very melancholy idea of ,society4 ,let us eliminate1 in the first place1 from these two celebrated sayings what is superfluous4 ,all for each is a redundancy1 introduced from love of antithesis1 for it is expressly included in each for all4 ,as regards the saying chacun chez soi1 the idea has no direct relation with the others2 but1 as it is of great importance in ,political ,economy1 we shall make it hereafter the subject of inquiry4 ,it remains for us to consider the assumed opposition between these two members of the adages we have quoted1 namely1 each for all--each for himself4 ,the one1 it is said1 expresses the sympathetic principle1 the other the individualist or selfish principle4 ,the first unites1 the second divides4 ,now1 if we refer exclusively to the motive which determines the effort1 the opposition is incontestable4 ,but ,i maintain that if we consider the aggregate of human efforts in their results1 the case is different4 ,examine ,society1 as it actually exists1 obeying1 as regards services which are capable of remuneration1 the individualist or selfish principle2 and you will be at once convinced that every man in working for himself is in fact working for all4 ,this is beyond doubt4 ,if the reader of these lines exercises a profession or trade1 ,i entreat him for a moment to turn his regards upon himself2 and ,i would ask him whether all his labours have not the satisfaction of others for their object1 and1 on the other hand1 whether it is not to the exertions of others that he himself owes all his satisfactions4 ,it is evident that they who assert that each for himself and each p#cdj for all are contradictory1 conceive that an incompatibility exists between individualism and association4 ,they think that each for himself implies isolation1 or a tendency to isolation2 that personal interest divides men1 in place of uniting them1 and that this principle tends to the chacun chez soi1 that is to say1 to the absence of all social relations4 ,in taking this view1 ,i repeat1 they form a false1 because incomplete idea of society4 ,even when moved only by personal interest1 men seek to draw nearer each other1 to combine their efforts1 to unite their forces1 to work for one another1 to render reciprocal services1 to associate4 ,it would not be correct to say that they act in this way in spite of self-interest2 they do so in obedience to self-interest4 ,they associate because they find their account in it4 ,if they did not find it for their advantage1 they would not associate4 ,individualism1 then1 or a regard to personal interest1 performs the work which the sentimentalists of our day would confide to ,fraternity1 to self-sacrifice1 or some other motive opposed to self-love4 ,and this just establishes the conclusion at which we never fail to arrive--that ,providence has provided for the social state much better than the men can who call themselves its prophets4 ,for of two things one2 either union is injurious to individuality1 or it is advantageous to it4 ,if it injures it1 what are the ,socialist gentlemen to do1 how can they manage1 and what rational motive can they have to bring about a state of things which is hurtful to everybody8 ,if1 on the contrary1 union is advantageous1 it will be brought about by the action of personal interest1 which is the strongest1 the most permanent1 the most uniform1 the most universal1 of all motives1 let men say what they will4 ,just look at how the thing actually works in practice4 ,a squatter goes away to clear a field in the ,far ,west4 ,not a day passes without his experiencing the difficulties which isolation creates4 ,a second squatter now makes his way to the desert4 ,where does he pitch his tent8 ,does he retire naturally to a distance from the first8 ,no2 he draws near to him naturally--and why8 ,because he knows all the advantages that men derive1 with equal exertion1 from the very circumstance of proximity4 ,he knows that on various occasions they can accommodate each other by lending and borrowing tools and instruments1 by uniting their action1 by conquering difficulties insurmountable by individual exertion1 by creating reciprocally a market for produce1 by interchanging their views and opinions1 and by providing for their common safety4 ,a third1 a fourth1 a fifth squatter penetrates into p#cda the desert1 and is invariably attracted by the smoke of the first settlements4 ,other people will then step in with larger capital1 knowing that they will find hands there ready to be set to work4 ,a colony is formed4 ,they change somewhat the mode of culture2 they form a path to the highway1 by which the mail passes2 they import and export2 construct a church1 a school-house1 etc41 etc4 ,in a word1 the power of the colonists is augmented by the very fact of their proximity1 and to such a degree as to exceed1 to an incalculable extent1 the sum of their isolated and individual forces2 and this is the motive which has attracted them towards each other4 ,but it may be said that every man for himself is a frigid maxim1 which all the reasoning and paradoxes in the world cannot render otherwise than repugnant2 that it smells of egotism a mile off1 and that egotism is more than an evil in society1 being itself the source of most other evils4 ,now1 listen a little1 if you please4 ,if the maxim every man for himself is understood in this sense1 that it is to regulate all our thoughts1 acts1 and relations1 that we are to find it at the root of all our family and domestic affections1 as fathers1 sons1 brothers1 husbands1 friends1 citizens1 or rather that it is to repress and to extinguish these affections1 then ,i admit that it is frightful1 horrible1 and such1 that were there one man upon the earth heartless enough to make it the rule of his conduct1 that man dared not even proclaim it in theory4 ,but will the ,socialists1 in the teeth of fact and experience1 always refuse to admit that there are two orders of human relations--one dependent on the sympathetic principle1 and which we leave to the domain of morals1--another springing from self-interest1 and regulating transactions between men who know nothing of each other1 and owe each other nothing but justice1--transactions regulated by voluntary covenants freely adjusted8 ,covenants of this last species are precisely those which come within the domain of ,political ,economy4 ,it is1 in truth1 no more possible to base commercial transactions on the principle of sympathy1 than it is to base family and friendly relations on self-interest4 ,to the ,socialists ,i shall never cease to address this remonstrance3 ,you wish to mix up two things which cannot be confounded4 ,if you were fools enough to wish to confound them1 you have not the power to do it4 ,the blacksmith1 the carpenter1 and the labourer1 who exhaust their strength in rude avocations1 may be excellent fathers1 admirable sons2 they may have the moral sense thoroughly developed1 and carry in their breasts hearts of large and expansive sympathy4 p#cdb ,in spite of all that1 you will never persuade them to labour from morning to night with the sweat of their brow1 and impose upon themselves the hardest privations1 upon a mere principle of devotion to their fellow-men4 ,your sentimental lectures on this subject are1 and always will be1 powerless4 ,if1 unfortunately1 they could mislead a few operatives1 they would just make so many dupes4 ,let the merchant set to work to sell his wares on the principle of ,fraternity1 and ,i venture to predict that1 in less than a month1 he will see himself and his children reduced to beggary4 ,providence has done well1 then1 in giving to the social state very different guarantees4 ,taking man as we find him1--sensibility and individuality1 benevolence and self-love being inseparable1--we cannot hope1 we cannot desire to see the motive of personal interest universally eradicated--nor can we understand how it could be4 ,and yet nothing short of this would be necessary in order to restore the equilibrium of human relations2 for if you break this mainspring of action only in certain chosen spirits1 you create two classes1--scoundrels whom you thus tempt to make victims of their fellow-men--and the virtuous1 for whom the part of victims is reserved4 ,seeing1 then1 that as regards labour and exchanges1 the principle each for himself must inevitably have the predominance as a motive of action1 the marvellous and admirable thing is1 that the ,author of all should have made use of that principle in order to realize1 in the social order1 the maxim of the advocates of ,fraternity1 each for all4 ,in ,his skilful hand the obstacle has become the instrument4 ,the general interest has been intrusted to personal interest1 and the one has become infallible because the other is indestructible4 ,to me it would seem that1 in presence of these wondrous results1 the constructors of artificial societies might1 without any excess of humility1 acknowledge that1 as regards organization1 the ,divine ,architect has far surpassed them4 ,remark1 too1 that in the natural order of society1 the principle of each for all1 based upon the principle of each for himself1 is much more complete1 much more absolute1 much more personal1 than it would be in the ,socialist and ,communist point of view4 ,not only do we work for all1 but we cannot realize a single step of progress without its being profitable to the ,community at large4 7,see chapter x41 and ante1 chapter xi47 ,the order of things has been so marvellously arranged1 that when we have invented a new process1 or discovered the liberality of nature in any department--some new source of fertility in the soil1 or some new mode of p#cdc action in one of the laws of the physical world1--the profit is ours temporarily1 transiently1 so long as to prove just as a recompense1 and useful as an encouragement1--after which the advantage escapes from our grasp1 in spite of all our efforts to retain it4 ,from individual it becomes social1 and falls for ever into the domain of the common and the gratuitous4 ,and while we thus impart the fruits of our progress to our fellow-men1 we ourselves become participators in the progress which other men have achieved4 ,in short1 by the rule each for himself1 individual efforts1 reinforced and invigorated1 act in the direction of each for all1 and every partial step of progress brings a thousand times more to society1 in gratuitous utility1 than it has brought to its inventor in direct profits4 ,with the maxim each for all no one would act exclusively for himself4 ,what producer would take it into his head to double his labour in order to add a thirty-millionth part to his wages8 ,it may be said1 then1 why refute the ,socialist aphorism8 ,what harm can it do8 ,undoubtedly it will not introduce into workshops1 counting-rooms1 warehouses1 nor establish in fairs and markets1 the principle of self-sacrifice4 ,but then it will either tend to nothing1 and then we may let it sleep in peace1 or it will bend somewhat that stiffness of the egotistical principle1 which1 excluding all sympathy1 has scarcely right to claim any4 ,what is false is always dangerous4 ,it is always a dangerous thing to represent as detestable and pernicious an eternal and universal principle which ,god has evidently destined to the conservation and advancement of the human race2 a principle1 ,i allow1 as far as motive is concerned1 which does not come home to our heart1 but which1 when viewed with reference to its results1 astonishes and satisfies the mind2 a principle1 moreover1 which leaves the field perfectly free to the action of those more elevated motives which ,god has implanted in the heart of man4 ,but1 then1 what happens8 ,the ,socialist public adopts only one-half the ,socialist maxim--the last half1 all for each4 ,they continue as before to work each for himself1 but they require1 over and above1 that all should work for them4 ,it must be so4 ,when dreamers desired to change the grand mainspring of human exertion1 by substituting fraternity for individualism1 they found it necessary to invent a hypocritical contradiction4 ,they set themselves to call out to the masses1--8,stifle self-love in your hearts and follow us2 you will be rewarded for it p#cdd by unbounded wealth and enjoyment40 ,when men try to parody the ,gospel1 they should come to a ,gospel conclusion4 ,self-denial implies sacrifice and pain--self-devotion means1 8,take the lowest seat1 be poor1 and suffer voluntarily40 ,but under pretence of abnegation to promise enjoyment2 to exhibit wealth and prosperity behind the pretended sacrifice2 to combat a passion which they brand with the name of egotism by addressing themselves to the grossest and most material tendencies2--this is not only to render homage to the indestructible vitality of the principle they desire to overthrow1 but to exalt it to the highest point while declaiming against it2 it is to double the forces of the enemy1 instead of conquering him2 to substitute unjust covetousness for legitimate individualism2 and1 in spite of all the artifice of a mystical jargon1 to excite the grossest sensualism4 ,let avarice answer this appeal4#fi ,and is that not the position in which we now are8 ,what is the universal cry among all ranks and classes8 ,all for each4 ,in pronouncing the word each1 we are thinking of ourselves1 and what we ask is to have a share which we have not merited1 in the fruits of other men's labour4 ,in other words1 we systematize spoliation4 ,no doubt1 spoliation1 simple and naked1 is so unjust that we repudiate it2 but1 by dint of the maxim all for each1 we allay the scruples of conscience4 ,we impose upon others the duty of working for us1 and we arrogate to ourselves the right to enjoy the fruits of other men's labour4 ,we summon the ,state1 the law1 to impose the pretended duty1 to protect the pretended right1 and we arrive at the whimsical result of robbing one another in the sacred name of ,fraternity4 ,we live at other men's expense1 and attribute heroism to the sacrifice4 ,what an odd1 strange thing the human mind is6 and how subtle is covetousness6 ,it is not enough that each of us should endeavour to increase his share at the expense of his fellows1 it is not enough that we should desire to profit by labour that we have not performed2 we persuade ourselves that in acting thus we are displaying a sublime example of self-sacrifice4 ,we almost go the length of comparing ourselves to the primitive ,christians1 and yet we blind ourselves so far as not to see that the sacrifices which make us weep in fond admiration p#cde of our own virtue1 are sacrifices which we do not make1 but which1 on the contrary1 we exact4#gj ,it is worth observing the manner in which this mystification is effected4 ,steal6 ,oh fy1 that is mean--besides it leads to the hulks1 for the law forbids it4 ,but if the law authorized it1 and lent its aid1 would not that be very convenient8 4 4 4 4 ,what a happy thought6 4 4 4 4 ,no time is lost in soliciting from the law some trifling privilege1 a small monopoly1 and as it may cost some pains to protect it1 the ,state is asked to take it under its charge4 ,the ,state and the law come to an understanding to realize exactly that which it was their business to prevent or to punish4 ,by degrees the taste for monopolies gains ground4 ,no class but desires a monopoly4 ,all for each1 they cry2 we desire also to appear as philanthropists1 and show that we understand solidarity4 ,it happens that the privileged classes1 in thus robbing each other1 lose at least as much by the exactions to which they are subject1 as they gain by the contributions which they levy4 ,besides1 the great body of the working classes1 to whom no monopolies can be accorded1 suffer from them until they can endure it no longer4 ,they rise up1 and cover the streets with barricades and blood2 and then we must come to a reckoning with them4 ,what is their demand8 ,do they require the abolition of the abuses1 privileges1 monopolies1 and restrictions under which they suffer8 ,not at all4 ,they also are imbued with philanthropy4 ,they have been told that the celebrated apophthegm all for each is the solution of the social problem4 ,they have had it demonstrated to them over and over again that monopoly 7which in reality is only a theft7 is nevertheless quite moral if sanctioned by law4 ,then they demand 4 4 4 4 ,what8 4 4 4 4 ,monopolies6 ,they also summon the ,state to supply them with education1 employment1 credit1 assistance1 at the expense of the people4 ,what a strange illusion6 and how long will it last8 ,we can very well conceive how all the higher classes1 beginning with the highest1 can come to demand favours and privileges4 ,below them there is a great popular mass upon whom the burden falls4 ,but that the people1 when once conquerors1 should take it into their heads to enter into the privileged class1 and create monopolies for themselves at their own expense2 that they should enlarge the area of abuses in order to live upon them2 that they should not p#cdf see that there is nothing below them to support those acts of injustice3 this is one of the most astonishing phenomena of our age1 or of any age4 ,what has been the consequence8 ,by pursuing this course1 ,society has been brought to the verge of shipwreck4 ,men became alarmed1 and with reason4 ,the people soon lost their power1 and the old spread of abuses has been provisionally resumed4 ,the lesson1 however1 has not been quite lost upon the higher classes4 ,they find that it is necessary to do justice to the working class4 ,they ardently desire to succeed in this1 not only because their own security depends upon it1 but impelled1 as we must acknowledge1 by a spirit of equity4 ,of this ,i am thoroughly convinced1 that the wealthier classes desire nothing more than to discover the solution of the great problem4 ,i am satisfied that if we were to ask the greater part of our wealthy citizens to give up a considerable portion of their fortune in order to secure the future happiness and contentment of the people1 they would cheerfully make the sacrifice4 ,they anxiously seek the means of coming 7according to the consecrated phrase7 to the assistance of the labouring classes4 ,but for that end on what plan have they fallen6 4 4 ,still the communism of monopolies2 a mitigated communism1 however1 and which they hope to subject to prudential regulation4 ,that is all--they go no farther4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 p#cdg ,,xiii4 ,,rent4#ga ,if1 with an increase in the value of land1 a corresponding augmentation took place in the value of the products of the soil1 ,i could understand the opposition which the theory ,i have explained in the present work 7chap4 ix47 has encountered4 ,it might be argued1 8that in proportion as civilisation is developed the condition of the labourer becomes worse in comparison with that of the proprietor4 ,this may be an inevitable necessity1 but assuredly it is not a law of harmony40 ,happily it is not so4 ,in general those circumstances which cause an augmentation of the value of land diminish at the same time the price of landed produce4 4 4 4 4 ,let me explain this by an example4 ,suppose a field worth #ajj situated ten leagues from a town4 ,a road is made which passes near this field1 and opens up a market for its produce4 ,the field immediately becomes worth #aej4 ,the proprietor having by this means acquired facilities for improvement and for a more varied culture1 then increases the value of the land1 and it comes to be worth #bjj4 ,the value of the field is now doubled4 ,let us examine this added value--both as regards the question of justice and as regards the utility which accrues1 not to the proprietor1 but to the consumers of the neighbouring town4 ,as far as concerns the increase of value arising from ameliorations which the proprietor has made at his own cost1 there can be no question4 ,the capital he has expended follows the law of all capital4 ,i venture to say the same thing of the capital expended in p#cdh forming the road4 ,the operation is more circuitous1 but the result is the same4 ,in point of fact1 the proprietor has contributed to the public expenditure in proportion to the value of his field4 ,for many years he contributed to works of general utility executed in more remote parts of the country1 and at length a road has been made in a direction which is profitable to him4 ,the gross amount of taxes which he has paid may be compared to shares taken in a ,government enterprise1 and the annual augmentation of rent which he derives from the formation of this new road may be compared to dividends upon these shares4 ,will it be said that a proprietor may pay taxes for ever1 without receiving anything in return8 4 4 4 4 ,but this just comes back to the case we have already put4 ,the amelioration1 although effected by the complex and somewhat questionable process of taxation1 may be considered as made by the proprietor at his own cost1 in proportion to the partial advantage he derives from it4 ,i have put the case of a road4 ,i might have cited any other instance of ,government intervention4 ,security1 for example1 contributes to give value to land1 like capital1 or labour4 ,but who pays for this security8 ,the proprietor1 the capitalist1 the labourer4 ,if the ,state expends its revenue judiciously1 the value expended will reappear and be replaced1 in some form or other1 in the hands of the proprietor1 the capitalist1 or the labourer4 ,in the case of the proprietor1 it must take the form of an increase in the value of his land4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the ,state expends its revenue injudiciously1 it is a misfortune4 ,the tax is lost2 and that is the taxpayer's look-out4 ,in that case1 there is no augmentation of the value of the land1 but that is no fault of the proprietor4 ,but for the produce of the soil thus augmented in value1 by the action of ,government and by individual industry1 do the consumers of the neighbouring town pay an enhanced price8 ,in other words1 does the interest of the #ajj become a charge on each quarter of wheat which the field produces8 ,if we paid formerly #ae for it1 shall we now be obliged to pay more than #ae8 ,that is an interesting question1 seeing that justice and the universal harmony of interests depend on its solution4 ,i answer boldly1 ,no4 ,no doubt the proprietor will now get #e more 7,i assume the rate of interest to be #e per cent472 but he gets this addition at the expense of nobody4 ,on the contrary1 the purchaser will derive a still greater profit4 p#cdi ,the field we have supposed having been formerly at a distance from the market1 was made to produce little1 and on account of the difficulty of transit what was sent to market sold at a high price4 ,now1 production is stimulated1 and transport made cheaper1 a greater quantity of wheat comes to market1 and comes there at less cost1 and is sold cheaper4 ,whilst yielding the proprietor a total profit of #e1 its purchaser1 as we have already said1 may realize a still greater profit4 ,in short1 an economy of power has been realized4 ,for whose benefit8 ,for the benefit of both of the contracting parties4 ,according to what law is this gain distributed8 ,according to the law which we have described in the case of capital1 seeing that this augmentation of value is itself capital4 ,when capital increases1 the portion falling to the proprietor or capitalist increases in absolute value and diminishes in relative value2 while the portion falling to the labourer 7or consumer7 increases both in absolute and relative value4 4 4 4 4 ,observe how this takes place4 ,in proportion as civilisation advances1 lands which are situated near populous centres rise in value4 ,productions of an inferior kind in such places give way to productions of a superior description4 ,first of all1 pasture gives way to cereal crops1 then cereal crops give way to market gardening4 ,products are brought from a greater distance at less cost1 so that 7and this in point of fact is incontestable7 meat1 bread1 vegetables1 even flowers1 are sold in such places cheaper than in neighbourhoods less advanced1 although manual labour costs more4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,le ,,clos-,,vougeot4#gb 4 4 4 4 ,services are exchanged for services4 ,frequently services prepared beforehand are exchanged for present or future services4 ,the value of services is determined not by the labour they exact or have exacted1 but by the labour which they save4 ,now1 in point of fact1 human labour goes on constantly improving in efficiency4 ,from these premises we may deduce a phenomenon which is very important in social economy1 which is1 that in general anterior labour loses in exchange with present labour4 ,twenty years ago ,i manufactured a commodity which cost me p#cej #ajj days' labour4 ,i propose an exchange1 and ,i say to the purchaser1 ,give me in exchange a thing which cost you also #ajj days' labour4 ,probably he will be in a situation to make this reply1 ,that great progress has been made in twenty years4 ,what you ask #ajj days' labour for can be made now in #gj days4 ,i don't measure your service by the time it has cost you1 but by the service it renders me4 ,that service is equal only to #gj days' labour1 for in that time ,i can render it to myself1 or find one who will render it to me4 ,the consequence is that the value of capital goes on continually deteriorating1 and that anterior labour and capital are not so much favoured as superficial economists believe4 ,apart from tear and wear1 there is no machine a little old but loses value1 for the single reason that better machines of the same kind are made nowadays4 ,the same thing holds in regard to land4 ,there are few soils1 to bring which into their present state of culture and fertility1 has not cost more labour than would be necessary now with our more effective modern appliances4 ,this is what happens in the usual case1 but not necessarily so4 ,anterior labour may1 at the present day1 render greater services than it did formerly4 ,this is rare1 but it sometimes happens4 ,for example1 ,i store up wine which cost me twenty days' labour to produce4 ,had ,i sold it immediately1 my labour would have yielded me a certain remuneration4 ,i have preserved my wine2 it has improved2 the succeeding vintage has failed2 in short1 the price has risen1 and my remuneration is greater4 ,why8 ,because ,i render a greater amount of service--my customers would have greater difficulty in procuring themselves such wine than ,i myself experienced--,i satisfy a want which has become greater1 more felt1 etc4 4 4 4 4 ,this is a consideration which must always be looked to4 ,there are a thousand of us4 ,each has his piece of land1 and clears it4 ,some time elapses1 and we sell it4 ,now it so happens that out of #ajjj there are #iih who never receive as many days' present labour in exchange for their land as it cost them formerly2 and this just because the anterior labour1 which was of a ruder and less efficient description1 does not render as great an amount of service comparatively as present labour4 ,but there are two of the proprietors whose labour has been more intelligent1 or1 if you will1 more successful4 ,when they bring their land to market1 they find that it is capable of rendering service which cannot be rivalled4 ,every man says to himself1 ,it would cost me a great p#cea deal to render this service to myself1 therefore ,i must pay well for it1 for ,i am quite certain that it would cost me more to obtain what ,i am in quest of by my own exertions4 ,this is just the case of the celebrated vineyard1 the ,clos-,vougeot1 and it is the same case as that of the man who finds a diamond1 or possesses a fine voice1 or other personal advantages or peculiarities1 etc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in my neighbourhood there is much uncultivated land4 ,a stranger asks1 ,why not cultivate this field8 ,because the soil is bad4 ,but here1 alongside of it1 you have another of the same quality which is cultivated4 ,to this objection the native has no answer4 ,was he wrong in the first answer he gave1 namely1 ,it is bad8 ,no4 ,the reason which induces him not to clear new fields is not that they are bad1 for there are excellent fields which also remain uncultivated4 ,his reason is that it would cost him more to bring this field into the same state of cultivation as the adjoining field which is cultivated1 than to buy the latter4 ,now1 to any thinking man this proves incontestably that the field has no intrinsic value4 7,illustrate this idea by considering it in various points of view47#gc p#ceb ,,money4#gd 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,credit4#ge 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,xiv4 ,,wages4 ,men are always anxiously on the outlook for something fixed4 ,we meet sometimes with restless and unquiet spirits who have a craving for risk and adventure4 ,but1 taking mankind in the gross1 we may safely affirm that what they desire is to be tranquil as regards their future1 to know what they have to count upon1 and be enabled to make their arrangements beforehand4 ,to be convinced how precious fixity is in their eyes1 we have only to observe how very anxious men are to obtain for themselves ,government employments4 ,nor is this on account of the honour which such places confer1 for there are many of these situations where the work is not of a very elevated description1 consisting in watching and vexing their fellow-citizens1 and prying into their affairs4 ,such places1 however1 are not the less sought after--and why8 ,because they confer an assured position4 ,who has not heard a father speak p#cec thus of his son3 8,i am soliciting for him a place as a candidate or supernumerary in such or such a ,government office4 ,it is a pity1 no doubt1 that so costly an education is required--an education which might have ensured his success in a more brilliant career4 ,as a public functionary he will not get rich1 but he is certain to live4 ,he will always have bread4 ,four or five years hence he will begin to receive a salary of thirty pounds a year1 which will rise by degrees to a hundred and twenty or a hundred and sixty4 ,after thirty years' service he will be entitled to retire4 ,his livelihood then is secured1 and he must learn to live upon a small income10 etc4 ,fixity1 then1 has for most men an irresistible attraction4 ,and yet1 when we consider the nature of man1 and of his occupations1 fixity would seem to be incompatible with them4 ,go back in imagination to the origin of human society1 and you will have difficulty in comprehending how men can ever succeed in obtaining from the community a fixed1 assured1 and constant quantity of the means of subsistence4 ,yet this is one of those phenomena which strike us less because we have them constantly before our eyes4 ,we have public functionaries who receive fixed salaries2 proprietors who can count beforehand on their revenues2 men of fortune who can calculate on their dividends2 workmen who earn every day the same wages4 ,apart from the consideration of money1 which is only employed to facilitate exchanges and estimates of value1 we perceive that what is fixed is the quantity of the means of subsistence1 the value of the satisfactions received by the various classes of workmen4 ,now1 ,i maintain that this fixity1 which by degrees extends to all men and all departments of industry1 is a miracle of civilisation1 and a marvellous effect of that social state which1 in our day1 is so madly decried4 ,for1 let us go back to a primitive social state1 and suppose a nation of hunters1 or fishers1 or shepherds1 or warriors1 or agriculturists1 to be told1 8,in proportion as you advance on the road of progress1 you will know more and more beforehand what amount of enjoyment will be secured to you for each year10 they would not believe us4 ,they would reply1 8,that must always depend on something which eludes calculation1--the inconstancy of the seasons1 etc40 ,the truth is1 they could form no idea of the ingenious efforts by means of which men have succeeded in establishing a sort of mutual assurance between all places and all times4 ,now1 this mutual assurance against all the risks and chances of the future is entirely dependent on a branch of human science which ,i shall denominate experimental statistics4 ,this department p#ced of science1 depending as it does upon experience1 admits of indefinite progress1 and consequently the fixity of which we have spoken also admits of indefinite progress4 ,that fixity is favoured by two circumstances which are permanent in their operation3 #ast1 ,men desire it4 #b;dly1 ,they acquire every day greater facilities for realizing it4 ,before showing how this fixity is established in human transactions1 in which it is little thought of1 let us first of all see how it operates in a transaction of which it is the special object4 ,the reader will1 in this way1 comprehend what ,i mean by experimental statistics4 ,a number of men have each a house4 ,one of these houses happens to be burnt down and its owner is ruined4 ,all the rest immediately take alarm1 and each says to himself1 8,the same thing may happen to me40 ,we cannot be surprised1 then1 that these proprietors should unite and divide the risk of such accidents as much as possible1 by establishing a mutual assurance against fire4 ,the bargain is very simple--here is its formula3 8,if the house of one of us is burnt down1 the rest will club to make good the loss to the man who is burnt out40 ,by this means each proprietor acquires a double security2 in the first instance he must take a small share in all losses of this nature2 but then he is assured that he will never himself be obliged to suffer the whole loss arising from any such misfortune4 ,in reality1 and if we extend the calculation over a great number of years1 we see that the proprietor makes1 so to speak1 a bargain with himself4 ,he sets aside a sufficient fund to repair the misfortunes which may afterwards befall him4 ,this is association4 ,indeed it is to arrangements of this nature that the ,socialists give exclusively the name of association4 ,whenever speculation intervenes1 association1 as they think1 disappears4 ,it is improved and perfected1 as ,i think1 and as we shall afterwards see4 ,what has led the proprietors to associate1 to enter into this mutual assurance1 is the love of fixity1 of security4 ,they prefer known risks to risks which are unknown1 a multitude of small risks to one great one4 ,their design1 however1 has not yet been completely attained1 and there is still much uncertainty in their position4 ,each of them may say1 8,if accidents are multiplied1 my quota will become insupportable4 ,in any case1 ,i should like to know beforehand1 and to have insured in the same way my furniture1 my merchandise1 etc40 p#cee ,it would seem that such inconveniences belong to the nature of things1 and that it is impossible for men to get rid of them4 ,after each step of progress we are tempted to think that all has been accomplished4 ,how1 indeed1 can we elude this uncertainty1 which depends upon accidents still unknown to us8 ,but mutual assurance has developed in the social state an experimental knowledge1 namely1 the average annual proportion between the values lost by accident and the values assured4 ,having made all the necessary calculations1 a company or an individual says to the proprietors1 8,in entering into a mutual assurance1 you have wished to purchase freedom from anxiety1 and the indeterminate quota which you reserve annually to cover accidents is the price which you pay for this immunity4 ,but if you do not know what this price is beforehand1 your tranquillity is never perfect4 ,i now propose to you1 therefore1 another expedient4 ,in consideration of a fixed annual premium which you shall pay me1 ,i take upon myself all your chances of accidents4 ,i will insure you all1 and here is the capital which will guarantee the fulfilment of my engagement40 ,the proprietors accept the proposal1 even although this fixed premium should amount to somewhat more than the sum which their mutual assurance cost them2 for their object is not so much to save a few shillings as to obtain perfect repose and freedom from anxiety4 ,at this point the ,socialists pretend that the principle of association is destroyed4 ,for my part1 ,i think it is improved1 and on the road to other improvements to which ,i can see no limits4 ,but1 say the ,socialists1 the assured have no longer any mutual tie4 ,they no longer see each other and come to a common understanding4 ,intermediary parasites have come among them1 and the proof that the proprietors are now paying more than is required to cover accidents is to be found in the fact1 that the insurers obtain large profits4 ,it is not difficult to answer this objection4 ,first of all1 association exists1 but under another form4 ,the premium contributed by the assured is still the fund which is to make good the losses4 ,the assured have found the means of remaining in the association without taking part in its business4 ,this is evidently an advantage to each of them1 seeing that the design they have in view is nevertheless attained2 and the possibility of remaining in the association whilst they have their p#cef independence of movement and free use of their faculties restored to them1 is just the characteristic of social progress4 ,as regards the profit obtained by the intermediate party1 it is easily explained and justified4 ,the assured remain associated for the purpose of repairing accidents and making good what is lost4 ,but a company has stepped in which offers them the following advantages3 #ast1 ,it takes away whatever of uncertainty remained in the position of the assured2 #b;dly1 ,it frees them from all care and trouble in connexion with accidents4 ,these are services1 and the rule is1 service for service4 ,the proof that the intervention of the company is a service possessed of value is to be found in the fact that it is freely accepted and paid for4 ,the ,socialists only make themselves ridiculous when they declaim against such middlemen4 ,do they intrude themselves into commercial transactions by force8 ,have they any other means of introducing themselves and their services than by saying to the parties with whom they deal1 8,i will cost you some trouble1 but ,i will save you more80 ,how1 then1 can they be called parasites or even intermediaries8 ,i affirm1 moreover1 that association thus transformed is on the direct road of progress in every sense4 ,in fact1 companies which expect to realize profits proportioned to the extent of their business1 promote insurances4 ,to aid them in this they have agents in all quarters1 they establish credits1 they devise a thousand combinations to increase the number of the assured--in other words1 of the associated parties4 ,they undertake a multitude of risks which were unknown to the primitive mutual insurance associations4 ,in short1 association is extended progressively to a greater number of men and things4 ,in proportion as this development takes place1 the companies find they can lower their prices2 they are even forced by competition to do so4 ,and here we again get a glimpse of the great law1 that profit soon escapes from the hands of the producer to settle in those of the consumer4 ,nor is this all3 companies insure each other by reassurances1 so that1 with a view to providing for losses1 which is the principal object in view1 a thousand associations scattered over ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,america1 are melted into one grand and unique association4 ,and what is the result8 ,if a house is burnt down at ,bordeaux1 ,paris1 or elsewhere1 the proprietors of the whole world1 ,english1 ,belgians1 ,germans1 ,spaniards1 club together and repair the disaster4 ,this is an example of the degree of power1 universality1 and perfection1 which may be reached by means of free and voluntary p#ceg association4 ,but to attain this they must be left free to manage their own business4 ,now1 what happened when the ,socialists1 those great partisans of association1 were in power8 ,their chief business was to threaten association in every form1 and principally association for insurance4 ,and why8 ,just because1 in order to render itself more universal1 it adopted those expedients which left each of its members in a state of independence4 ,how little these unfortunate ,socialists understand the social mechanism6 ,they would bring us back to the rude and primitive forms which association assumed when society was in its infancy1 and they would suppress all progress under the pretext that it has departed from these forms4 ,we shall see1 by-and-by1 that from the same prejudices1 the same ignorance1 arise their incessant declamations against interest4 ,the interest and wages are fixed1 and1 consequently1 improved forms of remuneration for the use of labour and capital4 ,the wages-system salariat has been peculiarly the butt of the ,socialists4 ,they have almost gone the length of representing it as a modified1 and not greatly modified1 system of slavery and thraldom4 ,at all events1 they see in it only a bargain which is one-sided and leonine1 founded on liberty merely in appearance1 an oppression of the weak by the strong1 or the tyranny of capital over labour4 ,continually wrangling about new institutions to be founded1 the ,socialists display in their common hatred of existing institutions1 and especially of the system of remuneration by wages1 a striking unanimity4 ,if they cannot attain unity as to the new social organization to be established1 they are at least marvellously united in calumniating1 decrying1 running down1 hating1 and making hated1 everything which actually exists4 ,i have assigned the reason for this elsewhere4#gf ,much unfortunately takes place which is beyond the domain of philosophical discussion2 and the ,socialist propaganda1 seconded by an ignorant and cowardly press1 which1 without avowing ,socialism1 seeks for popularity in fashionable declamations1 has succeeded in instilling hatred of the wages-system into the minds of the very people who live by wages4 ,workmen have become disgusted with this form of remuneration4 ,it appears to them unjust1 humiliating1 and odious4 ,they think it brands them with the mark of servitude4 ,they desire to participate on another principle in the distribution of wealth4 ,hence they have fallen passionately in love with the most extravagant ,utopias4 ,they had but one p#ceh step to take1 and they have taken it4 ,when the revolution of ,february broke out1 the grand object of the working classes was to get rid of wages4 ,upon the means of accomplishing this they consulted their oracles2 but when these oracles did not remain mute1 they followed the usual mode by giving obscure utterances1 in which the word which predominated was association1 as if association and wages were incompatible4 ,then the workmen would try all the forms of this liberty-giving association2 and1 to impart to it greater attraction1 they were pleased to invest it with all the charms of ,solidarity1 and attributed to it all the merits of ,fraternity4 ,for the moment1 one would have been led to believe that the human heart itself had been about to undergo a grand transformation1 and to throw off the yoke of self-interest1 in order to give place to the principle of sympathy4 ,by a singular contradiction1 they hoped from association to reap at once all the glory of self-sacrifice1 and material profits of hitherto unheard-of amount4 ,they fell down before the statue of ,fortune1 prayed1 and decreed to themselves the glory of martyrdom4 ,it seemed as if these workmen1 thus misled1 and on the point of being seduced into a career of injustice1 felt it necessary to shut their eyes to their true position1 to glorify the methods of spoliation which had been taught them by their apostles1 and place them covered with a veil in the sanctuary of a new revelation4 ,never1 perhaps1 had so many and such dangerous errors1 so many and such gross contradictions1 found their way before into the human brain4 ,let us inquire1 then1 what wages really are1 and consider their origin1 form1 and effects4 ,let us trace the subject to its foundation1 and make sure whether1 in the development of humanity1 wages constitute retrogression or progress--whether in receiving wages there be anything humiliating or degrading1 or which can in any degree be allied with slavery4 ,services are exchanged for services1 labour1 efforts1 pains1 cares1 natural or acquired ability1--these are what we give and receive4 ,what we confer on one another is satisfaction or enjoyment4 ,what determines the exchange is the common advantage1 and its measure is the free appreciation of reciprocal services4 ,the various combinations to which human transactions give rise have necessitated a voluminous economic vocabulary2 but the words1 ,profits1 ,interest1 ,wages1 although indicating shades of difference1 do not change the nature and foundation of things4 ,we have still the do ut des1 or rather the facio ut facias1 which constitutes the basis of the whole economic evolution4#gg p#cei ,the class which lives by wages forms no exception to this law4 ,examine the subject attentively4 ,do these men render services8 ,unquestionably they do4 ,are services rendered to them8 ,undoubtedly they are4 ,are these services exchanged freely and voluntarily8 ,do we perceive in this kind of transaction any appearance of fraud or violence8 ,it is at this point1 perhaps1 that the grievances of the workman begin4 ,they don't go the length of pretending that they are deprived of their liberty1 but they assert that this liberty is merely nominal and a mockery1 because the man whose necessities force the determination is not really free4 ,it remains for us to inquire1 then1 whether the defect of liberty thus understood does not belong to the situation of the workman rather than to the mode of his remuneration4 ,when one man enters into the service of another1 his remuneration may consist in a part of the work produced1 or in a determinate wage4 ,in either case he must bargain for this part of the product--for it may be greater or less1--or for this wage--for it may be higher or lower4 ,if the man is in a state of absolute destitution1 if he cannot wait1 if he acts on the spur of urgent necessity1 he must submit1 and cannot get rid of the other's exactions4 ,but you will observe that it is not the form of remuneration which gives rise to this dependence4 ,whether he runs the risk of the enterprise by stipulating for a share of the product1 or bargains for a fixed remuneration whether the other gain or lose1 it is his precarious situation which gives him an inferior position in the discussion which precedes the arrangement4 ,those innovators who have represented association to the working classes as an infallible remedy have misled them1 and are themselves mistaken4 ,they can convince themselves of this by observing attentively the circumstances in cases where the indigent workman receives part of the product in place of wages4 ,there are assuredly no men in the country worse off than fishermen or vine-dressers1 although they have the satisfaction of enjoying all the benefits which the ,socialists denominate1 exclusively1 association4 ,but before proceeding to inquire into the circumstances which influence the quota of wages1 ,i must define1 or rather describe1 the nature of the transaction4 ,men have a tendency--which is natural1 and1 therefore1 advantageous1 moral1 universal1 indestructible--to desire security with reference to the means of subsistence1 to seek fixity1 and avoid uncertainty4 ,however1 in the early stages of society uncertainty reigns supreme1 and it has frequently astonished me that ,political p#cfj ,economy has failed to mark the great and happy efforts which have been made to restrain this uncertainty within narrower and narrower limits4 ,take the case of a tribe of hunters1 or a nomad people1 or a colony newly founded1--is there a single man who can say with certainty what to-morrow's labour will be worth8 ,would there not even seem to be an incompatibility between the two ideas1 and that nothing can be of a more causal nature than the result of labour1 whether applied to the chase1 to fishing1 or to agriculture8 ,it will be difficult1 then1 to find1 in an infant society1 anything which resembles stipends1 salaries1 wages1 revenues1 rents1 interest1 assurance1 etc41 which are all things which have been invented in order to give more and more fixity to personal situations1 to get quit1 to a greater and greater degree1 of that feeling so painful to men of uncertainty with reference to the means of subsistence4 ,the progress which has been made in this direction is indeed admirable1 although custom has so familiarized us with this phenomenon that we fail to attend to it4 ,in fact1 since the results of labour1 and consequently the enjoyments of mankind1 may be so profoundly modified by events1 by unforeseen circumstances1 by the caprices of nature1 the uncertainty of the seasons1 and accidents of every kind1 we may ask how it comes to pass that so great a number of men find themselves set free for a time1 and some of them for life1 by means of rents1 salaries1 and retiring pensions1 from this species of eventuality1 of uncertainty1 which would seem to be essentially part of our nature4 ,the efficient cause1 the motive power of this beautiful evolution of the human race1 is the tendency of all men towards competency and material prosperity1 of which ,fixity is so essential a part4 ,the means consist in the substitution of a fixed unconditional bargain for one dependent merely on appreciable chances1 or the gradual abandonment of that primitive form of association which consists in committing all the parties concerned irrevocably to all the risks and chances of the enterprise2 in other words1 the improvement of association4 ,it is singular1 at least1 that all our great modern reformers exhibit association to us as destroyed by the very element which improves and perfects it4 ,in order that men should consent to take upon themselves1 unconditionally1 risks which fall naturally on others1 it is necessary that a species of knowledge1 which ,i have called experimental statistics1 should have made some progress2 for experience alone can place them in a situation to appreciate these risks1 at least p#cfa approximately1 and consequently to appreciate the value of the service rendered in securing them against such risks4 ,this is the reason why the bargains and transactions of rude and ignorant nations admit no stipulations of this nature1 and hence1 as ,i have said1 uncertainty exercises over such people uncontrolled power4 ,were a savage1 grown old1 and having laid up some stock of game1 to take a young hunter into his service1 he would not give him fixed wages1 but a share in the produce of the chase4 ,how1 indeed1 could either of them1 from the known infer the unknown8 ,the teachings of past experience do not permit them to insure the future beforehand4 ,in times of barbarism and inexperience1 men1 no doubt1 associate1 for we have demonstrated that otherwise they could not exist2 but association can assume among them only that primitive and elementary form which the ,socialists represent as the only one which can secure our future safety4 ,when two men have long worked on together1 encountering equal risks1 there at length comes a time when1 from experience1 they can estimate and appreciate the value of these risks1 and one of them consents to take the entire risk upon his own shoulders1 in consideration of a fixed recompense4 ,this arrangement is undoubtedly a step of progress1 and it is shown to be so by the very fact that it has been effected freely and voluntarily by the two parties1 who would not have entered into it had it not been felt to be for their mutual benefit4 ,it is easy to see in what the benefit consists4 ,the one party gains by obtaining the exclusive management of an undertaking of which he takes all the risks upon himself2 the other by obtaining that fixity of position which is so much desired4 ,and society at large must be benefited by having an enterprise1 formerly subjected to two minds and two wills1 henceforth conducted with unity of views and unity of action4 ,but although association is modified in this way1 it by no means follows that it is dissolved4 ,the co-operation of the two men is continued1 although the mode of dividing the product of their enterprise has been changed4 ,association is not vitiated by an innovation voluntarily agreed to1 and which satisfies all parties4 ,the co-operation of anterior labour and present labour is always1 or almost always1 required in order to realize new means of satisfaction and enjoyment4 ,capital and labour1 in uniting in a common undertaking1 are1 in the first instance1 forced to undertake each its share of the risk2 and this continues until the value of the risk can be experimentally estimated4 ,then two tendencies1 which are p#cfb alike natural to the human heart1 manifest themselves--,i mean the tendencies towards unity of direction and fixity of situation4 ,capital then says to labour3 8,experience has taught us that your eventual profit amounts1 on an average1 to so much4 ,if you wish it1 ,i will ensure you this amount1 and take charge of the operation1 taking upon myself the chances of profit or loss40 ,labour may possibly answer3 8,this proposal suits me very well4 ,sometimes ,i earned twenty pounds a year2 sometimes ,i earn sixty4 ,these fluctuations are very inconvenient1 for they hinder me from regulating uniformly my own expenditure and that of my family4 ,it is an advantage to me to get rid of this uncertainty1 and to receive a fixed recompense of forty pounds40 ,by this arrangement the terms of the contract will be changed4 ,they will continue to unite their efforts1 and to share the proceeds1 and consequently the association will not be dissolved2 but it will be modified in this way1 that the capitalist will take all the risks with the compensation of all the extraordinary profits1 whilst the labourer will be secured the advantages of fixity4 ,such is the origin of ,wages4 ,the agreement may take place in the reverse way4 ,frequently the person who undertakes a commercial enterprise says to the capitalist3 8,hitherto we have worked together1 sharing the risks4 ,now that we are in a situation to appreciate these risks1 ,i propose to make a fixed bargain4 ,you have invested a thousand pounds in the undertaking1 for which one year you receive twenty-five pounds1 another year seventy-five4 ,if you agree to it1 ,i will give you fifty pounds1 or #e per cent4 per annum1 and free you from all risk1 on condition that ,i have henceforth the entire management of the concern40 ,the capitalist will probably answer3 8,since1 with great and troublesome fluctuations1 ,i receive1 on an average1 only fifty pounds per annum1 ,i should much prefer to have that sum regularly assured to me4 ,i shall1 therefore1 allow my capital to remain in the concern1 but ,i am to be exempted from all risk4 ,my activity and intelligence will now be free to engage in some other undertaking40 ,this is an advantage in a social1 as well as an individual point of view4 ,we see that men are constantly in quest of a fixed and stable position1 and that there is an incessant effort to diminish and circumscribe on all sides the element of uncertainty4 ,where two men participate in a common risk1 this risk1 having a substantive existence1 cannot be annihilated2 but the tendency is for one of p#cfc them to take that risk upon himself4 ,if the capitalist undertakes the risk1 the labourer's remuneration is fixed under the name of wages4 ,if the labourer runs the chances of profit or loss1 then the remuneration of the capitalist is fixed under the name of interest4 ,and as capital is nothing else than human services1 we may say that capital and labour are two words which in reality express one and the same idea2 and1 consequently1 the same thing may be said of interest and wages4 ,thus1 where false science never fails to find antagonism1 true science ever finds identity4 ,considered1 then1 with reference to their origin1 nature1 and form1 wages have in them nothing degrading or humiliating any more than interest has4 ,both constitute the return for present and anterior labour derived from the results of a common enterprise4 ,only it almost always happens that one of the two associates agrees to take upon himself the risk4 ,if it be the present labour which claims a uniform remuneration1 the chances of profit are given up in consideration of wages4 ,if it be the anterior labour which claims a fixed return1 the capitalist gives up his eventual chance of profits for a determinate rate of interest4 ,for my own part1 ,i am convinced that this new stipulation which is ingrafted on the primitive form of association1 far from destroying it1 improves and perfects it4 ,i have no doubt of this1 when ,i consider that such a stipulation takes its rise from a felt want1 from the natural desire of all men for stability2 and1 moreover1 that it satisfies all parties1 without injury1 but1 on the contrary1 by serving the interests of the public4 ,modern reformers1 who1 under pretence of having invented association1 desire to bring it back to its primitive and rudimentary forms1 ought to tell us in what respect these fixed bargains are opposed to justice or equity1 in what respect they are prejudicial to progress1 and on what principle they wish to interdict them4 ,they ought also to tell us why1 if such stipulations bear the stamp of barbarism1 they are constantly and more and more mixed up with that association which is represented as the perfection of human society4 ,in my opinion1 such stipulations are among the most marvellous manifestations1 as they are among the most powerful springs1 of progress4 ,they are at once the perfection and reward of a past and very ancient civilisation1 and the starting-point of a new and unlimited career of future civilisation4 ,had society adhered to that primitive form of association which saddles all the parties interested with a share of the risks of an enterprise1 ninety-nine p#cfd out of every hundred of such enterprises never would have been undertaken4 ,the man who at the present day participates in a score of enterprises would have been tied down for ever to one4 ,unity of design and of will would have been wanting in all commercial operations2 and mankind would never have tasted that precious good which is perhaps the source of genius--stability4 ,the wages-system salariat1 then1 takes its rise in a natural and indestructible tendency4 ,observe1 however1 that it satisfies men's desires but imperfectly4 ,it renders the remuneration of workmen more uniform1 more equal1 and brings it nearer to an average2 but there is one thing which it cannot do1 and which their admission to a participation in profits and risks could not accomplish1 namely1 to ensure them employment4 ,and here ,i cannot help remarking how powerful the feeling is to which ,i have made reference throughout the whole of this chapter1 and the very existence of which our modern reformers do not seem even to suspect1--,i mean men's aversion to uncertainty4 ,it is exactly this very feeling which has made it so easy for ,socialist declaimers to create such a hatred on the part of the working classes to receive their remuneration in the shape of wages4 ,we can conceive three phases in the condition of the labourer3 the predominance of uncertainty2 the predominance of stability2 and an intermediate state1 from which uncertainty is partly excluded1 but not sufficiently so to give place to fixity and stability4 ,what the working classes do not sufficiently understand is1 that the association which the ,socialists preach up to them is the infancy of society1 the period when men are groping their way1 the time of quick transitions and fluctuations1 of alternations of plethora and atrophy--in a word1 the period when absolute uncertainty reigns supreme4 ,the wages-system1 on the contrary1 forms the intermediate link between uncertainty and fixity4 ,now1 the working classes1 being far as yet from feeling themselves in a state of stability1 place their hopes--like all men ill at ease--on a certain change of position4 ,this is the reason why it has been an easy task for ,socialism to impose upon them by the use of the grand term association4 ,the working classes fancy themselves pushed forward when they are in reality falling behind4 ,yes1 these unfortunate people are falling back to the primitive and rudimentary stage of the social movement2 for what is the association now so loudly preached up to them but the subjection of all to all risks and contingencies8 ,this is inevitable in times of ignorance1 since fixed bargains presuppose some progress at p#cfe least in experimental statistics4 ,but the doctrine now inculcated is nothing else than a pure and simple revival of the reign of uncertainty4 ,the workmen who were enthusiasts for association when they knew it only in theory1 were enchanted when the revolution of ,february seemed to render possible its practical adoption4 ,at that period many employers of labour1 either infected with the universal infatuation1 or giving way to their fears1 offered to substitute a participation in the returns for payment by wages4 ,but the workmen did not much fancy this solidarity of risk4 ,they understood very well what was offered them2 for in case the enterprise turned out a losing concern1 they would have had no remuneration of any kind1--which to them was death4 ,we saw then what would not have been to the credit of our working classes1 had the blame not lain with the pretended reformers1 in whom1 unhappily1 they placed confidence4 ,the working classes demanded a sort of bastard association in which the rate of wages was to be maintained1 and in which they were to be entitled to a share of the profits without being subject to any of the losses4 ,the workmen would probably never of themselves have thought of putting forward such pretensions4 ,there is in human nature a fund of good sense and a feeling of justice to which such barefaced iniquity is repugnant4 ,to corrupt man's heart1 you must begin by depraving his intellect4 ,this is what the leaders of the ,socialist school did not fail to do2 and with this fact before us ,i am frequently asked whether their intentions were not perverse4 ,i am always inclined to respect men's motives2 but it is exceedingly difficult1 under such circumstances1 to exculpate the ,socialist chiefs4 ,after having1 by the unjust and persevering declamations with which their books are filled1 irritated the working classes against their employers1 after having persuaded them that they were in a state of war1 in which everything is fair against the enemy1 they enveloped the ultimatum of the workmen in scientific subtleties1 and even in clouds of mysticism4 ,they figured an abstract being called ,society1 which owed to each of its members a minimum1 that is to say1 an assured means of subsistence4 8,you have1 then1 a right10 they told the workmen1 8to demand a fixed wage40 ,in this way they began by satisfying the natural desire of men for stability4 ,then they proceeded to teach them that1 independently of wages1 the workmen should have a share in the profits2 and when asked whether he was also to bear his share of the losses1 p#cff their answer was1 that in virtue of ,state intervention and the guarantee of the taxpayer1 they had invented a system of universal industry1 protected from all loss4 ,by this means they removed all the remaining scruples of the unfortunate workmen2 and when the revolution of ,february broke out we saw them1 as ,i have said1 disposed to make three stipulations3-- #ast1 ,continuance of wages2 #b;d1 ,participation in profits2 #c;d1 ,immunity from losses4 ,it may be said1 perhaps1 that these stipulations were neither so unjust nor so impossible as they appeared1 seeing that they are introduced in many enterprises1 having reference to newspapers1 railways1 etc4 ,i answer that there is something truly puerile in allowing oneself to be duped by high-sounding names applied to very trivial things4 ,a little candour will at once convince us that this participation in profits1 which some concerns allow to their workmen receiving wages1 does not constitute association1 nor merit that title1 nor is it a great revolution introduced into the relations of two classes of society4 ,it is only an ingenious and useful encouragement given to workmen receiving wages1 under a form which is not exactly new1 although it has been represented as an adhesion to ,socialism4 ,employers who1 in adopting this custom1 devote a tenth1 a twentieth1 or a hundredth part of their profits1 when they have any1 to this largesse bestowed on their workmen1 may make a great noise about it1 and proclaim themselves the generous renovators of the social order2 but it is really unworthy of occupying more of our time at present1 and ,i return to my argument4 ,the system of payment by wages1 then1 was a step of progress4 ,in the first instance1 anterior labour and present labour were associated together with common risks1 in common enterprises1 the circle of which1 in such circumstances1 must have been very limited4 ,if society had not discovered other combinations1 no important work could ever have been undertaken4 ,men would have remained hunters and fishers1 and there might have been perhaps some rude attempts at agriculture4 ,afterwards1 in obedience to the double feeling which prompts us to seek stability1 and1 at the same time1 retain the direction of those operations of which we must encounter the risks1 the two associates1 without putting an end to the association1 seek to supersede the joint hazard by a fixed bargain1 and agree that one of them should give the other a fixed remuneration1 and take p#cfg upon himself the whole risk1 along with the exclusive direction of the enterprise4 ,when this fixity applies to the anterior labour1 or capital1 it is called interest2 when it applies to the present labour1 it is called wages4 ,but1 as ,i have already said1 wages serve only imperfectly to constitute a state of stability for a certain class of men1 or of security in regard to the means of subsistence4 ,it is one step1 and a very marked one1 towards the realization of this benefit1 and so difficult that at first sight we should have thought it impossible2 but it does not effect its entire realization4 ,and it is perhaps worthy of remark in passing1 that fixity of situation1 stability1 resembles in one respect all the great results of which mankind are in pursuit4 ,we are always approximating to such results1 but we never fully attain them4 ,for the very reason that stability is a good1 a benefit1 we must always be making efforts more and more to extend its domain2 but it is not in our nature ever to obtain complete possession of it4 ,we may even go the length of saying that to obtain such possession would not be desirable for man in his present state4 ,absolute good of whatever kind would put an end to all desire1 all effort1 all combination1 all thought1 all foresight1 all virtue4 ,perfection excludes the notion of perfectibility4 ,the working classes having then1 with the lapse of time and the progress of civilisation1 reached the improved system of payment by wages1 have not stopped short at that point1 or relaxed their efforts to realize stability4 ,no doubt wages come in with certainty at the conclusion of the day's work2 but when circumstances--as1 for example1 an industrial crisis1 or a protracted illness--have interrupted work1 the wages are interrupted also4 ,what1 then1 is the workman to do8 ,are he and his wife and children to be deprived of food8 ,he has but one resource1 and that is1 to save1 while employed1 the means of supplying his wants in sickness and old age4 ,but1 in the individual case1 who can estimate beforehand the comparative length of time in which he has to assist1 or be assisted8 ,what cannot be done in the individual case may be found more practicable with reference to the masses in virtue of the law of averages4 ,the tribute paid by the workman while employed to provide for his support in periods of stoppage answers the purpose much more effectually1 and with much more irregularity and certainty1 when it is centralized by association1 than when it is abandoned to individual chances4 p#cfh ,hence the origin of ,friendly ,societies--admirable institutions which benevolence had given birth to long before the name of ,socialism was ever heard of4 ,it would be difficult to say who was their inventor4 ,the true inventor1 ,i believe1 was the felt want of some such institutions--the desire of men for something fixed1 the restless active instinct which leads us to remove the obstacles which mankind encounter in their progress towards stability4 ,i have myself seen friendly societies rise up spontaneously1 more than five-and-twenty years ago1 among the most destitute labourers and artisans of the poorest villages in the department of the ,landes4 ,the obvious design of these societies is to equalize enjoyments1 and to spread and distribute over all periods of life the wages earned in days of health and prosperity4 ,in all localities in which they exist1 these societies have conferred immense benefits4 ,the contributors are sustained by a feeling of security1 a feeling the most precious and consolatory which can enter the heart of man in his pilgrimage here below4 ,moreover1 they feel their reciprocal dependence and their usefulness to each other4 ,they see at what point the prosperity or adversity of each individual1 or of each profession1 becomes the prosperity or adversity of all4 ,they meet together on certain occasions for religious worship1 as provided by their rules2 and then they are called to exercise over each other that vigilant surveillance so proper to inspire self-respect1 which is the first and most difficult step in the march of civilisation4 ,what has hitherto ensured the success of these societies1--a success which has been slow1 indeed1 like everything which concerns the masses1--is liberty3 of this there can be no doubt4 ,the natural danger which they encounter is the removal of the sense of responsibility4 ,it is never without creating great dangers and great difficulties for the future1 that we set an individual free from the consequences of his own acts4#gh ,were all our citizens to say1 8,we will club together to assist those who cannot work1 or who cannot find employment10 we should fear to see developed to a dangerous extent man's natural tendency to idleness2 we should fear that the laborious would soon become the dupes of the slothful4 ,mutual assistance1 then1 implies mutual surveillance1 without which the common fund would soon be exhausted4 ,this reciprocal surveillance is for such association a necessary guarantee of existence--a security for each contributor that he shall not be made to play the part of dupe2 p#cfi and it constitutes besides the true morality of the institution4 ,by this means we see drunkenness and debauchery gradually disappear2 for what right could that man have to assistance from the common fund who has brought disease and want of employment upon himself by his own vicious habits8 ,it is this surveillance which re-establishes that responsibility which the association might otherwise tend to enfeeble4 ,now1 in order that this surveillance should operate beneficially1 friendly societies must be free and select1 and have the control of their own rules1 as well as of their own funds4 ,it is necessary also that they should be able to suit their rules to the requirements of each locality4 ,suppose ,government to interfere1 it is easy to see the part which it would play4 ,its first business would be to lay hold of all these funds1 under the pretence of centralizing them2 and to give a colour to the proceeding1 it would promise to enlarge the funds from resources taken from the taxpayer4 8,is it not10 it would be said1 8very natural and very just that the ,state should contribute to so great1 so generous1 so philanthropic1 so humane a work80 ,this is the first injustice--to introduce the element of force into the society1 and1 along with the contributions1 to obtrude citizens who have no right to a share of the fund4 ,and then1 under pretence of unity1 of solidarity1 the ,state would set itself to fuse all these associations into one1 subject to the same rules4 ,but1 ,i would ask1 what will become of the morality of the institution when its funds are augmented by taxation2 when no one except a ,government official has an interest to defend the common stock2 when every one1 instead of feeling it his duty to prevent abuses1 will take pleasure in favouring them2 when all mutual surveillance has ceased2 and when to feign disease would only be to play off a good trick on the ,government8 ,the ,government1 to do it justice1 is well disposed to defend itself2 but being no longer able to avail itself of private action1 it must necessarily substitute official action4 ,it will name examiners1 controllers1 inspectors4 ,countless formalities will be interposed between want and assistance4 ,in short1 what was originally an admirable institution will be transformed into a mere department of police4 ,the ,state will1 in the first instance1 perceive only the advantage of swelling the mob of its creatures1 of multiplying the places at its disposal1 and of extending its patronage and electioneering influence4 ,it will not remark that in arrogating to itself a new function1 it has assumed a new responsibility1--a responsibility p#cgj which ,i venture to designate as fearful4 ,for what must the immediate consequence be8 ,the working classes will no longer regard the common fund as a property which they administer and keep up1 and the limits of which are the limits of their rights4 ,they will soon accustom themselves to regard assistance in cases of sickness or want of employment1 not as proceeding from a limited fund prepared by their own foresight1 but as a debt due to them by society4 ,its resources will appear to them unbounded1 and they will never be contented with their share4 ,the ,state will find itself under the necessity of demanding constant additions to the budget4 ,encountering opposition in that1 the ,government will find itself involved in inextricable difficulties4 ,abuses will go on increasing1 which1 year after year1 they will shrink from reforming1 until an explosion comes at last4 ,and then it will be found that we have to deal with a population which can no longer act for itself1 which expects everything from a minister or a prefect1 even subsistence1 and whose ideas are so far perverted as to have lost all rational notions of ,right1 ,property1 ,liberty1 or ,justice4 ,such are some of the reasons which alarmed me1 ,i confess1 when ,i saw lately that a ,commission of the ,legislative ,assembly had been charged to prepare a project of law on friendly societies4 ,it struck me that the hour of their destruction was approaching1 and it afflicted me the more that ,i had thought a great future was in store for them1 could we only preserve them in the bracing air of liberty4 ,is it then1 ,i would ask1 so very difficult a thing to leave men to make a trial1 to feel their way1 to make a choice1 to find themselves mistaken1 to rectify their mistakes1 to inform themselves1 to act in concert1 to manage their own property and their own interests1 to act for themselves on their own proper risk and peril1 and on their own responsibility8 ,is it not evident that this is the way to make them really men8 ,shall we never cease to begin with the fatal hypothesis that all governors are guardians1 and the governed only children8 ,i maintain that1 left to the vigilance of the parties interested1 our ,friendly ,societies have before them a great future1 and ,i require no other proof of this than what has taken place on the other side of the ,channel4 8,in ,england1 individual foresight has not waited for ,government impulse to organize a powerful and reciprocal association between the working classes4 ,for a long period1 free associations1 administering their own affairs1 have been founded in all the principal towns of ,great ,britain10 etc4 4 4 4 4 p#cga 8,the total number of these associations for the ,united ,kingdom amounts to #cc1bbc1 including not less than #c1jeb1jjj individuals--one-half of the adult population of ,great ,britain40 4 4 4 4 8,this great confederation of the working classes1 this institution of effective and practical fraternity1 rests on the most solid basis4 ,their revenue is five millions sterling1 and their accumulated capital amounts to eleven millions and two hundred thousand pounds40 8,it is upon this fund that the contributors draw when out of employment4 ,we are astonished to see how ,england rallies from the immense and profound perturbations which her gigantic industry experiences from time to time1 and almost periodically--and the explanation of the phenomenon is to a great extent to be found in the facts now stated40 8,mr ,roebuck wished1 on account of the great importance of the question1 that the ,government would assume the initiative by taking the question into its own hands4 4 4 4 ,this was opposed by the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer40 8,where individual interests are sufficient for their own free government1 power1 in ,england1 judges it useless to interpose its action4 ,it watches from above to see that all goes on regularly2 but it leaves to every man the merit of his exertions1 and the care of administering his affairs1 according to his own notions and convenience4 ,it is to this independence of her citizens that ,england assuredly owes a portion of her greatness as a nation40#gi ,it might have been added that it is to that independence also that the citizens owe their experience and personal worth4 ,to that independence1 too1 the ,english ,government owes its relative freedom from responsibility1 and consequently its stability4 ,among the institutions which may take their rise from ,friendly ,societies1 when they shall have made that advance which has scarcely yet been begun1 ,i should give the first place1 on account of their social importance1 to the labourer's ,caisse de ,retraite4#hj ,there are persons who treat such an institution as a chimera4 ,such people1 no doubt1 pretend to be acquainted with the extreme limits as regards ,stability1 beyond which the human race is not permitted to go4 ,i would ask them a few simple questions3 ,if they had never known anything beyond the social state of those barbarous tribes who live by hunting and fishing1 would they have been able to anticipate the existence1 ,i do not say of our present p#cgb land revenues1 of ,government funds1 and fixed salaries1 but even of the system of payment by wages1 which is the first step towards fixity in the condition of the poorest classes8 ,and then1 if they had never seen anything beyond this wages-system1 as it exists in countries which have not yet displayed the spirit of association1 would they have ventured to predict the destinies reserved for ,friendly ,societies as we find them at work in our own day in ,england8 ,do they imagine that these first steps of progress were more easy than it is for us to establish ,caisses de ,retraite8 ,is this third step more difficult to take than the other two8 ,for myself1 ,i see clearly that mankind thirsts after stability4 ,i see them1 century after century1 adding to their incomplete conquests1 for the benefit of one class or another1 and this by marvellous processes1 which would seem to be much above individual invention1 and ,i confess that ,i dare not venture to predict at what point men will stop short on the road of progress4 ,one thing is certain1 that these ,caisses de ,retraite are universally1 unanimously1 ardently desired by all our workmen2 and very naturally so4 ,i have frequently interrogated them1 and ,i have always found that the great pain and grief of their existence is not the severity of their work1 nor the smallness of their wages1 nor even the irritation which the spectacle of inequality is calculated to excite4 ,no1 what affects them1 discourages them1 pains them1 tortures them1 is their uncertainty as regards the future4 ,whatever profession we may belong to1 whether we are public functionaries1 or men of independent fortune1 or landed proprietors1 or merchants1 physicians1 lawyers1 soldiers1 magistrates1 we enjoy without perceiving it1 consequently without acknowledging it1 the progress which has been realized by ,society--so that we cannot comprehend the torture of uncertainty4 ,let us place ourselves1 then1 in the situation of a workman1 of an artisan who1 on getting up every morning1 is haunted by such thoughts as these3 8,i am young and robust2 ,i work on1 and sometimes harder than my neighbours1 and have less leisure than they4 ,and yet ,i have difficulty in providing for the modest wants of myself and of my wife and children4 ,but what will become of me1 what will become of them1 when old age or disease shall have palsied my arm8 ,to provide for those days of helplessness by saving from my wages would require self-control and prudence almost superhuman4 ,yet in spite of sickness1 ,i have the prospect of enjoying happiness by means of a ,friendly ,society4 ,old age1 however1 is not an eventuality2 it will come inevitably and without fail4 ,every day ,i feel its approach2 it will soon p#cgc overtake me2 and then1 after a life of honest labour1 what prospect have ,i before me8 ,for myself the garret1 the hospital1 or the jail2 fur my wife1 beggary2 for my daughter1 worse still4 ,oh1 for some social institution which would compel me even by force1 while still young1 to secure a provision for old age60 ,such are the thoughts1 feebly as ,i have expressed them1 which every day1 and every night1 and every hour1 haunt the terror-stricken imaginations of vast numbers of our fellow-men4 ,and when a problem presents itself under such conditions1 you may be very sure that it is not insoluble4 ,if in their efforts to impart more stability to their future1 the working classes have disseminated alarm among the other classes of society1 it has arisen from their having given to these efforts a false1 dangerous1 and unjust direction4 ,their first idea1 according to ,french custom1 has been to attack the treasury2 to found the ,caisses de ,retraite on the contributions of the taxpayer1 and to bring into play the ,state and the ,law1 that is to say1 to secure all the profits of spoliation without incurring the dangers1 or bearing the shame of it4 ,it is not from this quarter of the social horizon that the institutions so much desired by the working classes may be expected to come4 ,the ,caisse de ,retraite1 in order that its origin may be in keeping with its end and design1 and to ensure its being useful1 solid1 and respectable1 must proceed from the working classes themselves1 must be the fruit of their exertions1 their energy1 their sagacity1 their experience1 their foresight4 ,it must be supported by their contributions1 and fed and nourished by their sacrifices4 ,all they have to ask from ,government is liberty of action and repression of fraud4 ,but has the time come when a ,caisse de ,retraite for the working classes is possible8 ,i think it has4 ,in order that an institution which brings new stability to the interests of a class should be established1 a certain amount of anterior progress is necessary4 ,it is necessary that a certain stage of civilisation should have been reached by the ,society in the midst of which such an institution is to be established1 a healthful atmosphere must be prepared for it4 ,if ,i am not mistaken1 it is to friendly societies1 with the material resources which they create1 and the spirit of association1 the experience1 the foresight1 and the sense of dignity which they infuse into the working classes1 that we are to owe the establishment of those kindred institutions which provide for the old age of the workman4 ,for if you observe what is going on in ,england1 you will be p#cgd satisfied that all such things are bound up together and depend upon each other1 and that one step of progress1 in order to be attainable1 must be preceded by another step of progress4 ,in ,england all the adults to whom it is an object to join benefit societies have done so of their own accord2 and that is a point of very great importance1 seeing that operations of this kind require to be conducted on a great scale1 and according to the law of averages4 ,these societies are possessed of large accumulated capitals1 and have1 besides1 considerable annual revenues4 ,we cannot help thinking that1 with the advance of civilisation1 the prodigious sums which these societies now require to pay to their members will become proportionally smaller and smaller4 ,good health is one of the benefits which civilisation develops4 ,the healing art makes progress2 machinery performs the harder and more painful part of labour2 longevity increases4 ,all these causes tend to lessen the calls on such associations4 ,a still more decisive and infallible symptom is the disappearance of great commercial crises in ,england4 ,such convulsions have had their origin sometimes in sudden manias with which the ,english are now and then seized for enterprises which are more than hazardous1 and which entail a great loss of capital2 sometimes they arise from great fluctuations in the price of food1 the consequence of restrictive laws1 for it is evident that when the price of bread and butcher's meat is very high1 all the resources of the people are absorbed in the purchase of necessaries1 and other branches of trade languish1 and a stoppage of manufactures is the inevitable result4 ,the first of these causes is now disappearing under the teachings of experience and public discussion2 and we can already foresee that the ,english nation1 which in former days threw itself into ,american loans1 ,mexican mines1 and railway schemes with such sheep-like credulity1 will now be much less a dupe than others to ,californian illusions4 ,what shall ,i say of ,free ,trade1 the triumph of which is due to ,mr ,cobden1 not to ,sir ,robert ,peel2--for the apostle would always have called forth a statesman1 but the statesman could not have dispensed with the apostle4 ,here1 then1 we have a new power ushered into the world1 which ,i hope will go far to do away with commercial stoppages and convulsions4 ,restriction has the admitted tendency and effect of placing many of the manufactures of the country1 and1 consequently1 part of its population1 in a precarious situation4 ,as those piled-up waves which a transient force keeps for a moment above the level of the sea have a p#cge constant tendency to descend1 so factitious industries1 surrounded on every side by victorious competition1 have a constant tendency to collapse4 ,a modification in a single article of a single home or foreign tariff may bring ruin to them2 and then comes a crisis4 ,the variations in the price of a commodity1 moreover1 are much greater when you limit the field of competition4 ,surround a department1 or a district1 with custom-houses1 and you render the fluctuation of prices much more marked4 ,liberty acts on the principle of insurance4 ,in different countries1 and in successive years1 it compensates bad harvests by good ones4 ,it sustains prices thus brought back to the average4 ,it is a levelling and equalizing force4 ,it contributes to stability1 and it combats instability which is the great source of convulsions and stoppages4 ,there is no exaggeration in asserting that the first fruit of ,mr ,cobden's work will be to lessen many of those dangers which gave rise1 in ,england1 to friendly societies4 ,mr ,cobden has undertaken another task which will have a not less beneficial influence on the stability of the labourer's lot1 and ,i doubt not he will succeed in it2 for good service in the cause of truth is always triumphant4 ,i refer to his efforts for the suppression of war1 or1 what is the same thing1 for the infusion of the spirit of peace into that public opinion by which the question of peace or war comes always to be decided4 ,war constitutes always the greatest disturbing force to which a nation can be subjected in its industry1 in its commerce1 in the disposal of its capital1 even in its tastes4 ,consequently1 it is a powerful cause of derangement and uneasiness to those classes who have difficulty in changing their employment4 ,the more1 of course1 this disturbing force is lessened1 the less onerous will the burdens be which fall upon benefit societies4 ,on the other hand1 by dint of progress1 by the mere lapse of time1 the resources of these societies will be extended2 and a day will come when they can undertake something more decisive--with a view to lessen the instability which is inherent in human affairs4 ,these societies might then be transformed into ,caisses de ,retraite1 or institutions for old age1 and this will undoubtedly happen1 since it is the ardent and universal desire of the working classes that it should be so4 ,and it is worthy of remark1 that while material circumstances thus pave the way for such a transformation1 moral circumstances arising from the influence of these very societies tend in the same direction4 ,these societies develop among the working classes habits1 qualities1 and virtues1 the possession and diffusion of which p#cgf are in this respect an essential preliminary4 ,when we examine the matter closely1 we must be convinced that the creation of such societies presupposes a very advanced stage of civilisation4 ,they are at once its effect and its reward4 ,they could1 in fact1 have no existence if men had not been previously in the habit of meeting1 of acting in concert1 and of managing in common their own affairs2 they could not exist if men were prone to vices which induce premature old age2 nor could they exist were the working classes brought to think that everything is fair as against the public1 and that a common fund is the object at which every one intent on fraud may legitimately take aim4 ,in order that the establishment of ,caisses de ,retraite should not give rise to discord and misunderstanding1 the working classes should be made to feel that they must depend upon nobody but themselves2 that the common fund must be voluntarily created by those who are to have the benefit of it2 and that it is supremely unjust and anti-social to call for co-operation from other classes1 who are to have no share in the advantage1 and who can only be made to concur by means of the tax-gatherer1 that is to say1 by means of force4 ,now1 we have not yet got that length--so far from it that the frequent appeals to the ,state show us but too plainly what are the hopes and pretensions of the working classes4 ,they think that their benefit society should be fed and alimented by ,state subventions like that for public functionaries4 ,and thus it is that one abuse always gives rise to another4 ,but if these ,caisses de ,retraite are to be maintained exclusively by the parties interested1 may it not be said that they exist already1 seeing that life assurance companies present combinations which enable every workman to provide for the future by the sacrifice of the present8 ,i have dwelt at great length upon friendly societies and ,caisses de ,retraite1 although these institutions are only indirectly connected with the subject of this chapter4 ,i have given way to the desire to exhibit mankind marching gradually on to the conquest of stability1 or rather 7for stability implies something stationary71 emerging victorious from their struggle with uncertainty--uncertainty1 that standing menace which mars all the enjoyments of life1 that sword of ,damocles which seems so fatally suspended over the human destinies4 ,that this menace may be progressively and indefinitely rendered less formidable by reducing to an average the risks and chances of all times1 of all places1 and of all men1 is certainly one of the most admirable social harmonies which can be presented to the view of the philosophic economist4 p#cgg ,we must not1 however1 conclude that this victory depends upon these two institutions1 the establishment of which may be more or less accidental4 ,no2 did experience even demonstrate these institutions to be impracticable1 the human race would not the less find its way to fixity4 ,it is enough to know that uncertainty is an evil1 in order to be assured that it will be incessantly1 and1 sooner or later1 successfully1 combated2 for such is the law of our nature4 ,if1 as we have seen1 the system of remunerating labour by wages is1 as regards stability1 a more advanced form of association between capital and labour1 it still leaves too much room for the uncertain4 ,as long as he continues to work1 the labourer knows on what he has to depend4 ,but how long will he have employment1 and how long will he be fit for work8 ,this is what he is ignorant of1 and1 as regards his future1 it places before him a fearful problem for solution4 ,the uncertainty which affects the capitalist is different4 ,with him it is not a question of life or death4 8,i shall always derive an interest from my means2 but will that interest be higher or lower80 ,that is the question which affects capital or anterior labour4 ,sentimental philanthropists who see in this a frightful inequality which they desire to get rid of by artificial1 sometimes by unjust and violent1 means1 do not consider that after all we cannot change the nature of things4 ,anterior labour must necessarily have more security than present labour1 simply for this reason1 that products already created must always present more certain resources than products which are yet to be created2 that services already rendered1 received1 and estimated1 present a more solid foundation for the future than services which are still in the state of supply4 ,if you are not surprised that of two fishermen1 the one who1 having long laboured and saved1 possesses lines1 nets1 boats1 and some previous supply of fish1 is more at ease as regards his future than the other who has absolutely nothing but his willingness to take part in the work1 why should you be astonished that the social order presents to a certain extent the same differences8 ,in order to justify the envy1 the jealousy1 the absolute spitefulness with which the labourer regards the capitalist1 it would be necessary to conclude that the relative stability of the one is caused by the instability of the other4 ,but it is the reverse which is true4 ,it is precisely the capital which pre-exists in the hands of one man which is the guarantee of the wages of another1 however insufficient that guarantee may appear4 ,but for that capital1 the uncertainty of the labourer would be still greater and more striking4 ,would the p#cgh increase1 and the extension to all1 of that uncertainty be any advantage to the labourer8 ,two men run equal risks1 which we may represent1 for each1 as equal to #dj4 ,one of them succeeds so well1 by his labour and his foresight1 that he reduces the risks which affect him to #aj4 ,those of his companion from the same cause1 and in consequence of a mysterious solidarity1 are reduced1 not to #aj1 but to #bj4 ,what can be more just than that the man who has the greater merit should reap the greater reward8 ,what more admirable than that the other should profit by the virtues of his neighbour8 ,now1 this is just what philanthropy repudiates under the pretext that such an order of things is opposed to equality4 ,suppose that one fine day the old fisherman should thus address his companion3 8,you have neither boat1 nor nets1 nor any instrument to fish with1 except your hands1 and you are likely to make but a poor business of it4 ,you have no stock of provisions1 and it is poor work to fish with an empty stomach4 ,come along with me--it is your interest as well as mine4 ,it is yours1 for ,i will give you a share of the fish which we take1 and1 whatever the quantity be1 it will at least be greater than the produce of your isolated exertions4 ,it is my interest also1 for the additional quantity caught with your assistance will be greater than the share ,i will have to give you4 ,in short1 the union of your labour with my labour and capital1 as compared with their isolated action1 will produce a surplus1 and it is the division of this surplus which explains how association may be of advantage to both of us40 ,they proceed in this way in the first instance2 but afterwards the young fisher will prefer to receive every day a fixed quantity of fish4 ,his uncertain and fluctuating profits are thus converted into wages1 without the advantages of association being destroyed1 and1 by stronger reason1 without the association itself being dissolved4 ,and it is in such circumstances as these that the pretended philanthropy of the ,socialists comes to declaim against the tyranny of boats and nets1 against the situation1 naturally less uncertain1 of him who possesses them1 and who has come to possess them just because he has constructed them in order to obviate this uncertainty6 ,it is in such circumstances that they endeavour to persuade the destitute young fisherman that he is the victim of his voluntary arrangement with the old fisherman1 and that he ought instantly to return to his state of isolation6 ,to assert that the future of the capitalist is less uncertain than p#cgi that of the workman1 is just to assert that the man who already possesses is in a better situation than the man who does not yet possess4 ,it is so1 and it must be so1 for it is for this very reason that men aspire to possess4 ,the tendency1 then1 is for men to cease being workmen in receipt of wages in order to become capitalists4 ,this progress is in conformity with human nature4 ,what workman does not desire to have tools of his own1 a stock of his own1 a warehouse1 a workshop1 a field1 a dwelling-house1 of his own8 ,what workman but aspires to become an employer8 ,who is not delighted to command after having long obeyed8 ,do the great laws of the economic world1 does the natural play of the social organs1 favour or oppose this tendency8 ,this is the last question which we shall examine in connexion with the subject of wages4 ,can its solution be attended with any doubt8 ,let us revert once more to the necessary evolution of production3 gratuitous utility substituting itself incessantly for onerous utility2 human efforts constantly diminishing in relation to each result1 and1 when rendered disposable1 embarking in new enterprises2 every hour's labour corresponding to an always increasing amount of enjoyment4 ,how1 from these premises1 can we fail to deduce a progressive increase of useful efforts to be distributed1 consequently a sustained amelioration of the labourer's condition1 consequently1 also1 an endless increase and progression of that amelioration8 ,for here the effect having become a cause1 we see progress not only advance1 but become accelerated by its advance2 vires acquirere eundo4 ,in point of fact1 from century to century accumulation becomes more easy1 as the remuneration of labour becomes more ample4 ,then accumulation increases capital1 increases the demand for labour1 and causes an elevation of wages4 ,this rise of wages1 in its turn1 facilitates accumulation and the transformation of the paid labourer into a capitalist4 ,between the remuneration of labour and the accumulation of capital1 then1 there is a constant action and reaction1 which is always favourable to the labouring class1 always tending to relieve that class from the yoke of urgent necessity4 ,it may be said1 perhaps1 that ,i have brought together here all that can dazzle the hopes of the working classes1 and that ,i have concealed all that could cause them discouragement4 ,if there are tendencies towards equality1 it may be said1 there are also tendencies towards inequality4 ,why do you not analyze the whole1 in order to explain the true situation of the labouring classes1 and p#chj thus bring science into accord with the melancholy facts to which it seems to shut its eyes8 ,you show us gratuitous utility substituted for onerous utility1 the gifts of ,god falling more and more into the domain of community1 and1 by that very fact1 human labour obtaining a continually increasing recompense4 ,from this increase of remuneration you deduce an increased facility of accumulation1 and from this facility of accumulation a new increase of remuneration1 leading to new and still more abundant accumulations1 and so on ad infinitum4 ,it may be that this system is as logical as it is optimist2 it may be that we are not in a situation to oppose to it a scientific refutation4 ,but where are the facts which confirm it8 ,where do we find realized this emancipation from paid labour8 ,is it in the great centres of manufactures8 ,is it among the agricultural labourers8 ,and if your theoretical predictions are not accomplished1 is not this the reason1 that alongside the economic laws which you invoke1 there are other laws which act in an opposite direction1 and of which you say nothing4 ,for instance1 why do you tell us nothing of that competition which takes place among workmen1 and which forces them to accept of lower wages2 of that urgent want of the necessaries of life which presses upon the labourer1 and obliges him to submit to the conditions of the capitalist1 so that1 in fact1 it is the most destitute1 famished1 isolated1 and consequently the most clamant and exacting workman who fixes the rate of wages for all8 ,and if1 in spite of so many obstacles1 the condition of our unfortunate fellow-citizens comes to be improved1 why do you not show us that law of population which steps in with its fatal action1 multiplying the multitude1 stirring up competition1 increasing the supply of labour1 deciding the controversy in favour of the capitalist1 and reducing the workman to receive1 for twelve or sixteen hours' labour1 only what is indispensable 7that1 forsooth1 is the consecrated phrase7 to the maintenance of life8 ,if ,i have not touched upon all these phases of the question1 the reason is1 that it is scarcely possible to include everything within the limits of a single chapter4 ,i have already explained the general law of ,competition1 and we have seen that that law is far from furnishing any class1 especially the poorer class1 with serious reasons for discouragement4 ,i shall1 by-and-by1 explain the law of ,population1 which will be found1 ,i hope1 in its general effects1 not more severe4 ,it is not my fault if each great solution--such1 for example1 as the future of a whole class of men--cannot be educed from one isolated economic law1 and consequently from p#cha one chapter of this work1 but must be educed from the aggregate of these laws1 or from the work taken as a whole4 ,and here ,i must remind the reader of a distinction1 which is by no means a subtlety1 that when we have to do with an effect1 we must take good care not to attribute it to the action of general and providential laws1 if1 on the contrary1 it be found to proceed from a violation of these very laws4 ,i by no means ignore the calamities which1 under all forms1--excessive labour1 insufficient wages1 uncertainty as to the future1 a feeling of inferiority1--bear hard upon those of our fellow-citizens who have not yet been able1 by the acquisition of ,property1 to raise themselves to a higher and more comfortable condition4 ,but1 then1 we must acknowledge that uncertainty1 destitution1 and ignorance constitute the starting-point of the whole human race2 and this being so1 the question1 it seems to me1 is to discover1--#ast1 ,if the general providential laws do not tend to relieve all classes from the weight of this triple yoke2 #b;dly1 ,if the conquests already secured by the more advanced classes do not constitute a facility prepared beforehand for the classes which yet lag behind4 ,if the answer to these questions be in the affirmative1 we may conclude that the social harmony is established1 and that the ways of ,providence are vindicated1 if1 indeed1 they needed vindication4 ,man being endowed with discretion and free will1 the beneficent laws of ,providence can profit him only while he conforms himself to their operation2 and although ,i affirm that man's nature is perfectible1 ,i must not be understood to assert that he makes progress when he misunderstands or violates these laws4 ,thus1 ,i maintain that transactions which are natural1 free1 voluntary1 and exempt from fraud or violence1 have in themselves a principle of progress for all4 ,but that is not to affirm that progress is inevitable1 and must spring from war1 monopoly1 or imposture4 ,i maintain that wages have a tendency to rise1 that this rise facilitates saving1 and that saving1 in its turn1 raises wages4 ,but if the class which lives by wages1 in consequence of habits of dissipation and debauchery1 neutralize at the outset this cause of progressive effects1 ,i do not say that those effects will exhibit themselves in the same way1 for the contrary is implied in my affirmation4 ,in order to bring the scientific deduction to the test of facts1 we must take two epochs2 for example1 #agej and #ahej4 ,we must first of all establish what1 at these two periods1 was the proportion of proltaires to propritaires--of the men who live by wages without having any realized property1 to the men in the actual possession of property4 ,we shall find1 ,i presume1 that for p#chb a century the number of people who possess some resources has much increased relatively to the number of those who are in possession of no resources whatever4 ,we must then discover the specific situation of each of these two classes1 which we cannot do otherwise than by observing the enjoyments and satisfactions which they possess2 and very probably we shall find that in our day they derive a greater amount of real satisfaction and enjoyment1 the one from accumulated labour1 the other from present labour1 than was possible in the middle of the last century4 ,if the respective and relative progress of these classes1 especially of the working class1 has not been what we could wish1 we must then inquire whether it has not been more or less retarded by acts of injustice and violence1 by errors1 by passions--in a word1 by faults incident to mankind1 by contingent causes which we cannot confound with what are called the great and constant laws of the social economy4 ,have we not1 for example1 had wars and revolutions which might have been avoided8 ,and have not these atrocities1 in the first instance1 absorbed and afterwards dissipated an incalculable amount of capital1 consequently diminished the funds for the payment of wages1 and retarded the emancipation of the working classes8 ,have they not diverted capital from its legitimate employment1 seeking to derive from it1 not enjoyment1 but destruction8 ,have we not had monopolies1 privileges1 and unequal taxation8 ,have we not had absurd expenditure1 ridiculous fashions1 and a loss of power1 which can be attributed only to puerile tastes and prejudices8 ,and what has been the consequence8 ,there are general laws to which man may conform himself1 or which he may violate4 ,if it be incontestable that ,frenchmen1 during the last hundred years1 have frequently run counter to the natural order of social development2 if we cannot forbear to attribute to incessant wars1 to periodical revolutions1 to acts of injustice1 to monopolies1 to dissipation1 to follies of all kinds1 a fearful sacrifice of the power of capital and of labour2 ,and if1 on the other hand1 in spite of all this1 which is undeniable1 we can establish another fact--namely1 that during this same period of a hundred years the class possessed of property has been recruited from the labouring class1 and that both have at the same time had at their command a greater amount of satisfaction and enjoyment--do we not1 by rigorous deduction1 arrive at this conclusion1 namely1 that1 p#chc ,the general laws of the social world are in harmony1 and that they tend in all respects to the improvement of the human race8 ,for since1 after a period of a hundred years1 during which these laws have been so frequently and so deeply violated1 men find themselves in a more advanced state of comfort and well-being1 the action of these laws must be beneficent1 and sufficiently so even to compensate the action of disturbing causes4 ,how indeed could it be otherwise8 ,is there not something equivocal1 or rather redundant1 in the expression1 beneficent general laws8 ,how can general laws be other than beneficent8 ,when ,god placed in man's heart an irresistible impulse to what is good1 and1 to enable him to discern it1 imparted to him sufficient light to enable him to rectify his errors1 from that moment ,he decreed that the human race was perfectible1 and that1 in spite of many errors1 difficulties1 deceptions1 oppressions1 and oscillations1 mankind should still march onwards on the road of progress4 ,this onward march1 while error1 deception1 and oppression are absent1 is precisely what we denominate the general laws of the social order4 ,errors and oppressions are what ,i call the violation of these laws1 or disturbing causes4 ,it is not possible1 then1 to doubt that the one should be beneficent1 and the other the reverse1 unless we go the length of doubting whether disturbing causes may not act in a manner more regular and permanent than general laws4 ,now that conclusion would contradict the premises4 ,our intelligence1 which may be deceived1 can rectify its errors1 and it is evident that1 the social world being constituted as it is1 error might sooner or later be checked by ,responsibility1 and that1 sooner or later1 oppression must be destroyed by ,solidarity4 ,whence it follows that disturbing causes are not in their nature permanent1 and it is for that reason that the laws which countervail the action of such disturbances merit the name of ,general laws4 ,in order to conform ourselves to general laws1 it is necessary to be acquainted with them4 ,allow me then to enlarge a little on the relations1 so ill understood1 of the capitalist and the labourer4 ,capital and labour are indispensable to one another4 ,perpetually confronting each other1 their adjustment constitutes one of the most important and most interesting subjects which can come under the observation of the economist4 ,and it is a solemn consideration that erroneous notions and superficial observations on this subject1 if they become popular1 may give rise to inveterate heartburnings1 struggles1 and bloodshed4 ,now1 ,i express my deliberate conviction when ,i say that for p#chd some years the public mind has been saturated with the falsest theories on this subject4 ,we have been told that free and voluntary transactions between the capitalist and the labourer lead1 not accidentally1 but necessarily1 to monopoly for the capitalist1 and oppression for the labourer2 from which the obvious conclusion is1 that liberty ought everywhere to be put down and stifled2 for1 ,i repeat1 that when men have accused liberty of engendering monopoly1 they have pretended not only to assert a fact1 but to establish a law4 ,in support of this thesis they have appealed to the action of machinery and of competition4 ,m4 de ,sismondi was1 ,i believe1 the founder1 and ,m4 ,buret the propagator1 of these unhappy doctrines1 although the latter has stated his conclusions very timidly1 and the former has not ventured to state any conclusion at all4 ,but bolder spirits have succeeded them1 who1 after trumpeting their hatred to capitalists and men of property1 after having got the masses to accept as an incontestable axiom the discovery that liberty leads inevitably to monopoly1 have1 whether designedly or not1 induced the people to raise their hands against this accursed liberty4#ha ,four days of a sanguinary struggle brought emancipation1 without restoring confidence2 for do we not constantly discover the hand of the ,state 7obedient in this to vulgar prejudices7 ever ready to interpose in the relations of capital and labour8 ,we have already deduced the action of competition from our theory of value1 and we shall do the same thing as regards the effects of machinery4#hb ,we must limit ourselves in this place to an exposition of some general ideas upon the subject of the reciprocal relations of the capitalist and the labourer4 ,the fact with which our pessimist reformers are much struck in the outset is1 that the capitalists are richer than the workmen1 and obtain a greater amount of satisfactions and enjoyments2 whence it results that they appropriate to themselves a greater1 and consequently an unjust1 share of the product elaborated by their joint exertions4 ,it is in this direction that their statistics1 more or less impartial1 professing to explain the condition of the working classes1 tend4 ,these gentlemen forget that absolute poverty and destitution is the inevitable starting-point of the human race1 and that men continue inevitably in this state until they have acquired something for themselves1 or have had something acquired for them by others4 p#che ,to remark1 in the gross1 that capitalists are better off than mere workmen1 is simply to assert that those who have something1 have more than those who have nothing4 ,the questions which the workman ought to ask himself are not1 8,does my labour give me much8 ,does it give me little8 ,does it give me as much as it gives to another8 ,does it give me what ,i desire80 ,the questions he should ask himself are these3 8,does my labour give me less because ,i employ it in the service of the capitalist8 ,would it give me more if ,i worked in a state of isolation1 or if ,i associated my labour with that of other workmen as destitute as myself8 ,i am ill situated1 but would ,i be better off were there no such thing as capital in the world8 ,if the part which ,i obtain in consequence of my arrangement with capital is greater than what ,i would obtain without that arrangement1 what reason have ,i to complain8 ,and then1 according to what laws would our respective shares go on increasing or diminishing were transactions free8 ,if it be of the nature of these transactions to allow me1 in proportion as the total product to be divided increases1 to obtain a continually increasing proportion of the excess 7c4 vii41 p4 #bab71 then in place of breathing hatred against capital1 ought ,i not to treat it as a friend8 ,if it be indisputably established that the presence of capital is favourable to my interests1 and that its absence would be death to me1 am ,i very prudent or well-advised in calumniating it1 frightening it away1 and forcing its dissipation or flight80 ,in the discussion which precedes the bargain1 an inequality of situation is constantly alleged1 because capital can afford to wait1 but labour cannot4 ,the one upon which the greatest pressure bears must give way to the other1 so that the capitalist in reality fixes the rate of wages4 ,undoubtedly1 looking at the surface of things1 he who has created a stock1 and who in consequence of this foresight can wait on1 has the advantage in the bargain4 ,taking even an isolated transaction1 the man who says1 ,do ut facias1 is not in such a hurry to come to a conclusion as the man who replies1 ,facio ut des4 ,for1 when a man can say do1 he possesses something to give2 and when he possesses something to give1 he can wait4#hc ,we must not1 however1 lose sight of this1 that value has the same principle1 whether it resides in the service or in the product4 ,if one of the parties says do1 in place of facio1 it is because he has had the foresight to execute the facio beforehand4 ,in reality1 it is the service on both sides which is the measure of the value4 ,now1 p#chf if delay for present labour is a suffering1 for anterior labour it is a loss4 ,we must not then suppose that a man who says do1 the capitalist1 will amuse himself 7above all if we consider the aggregate of his transactions7 by deferring the bargain4 ,in point of fact1 do we see much capital idle for this reason8 ,do many manufacturers stop their mills1 or shipowners delay their voyages1 or agriculturists defer their harvests1 on purpose to depreciate wages1 and get hold of their workmen by means of famine8 ,but without denying that the position of the capitalists in relation to the workman is favourable in this respect1 is there not something else to be considered with reference to their arrangements8 ,for instance1 is it not a circumstance quite in favour of present labour that accumulated labour loses value by mere lapse of time8 ,i have elsewhere alluded to this phenomenon4 ,but it is important to solicit the reader's attention again to it in this place1 seeing how great an influence it has upon the remuneration of present labour4 ,that which in my opinion renders ,adam ,smith's theory1 that value comes from labour1 false1 or at least incomplete1 is that this theory assigns to value only one element1 whilst1 being a relation1 it has necessarily two4 ,besides1 if value springs exclusively from labour1 and represents it1 it would be proportionate to that labour1 which is contrary to all observed facts4 ,no2 value comes from service received and rendered2 and the service depends as much1 if not more1 on the pains saved to the man who receives it1 as upon the pains taken by the man who renders it4 ,in this respect the most common facts confirm our reasoning4 ,when ,i purchase a product1 ,i may indeed ask myself1 8,how long time has it taken to make it80 ,and this undoubtedly is one of the elements of my estimate of its value4 ,but again1 and above all1 ,i ask1 8,how long time would it take me to make it8 ,how long time have ,i taken to make the thing which is asked from me in exchange80 ,when ,i purchase a service1 ,i not only ask how much it will cost another to render that service to me1 but how much it would cost me to render that service to myself4 ,these personal questions1 and the answers which they call forth1 are such essential elements in every estimate of value1 that they most frequently determine it4 ,try to purchase a diamond which has been found by chance4 ,the seller will transfer to you very little labour1 but he will ask from you a great deal4 ,why1 then1 should you consent to this8 ,because you take into account the labour which it saves you1 the p#chg labour which you would be obliged to undergo in order to satisfy by any other means your desire to possess a diamond4 ,when an exchange1 then1 takes place between anterior labour and present labour1 it is not at all on the footing of their intensity or duration1 but on that of their value1 that is to say1 of the service which they render1 and their relative utility4 ,if the capitalist shall say1 8,here is a product which cost me formerly ten hours' labour20 and if the labourer be in a situation to reply1 8,i can produce the same thing in five hours10 the capitalist would be forced to give up the difference2 for1 ,i repeat1 that it does not concern the present acquirer of a commodity to ask how much labour it formerly cost to produce it4 ,what concerns him is to know what labour it will save him now1 what service he is to expect from it4 ,a capitalist1 in a general sense1 is a man who1 having foreseen that such or such a service would be in demand1 has prepared beforehand to satisfy this demand by incorporating the value in a commodity4 ,when labour has been thus expended by anticipation1 in expectation of future remuneration1 we cannot tell whether1 on a definite future day1 it will render exactly the same service1 or save the same pains1 or preserve1 consequently1 a uniform value4 ,we cannot even hazard a probable conjecture as to this4 ,the commodity may be very recherch1 very difficult to procure in any other way2 it may come to render services which will be better appreciated1 or appreciated by more people2 it may acquire an increasing value with time1--in other words1 it may exchange for a continually increasing proportion of present labour4 ,thus it is not impossible that such a product1 a diamond for example1 a violin of ,stradivarius1 a picture of ,raphal1 a vine-plant from the ,chteau-,laffitte1 may come to exchange for a thousand times more labour than they cost4 ,in fact it just comes to this1 that the anterior labour is well remunerated in these cases1 because it renders a great amount of service4 ,the contrary may also happen4 ,a commodity which has cost four hours' labour may come to exchange for one which has cost only three hours' labour of equal intensity4 ,but--and this appears to me extremely important as regards the interests of the working classes1 of those classes who aspire so ardently to get rid of their present state of uncertainty--although the two alternatives we have stated are both possible1 and each may be realized in its turn1 although accumulated labour may sometimes gain1 and sometimes lose value1 in p#chh relation to present labour1 the first alternative1 nevertheless1 is so rare as to be considered accidental and exceptional2 while the second is the result of a general law which is inherent in the very organization of man4 ,that man1 with all his intellectual and experimental acquisitions1 is of a progressive nature1 is at least industrially speaking 7for1 in a moral point of view1 the assertion might be disputed7 beyond doubt4 ,it is beyond doubt that the greater part of those commodities which exacted formerly a given amount of labour1 exact at the present day a less amount1 in consequence of improvements in machinery and the gratuitous intervention of natural forces2 and we may assert without hesitation1 that in each period of ten years1 for example1 a given quantity of labour will accomplish1 in the majority of cases1 greater results than the same quantity of labour could have accomplished in the preceding decennial period4 ,what is the conclusion to be drawn from this8 ,obviously1 that anterior labour goes on constantly deteriorating in value relatively to present labour2 that in every act of exchange it becomes necessary to give1 of the first a greater number of hours than you receive of the second2 and this without any injustice1 but simply to maintain the equivalence of services4 ,this is a consequence which progress forces upon us4 ,you say to me1 8,here is a machine2 it was made ten years ago1 but it is still new4 ,it cost #ajjj days' work to make it4 ,i will give it to you in exchange for an equal number of days' labour40 ,to this ,i reply1 8,within the last ten years so many new tools have been invented1 and so many new processes discovered1 that ,i can now construct1 or1 what comes to the same thing1 get constructed for me1 an equally good machine1 with an expenditure of only #fjj days' labour4 ,i will not1 therefore1 give you more than #fjj for yours40 8,but ,i should in this way lose #djj days' labour40 8,no10 ,i reply2 8for #f days' work now are worth #aj formerly4 ,at all events1 what you offer me for #ajjj ,i can now procure for #fjj40 ,this ends the debate2 if the lapse of time has deteriorated the value of your labour1 there is no reason why ,i should bear the loss4 ,again you say to me1 8,here is a field4 ,in order to bring it to its present state of productiveness1 ,i and my ancestors have expended #ajjj days' labour4 ,they were unacquainted1 no doubt1 with the use of axe1 and saw1 and spade1 and did all by muscular exertion4 ,but no matter2 give me first of all #ajjj of your days' work1 as an equivalent for the #ajjj which ,i give to you1 and then add #cjj as the value of the productive power of the soil1 and you p#chi shall have the field40 ,i answer1 8,i will not give you #acjj1 or even #ajjj1 days' labour for it2 and here are my reasons3 ,there are on the surface of the globe an indefinite number of productive powers which are destitute of value4 ,we are now accustomed to handle spade1 and axe1 and saw1 and plough1 and employ many other means of abridging labour1 and rendering it more productive2 so that1 with #fjj days' work1 ,i can either bring an uncultivated field into the state in which yours is1 or 7which comes absolutely to the same thing as far as ,i am concerned7 ,i can procure myself1 by an act of exchange1 all the advantages which you reap from your field4 ,i will give you1 then1 #fjj days1 and no more40 8,in that case1 not only should ,i have no profit from the pretended value of the productive powers of the soil2 ,i should not even be reimbursed for the actual labour which ,i and my ancestors have devoted to the cultivation of this field4 ,is it not strange that ,i should be accused by ,ricardo of selling the powers of nature2 by ,senior of intercepting the gifts of ,god2 by all the ,economists of being a monopolist2 by ,proudhon of being a robber2 while in reality ,i am only a dupe80 ,you are no more a dupe than a monopolist4 ,you receive the equivalent of what you give2 and it is neither natural1 nor just1 nor possible1 that rude labour performed with the hand centuries ago should exchange1 day for day1 against the more intelligent and productive labour of the present time4 ,thus we see that by an admirable effect of the social mechanism1 when anterior and present labour are brought into juxtaposition1 and when the business is to know in what proportion the joint product of both is to be divided1 the specific superiority of the one and of the other is taken into account2 and they participate in the distribution according to the relative services which they render4 ,in exceptional cases it may happen that this superiority is on the side of anterior labour4 ,but in the great majority of cases it is otherwise2 and the nature of man and the law of progress cause the superiority to be manifested on the side of present labour4 ,progress is advanced by the latter2 and the deterioration falls upon capital4 ,independently of this result1 which shows how vain and hollow the declamations of our modern reformers on the pretended tyranny of capital are1 there is another consideration still more fitted to extinguish in the hearts of the working classes that factitious hatred of other classes1 which it has been attempted but with too much success to light up4 ,the consideration ,i refer to is this3 ,capital1 however far it may carry its pretensions1 and however p#cij successful it may be in its endeavours to ensure the triumph of these pretensions1 can never place labour in a worse situation than it would occupy in a state of isolation4 ,in other words1 capital is always more favourable to labour by its presence than by its absence4 ,let us revert to the example which ,i gave a little ago4 ,two men live by fishing4 ,one of them has nets1 lines1 a boat1 and some provisions to enable him to wait for the fruit of his labour4 ,the other has nothing but his personal exertions4 ,it is their interest to associate4#hd ,whatever may be the terms on which they agree to share the produce1 the condition of either of these two fishermen1 whether the rich one or the poor one1 never can be made worse1 and for this obvious reason1 that the moment either of them finds association disadvantageous as compared with isolation1 he may return to isolation4 ,in savage as in pastoral1 in agricultural as in industrial life1 the relations of capital and labour are always represented by this example4 ,the absence of capital is a limit which is always within the power of labour4 ,if the pretensions of capital go the length of rendering joint action less profitable for labour than isolated action1 labour can take refuge in isolation1 an asylum always open 7except in a state of slavery7 to voluntary association found to be disadvantageous4 ,labour can always say to capital1 ,rather than work jointly on the conditions which you offer me1 ,i prefer to work alone4 ,it may be objected that this resource is illusory and ridiculous1 that to labour isolated action is forbidden by a radical impossibility1 and that to dispense with tools and instruments would be fatal to it4 ,this is no doubt true2 but it just confirms the truth of my assertion1 that even if capital carries its exactions to an extreme limit1 it still benefits labour by the very fact of its being associated with it4 ,labour can be brought into a worse condition than the worst association only when all association ceases and capital retires4 ,cease1 then1 apostles of misfortune1 to cry out against the tyranny of capital1 since you allow that its action is always--in a greater or less degree1 no doubt1 but always--beneficent4 ,singular tyranny1 whose power is beneficial to all those who desire to feel its effects1 and is hurtful only when withdrawn4 ,but the objector may still insist that1 although this might be so in the earlier stages of society1 capital has at the present day p#cia invaded everything4 ,it occupies every post1 it lays hold of every field4 ,the working man has no longer either air1 or space1 or soil to put his foot on1 or stone to lay his head on1 without the permission of capital4 ,he is subject to its inexorable law1 and you would afford him no refuge but isolation1 which you admit is death6 ,all this displays a deplorable confusion of ideas1 and a total ignorance of the social economy4 ,if1 as has been said1 capital has possessed itself of all the forces of nature1 of all lands1 of all space1 ,i would ask for whose profit8 ,for the profit of the capitalist1 no doubt4 ,but then1 how does it happen that a simple workman1 who has nothing but his muscular powers1 can obtain in ,france1 in ,england1 in ,belgium1 a thousand1 a million times greater amount of satisfaction and enjoyment than he could have reaped in a state of isolation1--not on the social hypothesis which you repudiate1 but on that other hypothesis which you cherish and cling to1 that which presupposes capital to have been guilty of no usurpation4 ,i shall continue to entertain this view of the subject1 until your new science can give a better account of it2 for ,i am convinced ,i have assigned valid reasons for the conclusion at which ,i have arrived4--7,chapter vii47 ,take the first workman you meet with on the streets of ,paris4 ,find out the amount of his earnings and the amount of enjoyments he can procure himself1 and when you have fired off both against that monster1 capital1 ,i will step in1 and thus address the workman3 ,we are about to annihilate capital and all its works2 and ,i am going to place you in the midst of a hundred thousand acres of the most fertile land1 which ,i shall give you in full property and possession1 with everything above and below ground4 ,you will not be elbowed by any capitalist4 ,you will have the full enjoyment of the four natural rights of hunting1 fishing1 reaping the fruits1 and pasturing the land4 ,true1 you will have no capital2 for if you had1 you would be in precisely the situation you censure in the case of others4 ,but you will no longer have reason to complain of landlordism1 capitalism1 individualism1 usurers1 stockjobbers1 bankers1 monopolists4 ,the land will be absolutely and entirely yours4 ,think if you would like to accept this position4 ,this workman would1 no doubt1 imagine at first that he had obtained the fortune of a monarch4 ,on reflection1 however1 he would probably say3 ,well1 let us calculate4 ,even when a man possesses a hundred thousand acres of land1 he must live4 ,now1 how does the bread account stand in the two situations8 ,at p#cib present ,i earn half-a-crown a day4 ,at the present price of corn ,i can have three bushels a week1 just as if ,i myself sowed and reaped4 ,were ,i proprietor of a hundred thousand acres of land1 at the utmost ,i could not1 without capital1 produce three bushels of corn in two years1 and in the interim ,i might1 die of famine4 4 4 4 4 ,i shall1 therefore1 stick to my wages4 ,the truth is1 we do not consider sufficiently the progress which the human race must have made1 to be able even to maintain the wretched existence of our workmen4#he 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 ,amelioration of the labourer's lot found in wages themselves and in the natural laws by which wages are regulated4 #ast1 ,the labourer tends to rise to the rank of a capitalist and employer4 #b;d1 ,wages tend to rise4 ,corollary4--,the transition from the state of a paid workman to that of an employer becomes constantly less desirable1 and more easy4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 p#cic ,,xv4 ,,saving4 ,to save is not to accumulate quantities of corn1 of game1 or of crown-pieces4 ,this hoarding-up of material and consumable commodities1 which must necessarily from its nature be restrained within narrow bounds1 represents only the saving of man in a state of isolation4 ,all that we have hitherto said of value1 of services1 of relative wealth1 shows us that1 socially1 saving1 although it proceeds from the same source1 develops itself differently and assumes another character4 ,to save is to interpose voluntarily an interval between the time when we render services to society and the time when we receive back from society equivalent services4 ,a man1 for example1 may every day1 from the time he is twenty until he is sixty1 render to his neighbours professional services equal to four1 and demand from them services only equal to three4 ,in that case he reserves the power of drawing upon society in his old age1 and when he can no longer work1 for payment of the remaining fourth of his forty years' labour4 ,the circumstance that he has received and accumulated through a succession of years notes of acknowledgment consisting of bills of exchange1 promissory notes1 bank notes1 money1 is quite secondary1 and belongs only to the form of the transaction4 ,it has relation only to the means of execution4 ,it changes neither the nature nor the consequences of saving4 ,the illusion to which the intervention of money gives rise in this respect is not the less an illusion1 although we are almost always the dupes of it4 ,in fact1 it is with difficulty that we can avoid believing that the man who saves withdraws from circulation a certain amount of value1 and1 in consequence1 does a certain amount of harm to society4 ,and here we encounter one of those apparent contradictions p#cid which are at war with logic1 one of those barriers which would seem to oppose an insurmountable obstacle to progress1 one of those dissonances which gives us pain by appearing to call in question the ,divine power and will4 ,on the one hand1 we know that the human race can only extend itself1 raise itself1 improve itself1 acquire leisure1 stability1 and1 by consequence1 intellectual development and moral culture1 by the abundant creation and persevering accumulation of capital4 ,it is this rapid augmentation of capital on which depends the demand for labour1 the elevation of wages1 and1 consequently1 the progress of men towards equality4 ,but1 on the other hand1 to save is not the opposite of to spend1 and if the man who spends gives a fillip to industry and additional employment to labour1 does the man who saves not do exactly the reverse8 ,if every one set himself to economize as much as possible1 we should see labour languish in the same proportion1 and if all could be saved1 we should have no fund for the employment of labour4 ,in such circumstances1 what advice can we give8 ,and what solid basis can political economy offer to morals1 when we appear to be able to educe from the former only this contradictory and melancholy alternative3-- 8,if you do not save1 capital will not be replaced1 but dissipated1 the labouring class will be multiplied1 while the fund for their remuneration will remain stationary2 they will enter into competition with each other1 and offer their services at a lower rate2 wages will be depressed1 and society will1 in this respect1 be on the decline4 ,it will be on the decline also in another respect1 for unless you save you will be without bread in your old age2 you can no longer set your son out in the world1 give a portion to your daughter1 or enlarge your trade10 etc4 8,if you do save1 you diminish the fund for wages1 you injure a great number of your fellow-citizens1 you strike a blow at labour1 which is the universal creator of human satisfactions1 and you lower1 consequently1 the general level of humanity40 ,now these frightful contradictions disappear before the explanation which we have given of saving--an explanation founded upon the ideas to which our inquiries on the subject of value conducted us4 ,services are exchanged for services4 ,value is the appreciation of two services compared with each other4 ,in this view1 to save is to have rendered a service1 and allow time p#cie for receiving the equivalent service1 or1 in other words1 to interpose an interval of time between the service rendered and the service received4 ,now1 in what respect can a man do injury to society or to labour who merely abstains from drawing upon society for a service to which he has right8 ,i can exact the value which is due to me upon the instant1 or ,i may delay exacting it for a year4 ,in that case ,i give society a year's respite4 ,during that interval1 labour is carried on1 and services are exchanged1 just as if ,i did not exist4 ,i have not by this means caused any disturbance4 ,on the contrary1 ,i have added one satisfaction more to the enjoyments of my fellow-citizens1 and they possess it for a year gratuitously4 ,gratuitously is not the word1 for ,i must go on to describe the phenomenon4 ,the interval of time which separates the two services exchanged is itself the subject of a bargain1 of an exchange1 for it is possessed of value4 ,it is the origin and explanation of interest4 ,a man1 for instance1 renders a present service4 ,his wish is to receive the equivalent service only ten years hence4 ,here1 then1 is a value of which he refuses himself the immediate enjoyment4 ,now1 it is of the nature of value to be able to assume all possible forms4 ,with a determinate value1 we are sure to obtain any imaginable service1 whether productive or unproductive1 of an equal value4 ,he who delays for ten years to call in a debt1 not only delays an enjoyment1 but he delays the possibility of further production4 ,it is on this account that he will meet with people in the world who are disposed to bargain for this delay4 ,they will say to him3 8,you are entitled to receive immediately a certain value4 ,it suits you to delay receiving it for ten years4 ,now1 for these ten years1 make over your right to me1 place me in your room and stead4 ,i shall receive for you the amount for which you are a creditor4 ,i will employ it during these ten years in a productive enterprise1 and repay you at the end of that time4 ,by this means you will render me a service1 and as every service has a value1 which we estimate by comparing it with another service1 we have only to estimate this service which ,i solicit from you1 and so fix its value4 ,this point being discussed and arranged1 ,i shall have to repay you at the end of the ten years1 not only the value of the service for which you are a creditor1 but the value likewise of the service which you are about to render me40 ,it is the value of this temporary transference of values saved which we denominate interest4 ,for the same reason that a third party may desire that we p#cif should transfer to him1 for an onerous consideration1 the enjoyment of a value saved1 the original debtor may also desire to enter into the same bargain4 ,in both cases this is called asking for credit4 ,to give credit is to give time for the acquittance of a debt1 of a value2 it is to deprive oneself of the enjoyment of that value in favour of another1 it is to render a service1 it is to acquire a title to an equivalent service4 ,but to revert to the economic effects of saving1 now that we are acquainted with all the details of the phenomenon1 it is very evident that it does no injury to general activity or to labour4 ,even when the man who economizes realizes his economy1 and1 in exchange for services rendered1 receives hard cash1 and hoards it1 he does no harm to society1 seeing that he has not been able to withdraw that amount of value from society without restoring to it equivalent values4 ,i must add1 however1 that such hoarding is improbable and exceptional1 inasmuch as it is detrimental to the personal interests of the man who would practise it4 ,money in the hands of such a man may be supposed to say this3 8,he who possesses me has rendered services to society1 and has not been paid for them4 ,i have been put into his hands to serve him as a warrant2 ,i am at once an acknowledgment1 a promise1 and a guarantee4 ,the moment he wills it1 he can1 by exhibiting and restoring me1 receive back from society the services for which he is a creditor40 ,now this man is in no hurry4 ,does it follow that he will continue to hoard his money8 ,no2 for we have seen that the lapse of time which separates two services exchanged becomes itself the subject of a commercial transaction4 ,if the man who saves intends to remain ten years without drawing upon society for the services that are owing to him1 his interest is to substitute a representative1 in order to add to the value for which he is a creditor the value of this special service4 ,saving1 then1 implies in no shape actual hoarding4 ,let moralists be no longer arrested by this consideration4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 p#cig ,,xvi4 ,,population4 ,i have been longing to enter upon the subject of this chapter1 were it for no other purpose than to have an opportunity of vindicating ,malthus from the violent attacks which have been made upon him4 ,it is scarcely credible that a set of writers of no reputation or ability1 and whose ignorance is transparent in every page of their works1 should1 by echoing one another's opinions1 have succeeded in lowering in public estimation a grave1 conscientious1 and philanthropic author2 representing as absurd a theory which at all events deserves to be studied with serious attention4 ,it may be that ,i do not myself adopt all the opinions of ,malthus4 ,every question has two phases3 and ,i believe that ,malthus may have fixed his regards too exclusively upon the sombre side4 ,in my own economical studies and inquiries1 ,i have been so frequently led to the conclusion1 that whatever is the work of ,providence is good1 that when logic has seemed to force me to a different conclusion1 ,i have been inclined to distrust my logic4 ,i am aware that this faith in final causes is not unattended with danger to the mind of an inquirer4 ,but this will not prevent me from acknowledging that there is a vast amount of truth in the admirable work of this economist1 or from rendering homage to that ardent love of mankind by which every line of it is inspired4 ,malthus1 whose knowledge of the social economy was profound1 had a clear view of all the ingenious mechanism with which nature has provided the human race to assure its onward march on the road of progress4 ,and yet he believed that human progress might find itself entirely paralyzed by one principle1 namely1 the principle of ,population4 ,in contemplating the world1 he gave way to the melancholy reflection1 that 8,god appears to have taken great care of the species1 and very little of the individual4 ,in fact1 as regards a certain class of animated beings1 we see them endowed with a p#cih fecundity so prolific1 a power of multiplication so extraordinary1 a profusion of germs so superabundant1 that the destiny of the species would seem undoubtedly well assured1 while that of the individuals of the species appears very precarious2 for the whole of these germs cannot be brought to life and maturity4 ,they must either fail to live1 or must die prematurely40 8,man makes no exception to this law40 ,it is surprising that this should shock the ,socialists1 who have never done telling us that general must take precedence of individual right4 8,this much is certain1 that ,god has secured the continuance of the human race by providing it with a great power of reproduction4 ,the numbers of mankind1 then1 would come naturally1 but for prudence and foresight1 to exceed what the earth could maintain4 ,but man is endued with foresight1 and it is his reason and his will which can alone interpose a check to this fatal progression40 ,setting out from these premises1 which you may dispute if you will1 but which ,malthus regarded as incontestable1 he attached necessarily the highest value to the exercise of foresight4 ,for there was no alternative2--man must either restrain voluntarily this excessive multiplication1 or else he must become subject1 like all the other species of living creatures1 to the operation of positive or repressive checks4 ,malthus1 then1 believed that he could never urge men too strongly to the exercise of foresight4 ,his very philanthropy engaged him to exhibit in strong relief the fatal consequences of imprudent reproduction1 in order to put men upon their guard4 ,he said to them3 ,if you multiply inconsiderately1 you cannot avoid the chastisement which awaits you in some form or other1 and always in a hideous form--famine1 war1 pestilence1 etc4 ,benevolence1 charity1 poor-laws1 and all other expedients are but ineffectual remedies4 ,in his ardour1 ,malthus allowed an expression to escape him1 which1 when separated from the rest of his system1 and from the sentiment which dictated it1 may appear harsh4 ,it occurred in the first edition of his work1 which was then only a brochure1 and has since become a book of four volumes4 ,it was represented to him that his meaning in this objectionable passage might give rise to erroneous interpretations4 ,he immediately suppressed it1 and it has never since reappeared in any of the numerous editions of his ,essay on ,population4 ,but ,mr ,godwin1 one of his opponents1 had quoted this suppressed passage1 and the consequence was1 that ,m4 de ,sismondi 7a man who1 with the best intentions in the world1 has done much p#cii mischief7 reproduced this unlucky sentence4 ,the ,socialists instantly laid hold of it1 and on this they proceeded to try1 condemn1 and execute ,malthus4 ,truly1 they were much indebted to ,sismondi's learning1 for they had never themselves read either ,malthus or ,godwin4 ,the ,socialists have thus represented an unguarded passage1 which ,malthus himself had suppressed1 as the basis of his system4 ,they repeat it ad nauseam4 ,in a little #ahmo volume1 ,m4 ,pierre ,leroux reproduced it at least forty times1 and it forms the stock-in-trade of all our declamatory second-rate reformers4 ,the most celebrated and the most vigorous of that school of writers having written an article against ,malthus1 ,i happened one day to converse with him1 and cited some opinions expressed in the ,essay on ,population4 ,i thought ,i perceived that he was not acquainted with the work4 ,i remarked to him1 8,you who have refuted ,malthus1 have you not read his book from beginning to end80 8,i have not read it at all10 he replied4 8,his whole system is to be found in one page1 and is condensed in the famous #8arithmetical and geometrical progressions'--that is enough for me40 8,it seems to me10 ,i said1 8that you are jesting with the public1 with ,malthus1 with truth1 with conscience1 and with yourself40 ,this is the way that opinions obtain currency with us4 ,fifty ignorant people repeat in chorus something spiteful and absurd1 put forward by one more ignorant than themselves1 and if it happens to have the least connexion with the fashionable opinions or passions of the hour1 it is at once received as an axiom4 ,science1 however1 it must be allowed1 cannot enter on the solution of a problem with the settled intention of establishing a foregone conclusion1 however consolatory4 ,what should we think of a man who should sit down to the study of physiology1 resolved beforehand to demonstrate that ,god has not willed that mankind should be afflicted with diseases8 ,were one physiologist to found a system on such a basis as this1 and another to controvert it by an appeal to facts1 the former would most likely fly into a rage1 and tax his opponent with impiety2 but it is difficult to believe that he would go the length of accusing his opponent himself of being the author of diseases4 ,this1 however1 is what has happened to ,malthus4 ,in a work founded on facts and figures1 he explained a law which has given great offence to our optimists2 and in their anxiety to ignore the existence of this law1 they have attacked ,malthus with rancorous virulence and flagrant bad faith1 as if he had himself deliberately p#djj thrown in the way of mankind those obstacles which flowed1 as he thought1 from the principle of population4 ,it would surely have been more philosophical to have proved simply that ,malthus was mistaken1 and that his pretended law had in reality no existence4 ,population1 we must allow1 is one of a numerous class of subjects which serve to remind us that man has frequently left him only a choice of evils4 ,whatever may have been its design1 suffering3 has entered into the plan of ,providence4 ,let us not1 then1 seek for harmony in the absence of evil1 but in the tendency of evil to bring us back to what is good1 and in the gradual contraction of its own domain4 ,god has indued us with free will4 ,it is necessary that we should learn1--which is a long and difficult process1--and then it is necessary that we should act on the knowledge thus acquired1 which is not much less difficult4 ,in this way we shall gradually emancipate ourselves from suffering1 but without ever altogether escaping from it2 for even when we succeed completely in eluding chastisement1 we have still to exercise the painful effort of foresight4 ,in freeing ourselves from the one1 we must submit ourselves to the other4 ,it is of no use to rebel against this order of things2 for it envelopes us2 it is the atmosphere in which we live and breathe2 and it is with this alternative of restriction or prevention before us1 which we cannot get rid of1 and cannot lose sight of1 that we proceed1 with ,malthus1 to enter upon the problem of population4 ,on this great question ,i shall first of all assume the function of a mere reporter1 and then give you my own views4 ,if the laws of population can be comprised in a short aphorism1 it will be a happy thing for the advancement and diffusion of the science4 ,but if1 from the number and the shifting nature of the postulates1 we find that these laws refuse to be shut up in a brief and rigorous formula1 we must acquiesce4 ,prolix exactitude is better than delusive brevity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have seen that progress consists in causing natural forces to co-operate more and more towards the satisfaction of our wants1 so that1 at each successive epoch1 the same amount of utility is obtained1 whilst to society is left either more leisure1 or a greater amount of disposable labour1 to be applied to the acquisition of new enjoyments4 ,on the other hand1 we have demonstrated that every fresh conquest we thus gain over nature1 after having for a time brought additional profit to the inventor1 never fails to become1 by the p#dja operation of the law of competition1 the common and gratuitous patrimony of mankind at large4 ,from these premises we should conclude that human happiness must be enlarged1 and1 at the same time1 rapidly equalized4 ,that it has not been so in reality1 however1 is a point beyond all dispute4 ,there are in the world multitudes of unfortunate people1 whose wretchedness has not been caused by their own misdeeds4 ,how are we to account for this8 ,i believe it is owing to a multiplicity of causes4 ,one of them is called spoliation1 or1 if you will1 injustice4 ,economists have referred to it only incidentally1 as implying some error1 some false scientific notion4 ,engaged in the explanation of general laws1 it is not their business1 they think1 to concern themselves with those laws1 when they are not in operation or violated4 ,spoliation1 however1 has borne1 and still bears1 too prominent a share in human affairs to permit even economists to throw it aside as a consideration unworthy of being taken into account4 ,what we have to do with here is not accidental thefts1 petty larcenies1 or isolated crimes4 ,war1 slavery1 priestly impostures1 privileges1 monopolies1 restrictions1 abuses of taxation1--these are the more salient manifestations of spoliation4 ,it is easy to see what influence disturbing forces of such magnitude must have exercised1 and must still exercise by their presence1 or the deep traces they have left behind them1 on the inequality of conditions2 and it will be our business hereafter to estimate the vast extent of their effects4 ,but another cause which retards progress1 and1 above all1 which hinders its extension to all classes1 is1 as some authors think1 the principle of population4 ,and no doubt1 if in proportion as wealth increases1 the number of people among whom that wealth is to be divided increases also1 and more rapidly1 absolute wealth may be greater1 and individual wealth less4 ,if1 moreover1 there be one species of services which everybody can render1 like the services which require only muscular exertion1 and if it be just the class whose business it is to render such services1 the worst paid of all1 which multiplies with the greatest rapidity1 we must conclude that labour creates for itself a fatal competition4 ,the lowest class will never benefit by progress1 if that class increases faster than it can spread and distribute itself4 ,you see1 then1 how important the principle of population is4 ,malthus has reduced the principle to this formula3 p#djb ,population has a tendency to keep on a level with the means of subsistence4 ,i cannot help remarking in passing that it is surprising that the honour and responsibility of enunciating this principle1 be it true or false1 should have been ascribed to ,malthus4 ,no writer on such subjects since the days of ,aristotle but has proclaimed it1 and frequently in the very same words4#hf ,it is impossible to look around us on the aggregate of animated beings without being convinced beyond doubt that nature has been more engrossed with the care of species than of individuals4 ,the precautions which nature has taken to ensure the perpetuity of races are remarkable2 and among these precautions1 a very noticeable one is the profusion of germs or seeds4 ,this superabundance appears to be calculated in an inverse ratio to the sensibility1 intelligence1 and power with which each species is endowed1 to enable it to resist destruction4 ,thus1 in the vegetable kingdom1 the means of reproduction1 by seeds1 cuttings1 etc41 which a single plant can furnish1 are countless4 ,one elm 7were all its seeds to take root7 might give birth in a single year to a million of trees4 ,why should this not actually happen8 ,because all the seeds have not the benefit of the conditions which vegetable life exacts1 namely1 space and nourishment4 ,they are destroyed2 and as plants are destitute of sensibility1 nature has spared neither the means of reproduction nor those of destruction4 ,animals1 too1 whose life is of a type akin to vegetable life1 reproduce themselves in immense numbers4 ,who has not wondered that oysters1 for instance1 could multiply sufficiently to supply the enormous consumption of them8 ,as we advance in the scale of animal life1 we find that the means of reproduction has been bestowed by nature with greater parsimony4 ,vertebrated animals1 especially the larger species1 do not multiply so quickly as others4 ,the cow goes nine months1 produces only p#djc one calf1 and must suckle it for some time4 ,yet even among cattle the reproductive power surpasses what might be thought absolutely necessary4 ,in rich countries1 such as ,england1 ,france1 and ,switzerland1 the number of animals of this description increases notwithstanding the enormous destruction of them2 and had we boundless pastures and prairies1 there can be no doubt that we might have both a still greater destruction and more rapid reproduction of them4 ,i should say that if nourishment and space were not limited1 we might have in a few years ten times more oxen and cows1 even if we consumed ten times more meat4 ,the reproductive power of cattle1 then1 even laying aside the extraneous consideration of the limitation of space and nourishment1 is far from being fully developed4 ,it is certain that the reproductive faculty in the human species is less powerful than in any other1 and it ought to be so4 ,man1 in the superior situation in which nature has placed him1 as regards intelligence and sympathy1 ought not to be exposed to destruction in the same degree as the inferior animals4 ,but we are not to suppose that physically he escapes from that law in virtue of which all species have the faculty of multiplying to a greater extent than space and nourishment permit4 ,i say physically1 because ,i am speaking here only of the physiological law4 ,there is a wide difference between the physiological power of multiplying and actual multiplication4 ,the one is an absolute organic power when freed from all obstacle and all limitation ab extra--the other is the effective resulting force of this power combined with the aggregate of all the resistance which limits and restrains it4 ,thus the power of multiplication of the poppy may be a million a year1 perhaps2 but in a field of poppies the actual reproduction may be stationary or even decrease4 ,it is this physiological law that ,malthus essayed to reduce to a formula4 ,he inquired in what period of time a given number of men would double1 if their space and food were unlimited4 ,we can see beforehand that as this hypothesis of the complete satisfaction of all wants is never realized in practice1 the theoretic period must necessarily be shorter than any period of actual doubling which has ever been observed4 ,observation1 in fact1 gives very different results for different countries4 ,according to the results obtained by ,m4 ,moreau de ,jonns1 taking for basis the actual increase of population1 the period of doubling would require--in ,turkey1 #eee years2 in p#djd ,switzerland1 #bbg2 in ,france1 #ach2 in ,spain1 #ajf2 in ,holland1 #ajj2 in ,germany1 #gf2 in ,russia and in ,england1 #dc2 and in the ,united ,states of ,america1 #be years1 deducting the contingent furnished by immigration4 ,now1 what is the reason of such enormous differences8 ,we have no reason to think that they are the result of physiological causes4 ,swiss women are as well formed and as prolific as ,american women4 ,we must conclude1 then1 that the absolute generative power is restrained by external obstacles4 ,and what proves this beyond doubt is1 that it is manifested as soon as circumstances occur to remove these obstacles4 ,thus an improved agriculture1 new manufactures1 some new source of local wealth1 leads invariably in that locality to an increase of population4 ,in the same way1 when a scourge like a plague1 or a famine1 or war1 destroys a great part of the population1 we immediately find that multiplication is more rapidly developed4 ,when an increase of population1 then1 is retarded1 or stops1 we find that space and nourishment are awanting1 or likely to be so2 that it has encountered an obstacle1 or is scared by one4 ,this phenomenon1 the announcement of which has brought down so much abuse on ,malthus1 appears in truth beyond the reach of doubt4 ,if you put a thousand mice into a cage1 with only as much provision as is necessary for their daily sustenance1 their number1 in spite of the acknowledged fecundity of the species1 can never exceed a thousand1 or if it do1 there will be privation and there will be suffering1--both tending to reduce the number4 ,in this case it would be correct to say that an external cause limits1 not the power of fecundity1 but the result of fecundity4 ,there would assuredly be an antagonism between the physiological tendency and the restraining force1 and the result would be that the number would be stationary4 ,to prove this1 increase gradually the provision until you double it1 and you will very soon find two thousand mice in the cage4 ,and what is the answer which is made to ,malthus8 ,he is met with the very fact upon which his theory is founded4 ,the proof1 it is said1 that the power of reproduction in man is not indefinite1 is that in certain countries the population is stationary4 ,if the law of progression were true1 if population doubled every twenty-five years1 ,france1 which had thirty millions of inhabitants in #ahbj1 would now have more than sixty millions4 ,is this logical8 p#dje ,i begin by proving that the population of ,france has increased only a fifth in twenty-five years1 whilst in other countries it has doubled4 ,i seek for the cause of this2 and ,i find it in the deficiency of space and sustenance4 ,i find that in the existing state of cultivation1 population1 and national manners and habits1 there is a difficulty in creating with sufficient rapidity subsistence for generations that might be born1 or for maintaining those that are actually born4 ,i assert that the means of subsistence cannot be doubled--at least that they are not doubled--in ,france every twenty-five years4 ,this is exactly the aggregate of those negative forces which restrain1 as ,i think1 the physiological power--and you bring forward this slowness of multiplication in order to prove that this physiological power has no existence4 ,such a mode of discussing the question is mere trifling4 ,is the argument against the geometrical progression of ,malthus more conclusive8 ,malthus has nowhere asserted that1 in point of fact1 population increases according to a geometrical progression4 ,he alleges1 on the contrary1 that the fact is not so1 and the subject of his inquiry has reference to the obstacles which hinder it4 ,the progression is brought forward merely as a formula of the organic power of multiplication4 ,seeking to discover in what time a given population can double itself1 on the assumption that all its wants are supplied1 he fixed this period at twenty-five years4 ,he so fixed it1 because direct observation had shown him that this state of things actually existed among a people1 who1 although very far from fulfilling all the conditions of his hypothesis1 came nearer the conditions he had assumed than any other--namely1 the people of ,america4 ,this period once found1 and the question having always reference to the virtual power of propagation1 he lays it down that population has a tendency to increase in a geometrical progression4 ,this is denied2 but the denial is in the teeth of evidence4 ,it may be said1 indeed1 that the period of doubling may not be everywhere twenty-five years2 that it may be thirty1 forty1 or fifty years2 that it varies in different countries and races4 ,all this is fair subject of discussion2 but granting this1 it certainly cannot be said that1 on the hypothesis assumed1 the progression is not geometrical4 ,if1 in fact1 a hundred couples produce two hundred in a given time1 why may not two hundred produce four hundred in an equal time8 ,because1 say the opponents of the theory1 multiplication will be restrained4 ,this is just what ,malthus has said4 p#djf ,but by what means will multiplication be restrained8 ,malthus points out two general obstacles to indefinite multiplication1 which he has denominated the preventive and repressive checks4 ,as population can be kept down below the level of its physiological tendency only by a diminution of the number of births1 or an increase of the number of deaths1 the nomenclature of ,malthus is undoubtedly correct4 ,moreover1 when the conditions as regards space and nourishment are such that population cannot go beyond a certain figure1 it is evident that the destructive check has more power1 in proportion as the preventive check has less4 ,to allege that the number of births may increase without an increase in the number of deaths1 while the means of subsistence are stationary1 would be to fall into a manifest contradiction4 ,nor is it less evident1 priori1 and independently of other grave economic considerations1 that in such a situation voluntary self-restraint is preferable to forced repression4 ,as far as we have yet gone1 then1 the theory of ,malthus is in all respects incontestable4 ,he was wrong1 perhaps1 in adopting this period of twenty-five years as the limit of human fecundity1 although it holds good in the ,united ,states4 ,i am convinced that in assuming this period he wished to avoid the imputation of exaggeration1 or of dealing in pure abstractions4 8,how can they pretend10 he may have thought1 8that ,i give too much latitude to the possible if ,i found my principle on what actually takes place80 ,he did not consider that by mixing up in this way the virtual and the real1 and representing as the measure of the law of multiplication1 without reference to the law of limitation1 a period which is the result of facts governed by both laws1 he should expose himself to be misunderstood4 ,this is what has actually happened4 ,his geometrical and arithmetical progressions have been laughed at2 he has been reproached for taking the ,united ,states as a type of the rest of the world2 in a word1 the confusion he has given rise to by mixing up these two distinct laws1 has been seized upon to confute the one by the other4 ,when we seek to discover the abstract power of propagation1 we must put aside for the moment all consideration of the physical and moral checks arising from deficiency of space1 food1 or comfortable circumstances4 ,but the question once proposed in these terms1 it is quite superfluous to attempt an exact solution4 ,this power1 in the human race1 as in all organized existences1 surpasses1 p#djg in an enormous proportion1 all the phenomena of rapid multiplication that we have observed in the past1 or can ever observe in the future4 ,take wheat1 for example3 allowing five stalks for every seed1 and five grains for every stalk1 one grain has the virtual power of producing four hundred millions of grains in five years4 ,or take the canine race1 and suppose four puppies to each litter1 and six years of fecundity1 we shall find that one couple may in twelve years produce eight millions of cubs4 ,as regards the human race1 assuming sixteen as the age of puberty1 and fecundity to cease at thirty1 each couple might give birth to eight children4 ,it is making a large deduction to reduce this number to one-half on account of premature deaths1 since we are reasoning on the supposition of absolute comfort and all wants satisfied1 which greatly limits the amount of mortality4 ,however1 let us state the premises in this way1 and they give us in twenty-five years #b--d--h--af--cb--fd--abh--bef--eab1 etc42 in short1 two millions in two centuries4 ,if we make the calculation on the basis adopted by ,euler1 the period of doubling will be twelve years and a half4 ,eight such periods will make exactly a century1 and the increase in that space of time will be as #eab3b4 ,at no era1 and in no country1 have we ever observed the numbers of the human race increase with this frightful rapidity4 ,according to the book of ,genesis1 the ,hebrews who entered ,egypt amounted to seventy couples2#hg and we find from the book of ,numbers that when ,moses numbered the people1 two centuries afterwards1 they amounted to six hundred thousand men above twenty-one years of age1#hh which supposes a population of two millions at least4 ,from this we may infer that the period of doubling was fourteen years4 ,statistical tables can scarcely be admitted to control biblical facts4 ,shall we say that six hundred thousand men 8able to go to war0 supposes a population larger than two millions1 and infer from that a period of doubling less than ,euler has calculated8 ,in that case1 we should cast doubt either on the census of ,moses or on the calculations of ,euler4 ,all that we contend for is1 that it should not be pretended that the ,hebrews multiplied with greater rapidity than it is possible to multiply4 ,after this example1 which is probably that in which actual fecundity approximates most nearly to virtual fecundity1 we have p#djh the case of the ,united ,states of ,america1 where we know that the population doubles in less than twenty-five years4 ,it is unnecessary to pursue such researches further4 ,it is sufficient to know that in our species1 as in all1 the organic power of multiplication is superior to the actual multiplication4 ,moreover1 it would involve a contradiction to assert that the actual surpasses the virtual4 ,alongside of this absolute power1 which it is unnecessary to determine more exactly1 and which we may safely regard as uniform1 there exists1 as we have said1 another force1 which limits1 compresses1 suspends1 to a certain extent1 the action of the first1 and opposes to it obstacles of different kinds1 varying with times and places1 with the occupations1 the manners1 the laws1 or the religion of different nations4 ,i denominate this second force the law of limitation2 and it is evident that the progress of population in each country1 and in each class1 is the result of the combined action of these two laws4 ,but in what does this law of limitation consist8 ,we may say in a very general way that the propagation of life is restrained or prevented by the difficulty of sustaining life4 ,this idea1 which we have already expressed in the terms of the formula of ,malthus1 it is of importance to develop farther1 for it is the essential part of our subject4#hi ,organized existences1 which are indued with life1 but without feeling1 are entirely passive in this struggle between the two principles4 ,as regards vegetables1 it is strictly true that the number of each species is limited by the means of subsistence4 ,the profusion of germs is infinite1 but the resources of space and territorial fertility are not so4 ,these germs injure or destroy one another2 they fail to grow1 or they take root and come to maturity only to the extent that the soil allows of4 ,animals are endued with feeling1 but they would seem in general to be destitute of foresight4 ,they breed1 increase1 and multiply without regard to the fate of their offspring4 ,death1 premature death1 alone limits their multiplication1 and maintains the equilibrium between their numbers and their means of subsistence4 ,m4 de ,lamennais1 in his inimitable language1 thus addresses the people3-- 8,there is room enough in the world for all1 and ,god has made it fertile enough to supply the wants of all40 ,and1 further on1 he says1--8,the ,author of the universe has not assigned a worse p#dji condition to man than to the inferior animals4 ,are not all invited to the rich banquet of nature8 ,is one alone excluded80 ,and1 again1 he adds1--8,plants extend their roots from one field to another1 in a soil which nourishes them all1 and all grow there in peace2 none of them absorbs the sap of another40 ,in all this we see only fallacious declamation1 which serves as the basis of dangerous conclusions2 and we cannot help regretting that an eloquence so admirable should be devoted to giving popular currency to the most fatal of errors4 ,it is not true that no plant robs another of its sap1 and that all extend their roots in the soil without injury4 ,hundreds of millions of vegetable germs fall every year upon the ground1 derive from it a beginning of vitality1 and then die stifled by plants stronger1 ranker1 hardier than themselves4 ,it is not true that all animals which are born are invited to the banquet of nature1 and that none of them is excluded4 ,wild beasts devour one another2 and of domestic animals man destroys a countless number4 ,nothing1 in fact1 is better calculated than this to show the existence and relations of these two principles--that of multiplication and that of limitation4 ,why have we in this country so many oxen and sheep1 notwithstanding the havoc we make8 ,why are there so few bears and wolves1 although we slaughter far fewer of them1 and they are so organized as to be capable of multiplying much faster8 ,the reason is1 that man prepares subsistence for the one class of animals1 and takes it away from the other class4 ,as regards each1 he so arranges the law of limitation as to leave more or less latitude to the law of increase4 ,thus1 as regards both vegetables and animals1 the limiting force appears only in one form1 that of destruction4 ,but man is indued with reason and foresight1 and this new element modifies1 and even changes1 the mode of action of this force1 so far as he is concerned4 ,undoubtedly1 in as far as he is a being provided with material organs1 or1 to speak plainly1 in as far as he is an animal1 the law of limitation1 in the form of destruction1 applies to him4 ,it is impossible that the numbers of men can exceed their means of subsistence2 for to assert that more men existed than had the means of existing1 would imply a contradiction4 ,if1 then1 his reason and foresight are lulled asleep1 he becomes a vegetable1 he becomes a brute4 ,in that case1 he will inevitably multiply in virtue of the great physiological law which governs all organized nature2 and1 in that case1 it is equally inevitable that he should perish in virtue of that law of limitation the action of which he has ignored4 p#daj ,but if he exercise foresight1 this second law comes within the sphere of his will4 ,he modifies and directs it4 ,it is1 in fact1 no longer the same law4 ,it is no longer a blind1 but an intelligent force2 it is no longer a mere natural1 it has become a social law4 ,man is the centre in which these two principles1 matter and intelligence1 meet1 unite1 and are blended2 he belongs exclusively neither to the one nor to the other4 ,as regards the human race1 the law of limitation is manifested in both its aspects1 and maintains population at the necessary level by the double action of foresight and destruction4 ,these two actions are not of uniform intensity4 ,on the contrary1 the one is enlarged in proportion as the other is restrained4 ,the thing to be accomplished1 the point to be reached is limitation2 and it is so more or less by means of repression1 or by means of prevention1 according as man is brutish or spiritual1 according as he is more allied to matter or to mind1 according as he has in him more of vegetative or of moral life4 ,the law may be external to him1 or internal1 but it must exist somewhere4 ,we do not form a just idea of the vast domain of foresight1 which the translator of ,malthus has much circumscribed1 by giving currency to that vague and inadequate expression1 moral restraint contrainte morale1 which he has still farther limited by the definition he has given of it1 namely1 8,the virtue which consists in not marrying1 when one has not the means of maintaining a family1 and yet living in chastity40 ,the obstacles which intelligent human society opposes to possible multiplication take many other forms besides that of moral restraint thus defined4 ,what means1 for example1 the pure and holy ignorance of early life1 the only ignorance which it is criminal to dissipate1 which every one respects1 and over which the timid mother watches as over hidden treasure8 ,what means the modesty which succeeds that ignorance1 that mysterious defence of the young female1 which intimidates whilst it enchants her lover1 and prolongs1 while it embellishes1 the innocent season of courtship8 ,the veil which is thus interposed at first between ignorance and truth1 and then between truth and happiness1 is a marvellous thing1 and in aught save this would be absurd4 ,what means that power of opinion which imposes such severe laws on the relations of the sexes1 stigmatizes the slightest transgression of those laws1 and visits it not only on the erring feebleness which succumbs1 but1 from generation to generation1 on the unhappy offspring8 ,what mean that sensitive honour1 that rigid reserve1 so generally admired even by those who have cast it off1 those institutions1 those p#daa restraints of etiquette1 those precautions of all sorts--if they are not the action of that law of limitation manifested in an intelligent1 moral1 and preventive shape--in a shape1 consequently1 which is peculiar to man8 ,let these barriers be once overturned--let mankind1 in what regards the sexes1 be no longer concerned either with etiquette or with fortune1 or with the future1 or with opinion1 or with manners--let men lower themselves to the rank of vegetables or animals1--can we doubt that for the former1 as for the latter1 the power of multiplication would act with a force to necessitate the instant intervention of the law of limitation1 manifested under such circumstances in a physical1 brutal1 and repressive shape2 that is to say1 by the action of indigence1 disease1 and death8 ,it is impossible to deny that1 but for foresight and moral considerations1 marriage would1 in most cases1 be contracted at an early age1 or immediately after puberty4 ,if we fix this age at sixteen1 and if the registers of a given country show that marriages on an average1 do not take place before four-and-twenty1 we have then eight years deducted by the law of limitation1 in its moral and preventive form1 from the action of the law of multiplication2 and if we add to this figure the necessary allowance for those who never marry1 we shall be convinced that the ,creator has not degraded man to the level of the beasts that perish1 but1 on the contrary1 has given him the power to transform the repressive into the preventive limitation4 ,it is singular enough that the spiritualist school and the materialist school should have1 as it were1 changed sides on this great question3 the former fulminating against foresight1 and endeavouring to set up the principle of animal nature2 the latter exalting the moral part of man1 and enforcing the dominion of reason over passion and appetite4 ,the truth is1 the subject is not rightly understood4 ,let a father consult the most orthodox clergyman he can find as to the management of his family1 the counsels he will receive are just those which science has exalted into principles1 and which1 as such1 the clergyman might probably repudiate4 8,keep your daughter in strict seclusion10 the old minister will say2 8conceal from her as much as you can the seductions of the world2 cultivate1 as you would a precious flower1 that holy ignorance1 that heavenly modesty1 which are at once her charm and her defence4 ,wait until an eligible match presents itself2 and labour in the meantime to secure her an adequate fortune4 ,consider that a poor and improvident marriage brings along with it much suffering and many dangers4 ,recall p#dab those old proverbs which embody the wisdom of nations1 and which assure us that comfortable circumstances constitute the surest guarantee of union and domestic peace4 ,why be in a hurry8 ,would you have your daughter at five-and-twenty burdened with a family which she cannot maintain and educate suitably to your rank in life8 ,would you have her husband1 feeling the inadequacy of his income to support his family1 fall into affliction and despair1 and finally1 perhaps1 betake himself to riot and debauchery8 ,the subject which now occupies you is the most important which can come under your consideration4 ,weigh it well and maturely2 and avoid precipitation10 etc4 ,suppose that the father1 borrowing the language of ,m4 de ,lamennais1 should reply3 8,in the beginning ,god addressed to all men the command to increase and multiply1 and replenish the earth and subdue it4 ,and yet you would persuade a young woman to live single1 renounce family ties1 and give up and abandon the chaste happiness of married life1 and the holy joys of maternity2 and all this for no better reason than a sordid fear of poverty40 ,think you the old clergyman would have no reply to this8 ,god1 he might say1 has not commanded man to increase and multiply without discretion and without prudence2 to act with as little regard to the future as the inferior animals4 ,he has not indued man with reason1 in order that he may cease to use it in the most solemn and important circumstances4 ,he has commanded man1 no doubt1 to increase1 but in order to increase he must live1 and in order to live he must have the means of living4 ,in the command to increase1 therefore1 there is implied another command1 namely1 to prepare for his offspring the means of subsistence4 ,religion has not placed celibacy in the catalogue of crimes4 ,so far from that1 she has ranked it as a virtue1 which she honours and sanctifies4 ,we must not think that we violate the commandment of ,god when we are preparing to fulfil it with prudence1 and with a view to the future good1 happiness1 and dignity of our family4 ,now this reasoning1 or reasoning of a similar kind1 which we hear repeated every day1 and which regulates the conduct of every moral and enlightened family1 what is it but the application of a general doctrine to particular cases8 ,or rather1 what is that doctrine1 but the generalization of reasoning which applies to every particular case8 ,the spiritualist who repudiates1 on principle1 the intervention of preventive limitation1 is like the natural philosopher who should say to us1 8,act in every case as if gravity existed1 but don't admit gravitation in theory40 p#dac ,in our observations hitherto we have followed the theory of ,malthus2 but there is one attribute of humanity to which it seems to me that most of our authors have not assigned that importance which it merits1 and which plays an important part in the phenomena relative to population1 resolves many of the problems to which this great question has given rise1 and gives birth in the mind of the philanthropist to a confidence and serenity which false science had banished2 this attribute1 which is comprised1 indeed1 in the notions of reason and foresight1 is man's perfectibility4 ,man is perfectible2 he is susceptible of amelioration and of deterioration2 and if1 in a strict sense1 he can remain stationary1 he can also mount and descend without limit the endless ladder of civilisation4 ,this holds true not only of individuals1 but of families1 nations1 and races4 ,it is from not having taken into account all the power of this progressive principle1 that ,malthus has landed us in those discouraging consequences which have rendered his theory generally repulsive4 ,for1 regarding the preventive check1 in a somewhat ascetic and not very attractive light1 he could hardly attribute much force to it4 ,hence he concludes that it is the repressive check which generally operates2 in other words1 vice1 poverty1 war1 crime1 etc4 ,this1 as ,i think1 is an error2 and we are about to see that the limitative force presents itself not only in the shape of an effort of chastity1 an act of self-control1 but also1 and above all1 as a condition of happiness1 an instructive movement which prevents men from degrading themselves and their families4 ,population1 it has been said1 tends to keep on a level with the means of subsistence4 ,i should say that1 for this expression means of subsistence1 formerly in universal use1 ,j4 ,b4 ,say has substituted another which is much more correct1 namely1 means of existence4 ,at first sight it would seem that subsistence alone enters into the question1 but it is not so4 ,man does not live by bread alone1 and a reference to facts shows us clearly that population is arrested1 or retarded1 when the aggregate of all the means of existence1 including clothing1 lodging1 and other things which climate or even habit renders necessary1 come to be awanting4 ,we should say1 then1 that population tends to keep on a level with the means of existence4 ,but do these means constitute something which is fixed1 absolute1 and uniform8 ,certainly not4 ,in proportion as civilisation advances1 the range of man's wants is enlarged1 having regard even to simple subsistence4 ,regarded as a perfectible being the means of p#dad existence1 among which we comprehend the satisfaction of moral and intellectual1 as well as physical wants1 admit of as many degrees as there are degrees in civilisation itself1 in other words1 of infinite degrees4 ,undoubtedly1 there is an inferior limit--to appease hunger1 to shelter oneself from cold to some extent1 is one condition of life1 and this limit we may perceive among ,american savages or ,european paupers4 ,but a superior limit ,i know not--in fact1 there is none4 ,natural wants satisfied1 others spring up1 which are factitious at first1 if you will1 but which habit renders natural in their turn1 and1 after these1 others still1 and so on without assignable limit4 ,at each step1 then1 which man takes on the road of civilisation1 his wants embrace a wider and more extended circle1 and the means of existence1 the point where the laws of multiplication and limitation meet1 is removed and elevated4 ,for although man is susceptible of deterioration as well as of improvement1 he aspires after the one and shuns the other4 ,his efforts all tend to maintain the rank he has gained1 and to rise still higher2 and habit1 which has been so well called a second nature1 performs the part of the valves of our arterial system1 by checking every retrograde tendency4 ,it is very natural1 then1 that the intelligent and moral control which man exercises over his own multiplication should partake of the nature of these efforts to rise1 and be combined and mixed up with his progressive tendencies4 ,the consequences which result from this organization are numerous4 ,we shall confine ourselves to pointing out a few of them4 ,first of all1 we admit with the ,economists that population and the means of existence come to an equilibrium2 but the last of these terms being infinitely flexible1 and varying with civilisation and habits1 we cannot admit that in comparing nations and classes1 population is proportionate to production1 as ,j4 ,b4 ,say#ij affirms1 or to income1 as is represented by ,m4 de ,sismondi4 ,and then every advancing step of culture implies greater foresight1 and the moral and preventive check comes to neutralize the repressive one more and more as civilisation is realized in society at large1 or in one or other of its sections4 ,hence it follows that each step of progress tends to a new step in the same direction1 vires acquirit eundo2 seeing that better circumstances and greater foresight engender one another in indefinite succession4 ,for the same reason1 when men1 from whatever cause1 follow a retrograde course1 narrower circumstances and want of foresight become reciprocally cause and effect1 p#dae and retrogression and decay would have no limit had society not been indued with that curative force1 that vis medicatrix1 which ,providence has vouchsafed to all organized bodies4 ,observe1 too1 that at each step of this retrograde movement1 the action of the law of limitation in its destructive form becomes at once more painful and more apparent4 ,at first1 it is only deterioration and sinking in the social scale2 then it is poverty1 famine1 disorder1 war1 death2--painful but infallible teachers4 ,i should like to pause here to show how well this theory explains facts1 and how well facts in their turn justify the theory4 ,when1 in the case of a nation or a class1 the means of existence have descended to that inferior limit at which they come to be confounded with the means of pure subsistence1 as in ,china1 in ,ireland1 and among the lowest and poorest class of every country1 the smallest oscillations of population1 or of the supply of food1 are tantamount to death4 ,in this respect facts confirm the scientific induction4 ,famine has not for a long period visited ,europe1 and we attribute the absence of this scourge to a multitude of causes4 ,the most general of these causes undoubtedly is1 that the means of existence1 by reason of social progress1 have risen far above the means of mere subsistence4 ,when years of scarcity come1 we are thus enabled to give up many enjoyments before encroaching on the first necessaries of life4 ,not so in such countries as ,china or ,ireland1 where men have nothing in the world but a little rice or a few potatoes4 ,when the rice or potato crops fail1 they have absolutely no means of purchasing other food4 ,a third consequence of human perfectibility we must notice here1 because it tends to modify the doctrine of ,malthus in its most afflicting phase4 ,the formula which we have attributed to that economist is1 that 8,population tends to keep on a level with the means of subsistence40 ,we should say that he has gone much farther1 and that his true formula1 that from which he has drawn his most distressing conclusions1 is this3 8,population tends to go beyond the means of subsistence40 ,had ,malthus by this simply meant to say that in the human race the power of propagating life is superior to the power of sustaining life1 there could have been no controversy4 ,but this is not what he means4 ,he affirms that1 taking into account absolute fecundity on the one hand1 and1 on the other1 limitation1 as manifested in the two forms1 repressive and preventive1 the result is still the tendency of population to go beyond the means of subsistence4#ia ,this holds true of every species p#daf of living creatures1 except the human race4 ,man is an intelligent being1 and can make an unlimited use of the preventive check4 ,he is perfectible1 seeks after improvement1 and shuns deterioration4 ,progress is his normal state1 and progress presupposes a more and more enlightened exercise of the preventive check2 and then the means of existence increase more rapidly than population4 ,this effect not only flows from the principle of perfectibility1 but is confirmed by fact1 since on all sides the range of satisfactions is extended4 ,were it true1 as ,malthus asserts1 that along with every addition to the means of subsistence there is a still greater addition to the population1 the misery of our race would be fatally--inevitably--progressive2 society would begin with civilisation and end with barbarism4 ,the contrary is the fact2 and we must conclude that the law of limitation has had sufficient force to restrain the multiplication of men1 and keep it below the multiplication of products4 ,it may be seen from what has been said how vast and how difficult the question of population is4 ,we may regret1 no doubt1 that a precise formula has not been given to it1 and we regret still more that we find ourselves unable to propose one4 ,but we may see how repugnant the narrow limits of a dogmatic axiom are to such a subject4 ,it is a vain endeavour to try to express1 in the form of an inflexible equation1 the relations of data so essentially variable4 ,allow me to recapitulate these data4 7#a47 ,the law of increase or multiplication4--,the absolute1 virtual1 physiological power which resides in the human race to propagate life1 apart from the consideration of the difficulty of sustaining life4 ,this first datum1 the only one susceptible of anything like precision1 is the only one in which precision is superfluous2 for what matters it where the superior limit of multiplication is placed in the hypothesis1 if it can never be attained in the actual condition of man1 which is to sustain life with the sweat of his brow4 7#b47 ,there is a limit1 then1 to the law of multiplication4 ,what is that limit8 ,the means of existence1 it is replied4 ,but what are the means of existence8 ,the aggregate of satisfactions or enjoyments1 which cannot be exactly defined4 ,they vary with times1 places1 races1 ranks1 manners1 opinions1 habits1 and consequently the limit we are in search of is shifted or displaced4 7#c47 ,last of all1 it may be asked1 in what consists the force which p#dag restrains population within this limit1 which is itself movable8 ,as far as man is concerned1 it is twofold3 a force which represses1 and a force which prevents4 ,now1 the action of the first1 incapable as it is in itself of being accurately measured1 is1 moreover1 entirely subordinated to the action of the second1 which depends on the degree of civilisation1 on the power and prevalence of habits1 on the tendency of political and religious institutions1 on the organization of property1 of labour1 of family relations1 etc4 ,between the law of multiplication and the law of limitation1 then1 it is impossible to establish an equation from which could be deduced the actual population4 ,in algebra a and b represent determinate quantities which are numbered and measured1 and of which we can fix the proportions2 but means of existence1 moral government of the will1 inevitable action of mortality1 these are the three data of the problem of population1 data which are flexible in themselves1 and which partake somewhat1 moreover1 of the astonishing flexibility of the subject to which they have reference--man--that being whom ,montaigne describes as so fluctuating and so variable4 ,it is not surprising1 then1 that in desiring to give to this equation a precision of which it is incapable1 economists have rather divided men's minds than brought them into unison1 and this because there is not one of the terms of their formulas which is not open to a multitude of objections1 both in reasoning and in fact4 ,we shall now proceed to say something on the practical application of the doctrine of population1 for application not only elucidates doctrine1 but is the true fruit of the tree of science4 ,labour1 as we have said1 is the only subject of exchange4 ,in order to obtain utility 7unless the utility which nature gives us gratuitously71 we must be at the pains to produce it1 or remunerate another who takes the pains for us4 ,man creates1 and can create1 nothing2 he arranges1 disposes1 or transports things for a useful purpose2 he cannot do this without exertion1 and the result of this exertion becomes his property4 ,if he gives away his property1 he has right to recompense1 in the shape of a service which is judged equivalent after free discussion4 ,such is the principle of value1 of remuneration1 of exchange--a principle which is not the less true because it is simple4 ,into what we denominate products1 there enter divers degrees of natural utility1 and divers degrees of artificial utility2 the latter1 which alone implies labour1 is alone the subject of human bargains and transactions2 and without questioning in the least the celebrated and suggestive formula of ,j4 ,b4 ,say1 that 8products are exchanged for products10 ,i esteem it more p#dah rigorously scientific to say that labour is exchanged for labour1 or1 better still1 that services are exchanged for services4 ,it must not be inferred from this1 however1 that quantities of labour are exchanged for each other in the ratio of their duration or of their intensity2 or that the man who transfers to another an hour's labour1 or even the man who labours with the greatest intensity1 who1 as it were1 pushes the needle of the dynamometer up to #ajj degrees1 can always stipulate for an equal effort in return4 ,duration and intensity are1 no doubt1 two of the elements taken into account in the appreciation of labour2 but they are not the only ones2 for we must consider1 besides1 that labour may be more or less repugnant1 dangerous1 difficult1 intelligent1 that it may imply more or less foresight1 and may even be more or less successful4 ,when transactions are free1 and property completely secured1 each has entire control over his own labour1 and1 consequently1 need only dispose of it at his own price4 ,the limit to his compliance is the point at which it is more advantageous to reserve his labour than to exchange it2 the limit to his exactions is the point at which the other party to the bargain finds it his interest not to make the exchange4 ,there are in ,society as many strata1 if ,i may use the expression1 as there are degrees in the scale of remuneration4 ,the worst remunerated of all labour is that which approximates most nearly to brute force4 ,this is an arrangement of ,providence which is just1 useful1 and inevitable4 ,the mere manual labourer soon reaches that limit to his exactions of which ,i have just spoken1 for everybody can perform this kind of muscular automatic labour2 and the limit to his compliance is also soon reached1 for he is incapable of the intelligent labour which his own wants require4 ,duration and intensity1 which are attributes of matter1 are the sole elements of the remuneration of this species of unskilled material labour2 and that is the reason why it is usually paid by the day4 ,all industrial progress consists in this1 namely1 in replacing in each product a certain amount of artificial1 and1 consequently1 onerous utility1 by the same amount of natural1 and1 therefore1 gratuitous utility4 ,hence it follows that if there be one class of society more interested than another in free competition1 it is the labouring class4 ,what would be the fate of these men if natural agents1 and new processes and instruments of production1 were not brought continually1 by means of competition1 to confer gratuitously1 on all1 the results of their co-operation8 ,the mere day-labourer knows not how to make available in the production of the commodities he has occasion for1 heat1 gravitation1 or elasticity2 p#dai nor can he discover the processes1 nor does he possess the instruments1 by which these forces are rendered useful4 ,when such discoveries are new1 the labour of inventors1 who are men of the highest intelligence1 is well remunerated2 in other words1 that labour is the equivalent of a large amount of rude unskilled labour2 or1 again1 to change the expression1 his product is dear4 ,but competition interposes1 the product falls in price1 the co-operation of natural agents is no longer profitable to the producer1 but to the consumer1 and the labour which has made them available approximates1 as regards remuneration1 to that labour which is estimated by mere duration4 ,thus1 the common fund of gratuitous wealth goes on constantly increasing4 ,products of every kind tend1 day after day1 to become again invested1--and they are in reality invested1--with that condition of gratuitousness which characterizes our supply of air1 and light1 and water4 ,the general level of humanity thus continues to rise1 and to equalize itself2 and1 apart from the operation of the law of population1 the lowest class of society is that whose amelioration is virtually the most rapid4 ,we have said1 apart from the operation of the law of population2 and this brings us back to the subject we are now examining4 ,figure to yourself a basin into which an orifice which is constantly enlarging admits a constantly increasing supply of water4 ,if we look only to this circumstance1 we conclude that the level of the water in the basin is continually rising4 ,but if the sides of the basin are flexible1 and capable of contracting and expanding1 it is evident that the height of the water will depend on the manner in which this new circumstance is combined with the other4 ,the level of the water will sink1 however great may be the supply running into the basin1 if the capacity of the basin itself is enlarged still more rapidly4 ,it will rise1 if the circle of the reservoir is enlarged only proportionally and very slowly1 higher still if it remain fixed1 and highest of all if it is narrowed or contracted4 ,this is a picture of the social class whose destinies we are now considering1 and which constitutes1 it must be allowed1 the great mass of mankind4 ,the water which comes into the basin through the elastic orifice represents their remuneration1 or the objects fitted to supply their wants and to sustain life4 ,the flexibility of the sides of the basin represents the movement of population4 ,it is certain#ib that the means of existence overtake our population in a constantly increasing progression1 but then it is equally certain that their numbers may increase in a still superior progression4 ,the life of this class1 then1 will be more or less happy1 more or less p#dbj comfortable1 according as the law of limitation1 in its moral1 intelligent1 and preventive form1 shall circumscribe1 to a greater or less extent1 the absolute law of multiplication4 ,there is a limit to the increase of the numbers of the working class4 ,that limit is the point at which the progressive fund of remuneration becomes insufficient for their maintenance4 ,but there is no limit to their possible amelioration1 because of the two elements which constitute it1 the one1 wealth1 is constantly increasing1 and the other1 population1 is under their own control4 ,what we have just said with reference to the lowest social grade1 the class of mere manual labourers1 is applicable also to each of the superior grades1 when classified in relation to one another1 in an inverse proportion1 so to speak1 to the rudeness and materiality of their occupations4 ,taking each class simply by itself1 all are subjected to the same general laws4 ,in all there is a struggle between the physiological power of multiplication1 and the moral power of limitation4 ,the only respect in which one class differs from another is with reference to the point where these two forces meet1 the height to which the limit between the two laws may be raised by remuneration or be fixed by the habits of the labourers--this limit we have denominated the means of existence4 ,but if we consider the various classes1 no longer each by itself1 but in their reciprocal relations1 ,i think we can discern the influence of two principles acting in an inverse sense1 and this without doubt is the explanation of the actual condition of mankind4 ,we have shown how all the economic phenomena1 and especially the law of competition1 tend to an equality of conditions4 ,theoretically this appears to us incontestable4 ,seeing that no natural advantage1 no ingenious process1 none of the instruments by which such processes are made available1 can remain permanently with producers1 as such2 and seeing that the results of such natural advantages or discoveries1 by an irresistible law of ,providence1 tend to become the common1 gratuitous1 and1 consequently1 equal1 patrimony of all men1 it is evident that the poorest class is the one which derives the greatest relative profit from this admirable arrangement of the laws of the social economy4 ,just as the poor man is as liberally treated as the rich man with reference to the air he breathes1 in the same way he becomes equal to the rich man1 as regards all that portion of the value of commodities which progress is constantly annihilating4 ,essentially1 then1 the human race has a very marked tendency towards equality4 ,i do not speak of a tendency of aspiration1 but a tendency of realization4 ,and yet equality is not realized1 or is realized so slowly1 that in comparing two distant p#dba epochs we are scarcely sensible of the progress4 ,indeed we are so little sensible of it1 that many able men deny it altogether1 although in this they are certainly mistaken4 ,now1 what is the cause which retards this fusion of classes on a common and progressive level8 ,in searching for the cause we need not1 ,i think1 look farther than the various degrees of foresight which each class exercises as regards the increase of population4 ,the law of limitation1 as has been already said1 in as far as it is moral and preventive1 we have under our own control4 ,man1 as we have also said1 is perfectible1 and in proportion to his progress in improvement1 he pays a more intelligent regard to this law4 ,the superior classes1 then1 in proportion as they are more enlightened1 are led to make greater exertions1 and submit to greater sacrifices1 in order to maintain their respective numbers on a level with the means of existence which their position in society demands4 ,were we sufficiently far advanced in statistics1 we should probably have this theoretical deduction converted into certainty1 and have it proved by fact that marriages are less hasty and precocious among the higher than among the lower classes of society4 ,if it be so1 it is easy to see that in the general market1 to which all classes bring their respective services1 and in which labour of every kind is the subject of exchange1 unskilled labour will be supplied in greater abundance than skilled labour2 and this explains the continuance of that inequality of conditions1 which so many1 and such powerful1 causes of another kind tend constantly to efface4 ,the theory which we have now briefly explained leads us to the practical conclusion that the best forms of philanthropy1 the best social institutions1 are those which1 while acting in accordance with the ,providential plan1 as revealed to us by the social harmonies--,i mean the plan of progressive equality--shall cause to descend among all ranks of society1 and especially the lowest ranks1 knowledge1 discretion1 morality1 and foresight4 ,i say institutions1 because1 in fact1 foresight results as much from the necessities of position as from resolutions purely intellectual4 ,there are certain organizations of property1 or1 ,i should rather say1 of industry1 which are more favourable than others to what economists call a knowledge of the market1 and1 consequently1 to foresight4 ,it seems certain1 for example1 that mtayage is much more efficacious than fermage#ic 7the latter necessitating p#dbb the employment of day labourers7 in interposing a preventive obstacle to the exuberance of population among the lower classes4 ,a family of mtayers is in a much more likely situation than a family of day-labourers to experience the inconveniences of hasty marriages and improvident multiplication4 ,i have also used the expression1 8forms of philanthropy40 ,in fact1 almsgiving may effect a local and present good1 but its influence must be limited even where it is not prejudicial to the happiness of the labouring classes2 for it does not develop1 but1 on the contrary1 may paralyze1 that virtue which is most fitted to elevate the condition of the labourer1 namely1 foresight4 ,to disseminate sound ideas1 and1 above all1 to induce those habits which mark a certain degree of self-respect1 is the greatest and most permanent good which we can confer upon the lower orders4 ,the means of existence1 we cannot too often repeat1 do not constitute a fixed quantity2 they depend upon the state of manners1 of opinion1 and of habits4 ,whatever rank a man holds in the social scale1 he has as much repugnance to descend from the position to which he has been accustomed as can be felt by men of an inferior grade4 ,perhaps there is even greater suffering in the mind of the aristocrat1 the noble scions of whose house are lost among the bourgeoisie1 than in that of the citizen whose sons become manual labourers1 or in that of manual labourers whose children are reduced to pauperism4 ,the habit1 then1 of enjoying a certain amount of material prosperity and a certain rank in life1 is the strongest stimulant to the exercise of foresight2 and if the working classes shall once raise themselves to the possession of a higher amount of enjoyment1 and be unwilling again to descend in the social scale1 then1 in order to maintain themselves in that position1 and preserve wages in keeping with their new habits1 they must employ the infallible means of preventive limitation4 ,it is for this reason that ,i regard as one of the finest manifestations of philanthropy the resolution which appears to have been taken in ,england by many of the proprietors and manufacturers1 to pull down cottages of mud and thatch1 and substitute for them brick houses1 neat1 spacious1 well lighted1 well aired1 and conveniently furnished4 ,were such a measure to become general1 it p#dbc would elevate the tone of the working classes4 ,it would convert into real wants what are nowadays regarded as comparative luxuries2 it would raise that limit which we have denominated the means of existence1 and1 by consequence1 the standard of remuneration1 from its present low rate4 ,and why not8 ,the lower orders in civilized countries are much above the lower orders among savages4 ,they have raised themselves so far2 and why should they not raise themselves still more8 ,we must not1 however1 deceive ourselves on this subject2 progress can be but very slow1 since to some extent it must be general4 ,in certain parts of the world it might perhaps be realized rapidly if the people exercised no influence over each other2 but this is not so4 ,there is a great law of solidarity for the human race1 in progress as well as in deterioration4 ,if in ,england1 for example1 the condition of the working classes were sensibly improved1 in consequence of a general rise of wages1 ,french industry would have more chances of surpassing its rival1 and by its advance would moderate the progressive movement manifested on the other side of the ,channel4 ,it would seem that1 beyond certain limits1 ,providence has not designed that one people should rise above another4 ,and thus1 in the great aggregate of human society1 as in its most minute details1 we always find that admirable and inflexible forces tend to confer1 in the long-run1 on the masses1 individual or collective advantages1 and to bring back all temporary manifestations of superiority to a common level1 which1 like that of the ocean when the tide flows1 is always equalizing itself and always advancing4 ,to conclude1 perfectibility1 which is the distinctive characteristic of man1 being given1 and the action of competition and the law of limitation being known1 the fate of the human race1 as regards its worldly destinies1 may be thus summed up3--#ast1 ,simultaneous elevation of all the social ranks1 or of the general level of humanity2 #b;d1 ,indefinite approximation of conditions1 and successive annihilation of the distances which separate classes1 as far as consistent with absolute justice2 #c;d1 ,relative diminution of the numbers of the lowest and highest orders1 and extension of intermediate classes4 ,it may be said that these laws must lead to absolute equality4 ,no more than the constant approximation of asymptotical lines can finally load to their junction4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this chapter1 the greater part of which was written in #ahdf1 does not perhaps express with sufficient clearness the author's opposition to the ideas of ,malthus4 p#dbd ,bastiat explains here very clearly the unperceived and naturally preventive action of individual motive1--the progressive desire for happiness1 the ambition of men to better their condition2 and the habit which causes each to regard the competence he has gained as a necessity1--an inferior limit of the means of existence1 below which no one would willingly see his family reduced4 ,but this is in some measure the negative view of the law4 ,it only shows that in every society founded upon the institutions of property and family1 population ceases to be a danger4 ,it remains to be shown that population is in itself a force1 and to prove the necessary increase of productive power which results from the density of population4 ,this1 as the author has himself said 7p4 #aac71 is the important element neglected by ,malthus1 and which discloses harmony1 where ,malthus discovered discordance4 ,from the premises indicated in the chapter on ,exchange1 premises which he proposed to himself to develop in treating of population1 the conclusion which ,bastiat wished to draw was decidedly anti-,malthusian4 ,we find it stated in one of the last notes which he wrote1 and he recommends its being insisted on3-- 8,in the chapter on ,exchange it has been demonstrated that1 in a state of isolation1 man's wants surpass his faculties1 and that1 in the social state1 his faculties surpass his wants4 8,this excess of faculties over wants proceeds from exchange1 which is--association of efforts--separation of occupations4 8,thence an action and a reaction of causes and effects1 in a circle of progress which is infinite4 8,the superiority of faculties over wants1 creating for each generation an excess of wealth1 permits it to rear a more numerous offspring4 ,a generation more numerous implies a better and more marked separation of occupations1 and a new degree of superiority given to faculties over wants4 8,this exhibits an admirable harmony4 8,thus1 at a given epoch1 the general aggregate of wants being represented by #ajj1 and that of faculties by #aaj1 the excess of #aj is thus divided1--#e1 for example1 goes to the amelioration of men's condition1 to the provoking of wants of a more elevated character1 to the development of self-respect1 etc41--and #e to the augmentation of their numbers4 8,the wants of the second generation are #aaj1--namely1 #e more in quantity1 and #e more in quality4 8,but for that very reason 7for the double reason of the more complete physical1 intellectual1 and moral development1 and of the greater density of population1 which renders production more easy71 the faculties have also increased in power4 ,they will be represented1 for example1 by the figures #abj or #acj4 8,new excess1 new division1 etc4 8,and let us not fear the trop plein4 ,the elevation of wants1 which is nothing else than the sentiment of dignity1 is a natural limit4 4 4 4 40 ,editor4 p#dbe ,,xvii4 ,,private ,,and ,,public ,,services4 ,services are exchanged for services4 ,the equivalence of services results from voluntary exchange1 and the free bargaining and discussion which precede it4 ,in other words1 each service rendered to society is worth as much as any other service of which it constitutes the equivalent1 provided supply and demand are in all respects perfectly free4 ,it is in vain to carp and refine upon it2 it is impossible to conceive the idea of value without associating with it the idea of liberty4 ,when the equivalence of services is not impaired by violence1 restriction1 or fraud1 we may pronounce that justice prevails4 ,i do not mean to say that the human race will then have reached the extreme limit of improvement1 for liberty does not exclude the errors of individual appreciations--man is frequently the dupe of his judgments and passions1 nor are his desires always arranged in the most rational order4 ,we have seen that the value of a service may be appreciated without there being any reasonable proportion between its value and its utility2 and this arises from our giving certain desires precedence over others ,it is the progress of intelligence1 of good sense1 and of manners1 which establishes this fair and just proportion by putting each service1 if ,i may so express myself1 in its right moral place4 ,a frivolous object1 a puerile show1 an immoral pleasure1 may have much value in one country1 and may be despised or repudiated in another4 ,the equivalence of services1 then1 is a different thing from a just appreciation of their utility4 ,but still1 as regards this1 it is liberty and the sense of responsibility which correct and improve our tastes1 our desires1 our satisfactions1 and our appreciations4 ,in all countries of the world1 there exists one class of services1 which1 as regards the manner in which they are distributed and p#dbf remunerated1 accomplishes an evolution quite different from that of private or free services4 ,i allude to public services4 ,when a want assumes a character so universal and so uniform that one can describe it as a public want1 it may be convenient for those people who form part of the same agglomeration 7be it district1 province1 or country7 to provide for the satisfaction of that want by collective action1 or a collective delegation of power4 ,in that case1 they name functionaries whose duty it is to render to the community1 and distribute among them1 the service in question1 and whose remuneration they provide for by a contribution which is1 at least in principle1 proportionate to the means of each member of the society4 ,in reality1 the primordial elements of the social economy are not necessarily impaired or set aside by this peculiar form of exchange1--above all1 when the consent of all parties is assumed4 ,it still resolves itself into a transmission of efforts1 a transmission of services4 ,these functionaries labour to satisfy the wants of the taxpayers1 and the taxpayers labour to satisfy the wants of the functionaries4 ,the relative value of their reciprocal services is determined by a method which we shall have afterwards to examine2 but the essential principles of the exchange1 speaking in the abstract at least1 remain intact4 ,those authors1 then1 are wrong1 who1 influenced by their dislike of unjust and oppressive taxes1 regard as lost all values devoted to the public service4#id ,this unqualified condemnation will not bear examination4 ,in so far as loss or gain is concerned1 the public service1 scientifically considered1 differs in nothing from private service4 ,whether ,i protect my field myself1 or pay a man for protecting it or pay the ,state for causing it to be protected1 there is always a sacrifice with a corresponding benefit4 ,in both ways1 no doubt1 ,i lose this amount of labour1 but ,i gain security4 ,it is not a loss1 but an exchange4 ,will it be said that ,i give a material object1 and receive in return a thing without body or form8 ,this is just to fall back upon the erroneous theory of value4 ,as long as we attribute value to matter1 not to services1 we must regard every public service as being without value1 or lost4 ,afterwards1 when we begin to shift p#dbg about between what is true and what is false1 on the subject of value1 we shift about between what is true and what is false on the subject of taxation4 ,if taxation is not necessarily a loss1 still less is it necessarily spoliation4#ie ,no doubt1 in modern societies1 spoliation by means of taxation is perpetrated on a great scale4 ,we shall afterwards see that it is one of the most active of those causes which disturb the equivalence of services and the harmony of interests4 ,but the best way of combating and eradicating the abuses of taxation1 is to steer clear of that exaggeration which would represent all taxation as being essentially1 and in itself1 spoliation4 ,thus1 considered in themselves1 in their own nature1 in their normal state1 and apart from abuses1 public services1 like private services1 resolve themselves into pure exchanges4 ,but the modes in which1 in these two forms of exchange1 services are compared1 bargained for1 and transmitted1 the modes in which they are brought to an equilibrium or equivalence1 and in which their relative value is manifested1 are so different in themselves1 and in their effects1 that the reader will bear with me if ,i dwell at some length on this difficult subject1 one of the most interesting which can be presented to the consideration of the economist and the statesman4 ,it is here1 in truth1 that we have the connecting link between politics and social economy4 ,it is here that we discover the origin and tendency of the most fatal error which has ever infected the science1 the error of confounding society with ,government2 society being the grand whole1 which includes both private and public services1 and ,government1 the fraction which includes public services alone4 ,unfortunately1 when1 by following the teaching of ,rousseau1 and his apt scholars the ,french republicans1 we employ indifferently the words ,government and ,society1 we pronounce1 implicitly1 beforehand1 and without examination1 that the ,state can and ought to absorb private exertion altogether1 along with individual liberty and responsibility4 ,we conclude that all private services ought to be converted into public services4 ,we conclude that the social order is a conventional and contingent fact which owes its existence to the law4 ,we pronounce the lawgiver p#dbh omnipotent1 and mankind powerless1 as having forfeited their rights4 ,in fact1 we see public services1 or governmental action1 extended or restrained according to circumstances of time and place1 from the ,communism of ,sparta1 or the ,missions of ,paraguay1 to the individualism of the ,united ,states1 and the centralization of ,france4 ,the question which presents itself on the threshold of ,politics1 as a science1 then1 is this3-- ,what are the services which should remain in the domain of private activity8 ,and what are the services which should fall within that of public or collective activity8 ,the problem1 then1 is this3-- ,in the great circle called society1 to trace accurately the inscribed circle called government4 ,it is evident that this problem belongs to ,political ,economy1 since it implies the comparative examination of two very different forms of exchange4 ,this problem once solved1 there remains another1 namely1 what is the best organization of public services8 ,this last belongs to pure ,politics1 and we shall not enter upon it4 ,let us examine1 then1 first of all1 the essential differences by which public and private services are characterized1 which is a preliminary inquiry necessary to enable us to fix accurately the line which should divide them4 ,the whole of the preceding portion of this work has been devoted to exhibit the evolution of private services4 ,we have had a glimpse of it in this formal or tacit proposition3 ,do this for me1 and ,i shall do that for you2 which implies1 whether as regards what we give away or what we receive1 a double and reciprocal consent4 ,we can form no correct notion1 then1 of barter1 exchange1 appreciation1 value1 apart from the consideration of liberty1 nor of liberty apart from responsibility4 ,in having recourse to exchange1 each party consults1 on his own responsibility1 his wants1 his tastes1 his desires1 his faculties1 his affections1 his convenience1 his entire situation2 and we have nowhere denied that to the exercise of free will is attached the possibility of error1 the possibility of a foolish and irrational choice4 ,the error belongs not to exchange1 but to human imperfection2 and the remedy can only reside in responsibility itself 7that is to say1 in liberty71 seeing that liberty is the source of all experience4 ,to establish restraint in the business of exchange1 to destroy free will under the pretext that man may err1 would be no improvement1 unless it were p#dbi first proved to us that the agent who organizes the restraint does not himself participate in the imperfection of our nature1 and is subject neither to the passions nor to the errors of other men4 ,on the contrary1 is it not evident that this would be1 not only to displace responsibility1 but to annihilate it1 at least as regards all that is valuable in its remunerative1 retributive1 experimental1 corrective1 and1 consequently1 progressive character8 ,again1 we have seen that free exchanges1 or services voluntarily rendered and received1 are1 under the action of competition1 continually extending the co-operation of gratuitous forces1 as compared with that of onerous forces1 the domain of community as compared with the domain of property1 and thus we have come to recognise in liberty that power which promotes progressive equality1 or social harmony4 ,we have no need to describe the form which exchanges assume when thus left free4 ,restraint takes a thousand shapes2 liberty has but one4 ,i repeat once more1 that the free and voluntary transmission of private services is defined by the simple words3 8,give me this1 and ,i will give you that2 do this for me1 and ,i shall do that for you0--,do ut des2 facio ut facias4#if ,the same thing does not hold with reference to the exchange of public services4 ,here constraint is to a certain extent inevitable1 and we encounter an infinite number of different forms1 from absolute despotism1 down to the universal and direct intervention of all the citizens4 ,although this ideal order of things has never been anywhere actually realized1 and perhaps may never be so1 except in a very elusory shape1 we may nevertheless assume its existence4 ,what is the object of our inquiry8 ,we are seeking to discover the modifications which services undergo when they enter the public domain2 and for the purposes of science we must discard the consideration of individual and local acts of violence1 and regard the public service simply as such1 and as existing under the most legitimate circumstances4 ,in a word1 we must investigate the transformation which it undergoes from the single circumstance of its having become public1 apart from the causes which have made it so1 and of the abuses which may mingle with the means of execution4 ,the process is this3-- ,the citizens name mandatories4 ,these mandatories meet1 and decide1 by a majority1 that a certain class of wants--the want of education1 for example--can no longer be supplied by free exertions p#dcj and free exchanges made by the citizens themselves1 and they decree that education shall be provided by functionaries specially delegated and intrusted with the work of instruction4 ,so much for the service rendered4 ,as regards the services received1 as the ,state has secured the time and abilities of these new functionaries for the benefit of the citizens1 it must also take from the citizens a part of their means for the benefit of the functionaries4 ,this is effected by an assessment or general contribution4 ,in all civilized communities such contributions are paid in money4 ,it is scarcely necessary to say that behind this money there is labour4 ,in reality1 it is a payment in kind4 ,in reality1 the citizens work for the functionaries1 and the functionaries work for the citizens1 just as1 in free and private transactions1 the citizens work for one another4 ,we set down this observation here1 in order to elude a very widely-spread sophism which springs from the consideration of money4 ,we hear it frequently said that money received by public functionaries falls back like refreshing rain on the citizens4 ,and we are led to infer that this rain is a second benefit added to that which results from the service4 ,reasoning in this way1 people have come to justify the existence of functions the most parasitical4 ,they do not consider that if this service had remained in the domain of private activity1 the money 7which1 in place of going to the treasury1 and from the treasury to the functionaries7 would have gone directly to men who voluntarily undertook the duty1 and in the same way would have fallen back like rain upon the masses4 ,this sophism will not stand examination1 when we extend our regards beyond the mere circulation of money1 and see that at the bottom it is labour exchanged for labour1 services for services4 ,in public life1 it may happen that functionaries receive services without rendering any in return2 and then there is a loss entailed on the taxpayer1 however we may delude ourselves with reference to this circulation of specie4 ,be this as it may1 let us resume our analysis3-- ,we have here1 then1 an exchange under a new form4 ,exchange includes two terms--to give1 and to receive4 ,let us inquire then how this transaction1 which from being private has become public1 is affected in the double point of view of services rendered and services received4 ,in the first place1 it is proved beyond doubt that public services always1 or nearly always1 extinguish1 in law or in fact1 private services of the same nature4 ,the ,state1 when it undertakes a service1 generally takes care to decree that no other body shall render it1 p#dca more especially if one of its objects be to derive a revenue from it4 ,witness the cases of postage1 tobacco1 gunpowder1 etc4 ,did the ,state not take this precaution1 the result would be the same4 ,what manufacturer would engage to render to the public a service which the ,state renders for nothing8 ,we scarcely meet with any one who seeks a livelihood by teaching law or medicine privately1 by the formation of high-roads1 by rearing thoroughbred horses1 by founding schools of arts and design1 by clearing lands in ,algeria1 by establishing museums1 etc4 ,and the reason is this1 that the public will not go to purchase what the ,state gives it for nothing4 ,as ,m4 de ,cormenin has said1 the trade of the shoemakers would soon be put an end to1 even were it declared inviolable by the first article of the constitution1 if ,government took it into its head to furnish shoes to everybody gratuitously4 ,in truth1 in the word gratuitous1 as applied to public services1 there lurks the grossest and most puerile of sophisms4 ,for my own part1 ,i wonder at the extreme gullibility of the public in allowing itself to be taken in with this word4 ,what6 it is said1 do you not wish gratuitous education8 gratuitous studs8 ,certainly ,i wish them1 and ,i should also wish to have gratuitous food and gratuitous lodging--if it were possible4 ,but there is nothing really gratuitous but what costs nothing to any one4 ,now public services cost something to everybody2 and it is just because everybody has paid for them beforehand that they no longer cost anything to the man who receives the benefit4 ,the man who has paid his share of the general contribution will take good care not to pay for the service a second time by calling in the aid of private industry4 ,public service is thus substituted for private service4 ,it adds nothing either to the general labour of the nation or to its wealth4 ,it accomplishes by means of functionaries1 what would have been effected by private industry4 ,the question1 then1 is1 ,which of these arrangements entails the greatest amount of inconvenience8 and the solution of that question is the object of the present chapter4 ,the moment the satisfaction of a want becomes the subject of a public service1 it is withdrawn1 to a great extent1 from the domain of individual liberty and responsibility4 ,the individual is no longer free to procure that satisfaction in his own way1 to purchase what he chooses and when he chooses1 consulting only his own situation and resources1 his means1 and his moral appreciations2 nor can he any longer exercise his discretion in regard to the order in which he may judge it reasonable to provide for p#dcb his various wants4 ,whether he will or not1 his wants are now supplied by the public1 and he obtains from society1 not that measure of service which he judges useful1 as he did in the case of private services1 but the amount of service which the ,government thinks it proper to furnish1 whatever be its quantity and quality4 ,perhaps he is in want of bread to satisfy his hunger1 and part of the bread of which he has such urgent need is withheld from him1 in order to furnish him with education1 or with theatrical entertainments1 which he does not want4 ,he ceases to exercise free control over the satisfaction of his own wants1 and having no longer any feeling of responsibility1 he no longer exerts his intelligence4 ,foresight has become as useless to him as experience4 ,he is less his own master2 he is deprived1 to some extent1 of free will1 he is less progressive1 he is less a man4 ,not only does he no longer judge for himself in a particular case2 he has got out of the habit of judging for himself in any case4 ,the moral torpor which thus gains upon him1 gains1 for the same reason1 on all his fellow-citizens1 and in this way we have seen whole nations abandon themselves to a fatal inaction4#ig ,as long as a certain class of wants and of corresponding satisfactions remains in the domain of liberty1 each1 in so far as this class is concerned1 lays down a rule for himself1 which he can modify at pleasure4 ,this would seem to be both natural and fair1 seeing that no two men find themselves in exactly the same situation2 nor is there any one man whose circumstances do not vary from day to day4 ,in this way1 all the human faculties remain in exercise1 comparison1 judgment1 foresight4 ,in this way1 too1 every good and judicious resolution brings its recompense and every error its chastisement2 and experience1 that rude p#dcc substitute for foresight1 so far at least fulfils its mission that society goes on improving4 ,but when the service becomes public1 all individual rules of conduct and action disappear1 and are mixed up and generalized in a written1 coercive1 and inflexible law1 which is the same for all1 which makes no allowance for particular situations1 and strikes the noblest faculties of human nature with numbness and torpor4 ,if ,state intervention deprive us of all self-government with reference to the services we receive from the public1 it deprives us in a still more marked degree of all control with reference to the services which we render in return4 ,this counterpart1 this supplementary element in the exchange1 is likewise a deduction from our liberty1 and is regulated by uniform inflexible rules1 by a law passed beforehand1 made operative by force1 and of which we cannot get rid4 ,in a word1 as the services which the ,state renders us are imposed upon us1 those which it demands in return are also imposed upon us1 and in all languages take the name of imposts4 ,and here a multitude of theoretical difficulties and inconveniences present themselves2 for practically the ,state surmounts all obstacles by means of an armed force1 which is the necessary sequence of every law4 ,but1 to confine ourselves to the theory1 the transformation of a private into a public service gives rise to these grave questions3-- ,will the ,state under all circumstances demand from each citizen an amount of taxation equivalent to the services rendered8 ,this were but fair2 and this equivalence is exactly the result which we almost infallibly obtain from free and voluntary transactions1 and the bargaining which precedes them4 ,if the design of the ,state1 then1 is to realize this equivalence 7which is only justice71 it is not worth while taking this class of services out of the domain of private activity4 ,but equivalence is never thought of1 nor can it be4 ,we do not stand higgling and chaffering with public functionaries4 ,the law proceeds on general rules1 and cannot make conditions applicable to each individual case4 ,at the utmost1 and when it is conceived in a spirit of justice1 it aims at a sort of average equivalence1 an approximate equivalence1 between the two services exchanged4 ,two principles--namely1 the proportionality and the progression of taxation--have appeared in many respects to carry this approximation to its utmost limit4 ,but the slightest reflection will convince us that proportional taxation cannot1 any more than progressive taxation1 realize the exact equivalence of services exchanged4 ,public services1 after having forcibly deprived the citizens of their liberty1 as regards services p#dcd both rendered and received1 have1 then1 this farther fault of unsettling the value of these services4 ,another1 and not less grave1 inconvenience is1 that they destroy1 or at least displace1 responsibility4 ,to man responsibility is all-important4 ,it is his mover and teacher1 his rewarder and avenger4 ,without it man is no longer a free agent1 he is no longer perfectible1 no longer a moral being1 he learns nothing1 he is nothing4 ,he abandons himself to inaction1 and becomes a mere unit of the herd4 ,if it be a misfortune that the sense of responsibility should be extinguished in the individual1 it is no less a misfortune that it should be developed in the ,state in an exaggerated form4 ,man1 however degraded1 has always as much light left him as to see the quarter from whence good or evil comes to him2 and when the ,state assumes the charge of all1 it becomes responsible for all4 ,under the dominion of such artificial arrangements1 a people which suffers can only lay the blame on its ,government1 and its only remedy1 its only policy1 is to overturn it4 ,hence an inevitable succession of revolutions4 ,i say inevitable1 for under such a rgime the people must necessarily suffer2 and the reason of it is that public services1 besides disturbing and unsettling values1 which is injustice1 lead also to the destruction of wealth1 which is ruin2 ruin and injustice1 suffering and discontent--four fatal causes of effervescence in society1 which1 combined with the displacement of responsibility1 cannot fail to bring about political convulsions like those from which we have been suffering for more than half a century4 ,without desiring to indulge in digressions1 ,i cannot help remarking1 that when things are organized in this fashion1 when ,government has assumed gigantic proportions by the successive transformation of free and voluntary transactions into public services1 it is to be feared that revolutions1 which constitute in themselves so great an evil1 have not even the advantage of being a remedy1 unless the remedy is forced upon us by experience4 ,the displacement of responsibility has perverted public opinion4 ,the people1 accustomed to expect everything from the ,state1 never accuse ,government of doing too much1 but of not doing enough4 ,they overturn it1 and replace it by another1 to which they do not say1 8,do less10 but 8,do more20 so that1 having fallen into one ditch1 they set to work to dig another4 ,at length the moment comes when their eyes are opened1 and it is felt to be necessary to curtail the prerogatives and responsibilities of ,government4 ,here we are stopped by difficulties of another kind4 ,functionaries alleging vested rights rise up and p#dce coalesce1 and we are averse to bear hard on numerous interests to which we have given an artificial existence4 ,on the other hand1 the people have forgotten how to act for themselves4 ,at the moment they have succeeded in reconquering the liberty of which they were in quest1 they are afraid of it1 and repudiate it4 ,offer them a free and voluntary system of education3#ih they believe that all science is about to be extinguished4 ,offer them religious liberty3 they believe that atheism is about to invade us1--so often has it been dinned into their ears that all religion1 all wisdom1 all science1 all learning1 all morality1 resides in the ,state or flows from it4 ,but we shall find a place for such reflections elsewhere1 and must now return to the argument4 ,we set ourselves to discover the true part which competition plays in the development of wealth1 and we found that it consisted in giving an advantage in the first instance to the producer2 then turning this advantage to the profit of the community2 and constantly enlarging the domain of the gratuitous1 and consequently the domain of equality4 ,but when private services become public services1 they escape competition1 and this fine harmony is suspended4 ,in fact1 the functionary is divested of that stimulant which urges on to progress1 and how can progress turn to the public advantage when it no longer exists8 ,a public functionary does not act under the spur of self-interest1 but under the influence of the law4 ,the law says to him1 8,you will render to the public such or such a determinate service1 and you will receive from it in return a determinate recompense40 ,a little more or a little less zeal has no effect in changing these two fixed terms4 ,on the contrary1 private interest whispers in the ear of the free labourer1 8,the more you do for others1 the more others will do for you40 ,in this case1 the recompense depends entirely on the efforts of the workman being more or less intense1 and more or less skilful4 ,no doubt esprit de corps1 the desire for advancement1 devotion to duty1 may prove active stimulants with the functionary2 but they never can supply the place of the irresistible incitement of personal interest4 ,all experience confirms this reasoning4 ,everything which has fallen within the domain of ,government routine has remained almost stationary4 ,it is doubtful whether our system of education now is better than it was in the reign of ,francis the ,first2 and no one would think of comparing the activity of a government office with the activity of a manufactory4 p#dcf ,in proportion1 then1 as private services enter into the class of public services1 they become1 at least to a certain extent1 sterile and motionless1 not to the injury of those who render these services 7their salaries are fixed71 but to the detriment of the public at large4 ,along with these inconveniences1 which are immense1 not only in a moral and political1 but in an economical point of view--inconveniences which1 trusting to the sagacity of the reader1 ,i have only sketched--there is sometimes an advantage in substituting collective for individual action4 ,in some kinds of services1 the chief merit is regularity and uniformity4 ,it may happen that1 under certain circumstances1 such a substitution gives rise to economy1 and saves1 in relation to a given satisfaction1 a certain amount of exertion to the community4 ,the question to be resolved1 then1 is this3 ,what services should remain in the domain of private exertion8 ,what services should pertain to collective or public exertion8 ,the inquiry1 which we have just finished1 into the essential differences which characterize these two kinds of services1 will facilitate the solution of this important problem4 ,and1 first of all1 it may be asked1 is there any principle to enable us to distinguish what may legitimately enter the circle of collective action1 and what should remain in the circle of private action8 ,i begin by intimating that what ,i denominate here public action is that great organization which has for rule the law1 and for means of execution1 force2 in other words1 the ,government4 ,let it not be said that free and voluntary associations display likewise collective exertion4 ,let it not be supposed that ,i use the term private action as synonymous with isolated action4 ,what ,i say is1 that free and voluntary association belongs still to the domain of private action1 for it is one of the forms of exchange1 and the most powerful form of all4 ,it does not impair the equivalence of services1 it does not affect the appreciation of values1 it does not displace responsibilities1 it does not exclude free will1 it does not destroy competition nor its effects2 in a word1 it has not constraint for its principle4 ,but the action of ,government is made general by constraint4 ,it necessarily proceeds on the compelle intrare4 ,it acts in form of law1 and every one must submit to it1 because a law implies a sanction4 ,no one1 ,i think1 will dispute these premises2 which are supported by the best of all authorities1 the testimony of universal fact4 ,on all sides we have laws1 and force to restrain the refractory4 p#dcg ,hence1 no doubt1 has come the saying that 8men1 in uniting in society1 have sacrificed part of their liberty in order to preserve the remainder10--a saying in great vogue with those who1 confounding government with society1 conclude that the latter is artificial and conventional like the former4 ,it is evident that this saying does not hold true in the region of free and voluntary transactions4 ,let two men1 determined by the prospect of greater profit and advantage1 exchange their services1 or unite their efforts1 in place of continuing their isolated exertions--is there in this any sacrifice of liberty8 ,is it to sacrifice liberty to make a better use of it8 ,the most that can be said is this1 that men sacrifice part of their liberty to preserve the remainder1 not when they unite in society1 but when they subject themselves to a ,government1 since the necessary mode of action of every ,government is force4 ,now1 even with this modification1 the pretended principle is erroneous1 as long as ,government confines itself to its legitimate functions4 ,but what are these functions8 ,it is precisely this special character of having force for their necessary auxiliary which marks out to us their extent and their limits4 ,i affirm that as ,government acts only by the intervention of force1 its action is legitimate only where the intervention of force is itself legitimate4 ,now1 where force interposes legitimately1 it is not to sacrifice liberty1 but to make it more respected4 ,so that this pretended axiom1 which has been represented as the basis of political science1 and which has been shown to be false as far as society is concerned1 is equally false as regards ,government4 ,it is always gratifying to me to see these melancholy theoretical discordances disappear before a closer and more searching examination4 ,in what cases is the employment of force legitimate8 ,in one case1 and1 ,i believe1 in only one--the case of legitimate defence4 ,if this be so1 the foundation of ,government is fully established1 as well as its legitimate limits4#ii ,what is individual right8 ,the right which an individual possesses to enter freely and voluntarily into bargains and transactions with his fellow-citizens1 which give rise1 as far as they are concerned1 to a reciprocal right4 ,when is this right violated8 ,when one of the parties encroaches p#dch on the liberty of the other4 ,in that case1 it is incorrect to say1 as is frequently done1 8,there is an excess1 an abuse of liberty40 ,we should say1 8,there is a want1 a destruction of liberty40 ,an excess of liberty1 no doubt1 if we regard only the aggressor1 but a destruction of liberty1 if we regard the victim1 or even if we regard the phenomenon as a whole1 as we ought to do4 ,the right of the man whose liberty is attacked1 or1 which comes to the same thing1 whose property1 faculties1 or labour is attacked1 is to defend them even by force2 and this is in fact what men do everywhere1 and always1 when they can4 ,hence may be deduced the right of a number of men of any sort to take counsel together1 and associate1 in order to defend1 even by their joint force1 individual liberty and property4 ,but an individual has no right to employ force for any other purpose4 ,i cannot legitimately force my neighbours to be industrious1 sober1 economical1 generous1 learned1 devout2 but ,i can legitimately force them to be just4 ,for the same reason the collective force cannot be legitimately applied to develop the love of industry1 of sobriety1 of economy1 of generosity1 of science1 of religious belief2 but it may be legitimately applied to ensure the predominance of justice1 and vindicate each man's right4 ,for where can we seek for the origin of collective right but in individual right8 ,the deplorable mania of our times is the desire to give an independent existence to pure abstractions1 to imagine a city without citizens1 a human nature without human beings1 a whole without parts1 an aggregate without the individuals who compose it4 ,they might as well say1 8,here is a man1 suppose him without members1 viscera1 organs1 body1 soul1 or any of the elements of which he is composed--still here is a man40 ,if a right does not exist in any of the individuals of what for brevity's sake we call a nation1 how should it exist in the nation itself8 ,how1 above all1 should it exist in that fraction of a nation which exercises delegated rights of government8 ,how could individuals delegate rights which they do not themselves possess8 ,we must1 then1 regard as a fundamental principle in politics1 this incontestable truth1 that between individuals the intervention of force is legitimate only in the case of legitimate defence2 and that a collective body of men cannot have recourse to force legally1 but within the same limit4 ,now1 it is of the very essence of ,government to act upon p#dci individuals by way of constraint4 ,then it can have no other rational functions than the legitimate defence of individual rights1 it can have no delegated authority except to secure respect to the lives and property of all4 ,observe that when a ,government goes beyond these bounds1 it enters on an illimited career1 and cannot escape this consequence1 not only that it goes beyond its mission1 but annihilates it1 which constitutes the most monstrous of contradictions4 ,in truth1 when the ,state has caused to be respected this fixed and invariable line which separates the rights of the citizens1 when it has maintained among them justice1 what could it do more without itself breaking through that barrier1 the guardianship of which has been intrusted to it--in other words1 without destroying with its own hands1 and by force1 that very liberty and property which had been placed under its safeguard8 ,beyond the administration and enforcement of justice1 ,i defy you to imagine an intervention of ,government which is not an injustice4 ,allege1 as long as you choose1 acts inspired by the purest philanthropy1 encouragements held out to virtue and to industry1 premiums1 favour1 and direct protection1 gifts said to be gratuitous1 initiatives styled generous2 behind all these fair appearances1 or1 if you will1 these fair realities1 ,i will show you other realities less gratifying2 the rights of some persons violated for the benefit of others1 liberties sacrificed1 rights of property usurped1 faculties limited1 spoliations consummated4 ,and can the people possibly behold a spectacle more melancholy1 more painful1 than that of the collective force employed in perpetrating crimes which it is its special duty to repress8 ,in principle1 it is enough that the ,government has at its disposal1 as a necessary instrument1 force1 in order to enable us to discover what the private services are which can legitimately be converted into public services4 ,they are those which have for their object the maintenance of liberty1 property1 and individual right1 the prevention of crime--in a word1 everything which involves the public security4 ,governments have yet another mission4 ,there are in all countries a certain amount of common property1 enjoyed by the citizens jointly--rivers1 forests1 roads4 ,on the other hand1 unfortunately1 there are also debts4 ,it is the duty of ,government to administer this active and passive portion of the public domain4 ,in fine1 from these two functions there flows another1--that of levying the contributions which are necessary for the public service4 p#ddj ,thus3 ,to watch over the public security4 ,to administer common property4 ,to levy taxes4 ,such ,i believe to be the legitimate circle within which ,government functions ought to be circumscribed1 and to which they should be brought back if they have gone beyond it4 ,this opinion1 ,i know1 runs counter to received opinions4 8,what60 it will be said1 8you wish to reduce ,government to play the part of a judge and a police-officer6 ,you would take away from it all initiative6 ,you would restrain it from giving a lively impulse to learning1 to arts1 to commerce1 to navigation1 to agriculture1 to moral and religious ideas2 you would despoil it of its fairest attribute1 that of opening to the people the road of progress60 ,to people who talk in this way1 ,i should like to put a few questions4 ,where has ,god placed the motive spring of human conduct1 and the aspiration after progress8 ,is it in all men8 or is it exclusively in those among them who have received1 or usurped1 the delegated authority of a legislator1 or the patent of a placeman8 ,does every one of us not carry in his organization1 in his whole being1 that boundless1 restless principle of action called desire8 ,when our first and most urgent wants are supplied1 are there not formed within us concentric and expansive circles of desires of an order more and more elevated8 ,does the love of arts1 of letters1 of science1 of moral and religious truth1 does a thirst for the solution of those problems which concern our present and future existence1 descend from collective bodies of men to individuals1 from abstractions to realities1 from mere words to living and sentient beings8 ,if you set out with this assumption--absurd upon the face of it--that moral energy resides in the ,state1 and that the nation is passive1 do you not place morals1 doctrines1 opinions1 wealth1 all which constitutes individual life1 at the mercy of men in power8 ,then1 in order to enable it to discharge the formidable duty which you would intrust to it1 has the ,state any resources of its own8 ,is it not obliged to take everything of which it disposes1 down to the last penny1 from the citizens themselves8 ,if it be from individuals that it demands the means of execution1 individuals have realized these means4 ,it is a contradiction1 then1 to pretend that individuality is passive and inert4 ,and why have individuals created these resources8 ,to minister to their own p#dda satisfactions4 ,what does the ,state do when it seizes on these resources8 ,it does not bring satisfactions into existence1 it displaces them4 ,it deprives the man who earned them in order to endow a man who has no right to them4 ,charged to chastise injustice1 it perpetrates it4 ,will it be said that in displacing satisfactions it purifies them1 and renders them more moral8--that the wealth which individuals had devoted to gross and sensual wants the ,state has devoted to moral purposes8 ,who dare affirm that it is advantageous to invert violently1 by force1 by means of spoliation1 the natural order according to which the wants and desires of men are developed8--that it is moral to take a morsel of bread from the hungry peasant1 in order to bring within the reach of the inhabitants of our large towns the doubtful morality of theatrical entertainments8 ,and then it must be remembered1 that you cannot displace wealth without displacing labour and population4 ,any arrangement you can make must be artificial and precarious when it is thus substituted for a solid and regular order of things reposing on the immutable laws of nature4 ,there are people who believe that by circumscribing the province of ,government you enfeeble it4 ,numerous functions and numerous agents1 they think1 give the ,state the solidity of a broader basis4 ,but this is pure illusion4 ,if the ,state cannot overstep the limits of its proper and determinate functions without becoming an instrument of injustice1 of ruin1 and of spoliation--without unsettling the natural distribution of labour1 of enjoyments1 of capital1 and of population--without creating commercial stoppages1 industrial crises1 and pauperism--without enlarging the proportion of crimes and offences--without recurring to more and more energetic means of repression--without exciting discontent and disaffection1--how is it possible to discover a guarantee for stability in these accumulated elements of disorder8 ,you complain of the revolutionary tendencies of men1 but without sufficient reflection4 ,when in a great country we see private services invaded and converted into public services1 the ,government laying hold of one-third of the wealth produced by the citizens1 the law converted into an engine of spoliation by the citizens themselves1 thus impairing1 under pretence of establishing1 the equivalence of services--when we see population and labour displaced by legislation1 a deeper and deeper gulf interposed between wealth and poverty1 capital1 which should give employment to an increasing population1 prevented from accumulating1 p#ddb entire classes ground down by the hardest privations--when we see ,governments taking to themselves credit for any prosperity which may be observable1 proclaiming themselves the movers and originators of everything1 and thus accepting responsibility for all the evils which afflict society1--we are only astonished that revolutions do not occur more frequently1 and we admire the sacrifices which are made by the people to the cause of public order and tranquillity4 ,but if laws and the ,governments which enact laws confined themselves within the limits ,i have indicated1 how could revolutions occur8 ,if each citizen were free1 he would doubtless be less exposed to suffering2 and if1 at the same time1 the feeling of responsibility were brought to bear on him from all sides1 how should he ever take it into his head to attribute his sufferings to a law1 to a ,government which concerned itself no farther with him than to repress his acts of injustice and protect him from the injustice of others8 ,do we ever find a village rising against the authority of the local magistrate8 ,the influence of liberty on the cause of order is sensibly felt in the ,united ,states4 ,there1 all1 save the administration of justice and of public property1 is left to the free and voluntary transactions of the citizens2 and there1 accordingly1 we find fewer of the elements and chances of revolution than in any other country of the world4 ,what semblance of interest1 could the citizens of such a country have in changing the established order of things by violence1 when1 on the one hand1 this order of things clashes with no man's interests1 and1 on the other1 may be legally and readily modified if necessary8 ,but ,i am wrong4 ,there are two active causes of revolution at work in the ,united ,states--slavery and commercial restriction4 ,it is notorious that these two questions are constantly placing in jeopardy the public peace and the federal union4 ,now1 is it possible to conceive a more decisive argument in support of the thesis ,i am now maintaining8 ,have we not here an instance of the law acting in direct antagonism to what ought to be the design and aim of all laws8 ,is not this a case of law and public force sanctioning1 strengthening1 perpetuating1 systematizing1 and protecting oppression and spoliation1 in place of fulfilling its legitimate mission of protecting liberty and property8 ,as regards slavery1 the law says1 8,i shall create a force1 at the expense of the citizens1 not to maintain each in his rights1 but to annihilate altogether the rights of a portion of the inhabitants40 ,as regards tariffs1 the law says1 8,i shall create a force1 at the expense of the citizens1 not to ensure the freedom of their bargains and transactions1 but to p#ddc destroy that freedom1 to impair the equivalence of services1 to give to one citizen the liberty of two1 and to deprive another of liberty altogether4 ,my function is to commit injustice1 which ,i nevertheless visit with the severest punishment when committed by the citizens themselves without my interposition40 ,it is not1 then1 because we have few laws and few functionaries1 or1 in other words1 because we have few public services1 that revolutions are to be feared2 but1 on the contrary1 because we have many laws1 many functionaries1 and many public services4 ,public services1 the law which regulates them1 the force which establishes them1 are from their nature never neutral4 ,they may be enlarged without danger1 on the contrary with advantage1 when they are necessary to the vigorous enforcement of justice2 but carried beyond this point they are so many instruments of legal oppression and spoliation1 so many causes of disorder and revolutionary ferment4 ,shall ,i venture to describe the poisonous immorality which is infused into all the veins of the body politic1 when the law thus sets itself1 upon principle1 to indulge the plundering propensities of the citizens8 ,attend a meeting of the national representatives when the question happens to turn on bounties1 encouragements1 favours1 or restrictions4 ,see with what shameless rapacity all endeavour to secure a share of the spoil1--spoil which1 as individuals1 they would blush to touch4 ,the very man who would regard himself as a highway robber1 if1 meeting me on the frontier and clapping a pistol to my head1 he prevented me from concluding a bargain which was for my advantage1 makes no scruple whatever in proposing and voting a law which substitutes the public force for his own1 and subjects me to the very same restriction at my own expense4 ,in this respect1 what a melancholy spectacle ,france presents at this very moment6 ,all classes are suffering1 and in place of demanding the abolition for ever of all legal spoliation1 each turns to the law1 and says1 8,you who can do everything1 you who have the public force at your disposal1 you who can bring good out of evil1 be pleased to rob and plunder all other classes1 to put money in my pocket4 ,force them to come to my shop1 or pay me bounties and premiums1 give my family gratuitous education1 lend me money without interest10 etc4 ,it is in this way that the law becomes a source of demoralization1 and if anything ought to surprise us1 it is that the propensity to individual plunder does not make more progress1 when the moral sense of the nation is thus perverted by legislation itself4 ,the deplorable thing is1 that spoliation1 when thus sanctioned by p#ddd law1 and opposed by no individual scruple1 ends by becoming quite a learned theory with an attendant train of professors1 journals1 doctors1 legislators1 sophisms1 and subtleties4 ,among the traditional quibbles which are brought forward in its support we may remark this one1 namely1 that1 cteris paribus1 an enlargement of demand is of advantage to those by whom labour is supplied1 seeing that the new relation between a more active demand and a supply which is stationary is what increases the value of the service4 ,from these premises the conclusion follows that spoliation is of advantage to everybody3 to the plundering class1 which it enriches directly2 to the plundered class1 by its reflex influence4 ,the plundering class having become richer finds itself in a situation to enlarge the circle of its enjoyments1 and this it cannot do without creating a larger demand for the services of the class which has been robbed4 ,now1 as regards each service1 an enlargement of demand is an increase of value4 ,the classes1 then1 who are legally plundered are too happy to be robbed1 since the profit arising from the theft thus redounds to them1 and helps to find them employment4 ,as long as the law confined itself to robbing the many for the benefit of the few1 this quibble appeared specious1 and was never invoked but with success4 8,let us hand over to the rich10 it was said1 8the taxes levied from the poor1 and we shall thus augment the capital of the wealthy classes4 ,the rich will indulge in luxury1 and luxury will give employment to the poor40 ,and all1 poor included1 regarded this recipe as infallible2 and for having exposed its hollowness1 ,i have been long regarded1 and am still regarded1 as an enemy of the working classes4 ,but since the revolution of ,february the poor have had a voice in the making of our laws4 ,have they required that the law should cease to sanction spoliation8 ,not at all4 ,the sophism of the rebound1 of the reflex influence1 has got too firmly into their heads4 ,what is it they have asked for8 ,that the law should become impartial1 and consent to rob all classes in their turn4 ,they have asked for gratis education1 gratis advances of capital1 friendly societies founded by the ,state1 progressive taxation1 etc4 ,and then the rich have set themselves to cry out1 8,how scandalous6 ,all is over with us6 ,new barbarians threaten society with an irruption60 ,to the pretensions of the poor they have opposed a desperate resistance1 first with the bayonet and then with the ballot-box4 ,but for all this1 have the rich given up spoliation8 ,they have not even dreamt of that2 and the argument of the rebound still serves as the pretext4 p#dde ,were this system of spoliation carried on by them directly1 and without the intervention of the law1 the sophism would become transparent4 ,were you to take from the pocket of the workman a franc to pay your ticket to the theatre1 would you have the face to say to him1 8,my good friend1 this franc will circulate and give employment to you and others of your class80 ,or if you did1 would he not be justified in answering1 8,the franc will circulate just as well if you do not steal it from me4 ,it will go to the baker instead of the scene-painter4 ,it will procure me bread in place of procuring you amusement40 ,we may remark1 also1 that the sophism of the rebound may be invoked by the poor in their turn4 ,they may say in their turn to the rich1 8,let the law assist us in robbing you4 ,we shall consume more cloth1 and that will benefit your manufactures2 more meat1 and that will benefit your land estates2 more sugar1 and that will benefit your shipping40 ,unhappy1 thrice unhappy1 nation in which such questions are raised1 in which no one thinks of making the law the rule of equity1 but an instrument of plunder to fill his own pockets1 and applies the whole power of his intellect to try to find excuses among the more remote and complicated effects of spoliation4 ,in support of these reflections it may not be out of place to add here an extract from the debate which took place at a meeting of the ,conseil gnral des ,manufactures1 de l',agriculture1 et du ,commerce1 on ,saturday the #bgth ,april #ahej4ajj p#ddf ,,xviii4 ,,disturbing ,,causes4 ,in what state would human society have been1 had the transactions of mankind never been in any shape infected with force or fraud1 oppression or deceit8 ,would ,justice and ,liberty have given rise inevitably to ,inequality and ,monopoly8 ,to find an answer to these questions it would seem to me to be necessary to study the nature of human transactions in their essence1 in their origin1 in their consequences1 and in the consequences of these consequences1 down to the final result2 and this apart from the consideration of contingent disturbances which might engender injustice2 for it will be readily granted that injustice is not of the essence of free and voluntary transactions4 ,that the entry of ,injustice into the world was inevitable1 and that society cannot get rid of it1 may be argued plausibly1 and ,i think even conclusively1 if we take man as he exists1 with his passions1 his egotism1 his ignorance1 and his original improvidence4 ,we must also1 therefore1 direct our attention to the origin and effects of ,injustice4 ,but it is not the less true that economical science must set out by explaining the theory of human transactions1 assuming them to be free and voluntary1 just as physiology explains the nature and relations of our organs1 apart from the consideration of the disturbing causes which modify these relations4 ,services1 as we have seen1 are exchanged for services1 and the great desideratum is the equivalence of the services thus exchanged4 ,the best chance1 it would seem1 of arriving at this equivalence1 is that it should be produced under the influence of ,liberty1 and that every man should be allowed to judge for himself4 p#ddg ,we know that men may be mistaken2 but we know also that they have the power given them of rectifying their mistakes2 and the longer1 as it appears to us1 that error is persisted in1 the nearer we approximate to its rectification4 ,everything which restrains liberty would seem to disturb the equivalence of services1 and everything which disturbs the equivalence of services engenders inequality in an exaggerated degree1 endowing some with unmerited opulence1 entailing on others poverty equally unmerited1 together with the destruction of national wealth1 and an attendant train of evils1 heartburnings1 disturbances1 convulsions1 and revolutions4 ,we shall not go the length of saying that ,liberty--or the equivalence of services--produces absolute equality2 for we believe in nothing absolute in what concerns man4 ,but we think that ,liberty tends to make men approximate towards a common level1 which is movable and always rising4 ,we think also that the inequality which may still remain under a free rgime is either the result of accidental circumstances1 or the chastisement of faults and vices1 or the compensation of other advantages set opposite to those of wealth2 and1 consequently1 that this inequality ought not to introduce among men any feeling of irritation4 ,in a word1 we believe that ,liberty is ,harmony4 4 4 4 4 ,but in order to discover whether this harmony exists in reality1 or only in our own imagination1 whether it be in us a perception or only an aspiration1 we must subject free transactions to the test of scientific inquiry2 we must study facts1 with their relations and consequences4 ,this is what we have endeavoured to do4 ,we have seen that although countless obstacles are interposed between the wants of man and his satisfactions1 so that in a state of isolation he could not exist--yet by the union of forces1 the separation of occupations1 in a word1 by exchange1 his faculties are developed to such an extent as to enable him gradually to overcome the first obstacles1 to encounter the second and overcome them also1 and so on in a progression as much more rapid as exchange is rendered more easy by the increasing density of population4 ,we have seen that his intelligence places at his disposal means of action more and more numerous1 energetic1 and perfect1 that in proportion as capital increases1 his absolute share in the produce increases1 and his relative share diminishes1 while both the absolute and relative share falling to the labourer goes on p#ddh constantly increasing4 ,this is the primary and most powerful cause of equality4 ,we have seen that that admirable instrument of production called land1 that marvellous laboratory in which are prepared all things necessary for the food1 clothing1 and shelter of man1 has been given him gratuitously by the ,creator2 that although the land is nominally appropriated1 its productive action cannot be so1 but remains gratuitous throughout the whole range of human transactions4 ,we have seen that ,property has not only this negative effect of not encroaching on community2 but that it works directly and constantly in enlarging its domain2 and this is a second cause of equality1 seeing that the more abundant the common fund becomes1 the more is the inequality of property effaced4 ,we have seen that under the influence of liberty services tend to acquire their normal value1 that is to say1 a value proportionate to the labour4 ,this is a third cause of equality4 ,for these reasons we conclude that there is a tendency to the establishment among men of a natural level1 not by bringing them back to a retrograde position1 or allowing them to remain stationary1 but urging them on to a state which is constantly progressive4 ,in fine1 we have seen that it is not the tendency of the laws of ,value1 of ,interest1 of ,rent1 of ,population1 or any other great natural law1 to introduce dissonance into the beautiful order of society1 as crude science has endeavoured to persuade us1 but1 on the contrary1 that all these laws lead to harmony4 ,having reached this point1 ,i think ,i hear the reader cry out1 8,the ,economists are optimists with a vengeance6 ,it is in vain that suffering1 poverty1 inadequate wages1 pauperism1 the desertion of children1 starvation1 crime1 rebellion1 inequality1 are before their eyes2 they chant complacently the harmony of the social laws1 and turn away from a hideous spectacle which mars their enjoyment of the theory in which they are wrapt up4 ,they shun the region of realities1 in order to take refuge1 like the ,utopian dreamers whom they blame1 in a region of chimeras4 ,more illogical than the ,socialists or the ,communists themselves--who confess the existence of suffering1 feel it1 describe it1 abhor it1 and only commit the error of prescribing ineffectual1 impracticable1 and empirical remedies--the ,economists either deny the existence of suffering1 or are insensible to it1 if1 indeed1 they do not engender it1 calling out to diseased and distempered society1 #8,laissez faire1 laissez passer2 all is for the best in this best of all possible worlds4'0 p#ddi ,in the name of science1 ,i repel1 ,i repudiate with all my might1 such reproaches and such interpretations of our words4 ,we see the existence of suffering as clearly as our opponents4 ,like them1 we deplore it1 like them we endeavour to discover its causes1 like them we are ready to combat them4 ,but we state the question differently4 8,society10 say they1 8such as liberty of labour and commercial transactions 7that is to say1 the free play of natural laws7 has made it1 is detestable4 ,break1 then1 the wheels of this ill-going machine1 liberty 7which they take care to nickname competition1 or oftener anarchical competition71 and substitute for them1 by force1 new wheels of our invention40 ,no sooner said than done4 ,millions of inventions are paraded2 and this we might naturally expect1 for to imaginary space there are no limits4 ,as for us1 after having studied the natural and providential laws of society1 we affirm that these laws are harmonious4 ,these laws admit the existence of evil1 for they are brought into play by men1--by beings subject to error and to suffering4 ,but in this mechanism evil has itself a function to perform1 which is to circumscribe more and more its own limits1 and ultimately to check its own action1 by preparing for man warnings1 corrections1 experience1 knowledge2 all things which are comprehended and summed up in the word1 ,improvement4 ,we add that it is not true that liberty prevails among men1 nor is it true that the providential laws exert all their action4 ,if they do act1 at least1 it is to repair slowly and painfully the disturbing action of ignorance and error4 ,don't arraign us1 then1 for using the words laissez faire1 let alone2 for we do not mean by that1 let man alone when he is doing wrong4 ,what we mean is this3 ,study the providential laws1 admire them1 and allow them to operate4 ,remove the obstacles which they encounter from abuses arising from force and fraud1 and you will see accomplished in human society this double manifestation of progress--equalization in amelioration4 ,for1 in short1 of two things one3 either the interests of men are1 in their own nature1 concordant1 or they are in their nature discordant4 ,when we talk of one's ,interest1 we talk of a thing towards which a man gravitates necessarily1 unavoidably2 otherwise it would cease to be called interest4 ,if men gravitated towards something else1 that other thing would be termed their interest4 ,if men's interests1 then1 are concordant1 all that is necessary in order to the realization of harmony and happiness is that these interests should be understood1 since men naturally p#dej pursue their interest4 ,this is all we contend for2 and this is the reason why we say1 ,eclairez et laissez faire1 ,enlighten men1 and let them alone4 ,if men's interests are in their nature and essence discordant1 then you are right1 and there is no other way of producing harmony1 but by forcing1 thwarting1 and running counter to these interests4 ,a whimsical harmony1 truly1 which can result only from an external and despotic action directed against the interests of all6 ,for you can easily understand that men will not tamely allow themselves to be thwarted2 and in order to obtain their acquiescence in your inventions1 you must either begin by being stronger than the whole human family1 or else you must be able to succeed in deceiving them with reference to their true interests4 ,in short1 on the hypothesis that men's interests are naturally discordant1 the best thing which could happen would be their being all deceived in this respect4 ,force and imposture1 these are your sole resources4 ,i defy you to find another1 unless you admit that men's interests are harmonious1--and if you grant that1 you are with us1 and will say1 as we say1 ,allow the providential laws to act4 ,now1 this you will not do2 and therefore4 ,i must repeat that your starting-point is the antagonism of interests4 ,this is the reason why you will not allow these interests to come to a mutual arrangement and understanding freely and voluntarily2 this is the reason why you advocate arbitrary measures1 and repudiate liberty2 and you are consistent4 ,but take care4 ,the struggle which is approaching will not be exclusively between you and society4 ,such a struggle you lay your account with1 the thwarting of men's interests being the very object you have in view4 ,the battle will also rage among you1 the inventors and organizers of artificial societies1 yourselves2 for there are thousands of you1 and there will soon be tens of thousands1 all entertaining and advocating different views4 ,what will you do8 ,i see very clearly what you will do1--you will endeavour to get possession of the ,government4 ,that is the only force capable of overcoming all resistance4 ,will some one among you succeed8 ,while he is engaged in thwarting and opposing the ,government1 he will find himself set upon by all the other inventors1 equally desirous to seize upon the ,government2 and their chances of success will be so much the greater1 seeing that they will be aided by that public disaffection which has been stirred up by the previous opposition to their interests4 ,here1 then1 we are launched into a stormy sea of eternal revolutions1 and with no other object than the solution of this question3 p#dea ,how1 and by whom1 can the interests of mankind be most effectually thwarted8 ,let me not be accused of exaggeration4 ,all this is forced upon us if men's interests are naturally discordant1 for on this hypothesis you never can get out of the dilemma1 that either these interests will be left to themselves1 and then disorder will follow1 or some one must be strong enough to run counter to them1 and in that case we shall still have disorder4 ,it is true that there is a third course1 as ,i have already indicated4 ,it consists in deceiving men with reference to their true interests2 and this course being above the power of a mere mortal1 the shortest way is for the organisateur to erect himself into an oracle4 ,this is a part which these ,utopian dreamers1 when they dare1 never fail to play1 until they become ,ministers of ,state4 ,they fill their writings with mystical cant2 and it is with these paper kites that they find out how the wind sits1 and make their first experiments on public credulity4 ,but1 unfortunately for them1 success in such experiments is not very easily achieved in the nineteenth century4 ,we confess1 then1 frankly that1 in order to get rid of these inextricable difficulties1 it is much to be desired that1 having studied human interests1 we should find them harmonious4 ,the duty of writers and that of governments become in that case rational and easy4 ,as mankind frequently mistake their true interests1 our duty as writers ought to be to explain these interests1 to describe them1 to make them understood1 for we may be quite certain that if men once see their interest1 they will follow it4 ,as a man who is mistaken with reference to his own interests injures those of the public 7this results from their harmony71 the duty of ,government will be to bring back the small body of dissentients and violators of the providential laws into the path of justice1 which is identical with that of utility4 ,in other words1 the single mission of ,government will be to establish the dominion of justice2 and it will no longer have to embarrass itself with the painful endeavour to produce1 at great cost1 and by encroaching on individual liberty1 a ,harmony which is self-created1 and which ,government action never fails to destroy4 ,after what has been said1 we shall not be regarded as such fanatical advocates of social harmony as to deny that it may be1 and frequently is1 disturbed4 ,i will even add that1 in my opinion1 the disturbances of the social order1 which are caused by blind passions1 ignorance1 and error1 are infinitely greater and more pro p#deb longed than are generally supposed2 and it is these disturbing causes which we are about to make the subject of our inquiry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,man comes into the world having implanted in him ineradicably the desire of happiness and aversion from pain4 ,seeing that he acts in obedience to this impulse1 we cannot deny that personal interest is the moving spring of the individual1 of all individuals1 and1 consequently1 of society4 ,and seeing that personal interest1 in the economic sphere1 is the motive of human actions and the mainspring of society1 ,evil must proceed from it as well as ,good2 and it is in this motive power that we must seek to discover harmony and the causes by which that harmony is disturbed4 ,the constant aspiration of self-interest is to silence want1 or1 to speak more generally1 desire1 by satisfaction4 ,between these two terms1 which are essentially personal and intransmissible1 want and satisfaction1 there is interposed a mean term which is transmissible and exchangeable1--effort4 ,over all this mechanism we have placed the faculty of comparing1 of judging--mind1 intelligence4 ,but human intelligence is fallible4 ,we may be mistaken4 ,that is beyond dispute2 for were any one to assert that man cannot err1 we should at once conclude that it was unnecessary to hold any farther argument with him4 ,we may be mistaken in many ways4 ,we may1 for instance1 form a wrong appreciation of the relative importance of our wants4 ,in this case1 were we living in a state of isolation1 we should give to our efforts a direction not in accordance with our true interests4 ,in a state of society1 and under the operation of the law of exchange1 the effect would be the same2 for then we should direct demand and remuneration to services of a kind either frivolous or hurtful1 and so give a wrong direction to labour4 ,we may also err1 from being ignorant that a satisfaction which we ardently seek for can only remove a suffering by becoming the source of still greater sufferings4 ,there is scarcely any effect which may not in its turn become a cause4 ,foresight has been given us to enable us to observe the concatenation of effects1 so that we may not sacrifice the future to the present2 but we are frequently deficient in foresight4 ,here1 then1 is the first source of evil1 error arising from the feebleness of our judgment or the force of our passions2 and it belongs principally to the domain of morals4 ,in this case1 as the error and the passion are individual1 the resulting evil must1 to a p#dec certain extent1 be individual also2 and reflection1 experience1 and the feeling of responsibility are its proper correctives4 ,errors of this class1 however1 may assume a social character1 and1 when erected into a system1 may give rise to widespread suffering4 ,there are countries1 for example1 in which the governing power is strongly convinced that the prosperity of nations is measured1 not by the amount of wants which are satisfied1 but by the amount of efforts1 whatever may be their results4 ,the division of labour assists powerfully this illusion4 ,when we observe that each profession sets itself to overcome a certain species of obstacle1 we imagine that the existence of that obstacle is the source of wealth4 ,in such countries1 when vanity1 frivolity1 or a false love of glory are predominant passions1 and provoke corresponding desires1 and determine a portion of the national industry in that direction1 ,governments believe that all will be over with them if their subjects come to be reformed and rendered more moral4 ,what will become now1 they say1 of milliners1 cooks1 grooms1 embroiderers1 dancers1 lace-manufactures1 etc48 ,they do not reflect that the human heart is always large enough to contain enough of honest1 reasonable1 and legitimate desires to afford employment and support to labour2 that the business is not to suppress desires1 but to rectify and purify them2 and that labour1 consequently1 following the same evolution1 may have its direction changed and still be carried on to the same extent as before4 ,in countries where these melancholy doctrines prevail1 we hear it frequently said1 8,it is unfortunate that morals and industry cannot march side by side4 ,we should desire1 indeed1 that the citizens should be moral1 but we cannot allow them to become idle and poor4 ,this is the reason why we must continue to make laws which are favourable to luxury4 ,if necessary1 we impose taxes on the people2 and for the sake of the people1 and to ensure them employment1 we charge ,kings1 ,presidents1 ,ambassadors1 ,ministers1 with the duty of representing them40 ,all this is said and done in the best possible faith2 and the people themselves acquiesce in it with a good grace4 ,it is very clear that when luxury and frivolity thus become a legislative affair1 regulated1 decreed1 imposed1 systematized1 by public force1 the law of ,responsibility loses all its moral power4#aja 4 4 4 4 4 p#ded ,,xix4 ,,war4 ,of all the circumstances which contribute to impart to nations their distinctive character and aspect1 and to form and modify their genius1 their moral condition1 their customs1 and their laws1 the one which exerts a far more powerful influence than all the rest1 because it includes all the rest1 is the manner in which they provide for their subsistence4 ,for this observation we are indebted to ,charles ,comte1 and we have reason to be surprised that it has not had a more prominent place given to it in the moral and political sciences4 ,this circumstance1 in fact1 acts upon the human race in two ways1 and with equal power in both1--by its continuity1 and by its universality4 ,to subsist1 to better one's condition1 to bring up a family1 are not affairs of time1 or place1 or taste1 or opinion1 or choice2 they are the daily1 constant1 and unavoidable concern of all men1 at all times1 and in all countries4 ,everywhere1 the greater part of their moral1 intellectual1 and physical force is devoted directly or indirectly to create and replace the means of subsistence4 ,the hunter1 the fisher1 the shepherd1 the agriculturist1 the manufacturer1 the merchant1 the labourer1 the artisan1 the capitalist1--all think first of all how they are to live 7prosaic as the avowal may seem71 and then how to live better and better1 if they can4 ,the proof of it is that it is only for this end that they are hunters1 fishers1 manufacturers1 agriculturists1 etc4 ,in the same way1 the public functionary1 the soldier1 the magistrate1 enter upon their careers in order to ensure the supply of their wants4 ,we do not necessarily charge a man with want of devotion or disinterestedness when we quote the proverb1 ,the priest lives by the altar1 for before he belonged to the priesthood he belonged to humanity2 and if at this moment he sits down to write a book against this vulgar view of human nature1 the sale of his book will demolish his argument4 p#dee ,god forbid that ,i should seek to deny the existence of self-denial and disinterestedness4 ,but it must be granted that they are exceptional1 and it is because they are so that they merit and call forth our admiration4 ,if we consider human nature in its entirety1 without having made a previous covenant with the demon of sentimentalism1 we must allow that disinterested efforts bear no comparison1 as respects their number1 with those which are called forth by the hard necessities of our condition4 ,and it is because those efforts1 which constitute the aggregate of our employments1 engross so large a portion of each man's life1 that they cannot fail to exert a powerful influence on national character4 ,m4 ,saint-,marc ,girardin says somewhere or other that he has been led to acknowledge the relative insignificance of political forms in comparison with those great general laws which their employments and their wants impose upon nations4 8,do you desire to know the condition of a people80 says he1 8ask not how they are governed1 but how they are employed40 ,as a general view1 this is just2 but the author hastens to falsify it by converting it into a system4 ,the importance of political forms has been exaggerated2 and what does he do8 ,he denies their importance altogether1 or acknowledges it only to laugh at it4 ,forms of government1 he says1 do not interest us but on the day of an election1 or when we are reading the newspapers4 ,monarchy or ,republic1 ,aristocracy or ,democracy1 what matters it8 ,and what conclusion does he arrive at8 ,in maintaining that infant nations resemble each other1 whatever their political constitution happens to be1 he assimilates the ,united ,states to ancient ,egypt1 because in both countries gigantic works have been executed4 ,americans clear lands1 dig canals1 construct railways1 and they do all this for themselves1 because they are a democracy1 and their own masters4 ,the ,egyptians raised temples1 pyramids1 obelisks1 and palaces for their kings and their priests1 because they were slaves4 ,and yet we are told that the difference is a mere affair of form1 not worth regarding1 or which we should regard merely to laugh at4 ,alas6 how the contagion of classical lore corrupts and misleads its superstitious votaries6 ,m4 ,saint-,marc ,girardin1 still proceeding on his general proposition that the prevailing occupations of a nation determine its genius1 soon after remarks that formerly we were occupied with war and religion1 but nowadays with commerce and manufactures4 ,this is the reason why former generations bore a warlike and religious impress4 p#def ,rousseau had long before remarked that the care for subsistence was the prevailing occupation only of some nations1 and those the most prosaic2 and that other nations1 more worthy of the name1 had devoted themselves to nobler exertions4 ,now1 in this have not both ,m4 ,saint-,marc ,girardin and ,rousseau been the dupes of an historical illusion8 ,have they not mistaken the amusements1 the diversions1 or the pretexts and instruments of despotism1 which give employment to some of the people1 for the occupations of all8 ,and has the illusion not arisen from this1 that historians are always telling us about the class which does not work1 never about the class which does2 and in this way we come to regard the first of these classes as the entire nation4 ,i cannot help thinking that among the ,greeks1 among the ,romans1 among the people of the ,middle ,ages1 men just did what they do now1 and were subject to wants so pressing and so constantly recurring1 that they were obliged to provide for them under pain of death4 ,hence ,i cannot help concluding that such employments then1 as at present1 formed the principal and absorbing occupation of the great bulk of the human race4 ,this much is certain1 that very few people succeeded in living without work1 on the labour of the subject masses4 ,the small number of idlers who did so caused their slaves to construct for them sumptuous palaces1 magnificent castles1 and sombre fortresses4 ,they loved to surround themselves with all the sensual enjoyments of life1 and with all the monuments of art4 ,they amused themselves by descanting on philosophy and cosmogony2 and1 above all1 they cultivated assiduously the two sciences to which they owed their supremacy and their enjoyments1--the science of force1 and the science of fraud4 ,although below this aristocracy there existed countless multitudes engaged in creating for themselves the means of sustaining life1 and for their oppressors the means of revelling in pleasures1 yet as historians have never made the slightest allusion to those multitudes1 we have come to forget their existence1 and never taken them into account4 ,our regards are exclusively fixed on the aristocracy4 ,to it we give the name of ,old or ,feudal ,families2 and we imagine that the men of those times maintained themselves without having recourse to commerce1 to manufactures1 to labour1 to vulgar occupations4 ,we admire their disinterestedness1 their generosity1 their taste for the arts1 their spirituality1 their disdain of servile employments1 their p#deg elevation of mind and sentiment1 and1 in high-sounding language1 we assert that at one epoch nations cared only for military glory1 at another for the arts1 at another for philosophy1 at another for religion1 at another for virtue4 ,we sincerely lament our own condition1 and give utterance to all sorts of sarcastic observations1 to the effect that1 in spite of these sublime models1 we are unable to attain the same elevation1 but are reduced to assign to labour and its vulgar merits a prominent place in the system of modern life4 ,let us console ourselves with the reflection that it occupied a no less important place among the ancients4 ,only1 the drudgery of labour1 from which a limited number of people had succeeded in freeing themselves1 fell with redoubled weight upon the enslaved masses1 to the great detriment of justice1 of liberty1 of property1 of wealth1 of equality1 and of progress4 ,this is the first of those disturbing causes to which ,i propose to solicit the attention of the reader4 ,the means1 then1 to which men have recourse in order to obtain the means of subsistence cannot fail to exert a powerful influence on their condition1 physical1 moral1 intellectual1 economical1 and political4 ,who can doubt that if we were in a situation to observe different tribes of men1 one of which had devoted itself exclusively to the chase1 another to fishing1 a third to agriculture1 a fourth to navigation1 we should discover very considerable differences in their ideas1 in their opinions1 in their habits1 their manners1 their customs1 their laws1 and their religion8 ,no doubt we should find human nature everywhere essentially the same2 these various laws1 customs1 and religions would have many points in common2 and such points we designate as the general laws of human society4 ,be this as it may1 there can be no doubt that in our great modern societies we find at work all1 or nearly all1 the various means of providing subsistence1--fisheries1 agriculture1 manufactures1 commerce1 arts1 and sciences1 although in different proportions in different countries4 ,this is the reason why we do not discover among nations so situated such marked and striking differences as would be apparent if each devoted itself to one of these occupations exclusively4 ,but if the nature of the occupations in which a people is engaged exercises a powerful influence on its morality1 its desires1 and its tastes1--its morality in its turn exercises a great influence upon its occupations1 at least upon the proportion which obtains between these occupations4 ,but ,i shall not dwell on this observation1 p#deh which ,i have presented in another part of this work1#ajb but hasten to the principal subject of the present chapter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a man 7and the same thing may be said of a people7 may procure the means of existence in two ways1--by creating them1 or by stealing them4 ,each of these two great sources of acquisition presents a variety of methods4 ,we may create the means of existence by the chase1 by fishing1 by agriculture1 etc4 ,we may steal them by breach of trust1 by violence1 by force1 fraud1 war1 etc4 ,if1 confining ourselves to the circle of one or other of these two categories1 we find that the predominance of one of these methods establishes so marked a difference in the character of nations1 how much greater must the difference be between a nation which lives by production1 and a nation which lives by spoliation8 ,for it is not one of our faculties only1 but all of them1 which the necessity of providing for our subsistence brings into exercise2 and what can be more fitted to modify the social condition of nations than what thus modifies all the human faculties8 ,this consideration1 important as it is1 has been so little regarded1 that ,i must dwell upon it for an instant4 ,the realization of an enjoyment or satisfaction presupposes labour2 whence it follows that spoliation1 far from excluding production1 presupposes it and takes it for granted4 ,this consideration1 it seems to me1 ought to modify the partiality which historians1 poets1 and novel-writers have displayed for those heroic epochs which were not distinguished by what they sneer at under the epithet of industrialism4 ,in these days1 as in our own1 men lived1 subsisted2 and labour must have done its office then as now4 ,only there was this difference1 that nations1 classes1 and individuals succeeded in laying their share of the labour and toil on the shoulders of other nations1 other classes1 and other individuals4 ,the characteristic of production is to bring out of nothing1 if ,i may so speak1 the satisfactions and enjoyments which sustain and embellish life2 so that a man1 or a nation1 may multiply ad infinitum these enjoyments1 without inflicting privation on any other man1 or any other nation4 ,so much is this the case1 that a profound study of the economic mechanism shows us that the success p#dei of one man's labour opens up a field for the success of another's exertions4 ,the characteristic of spoliation1 on the contrary1 is this1 that it cannot confer a satisfaction on one without inflicting a corresponding privation on another2 for spoliation creates nothing1 but displaces what labour has created4 ,it entails an absolute loss of the exertions of both parties4 ,so far1 then1 from adding to the enjoyments of mankind1 it diminishes these enjoyments1 and confers them1 moreover1 on those who have not merited them4 ,in order to produce1 man must direct all his powers and faculties to obtain the mastery over natural laws2 for it is by this means that he accomplishes his object4 ,hence1 iron converted into a ploughshare is the emblem of production4 ,to steal1 on the other hand1 man must direct all his powers and faculties to obtain the mastery over his fellow-man2 for it is by this means that he attains his end4 ,hence1 iron converted into a sword is the emblem of spoliation4 ,between the ploughshare1 which brings plenty1 and the sword1 which brings destruction and death1 there is no greater difference than between a nation of industrious workmen and a nation of spoliators4 ,they have1 and can have1 nothing whatever in common4 ,they have neither the same ideas1 nor the same rules of appreciation1 nor the same tastes1 manners1 character1 laws1 morals1 or religion4 ,no more melancholy spectacle can present itself to the eye of philanthropy than to see an industrial age putting forth all its efforts1 in the way of education1 to get inoculated with the ideas1 the sentiments1 the errors1 the prejudices1 the vices1 of an era of spoliation4 ,our own era is frequently accused of wanting consistency1 of displaying little accordance between the judgments that are formed and the conduct that is pursued2 and ,i believe that this arises principally from the cause which ,i have just pointed out4 ,spoliation1 in the shape of ,war--that is to say1 pure1 simple1 barefaced spoliation--has its root deep in the human heart1 in the organization of man1 in the universal motives which actuate the social world1 namely1 desire of happiness and repugnance to pain1--in short1 in that principle of our nature called self-interest4 ,i am not sorry to find myself arraigning that principle1 for ,i have been accused of devoting to it an idolatrous worship1 of representing its effects as productive only of happiness to mankind1 and even of elevating it above the principle of sympathy1 of disinterestedness1 and of self-sacrifice4 ,in truth1 ,i have not so esteemed it2 ,i have only proved beyond the possibility of doubt p#dfj its existence and its omnipotence4 ,i should ill appreciate that omnipotence1 and ,i should do violence to my own convictions1 in representing personal interest as the universal actuating motive of the human race1 did ,i fail now to point out the disturbing causes to which it gives rise1 just as ,i formerly pointed out the harmonious laws of the social order which spring from it4 ,man1 as we have already said1 has an invincible desire to support himself1 to improve his condition1 and to attain happiness1 or what he conceives to be happiness1 at least to approximate towards it4 ,for the same reason he shuns pain and toil4 ,now labour1 or the exertion we make in order to cause nature to co-operate in production1 is in itself toil or fatigue4 ,for this reason1 it is repugnant to man1 and he does not submit to it1 except for the sake of avoiding a still greater evil4 ,some have maintained philosophically that labour is not an evil but a good1 and they are right1 if we take into account its results4 ,it is a comparative good2 or if it be an evil1 it is an evil which saves us from greater evils4 ,this is precisely the reason why men have so great a tendency to shun labour when they think that1 without having recourse to it1 they may be able to reap its results4 ,others maintain that labour is in itself a good2 and that1 independently of its productive results1 it elevates1 strengthens1 and purifies man's character1 and is to him a source of health and enjoyment4 ,all this is strictly true2 and it is an additional evidence to us of the marvellous fertility of those final intentions which the ,creator has displayed in all parts of ,his works4 ,apart altogether from the productions which are its direct results1 labour promises to man1 as a supplementary recompense1 a sound mind in a sound body2 and it is not more true that idleness is the parent of every vice than that labour is the parent of many virtues4 ,but this does not at all interfere with the natural and unconquerable inclinations of the human heart1 or with that feeling which prompts us not to desire labour for its own sake1 but to compare it constantly with its results2 not to desire to expend a great effort on what can be accomplished with a smaller effort2 not of two efforts to choose the more severe4 ,nor is our endeavour to diminish the relation which the effort bears to the result inconsistent with our desire1 when we have once acquired some leisure1 to devote that leisure to new labours suited to our tastes1 with the prospect of thus securing a new and additional recompense4 ,with reference to all this1 universal facts are decisive4 ,at all times1 and everywhere1 we find man regarding labour as p#dfa undesirable1 and satisfaction as the thing in his condition which makes him compensation for his labour4 ,at all times1 and everywhere1 we find him endeavouring to lighten his toil by calling in the aid1 whenever he can obtain it1 of animals1 of the wind1 of water-power1 of steam1 of natural forces1 or1 alas6 of his fellow-creature1 when he succeeds in enslaving him4 ,in this last case1--,i repeat1 for it is too apt to be forgotten1--labour is not diminished1 but displaced4#ajc ,man1 being thus placed between two evils1 want or labour1 and urged on by self-interest1 seeks to discover whether1 by some means or other1 he cannot get rid of both4 ,it is then that spoliation presents itself to him as a solution of the problem4 ,he says to himself3 8,i have not1 it is true1 any means of procuring the things necessary for my subsistence and enjoyments--food1 clothing1 and lodging--unless these things are previously produced by labour4 ,but it is by no means indispensable that this should be my own labour4 ,it is enough that they should be produced by the labour of some one1 provided ,i can get the mastery40 ,such is the origin of war4 ,i shall not dwell upon its consequences4 ,when things come to this1 that one man1 or one nation1 devotes itself to labour1 and another man1 or another nation1 waits on till that labour is accomplished1 in order to devote itself to rapine1 we can see at a glance how much human power is thrown away4 ,on the one hand1 the spoliator has not succeeded as he desired in getting quit of every kind of labour4 ,armed robbery exacts efforts1 and sometimes very severe efforts4 ,while the producer devotes his time to the creation of products fitted to yield satisfactions1 the spoliator employs his time in devising the means of robbing him4 ,but when the work of violence has been accomplished1 or attempted1 the objects calculated to yield satisfaction are neither more nor less abundant than before4 ,they may minister to the wants of a different set of people1 but not of more wants4 ,thus all the exertions which the spoliator has made with a view to spoliation1 and the exertions also which he has failed to make with a view to production1 are entirely lost1 if not for him1 at least for society4 ,nor is this all4 ,in most cases an analogous loss takes place on the side of the producer4 ,it is not likely that he will wait for the violence with which he is menaced without taking some p#dfb precaution for his own protection2 and all precautions of this kind--arms1 fortifications1 munitions1 drill--are labour1 and labour lost for ever1 not to him who expects security from this labour1 but to mankind at large4 ,but should the producer1 after undergoing this double labour1 not esteem himself able to resist the threatened violence1 it is still worse for society1 and power is thrown away on a much greater scale2 for1 in that case labour will be given up altogether1 no one being disposed to produce in order to be plundered4 ,if we regard the manner in which the human faculties are affected on both sides1 the moral consequences of spoliation will be seen to be no less disastrous4 ,providence has designed that man should devote himself to pacific combats with natural agents1 and should reap directly from nature the fruits of his victory4 ,when he obtains this mastery over natural agents only by obtaining a mastery over his fellow-creatures1 his mission is changed1 and quite another direction is given to his faculties4 ,it is seen how great the difference is between the producer and the spoliator1 as regards foresight--foresight which becomes assimilated in some degree to providence1 for to foresee is also to provide against prvoir c'est aussi pourvoir4 ,the producer sets himself to learn the relation between cause and effect4 ,for this purpose1 he studies the laws of the physical world1 and seeks to make them more and more useful auxiliaries4 ,if he turns his regards on his fellow-men1 it is to foresee their wants1 and to provide for them1 on condition of reciprocity4 ,the spoliator does not study nature4 ,if he turns his regards on his fellow-men1 it is to watch them as the eagle watches his prey1 for the purpose of enfeebling and surprising them4 ,the same differences are observable in the other faculties1 and extend to men's ideas4#ajd 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,spoliation by means of war is not an accidental1 isolated1 and transient fact2 it is a fact so general and so constant as not to give place1 as regards permanence1 to labour itself4 ,point me out any country of the world where of two races1 conquerors and conquered1 the one does not domineer over the other4 ,show me in ,europe1 in ,asia1 or among the islands of the sea1 a favoured spot still occupied by the primitive inhabitants4 ,if migrations of population have spared no country1 war has been equally widespread4 ,its traces are universal4 ,apart from rapine and bloodshed1 p#dfc public opinion outraged1 and faculties and talents perverted1 war has everywhere left other traces behind it1 among which we must reckon slavery and aristocracy4 4 4 4 4 4 ,not only has the march of spoliation kept pace with the creation of wealth1 but the spoliators have seized upon accumulated riches1 upon capital in all its forms2 and1 in particular1 they have fixed their regards upon capital in the shape of landed property4 ,the last step was taking possession of man himself4 ,for human powers and faculties being the instruments of labour1 they found it a shorter method to lay hold of these powers and faculties1 than to seize upon their products4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,it is impossible to calculate to what extent these great events have acted as disturbing causes1 and as trammels on the natural progress of the human race4 ,if we take into account the sacrifice of industrial power which war occasions1 and the extent to which the diminished results of that power are concentrated in the hands of a limited number of conquerors1 we may form to ourselves an idea of the causes of the destitution of the masses1--a destitution which in our days it is impossible to explain on the hypothesis of liberty4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,how the warlike spirit is propagated4 ,aggressive nations are subject to reprisals4 ,they often attack others2 sometimes they defend themselves4 ,when they act on the defensive1 they have on their side the feeling of justice1 and the sacredness of the cause in which they are engaged4 ,they may then exult in their courage1 devotion1 and patriotism4 ,but1 alas6 they carry these same sentiments into their offensive wars--and where is their patriotism then8 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,when two races1 the one victorious and idle1 the other vanquished and humiliated1 occupy the same territory1 everything calculated to awaken desire or arouse popular sympathies falls to the lot of the conquerors4 ,theirs are leisure1 ftes1 taste for the arts1 wealth1 military parade1 tournaments1 grace1 elegance1 literature1 poetry4 ,for the conquered race1 nothing remains but ruined huts1 squalid garments1 the hard hand of labour1 or the cold hand of charity4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the consequence is that the ideas and prejudices of the dominant race1 always associated with military force1 come to constitute public opinion4 ,men1 women1 and children1 all unite in extolling the soldier's life in preference to that of the labourer1 in preferring war to industry1 and spoliation to production4 ,the vanquished race shares the same sentiments1 and when1 at periods of transition1 it succeeds in getting the better of its oppressors1 it shows p#dfd itself disposed to imitate them4 ,what is this imitation but madness8 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,how war ends4 ,spoliation1 like ,production1 having its source in the human heart1 the laws of the social world would not be harmonious1 even to the limited extent for which ,i contend1 if the latter did not succeed in the long-run in overcoming the former4 4 4 4 4 p#dfe ,,xx4 ,,responsibility4 ,there is a leading idea which runs through the whole of this work1 which pervades and animates every page and every line of it2 and that idea is embodied in the opening words of the ,christian ,creed1--,i believe in ,god4 ,yes1 if this work differs from those of some other ,economists1 it is in this1 that the latter appear to say1 8,we have but little faith in ,providence1 for we see that the natural laws lead to an abyss4 ,and yet we say laissez faire6 merely because we have still less faith in ourselves1 and because we see clearly that all human efforts designed to arrest the action of these natural laws tend only to hasten the catastrophe40 ,again1 if this work differs from the writings of the ,socialists1 it is in this1 that the latter say1 8,we pretend to believe in ,god1 but in reality we believe only in ourselves2 seeing that we have no faith in the maxim1 laissez faire1 and that we all give forth our social nostrums as infinitely superior to the plans of ,providence40 ,for my part1 ,i say1 laissez faire2 in other words1 respect liberty1 and the human initiative1#aje 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 p#dff 4 4 4 4 4 ,responsibility1 solidarity2 mysterious laws1 of which1 apart from ,revelation1 it is impossible to appreciate the cause1 but the effects and infallible action of which1 on the progress of society1 it is given us to appreciate--laws which1 for the very reason that man is sociable1 are linked together and act together1 although they appear sometimes to run counter to each other2 and which would require to be viewed in their ensemble1 and in their common action1 if science1 with its feeble optics and uncertain steps1 were not reduced to method--that melancholy crutch which constitutes its strength whilst it reveals its weakness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,nosce te ipsum--know thyself3 this1 according to the oracle1 is p#dfg the beginning1 the middle1 and the end of the moral and political sciences4 ,as we have elsewhere remarked1 in what concerns man or human society1 ,harmony can never mean ,perfection1 but only ,improvement4 ,now improvement or perfectibility implies always1 to a certain extent1 imperfection in the future as well as in the past4 ,if man could ever find his way into the promised land of absolute ,good1 he would no longer have occasion to use his understanding and his senses--he would be no longer man4 ,evil exists4 ,it is inherent in human infirmity4 ,it manifests itself in the moral as in the material world2 in the masses1 as in the individual2 in the whole as in the part4 ,but because the eye may suffer and be lost1 does the physiologist overlook the harmonious mechanism of that admirable organ8 ,does he deny the ingenious structure of the human body1 because that body is subject to pain1 to disease1 and to death--to such extremity of suffering as caused ,job1 in the depth of his despair1 8to say to corruption1 ,thou art my father2 and to the worm1 ,thou art my mother and my sister08 ,in the same way1 because the social order will never bring mankind to the fancied haven of absolute good1 is the economist to refuse to recognise all that is marvellous in the organization of the social order--an organization prepared with a view to the constantly-increasing diffusion of knowledge1 of morality1 and of happiness8 99 99 99 99 99 ,strange6 that we should deny to economic science the same right to admire the natural order of things which we concede to physiology4 ,for1 after all1 what difference is there between the individual and the collective being1 as regards the harmony displayed by final causes8 ,the individual1 no doubt1 comes into existence1 grows and is developed1 educates and improves himself as life advances1 until the time comes when his light and life are to be communicated to others4 ,at that moment everything about him is clothed in the hues of beauty2 all breathes grace and joy2 all is expansion1 affection1 benevolence1 love1 and harmony4 ,for a while1 his intelligence continues to be enlarged and confirmed1 as if to qualify him to be the guide of those whom he has just called to tread the crooked paths of human existence4 ,but soon his beauty fades1 his grace disappears1 his senses are blunted1 his body becomes feeble1 his memory clouded1 his thoughts less bright2 his affections even 7except in the case of some choice spirits7 get clogged with egotism1 and lose that charm1 that freshness1 that sincerity and simplicity1 that depth and disinterestedness1 which distinguished his p#dfh earlier days2--the poetry of life has fled4 ,in spite of all the ingenious precautions which nature has taken to retard his dissolution--precautions which physiology sums up in the phrase vis medicatrix--he treads back the path of improvement1 and loses1 one after another1 all his acquisitions by the way2 he goes on from privation to privation1 until he reaches that which is the greatest of all1 because it includes all4 ,the genius of optimism itself can discover nothing consolatory1 nothing harmonious in this slow but unavoidable decadence--in seeing that being once so proud and so beautiful descending sadly into the tomb4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the tomb6 4 4 4 4 4 ,but is not that the door of another habitation8 4 4 4 4 4 ,it is thus1 when science stops short1 that religion#ajf renews1 even for the individual1 in another region1 the concordant harmonies which have been interrupted here4#ajg ,despite this fatal dnoment1 does physiology cease to see in the human body the most perfect masterpiece which ever proceeded from its ,creator's hands8 ,but if the social body is liable to suffering1 if it may suffer even to death1 it is not for that reason finally condemned4 ,let men say what they will1 it has not1 in perspective1 after having been elevated to its apogee1 an inevitable decline4 ,the crash of empires even is not the retrogradation of humanity1 and the ancient models of civilisation have only been dissolved in order to make room for a civilisation still more advanced4 ,dynasties may be extinguished2 the forms of government may be changed2 yet the progress of the human race may not the less be continued4 ,the fall of ,states is like the fall of leaves in autumn4 ,it fertilizes the soil2 contributes to the return of spring2 and promises to future generations a richer vegetation1 and more abundant harvests4 ,nay1 even in a purely national point of view1 this theory of necessary decadence is as false as it is antiquated4 ,in the life of no people can we possibly perceive any cause of inevitable decline4 ,the analogy which has so frequently given rise to a comparison between a nation and an individual1 and led men to attribute to the one as to the other an infancy and an old age1 is nothing better than a false metaphor4 ,a community is being incessantly renewed4 ,let its institutions be elastic and flexible1 so that in place of coming in collision with p#dfi those new powers to which the human mind gives birth1 they shall be so organized as to admit of this expansion of intellectual energy and accommodate themselves to it2 and we see no reason why such institutions should not flourish in eternal youth4 ,but whatever may be thought of the fragility and fall of empires1 it must never be forgotten that society1 which in its aggregate represents the human race1 is constituted upon more solid bases4 ,the more we study it1 the more we shall be convinced that it too1 like the human body1 is provided with a curative force1 a vis medicatrix1 which delivers it from the evils which afflict it2 and that it carries in its bosom1 moreover1 a progressive force2 and is by the latter urged on to improvements to which we can assign no limits4 ,if individual evil1 then1 does not weaken or invalidate physiological harmony1 still less does collective evil weaken or invalidate social harmony4 ,but how are we to reconcile the existence of evil with the infinite goodness of ,god8 ,i cannot explain what ,i do not understand4 ,all ,i shall say is1 that this solution can no more be exacted from ,political ,economy than from ,anatomy4 ,these sciences1 which are alike sciences of observation1 study man as he is1 without asking the ,creator to reveal ,his impenetrable secrets4 ,thus1 ,i again repeat1 harmony does not correspond with the idea of absolute perfection1 but with that of indefinite improvement4 ,it has pleased ,god to attach suffering to our nature1 seeing that ,he has designed that in us feebleness should be anterior to force1 ignorance to science1 want to satisfaction1 effort to result1 acquisition to possession1 destitution to wealth1 error to truth1 experience to foresight4 ,i submit without murmuring to this ordinance1 being able1 moreover1 to imagine no other combination4 ,but if1 by a mechanism as simple as it is ingenious1 ,he has provided that all men should approximate to a common level1 which is continually rising1 if ,he assures them--by the very action of what we denominate evil--both of the duration and the diffusion of progress1 then am ,i not only content to bow myself under ,his bountiful and almighty hand1--,i bless that hand1 ,i worship it1 ,i adore it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have seen certain schools arise which have taken advantage of the insolubility 7humanly speaking7 of this question to embroil all others1 as if it were given to our finite intelligence to p#dgj comprehend and reconcile things which are infinite4 ,placing over the portal of social science this sentence1 ,god cannot desire evil1 they arrive at the following series of conclusions3 8,evil exists in society2 then society is not organized according to the designs of ,god4 ,let us change1 and change again1 and change continually this organization4 ,let us try about1 and make experiments1 until we have effaced all trace of suffering from the world4 ,by that sign we shall know that the kingdom of ,god has come40 ,nor is this all4 ,these schools have been led to exclude from their social plans liberty as well as suffering1 for liberty implies the possibility of error1 and consequently the possibility of evil4 ,addressing their fellow-men1 they say1 8,allow us to organize you--don't you interfere--cease to compare1 to judge1 to decide anything by yourselves and for yourselves4 ,we abhor the laissez faire2 but we ask you to let things alone1 and to let us alone4 ,if we succeed in conducting you to perfect happiness1 the infinite goodness of ,god will be vindicated40 ,contradiction1 inconsistency1 presumption1--we ask which is most apparent in such language8 ,one sect among others1 not very philosophical1 but very noisy1 promises to mankind unmixed felicity4 ,only deliver over to that sect the government of the human race1 and in virtue of certain formulas1 it makes bold to rid men of every painful sensation4 ,but if you do not accord a blind faith to the promises of that sect1 then1 bringing forward that formidable and insoluble problem which has vexed philosophy since the beginning of the world1 they summon you to reconcile the existence of evil with the infinite goodness of ,god4 ,do you hesitate8 they accuse you of impiety4 ,fourier rings the changes on this theme till he exhausts all its combinations4 8,either ,god has not been able to give us a social code of attraction1 of justice1 of truth1 and of unity2 in which case ,he has been unjust in giving us wants without the means of satisfying them40 8,or ,he has not desired to give it us2 and in that case ,he has deliberately persecuted us by creating designedly wants which it is impossible to satisfy30 8,or ,he is able1 and has not desired2 in which case the principle of good would rival the principle of evil1 having the power to establish good1 and preferring to establish evil30 p#dga 8,or ,he has desired and has not been able2 in which case ,he is incapable of governing us1 acknowledging and desiring good1 but not having the power to establish it30 8,or ,he has been neither able nor willing2 in which case the principle of good is below the principle of evil1 etc430 8,or ,he has been both able and willing2 in which case the code exists1 and it is for us to promulgate it1 etc40 ,and ,fourier is the prophet of this new revelation4 ,let us deliver ourselves up to him and to his disciples3 ,providence will then be justified1 sensibility will change its nature1 and suffering will disappear from the earth4 ,but how1 ,i would ask1 do these apostles of absolute good1 these hardy logicians1 who exclaim continually that 8,god being perfect1 ,his work must be perfect also20 and who accuse us of impiety because we resign ourselves to human imperfection1--how1 ,i say1 do these men not perceive that1 on the most favourable hypothesis1 they are as impious as we are8 ,i should like1 indeed1 that1 under the reign of ,messieurs ,considrant1 ,hennequin1 etc41 no one in the world should ever lose his mother1 or suffer from the toothache1--in which case he also might chant the litany1 ,either ,god has not been able or has not been willing2 ,i should like much that evil were to take flight to the infernal regions1 retreating before the broad daylight of the ,socialist revelation--that one of their plans1 phalanstre1 crdit gratuit1 anarchie1 triade1 atelier social1#ajh and so forth1 had the power to rid us of all future evils4 ,but would it annihilate suffering in the past8 ,the infinite1 observe1 has no limits2 and if there has existed on the earth since the beginning of the world a single sufferer1 that is enough to render the problem of the infinite goodness of ,god insoluble in their point of view4 ,let us beware1 then1 of linking the science of the finite to the mysteries of the infinite4 ,let us apply to the one reason and observation1 and leave the other in the domain of revelation and of faith4 ,in all respects1 and in every aspect1 man is imperfect4 ,in this world1 at least1 he encounters limits in all directions1 and touches the finite at every point4 ,his force1 his intelligence1 his affections1 his life1 have in them nothing absolute1 and belong to a material mechanism which is subject to fatigue1 to decay1 and to death4 ,not only is this so1 but our imperfection is so great that we cannot even imagine perfection as existing either in ourselves or in the external world4 ,our minds are so much out of proportion to this idea of perfection that all our efforts to seize it are vain4 ,the oftener we try to grasp it1 the oftener it escapes us1 and is lost in p#dgb inextricable contradictions4 ,show me a perfect man1 and you will show me a man who is exempt from suffering1 and who has consequently neither wants1 nor desires1 nor sensations1 nor sensibility1 nor nerves1 nor muscles2 who can be ignorant of nothing1 and consequently has neither the faculty of attention1 nor judgment1 nor reasoning1 nor memory1 nor imagination1 nor brains2 in short1 you will show me a being who does not exist4 ,thus1 in whatever aspect we regard man1 we must regard him as being subject to suffering4 ,we must admit that evil has entered as one spring of action into the providential plan2 and in place of seeking by chimerical means to annihilate it1 our business is to study the part which it has to play1 and the mission on which it is sent4 ,when it pleased ,god to create a being made up of wants1 and of faculties to supply these wants1 it was at the same time decreed that this being should be subject to suffering2 for1 apart from suffering1 we could form no idea of wants1 and1 apart from wants1 we could form no idea of utility1 or of the use and object of any of our faculties4 ,all that constitutes our greatness has its root in what constitutes our weakness4 ,urged on by innumerable impulses1 and indued with an intelligence which enlightens our exertions1 and enables us to appreciate their results1 we have free will to guide and direct us4 ,but free will implies error as possible1 and error in its turn implies suffering as its inevitable effect4 ,i defy any one to tell me what it is to choose freely1 if it be not to run the risk of making a bad choice1 and what it is to make a bad choice if it be not to prepare the way for suffering4 ,and this is1 no doubt1 the reason why those schools who are content with nothing less than absolute good are all materialist and fatalist4 ,they are unable to admit free will4 ,they see that liberty of acting proceeds from liberty of choosing2 that liberty of choosing supposes the possibility of error2 and that the possibility of error is the possibility of evil4 ,now1 in an artificial society1 such as our organisateurs invent1 evil cannot make its appearance4 ,for that reason1 men must be exempted from the possibility of error2 and the surest means to accomplish that is to deprive them of the faculty of acting and choosing--in other words1 of free will4 ,it has been truly said that ,socialism is despotism incarnate4 ,in presence of these fooleries1 it may be asked1 ,by what right does the organizer of artificial systems venture to think1 act1 and choose1 not only for himself1 but for every one else8 for1 after all p#dgc he belongs to the human race1 and in that respect is fallible2 and he is so much the more fallible in proportion as he pretends to extend the range of his science and his will4 ,no doubt the organisateur finds this objection radically unfounded1 inasmuch as it confounds him with the rest of mankind4 ,but he who professes to discover the defects of the ,divine workmanship1 and has undertaken to recast it1 is more than a man2 he is an oracle1 and more than an oracle4 4 4 4 4 ,socialism has two elements3 the frenzy of contradiction1 and the madness of pride6 ,but when free will1 which is the foundation of the whole argument1 is denied1 is not this the proper place to demonstrate its existence8 ,i shall take good care not to enter upon any such demonstration4 ,every one feels that his will is free1 and that is enough4 ,i feel this1 not vaguely1 but a hundred times more intensely than if it had been demonstrated to me by ,aristotle or by ,euclid4 ,i feel it with conscious joy when ,i have made a choice which does me honour2 with remorse1 when ,i have made a choice which degrades me4 ,i find1 moreover1 that all men by their conduct affirm their belief in free will1 although some deny it in their writings4#aji ,all men compare motives1 deliberate1 determine1 retract1 try to foresee2 all give advice1 are indignant at injustice1 admire acts of devotion4 ,then all acknowledge in themselves and in others the existence of free will1 without which1 choice1 advice1 foresight1 morality1 virtue1 are impossible4 ,let us take care how we seek to demonstrate what is admitted by universal practice4 ,absolute fatalists are no more to be found1 even at ,constantinople1 than absolute sceptics are to be met with at ,alexandria4 ,those who proclaim themselves such may be fools enough to try to persuade others1 but they are powerless to convince themselves4 ,they prove with much subtlety that they have no will of their own2 but when we see that they act as if they had it1 we need not dispute with them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here1 then1 we are placed in the midst of nature and of our fellow-men--urged on by impulses1 wants1 appetites1 desires--provided with various faculties enabling us to operate on man and on p#dgd things--determined to action by our free will--indued with intelligence1 which is perfectible and therefore imperfect1 and which1 if it enlightens us1 may also deceive us with reference to the consequences of our actions4 ,every human action--giving rise to a series of good or bad consequences1 of which some fall back on the agent1 and others affect his family1 his neighbours1 his fellow-citizens1 and sometimes mankind at large--every such action causes the vibration of two chords1 the sounds of which are oracular utterances--,responsibility and ,solidarity4 ,as regards the man who acts1 ,responsibility is the natural link which exists between the act and its consequences4 ,it is a complete system of inevitable ,rewards and ,punishments which no man has invented1 which acts with all the regularity of the great natural laws1 and which may1 consequently1 be regarded as of ,divine institution4 ,the evident object of ,responsibility is to restrain the number of hurtful actions1 and increase the number of such as are useful4 ,this mechanism1 which is at once corrective and progressive1 remunerative and retributive1 is so simple1 so near us1 so identified with our whole being1 so perpetually in action1 that not only can we not ignore it1 but we see that1 like ,evil1 it is one of those phenomena without which our whole life would be to us unintelligible4 ,the book of ,genesis tells us that1 the first man having been driven from the terrestrial paradise1 because he had learned to distinguish between good and evil1 sciens bonum et malum1 ,god pronounced this sentence on him3 ,in laboribus comedes ex terr cunctis diebus vit tu4 ,spinas et tribulos germinabit tibi4 ,in sudore vults tui vesceris pane1 donec revertaris in terram de qu sumptus es3 quia pulvis es1 et in pulverem reverteris4#aaj ,here1 then1 we have good and evil--or human nature4 ,here we have acts and habits producing good or bad consequences--or human nature4 ,here we have labour1 sweat1 thorns1 tribulation1 and death--or human nature4 ,human nature1 ,i say2 for to choose1 to be mistaken1 to suffer1 to rectify our errors--in a word1 all the elements which make up the idea of ,responsibility--are so inherent in our sensitive1 rational1 and free nature1 they are so much of the essence of that nature p#dge itself1 that ,i defy the most fertile imagination to conceive for man another mode of existence4 ,that man might have lived in an ,eden1 in paradiso voluptatis1 ignorant of good and evil1 we can indeed believe1 but we cannot comprehend it1 so profoundly has our nature been transformed4 ,we find it impossible to separate the idea of life from that of sensibility2 that of sensibility from that of pleasure and pain2 that of pleasure and pain from that of reward and punishment2 that of intelligence from that of liberty and choice1 and all these ideas from the idea of ,responsibility2 for it is the aggregate of all these ideas which gives us the idea of ,being or ,existence1 so that when we think upon ,god1 our reason1 which tells us that ,he is incapable of suffering1 remains confounded--so inseparable are our notions of sensibility and existence4 ,it is this undoubtedly which renders ,faith the necessary complement of our destinies4 ,it is the only bond which is possible between the creature and the ,creator1 seeing that ,god is1 and always will be1 to our reason1 incomprehensible1 ,deus absconditus4 ,in order to be convinced how hard ,responsibility presses us1 and shuts us in on every side1 we have only to attend to the most simple facts4 ,fire burns us2 the collision of bodies bruises us4 ,if we were not indued with sensibility1 or if our sensibility were not painfully affected by the approach of fire1 and by rude contact with other bodies1 we should be exposed to death every moment4 ,from earliest infancy to extreme old age1 our life is only a long apprenticeship4 ,by frequently falling1 we learn to walk4 ,by rude and reiterated experiments1 we are taught to avoid heat1 cold1 hunger1 thirst1 excess4 ,do not let us complain of the roughness of this experience4 ,if it were not so1 it would teach us nothing4 ,the same thing holds in the social order4 ,from the unhappy consequences of cruelty1 of injustice1 of fear1 of violence1 of deceit1 of idleness1 we learn to be gentle1 just1 brave1 moderate1 truthful1 and industrious4 ,experience is protracted2 it will never come to an end2 but it will never cease to be efficacious4 ,man being so constituted1 it is impossible that we should not recognise in responsibility the mainspring to which social progress is specially confided4 ,it is the crucible in which experience is elaborated4 ,they1 then1 who believe in the superiority of times past1 like those who despair of the future1 fall into the most manifest contradiction4 ,without being aware of it1 they extol error1 and calumniate knowledge4 ,it is as if they said1 8,the more ,i have learnt1 the less ,i know4 ,the more clearly ,i discern what is p#dgf hurtful1 the more ,i shall be exposed to it40 ,were humanity constituted on such a basis as this1 it would in a short time cease to exist4 ,man's starting-point is ignorance and inexperience4 ,the farther we trace back the chain of time1 the more destitute we find men of that knowledge which is fitted to direct their choice1--of knowledge which can be acquired only in one of two ways3 by reflection or by experience4 ,now it so happens that man's every action includes1 not one consequence only1 but a series of consequences4 ,sometimes the first is good1 and the others bad2 sometimes the first is bad1 and the others good4 ,from one of our determinations there may proceed good and bad consequences1 combined in variable proportions4 ,we may venture to term vicious those actions which produce more bad than good effects1 and virtuous those which produce a greater amount of good than of evil4 ,when one of our actions produces a first consequence which we approve1 followed by many other consequences which are hurtful1 so that the aggregate of bad predominates over the aggregate of good1 such an action tends to limit and restrain itself1 and to be abandoned in proportion as we acquire more foresight4 ,men naturally perceive the immediate consequences of their actions before they perceive those consequences which are more remote4 ,whence it follows that what we have denominated vicious acts are more multiplied in times of ignorance4 ,now the repetition of the same acts constitutes habit4 ,ages of ignorance1 then1 are ages of bad habits4 ,consequently1 they are ages of bad laws1 for acts which are repeated1 habits which are general1 constitute manners1 upon which laws are modelled1 and of which1 so to speak1 they are the official expression4 ,how is this ignorance to be put an end to8 ,how can men be taught to know the second1 the third1 and all the subsequent consequences of their acts and their habits8 ,the first means is the exercise of that faculty of discerning and reasoning which ,providence has vouchsafed them4 ,but there is another still more sure and efficacious1--experience4 ,when the act is once done1 the consequences follow inevitably4 ,the first effect is good2 for it is precisely to obtain that result that the act is done4 ,but the second may inflict suffering1 the third still greater suffering1 and so on4 ,then men's eyes are opened1 and light begins to appear4 ,that action is not repeated2 we sacrifice the good produced by the first p#dgg and immediate consequence1 for fear of the still greater evil which the subsequent consequences entail4 ,if the act has become a habit1 and if we have not power to give it up1 we at least give way to it with hesitation and repugnance1 and after an inward conflict4 ,we do not recommend it2 on the contrary1 we blame it1 and persuade our children against it2 and we are certainly on the road of progress4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the act is one which is useful1 but from which we refrain1 because its first1 and only known1 consequence is painful1 and we are ignorant of the favourable ulterior consequences1 experience teaches us the effects of abstaining from it4 ,a savage1 for instance1 has had enough to eat4 ,he does not foresee that he will be hungry to-morrow4 ,why should he labour to-day8 ,to work is present pain--no need of foresight to know that4 ,he therefore continues idle4 ,but the day passes1 another succeeds1 and as it brings hunger1 he must then work under the spur of necessity4 ,this is a lesson which1 frequently repeated1 cannot fail to develop foresight4 ,by degrees idleness is regarded in its true light4 ,we brand it2 we warn the young against it4 ,public opinion is now on the side of industry4 ,but in order that experience should afford us this lesson1 in order that it should fulfil its mission1 develop foresight1 explain the series of consequences which flow from our actions1 pave the way to good habits1 and restrain bad ones--in a word1 in order that experience should become an effective instrument of progress and moral improvement--the law of ,responsibility must come into operation4 ,the bad consequences must make themselves felt1 and evil must for the moment chastise us4 ,undoubtedly it would be better that evil had no existence2 and it might perhaps be so if man was constituted differently from what he is4 ,but taking man as he is1 with his wants1 his desires1 his sensibility1 his free will1 his power of choosing and erring1 his faculty of bringing into play a cause which necessarily entails consequences which it is not in our power to elude as long as the cause exists2 in such circumstances1 the only way of removing the cause is to enlighten the will1 rectify the choice1 abandon the vicious act or the vicious habit2 and nothing can effect this but the law of ,responsibility4 ,we may affirm1 then1 that man being constituted as he is1 evil is not only necessary but useful4 ,it has a mission1 and enters into the universal harmony4 ,its mission is to destroy its own cause1 to limit its own operation1 to concur in the realization of good1 and to stimulate progress4 p#dgh ,we may elucidate this by some examples which the subject which now engages us--,political ,economy--presents4 ,frugality4 ,prodigality4 ,monopolies4 ,population4#aaa 4 4 4 4 ,responsibility guards itself by three sanctions3-- #ast1 ,the natural sanction2 which is that of which ,i have just been speaking--the necessary suffering or recompense which certain acts and habits entail4 #b;d1 ,the religious sanction2 or the punishments and rewards of another life1 which are annexed to acts and habits1 according as they are vicious or virtuous4 #c;d1 ,the legal sanction2 or the punishments and rewards decreed beforehand by society4 ,of these three sanctions1 ,i confess that the one which appears to me fundamental is the first4 ,in saying this ,i cannot fail to run counter to sentiments which ,i respect2 but ,i must be permitted to declare my opinion4 ,is an act vicious because a revelation from above has declared it to be so8 ,or has revelation declared it vicious because it produces consequences which are bad8 ,these questions will probably always form a subject of controversy between the philosophical and the religious mind4 ,i believe that ,christianity can range itself on the side of those who answer the last of these two questions in the affirmative4 ,christianity itself tells us that it has not come to oppose the natural law1 but to confirm it4#aab ,we can scarcely admit that ,god1 who is the supreme principle of order1 should have made an arbitrary classification of human actions1 that ,he should have denounced punishment on some1 and promised reward to others1 and this without any regard to the effects of these actions1 that is to say1 to their discordance1 or concordance1 in the universal harmony4 p#dgi ,when ,he said1 8,thou shalt not kill--thou shalt not steal10 no doubt ,he had in view to prohibit certain acts because they were hurtful to man and to society1 which are ,his work4 ,regard to consequences is so powerful a consideration with man that if he belonged to a religion that forbade acts which universal experience proved to be useful1 or that sanctioned the observance of habits palpably hurtful1 ,i believe that such a religion could not be maintained1 but that it would at length give way before the progress of knowledge4 ,men could not long suppose that the deliberate design of ,god was to cause evil and to interdict good4 ,the question which ,i broach here has perhaps no very important bearing on ,christianity1 since it ordains only what is good in itself1 and forbids only what is bad4 ,but the question ,i am now examining is this1 whether in principle the religious sanction goes to confirm the natural sanction1 or whether the natural sanction goes for nothing in presence of the religious sanction1 and should give way to the latter when they come into collision4 ,now1 if ,i am not mistaken1 the tendency of ministers of religion is to pay little attention to the natural sanction4 ,for this they have an unanswerable reason3 8,god has ordained this2 ,god has forbidden that40 ,there is no longer any room left for reasoning1 for ,god is infallible and omnipotent4 ,although the act should lead to the destruction of the world1 we must march on like blind men1 just as we would do if ,god addressed us personally1 and showed us heaven and hell4 ,it may happen1 even in the true religion1 that actions in themselves innocent are forbidden by ,divine authority4 ,to exact interest for money1 for example1 has been pronounced sinful4 ,had mankind given obedience to that prohibition1 the race would long since have disappeared from the face of the earth4 ,for without interest the accumulation of capital is impossible2 without capital there can be no co-operation of anterior and present labour2 without this co-operation there can be no society2 and without society man cannot exist4 ,on the other hand1 on examining the subject of interest more nearly1 we are convinced that not only is it useful in its general effects1 but that there is in it nothing contrary to charity and truth--certainly not more than there is in the stipend of a minister of religion1 and less than in certain perquisites belonging to his office4 ,thus1 all the power of the ,church has not been able for an p#dhj instant to supersede1 in this respect1 the nature of things4 ,the most which has been accomplished is to cause to be disguised one of the forms1 and that the least usual form1 of exacting interest1 in a number of very trifling transactions4 ,in the same way1 as regards precepts2 when the ,gospel says1 8,unto him who smiteth thee on the one cheek1 offer also the other10 it gives a precept which1 if taken literally1 would destroy the right of legitimate defence in the individual1 and consequently in society4 ,now1 without this right1 the existence of the human race is impossible4 ,and what has happened8 ,for eighteen hundred years this saying has been repeated as a mere conventionalism4 ,but there is a still graver consideration4 ,there are false religions in the world4 ,these necessarily admit precepts and prohibitions which are in antagonism with the natural sanctions attached to certain acts4 ,now1 of all the means which have been given us to distinguish1 in a matter so important1 the true from the false1 that which emanates from ,god from that which proceeds from imposture1 none is more certain1 more decisive1 than an examination of the good or bad consequences which a doctrine is calculated to have on the advancement and progress of mankind--a fructibus eorum cognoscetis eos4 ,legal sanction4--,nature having prepared a system of punishments and rewards1 in the shape of the effects which necessarily proceed from each act and from each habit1 what is the province of human law8 ,there are only three courses it can take--to allow ,responsibility to act1 to chime in with it1 or to oppose it4 ,it seems to me beyond doubt that when a legal sanction is brought into play1 it ought only to be to give more force1 regularity1 certainty1 and efficacy to the natural sanction4 ,these two powers should co-operate1 and not run counter to each other4 ,for example1 if fraud is in the first instance profitable to him who has recourse to it1 in the long-run it is more frequently fatal to him2 for it injures his credit1 his honour1 and his reputation4 ,it creates around him distrust and suspicion4 ,it is1 besides1 always hurtful to the man who is the victim of it4 ,finally1 it alarms society1 and obliges it to employ part of its force in expensive precautions4 ,the sum of evil1 then1 far exceeds the sum of good4 ,this is what constitutes natural ,responsibility1 which acts constantly as a preventive and repressive check4 ,we can understand1 however1 that the community does not choose to depend altogether on the slow action of necessary responsibility1 and judges it fit to add a legal sanction to the natural sanction4 ,in p#dha that case1 we may say that the legal sanction is only the natural sanction organized and reduced to rule4 ,it renders punishment more immediate and more certain2 it gives more publicity and authenticity to facts2 it surrounds the suspected party with guarantees1 and affords him a regular opportunity to exculpate himself if there be room for it2 it rectifies the errors of public opinion1 and calms down individual vengeance by substituting for it public retribution4 ,in fine--and this perhaps is the essential thing--it does not destroy the lessons of experience4 ,we cannot1 then1 say that the legal sanction is illogical in principle1 when it advances alongside the natural sanction and concurs in the same result4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that the legal sanction ought in every case to be substituted for the natural sanction1 and that human law is justified by the consideration alone that it acts in the sense of ,responsibility4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the artificial distribution of punishments and rewards includes in itself1 and at the expense of the community1 an amount of inconvenience which it is necessary to take into account4 ,the machinery of the legal sanction comes from men1 is worked by men1 and is costly4 ,before submitting an action or a habit to organized repression1 there is always this question to be asked3-- ,does the excess of good which is obtained by the addition of legal repression to natural repression compensate the evil which is inherent in the repressive machinery8 ,in other words1 is the evil of artificial repression greater or less than the evil of impunity8 ,in the case of theft1 of murder1 of the greater part of crimes and delicts1 the question admits of no doubt4 ,every nation of the earth represses these crimes by public force4 ,but when we have to do with a habit which it is difficult to account for1 and which may spring from moral causes of delicate appreciation1 the question is different1 and it may very well be that1 although this habit is universally esteemed hurtful and vicious1 the law should remain neuter1 and hand it over to natural responsibility4 ,in the first place1 this is the course which the law ought to take in the case of an action or a habit which is doubtful1 which one part of the population thinks good and another part bad4 ,you think me wrong in following the ,catholic ritual2 ,i think you wrong in adopting the ,lutheran faith4 ,let ,god judge of that4 ,why should ,i aim a blow at you1 or why should you aim a blow p#dhb at me8 ,if it is not right that we should strike at each other1 how can it be right that we should delegate a third party1 the depositary of the public force1 to chastise one of us for the satisfaction of the other8 ,you allege that ,i am wrong in teaching my child the moral and natural sciences2 ,i believe that you are wrong in teaching your child ,greek and ,latin exclusively4 ,let us act on both sides according to our feeling of what is right4 ,let our families be acted on by the law of ,responsibility4 ,that law will punish the one who is wrong4 ,do not invoke human law1 which may punish the one who is right4 ,you assert that ,i would do better to pursue such or such a career1 to work according to your process1 to employ an iron in place of a wooden plough1 to sow thin in place of sowing thick1 to purchase in the ,east rather than in the ,west4 ,i maintain just the contrary4 ,i have made all my calculations2 and surely ,i am more interested than you in not falling into any mistake in matters upon the right ordering of which my welfare1 my existence1 and the happiness of my family depend1 while in your case they interest only your amour-propre and the credit of your systems4 ,give me as much advice as you please1 but constrain me to nothing4 ,i decide upon my own proper risk and peril1 and surely that is enough without the tyrannical intervention of law4 ,we see that1 in almost all the important actions of life1 it is necessary to respect free will1 to rely on the individual judgment of men1 on that inward light which ,god has given them for their guidance1 and after that to leave ,responsibility to do its own work4 ,the intervention of law in analogous cases1 over and above the very great inconvenience of opening the way equally to error and to truth1 has the still greater inconvenience of paralyzing intelligence itself1 of extinguishing that light which is the inheritance of humanity and the pledge of progress4 ,but even when an action1 a habit1 a practice is acknowledged by public good sense to be bad1 vicious1 and immoral1 when it is so beyond doubt2 when those who give themselves up to it are the first to blame themselves1--that is not enough to justify the intervention of law4 ,as ,i have already said1 it is necessary also to know if1 in adding to the bad consequences of this vice the bad consequences inherent in all legal repression1 we do not produce1 in the long-run1 a sum of evil which exceeds the good which the legal sanction adds to the natural sanction4 ,we might examine1 for instance1 the evils which would result p#dhc from the application of the legal sanction to the repression of idleness1 prodigality1 avarice1 egotism1 cupidity1 ambition4 ,let us take the case of idleness4 ,this is a very natural inclination1 and there are not wanting men who join the chorus of the ,italians when they celebrate the dolce far niente1 and of ,rousseau1 when he says1 ,je suis paresscux avec dlices4 ,we cannot doubt1 then1 that idleness is attended with a certain amount of enjoyment4 ,were it not so1 in fact1 there would be no idleness in the world4 ,and yet there flows from this inclination a host of evils1 so much so that the wisdom of nations has embodied itself in the proverb that ,idleness is the parent of every vice4 ,the evils of idleness infinitely surpass the good2 and it is necessary that the law of ,responsibility should act in this matter with some energy1 either as a lesson or as a spur1 seeing that it is in fact by labour that the world has reached the state of civilisation which it has now attained4 ,now1 considered either as a lesson or as a spur to action1 what would a legal sanction add to the providential sanction8 ,suppose we had a law to punish idleness4 ,in what precise degree would such a law quicken the national activity8 ,if we could find this out1 we should have an exact measure of the benefit resulting from the law4 ,i confess ,i can form no idea of this part of the problem4 ,but we must ask1 at what price would this benefit1 whatever it were1 be purchased2 and surely little reflection is needed in order to see that the certain inconveniences of legal repression would far exceed its problematical advantages4 ,in the first place1 there are in ,france thirty-six millions of inhabitants4 ,it would be necessary to exercise over them all a rigorous surveillance1 to follow them into their fields1 their workshops1 to their domestic circles4 ,think of the number of functionaries1 the increase of taxes1 etc41 which would be the result4 ,then1 those who are now industrious--and the number1 thank ,god1 is great--would be1 no less than the idle1 subjected to this intolerable inquisition4 ,it is surely an immense inconvenience to subject a hundred innocent people to degrading measures1 in order to punish one guilty person whom nature has herself taken it in hand to chastise4 ,and then1 when does idleness begin8 ,in the case of each man brought to justice1 the most minute and delicate inquiries would be necessary4 ,was the accused really idle1 or did he merely take p#dhd necessary repose8 ,was he sick1 or was he meditating1 or was he saying his prayers1 etc48 ,how could we appreciate all those shades of difference8 ,did he work harder and longer in the morning in order to have a little more time at his disposal in the evening8 ,how many witnesses1 judges1 juries1 policemen1 would be needed1 how much resistance1 espionage1 and hatred would be engendered6 4 4 4 4 4 ,next we should have the chapter of judicial blunders4 ,how great an amount of idleness would escape6 and1 in return1 how many industrious people would go to redeem in prison the inactivity of a day by the inactivity of a month6 ,with these consequences and many others before our eyes1 we say1 ,let natural ,responsibility do its own work4 ,and we do well in saying so4 ,the ,socialists1 who never decline to have recourse to despotism in order to accomplish their ends--for the end is everything with them--have branded ,responsibility under the name of individualism1--and have then tried to annihilate it1 and absorb it in the sphere of action of a solidarity extended beyond all natural bounds4 ,the consequences of this perversion of the two great springs of human perfectibility are fatal4 ,there is no longer any dignity1 any liberty1 for man4 ,for1 from the moment that the man who acts is not personally answerable for the good or bad consequences of his actions1 his right to act singly and individually no longer exists4 ,if each movement of the individual is to reflect back the series of its effects on society at large1 the initiative of each such movement can no longer be left to the individual--it belongs to society4 ,the community alone must decide all1 and regulate all1--education1 food1 wages1 amusements1 locomotion1 affections1 families1 etc4 ,now1 the law is the voice of ,society2 the law is the legislator4 ,here1 then1 we have a flock and a shepherd1--less than that even1 inert matter1 and a workman4 ,we see1 then1 to what point the suppression of ,responsibility and of individualism would lead us4 ,to conceal this frightful design from the eyes of the vulgar1 it was necessary to flatter their selfish passions by declaiming against egotism4 ,to the suffering classes ,socialism says1 8,do not trouble yourselves to examine whether your sufferings are to be ascribed to the law of ,responsibility4 ,there are fortunate people in the world1 and in virtue of the law of ,solidarity they ought to share their prosperity with you40 ,and for the purpose of paving the way to the degrading level of a factitious1 official1 legal1 con p#dhe strained1 and unnatural ,solidarity1 they erect spoliation into a system1 they twist all our notions of justice1 and they exalt that individualist sentiment1 which they were thought to have proscribed1 up to the highest point of power and perversity4 ,their whole system is thus of a piece1--negation of the harmonies which spring from liberty in the principle1--despotism and slavery in the result1--immorality in the means4 99 99 99 99 99 ,every effort to divert the natural course of responsibility is a blow aimed at justice1 at liberty1 at order1 at civilisation1 and at progress4 ,at justice4 ,an act or a habit being assumed to exist1 its good or bad consequences must follow necessarily4 ,were it possible1 indeed1 to suppress these consequences1 there would doubtless be some advantage in suspending the action of the natural law of responsibility4 ,but the only result to which a written law could lead would be that the good effects of a bad action would be reaped by the author of that action1 and that its bad effects would fall back on a third party1 or upon the community2 which has certainly the special aspect of injustice4 ,thus1 modern societies are constituted on the principle that the father of a family should rear and educate his children4 ,and it is this principle which restrains within just limits the increase and distribution of population2 each man acting under a sense of responsibility4 ,men are not all indued with the same amount of foresight2 and#aac in large towns improvidence is allied with immorality4 ,we have nowadays a regular budget1 and an administration1 for the purpose of collecting children abandoned by their parents2 no inquiry discourages this shameful desertion1 and a constantly increasing number of destitute children inundates our poorer districts4 ,here1 then1 we have a peasant who marries late in life1 in order not to be overburdened with a family1 obliged to bring up the children of others4 ,he will not inculcate foresight on his son4 ,another lives in continence1 and we see him taxed to bring up a set of bastards4 ,in a religious point of view1 his conscience is tranquil1 but in a human point of view he must call himself a fool4 4 4 4 4 4 ,we do not pretend here to enter on the grave question of public p#dhf charity1 we wish only to make this essential observation1 that the more a ,state is centralized1 the more that it turns natural responsibility into factitious solidarity1 the more it takes away from consequences 7which thenceforth affect those who have no connexion with their cause7 their providential character of justice1 chastisement1 and preventive restraint4 ,when ,government cannot avoid charging itself with a service which ought to remain within the domain of private activity1 it ought at least to allow the responsibility to rest as nearly as possible where it would naturally fall4 ,thus1 in the question of foundling hospitals1 the principle being that the father and mother should bring up the child1 the law should exhaust every means of endeavouring to enforce this4 ,failing the parents1 this burden should fall on the commune2 and failing the commune1 on the department4 ,do you desire to multiply foundlings ad infinitum8 ,declare that the ,state will take charge of them4 ,it would be still worse if ,france should undertake to maintain the children of the ,chinese1 and vice versa4 4 4 4 4 4 ,it is1 in truth1 a singular thing that we should be always endeavouring to make laws to check the evils of responsibility6 ,will it never be understood that we do not annihilate these evils--we only turn them into a new channel8 ,the result is one injustice the more1 and one lesson the less4 4 4 4 4 4 ,how is the world to be improved if it be not by every man learning to discharge his duty better8 ,and will each man not discharge his duties better in proportion as he has more to suffer by neglecting or violating them8 ,if social action is to be mixed up in the work of responsibility1 it ought to be in order to second it1 not to thwart it1 to concentrate its effects1 not to abandon them to chance4 ,it has been said that opinion is the mistress of the world4 ,assuredly1 in order that opinion should have its proper sway it is necessary that it should be enlightened2 and opinion is so much more enlightened in proportion as each man who contributes to form it perceives more clearly the connexion of causes and effects4 ,now nothing leads us to perceive this connexion better than experience1 and experience1 as we know1 is personal1 and the fruit of responsibility4 ,in the natural play1 then1 of this great law of responsibility we have a system of valuable teaching with which it is very imprudent to tamper4 ,if1 by ill-considered combinations1 you relieve men from responsibility for their actions1 they may still be taught by theory--but p#dhg no longer by experience4 ,and ,i doubt if instruction which has never been sanctioned and confirmed by experience is not more dangerous than ignorance itself4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the sense of responsibility is eminently capable of improvement4 ,this is one of the most beautiful moral phenomena4 ,there is nothing which we admire more in a man1 in a class1 in a nation1 than the feeling of responsibility4 ,it indicates superior moral culture1 and an exquisite sensibility to the awards of public opinion4 ,it may be1 however1 that the sense of responsibility is highly developed in one thing and very little in another4 ,in ,france1 among the educated classes1 one would die of shame to be caught cheating at play or addicting oneself to solitary drinking4 ,these things are laughed at among the peasants4 ,but to traffic in political rights1 to make merchandise of his vote1 to be guilty of inconsistency1 to cry out by turns ,vive le ,roi6 ,vive la ,ligue6 as the interest of the moment may prompt1 these are things which our manners do not brand with shame4 ,the development of the sense of responsibility may be much aided by female intervention4 4 4 4 4 4 ,females are themselves extremely sensible of the feeling of responsibility4 4 4 4 4 4 ,it rests with them to create this force moralisatrice among the other sex2 for it is their province to distribute praise and blame effectively4 ,why1 then1 do they not do so8 because they are not sufficiently acquainted with the connexion between causes and effects in the moral world4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the science of morals is the science of all1 but especially of the female sex1 for they form the manners of a nation4 4 4 4 4 4 p#dhh ,,xxi4 ,,solidarity4 ,if man were perfect1 if he were infallible1 society would present a very different harmony from that which is the subject of our inquiries4 ,ours is not the society of ,fourier4 ,it does not exclude evil2 it admits dissonances2 only we assert that it does not cease to be harmony if these dissonances pave the way to concord1 and bring us back to it4 ,our point of departure is that man is fallible1 and that ,god has given him free will2 and with the faculty of choosing1 that of erring1 of mistaking what is false for what is true1 of sacrificing the future to the present1 of giving way to unreasonable desires1 etc4 4 4 4 4 ,man errs4 ,but every act1 every habit has its consequences4 ,by means of ,responsibility1 as we have seen1 these consequences fall back on the author of the act4 ,a natural concatenation of rewards or punishments1 then1 attracts him towards good1 or repels him from evil4 ,had man been destined to a solitary life1 and to solitary labour1 ,responsibility would have been his only law4 ,but he is differently placed2 he is sociable by destination4 ,it is not true1 as ,rousseau has said1 that man is naturally a perfect and solitary whole1 and that the will of the lawgiver has transformed him into a fraction of a greater whole4 ,the family1 the province1 the nation1 the human race1 are aggregates with which man has necessary relations4 ,hence it follows that the actions and the habits of the individual produce1 besides the consequences which fall back upon himself1 other good or bad consequences which extend themselves to his fellow-men4 ,this is what we term the law of ,solidarity1 which is a sort of collective ,responsibility4 ,this idea of ,rousseau that the legislator has invented society--an idea false in itself--has been injurious in this respect1 that it has led men to think that ,solidarity is of legislative creation1 and we p#dhi shall immediately see that modern legislators have based upon this doctrine their efforts to subject society to an artificial solidarity1 acting in an inverse sense to natural solidarity4 ,in everything1 the principle of these great manipulators of the human race is to set up their own work in room of the work of ,god1 which they disown4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our first task is to prove undeniably the natural existence of the law of ,solidarity4 ,in the eighteenth century they did not believe in it4 ,they adhered to the doctrine of the personality of faults4 ,the philosophers of the last century1 engaged above all in the reaction against ,catholicism1 would have feared1 by admitting the principle of ,solidarity1 to open a door to the doctrine of original sin4 ,every time ,voltaire found in the ,scriptures a man bearing the punishment of another1 he said ironically1 8,this is frightful1 but the justice of ,god is not that of man40 ,we are not concerned here to discuss original sin4 ,but what ,voltaire laughed at is nevertheless a fact1 which is not less incontestable than it is mysterious4 ,the law of ,solidarity makes its appearance so frequently and so strikingly1 in the individual and in the masses1 in details and in the aggregate1 in particular and in general facts1 that to fail to recognise it implies either the blindness of sectarianism or the zeal of embittered controversy4 ,the first rule of all human justice is to concentrate the punishment of an action on its author1 in virtue of the principle that faults are personal4 ,but this law1 sacred as regards individuals1 is not the law of ,god1 or even the law of society4 ,why is this man rich8 ,because his father was active1 honest1 industrious1 and economical4 ,the father practised virtue2 the son reaps the rewards4 ,why is this other man always suffering1 sick1 feeble1 timorous1 and wretched8 ,because his father1 endowed with a powerful constitution1 abused it by debauchery and excess4 ,to the guilty fall the agreeable consequences of vice1 to the innocent fall its fatal consequences4 ,there exists not a man upon this earth whose condition has not been determined by thousands of millions of facts in which his own determinations have had no part4 ,what ,i complain of to-day was perhaps caused by the caprice of my great-grandfather1 etc4 ,solidarity manifests itself on a greater scale still1 and at distances which are still more inexplicable1 when we consider the p#dij relations of divers nations1 or of different generations of the same people4 ,is it not strange that the eighteenth century was so occupied with intellectual or material works of which we are now enjoying the benefit8 ,is it not marvellous that we ourselves should make such efforts to cover the country with railways1 on which none of us perhaps will ever travel8 ,who can fail to recognise the profound influence of our old revolutions on the events of our own time8 ,who can foresee what an inheritance of peace or of discord our present discussions may bequeath to our children8 ,look at the public loans4 ,we make war1--we obey savage passions1--we throw away by these means valuable power2 and we find means of laying the scourge of all this destruction on our children1 who may haply hold war in abhorrence1 and be unable to understand our passions and hatreds4 ,cast your eyes upon ,europe2 contemplate the events which agitate ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,poland1 and say if the law of ,solidarity is a chimerical law4 ,there is no need to carry this enumeration farther4 ,in order to prove undeniably the existence of the law1 it is enough that the action of one man1 of one people1 of one generation1 exerts a certain influence upon another man1 another people1 or another generation4 ,society at large is only an aggregate of solidarities which cross and overlap one another4 ,this results from the communicable nature of human intelligence4 ,conversation1 literature1 discoveries1 sciences1 morals1 etc41 are all examples of this4 ,all these unperceived currents by which one mind corresponds with another1 all these efforts without visible connexion1 the resulting force of which nevertheless pushes on the human race towards an equilibrium1 towards an average level which is always rising--all that vast treasury of utilities and of acquired knowledge which each may draw upon without diminishing it1 or augment without being aware of it1--all this interchange of thoughts1 of productions1 of services1 and of labour1 of good and evil1 of virtue and vice1 which makes the human family one grand whole1 and imparts to thousands of millions of ephemeral existences a common1 a universal1 a continuous life1--all this is ,solidarity4 ,naturally1 then1 and to a certain extent1 there is an incontestable ,solidarity among men4 ,in other words1 ,responsibility is not exclusively personal1 but is shared and divided4 ,action emanates from individuality2 consequences are spread over the community4 ,we must remark that it is in the nature of every man to desire p#dia to be happy4 ,you may say that ,i am extolling egotism if you will2 ,i extol nothing2 ,i show1 ,i prove undeniably1 the existence of an innate universal sentiment1 which can never cease to exist1--personal interest1 the desire for happiness1 and the repugnance to pain4 ,hence it follows that the individual is led so to order his conduct that the good consequences of his actions accrue to himself1 while the bad effects fall upon others4 ,he endeavours to spread these bad consequences over the greatest possible number of men1 in order that they may be less perceived1 and call forth less reaction4 ,but opinion1 that mistress of the world1 the daughter of solidarity1 brings together all those scattered grievances1 and collects all aggrieved interests into a formidable resisting mass4 ,when a man's habits become injurious to those who live around him1 they call forth a feeling of repulsion4 ,we judge such habits severely4 ,we denounce them1 we brand them2 and the man who gives himself up to them becomes an object of distrust1 of contempt1 and of abhorrence4 ,if he reap some advantages1 they are soon far more than compensated by the sufferings which public aversion accumulates on his head4 ,to the troublesome consequences which a bad habit always entails in virtue of the law of ,responsibility1 there come to be added other consequences still more grievous in virtue of the law of ,solidarity4 ,our contempt for the man soon extends to the habit1 to the vice2 and as the want of consideration is one of our most powerful springs of action1 it is clear that solidarity1 by the reaction which it brings to bear against vicious acts1 tends to restrain and to prevent them4 ,solidarity1 then1 like ,responsibility1 is a progressive force2 and we see that1 in relation to the author of the act1 it resolves itself1 if ,i may so speak1 into repercussive or reflected responsibility2 that it is still a system of reciprocal rewards and punishments1 admirably fitted to circumscribe evil1 to extend good1 and to urge on mankind on the road of progress4 ,but in order that it should operate in this way1--in order that those who benefit or suffer from an action which is not their own should react upon its author by approbation or disapprobation1 by gratitude or resistance1 by esteem1 affection1 praise1 or blame1 hatred or vengeance1--one condition is indispensable2 and that condition is1 that the connecting link between the act and all its effects should be known and appreciated4 ,when the public is mistaken in this respect1 the law fails in its design4 p#dib ,an act is hurtful to the masses2 but the masses are convinced that this act is advantageous to them4 ,what is the consequence8 ,the consequence is1 that instead of reacting against it1 in place of condemning it1 and by that means restraining it1 the public exalt it1 honour it1 extol it1 and repeat it4 ,nothing is more frequent1 and here is the reason of it3 ,an act produces on the masses not only an effect1 but a series of effects4 ,now it frequently happens that the primary effect is a local good1 visible and tangible1 whilst the ulterior effects set a-filtering through the body politic evils which are difficult to discover or to connect with their cause4 ,war is an example of this4 ,in the infancy of society1 we do not perceive all the consequences of war4 ,and1 to say truth1 in a state of civilisation in which there is a less amount of anterior labour 7capital7 exposed to destruction1 less science and money devoted to the machinery of war1 etc41 these consequences are less prejudicial than they afterwards become4 ,we see only the first campaign1 the booty which follows victory1 the intoxication of triumph4 ,at that stage1 war and warriors are very popular4 ,then we see the enemy1 having become conqueror in his turn1 burning down houses and harvests1 levying contributions1 and imposing laws4 ,in these alternations of success and misfortune1 we see generations of men annihilated1 agriculture crushed1 and two nations impoverished4 ,we see the most important portion of the people contemning the arts of peace1 turning their arms against the institutions of their country1 serving as the tools of despotism1 employing their restless energy in sedition and civil discord1 and creating barbarism and solitude at home1 as they had formerly done among their neighbours4 ,do we then pronounce war to be plunder upon a great scale8 4 4 4 ,no2 we see its effects without desiring to understand its cause2 and when this people1 in a state of decadence1 shall be invaded in its turn by a swarm of conquerors1 centuries after the catastrophe1 grave historians will relate that the nation fell because the people had become enervated by peace1 because they had forgotten the art of war and the austere virtues of their ancestors4 ,i could point out the same illusions in connexion with the system of slavery4 4 4 4 4 ,the same thing is true of religious errors4 4 4 4 4 ,in our own day1 the rgime of prohibition gives rise to the same fallacy4 4 4 4 4 ,to bring back public opinion1 by the diffusion of knowledge and the profound appreciation of causes and effects1 into that p#dic intelligent state in which bad tendencies come to be branded1 and prejudicial measures opposed1 is to render a great service to one's country4 ,when public opinion1 deceived and misled1 honours what is worthy of contempt1 contemns what is honourable1 punishes virtue and rewards vice1 encourages what is hurtful and discourages what is useful1 applauds a lie and smothers truth under indifference or insult1 a nation turns its back upon progress1 and can only be reclaimed by terrible lessons and catastrophes4 ,we have indicated elsewhere the gross misuse which certain ,socialist schools have made of the word ,solidarity4 4 4 4 4 ,let us now see in what spirit human laws should be framed4 ,it seems to me that here there can be no room for doubt4 ,human law should coincide with the natural law4 ,it should facilitate and ensure the just retribution of men's acts2 in other words1 it should circumscribe solidarity1 and organize reaction in order to enforce responsibility4 ,the law can have no other object than to restrain vicious actions and to multiply virtuous ones1 and for that purpose it should favour the just distribution of rewards and punishments1 so that the bad effects of an act should be concentrated as much as possible on the person who commits it4 4 4 4 4 ,in acting thus1 the law conforms itself to the nature of things2 solidarity induces a reaction against a vicious act1 and the law only regulates that reaction4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the law thus contributes to progress3 ,the more rapidly it brings back the bad effect of the act upon the agent1 the more surely it restrains the act itself4 ,to give an example3 ,violence is attended with pernicious consequences4 ,among savages the repression of violence is left to the natural course of things2 and what happens8 ,it provokes a terrible reaction4 ,when a man has committed an act of violence against another man1 an inextinguishable desire of vengeance is lighted up in the family of the injured party1 and is transmitted from generation to generation4 ,the law interferes2 and what ought it to do8 ,should it limit itself to stifle the desire for vengeance1 to repress it1 to punish it8 ,it is clear that this would be to encourage violence1 by sheltering it from reprisals4 ,this is not1 then1 what the law should do4 ,it ought to substitute itself1 so to speak1 for the spirit of vengeance1 by organizing in its place a reaction against the violence4 ,it should say to the injured family1 8,i charge myself with the repression of the act you complain of40 ,when the whole tribe considers itself as injured and menaced1 the p#did law inquires into the grievance1 interrogates the guilty party1 makes sure that there is no error as to the fact and as to the person1 and thus represses with regularity and certainty an act which would have been punished irregularly4#aad 4 p#die ,,xxii4 ,,social ,,motive ,,force4 ,it belongs to no human science to assign the ultimate reason of things4 ,man suffers2 society suffers4 ,we ask why8 ,this is to ask why ,god has been pleased to indue man with sensibility and free will4 ,as regards this1 no one knows more than the revelation in which he has faith has taught him4 ,but whatever may have been the designs of ,god1 what human science can take as its point of departure is a positive fact1 namely1 that man has been created free and indued with feeling4 ,this is so true that ,i defy those who are astonished at it to conceive a living1 thinking1 acting being indued with volition and affections--such a being1 in short1 as man--yet destitute of sensibility and free will4 ,could ,god have ordered things otherwise8 ,reason undoubtedly answers yes1 but imagination says eternally no1 so radically impossible is it for us to separate in thought humanity from this double attribute4 ,now1 to be indued with feeling is to be capable of experiencing sensations which are agreeable or painful4 ,hence comfort or uneasiness4 ,from the moment1 then1 that ,god gave existence to sensibility1 ,he permitted evil1 or the possibility of evil4 ,in giving us free will1 ,he has indued us with the faculty1 at least in a certain measure1 of shunning evil and seeking after good4 ,free will supposes and accompanies intelligence--what would the faculty of choosing signify if it were not allied with the faculty of examining1 of comparing1 of judging8 ,thus1 every man who comes into the world brings with him mind and a motive force4 ,the motive force is that personal irresistible impulse1 the essence of all our forces1 which leads us to shun ,evil and seek p#dif after ,good4 ,we term it the instinct of preservation1 personal or private interest4 ,this sentiment has been sometimes decried1 sometimes misunderstood1 but as regards its existence there can be no doubt4 ,irresistibly we seek after all which1 according to our notions1 can ameliorate our destiny1 and we avoid all which is likely to deteriorate it4 ,this is at least as certain as it is that every material molecule possesses centripetal and centrifugal force4 ,and just as the double movement of attraction and repulsion is the grand spring of the physical world1 we may affirm that the double force of human attraction towards happiness and human repulsion from pain is the mainspring of the social mechanism4 ,but it is not enough that man is irresistibly led to prefer good to evil2 he must also be able to discern what is good and what is evil4 ,this is what ,god has provided for in giving him that marvellous and complex mechanism called intelligence4 ,to fix his attention1 to compare1 judge1 reason1 connect effects with causes1 to remember1 to foresee2 such are--if ,i may use the expression--the wheels of that admirable machine4 ,the impulsive force which is possessed by each of us moves under the direction of our intelligence4 ,but our intelligence is imperfect4 ,it is liable to error4 ,we compare1 we judge1 we act in consequence2 but we may err1 we may make a bad choice1 we may tend towards evil1 mistaking it for good1 or we may shun good1 mistaking it for evil4 ,this is the first source of social dissonances2 and it is inevitable1 for this reason1 that the great motive spring of humanity--personal interest--is not1 like material attraction1 a blind force1 but a force guided by an imperfect intelligence4 ,let us be very sure1 then1 that we shall not see ,harmony except under this restriction4 ,god has not seen proper to found social order or ,harmony upon perfection1 but upon human perfectibility1 our capacity for improvement4 ,if our intelligence is imperfect1 it is improvable4 ,it develops1 enlarges1 and rectifies itself4 ,it begins of new and verifies its operations4 ,experience at each moment puts us right1 and ,responsibility suspends over our heads a complete system of punishments and rewards4 ,every step that we take on the road of error plunges us into increased suffering1 and in such a way that the warning cannot fail to be heard1 and the rectification of our determinations1 and consequently of our actions1 follows1 sooner or later1 with infallible certainty4 ,under the impulse which urges him on1 ardent to pursue happiness1 prompt to seize it1 man may be seeking his own good in the misery of others4 ,this is a second and an abundant source of p#dig discordant social combinations4 ,but the limit of such disturbances is marked2 and they find their inevitable doom in the law of ,solidarity4 ,individual force thus misapplied calls forth opposition from all the analogous forces1 which1 antagonistic to evil by their nature1 repel injustice and chastise it4 ,it is thus that progress is realized1 and it is not the less progress from being dearly bought4 ,it springs from a native impulse1 which is universal and inherent in our nature1 directed by an intelligence which is frequently misled1 and subjected to a will which is frequently depraved4 ,arrested on its march by ,error and ,injustice1 it receives the all-powerful assistance of ,responsibility and ,solidarity to enable it to surmount these obstacles1 and it cannot fail to receive that assistance since it springs from these obstacles themselves4 ,this internal1 universal1 and imperishable motive power1 which resides in each individual and constitutes him an active being1 this tendency of every man to pursue happiness and shun misery1 this product1 this effect1 this necessary complement of sensibility1 without which sensibility would be only an inexplicable scourge1 this primordial phenomenon which is at the bottom of all human actions1 this attractive and repulsive force which we have denominated the mainspring of the social mechanism1 has had for detractors the greater part of our publicists2 and this is one of the strangest aberrations which the annals of science present4 ,it is true that self-interest is the cause of all the evils1 as it is of all the good1 incident to man4 ,it cannot fail to be so1 since it determines all our acts4 ,seeing this1 some publicists can imagine no better means of eradicating evil than by stifling self-interest4 ,but as by this means they would destroy the very spring and motive of our activity1 they have thought proper to endow us with a different motive force1 namely1 devotion1 self-sacrifice4 ,they hope that henceforth all transactions and social combinations will take place at their bidding1 upon the principle of self-abandonment4 ,we are no longer to pursue our own happiness1 but the happiness of others2 the warnings of sensibility are to go for nothing1 like the rewards and punishments of ,responsibility4 ,all the laws of our nature are to be reversed2 the spirit of sacrifice is to be substituted for the instinct of preservation2 in a word1 no one is to think longer on his own personality1 but for the purpose of hastening to sacrifice it to the public good4 ,it is from such a universal transformation of the human heart that certain publicists1 who think themselves very religious1 expect to realize perfect social harmony4 ,they p#dih have forgotten to tell us how they hope to effect this indispensable preliminary1 the transformation of the human heart4 ,if they are foolish enough to undertake this1 they will find that they want the power to accomplish it4 ,do they desire the proof of what ,i say8 ,let them try the experiment on themselves2 let them endeavour to stifle in their own hearts all feeling of self-interest1 so that it shall no longer make its appearance in the most ordinary actions of life4 ,they will not be long in finding out their powerlessness4 ,why1 then1 pretend to impose upon all men1 without exception1 a doctrine to which they themselves cannot submit8 ,i confess myself unable to see anything religious1 unless it be in intention and appearance1 in these affected theories1 in these impracticable maxims which they affect so earnestly to preach1 while they continue to act just as the vulgar act4 ,is it1 ,i would ask1 true and genuine religion which inspires these catholic economists with the presumptuous thought that ,god has done ,his work ill1 and that it is their mission to repair it8 ,bossuet did not think so when he said1 8,man aspires to happiness1 and he cannot help aspiring to it40 ,declamations against personal interest never can have much scientific significance2 for self-interest is part of man's indestructible nature--at least1 we cannot destroy it without destroying man himself4 ,all that religion1 morals1 and political economy can do is to give an enlightened direction to this impulsive force--to point out not only the primary1 but the ulterior consequences of those acts to which it urges us4 ,a superior and progressive satisfaction consequent on a transient suffering1 long continued and constantly increased suffering following on a momentary gratification2 such1 after all1 are moral good and evil4 ,that which determines the choice of men towards virtue is an elevated and enlightened interest1 but it is always primarily a personal interest4 ,if it is strange that personal interest should be decried1 when considered not with reference to its immoral abuse1 but as the providential moving spring of all human activity1 it is still stranger that it should have been put aside altogether1 and that men should have imagined themselves in a situation to frame a system of social science without taking it into account4 ,it is an inexplicable instance of folly that publicists in general should regard themselves as the depositaries and the arbiters of this motive spring4 ,each starts from this point of departure3 ,assuming that mankind are a flock1 and that ,i am the shepherd1 p#dii how am ,i to manage in order to make mankind happy8 ,or this3 ,given on the one hand a certain quantity of clay1 and on the other a potter1 what should the potter do in order to turn that clay to the best account8 ,our publicists may differ when the question comes to be which is the best potter1 who forms and moulds the clay most advantageously2 but they are all at one upon this1 that their function is to knead the human clay1 and what the clay has to do is simply to be kneaded by them4 ,under the title of legislators they establish between themselves and the human race relations analogous to those of guardian and ward4 ,the idea never occurs to them that the human race is a living sentient body1 indued with volition1 and acting according to laws which it is not their business to invent1 since they already exist1 nor to impose1 but to study2 that humanity is an aggregate of beings in all respects like themselves1 and in no way inferior or subordinate2 endowed both with an impulse to act1 and with intelligence to choose2 which feels on all sides the stimulus of ,responsibility and ,solidarity2 and that1 in short1 from all these phenomena there results an aggregate of self-existing relations1 which it is not the business of science to create1 as they imagine1 but to observe4 ,rousseau1 ,i think1 is the publicist who has most navely exhumed from antiquity this omnipotence of the resuscitated legislator of the ,greeks4 ,convinced that the social order is a human invention1 he compares it to a machine2 men are the wheels of that machine1 the ruler sets it in motion2 the lawgiver invents it1 under the impulse given him by the publicist1 who thus finds himself definitively the mainspring and regulator of the human species4 ,this is the reason why the publicist never fails to address himself to the legislator in the imperative style2 he decrees him to decree3 8,found your society upon such or such a principle2 give it good manners and customs2 bend it to the yoke of religion2 direct its aims and energies towards arms1 or commerce1 or agriculture1 or virtue10 etc4 ,others more modest speak in this way3 8,idlers will not be tolerated in the republic2 you will distribute the population conveniently between the towns and the country2 you will take order that there shall be neither rich nor poor10 etc4 ,these formulas attest the unmeasured presumption of those who employ them4 ,they imply a doctrine which does not leave one atom of dignity to the human race4 ,i know not whether they are more false in theory or pernicious in practice4 ,in both views1 they lead to deplorable results4 ,they would lead us to believe that the social economy is an p#ejj artificial arrangement coined in the brain of an inventor4 ,hence every publicist constitutes himself an inventor4 ,his greatest desire is to find acceptance for his mechanism2 his greatest care is to create abhorrence of all others1 and principally of that which springs spontaneously from the organization of man and from the nature of things4 ,the books conceived and written on this plan are1 and can only be1 prolix declamations against ,society4 ,this false science does not study the concatenation of effects and causes4 ,it does not inquire into the good and evil produced by men's actions1 and trust afterwards to the motive force of ,society in choosing the road it is to follow4 ,no2 it enjoins1 it constrains1 it imposes1 or1 if it cannot do that1 it counsels2 like a natural philosopher who should say to the stone1 8,thou art not supported2 ,i order thee to fall1 or at least ,i advise it40 ,it is upon this footing that ,m4 ,droz has said that 8the design of political economy is to render easy circumstances as general as possible10--a definition which has been welcomed with great favour by the ,socialists1 because it opens a door to every ,utopia1 and leads to artificial regulation4 ,what should we say if ,m4 ,arago were to open his course in this way1 8,the object of astronomy is to render gravitation as general as possible80 ,it is true that men are animated beings1 indued with volition1 and acting under the influence of free will4 ,but there also resides in them an internal force1 a sort of gravitation2 and the question is to know towards what they gravitate4 ,if it be fatally1 inevitably1 towards evil1 there is no remedy1 and assuredly the remedy will not come to us from a publicist subject like other men to the common tendency4 ,if it be towards good1 here we have the motive force already found2 science has no need to substitute for it constraint or advice4 ,its part is to enlighten our free will1 to display effects as flowing from causes1 well assured that1 under the influence of truth1 8ease and material prosperity tend to become as general as possible40 ,practically1 the doctrine which would place the motive force of society1 not in mankind at large1 nor in their peculiar organization1 but in legislators and governments1 is attended with consequences still more deplorable4 ,it tends to draw down upon ,governments a crushing responsibility1 from which they never recover4 ,if there are sufferings1 it is the fault of ,government2 if there are poor1 it is the fault of ,government4 ,is not ,government the prime mover8 ,if the mainspring is bad or inoperative1 break it1 and choose another4 ,or else they lay the blame on science itself2 and in our days we have it repeated ad nauseam that 8all social sufferings are p#eja imputable to ,political ,economy40#aae ,why not1 when ,political ,economy presents herself as having for design to realize the happiness of men without their co-operation8 ,when such notions prevail1 the last thing men take it into their heads to do is to turn their regards upon themselves1 and inquire whether the true cause of their sufferings is not their own ignorance and injustice2 their ignorance which brings them under the discipline of ,responsibility1 and their injustice which draws down upon them the reaction of ,solidarity4 ,how should mankind ever dream of seeking in their errors the cause of their sufferings when the human race is persuaded that it is inert by nature1 and that the principle of all activity1 consequently of all responsibility1 is external1 and resides in the will of the lawgiver and the governing power8 ,were ,i called upon to mark the feature which distinguishes ,socialism from ,political ,economy1 ,i should find it here4 ,socialism boasts of a vast number of sects4 ,each sect has its ,utopia1 and so far are they from any mutual understanding1 that they declare against each other war to the knife4 ,the atelier social organis of ,m4 ,blanc1 and the an-archie of ,m4 ,proudhon1--the association of ,fourier1 and the communisme of ,m4 ,cabet1--are as different from each other as night is from day4 ,why do these sectarian leaders1 then1 range themselves under the common denomination of ,socialists1 and what is the bond which unites them against natural or providential society8 ,they have no other bond than this1 they all repudiate natural society4 ,what they wish is an artificial society springing ready made from the brain of the inventor4 ,no doubt1 each of them wishes to be the ,jupiter of this ,minerva--no doubt each of them hugs his own contrivance1 and dreams of his own social order4 ,but they have this in common1 that they recognise in humanity neither the motive force1 which urges mankind on to good1 nor the curative force1 which delivers them from evil4 ,they fight among themselves as to what form they are to mould the human clay into1 but they are all agreed that humanity is clay to be moulded4 ,humanity is not in their eyes a living harmonious being1 that ,god himself has provided with progressive and self-sustaining forces1 but rather a mass of inert matter which has been waiting for them to impart to it sentiment and life2 it is not a subject to be studied1 but a subject to be experimented on4 ,political ,economy1 on the other hand1 after having clearly shown p#ejb that there are in each man forces of impulse and repulsion1 the aggregate of which constitutes the social impellent1 and after being convinced that this motive force tends towards good1 never dreams of annihilating it in order to substitute another of its own creation1 but studies the varied and complicated social phenomena to which it gives birth4 ,is this to say that ,political ,economy is as much a stranger to social progress1 as astronomy is to the motion of the heavenly bodies8 ,certainly not4 ,political ,economy has to do with beings which are intelligent and free1--and1 as such1 let us never forget1 subject to error4 ,their tendency is towards good2 but they may err4 ,science1 then1 interferes usefully1 not to create causes and effects1 not to change the tendencies of man1 not to subject him to organizations1 to injunctions1 or even to advice1 but to point out to him the good and the evil which result from his determinations4 ,political ,economy is thus quite a science of observation and exposition4 ,she does not say to men1 8,i enjoin you1 ,i counsel you1 not to go too near the fire20 she does not say1 8,i have invented a social organization2 the gods have taught me institutions which will keep you at a respectful distance from the fire40 ,no1 ,political ,economy only shows men clearly that fire will burn them1 proclaims it1 proves it1 and does the same thing as regards all other social or moral phenomena1 convinced that this is enough4 ,the repugnance to die by fire is considered as a primordial pre-existent fact1 which ,political ,economy has not created1 and which she cannot alter or change4 ,economists cannot be always at one2 but it is easy to see that their differences are quite of another kind from those which divide the ,socialists4 ,two men who devote their whole attention to observe one and the same phenomenon and its effects--rent1 for example1 exchange1 competition--may not arrive at the same conclusion1 and this proves nothing more than that one of the two has observed the phenomenon inaccurately or imperfectly4 ,it is an operation to be repeated4 ,with the aid of other observers1 the probability is that truth in the end will be discovered4 ,it is for this reason1 that if each economist were1 like each astronomer1 to make himself fully acquainted with what his predecessors have done1 as far as they have gone1 the science would be progressive1 and for that reason more and more useful1 rectifying constantly observations inaccurately made1 and adding indefinitely new observations to those which had been made before4 ,but the ,socialists1--each pursuing his own road1 and coining p#ejc artificial combinations in the mint of his own brain1--may pursue their inquiries in this way to all eternity without coming to any common understanding1 and without the labours of one aiding to any extent the labours of another4 ,say profited by the labours of ,adam ,smith2 ,rossi by those of ,say2 ,blanqui and ,joseph ,garnier by those of all their predecessors4 ,but ,plato1 ,sir ,thomas ,more1 ,harrington1 ,fnlon1 ,fourier1 might amuse themselves with organizing according to their own fancy a ,republic1 an ,utopia1 an ,oceana1 a ,salente1 a ,phalanstre1 and no one would ever discover the slightest affinity between their chimerical creations4 ,these dreamers spin all out of their own imaginations1 men as well as things4 ,they invent a social order without respect to the human heart1 and then they invent a human heart to suit their social order4 p#ejd ,,xxiii4 ,,existence ,,of ,,evil4 ,in these last days science has retrograded and been driven back4 ,it has been bent and twisted under the obligation imposed upon it1 if ,i may so speak1 of denying the existence of ,evil under pain of being convicted of denying the existence of ,god4 ,writers whose business it is to display exquisite sensibility1 unbounded philanthropy1 and unrivalled devotion to religion1 have got into the way of saying1 8,evil cannot enter into the providential plan4 ,suffering is no ordinance of ,god and nature1 but comes from human institutions40 ,as this doctrine falls in with the passions that they desire to cherish1 it soon becomes popular4 ,books and journals have been filled with declamations against society4 ,science is no longer permitted to study facts impartially4 ,whoever dares to warn men that a certain vice1 a certain habit1 leads necessarily to certain hurtful consequences1 is marked down as a man destitute of human feelings1 without religion1 an ,atheist1 a ,malthusian1 an ,economist4 ,socialism has carried its folly so far as to announce the termination of all social suffering1 but not of all individual suffering4 ,it has not ventured to predict that a day will come when man will no longer suffer1 grow old1 and die4 ,now1 ,i would ask1 is it easier to reconcile with the infinite goodness of ,god1 evil which assails individually every man who comes into the world1 than evil which is extended over society at large8 ,and then is it not a contradiction so transparent as to be puerile1 to deny the existence of suffering in the masses1 when we admit its existence in individuals8 ,man suffers1 and will always suffer4 ,society1 then1 also suffers1 and will always suffer4 ,those who address mankind should have the courage to tell them this4 ,humanity is not p#eje a fine lady with delicate nerves and an irritable temperament1 from whom we must conceal the coming storm1 more especially when to foresee it is the only way to ensure our getting out of it safely4 ,in this respect1 all the books with which ,france has been inundated1 from ,sismondi and ,buret downwards1 appear to me to be wanting in virility4 ,their authors dare not tell the truth2 nay1 they dare not investigate it1 for fear of discovering that absolute poverty is the necessary starting-point of the human race1 and that1 consequently1 so far are we from being in a position to attribute that poverty to the social order1 it is to the social order that we must attribute all the triumphs which we have already achieved over our original destitution4 ,but1 then1 after such an avowal1 they could no longer constitute themselves tribunes of the people1 and the avengers of the masses oppressed by civilisation4 ,after all1 science merely establishes1 combines1 and deduces facts2 she does not create them2 she does not produce them1 nor is she responsible for them4 ,is it not strange that men should have gone the length of announcing and disseminating the paradox1 that if mankind suffer1 their sufferings are due to ,political ,economy8 ,thus1 after being blamed for investigating the sufferings of society1 ,political ,economy is accused of engendering those sufferings by that same investigation4 ,i assert that science can do nothing more than observe and establish facts4 ,prove to us that humanity1 instead of being progressive1 is retrograde2 and that inevitable and insurmountable laws urge mankind on to irremediable deterioration4 ,show us that the law of ,malthus and that of ,ricardo are true in their worst and most pernicious sense1 and that it is impossible to deny the tyranny of capital1 or the incompatibility between machinery and labour1 or any of the other contradictory alternatives in which ,chteaubriand and ,tocqueville have placed the human race2 then ,i maintain that science ought to proclaim this1 and proclaim it aloud4 ,why should we shut our eyes to a gulf which is gaping before us8 ,do we require the naturalist or the physiologist to reason upon individual man1 on the assumption that his organs are exempt from pain or not liable to destruction8 ,pulvis es1 et in pulverem reverteris2 such is the declaration of anatomical science backed by universal experience4 ,no doubt1 this is a hard truth for us to receive--not less hard than the contested propositions of ,malthus and ,ricardo4 ,but are we for this reason to spare the delicate sensibility which has sprung up all at once among our modern p#ejf publicists1 and has given existence to ,socialism8 ,is medical science1 for the same reason1 to affirm audaciously that we are constantly renewing our youth and are immortal8 ,or1 if medical science refuse to stoop to such juggling1 are we to foam at the mouth1 and cry out1 as has been done in the case of the social sciences--8,medical science admits the existence of pain and death2 it is misanthropical2 it is cruel2 it accuses ,god of being malevolent or powerless2 it is impious2 it is atheistical2 nay1 more1 it creates the evil the existence of which it refuses to deny08 ,i have never doubted that the ,socialist schools have led away many generous hearts and earnest minds1 and ,i have no wish to humiliate any one4 ,but the general character of ,socialism is very whimsical1 and ,i cannot help asking myself how long such a tissue of puerilities can continue in vogue4 ,in ,socialism all is affectation4 ,it affects scientific forms and scientific language1 and we have seen what sort of science it teaches4 ,in its writings1 it affects a delicacy of nerve so feminine as to be unable to listen to a tale of social sufferings2 and whilst it has introduced into literature this insipid and mawkish sensibility1 it has established in the arts a taste for the trivial and the horrible2 in ordinary life1 a sort of scarecrow fashion in dress1 appearance1 and deportment--the long beard1 the grim and sullen countenance1 the vulgar airs of a village ,titan or ,prometheus4 ,in politics 7where such puerilities are less innocent71 ,socialism has introduced the doctrine of energetic means of transition1 the violence of revolutionary practices1 life and material interests sacrificed en masse to what is ideal and chimerical4 ,but what ,socialism affects1 above all1 is a certain show and appearance of religion8 ,this is only one of the ,socialist tactics1 it is true--such tactics are always disgraceful to a school when they lead to hypocrisy4 ,these ,socialists are perpetually talking to us of ,christ2 but ,i would ask them1 how it is that while they acknowledge that ,christ1 the innocent par excellence1 prayed in ,his agony that 8the cup might pass from ,him10 adding1 8,nevertheless1 not my will but ,thine be done10 they should think it strange that mankind at large should be called upon to exercise resignation also4 ,no doubt1 had ,god willed it1 ,he might have so arranged ,his almighty plans that just as the individual advances towards inevitable death1 the human race might have advanced towards inevitable destruction4 ,in that case1 we should have had no choice but to p#ejg submit1 and science1 whether she liked it or not1 must have admitted the sombre social dnoment1 just as she now admits the melancholy individual dnoment4 ,but happily it is not so4 ,there is redemption for man1 and for humanity4 ,the one is indued with an immortal soul2 the other with indefinite perfectibility4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 p#ejh ,,xxiv4 ,,perfectibility4 ,that the human race is perfectible2 that it progresses towards a higher and higher level2 that its wealth is increasing and becoming more equalized2 that its ideas are being enlarged and purified2 that its errors1 and the oppressions which these errors support1 are disappearing2 that its knowledge shines with brighter and brighter effulgence2 that its morality is improving2 that it is learning1 by reason or by experience1 in the domain of responsibility1 the art of earning a constantly larger amount of recompense1 and a constantly smaller amount of chastisement2 that1 consequently1 evil is continually lessening1 and good continually increasing2--these are conclusions which it is impossible to doubt when we scrutinize the nature of man and that intelligent principle1 which is his essence1 which was breathed into him with the breath of life1 and warrants the scriptural declaration that man is made in the image of ,god4 ,we know too well that man is not a perfect being4 ,were he perfect1 he would not reflect a vague resemblance of ,god2 he would be ,god himself4 ,he is imperfect1 then1--subject to error and to suffering1--but1 on the other hand1 were he stationary1 what title could he have to claim the unspeakable privilege of bearing in himself the image of a perfect being8 ,moreover1 if intelligence1 which is the faculty of comparing1 of judging1 of rectifying errors1 of learning1 does not constitute individual perfectibility1 what can constitute it8 ,and if the union of all individual perfectibilities1 especially among beings capable of communicating to each other their acquisitions1 does not afford a guarantee for collective perfectibility1 we must renounce all philosophy and all moral and political science4 ,what constitutes man's perfectibility is his intelligence1 or the p#eji faculty which has been given to him of passing from error1 which is the parent of evil1 to truth1 which is the generating principle of good4 ,it is science and experience which cause man to abandon1 in his mind1 error for truth1 and afterwards1 in his conduct1 evil for good2 it is the discovery which he makes1 in phenomena and in acts1 of effects which he had not suspected4 ,but to enable him to acquire this science1 he must have an interest in acquiring it4 ,in order that he should profit by this experience1 he must have an interest in profiting by it4 ,it is in the law of responsibility1 then1 that we must search for the means of realizing human perfectibility4 ,and as we can form no idea of responsibility apart from liberty2 as acts which are not voluntary can afford neither instruction nor available experience2 as beings capable of being improved or deteriorated by the exclusive action of external causes without the participation of choice1 reflection1 or free will 7although this happens in the case of unconscious organized matter71 could not be called perfectible1 in the moral acceptation of the word1 we must conclude that liberty is the very essence of progress4 ,to impair man's liberty is not only to hurt and degrade him2 it is to change his nature2 it is 7in the measure and proportion in which such oppression is exercised7 to render him incapable of improvement2 it is to despoil him of his resemblance to the ,creator2 it is to dim and deaden in his noble nature that vital spark which glowed there from the beginning4 ,but in thus proclaiming aloud our fixed and unalterable belief in human perfectibility1 and in progress1 which is necessary in every sense1 and which1 by a marvellous correspondence1 is as much more active in one direction as it is more active in all others1 we must not be regarded as indulging in ,utopianism1 or be considered as optimists1 believing 8all to be for the best1 in the best of worlds10 and expecting the immediate arrival of the millennium4 ,alas6 when we turn our regards on the world as it is1 and see around us the enormous amount of mud and meanness1 suffering and complaint1 vice and crime1 which still exist1--when we reflect on the moral action exerted on society by the classes who ought to point out to the lagging multitude the way to the ,new ,jerusalem1--when we ask ourselves what use the rich make of their fortune1 the poets of their genius1 philosophers of their scientific lucubrations1 journalists of the ministry with which they are invested1 high functionaries1 ministers of state1 representatives of the people1 kings1 of the power which fate has placed in their hands1--when p#eaj we witness revolutions like that which has recently agitated ,europe1 and in which each man seems to be in search of what must in the long-run prove fatal to himself and to society at large1--when we see cupidity in all shapes and among all ranks1 the constant sacrifice of the interests of others to our own selfish interest1 and of the future to the present1--when we see that great and inevitable moving spring of the human race1 personal interest1 still making its appearance only in manifestations the most material and the most improvident1--when we see the working classes1 preyed upon by the parasitism of public functionaries1 rise up in revolutionary convulsions1 not against this withering parasitism1 but against wealth legitimately acquired1 that is to say1 against the very element of their own deliverance and the principle of their own right and force1--when such spectacles present themselves to us on all sides1 we get afraid of ourselves1 we tremble for our faith in human perfectibility1 the light would seem to waver1 and be on the eve of extinction1 leaving us in the fearful darkness of ,pessimism4 ,but no--there is no ground for despair4 ,whatever be the impressions which too recent circumstances have made upon us1 humanity still moves onward4 ,what causes the illusion is that we measure the life of nations by the short span of our own individual lives2 and because a few years are a long period for us1 we imagine them also a long period for them4 ,but even adopting this inadequate measure1 the progress of society on all sides is visible4 ,i need scarcely remind you of the marvels which have already been accomplished in what concerns material advantages1 the improved salubrity of towns1 and in the means of locomotion and communication1 etc4 ,in a political point of view1 has the ,french nation gained no experience8 ,who dares affirm that had all the difficulties through which we have just passed presented themselves half a century ago1 or sooner1 ,france would have overcome them with as much ability1 prudence1 and wisdom1 and with so few sacrifices8 ,i write these lines in a country which has been fertile in revolutions4 ,florence used to have a rising every five years1 and at each rising one-half of her citizens robbed and murdered the other half4 ,had we only a little more imagination--not that which creates1 invents1 and assumes facts1 but that which recalls them and brings them to mind--we should be more just to our times and to our contemporaries6 ,what remains true1 and it is a truth which no one can know better than an ,economist1 is this1 that human progress1 especially in its dawn1 is excessively slow1 so very slow as to give rise to despair in the heart of the philanthropist4 4 4 4 4 p#eaa ,men whose genius invests them with the power of the press ought1 it seems to me1 to regard things more nearly1 before scattering amidst the social fermentation discouraging speculations which imply for humanity the alternative of two modes of degradation4 ,we have already seen some examples of this1 when treating of population1 of rent1 of machinery1 of the division of inheritance1 etc4 ,here is another1 taken from ,m4 de ,chteaubriand1 who merely formulates a fashionable conventionalism3 8,the corruption of morals and the civilisation of nations march abreast4 ,if the last present means of liberty1 the first is an inexhaustible source of slavery40 ,it is beyond doubt that civilisation presents means of liberty1 and it is equally beyond doubt that corruption is a source of slavery4 ,that which is doubtful1 more than doubtful1--and what for my own part ,i deny solemnly and formally1--is this1 that civilisation and corruption march abreast4 ,if it were so1 a fatal equilibrium would be established between the means of liberty and the sources of slavery2 and immobility would be the fate of the human race4 ,there cannot1 moreover1 enter into the human heart a thought more melancholy1 more discouraging1 more desolating1 a thought more fitted to urge us to despair1 to irreligion1 to impiety1 to blasphemy1 than this1 that every human being1 whether he wills it or not1 whether he doubts it or not1 proceeds on the road of civilisation--and civilisation is corruption6 ,then1 if all civilisation be corruption1 wherein consist its advantages8 ,it is impossible to pretend that civilisation is unattended with moral1 intellectual1 and material advantages1 for then it would cease to be civilisation4 ,as ,chteaubriand employs the term1 civilisation signifies material progress1 an increase of population1 of wealth1 of prosperity1 the development of intelligence1 the advancement of the sciences2 and all these steps of progress imply1 according to him1 a corresponding retrogression of the moral sense4 ,this were enough to tempt men to a wholesale suicide2 for ,i repeat that material and intellectual progress is not of our preparation and ordination4 ,god himself has decreed it1 in giving us expansible desires and improvable faculties4 ,we are urged on to it without wishing it1 without knowing it1--,chteaubriand1 and his equals1 if he has any1 more than any one else4 ,and this progress is to sink us deeper and deeper into immorality and slavery1 by means of corruption6 4 4 4 4 4 4 p#eab ,i thought at first that ,chteaubriand had let slip an unguarded phrase1 as poets frequently do1 without examining it too narrowly4 ,with that class of writers1 sound sometimes runs away with sense4 ,provided the antithesis is symmetrical1 what matters it that the thought be false or objectionable8 ,provided the metaphor produces its intended effect1 that it has an air of inspiration and depth1 that it secures the applause of the public1 and enables the author to pass for an oracle1 of what importance are exactitude and truth8 ,i had thought1 then1 that ,chteaubriand1 giving way to a momentary excess of misanthropy1 had allowed himself to formulate a conventionalism1 a vulgarism dragged from the kennel4 8,civilisation and corruption march abreast10 is a phrase that has been repeated since the days of ,heraclitus1 but it is not more true on that account4 ,at a distance of several years1 however1 the same great writer has reproduced the same thought1 and in a more didactic form2 which shows that it expressed his deliberate opinion4 ,it is proper to combat it1 not because it comes from ,chteaubriand1 but because it has got abroad1 and so generally prevails4 8,the material condition is ameliorated10 he says1 8intellectual progress advances1 and nations1 in place of profiting1 decay4 ,here is the explanation of the decay of society and the growth of the individual4 ,had the moral sense been developed in proportion to the development of intelligence1 there would have been a counter weight1 and the human race would have grown greater without danger4 ,but it is just the contrary which happens4 ,the perception of good and evil is obscured in proportion as intelligence is enlightened2 conscience becomes narrowed in proportion as ideas are enlarged40--,mmoires d',outre-,tombe1 vol4 xi4 p#eac ,,xxv4 ,,relations ,,of ,,political ,,economy ,,with ,,morals1 ,,with ,,politics1 ,,with ,,legislation4#aaf ,,with ,,religion4 ,a phenomenon is always found placed between two other phenomena1 one of which is its efficient1 and the other its final cause2 p#ead and science has not done with that phenomenon as long as either of these relations remains undeveloped4 ,the human mind generally begins1 ,i think1 with the discovery of final causes1 because they are more immediately interesting to us4 ,no species of knowledge1 besides1 leads us with more force towards religious ideas1 or is more fitted to make us feel in all the fibres of our heart a lively sense of gratitude for the inexhaustible goodness of ,god4 ,habit1 it is true1 has so familiarized us with a great number of these providential intentions1 that we enjoy them without thought4 ,we see1 and we hear1 without thinking of the ingenious mechanism of the eye and of the ear4 ,the sun1 the dew1 the rain1 lavish upon us their useful effects1 or their gentle sensations1 without awakening our surprise or our gratitude4 ,this is solely owing to the continued action upon us of these admirable phenomena4 ,for let a final cause1 although comparatively insignificant1 come to be disclosed to us for the first time1 let the botanist explain to us why this plant affects such or such a form1 or why that other is clothed in such or such a colour1 we immediately feel in our heart the unspeakable enchantment with which new proofs of the power1 the goodness1 and the wisdom of ,god never fail to penetrate us4 ,the region of final intentions1 then1 is for man's imagination as an atmosphere impregnated with religious ideas4 ,but after we have perceived1 or had a glimpse of the phenomenon in this aspect1 we have still to study it in another relation1 that is to say1 to seek for its efficient cause4 p#eae ,it is strange1 but it sometimes happens1 that after having obtained the full knowledge of that cause1 we find that it carries with it so necessarily the effect which we had admired at first1 that we refuse to recognise in it longer the character of a final cause2 and we say3 8,i was very simple to believe that ,god had provided such an arrangement with such a design2 ,i see now that the cause which ,i have discovered being given 7and it is inevitable71 this arrangement must follow necessarily1 apart from any pretended providential intention40 ,it is thus that defective and superficial science1 with its scalpel and its analyses1 comes sometimes to destroy in our souls the religious sentiment to which the simple aspect of nature had given rise4 ,this is the case frequently with the anatomist and the astronomer4 ,what a strange thing it is1 exclaims the ignorant man1 that when an extraneous substance penetrates into a tissue1 where its presence does great injury1 an inflammation and a suppuration take place1 which tend to expel it6 ,no1 says the anatomist1 there is nothing intentional in that expulsion4 ,it is a necessary effect of the suppuration2 and the suppuration itself is a necessary effect of the presence of an extraneous substance in our tissues4 ,if you wish it1 ,i shall explain to you the mechanism1 and you will acknowledge yourself that the effect follows the cause1 but that the cause has not been arranged intentionally to produce that effect1 since it is itself the necessary effect of an anterior cause4 ,how ,i admire1 says the ignorant man1 the foresight of ,god1 who has willed that the rain should not descend on the soil in a sheet1 but should fall in drops1 as if it came from the gardener's watering-pot6 ,were it not so1 vegetation would be impossible4 ,you throw away your admiration1 answers the learned naturalist2 the cloud is not a sheet of water2 if it were1 it could not be supported by the atmosphere4 ,it is a collection of microscopic vesicles1 or minute bladders like soap-bubbles4 ,when their density increases1 or when they burst by compression1 these thousands of millions of infinitesimal drops fall1 growing larger in their descent by the vapour of the water which they precipitate1 etc4 ,if vegetation is benefited in consequence1 it is by accident2 but we must not think that the ,creator amuses himself in sending us down water through the sieve of a monster watering-pot4 ,ignorance1 we must confess1 very often imparts a certain plausibility to science1 when the connexion of causes and effects is regarded in this way1 by attributing a phenomenon to a final intention which does not exist1 and which is dissipated before the light of superior knowledge4 p#eaf ,thus1 in former days1 before men had any knowledge of electricity1 they were frightened by the noise of thunder1 being able to recognise in that astounding voice1 bellowing amid the storm1 nothing less than a manifestation of ,divine wrath4 ,this is an association of ideas which1 like many others1 has disappeared before the progress of physical science4 ,man is so constituted1 that when a phenomenon affects him1 he searches for the cause of it2 and if he finds out that cause1 he gives it a name4 ,then he sets himself to find out the cause of that cause1 and so he goes on until he can mount no higher1 when he stops1 and exclaims1 8,it is ,god2 it is the will of ,god40 ,this is his ultima ratio4 ,he is arrested1 however1 only for the moment4 ,science advances1 and soon this second1 third1 or fourth cause1 which had remained unperceived1 is revealed to his eyes4 ,then science says1 ,this effect is not due1 as we believed1 to the immediate will of ,god1 but to that natural cause which ,i have just discovered4 ,and man1 after having taken possession of this discovery1 after having gained this step in the region of science1 finds himself1 so to speak1 one step farther removed from the region of ,faith1 and again asks1 ,what is the cause of that cause8 ,and not finding it1 he persists in the ever-recurring explanation1 8,it is the will of ,god40 ,and so he proceeds onwards for indefinite ages1 through a countless succession of scientific revelations and exercises of faith4 ,this procedure on the part of mankind must appear to superficial minds to be destructive of every religious idea2 for is the result of it not this1 that as science advances1 ,god recedes8 ,do we not see clearly that the domain of final intentions is narrowed in proportion as the domain of natural causes is enlarged8 ,unhappy are they who give to this fine problem so narrow a solution4 ,no1 it is not true that as science advances1 the idea of ,god recedes4 ,on the contrary1 what is true is that1 as our intelligence increases1 this idea is enlarged1 and broadened1 and elevated4 ,when we discover a natural cause for what we had imagined an immediate1 spontaneous1 supernatural act of the ,divine will1 are we to conclude that that will is absent or indifferent8 ,no1 indeed2 all that it proves is1 that that will acts by processes different from those which it had pleased us to imagine4 ,all that it proves is1 that the phenomenon which we regarded as an accident in creation occupies its place in the universal frame2 and that everything1 even the most special effects1 have been foreseen from all eternity by the divine prescience4 ,what6 is the idea which we form of the power of ,god lessened when we come to see that each of the countless results which we discover1 or which escape our p#eag investigations1 not only has its natural cause1 but is bound up in an infinite circle of causes2 so that there is not a detail of movement1 of force1 of form1 of life1 which is not the product of the great whole1 or which can be explained apart from that whole4 ,but why this dissertation1 which is foreign1 as it would seem1 to the main object of our inquiries8 ,the phenomena of the social economy have likewise their efficient cause1 and their providential intention4 ,in this department1 as in natural science1 as in anatomy1 or in astronomy1 men have frequently denied the final cause precisely because the efficient cause assumes the character of an absolute necessity4 ,the social world abounds in harmonies1 of which we can form no adequate or complete conception until the mind has remounted to causes1 in order to seek their explanation1 and descended to effects1 to discover the destination of the phenomena4 4 4 4 4 ,,notes4 ,,translator',s ,,preface #a ,notice1 etc41 p4 #cj1 note ,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,this refers to ,,note #aa ,below4 ,,notice ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,fr,d,,ric ,,bastiat4 #b ,notice sur la vie1 etc4--uvres ,compltes1 t4 i4 pp4 #aj1 #aa4 #c ,correspondance--uvres ,compltes1 t4 i4 p4 #bg4 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 t4 xvii4 p4 #aci4 #d uvres ,compltes1 tome i4 p4 #bdd4 #e ,tome xvii4 p4 #adh4 #f ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 t4 xvii4 p4 #adf4 #g ,correspondance--uvres ,compltes1 t4 i4 p4 #ii4 #h ,notice sur la vie1 etc4--uvres ,compltes1 t4 i4 p4 #ah4 #i ,this admirable work1 the best and most complete treatise on money which exists in any language1 well deserves a place in ,english literature4 #aj 8,god made the country2 and it is perhaps in surveying plains1 and meads1 and mountains1 remote from man1 that the mind is most elevated to pure and high contemplations4 ,but cities1 temples1 and the memorials of past ages1 bridges1 aqueducts1 statues1 pictures1 and all the elegancies and comforts of the town1 are equally the work of ,god1 through the propensities of ,his creatures1 and1 we must presume1 for the fulfilment of ,his design40--,sir ,charles ,bell on the ,hand1 ch4 #c4 #aa ,the following list of chapters1 intended to complete the ,harmonies conomiques1 found among the author's papers1 is exceedingly interesting4 ,of those marked 99 no notes or traces were found4 ,normal ,phenomena4 #a4 ,producer--,consumer4 #b4 ,the ,two ,aphorisms4 #c4 ,theory of ,rent4 #d4 99,money4 #e4 99,credit4 #f4 ,wages4 #g4 ,saving4 #h4 ,population4 #i4 ,private and ,public ,services4 #aj4 99,taxation4 ,corollaries4 #aa4 ,machinery4 #ab4 ,free ,trade4 #ac4 ,intermediaries4 #ad4 ,raw ,materials--,manufactured ,products4 #ae4 ,luxury4 ,disturbing ,phenomena4 #af4 ,spoliation4 #ag4 ,war4 #ah4 99,slavery4 #ai4 99,theocracy4 #bj4 99,monopoly4 #ba4 ,governmental ,undertakings4 #bb4 ,false ,fraternity or ,communism4 ,general ,views4 #bc4 ,responsibility--,solidarity4 #bd4 ,personal ,interest or ,social ,motive ,force4 #be4 ,perfectibility4 #bf4 99,public ,opinion4 #bg4 99,relations of ,political ,economy4 with ,morals1 99with ,politics1 99with ,legislation1 with ,religion4 ,,to ,,the ,,youth ,,of ,,france #ab ,the ,first ,edition of the ,harmonies conomiques appeared in #ahej4--,translator4 #ac ,the author employs the term proltaire1 for which we have no equivalent word1 to distinguish the man who lives by wages from the man who lives upon realized property--8les hommes qui n'ont que leurs bras1 les salaris40--,see post1 ,chap4 ,x4--,translator4 #ad ,i shall explain this law by figures3 ,suppose three periods during which capital increases1 labour remaining the same4 ,let the total production at these three periods be as #hj--ajj--abj4 ,it will be thus divided3 ,capitalist's ,labourer's ,total4 share4 share4 ,first ,period1 #de #ce #hj ,second ,period1 #ej #ej #ajj ,third ,period1 #ee #fe #abj ,of course these proportions are merely given for the sake of illustration4 ,i4 ,,natural ,,and ,,artificial ,,organization #ae ,this ,chapter was first published in the ,journal des conomistes1 ,january #ahdh4--;,editor4 #af ,allusion to a socialist work of the day--,la ,reforme industrielle1 ou la ,phalanstre1 par ,ch4 ,fourier4--,translator4 #ag ,mtayage is a mode of letting farms in the south of ,europe1 where the landlord furnishes a proportion of the means of cultivation1 and shares the produce with the cultivator1 or mtayer4--,translator4 #ah 8,it is averred that the rgime of free competition demanded by an ignorant ,political ,economy1 and intended to do away with monopolies1 tends only to the general organization of monster monopolies in all departments40--,principes du ,socialisme1 par ,m4 ,considrant1 p4 #ae4 ,,ii4 ,,wants1 ,,efforts1 ,,satisfactions #ai ,this and the following chapter were inserted in the ,journal des conomistes1 ,september and ,december #ahdh4--;,editor4 #bj ,icarie1 ,phalanstre1 etc41--allusion to ,socialist works of the day4--,translator4 #ba 8,our industrial rgime1 founded on competition without guarantee and without organization1 is then only a social hell1 a vast realization of all the torments and all the punishments of the ancient ,tnarus4 ,there is one difference1 however--namely1 the victims40--7,vide ,considrant47 ,,iii4 ,,wants ,,of ,,man #bb ,a mathematical law of frequent occurrence1 but very little understood in ,political ,economy4 #bc ,one of the indirect objects of this work is to combat modern sentimental schools1 who1 in spite of facts1 refuse to admit that suffering to any extent enters into the designs of ,providence4 ,as these schools are said to proceed from ,rousseau1 ,i must here cite to them a passage from their master3 8,the evil which we see is not absolute evil2 and far from being directly antagonistic to the good1 it concurs with it in the universal harmony40 #bd ,the term consumption employed by ,english ,economists1 the ,french ,economists translate by consommation4--,translator4 ,,iv4 ,,exchange #be ,v4 ,j4 ,b4 ,say4 #bf ,moreover1 this slave1 by reason of his superiority1 ends in the long-run by depreciating and emancipating all others4 ,this is a harmony which ,i leave to the sagacity of the reader to follow to its consequences4 #bg ,see ,sophismes conomiques 7,english edition71 #b;d series1 p4 #abg1 et seq4 #bh ,what follows is from a note found among the author's papers4 ,had he lived1 he would have incorporated the substance of it in the body of his dissertation on ,exchange4 ,all that we feel authorized to do is to place it at the end of the present chapter4--,editor4 #bi ,see1 for the refutation of this error1 chapter xi41 post4--,also chapters ii4 and iii4 of ,sophismes conomiques1 ,english ,edition4 ,v4 ,,of ,,value #cj ,i have ventured to state elsewhere some of the reasons which induce me to doubt the entire soundness of ,bastiat's conclusions on the subject of ,rent and the ,value of ,land4--,see note to chapter ix4 post4--,translator4 #ca ,french ,economists of the school of ,quesnay4--,translator4 #cb ,adds6 ,the subject had then intrinsic value1 anterior to the bestowal of labour upon it4 ,that could only come from nature4 ,the action of nature is not then gratuitous1 according to this showing2 but in that case1 who can have the audacity to exact payment for this portion of superhuman value8 #cc ,the ,french ,economists translate our word consumption by consommation4--,translator4 #cd ,it is because1 in a state of freedom1 efforts compete with each other that they obtain this remuneration nearly in proportion to their intensity4 ,but1 ,i repeat1 this proportionality is not inherent in the notion of value4 ,it is a proof that where this competition does not exist the proportionality ceases4 ,in that case we discover no relation between divers kinds of labour and their remuneration4 ,the absence of competition may result from the nature of things or from human perversity4 ,if it arises from the nature of things1 we shall see a very small amount of labour give rise to great value1 and no one have reason to complain4 ,such is the case of the man who finds a diamond4 ,such is the case of ,rubini1 of ,malibran1 of ,taglioni1 of a fashionable tailor1 of the proprietor of the ,clos-,vougeot1 etc41 etc4 ,circumstances have put them in possession of rare means of rendering service2 they have no rivals1 and exact a high price4 ,the service being1 from its very nature1 of excessive rarity1 shows that it is not essential to the well-being and progress of mankind4 ,it is an object of luxury1 of vanity1 which wealthy people are enabled to procure4 ,is it not natural that a man1 before indulging in such satisfactions1 should wait until he finds himself in a situation to provide for wants which are more imperious and more reasonable8 ,if competition is absent in consequence of some human intervention1 the same effects are produced1 but with this enormous difference1 that they have been produced where they ought not4 ,in that case we see a comparatively small amount of labour give rise to great value2 but how8 ,by forcibly interdicting that competition the effect of which is to proportion remuneration to services4 ,then1 just as ,rubini might say to a dilettante4 8,you must pay me handsomely1 or ,i don't sing this evening10--presuming on being able to render a service which no one else can render1--in the same way a butcher1 a baker1 a landlord1 a banker1 may say1 8,i must have an extravagant price1 or you shall have none of my corn1 my bread1 my meat1 my gold2 and ,i have adopted precautions1 ,i shall employ force1 to prevent you being able to provide yourself elsewhere1 and to make sure that no one shall render you services analogous to mine40 ,people who assimilate artificial to what they call natural monopolies1 because they have this in common1 that they enhance the value of labour1 such people1 ,i say1 are both blind and superficial4 ,artificial monopoly is nothing else than spoliation4 ,it produces evils which1 apart from it1 did not exist4 ,it inflicts privations on a considerable portion of society1 frequently as regards commodities of primary necessity4 ,moreover1 it gives rise to irritation1 hatreds1 reprisals1--all the fruits of injustice4 ,natural advantages do no harm to mankind4 ,at most we can say that they merely exhibit pre-existent evils1 imputable to no one4 ,it may be regretted1 perhaps1 that tokay is not as cheap and as abundant as vin ordinaire4 ,but that is not a social evil2 it is one imposed on us by nature4 ,between natural and artificial monopolies1 then1 there is this essential difference3 ,the one is the effect of scarcity1 pre-existent and inevitable4 ,the other is the effect of a scarcity which is factitious and unnatural4 ,in the first case1 it is not the absence of competition which creates the scarcity2 it is the scarcity which explains the absence of competition4 ,society would be puerile were it to complain and torment itself because there is in the world only one ,jenny ,lind1 one ,clos-,vougeot1 one ,regent4 ,in the second case it is very different4 ,it is not on account of a providential scarcity that competition becomes impossible1 but because force has repressed and put down competition that there is created among men a scarcity which ought not to have existed4--7,note extracted from ,,mss4 left by the ,author47 #ce ,vide post1 chap4 xv4 ,accumulation is a circumstance of no account in ,political ,economy4 ,let the satisfaction be immediate or delayed1 let it be adjourned or follow instantly on the effort1--in what respect does this change the nature of things8 ,i choose to make a sacrifice to enjoy the pleasure of hearing a fine voice4 ,i go to the theatre1 and pay for my entertainment--the satisfaction is immediate4 ,i devote my money to the purchase of a basket of strawberries1 and ,i can delay my satisfaction till to-morrow--that is all4 ,it may be said that the strawberries constitute wealth1 because ,i can exchange them4 ,true4 ,whilst the effort has been made and the satisfaction is delayed1 wealth subsists4 ,it is satisfaction which destroys wealth4 ,when the strawberries been eaten the satisfaction will be on a level with that which ,i derived from hearing ,alboni4 ,service received--service rendered--this is political economy4--7,note from ,,mss4 left by the ,author47 #cf ,what follows was intended by the author to form part of this chapter4 #cg ,these are the words by which ,roman lawyers designated what they termed innominate contracts1 as distinguished from contracts with known names1 as purchase and sale1 letting1 hiring1 borrowing1 lending1 etc4--,translator4 #ch ,trait d'conomie ,politique1 p4 #a4 ,,vi4 ,,wealth #ci ,nouvel essai sur la ,richesse des ,nations1 p4 #dch4 #dj ,ib41 p4 #bfc4 #da ,ib41 p4 #def4 #db ,ib41 p4 #def4 #dc ,nouvel essai sur la ,richesse des ,nations1 p4 #afa4 #dd ,ib41 p4 #afh4 #de ,ib41 p4 #afh #df ,ib41 p4 #fc4 #dg ,the ,earl of ,lauderdale1 from adopting the false principle which the author here exposes1 fell into the same error1 maintaining that 8an increase of riches1 when arising from alterations in the quantity of commodities1 is always a proof of the immediate diminution of wealth10 and that a diminution of riches is evidence of an immediate increase of wealth2 and that 8in proportion as the riches of individuals are increased by an augmentation of the value of any commodity1 the wealth of the nation is generally diminished2 and in proportion as the mass of individual riches is diminished by the diminution of the value of the commodity1 the national opulence is generally increased40 ,this melancholy paradox ,lord ,lauderdale maintained stoutly in a set treatise4 ,see ,inquiry into the ,nature and ,origin of ,public ,wealth by the ,earl of ,lauderdale4 ,edition #ahjd1 p4 #ej4 ,mr ,ricardo has given an exposition of the 8,distinctive ,properties of ,value and ,riches0 in his work on the ,principles of ,political ,economy4 ,third ,edition1 p4 #cbj4--,translator4 #dh 8,do you take the side of ,competition1 you are wrong--do you argue against ,competition1 you are still wrong2 which means that you are always right40--,p4 ,j4 ,proudhon1 ,contradictions conomiques1 p4 #ahb4 #di ,always this perpetual and lamentable confusion between ,value and ,utility8 ,i can show you many utilities which are not appropriated1 but ,i defy you to show me in the whole world a single value which has not a proprietor4 #ej ,what follows is the commencement of a supplementary note found among the papers of the author4--,translator4 ,,vii4 ,,capital #ea ,see my brochure entitled ,capital et ,rente4 #eb ,allusion to ,socialist works--,la ,rforme industrielle1 ou le ,phalanstre1 ,recueil periodique1 rdig par ,ch4 ,fourier1 #ahcb4--,visite au ,phalanstre1 par ,m4 ,briancourt1 #ahdh4--,voyage en ,icarie1 par ,cabet1 #ahdh1 etc4--,translator4 #ec ,ante1 p4 #hb1 et4 seq4 ,,viii4 ,,property--,,community #ed ,public warehouses where goods were deposited1 and negotiable receipts issued in exchange for them4--,translator4 ,,ix4 ,,landed ,,property #ee ,wealth of ,nations 7,buchanan's #b;d edit471 vol4 ii4 p4 #ec4 #ef ,ib41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ed4 #eg ,ib41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ee1 note4 #eh ,ricardo's ,political ,works 7,m',culloch's edit471 pp4 #cd1 #ce4 #ei ,the words in italics and capitals are thus printed in the original text4 #fj ,alterner un champ1 is to rear alternate crops of corn and hay in a field4--,translator4 #fa ,on the subject of ,rent1 and the constituent elements of the ,value of ,land1 ,bastiat would seem to have adopted1 though perhaps unconsciously1 the theory of ,mr ,carey1 in his able and original work on ,the ,principles of ,political ,economy 7,philadelphia1 #ahcg-ch74 ,practically1 no doubt1 ,mr ,carey's view of the subject to a great extent holds true4 ,if we take into account all the labour and capital laid out in permanent ameliorations upon a field or a farm1 from its first clearance to the present moment1 it may be true that there is scarcely any land now under cultivation which is worth what it cost2 and that the ,rent yielded by such land1 consequently1 resolves itself into the remuneration of anterior labour4 ,but the sweeping assertion of ,bastiat1 that 8land which has not been subjected1 directly or indirectly1 to human action is everywhere destitute of value10 is certainly not correct as a 8matter of fact20 for from the spot where ,i am now writing1 ,i can see thousands of acres which have never since the creation had a spade1 or a plough1 or a human hand applied to them1 which nevertheless do yield a ,rent--a small rent1 a shilling1 a penny an acre1 it may be--but a return which can by no process of analysis be resolved into the remuneration of anterior labour or capital4 ,with regard to such land1 the question of rent or no rent would seem to depend on the current and usual rate of profits4 ,land in its natural state1 and without cultivation1 is capable of producing grass for the food of cattle1 and other products capable of rendering service to man4 ,suppose1 for example1 that the agriculture of a country has reached the least productive corn-land1 which yields a return of #abj for each #ajj of capital employed in its cultivation1 and that much of the remaining land is incapable of cultivation1--a tract of moorland1 or rough pasture1 for instance1 like some parts of the ,highlands of ,scotland4 ,whether such land will or will not yield a rent must depend on whether the return1 in sheep1 cattle1 copsewood1 or other produce1 after replacing the capital employed1 exceeds or falls short of #bj per cent4 ,suppose that a person possessed of a capital equal to #ajj1 instead of applying that capital to the cultivation of the least productive corn-land1 with a return equal to #abj1 employs his #ajj in purchasing1 tending1 and bringing to market #ajj sheep1--if the annual produce and increase of his flock1 over and above his necessary outgoings1 amounts only to #aj per cent4 on his capital1 of course he will find the rearing of sheep unprofitable1 and give up the trade4 ,he can in that case pay no rent1 for his return is not equal to even the ordinary profits4 ,but if the increase of his flock1 over and above his outgoings1 amounts to #cj per cent4 on the capital employed1 then the land to which we refer will yield a rent equal to #aj per cent4 on that capital4 ,whether this shall be the rent of #aj1 of #ej1 or #ajj1 or #ajjj acres of land1 depends entirely on how much land is required to feed #ajj sheep2 the greater the extent of land1 the less will be the rent of each acre2 it may be a pound1 or a shilling1 or a penny an acre2 still every acre1 and every part of every acre1 will yield a rent4 ,nor does the question of rent or no rent depend on the amount of the capital employed2 for if a capital of #ajj employed on #aj1jjj acres of land yields a clear return of #acj when profits are at #bj per cent41 the surplus #aj clearly constitutes rent4 ,rent depends on the ratio of the product to the capital employed1 and if that product1 or its value1 exceed the capital1 or its value1 by more than the ordinary rate of profits1 a rent1 greater or less in amount1 according to the value of the capital and the extent of surface over which that capital is spread1 will be yielded by every inch of land capable of giving nourishment to a blade of grass4 ,on a searching analysis of rent1 then1 we always find a residuum which cannot be resolved into the remuneration of anterior labour or capital2 and as the value of land in its natural and uncultivated state depends on the amount of this residuum1 or rent1 if that value is to be brought within the limits of ,bastiat's theory1 we must apply to it the same principle which he applied 7,chap4 ,v41 pp4 #aci-ada ante7 to the case of a diamond found by accident1 and resolve it1 not into service rendered by undergoing labour1 or making an effort1 for another1 but into service rendered by saving another from undergoing the labour or making the effort for himself4 ,bastiat seems to have felt this as he approached the conclusion of the present chapter4 7,see post1 p4 #bhb47 ,in this part of his work1 ,bastiat1 in his desire to refute the fallacies of the ,socialists and ,communists on the subject of property1 seems to have gone beyond the proper domain of ,political ,economy2 for in strictness it is not the business of that science to vindicate the institution of property1 or to explain its origin4 ,it is enough for the ,economist that property exists1 and all that he is concerned to do is to explain the laws which regulate the production1 distribution1 and consumption of wealth4--,translator4 #fb ,ricardo4 ,x4 ,,competition #fc ,ante1 p4 #dh et seq4 #fd ,liberty1 ,equality1 and ,fraternity4--,translator4 #fe ,see ,voltaire's tragedy1 ,le ,fanatisme4--,translator4 ,,xi4 ,,producer--,,consumer #ff ,economic ,sophisms1 chap4 #a4 #fg ,allusion to ,socialist works4 ,see p4 #bje1 ante4 #fh ,see the author's discourse ,sur l',impt des ,boissons1 in the second edition of the pamphlet entitled ,incompatibilits ,parlementaires4--,editor4 ,,xii4 ,,the ,,two ,,aphorisms #fi ,when the van-guard of the ,icarian expedition left ,havre1 ,i questioned some of these visionaries with a view to discover their real thoughts4 ,competence easily obtained1 such was their hope and their motive4 ,one of them said to me1 8,i am going1 and my brother follows with the second expedition4 ,he has eight children1 and you see what a great thing it will be for him to have no longer to educate and maintain them40 8,i see it at once10 ,i replied1 8but that heavy charge must fall on some other body40 ,to rid oneself of a burden and transfer it to the shoulders of another1 such was the sense in which these unfortunate people understood the apophthegm of ,fraternity--all for each4 #gj ,see the pamphlet ,spoliation et ,loi1 p4 #bb et seq4--,editor4 ,,xiii4 ,,rent #ga ,two or three short fragments are all that the author has left us on this important subject4 ,the reason is1 that he proposed1 as he has told us1 to set forth the views of ,mr ,carey of ,philadelphia1 in opposition to the theory of ,ricardo4--,editor4 #gb ,celebrated vineyard of ,burgundy4--,translator4 #gc ,of these intended developments none1 unfortunately1 exist2 but we may be permitted to notice1 briefly1 the two principal consequences of the state of matters supposed by the author4 #a4 ,two fields1 the one cultivated1 ,a1 the other uncultivated1 ,b1 being supposed of identical quality1 the amount of labour formerly devoted to the clearance of ,a is assumed as the necessary measure of the amount of labour required for the clearance of ,b4 ,we may even say that1 on account of our now superior knowledge of agriculture1 of our implements1 of our improved means of communication1 etc41 a less amount of labour would now be necessary to bring ,b into cultivation than was formerly required in the case of ,a4 ,if land had value in itself1 ,a would be worth all that it cost to bring it into culture1 plus something additional for its natural productive powers2 that is to say1 much more than the sum now required to bring ,b into the same state4 ,now it is just the reverse4 ,the field ,a is worth less since we buy it rather than bring ,b into cultivation4 ,in purchasing ,a1 then1 we pay nothing for the natural productive powers1 since the price does not even compensate the original cost of bringing it into cultivation4 #b4 ,if the field ,a produces #ajjj measures of corn1 the field ,b when cultivated must be supposed to produce the same quantity4 ,the reason why ,a was formerly cultivated was1 that formerly #ajjj measures of corn amply remunerated all the labour required both for its original clearance and its annual cultivation4 ,the reason why ,b is not cultivated is1 that now #ajjj measures of corn would not remunerate the same amount of labour1 or even a less amount1 as we have just before remarked4 ,and what does this show8 ,evidently that the value of human labour has risen in relation to corn2 that a day's labour is worth more wages estimated in corn4 ,in other words1 corn is obtained with less effort1 and is exchanged for a less amount of labour2 and the theory of the progressive dearness of the means of subsistence is erroneous4--,editor4 ,,money #gd ,see the author's brochure1 ,maudit ,argent4--,editor4 ,,credit #ge ,see the author's brochure1 ,gratuit du ,credit4--,editor4 ,,xiv4 ,,wages #gf ,see ante1 chapters i4 and ii4 #gg ,ante1 p4 #agb4 #gh ,see post1 chapter xx41 on ,responsibility4 #gi ,extract from ,la ,presse1 #bb;d ,june #ahej4 #hj ,caisse de ,retraite1--a friendly accumulation society which has for object to provide for the labourer in his old age4--,see an account of these ,caisses de ,retraite in ,dictionnaire de l'conomie ,politique1 t4 i4 p4 #bee4--,translator4 #ha ,emeutes of ,june #ahdh4 #hb ,the chapter1 8,des ,machines10 is one of those included in the author's list of intended additions1 which he did not live to write4 7,see ,notice of ,life and ,writings1 etc41 p4 #cj1 ante47--,translator4 #hc ,for an explanation of these terms1 borrowed from the ,civil ,law1 see ante1 p4 #agb4--,translator4 #hd ,see ante1 chapter iv4 #he ,the manuscript brought from ,rome stops here4 ,what is subjoined was found among the papers left by the author in ,paris4 ,it indicates how he intended to terminate and sum up this chapter4--,editor4 ,,xv4 ,,saving #hf ,sir ,james ,steuart of ,coltness1 whose ,inquiry into the ,principles of ,political ,economy was published in #agfg1 nine years before the appearance of ,adam ,smith's great work1 takes the very same view of the principle of population which ,malthus1 thirty years afterwards1 more formally enunciated4 8,the generative faculty10 says ,sir ,james ,steuart1 8resembles a spring loaded with a weight1 which always exerts itself in proportion to the diminution of resistance4 ,when food has remained some time without augmentation or diminution1 generation will carry numbers as high as possible2 if1 then1 food come to be diminished1 the spring is overpowered1 the force of it becomes less than nothing1 inhabitants will diminish1 at least in proportion to the overcharge4 ,if1 on the other hand1 food be increased1 the spring will begin to exert itself in proportion as the resistance diminishes1 people will begin to be better fed1 they will multiply1 and1 in proportion as they increase in numbers1 the food will become scarce again40--,translator4 #hg 8,threescore and ten souls40--,gen4 xlvi4 #bg4 8,seventy souls40--,exodus i4 #e4 8,threescore and ten persons40--,deut4 x4 #bb4--,translator4 #hh #fja1gcj 8from twenty years old and upwards40--,numbers xxvi4 #b and #ea4--,translator4 #hi ,what follows was written in #ahdf4--;,editor4 #ij ,it is fair to mention that ,j4 ,b4 ,say represents the means of existence as a variable quantity4 #ia 8,there are few states in which there is not a constant effort in the population to increase beyond the means of subsistence4 ,this constant effort as constantly tends to subject the lower classes of society to distress1 and to prevent any great permanent melioration of their condition4 4 4 4 ,the constant effort towards population 4 4 4 increases the number of people before the means of subsistence are increased10 etc4--,malthus on ,population1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ag1 #ah1 #fth edition4 #ib ,see chap4 xi4 ante4 #ic 8,although we might describe fermage1 in a general way1 as the letting or leasing of land1 in whatever form it is done1 we must distinguish two forms of letting1 equally common in various parts of ,europe1 and very different in their effects4 ,in the one form1 the land is let for a fixed rent1 payable in money annually4 ,in the other1 it is let under the condition of the produce being divided between the proprietor and the cultivator4 ,it is to the first of these two modes of leasing land that we give more particularly the name of fermage4 ,the other is generally designated in ,france as mtayage40 7,dictionnaire de l'conomie ,politique1 tome i4 p4 #gei47--,translator4 ,,xvii4 ,,private ,,and ,,public ,,services #id 8,the moment this value is handed over by the taxpayer1 it is lost to him2 the moment it is consumed by the ,government1 it is lost to everybody1 and does not return to society40--,j4 ,b4 ,say1 ,trait d'conomie ,politique1 liv4 iii4 chap #i4 ,unquestionably2 but society gains in return the service which is rendered to it--security1 for example4 ,moreover1 ,say returns to the correct doctrine almost immediately afterwards1 when he says1--8,to levy a tax is to do a wrong to society--a wrong which is compensated by no advantage1 when no service is rendered to society in exchange40--,ibid4 #ie 8,public contributions1 even when they are consented to by the nation1 are a violation of property1 seeing they can be levied only on values which have been produced by the land1 capital1 and industry of individuals4 ,thus1 whenever they exceed the amount indispensable for the preservation of society1 we must regard them as spoliation40--,j4 ,b4 ,say4 ,trait d'conomie ,politique1 liv4 iii4 chap4 #i4 ,here1 again1 the subsequent qualification corrects the too absolute judgment previously pronounced4 ,the doctrine that services are exchanged for services1 simplifies much both the problem and its solution4 #if ,civil law terms4 ,see ante1 p4 #agb4 #ig ,the effects of such a transformation are strikingly exemplified in an instance given by ,m4 d',hautpoul1 the ,minister of ,war3--8,each soldier10 he says1 8receives #af centimes a day for his maintenance4 ,the ,government takes these #af centimes1 and undertakes to support him4 ,the consequence is that all have the same rations1 and of the same kind1 whether it suit them or not4 ,one has too much bread1 and throws it away4 ,another has not enough of butcher's meat1 and so on4 ,we have1 therefore1 made an experiment4 ,we leave to the soldiers the free disposal of these #af centimes1 and we are happy to find that this has been attended with a great improvement in their condition4 ,each now consults his own tastes and likings1 and studies the market prices of what they want to purchase4 ,generally they have1 of their own accord1 substituted a portion of butcher's meat for bread4 ,in some instances they buy more bread1 in others more meat1 in others more vegetables1 in others more fish4 ,their health is improved2 they are better pleased2 and the ,state is relieved from a great responsibility40 ,the reader will understand that it is not as bearing on military affairs that ,i cite this experiment4 ,i refer to it as calculated to illustrate a radical difference between public and private service1 between official regulations and liberty4 ,would it be better for the ,state to take from us our means of support1 and undertake to feed us1 or to leave us both our means of support and the care of feeding ourselves8 ,the same question may be asked with reference to all our wants4 #ih ,see the author's pamphlet1 entitled ,baccalaurat et ,socialisme4--,editor4 #ii ,the author1 in a previous work1 had sought the solution of the same question4 ,the subject of his inquiry was the legitimate province of law4 ,all the developments in the pamphlet1 entitled ,la ,loi1 are applicable to the subject he is now discussing4 ,we refer the reader to that brochure4--,editor4 #ajj ,here ends the ,,ms4 ,we refer the reader to the author's pamphlet entitled ,spoliation et ,loi1 in the second part of which he has exposed the sophisms which were given utterance to at this meeting of the ,conseil gnral4 ,on the subjects of the six chapters intended to follow this1 under the titles of ,taxation1 ,machinery1 ,free ,trade1 ,intermediaries1 ,raw ,materials1 and ,luxury1 we refer the reader1 #ast1 to the ,discours sur l',impt des ,boissons1 inserted in the second edition of the pamphlet1 ,incompatibilits ,parlementaires2 #b;dly1 to the pamphlet entitled ,ce qu'on voit et ,ce qu'on ne voit pas2 #c;dly1 to the ,sophismes conomiques4 ,,xviii4 ,,disturbing ,,causes #aja ,the author was unable to continue this examination of errors--which are for those who are misled by them a nearly immediate cause of suffering--nor to describe another class of errors1 which make their appearance in the shape of violence and fraud1 and the first effects of which bear heavily on others4 ,his notes contain nothing on the subject of disturbing causes but the preceding fragment and that which follows4 ,we would also refer the reader to the first chapter of the second series of ,sophisms1 entitled ,spoliation4--,editor4 ,,xix4 ,,war #ajb ,see concluding part of chapter xi4 ante4 #ajc ,we forget this1 when we propose the question1 ,is slave labour dearer or cheaper than free labour8 #ajd ,see the author's brochure1 ,baccalaurat et ,socialisme4--,editor4 ,,xx4 ,,responsibility #aje 4 4 4 4 4 because ,i believe that it is under the direction of a superior impulse1 because1 ,providence being unable to act in the social order except through the intervention of men's interests and men's wills1 it is impossible that the natural resulting force of these interests1 the common tendency of these wills1 should be towards ultimate evil2 for then we must conclude that it is not only man1 or the human race1 which proceeds onward towards error2 but that ,god himself1 being powerless or malevolent1 urges on to evil ,his abortive creation4 ,we believe1 then1 in liberty1 because we believe in universal harmony1 because we believe in ,god4 ,proclaiming in the name of faith1 and formulating in the name of science1 the ,divine laws of the moral movement1 living and pliant as these laws are1 we spurn the narrow1 sinister1 unbending1 and unalterable institutions which the blind leaders of the ignorant would substitute for this admirable mechanism4 ,it would be absurd in the atheist to say1 laissez faire le hasard6--seek not to control chance1 or blind destiny4 ,but1 as believers1 we have a right to say1 seek not to control the order and justice of ,god--seek not to control the free action of the sovereign and infallible mover of all1 or of that machinery of transmission which we call the human initiative4 ,liberty thus understood is no longer the anarchical deification of individualism4 ,what we adore is above and beyond man who struggles2 it is ,god who leads him4 ,we acknowledge1 indeed1 that man may err2 yes1 by the whole interval which separates a truth realized and established from one which is merely guessed at or suspected4 ,but since man's nature is to seek1 his destiny is to find4 ,truth1 be it observed1 has harmonious relations1 necessary affinities1 not only with the constitution of the understanding and the instincts of the heart1 but also with the whole physical and moral conditions of our existence2 so that even when we fail to grasp it as absolute truth1 even when it fails to recommend itself to our innate sympathies as just1 or to our ideal aspirations as beautiful1 it1 nevertheless1 at length contrives to find acceptance in its practical and unobjectionable aspect as useful4 ,liberty1 we know1 may lead to evil4 ,but evil has itself its mission4 ,assuredly ,god has not thrown it across our path as a stumbling-block4 ,he has placed it1 as it were1 on each side of that path as a warning1--as a means of keeping us in the right road1 or bringing us back to it4 ,man's will and inclinations1 like inert molecules1 have their law of gravitation4 ,but1 whilst things inanimate obey blindly their pre-existent and inevitable tendencies1 in the case of beings indued with free will1 the force of attraction and repulsion does not precede action2 it springs from the voluntary determination which it seems to be waiting for1 it is developed by the very act itself1 and it reacts for or against the agent1 by a progressive exertion of co-operation or resistance1 which we term recompense or chastisement1 pleasure or pain4 ,if the direction of the will coincides with that of the general laws1 if the act is good1 happiness is the result4 ,if it takes an opposite direction1 if it is bad1 something opposes or repels it2 error gives rise to suffering1 which is its remedy and its end4 ,thus1 ,evil is constantly opposed by ,evil1 and ,good as constantly gives rise to ,good4 ,and we venture to say that1 when seen from a higher point of view1 the errors of free will are limited to certain oscillations1 of a determinate extent1 around a superior and necessary orbit2 all persistent resistance1 which would force this limit1 tending only to destroy itself1 without at all succeeding in disturbing the order of the sphere in which it moves4 ,this reactive force of co-operation or repulsion1 which1 by means of recompense and suffering1 governs the orbit1 at once voluntary and necessary1 of the human race1 this law of gravitation of free beings 7of which ,evil is only a necessary part7 is distinguished by the terms ,responsibility and ,solidarity2 the one brings back upon the individual2 the other reflects and sends back on the social body the good or bad consequences of the act2 the one applies to man as a solitary and self-governing individual2 the other envelops him in an inevitable community of good and evil as a partial element1 a dependent member1 of a collective and imperishable being--man4 ,responsibility is the sanction of individual liberty1 the foundation of the rights of man4 ,solidarity is the evidence of his social subordination1 and his principle of duty4 4 4 4 ,a leaf of ,bastiat's ,,ms4 being awanting1 ,i hope to be pardoned for thus endeavouring to continue the idea of this religious introduction4--,r4 ,f4 #ajf ,religion 7religare1 to bind71 that which connects the present life with the future1 the living with the dead1 time with eternity1 the finite with the infinite1 man with ,god4 #ajg ,may we not say that ,divine ,justice1 which is so incomprehensible when we consider the lot of individuals1 becomes striking when we reflect on the destinies of nations8 ,each man's life is a drama which is begun on one theatre and completed on another4 ,but the same thing cannot be said of the life of nations4 ,that instructive tragedy begins and ends upon earth4 ,this is the reason why history becomes a holy lesson2 it is the justice of ,providence4--,de ,custine's ,la ,russie4 #ajh ,allusion to ,socialist ,utopias of the day4--,translator4 #aji 8,as to the doctrine of necessity1 no one believes it4 ,if a man should give me arguments that ,i do not see1 though ,i could not answer them1 should ,i believe that ,i do not see8 4 4 4 4 ,all theory is against the freedom of the will2 all experience for it4 4 4 4 4 ,i know that ,i am free1 and there's an end on't40 7,dr ,johnson47--,translator4 #aaj 8,cursed is the ground for thy sake2 in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life3 ,thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee4 4 4 4 ,in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread1 until thou return unto the ground2 for out of it wast thou taken3 for dust thou art1 and unto dust shalt thou return40--,gen4 iii4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai4 #aaa ,the interesting developments which the author intended to present here by way of illustrations1 and of which he indicated beforehand the character1 he unfortunately did not live to write4 ,the reader may supply the want by referring to chapter xvi4 of this work1 and likewise to chapters vii4 and xi4 of ,bastiat's pamphlet1 ,ce qu'on voit et ,ce qu'on ne voit pas4--,note of the ,editor4 #aab 8,for when the ,gentiles1 which have not the law1 do by nature the things contained in the law1 these1 having not the law1 are a law unto themselves2 which show the work of the law written in their hearts1 their conscience also bearing witness1 and their thoughts the meanwhile accusing or else excusing one another40--,romans ii4 #ad1 #ae4 ,see also ,bishop ,butler's #c;d ,sermon1 on ,human ,nature3 8,nothing10 says he1 8can be more evident than that1 exclusive of revelation1 man cannot be considered as a creature left by his ,maker to act at random1 and live at large up to the extent of his natural power1 as passion1 humour1 wilfulness1 happen to carry him2 which is the condition brute creatures are in4 ,but that1 from his make1 constitution1 or nature1 he is in the strictest and most proper sense a law to himself4 ,he hath the rule of right within4 ,what is wanting is only that he honestly attend to it40--,butler's ,works1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fe4--,translator4 #aac ,the conclusion of this chapter is little more than a series of notes thrown together1 without transitions or developments4--,editor4 ,,xxi4 ,,solidarity #aad ,this sketch terminates here abruptly2 the economic view of the law of solidarity is not indicated4 ,we may refer the reader to chapter x4 and chapter xi4 ante4 ,moreover1 the whole scope of this work on the ,harmonies1 the concordance of interests1 and the grand maxims1 8,the prosperity of each is the prosperity of all--the prosperity of all is the prosperity of each10 etc41 the accord between property and community1 the services of capital1 extension of the domain of the gratuitous1 etc41 are all developments in a utilitarian point of view of the very title of this chapter--,solidarity4--,note of the ,editor4 ,,xxii4 ,,social ,,motive ,,force #aae 8,poverty is the fruit of ,political ,economy4 4 4 4 ,political ,economy requires death to come to its aid2 4 4 4 it is the theory of instability and theft40--,proudhon1 ,contradictions conomiques1 t4 xi4 p4 #bad4 8,if the people want bread1 4 4 4 it is the fault of ,political ,economy40--,ibid4 ,,xxv4 ,,relations ,,of ,,political ,,economy ,,with ,,morals1 ,,with ,,politics1 ,,with ,,legislation #aaf ,the author has unfortunately left nothing on the subject of the four chapters with which he appears 7see ante1 p4 #cj7 to have intended to conclude the present work1 except the following introduction to his projected chapter on the ,relations of ,political ,economy with ,religion4 ,the line which separates the field of ,political ,economy from the wider domains of ,morals1 ,politics1 and ,legislation is perhaps by no writer more accurately marked than by ,mr ,senior in the admirable introduction to his article 8,political ,economy0 in the ,encyclop4 ,metropolitana4 8,the questions1 to what extent and under what circumstances the possession of wealth is1 on the whole1 beneficial or injurious to its possessor1 or to the society of which he is a member8 what distribution of wealth is most desirable in each different state of society8 and what are the means by which any given country can facilitate such a distribution8--all these are questions of great interest and difficulty1 but no more form part of the science of ,political ,economy1 in the sense in which we use that term1 than ,navigation forms part of the science of ,astronomy4 ,the principles supplied by ,political ,economy are indeed necessary elements in their solution1 but they are not the only or even the most important elements4 ,the writer who pursues such investigations is1 in fact1 engaged on the great science of ,legislation2 a science which requires a knowledge of the general principles supplied by ,political ,economy1 but differs from it essentially in its subject1 its premises1 and its conclusions4 ,the subject of legislation is not wealth1 but human welfare4 ,its premises are drawn from an infinite variety of phenomena1 supported by evidence of every degree of strength1 and authorizing conclusions deserving every degree of assent1 from perfect confidence to bare suspicion4 ,and its expounder is enabled1 and even required1 not merely to state certain general facts1 but to urge the adoption or rejection of actual measures or trains of action4 8,on the other hand1 the subject treated by the ,political ,economist1 using that term in the limited sense in which we apply it1 is not happiness1 but wealth2 his premises consist of a very few general propositions1 the result of observation or consciousness1 and scarcely requiring proof or even formal statement1 which almost every man1 as soon as he hears them1 admits as familiar to his thoughts1 or at least as included in his previous knowledge2 and his inferences are nearly as general1 and1 if he has reasoned correctly1 as certain as his premises4 ,those which relate to the nature and the production of wealth are universally true2 and though those which relate to the distribution of wealth are liable to be affected by the peculiar institutions of particular countries1 in the cases1 for instance1 of slavery1 legal monopolies1 or poor laws1 the natural state of things can be laid down as the general rule1 and the anomalies produced by particular disturbing causes can be afterwards accounted for4 ,but his conclusions1 whatever be their generality and their truth1 do not authorize him in adding a single syllable of advice4 ,that privilege belongs to the writer or the statesman who has considered all the causes which may promote or impede the general welfare of those whom he addresses1 not to the theorist who has considered only one1 though among the most important1 of those causes4 ,the business of a ,political ,economist is neither to recommend nor to dissuade1 but to state general principles which it is fatal to neglect1 but neither advisable nor perhaps practicable to use as the sole1 or even the principal1 guides in the actual conduct of affairs4 ,in the meantime1 the duty of each individual writer is clear4 ,employed as he is upon a science in which error1 or even ignorance1 may be productive of such intense and such extensive mischief1 he is bound1 like a juryman1 to give deliverance true according to the evidence1 and to allow neither sympathy with indigence nor disgust at profusion or at avarice1 neither reverence for existing institutions nor detestation of existing abuses--neither love of popularity nor of paradox1 nor of system1 to deter him from stating what he believes to be the facts1 or from drawing from those facts what appear to him to be the legitimate conclusions4 ,to decide in each case how far these conclusions are to be acted on belongs to the art of government1 an art to which ,political ,economy is only one of many subservient sciences1 which involves the consideration of motives1 of which the desire for wealth is only one among many1 and aims at objects to which the possession of wealth is only a subordinate means40--,translator4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,accumulation1 a circumstance of no account in ,political ,economy1 page #afi1 note4 ,air1 ,atmospheric1 has utility without having value1 #acg2 but if pumped into a diving-bell1 the service has value1 #ach4 ,algeria1 usual rate of interest in1 said to be #aj per cent41 #cjb4 ,america1 ,united ,states of1 population of1 doubles1 according to ,m4 ,moreau de ,jonns's estimate1 in #be years1 #djd4 ,aphorisms1 the ,two1 8,each for all1 all for each0--8,each for himself1 each by himself10 #cci-cdf4 ,opposed to each other if we regard the motive1 not so if we look to results1 #cci4 ,no incompatibility in this last view between individualism and association1 #cdj4 ,men associate in obedience to self-interest1 ib4 ,difficulties attending a state of isolation lead naturally to association1 #cda4 ,as regards labour and exchanges1 the principle 8,each for himself0 must be predominant1 #cdb4 ,by following the rule each for himself1 individual efforts act in the direction of each for all1 #cdc4 ,icarian expedition proceeded on the principle of all for each1 #cdd1 note4 ,principles of ,socialism and ,communism refuted1 #cdc1 #cdd4 ,all desire monopolies and privileges1 even the working classes1 at their own expense1 #cde1 #cdf4 ,b4 ,baccalaurat et ,socialisme1 a pamphlet by ,bastiat against monopoly of university degrees1 and too exclusive addiction to classical learning1 #bc4 ,barter1 primitive form of exchange1 direct or roundabout1 #ajh4 ,when barter is effected by means of an intermediate commodity1 it is called sale and purchase1 #aji4 ,barter of two factors1 #aaj4 ,value resolves itself into a barter of services1 #acg4 ,bastiat1 ,frdric1 his birth1 parentage1 and education1 p4 #i4 ,his early friendship with ,m4 ,calmtes1 ib4 ,begins the study of ,political ,economy1 #aj4 ,gives up commerce as a profession1 ib4 ,his friendship with ,m4 ,coudroy1 ib4 ,they study ,philosophy and ,political ,economy together1 ib4 ,takes part in the ,revolution of #ahcj1 #aa4 ,bastiat publishes his first brochure in #ahcd1 ib4 ,becomes ,juge de ,paix1 and a ,member of the ,council-,general1 ib4 ,visits ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,england1 #ab4 ,writes ,le ,fisc et la ,vigne1 ib4 ,publishes two other brochures in #ahdc and #ahdd1 ib4 ,anecdote regarding unfounded ,anglophobia1 ib4 ,sends his first contribution to the ,journal des conomistes1 #ac4 ,publishes ,cobden et la ,ligue in #ahde1 ib4 ,letter to ,mr ,cobden quoted1 ib4 ,named a corresponding member of the ,institute1 #ad4 ,letter to ,m4 ,calmtes quoted1 ib4 ,visits ,paris1 and introduced to leading economists1 #ae4 ,visits ,england in #ahde1 and makes the acquaintance of ,cobden1 ,bright1 and the other ,corn-,law ,leaguers1 ib4 ,letter to ,m4 ,coudroy quoted1 #ae1 #af4 ,bastiat complains of the hatred to ,england then prevalent in ,france1 #af4 ,settles in ,paris1 ib4 ,his appearance1 as described by ,m4 de ,molinari and ,m4 ,reybaud1 #ag4 ,letters to ,cobden and ,coudroy quoted1 ib4 ,conducts the ,libre-change newspaper1 #ah4 ,his mode of life in ,paris1 ib4 ,publishes the ,sophismes conomiques1 great success of that work1 and extract from it1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba4 ,delivers a course of lectures on ,political ,economy1 #ba4 ,is returned as a member of the ,legislative ,assembly1 ib4 ,his daily occupations1 #bb4 ,his pamphlets against the ,socialists1 ,proprit et ,loi2 ,proprit et ,spoliation2 ,justice et ,fraternit2 ,capital et ,rente2 ,gratuit du ,credit2 ,protectionisme et ,communisme1 etc41 published in #ahdh-di1 ib4 ,publishes ,baccalaurat et ,socialisme1 and ,ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas1 in #ahej1 #bc4 ,extract from the latter1 #bd1 #be4 ,projects ,harmonies conomiques1 and letter to ,mr ,cobden on that subject quoted1 #be4 ,letter to ,m4 ,coudroy on the same subjects1 ib4 ,his health begins to give way1 #bf1 #bg4 ,his account of the reception of the ,harmonies1 #bg4 ,notice of that work1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi4 ,list of chapters intended to complete the second volume of the ,harmonies1 #cj1 note4 ,goes to ,italy on account of his health1 #cj4 ,his letter to ,m4 ,coudroy from ,rome1 #ca4 ,his last illness and death1 #ca1 #cb4 ,bell1 ,sir ,charles1 his work on the ,hand quoted1 #bi1 note4 ,blanqui1 his opinions on landed property quoted1 #bee4 ,bonald1 ,m4 de1 quoted1 #aeb4 ,brazil1 usual rate of interest in1 said to be #bj per cent41 #cjb4 ,buchanan1 ,d41 his opinions on landed property quoted1 #beb4 ,buret1 ,m41 his false theory on the relations of capitalist and labourer1 #chd4 ,butler1 ,bishop1 his ,sermons on ,human ,nature quoted1 #dgh1 note4 ,byron1 ,lord1 quoted1 #cb4 ,c4 ,cairnes1 ,professor1 quoted1 #ah4 ,caisses de ,retraite1 friendly accumulation societies to provide for old age1 #cgb1 note4 ,such institutions satisfy the natural desire for stability and fixity1 ib4 ,to succeed must proceed from the working classes themselves1 without ,government support or interference1 #cgc4 ,future of the working classes1 #cgd4 ,calmtes1 ,m41 the early friend of ,bastiat1 #i4 ,letter to1 quoted1 #ad4 ,candlemakers' ,petition quoted1 #ai4 ,capital et ,rente1 pamphlet by ,bastiat against the ,socialists1 #bb4 ,capital1 in the beginning formed very slowly1 #aig4 ,consists of tools1 materials1 and provisions1 #aih4 ,the man who furnishes capital renders a service1 and is paid for that service1 #aii1 #bjj4 ,the man who accords delay renders a service1 and hence the legitimacy of interest1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,principle which governs the returns for capital1 #bjf-baa4 ,progress of mankind coincides with rapid accumulation of capital1 #baj4 ,capital has in itself a power of progression1 #baa4 ,increase of capital is followed by increase of general prosperity1 #bab4 ,by increase of capital1 the capitalist's absolute share of product increased1 his relative share diminished1 while labourer's share is increased both absolutely and relatively1 ib4 ,illustrations of this1 #bac-baf4 ,progress of civilisation tends to lower rate of interest1 #cjb4 ,rates in ,brazil1 ,algeria1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,england1 and ,holland1 ib4 ,relations of capitalist and labourer1 #chc4 ,erroneous notions on this subject most dangerous1 #chd4 ,falsest theories abroad1 ib4 ,due to ,m4 de ,sismondi and ,m4 ,buret1 ib4 ,labourer's share of product has a tendency to increase as capital increases1 #che4 ,when exchange takes place between capital1 or anterior labour1 and present labour1 it is not on the footing of their duration or intensity1 but of their value1 #chg4 ,anterior labour has a general tendency to become depreciated1 #chh1 #chi4 ,presence of capital always beneficial to labourer1 #cij4 ,groundless outcry against tyranny of capital1 #cia1 #cib4 ,carey1 ,mr1 his theory of rent referred to1 #bgd1 note by ,translator4 ,ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas1 or ,political ,economy in one ,lesson1 pamphlet by ,bastiat1 quoted1 #bd4 ,referred to1 #dgh1 note4 ,chteaubriand1 represents civilisation and corruption of morals as marching abreast1 #eaa1 #eab4 ,his ,mmoires d',outre ,tombe quoted1 #eab4 ,civil law terms explained1 #agb1 and note4 ,cobden1 ,mr1 letter from1 on the subject of ,bastiat's merits as an economist and writer1 #d4 ,triumph of free trade due to him rather than to ,sir ,robert ,peel1 #cgd4 ,his efforts for the suppression of war1 #cge4 ,communists1 their erroneous views of landed property controverted1 #aee4 ,competition1 no organization or form of association can be substituted for1 #bhh4 ,implies freedom from all constraint1 #bhi4 ,levels all factitious inequalities1 #bij4 ,misunderstood by the ,socialists1 ib4 ,value diminishes through the co-operation of natural forces1 not of its own accord1 but by the pressure exerted by competition1 #bia1 #bib4 ,in the absence of competition1 society would be constituted on the principle of universal monopoly1 ib4 ,competition enables one country to participate in the natural advantages of another1 #bic4 ,examples of this1 #bid1 #bii4 ,inventions and discoveries become1 through competition1 the common and gratuitous patrimony of all1 #bii4 ,mode in which this takes place1 #cjj1 #cja4 ,competition among capitalists reduces the price of commodities1 #cja1 #cjb4 ,progress of civilisation tends to lower the rate of interest1 and this effected by competition1 #cjb4 ,if wages are sometimes reduced by competition1 the labourers1 as consumers1 profit by it1 #cjc-cjg4 ,competition tends to render services proportional to efforts1 #cjf4 ,laws of modern society too often cramp competition1 #cji1 #caj4 ,competition essential to progress1 and allied with human perfectibility1 #cac4 ,it approximates ranks1 fortunes1 and intelligence1 #caf4 ,advantages from inventions1 or from local situation1 climate1 etc41 slip rapidly from hands of producers1 and go to enlarge enjoyments of consumers1 #ccc1 #ccd4 ,same thing holds of disadvantages1 #ccd4 ,condillac quoted1 #aad1 #ajg4 ,considrant1 ,m41 his work on ,socialism quoted1 #fb1 note4 ,his opinions on landed property1 #beg-bfj4 ,consumer1 every man may in turn be both producer and consumer1 #cbd1 #cbe4 ,the wishes and desires of consumers are those which are in harmony with the public interest1 #cbe4 ,consumers and producers should be left free to take care of their own interests1 #cbf4 ,the effect of inventions and discoveries on the interests of consumers and producers represented by diagrams1 #cca1 #ccb4 ,advantages from inventions1 or from local situation1 climate1 etc41 slip rapidly from the hands of producers1 and go to enlarge the enjoyments of consumers1 #ccc1 #ccd4 ,same thing holds of disadvantages1 #ccd4 ,all great economic effects must be regarded from the consumer's point of view1 ib4 ,subordination of producer's interests to those of consumer confirmed when viewed in connexion with morals1 #cce4 ,consumer is alone responsible for morality or utility of production1 #cch4 ,producer looks only to value1 ib4 ,consumer represents society1 ib4 ,consumption1 a term employed to designate the enjoyment to which utility gives rise1 #cbc4 ,general prosperity is measured by consumption1 and not by labour1 #cbe4 ,consumption the great end of ,political ,economy1 #cch4 ,coudroy1 ,felix1 studies ,philosophy and ,political ,economy along with ,bastiat1 #aj4 ,letter to1 quoted1 #ae4 ,another letter to1 quoted1 #bf4 ,d4 ,defoe1 ,d41 his ,robinson ,crusoe referred to1 #aja4 ,illustration drawn from1 #aig4 ,demand determines all in connexion with production1 #cce4 ,diamond1 has great value without appreciable utility1 #aci4 ,value of one found accidentally and exchanged arises1 not from the effort of the person who renders the service1 but the effort saved to the one who receives it1 #ada1 #adb4 ,this a new principle not to be found in the works of economists1 #ada4 ,disturbing ,causes4 ,political ,economy sets out by assuming transactions to be free and voluntary1 #ddf4 ,liberty is harmony1 #ddg4 ,economists not optimists1 #ddh1 #ddi4 ,errors of judgment one disturbing cause1 #deb1 #dec4 ,division of ,labour admits of being viewed in a more general light than hitherto1 #aje4 ,dunoyer1 ,m41 his work ,sur la ,libert du ,travail referred to and commended1 #ib4 ,e4 ,economists differ from the ,socialists at the starting-point1 #ce1 #cf4 ,efforts4 ,wants1 efforts1 and satisfactions1 #fc-gd4 ,effort saved to the person who receives a service imparts value to the service rendered1 #ada1 #adb4 ,england1 population of1 doubles in #dc years1 #djd4 ,l'tat1 pamphlet by ,bastiat defining the proper province of ,government1 #bc4 ,euler1 his calculation of the period in which population doubles itself1 #djg4 ,applying this calculation to the facts stated by ,moses1 ,hebrews who entered ,egypt must have doubled in #ad years1 ib4 ,evil1 ,existence of4 ,science has been retarded by being called on to deny the existence of evil1 #ejd4 ,socialists1 while admitting individual suffering1 deny social suffering1 ib4 ,their contradictions exposed1 #ejd-ejg4 ,exchange1 impossible to conceive society as existing without1 #ig4 ,a phenomenon peculiar to man1 #aja4 ,has two manifestations1 union of forces1 and separation of occupations1 #ajd4 ,consists in exchange of services1 ib4 ,its influence on labour1 #aje4 ,upon the co-operation of natural agents1 #aje4 ,upon human powers and faculties1 #ajg4 ,upon capital1 ib4 ,progress of exchange1 #ajh-aaa4 ,primitive form of1 barter1 #ajh4 ,barter direct and roundabout1 #aji4 ,limits of exchange1 #aaa4 ,an element in the problem of population which ,malthus has neglected1 #aac4 ,moral force of exchange1 #aaf4 ,in consequence of exchange1 our powers exceed our wants1 ib42 and the gain of each is the gain of all1 #aag4 ,illusions to which exchange gives rise1 #abh-acj4 ,exchange imparts the idea of value1 #ace4 ,f4 ,fnlon quoted1 #gg4 ,final ,causes1 faith in1 not unattended with danger to the mind of an inquirer1 #cig4 ,fisc1 le1 et la ,vigne1 pamphlet written by ,bastiat in #ahdj1 #ab4 ,florez ,estrada1 his opinions on landed property quoted1 #bed4 ,florian's ,fables quoted1 #ace4 ,force1 ,public1 should be confined to ensuring justice1 liberty1 and security1 #aba1 #abb4 ,france1 youth of1 address to1 #cc4 ,usual rate of interest in1 said to be #d per cent41 #cjb4 ,population of1 doubles in #ach years1 #dja4 ,friendly ,societies1 have conferred immense benefits on the working classes1 #cfh4 ,admirable means of providing against sickness and old age1 ib4 ,liberty and non-interference of ,government essential to ensure their success1 #cfi4 ,this secures reciprocal surveillance1 #cfi-cgc4 ,marked success of these societies in ,england1 #cgj-cgc4 ,this due to the non-interference of ,government1 #cga4 ,g4 ,garnier1 ,m4 ,joseph1 his opinions on landed property quoted1 #bef4 ,germany1 usual rate of interest in said to be #e per cent41 #cjb4 ,population of1 doubles in #gf years1 #djd4 ,girardin1 ,m4 ,saint-,marc1 quoted as to the influence of employments on the condition of nations1 #dee4 ,gratuit du ,credit1 pamphlet by ,bastiat against ,proudhon's doctrine1 in #ahej1 #bb4 ,h4 ,habit1 force of1 as changing man's wants1 an essential element to be taken into account1 #hd4 ,transforms desire into want1 #he4 ,harmonies conomiques projected1 and letters to ,mr ,cobden and ,m4 ,coudroy on that subject quoted1 #be4 ,bastiat's account of the reception of that work1 #bg4 ,notice of the ,harmonies1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi4 ,list of chapters intended to complete #b;d vol4 of1 #cj1 note4 ,holland1 usual rate of interest in1 said to be under #c per cent41 #cjb4 ,population of1 doubles in #ajj years1 #djd4 ,i4 ,icarie1 voyage en1 ,socialist work referred to1 #bje4 ,institute1 ,bastiat named a member of1 #ad4 ,interest of ,capital1 ,proudhon's error regarding1 #aeh4 ,all the power of the ,church unable to enforce prohibition of1 #dhj4 ,isolation1 in the state of1 our wants exceed our powers1 #ih2 and the gain of one may be the loss of another1 #aag4 ,italy1 usual rate of interest in1 said to be #f per cent41 #cjb4 ,j4 ,johnson1 ,dr1 his opinions on free will and necessity quoted1 #dgc1 note4 ,journal des conomistes1 ,bastiat's first contribution to1 #ac4 ,justice et ,fraternit1 pamphlet by ,bastiat against the ,socialists1 #bb4 ,k4 ,kepler referred to1 #fh4 ,l4 ,labour1 the assertion that all wealth comes from labour combated1 #hh4 ,utility communicated by nature1 by labour1 and oftener by a combination of both1 ib4 ,to produce utility1 action of labour in an inverse ratio to that of nature1 ib4 ,as used by ,economists1 a vague term1 and more extended meaning given to it in this work1 #ib4 ,distinction between productive and unproductive1 has led to error1 ib4 ,distinction between productive and unproductive labour rejected1 #aef1 #aeg4 ,effort a better term than labour1 #aeh4 ,labour cannot serve as a measure of value1 #aga4 ,unskilled labour the best for making a comparison1 ib4 ,in exchanging present for anterior labour1 the advantage is on the side of present labour1 #agh4 ,the opposite phenomenon sometimes manifests itself1 #agi4 ,laissez-faire1 doctrine of1 explained1 #dh1 #ddh1 #ddi4 ,lamennais1 ,m4 de1 his opinions on the principle of population combated1 #djh1 #dji4 ,landed ,property4 ,the idea of value gives rise to that of property1 #bdi4 ,confusion caused by ,economists mistaking utility for value1 #bej4 ,property represented as monopoly1 #bej1 #bea4 ,is not a monopoly1 #bea4 ,opinions of ,english ,economists on this subject--,adam ,smith quoted1 #beb2 ,buchanan quoted1 #beb1 #bec2 ,ricardo's opinion1 ib42 ,m',culloch's views1 #bec2 ,scrope and ,senior quoted1 ib42 opinions of ,mill and ,malthus referred to1 #bed2 ,scialoja and ,florez ,estrada quoted1 ib4 ,french ,economists--,m4 ,say quoted1 ib42 ,blanqui and ,j4 ,garnier quoted1 #bee1 #bef4 ,opinions of ,socialists and ,communists--,m4 ,considrant quoted1 #beg2 ,proudhon quoted1 #bfj4 ,these opinions controverted1 #bfj-bgc4 ,recapitulation1 #bgc4 ,bastiat has adopted the theory of ,mr ,carey on this subject1 which should be taken with some modification1 #bgd1 note by ,translator4 ,land which has not been subjected to human action1 destitute of value1 #bgd4 ,value resolves itself into the remuneration of anterior labour or capital1 ib4 ,m4 ,considrant's views reverted to1 #bgh-bhj4 ,productive powers of the soil have no independent value1 #bhe4 ,case of the ,south ,australian ,association referred to1 ib4 ,ameliorations which increase the value of land generally diminish the price of its produce1 #cdg4 ,explanation of this1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,theory of the progressive dearness of means of subsistence erroneous1 #cea1 note4 ,lauderdale1 ,lord1 his ,inquiry into the ,nature and ,origin of ,public ,wealth quoted1 #ahg1 note4 ,legislation1 relations of ,political ,economy with1 #eac1 note4 ,liberty1 solution of social problem to be found in1 #cd4 ,libre-change1 newspaper1 conducted by ,bastiat1 #ah4 ,m4 ,m',culloch1 his opinion on landed property quoted1 #bec4 ,machiavel quoted1 #ef4 ,malthus on population1 referred to1 #aac4 ,vindicated from violent attacks made on him1 #cig4 ,authors of those attacks writers of no reputation and grossly ignorant1 ib4 ,malthus feared that1 with so great a power of reproduction1 mankind would come to exceed what the earth could maintain but for prudence and foresight1 #cih4 ,an expression which occurred in the first edition of his ,essay on ,population1 to the effect that population increases in a geometrical1 and food in an arithmetical progression1 gave rise to misrepresentation1 ib4 ,made a handle of by ,godwin and ,sismondi1 and was suppressed in all subsequent editions1 #cii4 ,attacks continued notwithstanding1 the fiercest proceeding from men who confessed they had not read ,malthus's work1 ib4 ,the laws of population cannot be comprised in a brief aphorism or formula1 #djj4 ,were known before ,malthus wrote1 #djb4 ,objections to his theory illogical1 #dje4 ,arguments against his geometrical progression not conclusive1 ib4 ,wrong in adopting the limit of twenty-five years1 although that holds good in ,america1 #djf1 #djg4 ,malthus attributes more force to repressive than preventive check1 #daj4 ,his true formula is1 not that population tends to keep on a level with1 but to go beyond1 the means of subsistence1 #daf4 ,maudit ,argent6 pamphlet by ,bastiat exposing popular errors arising from confounding capital with money1 and money with inconvertible paper1 #bc4 ,measure of ,value1 the quadrature of ,political ,economy1 #agj4 ,absolute measure a chimera1 ib4 ,labour cannot serve as a measure1 #aga4 ,mmoire sur la question ,vinicole1 pamphlet published by ,bastiat in #ahdc1 #ab4 ,mmoire sur la rpartition de l'impt foncier1 pamphlet by ,bastiat1 written in #ahdd1 #ab4 ,metals1 ,precious1 not a perfect standard of value1 their own value fluctuating1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,mtayage1 system of1 explained1 #fa1 note4 ,molire1 his ,malade ,imaginaire quoted1 #ajd4 ,molinari1 ,m4 de1 his description of ,bastiat's appearance quoted1 #ag4 ,money1 an intermediate commodity which facilitates the exchange of services1 but does not change the principle of value1 #adb4 ,montaigne quoted1 #ig4 ,moral qualities must be taken into account with reference to production of wealth1 #ic1 #id4 ,morality of ,wealth1 considerations on1 #aic1 #aid4 ,morals1 relations of ,political ,economy with1 #eac1 note4 ,moreau de ,jonns1 his calculations of the period of doubling the population in various countries1 #djc4 ,moses1 his account of the multiplication of ,hebrews who entered ,egypt1 #djg4 ,n4 ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 referred to1 #fb4 ,o4 ,organization1 natural and artificial1 #dg4 ,p4 ,paix et ,libert1 pamphlet by ,bastiat against excessive taxation and overgrown military and naval armaments1 #bb4 ,pamphlets by ,bastiat1 ,rflexions concernant les ,douanes1 and ,le ,fisc et la ,vigne1 published #ahdj1 #aa1 #ab4 ,mmoire sur la question ,vinicole appeared in #ahdc1 and ,mmoire sur la rpartition de l'impt foncier in #ahdd1 ib4 ,pamphlets against the ,socialists1 ,proprit et ,loi1 ,proprit et ,spoliation1 ,justice et ,fraternit1 ,capital et ,rente1 ,gratuit du ,credit1 ,protectionisme et ,communisme1 etc41 published in #ahdh-i1 #bb4 ,maudit ,argent6 extract from1 #bc4 ,baccalaurat et ,socialisme1 and ,ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas1 published in #ahej1 ib42 extracts from the latter1 #bd1 #be4 ,peel1 ,sir ,r41 triumph of ,free ,trade due not so much to him as to ,mr ,cobden1 #cgd4 ,perfectibility1 means of realizing1 to be found in law of ,responsibility1 #eji4 ,liberty the essence of progress1 ib4 ,formidable obstacles to progress1 #eji1 #eaj4 ,but no ground for despair1 #eaj4 ,chteaubriand represents civilisation and corruption of morals as marching abreast1 #eaa1 #eab4 ,petty1 ,sir ,w41 cited1 #ahf4 ,phalanstre1 a ,socialist work1 referred to1 #fd1 #bje1 note4 ,physiocrates1 ,french ,economists of the school of ,quesnay1 #aec1 note4 ,represented all labour not worked up in a material commodity as sterile1 ib4 ,political ,economy1 limits of the science marked out1 #gj1 #ga4 ,may be defined the theory of exchange1 #gc2 or the theory of value1 ib4 ,takes for granted the existence of evil and suffering1 #gf4 ,many errors in1 arise from regarding human wants as a fixed quantity1 #gi4 ,not one of the exact sciences1 #hb1 #hc4 ,first principles of1 involved in difficulties by erroneous definitions of value1 #acf4 ,a science of observation and exposition1 #ejb4 ,contrast between ,political ,economy and ,socialism1 ib4 ,relations of ,political ,economy with ,morals1 ,politics1 and ,legislation1 #eac1 note4 ,population1 laws of1 cannot be comprised in a brief formula1 #djj4 ,vindication of ,malthus1 and of the general doctrine of his ,essay on ,population1 #cig1 #djj4 ,if1 as wealth increases1 the number among whom it is to be divided increases more rapidly1 absolute wealth may be greater1 but individual wealth will be less1 #dja4 ,malthus has reduced the principle to the formula that population tends to keep on a level with the means of subsistence1 #djb4 ,this principle not new2 every writer on such subjects since ,aristotle has proclaimed it1 ib4 ,enunciated by ,sir ,james ,steuart thirty years before the appearance of the ,essay on ,population1 ib41 note4 ,nature has taken greater care of species than of individuals1 in order to insure the perpetuity of races1 #djb4 ,instances of this in the vegetable kingdom1 ib42 and in animals whose life is of a type more akin to vegetables1 #djb1 #djc4 ,advancing in scale of social life1 means of reproduction bestowed with greater parsimony1 ib4 ,in the human species1 reproductive faculty less powerful than in any other1 ib4 ,but1 physically1 man does not escape the law of a tendency to multiplication beyond the limits of space and nourishment1 ib4 ,difference between the physiological power of multiplying and actual multiplication1 ib4 ,malthus inquired in what period of time mankind would double1 if space and food were unlimited1 #djd4 ,but as this hypothesis is never realized1 theoretical must be shorter than actual period1 ib4 ,different rates of increase in different countries according to estimate of ,m4 ,moreau de ,jonns1 #djc4 ,such differences not the result of physiological causes1 but of external obstacles1 #djd4 ,new sources of local wealth lead invariably to increase of population1 ib4 ,objections made to the theory of ,malthus very illogical1 ib4 ,nor are the arguments against his geometrical progression more conclusive1 ib4 ,fixed on twenty-five years as the minimum period in which population may double itself1 because this actually takes place in ,america1 #dje4 ,malthus merely asserts that it has a tendency to increase in a geometrical progression1 ib4 ,that this virtual power of multiplication will be restrained is just what ,malthus contends for1 ib4 ,restrained by preventive and repressive checks1 #djf4 ,he was wrong in adopting the limit of twenty-five years1 although it holds good in ,america1 #djf1 #djg4 ,this mixing up of the virtual and the real has exposed him to be misunderstood and misrepresented1 #djf4 ,calculation by ,euler of period of doubling1 #djg4 ,applying ,euler's calculation to the facts stated by ,moses1 ,hebrews who entered ,egypt must have doubled in #ad years1 ib4 ,absolute power of multiplication limited by obstacles1 #djh4 ,vegetable life limited by want of space and territorial fertility--animals destitute of foresight1 by want of food1 #dji4 ,opinions of ,m4 de ,lamennais on this subject combated1 ib4 ,law of limitation as regards man manifests itself by the double action of foresight and destruction1 #daj4 ,the term moral restraint1 used by ,malthus1 does not give us a just idea of the domain of foresight1 ib4 ,other obstacles besides fear of poverty aid the action of the law of limitation in its preventive shape1 #daj1 #daa4 ,marriages on an average are probably later than they otherwise would be by eight years in consequence of these preventive obstacles1 #daa4 ,supposed advice of an old clergyman regarding too early marriages1 #daa1 #dab4 ,man's perfectibility an important element in resolving the problem of population1 #dac4 ,malthus1 by neglecting this1 has attributed less force to the preventive than to the repressive check1 ib4 ,for the expression1 8means of subsistence10 ,say has substituted one more exact1 namely1 8means of existence10 ib4 ,man's constant effort to better his condition exercises control over increase of numbers1 #dad4 ,better circumstances induce greater foresight1 ib4 ,in countries like ,china or ,ireland1 when rice and potatoes fail1 there is nothing to fall back on1 and repressive check comes into operation1 #daf4 ,the true formula of ,malthus is1 not that population tends to keep on a level with1 but to go beyond1 the means of subsistence1 ib4 ,foresight prevents this in the human race1 ib4 ,recapitulation1 #daf1 #dag4 ,population tends to redundancy most among unskilled labourers1 #dbj4 ,marriages are less improvident among the higher classes1 #dba4 ,fermage less efficacious in interposing a preventive obstacle to increase of population than ,mtayage1 #dba1 #dbb4 ,these terms explained1 #dba4 note4 ,almsgiving tends to destroy foresight1 ib4 ,improvement in labourers' cottages in ,england1 #dbb4 ,rate1 of wages in one country influences the rate in others1 #dbc4 ,population is in itself a force1 for increase of productive power results from density of population1 #dbd1 note4 ,producer1 every member of society may in turn be both producer and consumer1 #cbd1 #cbe4 ,producers and consumers should be left free to take care of their own interests1 #cbg4 ,the effect of inventions and discoveries on the interest of producers and consumers illustrated by diagrams1 #cca1 #ccb4 ,advantages1 from inventions1 or from local situation1 climate1 etc41 slip rapidly from the hands of producers1 and go to enlarge enjoyments of consumers1 #ccc1 #ccd4 ,same thing holds of disadvantages1 #ccd4 ,producer has nothing to do with the utility of what is produced1 only with its value1 #ccf4 ,the utility concerns the demander1 ib4 ,it is in the intention of the consumer that moral or immoral enjoyment is to be discovered1 #cch4 ,production is to modify and combine substances1 not to create1 them1 #ajj4 ,production and consumption not the best terms to designate services rendered and received1 #cbc4 ,production is employed to designate whatever confers utility1 ib4 ,progress annihilates value by substituting gratuitous for onerous utility1 #gc4 ,proltaire1 definition of the term as used by ,bastiat1 #ce1 note4 ,property and ,community1 two ideas correlative to ideas of onerosity and gratuitousness1 #bbc4 ,gifts of nature1 the domain of community--human efforts1 domain of property1 ib4 ,principle of property1 #bbf-bbi4 ,illustrations of this1 #bbi-bcb4 ,as society advances1 property tends to recede1 and community to advance1 #bcb4 ,illustrations of this1 #bcc-bcf4 ,vindication of property1 #bch-bdj4 ,distinction between community and communism1 #bde-bdh4 ,property4 ,see ,landed ,property4 ,proprit et ,loi1 pamphlet by ,bastiat against the ,socialists1 #bb4 ,proprit et ,spoliation1 pamphlet by ,bastiat1 #bb4 ,protection1 a phase of communism1 #cbc4 ,this demonstrated by ,bastiat in pamphlet entitled ,protectionisme et ,communisme1 #bb4 ,proudhon1 his erroneous view of landed property1 #aee1 #bcc1 #bfj4 ,error as to interest of capital1 #aeh4 ,his view of wealth and value confuted1 #ahh-aij4 ,doctrine of mutuality of services1 #bbd4 ,providence1 laws of1 harmonious1 #dc4 ,q4 ,quesnay1 ,french ,economists of his school known as the ,physiocrates1 #aec1 note4 ,represented all labour not worked up in a material commodity as sterile1 ib4 ,r4 ,rflexions concernant les ,douanes1 pamphlet written by ,bastiat in #ahdj1 #aa4 ,religion derived from religare1 to bind1 #dfh4 ,false religions may be known from their obstructing progress1 #dhj4 ,no form of religion ought to be repressed by law1 #dha1 #dhb4 ,human mind generally begins by discovery of final causes1 #ead4 ,habit blinds us to final causes1 ib4 ,when we discover efficient1 we are too apt to deny final causes1 #eae-eag4 ,rent4 ,see ,landed ,property4 ,ameliorations which increase the value of land generally diminish the price of its produce1 #cdg4 ,explanation of this1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,author intended to adopt the theory of ,mr ,carey in opposition to that of ,ricardo1 #cdg1 note4 ,theory of the progressive dearness of means of subsistence erroneous1 #cea1 note4 ,responsibility1 belief in ,god the leading idea of this work1 #dfe4 ,differs from the writings of ,socialists1 ib4 ,the author's proposed introduction continued by editor1 #dfe1 #dff1 note4 ,laws of ,responsibility and ,solidarity act together1 #dff2 and should be viewed in their ensemble1 but for the method required by science1 ib4 ,evil and suffering exist everywhere1 in the individual and in society1 #dfg1 #dfh4 ,the social body not subject to inevitable decline1 #dfh4 ,de ,custine's remarks on this subject quoted1 ib41 note4 ,society1 like the human body1 has a vis medicatrix1 #dfi4 ,men approximate to a common level which is constantly rising1 ib4 ,liberty implies possible error1 and error possible evil1 ib4 ,socialists' errors on this subject combated1 #dgj1 #dga4 ,political ,economy is not concerned to explain origin of evil1 #dga4 ,sufficient that evil and suffering exist1 and have their mission1 #dgb4 ,existence of free will proved by our consciousness of possessing it1 #dgb1 #dgc4 ,dr ,johnson's opinion on this subject quoted1 #dgc1 note4 ,every action gives rise to consequences1 of which some fall back on the agent1 and others on his family or on society1 hence responsibility and solidarity1 #dgd4 ,responsibility applies to the person who acts1 ib4 ,we cannot even conceive of man as exempt from suffering1 #dgd1 #dge4 ,our notions of sensibility and existence are inseparable1 #dge4 ,faith the necessary complement of our destinies1 ib4 ,without sensibility we should be constantly exposed to death1 ib4 ,if1 of the consequences following on action1 the majority are bad and hurtful1 such action tends to limit and restrain itself1 #dgf4 ,ignorance gives rise to bad habits and bad laws1 knowledge and experience to the reverse1 ib4 ,mission of evil is to destroy its own cause and stimulate progress1 #dgg4 ,responsibility has three sanctions1--natural1 religious1 and legal1 #dgh4 ,the first of these is fundamental1 ib4 ,is an act vicious because revelation declares it so1 or does revelation declare it so because its consequences are bad8 ib4 ,bishop ,butler's ,sermons on ,human ,nature quoted1 #dgh1 note4 ,if we had a religion which forbade acts proved to be useful1 it could not be maintained1 #dgi4 ,all the power of the ,church insufficient to enforce prohibition of interest1 #dhj4 ,false religions known from their obstructing advancement and progress1 ib4 ,legal sanction should only give force and efficacy to natural sanction1 ib4 ,where natural repression sufficient1 legal repression should be avoided1 #dha4 ,law acts by means of force1 and should not be applied to repress any particular form of religion1 #dha1 #dhb4 ,other instances of the hurtful interposition of law1 #dhb-dhe4 ,evils to which foundling hospitals have given rise1 #dhe-dhg4 ,sense of responsibility capable of improvement1 #dhg4 ,its development may be aided by female intervention1 ib4 ,revolution of ,february1 remarks on its consequences1 #abc-abh4 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes quoted1 #af4 ,reybaud1 ,m4 ,louis1 his notice of ,bastiat referred to1 #af4 ,his description of ,bastiat's appearance quoted1 #ag4 ,ricardo1 his theory referred to1 #ch4 ,wrong in representing the principle of value as residing in labour1 #acf4 ,gave to the word wealth the sense of utility2 ,say1 that of value1 #aha4 ,his opinions on landed property quoted1 #beb1 #bec4 ,robinson ,crusoe1 illustrations drawn from1 #aja1 #aig1 #aih4 ,rousseau1 ,j4 ,j41 quoted1 #dh4 ,his ,contrat ,social commented on1 #ef2 quoted1 #eg-fj2 referred to1 #gg4 ,recognises the elasticity of human wants1 #ha4 ,admits existence of evil1 #he1 note2 referred to1 #id4 ,his doctrine controverted1 #ig4 ,to exalt the state of nature1 makes happiness to consist in privation1 #ajb4 ,represents solidarity as of legislative creation1 #dhh1 #dhi4 ,russia1 population of1 doubles in #dc years1 #djd4 ,de ,custine's work on ,russia quoted1 #dfh1 note4 ,s4 ,saint-,chamans1 ,m4 de1 referred to and quoted1 #ahd4 ,his doctrine confuted1 #ahe1 #ahf4 ,sale and ,purchase is barter by means of an intermediate commodity1 #aji4 ,both resolve themselves into an exchange of services1 #aaj4 ,satisfaction of ,consumers1 the sole end of production1 #id1 #ie1 #if4 ,the term satisfaction preferred to the word consumption1 as more general1 ib4 ,saving is not to accumulate commodities1 but to interpose an interval between time of rendering and receiving services1 #cic4 ,the demand for labour and the rise of wages depend on augmentation of capital1 ib4 ,difficulties on the subject of saving removed by reference to the principle of value1 #cia4 ,to interpose delay between services rendered and received is itself to render a service2 it has value1 and hence the origin of interest1 #cie4 ,to give credit is to render a service1 which also has value1 #cif4 ,saving not necessarily injurious to industry1 ib4 ,it does not imply actual hoarding1 ib4 ,say1 ,j4 ,b41 quoted1 #ij4 ,referred to1 #ajj4 ,judicious observation on barter--troc deux facteurs1 #aaj4 ,wrong in representing value as residing in utility1 #acf4 ,quoted1 #adb4 ,erroneous view of landed property1 #aed4 ,is wrong in representing value as founded on utility1 #afa-afd4 ,discards ,smith's distinction between productive and unproductive labour1 #agc4 ,gave to the word ,wealth the sense of ,value2 ,ricardo that of ,utility1 #aha4 ,his definition of natural wealth quoted1 #aij4 ,his opinions on landed property quoted1 #bee4 ,has substituted the more exact expression 8means of existence0 for the expression 8means of subsistence10 used by ,malthus in his ,essay on ,population1 #dac4 ,wrong in representing taxation as in all cases an evil1 #dbf1 notes4 ,scialoja1 his opinions on landed property quoted1 #bed4 ,scrope1 his erroneous view of landed property1 #bec4 ,senior1 his erroneous view of rent1 #aed4 ,founds value on rarity1 remarks on this doctrine1 #afg4 ,his opinions on landed property quoted1 #bec4 ,on the relations of ,political ,economy with ,morals1 ,politics1 and ,legislation1 #eac1 note4 ,services1 human transactions1 when free1 resolve themselves into exchange of1 #dc4 ,value consists in comparative appreciation of1 #gc4 ,service is effort in one man1 while the want and satisfaction are in another1 #gd4 ,exchange of1 forms the subject of ,political ,economy1 #acc4 ,effort saved to the person who receives a service imparts value to the service rendered1 #adj-adb4 ,service a better term than ,labour1 #aeh4 ,every product which has value implies a service1 but every service does not imply a product2 value1 therefore1 is in service1 #agd4 ,when value passes from service to product1 it undergoes1 in product1 all the risks and chances to which the service itself is subject1 #agf4 ,service is rendered by the man who furnishes capital1 #aii1 #bjj4 ,private and ,public service1 #dbe4 ,where want so general as to be a public want1 may be provided for by the community at large1 #dbf4 ,this does not alter essential principles of exchange1 ib42 but modifies them1 #dbi4 ,process explained1 ib4 ,sophism that money paid to public functionaries comes back like rain on the citizens exposed1 #dcj4 ,public services always extinguish private services of the same kind1 ib4 ,public services leave no discretion to individuals1 #dcb4 ,example of this1 ib41 note4 ,take away control over services both rendered and received1 #dcc4 ,extinguish sense of responsibility1 #dcd4 ,give rise to public discontent1 #dcd1 #dce4 ,exclude competition1 #dce1 #dcf4 ,question is1 what services should remain in the domain of private exertion1 what in that of public8 #dcf4 ,government action is legitimate only where intervention of force legitimate1 #dcg2 and legitimate only in the case of defence of liberty and property1 ib42 and to ensure the predominance of justice1 #dch1 #dci4 ,when the ,state goes beyond this1 it destroys liberty and property1 which are placed under its safeguard1 ib4 ,province of ,government confined to what involves public security1 taking care of common property1 and levying contributions for public service1 #ddj4 ,circumscribing the province of ,government does not enfeeble1 but strengthen it1 #dda4 ,example of the ,united ,states1 #ddb4 ,slavery and protection in ,america active causes of revolution1 ib4 ,revolution of ,february1 remarks on1 #ddd4 ,sismondi1 ,m4 de1 referred to1 #ahd4 ,his doctrine on wealth and value controverted1 #ahg4 ,his false theory on the relations of capitalist and labourer1 #chd4 ,smith1 ,adam1 wrong in representing value as residing only in material substances1 #ia4 ,his distinction between roductive and unproductive labour has led to errors1 ib4 ,his account of the influence of exchange on labour commended1 #aje4 ,wrong in representing the principle of value as residing in materiality and durability1 #acf4 ,quoted and controverted on the subject of value1 #aef4 ,opinions on landed property quoted1 #beb4 ,social ,motive ,force described and explained1 #die-ejc4 ,personal interest is the social motive force which leads us to shun evil and seek after good1 #die4 ,attraction towards happiness and repulsion from pain1 the mainspring of the social mechanism1 #dif4 ,this impulsive force is under direction of our intelligence1 and intelligence may err1 ib4 ,the laws of responsibility and solidarity lend assistance to repress error and injustice1 #dig4 ,attempts of the ,socialists to substitute devotion and self-sacrifice for personal interest1 as the social motive force1 combated1 #dih1 #dii4 ,socialist works and writers referred to1 #ejj-ejc4 ,social ,problem1 demands solution1 #cc1 #cd4 ,solution to be found in liberty1 not in constraint1 #ce4 ,the man who demonstrates that the good of each tends to the good of all1 as the good of all tends to the good of each1 will have resolved the social problem1 #aah4 ,socialists differ from ,economists in regarding man's interests as antagonistic1 #ce4 ,socialist works referred to1 #fd1 and note4 ,society1 mechanism of1 #dh4 ,gives the humblest mechanic more in one day than he could himself produce in many ages1 ib4 ,study of1 the business of ,political ,economy1 #ea4 ,in social state our powers exceed our wants1 #ih4 ,solidarity is collective responsibility1 #dhh4 ,not of legislative creation1 as represented by ,rousseau1 #dhh1 #dhi4 ,the philosophers of the last century did not believe in it1 #dhi4 ,instances in which individuals suffer from the errors or faults of others--this is the law of solidarity1 #dhi1 #dij4 ,responsibility is not exclusively personal1 but is shared and divided1 #dij4 ,society1 in turn1 suffers from the errors or faults of individuals1 and the law of solidarity comes to check such actions1 #dia4 ,solidarity1 like responsibility1 is a progressive force1 and resolves itself into repercussive or reflected responsibility1 ib4 ,to enable those who suffer from another's acts to react against them1 connexion between cause and effect should be known1 #dib4 ,not always known1 from the circumstance that the first effect may seem good1 though all the subsequent consequences are bad1 ib4 ,example of this in case of war1 ib4 ,in the case of slavery1 of religious errors1 and of prohibition1 ib4 ,human law should coincide with the natural law1 and organize reaction1 #dic4 ,example of this in case of violence1 which provokes vengeance1 law steps in to repress it with regularity and certainty1 #dic1 #did4 ,economic view of the law of solidarity not indicated by the author in this chapter1 #did1 note4 ,sophismes conomiques1 great success of that work1 and extract from it1 #ah2 referred to1 #abd1 note1 and #cbe4 ,spain1 usual rate of interest in1 said to be #h per cent41 #cjb4 ,population of1 doubles in #ajf years1 #djd4 ,spoliation and oppression1 the sources of all social dissonances1 #cah-cbb4 ,statistics1 ,experimental1 what meant by1 #cec-cfj4 ,stewart1 ,sir ,james1 took the same view of the principle of population which ,malthus more formally enunciated1 thirty years before the appearance of the ,essay on ,population1 #djb1 note4 ,storch1 his erroneous view of the principle of value1 #acf4 ,his doctrine that value depends on the judgment we form of utility confuted1 #afh2 quoted1 #aia4 ,supply often virtually precedes demand1 #cce4 ,this arises from foresight of producer1 ib4 ,intensity of demand pre-existent1 #cce4 ,switzerland1 population of1 doubles in #bbg years1 #djd4 ,t4 ,taxation1 not necessarily a loss1 as represented by ,say1 #dbf1 #dbg1 note4 ,tracy1 ,m4 de1 quoted1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,turkey1 population of1 doubles in #eee years1 #djc4 ,u4 ,utility1 onerous and gratuitous1 #fi4 ,by substituting gratuitous for onerous utility1 progress annihilates value1 ib4 ,gratuitous1 tends to take the place of onerous utility1 #ij1 #ia4 ,mode in which this is effected1 #ia1 #ib4 ,attributing value to utility has led to many errors1 #afd-afg4 ,the term ,production employed to designate whatever confers utility1 and ,consumption to designate the enjoyment to which that utility gives rise1 #cbc4 ,what renders service to the masses is utility alone1 and value is not the measure of it1 #cbe2 but in the case of the individual1 value is the measure of it1 #cbe1 #cbf4 ,general utility and onerous utility represented by lines of unequal length2 gratuitous utility1 by indefinite lines1 #cbh4 ,utility formerly onerous1 now become gratuitous1 also represented by lines1 #ccj4 ,v4 ,value consists in the comparative appreciation of reciprocal services1 #gc4 ,does not reside in material substances1 as represented by ,smith1 #ia4 ,vague definition of1 #ajh4 ,value represents effort1 #aji4 ,theory of value1 #aca4 ,as essential to ,political ,economy as numeration is to arithmetic1 ib4 ,value has a tendency to diminish in relation to utility1 #acb4 ,does not extend to the co-operation of nature1 but is restricted exclusively to human efforts1 #acd4 ,a state of isolation excludes the idea of value1 ib4 ,exchange imparts the notion of value1 #ace4 ,value is the relation of two services exchanged1 ib4 ,not necessarily proportionate to intensity of efforts1 #ach4 ,arises in some cases1 not from the effort of the person who renders the service1 but from the effort saved to the person who receives it1 #adj1 #ada4 ,this is a new principle not to be found in any other work on ,political ,economy1 #ada4 ,intervention of money does not change the principle1 #adb1 #adc4 ,value does not reside in commodities1 but in services1 #adc4 ,examples of various kinds of services1 all possessed of value1 #adg4 ,limits within which value oscillates1 ib42 other examples1 #adh1 #adi4 ,the precious metals not a perfect standard of value1 as their own value fluctuates1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,value not an attribute of matter1 #aec4 ,this an error of the ,physiocrates and of ,adam ,smith1 and has given rise to the distinction between productive and unproductive labour1 #aec1 #aed4 ,value not a thing having independent existence1 but a relation1 #aeh4 ,value and ,labour are not proportional1 #aei1 #afj1 note4 ,measure of value the quadrature of ,political ,economy1 #agj4 ,fixity cannot be found in a mean term composed of variable elements1 ib4 ,absolute measure of1 a chimera1 ib4 ,value being supposed to be in the material product1 and not in the service1 has led to ,smith's error as to unproductive labour1 #agb4 ,when value passes from service to product1 it undergoes1 in product1 all the risks and chances to which the service itself is subject1 #agf4 ,prevailing tendency of value incorporated with a commodity is to fall1 #agh4 ,value is the measure of the utility of services rendered to the individual1 not of those rendered to the masses1 #cbe1 #cbf4 ,w4 ,wages4 ,men are always in search of something fixed1 #ceb4 ,hence the great desire for government offices1 #cec4 ,fixity favoured by two circumstances1 #ced4 ,illustrations drawn from the principle of fire insurance1 #ced-ceg4 ,remuneration by wages has the principle of fixity1 so much sought after1 #ceg4 ,opinions of the ,socialists on this subject controverted1 #ceg1 #ceh4 ,wages1 their origin1 form1 and effects1 #ceh4 ,labour may be remunerated either by share of its product or by fixed wages1 #cei4 ,dependence not caused by form of remuneration1 but by precarious situation of labourer1 ib4 ,no men worse off than fishermen and vine-dressers1 though they have the benefits of association1 #cei1 #cfj4 ,results of labour applied to the chase1 fishing1 or agriculture very uncertain1 ib4 ,to obviate this1 a fixed unconditional bargain preferred1 #cfj4 ,this is not to destroy1 but improve1 the principle of association1 ib4 ,risks appreciated by means of experimental statistics1 ib4 ,remuneration by share of produce characteristic of times of barbarism1 #cfa4 ,fixity of remuneration a step of progress1 ib4 ,association not thereby dissolved1 ib4 ,capital and labour both take a share of risk till it can be estimated by experience1 ib4 ,this state of things gives place to a bargain which ensure unity of direction and fixity of situation1 #cfb4 ,the capitalist may take risk1 paying fixed wages1 or labourer may take risk1 paying a fixed interest--still there is association1 #cfb1 #cfc4 ,wages have nothing degrading in them any more than interest1 #cfc4 ,the one is the remuneration of present1 the other of anterior labour1 ib4 ,such stipulations are the cause and the manifestation of progress1 ib4 ,socialist errors on this subject confuted1 #cfd1 #cfe4 ,friendly ,societies admirable means of providing against sickness and old age1 #cfh4 ,have conferred immense benefits on the working classes1 ib4 ,caisses de ,retraite1 ,friendly ,accumulation ,societies1 #cga-cgh4 ,anterior labour1 or capital1 must necessarily have more security than present labour1 #cgg-cgi4 ,future of the working classes--tendency to become capitalists1 #cgi-chc4 ,progress of the working classes between #agej and #ahej1 #cha4 ,relations of the capitalist and labourer1 #chc4 ,erroneous notions on this subject most dangerous1 #chd4 ,falsest theories abroad1 ib4 ,due to ,m4 de ,sismondi and ,m4 ,buret1 ib4 ,labourer's share of product has a tendency to increase as capital increases1 #che4 ,when exchange takes place between capital1 or anterior labour1 and present labour1 it is not on the footing of their duration or intensity1 but of their value1 #chg4 ,anterior labour has a general tendency to become depreciated1 #chh1 #chi4 ,presence of capital always beneficial to labourer1 #cij4 ,groundless outcry against tyranny of capital1 #cia1 #cib4 ,wants1 efforts1 and satisfactions1 constitute the domain of ,political ,economy1 #fi-gd4 ,wants of man1 enumeration of1 #ge-gg4 ,moral and material1 #gg4 ,not a fixed quantity1 but progressive and expansive1 #gi1 #hj4 ,rousseau recognises their elasticity1 #ha4 ,in isolation1 wants exceed powers2 in the social state1 powers exceed wants1 #ih4 ,man has more wants than any other living being1 #ii4 ,war4 ,principal thing which imparts to nations their distinctive character is the manner in which they provide for their subsistence1 #ded4 ,labour1 although little noticed by historians1 held as important a place among the ancients as it does with us1 #deg4 ,war1 spoliation1 marked difference in the character of a nation which lives by1 #deh4 ,it presupposes production1 ib4 ,spoliation in the shape of war has its root in selfishness1 #dei4 ,personal interest gives rise to harmony1 but there are disturbing causes1 #dfj4 ,labour is in itself a good1 independent of its results1 but we do not desire it for its own sake1 ib4 ,man1 being placed between two evils1 want and labour1 seeks to get rid of both1 #dfa4 ,spoliation then presents itself as a solution of the problem1 ib4 ,war a waste of human power1 ib4 ,and the spoliator does not get quit of labour1 ib4 ,checks production by the insecurity it creates1 #dfb4 ,contrasts between the producer and spoliator1 ib4 ,war has been a widespread evil1 #dfb1 #dfc4 ,interrupts human progress1 #dfc4 ,how the warlike spirit is propagated1 ib4 ,how war ends1 #dfd4 ,water has utility without possessing value1 #ach2 but if brought from a distance by another1 the service has value1 #ach1 #aci4 ,wealth1 natural and social1 #gc2 actual or relative1 #ahj4 ,relative wealth is measured by value1 not utility1 #aha4 ,ricardo gave to the word ,wealth the sense of utility2 ,say1 that of value1 ib4 ,effective wealth1 the aggregate utilities which labour1 aided by natural agents1 places within our reach1 #aib4 ,relative wealth1 proportional share of each in the general riches1 determined by value1 ib4 ,morality of1 #aic1 #aid4 ,motive which leads to acquisition of1 natural1 and consequently moral1 #aic4 ,desire to better our circumstances also moral1 ib42 but if we seek to become rich by injustice1 this immoral1 ib4 ,y4 ,youth of ,france1 address to1 #cc4 ,,edinburgh3 ,,printed ,,by ,,oliver ,,and ,,boyd4 ,,transcriber',s ,,endnote ,the words galitaires and ,egalitaires are both retained as printed4 ,page #fd3 instals was changed to installs4 ,page #fh3 ,keppler changed to ,kepler1 to agree with the corresponding index entry4 ,page #ajh3 appearence to appearance4 ,page #bae3 that times comes1 to that time comes14 ,page #bfd3 ,proudon changed to ,proudhon4 ,page #bff3 added full stop after encountered the same difficulty4 ,page #bgb3 added full stop after into the high regions of the atmosphere4 ,page #bgf3 added colon after pay for two kinds of labour4 ,page #bhd3 added full stop after in the case of agricultural products4 ,page #che3 added full stop after or in the product4 ,page #dhh3 ,chapter number ,,xxl to ,,xxi4 ,page #dic3 concide to coincide4 ,page #ejj3 sort of gravitation3 to sort of gravitation24 ,page #eac3 beginning double quote mark added to second paragraph of the long quotation in footnote #aaf4 ,page #eba3 ,lammennais to ,lamennais4