,italics are indicated by underscores4 ,superscript is indicated by this format3 superscript4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,civilization ,,and ,,decay ,an ,essay on ,history ,,by ,,brooks ,,adams ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,london3 ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,ltd4 #ahig ,all rights reserved ,copyright1 #ahif1 ,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up and electrotyped ,september1 #ahif4 ,reprinted ,february1 ,september1 #ahig4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4 ,berwick ,smith ,norwood ,mass4 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,in offering to the public a second edition of ,the ,law of ,civilization and ,decay ,i take the opportunity to say emphatically that such value as the essay may have lies in its freedom from any preconceived bias4 ,all theories contained in the book1 whether religious or economic1 are the effect1 and not the cause1 of the way in which the facts unfolded themselves4 ,i have been passive4 ,the value of history lies not in the multitude of facts collected1 but in their relation to each other1 and in this respect an author can have no larger responsibility than any other scientific observer4 ,if the sequence of events seems to indicate the existence of a law governing social development1 such a law may be suggested1 but to approve or disapprove of it would be as futile as to discuss the moral bearings of gravitation4 ,some years ago1 when writing a sketch of the history of the colony of ,massachusetts ,bay1 ,i became deeply interested in certain religious aspects of the ,reformation1 which seemed hardly reconcilable with the theories usually advanced to explain them4 ,after the book had been published1 ,i continued reading theology1 and1 step by step1 was led back1 through the schoolmen and the crusades1 to the revival of the pilgrimage to ,palestine1 which followed upon the conversion of the ,huns4 ,as ferocious pagans1 the ,huns had long closed the road to ,constantinople2 but the change which swept over ,europe after the year #ajjj1 when ,saint ,stephen was crowned1 was unmistakable2 the ,west received an impulsion from the ,east4 ,i thus became convinced that religious enthusiasm1 which1 by stimulating the pilgrimage1 restored communication between the ,bosphorus and the ,rhine1 was the power which produced the accelerated movement culminating in modern centralization4 ,meanwhile ,i thought ,i had discovered not only that faith1 during the eleventh1 twelfth1 and early thirteenth centuries1 spoke by preference through architecture1 but also that in ,france and ,syria1 at least1 a precise relation existed between the ecclesiastical and military systems of building1 and that the one could not be understood without the other4 ,in the commercial cities of the same epoch1 on the contrary1 the religious idea assumed no definite form of artistic expression1 for the ,gothic never flourished in ,venice1 ,genoa1 ,pisa1 or ,florence1 nor did any pure school of architecture thrive in the mercantile atmosphere4 ,furthermore1 commerce from the outset seemed antagonistic to the imagination1 for a universal decay of architecture set in throughout ,europe after the great commercial expansion of the thirteenth century2 and the inference ,i drew from these facts was1 that the economic instinct must have chosen some other medium by which to express itself4 ,my observations led me to suppose that the coinage might be such a medium1 and ,i ultimately concluded that1 if the development of a mercantile community is to be understood1 it must be approached through its money4 ,another conviction forced upon my mind1 by the examination of long periods of history1 was the exceedingly small part played by conscious thought in moulding the fate of men4 ,at the moment of action the human being almost invariably obeys an instinct1 like an animal2 only after action has ceased does he reflect4 ,these controlling instincts are involuntary1 and divide men into species distinct enough to cause opposite effects under identical conditions4 ,for instance1 impelled by fear1 one type will rush upon an enemy1 and another will run away2 while the love of women or of money has stamped certain races as sharply as ferocity or cunning has stamped the lion or the fox4 ,like other personal characteristics1 the peculiarities of the mind are apparently strongly hereditary1 and1 if these instincts be transmitted from generation to generation1 it is plain that1 as the external world changes1 those who receive this heritage must rise or fall in the social scale1 according as their nervous system is well or ill adapted to the conditions to which they are born4 ,nothing is commoner1 for example1 than to find families who have been famous in one century sinking into obscurity in the next1 not because the children have degenerated1 but because a certain field of activity which afforded the ancestor full scope1 has been closed against his offspring4 ,particularly has this been true in revolutionary epochs such as the ,reformation2 and families so situated have very generally become extinct4 ,when this stage had been reached1 the ,reformation began to wear a new aspect1 but several years elapsed before ,i saw whither my studies led4 ,only very slowly did a sequence of cause and effect take shape in my mind1 a sequence wholly unexpected in character1 whose growth resembled the arrangement of the fragments of an inscription1 which cannot be read until the stones have been set in a determined order4 ,finally1 as the historical work neared an end1 ,i perceived that the intellectual phenomena under examination fell into a series which seemed to correspond1 somewhat closely1 with the laws which are supposed to regulate the movements of the material universe4 ,theories can be tested only by applying them to facts1 and the facts relating to successive phases of human thought1 whether conscious or unconscious1 constitute history2 therefore1 if intellectual phenomena are evolved in a regular sequence1 history1 like matter1 must be governed by law4 ,in support of such a conjecture1 ,i venture to offer an hypothesis by which to classify a few of the more interesting intellectual phases through which human society must1 apparently1 pass1 in its oscillations between barbarism and civilization1 or1 what amounts to the same thing1 in its movement from a condition of physical dispersion to one of concentration4 ,the accompanying volume contains the evidence which suggested the hypothesis1 although1 it seems hardly necessary to add1 an essay of this size on so vast a subject can only be regarded as a suggestion4 ,the theory proposed is based upon the accepted scientific principle that the law of force and energy is of universal application in nature1 and that animal life is one of the outlets through which solar energy is dissipated4 ,starting from this fundamental proposition1 the first deduction is1 that1 as human societies are forms of animal life1 these societies must differ among themselves in energy1 in proportion as nature has endowed them1 more or less abundantly1 with energetic material4 ,thought is one of the manifestations of human energy1 and among the earlier and simpler phases of thought1 two stand conspicuous--,fear and ,greed4 ,fear1 which1 by stimulating the imagination1 creates a belief in an invisible world1 and ultimately develops a priesthood2 and ,greed1 which dissipates energy in war and trade4 ,probably the velocity of the social movement of any community is proportionate to its energy and mass1 and its centralization is proportionate to its velocity2 therefore1 as human movement is accelerated1 societies centralize4 ,in the earlier stages of concentration1 fear appears to be the channel through which energy finds the readiest outlet2 accordingly1 in primitive and scattered communities1 the imagination is vivid1 and the mental types produced are religious1 military1 artistic4 ,as consolidation advances1 fear yields to greed1 and the economic organism tends to supersede the emotional and martial4 ,whenever a race is so richly endowed with the energetic material that it does not expend all its energy in the daily struggle for life1 the surplus may be stored in the shape of wealth2 and this stock of stored energy may be transferred from community to community1 either by conquest1 or by superiority in economic competition4 ,however large may be the store of energy accumulated by conquest1 a race must1 sooner or later1 reach the limit of its martial energy1 when it must enter on the phase of economic competition4 ,but1 as the economic organism radically differs from the emotional and martial1 the effect of economic competition has been1 perhaps invariably1 to dissipate the energy amassed by war4 ,when surplus energy has accumulated in such bulk as to preponderate over productive energy1 it becomes the controlling social force4 ,thenceforward1 capital is autocratic1 and energy vents itself through those organisms best fitted to give expression to the power of capital4 ,in this last stage of consolidation1 the economic1 and1 perhaps1 the scientific intellect is propagated1 while the imagination fades1 and the emotional1 the martial1 and the artistic types of manhood decay4 ,when a social velocity has been attained at which the waste of energetic material is so great that the martial and imaginative stocks fail to reproduce themselves1 intensifying competition appears to generate two extreme economic types1--the usurer in his most formidable aspect1 and the peasant whose nervous system is best adapted to thrive on scanty nutriment4 ,at length a point must be reached when pressure can go no further1 and then1 perhaps1 one of two results may follow3 ,a stationary period may supervene1 which may last until ended by war1 by exhaustion1 or by both combined1 as seems to have been the case with the ,eastern ,empire2 or1 as in the ,western1 disintegration may set in1 the civilized population may perish1 and a reversion may take place to a primitive form of organism4 ,the evidence1 however1 seems to point to the conclusion that1 when a highly centralized society disintegrates1 under the pressure of economic competition1 it is because the energy of the race has been exhausted4 ,consequently1 the survivors of such a community lack the power necessary for renewed concentration1 and must probably remain inert until supplied with fresh energetic material by the infusion of barbarian blood4 ,,brooks ,,adams4 ,quincy1 ,august #bj1 #ahif4 ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i ,the ,romans #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,middle ,age #dh ,,chapter ,,iii ,the ,first ,crusade #gi ,,chapter ,,iv ,the ,second ,crusade #ajc ,,chapter ,v ,the ,fall of ,constantinople #abd ,,chapter ,,vi ,the ,suppression of the ,temple #aeb ,,chapter ,,vii ,the ,english ,reformation #ahf ,,chapter ,,viii ,the ,suppression of the ,convents #bbj ,,chapter ,,ix ,the ,eviction of the ,yeomen #bdc ,,chapter ,x ,spain and ,india #bhf ,,chapter ,,xi ,modern ,centralization #cac ,,chapter ,,xii ,conclusion #ceb ,index #che ,,civilization ,,and ,,decay ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,romans ,when the ,romans first emerged from the mist of fable1 they were already a race of land-owners who held their property in severalty1 and1 as the right of alienation was established1 the formation of relatively large estates had begun4 ,the ordinary family1 however1 held1 perhaps1 twelve acres1 and1 as the land was arable1 and the staple grain1 it supported a dense rural population4 ,the husbandmen who tilled this land were of the martial type1 and1 probably for that reason1 though supremely gifted as administrators and soldiers1 were ill-fitted to endure the strain of the unrestricted economic competition of a centralized society4 ,consequently their conquests had hardly consolidated before decay set in1 a decay whose causes may be traced back until they are lost in the dawn of history4 ,the ,latins had little economic versatility2 they lacked the instinct of the ,greeks for commerce1 or of the ,syrians and ,hindoos for manufactures4 ,they were essentially land-owners1 and1 when endowed with the acquisitive faculty1 usurers4 ,the latter early developed into a distinct species1 at once more subtle of intellect and more tenacious of life than the farmers1 and on the disparity between these two types of men1 the fate of all subsequent civilization has hinged4 ,at a remote antiquity ,roman society divided into creditors and debtors2 as it consolidated1 the power of the former increased1 thus intensifying the pressure on the weak1 until1 when centralization culminated under the ,csars1 reproduction slackened1 disintegration set in1 and1 after some centuries of decline1 the ,middle ,ages began4 ,the history of the monarchy must probably always remain a matter of conjecture1 but it seems reasonably certain that the expulsion of the ,tarquins was the victory of an hereditary monied caste1 which succeeded in concentrating the functions of government in a practically self-perpetuating body drawn from their own order4#a ,niebuhr has demonstrated1 in one of his most striking chapters1 that usury was originally a patrician privilege2 and some of the fiercest struggles of the early republic seem to have been decided against the oligarchy by wealthy plebeians1 who were determined to break down the monopoly in money-lending4 ,at all events1 the conditions of life evidently favoured the growth of the instinct which causes its possessor to suck the vitality of the economically weak2 and ,macaulay1 in the preface to ,virginia1 has given so vivid a picture of the dominant class1 that one passage at least should be read entire4 8,the ruling class in ,rome was a monied class2 and it made and administered the laws with a view solely to its own interest4 ,thus the relation between lender and borrower was mixed up with the relation between sovereign and subject4 ,the great men held a large portion of the community in dependence by means of advances at enormous usury4 ,the law of debt1 framed by creditors1 and for the protection of creditors1 was the most horrible that has ever been known among men4 ,the liberty1 and even the life1 of the insolvent were at the mercy of the patrician money-lenders4 ,children often became slaves in consequence of the misfortunes of their parents4 ,the debtor was imprisoned1 not in a public gaol under the care of impartial public functionaries1 but in a private workhouse belonging to the creditor4 ,frightful stories were told respecting these dungeons40 ,but a prisoner is an expense1 and the patricians wanted money4 ,their problem was to exhaust the productive power of the debtor before selling him1 and1 as slaves have less energy than freemen1 a system was devised by which the plebeians were left on their land1 and stimulated to labour by the hope of redeeming themselves and their children from servitude4 ,niebuhr has explained at length how this was done4 ,for money weighed out a person could pledge himself1 his family1 and all that belonged to him4 ,in this condition he became nexus1 and remained in possession of his property until breach of condition1 when the creditor could proceed by summary process4#b ,such a contract satisfied the requirements1 and the usurers had then only to invent a judgment for debt severe enough to force the debtor to become nexus when the alternative was offered him4 ,this presented no difficulty4 ,when an action was begun the defendant had thirty days of grace1 and was then arrested and brought before the prtor4 ,if he could neither pay nor find security1 he was fettered with irons weighing not less than fifteen pounds1 and taken home by the plaintiff4 ,there he was allowed a pound of corn a day1 and given sixty days in which to settle4 ,if he failed1 he was taken again before the prtor and sentenced4 ,under this sentence he might be sold or executed1 and1 where there were several plaintiffs1 they might cut him up among them1 nor was any individual liable for carving more than his share4#c ,a man so sentenced involved his descendants1 and therefore1 rather than submit1 the whole debtor class became nexi1 toiling for ever to fulfil contracts quite beyond their strength1 and year by year sinking more hopelessly into debt1 for ordinarily the accumulated interest soon raised 8the principal to many times its original amount40#d ,niebuhr has thus summed up the economic situation3-- 8,to understand the condition of the plebeian debtors1 let the reader1 if he is a man of business1 imagine that the whole of the private debts in a given country were turned into bills at a year1 bearing interest at twenty per cent or more2 and that the non-payment of them were followed on summary process by imprisonment1 and by the transfer of the debtor's whole property to his creditor1 even though it exceeded what he owed4 ,we do not need those further circumstances1 which are incompatible with our manners1 the personal slavery of the debtor and of his children1 to form an estimate of the fearful condition of the unfortunate plebeians40#e ,thus the usurer first exhausted a family and then sold it2 and as his class fed on insolvency and controlled legislation1 the laws were as ingeniously contrived for creating debt1 as for making it profitable when contracted4 ,one characteristic device was the power given the magistrate of fining for 8offences against order40 ,under this head 8men might include any accusations they pleased1 and by the higher grades in the scale of fines they might accomplish whatever they desired40#f ,as the capitalists owned the courts and administered justice1 they had the means at hand of ruining any plebeian whose property was tempting4 ,nevertheless1 the stronghold of usury lay in the fiscal system1 which down to the fall of the ,empire was an engine for working bankruptcy4 ,rome's policy was to farm the taxes2 that is to say1 after assessment1 to sell them to a publican1 who collected what he could4 ,the business was profitable in proportion as it was extortionate1 and the country was subjected to a levy unregulated by law1 and conducted to enrich speculators4 8,ubi publicanus est10 said ,livy1 quoting the ,senate1 8ibi aut jus publicum vanum1 aut libertatem sociis nullam esse40#g ,usury was the cream of this business4 ,the custom was to lend to defaulters at such high rates of interest that insolvency was nearly certain to follow2 then the people were taken on execution1 and slave-hunting formed a regular branch of the revenue service4 ,in ,cicero's time whole provinces of ,asia ,minor were stripped bare by the traffic4 ,the effect upon the ,latin society of the fifth century before ,christ was singularly destructive4 ,italy was filled with petty states in chronic war1 the troops were an unpaid militia1 which comprised the whole able-bodied population1 and though the farms yielded enough for the family in good times1 when the males were with the legions labour was certain to be lacking4 ,the campaigns therefore brought want1 and with want came the inability to pay taxes4 ,as late as the ,tunic ,war1 ,regulus asked to be relieved from his command1 because the death of his slave and the incompetence of his hired man left his fields uncared for2 and if a general and a consul were pinched by absence1 the case of the men in the ranks can be imagined4 ,even in victory the lot of the common soldier was hard enough1 for1 beside the chance of wounds and disease1 there was the certain loss of time1 for which no compensation was made4 ,though the plebeians formed the whole infantry of the line1 they received no part of the conquered lands1 and even the plunder was taken from them1 and appropriated by the patricians to their private use4#h ,in defeat1 the open country was overrun1 the cattle were driven off or slaughtered1 the fruit trees cut down1 the crops laid waste1 and the houses burned4 ,in speaking of the ,gallic invasion1 ,niebuhr has pointed out that the ravaging of the enemy1 and the new taxes laid to rebuild the ruined public works1 led to general insolvency4#i ,such conditions fostered the rapid propagation of distinct types of mind1 and at a very early period ,romans had been bred destitute of the martial instinct1 but more crafty and more tenacious of life than the soldier4 ,these were the men who conceived and enforced the usury laws1 and who held to personal pledges as the dearest privilege of their order2 nor does ,livy attempt to disguise the fact 8that every patrician house was a gaol for debtors2 and that in seasons of great distress1 after every sitting of the courts1 herds of sentenced slaves were led away in chains to the houses of the nobless40#aj ,of this redoubtable type the ,claudian family was a famous specimen1 and the picture which has been drawn by ,macaulay of the great usurer1 ,appius ,claudius1 the decemvir1 is so brilliant that it cannot be omitted4 8,appius ,claudius ,crassus 444 was descended from a long line of ancestors distinguished by their haughty demeanour1 and by the inflexibility with which they had withstood all the demands of the plebeian order4 ,while the political conduct and the deportment of the ,claudian nobles drew upon them the fiercest public hatred1 they were accused of wanting1 if any credit is due to the early history of ,rome1 a class of qualities which1 in a military commonwealth1 is sufficient to cover a multitude of offences4 ,the chiefs of the family appear to have been eloquent1 versed in civil business1 and learned after the fashion of their age2 but in war they were not distinguished by skill or valour4 ,some of them1 as if conscious where their weakness lay1 had1 when filling the highest magistracies1 taken internal administration as their department of public business1 and left the military command to their colleagues4 ,one of them had been entrusted with an army1 and had failed ignominiously4 ,none of them had been honoured with a triumph4444 8,his grandfather1 called1 like himself1 ,appius ,claudius1 had left a name as much detested as that of ,sextus ,tarquinius4 ,this elder ,appius had been consul more than seventy years before the introduction of the ,licinian ,laws4 ,by availing himself of a singular crisis in public feeling1 he had obtained the consent of the commons to the abolition of the tribuneship1 and had been the chief of that ,council of ,ten to which the whole direction of the ,state had been committed4 ,in a few months his administration had become universally odious4 ,it had been swept away by an irresistible outbreak of popular fury2 and its memory was still held in abhorrence by the whole city4 ,the immediate cause of the downfall of this execrable government was said to have been an attempt made by ,appius ,claudius upon the chastity of a beautiful young girl of humble birth4 ,the story ran that the ,decemvir1 unable to succeed by bribes and solicitations1 resorted to an outrageous act of tyranny4 ,a vile dependant of the ,claudian house laid claim to the damsel as his slave4 ,the cause was brought before the tribunal of ,appius4 ,the wicked magistrate1 in defiance of the clearest proofs1 gave judgment for the claimant4 ,but the girl's father1 a brave soldier1 saved her from servitude and dishonour by stabbing her to the heart in the sight of the whole ,forum4 ,that blow was the signal for a general explosion4 ,camp and city rose at once2 the ,ten were pulled down2 the tribuneship was re-established2 and ,appius escaped the hands of the executioner only by a voluntary death40#aa ,virginia was slain in #ddi ,b4,c41 just in the midst of the long convulsion which began with the secession to the ,mons ,sacer1 and ended with the ,licinian ,laws4 ,during this century and a quarter1 usury drained the ,roman vitality low4 ,niebuhr was doubtless right in his conjecture that the mutinous legions were filled with nexi to whom the continuance of the existing status meant slavery1 and ,mommsen also pointed out that the convulsions of the third and fourth centuries1 in which it seemed as though ,roman society must disintegrate1 were caused by 8the insolvency of the middle class of land-holders40#ab ,had ,italy been more tranquil1 it is not inconceivable that the small farmers might even then have sunk into the serfdom which awaited them under the ,empire1 for in peace the patricians might have been able to repress insurrection with their clients2 but the accumulation of capital had hardly begun1 and several centuries were to elapse before money was to take its ultimate form in a standing army4 ,meanwhile1 troops were needed almost every year to defend the city2 and1 as the legions were a militia1 they were the enemy and not the instrument of wealth4 ,until the organization of a permanent paid police they were1 however1 the highest expression of force1 and1 when opposed to them1 the monied oligarchy was helpless1 as was proved by the secession to the ,mons ,sacer4 ,the storm gathered slowly4 ,the rural population was ground down under the usury laws1 and in #die ,b4,c4 the farmers refused to respond to the levy4 ,the consul ,publius ,servilius had to suspend prosecutions for debt and to liberate debtors in prison2 but at the end of the campaign the promises he had made in the moment of danger were repudiated by ,appius ,claudius1 who rigorously enforced the usury legislation1 and who was1 for the time1 too strong to be opposed4 ,that year the men submitted1 but the next the legions had again to be embodied2 they again returned victorious2 their demands were again rejected2 and then1 instead of disbanding1 they marched in martial array into the district of ,crustumeria1 and occupied the hill which ever after was called the ,sacred ,mount4#ac ,resistance was not even attempted2 and precisely the same surrender was repeated in #ddi4 ,when ,virginius stabbed his daughter he fled to the camp1 and his comrades seized the standards and marched for ,rome4 ,the ,senate yielded at once1 decreed the abolition of the ,decemvirate1 and the triumphant cohorts1 drawn up upon the ,aventine1 chose their tribunes4 ,finally1 in the last great struggle1 when ,camillus was made dictator to coerce the people1 he found himself impotent4 ,the monied oligarchy collapsed when confronted with an armed force2 and ,camillus1 reduced to act as mediator1 vowed a temple to ,concord1 on the passage of the ,licinian ,laws4#ad ,the ,licinian ,laws provided for a partial liquidation1 and also for an increase of the means of the debtor class by redistribution of the public land4 ,this land had been seized in war1 and had been monopolized by the patricians without any particular legal right4 ,licinius obtained a statute by which back payments of interest should be applied to extinguishing the principal of debts1 and balances then remaining due should be liquidated in three annual instalments4 ,he also limited the quantity of the public domain which could be held by any individual1 and directed that the residue which remained after the reduction of all estates to that standard should be distributed in five-acre lots4 ,pyrrhus saw with a soldier's eye that ,rome's strength did not lie in her generals1 who were frequently his inferiors1 but in her farmers1 whom he could not crush by defeat1 and this was the class which was favoured by the ,licinian ,laws4 ,they multiplied greatly when the usurers capitulated1 and1 as ,macaulay remarked1 the effect of the reform was 8singularly happy and glorious40 ,it was indeed no less than the conquest of ,italy4 ,rome1 8while the disabilities of the plebeians continued 444 was scarcely able to maintain her ground against the ,volscians and ,hernicans4 ,when those disabilities were removed1 she rapidly became more than a match for ,carthage and ,macedon40#ae ,but nature's very bounty to the ,roman husbandman and soldier proved his ruin4 ,patient of suffering1 enduring of fatigue1 wise in council1 fierce in war1 he routed all who opposed him2 and yet the vigorous mind and the robust frame which made him victorious in battle1 were his weakness when at peace4 ,he needed costly nutriment1 and when brought into free economic competition with ,africans and ,asiatics1 he starved4 ,such competition resulted directly from foreign conquests1 and came rapidly when ,italy had consolidated1 and the ,italians began to extend their power over other races4 ,nearly five centuries intervened between the foundation of the city and the defeat of ,pyrrhus1 but within little more than two hundred years from the victory of ,beneventum1 ,rome was mistress of the world4 ,indeed1 beyond the peninsula1 there was not much1 save ,carthage1 to stop the march of the legions4 ,after the death of ,alexander1 in #cbc ,b4,c41 ,greece fell into decline1 and by #bjj1 when ,rome attacked ,macedon1 she was in decrepitude4 ,the population of ,asia ,minor1 ,syria1 and ,egypt was not martial1 and had never been able to cope in battle with the western races2 while ,spain and ,gaul1 though inhabited by fierce and hardy tribes1 lacked cohesion1 and could not withstand the onset of organized and disciplined troops4 ,distance1 therefore1 rather than hostile military force1 fixed the limit of the ancient centralization1 for the ,romans were not maritime1 and consequently failed to absorb ,india or discover ,america4 ,thus their relatively imperfect movement made the most material difference between the ancient and modern economic system4 ,by conquest the countries inhabited by races of a low vitality and great tenacity of life were opened both for trade and slaving1 and their cheap labour exterminated the husbandmen of ,italy4 ,particularly after the annexation of ,asia ,minor this labour overran ,sicily1 and the cultivation of the cereals by the natives became impossible when the island had been parcelled out into great estates stocked by capitalists with eastern slaves who1 at ,rome1 undersold all competitors4 ,during the second century the precious metals poured into ,latium in a flood1 great fortunes were amassed and invested in land1 and the ,asiatic provinces of the ,empire were swept of their men in order to make these investments pay4 ,no data remain by which to estimate1 even approximately1 the size of this involuntary migration1 but it must have reached enormous numbers1 for sixty thousand captives were the common booty of a campaign1 and after provinces were annexed they were depopulated by the publicans4 ,the best field hands came from the regions where poverty had always been extreme1 and where1 for countless generations1 men had been inured to toil on scanty food4 ,districts like ,bithynia and ,syria1 where slaves could be bought for little or nothing1 had always been tilled by races far more tenacious of life than any ,europeans4 ,after ,lucullus plundered ,pontus1 a slave brought only four drachm1 or1 perhaps1 seventy cents4#af ,on the other hand1 competition grew sharper among the ,italians themselves4 ,as capital accumulated in the hands of the strongest1 the poor grew poorer1 and pauperism spread4 ,as early as the ,marsian ,war1 in #ij ,b4,c41 ,lucius ,marcius ,philippus estimated that there were only two thousand wealthy families among the burgesses4 ,in about three hundred years nature had culled a pure plutocracy from what had been originally an essentially martial race4 ,the primitive ,roman was a high order of husbandman1 who could only when well fed flourish and multiply4 ,he was adapted to that stage of society when the remnants of caste gave a certain fixity of tenure to the farmer1 and when prices were maintained by the cost of communication with foreign countries4 ,as the world centralized1 through conquest1 these barriers were swept away4 ,economic competition became free1 land tended to concentrate in fewer and fewer hands1 and this land was worked by eastern slaves1 who reduced the wages of labour to the lowest point at which the human being can survive4 ,the effect was to split society in halves1 the basis being servile1 and the freemen being separated into a series of classes1 according to the economic power of the mind4 ,wealth formed the title to nobility of the great oligarchy which thus came to constitute the core of the ,empire4 ,at the head stood the senators1 whose rank was hereditary unless they lost their property1 for to be a senator a man had to be rich4 ,augustus fixed #dh1jjj as the minimum of the senatorial fortune1 and made up the deficiency to certain favoured families1#ag but ,tiberius summarily ejected spendthrifts4#ah ,all ,latin literature is redolent of money4 ,tacitus1 with an opulent connection1 never failed to speak with disdain of the base-born1 or1 in other words1 of the less prosperous4 8,poppus ,sabinus1 a man of humble birth10 raised to position by the caprice of two emperors2#ai 8,cassius ,severus1 a man of mean extraction02#bj and1 in the poetry of antiquity1 there are few more famous lines than those in which ,juvenal has described the burden of poverty3 8,haud facile emergunt1 quorum virtutibus obstat ,res angusta domi40#ba ,perhaps no modern writer has been so imbued with the spirit of the later ,empire as ,fustel de ,coulanges1 and on this subject he has been emphatic4 ,not only were the ,romans not democratic1 but at no period of her history did ,rome love equality4 ,in the ,republic rank was determined by wealth4 ,the census was the basis of the social system4 ,every citizen had to declare his fortune before a magistrate1 and his grade was then assigned him4 8,poverty and wealth established the legal differences between men40 ,the first line of demarcation lay between those who owned land and those who did not4 ,the former were assidui3 householders rooted in the soil4 ,the latter were proletarians4 ,the proletarians were equal in their poverty2 but the assidui were unequal in their wealth1 and were consequently divided into five classes4 ,among these categories all was unequal--taxes1 military service1 and political rights4 ,they did not mix together4 8,if one transports oneself to the last century of the ,republic 444 one finds there an aristocracy as strongly consolidated as the ancient patrician4444 ,at the summit came the senatorial order4 ,to belong to it the first condition was to possess a great fortune4444 ,the ,roman mind did not understand that a poor man could belong to the aristocracy1 or that a rich man was not part of it40#bb ,archaic customs lingered late in ,rome1 for the city was not a centre of commercial exchanges2 and long after the death of ,alexander1 when ,greece passed its meridian1 the ,republic kept its copper coinage4 ,regulus farmed his field with a single slave and a hired servant1 and there was1 in truth1 nothing extraordinary in the famous meeting with ,cincinnatus at the plough1 although such simplicity astonished a contemporary of ,augustus4 ,advancing centralization swept away these ancient customs1 a centralization whose march is1 perhaps1 as sharply marked by the migration of vagrants to the cities1 as by any single phenomenon4 ,vagrant paupers formed the proletariat for whose relief the 8,frumentari ,leges0 were framed2 and yet1 though poor-laws in some form are considered a necessity in modern times1 few institutions of antiquity have been more severely criticised than those regulating charity4 ,from the time of ,cato downward1 the tendency has been to maintain that at ,rome demagogues fed the rabble at the cost of the lives of the free-holders4 ,probably the exact converse is the truth2 the public gifts of food appear to have been the effect of the ruin of agriculture1 and not its cause4 ,after the ,italian husbandmen had been made insolvent by the competition of races of lower vitality1 they flocked starving to the capital1 but it was only reluctantly that the great speculators in grain1 who controlled the ,senate1 admitted the necessity of granting ,state aid to the class whom they had destroyed4 ,long before the ,punic ,wars the ,carthaginians had farmed ,sicily on capitalistic principles2 that is to say1 they had stocked domains with slaves1 and had traded on the basis of large sales and narrow profits4 ,the ,romans when they annexed the island only carried out this system to its logical end4 ,having all ,asia ,minor to draw upon for labour1 they deliberately starved and overworked their field-hands1 since it was cheaper to buy others than to lose command of the market4 ,the familiar story of the outbreak of the ,servile ,war1 about #acd ,b4,c41 shows how far the contemporaries of the ,sicilian speculators believed them capable of going4 ,damophilus1 an opulent ,sicilian landlord1 being one day implored by his slaves to have pity on their nakedness and misery1 indignantly demanded why they went hungry and cold1 with arms in their hands1 and the country before them4 ,then he bound them to stakes and flayed them with the lash4#bc ,the reduction of ,syracuse by ,marcellus broke the ,carthaginian power in the island1 and1 after the fall of ,agrigentum in #baj ,b4,c41 the pacification of the country went on rapidly4 ,probably from the outset1 even in the matter of transportation1 the provinces of the mainland were at a disadvantage because of the cheapness of sea freights1 but at all events the opening of the ,sicilian grain trade had an immediate and disastrous effect on ,italy4 ,the migration of vagrants to ,rome began forthwith1 and within seven years1 #bjc ,b4,c41 a public distribution of wheat took place1 probably by the advice of ,scipio4 ,nevertheless the charity was private and not gratuitous4 ,on the contrary1 a charge of six sesterces1 or twenty-five cents the bushel1 was made1 apparently near half the market rate1 a price pretty regularly maintained on such occasions down to the ,empire4 ,this interval comprehended the whole period of the ,sicilian supremacy in the corn trade1 for in #cj ,b4,c4 ,egypt was annexed by ,augustus4 ,the distress which followed upon free trade with ,egypt finally broke down the resistance of the rich to gratuitous relief for the poor4 ,previously the opposition to ,state aid had been so stubborn that until #abc ,b4,c4 no legal provision whatever was made for paupers2 and yet the account left by ,polybius of the condition of ,lombardy toward the middle of the second century shows the complete wreck of agriculture4 8,the yield of corn in this district is so abundant that wheat is often sold at four obols a ,sicilian medimnus about eight cents by the bushel1 or a little less than two sesterces1 barley at two1 or a metretes of wine for an equal measure of barley4444 ,the cheapness and abundance of all articles of food may also be clearly shown from the fact that travellers in these parts1 when stopping at inns1 do not bargain for particular articles1 but simply ask what the charge is per head for board4 ,and for the most part the innkeepers are content0 with half an as 7about half a cent7 a day4#bd ,these prices indicate a lack of demand so complete1 that the debtors among the peasantry must have been ruined1 and yet tax-payers remained obdurate4 ,gratuitous distributions were tried in #eh ,b4,c4 by the ,lex ,clodia1 but soon abandoned as costly1 and ,csar applied himself to reducing the outlay on the needy4 ,he hoped to reach his end by cutting down the number of grain-receivers one-half1 by providing that no grain should be given away except on presentation of a ticket1 and by ordering that the number of ticket-holders should not be increased4 ,the law of nature prevailed against him1 for the absorption of ,egypt in the economic system of the ,empire1 marked1 in the words of ,mommsen 8the end of the old and the beginning of a new epoch40#be ,among the races which have survived through ages upon scanty nutriment1 none have1 perhaps1 excelled the ,egyptian fellah4 ,even in the ,east no peasantry has probably been so continuously overworked1 so under-paid1 and so taxed4 8,if it is the aim of the ,state to work out the utmost possible amount from its territory1 in the ,old ,world the ,lagids were absolutely the masters of statecraft4 ,in particular they were in this sphere the instructors and the models of the ,csars40#bf ,in the first century ,egypt was1 as it still is1 preeminently a land of cheap labour2 but it was also something more4 ,the valley of the ,nile1 enriched by the overflow of the river1 returned an hundred-fold1 without manure2 and this wonderful district was administered1 not like an ordinary province1 but like a private farm belonging to the citizens of ,rome4 ,the emperor reserved it to himself4 ,how large a revenue he drew from it is immaterial2 it suffices that one-third of all the grain consumed in the capital came from thence4 ,according to ,athenus1 some of the grain ships in use were about #dbj feet long by #eg broad1 or nearly the size of a modern steamer in the ,atlantic trade4#bg ,from the beginning of the ,christian era1 therefore1 the wages of the ,egyptian fellah regulated the price of the cereals within the limits where trade was made free by ,roman consolidation1 and it is safe to say that1 thenceforward1 such of the highly nourished races as were constrained to sustain this competition1 were doomed to perish4 ,it is even extremely doubtful whether the distributions of grain by the government materially accelerated the march of the decay4 ,spain should have been far enough removed from the centre of exchanges to have had a certain local market of her own1 and yet ,martial1 writing about #ajj ,a4,d41 described the ,spanish husbandman eating and drinking the produce he could not sell1 and receiving but four sesterces the bushel for his wheat1 which was the price paid by paupers in the time of ,cicero4#bh ,thus by economic necessity great estates were formed in the hands of the economically strong4 ,as the value of cereals fell1 arable land passed into vineyards or pasture1 and1 the provinces being unable to sustain their old population1 eviction went on with gigantic strides4 ,had the ,romans possessed the versatility to enable them to turn to industry1 factories might have afforded a temporary shelter to this surplus labour1 but manufactures were monopolized by the ,east2 therefore the beggared peasantry were either enslaved for debt1 or wandered as penniless paupers to the cities1 where gradually their numbers so increased as to enable them to extort a gratuitous dole4 ,indeed1 during the third century1 their condition fell so low that they were unable even to cook the food freely given them1 and ,aurelian had their bread baked at public ovens4#bi ,as centralization advanced with the acceleration of human movement1 force expressed itself more and more exclusively through money1 and the channel in which money chose to flow was in investments in land4 ,the social system fostered the growth of large estates4 ,the ,romans always had an inordinate respect for the landed magnate1 and a contempt for the tradesman4 ,industry was reputed a servile occupation1 and1 under the ,republic1 the citizen who performed manual labour was almost deprived of political rights4 ,even commerce was thought so unworthy of the aristocracy that it was forbidden to senators4 8,the soil was always1 in this ,roman society1 the principal source and1 above all1 the only measure of wealth40 ,a law of ,tiberius obliged capitalists to invest two-thirds of their property in land4 ,trajan not only exacted of aspirants to office that they should be rich1 but that they should place at least one-third of their fortune in ,italian real estate2 and1 down to the end of the ,empire1 the senatorial class 8was at the same time the class of great landed proprietors40#cj ,the more property consolidated1 the more resistless the momentum of capital became4 ,under the ,empire small properties grew steadily rarer1 and the fewer they were1 the greater the disadvantage at which their owners stood4 ,the small farmer could hardly sustain himself in competition with the great landlord4 ,the grand domain of the capitalist was not only provided with a full complement of labourers1 vine-dressers1 and shepherds1 but with the necessary artisans4 ,the poor farmer depended on his rich neighbour even for his tools4 8,he was what a workman would be to-day who1 amidst great factories1 worked alone40#ca ,he bought dearer and sold cheaper1 his margin of profit steadily shrunk2 at last he was reduced to a bare subsistence in good years1 and the first bad harvest left him bankrupt4 ,the ,roman husbandman and soldier was doomed1 for nature had turned against him2 the task of history is but to ascertain his fate1 and trace the fortunes of his country after he had gone4 ,of the evicted1 many certainly drifted to the cities and lived upon charity1 forming the proletariat1 a class alike despised and lost to self-respect3 some were sold into slavery1 others starved2 but when all deductions have been made1 a surplus is left to be accounted for1 and there is reason to suppose that these stayed on their farms as tenants to the purchasers4 ,in the first century such tenancies were common4 ,the lessee remained a freeman1 under no subjection to his landlord1 provided he paid his rent2 but in case of default the law was rigorous4 ,everything upon the land was liable as a pledge1 and the tenant himself was held in pawn unless he could give security for what he owed4 ,in case1 therefore1 of prolonged agricultural depression1 all that was left of the ancient rural population could hardly fail to pass into the condition of serfs1 bound to the land by debts beyond the possibility of payment4 ,that such a depression actually occurred1 and that it extended through several centuries1 is certain4 ,nor is it possible that its only cause was ,egyptian competition1 for had it been so1 an equilibrium would have been reached when the ,african exchanges had been adjusted1 whereas a continuous decline of prices went on until long after the fall of the ,western ,empire4 ,the only other possible explanation of the phenomenon is that a contraction of the currency began soon after the death of ,augustus1 and continued without much interruption down to ,charlemagne4 ,between the fall of ,carthage and the birth of ,christ1 the ,romans plundered the richest portions of the world west of the ,indus2 in the second century1 ,north ,africa1 ,macedon1 ,spain1 and parts of ,greece and ,asia ,minor2 in the first1 ,athens1 ,cappadocia1 ,syria1 ,gaul1 and ,egypt4 ,these countries yielded an enormous mass of treasure1 which was brought to ,rome as spoil of war1 but which was not fixed there by commercial exchanges1 and which continually tended to flow back to the natural centres of trade4 ,therefore1 when conquests ceased1 the sources of new bullion dried up1 and the quantity held in ,italy diminished as the balance of trade grew more and more unfavourable4 ,under ,augustus the precious metals were plenty and cheap1 and the prices of commodities were correspondingly high2 but a full generation had hardly passed before a dearth began to be felt1 which manifested itself in a debasement of the coinage1 the surest sign of an appreciation of the currency4 ,speaking generally1 the manufactures and the more costly products of antiquity came from countries to the east of the ,adriatic1 while the ,west was mainly agricultural2 and nothing is better established than that luxuries were dear under the ,empire1 and food cheap4#cb ,therefore exchanges were unfavourable to the capital from the outset2 the exports did not cover the imports1 and each year a deficit had to be made good in specie4 ,the ,romans perfectly understood the situation1 and this adverse balance caused them much uneasiness4 ,tiberius dwelt upon it in a letter to the ,senate as early as #bb ,a4,d4 ,in that year the diles brought forward proposals for certain sumptuary reforms1 and the ,senate1 probably to rid itself of a delicate question1 referred the matter to the executive4 ,most of the emperor's reply is interesting1 but there is one particularly noteworthy paragraph4 8,if a reform is in truth intended1 where must it begin8 and how am ,i to restore the simplicity of ancient times8444 ,how shall we reform the taste for dress8444 ,how are we to deal with the peculiar articles of female vanity1 and1 in particular1 with that rage for jewels and precious trinkets1 which drains the ,empire of its wealth1 and sends1 in exchange for bawbles1 the money of the ,commonwealth to foreign nations1 and even to the enemies of ,rome80#cc ,half a century later matters were1 apparently1 worse1 for ,pliny more than once returned to the subject4 ,in the twelfth book of his ,natural ,history1 after enumerating the many well-known spices1 perfumes1 drugs1 and gems1 which have always made the ,eastern trade of such surpassing value1 he estimated that at the most moderate computation #ajj1jjj1jjj sesterces1 or about #d1jjj1jjj in coin1 were annually exported to ,arabia and ,india alone2 and at a time when silk was worth its weight in gold1 the estimate certainly does not seem excessive4 ,he added1 8,so dear do pleasures and women cost us40#cd ,the drain to ,egypt and the ,asiatic provinces could hardly have been much less serious4 ,adrian almost seems to have been jealous of the former1 for in his letter to ,servianus1 after having criticised the people1 he remarked that it was also a rich and productive country 8in which no one was idle10 and in which glass1 paper and linen were manufactured4#ce ,the ,syrians were both industrial and commercial4 ,tyre1 for example1 worked the raw silk of ,china1 dyed and exported it4 ,the glass of ,tyre and ,sidon was famous2 the local aristocracy were merchants and manufacturers1 8and1 as later the riches acquired in the ,east flowed to ,genoa and ,venice1 so then the commercial gains of the ,west flowed back to ,tyre and ,apamea40#cf ,within about sixty years from the final consolidation of the ,empire under ,augustus1 this continuous efflux of the precious metals began to cause the currency to contract1 and prices to fall2 and the first effect of shrinking values appears to have been a financial crisis in #cc ,a4,d4 ,probably the diminution in the worth of commodities relatively to money1 had already made it difficult for debtors to meet their liabilities1 for ,tacitus has prefaced his story by pointing out that usury had always been a scourge of ,rome1 and that just previous to the panic an agitation against the money-lenders had begun with a view to enforcing the law regarding interest4 ,as most of the senators were deep in usury they applied for protection to ,tiberius1 who granted what amounted to a stay of proceedings1 and then1 as soon as the capitalists felt themselves safe1 they proceeded to take their revenge4 ,loans were called1 accommodation refused1 and mortgagors were ruthlessly sold out4 8,there was great scarcity of money 444 and1 on account of sales on execution1 coin accumulated in the imperial1 or the public treasury4 ,upon this the ,senate ordered that every one should invest two-thirds of his capital on loan1 in ,italian real estate2 but the creditors called in the whole1 nor did public opinion allow debtors to compromise40 ,meanwhile there was great excitement but no relief1 8as the usurers hoarded for the purpose of buying low4 ,the quantity of sales broke the market1 and the more liabilities were extended1 the harder liquidation became4 ,many were ruined1 and the loss of property endangered social station and reputation40#cg ,the panic finally subsided1 but contraction went on and next showed itself1 twenty-five years later1 in adulterated coinage4 ,from the time of the ,punic ,wars1 about two centuries and a half before ,christ1 the silver denarius1 worth nearly seventeen cents1 had been the standard of the ,roman currency1 and it kept its weight and purity unimpaired until ,nero1 when it diminished from #ahd to #aif of a pound of silver1 the pure metal being mixed with #aaj of copper4#ch ,under ,trajan1 toward #ajj ,a4,d41 the alloy reached twenty per cent2 under ,septimius ,severus a hundred years later it had mounted to fifty or sixty per cent1 and by the time of ,elagabalus1 #bbj ,a4,d41 the coin had degenerated into a token of base metal1 and was repudiated by the government4 ,something similar happened to the gold4 ,the aureus1 though it kept its fineness1 lost in weight down to ,constantine4 ,in the reign of ,augustus it equalled one-fortieth of a ,roman pound of gold1 in that of ,nero one forty-fifth1 in that of ,caracalla but one-fiftieth1 in that of ,diocletian one-sixtieth1 and in that of ,constantine one seventy-second1 when the coin ceased passing by tale and was taken only by weight4#ci ,the repudiation of the denarius was an act of bankruptcy2 nor did the financial position improve while the administration remained at ,rome4 ,therefore the inference is that1 toward the middle of the third century1 ,italy had lost the treasure she had won in war1 which had gradually gravitated to the centre of exchanges4 ,this inference is confirmed by history4 ,the movements of ,diocletian seem to demonstrate that after #bej ,a4,d4 ,rome ceased to be either the political or commercial capital of the world4 ,unquestionably ,diocletian must have lived a life of intense activity at the focus of affairs1 to have raised himself from slavery to the purple at thirty-nine2 and yet ,gibbon thought he did not even visit ,rome until he went thither to celebrate his triumph1 after he had been twenty years upon the throne4 ,he never seemed anxious about the temper of the city4 ,when proclaimed emperor he ignored ,italy and established himself at ,nicomedia on the ,propontis1 where he lived until he abdicated in #cje4 ,his personal preferences evidently did not influence him1 since his successors imitated his policy2 and everything points to the conclusion that he1 and those who followed him1 only yielded to the same resistless force which fixed the economic capital of the world upon the ,bosphorus4 ,in the case of ,constantine the operation of this force was conspicuous1 for it was not only powerful enough to overcome the habit of a lifetime1 but to cause him to undertake the gigantic task of building ,constantinople4 ,constantine was proclaimed in ,britain in #cjf1 when only thirty-two4 ,six years later he defeated ,maxentius1 and then governed the ,west alone until his war with ,licinius1 whom he captured in #cbc and afterward put to death4 ,thus1 at fifty1 he returned to the ,east1 after an absence of nearly twenty years1 and his first act was to choose ,byzantium as his capital1 a city nearly opposite ,nicomedia4 ,the sequence of events seems plain4 ,very soon after the insolvency of the government at ,rome1 the administration quitted the city and moved toward the boundary between ,europe and ,asia2 there1 after some forty years of vacillation1 it settled permanently at the true seat of exchanges1 for ,constantinople remained the economic centre of the earth for more than eight centuries4 ,similar conclusions may be drawn from the fluctuations of the currency4 ,at ,rome the coin could not be maintained at the standard1 because of adverse exchanges2 but when the political and economic centres had come to coincide1 at a point upon the ,bosphorus1 depreciation ceased1 and the aureus fell no further4 ,this migration of capital1 which caused the rise of ,constantinople1 was the true opening of the ,middle ,ages1 for it occasioned the gradual decline of the rural population1 and thus brought about the disintegration of the ,west4 ,victory carried wealth to ,rome1 and wealth manifested its power in a permanent police2 as the attack in war gained upon the defence1 and individual resistance became impossible1 transportation grew cheap and safe1 and human movement was accelerated4 ,then economic competition began1 and intensified as centralization advanced1 telling always in favour of the acutest intellect and the cheapest labour4 ,soon1 exchanges became permanently unfavourable1 a steady drain of bullion set in to the ,east1 and1 as the outflow depleted the treasure amassed at ,rome by plunder1 contraction began1 and with contraction came that fall of prices which first ruined1 then enslaved1 and finally exterminated1 the native rural population of ,italy4 ,in the time of ,diocletian1 the ancient silver currency had long been repudiated1 and1 in his well-known edict1 he spoke of prices as having risen ninefold1 when reckoned in the denarii of base metal2 the purchasing power of pure gold and silver had1 however1 risen very considerably in all the western provinces4 ,nor was this all4 ,it appears to be a natural law that when social development has reached a certain stage1 and capital has accumulated sufficiently1 the class which has had the capacity to absorb it shall try to enhance the value of their property by legislation4 ,this is done most easily by reducing the quantity of the currency1 which is a legal tender for the payment of debts4 ,a currency obviously gains in power as it shrinks in volume1 and the usurers of ,constantinople intuitively condensed to the utmost that of the ,empire4 ,after the insolvency under ,elagabalus1 payments were exacted in gold by weight1 and as it grew scarcer its value rose4 ,aurelian issued an edict limiting its use in the arts2 and while there are abundant reasons for inferring that silver also gained in purchasing power1 gold far outstripped it4 ,although no statistics remain by which to establish1 with any exactness1 the movement of silver in comparison with commodities1 the ratio between the precious metals at different epochs is known1 and gold appears to have doubled between ,csar and ,romulus ,augustulus4 #dg ,b4,c4 gold stood to silver as #a 3 #h4i #a ,a4,d4 under ,augustus1 8 8 8 #a 3 #i4c #ajj-bjj1 ,trajan to ,severus1 8 8 8 #a 3 #i-aj #caj1 ,constantine1 8 8 8 #a 3 #ab4e #dej1 ,theodosius ,,ii41 8 8 8 #a 3 #ah ,as gold had become the sole legal tender1 this change of ratio represents a diminution1 during the existence of the ,western ,empire1 of at least fifty per cent in the value of property in relation to debt1 leaving altogether out of view the appreciation of silver itself1 which was so considerable that the government was unable to maintain the denarius4#dj ,resistance to the force of centralized wealth was vain4 ,aurelian's attempt to reform the mints is said to have caused a rebellion1 which cost him the lives of seven thousand of his soldiers2 and though his policy was continued by ,probus1 and ,diocletian coined both metals again at a ratio1 expansion was so antagonistic to the interests of the monied class that1 by #cfj1 silver was definitely discarded1 and gold was made by law the only legal tender for the payment of debts4#da ,furthermore1 the usurers protected themselves against any possible tampering with the mints by providing that the solidus should pass by weight and not by tale2 that is to say1 they reserved to themselves the right to reject any golden son which contained less than one seventy-second of a pound of standard metal1 the weight fixed by ,constantine4#db ,thus1 at a time when the exhaustion of the mines caused a failure in the annual supply of bullion1 the old composite currency was split in two1 and the half retained made to pass by weight alone1 so as to throw the loss by clipping and abrasion upon the debtor4 ,so strong a contraction engendered a steady fall of prices1 a fall which tended rather to increase than diminish as time went on4 ,but in prolonged periods of decline in the market value of agricultural products1 farmers can with difficulty meet a money rent1 because the sale of their crops leaves a greater deficit each year1 and finally a time comes when insolvency can no longer be postponed4 ,in his opening chapter ,gibbon described the ,empire under the ,antonines as enjoying 8a happy period of more than fourscore years0 of peace and prosperity2 and yet nothing is more certain than that this halcyon age was in reality an interval of agricultural ruin4 ,on this point ,pliny was explicit1 and ,pliny was a large land-owner4 ,he wrote one day to ,calvisius about an investment1 and went at length into the condition of the property4 ,a large estate adjoining his own was for sale1 and he was tempted to buy1 8for the land was fertile1 rich1 and well watered10 the fields produced vines and wood which promised a fair return1 and yet this natural fruitfulness was marred by the misery of the husbandmen4 ,he found that the former owner 8had often seized the #8pignora1' or pledges that is1 all the property the tenants possessed2 and though1 by so doing1 he had temporarily reduced their arrears1 he had left them0 without the means of tilling the soil4 ,these tenants were freemen1 who had been unable to meet their rent because of falling prices1 and who1 when they had lost their tools1 cattle1 and household effects1 were left paupers on the farms they could neither cultivate nor abandon4 ,consequently the property had suffered1 the rent had declined1 and for these reasons and 8the general hardness of the times10 its value had fallen from five million to three million sesterces4#dc ,in another letter he explained that he was detained at home making new arrangements with his tenants1 who were apparently insolvent1 for 8in the last five years1 in spite of great concessions1 the arrears have increased4 ,for this reason most tenants take no trouble to diminish their debt1 which they despair of paying4 ,indeed1 they plunder and consume what there is upon the land1 since they think they cannot save for themselves40 ,the remedy he proposed was to make no more money leases1 but to farm on shares4#dd ,the tone of these letters shows that there was nothing unusual in all this4 ,pliny nowhere intimated that the tenants were to blame1 or that better men were to be had4 ,on the contrary1 he said emphatically that in such hard times money could not be collected1 and therefore the interest of the landlord was to cultivate his estates on shares1 taking the single precaution to place slaves over the tenants as overseers and receivers of the crops4 ,in the same way the digest referred to such arrears as habitual4#de ,in still another letter to ,trajan1 ,pliny observed1 8,continu sterilitates cogunt me de remissionibus cogitare40#df ,certainly these insolvent farmers could have held no better position when working on shares than before their disasters1 for as bankrupts they were wholly in their creditors' power1 and could be hunted like slaves1 and brought back in fetters if they fled4 ,they were tied to the property by a debt which never could be paid1 and they and their descendants were doomed to stay for ever as coloni or serfs1 chattels to be devised or sold as part of the realty4 ,in the words of the law1 8they were considered slaves of the land40#dg ,the ancient martial husbandman had thus 8fallen from point to point1 from debt to debt1 into an almost perpetual subjection40#dh ,deliverance was impossible1 for payment was out of the question4 ,he was bound to the soil for his life1 and his children after him inherited his servitude with his debt4 ,the customs1 according to which the coloni held1 were infinitely varied2 they differed not only between estates1 but between the hands on the same estate4 ,on the whole1 however1 the life must have been hard1 for the serfs of the ,empire did not multiply1 and the scarcity of rural labour became a chronic disease4 ,yet1 relatively1 the position of the colonus was good1 for his wife and children were his own2 slavery was the ulcer which ate into the flesh1 and the ,roman fiscal system1 coupled as it was with usury1 was calculated to enslave all but the oligarchy who made the laws4 ,the taxes of the provinces were assessed by the censors and then sold for cash to the publicans1 who undertook the collection4 ,italy was at first exempted1 but after her bankruptcy she shared the common fate4 ,companies were formed to handle these ventures4 ,the knights usually subscribed the capital and divided the profits1 which corresponded with the severity of their administration2 and1 as the ,roman conquests extended1 these companies grew too powerful to be controlled4 ,the only officials in a position to act were the provincial governors1 who were afraid to interfere1 and preferred to share in the gains of the traffic1 rather than to run the risk of exciting the wrath of so dangerous an enemy4#di ,according to ,pliny the collection of a rent in money had become impossible in the reign of ,trajan4 ,the reason was that with a contracting currency prices of produce fell1 and each year's crop netted less than that of the year before2 therefore a rent moderate in one decade was extortionate in the next4 ,but taxes did not fall with the fall in values2 on the contrary1 the tendency of centralization is always toward a more costly administration4 ,under ,augustus1 one emperor with a moderate household sufficed2 but in the third century ,diocletian found it necessary to reorganize the government under four ,csars1 and everything became specialized in the same proportion4 ,in this way the people were caught between the upper and the nether millstone4 ,the actual quantity of bullion taken from them was greater1 the lower prices of their property fell1 and arrears of taxes accumulated precisely as ,pliny described the accumulation of arrears of rent4 ,these arrears were carried over from reign to reign1 and even from century to century2 and ,petronius1 the father-in-law of ,valens1 is said to have precipitated the rebellion of ,procopius1 by exacting the tribute unpaid since the death of ,aurelian a hundred years before4 ,the processes employed in the collection of the revenue were severe4 ,torture was freely used1#ej and slavery was the fate of defaulters4 ,armed with such power1 the publicans held debtors at their mercy4 ,though usury was forbidden1 the most lucrative part of the trade was opening accounts with the treasury1 assuming debts1 and charging interest sometimes as high as fifty per cent4 ,though1 as prices fell1 the pressure grew severer1 the abuses of the administration were never perhaps worse than toward the end of the ,republic4 ,in his oration against ,verres1 ,cicero said the condition of the people had become intolerable3 8,all the provinces are in mourning1 all the nations that are free are complaining2 every kingdom is expostulating with us about our covetousness and injustice40#ea ,the well-known transactions of ,brutus are typical of what went on wherever the ,romans marched4 ,brutus lent the ,senate of ,salaminia at forty-eight per cent a year4 ,as the contract was illegal1 he obtained two decrees of the ,senate at ,rome for his protection1 and then to enforce payment of his interest1 ,scaptius1 his man of business1 borrowed from the governor of ,cilicia a detachment of troops4 ,with this he blockaded the ,senate so closely that several members starved to death4 ,the ,salaminians1 wanting at all costs to free themselves from such a load1 offered to pay off both interest and capital at once2 but to this ,brutus would not consent1 and to impose his own terms upon the province he demanded from ,cicero more troops1 8only fifty horse40#eb ,when at last1 by such proceedings1 the debtors were so exhausted that no torment could wring more from them1 they were sold as slaves2 ,nicodemus1 king of ,bithynia1 on being reproached for not furnishing his contingent of auxiliaries1 replied that all his able-bodied subjects had been taken by the farmers of the revenue4#ec ,nor1 though the administration doubtless was better regulated under the ,empire than under the ,republic1 did the oppression of the provinces cease4 ,juvenal1 who wrote about #ajj1 implored the young noble taking possession of his government to put some curb upon his avarice1 8to pity the poverty of the allies4 ,you see the bones of kings sucked of their very marrow40#ed ,and though the testimony of ,juvenal may be rejected as savouring too much of poetical licence1 ,pliny must always be treated with respect4 ,when ,maximus was sent to ,achaia1 ,pliny thought it well to write him a long letter of advice1 in which he not only declared that to wrest from the ,greeks the shadow of liberty left them would be 8durum1 ferum1 barbarumque20 but adjured him to try to remember what each city had been1 and not to despise it for what it was4#ee ,most impressive1 perhaps1 of all1 is the statement of ,dio ,cassius that the revolt led by ,boadicea in ,britain in #fa ,a4,d41 which cost the ,romans seventy thousand lives1 was provoked by the rapacity of ,seneca1 who1 having forced a loan of ten million drachmas 7#a1fgj1jjj7 on the people at usurious interest1 suddenly withdrew his money1 thereby inflicting intense suffering4#ef ,as ,pliny said with bitterness and truth1 8,the arts of avarice were those most cultivated at ,rome40#eg ,the stronger type exterminated the weaker2 the money-lender killed out the husbandman2 the race of soldiers vanished1 and the farms1 whereon they had once flourished1 were left desolate4 ,to quote the words of ,gibbon3 8,the fertile and happy province of ,campania 444 extended between the sea and the ,apennines from the ,tiber to the ,silarus4 ,within sixty years after the death of ,constantine1 and on the evidence of an actual survey1 an exemption was granted in favour of three hundred and thirty thousand ,english acres of desert and uncultivated land2 which amounted to one-eighth of the whole surface of the province40#eh ,it is true that ,gibbon1 in this paragraph1 described ,italy as she was in the fourth century1 just before the barbarian invasions1 but a similar fate had overtaken the provinces under the ,csars4 ,in the reign of ,domitian1 according to ,plutarch1 ,greece had been almost depopulated4 8,she can with much difficulty raise three thousand men1 which number the single city of ,megara sent heretofore to the battle of ,plata4444 ,for of what use would the oracle be now1 which was heretofore at ,tegyra or at ,ptous8 ,for scarcely shall you meet1 in a whole day's time1 with so much as a herdsman or shepherd in those parts40#ei ,wallon has observed that ,rome1 8in the early times of the ,republic1 was chiefly preoccupied with having a numerous and strong population of freemen4 ,under the ,empire she had but one anxiety--taxes40#fj ,to speak with more precision1 force changed the channel through which it operated4 ,native farmers and native soldiers were needless when such material could be bought cheaper in the ,north or ,east4 ,with money the cohorts could be filled with ,germans2 with money1 slaves and serfs could be settled upon the ,italian fields2 and for the last century1 before the great inroads began1 one chief problem of the imperial administration was the regulation of the inflow of new blood from without1 lacking which the social system must have collapsed4 ,the later campaigns on the ,rhine and the ,danube were really slave-hunts on a gigantic scale4 ,probus brought back sixteen thousand men from ,germany1 8the bravest and most robust of their youth10 and distributed them in knots of fifty or sixty among the legions4 8,their aid was now become necessary4444 ,the infrequency of marriage1 and the ruin of agriculture1 affected the principles of population2 and not only destroyed the strength of the present1 but intercepted the hope of future generations40#fa ,his importations of agricultural labour were much more considerable4 ,in a single settlement in ,thrace1 ,probus established one hundred thousand ,bastarn2 ,constantius ,chlorus is said to have made ,gaul flourish by the herds of slaves he distributed among the landlords2 in #cgj1 large numbers of ,alemanni were planted in the valley of the ,po1 and on the vast spaces of the public domain there were barbarian villages where the native language and customs were preserved4 ,probably none of these ,germans came as freemen4 ,many1 of course1 were captives sold as slaves1 but perhaps the majority were serfs4 ,frequently a tribe1 hard pressed by enemies1 asked leave to pass the frontier1 and settle as tributaries1 that is to say as coloni4 ,on one such occasion ,constantius ,,ii4 was nearly murdered4 ,a body of ,limigantes1 who had made a raid1 surrendered1 and petitioned to be given lands at any distance1 provided they might have protection4 ,the emperor was delighted at the prospect of such a harvest of labourers1 to say nothing of recruits1 and went among them to receive their submission4 ,seeing him alone1 the barbarians attacked him1 and he escaped with difficulty4 ,his troops slaughtered the ,germans to the last man4 ,this unceasing emigration gradually changed the character of the rural population1 and a similar alteration took place in the army4 ,as early as the time of ,csar1 ,italy was exhausted2 his legions were mainly raised in ,gaul1 and as the native farmers sank into serfdom or slavery1 and then at last vanished1 recruits were drawn more and more from beyond the limits of the ,empire4 ,at first they were taken singly1 afterwards in tribes and nations1 so that1 when ,atius defeated ,attila at ,chlons1 the battle was fought by the ,visigoths under ,theodoric1 and the equipment of the ,romans and ,huns was so similar that when drawn up the lines 8presented the image of civil war40 ,this military metamorphosis indicated the extinction of the martial type1 and it extended throughout society4 ,rome not only failed to breed the common soldier1 she also failed to produce generals4 ,after the first century1 the change was marked4 ,trajan was a ,spaniard1 ,septimius ,severus an ,african1 ,aurelian an ,illyrian peasant1 ,diocletian a ,dalmatian slave1 ,constantius ,chlorus a ,dardanian noble1 and the son of ,constantius1 by a ,dacian woman1 was the great ,constantine4 ,all these men were a peculiar species of military adventurer1 for they combined qualities which made them1 not only effective chiefs of police1 but acceptable as heads of the civil bureaucracy1 which represented capital4 ,severus was the type1 and ,severus has never been better described than by ,machiavelli1 who said he united the ferocity of the lion to the cunning of the fox4 ,this bureaucracy was the core of the consolidated mass called the ,empire2 it was the embodiment of money1 the ultimate expression of force1 and it recognized and advanced men who were adapted to its needs4 ,when such men were to be found1 the administration was thought good2 but when no one precisely adapted for the purple appeared1 and an ordinary officer had to be hired to keep the peace1 friction was apt to follow1 and the soldier1 even though of the highest ability1 was often removed4 ,both ,stilicho and ,atius were murdered4 ,the monied oligarchy which formed this bureaucracy was a growth as characteristic of the high centralization of the age1 as a sacred caste is characteristic of decentralization4 ,perhaps the capitalistic class of the later ,empire has been better understood and appreciated by ,fustel de ,coulanges than by any other historian4 8,all the documents which show the spirit of the epoch show that this noblesse was as much honoured by the government as respected by the people4444 ,it was from it that the imperial government chose ordinarily its high functionaries40 ,these functionaries were not sought among the lower classes4 ,the high offices were not given as a reward of long and faithful service2 they belonged by prescriptive right to the great families4 ,the ,empire made the wealthy1 senators1 prtors1 consuls1 and governors2 all dignities1 except only the military1 were practically hereditary in the opulent class4 8,this class is rich and the government is poor4 ,this class is mistress of the larger part of the soil2 it is in possession of the local dignities1 of the administrative and judicial functions4 ,the government has only the appearance of power1 and an armed force which is continually diminishing4444 8,the aristocracy had the land1 the wealth1 the distinction1 the education1 ordinarily the morality of existence2 it did not know how to fight and to command4 ,it withdrew itself from military service2 more than that1 it despised it4 ,it was one of the characteristic signs of this society to have always placed the civil functions not on a level with1 but much above1 the grades of the army4 ,it esteemed much the profession of the doctor1 of the professor1 of the advocate2 it did not esteem that of the officer and the soldier1 and left it to men of low estate40#fb ,this supremacy of the economic instinct transformed all the relations of life1 the domestic as well as the military4 ,the family ceased to be a unit1 the members of which cohered from the necessity of self-defence1 and became a business association4 ,marriage took the form of a contract1 dissoluble at the will of either party1 and1 as it was somewhat costly1 it grew rare4 ,as with the drain of their bullion to the ,east1 which crushed their farmers1 the ,romans were conscious1 as ,augustus said1 that sterility must finally deliver their city into the hand of the barbarians4#fc ,they knew this and they strove to avert their fate1 and there is little in history more impressive than the impotence of the ancient civilization in its conflict with nature4 ,about the opening of the ,christian era the ,state addressed itself to the task4 ,probably in the year #d ,a4,d41 the emperor succeeded in obtaining the first legislation favouring marriage1 and this enactment not proving effective1 it was supplemented by the famous ,leges ,julia and ,papia ,poppa of the year #i4 ,in the spring1 at the games1 the knights demanded the repeal of these laws1 and then ,augustus1 having called them to the ,forum1 made them the well-known speech1 whose violence now seems incredible4 ,those who were single were the worst of criminals1 they were murderers1 they were impious1 they were destroyers of their race1 they resembled brigands or wild beasts4 ,he asked the equites if they expected men to start from the ground to replace them1 as in the fable2 and declared in bitterness that while the government liberated slaves for the sole purpose of keeping up the number of citizens1 the children of the ,marcii1 of the ,fabii1 of the ,valerii1 and the ,julii1 let their names perish from the earth4#fd ,in vain celibacy was made almost criminal4 ,in vain celibates were declared incapable of inheriting1 while fathers were offered every bribe1 were preferred in appointments to office1 were even given the choice seats at games2 in the words of ,tacitus1 8not for that did marriage and children increase1 for the advantages of childlessness prevailed40#fe ,all that was done was to breed a race of informers1 and to stimulate the lawyers to fresh chicane4#ff ,when wealth became force1 the female might be as strong as the male2 therefore she was emancipated4 ,through easy divorce she came to stand on an equality with the man in the marriage contract4 ,she controlled her own property1 because she could defend it2 and as she had power1 she exercised political privileges4 ,in the third century ,julia ,domna1 ,julia ,mama1 ,somias1 and others1 sat in the ,senate1 or conducted the administration4 ,the evolution of this centralized society was as logical as every other work of nature4 ,when force reached the stage where it expressed itself exclusively through money1 the governing class ceased to be chosen because they were valiant or eloquent1 artistic1 learned1 or devout1 and were selected solely because they had the faculty of acquiring and keeping wealth4 ,as long as the weak retained enough vitality to produce something which could be absorbed1 this oligarchy was invincible2 and for very many years after the native peasantry of ,gaul and ,italy had perished under the load1 new blood injected from more tenacious races kept the dying civilization alive4 ,the weakness of the monied class lay in their very power1 for they not only killed the producer1 but in the strength of their acquisitiveness they failed to propagate themselves4 ,the ,state feigned to regard marriage as a debt1 and yet the opulent families died out4 ,in the reign of ,augustus all but fifty of the patrician houses had become extinct1 and subsequently the emperor seemed destined to remain the universal heir through bequests of the childless4 ,with the peasantry the case was worse4 ,by the second century barbarian labour had to be imported to till the fields1 and even the barbarians lacked the tenacity of life necessary to endure the strain4 ,they ceased to breed1 and the population dwindled4 ,then1 somewhat suddenly1 the collapse came4 ,with shrinking numbers1 the sources of wealth ran dry1 the revenue failed to pay the police1 and on the efficiency of the police the life of this unwarlike civilization hung4 ,in early ages every ,roman had been a land-owner1 and every land-owner had been a soldier1 serving without pay4 ,to fight had been as essential a part of life as to plough4 ,but by the fourth century military service had become commercial2 the legions were as purely an expression of money as the bureaucracy itself4 ,from the time of the ,servian constitution downward1 the change in the army had kept pace with the acceleration of movement which caused the economic competition that centralized the ,state4 ,rome owed her triumphs over ,hannibal and ,pyrrhus to the valour of her infantry1 rather than to the genius of her generals2 but from ,marius the census ceased to be the basis of recruitment1 and the rich refused to serve in the ranks4 ,this was equivalent in itself to a social revolution2 for1 from the moment when the wealthy succeeded in withdrawing themselves from service1 and the poor saw in it a trade1 the citizen ceased to be a soldier1 and the soldier became a mercenary4 ,from that time the army could be used for 8all purposes1 provided that they could count on their pay and their booty40#fg ,the administration of ,augustus organized the permanent police1 which replaced the mercenaries of the civil wars1 and this machine was the greatest triumph and the crowning glory of capital4 ,dio ,cassius has described how the last vestige of an ,italian army passed away4 ,up to the time of ,severus it had been customary to recruit the ,prtorians either from ,italy itself1 from ,spain1 ,macedonia1 or other neighbouring countries1 whose population had some affinity with that of ,latium4 ,severus1 after the treachery of the guard to ,pertinax1 disbanded it1 and reorganized a corps selected from the bravest soldiers of the legions4 ,these men were a horde of barbarians1 repulsive to ,italians in their habits1 and terrible to look upon4#fh ,thus a body of wage-earners1 drawn from the ends of the earth1 was made cohesive by money4 ,for more than four hundred years this corps of hirelings crushed revolt within the ,empire1 and regulated the injection of fresh blood from without1 with perfect promptitude and precision2 nor did it fail in its functions while the money which vitalized it lasted4 ,but a time came when the suction of the usurers so wasted the life of the community that the stream of bullion ceased to flow from the capital to the frontiers2 then1 as the sustaining force failed1 the line of troops along the ,danube and the ,rhine was drawn out until it broke1 and the barbarians poured in unchecked4 ,the so-called invasions were not conquests1 for they were not necessarily hostile2 they were only the logical conclusion of a process which had been going on since ,trajan4 ,when the power to control the ,german emigration decayed1 it flowed freely into the provinces4 ,by the year #djj disintegration was far advanced2 the ,empire was crumbling1 not because it was corrupt or degenerate1 but because the most martial and energetic race the world had ever seen had been so thoroughly exterminated by men of the economic type of mind1 that petty bands of sorry adventurers might rove whither they would1 on what had once been ,roman soil1 without meeting an enemy capable of facing them1 save other adventurers like themselves4 ,goths1 not ,romans1 defeated ,attila at ,chlons4 ,the ,vandals1 who1 in the course of twenty years1 wandered from the ,elbe to the ,atlas1 were not a nation1 not an army1 not even a tribe1 but a motley horde of northern barbarians1 ruined provincials1 and escaped slaves--a rabble whom ,csar's legions would have scattered like chaff1 had they been as many as the sands of the shore2 and yet when ,genseric routed ,boniface and sacked ,carthage1 in #dci1 he led barely fifty thousand fighting men4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,middle ,,age ,probably the appreciation of the ,roman monetary standard culminated during the invasion of the ,huns toward the middle of the fifth century4 ,in the reign of ,valentinian ,,iii4 gold sold for eighteen times its weight of silver1 and ,valentinian's final catastrophe was the murder of ,atius in #ded1 with whose life the last spark of vitality at the heart of ,roman centralization died4 ,the rise of ,ricimer and the accession of ,odoacer1 mark the successive steps by which ,italy receded into barbarism1 and1 in the time of ,theoderic the ,ostrogoth1 she had become a primitive1 decentralized community1 whose poverty and sluggishness protected her from ,african and ,asiatic competition4 ,the ,ostrogoths subdued ,italy in #dic1 and by that date the barbarians had overrun the whole civilized world west of the ,adriatic1 causing the demand for money to sustain a consolidated society to cease1 the volume of trade to shrink1 the market for eastern wares to contract1 and gold to accumulate at the centre of exchanges4 ,as gold accumulated1 its value fell1 and during the first years of the sixth century it stood at a ratio to silver of less than fifteen to one1 a decline of eighteen per cent4#fi ,as prices correspondingly rose1 the pressure on the peasantry relaxed1 prosperity at ,constantinople returned1 and the collapse of the ,western ,empire may have prolonged the life of the ,european population of the ,eastern for above one hundred and fifty years4 ,the city which ,constantine planted in #cbd on the shore of the ,bosphorus1 was in reality a horde of ,roman capitalists washed to the confines of ,asia by the current of foreign exchanges2 and these emigrants carried with them1 to a land of mixed ,greek and barbarian blood1 their language and their customs4 ,for many years these monied potentates ruled their new country absolutely4 ,all that legislation could do for them was done4 ,they even annexed rations to their estates1 to be supplied at the public cost1 to help their children maintain their palaces4 ,as long as prices fell1 nothing availed2 the aristocracy grew poorer day by day4 ,their property lay generally in land1 and the same stringency which wasted ,italy and ,gaul operated1 though perhaps less acutely1 upon the ,danubian peasantry also4 ,by the middle of the fifth century the country was exhausted and at the mercy of the ,huns4 ,wealth is the weapon of a monied society2 for1 though itself lacking the martial instinct1 it can1 with money1 hire soldiers to defend it4 ,but to raise a revenue from the people1 they must retain a certain surplus of income after providing for subsistence1 otherwise the government must trench on the supply of daily food1 and exhaustion must supervene4 ,finlay has explained that chronic exhaustion was the normal condition of ,byzantium under the ,romans4 8,the whole surplus profits of society were annually drawn into the coffers of the ,state1 leaving the inhabitants only a bare sufficiency for perpetuating the race of tax-payers4 ,history1 indeed1 shows that the agricultural classes1 from the labourer to the landlord1 were unable to retain possession of the savings required to replace that depreciation which time is constantly producing in all vested capital1 and that their numbers gradually diminished40#gj ,under ,theodosius ,,ii41 when gold reached its maximum1 complete prostration prevailed4 ,the ,huns marched whither they would1 and one swarm 8of barbarians followed another1 as long as anything was left to plunder40 ,the government could no longer keep armies in the field4 ,a single example will show how low the community had fallen4 ,in #ddf1 ,attila demanded of ,theodosius six thousand pounds of gold as a condition of peace1 and certainly six thousand pounds of gold1 equalling perhaps #a1cgj1jjj1 was a small sum1 even when measured by the standard of private wealth4 ,the end of the third century was not a prosperous period in ,italy1 and yet before his election as emperor in #bge1 the fortune of ,tacitus reached #bhj1jjj1jjj sesterces1 or upwards of #aa1jjj1jjj4ga ,nevertheless ,theodosius was unable to wring this inconsiderable indemnity from the people1 and he had to levy a private assessment on the senators1 who were themselves so poor that to pay they sold at auction the jewels of their wives and the furniture of their houses4 ,almost immediately after the collapse of the ,western ,empire the tide turned4 ,with the fall in the price of gold the peasantry revived and the ,greek provinces flourished4 ,in the reign of ,justinian1 ,belisarius and ,narses marched from end to end of ,africa and ,europe1 and ,anastasius rolled in wealth4 ,anastasius1 the contemporary of ,theoderic1 acceded to the throne in #dia4 ,he not only built the famous long wall from the ,propontis to the ,euxine1 and left behind him a treasure of three hundred and twenty thousand pounds of gold1 but he remitted to his subjects the most oppressive of their taxes1 and the reign of ,justinian1 who succeeded him at an interval of only ten years1 must always rank as the prime of the ,byzantine civilization4 ,the observation is not new1 it has been made by all students of ,byzantine history4 8,the increased prosperity 444 infused into society soon displayed its effects2 and the brilliant exploits of the reign of ,justinian must be traced back to the reinvigoration of the body politic of the ,roman ,empire by ,anastasius40#gb ,justinian inherited the throne from his uncle ,justin1 a ,dardanian peasant1 who could neither read nor write4 ,but the barbarian shepherd was a thorough soldier1 and the army he left behind him was probably not inferior to the legions of ,titus or ,trajan4 ,at all events1 had ,justinian's funds sufficed1 there seems reason to suppose he might have restored the boundaries of the ,empire4 ,his difficulty lay not in lack of physical force1 but in dearth of opulent enemies2 in the sixth century conquest had ceased to be profitable4 ,the territory open to invasion had been harried for generations1 and hardly a country was to be found rich enough to repay the cost of a campaign by mercenaries4 ,therefore1 the more the emperor extended his dominions1 the more they languished2 and finally to provide for wars1 barbarian subsidies1 and building1 ,justinian had to resort to over-taxation4 ,with renewed want came renewed decay1 and perhaps the completion of ,saint ,sophia1 in #eeh1 may be taken as the point whence the race which conceived this masterpiece hastened to its extinction4 ,in the seventh century ,asiatic competition devoured the ,europeans in the ,levant1 as three hundred years before it had devoured the husbandmen of ,italy2 and this was a disease which isolation alone could cure4 ,but isolation of the centre of exchanges was impossible1 for the vital principle of an economic age is competition1 and1 when the relief afforded by the collapse of ,rome had been exhausted1 competition did its work with relentless rapidity4 ,under ,heraclius 7#faj-fdj7 the population sank fast1 and by #gag the western blood had run so low that an ,asiatic dynasty reigned supreme4 ,everywhere ,greeks and ,romans vanished before ,armenians and ,slavs1 and for years previous to the accession of ,leo the ,isaurian the great waste tracts where they once lived were systematically repeopled by a more enduring race4 ,the colonists of ,justinian ,,ii4 furnished him an auxiliary army4 ,at ,justinian's death in #gaa the revolution had been completed2 the population had been renovated1 and ,constantinople had become an ,asiatic city4#gc ,the new aristocracy was ,armenian1 as strong an economic type as ever existed in western ,asia2 while the ,slavic peasantry which underlay them were among the most enduring of mankind4 ,there competition ended1 for it could go no further2 and1 apparently1 from the accession of ,leo in #gag1 to the rise of ,florence and ,venice1 three hundred and fifty years later1 ,byzantine society1 in fixity1 almost resembled the ,chinese4 ,such movement as occurred1 like ,iconoclasm1 came from the friction of the migrating races with the old population4 ,as ,texier has observed of architecture3 8,from the time of ,justinian until the end of the ,empire we cannot remark a single change in the modes of construction40#gd ,only long after1 when the money which sustained it was diverted toward ,italy during the crusades1 did the social fabric crumble2 and ,gibbon has declared that the third quarter of the tenth century 8forms the most splendid period of the ,byzantine annals40#ge ,the later ,byzantine was an economic civilization1 without aspiration or imagination1 and perhaps the most vivid description which has survived of that ostentatious1 sordid1 cowardly1 and stagnant race1 is the little sketch of the ,jew1 ,benjamin of ,tudela1 who travelled to the ,levant in #aagc4 ,benjamin called the inhabitants of ,constantinople ,greeks1 because of their language1 and he described the city as a vast commercial metropolis1 8common to all the world1 without distinction of country or religion40 ,merchants from the ,east and ,west flocked thither--from ,babylon1 ,mesopotamia1 ,media1 and ,persia1 as well as from ,egypt1 ,hungary1 ,russia1 ,lombardy1 and ,spain4 ,the rabbi thought the people well educated and social1 liking to eat and drink1 8every man under his vine and under his fig tree40 ,they loved gold and jewels1 pompous display1 and gorgeous ceremonial2 and the ,jew has dwelt with delight on the palace1 with its columns of gold and silver1 and the wonderful crown so studded with gems that it lighted the night without a lamp4 ,the ,greeks also roused his enthusiasm for the splendour of their clothes and of their horses' trappings1 for when they went abroad they resembled princes2 but on the other hand1 he remarked with a certain scorn1 that they were utterly cowardly1 and1 like women1 had to hire men to protect them4 8,the ,greeks who inhabit the country are extremely rich and possess great wealth of gold and precious stones4 ,they dress in garments of silk1 ornamented by gold and other valuable materials4444 ,nothing upon earth equals their wealth40 8,the ,greeks hire soldiers of all nations whom they call barbarians1 for the purpose of carrying on 444 wars with 444 the ,turks40 8,they have no martial spirit themselves and like women are unfit for war40#gf ,the movement of races in the ,eastern ,empire proceeded with automatic regularity4 ,the cheaper organism exterminated the more costly1 because energy operated through money strongly enough to cause free economic competition2 nor is the evidence upon which this conclusion rests to be drawn from books alone4 ,coinage and architecture1 sculpture and painting1 tell the tale with equal precision4 ,when1 in the fourth century1 wealth1 ebbing on the ,tiber1 floated to the ,bosphorus the core of the ,latin aristocracy1 it carried with it also the ,latin coinage4 ,for several generations this coinage underwent little apparent alteration1 but after the final division of the ,empire1 in #cie1 between the sons of ,theodosius1 a subtle change began in the composition of the ruling class2 a change reflected from generation to generation in the issues of their mints4 ,sabatier has described the transformation wrought in eight hundred years with the minuteness of an antiquary4 ,if a set of ,byzantine coins are arranged in chronological order1 those of ,anastasius1 about #ejj1 show at a glance an influence which is not ,latin4 ,strange devices have appeared on the reverse1 together with ,greek letters4 ,a century later1 when the great decline was in progress under ,heraclius1 the type had become barbarous1 and the prevalence of ,greek inscriptions proves the steady exhaustion of the ,roman blood4 ,another fifty years1 and by #fij1 under ,justinian ,,ii41 the permanent and conventional phase had been developed4 ,religious emblems were used2 the head of ,christ was struck on the golden son1 and fixity of form presaged the ,asiatic domination4 ,the official costumes1 the portraits of the emperors1 certain consecrated inscriptions1 all were changeless2 and in #gag1 an ,armenian dynasty ascended the throne in the person of ,leo the ,isaurian4#gg ,this motionless period lasted for full three hundred and fifty years1 as long as the exchanges of the world centred at ,byzantium1 and the monied race who dwelt there sucked copious nutriment from the pool of wealth in which it lay4 ,but even before the crusades the tide of trade began to flow to the south1 and quitting ,constantinople passed directly from ,bagdad to the cities of ,italy4 ,then the sustenance of the money-changers gradually failed4 ,from the reign of ,michael ,,vi4 effigies of the saints were engraved upon the coin1 and after the revolution led by ,alexius ,comnenus1 in #ajha1 the execution degenerated and debasement began4 ,this revolution marked the beginning of the end4 ,immediately preceding the crusades1 and attended by sharp distress1 it was probably engendered by an alteration in the drift of foreign exchanges4 ,certainly the currency contracted sharply1 and the gold money soon became so bad that ,alexius had to stipulate to pay his debts in the byzants of his predecessor ,michael4#gh ,for the next hundred years1 as the ,italian cities rose1 the ,empire languished1 and with the thirteenth century1 when ,venice established its permanent silver standard by coining the 8grosso10 ,constantinople crumbled into ruin4 ,in architecture the same phenomena appear1 only differently clothed4 ,though the ,germans1 who swarmed across the ,danube1 often surged against the walls of ,constantinople1 they never became the ruling class of the community1 because they were of the imaginative type4 ,money retained its supremacy1 and while it did so energy expressed itself through the economic mind4 ,though ,justinian was of barbarian blood1 the nephew of a barbarian shepherd1 the aristocracy about him1 which formed the core of society1 was neither imaginative nor devotional4 ,hardly ,christian1 it tended toward paganism or scepticism4 ,the artists were of the subject caste1 and they earned their living by gratifying the tastes of the nobles2 but the nobles loved magnificence and gorgeous functions2 hence all ,byzantine architecture favoured display1 and nowhere more so than in ,saint ,sophia4 8,art delighted in representing ,christ in all the splendour of power4444 ,to glorify him the more all the magnificence of the imperial court was introduced into heaven4444 ,christ no longer appeared under the benevolent aspect of the good shepherd1 but in the superb guise of an oriental monarch3 he is seated on a throne glittering with gold and precious stones40#gi ,here then lay the impassable gulf between ,byzantium and ,paris2 while ,byzantium remained economic and materialistic1 ,paris passed into the glory of an imaginative age4 ,the ,germans who overran the ,roman territory were of the same race as the ,greeks1 the ,latins1 or the ,gauls1 but in a different stage of development4 ,they tilled farms and built villages and perhaps fortresses1 but they were not consolidated1 and had neither nations nor federations4 ,they were substantially in the condition in which the common family had been1 when it divided many centuries before1 and their minds differed radically from the minds of the inhabitants of the countries beyond the ,danube and the ,rhine4 ,they were infinitely more imaginative1 and1 as the flood of emigration poured down from the north1 the imagination came more and more to prevail4 ,although the lowest of existing savages are relatively advanced1 they suggest that the strongest passion of primeval man must have been fear2 and fear1 not so much of living things1 as of nature1 which seemed to him resolutely hostile4 ,against wild beasts1 or savages like himself1 he might prevail by cunning or by strength2 but against drought and famine1 pestilence and earthquake1 he was helpless1 and he regarded these scourges as malevolent beings1 made like himself1 only more formidable4 ,his first and most pressing task was to mollify them1 and above the warrior class rose the sacred caste1 whose function was to mediate between the visible and the invisible world4 ,originally these intercessors appear to have been sorcerers1 rather than priests1 for spirits were believed to be hostile to man2 and perhaps the first conception of a god may have been reached through the victory of a clan of sorcerers in fight4 ,as ,statius said eighteen hundred years ago1 8,primus in orbe deos fecit timor40#hj ,probably the early wizards won their power by the discovery of natural secrets1 which1 though they could be transmitted to their descendants1 might also be discovered by strangers4 ,the later discoverers would become rival medicine men1 and battle would be the only test by which the orthodoxy of the competitors could be determined4 ,the victors would almost certainly stigmatize the beings the vanquished served1 as devils who tormented men4 ,there is an example of this process in the eighteenth chapter of #a ,kings3-- 8,and ,elijah 444 said1 ,how long halt ye between two opinions8 if the ,lord be ,god1 follow him3 but if ,baal1 then follow him4 ,and the people answered him not a word40 ,then ,elijah proposed that each side should dress a bullock1 and lay it on wood1 and call upon their spirit2 and the one who sent down fire should be ,god4 ,and all the people answered that it was well spoken4 ,and ,jezebel's prophets took their bullock and dressed it1 and called on 8,baal from morning even until noon1 saying1 ,o ,baal1 hear us60 ,but nothing came of it4 ,then ,elijah mocked them1 8and said1 ,cry aloud3 444 either he is talking1 or he is pursuing1 or he is in a journey1 or peradventure he sleepeth1 and must be awaked40 ,and they cried aloud1 and cut themselves with knives till 8blood gushed out upon them4 ,and 444 there was neither voice1 nor any to answer40 ,then ,elijah built his altar1 and cut up his bullock and laid him on wood1 and poured twelve barrels of water over the whole1 and filled a trench with water4 ,and 8the fire of the ,lord fell1 and consumed the burnt sacrifice1 and the wood1 and the stones1 and the dust1 and licked up the water that was in the trench4 8,and when all the people saw it1 they fell on their faces3 and they said1 ,the ,lord1 he is the ,god4 8,and ,elijah said unto them1 ,take the prophets of ,baal2 let not one of them escape4 ,and they took them3 and ,elijah brought them down to the brook ,kishon1 and slew them there40 ,the ,germans of the fourth century were a very simple race1 who comprehended little of natural laws1 and who therefore referred phenomena they did not understand to supernatural intervention4 ,this intervention could only be controlled by priests1 and thus the invasions caused a rapid rise in the influence of the sacred class4 ,the power of every ecclesiastical organization has always rested on the miracle1 and the clergy have always proved their divine commission as did ,elijah4 ,this was eminently the case with the medival ,church4 ,at the outset ,christianity was socialistic1 and its spread among the poor was apparently caused by the pressure of competition2 for the sect only became of enough importance to be persecuted under ,nero1 contemporaneously with the first signs of distress which appeared through the debasement of the denarius4 ,but socialism was only a passing phase1 and disappeared as the money value of the miracle rose1 and brought wealth to the ,church4 ,under the ,emperor ,decius1 about #bej1 the magistrates thought the ,christians opulent enough to use gold and silver vessels in their service1 and1 by the fourth century1 the supernatural so possessed the popular mind1 that ,constantine not only allowed himself to be converted by a miracle1 but used enchantment as an engine of war4 ,in one of his marches1 he encouraged the belief that he saw a luminous cross in the sky1 with the words 8,by this conquer40 ,the next night ,christ appeared to him1 and directed him to construct a standard bearing the same design1 and1 armed with this1 to advance with confidence against ,maxentius4 ,the legend1 preserved by ,eusebius1 grew up after the event2 but1 for that very reason1 it reflects the feeling of the age4 ,the imagination of his men had grown so vivid that1 whether he believed or not1 ,constantine found it expedient to use the ,labarum as a charm to ensure victory4 ,the standard supported a cross and a mystic monogram2 the army believed its guards to be invulnerable1 and in his last and most critical campaign against ,licinius1 the sight of the talisman not only excited his own troops to enthusiasm1 but spread dismay through the enemy4 ,the action of the ,milvian ,bridge1 fought in #cab1 by which ,constantine established himself at ,rome1 was probably the point whence nature began to discriminate decisively against the monied type in ,western ,europe4 ,capital had already abandoned ,italy2 ,christianity was soon after officially recognized1 and during the next century the priest began to rank with the soldier as a force in war4 ,meanwhile1 as the population sank into exhaustion1 it yielded less and less revenue1 the police deteriorated1 and the guards became unable to protect the frontier4 ,in #cgf1 the ,goths1 hard pressed by the ,huns1 came to the ,danube and implored to be taken as subjects by the emperor4 ,after mature deliberation1 the ,council of ,valens granted the prayer1 and some five hundred thousand ,germans were cantoned in ,msia4 ,the intention of the government was to scatter this multitude through the provinces as coloni1 or to draft them into the legions2 but the detachment detailed to handle them was too feeble1 the ,goths mutinied1 cut the guard to pieces1 and having ravaged ,thrace for two years1 defeated and killed ,valens at ,hadrianople4 ,in another generation the disorganization of the ,roman army had become complete1 and ,alaric gave it its deathblow in his campaign of #daj4 ,alaric was not a ,gothic king1 but a barbarian deserter1 who1 in #cib1 was in the service of ,theodosius4 ,subsequently1 he sometimes held imperial commands1 and sometimes led bands of marauders on his own account1 but was always in difficulty about his pay4 ,finally1 in the revolution in which ,stilicho was murdered1 a corps of auxiliaries mutinied and chose him their general4 ,alleging that his arrears were unpaid1 ,alaric accepted the command1 and with this army sacked ,rome4 ,during the campaign the attitude of the ,christians was more interesting than the strategy of the soldiers4 ,alaric was a robber1 leading mutineers1 and yet the orthodox historians did not condemn him4 ,they did not condemn him because the sacred class instinctively loved the barbarians whom they could overawe1 whereas they could make little impression on the materialistic intellect of the old centralized society4 ,under the ,empire the priests1 like all other individuals1 had to obey the power which paid the police2 and as long as a revenue could be drawn from the provinces1 the ,christian hierarchy were subordinate to the monied bureaucracy who had the means to coerce them4 8,it was long since established1 as a fundamental maxim of the ,roman constitution1 that every rank of citizens were alike subject to the laws1 and that the care of religion was the right as well as duty of the civil magistrate40#ha ,their conversion made little change in the attitude of the emperors1 and ,constantine and his successors continued to exercise a supreme jurisdiction over the hierarchy4 ,the sixteenth book of the ,theodosian ,code sufficiently sets forth the plenitude of their authority4 ,in theory1 bishops were elected by the clergy and the people1 but in practice the emperor could control the patronage if it were valuable2 and whether bishops were elected or appointed1 as long as they were created and paid by laymen1 they were dependent4 ,the priesthood could only become autocratic when fear of the miracle exempted them from arrest2 and toward the middle of the fifth century this point was approaching1 as appears by the effect of the embassy of ,leo the ,great to ,attila4 ,in #deb the ,huns had crossed the ,alps and had sacked ,aquileia4 ,the ,roman army was demoralized2 ,atius could not make head against the barbarians in the field2 while ,valentinian was so panic-stricken that he abandoned ,ravenna1 which was thought impregnable1 and retreated to the capital1 which was indefensible4 ,at ,rome1 finding himself helpless in an open city1 the emperor conceived the idea of invoking the power of the supernatural4 ,he proposed to ,leo to visit ,attila and persuade him to spare the town4 ,the pope consented without hesitation1 and with perfect intrepidity caused himself to be carried to the ,hun's tent1 where he met with respect not unalloyed by fear4 ,the legend probably reflects pretty accurately the feeling of the time4 ,as the bishop stood before the king1 ,peter and ,paul appeared on either side1 menacing ,attila with flaming swords2 and though this particular form of apparition may be doubted1 ,attila seems beyond question to have been oppressed by a belief that he would not long survive the capture of ,rome4 ,he therefore readily agreed to accept a ransom and evacuate ,italy4 ,from the scientific standpoint the saint and the sorcerer are akin2 for though the saint uses the supernatural for man's benefit1 and the sorcerer for his hurt1 both deal in magic4 ,the medival saint was a powerful necromancer4 ,he healed the sick1 cast out devils1 raised the dead1 foretold the future1 put out fires1 found stolen property1 brought rain1 saved from shipwreck1 routed the enemy1 cured headache1 was sovereign in child-birth1 and1 indeed1 could do almost anything that was asked of him1 whether he were alive or dead4 ,this power was believed to lie in some occult property of the flesh1 which passed by contact4 ,the woman in the ,bible said1 8,if ,i may touch but his clothes1 ,i shall be whole40 ,moreover1 this fluid was a substance whose passage could be felt1 for 8,jesus1 immediately knowing in himself that virtue had gone out of him1 turned him about in the press1 and said1 ,who touched my clothes80#hb ,anything which came in contact with the saint was likely to have been impregnated with this magical quality1 and thus became a charm1 or relic1 whose value depended primarily on the power of the man himself1 and secondly1 on the thoroughness with which the material had been charged4 ,the tomb1 which held the whole body1 naturally stood highest2 then parts of the body1 according to their importance--a head1 an arm1 a leg1 down to hairs of the beard4 ,then came hats1 boots1 girdles1 cups1 anything indeed which had been used4 ,the very ground on which a great miracle-worker had stood might have high value4 ,the ,holy ,grail1 which had held ,christ's blood1 would cure wounds1 raise the dead1 and fill itself with choice food1 at the command of the owner4 ,the eucharist1 though not properly a relic1 and which only became ,god through an incantation1 would1 in expert hands1 stop fires1 cure disease1 cast out devils1 expound philosophy1 and detect perjury by choking the liar4 ,every prize in life was to be obtained by this kind of magic4 ,when the kings of ,france made war1 they carried with them the enchanted banner of ,saint ,denis1 and ,froissart has told how even in the reign of ,charles ,,vi4 it decided the battle of ,roosebeke4#hc ,disease was treated altogether by miracle1 and the ,church found the business so profitable that she anathematized experimental practitioners4 ,in the thirteenth century ,saint ,thomas of ,canterbury and ,saint ,james of ,compostello were among the most renowned of healers1 and their shrines blazed with the gifts of the greatest and richest persons of ,europe4 ,when ,philip ,augustus lay very ill1 ,louis the ,pious obtained leave to visit the tomb of ,saint ,thomas1 then in the height of the fashion1 and left as part of his fee the famous regal of ,france1 a jewel so magnificent that three centuries and a half later ,henry ,,viii4 seized it and set it in a thumb ring4 ,beside this wonderful gem1 at the pillage of the ,reformation1 8the king's receiver confessed that the gold and silver and precious stones and sacred vestments taken away 444 filled six-and-twenty carts40#hd ,the old books of travel are filled with accounts of this marvellous shrine4 8,but the magnificence of the tomb of ,saint ,thomas the ,martyr1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 is that which surpasses all belief4 ,this1 notwithstanding its great size1 is entirely covered with plates of pure gold2 but the gold is scarcely visible from the variety of precious stones with which it is studded1 such as sapphires1 diamonds1 rubies1 balas-rubies1 and emeralds 444 and agates1 jaspers and cornelians set in relievo1 some of the cameos being of such a size1 that ,i do not dare to mention it2 but everything is left far behind by a ruby1 not larger than a man's thumb-nail1 which is set to the right of the altar4444 ,they say that it was the gift of a king of ,france40#he ,but beside these shrines of world-wide reputation1 no hamlet was too remote to possess its local fetish1 which worked at cheap rates for the peasantry4 ,a curious list of these was sent to the ,government by two of ,cromwell's visitors in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,the nuns of ,saint ,mary1 at ,derby1 had part of the shirt of ,saint ,thomas1 reverenced by pregnant women2 so was the girdle of ,saint ,francis at ,grace ,dieu4 ,at ,repton1 a pilgrimage was made to ,saint ,guthlac and his bell1 which was put on the head for headache4 ,the wimple of ,saint ,audrede was used for sore breasts1 and the rod of ,aaron for children with worms4 ,at ,bury ,saint ,edmund's1 the shrine of ,saint ,botulph was carried in procession when rain was needed1 8and ,kentish men 444 carry thence 444 wax candles1 which they light at the end of the field while the wheat is sown1 and hope from this that neither tares nor other weeds will grow in the wheat that year40#hf ,most curious of all1 perhaps1 at ,pontefract1 ,thomas1 ,duke of ,lancaster's belt and hat were venerated4 ,they were believed to aid women in child-birth1 and also to cure headache4 ,saint ,thomas ,aquinas1 a great venerator of the eucharist1 used it to help him in his lectures4 ,when treating of the dogma of the ,supper at the ,university of ,paris1 many questions were asked him which he never answered without meditating at the foot of the altar4 ,one day1 when preparing an answer to a very difficult question1 he placed it on the altar1 and cried1 8,lord1 who really and veritably dwells in the ,holy ,sacrament1 hear my prayer4 ,if what ,i have written upon your divine eucharist be true1 let it be given me to teach and demonstrate it4 ,if ,i am deceived1 stop me from proposing doctrines contrary to the truth of your divine ,sacrament40 ,forthwith the ,lord appeared upon the altar1 and said to him1 8,you have written well upon the ,sacrament of ,my body1 and you have answered the question which has been proposed to you as well as human intelligence can fathom these mysteries40#hg ,primitive people argue directly from themselves to their divinities1 and throughout the ,middle ,ages men believed that envy1 jealousy1 and vanity were as rampant in heaven as on earth1 and behaved accordingly4 ,the root of the monastic movement was the hope of obtaining advantages by adulation4 8,a certain clerk1 who had more confidence in the ,mother than the ,son1 continually repeated the ,ave ,maria as his only prayer4 ,one day1 while so engaged1 ,christ appeared to him and said1 #8,my mother thanks you very much for your salutations1 444 tamen et me salutare memento4'0#hh ,to insure perpetual intercession it was necessary that the song of praise and the smoke of incense should be perpetual1 and therefore monks and nuns worked day and night at their calling4 ,as a twelfth-century bishop of ,metz observed1 when wakened one freezing morning by the bell of ,saint ,peter of ,bouillon tolling for matins3 8,neither the drowsiness of the night nor the bitterness of a glacial winter kept them from praising the ,creator of the world40#hi ,bequests to convents were in the nature of policies of insurance in favour of the grantor and his heirs1 not only against punishment in the next world1 but against accident in this4 ,on this point doubt is impossible1 for the belief of the donor is set forth in numberless charters4 ,cedric de ,guillac1 in a deed to la ,grande-,sauve1 said that he gave because 8as water extinguishes fire1 so gifts extinguish sin40#ij ,and an anecdote preserved by ,dugdale1 shows how valuable an investment against accident a convent was thought to be as late as the thirteenth century4 ,when ,ralph1 ,earl of ,chester1 the founder of the monastery of ,dieulacres1 was returning by sea from the ,holy ,land1 he was overtaken one night by a sudden tempest4 8,how long is it till midnight80 he asked of the sailors4 ,they answered1 8,about two hours40 ,he said to them1 8,work on till midnight1 and ,i trust in ,god that you may have help1 and that the storm will cease40 ,when it was near midnight the captain said to the earl1 8,my lord1 commend yourself to ,god1 for the tempest increases2 we are worn out1 and are in mortal peril40 ,then ,earl ,ralph came out of his cabin1 and began to help with the ropes1 and the rest of the ship's tackle2 nor was it long before the storm subsided4 ,the next day1 as they were sailing over a tranquil sea1 the captain said to the earl1 8,my lord1 tell us1 if you please1 why you wished us to work till the middle of the night1 and then you worked harder than all the rest40 ,to which he replied1 8,because at midnight my monks1 and others1 whom my ancestors and ,i have endowed in divers places1 rise and sing divine service1 and then ,i have faith in their prayers1 and ,i believe that ,god1 because of their prayers and intercessions1 gave me more fortitude than ,i had before1 and made the storm cease as ,i predicted40#ia ,philip ,augustus1 when caught in a gale in the ,straits of ,messina1 showed equal confidence in the matins of ,clairvaux1 and was also rewarded for his faith by good weather towards morning4 ,the power of the imagination1 when stimulated by the mystery which1 in an age of decentralization1 shrouds the operations of nature1 can be measured by its effect in creating an autocratic class of miracle-workers4 ,between the sixth and the thirteenth centuries1 about one-third of the soil of ,europe passed into the hands of religious corporations1 while the bulk of the highest talent of the age sought its outlet through monastic life4 ,the force operated on all2 for1 beside religious ecstasy1 ambition and fear were at work1 and led to results inconceivable when centralization has begot materialism4 ,saint ,bernard's position was more conspicuous and splendid than that of any monarch of his generation1 and the agony of terror which assailed the warriors was usually proportionate to the freedom with which they had violated ecclesiastical commands4 ,they fled to the cloister for protection from the fiend1 and took their wealth with them4 ,grard le ,blanc was even more noted for his cruelty than for his courage4 ,he was returning to his castle one day1 after having committed a murder1 when he saw the demon whom he served appear to claim him4 ,seized with horror1 he galloped to where six penitents had just founded the convent of ,afflighem1 and supplicated them to receive him4 ,the news spread1 and the whole province gave thanks to ,god that a monster of cruelty should have been so converted4 ,a few days after1 his example was followed by another knight1 equally a murderer1 who had visited the recluses1 and1 touched by their piety and austerity1 resolved to renounce his patrimony and live a penitent4#ib ,had the ,german migrations been wars of extermination1 as they have sometimes been described1 the imagination1 among the new barbaric population1 might have been so stimulated that a pure theocracy would have been developed between the time of ,saint ,benedict and ,saint ,bernard4 ,but the barbarians were not animated by hate2 on the contrary1 they readily amalgamated with the old population1 amongst whom the materialism of ,rome lay like a rock in a rising tide1 sometimes submerged1 but never obliterated4 ,the obstacle which the true emotionalists never overcame was the inheritance of a secular clergy1 who1 down to the eleventh century1 were generally married1 and in the higher grades were rather barons than prelates4 ,in ,france the ,archbishop of ,rheims1 the ,bishops of ,beauvais1 ,noyon1 ,langres1 and others1 were counts2 while in ,germany the ,archbishops of ,mayence1 of ,treves1 and of ,cologne were princes and electors1 standing on the same footing as the ,dukes of ,saxony and ,bavaria4 ,as feudal nobles these ecclesiastics were retainers of the king1 owed feudal service1 led their vassals in war1 and some of the fiercest soldiers of the ,middle ,ages were clerks4 ,milo of ,treves was a famous eighth-century bishop4 ,charles ,martel gave the archbishopric of ,rheims to a warrior named ,milo1 who managed also to obtain the see of ,treves4 ,this ,milo was the son of ,basinus1 the last incumbent of the preferment4 ,he was a fierce and irreligious soldier1 and was finally killed hunting2 but during the forty years in which he held his offices1 ,boniface1 with all the aid of the crown and the pope1 was unable to prevail against him1 and in #geb ,pope ,zachary wrote advising that he should be left to the divine vengeance4#ic ,such a system was incompatible with the supremacy of a theocracy4 ,the essence of a theocracy is freedom from secular control1 and this craving for freedom was the dominant instinct of monasticism4 ,saint ,anselm1 perhaps the most perfect specimen of a monk1 felt it in the marrow of his bones2 it was the master passion of his life1 and he insisted upon it with all the fire of his nature3 8,nihil magis diligit ,deus in hoc mundo quam libertatem ecclesi su4444 ,liberam vult esse ,deus sponsam suam1 non ancillam40 ,yet only very slowly1 as the ,empire disintegrated1 did the theocratic idea take shape4 ,as late as the ninth century the pope prostrated himself before ,charlemagne1 and did homage as to a ,roman emperor4#id ,saint ,benedict founded ,monte ,cassino in #ebi1 but centuries elapsed before the ,benedictine order rose to power4 ,the early convents were isolated and feeble1 and much at the mercy of the laity1 who invaded and debauched them4 ,abbots1 like bishops1 were often soldiers1 who lived within the walls with their wives and children1 their hawks1 their hounds1 and their men-at-arms2 and it has been said that1 in all ,france1 ,corbie and ,fleury alone kept always something of their early discipline4 ,only in the early years of the most lurid century of the ,middle ,ages1 when decentralization culminated1 and the imagination began to gain its fullest intensity1 did the period of monastic consolidation open with the foundation of ,cluny4 ,in #iaj ,william of ,aquitaine drew a charter#ie which1 so far as possible1 provided for the complete independence of his new corporation4 ,there was no episcopal visitation1 and no interference with the election of the abbot4 ,the monks were put directly under the protection of the pope1 who was made their sole superior4 ,john ,,xi4 confirmed this charter by his bull of #icb1 and authorized the affiliation of all convents who wished to share in the reform4#if ,the growth of ,cluny was marvellous2 by the twelfth century two thousand houses obeyed its rule1 and its wealth was so great1 and its buildings so vast1 that in #abde ,innocent ,,iv41 the ,emperor ,baldwin1 and ,saint ,louis were all lodged together within its walls1 and with them all the attendant trains of prelates and nobles with their servants4 ,in the eleventh century no other force of equal energy existed4 ,the monks were the most opulent1 the ablest1 and the best organized society in ,europe1 and their effect upon mankind was proportioned to their strength4 ,they intuitively sought autocratic power1 and during the centuries when nature favoured them1 they passed from triumph to triumph4 ,they first seized upon the papacy and made it self-perpetuating2 they then gave battle to the laity for the possession of the secular hierarchy1 which had been under temporal control since the very foundation of the ,church4 ,about the year #ajjj ,rome was in chaos4 ,the ,counts of ,tusculum1 who had often disposed of the tiara1 on the death of ,john ,,xix41 bought it for ,benedict ,,ix4 ,benedict was then a child of ten1 but he grew worse as he grew older1 and finally he fell so low that he was expelled by the people4 ,he was succeeded by ,sylvester2 but1 a few months after his coronation1 ,benedict re-entered the city1 and crowned ,john ,,xx4 with his own hands4 ,shortly after1 he assaulted the ,vatican1 and then three popes reigned together in ,rome4 ,in this crisis ,gregory ,,vi4 tried to restore order by buying the papacy for himself2 but the transaction only added a fourth pope to the three already consecrated1 and two years later he was set aside by the ,emperor ,henry1 who appointed his own chancellor in his place4 ,it was a last triumph for the laity1 but a triumph easier to win than to sustain4 ,when the soldier created the high priest of ,christendom1 he did indeed inspire such terror that no man in the great assembly dared protest2 but in nine months ,clement was dead1 his successor lived only twenty-four days1 poisoned1 as it was rumoured1 by the perfidious ,italians2 and when ,henry sought a third pope among his prelates1 he met with general timidity to accept the post4 ,then the opportunity of the monks came3 they seized it1 and with unerring instinct fixed themselves upon the throne from which they have never been expelled4 ,according to the picturesque legend1 ,bruno1 ,bishop of ,toul1 seduced by the flattery of courtiers and the allurements of ambition1 accepted the tiara from the emperor1 and set out upon his journey to ,italy with a splendid retinue1 and with his robe and crown4 ,on his way he turned aside at ,cluny1 where ,hildebrand was prior4 ,hildebrand1 filled with the spirit of ,god1 reproached him with having seized upon the seat of the vicar of ,christ by force1 and accepted the holy office from the sacrilegious hand of a layman4 ,he exhorted ,bruno to cast away his pomp1 and to cross the ,alps humbly as a pilgrim1 assuring him that the priests and people of ,rome would recognize him as their bishop1 and elect him according to canonical forms4 ,then he would taste the joys of a pure conscience1 having entered the fold of ,christ as a shepherd and not as a robber4 ,inspired by these words1 ,bruno dismissed his train1 and left the convent gate as a pilgrim4 ,he walked barefoot1 and when after two months of pious meditations he stood before ,saint ,peter's1 he spoke to the people and told them it was their privilege to elect the pope1 and since he had come unwillingly he would return again1 were he not their choice4 ,he was answered with acclamations1 and on ,february #b1 #ajdi1 he was enthroned as ,leo ,,ix4 ,his first act was to make ,hildebrand his minister4 ,the legend tells of the triumph of ,cluny as no historical facts could do4 ,ten years later1 in the reign of ,nicholas ,,ii41 the theocracy made itself self-perpetuating through the assumption of the election of the pope by the college of cardinals1 and in #ajgc ,hildebrand1 the incarnation of monasticism1 was crowned under the name of ,gregory ,,vii4 ,with ,hildebrand's election1 war began4 ,the council of ,rome1 held in #ajge1 decreed that holy orders should not be recognized where investiture had been granted by a layman1 and that princes guilty of conferring investiture should be excommunicated4 ,the council of the next year1 which excommunicated the emperor1 also enunciated the famous propositions of ,baronius--the full expression of the theocratic idea3-- 8,that the ,roman pontiff alone can be called universal4 8,that he alone can depose or reconcile bishops4 8,that his legate1 though of inferior rank1 takes precedence of all bishops in council1 and can pronounce sentence of deposition against them4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,that all princes should kiss the pope's feet alone4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,that he may depose emperors4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,that his judgments can be overruled by none1 and he alone can overrule the judgments of all4 8,that he can be judged by no one4 8,that the ,roman ,church never has1 and never can err1 as the ,scriptures testify4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,that by his precept and permission it is lawful for subjects to accuse their princes4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,that he is able to absolve from their allegiance the subjects of the wicked40#ig ,the monks had won the papacy1 but the emperor still held his secular clergy1 and1 at the diet of ,worms1 where he undertook to depose ,hildebrand1 he was sustained by his prelates4 ,without a moment of hesitation the enchanter cast his spell1 and it is interesting to see1 in the curse which he launched at the layman1 how the head of monasticism had become identified with the spirit which he served4 ,the priest had grown to be a god on earth4 8,so strong in this confidence1 for the honour and defence of your ,church1 on behalf of the omnipotent ,god1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost1 by your power and authority1 ,i forbid the government of the ,german and ,italian kingdoms1 to ,king ,henry1 the son of the ,emperor ,henry1 who1 with unheard-of arrogance1 has rebelled against your ,church4 ,i absolve all ,christians from the oaths they have made1 or may make to him1 and ,i forbid that any one should obey him as king40#ih ,henry marched on ,italy1 but in all ,european history there has been no drama more tremendous than the expiation of his sacrilege4 ,to his soldiers the world was a vast space1 peopled by those fantastic beings which are still seen on ,gothic towers4 ,these demons obeyed the monk of ,rome1 and his army1 melting from the emperor under a nameless horror1 left him helpless4 ,gregory lay like a magician in the fortress of ,canossa2 but he had no need of carnal weapons1 for when the emperor reached the ,alps he was almost alone4 ,then his imagination also took fire1 the panic seized him1 and he sued for mercy4 ,for three days long he stood barefoot in the snow at the castle gate2 and when at last he was admitted1 half-naked and benumbed1 he was paralyzed rather by terror than by cold4 ,then the great miracle was wrought1 by which ,god was made to publicly judge between them4 ,hildebrand took the consecrated wafer and broke it1 saying to the suppliant1 8,man's judgments are fallible1 ,god's are infallible2 if ,i am guilty of the crimes you charge me with1 let ,him strike me dead as ,i eat40 ,he ate1 and gave what remained to ,henry2 but though for him more than life was at stake1 he dared not taste the bread4 ,from that hour his fate was sealed4 ,he underwent his penance and received absolution2 and when he had escaped from the terrible old man1 he renewed the war4 ,but the spell was over him1 the horror clung to him1 even his sons betrayed him1 and at last his mind gave way under the strain and he abdicated4 ,in his own words1 to save his life he 8sent to ,mayence the crown1 the sceptre1 the cross1 the sword1 the lance40 ,on ,august #g1 #aajf1 ,henry died at ,lige1 an outcast and a mendicant1 and for five long years his body lay at the church door1 an accursed thing which no man dared to bury4 ,such was the evolution of the medival theocracy1 the result of that social disintegration which stimulates the human imagination1 and makes men cower before the unknown4 ,the force which caused the rise of an independent priesthood was the equivalent of magic1 and it was the waxing of this force through the dissolution of the ,empire of the ,west which made the schism which split ,christendom in two4 ,the ,latin ,church divided from the ,greek because it was the reflection of the imaginative mind4 ,while the ,west grew emotional1 ,constantinople stayed the centre of exchanges1 the seat of the monied class2 and when ,cluny captured ,rome1 the antagonism between these irreconcilable instincts precipitated a rupture4 ,the schism dated from #ajed1 five years after the coronation of ,leo4 ,nor is the theory new2 it was explained by ,gibbon long ago4 8,the rising majesty of ,rome could no longer brook the insolence of a rebel2 and ,michael ,cerularius was excommunicated in the heart of ,constantinople by the pope's legates4444 8,from this thunderbolt we may date the consummation of the schism4 ,it was enlarged by each ambitious step of the ,roman pontiffs2 the emperors blushed and trembled at the ignominious fate of their royal brethren of ,germany2 and the people were scandalized by the temporal power and military life of the ,latin clergy40#ii ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,first ,,crusade ,until the mechanical arts have advanced far enough to cause the attack in war to predominate over the defence1 centralization cannot begin2 for when a mud wall can stop an army1 a police is impossible4 ,the superiority of the attack was the secret of the power of the monied class who controlled ,rome1 because with money a machine could be maintained which made individual resistance out of the question1 and revolt difficult4 ,titus had hardly more trouble in reducing ,jerusalem1 and dispersing the ,jews1 than a modern officer would have under similar circumstances4 ,as the barbarians overran the ,roman provinces1 and the arts declined1 the conditions of life changed4 ,the defence gained steadily on the attack1 and1 after some centuries1 a town with a good garrison1 solid ramparts1 and abundant provisions had nothing to fear from the greatest king4 ,even the small1 square ,norman tower was practically impregnable4 ,as ,viollet-le-,duc has explained1 these towers were mere passive defences1 formidable to a besieger only because no machinery existed for making a breach in a wall4 ,the beleaguered nobles had only to watch their own men1 see to their doors1 throw projectiles at the enemy if he approached too near1 counter-mine if mined1 and they might defy a great army until their food failed4 ,famine was the enemy most feared4#ajj ,by the eleventh century these towers had sprung up all over the ,west4 ,even the convents and churches could be defended1 and every such stronghold was the seat of a count or baron1 an abbot or bishop1 who was a sovereign because no one could coerce him1 and who therefore exercised all the rights of sovereignty1 made war1 dispensed justice1 and coined money4 ,in ,france alone there were nearly two hundred mints in the twelfth century4 ,down to the close of the ,merovingian dynasty the gold standard had been maintained1 and contraction had steadily gone on2 but1 for reasons which are not understood1 under the second race1 the purchasing power of bullion temporarily declined1 and this expansion was probably one chief cause of the prosperity of the reign of ,charlemagne4 ,perhaps the relief was due to the gradual restoration of silver to circulation1 for the coinage was then reformed1 and the establishment of the silver pound as the measure of value may be considered as the basis of all the monetary systems of modern ,europe4 ,the interval of prosperity was1 however1 brief2 no permanent addition was made to the stock of precious metals1 and prices continued to fall1 as is demonstrated by the rapid deterioration of the currency4 ,in this second period of relapse disintegration reached its limit4 ,during the tenth and eleventh centuries the ,northmen infested the coasts of ,france1 and sailed up the rivers burning and ravaging1 as far as ,rouen and ,orlans4 ,even the convents of ,saint ,martin of ,tours and ,saint ,germain des ,prs were sacked4 ,the ,mediterranean swarmed with ,saracenic corsairs1 who took ,fraxinetum1 near ,toulon1 seized the passes of the ,alps1 and levied toll on travel into ,italy4 ,the cannibalistic ,huns overran the ,lower ,danube1 and closed the road to ,constantinople4 ,western ,europe was cut off from the rest of the world4 ,commerce nearly ceased--the roads were so bad and dangerous1 and the sea so full of pirates4 ,the ancient stock of scientific knowledge was gradually forgotten1 and the imagination had full play4 ,upon philosophy the effect was decisive2 ,christianity sank to a plane where it appealed more vividly to the minds of the surrounding pagans than their own faiths1 and conversion then went on rapidly4 ,in #iab ,rollo of ,normandy was baptized2 the ,danes1 ,norwegians1 ,poles1 and ,russians followed2 and in #iig ,saint ,stephen ascended the throne of ,hungary and reopened to ,latin ,christians the way to the ,sepulchre4 ,perhaps the destiny of modern ,europe has hinged upon the fact that the ,christian sacred places lay in ,asia1 and therefore the pilgrimage brought the ,west into contact with the ,east4 ,but the pilgrimage was the effect of relic-worship1 and relic-worship the vital principle of monasticism4 ,in these centuries of extreme credulity monasticism had its strongest growth4 ,a faculty for scientific study was abnormal1 and experimental knowledge was ascribed to sorcery4 ,the monk ,gerbert1 who became pope as ,sylvester ,,ii41 was probably the most remarkable man of his generation4 ,though poor and of humble birth1 he attracted so much attention that he was sent to ,spain1 where he studied in the ,moorish schools at ,barcelona and ,cordova1 and where he learned the rudiments of mathematics and geography4 ,his contemporaries were so bewildered by his knowledge that they thought it due to magic1 and told how he had been seen flying home from ,spain1 borne on the back of the demon he served1 and loaded with the books he had stolen from the wizard1 his master4 ,sylvester died in #ajjc1 but long afterwards anatomy was still condemned by the ,church1 and four separate councils anathematized experimental medicine1 because it threatened to destroy the value of the shrines4 ,the ascendency of ,cluny began with ,saint ,hugh1 who was chosen abbot in #ajdi1 the ,year ,leo's election4 ,the corporation then obtained control of ,rome1 and in another twenty-five years was engaged in its desperate struggle with the remains of the old secular police power4 ,but though ,hildebrand crushed ,henry1 the ancient materialism was too deeply imbedded to be eradicated in a single generation1 and meanwhile the imagination had been brought to an uncontrollable intensity4 ,a new and fiercer excitement seethed among the people--a vision of the conquest of talismans so powerful as to make their owners sure of heaven and absolute on earth4 ,the attraction of ,palestine had been very early felt1 for in #ccc a guide-book had been written1 called the ,itinerary from ,bordeaux to ,jerusalem1 which gave the route through the valley of the ,danube1 together with an excellent account of the ,holy ,land4 ,in those days1 before the barbaric inroads1 the journey was safe enough2 but afterwards communication nearly ceased1 and when ,stephen was baptized in #iig1 the relics of ,jerusalem had all the excitement of novelty4 ,europe glowed with enthusiasm4 ,sylvester proposed a crusade1 and ,hildebrand declared he would rather risk his life for the holy places 8than rule the universe40 ,each year the throngs upon the road increased1 convents sprang up along the way to shelter the pilgrims1 the whole population succoured and venerated them1 and by the time ,cluny had seized the triple crown1 they left in veritable armies4 ,ingulf1 secretary to ,william the ,conqueror1 set out in #ajfd with a band seven thousand strong4 ,in that age of faith no such mighty stimulant could inflame the human brain as a march to ,jerusalem4 ,a crusade was no vulgar war for a vulgar prize1 but an alliance with the supernatural for the conquest of talismans whose possession was tantamount to omnipotence4 ,urban's words at ,clermont1 when he first preached the holy war1 have lost their meaning now2 but they burned like fire into the hearts of his hearers then1 for he promised them glory on earth and felicity in heaven1 and he spoke in substance thus3 ,no longer do you attack a castle or a town1 but you undertake the conquest of the holy places4 ,if you triumph1 the blessings of heaven and the kingdoms of the ,east will be your share2 if you fall1 you will have the glory of dying where ,christ died1 and ,god will not forget having seen you in ,his holy army4#aja ,urban told them 8that under their general ,jesus ,christ 444 they1 the ,christian1 the invincible army10 would march to certain victory4 ,in the eleventh century this language was no metaphor1 for the ,cluniac monk spoke as the mouthpiece of a god who was there actually among them1 offering the cross he brought from the grave1 and promising them triumphs3 not the common triumphs which may be won by man's unaided strength1 but the transcendent glory which belongs to beings of another world4 ,so the crusaders rode out to fight1 the originals of the fairy knights1 clad in impenetrable armour1 mounted on miraculous horses1 armed with resistless swords1 and bearing charmed lives4 ,whole villages1 even whole districts1 were left deserted2 land lost its value2 what could not be sold was abandoned2 and the peasant1 loaded with his poor possessions1 started on foot with his wife and children in quest of the ,sepulchre1 so ignorant of the way that he mistook each town upon the road for ,zion4 ,whether he would or no1 the noble had to lead his vassals or be forsaken1 and riding at their head with his hawks and hounds1 he journeyed towards that marvellous land of wealth and splendour1 where kingdoms waited the coming of the devoted knight of ,god4 ,thus men1 women1 and children1 princes and serfs1 priests and laymen1 in a countless1 motley throng1 surged toward that mighty cross and tomb whose possessor was raised above the limitations of the flesh4 ,the crusaders had no commissariat and no supply train1 no engines of attack1 or other weapons than those in their hands1 and the holy relics they bore with them4 ,there was no general1 no common language1 no organization2 and so over unknown roads1 and through hostile peoples1 they wandered from the ,rhine to the ,bosphorus1 and from the ,bosphorus to ,syria4 ,these earlier crusades were armed migrations1 not military invasions1 and had they met with a determined enemy1 they must have been annihilated2 but it chanced that the ,syrians and ,egyptians were at war1 and the quarrel was so bitter that the caliph actually sought the ,christian alliance4 ,even under such circumstances the waste of life was fabulous1 and1 had not ,antioch been betrayed1 the starving rabble must have perished under its walls4 ,at ,jerusalem1 also1 the ,franks were reduced to the last extremity before they carried the town2 and had it not been for the arrival of a corps of ,genoese engineers1 who built movable towers1 they would have died miserably of hunger and thirst4 ,nor was the coming of this reinforcement preconcerted4 ,on the contrary1 the ,italians accidentally lost their ships at ,joppa1 and1 being left without shelter1 sought protection in the camp of the besiegers just in time4 ,so incapable were the crusaders of regular operations1 that even when the towers were finished and armed1 the leaders did not know how to fill the moat1 and ,raymond of ,saint ,gilles had nothing better to propose than to offer a penny for every three stones thrown into the ditch4 ,on ,july #ae1 #ajii1 ,jerusalem was stormed2 almost exactly three years after the march began4 ,eight days later ,godfrey de ,bouillon was elected king1 and then the invaders spread out over the strip of mountainous country which borders the coast of ,palestine and ,syria1 and the chiefs built castles in the defiles of the hills1 and bound themselves together by a loose alliance against the common enemy4 ,the decentralization of the colony was almost incredible4 ,the core of the kingdom was the barony of ,jerusalem1 which extended only from the ,egyptian desert to a stream just north of ,beyrout1 and inland to the ,jordan and the spurs of the hills beyond the ,dead ,sea1 and yet it was divided into more than eighteen independent fiefs1 whose lords had all the rights of sovereignty1 made war1 administered justice1 and coined money4#ajb ,beside these petty states1 the ports were ceded to the ,italian cities whose fleets helped in the conquest4 ,venice1 ,genoa1 and ,pisa held quarters in ,ascalon1 ,joppa1 ,tyre1 ,acre1 and ,beyrout1 which were governed by consuls or viscounts1 who wrangled with each other and with the central government4 ,such was the kingdom over which ,godfrey reigned1 but there were three others like it which together made up the ,frankish monarchy4 ,to the north of the barony of ,jerusalem lay the county of ,tripoli1 and beyond ,tripoli1 extending to ,armenia1 the principality of ,antioch4 ,to the east of ,antioch the county of ,edessa stretched along the base of the ,taurus ,mountains and spread out somewhat indefinitely beyond the ,euphrates4 ,thus on the north ,edessa was the outwork of ,christendom1 while to the south the castle of ,karak1 which commanded the caravan road between ,suez and ,damascus1 held a corresponding position among the hills to the east of the ,dead ,sea4 ,beyond the mountains the great plain sweeps away into ,central ,asia1 and in this plain the ,franks never could maintain their footing4 ,their failure to do so proved their ruin1 for their position lay exposed to attack from ,damascus2 and it was by operating from ,damascus as a base that ,saladin succeeded in forcing the pass of ,banias1 and in cutting the ,latin possessions in two at the battle of ,tiberias4 ,a considerable body of ,europeans were thus driven in like a wedge between ,egypt and the ,greek ,empire1 the two highest civilizations of the ,middle ,ages1 while in front lay the ,syrian cities of the plain1 with whom the ,christians were at permanent war4 ,the contact was the closest1 the struggle for existence the sharpest1 and the barbaric mind received a stimulus not unlike the impulse ,gaul received from ,rome2 for the interval which separated the ,east from the ,west1 at the beginning of the twelfth century1 was probably not less than that which divided ,italy from ,gaul at the time of ,csar4 ,when ,godfrey de ,bouillon took the cross1 the ,byzantine ,empire was already sinking4 ,the ,eastern trade which1 for so many centuries1 had nourished its population1 was beginning to flow directly from ,asia into ,italy1 and1 as the economic aristocracy of the capital lost its nutriment1 it lost its energy4 ,apparently it fell in #ajha1 in the revolution which raised ,alexius ,comuenus to the throne4 ,because ,alexius sacked ,constantinople with a following of mongrel ,greeks1 ,slavs1 and ,bulgarians1 he has been called the first ,greek emperor1 but in reality the pure ,greek blood had long since perished4 ,the ,byzantine population at the end of the eleventh century was the lees of a multitude of races1--a mixture of ,slavs1 ,armenians1 ,jews1 ,thracians1 and ,greeks2 a residuum of the most tenacious organisms1 after all that was higher had disappeared4 ,the army was a mixed horde of ,huns1 ,arabs1 ,italians1 ,britons1 ,franks2 of all in short who could fight and were for sale1 while the ,church was servile1 the fancy dead1 and art and literature were redolent of decaying wealth4 ,nevertheless1 ever since the fall of ,rome1 ,constantinople had been the reservoir whence the ,west had drawn all its materialistic knowledge1 and therefore1 it was during the centuries when the valley of the ,danube was closed1 that the arts fell to their lowest ebb beyond the ,alps and ,rhine4 ,after pilgrimages began again in the reign of ,stephen1 the ,bosphorus lay once more in the path of travel1 and as the returning palmers spread over the ,west1 a revival followed in their track2 a revival in which the spirit of ,byzantium may yet be clearly read in the architecture of ,italy and ,france4 ,saint ,mark is a feeble imitation of ,saint ,sophia1 while ,viollet-le-,duc has described how long he hesitated before he could decide whether the carving of ,vzelay1 ,autun1 and ,moissac was ,greek or ,french2 and has dwelt upon the laborious care with which he pored over all the material1 before he became convinced that the stones were cut by artists trained at ,cluny1 who copied ,byzantine models4#ajc ,but the great gulf between the economic and the imaginative development1 separated the moribund ,greek society from the semi-childhood of the ,franks2 a chasm in its nature impassable because caused by a difference of mind1 and which is1 perhaps1 seen most strikingly in religious architecture2 for religious architecture1 though always embodying the highest poetical aspirations of every civilization1 yet had in the ,east and ,west diametrically opposite points of departure4 ,saint ,sophia is pregnant with the spirit of the age of ,justinian4 ,there was no attempt at mystery1 or even solemnity1 about the church1 for the mind of the architect was evidently fixed upon solving the problem of providing the largest and lightest space possible1 in which to display the functions of a plutocratic court4 ,his solution was brilliantly successful4 ,he enlarged the dome and diminished the supports1 until1 nothing remaining to interrupt the view1 it seemed as though the roof had been suspended in the air4 ,for his purpose the exterior had little value1 and he sacrificed it4 ,the conception of the architects of ,france was the converse of this1 for it was highly emotional4 ,the gloom of the lofty vaults1 dimly lighted by the subdued splendour of the coloured windows1 made the interior of the ,gothic cathedral the most mysterious and exciting sanctuary for the celebration of the miracle which has ever been conceived by man2 while without1 the doors and windows1 the pinnacles and buttresses1 were covered with the terrific shapes of demons and the majestic figures of saints1 admonishing the laity of the danger lurking abroad1 and warning them to take refuge within4 ,but if the ,greeks and the ,franks had little affinity for each other1 the case was different with the ,saracens1 who were then in the full vigour of their intellectual prime1 and in the meridian of their material splendour4 ,in the eleventh century1 when ,paris was still a cluster of huts cowering for shelter on the islands of the ,seine1 and the palace of the ,duke of ,normandy and ,king of ,england was the paltry ,white ,tower of ,london1 ,cairo was being adorned with those masterpieces which are still the admiration of the world4 ,prisse d',avennes considered that1 among the city gates the ,bab-el-,nasr stands first in 8taste and style10 and the famous ,bab-el-,zouilyeh is of the same period4 ,he also thought the mosque of ,teyloun a 8model of elegance and grandeur10 and observed1 when criticising the mosque of the ,sultan ,hassan1 built in #acef1 that though imposing and beautiful1 it lacks the unity which is only found in the earlier ,arabic monuments1 such as ,teyloun4#ajd ,indeed1 the signs are but too apparent that1 from the twelfth century1 the instinct for form began to fail in ,egypt1 the surest precursor of artistic decay4 ,the magnificence of the decoration and furnishing of the ,arabic palaces and houses has seldom been surpassed1 and a few extracts from an inventory of a sale of the collections of the ,caliph ,mostanser-,billah1 held in #ajej1 may give some idea of its gorgeousness4 ,precious ,stones4--,a chest containing #g ,mudds of emeralds2 each of these worth at least #cjj1jjj dynars1 which makes in all at the lowest estimation1 #cf1jjj1jjj francs4 ,a necklace of precious stones worth about #hj1jjj dynars4 ,seven ,wabah of magnificent pearls sent by the ,emir of ,mecca4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,glass4--,several chests1 containing a large number of vases 444 of the purest crystal1 chased and plain4 ,other chests filled with precious vases of different materials4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,table ,utensils4--,a large number of gold dishes1 enamelled or plain1 in which were incrusted all sorts of colours1 forming most varied designs4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,one hundred cups and other shapes1 of bezoar-stone1 on most of which was engraved the name of the ,caliph ,haroun-el-,raschid4 ,another cup which was #c #ab hands wide and one deep4 ,different ,articles4--,chests containing inkstands of different shapes1 round or square1 small or large1 of gold or silver1 sandal wood1 aloe1 ebony1 ivory1 and all kinds of woods1 enriched with stones1 gold and silver1 or remarkable for beauty and elegance of workmanship4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,twenty-eight enamel dishes inlaid with gold1 which the ,caliph ,aziz had received as a present from the ,greek emperor and each of which was valued at #cjjj dynars4 ,chests filled with an enormous quantity of steel1 china1 and glass mirrors1 ornamented with gold and silver filagree2 some were bordered with stones1 and had cornelian handles1 and others precious stones4 ,one of them had quite a long and thick handle of emeralds4 ,these mirrors were enclosed in cases made of velvet or silk or most beautiful wood2 their locks were of gold or silver4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,four hundred large cases1 ornamented with gold and filled with all sorts of jewels4 ,various silver household goods1 and six thousand gold vases1 in which were put narcissus or violets4 ,thirty-six thousand pieces of crystal1 among them a box ornamented with figures in relief1 weighing #ag roks4 ,a large number of knives which1 at the lowest price1 were sold for #cf1jjj dynars4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a turban enriched with precious stones1 one of the most curious and valuable articles in the palace3 it was said to be worth #acj1jjj dynars4 ,the stones which covered it1 and whose weight was #ag roks1 were divided between two chiefs1 who both claimed it4 ,one had in his share a ruby weighing #bc mitqls1 and in the share which fell to the other were #ajj pearls each of which weighed #c mitqls4 ,when the two generals were obliged to fly from ,fostat1 all these valuables were given up to pillage4 ,a golden peacock enriched with the most valuable precious stones3 the eyes were rubies1 the feathers gilded enamel representing all the colours of peacock feathers4 ,a cock of the same metal1 with a comb of the largest rubies covered with pearls and other stones2 the eyes also were made of rubies4 ,a gazelle whose body was covered all over with pearls and the most precious stones2 the stomach was white and composed of a series of pearls of the purest water4 ,a sardonyx table1 with conical feet of the same substance2 it was large enough for several people to eat there at the same time4 ,a garden1 the soil made of chased and gilt silver and yellow earth4 ,there were silver trees1 with fruits made of precious materials4 ,a golden palm-tree enriched with superb pearls4 ,it was in a golden chest and its fruit was made of precious stones representing dates in every stage of ripeness4 ,this tree was of inestimable value4#aje ,about the time the monk ,gerbert was accused of sorcery because he understood the elements of geometry1 the ,caliph ,aziz-,billah founded the university of ,cairo1 the greatest ,mohammedan institution of learning4 ,this was two hundred years before the organization of the university of ,paris1 and the lectures at the mosque of ,el-,azhar are said to have been attended by twelve thousand students4 ,munk was of opinion that ,arabic philosophy reached its apogee with ,averrhos1 who was born about #aabj4ajf ,certainly he was the last of a famous line which began at ,bagdad three centuries earlier2 and ,haurau1 in describing the great period of ,saint ,thomas at ,paris1 dwelt upon the debt ,western learning owed to the ,saracens4 ,the splendour of ,haroun-al-,raschid is still proverbial4 ,the tales of his gold and silver1 his silks and gems1 almost surpass belief1 and even in his reign the mechanical arts were so advanced that he sent a clock to ,charlemagne4 ,humboldt considered the ,arabs as the founders of modern experimental science1 and they were relatively skilful chemists1 for they understood the composition of sulphuric and nitric acid1 and of aqua regia1 beside the preparation of mercury and of various oxides of metals4 ,as physicians they were far in advance of ,europe4 ,while the ,church healed by miracles1 and put experimental methods under her ban1 the famous ,rhazes conducted the hospitals of ,bagdad1 and in the tenth century wrote a work in ten books1 which was printed at ,venice as late as #ae #aj4 ,practitioners of all nations have used his treatise on small-pox and measles2 he introduced mild purgatives1 invented the seton1 and was a remarkable anatomist4 ,he died in #icb4 ,william of ,tyre stated that the ,frankish nobles of ,syria preferred the native or ,jewish doctors2 and though ,saladin sent his physician to ,richard1 ,richard never thought of sending an ,englishman to ,saladin when afterwards attacked by illness4 ,even as late as the middle of the thirteenth century little advance seems to have been made in ,europe1 for one of the most curious phenomena of the crusades was the improvement in the health of the army of ,saint ,louis after it surrendered4 ,during the campaign various epidemics had been very fatal2 but when the soldiers were subjected to the sanitary regulations of the ,egyptian medical staff1 disease disappeared4 ,the ,arabs had a strong taste for mathematics1 and were familiar with most of the discoveries which have been attributed to astronomers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,as early as #ajjj spherical trigonometry was in use1 and ,aboul-,hassan wrote an excellent treatise on conic sections4 ,in #hcc the ,caliph ,el-,mamoun1 having founded observatories at ,bagdad and ,damascus1 caused a degree to be measured on the plain of ,palmyra4 ,by the thirteenth century the ,arabic instruments were comparatively perfect4 ,they had the astrolabe1 the gnomon1 the sextant1 and the mariner's compass1 and ,aboul-,wafa determined the third lunar variation six hundred years before ,tycho ,brahe4 ,to enumerate all the improvements in agriculture and manufactures which came from the medival pilgrimage would take a separate treatise4 ,a ,french savant thought of writing a book upon the flora of the crusades alone4 ,the mulberry and the silkworm were brought from ,greece1 the maize from ,turkey1 the plum from ,damascus1 the eschalot from ,ascalon1 and the windmills with which1 down to the present century1 corn was ground1 were one of the importations from the ,levant4 ,it might almost be said that all the ,west knew of the arts was learned on the road to the sepulchre4 ,the ,tyrians taught the ,sicilians to refine sugar1 and the ,venetians to make glass2 ,damascus steel was a proverb1 ,damascus potters were the masters of the potters of ,france2 the silk1 brocades1 and carpets of ,syria and ,persia were in the twelfth century what they have been down to the present day1 at once the admiration and despair of ,western weavers1 while there can be little doubt that gunpowder was the invention of the chemists of the ,east4 ,all the evidence tends to prove that the ogive came from the ,levant1 and without the ogive ,gothic architecture could never have developed4#ajg ,prior to the council of ,clermont the pointed arch was practically unknown west of the ,adriatic2 but the ,arabs had long used it1 and it may still be seen in the ninth century mosque of ,teyloun4 ,in ,palestine the ,franks were surrounded by ,saracenic buildings1 and employed ,saracenic masons1 and the attention of ,western architects seems no sooner to have been drawn to the possibilities of the ogive1 than they saw in it the solution of those problems which had before defied them4 ,an arch formed by two intersecting segments of a circle could be raised to any height from any base1 and was perfectly adapted to vaulting the parallelograms formed by the columns of the nave4 ,therefore1 contemporaneously with the building of the church of the ,holy ,sepulchre1 the period of transition between the ,romanesque and the ,gothic opened in ,france4 ,the two most important transition buildings were the abbey of ,saint ,denis and the cathedral of ,noyon1 and1 while the ,holy ,sepulchre was dedicated in #aadi1 the abbey was completed in #aadd1 and the cathedral was begun almost immediately after4#ajh ,thenceforward the movement was rapid1 and before the year #abjj1 ,christian sacred architecture was culminating in those marvels of beauty1 the cathedrals of ,paris1 of ,bourges1 of ,chartres1 and of ,le ,alans4 ,yet1 though sacred architecture tells the story of the rise of the imagination as nothing else can1 if it be true that centralization hinges on the preponderance of the attack in war1 the surest way of measuring the advance toward civilization of rude peoples must be by military engineering4 ,in the eleventh century1 north of the ,alps1 this science was rudimentary1 and nothing can be more impressive than to compare the mighty ramparts of ,constantinople with the small square tower which ,william the ,conqueror found ample for his needs in ,london4 ,when the crusaders were first confronted with the ,greek and ,arabic works1 they were helpless2 nor were their difficulties altogether those of ignorance4 ,such fortifications were excessively costly1 and a feudal ,state was poor because the central power had not the force to constrain individuals to pay taxes4 ,the kingdom of ,jerusalem was in chronic insolvency4 ,the life of the ,latin colony in ,syria1 therefore1 hung on the development of some financial system which should make the fortification of ,palestine possible1 and such a system grew up through the operation of the imagination1 though in an unusual manner4 ,fetish worship drew a very large annual contribution from the population in the shape of presents to propitiate the saints1 and one of the effects of the enthusiasm for the crusades was to build up conventual societies in the ,holy ,land1 which acted as standing armies4 ,the most famous of the military orders were the ,knights of the ,temple and the ,knights of ,saint ,john4 ,william of ,tyre has left an interesting description of the way in which the ,temple came to be organized3-- 8,as though the ,lord ,god sends his grace there where he pleases1 worthy knights1 who were of the land beyond the sea1 proposed to stay for ever in the service of ,our ,lord1 and to live in common1 like regular canons4 ,in the hand of the patriarch they vowed chastity and obedience1 and renounced all property4444 ,the king and the other barons1 the patriarch and other prelates of the ,church1 gave them funds to live on and to clothe themselves4444 ,the first thing which was enjoined on them in pardon for their sins was to guard the roads by which the pilgrims passed1 from robbers and thieves1 who did great harm4 ,this penance the patriarch and the other bishops enjoined4 ,nine years they remained thus in secular habit1 wearing such garments as were given them by the knights and other good people1 for the love of ,god4 ,in the ninth a council was assembled in ,france in the city of ,troyes4 ,there were assembled the archbishops of ,rheims and ,sens and all their bishops4 ,the bishop of ,albano especially was there as papal legate1 the abbots of ,citeau and ,clairvaux1 and many other of the religious4 8,there were established the order and the rules by which they were to live as monks4 ,their habit was ordered to be white1 by the authority of ,pope ,honorius and the patriarch of ,jerusalem4 ,this order had already existed nine years1 as ,i have told you1 and there were as yet only nine brothers1 who lived from day to day on charity4 ,from that time their numbers began to increase1 and revenues and tenures were given them4 ,in the time of ,pope ,etigenius it was ordered that they should have sewn upon their copes and on their robes a cross of red cloth1 so that they should be known among all men4444 ,from thence have their possessions so increased as you can see1 that the order of the ,temple is in the ascendant4444 ,hardly can you find on either side of the sea a ,christian land where this order has not to-day houses and brethren1 and great revenues40#aji ,the council of ,troyes was held in #aabh1 and in the next fifty years1 in proportion as the feudal organization of the ,latin kingdom decayed1 the military orders increased in wealth and power4 ,the ,hospital held nineteen thousand manors in ,europe1 the ,temple nine thousand1 and each manor could maintain a knight in the field4 ,at ,paris the house of the ,temple filled a whole quarter2 its donjon was one of the most superb buildings of the ,middle ,ages2 at a later period1 when the corporation took to banking1 it served as a place of deposit for both public and private treasure1 and in times of danger the king himself was glad to take shelter within its walls4 ,the creation of this monastic standing army was evidently due to the inferiority of the attack to the defence1 which made the civil power incapable of coercing the individual who refused to pay taxes4 ,the petty barons who built the castles throughout ,palestine were too poor to erect fortifications capable of resisting the superior engines used in the ,east4 ,therefore the whole burden of the war was thrown upon the ,church1 and in all modern history nothing is more wonderful than the way in which this work was done4 ,within fifty years after the conquest the feudal machinery was in ruin1 and the strategic points1 one after another1 passed into the hands of the strongest force of the age1 the force which was incarnate imagination4 ,the fortresses built by the monks were the ramparts of ,christendom1 and among the remains which have survived the past1 perhaps none are more impressive than the huge castles of the crusaders in the gorges of the ,syrian mountains2 nor do any show so clearly whence came the rationalistic stimulus which revolutionized ,europe1 shattered the ,church1 and brought in the economic society which has ruled ,europe since the ,templars passed away4 ,twenty-five miles due west of ,homs1 at the point where the ,lebanon melts into the ,ansarieh range1 the mountains open1 and two passes lead by easy descents to the sea4 ,through the southern runs the road to ,tripoli1 through the northern that to ,tortosa4 ,between them1 on a crag a thousand feet above the valleys1 still stands the castle of the ,krak des ,chevaliers1 ceded by ,count ,raymond of ,tripoli to the ,hospital in #aade4 ,towering above the plain it can be seen for miles1 and no description can give an idea of its gigantic size and power4 ,coucy and ,pierrefonds are among the largest fortresses of ,europe1 and yet ,coucy and ,pierrefonds combined are no larger than the ,krak4 ,compared with it1 the works then built in the ,west were toys1 and the engineering talent shown in its conception was equalled by the magnificence of its masonry4 ,the ,byzantine system was adopted4 ,a double wall1 the inner commanding the outer1 with a moat between2 and three enormous towers rising from the moat1 formed the donjon4 ,there were stone machicoulis and all the refinements of defence which appeared in ,france under ,saint ,louis and his son1 and a study of this stupendous monument shows plainly whence ,europeans drew their military instruction for a century to come4 ,the ,krak was the outwork dominating the plain where the ,christians never made their footing good1 and stood at the apex of a triangle of fortresses as remarkable as itself4 ,from its ramparts the great white tower of ,chastel-,blanc can be seen1 midway between the outpost commanding the mountain passes and the base upon the sea held by the ,temple2 and from that tower the troop of ,templars rode to relieve the knights of ,saint ,john1 on the day when the crusaders routed the conqueror ,nour-ed-,din1 and cut his army to pieces as it fled toward the ,lake of ,homs1 which lies in the distance4 ,but the white tower is unlike the donjons of other lands1 and bears the imprint of the force which built it1 for it is not a layman's hold1 but a church1 whose windows are cut in walls thirteen feet thick1 whence the dim light falls across the altar where the magicians wrought their miracles4 ,within easy supporting distance lay ,tortosa1 a walled town1 the outwork of a donjon at least as strong as the ,krak1 and built with a perfection of workmanship1 and a beauty of masonry1 which proves at once the knowledge and the resources of the order4 ,no monarch of the ,west could1 probably1 at that time have undertaken so costly an enterprise1 and yet ,tortosa was but one of four vast structures which lie within a few miles of each other4 ,the place was ceded to the ,temple in #aahc1 just at the beginning of the reign of ,philip ,augustus1 before men dreamed of the more important ,french fortifications4 ,at ,margat1 a day's journey to the north1 the ,hospital had their base upon the sea3 a stronghold whose cost must have been fabulous1 for it is perched upon a crag high above the ,mediterranean1 and so inaccessible that it is not easy to understand how the materials for building were collected4 ,viollet-le-,duc1 who was lost in admiration at ,coucy1 declared that it was colossal enough to befit a race of giants1 and yet ,coucy could have stood in the courtyard of ,margat4 ,the ,arabs1 who were excellent engineers1 deemed it a masterpiece1 and the ,sultan ,kalaoun could not endure the thought of injuring it4 ,after he had mined the great tower and was sure of victory1 he proved to the garrison his power to destroy it1 in order to induce them to accept most liberal terms of surrender1 and let him have the prize4 ,perhaps the best description ever given of the work is in a letter written by the ,sultan of ,hamah to his vizier to announce its fall3 8,the devil himself had taken pleasure in consolidating its foundations4 ,how many times have the ,mussulmans tried to reach its towers and fallen down the precipices6 ,markab is unique1 perched on the summit of a rock4 ,it is accessible to relief1 and inaccessible to attack4 ,the eagle and the vulture alone can fly to its ramparts40#aaj ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,second ,,crusade ,as the ,east was richer than the ,west1 the ,saracens were capable of a higher centralization than the ,franks1 and although they were divided amongst themselves at the close of the eleventh century1 no long time elapsed after the fall of ,jerusalem before the consolidation began which annihilated the ,latin kingdom4 ,the ,sultan of ,persia made ,zenghi governor of ,mosul in #aabg4 ,zenghi1 who was the first ,atabek1 was a commander and organizer of ability1 and with a soldier's instinct struck where his enemy was vulnerable4 ,he first occupied ,aleppo1 ,hamah1 and ,homs4 ,he then achieved the triumph of his life by the capture of ,edessa4 ,the next year he was murdered1 and was succeeded by his still more celebrated son1 ,nour-ed-,din1 who made ,aleppo his capital1 and devoted his life to completing the work his father had begun4 ,after a series of brilliant campaigns1 by a mixture of vigour and address1 ,nour-ed-,din made himself master of ,damascus1 and1 operating thence as a base1 he conquered ,egypt1 and occupied ,cairo in #aafi4 ,during the ,egyptian war1 a young emir1 named ,saladin1 rose rapidly into prominence4 ,he was the nephew of the general in command1 at whose death the caliph made him vizier1 because he thought him pliable4 ,in this the caliph was mistaken1 for ,saladin was a man of iron will and consummate ability4 ,william of ,tyre even accused him of having murdered the last ,fatimite caliph with his own hands in order to cause the succession to pass to ,nour-ed-,din1 and to seize on the substance of power himself1 as ,nour-ed-,din's representative4 ,certainly he administered ,egypt in his own interest1 and not in his master's2 so much so that ,nour-ed-,din1 having failed to obtain obedience to his commands1 had prepared to march against him in person1 when1 on the eve of his departure1 he died4 ,saladin then moved on ,damascus1 and having defeated the army of ,el ,melek1 the heir to the crown1 at ,hamah1 he had himself declared ,sultan of ,egypt and ,syria4 ,with a power so centralized the ,franks would probably1 under the best circumstances1 have been unable to cope4 ,the weakness of the ,christians was radical1 and arose from the exuberance of their imagination1 which caused them to proceed by miracles1 or more correctly1 by magical formulas4 ,an exalted imagination was the basis of the characters of both ,louis ,,vii4 and ,saint ,bernard1 and the faith resulting therefrom led to the defeat of the second crusade4 ,the ,christian collapse began with the fall of ,edessa1 for the ,county of ,edessa was the extreme northeastern state of the ,latin community1 and the key to the cities of the plain4 ,when the first crusaders reached ,armenia1 ,baldwin1 brother of ,godfrey de ,bouillon1 conceived the idea of carving a kingdom for himself out of the ,christian country to the south of the ,taurus range4 ,taking with him such pilgrims as he could persuade to go1 he started from ,mamistra1 just north of the modern ,alexandretta1 and marched east along the caravan road4 ,edessa lay sixteen hours' ride beyond the ,euphrates1 and he reached it in safety4 ,at this time1 though ,edessa still nominally formed part of the ,greek ,empire1 it was in reality independent1 and was governed by an old man named ,theodore1 who had originally been sent from ,constantinople1 but who had gradually taken the position of a sovereign4 ,the surrounding country had been overrun by ,moslems1 and ,theodore only maintained himself by paying tribute4 ,the people1 therefore1 were ready to welcome any ,frankish baron capable of defending them2 and ,baldwin1 though a needy adventurer1 was an excellent officer1 and well adapted to the emergency4 ,as he drew near1 the townsmen went out to meet him1 and escorted him to the city in triumph1 where he soon supplanted the old ,theodore1 whom he probably murdered4 ,he then became ,count of ,edessa1 but he remained in the country only two years1 for in #aajj he was elected to succeed his brother ,godfrey4 ,he was followed as ,lord of ,edessa by his cousin ,godfrey de ,bourg1 who1 in his turn1 was crowned ,king of ,jerusalem in #aaai1 and the next count was de ,bourg's cousin1 ,joscelin de ,courtney1 who had previously held as a fief the territory to the west of the ,euphrates4 ,this ,joscelin was one of the most renowned warriors who ever came from ,france1 and while he lived the frontier was well defended4 ,so high was his prowess that he earned the title of 8the great10 in an age when every man was a soldier1 and in a country where arms were the only path to fortune save the ,church4 ,the story of his death is one of the most dramatic of that dramatic time4 ,as he stood beneath the wall of a ,saracenic tower he had mined1 it suddenly fell and buried him in the ruins4 ,he was taken out a mangled mass to die1 but1 as he lay languishing1 news came that the ,sultan of ,iconium had laid siege to one of his castles near ,tripoli4 ,feeling that he could not sit his horse1 he called his son and directed him to collect his vassals and ride to the relief of the fortress4 ,the youth hesitated1 fearing that the enemy were too numerous4 ,then the old man1 grieving to think of the fate of his people when he should be gone1 had himself slung in a litter between two horses1 and marched against the foe4 ,he had not gone far before he was met by a messenger1 who told him that when the ,saracens heard the ,lord of ,courtney was upon the march1 they had raised the siege and fled4 ,then the wounded baron ordered his litter to be set down upon the ground1 and1 stretching out his hands to heaven1 he thanked ,god who had so honoured him that his enemies dared not abide his coming even when in the jaws of death1 and died there where he lay4 ,the second generation of ,franks seems to have deteriorated through the influence of the climate1 but the character of the younger ,joscelin was not the sole cause of the disasters which overtook him4 ,probably even his father could not permanently have made head against the forces which were combining against him4 ,the weakness of the ,frankish kingdom was inherent3 it could not contend with enemies who were further advanced upon the road toward consolidation4 ,had ,western society been enough centralized to have organized a force capable of collecting taxes1 and of enforcing obedience to a central administration1 a wage-earning army might have been maintained on the frontier4 ,as it was1 concentration was impossible1 and the scattered nobles were crushed in detail4 ,antioch was the nearest supporting point to ,edessa1 and1 when ,zenghi made his attack1 ,raymond de ,poitiers1 one of the ablest soldiers of his generation1 was the reigning prince4 ,but he was at feud with the ,courtneys2 the king at ,jerusalem could not force him to do his duty2 the other barons were too distant1 even had they been well disposed2 and thus the key to the ,christian position fell without a blow being struck in its defence4 ,to that emotional generation the loss of ,edessa seemed a reversal of the laws of nature2 a consequence not of bad organization but of divine wrath4 ,the invincible relics had suddenly refused to act1 and the only explanation which occurred to the men of the time was1 that there must have been neglect of the magical formulas4 ,saint ,bernard never doubted that ,god would fight if duly propitiated2 therefore all else must bend to the task of propitiation3 8,what think ye1 brethren8 ,is the hand of the ,lord weakened1 or unequal to the work of defence1 that he calls miserable worms to guard and restore his heritage8 ,is he not able to send more than twelve legions of angels1 or1 to speak truly1 by word deliver his country80#aaa ,saint ,bernard of ,clairvaux1 the soul of the second crusade1 was born at the castle of ,fontaines1 near ,dijon1 in #ajia1 so that his earliest impressions must have been tinged by the emotional outburst which followed the council of ,clermont4 ,the third son of noble parents1 he resembled his mother1 who had the ecstatic temperament4 ,while she lived she tried to imitate the nuns1 and at her death she was surrounded by holy clerks1 who sung with her while she could speak1 and1 when articulation failed1 watched her lips moving in praise to ,god4 ,from the outset1 ,bernard craved a monastic life1 and when he grew up insisted on dedicating himself to ,heaven4 ,his first success was the conversion of his brothers1 whom he carried with him to the cloister1 with the exception of the youngest1 who was then a child4 ,as the brothers passed through the castle courtyard1 on their way to the convent1 ,guy1 the eldest1 said to the boy1 who was playing there with other children1 8,well1 ,nivard1 all our land is now yours40 8,so you will have heaven and ,i earth10 the child answered2 8that is an unequal division40 ,and a few years after he joined his brothers4#aab ,the father and one daughter then were left alone1 and at last they too entered convents1 where they died4 ,at twenty-two1 when ,bernard took his vows at ,citeaux1 his influence was so strong that he carried with him thirty of his comrades1 and mothers are said to have hid their sons from him1 and wives their husbands1 lest he should lure them away4 ,he actually broke up so many homes that the abandoned wives formed a nunnery1 which afterward grew rich4 ,his abilities were so marked that his superiors singled him out1 when he had hardly finished his novitiate1 to found a house in the wilderness4 ,this house became ,clairvaux1 in the twelfth century the most famous monastery of the world4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 convents were little patronized until by some miracle they had proved themselves worthy of hire2 their early years were often passed in poverty1 and ,clairvaux was no exception to the rule1 for the brethren suffered privations which nearly caused revolt4 ,in the midst of his difficulties1 ,bernard's brother ,grard1 who was cellarer1 came to him to complain that the fraternity were without the barest necessities of life4 ,the man of ,god asked1 8,how much will suffice for present wants80 ,grard replied1 8,twelve pounds40 ,bernard dismissed him and betook himself to prayer4 ,soon after ,grard returned and announced that a woman was without and wished to speak with him4 8,she1 when he had come to her1 prostrating herself at his feet1 offered him a gift of twelve pounds1 imploring the aid of his prayers for her husband1 who was dangerously sick4 ,having briefly spoken with her1 he dismissed her1 saying3 #8,go4 ,you will find your husband well4' ,she1 going home1 found what she had heard had come to pass4 ,the abbot comforting the weakness of his cellarer1 made him stronger for bearing other trials from ,god40#aac ,although his family were somewhat sceptical about his gifts1 and even teased him to tears1 the monk ,william tells1 in his chronicle1 how he soon performed an astounding miracle which made ,clairvaux a 8veritable valley of light10 and then wealth poured in upon him4 ,meanwhile1 his constitution1 which had never been vigorous1 had been so impaired by his penances that he was unable to follow the monastic life in its full rigour1 and he therefore threw himself into politics1 to which he was led both by taste and by the current of events4 ,clairvaux was founded in #aaae1 and fifteen years later ,bernard had risen high in his profession4 ,the turning-point in his life was the part he took in the recognition of ,innocent ,,ii4 ,in #aacj1 ,honorius ,,ii4 died1 and two popes were chosen by the college of cardinals1 ,anacletus and ,innocent ,,ii4 ,anacletus stayed in ,rome1 but ,innocent crossed the ,alps1 and a council was summoned at tampes to decide upon his title4 ,by a unanimous vote the question was referred to ,bernard1 and his biographer described how he examined the evidence with fear and trembling1 and how at last the ,holy ,ghost spoke through his mouth1 and he recognized ,innocent4 ,his decision was ratified1 and soon after he managed to obtain the adhesion of the ,king of ,england to the new pontiff4 ,his success made him the foremost man in ,europe1 and when1 in #aade1 one of his monks was raised to the papacy as ,eugenius ,,iii41 he wrote with truth1 8,i am said to be more pope than you40 ,perhaps no one ever lived more highly gifted with the ecstatic temperament than ,saint ,bernard4 ,he had the mysterious attribute of miracles1 and1 in the twelfth century1 the miracle was1 perhaps1 the highest expression of force4 ,to work them was a personal gift1 and the possessor of the faculty might1 at his caprice1 use his power1 like the sorcerer1 to aid or injure other men4 ,one day as ,saint ,bernard was on his way to a field at harvest time1 the monk who drove the donkey on which he rode1 fell in an epileptic fit4 8,seeing which the holy man had pity on him1 and entreated ,god that for the future he would not seize him unaware40 ,accordingly from that day until his death1 twenty years after1 8whenever he was to fall from that disease1 he felt the fit coming for a certain space of time1 so that he had an opportunity to lie down on a bed1 and so avert the bruises of a sudden fall40#aad ,this cure was a pure act of grace1 like alms1 made to gratify the whim of the saint2 and a man who could so control nature was more powerful than any other on earth4 ,bernard was such a man1 and for this reason he was chosen by acclamation to preach the second crusade4 ,his sermons have perished1 but two of his letters have survived1#aae and they explain the essential weakness of a military force raised on the basis of supernatural intervention4 ,he looked upon the approaching campaign as merely the vehicle for a miracle1 and as devised to offer to those who entered on it a special chance for salvation4 ,therefore he appealed to the criminal classes4 8,for what is it but an exquisite and priceless chance of salvation due to ,god alone1 that the ,omnipotent should deign to summon to his service1 as though they were innocent1 murderers1 ravishers1 adulterers1 perjurers1 and those guilty of every crime80#aaf ,even had an army composed of such material been well disciplined and well led1 it would have been untrustworthy in the face of an adversary like ,nour-ed-,din2 but ,louis ,,vii4 of ,france was as emotional and as irrational as ,saint ,bernard4 ,his father had been a great commander1 but he himself had been educated in the ,abbey of ,saint ,denis1 and justified his wife's scornful jest1 who1 when she left him for ,raymond de ,poitiers1 said she had married a monk4 ,the whole world held him lightly1 even the priests sneered at him1 and ,innocent ,,ii4 spoke of him as a child 8who must be stopped from learning rebellion40 ,indeed1 the pope underrated him1 for he appointed his own nephew to the ,see of ,bourges in defiance of the king1 and the insult roused him to resistance4 ,louis raised an army and invaded the ,county of ,champagne1 where the bishop had taken refuge4 ,there he stormed and burnt ,vitry1 and some thirteen hundred men1 women1 and children1 who had taken refuge in the church1 perished in the flames of the blazing town4 ,horror seems to have unhinged his mind1 absolution did not calm him1 and at last he came to believe that his only hope of salvation lay in a pilgrimage to the ,sepulchre4 ,on ,palm ,sunday1 #aadf1 when ,bernard harangued a vast throng at ,vzelay1 the king was the first to prostrate himself1 and take the cross from his hands4 ,with that day began the most marvellous part of the saint's marvellous career1 and were the events which followed less well authenticated1 they would be incredible4 ,in that age miracles were as common as medical cures are now1 and yet ,bernard's performances so astonished his contemporaries that they drew up a solemnly attested record of what they saw1 that the story of his preaching might never be questioned4 ,when he neared a town the bells were rung1 and young and old1 from far and near1 thronged about him in crowds so dense that1 at ,constance1 no one saw what passed1 because no one dared to venture into the press4 ,at ,troyes he was in danger of being suffocated4 ,elsewhere the sick were brought to him by a ladder as he stood at a window out of reach4 ,what he did may be judged by the work of a single day4 8,when the holy man entered ,germany he shone so marvellously by cures1 that it can neither be told in words1 nor would it be believed if it were told4 ,for those testify who were present in the country of ,constance1 near the town of ,doningen1 who diligently investigated these things1 and saw them with their eyes1 that in one day eleven blind received their sight by the laying on of his hands1 ten maimed were restored1 and eighteen lame made straight40#aag ,thus1 literally by thousands1 the blind saw1 the lame walked1 the maimed were made whole4 ,he cast out devils1 turned water into wine1 raised the dead4 ,but no modern description can give an idea of the paroxysm of excitement2 the stories must be read in the chronicles themselves4 ,yet1 strangely enough1 such was the strength of the materialistic inheritance from the ,empire1 that ,bernard does not always seem fully to have believed in himself4 ,he was tinged with some shade of scepticism4 ,the meeting at ,vzelay was held on ,march #bd1 #aadf4 ,four weeks later1 on ,april #ba1 at a council held at ,chartres1 the command of the army to invade ,palestine was offered to the ,abbot of ,clairvaux4 ,had the saint thoroughly believed in himself and his twelve legions of angels1 he would not have hesitated1 for no enemy could have withstood ,god4 ,in fact he was panic-stricken1 and wrote a letter to the pope which might befit a modern clergyman4 ,after explaining that he had been chosen commander against his will1 he exclaimed1 8,who am ,i1 that ,i should set camps in order1 or should march before armed men8 ,or what is so remote from my profession1 even had ,i the strength1 and the knowledge were not lacking8444 ,i beseech you1 by that charity you especially owe me1 that you do not abandon me to the wills of men40#aah ,during #aadf and #aadg two vast mixed multitudes1 swarming with criminals and women1 gathered at ,metz and ,ratisbon4 ,as a fighting force these hosts were decidedly inferior to the bands which had left ,europe fifty years before1 under ,tancred and ,godfrey de ,bouillon1 and they were besides commanded by the semi-emasculated ,king of ,france4 ,the ,germans cannot be considered as having taken any part in the war1 for they perished without having struck a blow4 ,the ,greek emperor caused them to be lured into the mountains of ,asia ,minor1 where they were abandoned by their guides1 and wasted away from exposure1 hunger1 and thirst1 until the ,saracens destroyed them without allowing them to come to battle4 ,the ,french fared little better4 ,in crossing the ,cadmus ,mountains1 their lack of discipline occasioned a defeat1 which made ,william of ,tyre wonder at the ways of ,god4 8,to no one should the things done by our ,lord be displeasing1 for all his works are right and good1 but according to the judgment of men it was marvellous how our ,lord permitted the ,franks 7who are the people in the world who believe in him and honour him most7 to be thus destroyed by the enemies of the faith40#aai ,soon after this check ,louis was joined by the ,grand ,master of the ,temple1 under whose guidance he reached ,atalia1 a ,greek port in ,pamphylia3 and here1 had the king been a rationalist1 he would have stormed the town and used it as a base of operations against ,syria4 ,in the eyes of laymen1 the undisguised hostility of the emperor would have fully justified such an attack4 ,but ,louis was a devotee1 bound by a vow to the performance of a certain mystic formula1 and one part of his vow was not to attack ,christians during his pilgrimage4 ,in his mind the danger of disaster from supernatural displeasure was greater than the strategic advantage2 and so he allowed his army to rot before the walls in the dead of winter1 without tents or supplies1 until it wasted to a shadow of its former strength4 ,finally the governor contracted to provide shipping1 but he delayed for another five weeks1 and when the transports came they were too few4 ,even then ,louis would not strike1 but abandoning the poor and sick to their fate1 he sailed away with the flower of his troops1 and by spring the corpses of those whom he had deserted bred a pestilence which depopulated the city4 ,when he arrived at ,antioch new humiliations and disasters awaited him4 ,raymond de ,poitiers was one of the handsomest and most gifted men of this time4 ,affable1 courteous1 brave1 and sagacious1 in many respects a great captain1 his failing was a hot temper1 which led him to his ruin4 ,he forsook ,joscelin through jealousy1 and the fall of ,edessa cost him throne and life4 ,after the successes of ,zenghi1 a very short experience of ,nour-ed-,din sufficed to convince ,prince ,raymond that ,antioch could not be held without re-establishing the frontier2 and when ,louis arrived1 ,raymond tried hard to persuade him to abandon his pilgrimage for that season1 and make a campaign in the north4 ,william of ,tyre thought the plan good1 and believed that the ,saracens were1 for the moment1 too demoralized to resist4 ,evidently1 by advancing from ,antioch1 ,nour-ed-,din could have been isolated1 whereas on the south he was covered by ,damascus1 one of the strongest places in the ,east4 ,such considerations had no weight with ,louis1 for1 to his emotional temperament1 military strategy lay in obtaining supernatural aid1 without which no wisdom could avail1 and with which victory was sure4 ,he therefore insisted on the punctilious performance of the religious rites1 and one of the most interesting passages in ,william of ,tyre is the account of the interview between him and ,raymond1 when a movement against the cities of the north was discussed4 8,the prince1 who had tried the temper of the king several times privately1 and not found what he wanted1 came one day to him before his barons and made his requests to the best of his power4 ,many reasons he showed that if he would agree1 he would do his soul much good1 and would win the applause of his age2 ,christendom would be so benefited by this thing4 ,the king took counsel1 and then he answered that he was vowed to the ,sepulchre1 and had taken the cross particularly to go there2 that1 since he had left his country1 he had met with many hindrances1 and that he had no wish to begin any wars until he had perfected his pilgrimage40#abj ,this refusal so exasperated ,prince ,raymond that he threw off all disguise1 and became the avowed lover of the queen1 who detested her husband4 ,louis1 shortly afterward1 escaped by night from ,antioch1 taking ,eleanor with him by force1 and thus the only hope for the recovery of ,edessa was lost4 ,for the emotionalist everything yielded to the transcendent importance of propitiatory rites2 therefore ,louis ascended ,calvary1 kissed the stones1 intoned the chants1 received the benediction1 and lost ,palestine4 ,thus1 by the middle of the twelfth century1 the idealist had begun to flag in the struggle for life4 ,an attempt1 indeed1 was afterwards made upon ,damascus1 but it only served to expose the weakness of the men who relied on magic4 ,by the time the advance began1 confidence had been restored among the ,saracens1 the attack was repulsed1 and ,nour-ed-,din had only to move from the north to throw the crusaders back upon ,jerusalem1 covered with ridicule4 ,nothing conveys so vivid an idea of the shock these reverses gave believers1 as the words in which ,saint ,bernard defended his prophecies4 8,do they not say among the pagans1 where is their ,god8 ,nor is it wonderful4 ,the sons of the ,church1 who are known by the name of ,christians1 are laid low in the desert1 destroyed by the sword1 or consumed by famine4 ,the ,lord hath poured contempt upon princes1 and hath caused them to wander in the wilderness1 where there is no way4 ,grief and misfortune have followed their steps1 fear and confusion have been in the palaces of the kings themselves4 ,how have the feet strayed of those promising peace and blessings4 ,we have said peace and there is no peace1 we have promised good fortune and behold tribulation1 as if we had acted in this matter with rashness and levity4444 ,yet if one of two things must be1 ,i prefer to have men murmur against me rather than ,god4 ,it is good if ,i am worthy to be used as a shield4 ,i take willingly the slanders of detractors1 and the poisoned stings of blasphemers1 that they may not reach him4 ,i do not shrink from loss of glory that his may not be attacked1 who gives it to me to be glorified in the words of the ,psalmist3 #8,because for thy sake ,i have borne reproach2 shame hath covered my face4'0#aba ,according to the account of ,william of ,tyre1 both sides felt the end to be near4 ,after the failure of ,louis the ,pious1 ,prince ,raymond was the first to go down before the storm he had too late seen gathering4 ,nour-ed-,din fell upon his country with fire and sword1 defeated him1 cut off his head and right arm1 and sent them to ,bagdad as trophies4 ,the wretched ,joscelin died in a dungeon at ,aleppo1 while ,nour-ed-,din entered ,damascus1 and thus consolidated the ,syrian cities of the plain4 ,thenceforward the decentralized ,franks lay helpless in the grasp of their compact adversary1 and all that was imaginative in the ,middle ,ages received its death-wound at ,tiberias4 ,that action was the beginning of the decay of fetish-worship4 ,the crusaders believed they had found the cross on which ,christ died at ,jerusalem4 ,they venerated it as a charm no less powerful than the ,sepulchre itself1 and having this advantage over the tomb1 that it was portable4 ,they thought it invincible1 and used it not only as a weapon against living enemies1 but as a means of controlling nature4 ,a remarkable example of the magical properties of this relic was given in the retreat from ,bosra4 ,baldwin ,,iii4 was crowned in #aadd1 when only thirteen4 ,the kingdom was then at peace with ,damascus1 in whose territory ,bosra lay2 but1 notwithstanding1 the child's advisers eagerly listened to the offer of the emir in command to betray the town1 and hastened forward the departure of an expedition1 in spite of the protests of the envoys from ,damascus4 ,on the march the troops suffered severely from heat and thirst1 and on their arrival were appalled to find a loyal garrison4 ,a siege was out of the question1 and a regular retreat so hazardous that the barons besought the king to fly and save the cross2 but the boy refused1 and stayed with his men to fight to the last4 ,the outlook was terrible1 for the vegetation was dry1 and when the march began-- 8,the ,turks threw ,greek fire everywhere1 so that it seemed as if the whole country burned4 ,the high flames and thick smoke blinded our men4 ,then were they so beset they knew not what to do4 ,but when there is great need1 and men's help fails1 then should one seek aid of our ,lord1 and cry to him to care for us2 so did our ,christians then2 for they called the ,archbishop ,robert of ,nazareth1 who carried the true cross before them1 and begged him that he would pray our ,lord1 who to save them had suffered death upon that cross1 that he would bring them from this peril2 for they could not endure it1 nor did they look for other help than his4 ,truly1 they were there all black and scorched1 like smiths1 from the fire and smoke4 ,the archbishop dismounted and kneeled down1 and prayed our ,lord with many tears that he would have mercy on his people2 then he arose and held the true cross toward the fire which the wind brought strongly against them4 ,our ,lord by his great mercy regarded his people in the great peril which they suffered2 for the wind changed straightway and blew the fire and smoke into the faces of the enemy who had lighted it1 so that they were forced to scatter over the country and fly4 ,our men1 when they saw this1 wept for joy1 for they perceived that our ,lord had not forgotten them40 ,even then they were in extreme peril1 for but one way was open1 for which they had no guide4 ,suddenly1 a 8knight appeared before the troop whom no one in the host knew4 ,he sat a white horse1 and carried a crimson banner1 he wore a hauberk1 whose sleeves came only to the elbow4 ,he offered to guide them1 and he put himself in front2 he brought them to cool sweet springs2 444 he made them sleep in comfortable and good places4 ,and he so guided them that on the third day they came to the city of ,gadre40#abb ,the mighty relic of the cross was taken and defiled by the ,saracens at ,hattin1 where the ,christians suffered a decisive defeat1 caused by the impotence of the central administration at ,jerusalem4 ,reginald de ,chatillon was the type of the twelfth century adventurer4 ,he came to ,palestine in the train of ,louis the ,pious1 and he stayed there because he married a princess4 ,he was a brave soldier1 but greedy1 violent1 and rash1 and his insubordination precipitated the catastrophe which led to the fall of the capital4 ,at the siege of ,ascalon he so fascinated ,constance1 ,princess of ,antioch1 widow of ,raymond1 that she persisted in marrying him1 although she was sought by many of the greatest nobles1 and he was only a knight4 ,her choice was disastrous4 ,he had hardly entered on his government in the north before he quarrelled with the ,greek emperor1 who forced him to do penance with a rope about his neck4 ,afterward he was taken prisoner by ,nour-ed-,din1 who only liberated him after sixteen years1 when his wife was dead4 ,he soon married again1 this time also another great heiress1 ,etiennette de ,milly1 ,lady of ,karak and ,montral1 and1 as her husband1 ,reginald became commander of the fortress of ,karak to the east of the ,dead ,sea1 which formed the defence against ,egypt4 ,but as the commander of so important a post1 this reckless and rapacious adventurer defied the authority of his feudal superior1 and by plundering caravans on the ,damascus road so irritated ,saladin that 8in #aahg he burst1 with a powerful army1 into the ,holy ,land1 made ,king ,guy prisoner1 and the ,prince ,reginald1 whose head he cut off with his own hand40#abc ,guy de ,lusignan had been crowned at ,jerusalem the year before ,saladin's invasion1 and when war broke out he was at feud with the ,count of ,tripoli4 ,the imminence of the common danger brought about some semblance of cohesion among the nobles1 who agreed to put every available man in the field4 ,the castles were stripped of their garrisons so that they were indefensible in case of reverse1 and about fifty thousand troops were concentrated at ,sepphoris in ,galilee4 ,the contingents of the ,temple and ,hospital were well organized and well disciplined1 but the army1 as a whole1 was rather a loose gathering of the retainers of thirty or forty independent chiefs1 than a compact mass1 subject to a single will1 such as the ,egyptian revenues enabled ,saladin to put in the field4 ,suddenly news came to ,sepphoris1 that the ,saracens had poured through the pass of ,banias and lay before ,tiberias4 ,dissensions broke out at once1 which ,guy de ,lusignan could not control4 ,he was not a man of strong character1 and had he been1 he was only one among a dozen princes1 any one of whom could quit the army and retire to his castle if he felt so disposed4 ,the ,count of ,tripoli1 who seems to have been the ablest soldier among the ,franks1 saw the folly of leaving water and marching across a burning country under a ,july sun1 instead of waiting to be attacked4 ,as he represented1 he of all men was most interested in relieving ,tiberias1 for it was his town1 and his wife was within the walls2 yet such was the jealousy of him in the ,latin camp that his advice was rejected1 and an advance began on ,july #c1 #aahg4 ,three miles from ,tiberias the action opened by a furious attack on the rearguard1 formed by the ,temple and the ,hospital4 ,when they gave ground ,guy lost heart and ordered a halt4 ,the night which followed was frightful4 ,the ,moslems fired the dry undergrowth1 and1 amidst flames and smoke1 the ,franks lay till dawn1 tormented by hunger and thirst1 and exposed to clouds of arrows which the enemy poured in on them4 ,at dawn fighting began again1 but the demoralized infantry fled to a hill1 whence they refused to move4 ,the ,count of ,tripoli1 seeing the battle lost1 cut his way out with a band of his followers1 but ,guy de ,lusignan1 ,reginald de ,chatillon1 and a multitude of knights and nobles were captured4 ,the orders were practically annihilated1 the whole able-bodied population cut to pieces1 and the holy cross1 which had been borne before the host as an invincible engine of war1 was seized and defiled on the mountain where ,jesus taught his disciples to love their enemies4 ,emmad-,eddin1 an ,arabic historian1 has described the veneration of the ,christians for their talisman1 their adoration of it in peace1 and their devotion to it in battles2 and his words help a modern generation to conceive the shock its worshippers received when it betrayed its helplessness4 8,the great cross was taken before the king1 and many of the impious sought death about it4 ,when it was held aloft the infidels bent the knee and bowed the head4 ,they had enriched it with gold and jewels2 they carried it on days of great solemnity1 and looked upon it as their first duty to defend it in battle4 ,the capture of this cross was more grievous to them than the capture of their king40 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,constantinople ,most writers on the crusades have noticed the change which followed the battle of ,tiberias4 ,pigeonneau1 for example1 in his ,history of ,commerce1 pointed out that1 after the loss of ,jerusalem1 the ,christians 8became more and more intent on economic interests10 and the 8crusades became more and more political and commercial1 rather than religious1 expeditions40 #abd ,in other words1 when decentralization reached its limit1 the form of competition changed1 and consolidation began4 ,with the reopening of the valley of the ,danube1 the current turned4 ,at first the tide ran feebly1 but after the conquest of the ,holy ,land the channels of trade altered2 capital began to accumulate2 and by the thirteenth century money controlled ,palestine and ,italy1 and was rapidly subduing ,france4 ,heyd remarked that 8the commerce to the ,levant took a leap1 during the crusades1 of which the boldest imagination could hardly have dreamed shortly before10#abe because the possession of the ,syrian ports brought ,europe into direct communication with ,asia1 and accelerated exchanges4 ,from the dawn of ,european history to the rise of modern ,london1 the ,eastern trade has enriched every community where it has centred1 and1 among others1 ,north ,italy in the ,middle ,ages4 ,venice1 ,florence1 ,genoa1 and ,pisa were its creations4 ,in the year #deb1 when the barbarian migrations were flowing over the ,roman provinces in steadily increasing volume1 the ,huns sacked ,aquileia1 and the inhabitants of the ravaged districts fled for shelter to the islands which lie in the shallow water at the head of the ,adriatic4 ,for many generations these fugitives remained poor1 subsisting mainly on fish1 and selling salt as their only product2 but gradually they developed into a race highly adapted to flourish under the conditions which began to prevail after the council of ,clermont4 ,isolated save toward the sea1 without agriculture or mines1 but two paths were open to them1 piracy and commerce3 and they excelled in both4 ,by the reign of ,charlemagne they were prosperous2 and when the closing of the valley of the ,danube forced traffic to go by sea1 ,venice and ,amalfi obtained a monopoly of what was left of the ,eastern trade4 ,for many years1 however1 that trade was not highly lucrative4 ,though ,rome always offered a certain market for brocades for vestments and for altar coverings1 for incense1 and jewels for shrines1 ready money was scarce1 the ,west having few products which ,asiatics or ,africans were willing to take in exchange for their goods4 ,therefore it was not through enterprises sanctioned by the priesthood1 that ,venice won in the economic competition which began to prevail in the eleventh century4 ,venetians prospered because they were bolder and more unscrupulous than their neighbours4 ,they did without compunction what was needful for gain1 even when the needful thing was a damnable crime in the eyes of the devout4 ,the valley of the ,nile1 though fertile1 produces neither wood nor iron1 nor men of the fighting type2 for these the caliphs were ready to pay1 and the ,venetians provided them all4 ,even as early as #iga dealings with the common enemy in material of war had reached proportions which not only stimulated the ,emperor ,john ,zimisces to energetic diplomatic remonstrance1 but made him threaten to burn all the ships he captured laden with suspicious cargoes4 ,to sell timber for ships1 and iron for swords1 to the ,saracens1 was a mortal sin in children of the ,church2 but such a sin was as nothing beside the infamy of kidnapping believers as slaves for infidels1 who made them soldiers to fight against their ,god4 ,charlemagne and the popes after him tried to suppress the traffic1 but without avail4 ,slaving was so lucrative that it was carried on in the streets of ,rome herself1#abf and in the thirteenth century two thousand ,europeans were annually disposed of in ,damietta and ,alexandria1 from whom the ,mamelukes1 the finest corps of soldiers in the ,east1 were recruited4 ,thus a race grew up in ,italy1 which differed from the people of ,france and ,germany because of the absence of those qualities which had caused the ,germans to survive when the inhabitants of the ,empire decayed4 ,the medival ,italians prospered because they were lacking in the imagination which made the ,northern peoples subservient to the miracle-worker1 and among medival ,italians the ,venetians1 from their exposed position1 came to be the most daring1 energetic1 and unscrupulous4 ,by the end of the eleventh century their fleet was so superior to the ,greek1 that the ,emperor ,alexis had to confide to them the defence of the harbour of ,durazzo against ,robert ,guiscard4 ,guiscard attacked ,durazzo in #ajha1 at the time of the revolution which immediately preceded the debasement of the ,byzantine coinage2 and the demonstration that ,venice had already absorbed most of the carrying trade1 seems to prove that1 during the last half of the eleventh century1 the centre of exchanges had a pronounced tendency to abandon ,constantinople4 ,moreover1 the result of the campaign showed that the ,venetian navy was the strongest in the ,mediterranean1 and this was of vital moment to the success of the crusades twenty years later1 for1 without the command of the sea1 the permanent occupation of ,palestine would have been impossible4 ,after the capture of ,jerusalem in #ajii1 almost the first operations of ,godfrey de ,bouillon were against the ,syrian ports2 but as he controlled too small a force to act alone1 he made a treaty with ,venice1 by which1 in consideration of two hundred ships1 he promised to cede to her a third part of every town taken4 ,baldwin made a similar arrangement with the ,genoese1 and1 as the coast was subdued1 the ,italian cities assumed their grants1 and established their administrations4 ,in the end the ,venetians predominated at ,tyre1 the ,genoese at ,acre1 and the ,pisans at ,antioch4 ,before the discovery of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 the spices1 drugs1 brocades1 carpets1 porcelains1 and gems of ,india and ,china1 reached the ,mediterranean mainly by two routes4 ,one by way of the ,persian ,gulf to ,bagdad1 up the ,euphrates to ,rakka1 and by land to ,aleppo1 whence they were conveyed by caravan either to ,antioch or ,damascus4 ,damascus1 beside being the starting-place of caravans for ,mecca and ,egypt1 and the emporium for the products of ,persia1 had important manufactures of its own4 ,its glass1 porcelain1 steel1 and brocades were famous1 and it was a chief market for furs1 which were highly prized throughout the ,middle ,ages1 when heating was not understood4 ,the second route was by water4 ,indian merchants usually sold their cargoes at ,aden1 whence they were taken to a port in ,upper ,egypt1 floated down the ,nile to ,cairo1 and bought by ,europeans at ,damietta or ,alexandria4 ,the products of ,egypt itself were valuable1 and next to ,constantinople1 ,cairo was the richest city west of the ,indus4 ,what ,europe gave to the ,orientals in return is not so well known2 but1 beside raw materials and slaves1 her woollens were much esteemed4 ,at all events1 exchanges must have become more favourable to her1 as is proved by the increased supply of the precious metals4 ,why the short period of expansion1 which followed upon the re-establishment of the silver standard in the ,west1 should have been succeeded by a sharp contraction is unknown1 but the fact seems proved by the coinage4 ,in the reign of ,charlemagne a silver pound of #gfhj grains was made the monetary unit1 which was divided into #bdj denarii1 or pence4#abg ,for some time these pence were tolerably maintained1 but as the empire of ,charlemagne disintegrated1 they deteriorated until1 by the end of the twelfth century1 those coined at ,venice were but a quarter of their original weight and three parts alloy4#abh ,after ,hattin a new expansion began1 in which ,venice took the lead4 ,the battle was fought in #aahg1 and some years later1 but probably before #abjj1 the grosso was struck1 a piece of fine silver1 of good weight1 which thereafter was maintained at the standard4 ,half a century later gold appeared4 ,florence coined the florin in #abeb1 ,venice the ducat in #abhd1 and between the two dates1 ,saint ,louis issued his crowns4 ,the return of the precious metals to the ,west indicated a revival of trade and a change in the form of competition4 ,instead of the imagination1 the economic faculty began to predominate1 and energy chose money as its vent4 ,within a generation the miracle fell decisively in power1 and the beginning of this most crucial of social revolutions is visible in the third crusade1 the famous expedition led by ,philip ,augustus and ,cur de ,lion4 ,these two great soldiers probably learned the art of fortification at the siege of ,acre1 the most remarkable passage of arms of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the siege is said to have cost one hundred thousand lives1 and certainly called forth all the engineering skill of the time4 ,guy de ,lusignan1 having been liberated by ,saladin soon after ,hattin1 wandered about the country1 abandoned and forlorn1 until at last he sat down before ,acre1 in #aahi1 with a force inferior to the garrison4 ,there he was joined by the kings of ,france and ,england1 who succeeded in capturing the city after a desperate defence of two years4 ,an immense booty was taken1 but the clergy complained that two secular princes had embezzled the heritage of ,god4 ,on the other hand1 the troops had not received the usual assistance from miracles2 for though assaults were delivered almost daily1 none were worked1 and the ,virgin herself only appeared once1 and then so quietly as to arouse no enthusiasm4 ,after the surrender ,philip went home1 while ,richard remained in command4 ,the whole country had been overrun1 only a few strongholds like the ,krak des ,chevaliers and ,tortosa held out2 and ,richard1 far from following the example of the first crusaders1 who marched straight for the relics at ,jerusalem1 turned his attention to re-establishing the centres of trade upon the coast4 ,he moved south along the shore1 keeping close to his fleet1 with the enemy following on the mountains4 ,as he approached ,joppa1 the ,saracens descended into the plain and gave battle4 ,they were decisively defeated1 and ,richard occupied ,joppa without resistance4 ,from ,joppa the road ran direct to ,jerusalem4 ,the way was not long nor the country difficult1 and there is no reason to suppose an attack to have been particularly hazardous4 ,on the contrary1 when ,richard advanced1 the opposition was not unusually stubborn1 and he actually pursued the enemy to within sight of the walls4 ,yet he resolutely resisted the pressure of the clergy to undertake a siege1 the inference being that the power which controlled him held ,jerusalem to be worthless4 ,that power must have been capital1 for the treaty which he negotiated was as frankly mercenary as though made in modern times4 ,the seaboard from ,tyre to ,joppa was ceded to the ,franks2 ,ascalon1 which was the key to ,egypt1 was dismantled1 and the only mention made of ,jerusalem was that it should be open to pilgrims in the future1 as it had been in the past4 ,of the cross1 which fifty years before had been prized above all the treasures of the ,east1 not a word was said1 nor does it appear that1 after ,hattin1 either ,infidels or ,christians attached a money value to it4 ,some chroniclers have insisted that ,richard felt remorse at thus abandoning his ,god2 and when1 in a skirmish1 he saw the walls of ,jerusalem1 they related that he hid his face and wept4 ,he may have done so1 but1 during his life1 the time came when ,christian knights felt naught but exultation at having successfully bartered the ,sepulchre for money4 ,after ,richard's departure1 the situation of the ,franks in the ,holy ,land went rapidly from bad to worse4 ,the decay of faith constantly relaxed the bond which had once united them against the ,moslems1 while they were divided amongst themselves by commercial jealousies4 ,the ,temple and the ,hospital carried on perpetual private wars about disputed property1 the fourth crusade miscarried1 and the garrison of ,joppa was massacred1 while ,europe looked on with indifference4 ,when this point was reached1 the instinct of self-preservation seems to have roused the clergy to the fact that their fate was bound up with the fate of the holy places3 if the miracle were discredited1 their reign was at an end4 ,accordingly1 ,innocent ,,iii41 on his election1 threw himself into a new agitation with all the intensity of his nature4 ,foulques de ,neuilly was chosen to preach1 like ,saint ,bernard2 but his success1 at first1 was not flattering4 ,he was insulted publicly by ,richard1 and was even accused of having embezzled the funds entrusted to him4 ,at length1 in the year #aaii1 ,tybalt1 ,count of ,champagne1 and ,louis1 ,count of ,blois1 took the cross at a tournament they were holding at the castle of ,ecry4 ,they soon were joined by others1 but probably the most famous baron of the pilgrimage was ,simon de ,montfort4 ,at the end of the twelfth century the great fiefs had not been absorbed1 and the ,count of ,champagne was a powerful sovereign4 ,he was therefore chosen leader of the expedition1 and1 at a meeting held at ,compigne1 the three chief princes agreed to send a committee of six to ,venice to contract for transportation4 ,in this committee1 ,ville-,hardouin1 who wrote the chronicle of the war1 represented ,tybalt4 ,the doge was then ,henry ,dandolo1 perhaps the most remarkable man ,venice ever produced4 ,though nearly ninety-five1 he was as vigorous as in middle life4 ,a materialist and a sceptic1 he was the best sailor1 the ablest diplomatist1 and the keenest speculator in ,europe2 and while1 as a statesman and a commander1 he raised his country to the pinnacle of glory1 he proved himself the easy superior of ,innocent ,,iii4 in intrigue4 ,so eminent were his abilities that1 by common consent1 he was chosen leader of a force which held some of the foremost captains of the age2 and when1 by his sagacity1 ,constantinople had been captured1 he refused the imperial crown4 ,ville-,hardouin always spoke of him with deep respect as 8the good duke1 exceeding wise and prudent20 and1 indeed1 without him the ,frankish princes would certainly have fallen victims to the cunning of the ,greeks1 whom he alone knew how to over-reach1 and whom he hated because his eyes had been seared by the ,emperor ,manuel ,comnenus1 when he had been upon a mission at his court4 ,in his hands the ,frankish envoys were like children1 bewildered by the wealth and splendour which surrounded them4 ,after stating their errand to ,dandolo1 they waited eight days for an answer1 and were then tendered a contract which has the look of having been part of a premeditated plan to ensnare the crusaders1 and make them serve the republic4 ,the ,venetians bound themselves to provide shipping for #dejj knights with their horses1 #ijjj squires1 and #bj1jjj foot1 with provisions for nine months1 for #he1jjj marks of silver2 probably about equal to #e1ejj1jjj of our money4 ,but beside this the city proposed1 8for the love of ,god10 to add fifty galleys1 and divide the conquests equally4 ,whatever its character1 and however much such obligations were beyond the ability of the ,franks1 the contract was executed and sent to ,innocent for ratification1 who approved it with the proviso that no hostilities should be undertaken against ,christians during the crusade4 ,the pilgrims were to meet at ,venice in the spring4 ,when ,ville-,hardouin returned1 ,tybalt was dying1 and his loss threw all into confusion4 ,possibly also the suspicion spread that the ,venetians had imposed on the committee1 for many of the nobles sailed from other ports where better terms were to be made1 among whom was ,reginald de ,dampierre1 to whom ,tybalt had confided his treasure4 ,so1 in the spring of #abjb1 hardly more than half the knights presented themselves at ,venice1 and these found it quite impossible to meet their engagements4 ,even when the princes had sent their plate and jewels to the ,ducal ,palace1 a deficit1 estimated at #cd1jjj marks1 remained4 ,on their side the ,venetians declined to make any abatement of their price1 but offered as a compromise to give time1 and collect the balance from plunder4 ,as a preliminary they proposed an attack on ,zara1 an ,adriatic port1 which had revolted and transferred its allegiance to the ,king of ,hungary4 ,few propositions could have been a greater outrage on the ,church4 ,not only were the people of ,zara fellow-,christians1 against whom the ,franks had no complaint1 but the ,king of ,hungary was himself a crusader1 his dominions were under the protection of the pope1 and an attack on him was tantamount to an attack on ,rome herself4 ,on these points difference of opinion was impossible1 and the papal legate1 with all the other ecclesiastics1 denounced the ,venetians and threatened them with excommunication4 ,the result showed that force already expressed itself in the ,west through money1 and not through the imagination4 ,what followed is the more interesting since it can be demonstrated that1 when beyond the ,alps1 and withdrawn from the pressure of capital1 the ,french barons were as emotional as ever4 ,while these very negotiations were pending1 the subjects of ,philip ,augustus had deserted him in a mass1 and had grovelled before ,innocent as submissively as if he had been ,hildebrand4 ,the first wife of ,philip ,augustus was ,ingeburga1 a ,danish princess1 for whom he had an irrepressible disinclination4 ,in #aaie he obtained a divorce from her1 by an assembly of prelates presided over by the ,cardinal of ,champagne4 ,he then married ,agnes de ,mranie1 to whom he was devotedly attached2 ,ingeburga appealed to ,rome1 and ,innocent declared the divorce void1 and ordered ,philip to separate 8from his concubine40 ,philip refused1 and ,innocent commanded his legate to put the kingdom under interdict4 ,at ,vienne1 in the month of ,january1 #abjj1 at the dead of night1 the magical formulas were recited4 ,when the ,christ upon the altar had been veiled1 the sacred wafer burned1 the miracle-working corpses hidden in the crypt1 before the shuddering people1 the priest laid his curse upon the king until he should put away his harlot4 ,from that hour all religious rites were suspended4 ,the church doors were barred1 the bells were silent1 the sick died unshriven1 the dead lay unburied4 ,the king summoned his bishops1 and threatened to drive them from ,france3 it was of no avail4 ,the barons shrank from him1 his very men-at-arms fell off from him2 he was alone as ,henry had been at ,canossa4 ,the people were frenzied1 and even went to ,england to obtain priestly aid4 ,the ,count of ,ponthieu had to marry ,philip's sister at ,rouen1 within the ,norman jurisdiction4 ,in his extremity ,philip called a parliament at ,paris1 and ,agnes1 clad in mourning1 implored protection1 but not a man moved2 a mortal terror was in every heart4 ,she was then in the seventh month4 ,the assembly decided that the king must submit1 and ,agnes supplicated the pope not to divide her from her husband2 the crown1 she said1 was indifferent to her4 ,but this was a struggle for supremacy1 and ,innocent was inexorable4 ,a council was convened at ,nelle1 where ,philip promised to take back ,ingeburga and part from ,agnes4 ,he explained that she was pregnant1 and to leave the realm might kill her2 but the priests demanded absolute submission1 and he swore upon the evangelists to see her no more4 ,agnes1 broken by her misery1 set forth for a ,norman castle1 where she died in bearing a son1 whom she called ,tristan1 from her sorrow at his birth4 ,the soldier1 who belonged to the old imaginative society1 had been conquered by the ,church1 which was the incarnation of the imagination2 but ,dandolo was a different development4 ,he was the creation of economic competition1 and he trampled the clergy under his feet4 ,although1 apparently1 profoundly sceptical1 as the man must be who is the channel through which money acts1 he understood how to play upon the imaginations of others1 and arranged a solemn function to glorify the ,sepulchre4 ,one ,sunday he summoned both citizens and pilgrims to ,saint ,mark's1 and mounting the pulpit1 he addressed the congregation4 8,my lords1 you are engaged to the greatest people of the world1 for the highest enterprise that ever was undertaken2 and ,i am old and feeble1 and need repose1 and am infirm in body2 but ,i see that none can command and control you as ,i can1 who am your doge4 ,if you will permit me to take the cross to lead you1 and let my son stay here in my place and conduct the government1 ,i will go to live or die with you1 and with the pilgrims40#abi ,ville-,hardouin's simple chronicle shows how perfectly the old man knew his audience3-- 8,there was great pity among the people of the country and the pilgrims1 and many tears were shed1 because this worthy man had so much cause to stay behind2 for he was old and 444 his sight poor40#acj ,amidst an outburst of enthusiasm assent was given4 ,then1 while the church rang with shouts1 ,dandolo knelt before the altar1 in a passion of tears fixed the cross to the ducal bonnet1 and rose1 the commander of the finest army in the world4 ,and ,dandolo was a great commander2 a commander of the highest stamp4 ,he tolerated no insubordination1 and trod the clergy down4 ,when ,peter of ,capua1 the papal legate1 interfered1 ,dandolo sternly told him that the army of ,christ lacked not for military chiefs1 and that if priests would stay therein they must content themselves with prayers4 ,a ,cistercian monk1 named ,gunther1 who had been appointed to follow his abbot on the pilgrimage1 kept a chronicle of what he saw4 ,his superior1 named ,martin1 was so disheartened at ,venice that he asked the legate for absolution from his vow1 and for permission to return to his convent at ,ble2 but this request the cardinal refused4 ,the priests had determined to stay by ,dandolo and fight him to the last4 ,therefore the abbot sailed with the ,venetians1 but he learned a bitter lesson at ,zara4 ,there the clergy received a letter from ,innocent1 explaining the position of the ,church1 and threatening with excommunication all who should molest the ,king of ,hungary4 ,simon de ,montfort and a portion of the more devout1 who had from the first been scandalized at the contract made with ,dandolo1 then withdrew and camped apart2 and1 at a meeting called to consider the situation1 ,guy1 ,abbot of ,vaux-de-,cernay1 tried to read the letter4 ,an outbreak followed1 and some of the chroniclers assert that the ,venetians would have murdered ,guy1 had not ,simon de ,montfort stood by him sword in hand4#aca ,on the main point there is no doubt4 ,the priests ignominiously failed to protect their ally2 the attack was made1 and nothing shows that even de ,montfort refused to share in it1 or to partake of the plunder after the city fell4 ,there was no resistance4 ,the besieged made no better defence than hanging crosses on their walls1 and on the fifth day capitulated4 ,first the ,franks divided the plunder with the ,italians2 then they sent an embassy to ,rome to ask for absolution4 ,they alleged that they were helpless1 and either had to accept the terms offered by ,dandolo1 or abandon their enterprise4 ,innocent submitted4 ,he coupled his forgiveness1 indeed1 with the condition that the plunder should be returned2#acb yet no record remains that a single mark1 of all the treasures taken from ,zara1 ever found its way back to the original owners4 ,the ,venetians neither asked for pardon nor noticed the excommunication4 ,on the contrary1 ,dandolo used the time when the envoys were at ,rome in maturing the monstrous crime of diverting the crusade from ,palestine to ,constantinople4 ,just before the departure from ,venice1 an event happened which ,ville-,hardouin called 8one of the greatest marvels you ever heard of40 ,in #aaie the ,greek emperor1 named ,isaac1 had been dethroned1 imprisoned1 and blinded by his brother ,alexis1 who usurped the throne4 ,isaac's son1 also named ,alexis1 escaped1 and took shelter with his brother-in-law1 ,philip of ,swabia4 ,philip could not help him1 but suggested to him to apply to the crusaders in ,venice1 and ask them for aid4 ,whether or not this application had been arranged by ,dandolo1 does not appear4 ,alexis went to ,venice1 where he was cordially received by the doge2 but as the fleet was then weighing anchor1 his affairs were postponed until after the attack on ,zara1 when an embassy from ,philip arrived1 which brought up the whole situation at ,constantinople for consideration4 ,in the struggle which followed between the ,venetians and the ,church1 the ,franks lay like a prize destined to fall to the stronger1 and in ,gunther's narrative the love the priests bore their natural champions can be plainly seen4 ,in the thirteenth century1 as in the fifth century1 the ecclesiastics recognized that over a monied oligarchy they could never have control2 accordingly the monks hated the ,venetians1 whom ,gunther stigmatized as 8a people excessively greedy of money10 always ready to commit sacrilege for gain4 ,on his side ,dandolo followed his instinct1 and tried to bribe the pope by offering him an union of the communions4 ,but ,innocent was inflexible4 ,he wrote in indignation that the crusaders had sworn to avenge the wrongs of ,christ1 and likened those who should turn back to ,lot's wife1 whom ,god turned into a pillar of salt for disobeying his commands4#acc ,yet1 though the priesthood put forth its whole strength1 it was beaten4 ,the power of wealth was too great4 ,no serious defection took place4 ,ville-,hardouin gave a list of those who left the fleet1 among whom was ,simon de ,montfort1 adding contemptuously1 8,thus those left the host1 444 which was great shame to them40#acd ,judging by the words alone1 a century might have separated the writer and his comrades from the barons who abandoned ,agnes to ,innocent2 yet they were the same men transplanted to an economic civilization1 and excited by the power of wealth4 ,on ,easter ,monday1 #abjc1 the fleet sailed for ,corfu1 where another and more serious split occurred4 ,but the dazzling prize finally prevailed over the fear of the supernatural1 and1 getting under way once more1 the pilgrims crossed the ,sea of ,marmora1 and anchored at the convent of ,saint ,stephen1 about twelve miles from ,constantinople4 ,since exchanges had again returned to ,italy1 the vitality of the ,greek ,empire had burned low4 ,it was failing fast through inanition4 ,but ,byzantium was still defended by those stupendous fortifications which were impregnable from the land1 and only to be assailed from the sea by an admiral of genius4 ,such an one was ,dandolo1 a born seaman1 sagacious yet fiery2 and1 besides1 a pilot of the port4 ,at a council of war he laid out a plan of campaign3-- 8,my lords1 ,i know more of the character of this country than you do1 for ,i have been here before4 ,you have before you the greatest and most perilous enterprise which any men have ever undertaken1 and therefore it would be well that we should act prudently40#ace ,he then explained how the attack should be made2 and had the ,franks implicitly obeyed him1 the town would have been carried at the first assault4 ,three days later the allies occupied ,scutari1 the ,asiatic suburb of ,constantinople1 and lay there ten days collecting supplies4 ,on the twelfth they stormed the tower of ,galata1 which commanded ,pera1 the key to the ,golden ,horn4 ,while the action was going on1 ,dandolo forced his way into the port4 ,the entrance was defended not only by a great tower1 but by a huge iron chain1 fastened to piles1 and covered by twenty galleys armed with machines4 ,nothing stopped the ,venetians4 ,disregarding the fire1 the sailors sprang on the chain1 and from thence gained the decks of the ,greek galleys1 whose crews they threw overboard4 ,meanwhile1 one of the ,italian ships1 provided with steel shears1 bore down on the cable1 cut it1 and led the way into the harbour4 ,the weakest part of the walls being uncovered1 ,dandolo insisted that the only hope for success lay in assaulting from ship-board where the battlements were lowest2 but the ,french obstinately refused to depart from their habits1 and determined to fight on horseback4 ,the event proved ,dandolo's wisdom2 for though the attack failed through the mistake of dividing the force1 and of attempting the fortifications toward the land1 the doge so led his sailors that ,ville-,hardouin kindled with enthusiasm as he told the tale4 ,when the old man saw his ships recoil before the tremendous fire from the battlements1 8so that the galleys could not make the land1 then there was seen a strange sight1 for the duke of ,venice1 who was an old man1 and saw not well1 was fully armed and commanded his galley1 and had the gonfalon of ,saint ,mark's before him2 and he cried to his men to put him ashore1 or if they would not he would do justice on their bodies2 and they brought the galley to shore1 and they sallied forth and carried the banner before him to the shore4 ,and when the ,venetians saw the gonfalon of ,saint ,mark's ashore1 and the galley of the lord ashore before them1 they were all ashamed and made for the land1 and rushed out from their ships pell-mell4 ,then might one see a marvellous assault4 ,and thus testifies ,geoffrey de ,ville-,hardouin1 the marshal of ,champagne1 who dictates this book1 that more than forty declare they saw the banner of ,saint ,mark of ,venice on one of the towers1 and none knew who carried it thither40#acf ,once a foothold on the ramparts had been gained1 the ,greeks fled1 twenty-five towers fell in quick succession1 and the ,italians had already entered the streets and fired the houses to drive the enemy from the roofs1 when news was brought that ,alexis was advancing from the gates1 and threatened to envelop the ,french4 ,indeed1 the danger was extreme2 for1 as ,ville-,hardouin explained1 the crusaders were wondrous few when compared with the garrison1 for they 8had so many men we should all have been engulfed amongst them40#acg ,with the instinct of a great commander1 ,dandolo instantly sounded a retreat1 abandoned the half-conquered town1 and hastened to the support of his allies4 ,he reached the ground opportunely1 for ,alexis1 when he saw the reinforcement1 retreated without striking a blow4 ,that night ,alexis fled1 leaving ,constantinople without a government2 and the people took the blind ,isaac from his dungeon and set him on the throne4 ,in theory1 therefore1 the work of the crusaders was done1 and they were free to embark for ,palestine to battle for the ,sepulchre4 ,in fact1 the thing they came for remained to be obtained1 and what they demanded amounted to the ruin of the empire4 ,young ,alexis had promised #bjj1jjj marks of silver1 to join the crusade himself1 to provide rations for a year1 and to recognize the supremacy of ,rome2 but such promises were impossible to fulfil4 ,during a delay of six months the situation daily grew more strained1 a bitter hatred sprang up between the foreigners and the natives1 riots broke out1 conflagrations followed1 and at last the allies sent a deputation to the palace to demand the execution of the treaty4 ,in despair1 ,alexis attacked the fleet with fire-ships1 and his failure led to a revolution in which he was killed4 ,isaac died from terror1 and one ,moursouffle was raised to the throne4 ,in their extremity the ,greeks had recourse to treachery1 and nearly succeeded in enticing the ,frankish princes to a banquet1 at which they were to have been assassinated4 ,the plot was frustrated by the sagacity of ,dandolo1 who would allow no one to trust themselves within the walls2 then both sides prepared for war4 ,defeat had taught the ,franks obedience1 and they consented to serve on the galleys4 ,they embarked on ,april #h1 #abjd1 to be ready for an assault in the morning4 ,but though the attack was made in more than one hundred places at once1 8yet for our sins were the pilgrims repulsed40 ,then the landsmen proposed to try some other part of the walls1 but the sailors told them that elsewhere the current would sweep them away2 and 8know10 said the marshal1 8there were some who would have been well content had the current swept them away0 altogether1 8for they were in great peril40#ach ,this repulse fell on a ,friday2 the following ,monday the attack was renewed1 and at first with small success1 but at length-- 8,our ,lord raised a wind called ,boreas 444 and two ships which were lashed together1 the one named the ,pilgrim and the other the ,paradise1 approached a tower on either side1 just as ,god and the wind brought them1 so that the ladder of the ,pilgrim was fixed to the tower2 and straightway a ,venetian and a ,french knight 444 scaled the tower1 and others followed them1 and those in the lower were discomforted and fled40#aci ,from the moment the walls were carried1 the battle turned into a massacre4 ,the ramparts were scaled in all directions1 the gates were burst open with battering rams1 the allies poured into the streets1 and one of the most awful sacks of the ,middle ,ages began4 ,nothing was so sacred as to escape from pillage4 ,the tombs of the emperors were violated1 and the body of ,justinian stripped4 ,the altar of the ,virgin1 the glory of ,saint ,sophia1 was broken in pieces1 and the veil of the sanctuary torn to rags4 ,the crusaders played dice on the tables which represented the apostles1 and drank themselves drunk in the holy chalices4 ,horses and mules were driven into the sanctuary1 and when they fell under their burdens1 the blood from their wounds stained the floor of the cathedral4 ,at last a young prostitute mounted the patriarch's chair1 intoned a lewd chant1 and danced before the pilgrims4 ,thus fell ,constantinople1 by the arms of the soldiers of ,christ1 on the twelfth day of ,april1 in the year one thousand two hundred and four4 ,since the sack of ,rome by ,alaric no such prize had ever fallen to a victor1 and the crusaders were drunk with their success4 ,ville-,hardouin estimated that the share of the ,franks1 after deducting some fifty thousand marks which the ,venetians collected from them1 came to four hundred thousand marks of silver1 not to speak of masses of plunder of which no account was taken4 ,the gain was so great there seemed no end to the gold and silver1 the precious stones1 the silks1 the ermines1 and whatever was costly in the world4 8,and ,geoffrey de ,ville-,hardouin testifies of his own knowledge1 that since the beginning of time1 there was never so much taken in one town4 ,every one took what he wanted1 and there was enough4 ,thus were the host of the pilgrims and of the ,venetians quartered1 and there was great joy and honour for the victory which ,god had given them1 since those who had been poor were rich and happy40#adj ,in obedience to the soothsayers1 the devotees of ,louis the ,pious had perished by tens of thousands1 and over their corpses the ,moslems had marched to victory4 ,the defenders of ,christ's cross had been slaughtered like sheep upon the mountains of the ,beatitudes1 and sold into slavery in herds at ,damascus and ,aleppo2 even the men who1 at the bidding of ,god's vicar1 had left ,dandolo to fight for the ,sepulchre upon the barren hills of ,palestine1 had been immolated4 ,five hundred had perished in shipwreck1 more had been massacred in ,illyria1 none had received reward4 ,but those who1 in defiance of the supernatural and in contempt of their vow1 had followed the excommunicated ,venetian to plunder fellow-,christians1 had won immeasurable glory1 and been sated with incalculable spoil4 ,the pilgrims who1 constant to the end1 had been spilling their blood in ,god's service1 came trooping to the ,bosphorus to share in the last remaining crumbs2 the knights of the ,temple and the ,hospital set sail for ,greece1 where money might still be made by the sword1 and the ,king of ,jerusalem stood before the ,tomb1 naked unto his enemies4 ,innocent himself was cowed2 his commands had been disregarded and his curse defied2 laymen had insulted his legate1 and had1 without consulting him1 divided among themselves the patronage of the ,church2 and yet for the strongest there was no moral law4 ,when ,baldwin announced that he was emperor1 the pope called him 8his dearest son10 and received his subjects into the ,roman communion4#ada ,but yesterday1 the greatest king of ,christendom had stood weeping1 begging for the life of his wife2 a hundred years earlier an emperor had stood barefoot1 and freezing in the snow1 at the gate of ,canossa1 as a penance for rebellion2 but in #abjd a ,venetian merchant was blessed by the haughtiest of popes for having stolen ,christ's army1 made war on his flock1 spurned his viceregent1 flouted his legate1 and usurped his patrimony4 ,he had appointed a patriarch without a reference to ,rome4 ,all was forgiven1 the appointment was confirmed1 the sinner was shriven2 nothing could longer resist the power of money1 for consolidation had begun4 ,yet1 though nature may discriminate against him1 the emotionalist will always be an emotionalist1 for such is the texture of his brain2 and while he breathes1 he will hate the materialist4 ,the next year ,baldwin was defeated and captured by the ,bulgarians1 and then ,innocent wrote a letter to the ,marquis of ,montferrat1 which showed how the wound had rankled when he blessed the conqueror4 ,he said bitterly3-- 8,you had nothing against the ,greeks1 and you were false to your vows because you did not fight the ,saracens1 but the ,christians2 you did not capture ,jerusalem1 but ,constantinople2 you preferred earthly to heavenly treasures4 ,but what was far graver1 you have spared neither religion1 nor age1 nor sex1 and you have committed adulteries1 fornications and incests before men's eyes4444 ,nor did the imperial treasures suffice you1 nor the plunder alike of rich and poor4 ,you laid your hands on the possessions of the ,church1 you tore the silver panels from the altars1 you broke into the sanctuaries and carried away the images1 the crosses and the relics1 so that the ,greeks1 though afflicted by persecution1 scorn to render obedience to the apostolic chair1 since they see in the ,latins nothing but an example of perdition and of the works of darkness1 and therefore rightly abhor them more than dogs40#adb ,for the north and west of ,europe the crusade of ,constantinople seems to have been the turning point whence the imagination rapidly declined4 ,at the opening of the thirteenth century1 everything shows that the genuine ecstatic type predominated in the ,church--the quality of mind which believed in the miracle1 and therefore valued the amulet more than money4 ,innocent himself1 with all his apparent worldliness1 must have been such a man2 for1 though the material advantages of a union with the ,greek ,church far outweighed the ,sepulchre1 his resistance to the diversion of the army from ,palestine was unshaken to the last4 ,the same feeling permeated the inferior clergy2 and an anecdote told by ,gunther shows that even so late as the year #abjd the monks unaffectedly despised wealth in its vulgar form4 8,when therefore the victors set themselves with alacrity to spoil the conquered town1 which was theirs by right of war1 the abbot ,martin began to think about his share of the plunder2 and lest1 when everything had been given to others1 he should be left empty-handed1 he proposed to stretch out his consecrated hand to the booty4 ,but since he thought the taking of secular things unworthy1 he bestirred himself to obtain a portion of the sacred relics1 which he knew were there in great quantities40#adc ,the idea was no sooner conceived than executed4 ,although private marauding was punished with death1 he did not hesitate1 but hastened to a church1 where he found a frightened old monk upon his knees1 whom he commanded in a terrible voice to produce his relics or prepare for death4 ,he was shown a chest full to the brim4 ,plunging in his arms1 he took all he could carry1 hurried to his ship and hid his booty in his cabin2 and he did this in a town whose streets were literally flowing with gold and silver4 ,he had his reward4 ,though a sacrilegious thief1 angels guarded him by sea and land until he reached his cloister at ,ble4 ,then he distributed his plunder through the diocese4 ,occasionally1 when the form of competition has abruptly changed1 nature works rapidly4 ,within a single generation after ,hattin1 the attitude1 not only of the laity but of the clergy1 had been reversed1 and money was recognized1 even by the monks1 as the end of human effort4 ,the relics at ,jerusalem had first drawn the crusaders to the ,east1 and1 incidentally1 the capture of the ,syrian seaports led to the reopening of trade and the recentralization of the ,western world4 ,as long as imagination remained the dominant force1 and the miracle retained its power1 the ambition of the ,franks was limited to holding the country which contained their talismans2 but as wealth accumulated1 and the economic type began to supplant the ecstatic1 a different policy came to prevail4 ,beside the cities of the ,holy ,land1 two other portions of the ,levant had a high money value--the ,bosphorus and the valley of the ,nile4 ,in spite of ,rome1 the ,venetians1 in #abjd1 had seized ,constantinople2 at the ,lateran council of #abae1 ,innocent himself proposed an attack on ,cairo4 ,though conceived by ,innocent1 the details of the campaign were arranged by ,honorius ,,iii41 who was consecrated in ,july1 #abaf2 these details are1 however1 unimportant3 the interest of the crusade lies in its close4 ,john of ,brienne1 ,king of ,jerusalem1 nominally commanded1 but the force he led little resembled ,dandolo's4 ,far from being that compact mass which can only be given cohesion by money1 it rather had the character of such an hysterical mob as ,louis the ,pious led to destruction4 ,after some semblance of a movement on ,jerusalem1 the army was conveyed to the ,delta of the ,nile1 and ,damietta was invested in #abah4 ,here the besiegers amounted to little more than a fluctuating rabble of pilgrims1 who came and went at their pleasure1 usually serving about six months4 ,among such material1 military discipline could not exist2 but1 on the contrary1 the inflammable multitude were peculiarly adapted to be handled by a priest1 and soon the papal legate assumed control4 ,cardinal ,pelagius was a ,spaniard who had been promoted by ,innocent in #abjf4 ,his temperament was highly emotional1 and1 armed with plenary power by ,honorius1 he exerted himself to inflame the pilgrims to the utmost4 ,after a blockade of eighteen months ,damietta was reduced to extremity1 and to save the city the sultan offered the whole ,holy ,land1 except the fortress of ,karak1 together with the funds needed to rebuild the walls of ,jerusalem4 ,king ,john1 and all the soldiers1 who understood the difficulty of invading ,egypt1 favoured a peace2 but ,pelagius1 whose heart was fixed on the plunder of ,cairo1 prevented the council from reaching a decision4 ,therefore the siege went on1 and presently the ramparts were carried without loss1 as the whole population had perished from hunger and pestilence4 ,this victory made ,pelagius a dictator1 and he insisted on an advance on the capital4 ,john1 and the grand masters of the military orders1 pointed out the disaster which must follow1 as it was ,july1 and the ,nile was rising4 ,in a few weeks the country would be under water4 ,moreover1 the fleet could not ascend the river1 therefore the army must be isolated in the heart of a hostile country1 and probably overwhelmed by superior numbers4 ,pelagius reviled them4 ,he told them ,god loved not cowards1 but champions who valued his glory more than they feared death4 ,he threatened them with excommunication should they hang back4 ,near midsummer1 #abba1 the march began1 and the pilgrims advanced to the apex of the delta1 where they halted1 with the enemy on the opposite shore4 ,the river was level with its banks1 the situation was desperate1 and yet even then the sultan sent an embassy offering the whole of the ,holy ,land in exchange for the evacuation of ,egypt4 ,the soldiers of all nations were strenuously for peace1 the priests as strenuously for war4 ,they felt confident of repeating the sack of ,constantinople at ,cairo1 nor can there be a greater contrast than ,martin spurning the wealth of ,constantinople as dross1 and ,pelagius rejecting the ,sepulchre that he might glut himself with ,egyptian wealth4 ,but all history shows that the emotionalist cannot compete with the materialist upon his own ground4 ,in the end1 under free economic competition1 he must be eliminated4 ,pelagius tarried idly in the jaws of death until the ,nile rose and engulfed him4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,suppression ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,physical weakness has always been the vulnerable point of the sacred caste1 for priests have rarely been warriors1 and faith has seldom been so profound as to guarantee ecclesiastics against attack4 ,this difficulty was marked in the early ,middle ,ages1 when1 although disintegration so far prevailed as to threaten the very tradition of centralized power1 a strong leaven of the ancient materialism remained4 ,in the ninth century the trend toward decentralization was resistless4 ,although several of the descendants of ,charlemagne were men of ability and energy1 the defence was so superior to the attack that they could not coerce their vassals1 and their domains melted away into independent sovereignties until the crown became elective1 and the monarchy almost a tradition4 ,during the tenth century it seems possible that the regal authority might have been obliterated1 even to the last trace1 had it not been for the ,church1 which was in sore need of a champion4 ,the priesthood cared nothing for the legitimate line2 what they sought was a protector1 and accordingly they chose1 not the descendant of ,charlemagne1 but him who1 in the words of the ,archbishop of ,rheims1 was 8distinguished by his wisdom and who found support in the greatness of his soul40 ,hugh ,capet succeeded ,louis ,v4 because he was the best chief of police in ,france4 ,from such an alliance1 between the priest and the soldier1 has always sprung the dogma of the divine right of kings4 ,in medival ,europe1 enchantment was a chief element of the royal power4 ,the monarch was anointed with a magic oil1 girt with a sacred sword1 given a supernatural banner1 and endowed with the gift of miracles4 ,his touch healed disease4 ,in return for these gifts1 he fought the battles of the ,church1 whose property was the natural prey of a predatory baronage4 ,every diocese and every abbey was embroiled in endless local wars1 which lasted from generation to generation1 and sometimes from century to century4 ,a good example was the interminable feud between the ,abbey of ,vzelay and the ,counts of ,nevers1 and a letter of a papal legate named ,conon1 which described one of the countless raids1 gives an idea of the ferocity of the attack4 8,the men of the ,count of ,nevers have burst open the doors of the cloister1 have thrown stones on the reliquaries which contain the bodies of ,saint ,lazarus1 of ,saint ,martha1 of ,saint ,andocious1 and of ,saint ,pontianus2 they have not even respected the crucifix in which was preserved a morsel of the true cross1 they have beaten the monks1 they have driven them out with stones1 and having taken one of them1 they have treated him in an infamous manner40#add ,until the stimulus given by the crusades was felt1 subinfeudation went on uninterruptedly2 the ,capetians were as unable to stem the current as the ,carlovingians before them1 so that1 under ,philip ,i41 the royal domain had become almost as much dismembered as the kingdom of ,lothaire a century earlier4 ,consolidation began after the council of ,clermont1 and ,suger's ,life of ,louis the ,fat is the story of the last years of the partisan warfare between the crown and the petty nobility which had been going on since the time of ,hugh ,capet4 ,during this long period the kings had fought a losing battle1 and without the material resources of the ,church would have been overpowered4 ,even as it was they failed to hold their own1 and yet the wealth of the clergy was relatively enormous4 ,the single abbey of ,saint ,denis was said to have controlled ten thousand men1 and though this may be an exaggeration1 the corporation was organized on a gigantic scale4 ,between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries it held in ,france alone three cities1 upwards of seventy-four villages1 twenty-nine manors attached to these possessions1 over a hundred parishes1 and a great many chapels bringing in valuable rentals1 beside numerous vineyards1 mills and fields1 with fifteen forests of the first class4#ade ,suger's description of the country at the beginning of the twelfth century is highly dramatic4 ,every strong position1 like a hill or a forest1 was a baron's hold1 from whence he rode to plunder and torment the people4 ,one of the most terrible of these robbers was ,hugh du ,puiset1 a man whom the ,abbot of ,saint ,denis calls a ruffian1 the issue of a long line of ruffians4 ,to the churchman1 ,hugh was the incarnation of evil4 ,he oppressed the clergy1 and though hated by all1 few dared oppose him4 ,at last he attacked ,adle1 ,countess of ,chartres1 daughter of ,william the ,conqueror1 who went with her son ,tybalt to seek redress from the king4 ,louis did not relish the campaign1 and the monk described how the lady taunted him with the defeat his father had suffered from the father of ,hugh1 who pursued him to ,orlans1 captured a hundred of his knights1 and cast his bishops into dungeons4 ,afterward1 an assembly was held at ,melun to consider the situation1 and there a concourse of prelates1 clerks1 and monks 8threw themselves at the king's feet and implored him1 to his great embarrassment1 to repress this most greedy robber ,hugh1 who1 more rapacious than a wolf1 devoured their lands40#adf ,certainly the priests had cause for alarm1 for the venerable ,archbishop of ,chartres1 who was present1 had been captured1 loaded with irons1 and long left to languish in prison4 ,three times this baron was defeated1 but even when a prisoner1 his family connection was so powerful he was permitted to escape4 ,at last he died like a wolf1 fighting to the last1 having impaled the ,seneschal of ,france on his spear4 ,even singly1 such men were almost a match for both ,church and ,crown2 but when joined in a league1 especially if allied to one of the great feudatories1 such as the ,duke of ,normandy1 they felt sure of victory4 ,one day1 when ,eudes1 ,count of ,corbeil1 was to join this very ,hugh1 he put aside his armour-bearer who was attending him1 and said to his wife3 8,pray1 noble countess1 bring the glittering sword to the noble count1 since he who takes it from you as a count1 shall to-day return it as a king40#adg ,the immediate effect of the crusades was to carry numbers of these petty princes to ,palestine1 where they were often killed or ruined4 ,as their power of resistance weakened1 the crown gained1 and ,louis the ,fat reconquered the domain4 ,his active life began in #ajig1 the year of the invasion of ,palestine1 and his absorption of the lordship of ,montlhri is a good illustration of his success4 ,the family of ,rochefort-,montlhri owned several of the strongest donjons near ,paris1 and was divided into two branches1 the one represented by ,guy ,trousseau1 ,lord of ,montlhri1 the other by ,guy the ,red1 ,lord of ,rochefort4 ,guy ,trousseau's father was named ,milo1 and all three went to ,syria1 where ,milo was killed1 and his son disgraced himself4 ,suger spoke of him with extreme disdain3-- 8,guy ,trousseau1 son of ,milo of ,montlhri1 a restless man and a disturber of the kingdom1 returned home from a pilgrimage to the ,holy ,sepulchre1 broken down by the anxiety of a long journey and by the vexation of many troubles4 ,and 444 being panic stricken at ,antioch at the approach of ,corboran1 and escaping down from a wall he 444 abandoned the army of ,god and fled destitute of everything40 #adh ,returning a ruined man1 he married his daughter to the illegitimate son of ,philip1 a half-brother of ,louis1 a child of twelve2 and as his guardians1 the king and prince got possession of the castle4 ,this castle was almost at the gates of ,paris1 and a standing menace to the communications of the kingdom3 therefore their delight was great4 8,they rejoiced as though they had taken a straw from their eyes1 or as though they had burst the barrier which imprisoned them40#adi ,and the old king said to his son3 8,guard well the tower1 ,louis1 which has aged me with chagrin1 and through whose treachery and wicked fraud ,i have never known peace and quiet40#aej ,yet the destruction of the local nobility in ,syria was the least important part of the social revolution wrought by the crusades1 for though the power of the barons might have thus been temporarily broken1 they could never have been reduced to impotence unless wealth had grown equal to organizing an overwhelming attack4 ,the accumulation of wealth followed the opening of the ,eastern trade1 and its first effect was to cause the incorporation of the communes4 ,prior to #ajie but one town is known to have been chartered1 ,saint ,quentin1 the capital of ,vermandois1 about #ajhj1aea but after the opening of the ,syrian ports the whole complexion of society changed4 ,noyon was chartered in #aajh1 ,laon in #aaaa1 ,amiens in #aaac1 and then free boroughs sprang up on every side4 ,for want of the mariner's compass1 commerce could not pass north by the ,straits of ,gibraltar4 ,merchandise had therefore to go by land1 and exchanges between the north and south of ,europe centred in the ,county of ,champagne1 whose fairs became the great market of the thirteenth century4 ,the earliest dated document relating to these fairs is a deed drawn in #aaad by ,hugh1 ,count of ,troyes1 by which he conveyed certain revenues derived from them to the ,abbey of ,montier-en-,der4 ,fifty years later1 such mentions had grown frequent1 and by the year #abjj the fairs had attained their full development4#aeb ,weaving had been an industry in ,flanders under the ,romans1 and in the time of ,charlemagne the cloth of the ,low ,countries had been famous2 but in the twelfth century the manufacture spread into the adjoining provinces of ,france1 and woollen became the most valuable ,european export4 ,the fleeces were brought chiefly from ,england1 the weaving was done on the ,continent1 and one of the sources of the ,florentine wealth was the dressing and dyeing of these fabrics to prepare them for the ,asiatic market4 ,for mutual defence1 the industrial towns of the north formed a league called the ,hanse of ,london1 because ,london was the seat of the chief counting-house4 ,this league at first included only seventeen cities1 with ,ypres and ,bruges at the head1 but the association afterward increased to fifty or sixty1 stretching as far west as ,le ,mans1 as far south as the ,burgundian frontier1 and as far east as ,lige4 ,exclusive of the royal domain1 which was well consolidated under ,philip ,augustus1 the ,french portion of this region substantially comprised the counties of ,blois1 ,vermandois1 ,anjou1 ,champagne1 and the ,duchy of ,normandy4 ,this district1 which has ever since formed the core of ,france1 became centralized at ,paris between the beginning of the reign of ,philip ,augustus in #aahj and the reign of ,philip the ,fair a century later1 and there can be little doubt that this centralization was the effect of the accumulation of capital1 which created a permanent police4 ,the merchants of all the cities of the league bound themselves to trade exclusively at the fairs of ,champagne1 and1 to prosper1 the first obstacle they had to overcome was the difficulty and cost of transportation4 ,not only were the roads unsafe1 because of the strength of the castles in which the predatory nobility lived1 but the multiplicity of jurisdictions added to taxes4 ,as late as the end of the thirteenth century1 a convention was made between fifteen of the more important ,italian cities1 such as ,florence1 ,genoa1 ,venice1 and ,milan1 and ,otho of ,burgundy1 by which1 in consideration of protection upon the roads1 tolls were to be paid at ,gevry1 ,dle1 ,augerans1 ,salins1 ,chalamont1 and ,pontarlier4 ,when six imposts were levied for crossing a single duchy1 the cost of importing the cheaper goods must have been prohibitory4 ,the ,italian caravans reached ,champagne ordinarily by two routes3 one by some ,alpine pass to ,geneva1 and then through ,burgundy2 the other by water to ,marseilles or ,aigues-,mortes1 up the ,rhone to ,lyons1 and north1 substantially as before4 ,the towns of ,provins1 ,troyes1 ,bar-sur-,aube1 and ,lagny-sur-,marne lie about midway between ,bruges and ,ypres on the one side1 and ,lyons and ,geneva on the other1 and it was at these cities that exchanges centralized1 until the introduction of the mariner's compass caused traffic to go by the ocean1 and made ,antwerp the monied metropolis4 ,the market was1 in reality1 open continuously1 for six fairs were held1 each six weeks long1 and the trade was so lucrative that places which1 in #aajj1 had been petty villages1 in #abjj had wealth enough to build those magnificent cathedrals which are still wonders of the world4 ,the communal movement had nothing about it necessarily either liberal or democratic4 ,the incorporated borough was merely an instrument of trade1 and at a certain moment became practically independent1 because for a short period traders organized locally1 before they could amalgamate into centralized communities with a revenue sufficient to pay a police capable of coercing individuals4 ,what the merchant wanted was protection for trade1 and1 provided he had it1 the form in which it came was immaterial4 ,where the feudal government was strong1 communes did not exist3 ,paris never had a charter4 ,conversely1 where the government was weak1 communes grew up1 because traders combined for mutual protection1 and therefore the communes reached perfection in ecclesiastical capitals4 ,as a whole1 the secular nobility rather favoured the incorporated towns1 because they could sell to them their services as policemen1 and could join with them in plundering the ,church2#aec on their side the tradesmen were always ready to commute personal military service into a tax1 and thus both sides benefited4 ,to the ,church1 on the contrary1 the rise of the mercantile class was pure loss1 not only because it caused their vassals to seek better protection than ecclesiastics could give1 but because the propagation of the materialistic mind bred heresy4 ,the clergy had no police to sell1 and the townsmen had1 therefore1 either to do the work themselves or hire a secular noble4 ,in the one case they became substantially independent2 in the other they transferred their allegiance to a stranger4 ,in any event1 a new fief was carved out of an ecclesiastical lordship1 and such accessions steadily built up the royal domain4 ,from the outset1 the sacred class seems to have been conscious of its danger1 and some of the most ferocious wars of the ,middle ,ages were those waged upon ecclesiastical serfs who tried to organize for self-defence4 ,in one of his books ,luchaire has told1 at length1 the story of the massacre of the peasantry of the ,laonnais by a soldier whom the chapter of ,laon elected bishop for the purpose1#aed and this was but a single case out of hundreds4 ,hardly a bishop or an abbot lived at peace with his vassals1 and1 as the clergy were the natural prey of the secular nobility1 the barons often sided with the populace1 and used the burghers as an excuse for private war4 ,a speech made by one of the ,counts of ,nevers1 during a rising of the inhabitants of ,vzelay1 gives a good idea of the intrigues which kept the prelates in perpetual misery4 8,o very illustrious men1 celebrated for great wisdom1 valiant by your strength and rich by the riches you have acquired by your own merit1 ,i am deeply afflicted at the miserable condition to which you are reduced4 ,apparently the possessors of much1 in reality you are masters of nothing2 and more than this1 you do not enjoy any portion of your natural liberty4444 ,if ,i think on these things ,i am greatly astonished1 and ask myself what has become of1 or rather to what depth of cowardice has fallen within you1 that vigour formerly so renowned1 when you put to death your ,lord1 the abbot ,artaud40 ,the count then dwelt upon the harshness of the living abbot1 and ended thus3-- 8,separate from this man1 and bind yourselves to me by a mutual agreement3 if you consent1 ,i engage myself to free you from all exactions1 from all illegal rentals1 and to defend you from the evils which are ready to fall upon you40#aee ,wherever developed1 the mercantile mind had always the same characteristic3 it was unimaginative1 and1 being unimaginative1 it doubted the utility of magic4 ,accordingly1 all commercial communities have rebelled against paying for miracles1 and it was the spread of a scepticism already well developed in the thirteenth century among the manufacturing towns1 which caused the ,reformation of the sixteenth4 ,at ,saint-,riquier the monks carried the relics of ,saint ,vigor each year in procession4 ,in #abfd the burghers took a dead cat and put it in a shrine1 while in another casket they placed a horse-bone1 to do service as the arm of ,saint ,vigor4 ,when the procession reached a certain spot1 the reliquaries were set down1 and a mock fight began between two mummers4 ,then the bearers cried out1 8,old ,saint ,riquier1 you shall go no further unless you reconcile these enemies10 whereupon the combatants fell into each other's arms1 and all cried out that ,saint ,riquier had wrought a miracle4 ,afterward they built a chapel and oratory1 with an altar draped with cloth of gold1 and deposited the dead cat and the horse-bone2 and simple pilgrims1 ignorant of the sacrilege1 stopped to worship the relics1 the mayor and council aiding and abetting the crime1 8to the detriment of the whole ,church universal40#aef ,the clergy retaliated with frightful ferocity4 ,as heresy followed in the wake of trade1 the ,inquisition followed in the wake of heresy1 and the beginning of the thirteenth century witnessed simultaneously the prosperity of the mercantile class and the organization of the ,holy ,office4 ,jacques de ,vitry breathed the ecclesiastical spirit4 ,one of the most famous preachers of his age1 he rose from a simple monk to be ,cardinal-bishop of ,tusculum1 legate in ,france1 and ,patriarch of ,jerusalem4 ,he led a crusade against the ,albigenses1 was present at the siege of ,damietta1 and died at ,rome in #abdj4 ,his sermons burn with his hatred of the bourgeoisie3 8,that detestable race of men 444 hurrying to meet its fate1 which none or few could escape10 all of whom 8were making haste toward hell4444 ,but above all other evils of these ,babylonish cities1 there is one which is the worst1 for hardly is there a community to be found in which there are not abettors1 receivers1 defenders of1 or believers in1 heretics40#aeg ,the basis of the secular society of the early ,middle ,ages was individual physical force4 ,every layman1 noble or serf1 owed military service1 and when a borough was incorporated1 it took its place in the feudal hierarchy1 like any other vassal4 ,with the spread of the mercantile type1 however1 a change began--the transmutation of physical force into money--and this process went on until individual strength or courage ceased to have importance4 ,as soldiers the burgesses never excelled2 citizen troops have seldom been formidable1 and those of the communes rarely withstood the first onset of the enemy4 ,the tradesmen themselves recognized their own limitations1 and in #acag the deputies of the cities met at ,paris and requested the government to undertake the administration of the local militia4 ,though unwarlike1 the townsmen were wealthy1 and1 in the reign of ,philip ,augustus1 the same cause which led to the consolidation of the kingdom1 brought about1 as ,luchaire has pointed out1 8a radical modification of the military and financial organization of the monarchy20 the substitution by the privileged corporations of money payments for personal service4#aeh ,thus1 from the time when the economic type had multiplied sufficiently to hire a police1 the strength of the ,state came to depend on its revenue1 and financiers grew to be the controlling element of civilization4 ,before the crusades1 the high offices of the kingdom of ,france1 such as the office of the seneschal1 were not only held by nobles1 but tended to become hereditary in certain warlike families4 ,after the rise of the ,eastern trade the royal council was captured by the bourgeoisie4 ,jacques ,cur is a striking specimen of the class which ruled in the fifteenth century4 ,of this class the lawyers were the spokesmen1 and men like ,flotte and ,nogaret1 the chancellors of ,philip the ,fair1 expressed the notion of centralization as perfectly as the jurists of ancient ,rome4 ,no one has understood the movement better than ,luchaire4 ,he has pointed out1 in his work on ,french institutions1 that from the beginning of the reign of ,saint ,louis 7#abbf7 the ,privy ,council steadily gained in consequence4#aei ,the permanent civil service1 of which it was the core1 served as a school for judges1 clerks1 seneschals1 and all judicial and executive officers4 ,at first the administration retained a strong clerical tinge1 probably because a generation elapsed before laymen could be equally well trained for the work1 but after the accession of ,philip the ,fair1 toward the end of the century1 the laymen decisively predominated1 and when they predominated1 the plunder of the ,church began4 ,abstract justice is1 of course1 impossible4 ,law is merely the expression of the will of the strongest for the time being1 and therefore laws have no fixity1 but shift from generation to generation4 ,when the imagination is vivid and police weak1 emotional or ecclesiastical law prevails4 ,as competition sharpens1 and the movement of society accelerates1 religious ritual is supplanted by civil codes for the enforcement of contracts and the protection of the creditor class4 ,the more society consolidates the more legislation is controlled by the wealthy1 and at length the representatives of the monied class acquire that absolute power once wielded by the ,roman proconsul1 and now exercised by the modern magistrate4 8,the two great figures of ,saint ,louis and of ,philip the ,fair which dominate the third period are profoundly unlike1 but considering the facts as a whole 444 they have but moderately influenced the direction of the communal development4 ,with the bailiffs and ,parliament the monarchical machine is in possession of its essential works2 it operates and will stop no more4 ,in vain the king shall essay to arrest its march1 or to direct it in another course3 the innumerable army of agents of the crown does not cease for a moment to destroy rival jurisdictions1 to suppress embarrassing powers1 to replace everywhere private jurisdictions by the single authority of the sovereign4 8,to the infinite diversity of local liberties its will is to substitute regularity of institutions2 political and administrative centralization40#afj ,as ,luchaire has elsewhere observed1 the current everywhere 8substituted1 in the paths of administration1 justice1 and finance1 the lay and burgher for the ecclesiastical and noble element40 ,in other words1 the economic type steadily gained ground1 and the process went on until the ,revolution4 ,saint ,simon never forgave ,louis ,,xiv4 for surrounding himself with men of mean birth1 dependent on his will4 8,the ,duke of ,beauvilliers was the single example in the whole course of his reign1 as has been remarked in speaking of this duke1 the only nobleman who was admitted into his council between the death of ,cardinal ,mazarin and his own2 that is to say1 during fifty-four years40#afa ,from the middle of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth century was an interval of almost unparalleled commercial prosperity--a prosperity which is sufficiently proved by the sumptuous quality of the architecture of the time4 ,unquestionably the most magnificent buildings of modern ,europe date from this period1 and this prosperity was not limited to any country1 but extended from ,cairo to ,london4 ,such an expansion of trade would have been impossible without a corresponding expansion of the currency1 and as no new mines were discovered1 recourse was had to paper4 ,by the year #abjj bills of exchange had been introduced1#afb and in order to give the bill of exchange its greatest circulating power1 a system of banking was created which operated as a universal clearing house1 and by means of which these bills were balanced against each other4 ,in the thirteenth century1 ,florence1 ,genoa1 and ,venice were the chief monied centres4 ,in these cities the purchase and sale of commercial paper was1 at the outset1 monopolized by a body of money-changers1 who1 in ,venice at least1 seem to have been controlled by the council of merchants1 and who probably were not always in the best credit4 ,at all events1 they were required in #acah to make a deposit of #c1jjj as security for their customers1 and afterward the amount was increased4#afc ,possibly some such system of deposits may have originally formed the capital of the ,bank of ,venice1 but everything relating to the organization of the medival banks is obscure4 ,all that seems certain is1 that business was conducted by establishments of this character long before the date of any records which now remain4 ,amidst the multiplicity of medival jurisdictions1 not only did the currency become involved in inextricable confusion1 but it generally was debased through abrasion and clipping4 ,before clearings could be conveniently made1 therefore1 a coinage of recognized value had to be provided1 and this the banks undertook to supply by their system of deposits4 ,they received coin fresh from the mints1 for which they gave credits1 and these credits or notes were negotiable1 and were always to be bought in the market4 ,the deposits themselves were seldom withdrawn1 as they bore a premium over common currency1 which they lost when put in circulation1 and they were accordingly only transferred on the books of the corporations1 to correspond with the sales of the notes which represented them4 ,thus merchants from all parts of ,europe and the ,levant could draw on ,venice or ,genoa1 and have their balances settled by transfers of deposits at the banks1 without the intervention of coin4 ,a calculation has been made that1 by this means1 the effective power of the currency was multiplied tenfold4 ,of all these institutions1 the corporations of ,genoa and ,venice were the most famous4 ,the ,bank of ,saint ,george1 at ,genoa1 was formally organized in #adjg1 but it undoubtedly had conducted business from the beginning of the twelfth century2#afd next to nothing is known of the development at ,venice4 ,probably1 however1 ,florence was more purely a monied centre than either ,venice or ,genoa1 and no money-lenders of the ,middle ,ages ever equalled the great ,florentine banking families4 ,most of the important commercial centres came to have institutions of the kind4 ,the introduction of credit had the same effect as a large addition to the stock of bullion1 and1 as gold and silver grew more plentiful1 their relative value fell1 and a general reform of the currency took place4 ,venice began the movement with the grosso1 it spread through ,italy and into ,france1 and the coin of ,saint ,louis was long considered as perfect money4 ,with the expansion of the currency went a rise in prices1 all producers grew rich1 and1 for more than two generations1 the strain of competition was so relaxed that the different classes of the population preyed upon each other less savagely than they are wont to do in less happy times4 ,meanwhile no considerable additions were made to the volume of the precious metals1 and1 as the bulk of commerce swelled1 the capacity of the new system of credit became exhausted1 and contraction set in4 ,the first symptom of disorder seems to have been a rise in the purchasing power of both the precious metals1 but particularly of gold1 which rose in its ratio to silver from about one to nine and a half1 to one to twelve4#afe ,at the same time the value of commodities1 even when measured in silver1 appears to have fallen sharply4#aff ,the consequence of this fall was a corresponding addition to the burden of debt1 and a very general insolvency4 ,the communes had been large borrowers1 and their straits were deplorable4 ,luchaire has described their condition as shown 8in the municipal accounts addressed by the communes to the government40#afg ,everywhere there was a deficit1 almost everywhere ruin4 ,amiens1 ,soissons1 ,roye1 ,saint ,quentin1 and ,rouen were all in difficulty with their loans1 but ,noyon was perhaps the worst of all4 ,in #abgh ,noyon owed #af1jjj pounds which it was unable to pay4 ,after a suspension for fourteen years the king issued an ordinance regulating liquidation2 a part of the claims had to be cancelled1 and the balance collected by a levy on private property4 ,the bankruptcy was complete4 ,the royal government1 equally hardly pressed1 was unable to meet its obligations in the standard coin1 and resorted to debasement4 ,under ,saint ,louis the mark of silver yielded but #b pounds #ae sous #f pence2 in #acjf the same weight of metal was cut into #h pounds #aj sous4 ,the pressure upon the population was terrible1 and led to terrible results--the beginning of the spoliation of the emotionalists4 ,perhaps the combination of the two great forces of the age1 of the soldier and the monk1 was the supreme effort of the emotional mind4 ,what a hold the dazzling dream of omnipotence1 through the possession of the ,sepulchre1 had upon the twelfth century1 can be measured by the gifts showered upon the crusading orders1 for they represented a prodigious sacrifice4 ,at ,paris the ,temple had a capital city over against the capital of the king4 ,within a walled enclosure of sixty thousand square metres1 stood the conventual buildings and a gigantic donjon of such perfect masonry that it never needed other repairs than the patching of its roof4 ,beyond the walls the domain extended to the ,seine1 a property which1 even in #acjj1 had an almost incalculable value4 ,on every ,eastern battle-field1 and at every assault and siege1 the knights had fought with that fiery courage which has made their name a proverb down to the present day4 ,in #abfe1 at ,safed1 three hundred had been butchered upon the ramparts in cold blood1 rather than renounce their faith4 ,at ,acre1 whose loss sealed the fate of ,palestine1 they held the keep at all odds until the donjon fell1 burying ,christians and ,moslems in a common grave4 ,but skill and valour avail nothing against nature4 ,step by step the ,templars had been driven back1 until ,tortosa surrendered in #abia4 ,then the ,holy ,land was closed1 the enthusiasm which had generated the order had passed away1 and1 meanwhile1 economic competition had bred a new race at home1 to which monks were a predestined prey4 ,in #abhe1 as the ,latin kingdom in ,syria was tottering towards its fall1 ,philip the ,fair was crowned4 ,subtle1 sceptical1 treacherous1 and cruel1 few kings have left behind them a more sombre memory1 yet he was the incarnation of the economic spirit in its conflict with the ,church4 ,nine years later ,benedetto ,gaetani was elected pope3 a man as completely the creation of the social revolution of the thirteenth century as ,philip himself4 ,trained at ,bologna and ,paris1 a jurist rather than a priest1 his faith in dogma was so scanty that his belief in the immortality of the soul has been questioned4 ,a thorough worldling1 greedy1 ambitious1 and unscrupulous1 he was suspected of having murdered his predecessor1 ,celestin ,v4 ,when ,boniface came to the throne1 the ,church is supposed to have owned about one-third of the soil of ,europe1 and on this property the governments had no means of enforcing regular taxation4 ,toward the close of the thirteenth century the fall of prices increased the weight of debt1 while it diminished the power of the population to pay4 ,on the other hand1 as the system of administration became more complex1 the cost of government augmented1 and at last the burden became more than the laity could endure4 ,both ,england and ,france had a permanent deficit1 and ,edward and ,philip alike turned toward the clergy as the only source of supply4 ,both kings met with opposition1 but the explosion came in ,france1 where ,clairvaux1 the most intractable of convents1 appealed to ,rome4 ,boniface had been elected by a coalition between the ,colonna and the ,orsini factions1 but after his coronation he turned upon the ,colonnas1 who1 in revenge1 plundered his treasure4 ,a struggle followed1 which ended fatally to the pope2 but at first he had the advantage1 sacked their city of ,prneste1 and forced them to fly to ,france4 ,on the brink of this war1 ,boniface was in no condition to rouse so dangerous an adversary as ,philip1 and1 in answer to ,clairvaux's appeal1 he confined himself to excommunicating the prince who should tax the priest and the priest who should pay the impost4 ,nevertheless1 the issue had to be met4 ,the ,church had weakened as terror of the unknown had waned1 and could no longer defend its wealth1 which was destined to pass more and more completely into the hands of the laity4 ,philip continued his aggressions1 and1 when peace had been established in ,italy1 the rupture came4 ,not realizing his impotence1 and exasperated at the royal policy1 ,boniface sent ,bernard de ,saisset1 ,bishop of ,pamiers1 to ,paris as his ambassador4 ,bernard had recently been consecrated in defiance of ,philip1 and they were bitter enemies4 ,he was soon dismissed from court1 but he continued his provocations1 calling the king a false coiner and a blockhead1 and when he returned to ,pamiers he plotted an insurrection4 ,he was arrested and prosecuted by the ,chancellor ,flotte1 but when delivered to the ,archbishop of ,narbonne for degradation1 action was suspended to await the sanction of ,rome4 ,then ,flotte was sent to ,italy to demand the surrender 8of the child of perdition10 that ,philip might make of him 8an excellent sacrifice to ,god40 ,the mission necessarily failed1 for it was a struggle for supremacy1 and the issue was well summed up in the final words of the stormy interview which brought it to a close4 8,my power1 the spiritual power10 cried ,boniface1 8embraces and encloses the temporal40 8,true10 retorted ,flotte1 8but yours is verbal1 the king's is real40 ,an ecclesiastical council was convoked for ,october1 #acjb1 and ,philip was summoned to appear before the greatest prelates of ,christendom4 ,but1 not waiting the meeting of this august assembly1 ,boniface1 on ,december #e1 #acja1 launched his famous bull1 8,ausculta1 fili10 which was his declaration of war4#afh ,listen1 my son3 do not persuade yourself that you have no superior1 and are not in subjection to the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy3 he who says this is mad1 he who sustains it is an infidel4 ,you devour the revenues of the vacant bishoprics1 you pillage churches4 ,i do not speak now of the alterations in the coinage1 and of the other complaints which arise on all sides1 and which cry to us against you1 but not to make myself accountable to ,god for your soul1 ,i summon you to appear before me1 and in case of your refusal shall render judgment in your absence4#afi ,a century before1 the barons of ,france had abandoned ,philip ,augustus1 through fear of the incantations of ,innocent1 but1 in the third generation of the commercial type1 such fears had been discarded4 ,in ,april1 #acjb1 the estates of the realm sustained the 8little one-eyed heretic10 as ,boniface called ,flotte1 in burning the papal bull1 and in answering the admonitions of the pope with mockery4 8,philip1 by the grace of ,god king of the ,french1 to ,boniface1 who calls himself sovereign pontiff1 little greeting or none4 ,let your very great foolishness know that we are subject to no one for the temporalty2 that the collation to the vacant churches and prebends belongs to us by royal right2 that their fruits are ours2 that collations which have been made1 or are to be made by us1 are valid for the past and for the future1 and that we will manfully protect their possessors against all comers4 ,those who think otherwise we hold fools or madmen40#agj ,the accepted theory long was that the bourgeoisie were neutral in this quarrel2 that they were an insignificant factor in the state1 and obeyed passively because they were without the power to oppose4 ,in reality1 consolidation had already gone so far that money had become the prevailing form of force in the kingdom of ,france2 therefore the monied class was on the whole the strongest class1 and ,flotte was their mouthpiece4 ,they accepted the papers drawn by the chancellor1 because the chancellor was their representative4#aga ,in ,july1 #acjb1 ,philip met with the defeat of ,courtray1 and the tone of the ecclesiastical council1 convened in ,october1 shows that the clergy thought his power broken4 ,a priest relies upon the miracle1 and1 if defied1 he must either conquer by supernatural aid1 or submit to secular coercion4 ,boniface boldly faced the issue1 and planted himself by ,hildebrand4 ,in his bull1 ,unam ,sanctam1 he defined his claim to the implicit obedience of laymen4 8,we are provided1 under his authority1 with two swords1 the temporal and the spiritual2 444 both1 therefore1 are in the power of the ,church2 to wit1 the spiritual and the material sword3 444 the one is to be used by the priest1 the other by kings and soldiers2 sed ad nutum et patientiam sacerdotis40#agb ,a sentence of excommunication had also been prepared and sent to ,france1 which was to have been followed by deposition2 but when it arrived1 ,philip convened an assembly of prelates and barons at the ,louvre1 and presented an indictment against ,boniface1 probably without a parallel in modern history4 ,the pope was accused of every crime4 ,he was an infidel1 a denier of the immortality of the soul1 a scoffer at the eucharist1 a murderer1 and a sorcerer4 ,he was guilty of unnatural crimes and of robbery4#agc ,the bearer of the bull was arrested1 the property of the bishops who had attended the council sequestered1 and ,philip prepared to seize ,boniface in his own palace4 ,boniface1 too1 felt the decisive hour at hand4 ,he tried to reconcile himself with his enemies1 drew the bull of deposition1 and prepared to affix it to the church door at ,anagni on ,september #h1 #acjc4 ,before the day came he was a prisoner1 and face to face with death4 ,flotte had been killed at ,courtray1 and had been succeeded by the redoubtable ,nogaret1 whose grandfather was believed to have been burned as a heretic4 ,with ,nogaret ,philip joined ,sciarra ,colonna1 the bloodiest of the ,italian nobles1 and sent them together to ,italy to deal with his foe4 ,boniface had made war upon the ,colonnas1 and ,sciarra had been hunted like a wild beast4 ,flying disguised1 he had been taken by pirates1 and had preferred to toil four years as a galley-slave1 rather than run the risk of ecclesiastical mercy by surrendering himself to the vicar of ,christ4 ,at last ,philip heard of his misfortunes1 bought him1 and1 at the crisis1 let him slip like a mad dog at the old man's throat4 ,nogaret and ,colonna succeeded in corrupting the governor of ,anagni1 and entered the town at dead of night2 but the pope's nephews had time to barricade the streets1 and it was not until the church1 which communicated with the papal apartments1 had been fired1 that the palace was forced4 ,there1 it was said1 they found the proud old priest sitting upon his throne1 with his crown upon his head1 and men whispered that1 as he sat there1 ,colonna struck him in the face with his gauntlet4 ,probably the story was false1 but it reflected truly enough the spirit of the pope's captors4 ,he himself believed them capable of poisoning him1 for from ,saturday night till ,monday morning he lay without food or drink1 and when liberated was exhausted4 ,boniface was eighty-six1 and the shock killed him4 ,he was taken to ,rome1 and died there of fever1 according to the rumour1 blaspheming1 and gnawing his hands in frenzy4#agd ,the death of ,boniface was decisive4 ,benedict ,,xi41 who succeeded him1 did not attempt to prolong the contest2 but peace without surrender was impossible4 ,the economic classes held the emotionalists by the throat1 and strangled them till they disgorged4 ,vainly ,benedict revoked the acts of his predecessor4 ,philip demanded that ,boniface should be branded as a heretic1 and sent ,nogaret to ,rome as his ambassador4 ,the insult was more than the priesthood could yet endure4 ,summoning his courage1 ,benedict excommunicated ,nogaret1 ,colonna1 and thirteen others1 whom he had seen break into the palace at ,anagni4 ,within a month he was dead4 ,poison was whispered1 and1 for the first time since the monks captured the papacy1 the hierarchy was paralyzed by fear4 ,no complaint was made1 or pursuit of the criminal attempted2 the consistory met1 but failed to unite on a successor4 ,according to the legend1 when the cardinals were unable to agree1 the faction opposed to ,philip consented to name three candidates1 from whom the king should select the pope4 ,the prelate he chose was ,bertrand de ,goth1 ,archbishop of ,bordeaux4 ,boniface had been his patron1 but ,philip1 who knew men1 knew that this man had his price4 ,the tale goes that the king visited the bishop at an abbey near ,saint-,jean-d',angly1 and began the conversation as follows3 8,my lord ,archbishop1 ,i have that in my hand will make you pope if ,i like1 and it is for that ,i am come40 ,bertrand fell on his knees1 and the king imposed five conditions1 reserving a sixth1 to exact thereafter4 ,the last condition was the condemnation of the ,templars4#age ,doubtless the picturesque old tale is as false in detail as it is true in spirit4 ,probably no such interview took place1 and yet there seems little doubt that ,clement owed his election to ,philip1 and gave pledges which bound him from the day of his coronation4 ,certainly he surrendered all liberty of action1 for he established himself at ,avignon1 whence the battlements of ,ville-,neuve can still be seen1 built by ,philip to overawe the town4 ,within an hour he could have filled the streets with his mercenaries4 ,the victory was complete4 ,the ,church was prostrate1 and spoliation began4 ,clement was crowned in #acje1 and after two years of slavery he began to find his compact heavy upon him4 ,he yielded up the patronage1 he consented to the taxation of the clergy1 and he ordered the grand-masters of the crusading orders to return to ,europe1 all at ,philip's bidding4 ,but when he was commanded to condemn ,boniface as a heretic1 he recoiled in terror4 ,indeed1 to have rejected ,boniface as an impostor1 and a false pope1 would have precipitated chaos4 ,his bishops and cardinals would have been set aside1 ,clement's own election would have been invalidated2 none could foresee where the disorganization would end4 ,to gain time1 ,clement pleaded for a general council1 which the king morosely conceded1 but only on the condition that the excommunications against his agents1 even against ,nogaret1 should be withdrawn4 ,clement assented1 for he was practically a prisoner at ,poitiers1 a council at ,vienne was agreed to1 and the ,crown seized the ,templars without opposition from the ,church4 ,criticism has long ago dispelled the mystery which once shrouded this bloody process4 ,no historian now suggests that the knights were really guilty of the fantastic enormities charged against them1 and which they confessed under torture4 ,scepticism doubtless was rife among them1 as it was among the cardinals1 but there is nothing to show that the worst differed materially from the population about them1 and the superb fortitude with which they perished1 demonstrates that lack of religious enthusiasm was not the crime for which they died4 ,when ,philip conceived the idea of first murdering and then plundering the crusaders1 is uncertain4 ,some have thought it was in #acjf1 while sheltered in the ,temple1 when1 he having suddenly raised his debased money to the standard of ,saint ,louis1 the mob destroyed the house of his master of the mint4 ,probably it was much earlier1 and was but the necessary result of the sharpening of economic competition1 which began with the accelerated movement accompanying the crusades4 ,after ,clement's election1 several years elapsed before the scheme ripened4 ,nothing could be done until one or both of the grand-masters had been enticed to ,france with their treasure4 ,under pretence of preparing for a new crusade this was finally accomplished1 and1 in #acjf1 ,jacques de ,molay1 a chivalrous ,burgundian gentleman1 journeyed unsuspectingly to ,paris1 taking with him his chief officers and one hundred and fifty thousand florins in gold1 beside silver 8enough to load ten mules40 ,philip first borrowed all the money de ,molay would lend1 and then1 at one sudden swoop1 arrested in a single night all the ,templars in ,france4 ,on ,october #ac1 #acjg1 the seizure was made1 and ,philip's organization was so perfect1 and his agents so reliable1 that the plan was executed with precision4 ,the object of the government was plunder1 but before the goods of the order could be confiscated1 legal conviction of some crime was necessary1 which would entail forfeiture4 ,heresy was the only accusation adapted to the purpose2 accordingly ,philip determined to convict the knights of heresy1 and the best evidence was confession4 ,to extort confession the ,inquisition had to be set in motion by the pope1 and thus it came to pass that1 in order to convey to the laymen the property of ecclesiastics1 ,christ's soldiers were tormented to death by his own vicar4 ,in vain1 in the midst of the work1 ,clement1 in agonies of remorse1 revoked the commissions of the inquisitors4 ,philip jeered when the cardinals delivered the message1 saying 8that ,god hated the lukewarm10 and the torture went on as before4 ,when he had extorted what he needed1 he set out for ,poitiers2 ,clement fled1 but was arrested and brought back a prisoner4 ,then his resolution gave way1 and he abandoned the knights to their fate1 reserving only the grand-master and a few high officials for himself4 ,still1 though he forsook the individuals1 he could not be terrified into condemning the order in its corporate capacity1 and the final process was referred to the approaching council4 ,meanwhile1 a commission1 presided over by the ,archbishop of ,narbonne1 proceeded with the trial of the knights4 ,for three years these miserable wretches languished in their dungeons1 and the imagination recoils from picturing their torments4 ,finally ,philip felt that an end must be made1 and in ,march1 #acaj1 #edf of the survivors were taken from their prisons and made to choose delegates1 for their exasperation was so deep that the government feared to let them appear before the court in a body4 ,the precaution availed little1 for the knights who conducted the common defence proved themselves as proud and bold in this last extremity of human misery1 as they had ever been upon the day of battle4 ,they denied the charges brought against them1 they taunted their judges with the lies told them to induce them to confess1 and they showed how life and liberty had been promised them1 under the royal seal1 if they would admit the allegations of the government4 ,then they told the story of those who had been steadfast to the end4 8,it is not astonishing that some have borne false witness1 but that any have told the truth1 considering the sorrows and suffering1 the threats and insults1 they daily endure4444 ,what is surprising is that faith should be given to those who have testified untruly to save their bodies1 rather than to those who have died in their tortures in such numbers1 like martyrs of ,christ1 in defence of the truth1 or who solely for conscience sake1 have suffered and still daily suffer in their prisons1 so many torments1 trials1 calamities1 and miseries1 for this cause40#agf ,the witnesses called confirmed their statements4 ,bernard ,peleti1 when examined1 was asked if he had been put to the torture4 ,he replied that for three months previous to his confession to the ,bishop of ,paris1 he had lain with his hands so tightly bound behind his back that the blood started from his finger nails4 ,he had beside been put in a pit4 ,then he broke out3 8,if ,i am tortured ,i shall deny all ,i have said now1 and shall say all they want me to say4 ,if the time be short1 ,i can bear to be beheaded1 or to die by boiling water1 or by fire1 for the honour of the order2 but ,i can no longer withstand the torments which1 for more than two years1 ,i have endured in prison40#agg 8,i have been tortured three times10 said ,humbert de ,podio4 8,i was confined thirty-six weeks in a tower1 on bread and water1 quia non confitebatur quae volebant40#agh ,bernard de ,vado showed two bones which had dropped from his heels after roasting his feet4#agi ,such testimony was disregarded1 for condemnation was necessary as a preliminary to confiscation4 ,the suppression of the ,temple was the first step in that long spoliation of the ,church which has continued to the present day1 and which has been agonizing to the victims in proportion to their power of resistance4 ,the fourteenth century was still an age of faith1 and the monks died hard4 ,philip grasped the situation with the intuition of genius1 and provided himself with an instrument fit for the task before him4 ,he forced ,clement to raise ,philip de ,marigni to the ,see of ,sens1 and ,marigni was a man who shrank from nothing4 ,when made archbishop1 he convoked a provincial council at ,paris1 and condemned1 as relapsed heretics1 the knights who had repudiated their confessions4 ,fifty-nine of these knights belonged to his own diocese4 ,he had them brought to a fenced enclosure in a field near the ,abbey of ,saint ,antoine1 and there offered them pardon if they would recant4 ,then they were chained to stakes1 and slowly burned to ashes from the feet upward4 ,not one flinched1 but amidst shrieks of anguish1 when half consumed1 they protested their innocence1 and died imploring mercy of ,christ and of the ,virgin4#ahj ,devotion so superb might have fired the imagination of even such a craven as ,clement1 but ,philip was equal to the emergency4 ,he had caused scores of witnesses to be examined to prove that ,boniface was a murderer1 a sorcerer1 a debauchee1 and a heretic4 ,suddenly he offered to drop the prosecution1 and to restore the ,temple lands to the ,church1 if the order might be abolished and the process closed4 ,clement yielded4 ,in ,october1 #acaa1 the council met at ,vienne4 ,the winter was spent in intimidation and bribery2 the second meeting was not held until the following ,april1 and then the decree of suppression was published4 ,by this decree the corporation was dissolved1 but certain of the higher officers still lived1 and in an evil moment ,clement bethought him of their fate4 ,in ,december1 #acac1 he appointed a commission to try them4 ,they were brought before a lofty scaffold at the portal of the ,cathedral of ,paris1 and there made to reiterate the avowals which had been wrung from them in their dungeons4 ,then they were sentenced to perpetual imprisonment4 ,but at this supreme moment1 when it seemed that all was over1 de ,molay1 the grand-master1 and the ,master of ,normandy1 broke into a furious defence4 ,the commissioners adjourned in a panic1 but ,philip1 thirsting for blood1 sprang upon his prey4 ,he gave his orders to his own officers1 without consulting any prelate4 ,on ,march #ah1 #acad1 as night fell1 the two crusaders were taken from the provost1 who acted as their gaoler1 and carried to a little island in the ,seine1 on which a statue of ,henry of ,navarre now stands4 ,there they were burned together1 without a trial and without a sentence4 ,they watched the building of their funeral pile with 8hearts so firm and resolute1 and persisted with such constancy in their denials to the end1 and suffered death with such composure1 that they left the witnesses of their execution in admiration and stupor40#aha ,an ancient legend told how de ,molay1 as he stood upon his blazing fagots1 summoned ,clement to meet him before ,god's judgment-seat in forty days1 and ,philip within a year4 ,neither survived the interval4 ,philip had promised to restore the goods of the ,temple to the ,church1 but the plunder1 for which this tremendous deed was done1 was not surrendered tamely to the vanquished after their defeat4 ,the gold and silver1 and all that could be stolen1 disappeared4 ,the land was in the end ceded to the ,hospital1 but so wasted that1 for a century1 no revenue whatever accrued from what had been one of the finest conventual estates in ,europe4#ahb ,such was the opening of that social revolution which1 when it reached its height1 was called the ,reformation4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,english ,,reformation ,many writers have pointed out the relation between commerce and scepticism in the ,middle ,ages1 and1 among others1 ,thorold ,rogers has a passage in his ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices so interesting that it should be read entire3-- 8,the general spread of ,lollardy1 about which all the theologians of the age complain1 was at once the cause anti the effect of progressive opulence4 ,it cannot be by accident that all the wealthiest parts of ,europe1 one district only excepted1 and that for very sufficient reasons1 were suspected during the ,middle ,ages of theological nonconformity4 ,before the campaigns of ,simon de ,montfort1 in the first half of the thirteenth century1 ,provence was the garden and workshop of ,europe4 ,the sturdiest advocates of the ,reformation were the burghers of the ,low ,countries4444 ,in ,england the strength of the ,lollard party was1 from the days of ,wiklif to the days of ,cranmer1 in ,norfolk the principal manufacturing county2 and ,i have no doubt that 444 the presence of students from this district must have told on the theological bias of ,cambridge ,university1 which came out markedly at the epoch of the ,reformation4444 8,english ,lollardy was1 like its direct descendant ,puritanism1 sour and opinionative1 but it was also moral and thrifty4 ,they who denounced the lazy and luxurious life of the monks1 the worldliness and greed of the prelates1 and the gross and shallow artifices of the popular religion1 were pretty sure to inculcate parsimony and saving4 ,by voluntarily and sturdily cutting themselves off from the circumstance of the old faith1 they were certain1 like the ,quakers of more than two centuries later1 to become comparatively wealthy4 ,they had nothing to spare for monk or priest44440#ahc ,the ,lollards were of the modern economic type1 and discarded the miracle because the miracle was costly and yielded an uncertain return4 ,yet the medival cult was based upon the miracle1 and many of the payments due for the supernatural services of the ecclesiastics were obligatory2 beside1 gifts as an atonement for sin were a drain on savings1 and the economist instinctively sought cheaper methods of propitiation4 ,in an age as unscientific as the sixteenth century1 the conviction of the immutability of natural laws was not strong enough to admit of the abrogation of religious formulas4 ,the monied class1 therefore1 proceeded step by step1 and its first experiment was to suppress all fees to middle-men1 whether priests or saints1 by becoming their own intercessors with the ,deity4 ,as ,dr4 ,witherspoon has observed1 8fear of wrath from the avenger of blood0 made men 8fly to the city of refuge02#ahd but1 as the tradesman replaced the enthusiast1 a dogma was evolved by which mental anguish1 which cost nothing1 was substituted for the offering which was effective in proportion to its money value4 ,this dogma was 8,justification by ,faith10 the corner-stone of ,protestantism4 ,far from requiring an outlay from the elect1 8,justification by ,faith0 discouraged it4 ,the act consisted in 8a deep humiliation of mind1 confession of guilt and wretchedness 444 and acceptance of pardon and peace through ,christ ,jesus1 which they have neither contributed to the procuring1 nor can contribute to the continuance of1 by their own merit40#ahe ,yet the substitution of a mental condition for a money payment1 led to consequences more far-reaching than the suppression of certain clerical revenues1 for it involved the rejection of the sacred tradition which had not only sustained relic worship1 but which had made the ,church the channel of communication between ,christians and the invisible world4 ,that ancient channel once closed1 ,protestants had to open another1 and this led to the deification of the ,bible1 which1 before the ,reformation1 had been supposed to derive its authority from that divine illumination which had enabled the priesthood to infallibly declare the canon of the sacred books4 ,calvin saw the weak spot in the position of the reformers1 and faced it boldly4 ,he maintained the ,scripture to be 8self-authenticated1 carrying with it its own evidence1 and ought not to be made the subject of demonstration and arguments from reason10 and that it should obtain 8the same complete credit and authority with believers 444 as if they heard the very words pronounced by ,god himself40#ahf ,thus for the innumerable costly fetishes of the imaginative age were substituted certain writings1 which could be consulted without a fee4 ,the expedient was evidently the device of a mercantile community1 and the saving to those who accepted it enormous1 but it disintegrated ,christendom1 and made an organized priesthood impossible4 ,when each individual might pry into the sacred mysteries at his pleasure1 the authority of the clergy was annihilated4 ,men of the priestly type among the reformers saw the danger and tried to save themselves4 ,the thesis which the early evangelical divines maintained was the unity of truth4 ,the ,scriptures were true3 therefore if the whole body of ,christians searched aright they could not fail to draw truth from them1 and this truth must be the creed of the universal ,church4 ,zwingli thus explained the doctrine3-- 8,whoever hears the holy scriptures read aloud in church1 judges what he hears4 ,nevertheless what is heard is not itself the ,word through which we believe4 ,for if we believed through the simple hearing or reading of the ,word1 all would be believers4 ,on the contrary1 we see that many hear and see and do not believe4 ,hence it is clear that we believe only through the word which the ,heavenly ,father speaks in our hearts1 by which he enlightens us so that we see1 and draws us so that we follow4444 ,for ,god is not a ,god of strife and quarrel1 but of unity and peace4 ,where there is true faith1 there the ,holy ,spirit is present2 but where the ,holy ,spirit is1 there is certainly effort for unity and peace4444 ,therefore there is no danger of confusion in the ,church since1 if the congregation is assembled through ,god1 he is in the midst of them1 and all who have faith strive after unity and peace40#ahg ,the inference the clergy sought to draw was1 that though all could read the ,bible1 only the enlightened could interpret it1 and that they alone were the enlightened4 ,hence ,calvin's pretensions equalled ,hildebrand's3-- 8,this is the extent of the power with which the pastors of the ,church1 by whatever name they may be distinguished1 ought to be invested2 that by the word of ,god they may venture to do all things with confidence2 may constrain all the strength1 glory1 wisdom1 and pride of the world to obey and submit to his majesty2 supported by his power1 may govern all mankind1 from the highest to the lowest2 may build up the house of ,christ1 and subvert the house of ,satan2 may feed the sheep1 and drive away the wolves2 may instruct and exhort the docile2 may reprove1 rebuke1 and restrain the rebellious and obstinate2 may bind and loose2 may discharge their lightnings and thunders1 if necessary2 but all in the ,word of ,god40#ahh ,in certain regions1 poor and remote from the centres of commerce1 these pretensions were respected4 ,in ,geneva1 ,scotland1 and ,new ,england1 men like ,calvin1 ,knox1 and ,cotton maintained themselves until economic competition did its work3 then they passed away4 ,nowhere has faith withstood the rise of the mercantile class4 ,as a whole the ,reformation was eminently an economic phenomenon1 and is best studied in ,england1 which1 after the ,reformation1 grew to be the centre of the world's exchanges4 ,from the beginning of modern history1 commerce and scepticism have gone hand in hand4 ,the ,eastern trade began to revive after the reopening of the valley of the ,danube1 about #ajjj1 and perhaps1 in that very year1 ,berenger1 the first great modern heretic1 was born4 ,by #ajej he had been condemned and made to recant1 but with the growth of the ,fairs of ,champagne his heresy grew1 and in #abae1 just in the flush of the communal development1 the ,church found it necessary to define the dogma of transubstantiation1 and declare it an article of faith4 ,a generation later came the burning of schismatics2 in #abeb1 by his bull 8,ad extirpanda10 ,innocent ,,iv4 organized the ,inquisition1 and the next year ,grossette1 ,bishop of ,lincoln1 died1 with whom the organized opposition of the ,english to the ancient costly ritual may be said to have opened4 ,in ,great ,britain the agitation for reform appears to have been practical from the outset4 ,there was no impatience with dogmas simply because they were incomprehensible3 the ,trinity and the ,double ,procession were always accepted4 ,formulas of faith were resisted because they involved a payment of money1 and foremost among these were masses and penances4 ,another grievance was the papal patronage1 and1 as early as the fourteenth century1 ,parliament passed the statutes of provisors and prmunire to prevent the withdrawal of money from the realm4 ,the rise of the ,lollards was an organized movement to resist ecclesiastical exactions1 and to confiscate ecclesiastical property2 and1 if #acde be taken as the opening of ,wickliffe's active life1 the agitation for the seizure of monastic estates started just a generation after ,philip's attack on the ,temple in ,france4 ,there was at least this difference in the industrial condition of the two nations1 and probably much more4 ,wickliffe was rather a politician than a theologian1 and his preaching a diatribe against the extravagance of the ,church4 ,in one of his ,saints' ,days sermons he explained the waste of relic worship as shrewdly as a modern man of business3-- 8,it would be to the benefit of the ,church1 and to the honour of the saints1 if the costly ornaments so foolishly lavished upon their graves were divided among the poor4 ,i am well aware1 however1 that the man who would sharply and fully expose this error would be held for a manifest heretic by the image worshippers and the greedy people who make gain of such graves2 for in the adoration of the eucharist1 and such worshipping of dead bodies and images1 the ,church is seduced by an adulterous generation40#ahi ,the laity paid the priesthood fees because of their supernatural powers1 and the possession of these powers was chiefly demonstrated by the miracle of the mass4 ,wickliffe1 with a leader's eye1 saw where the enemy was vulnerable1 and the last years of his life were passed in his fierce controversy with the mendicants upon transubstantiation4 ,even at that early day he presented the issue with incomparable clearness3 8,and thou1 then1 that art an earthly man1 by what reason mayst thou say that thou makest thy maker80#aij ,the deduction from such premises was inexorable4 ,the mass had to be condemned as fetish worship1 and with it went the adoration of relics4 8,indeed1 many nominal ,christians are worse than pagans2 for it is not so bad that a man should honour as ,god1 for the rest of the day1 the first thing he sees in the morning1 as that regularly that accident should be really his ,god1 which he sees in the mass in the hands of the priest in the consecrated wafer40#aia ,wickliffe died ,december #cj1 #achd1 and ten years later the ,lollards had determined to resist all payments for magic4 ,they presented their platform to ,parliament in #acie1 summed up in their ,book of ,conclusions4 ,some of these 8conclusions0 are remarkably interesting3-- #eth4--8,that the exorcisms and hallowings1 consecrations and blessings1 over the wine1 bread1 wax1 water1 oil1 salt1 incense1 the altar-stone1 and about the church-walls1 over the vestment1 chalice1 mitre1 cross1 and pilgrim-staves1 are the very practices of necromancy1 rather than of sacred divinity4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #gth4--8,we mightily affirm 444 that spiritual prayers made in the church for the souls of the dead 444 is a false foundation of alms1 whereupon all the houses of alms in ,england are falsely founded4 #hth4--8,that pilgrimages1 prayers1 and oblations made unto blind crosses or roods1 or to deaf images made either of wood or stone1 are very near of kin unto idolatry40#aib ,when ,lord ,cobham1 the head of the ,lollard party1 was tried for heresy in #adac1 ,archbishop ,arundel put him four test questions4 ,first1 whether he believed1 after the sacramental words had been spoken1 any material bread or wine remained in the sacrament2 fourth1 whether he believed relic worship meritorious4 ,his answers did not give satisfaction1 and they roasted him in chains1 in ,saint ,giles's ,fields1 in #adah4 ,a hundred years of high commercial activity followed ,cobham's death4 ,the discovery of ,america1 and of the sea passage to ,india1 changed the channels of commerce throughout the world1 human movement was accelerated1 gunpowder made the attack overwhelming2 centralization took a prodigious stride1 scepticism kept pace with centralization1 and in #aeaj ,erasmus wrote thus1 and yet remained in the orthodox communion3-- 8,moreover savoureth it not of the same saulce folly 7trow ye7 when everie countrey chalengeth a severall sainct for theyr patrone1 assignyng further to each sainct a peculiar cure and office1 with also sundrie ways of worshipping2 as this sainct helpeth for the tooth-ache1 that socoureth in childbyrth2 she restoreth stolene goods2 an other aydeth shipmen in tempests2 an other taketh charge of husbandmens hoggs2 and so of the rest2 far too long were it to reherse all4 ,then some saincts there be1 that are generally sued for many thynges2 amongst whom chiefly is the virgin ,mother of ,god1 in whom vulgar folke have an especiall confidence1 yea almost more than in her ,sonne40#aic ,when ,erasmus wrote1 the ,reformation was at hand1 but the attack on ,church property had begun in ,england full two centuries before1 contemporaneously with ,philip's onslaught on the ,temple4 ,all over ,europe the fourteenth century was a period of financial distress2 in ,france the communes became bankrupt and the coinage deteriorated1 and in ,england the debasement of the currency began in #abii1 and kept pace with the rise of ,lollardy4 ,in #abii the silver penny weighed #bb #ab grains2 ,edward ,i4 reduced it to #bb #ad grains2 ,edward ,,iii4 to #ah grains2 ,henry ,,iv4 to #ae grains2 and ,henry ,,vi41 during his restoration in #adgj1 to #ab grains4 ,as the stringency increased1 the attack on the clergy gained in ferocity4 ,edward ,i4 not only taxed the priesthood1 but seized the revenues of the alien priories2 of these there might have been one hundred and fifty within the realm1 and what he took from them he spent on his army4 ,edward ,,ii4 and ,edward ,,iii4 followed the precedent1 and during the last reign1 when the penny dropped four grains1 these revenues were sequestered no less than twenty-three years4 ,under ,henry ,,iv4 the penny lost three grains1 and what remained of the income of these houses was permanently applied to defraying the expenses of the court4 ,henry ,v4 dissolved them1 and vested their estates in the crown4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,iv41 when the penny was on the point of losing three grains of its silver1 the tone of ,parliament was similar to that of the parliaments of the ,reformation4 ,on one occasion the king asked for a subsidy1 and the ,speaker suggested that without burdening the laity he might 8supply his occasions by seizing on the revenues of the clergy02#aid and in #adaj ,lord ,cobham anticipated the ,parliament of #aecf by introducing a bill for the confiscation of conventual revenues to the amount of #cbb1jjj marks1 a sum which he averred represented the income of certain corporations whose names he appended in a schedule4#aie ,year by year1 as society consolidated1 the economic type was propagated2 and1 as the pressure of a contracting currency stimulated these men to action1 the demand for cheap religion grew fiercer4 ,london1 the monied centre1 waxed hotter and hotter1 and a single passage from the ,supplicacyon for ,beggers shows how bitter the denunciations of the system of paying for miracles became3-- 8,whate money pull they yn by probates of testamentes1 priuy tithes1 and by mennes offeringes to theyre pilgrimages1 and at theyre first masses8 ,euery man and childe that is buried1 must pay sumwhat for masses and diriges to be song for him1 or elles they will accuse the dedes frendes and executours of heresie4 whate money get they by mortuaries1 by hearing of confessions 444 by halowing of churches1 altares1 superaltares1 chapelles1 and bells1 by cursing of men and absoluing theim agein for money80#aif ,one of the ballads of ,cromwell's time ridiculed1 in this manner1 all the chief pilgrimages of the kingdom3-- 8,ronnying hyther and thyther1 ,we cannot tell whither1 ,in offryng candels and pence ,to stones and stockes1 ,and to olde rotten blockes1 ,that came1 we know not from whense4 8,to ,walsyngham a gaddyng1 ,to ,cantorbury a maddyng1 ,as men distraught of mynde2 ,with fewe clothes on our backes1 ,but an image of waxe1 ,for the lame and for the blynde4 8,yet offer what ye wolde1 ,were it otes1 syluer1 or golde ,pyn1 poynt1 brooche1 or rynge1 ,the churche were as then1 ,such charitable men1 ,that they would refuse nothyng40#aig ,but the war was not waged with words alone4 ,at the comparatively early date of #acic1 ,london had grown so unruly that ,richard assumed the government of the city himself4 ,first he appointed ,sir ,edward ,darlington warden1 but ,sir ,edward proving too lenient1 he replaced him with ,sir ,baldwin ,radington4 ,foxe1 very frankly1 explained why3-- 8,for the ,londoners at that time were notoriously known to be favourers of ,wickliff's side1 as partly before this is to be seen1 and in the story of ,saint ,alban's more plainly doth appear1 where the author of the said history1 writing upon the fifteenth year of ,king ,richard's reign1 reporteth in these words of the ,londoners1 that they were #8not right believers in ,god1 nor in the traditions of their forefathers2 sustainers of the ,lollards1 depravers of religious men1 withholders of tithes1 and impoverishers of the common people4' 8444 ,the king1 incensed not a little with the complaint of the bishops1 conceived eftsoons1 against the mayor and sheriffs1 and against the whole city of ,london1 a great stomach2 insomuch1 that the mayor and both the sheriffs were sent for1 and removed from their office40#aih ,by the opening of the sixteenth century a priest could hardly collect his dues without danger2 the ,bishop of ,london indeed roundly declared to the government that justice could not be had from the courts4 ,in #aead the infant child of a merchant tailor named ,hun died1 and the parson of the parish sued the father for a bearing sheet1 which he claimed as a mortuary4 ,hun contested the case1 and got out a writ of prmunire against the priest1 which so alarmed the clergy that the chancellor of the diocese accused him of heresy1 and confined him in the ,lollard's tower of ,saint ,paul's4 ,in due time the usual articles were exhibited against the defendant1 charging that he had disputed the lawfulness of tithes1 and had said they were ordained 8only by the covetousness of priests02 also that he possessed divers of 8,wickliff's damnable works10 and more to the same effect4 ,upon these articles ,fitzjames1 ,bishop of ,london1 examined ,hun on ,december #b1 and after the examination recommitted him4 ,on the morning of the #dth1 a boy sent with his breakfast found him hanging to a beam in his cell4 ,the clergy said suicide1 but the populace cried murder1 and the coroner's jury found a verdict against ,dr4 ,horsey1 the chancellor4 ,the situation then became grave1 and ,fitzjames wrote to ,wolsey a remarkable letter1 which showed not only high passion1 but serious alarm3-- 8,in most humble wise ,i beseech you1 that ,i may have the king's gracious favour 444 for assured am ,i1 if my chancellor be tried by any twelve men in ,london1 they be so maliciously set1 #8in favorem hretic pravitatis1' that they will cast and condemn any clerk1 though he were as innocent as ,abel40#aii ,the evidence is conclusive that1 from the outset1 industry bred heretics2 agriculture1 believers4 ,thorold ,rogers has explained that the east of ,england1 from ,kent to the ,wash and on to ,yorkshire1 was the richest part of the kingdom1#bjj and ,mr4 ,blunt1 in his ,reformation of the ,church of ,england1 has published an analysis of the martyrdoms under ,mary4 ,he has shown that out of #bgg victims1 #bcd came from the district to the east of a line drawn from ,boston to ,portsmouth4 ,west of this line ,oxford had most burnings2 but1 by the reign of ,mary1 manufactures had spread so far inland that the industries of ,oxfordshire were only surpassed by those of ,middlesex4#bja ,in ,wickliffe's time ,norwich stood next to ,london1 and ,norwich was infested with ,lollards1 many of whom were executed there4 ,on the other hand1 but two executions are recorded in the six agricultural counties north of the ,humber--counties which were the poorest and the farthest removed from the lines of trade4 ,thus the eastern counties were the hot-bed of ,puritanism4 ,there1 ,kett's rebellion broke out under ,edward ,,vi42 there1 ,cromwell recruited his ,ironsides1 and throughout this region1 before the beginning of the ,reformation1 assaults on relics were most frequent and violent4 ,one of the most famous of these relics was the rood of ,dovercourt4 ,dovercourt is part of ,harwich1 on the ,essex coast2 ,dedham lies ten miles inland1 on the border of ,suffolk2 and the description given by ,foxe of the burning of the image of ,dovercourt1 is an example of what went on throughout the southeast just before the time of the divorce3-- 8,in the same year of our ,lord #aecb1 there was an idol named the ,rood of ,dovercourt1 whereunto was much and great resort of people3 for at that time there was great rumour blown abroad amongst the ignorant sort1 that the power of the idol of ,dovercourt was so great1 that no man had power to shut the church-door where he stood2 and therefore they let the church-door1 both night and day1 continually stand open1 for the more credit unto their blind rumour4 ,this once being conceived in the heads of the vulgar sort1 seemed a great marvel unto many men2 but to many again1 whom ,god had blessed with his spirit1 it was greatly suspected1 especially unto these1 whose names here follow3 as ,robert ,king of ,dedham1 ,robert ,debnam of ,eastbergholt1 ,nicholas ,marsh of ,dedham1 and ,robert ,gardner of ,dedham1 whose consciences were sore burdened to see the honour and power of the almighty living ,god so to be blasphemed by such an idol4 ,wherefore they were moved by the ,spirit of ,god1 to travel out of ,dedham in a wondrous goodly night1 both hard frost and fair moonshine1 although the night before1 and the night after1 were exceeding foul and rainy4 ,it was from the town of ,dedham1 to the place where the filthy ,rood stood1 ten miles4 ,notwithstanding1 they were so willing in that their enterprise1 that they went these ten miles without pain1 and found the church door open1 according to the blind talk of the ignorant people3 for there durst no unfaithful body shut it4 ,this happened well for their purpose1 for they found the idol1 which had as much power to keep the door shut1 as to keep it open2 and for proof thereof1 they took the idol from his shrine1 and carried him quarter of a mile from the place where he stood1 without any resistance of the said idol4 ,whereupon they struck fire with a flint-stone1 and suddenly set him on fire1 who burned out so brim1 that he lighted them homeward one good mile of the ten4 8,this done1 there went a great talk abroad that they should have great riches in that place2 but it was very untrue2 for it was not their thought or enterprise1 as they themselves afterwards confessed1 for there was nothing taken away but his coat1 his shoes1 and the tapers4 ,the tapers did help to burn him1 the shoes they had again1 and the coat one ,sir ,thomas ,rose did burn2 but they had neither penny1 halfpenny1 gold1 groat1 nor jewel4 8,notwithstanding1 three of them were afterwards indicted of felony1 and hanged in chains within half a year1 or thereabout4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,the same year1 and the year before1 there were many images cast down and destroyed in many places3 as the image of the crucifix in the highway by ,coggeshall1 the image of ,saint ,petronal in the church of ,great ,horksleigh1 the image of ,saint ,christopher by ,sudbury1 and another image of ,saint ,petronal in a chapel of ,ipswich40#bjb ,england's economic supremacy is recent1 and has resulted from the change in the seat of exchanges which followed the discovery of ,america and the sea-route to ,india2 long before ,columbus1 however1 the introduction of the mariner's compass had altered the paths commerce followed between the north and south of ,europe during the crusades4 ,the necessity of travel by land built up the ,fairs of ,champagne2 they declined when safe ocean navigation had cheapened marine freights4 ,then ,antwerp and ,bruges superseded ,provins and the towns of ,central ,france1 and rapidly grew to be the distributing points for ,eastern merchandise for ,germany1 the ,baltic1 and ,england4 ,in #acag the ,venetians organized a direct packet service with ,flanders1 and finally1 the discoveries of ,vasco-da-,gama1 at the end of the fifteenth century1 threw ,italy completely out of the line of the ,asiatic trade4 ,british industries seem to have sympathized with these changes1 for weaving first assumed some importance under ,edward ,i41 although ,english cloth long remained inferior to continental4 ,the next advance was contemporaneous with the discovery of the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,on ,july #h1 #adig1 ,vasco-da-,gama sailed for ,calicut1 and in the previous year ,henry ,,vii4 negotiated the 8,magnus ,intercursus10 by which treaty the ,merchant ,adventurers succeeded for the first time in establishing themselves advantageously in ,antwerp4 ,thenceforward ,england began to play a part in the industrial competition of ,europe1 but even then her progress was painfully slow4 ,the accumulations of capital were small1 and increased but moderately1 and a full century later1 when the ,dutch easily raised #fjj1jjj for their ,east ,india ,company1 only #gb1jjj were subscribed in ,london for the ,english venture4 ,throughout the ,middle ,ages1 while exchanges centred in ,north ,italy1 ,great ,britain hung on the outskirts of the commercial system of the world1 and even at the beginning of the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 she could not compare1 either in wealth1 refinement1 or organization1 with such a kingdom as ,france4 ,the crown had not been the prize of the strongest in a struggle among equals1 but had fallen to a soldier of a superior race1 under whom no great nobility ever grew up4 ,no baron in ,england corresponded with such princes as the dukes of ,normandy and ,burgundy1 the counts of ,champagne and ,toulouse4 ,fortifications were on a puny scale2 no strongholds like ,pierrefonds or ,vitr1 ,coucy or ,carcassonne existed1 and the ,tower of ,london itself was insignificant beside the ,chteau ,gaillard1 which ,cur-de-,lion planted on the ,seine4 ,the population was scanty1 and increased little4 ,when ,henry ,,viii4 came to the throne in #aeji1 ,london may have had forty or fifty thousand inhabitants1 ,york eleven thousand1 ,bristol nine or ten thousand1 and ,norwich six thousand4#bjc ,paris at that time probably contained between three and four hundred thousand1 and ,milan and ,ghent two hundred and fifty thousand each4 ,but although ,england was not a monied centre during the ,middle ,ages1 and perhaps for that very reason1 she felt with acuteness the financial pressure of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,she had little gold and silver1 and gold and silver rose in relative value2 she had few manufactures1 and manufactures were comparatively prosperous2 her wealth lay in her agricultural interests1 and farm products were1 for the most part1 severely pinched4 ,commenting on the prices between the end of the thirteenth century and the middle of the sixteenth1 ,mr4 ,rogers has observed3-- 8,again1 upon several articles of the first importance1 there is a marked decline in the price from the average of #abfa-adjj to that of #adja-aedj4 ,this would have been more conspicuous1 if ,i had in my earlier volumes compared all prices from #abfa to #acej with those of #acea-adjj4 ,but even over the whole range1 every kind of grain1 except wheat and peas1 is dearer in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries than it is in the first hundred and forty years of the present period #adja-aehb2 and had ,i taken the average price of wheat during the last fifty years of the fourteenth century1 it would have been 7#fs4 #a #ab;d47 dearer than the average of #adja-aedj 7#es4 #aa #cd;d471 heightened as this is by the dearness of the last thirteen years40#bjd ,the tables published by ,mr4 ,rogers make it possible to form some idea of the strain to which the population of ,great ,britain was exposed1 during the two hundred and fifty years which intervened between the crisis at the close of the thirteenth century1 and the discovery of the mines of ,potosi in #aede1 which flooded the world with silver4 ,throughout this long interval an expanding commerce unceasingly enlarged the demand for currency1 while no adequate additions were made to the stock of the precious metals2 the consequence was that their relative value rose1 while the value of commodities declined1 and this process had a tendency to debase the coinage4 ,the latter part of the ,middle ,ages was a time of rapid centralization1 when the cost of administration grew from year to year but in proportion as the necessities of the government increased1 the power of the people to pay taxes diminished1 because the products which they sold brought less of the standard coin4 ,to meet the deficit the same weight of metal had to be cut into more pieces1 and thus by a continued inflation of the currency1 general bankruptcy was averted4 ,the various stages of pressure are pretty clearly marked by the records of the ,mint4 ,apparently the stringency which began in ,france about the end of the reign of ,saint ,louis1 or somewhat later1 did not affect ,england immediately1 for prices do not seem to have reached their maximum until after #abij1 and ,edward ,i4 only reduced the penny1 in #abii1 from #bb4e grains of silver to #bb4be grains4 ,thenceforward the decline1 though spasmodic1 on the whole tended to increase in severity from generation to generation4 ,the long ,french wars1 and the ,black ,death1 produced a profound effect upon the domestic economy of the kingdom under ,edward ,,iii42 and the ,black ,death1 especially1 seems to have had the unusual result of raising prices at a time of commercial collapse4 ,this rise probably was due to the dearth of labour1 for half the population of ,europe is said to have perished1 and1 at all events1 the crops often could not be reaped through lack of hands4 ,more than a generation elapsed before normal conditions returned4 ,immediately before the ,french war the penny lost two grains1 and between #acdf and #acea1 during the ,black ,death1 it lost two grains and a quarter more1 a depreciation of four grains and a half in fifty years2 then for half a century an equilibrium was maintained4 ,under ,henry ,,iv4 there was a sharp decline of three grains1 equal to an inflation of seventeen per cent1 and by #adgj1 under ,henry ,,vi41 the penny fell to twelve grains4 ,then a period of stability followed1 which lasted until just before the ,reformation1 when a crisis unparalleled in severity began1 a crisis which probably was the proximate cause of the confiscation of the conventual estates4 ,in #aebf the penny suddenly lost a grain and a half1 or about twelve and a half per cent1 and then1 when further reductions of weight would have made the piece too flimsy1 the government resorted to adulteration4 ,in #aedb1 a ten-grain penny was coined with one part in five of alloy2 in #aedd1 the alloy had risen to one-half1 and in #aede1 two-thirds of the coin was base metal--a depreciation of more than seventy per cent in twenty years4 ,meanwhile1 though prices had fluctuated1 the trend had been downward1 and downward so strongly that it had not been fully counteracted by the reductions of bullion in the money4 ,rogers thought lath-nails perhaps the best gauge of prices1 and in commenting on the years which preceded the ,reformation1 he remarked3-- 8,from #adfa to #aedj1 the average of lath-nails is very little higher than it was from #abfa to #acej1 illustrating anew that significant decline in prices which characterizes the economical history of ,england during the eighty years #adfa-aedj40bje ,although wheat rose more than other grains1 and is therefore an unfavourable standard of comparison1 wheat yields substantially the same result4 ,during the last forty years of the thirteenth century1 the average price of the quarter was #es4 #aj #cd;d41 and for the last decade1 #fs4 #a;d4 ,for the first forty years of the sixteenth century the average was #fs4 #aj;d4 ,the penny of #aebf1 however1 contained only about forty-seven per cent of the bullion of the penny of #abii4 8,the most remarkable fact in connection with the issue of base money by ,henry ,,viii4 is the singular identity of the average price of grain1 especially wheat1 during the first #adj years of my present period1 with the last #adj of my first two volumes40#bjf ,after a full examination of his tables1 ,rogers concluded that the great rise which made the prosperity of ,elizabeth's reign did not begin until some 8year between #aede and #aedi40bjg ,this corresponds precisely with the discovery of ,potosi in #aede1 and that the advance was due to the new silver1 and not to the debasement of the coinage1 seems demonstrated by the fact that no fall took place when the currency was restored by ,elizabeth1 but1 on the contrary1 the upward movement continued until well into the next century4 ,some idea may be formed from these figures of the contraction which prevailed during the years of the ,reformation4 ,in #aedd1 toward the close of ,henry's reign1 the penny held five grains of pure silver as against about #bj4h grains in #abii1 and yet its purchasing power had not greatly varied4 ,bullion must therefore have had about four times the relative value in #aedd that it had two hundred and fifty years earlier1 and1 if the extremely debased issues of #aede and later be taken as the measure1 its value was much higher4 ,had ,potosi been discovered a generation earlier1 the whole course of ,english development might have been modified1 for it is not impossible that1 without the aid of falling prices1 the rising capitalistic class might have lacked the power to confiscate the monastic estates4 ,as it was1 the pressure continued until the catastrophe occurred1 relic worship was swept away1 the property of the nation was redistributed1 and an impulsion was given to large farming which led to the rapid eviction of the yeomanry4 ,as the yeomen were driven from their land1 they roamed over the world1 colonizing and conquering1 from the ,mississippi to the ,ganges2 building up1 in the course of two hundred and fifty years1 a centralization greater than that of ,rome1 and more absolute than that of ,constantinople4 ,changes so vast in the forms of competition necessarily changed the complexion of society4 ,men who had flourished in an age of decentralization and of imagination passed away1 and were replaced by a new aristocracy4 ,the soldier and the priest were overpowered2 and1 from the ,reformation downward1 the monied type possessed the world4 ,thomas ,cromwell1 ,earl of ,essex1 was the ideal of this type1 and he was accordingly the ,englishman who rose highest during the convulsion of the ,reformation4 ,he was a perfect commercial adventurer1 and ,chapuys1 the ambassador of ,charles ,v4 at ,london1 thus described his origin to his master3-- 8,cromwell is the son of a poor farrier1 who lived in a little village a league and a half from here1 and is buried in the parish graveyard4 ,his uncle1 father of the cousin whom he has already made rich1 was cook of the late ,archbishop of ,canterbury4 ,cromwell was ill-behaved when young1 and after an imprisonment was forced to leave the country4 ,he went to ,flanders1 ,rome1 and elsewhere in ,italy4 ,when he returned he married the daughter of a shearman1 and served in his house2 he then became a solicitor40#bjh ,the trouble which drove him abroad seems to have been with his father1 and he probably started on his travels about #aejd4 ,he led a dissolute and vagabond life1 served as a mercenary in ,italy1 8was wild and youthful1 444 as he himself was wont ofttimes to declare unto ,cranmer1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury2 showing what a ruffian he was in his young days 444 also what a great doer he was with ,geffery ,chambers in publishing and setting forth the pardons of ,boston everywhere in churches as he went40#bji ,these 8pardons0 were indulgences he succeeded in obtaining from the pope for the town of ,boston1 which he peddled about the country as he went4 ,he served as a clerk in the counting house of the ,merchant ,adventurers at ,antwerp1 and also appears to have filled some such position with a ,venetian merchant4 ,on his return to ,england in #aeac1 he married and set up a fulling-mill2 he also became an attorney and a usurer1 dwelling by ,fenchurch1 in ,london4 ,in #aebc1 having been elected to ,parliament1 ,cromwell was a most prosperous man4 ,at this time he entered ,wolsey's service1 and made himself of use in suppressing convents to supply endowments for the cardinal's colleges at ,oxford and ,ipswich4 ,when ,wolsey fell1 he ingratiated himself with ,henry1 and thenceforward rose rapidly4 ,he became chancellor of the exchequer1 master of the rolls1 secretary of state1 vicar general1 a ,knight of the ,garter1 and ,earl of ,essex4 ,at once the head of ,church and ,state1 probably no ,english subject has ever been so powerful4 ,both he and ,cranmer succeeded through flexibility and adroitness4 ,he suggested to ,henry to accomplish his ends by robbing the convents1 and ,mr4 ,brewer1 an excellent authority1 thought him notoriously venal from the outset4 ,his executive and business capacity was unrivalled4 ,he had the instinct for money1 and provided he made it1 he scrupled not about the means4 ,in the ,state ,papers there is an amusing account of the treatment he put up with1 when at the pinnacle of greatness3-- 8,and as for my ,lord ,prevye ,sealle1 ,i wold not be in his case for all that ever he hathe1 for the ,king beknaveth him twice a weke1 and some-tyme knocke him well about thee pate2 and yet when he hathe bene well pomeld aboute the hedde1 and shaken up1 as it were a dogge1 he will come out into the great chambre1 shaking of the bushe with as mery a countenance as thoughe he mought rule all the roste40#baj ,though good-natured where his interests were not involved1 he appears to have been callous to the sight of pain1 and not only attended to the racking of important witnesses1 but went in state to see ,father ,forest roasted in chains for denying the royal supremacy1 which he was labouring to establish4 ,his behaviour to ,lambert1 whom he sent to the fire for confessing his own principles1 astonished even those who knew him well4 ,how he became a ,protestant is uncertain2 ,foxe thought1 by reading ,erasmus's translation of the ,new ,testament4 ,more probably he was sceptical because he was of the economic type4 ,at all events1 he hated ,rome1 and ,foxe said that in #aech he was 8the chief friend of the gospellers40 ,in that same year ,lambert was tried for heresy regarding transubstantiation1 and it was then ,cromwell sentenced him to be burned alive4 ,characteristically1 he is said to have invited him to breakfast on the morning of the execution1 and to have then begged his pardon for what he had done4 ,pole described a conversation he had with ,essex about the duty of ministers to kings4 ,pole thought their first obligation was to consider their masters' honour1 and insisted on the divergence between honour and expediency4 ,such notions seemed fantastic to ,cromwell1 who told ,pole that a prudent politician would study a prince's inclinations and act accordingly4 ,he then offered ,pole a manuscript of ,machiavelli's ,prince4 ,such a temperament differed1 not so much in degree as in kind1 from that of ,godfrey de ,bouillon or ,saint ,louis1 ,bayard or the ,black ,prince4 ,it was subtler1 more acquisitive1 more tenacious of life1 and men and women of the breed of ,cromwell rose rapidly to be the owners of ,england during the sixteenth century4 ,social standards changed4 ,even in semi-barbarous ages a lofty courtesy had always been deemed befitting the great4 ,saint ,anselm and ,hlose1 ,saladin and ,cur-de-,lion have remained ideals for centuries1 because they represented a phase of civilization2 and ,froissart has described how the ,black ,prince entertained his prisoners after ,poitiers3-- 8,the prince himself served the king's table1 as well as the others1 with every mark of humility1 and would not sit down at it1 in spite of all his entreaties for him so to do1 saying that #8he was not worthy of such an honour1 nor did it appertain to him to seat himself at the table of so great a king1 or of so valiant a man as he had shown himself by his actions that day4'0#baa ,one hundred and fifty years of progress had eliminated chivalry4 ,manners were coarse and morals loose at the court of ,henry ,,viii4 ,foreign ambassadors spoke with little respect of the society they saw4 ,chapuys permitted himself to sneer at ,lady ,jane ,seymour1 who afterward became queen1 because he seems to have thought the ladies of the court venal3-- 8,i leave you to judge whether1 being ,english1 and having frequented the court1 #8si elle ne tiendroit pas conscience de navoir pourveu et prvenu de savoir que cest de faire nopces4'0#bab ,the scandals of the ,boleyn family are too well known to need notice1#bac and it would be futile to accumulate examples of the absence of female virtue when the fact is notorious4 ,the rising nobility resembled ,cromwell more or less feebly4 ,the mercenary quality was the salient characteristic of the favoured class4 ,thomas ,boleyn1 ,earl of ,wiltshire1 made his fortune through his own shrewdness and the beauty of his daughters4 ,mary1 the younger1 was an early mistress of ,henry2 ,anne1 the elder and the astuter1 was his wife4 ,boleyn's title and his fortune came through this connection4 ,boleyn was a specimen of a class2 in him the instinct of self-preservation was highly developed4 ,when his daughter ,anne1 and his son1 ,lord ,rochford1 were tried at the ,tower for incest1 the evidence was so flimsy that ten to one was bet in the court-room on acquittal4 ,at this supreme moment1 the attitude of the father was thus described by ,chapuys1 who had good sources of information3-- 8,on the #aeth the said concubine and her brother were condemned of treason by all the principal lords of ,england1 and the ,duke of ,norfolk her uncle pronounced sentence4 ,i am told the ,earl of ,wiltshire was quite as ready to assist at the judgment as he had done at the condemnation of the other four40#bad ,the grandfather of ,thomas ,boleyn had been an alderman of ,london and a rich tradesman2 his son had been knighted1 and had retired from business1 and ,wiltshire himself1 though a younger son and with but fifty pounds a year when married1 raised himself by his wits1 and the use of his children1 to be a wealthy earl4 ,the history of the ,cecil family is not dissimilar4 ,david1 the first of the name who emerged from obscurity1 gained a certain favour under ,henry ,,viii42 his son ,richard1 a most capable manager1 obtained a fair share of the monastic plunder1 was groom of the robes1 constable of ,warwick ,castle1 and died rich4 ,his son was the great ,lord ,burleigh1 in regard to whom perhaps it may be best to quote an impartial authority4 ,macaulay described him as possessed of 8a cool temper1 a sound judgment1 great powers of application1 and a constant eye to the main chance4444 ,he never deserted his friends till it was very inconvenient to stand by them1 was an excellent ,protestant when it was not very advantageous to be a ,papist1 recommended a tolerant policy to his mistress as strongly as he could recommend it without hazarding her favour1 never put to the rack any person from whom it did not seem probable that useful information might be derived1 and was so moderate in his desires that he left only three hundred distinct landed estates1 though he might1 as his honest servant assures us1 have left much more1 #8if he would have taken money out of the exchequer for his own use1 as many treasurers have done4'0#bae ,the ,howards1 though of an earlier time1 were of the same temperament4 ,the founder was a lawyer1 who sat on the bench of the ,common ,pleas under ,edward ,i41 and who1 therefore1 did not earn his knighthood on a stricken field1 as the ,black ,prince won his spurs at ,crcy4 ,after his death his descendants made little stir for a century1 but they married advantageously1 accumulated money1 and1 in the fifteenth century1 one ,robert ,howard married a daughter of ,thomas ,mowbray1 ,duke of ,norfolk4 ,this he hardly would have done had he not been a man of substance1 since he seems not to have been a man of war4 ,the alliance made the fortune of the family4 ,it also appears to have added some martial instinct to the stock1 for ,richard ,,iii4 gave ,john ,howard the title of the ,mowbrays1 and this ,john was afterwards killed at ,bosworth4 ,his son commanded at ,flodden1 and his grandson was the great spoiler of the convents under ,henry ,,viii41 who also suppressed the northern rebellion4 ,thomas ,howard1 the minister of ,henry ,,viii41 was one of the most interesting characters of his generation4 ,he was naturally a strong ,conservative2 ,chapuys never doubted that 8the change in matters of religion was not to his mind03 in #aecd he even went so far as to tell the ,french ambassador that he would not consent to a change1 and this speech having been repeated to the king1 occasioned his momentary disgrace4#baf ,at one time ,lord ,darcy1 the head of the reactionary party1 counted on his support against ,cromwell1 though he warned ,chapuys not to trust him implicitly1 because of 8his inconstancy40#bag ,yet1 under a certain appearance of vacillation1 he hid a profound and subtle appreciation of the society which environed him2 this 8inconstancy0 made his high fortune4 ,he had a sure instinct1 which taught him at the critical moment where his interests lay1 and he never was deceived4 ,henry distrusted him1 but could not do without him1 and paid high for his support4 ,howard1 on his side1 was keenly distressed when he found he had gone too far1 and when the northern insurrection broke out1 and he was offered the command of the royal forces1 the ,bishop of ,carlisle1 with whom he dined1 said he had never seen the duke 8so happy as he was to-day40#bah ,once in the field against his friends1 there were no lengths to which ,thomas ,howard would not go4 ,he never wearied of boasting of his lies and of his cruelty1 he wrote to assure ,henry he would spare no pains to entrap them1 and would esteem no promise he made to the rebels1 8for surely ,i shall observe no part thereof1 for any respect of that other might call mine honor dystayned40#bai ,as ,cromwell behaved toward ,lambert1 so he behaved toward the ,carthusians4 ,though they were men in whose religion he probably believed as sincerely as he believed anything1 and in whose cause he had professed himself ready to take up arms1 when they were sent to the stake he attended the execution as a spectacle1 and watched them expire in torments1 without a pang4 ,men gifted like ,howard were successful in the ,reformation1 and ,norfolk made a colossal fortune out of his polities4 ,the price of his service was thirteen convents1 and his son ,surrey had two2 of what he made in other ways no record remains4 ,such was the new aristocracy2 but the bulk of the old baronage was differently bred1 and those who were of the antiquated type were doomed to pass away4 ,the publication of the ,state ,papers leaves no doubt that the ancient feudal gentry1 both titled and untitled1 as a body1 opposed the reform4 ,many of the most considerable of these were compromised in the ,pilgrimage of ,grace in #aecf1 among whom was ,thomas ,lord ,darcy4 ,if a medival baron still lived in the middle of the sixteenth century1 that man was ,darcy4 ,since the ,conqueror granted the ,norman de ,areci thirty lordships in ,lincolnshire1 his ancestors had been soldiers1 and at his home in the north his retainers formed an army as of old4 ,born in #adfg1 at twenty-five he bound himself by indenture to serve ,henry ,,vii4 beyond the sea1 at the head of a thousand men1 and more than forty years afterward he promised ,chapuys that he would march against ,london with a force eight thousand strong1 if the emperor would attack ,henry ,,viii4 ,all his life long he had fought upon the borders4 ,he had been captain of ,berwick1 warden of the east and middle marches1 and in #aeaa he had volunteered to lead a ,british contingent against the ,moors4 ,he was a ,knight of the ,garter1 a member of the ,privy ,council1 and when the insurrection broke out1 he commanded at ,pontefract ,castle1 the strongest position in ,yorkshire4 ,a survival of the past1 he retained the ideas of ,crcy and ,poitiers1 and these brought him to the block4 ,while negotiations were pending1 ,norfolk seems to have wanted to save him1 though possibly he may have been actuated by a more sinister purpose4 ,at all events he certainly wrote suggesting to ,darcy to make his peace by ensnaring ,aske1 the rebel leader1 and giving him up to the government4 ,to ,norfolk this seemed a perfectly legitimate transaction4 ,by such methods he rose to eminence4 ,to ,darcy it seemed dishonour1 and he died for it4 ,instead of doing as he was bid1 he reproached ,norfolk for deeming him capable of treachery3-- 8,where your lordship advises me to take ,aske1 quick or dead1 as you think ,i may do by policy1 and so gain the king's favour2 alays my good lord yt ever ye being a man of so much honour and gret experyence shold advice or chuss mee a man to be of eny such sortt or facion to betray or dissav eny liffyng man1 ,french man1 ,scott1 yea1 or a ,turke2 of my faith1 to gett and wyn to me and myn heyres fowr of the best dukes landdes in ,fraunce1 or to be kyng there1 ,i wold nott do it to no liffyng person40#bbj ,darcy averred that he surrendered ,pontefract to the rebels because the government neglected to relieve him1 and although doubtless he always sympathized with the rising1 he promptly wrote to ,london when the outbreak began1 to warn ,henry not only of the weakness of his fortress1 but of the power of the enemy4#bba ,when the royal herald visited the castle to treat with the insurgents1 he found ,darcy1 ,sir ,robert ,constable1 ,aske1 and others1 who told him they were on a pilgrimage to ,london to have all the 8vile blood put from0 the ,privy ,council1 8and noble blood set up again10 and to make restitution for the wrongs done the ,church4#bbb ,this ,aske was he whom ,darcy refused to betray1 but instead he offered to do all he could 8as a true knight and subject0 to pacify the country1 and he did help to persuade the rebels to disperse on ,henry's promise of a redress of grievances4 ,in the moment of peril both ,darcy and ,aske were pardoned and cajoled1 but the rising monied type were not the men to let the soldiers escape them1 once they held them disarmed4 ,even while ,henry was plotting the destruction of those to whom he had pledged his word1 ,norfolk wrote from the north to ,cromwell3 8,i have by policy brought him ,aske to desire me to yeve him licence to ride to ,london1 and have promised to write a letter 444 which 444 ,i pray you take of the like sort as you did the other ,i wrote for ,sir ,thomas ,percy4 ,if neither of them both come never in this country again ,i think neither true nor honest men woll be sorry thereof1 nor in likewise for my ,lord ,darcy nor ,sir ,robert ,constable40#bbc ,percy and ,constable1 ,aske and ,darcy1 all perished on the scaffold4 ,darcy and his like recognized that a new world had risen about them1 in which they had no place4 ,during his imprisonment in ,london1 before his execution1 he was examined by ,cromwell1 and thus1 almost with his dying words1 addressed the man who was the incarnation of the force that killed him3-- 8,cromwell1 it is thou that art the very original and chief causer of all this rebellion and mischief1 and art likewise causer of the apprehension of us that be noble men and dost daily earnestly travail to bring us to our end and to strike off our heads1 and ,i trust that or thou die1 though thou wouldst procure all the noblemen's heads within the realm to be stricken off1 yet shall there one head remain that shall strike off thy head40#bbd ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,suppression ,,of ,,the ,,convents ,at the apex of the new society stood ,henry ,,viii41 who1 like ,philip the ,fair1 had many of the qualities which make a great religious reformer in an economic age4 ,in reaching an estimate of his nature1 however1 the opinions of ,englishmen are of no great value1 since they are usually distorted by prejudice4 ,the best observers were the foreign ministers at his court1 whose business was to collect information for their governments4 ,at a time when there were no newspapers1 these agents had to be accurate1 and their despatches are trustworthy4 ,charles de ,marillac was born in #aeaj4 ,he belonged to an old family1 and had an unblemished reputation4 ,he had no leaning against ,protestants1 for he was disgraced by the ,guise party4 ,he was thirty when in ,london as ambassador of ,francis ,i4 ,after having been a year in ,england1 he wrote3-- 8,this prince seems to me subject among other vices to three1 which certainly in a king may be called pests1 of which the first is1 that he is so avaricious and covetous1 that all the riches of the world would not be sufficient to satisfy and content his ambition4444 ,from this proceeds the second evil and pest1 which is distrust and fear 444 wherefore he ceaselessly embrews his hands in blood1 feeling in his mind doubt of those about him1 wishing to live without suspicion1 which every day augments4444 ,and in part from these two evils proceeds the last pest1 which is levity and inconstancy2 and partly also from the temper of the nation1 by which they have perverted the rights of religion1 of marriage1 of honesty and honour1 as if they were wax1 the which alloy can change itself into whatever forms they wish40#bbe ,cruelty was one of ,henry's most salient traits1 and was1 perhaps1 the faculty by which he succeeded in imposing himself most strongly upon his contemporaries4 ,he not only murdered his wives1 his ministers1 and his friends1 but he pursued those who opposed him with a vindictiveness which appalled them4 ,he was ingenious in devising torments4 ,friar ,forest1 whose crime was the denial of the royal supremacy1 he caused to be slowly roasted over a rood which he had fetched from ,wales on purpose4 ,they 8hanged him in ,smithfield in chains1 upon a gallows quick1 by the middle and arm-holes1 and fire was made under him1 and so was he consumed and burned to death40#bbf ,henry relished the idea of the show so much1 that ,chapuys thought him disappointed at not being able to attend with his whole court4 ,his way of dealing with the ,carthusians was equally characteristic4 ,the ,carthusians were in the ,church what ,darcy was in the ,state3 men of the old imaginative type1 of austere life and ascetic habits1 in whom still glowed the fiery enthusiasm of ,hildebrand4 ,they could not accept ,henry as ,god's viceregent upon earth4 ,the three priors--,houghton1 ,webster1 and ,lawrence--were 8ripped up in each other's presence1 their arms torn off1 their hearts cut out and rubbed upon their mouths and faces40#bbg ,three more were chained upright to posts1 where they stood for fourteen days1 8without the possibility of stirring for any purpose whatever1 held fast by iron collars on their necks1 arms1 and thighs40#bbh ,then they were hanged and disembowelled4 ,in #aecg1 ten were still resolute4 ,they were chained in ,newgate like the others1 where1 according to ,stowe1 nine 8died 444 with stink and miserably smothered40 ,the tenth1 who survived1 was hanged4 ,had ,henry been hampered1 like ,darcy1 with scruples about honour1 truth1 or conscience1 he too might have been undone4 ,his power lay in his capacity for doing what was needful for success4 ,he enticed ,aske to ,london1 and1 when he held him1 slew him4 ,he pardoned ,darcy1 and then sent him to ,tower ,hill4 ,lacking force to crush the rebels1 ,norfolk1 in the royal name1 pacified the people with pardon and promises of redress4 ,they dispersed1 thinking themselves safe4 ,henry ignored his pledges1 risings followed2 but1 when the country had been tranquillized and his army was again in peaceful possession1 he thus instructed the ,duke3-- 8,our pleasure is1 that 444 you shal1 in any wise1 cause suche dredfull execution to be doon upon a good nombre of thinhabitauntes of every towne1 village1 and hamlet1 that have offended in this rebellion1 aswell by the hanging of them uppe in trees1 as by the quartering of them1 and the setting of their heddes and quarters in every towne1 greate and small1 and in al suche other places1 as they may be a ferefull spectacle to all other herafter1 that wold practise any like mater3 whiche ,we requyre you to doo1 without pitie or respecte1 according to our former letters2 remembring that it shalbe moche better1 that these traitours shulde perishe in their wilfull1 unkynde1 and traitorous folyes1 thenne that so slendre punishment shuld be doon upon them1 as the dredde thereof shuld not be a warning to others40#bbi ,norfolk was after ,henry's pattern4 ,the rebels were his friends--men with whom he had pledged himself to act shortly before4 ,but he had chosen his side1 he had made his bargain1 and he earned his pay4 ,he was never weary of boasting of his cruelty toward the defenceless yeomanry3-- 8,they shall be put to death in every town where they dwelt4444 ,as many as chains of iron can be made for in this town and in the country shall be hanged in them2 the rest in ropes4 ,iron is marvellous scarce40 ,he tried his prisoners by court martial1 for he dared not trust the juries4 ,many of the farmers declared they had been forced to join in the insurrection through threats of violence1 and these might have been acquitted4 8,they say ,i came out for fear of my life1 or for fear of burning my houses and destroying of my wife and children40#bcj ,but where ,henry and ,norfolk were concerned there were no acquittals4 ,in the same way ,henry destroyed his ministers when he had done with them4 ,though ,cromwell was sagacious1 he was less crafty than ,henry4 ,just before his fall the king made him ,earl of ,essex1 and he lived in such complete ignorance of his fate that his disgrace fell like a thunder-bolt4 ,marillac has described how one day1 in the council chamber1 ,cromwell was arrested without warning1 and 8moved with indignation1 he plucked his hat from his head and threw it wrathfully upon the ground1 saying to ,norfolk and to the rest of the council assembled1 that this was his reward for his services to the king1 444 adding that since he was so treated1 he renounced all hope1 and all he asked of the king his master 444 was not to let him languish44440 ,the ,duke of ,norfolk1 having reproached him with all the villanies done by him1 tore from him the ,order of ,saint ,george1 which he wore about his neck2 and the admiral1 to show himself as much his enemy in adversity as he had been believed to be his friend in prosperity1 undid his garter4#bca ,from one point of view ,henry's vanity was a weakness1 for it laid him open to attack1 and the diplomatic correspondence is filled with sneers like this of ,castillon's3 8,il n'oublye jamais sa grandeur et se taist de celle des autres40#bcb ,probably nothing in ,english civilization has ever equalled the adulation he exacted from his courtiers1 and especially from his bishops2 yet even this vanity was a source of strength1 for it made him insensible to ridicule which would have unnerved ,saint ,louis4 ,on very scanty evidence1 he caused his wife to be arraigned for incest1 and during the trial appeared in public so gaily dressed1 and after her conviction danced before the ,court in such open delight1 that ,chapuys himself was surprised3-- 8,there are still two ,english gentlemen detained on her account1 and it is suspected that there will be many more1 because the king has said he believed that more than #ajj had to do with her4 ,you never saw prince or man who made greater show of his horns or bore them more pleasantly40#bcc ,his manners1 like those of ,cromwell and ,norfolk1 lacked the courtesy which distinguished men1 even of his own generation1 like ,sir ,thomas ,more4 ,he was gluttonous and self-indulgent1 and1 toward the end of his life1 so bloated as to be helpless4 ,his habits were well understood at ,court1 and suitors tried to approach him in the afternoon1 when he was tipsy4 ,marillac thought his gormandizing would kill him3-- 8,there has been little doubt about the king1 not so much for the fever as for the trouble with the leg which he has had which trouble seizes him very often because he is very gross1 and marvellously excessive in eating and drinking1 so that you often find him of a different purpose and opinion in the morning from what you do after dinner40#bcd ,on ,may #ad1 #aech1 ,castillon wrote3-- 8,furthermore the king has had one of the fistulas on his legs closed1 and since ten or twelve days the humors1 which have no vent1 have taken to stifling him1 so much so1 that he has been some of the time speechless1 the face all black1 and in great danger40#bce ,the most marked characteristic of the feudal aristocracy had been personal courage2 but as centralization advanced and a paid police removed the necessity of self-defence1 bravery ceased to be essential to success2 ,henry apparently was not courageous--certainly was not courageous in regard to disease4 ,when most infatuated with ,anne ,boleyn1 she fell ill of the sweating sickness2 he fled at once1 and wrote from a distance to beg her to fear nothing1 as 8few or no women 444 have died of it40#bcf ,marillac declared roundly that1 in such matters1 the king was 8the most timid person one could know40#bcg ,on the other hand1 he was habitually so overbearing as to be brutal to the weak4 ,lambert was a poor sectary1 of whom he determined to make an example4 ,he therefore prepared a solemn function1 at which he presided1 assisted by the bishops and the other dignitaries of the realm4 ,the accused1 when brought before this tribunal1 apparently showed some confusion1 and ,foxe has left a striking description of how ,henry tried to heighten this terror4 ,henry was dressed 8all in white10 probably emblematic of his purity as the head of the ,church1 and his 8look1 his cruel countenance1 and his brows bent into severity1 did not a little augment this terror2 plainly declaring a mind full of indignation1 far unworthy such a prince1 especially in such a matter1 and against so humble and obedient a subject40#bch ,gifted with such qualities1 ,henry could not have failed to be a great religious reformer at the opening of a great economic age4 ,more than five hundred years before1 when society hung on the brink of dissolution1 the ,church sustained centralization by electing ,hugh ,capet king of ,france4 ,a century later the armed pilgrimages to ,palestine had accelerated the social movement1 and consolidation again began4 ,generation by generation the rapidity of movement had increased1 communication had been re-established between the ,east and ,west1 the mariner's compass and gunpowder had been introduced into ,europe1 the attack had mastered the defence1 and as the forms of competition slowly changed1 capital accumulated1 until1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 wealth reached the point where it could lay the foundation of the paid police1 the crowning triumph of the monied class4 ,the ,reformation was the victory of this class over the archaic type of man1 and with the ,reformation the old imaginative civilization passed away2 but with all its power the monied intellect has certain weaknesses1 and neither in ancient ,rome nor modern ,england have capitalists been soldiers4 ,the ,tudor aristocracy was not a martial caste4 ,lacking physical force1 this new nobility feared the ancient farming population1 whom they slowly exterminated2 and they feared them with reason1 for from among the yeomanry ,cromwell drew his ,ironsides4 ,therefore one of the chief preoccupations of the ,tudor nobility was to devise means to hold this dangerous element in check1 and as it could not organize an army1 it utilized the ,church4 ,the land-owners had other purposes for the priesthood than simply to rob it2 they had also to enslave it1 and ,henry's title to greatness lies in his having attained both ends4 ,he not only plundered as no other man has plundered1 but he succeeded in assuming the functions of ,god's high priest1 and becoming ,christ's vicar upon earth4 ,upon this point there can be no difference of opinion2 not only are the formularies of the ,church of ,england clear1 but ,anglicans themselves admit it4 ,macaulay was of ,henry's communion2 ,macaulay is an historian whose opinion on such a point commands respect1 and ,macaulay has summed up the position of ,henry ,,viii4 as the head of the capitalistic hierarchy in these words3-- 8,what ,henry and his favourite counsellors meant1 at one time1 by the supremacy1 was certainly nothing less than the whole power of the keys4 ,the king was to be the pope of his kingdom1 the vicar of ,god1 the expositor of ,catholic verity1 the channel of sacramental graces4 ,he arrogated to himself the right of deciding dogmatically what was orthodox doctrine and what was heresy1 of drawing up and imposing confessions of faith1 and of giving religious instruction to his people4 8,he proclaimed that all jurisdiction1 spiritual as well as temporal1 was derived from him alone1 and that it was in his power to confer episcopal authority1 and to take it away4444 8,according to this system1 as expounded by ,cranmer1 the king was the spiritual as well as the temporal chief of the nation4 ,in both capacities his ,highness must have lieutenants4 ,as he appointed civil officers to keep his seal1 to collect his revenues1 and to dispense justice in his name1 so he appointed divines of various ranks to preach the gospel1 and to administer the sacraments4 ,it was unnecessary that there should be any imposition of hands4 ,the king--such was the opinion of ,cranmer given in the plainest words1--might1 in virtue of authority derived from ,god1 make a priest2 and the priest so made needed no ordination whatever40#bci ,under the ,tudors commerce and industry were yet in their infancy4 ,great ,britain still remained substantially agricultural1 and capital primarily sought investment in land4 ,the enclosure of the commons and the confiscations of the monastic estates1 together formed a gigantic real estate speculation1 with which faith had little to do1 and which was possible only because force began to express itself through another type of intellect than that which had been able to defend its property during an imaginative age4 ,the commercial community always demanded cheap religion4 ,under ,henry they inclined toward ,zwingli1 under ,elizabeth toward ,calvin1 under ,charles they were ,presbyterian2 the gentry1 on the contrary1 were by nature conservative1 and favoured orthodoxy as far as their interest in ,church plunder permitted them4 ,henry and ,norfolk stood at the head of this class2 ,norfolk's conversion to ,protestantism has been explained by ,chapuys1 and ,henry remained a bigot to his death4 8,shortly before he died1 when about to communicate1 as he always did1 under one kind1 he rose up from his chair1 and fell on his knees to adore the body of our ,lord4 ,the ,zwinglians who were present said that his majesty1 by reason of his bodily weakness1 might make his communion sitting in his chair4 ,the king's answer was1 #8,if ,i could throw myself down1 not only on the ground1 but under the ground1 ,i should not then think that ,i gave honour enough to the most ,holy ,sacrament4'0#bdj ,as to ,norfolk1 ,chapuys has left his opinion in very plain words3-- 8,he ,norfolk has a good deal changed his tune1 for it was he alone in the ,court who showed himself the best of ,catholics1 and who favoured most the authority of the pope2 but he must act in this way not to lose his remaining influence1 which apparently does not extend much further than ,cromwell wishes40#bda ,to attain their end1 the rising class1 at whose head these two men stood1 had to doubly despoil the ,church in whose dogmas they believed4 ,they confiscated her lands to enrich themselves1 and they suppressed her revenues to buy the support of the traders4 ,finally1 their lack of physical force suggested to them the expedient of seizing on the ecclesiastical organization and filling it with their servants1 who should teach the people the religious duty of submission to an authority which distrusted an appeal to arms4 ,as ,henry and ,norfolk represented the landed magnates1 so ,cromwell represented the mercantile community2 and when the alliance between these two monied interests had been perfected1 by the appointment of ,cromwell as secretary of state1 some time previous to ,april1 #aecd1 events moved with precision and rapidity4 ,they crowned ,anne ,boleyn on ,june #a1 #aecc2 in ,july the breach between the king and pope became irreparable2 in ,november1 #aecd1 ,parliament declared ,henry 8,supreme ,head0 of the ,church2 and in the following winter the whole administration1 both civil and ecclesiastical1 was concentrated in ,cromwell's hands4 ,he acted with astonishing energy4 ,in the autumn of #aece he set on foot a visitation1 preparatory to the dissolution of the convents1 and ,parliament passed the bill for suppression the next ,february4 ,cromwell also1 as vicar general1 presided over the convocation of ,canterbury1 which made the first reformation of faith4 ,this convocation met in ,june1 #aecf1 only shortly before the ,pilgrimage of ,grace1 and1 under the fear of violence1 ,henry and the conservatives were reduced to silence4 ,the evangelical influence for the moment held control1 and the 8,ten ,articles10 the foundation of the 8,thirty-nine ,articles10 together with the 8,institution of a ,christian ,man10 which were produced1 were a great departure from orthodoxy4 ,in the fourth article1 the dogma of the 8,supper0 was made broad enough to include ,lutherans1 and in the sixth1 image worship was condemned4 ,on the other hand1 8,justification by ,faith0 began to assume the importance it must always hold in all really ,protestant confessions4 ,in one of his homilies ,cranmer1 at a later time1 showed the comparative futility of good works3-- 8,a man must needs be nourished by good works2 but first he must have faith4 ,he that doeth good deeds1 yet without faith1 he hath no life4 ,i can shew a man that by faith without works lived1 and came to heaven3 but without faith never man had life40#bdb 8,never had the ,jews1 in their most blindness1 so many pilgrimages unto images 444 as hath been used in our time4444 ,keeping in divers places1 as it were marts or markets of merits2 being full of their holy relics1 images1 shrines1 and works of overflowing abundance ready to be sold4444 ,holy cowls1 holy girdles1 holy pardons1 heads1 holy shoes1 holy rules1 and all full of holiness4444 ,which were so esteemed and abused to the great prejudice of ,god's glory and commandments1 that they were made most high and most holy things1 whereby to attain to the everlasting life1 or remission of sin40#bdc ,the anti-sacerdotal movement under ,henry ,,viii4 culminated in #aecf and #aecg1 when the country rebelled1 and the land-owners were in need of help from the towns4 ,as long as the latter felt uncertain of their grip on ,church lands1 the radical mercantile interest was permitted to mould doctrine2 but when ,norfolk had triumphed in the north1 and ,aske and ,darcy had been executed1 a reaction set in4 ,in ,november1 #aech1 ,lambert was burned for denying transubstantiation1 and in #aeci the chapter in the statute book#bdd which followed that providing for the suppression of the mitred abbeys1 re-established auricular confession1 communion in one kind1 private masses1 and1 in a word1 strict orthodoxy1 saving in the single tenet of the royal supremacy4 ,to have conceded that would have endangered property4 ,twelve months later the landed magnates felt strong enough to discard the tradesmen2 the alliance which had carried through the ,reformation was dissolved1 and ,cromwell was beheaded4 ,never did pope enforce the worship of the miracle more savagely than did ,henry4 ,by the act of the 8,six ,articles10 the denial of the miracle of the mass was punished by burning and forfeiture of goods1 without the privilege of abjuration4 ,purity of faith could not have been the ideal of reformers4 ,until quite recently1 ,protestants have accepted the tradition that the convents of ,england were suppressed by the revolt of a people1 outraged by the disclosure of abominations perpetrated under the shelter of monasticism4 ,within a few years1 the publication of the ,british archives has thrown a new and sombre light upon the ,reformation4 ,they seem to prove1 beyond a doubt1 that as ,philip dealt with the ,templars1 so did ,henry deal with all the religious orders of his realm4 ,in #aecc ,henry's position was desperate4 ,he confronted not only the pope and the emperor1 but all that remained of the old feudal society1 and all that survived of the decaying imaginative age4 ,nothing could resist this combination save the rising power of centralized capital1 and ,henry therefore had to become the mouthpiece of the men who gave expression to this force4 ,he needed money1 and money in abundance1 and ,cromwell rose to a practical dictatorship because he was fittest to provide it4 ,on all that relates to ,essex1 ,foxe is an undoubted authority1 and ,foxe did not hesitate to attribute to ,cromwell ,henry's policy at this crisis3-- 8,for so it pleased ,almighty ,god1 by means of the said ,lord ,cromwell1 to induce the king to suppress first the chantries1 then the friars' houses and small monasteries1 till1 at length1 all the abbeys in ,england1 both great and less1 were utterly overthrown and plucked up by the roots4444 8,of how great laud and praise this man was worthy1 and what courage and stoutness was in him1 it may hereby evidently appear unto all men1 that he alone1 through the singular dexterity of his wit and counsel1 brought to pass that1 which1 even unto this day no prince or king1 throughout all ,europe1 dare or can bring to pass4 ,for whereas ,brittania alone1 of all other nations1 is and hath been1 of her own proper nature1 most superstitious2 this ,cromwell1 being born of a common or base stock1 through a divine method or policy of wit and reason received1 suffered1 deluded1 brake off1 and repressed1 all the policies1 trains1 malice1 and hatred of friars1 monks1 religious men1 and priests1 of which sort there was a great rabble in ,england40#bde ,cromwell's strength lay in his superiority to those scruples of truth and honour which hamper feebler men4 ,he did what circumstances demanded4 ,his object1 like ,philip's1 was to blacken his victims that he might destroy them1 and1 to gather the evidence1 he chose instruments adapted to the work4 ,to have used others would have demonstrated himself unfit4 ,mr4 ,gairdner has remarked in his preface to the tenth volume of the ,calendar3 8,we have no reason indeed to think highly of the character of ,cromwell's visitors40#bdf ,this opinion of ,mr4 ,gairdner is supported by all the evidence extant4 ,thomas ,legh1 one of the commissioners1 not only always took bribes1 but1 having been appointed master of ,sherburn ,hospital1 administered it 8to the utter disinheritance1 decay and destruction of the ancient and godly foundation of the same house40#bdg ,henry probably thought him dishonest1 since he had his accounts investigated4 ,even ,legh's colleague1 ,ap ,rice1 though venal himself1 and in great fear of being murdered for his treachery1 denounced him in set terms to ,cromwell3-- 8,and surely he asketh no less for every election than #bj as of duty1 which in my opinion is too much1 and above any duty that was ever taken heretofore4 ,also in his visitations he refuseth many times his reward1 though it be competent1 for that they offer him so little and maketh them to send after him such rewards as may please him1 for surely religious men were never afraid so much of ,dr4 ,allen as they be of him1 he useth such rough fashion with them40#bdh ,the next day1 however1 ,ap ,rice1 in alarm lest his frankness might lead to his assassination1 wrote to beg his master to be cautious3-- 8,forasmuch as the said ,mr4 ,doctor is of such acquaintance and familiarity with many rufflers and serving men1 444 ,i having commonly no great assistance with me when ,i go abroad1 might take perchance irrevocable harm of him or his ere ,i were aware4 ,please keep secret what ,i have said40#bdi ,ap ,rice himself had been in difficulty1 and ,legh had exposed him1 for he admitted being 8so abashed0 at the accusation he could make no defence4 ,he had1 also1 certainly done something which put him in the power of ,cromwell1 for he wrote3 ,i know 8from my own experience how deadly it is for any man to incur your displeasure1 which ,i would not wish for my greatest enemy40#bej ,the testimony of such witnesses would be of doubtful value1 even had they expressed themselves freely2 but the government only tolerated one form of report4 ,a good example of the discipline enforced is to be found in ,layton's correspondence4 ,he incautiously praised the ,abbot of ,glastonbury1 and was reprimanded by ,cromwell1 for he wrote to excuse himself3-- 8,whereas ,i understand by ,mr4 ,pollard you much marvel why ,i would 444 so greatly praise 444 the abbot of ,glaston4444 ,so that my excessive and indiscrete praise 444 must needs now redound to my great folly and untruth1 and cannot 444 but much diminish my credit towards his majesty1 and even so to your lordship4444 ,and although they be all false1 feigned1 flattering hypocritical knaves1 as undoubtedly there is none other of that sort4 ,i must therefore now at this my necessity1 most humbly beseech your lordship to pardon me for that my folly then committed 444 and of your goodness to mitigate the king's highness majesty in the premisses40#bea ,the charges made by the visitors are of a kind notoriously difficult to prove1 even with ample time1 and with trained investigators4 ,cromwell's examination was carried on by men of small worth1 and in hot haste2 no opportunity was given for more than a cursory inspection of the premises and the inmates3-- 8,this day we leave ,bath for ,kensam1 where we shall make an end by ,tuesday1 and then go on toward ,maiden ,bradley1 within two miles of which is a charterhouse called ,wittame1 and ,bruton ,abbey seven miles1 and ,glastonbury seven miles4444 ,if you tarry with the king eight days we shall dispatch all the houses above named40#beb ,the visitation began in ,august1 #aece1 and ended in ,february1 #aecf4 ,during these six months1 four or five men1 often travelling together1 undertook to examine one hundred and fifty-five houses scattered all over ,england4 8,to judge by the proportion in ,yorkshire10 says ,mr4 ,gairdner1 8the visitors examined only about four out of ten40#bec ,so far as can be ascertained1 the evidence upon which the reports were based was generally of the flimsiest kind2 either the scandal of some discontented monk or nun1 or the tattle of servants4 ,there was a striking instance of this at a nunnery in ,chicksand1 where ,layton accused two nuns of incontinence1 although 8the two prioresses would not confess this1 neither the parties1 nor any of the nuns1 but one old beldame40#bed ,when nothing could be elicited1 the accused were deemed in a conspiracy4 ,at ,newark the house seemed well ordered1 and nothing questionable appeared on the surface1 therefore ,layton charged the monks with being 8confederyde10 but he added that he would object various horrible crimes against them1 8which ,i have learnt from others4 ,what ,i shall find ,i cannot tell40#bee ,where silence was taken as confession1 the nuns especially fared ill4 ,very generally they were too frightened1 or too disgusted1 to answer4 ,even if such evidence were uncontradicted1 no great weight could attach to it1 but it happens that there is much on the other side4 ,not to speak of the episcopal visitations1 which were carried on as part of the discipline of the ,church1 ,henry's own government subsequently appointed boards of commissioners composed of country gentlemen1 and these boards1 which made examinations at leisure in five counties1 formed conclusions generally favourable to the ecclesiastics4 ,two examples will suffice to show the discrepancy between the views of the men whom ,cromwell did1 and did not control4 ,at ,geradon in ,leicestershire1 ,cromwell's board reported a convent of ,white ,cistercians1 which contained five monks addicted to sodomy with ten boys4#bef ,the second board described the same corporation as 8of good conversation1 and ,god's service well maintained40#beg ,at ,grace ,dieu two nuns were charged with incontinence4#beh ,the country gentlemen found there only fifteen ,white ,nuns of ,saint ,austin1 8of good and virtuous conversation and living40#bei ,no one familiar with the development of police during the later ,middle ,ages1 could have much doubt that1 on the whole1 the discipline of the convents would correspond pretty accurately with the prevailing tone of society1 and that1 although asceticism and enthusiasm might have declined since the twelfth century1 subordination to authority would have increased with the advance of centralization4 ,rebellious monks1 like those who tried to murder ,ablard1 would certainly have been rarer at the time of the ,reformation than at the opening of the crusades4 ,the crime of the ,english monks1 like the crime of the ,templars1 was defenceless wealth2 and1 like the ,templars1 they fared hardly in proportion to their devotion and their courage4 ,the flexible and the corrupt1 who betrayed their trust1 received pensions or promotion2 the ,carthusians1 against whose stern enthusiasm torments were powerless1 perished as their predecessors had perished in the field of ,saint ,antoine4 ,the attack of ,cromwell's hirelings resembled the onslaught of an invading army4 ,the convents fared like conquered towns2 the shrines were stripped and the booty heaped on carts1 as at the sack of ,constantinople4 ,churches were desecrated1 windows broken1 the roofs stripped of lead1 the bells melted1 the walls sold for quarries4 ,europe overflowed with vestments and altar ornaments1 while the libraries were destroyed4 ,toward the end of #aeci ,legh reached ,durham1 and the purification of the sanctuary of ,saint ,cuthbert may be taken as an example of the universal spoliation3-- 8,after the spoil of his ornaments and jewels1 coming nearer to his sacred body1 thinking to have found nothing but dust and bones1 and finding the chest that he did lie in1 very strongly bound with iron1 then the goldsmith did take a great forge-hammer of a smith1 and did break the said chest open4 8,and when they had opened the chest1 they found him lying whole1 uncorrupt1 with his face bare1 and his beard as it had been a fortnight's growth1 and all his vestments upon him1 as he was accustomed to say mass withall1 and his meet wand of gold lying beside him4 8,then1 when the goldsmith did perceive that he had broken one of his legs1 when he did break open the chest1 he was very sorry for it and did cry1 #8,alas1 ,i have broken one of his legs4' 8,then ,dr4 ,henley one of the commissioners hearing him say so1 did call upon him1 and did bid him cast down his bones40#bfj ,by the statute of #aecf1 only those convents were suppressed which were worth less than #bjj a year1 or which1 within twelve months after the passage of the act1 should be granted to the king by the abbot4 ,this legislation spared the mitred abbeys1 and as long as any conventual property remained undivided1 the land-owners kept ,cromwell in office1 not feeling1 perhaps1 quite sure of their capacity to succeed alone4 ,in #aeci it had proved impossible to force the three great abbots of ,glastonbury1 ,reading1 and ,colchester into a surrender to the ,crown1 and accordingly ,cromwell devised an act to vest in ,henry such conventual lands as should be forfeited through attainder4 ,then he indicted the abbots for treason1 and thus sought to bring the estates they represented constructively within the statute4 ,the fate of ,abbot ,whiting1 whom ,layton incautiously praised1 will do for all4 ,he was eighty when he died1 and his martyrdom is unusually interesting1 as it laid the fortune of the great house of ,bedford1 one of the most splendid of modern dukedoms4 ,the commissioners came unexpectedly1 and found the old monk at a grange at ,sharpham1 about a mile from ,glastonbury4 ,on ,september #ai they apprehended him1 searched his apartment1 and finding nothing likely to be of service1 sent him up to ,london for ,cromwell to deal with1 though he was 8very weak and sickly40 ,cromwell lodged him in the ,tower1 and examined him1 apparently in a purely perfunctory fashion1 for the government had decided on its policy4 ,the secretary of state simply jotted down a memorandum to see 8that the evidence be well sorted and the indictments well drawn10 and left the details of the murder to ,john ,russell1 a man thoroughly to be trusted4 ,cromwell's only anxiety was about the indictments1 and he had 8the king's learned counsel0 with him 8all day0 discussing the matter4 ,finally they decided1 between them1 that it would be better to proceed at ,glaston1 and ,whiting was sent to ,somersetshire to be dealt with by the progenitor of a long line of opulent ,whig landlords4 ,in superintending the trial1 ,russell showed an energy and judgment which won its reward4 ,on the #adth of ,november1 when the invalid reached ,wells1 he wrote that he had provided for him 8as worshipful a jury as was ever charged here these many years4 ,and there was never seen in these parts so great appearance as were here at this present time1 and never better willing to serve the king40#bfa ,russell wasted no time4 ,he arranged for the trial one day and the execution the next4 8,the ,abbot of ,glastonbury was arraigned1 and the next day put to execution with two other of his monks1 for the robbing of ,glastonbury church40#bfb ,he had the old man bound on a hurdle and dragged to the top of ,tor ,hill1 8but 444 he would confess no more gold nor silver1 nor any other thing more than he did before your ,lordship in the ,tower4444 ,and thereupon took his death very patiently1 and his head and body bestowed in like manner as ,i certified your lordship in my last letter40#bfc 8,one quarter standeth at ,wells1 another at ,bath1 and at ,ilchester and ,bridgewater the rest4 ,and his head upon the abbey gate at ,glaston40#bfd ,on the #agth of the following ,april1 ,henry created ,cromwell ,earl of ,essex1 preparatory to slaughtering him4 ,within two months the new earl was arrested by his bitterest enemy1 the ,duke of ,norfolk1 the chief of the landed interest2 on the #bhth of ,july he lost his head on ,tower ,hill1 and his colossal fortune fed the men who had divided the body of ,whiting4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,eviction ,,of ,,the ,,yeomen ,like primitive ,rome1 ,england1 during the ,middle ,ages1 had an unusually homogeneous population of farmers1 who made a remarkable infantry4 ,not that the cavalry was defective2 on the contrary1 from top to bottom of society1 every man was a soldier1 and the aristocracy had excellent fighting qualities4 ,many of the kings1 like ,cur-de-,lion1 ,edward ,,iii41 and ,henry ,v41 ranked among the ablest commanders of their day2 the ,black ,prince has always been a hero of chivalry2 and earls and barons could be named by the score who were famous in the ,hundred ,years' ,war4 ,yet1 although the ,english knights were a martial body1 there is nothing to show that1 on the whole1 they surpassed the ,french4 ,the ,english infantry won ,crcy and ,poitiers1 and this infantry1 which was long the terror of ,europe1 was recruited from among the small farmers who flourished in ,great ,britain until they were exterminated by the advance of civilization4 ,as long as the individual could at all withstand the attack of the centralized mass of society1 ,england remained a hot-bed for breeding this species of man4 ,a medival king had no means of collecting a regular revenue by taxation2 he was only the chief of the free-men1 and his estates were supposed to suffice for his expenditure4 ,the revenue the land yielded consisted of men1 not money1 and to obtain men1 the sovereign granted his domains to his nearest friends1 who1 in their turn1 cut their manors into as many farms as possible1 and each farmer paid his rent with his body4 ,a baron's strength lay in the band of spears which followed his banner1 and therefore he subdivided his acres as much as possible1 having no great need of money4 ,himself a farmer1 he cultivated enough of his fief to supply his wants1 to provide his table1 and to furnish his castle1 but1 beyond this1 all he kept to himself was loss4 ,under such a system money contracts played a small part1 and economic competition was unknown4 ,the tenants were free-men1 whose estates passed from father to son by a fixed tenure2 no one could underbid them with their landlord1 and no capitalist could ruin them by depressing wages1 for the serfs formed the basis of society1 and these serfs were likewise land-owners4 ,in theory1 the villains may have held at will2 but in fact they were probably the descendants1 or at least the representatives1 of the coloni of the ,empire1 and a base tenure could be proved by the roll of the manorial court4 ,thus even the weakest were protected by custom1 and there was no competition in the labour market4 ,the manor was the social unit1 and1 as the country was sparsely settled1 waste spaces divided the manors from each other1 and these wastes came to be considered as commons appurtenant to the domain in which the tenants of the manor had vested rights4 ,the extent of these rights varied from generation to generation1 but substantially they amounted to a privilege of pasture1 fuel1 or the like2 aids which1 though unimportant to large property owners1 were vital when the margin of income was narrow4 ,during the old imaginative age1 before centralization gathered headway1 little inducement existed to pilfer these domains1 since there was room in plenty1 and the population increased slowly1 if at all4 ,the moment the form of competition changed1 these conditions were reversed4 ,precisely when a money rent became a more potent force than armed men1 may be hard to determine1 but certainly that time had come when ,henry ,,viii4 mounted the throne1 for then capitalistic farming was on the increase1 and speculation in real estate already caused sharp distress4 ,at that time the establishment of a police had destroyed the value of the retainer1 and competitive rents had generally supplanted military tenures4 ,instead of tending to subdivide1 as in an age of decentralization1 land consolidated in the hands of the economically strong1 and capitalists systematically enlarged their estates by enclosing the commons1 and depriving the yeomen of their immemorial rights4 ,the sixteenth-century landlords were a type quite distinct from the ancient feudal gentry4 ,as a class they were gifted with the economic1 and not with the martial instinct1 and they throve on competition4 ,their strength lay in their power of absorbing the property of their weaker neighbours under the protection of an overpowering police4 ,everything tended to accelerate consolidation1 especially the rise in the value of money4 ,while1 even with the debasement of the coin1 the price of cereals did not advance1 the growth of manufactures had caused wool to double in value4 8,we need not therefore be surprised at finding that the temptation to sheep-farming was almost irresistible1 and that statute after statute failed to arrest the tendency40#bfe ,the conversion of arable land into pasture led1 of course1 to wholesale eviction1 and by #aeae the suffering had become so acute that details were given in acts of ,parliament4 ,places where two hundred persons had lived1 by growing corn and grain1 were left desolate1 the houses had decayed1 and the churches fallen into ruin4#bff ,the language of these statutes proves that the descriptions of contemporaries were not exaggerated4 8,for ,i myselfe know many townes and villages sore decayed1 for yt where as in times past there wer in some town an hundred householdes there remain not now thirty2 in some fifty1 ther are not now ten2 yea 7which is more to be lamented7 ,i knowe townes so wholly decayed1 that there is neyther sticke nor stone standyng as they use to say4 8,where many men had good lyuinges1 and maynteined hospitality1 able at times to helpe the kyng in his warres1 and to susteyne other charges1 able also to helpe their pore neighboures1 and vertuously to bring up theyr children in ,godly letters and good scyences1 nowe sheepe and conies deuoure altogether1 no man inhabiting the aforesayed places4 ,those beastes which were created of ,god for the nouryshment of man doe nowe deuoure man4444 ,and the cause of all thys wretchednesse and beggery in the common weale are the gredy ,gentylmen1 whyche are shepemongers and grasyars4 ,whyle they study for their owne priuate commoditie1 the common weale is lyke to decay4 ,since they began to be shepe maysters and feders of cattell1 we neyther had vyttayle nor cloth of any reasonable pryce4 ,no meruayle1 for these forstallars of the market1 as they use to saye1 haue gotten all thynges so into theyr handes1 that the poore man muste eyther bye it at their pryce1 or else miserably starue for hongar1 and wretchedly dye for colde40#bfg ,the reduction of the acreage in tillage must have lessened the crop of the cereals1 and accounts for their slight rise in value during the second quarter of the sixteenth century4 ,nevertheless this rise gave the farmer no relief1 as1 under competition1 rents advanced faster than prices1 and in the generation which reformed the ,church1 the misery of yeomen had become extreme4 ,in #aedi ,latimer preached a sermon1 which contains a passage often quoted1 but always interesting3-- 8,furthermore1 if the king's honour1 as some men say1 standeth in the great multitude of people2 then these graziers1 inclosers1 and rent-rearers1 are hinderers of the king's honour4 ,for where as have been a great many householders and inhabitants1 there is now but a shepherd and his dog4444 8,my father was yeoman1 and had no lands of his own1 only he had a farm of three or four pound by year at the uttermost1 and hereupon he tilled so much as kept half a dozen men4 ,he had walk for a hundred sheep2 and my mother milked thirty kine4 ,he was able1 and did find the king a harness1 with himself and his horse1 while he came to the place that he should receive the king's wages4 ,i can remember that ,i buckled his harness when he went unto ,blackheath field4 ,he kept me to school1 or else ,i had not been able to have preached before the king's majesty now4 8,he married my sisters with five pound1 or twenty nobles apiece2 so that he brought them up in godliness and fear of ,god4 ,he kept hospitality for his poor neighbours1 and some alms he gave to the poor4 ,and all this he did of the said farm1 where he that now hath it payeth sixteen pound by year1 or more1 and is not able to do anything for his prince1 for himself1 nor for his children1 or give a cup of drink to the poor40#bfh ,the small proprietor suffered doubly3 he had to meet the competition of large estates1 and to endure the curtailment of his resources through the enclosure of the commons4 ,the effect was to pauperize the yeomanry and lesser gentry1 and before the ,reformation the homeless poor had so multiplied that1 in #aecj1 ,parliament passed the first of a series of vagrant acts4#bfi ,at the outset the remedy applied was comparatively mild1 for able-bodied mendicants were only to be whipped until they were bloody1 returned to their domicile1 and there whipped until they put themselves to labour4 ,as no labour was supplied1 the legislation failed1 and in #aecg the emptying of the convents brought matters to a climax4 ,meanwhile ,parliament tried the experiment of killing off the unemployed2 by the second act vagrants were first mutilated and then hanged as felons4#bgj ,in #aedg1 when ,edward ,,vi4 was crowned1 the great crisis had reached its height4 ,the silver of ,potosi had not yet brought relief1 the currency was in chaos1 labour was disorganized1 and the nation seethed with the discontent which broke out two years later in rebellion4 ,the land-owners held absolute power1 and before they yielded to the burden of feeding the starving1 they seriously addressed themselves to the task of extermination4 ,the preamble of the third act stated that1 in spite of the 8great travel0 and 8godly statutes0 of ,parliament1 pauperism had not diminished1 therefore any vagrant brought before two justices was to be adjudged the slave of his captor for two years4 ,he might be compelled to work by beating1 chaining1 or otherwise1 be fed on bread and water1 or refuse meat1 and confined by a ring of iron about his neck1 arms or legs4 ,for his first attempt at escape1 his slavery became perpetual1 for his second1 he was hanged4#bga ,even as late as #aeia1 in the midst of the great expansion which brought prosperity to all ,europe1 and when the monks and nuns1 cast adrift by the suppression of the convents1 must have mostly died1 beggars so swarmed that at the funeral of the ,earl of ,shrewsbury 8there were by the report of such as served the dole unto them1 the number of #hjjj4 ,and they thought that there were almost as many more that could not be served1 through their unruliness4 ,yea1 the press was so great that divers were slain and many hurt4 ,and further it is reported of credible persons1 that well estimated the number of all the said beggars1 that they thought there were about #bj1jjj40 ,it was conjectured 8that all the said poor people were abiding and dwelling within thirty miles' compass of ,sheffield40#bgb ,in #aedi1 just as the tide turned1 insurrection blazed out all over ,england4 ,in the west a pitched battle was fought between the peasantry and foreign mercenaries1 and ,exeter was relieved only after a long siege4 ,in ,norfolk the yeomen1 led by one ,kett1 controlled a large district for a considerable time4 ,they arrested the unpopular landlords1 threw open the commons they had appropriated1 and ransacked the manor houses to pay indemnities to evicted farmers4 ,when attacked1 they fought stubbornly1 and stormed ,norwich twice4 ,strype described 8these mutineers0 as 8certain poor men that sought to have their commons again1 by force and power taken from them2 and that a regulation be made according to law of arable lands turned into pasture40#bgc ,cranmer understood the situation perfectly1 and though a consummate courtier1 and himself a creation of the capitalistic revolution1 spoke in this way of his patrons3-- 8,and they complain much of rich men and gentlemen1 saying1 that they take the commons from the poor1 that they raise the prices of all manner of things1 that they rule the poverty1 and oppress them at their pleasure4444 8,and although here ,i seem only to speak against these unlawful assemblers1 yet ,i cannot allow those1 but ,i must needs threaten everlasting damnation unto them1 whether they be gentlemen or whatsoever they be1 which never cease to purchase and join house to house1 and land to land1 as though they alone ought to possess and inhabit the earth40#bgd ,revolt against the pressure of this unrestricted economic competition took the form of ,puritanism1 of resistance to the religious organization controlled by capital1 and even in ,cranmer's time1 the attitude of the descendants of the men who formed the line at ,poitiers and ,crcy was so ominous that ,anglican bishops took alarm4 8,it is reported that there be many among these unlawful assemblies that pretend knowledge of the gospel1 and will needs be called gospellers4444 ,but now ,i will go further to speak somewhat of the great hatred which divers of these seditious persons do bear against the gentlemen2 which hatred in many is so outrageous1 that they desire nothing more than the spoil1 ruin1 and destruction of them that be rich and wealthy40#bge ,somerset1 who owed his elevation to the accident of being the brother of ,jane ,seymour1 proved unequal to the crisis of #addi1 and was supplanted by ,john ,dudley1 now better remembered as ,duke of ,northumberland4 ,dudley was the strongest member of the new aristocracy4 ,his father1 ,edmund ,dudley1 had been the celebrated lawyer who rose to eminence as the extortioner of ,henry ,,vii41 and whom ,henry ,,viii4 executed1 as an act of popularity1 on his accession4 ,john1 beside inheriting his father's financial ability1 had a certain aptitude for war1 and undoubted courage2 accordingly he rose rapidly4 ,he and ,cromwell understood each other2 he flattered ,cromwell1 and ,cromwell lent him money4#bgf ,strype has intimated that ,dudley had strong motives for resisting the restoration of the commons4#bgg ,in #aedg he was created ,earl of ,warwick1 and in #aedi suppressed ,kett's rebellion4 ,this military success brought him to the head of the ,state2 he thrust ,somerset aside1 and took the title of ,duke of ,northumberland4 ,his son was equally distinguished4 ,he became the favourite of ,queen ,elizabeth1 who created him ,earl of ,leicester2 but1 though an expert courtier1 he was one of the most incompetent generals whom even the ,tudor landed aristocracy ever put in the field4 ,the disturbances of the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 did not ripen into revolution1 probably because of the relief given by rising prices after #aeej2 but1 though they fell short of actual civil war1 they were sufficiently formidable to terrify the aristocracy into abandoning their policy of killing off the surplus population4 ,in #aeeb the first statute was passed#bgh looking toward the systematic relief of paupers4 ,small farmers prospered greatly after #affj1 for prices rose strongly1 very much more strongly than rents2 nor was it until after the beginning of the seventeenth century1 when rents again began to advance1 that the yeomanry once more grew restive4 ,cromwell raised his ,ironsides from among the great-grandchildren of the men who stormed ,norwich with ,kett4 8,i had a very worthy friend then2 and he was a very noble person1 and ,i know his memory is very grateful to all1--,mr4 ,john ,hampden4 ,at my first going out into this engagement1 ,i saw our men were beaten at every hand4 ,i did indeed2 and desired him that he would make some additions to my ,lord ,essex's army1 of some new regiments2 and ,i told him ,i would be serviceable to him in bringing such men in as ,i thought had a spirit that would do something in the work4 ,this is very true that ,i tell you2 ,god knows ,i lie not4 #8,your troops1' said ,i1 #8are most of them old decayed serving-men1 and tapsters1 and such kind of fellows2 and1' said ,i1 #8their troops are gentlemen's sons1 younger sons and persons of quality3 do you think that the spirits of such base and mean fellows will ever be able to encounter gentlemen1 that have honour and courage and resolution in them8'444 ,truly ,i did tell him2 #8,you must get men of a spirit3 444 a spirit that is likely to go on as far as gentlemen will go2--or else you will be beaten still4444' 8,he was a wise and worthy person2 and he did think that ,i talked a good notion1 but an impracticable one4 ,truly ,i told him ,i could do somewhat in it1 444 and truly ,i must needs say this to you1 444 ,i raised such men as had the fear of ,god before them1 as made some conscience of what they did2 and from that day forward1 ,i must say to you1 they were never beaten1 and wherever they were engaged against the enemy1 they beat continually40#bgi ,thus1 by degrees1 the pressure of intensifying centralization split the old homogeneous population of ,england into classes1 graduated according to their economic capacity4 ,those without the necessary instinct sank into agricultural day labourers1 whose lot1 on the whole1 has probably been somewhat worse than that of ordinary slaves4 ,the gifted1 like the ,howards1 the ,dudleys1 the ,cecils1 and the ,boleyns1 rose to be rich nobles and masters of the ,state4 ,between the two accumulated a mass of bold and needy adventurers1 who were destined finally not only to dominate ,england1 but to shape the destinies of the world4 ,one section of these1 the shrewder and less venturesome1 gravitated to the towns1 and grew rich as merchants1 like the founder of the ,osborn family1 whose descendant became ,duke of ,leeds2 or like the celebrated ,josiah ,child1 who1 in the reign of ,william ,,iii41 controlled the whole eastern trade of the kingdom4 ,the less astute and the more martial took to the sea1 and as slavers1 pirates1 and conquerors1 built up ,england's colonial empire1 and established her maritime supremacy4 ,of this class were ,drake and ,blake1 ,hawkins1 ,raleigh1 and ,clive4 ,for several hundred years after the ,norman conquest1 ,englishmen showed little taste for the ocean1 probably because sufficient outlet for their energies existed on land4 ,in the ,middle ,ages the commerce of the island was mostly engrossed by the ,merchants of the ,steelyard1 an offshoot of the ,hanseatic league2 while the great explorers of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries were usually ,italians or ,portuguese2 men like ,columbus1 ,vespucius1 ,vasco-da-,gama1 or ,magellan4 ,this state of things lasted1 however1 only until economic competition began to ruin the small farmers1 and then the hardiest and boldest race of ,europe were cast adrift1 and forced to seek their fortunes in strange lands4 ,for the soldier or the adventurer1 there was no opening in ,england after the battle of ,flodden4 ,a peaceful and inert bourgeoisie more and more supplanted the ancient martial baronage2 their representatives shrank from campaigns like those of ,richard ,i41 the ,edwards1 and ,henry ,v41 and therefore1 for the evicted farmer1 there was nothing but the far-off continents of ,america and ,asia1 and to these he directed his steps4 ,the lives of the admirals tell the tale on every page4 ,drake's history is now known4 ,his family belonged to the lesser ,devon gentry1 but fallen so low that his father gladly apprenticed him as ship's boy on a channel coaster1 a life of almost intolerable hardship4 ,from this humble beginning he fought his way1 by dint of courage and genius1 to be one of ,england's three greatest seamen2 and ,blake and ,nelson1 the other two1 were of the same blood4 ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert was of the same west country stock as ,drake2 ,frobisher was a poor ,yorkshire man1 and ,sir ,walter ,raleigh came from a ruined house4 ,no less than five knightly branches of ,raleigh's family once throve together in the western counties2 but disaster came with the ,tudors1 and ,walter's father fell into trouble through his ,puritanism4 ,walter himself early had to face the world1 and carved out his fortune with his sword4 ,he served in ,france in the religious wars2 afterward1 perhaps1 in ,flanders2 then1 through ,gilbert1 he obtained a commission in ,ireland1 but finally drifted to ,elizabeth's court1 where he took to buccaneering1 and conceived the idea of colonizing ,america4 ,a profound gulf separated these adventurers from the landed capitalists1 for they were of an extreme martial type2 a type hated and feared by the nobility4 ,with the exception of the years of the ,commonwealth1 the landlords controlled ,england from the ,reformation to the revolution of #afhh1 a period of one hundred and fifty years1 and1 during that long interval1 there is little risk in asserting that the aristocracy did not produce a single soldier or sailor of more than average capacity4 ,the difference between the royal and the parliamentary armies was as great as though they had been recruited from different races4 ,charles had not a single officer of merit1 while it is doubtful if any force has ever been better led than the troops organized by ,cromwell4 ,men like ,drake1 ,blake1 and ,cromwell were among the most terrible warriors of the world1 and they were distrusted and feared by an oligarchy which felt instinctively its inferiority in arms4 ,therefore1 in ,elizabeth's reign1 politicians like the ,cecils took care that the great seamen should have no voice in public affairs4 ,and though these men defeated the ,armada1 and though ,england owed more to them than to all the rest of her population put together1 not one reached the peerage1 or was treated with confidence and esteem4 ,drake's fate shows what awaited them4 ,like all his class1 ,drake was hot for war with ,spain1 and from time to time he was unchained1 when fighting could not be averted2 but his policy was rejected1 his operations more nearly resembled those of a pirate than of an admiral1 and when he died1 he died in something like disgrace4 ,the aristocracy even made the false position in which they placed their sailors a source of profit1 for they forced them to buy pardon for their victories by surrendering the treasure they had won with their blood4 ,fortescue actually had to interfere to defend ,raleigh and ,hawkins from ,elizabeth's rapacity4 ,in #aeib ,borough sailed in command of a squadron fitted out by the two latter1 with some contribution from the queen and the city of ,london4 ,borough captured the carack1 the ,madre-de-,dios1 whose pepper alone ,burleigh estimated at #ajb1jjj4 ,the cargo proved worth #ada1jjj1 and of this ,elizabeth's share1 according to the rule of distribution in use1 amounted to one-tenth1 or #ad1jjj4 ,she demanded #hj1jjj1 and allowed ,raleigh and ,hawkins1 who had spent #cd1jjj1 only #cf1jjj4 ,raleigh bitterly contrasted the difference made between himself a soldier1 and a peer1 or a ,london speculator4 8,i was the cause that all this came to the ,queen1 and that the ,king of ,spaine spent #cjj1jjjli the last yere4444 ,i that adventured all my estate1 lose of my principall4444 ,i tooke all the care and paines2 444 they only sate still 444 for which double is given to them1 and less then mine own to me40#bhj ,raleigh was so brave he could not comprehend that his talent was his peril4 ,he fancied his capacity for war would bring him fame and fortune1 and it led him to the block4 ,while ,elizabeth lived1 the admiration of the woman for the hero probably saved him1 but he never even entered the ,privy ,council1 and of real power he had none4 ,the sovereign the oligarchy chose was ,james1 and ,james imprisoned and then slew him4 ,nor was ,raleigh's fate peculiar1 for1 through timidity1 the ,cavaliers conceived an almost equal hate of many soldiers4 ,they dug up the bones of ,cromwell1 they tried to murder ,william ,,iii41 and they dragged down ,marlborough in the midst of victory4 ,such were the new classes into which economic competition divided the people of ,england during the sixteenth century1 and the ,reformation was only one among many of the effects of this profound social revolution4 ,in the first fifty-three years of the sixteenth century1 ,england passed through two distinct phases of ecclesiastical reform2 the earlier1 under ,henry1 when the conventual property was appropriated by the rising aristocracy2 the later1 under ,edward1 when portions of the secular endowments were also seized4 ,each period of spoliation was accompanied by innovations in doctrine1 and each was followed by a reaction1 the final one1 under ,mary1 taking the form of reconciliation with ,rome4 ,viewed in connection with the insurrections1 the whole movement can hardly be distinguished from an armed conquest of the imaginative by the economic section of society2 a conquest which produced a most curious and interesting development of a new clerical type4 ,during the ,middle ,ages1 the hierarchy had been a body of miracle-workers1 independent of1 and at first superior to1 the ,state4 ,this great corporation had subsisted upon its own resources1 and had generally been controlled by men of the ecstatic temperament1 of whom ,saint ,anselm is1 perhaps1 the most perfect example4 ,after the conquest at the ,reformation1 these conditions changed4 ,having lost its independence1 the priesthood lapsed into an adjunct of the civil power2 it then became reorganized upon an economic basis1 and gradually turned into a salaried class1 paid to inculcate obedience to the representative of an oligarchy which controlled the national revenue4 ,perhaps1 in all modern history1 there is no more striking example of the rapid and complete manner in which1 under favourable circumstances1 one type can supersede another1 than the thoroughness with which the economic displaced the emotional temperament1 in the ,anglican ,church1 during the ,tudor dynasty4 ,the mental processes of the new pastors did not differ so much in degree as in kind from those of the old4 ,although the spoliations of ,edward are less well remembered than those of his father1 they were hardly less drastic4 ,they began with the estates of the chantries and guilds1 and rapidly extended to all sorts of property4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 one of the chief sources of revenue of the sacred class had been their prayers for souls in purgatory1 and all large churches contained chapels1 many of them richly endowed1 for the perpetual celebration of masses for the dead2 in ,england and ,wales more than a thousand such chapels existed1 whose revenues were often very valuable4 ,these were the chantries1 which vanished with the imaginative age which created them1 and the guilds shared the same fate4 ,before economic competition had divided men into classes according to their financial capacity1 all craftsmen possessed capital1 as all agriculturists held land4 ,the guild established the craftsman's social status2 as a member of a trade corporation he was governed by regulations fixing the number of hands he might employ1 the amount of goods he might produce1 and the quality of his workmanship2 on the other hand1 the guild regulated the market1 and ensured a demand4 ,tradesmen1 perhaps1 did not easily grow rich1 but they as seldom became poor4 ,with centralization life changed4 ,competition sifted the strong from the weak2 the former waxed wealthy1 and hired hands at wages1 the latter lost all but the ability to labour2 and1 when the corporate body of producers had thus disintegrated1 nothing stood between the common property and the men who controlled the engine of the law4 ,by the #a ,edward ,,vi41 c4 #ad1 all the possessions of the schools1 colleges1 and guilds of ,england1 except the colleges of ,oxford and ,cambridge and the guilds of ,london1 were conveyed to the king1 and the distribution thus begun extended far and wide1 and has been forcibly described by ,mr4 ,blunt3-- 8,they tore off the lead from the roofs1 and wrenched out the brasses from the floors4 ,the books they despoiled of their costly covers1 and then sold them for waste paper4 ,the gold and silver plate they melted down with copper and lead1 to make a coinage so shamefully debased as was never known before or since in ,england4 ,the vestments of altars and priests they turned into table-covers1 carpets1 and hangings1 when not very costly2 and when worth more money than usual1 they sold them to foreigners1 not caring who used them for #8superstitious' purposes1 but caring to make the best #8bargains' they could of their spoil4 ,even the very surplices and altar linen would fetch something1 and that too was seized by their covetous hands40#bha ,these 8covetous hands0 were the privy councillors4 ,henry had not intended that any member of the board should have precedence1 but the king's body was not cold before ,edward ,seymour began an intrigue to make himself protector4 ,to consolidate a party behind him1 he opened his administration by distributing all the spoil he could lay hands on2 and ,mr4 ,froude estimated that 8on a computation most favourable to the council1 estates worth 444 in modern currency about five millions0 of pounds1 were 8appropriated--,i suppose ,i must not say stolen--and divided among themselves40#bhb ,at the head of this council stood ,cranmer1 who took his share without scruple4 ,probably ,froude's estimate is far too low2 for though ,seymour1 as ,duke of ,somerset1 had1 like ,henry1 to meet imperative claims which drained his purse1 he yet built ,somerset ,house1 the most sumptuous palace of ,london4 ,seymour was put to death by ,dudley when he rose to power by his military success in ,norfolk4 ,dudley as well as ,cromwell was fitted for the emergency in which he lived2 bold1 able1 unscrupulous and energetic1 his party hated but followed him1 because without him they saw no way to seize the property they coveted4 ,he too1 like ,cromwell1 allied himself with the evangelical clergy1 and under ,edward the orthodoxy of the 8,six ,articles0 gave way to the doctrine of ,geneva4 ,even in #aedh ,calvin had been able to write to ,somerset1 thanking ,god that1 through his wisdom1 the 8pure truth0 was preached2#bhc but when ,dudley administered the government as ,duke of ,northumberland1 bishops did not hesitate to teach that the dogma of the 8carnal presence0 in the sacrament 8maintaineth that beastly kind of cruelty of the #8,anthropophagi1' that is1 the devourers of man's flesh3 for it is a more cruel thing to devour a quick man1 than to slay him40#bhd ,dudley resembled ,henry and ,norfolk in being naturally conservative1 for he died a ,catholic2 but with them all1 money was the supreme object1 and as they lacked the physical force to plunder alone1 they were obliged to conciliate the ,radicals4 ,these were represented by ,knox1 and to ,knox the duke paid assiduous court4 ,the ,scotchman began preaching in ,berwick in #aedi1 but the government soon brought him to ,london1 and in #aeea made him a royal chaplain1 and1 as chaplain1 he was called upon to approve the ,forty-two ,articles of #aeeb4 ,this he could do conscientiously1 as they contained the dogmas of election and predestination1 original sin1 and justification by faith1 beside a denial of 8the reall and bodilie presence 444 of ,christes fleshe1 and bloude1 in the ,sacramente of the ,lordes ,supper40 ,dudley tried hard to buy ,knox1 and offered him the ,see of ,rochester2 but the duke excited the deepest distrust and dislike in the preacher1 who called him 8that wretched and miserable ,northumberland40 ,he rejected the preferment1 and indeed1 from the beginning1 bad blood seems to have lain between the ,calvinists and the court4 ,writing at the beginning of #aeed1 ,knox expressed his opinion of the reforming aristocracy in emphatic language1 beginning with ,somerset1 8who became so cold in hearing ,godis ,word1 that the year befoir his last apprehensioun1 he wald ga visit his masonis1 and wald not dainyie himself to ga frome his gallerie to his hall for heiring of a sermone40#bhe ,afterward matters grew worse1 for 8the haill ,counsaile had said1 ,thay wald heir no mo of thair sermonis3 thay wer but indifferent fellowis2 7yea1 and sum of thame eschameit not to call thame pratting knaves470#bhf ,finally1 just before ,edward's death the open rupture came4 ,knox had a supreme contempt and antipathy for the ,lord ,treasurer1 ,paulet1 ,marquis of ,winchester1 whom he called a 8crafty fox40 ,during ,edward's life1 jeered ,knox1 8who was moste bolde to crye1 ,bastarde1 bastarde1 incestuous bastarde1 ,mary shall never rule over us10 and now that ,mary is on the throne it is to her ,paulet 8crouches and kneeleth40#bhg ,in the last sermon he preached before the king he let loose his tongue1 and probably he would have quitted the court1 even had the reign continued4 ,in this sermon ,dudley was ,ahithophel1 ,paulet1 ,shebna3-- 8,i made this affirmacion1 ,that commonlye it was sene1 that the most godly princes hadde officers and chief counseilours moste ungodlye1 conjured enemies to ,goddes true religion1 and traitours to their princes4444 ,was ,david1 sayd ,i1 and ,ezechias1 princes of great and godly giftes and experience1 abused by crafty counsailers and dissemblyng hypocrites8 ,what wonder is it then1 that a yonge and innocent ,kinge be deceived by craftye1 covetouse1 wycked1 and ungodly counselours8 ,i am greatly afrayd1 that ,achitophel be counsailer1 that ,judas beare the purse1 and that ,sobna be scribe1 comptroller1 and treasurer4 ,this1 and somwhat more ,i spake that daye1 not in a corner 7as many yet can wytnesse7 but even before those whome my conscience judged worthy of accusation40#bhh ,knox understood the relation which men of his stamp bore to ,anglicanism4 ,in #aedi much land yet remained to be divided1 therefore he and his like were flattered and cajoled until ,paulet and his friends should be strong enough to discard them4 ,faith1 in the hands of the monied oligarchy1 became an instrument of police1 and1 from the ,reformation downward1 revelation has been expounded in ,england by statute4 ,hence men of the imaginative type1 who could not accept their creed with their stipend1 were at any moment in danger of being adjudged heretics1 and suffering the extreme penalty of insubordination4 ,docility to lay dictation has always been the test by which the ,anglican clergy have been sifted from ,catholics and ,puritans4 ,to the imaginative mind a faith must spring from a revelation1 and a revelation must be infallible and unchangeable4 ,truth must be single4 ,catholics believed their revelation to be continuous1 delivered through the mouth of an illuminated priesthood1 speaking in its corporate capacity4 ,puritans held that theirs had been made once for all1 and was contained in a book4 ,but both ,catholics and ,puritans were clear that divine truth was immutable1 and that the universal ,church could not err4 ,to minds of this type1 statutes regulating the appearance of ,god's body in the elements were not only impious but absurd1 and men of the priestly temperament1 whether ,catholic or ,puritan1 have faced death in its most appalling forms1 rather than bow down before them4 ,here ,fisher and ,knox1 ,bellarmine and ,calvin1 agreed4 ,rather than accept the royal supremacy1 the flower of the ,english priesthood sought poverty and exile1 the scaffold and the stake4 ,for this1 the aged ,fisher hastened to the block on ,tower ,hill2 for this1 ,forest dangled over the embers of the smouldering rood2 for this1 the ,carthusians rotted in their noisome dens4 ,nor were ,puritans a whit behind ,catholics in asserting the sacerdotal dignity2 8,erant enim blasphemi qui vocarent eum ,henricum ,,viii4 summum caput ecclesi sub ,christo10 wrote ,calvin1 and on this ground the ,nonconformists fought the established ,church1 from ,elizabeth's accession downward4 ,the writings of ,martin ,marprelate only restated an issue which had been raised by ,hildebrand five hundred years before2 for the advance of centralization had reproduced in ,england something of the same conditions which prevailed at ,constantinople when it became a centre of exchanges4 ,wherever civilization has reached the point at which energy expresses itself through money1 faith must be subordinate to the representative of wealth4 ,stephen ,gardiner understood the conditions under which he lived1 and accepted his servitude in consideration of the great ,see of ,winchester4 ,with striking acuteness he cited ,justinian as a precedent for ,henry3-- 8,then1 ,sir1 who did ever disallow ,justinian's fact1 that made laws concerning the glorious ,trinity1 and the ,catholic faith1 of bishops1 of men1 of the clergy1 of heretics1 and others1 such like80#bhi ,from the day of the breach with ,rome1 the ,british priesthood sank into wage-earners1 and those of the ancient clergy who remained in the ,anglican hierarchy after the ,reformation1 acquiesced in their position1 as appeared in all their writings1 but in none1 perhaps1 more strikingly than in the ,formularies of ,faith of ,henry ,,viii41 where the episcopal bench submitted their views of orthodoxy to the revision of the secular power3-- 8,and albeit1 most dread and benign sovereign lord1 we do affirm by our learnings with one assent1 that the said treatise is in all points so concordant and agreeable to holy scripture1 as we trust your majesty shall receive the same as a thing most sincerely and purely handled1 to the glory of ,god1 your grace's honour1 the unity of your people1 the which things your highness1 we may well see and perceive1 doth chiefly in the same desire3 yet we do most humbly submit it to the most excellent wisdom and exact judgment of your majesty1 to be recognised1 overseen1 and corrected1 if your grace shall find any word or sentence in it meet to be changed1 qualified1 or further expounded1 for the plain setting forth of your highness's most virtuous desire and purpose in that behalf4 ,whereunto we shall in that case conform ourselves1 as to our most bounden duties to ,god and to your highness appertaineth40 ,signed by 8your highness' most humble subjects and daily beadsmen1 ,thomas ,cantuarien0 and all the bishops4#bij ,a ,church thus lying at the mercy of the temporal power1 became a chattel in the hands of the class which controlled the revenue1 and1 from the ,reformation to the revolution of #afhh1 this class consisted of a comparatively few great landed families1 forming a narrow oligarchy which guided the ,crown4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 a king had drawn his army from his own domain4 ,cur-de-,lion had his own means of attack and defence like any other baron1 only on a larger scale4 ,henry ,,viii41 on the contrary1 stood alone and helpless4 ,as centralization advanced1 the cost of administration grew1 until regular taxation had become necessary1 and yet taxes could only be levied by ,parliament4 ,the king could hardly pay a body-guard1 and such military force as existed within the realm obeyed the landlords4 ,had it not been for a few opulent nobles1 like ,norfolk and ,shrewsbury1 the ,pilgrims of ,grace might have marched to ,london and plucked ,henry from his throne1 as easily as ,william afterward plucked ,james4 ,these landlords1 together with the ,london tradesmen1 carried ,henry through the crisis of #aecf1 and thereafter he lay in their hands4 ,his impotence appeared in every act of his reign4 ,he ran the risk and paid the price1 while others fattened on the plunder4 ,the ,howards1 the ,cecils1 the ,russells1 the ,dudleys1 divided the ,church spoil among themselves1 and wrung from the ,crown its last penny1 so that ,henry lived in debt1 and ,edward faced insolvency4 ,deeply as ,mary abhorred sacrilege1 she dared not ask for restitution to the abbeys4 ,such a step would probably have caused her overthrow1 while ,elizabeth never attempted opposition1 but obeyed ,cecil1 the incarnation of the spirit of the oligarchy4 ,the men who formed this oligarchy were of totally different type from anything which flourished in ,england in the imaginative age4 ,unwarlike1 for their insular position made it possible for them to survive without the martial quality1 they always shrank from arms4 ,nor were they numerous enough1 or strong enough1 to overawe the nation even in quiet times4 ,accordingly they generally lay inert1 and only from necessity allied themselves with some more turbulent faction4 ,the ,tudor aristocracy were rich1 phlegmatic1 and unimaginative men1 in whom the other faculties were subordinated to acquisition1 and they treated their religion as a financial investment4 ,strictly speaking1 the ,church of ,england never had a faith1 but vibrated between the orthodoxy of the 8,six ,articles10 and the ,calvinism of the 8,lambeth ,articles10 according to the exigencies of real estate4 ,within a single generation1 the relation ,christ's flesh and blood bore to the bread and wine was changed five times by royal proclamation or act of ,parliament4 ,but if creeds were alike to the new economic aristocracy1 it well understood the value of the pulpit as a branch of the police of the kingdom1 and from the outset it used the clergy as part of the secular administration4 ,on this point ,cranmer was explicit4#bia ,elizabeth probably represented the landed gentry more perfectly than any other sovereign1 and she told her bishops plainly that she cared little for doctrine1 but wanted clerks to keep order4 ,she remarked that she had seen it said3-- 8that hir ,protestants themselves misliked hir1 and in deede so they doe 7quoth she7 for ,i have heard that some of them of late have said1 that ,i was of no religion1 neither hot nor cold1 but such a one1 as one day would give ,god the vomit4444 ,after this she wished the bishops to look unto private ,conventicles1 and now 7quoth she7 ,i miss my ,lord of ,london who looketh no better unto the ,citty where every merchant must have his schoolemaster and nightly conventicles40 #bib ,elizabeth ruled her clergy with a rod of iron4 ,no priest was allowed to marry without the approbation of two justices of the peace1 beside the bishop1 nor the head of a college without the leave of the visitor4 ,when the ,dean of ,st4 ,paul's offended the queen in his sermon1 she told him 8to retire from that ungodly digression and return to his text10 and ,grindall was suspended for disobedience to her orders4 ,in ,grindall's primacy1 monthly prayer meetings1 called 8prophesyings10 came into fashion among the clergy4 ,for some reason these meetings gave the government offence1 and ,grindall was directed to put a stop to them4 ,attacked thus1 in the priests' dearest rights1 the archbishop refused4 ,without more ado the old prelate was suspended1 nor was he pardoned until he made submission five years later4 ,the correspondence of the ,elizabethan bishops is filled with accounts of their thraldom4 ,pilkington1 among others1 complained that 8,we are under authority1 and cannot make any innovation without the sanction of the queen 444 and the only alternative now allowed us is1 whether we will bear with these things or disturb the peace of the ,church40#bic ,even ecclesiastical property continued to be seized1 where it could be taken safely2 and the story of ,ely ,house1 although it has been denied1 is authentic in spirit4 ,from the beginning of the ,reformation the ,london palaces of the bishops had been a tempting prize4 ,henry took ,york ,house for himself1 ,raleigh had a lease of ,durham ,house1 and1 about #aefe1 ,sir ,christopher ,hatton1 whose relations with the queen were hardly equivocal1 undertook to force ,bishop ,cox to convey him ,ely ,house4 ,the bishop resisted4 ,hatton applied to the queen1 and she is said to have cut the matter short thus3-- 8,proud prelate3 ,i understand you are backward in complying with your agreement1 but ,i would have you know that ,i who made you what you are can unmake you1 and if you do not forthwith fulfil your engagement1 by ,god1 ,i will immediately unfrock you4 ,elizabeth40 ,had the great landlords been either stronger1 so as to have controlled the blouse of ,commons1 or more military1 so as to have suppressed it1 ,english ecclesiastical development would have been different4 ,as it was1 a knot of ruling families1 gorged with plunder1 lay between the ,catholics and the more fortunate of the evicted yeomen1 who had made money by trade1 and who hated and competed with them4 ,puritans as well as ,catholics sought to unsettle titles to ,church lands3-- 8,it is wonderfull to see how dispitefully they write of this matter4 ,they call us church robbers1 devourers of holly things1 cormorantes1 etc4 affirminge that by the lawe of god1 things once consecrated to god for the service of this churche1 belong unto him for ever4444 ffor my owne pte ,i have some imppriations1 etc4 ,i thanke god ,i keepe them wth a good conscience1 and many wold be ondone4 ,the law appveth us40#bid ,thus beset1 the landed capitalists struggled hard to maintain themselves1 and1 as their best defence1 they organized a body of priests to preach and teach the divine right of primogeniture1 which became the distinctive dogma of this national church4 ,such at least was the opinion of the non-jurors1 who have always ranked among the most orthodox of the ,anglican clergy1 and who certainly were all who had the constancy to suffer for their faith4 ,john ,lake1 ,bishop of ,chichester1 suspended in #afhi for not swearing allegiance to ,william and ,mary1 on his death-bed made the following statement3-- 8,that whereas ,i was baptized into the religion of the ,church of ,england1 and sucked it in with my milk1 ,i have constantly adhered to it through the whole course of my life1 and now1 if so be the will of ,god1 shall dye in it2 and ,i had resolved through ,god's grace assisting me to have dyed so1 though at a stake4 8,and whereas that religion of the ,church of ,england taught me the doctrine of non-resistance and passive obedience1 which ,i have accordingly inculcated upon others1 and which ,i took to be the distinguishing character of the ,church of ,england1 ,i adhere no less firmly and steadfastly to that1 and in consequence of it1 have incurred a suspension from the exercise of my office and expected a deprivation40#bie ,in the twelfth century1 the sovereign drew his supernatural quality from his consecration by the priesthood2 in the seventeenth century1 money had already come to represent a force so predominant that the process had become reversed1 and the priesthood attributed its prerogative to speak in the name of the ,deity1 to the interposition of the king4 ,this was the substance of the ,reformation in ,england4 ,cranmer taught that ,god committed to ,christian princes 8the whole cure of all their subjects1 as well concerning the administration of ,god's word 444 as 444 of things political02 therefore bishops1 parsons1 and vicars were ministers of the temporal ruler1 to whom he confided the ecclesiastical office1 as he confided the enforcement of order to a chief of police4#bif ,as a part of the secular administration1 the main function of the ,reformed priesthood was to preach obedience to their patrons2 and the doctrine they evolved has been thus summed up by ,macaulay3-- 8,it was gravely maintained that the ,supreme ,being regarded hereditary monarchy1 as opposed to other forms of government1 with peculiar favour2 that the rule of succession in order of primogeniture was a divine institution1 anterior to the ,christian1 and even to the ,mosaic dispensation2 that no human power 444 could deprive a legitimate prince of his rights2 that the authority of such a prince was necessarily always despotic44440#big ,in no other department of public affairs did the landed gentry show particular energy or ability4 ,their army was ineffective1 their navy unequal to its work1 their finances indifferently handled1 but down to the time of their overthrow1 in #afhh1 they were eminently successful in ecclesiastical organization4 ,they chose their instruments with precision1 and an oligarchy has seldom been more adroitly served4 ,macaulay was a practical politician1 and ,macaulay rated the clergy as the chief political power under ,charles ,,ii3-- 8,at every important conjuncture1 invectives against the ,whigs and exhortations to obey the ,lord's anointed resounded at once from many thousands of pulpits2 and the effect was formidable indeed4 ,of all the causes which1 after the dissolution of the ,oxford ,parliament1 produced the violent reaction against the exclusionists1 the most potent seems to have been the oratory of the country clergy40#bih ,for country squires a wage-earning clergy was safe1 and although ,macaulay's famous passage describing their fear of an army has met with contradiction1 it probably is true3-- 8,in their minds a standing army was inseparably associated with the ,rump1 with the ,protector1 with the spoliation of the ,church1 with the purgation of the ,universities1 with the abolition of the peerage1 with the murder of the ,king1 with the sullen reign of the ,saints1 with cant and asceticism1 with fines and sequestrations1 with the insults which ,major ,generals1 sprung from the dregs of the people1 had offered to the oldest and most honourable families of the kingdom4 ,there was1 moreover1 scarcely a baronet or a squire in the parliament who did not owe part of his importance in his own county to his rank in the militia4 ,if that national force were set aside1 the gentry of ,england must lose much of their dignity and influence40#bii ,the work to be done by the ,tudor hierarchy was mercenary1 not imaginative2 therefore pastors had to be chosen who could be trusted to labour faithfully for wages4 ,perhaps no equally large and intelligent body of men has ever been more skilfully selected4 ,the ,anglican priests1 as a body1 have uniformly been true to the hand which fed them1 without regard to the principles they were required to preach4 ,a remarkable instance of their docility1 where loss of income was the penalty for disobedience1 was furnished at the accession of ,william and ,mary4 ,divine right was1 of course1 the most sacred of ,anglican dogmas1 and yet1 when the clergy were commanded to take the oath of allegiance to him whom they held to be an usurper1 as ,macaulay has observed1 8some of the strongest motives which can influence the human mind1 had prevailed4 ,above twenty-nine thirtieths of the profession submitted to the law40#cjj ,moreover1 the landlords had the economic instinct1 bargaining accordingly1 and ,elizabeth bluntly told her bishops that they must get her sober1 respectable preachers1 but men who should be cheap4 8,then spake my ,lord ,treasurer4444 ,her ,maty hath declared unto you a marvellous great fault1 in that you make in this time of light so many lewd and unlearned ministers4444 ,it is the ,bishop of ,litchfield 444 that ,i mean1 who made ,,lxx4 ministers in one day for money1 some taylors1 some shoemakers1 and other craftsmen1 ,i am sure the greatest part of them not worthy to keep horses4 ,then said the ,bp4 of ,rochester1 that may be so1 for ,i know one that made #g in one day1 ,i would every man might beare his own burthen1 some of us have the greatest wrong that can be offred4444 ,but my ,lord1 if you would have none but learned preachers to be admitted into the ministery1 you must provide better livings for them4444 8,to have learned ministers in every parish is in my judgmt impossible 7quoth my ,ld4 of ,canterbury7 being #ac1jjj parishes in ,ingland1 ,i know not how this realm should yield so many learned preachers4 8,jesus 7quoth the ,queen7 #ac1jjj it is not to be looked for1 ,i thinke the time hath been1 there hath not been #d4 preachers in a diocesse1 my meaning is not you should make choice of learned ministers only for they are not to be found1 but of honest1 sober1 and wise men1 and such as can reade the scriptures and homilies well unto the people40#cja ,the ,anglican clergy under the ,tudors and the ,stuarts were not so much priests1 in the sense of the twelfth century1 as hired political retainers4 ,macaulay's celebrated description is too well known to need full quotation3 8for one who made the figure of a gentleman1 ten were mere menial servants4444 ,the coarse and ignorant squire0 could hire a 8young ,levite0 for his board1 a small garret1 and ten pounds a year4 ,this clergyman 8might not only be the most patient of butts and of listeners1 might not only be always ready in fine weather for bowls1 and in rainy weather for shovelboard1 but might also save the expense of a gardener1 or of a groom4 ,sometimes the reverend man nailed up the apricots2 and sometimes he curried the coach horses40#cjb ,yet1 as ,macaulay has also pointed out1 the hierarchy was divided into two sections1 the ordinary labourers and the managers4 ,the latter were indispensable to the aristocracy1 since without them their machine could hardly have been kept in motion1 and these were men of talent who demanded and received good wages4 ,probably for this reason a large revenue was reserved for the higher secular clergy1 and from the outset the policy proved successful4 ,many of the ablest organizers and astutest politicians of ,england1 during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 sat on the episcopal bench1 and two of the most typical1 as well as the ablest ,anglicans who ever lived1 were the two eminent bishops who led the opposing wings of the ,church when it was reformed by ,henry ,,viii43 ,stephen ,gardiner and ,thomas ,cranmer4 ,gardiner was the son of a clothworker of ,bury ,saint ,edmunds1 and was born about #adhc4 ,at ,cambridge he made himself the best civil lawyer of the kingdom1 and on meeting ,wolsey1 so strongly impressed him with his talent that the cardinal advanced him rapidly1 and in ,january #aebi sent him to negotiate for the divorce at ,rome4 ,nobody doubts that to the end of his life ,gardiner remained a sincere ,catholic1 but above all else he was a great ,anglican4 ,becoming secretary to the king in ,june1 #aebi1 as ,wolsey was tottering to his fall1 he laboured to bring the ,university of ,cambridge to the royal side1 and he also devoted himself to ,anne until he obtained the ,see of ,winchester1 when his efforts for the divorce slackened4 ,he even went so far as to assure ,clement that he had repented1 and meant to quit the court1 but notwithstanding he 8bore up the laps0 of ,anne's robe at her coronation4 ,in #aece the ways parted1 a decision could not be deferred1 he renounced ,rome and preached his sermon 8de vera ,obedientia10 in which he recognized in ,henry the supremacy of a ,byzantine emperor4 ,the pang this act cost him lasted till he died1 and he told the papal nuncio 8he made this book under compulsion1 not having the strength to suffer death patiently1 which was ready for him40#cjc ,indeed1 when dying1 his apostacy seems to have been his last thought1 for in his closing hours1 as the story of the passion was read to him he exclaimed1 8,negavi cum ,petro1 exivi cum ,petro1 sed nondum flevi cum ,petro40 ,all his life long his enemies accused him of dissimulation and hypocrisy for acts like these1 but it was precisely this quality which raised him to eminence4 ,had he not been purchasable1 he could hardly have survived as an ,anglican bishop2 an enthusiast like ,fisher would have ended on ,tower ,hill4 ,perhaps more fully than any other prelate of his time1 ,gardiner represented the faction of ,henry and ,norfolk2 he was as orthodox as he could be and yet prosper4 ,he hated ,cromwell and all 8gospellers10 and he loved power and splendour and office4 ,fisher1 with the temperament of ,saint ,anselm1 shivering in his squalid house1 clad in his shirt of hair1 and sleeping on his pallet of straw1 might indeed 8humbly thank the king's majesty0 who rid him of 8all this worldly business10 but men who rose to eminence in the reformed church were made of different stuff1 and ,gardiner's ruling passion never burned more fiercely than as he neared his death4 ,though in excruciating torments from disease1 he clung to office to the last4 ,noailles1 the ,french ambassador1 at a last interview1 found him 8livid with jaundice and bursting with dropsy3 but for two hours he held discourse with me calmly and graciously1 without a sign of discomposure2 and at parting he must needs take my arm and walk through three saloons1 on purpose to show himself to the people1 because they said that he was dead40#cjd ,gardiner was a man born to be a great prelate under a monied oligarchy1 but1 gifted as he surely was1 he must yield in glory to that wonderful archbishop who stamped the impress of his mind so deeply on the sect he loved1 and whom most ,anglicans would probably call1 with ,canon ,dixon1 the first clergyman of his age4 ,cranmer was so supremely fitted to meet the requirements of the economic revolution in which he lived1 that he rose at a bound from insignificance to what was1 for an ,englishman1 the summit of greatness4 ,in #aebi1 when the breach came1 ,gardiner already held the place of chief secretary1 while ,cranmer remained a poor ,fellow of ,jesus4 ,within four years he had been consecrated primate1 and he had bought his preferment by swearing allegiance to the pope1 though he knew himself promoted for the express purpose of violating his oath1 by decreeing the divorce which should sever ,england from ,rome4 ,his qualities were all recognized by his contemporaries2 his adroitness1 his trustworthiness1 and his flexibility4 8,such an archbishop so nominated1 and 444 so and in such wise consecrated1 was a meet instrument for the king to work by 444 a meet cover for such a cup2 neither was there ever bear-ward that might more command his bears than the king might command him40#cje ,this judgment has always been held by ,churchmen to be no small claim to fame2 ,burnet1 for example1 himself a bishop and an admirer of his eminent predecessor1 was clear that ,cranmer's strength lay in that mixture of intelligence and servility which made him useful to those who paid him3-- 8,cranmer's great interest with the king was chiefly grounded on some opinions he had of the ecclesiastical officers being as much subject to the king's power as all other civil officers were4444 ,but there was this difference3 that ,cranmer was once of that opinion 444 but ,bonner against his conscience 7if he had any7 complied with it40#cjf ,the genius of the archbishop as a courtier may be measured by the fate which overtook his contemporaries4 ,he was the fourth of ,henry's great ministers1 of whom ,cromwell1 ,norfolk1 and ,wolsey were the other three4 ,wolsey was disgraced1 plundered1 and hounded to death2 ,cromwell was beheaded1 and ,norfolk was on his way to the scaffold1 when saved by the death of the man who condemned him4 ,the priest alone1 as ,lutheran1 or as worshipper of the miracle which he afterward denied1 always kept the sunshine of favour4 ,burnet has described how readily he violated his oath by participating in the attempt to change the succession under ,edward1 8,he stood firm1 and said1 that he could not subscribe it without perjury2 having sworn to the observance of ,king ,henry's will4444 ,the king himself required him to set his hand to the will4444 ,it grieved him much2 but such was the love that he bore to the king1 that in conclusion he yielded1 and signed it40#cjg ,like the chameleon1 he changed his colour to match the force which upheld him4 ,under ,edward1 he became radical as easily as he had sung the mass under the 8,six ,articles10 or as1 under ,mary1 he pleaded to be allowed to return to ,rome4 ,nor did he act thus from cowardice1 for when he went to the fire1 not a martyr of the ,reformation showed more constancy than he4 ,with hardly an exception1 ,cranmer's contemporaries suffered because they could not entirely divest themselves of their scruples4 ,even ,gardiner had convictions strong enough to lodge him in the ,tower1 and ,bonner ended his days in the ,marshalsea1 rather than abjure again under ,elizabeth1 but no such weakness hampered ,cranmer4 ,at ,oxford1 before his execution1 he recanted1 in various forms1 very many times1 and would doubtless have gone on recanting could he have saved himself by so doing4 ,unlike ,gardiner1 his convictions were evangelical1 and he probably imbibed reformed principles quite early1 for he married ,ossiander's niece when in ,germany1 before he became archbishop4 ,characteristically enough1 he voted for the 8,six ,articles0 in deference to ,henry1#cjh although the third section of the act provided death and forfeiture of goods for any priest who might marry4 ,afterward1 he had to conceal his wife and carry 8her from place to place hidden from sight in a chest40#cji ,cranmer alleged at his trial that he had stayed orthodox regarding the sacrament until ,ridley had converted him1 after ,henry's death4 ,but1 leaving out of consideration the improbability of a man of ,cranmer's remarkable acuteness being influenced by ,ridley1 the judgment of such a man as ,foxe should have weight4 ,certainly1 ,foxe thought him a 8gospeller0 at the time of ,lambert's trial1 and nothing can give so vivid an idea of the lengths to which men of the ,anglican type were ready to go1 as the account given by ,foxe of the martyrdom of this sectary3-- 8,lambert3 #8,i answer1 with ,saint ,augustine1 that it is the body of ,christ1 after a certain manner4' 8,the ,king3 #8,answer me neither out of ,saint ,augustine1 nor by the authority of any other2 but tell me plainly1 whether thou sayest it is the body of ,christ1 or no4'444 8,lambert3 #8,then ,i deny it to be the body of ,christ4' 8,the ,king3 #8,mark well6 for now thou shalt be condemned even by ,christ's own words1 8,hoc est corpus meum40' 8,then he commanded ,thomas ,cranmer1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 to refute his assertion2 who1 first making a short preface unto the hearers1 began his disputation with ,lambert very modestly4444 ,then again the king and the bishops raged against ,lambert1 insomuch that he was not only forced to silence1 but also might have been driven into a rage1 if his ears had not been acquainted with such taunts before4444 ,and here it is much to be marvelled at1 to see how unfortunately it came to pass in this matter1 that 444 ,satan 7who oftentimes doth raise up one brother to the destruction of another7 did here perform the condemnation of this ,lambert by no other ministers than gospellers themselves1 ,taylor1 ,barnes1 ,cranmer1 and ,cromwell2 who1 afterwards1 in a manner1 all suffered the like for the gospel's sake2 of whom 7,god willing7 we will speak more hereafter4444 ,upon the day that was appointed for this holy martyr of ,god to suffer1 he was brought out of the prison at eight o'clock in the morning unto the house of the lord ,cromwell1 and so carried into his inward chamber1 where1 it is reported of many1 that ,cromwell desired of him forgiveness for what he had done4444 ,as touching the terrible manner and fashion of the burning of this blessed martyr1 here is to be noted1 that of all others who have been burned and offered up at ,smithfield1 there was yet none so cruelly and piteously handled as he4 ,for1 after that his legs were consumed and burned up to the stumps1 and that the wretched tormentors and enemies of ,god had withdrawn the fire from him1 so that but a small fire and coals were left under him1 then two that stood on each side of him1 with their halberts pitched him upon their pikes1 as far as the chain would reach4444 ,then he1 lifting up such hands as he had1 and his finger's ends flaming with fire1 cried unto the people in these words1 #8,none but ,christ1 none but ,christ2' and so1 being let down again from their halberts1 fell into the fire1 and there ended his life40#caj ,in a hierarchy like the ,anglican1 whose function was to preach passive obedience to the representative of an opulent1 but somewhat sluggish oligarchy1 there could be no permanent place for idealists4 ,with a ,spanish invasion threatening them1 an unwarlike ruling class might tolerate sailors like ,drake1 or priests like ,latimer2 but1 in the long run1 their interest lay in purging ,england of so dangerous an element4 ,the aristocracy sought men who could be bought2 but such were of a different type from ,latimer1 who1 when they brought to him the fire1 as he stood chained to the stake1 8spake in this manner3 #8,be of good comfort1 master ,ridley1 and play the man4 ,we shall this day light such a candle1 by ,god's grace1 in ,england1 as ,i trust shall never be put out4'0 ,and so1 8after he had stroked his face with his hands1 and as it were bathed them a little in the fire1 he soon died40 ,ecclesiastics like ,latimer were apt to be of the mind of ,knox1 who held 8that sick as may and do brydill the inordinatt appetyteis of ,princes1 cannot be accusit of resistance to the aucthoratie1 quhilk is ,godis gud ordinance40 ,and as the interests of landed capital were bound up with the maintenance of the royal prerogative1 such men had to be eliminated4 ,after the death of ,mary1 the danger apprehended by the landed gentry was a ,spanish invasion1 coupled with a ,catholic insurrection1 and therefore the policy of statesmen like ,cecil was to foster hostility to ,rome4 ,until after the ,armada1 ,anglicans were permitted to go all lengths towards ,geneva2 even as late as #aeie the 8,lambeth ,articles0 breathed pure ,calvinism4 ,but with the opening of a new century1 a change set in2 as the power of ,spain dwindled1 rents rose1 and the farmers grew restive at the precise moment when men of the heroic temperament could be discarded4 ,raleigh was sent to the ,tower in #afjc4 ,according to ,thorold ,rogers1 8good arable land which let at less than a shilling an acre in the last quarter of the sixteenth century1 was let at #es4 to #fs4 at the end of the first quarter of the seventeenth10 while rent for pasture doubled4#caa ,rising rents1 and prices tending to become stationary1 caused suffering among the rural population1 and with suffering came discontent4 ,this discontent in the country was fomented by restlessness in the towns1 for commerce had been strongly stimulated during the reign of ,elizabeth by the ,spanish wars1 and the mercantile element began to rebel against legislation passed in the interest of the favoured class4 ,suddenly the dissatisfaction found vent2 for more than forty years the queen's ministers had met with no serious opposition in ,parliament2 in #afja1 without warning1 their system of monopolies was struck down1 and from that day to the revolution of #afhh1 the ,house of ,commons proved to be unmanageable by the ,crown4 ,even as early as the accession of ,james1 the competition between the aristocracy and their victims had begun to glow with the heat which presages civil war4 ,had the ,tudor aristocracy been a martial caste1 they would doubtless have organized an army1 and governed by the sword2 but they instinctively felt that1 upon the field of battle1 they might be at a disadvantage1 and therefore they attempted to control the popular imagination through the priesthood4 ,thus the divine right of primogeniture came to be the distinguishing tenet of the ,church of ,england4 ,james felt the full force of the current which was carrying him onward1 and expressed the situation pithily in his famous apothegm1 8,no bishop1 no king40 8,i will have10 said he1 8one doctrine1 one discipline1 one religion in substance and ceremony20 and the policy of the interest he represented was laid down as early as #afjd1 at the conference at ,hampton ,court4 ,passive obedience was to be preached1 and the church filled with men who could be relied on by the oligarchy4 ,six weeks after the conference at ,hampton ,court1 ,whitgift died1 and ,bancroft1 ,bishop of ,london1 was translated to ,canterbury4 ,within a week he was at work4 ,he had already prepared a ,book of ,canons with which to test the clergy1 and this he had ratified by the convocation which preceded his consecration4 ,in these canons the divine origin of episcopacy was asserted2 a strange departure from the doctrine of ,cranmer4 ,in #afje there are supposed to have been about fifteen hundred ,puritan clergymen in ,england and ,wales1 and at ,bancroft's first winnowing three hundred were ejected4 ,among these ,puritans was a certain ,john ,robinson1 the teacher of a small congregation of yeomen1 in the village of ,scrooby1 in ,nottinghamshire4 ,the man's birth is unknown1 his early history is obscure1 but in him1 and in the farmers who heard him preach1 the long and bitter struggle against the pressure of the class which was destroying them1 had bred that stern and sombre enthusiasm which afterward marked the sect4 ,by #afjg ,england had grown intolerable to this congregation1 and they resolved to emigrate4 ,they had heard that in ,holland liberty of conscience was allowed1 and they fondly hoped that with liberty of conscience they might be content to earn their daily bread in peace4 ,probably with them1 however1 religion was not the cause1 but the effect of their uneasiness1 as the result proved4 ,after many trials and sorrows1 these poor people finally assembled in ,amsterdam1 and thence journeyed to ,leyden1 where they dwelt some eleven years4 ,but they found the struggle for life to be full as severe in the ,low ,countries as it had been at home1 and presently the exiles began to long for some distant land where 8they might more glorify ,god1 do more good to their country1 better provide for their posterity1 and live to be more refreshed by their labours1 than ever they could do in ,holland40 ,accordingly1 obtaining a grant from the ,virginia ,company1 they sailed in the ,mayflower in #afbj1 to settle in ,new ,england2 and thus1 by the eviction of the yeomen1 ,england laid the foundation of one great province of her colonial empire4 ,,chapter ,x ,,spain ,,and ,,india ,in the words of ,mr4 ,froude3 8,before the sixteenth century had measured half its course the shadow of ,spain already stretched beyond the ,andes2 from the mines of ,peru and the custom-houses of ,antwerp the golden rivers streamed into her imperial treasury2 the crowns of ,aragon and ,castile1 of ,burgundy1 ,milan1 ,naples1 and ,sicily1 clustered on the brow of her sovereigns40#cab ,but with all their great martial qualities1 the ,spaniards seem to have been incapable of attaining the same velocity of movement as the races with which they had to compete4 ,they never emerged from the imaginative period1 they never developed the economic type1 and in consequence they never centralized as the ,english centralized4 ,even as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century this peculiarity had been observed1 for the ,duke de ,sully remarked that with ,spain the 8legs and arms are strong and powerful1 but the heart infinitely weak and feeble40 ,captain ,mahan has explained the military impotence of the mighty mass which1 scattered over two continents1 could not command the sea1 and in the seventeenth century an intelligent ,dutchman boasted that 8the ,spaniards have publicly begun to hire our ships to sail to the ,indies4444 ,it is manifest that the ,west ,indies1 being as the stomach to ,spain 7for from it nearly all the revenue is drawn71 must be joined to the ,spanish head by a sea force02#cac and the glory of the ,elizabethan sailors lay not only in having routed this sea force1 but in having assimilated no small portion of the nutriment which the ,american stomach should have supplied to the ,spanish heart4 ,as ,spain lingered long in the imaginative age1 the priest and soldier there reigned supreme after the mercantile and sceptical type had begun to predominate elsewhere2 and the instinct of the priest and soldier has always been to exterminate their rivals when pressed by their competition4 ,in the ,spanish peninsula itself the ,inquisition soon trampled out heresy1 but by the middle of the sixteenth century the ,low ,countries were a hotbed of ,protestantism1 and in ,flanders these opposing forces fought out their battle to the death4 ,the war which ruined ,antwerp made ,england4 ,in #aegf ,antwerp was sacked and burned2 in #aehe the town was reduced to starvation by the ,duke of ,parma1 and its commerce having been scattered by successive disasters1 some of it migrated to ,amsterdam1 and some sought shelter in the ,thames4 ,in ,london the modern man was protected by the sea1 and the crisis of the combat came in #aehh1 when the ,spaniards1 having decided to pursue their enemy to his last stronghold1 sent the ,armada to perish in the ,channel4 ,with that supreme effort the vitality of the great imaginative empire began to fail1 disintegration set in1 and on the ruins of ,spain rose the purely economic centralization of ,great ,britain4 ,like the ,venetians1 the ,british laid the basis of their high fortune by piracy and slaving1 and their advantage over ,spain lay not in mass1 but in a superior energy1 which gave them more rapid movement4 ,drake's squadron1 when he sailed round the world1 numbered five ships1 the largest measuring only one hundred and twenty tons1 the smallest twelve1 but with these he succeeded because of their speed4 ,for example1 he overtook the ,cacafuego1 whose ballast was silver1 and whose cargo gold and jewels4 ,he never disclosed her value1 but the ,spanish government afterward proved a loss of a million and a half of ducats1 beside the property of private individuals4 ,in like manner the ,armada was destroyed by little ships1 which sailed round their clumsy enemy1 and disabled him before he could strike a blow in self-defence4 ,the ,spanish wars were halcyon days for the men of martial blood who had lost their land2 they took to the sea by thousands1 and ravaged the ,spanish colonies with the energy and ferocity of vikings4 ,for nearly a generation they wallowed in gold and silver and gems1 and in the plunder of the ,american towns4 ,among these men ,sir ,francis ,drake stood foremost1 but1 after #aefj1 the southern counties swarmed with pirates2 and when1 in #aehe1 ,drake sailed on his raid against the ,west ,indies1 he led a force of volunteers twenty-five hundred strong4 ,he held no commission1 the crews of his twenty-five ships served without pay1 they went as buccaneers to fatten on the commerce of the ,spaniard4 ,as it happened1 this particular expedition failed financially1 for the treasure fleet escaped1 and the plunder of the three cities of ,santiago1 ,saint ,domingo1 and ,carthagena yielded only #fj1jjj1 but the injury done to ,spain was incalculable4 ,no computation can be attempted of the spoil taken during these years2 no reports were ever made2 on the contrary1 all concerned were anxious to conceal their doings1 but certain prizes were too dazzling to be hidden4 ,when ,drake surprised three caravans on the ,isthmus1 numbering one hundred and ninety mules1 each mule loaded with three hundred pounds of silver1 the fact became known4 ,no wonder ,drake ate off 8silver richly gilt1 and engraved with his arms10 that he had 8all possible luxuries1 even to perfumes10 that he dined and supped 8to the music of violins10 and that he could bribe the queen with a diamond cross and a coronet set with splendid emeralds1 and give the lord chancellor a service of plate4 ,what he gave in secret he alone knew4 ,as ,francis ,drake was the ideal ,english corsair1 so ,john ,hawkins was the ideal slaver4 ,the men were kinsmen1 and of the breed which1 when driven from their farms at the end of the ,middle ,ages1 left their mark all over the world4 ,of course the two sailors were 8gospellers10 and ,mr4 ,froude has quoted an interesting passage from the manuscript of a contemporary ,jesuit1 which shows how their class was esteemed toward the close of the sixteenth century3 8,the only party that would fight to the death for the queen1 the only real friends she had1 were the ,puritans1 the ,puritans of ,london1 the ,puritans of the sea towns40#cad ,these the priest thought desperate and determined men4 ,nevertheless they sometimes provoked ,elizabeth by their sermonizing4 ,the story is told that one day after reading a letter of ,hawkins to ,burleigh she cried3 8,god's death6 ,this fool went out a soldier1 and has come back a divine40 ,though both ,drake and ,hawkins possessed the predatory temperament1 ,hawkins had a strong commercial instinct1 and kept closely to trade4 ,he was the son of old ,william ,hawkins1 the first ,british captain who ever visited ,brazil1 and who brought from thence a native chief1 whom he presented to ,henry ,,viii4 ,as a young man ,john had discovered at the ,canaries 8that negroes were a very good commodity in ,hispaniola10#cae and that they might easily be taken on the coast of ,guinea4 ,accordingly1 in #aefb1 he fitted out three ships1 touched at ,sierra ,leone1 and 8partly by the sword and partly by other means10 he obtained a cargo1 8and with that prey he sailed over the ocean sea0 to ,hispaniola1 where he sold his goods at a large profit4 ,the ,west ,india ,islands1 and the countries bordering the ,gulf of ,mexico1 cannot be cultivated profitably by white labourers2 therefore1 when the ,spaniards had1 by hard usage1 partially exterminated the natives1 a fresh supply of field hands became necessary1 and these could be had easily and cheaply on the coast of ,africa4 ,at first ,spain tried to exclude foreigners from this most lucrative traffic2 but here again the ,english moved too quickly to be stopped4 ,wherever ,hawkins went1 he went prepared to fight1 and1 if prevented from trading peaceably1 he used force4 ,in his first voyage he met with no opposition1 but subsequently1 at ,burburata1 leave to sell was denied him1 and1 without an instant's hesitation1 he marched against the town with 8a hundred men well armed10 and brought the governor to terms4 ,having supplied all the slaves needed at that port1 ,hawkins went on to ,rio de la ,hacha1 where he1 in like manner1 made a demonstration with 8one hundred men in armour10 and two small guns1 and in ten days he had disposed of his whole stock4 ,as at that time an able negro appears to have been worth about #afj in the ,west ,indies1#caf a cargo of five hundred ought to have netted between seventy and eighty thousand pounds1 for the cost of kidnapping was trifling4 ,no wonder1 therefore1 that slaving flourished1 and that1 by the middle of the eighteenth century1 ,england probably carried not far from one hundred thousand blacks annually from ,africa to the colonies4 ,the ,east offered no such market1 and doubtless ,adam ,smith was right in his opinion that the commerce with ,india had never been so advantageous as the trade to ,america4#cag ,both slavers and pirates brought bullion to ,england1 and presently this flow of silver began to stimulate at ,london a certain amount of exchange between the ,east and ,west4 ,the ,orientals have always preferred payment in specie1 and1 as silver has usually offered more profit than gold as an export1 the ,european with a surplus of silver has had the advantage over all competitors4 ,accordingly1 until ,spain lost the power to protect her communications with her mines1 the ,spanish peninsula enjoyed almost a monopoly of the trade beyond the ,cape2 but as the war went on1 and more of the precious metal flowed to the north1 ,england and ,holland began to send their silver to ,asia1 the ,dutch organizing one ,east ,india ,company in #aeie1 and the ,british another in #afjj4 ,sir ,josiah ,child1 who was1 perhaps1 the ablest merchant of the seventeenth century1 observed that in #aede 8the trade of ,england then was inconsiderable1 and the merchants very mean and few40#cah ,child's facts are beyond doubt1 and the date he fixed is interesting because it coincides with the discovery of ,potosi1 whence most of the silver came which supplied the pirates and the slavers4 ,prior to #aede specie had been scarce in ,london1 but when the buccaneers had been scuttling treasure galleons for a generation1 they found themselves possessed of enough specie to set them dreaming of ,india1 and thus piracy laid the foundation of the ,british empire in ,asia4 ,but robbing the ,spaniards had another more immediate and more startling result1 for it probably precipitated the civil war4 ,as the city grew rich it chafed at the slow movement of the aristocracy1 who1 timid and peaceful1 cramped it by closing the channels through which it reached the property of foreigners2 and1 just when the yeomanry were exasperated by rising rents1 ,london began to glow with that energy which1 when given vent1 was destined to subdue so large a portion of the world4 ,perhaps it is not going too far to say that1 even from the organization of the ,east ,india ,company1 the mercantile interest controlled ,england4 ,not that it could then rule alone1 it lacked the power to do so for nearly a hundred years to come2 but1 after #afjj1 its weight turned the scale on which side soever thrown4 ,before the ,long ,parliament the merchants were generally ,presbyterians or moderate ,puritans2 the farmers1 ,independents or ,radicals2 and ,winthrop1 when preparing for the emigration to ,massachusetts1 dealt not only with squires like ,hampden1 but with city magnates like ,thomas ,andrews1 the lord mayor4 ,this alliance between the rural and the urban ,puritans carried through the ,great ,rebellion1 and as their coalition crushed the monarchy so their separation reinstated it4 ,macaulay has very aptly observed that 8but for the hostility of the city1 ,charles the ,first would never have been vanquished1 and that1 without the help of the city1 ,charles the ,second could scarcely have been restored40#cai ,at the ,protector's death the ,presbyterians abandoned the farmers1 probably because they feared them4 ,the army of the ,commonwealth swarmed with men like ,cromwell and ,blake1 warriors resistless alike on land and sea1 with whom1 when organized1 the city could not cope4 ,therefore it scattered them1 and1 throwing in its lot with the ,cavaliers1 set up the king4 ,for about a generation after the ,restoration1 no single interest had the force to impose its will upon the nation1 or1 in other words1 parties were equally balanced2 but from the middle of the century the tide flowed rapidly4 ,capital accumulated1 and as it accumulated the men adapted to be its instruments grew to be the governing class4 ,sir ,josiah ,child is the most interesting figure of this period4 ,his acquaintance remembered him a poor apprentice sweeping the counting-house where he worked2 and yet1 at fifty1 his fortune reached #bj1jjj a year1 a sum almost equal to the rent-roll of the ,duke of ,ormond1 the richest peer of the realm4 ,child married his daughter to the eldest son of the ,duke of ,beaufort1 and gave her #ej1jjj1 and his ability was so commanding that for years he absolutely ruled the ,east ,india ,company1 and used its revenues to corrupt ,parliament4 ,on matters of finance such a man would hardly err1 and he gave it as his opinion that in #afce 8there were more merchants to be found upon the ,exchange worth each one thousand pounds and upwards1 than were in the former days1 viz41 before the year #afjj1 to be found worth one hundred pounds each40 8,and now 444 there are more men to be found upon the ,exchange now worth ten thousand pounds estates1 than were then of one thousand pounds4 ,and if this be doubted1 let us ask the aged1 whether five hundred pounds portion with a daughter sixty years ago1 were not esteemed a larger portion than two thousand pounds is now2 and whether gentlewomen in those days would not esteem themselves well clothed in a serge gown1 which a chambermaid now will be ashamed to be seen in4444 ,we have now almost one hundred coaches for one we had formerly4 ,we with ease can pay a greater tax now in one year than our forefathers could in twenty4 ,our customs are very much improved1 ,i believe above the proportion aforesaid1 of six to one2 which is not so much in advance of the rates of goods as by increase of the bulk of trade4444 8,i can myself remember since there were not in ,london used so many wharves or keys for the landing of merchants' goods1 by at least one third part1 as now there are1 and those that were then could scarce have employment for half what they could do2 and now1 notwithstanding one-third more used to the same purpose1 they are all too little1 in time of peace1 to land the goods at1 that come to ,london40#cbj ,child estimated that1 within twenty years1 wages had risen one-third1 and rents twenty-five per cent1 while 8houses new-built in ,london yield twice the rent they did before the fire40#cba ,farms that 8their grandfathers or fathers bought or sold fifty years past 444 would yield1 one with another1 at least treble the money1 and in some cases1 six times the money1 they were then bought and sold for40#cbb ,macaulay has estimated the population of ,london in #afhe at half a million1 and believed it to have then become the largest city in ,europe4 ,the aristocracy were forced to tolerate men of the predatory type while they feared a ,spanish invasion1 but after the defeat of the ,armada these warriors became dangerous at home1 and the oligarchy1 very naturally1 tried to purge the island of a class which constantly menaced their authority4 ,persecution drove numbers of ,nonconformists to ,america1 and the story of ,captain ,john ,smith shows how hardly society then pressed on the race of adventurers1 even where the bitterness of the struggle did not produce religious enthusiasm4 ,smith lived a generation too late4 ,born in #aegi1 he was a child of nine when the ,armada perished1 and only sixteen when ,drake and ,hawkins died at sea4 ,smith's father had property1 but when left an orphan his guardians neglected him1 and at fifteen let him set out on his travels with only ten shillings in his pocket4 ,at home no career was open to him1 for the ,cecils rather inclined to imprison and behead soldiers of fortune than to reward them4 ,accordingly he went abroad1 and by twenty-five had seen service in most countries of the ,continent1 had been enslaved by the ,turks1 had escaped and wandered to ,barbary1 had fought the ,spanish on a ,french man-of-war1 and at last had learned that the dreams of his youth belonged to a past age1 and that he must enter a new path4 ,he therefore joined himself to a party bound for ,virginia1 and the hardship of the times may be gauged by the fact that out of a company of a hundred1 fifty-two were gentlemen adventurers as needy as himself1 none of whom sought exile for religion4 ,smith's voyages to ,america brought him nothing but bitterness4 ,he returned to ,england and passed his last years in obscurity and neglect1 and perhaps the fate that awaited soldiers under ,james1 has been nowhere better told than in ,smith's own words4 ,he spent five years and more than five hundred pounds in the service of ,virginia and ,new ,england1 yet 8in neither 444 have ,i one foot of land1 nor the very house ,i builded1 nor the ground ,i digged with my own hands1 nor ever any content or satisfaction at all1 and though ,i see ordinarily those two countries shared before me by them that neither have them1 nor know them but by my descriptions40#cbc ,as long as the ,tudor aristocracy ruled1 ,great ,britain afforded small comfort for men like ,smith4 ,that aristocracy had genius neither for adventure nor for war1 and few ,western nations have a sorrier military history than ,england under the ,stuarts4 ,yet beneath the inert mass of the nobility seethed an energy which was to recentralize the world2 and when capital had accumulated to a certain point1 the men who gave it an outlet laid their grasp upon the ,state4 ,in #afhh the commercial adventurers conquered the kingdom4 ,the change was radical2 at once social1 political1 and religious4 ,the stronghold of the ,tories had been the royal prerogative4 ,the victors lodged the power of the ,crown in a committee chosen by the ,house of ,commons4 ,the dogma of divine right immediately vanished1 and with it all that distinguished ,anglicanism4 ,though perverted by the ,tudors1 this great tenet of the ,church of ,henry ,,viii4 had been at least a survival of an imaginative age2 and when the merchants swept it away1 all trace of idealism departed4 ,thenceforward ,english civilization became a purely materialistic phenomenon4 ,in proportion as movement accelerates societies consolidate1 and as societies consolidate they pass through a profound intellectual change4 ,energy ceases to find vent through the imagination1 and takes the form of capital2 hence as civilizations advance1 the imaginative temperament tends to disappear1 while the economic instinct is fostered1 and thus substantially new varieties of men come to possess the world4 ,nothing so portentous overhangs humanity as this mysterious and relentless acceleration of movement1 which changes methods of competition and alters paths of trade2 for by it countless millions of men and women are foredoomed to happiness or misery1 as certainly as the beasts and trees1 which have flourished in the wilderness1 are destined to vanish when the soil is subdued by man4 ,the ,romans amassed the treasure by which they administered their ,empire1 through the plunder and enslavement of the world4 ,the ,empire cemented by that treasure crumbled when adverse exchanges carried the bullion of ,italy to the shore of the ,bosphorus4 ,an accelerated movement among the semi-barbarians of the ,west caused the agony of the crusades1 amidst which ,constantinople fell as the ,italian cities rose2 while ,venice and ,genoa1 and with them the whole ,arabic civilization1 shrivelled1 when ,portugal established direct communication with ,hindostan4 ,the opening of the ocean as a highroad precipitated the ,reformation1 and built up ,antwerp1 while in the end it ruined ,spain2 and finally the last great quickening of the age of steam1 which centralized the world at ,london1 bathed the earth in blood1 from the ,mississippi to the ,ganges4 ,thus religions are preached and are forgotten1 empires rise and fall1 philosophies are born and die1 art and poetry bloom and fade1 as societies pass from the disintegration wherein the imagination kindles1 to the consolidation whose pressure ends in death4 ,in #afhh1 when the momentum of ,england suddenly increased1 the change was equivalent to the conquest of the island by a new race4 ,among the family of ,european nations1 ,great ,britain rose as no people had risen since the ,punic ,wars4 ,almost instantly she entered on a career of conquest unparalleled in modern history4 ,of the hundred and twenty-five years between the ,boyne and ,waterloo1 she passed some seventy in waging ferocious wars1 from which she emerged victorious on land and sea1 the mistress of a mighty empire1 the owner of incalculable wealth1 and the centre of the world's exchanges4 ,then1 from this culminating point of expansion by conquest1 she glided subtly1 and almost imperceptibly1 into the period of contraction1 as ,rome went before her under the ,csars4 ,although abundant metallic currency does not1 probably1 of itself1 create mercantile prosperity1 such prosperity is hardly compatible with a shrinking stock of money2 for when contraction sets in and prices fall1 producers and debtors are ruined1 as they were ruined in ,italy under the later emperors4 ,toward the close of the seventeenth century ,europe appeared to be on the brink of such a contraction1 for though ,peru had lavishly replenished the supply of the precious metals a hundred years previously1 the drain to ,asia and the increasing demands of commerce had been so considerable1 that the standard coin had generally depreciated4 ,from the reign of ,augustus downward1 commerce between ,europe and ,asia has usually favoured ,asia1 and this was particularly true of the seventeenth century1 when the value of bullion fell in the ,west1 and therefore encouraged lavish exports to the ,east1 where it retained its purchasing power4 ,according to ,adam ,smith1 8the banks of ,venice1 ,genoa1 ,amsterdam1 ,hamburg1 and ,nuremberg1 seem to have been all originally established0 to provide an ideal currency for the settlement of bills of exchange1 and the money 8of such banks1 being better than the common currency of the country1 necessarily bore an agio1 which was greater or smaller1 according as the currency was supposed to be more or less degraded below the standard of the ,state40#cbd ,smith estimated the depreciation at ,hamburg at fourteen per cent1 and at ,amsterdam1 early in the previous century1 at nine per cent2 in short1 all ,european countries suffered1 but in ,england the evil reached a climax through the inertia of the new aristocracy4 ,in ,england1 silver had always been the standard1 and by the third year of ,elizabeth the coin had been restored to its proper fineness1 which thenceforward was scrupulously maintained4 ,but though the metal was not degraded by the government1 the stock of bullion1 if not constantly replenished from without1 tended to diminish in proportion to the growth of the country and the export of specie to ,asia4 ,after the discovery of ,america1 the value of silver in relation to gold fell1 in ,europe1 to about fourteen or fifteen to one1 while in ,china or ,india it stood pretty steady at from ten to twelve to one4 ,consequently from #afjj downward1 silver remained the most profitable cargo which could be sent round the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and1 unhappily for ,british prosperity1 at the very moment when the ,east ,india ,company came into being1 piracy ceased4 ,the chief supply of bullion being thus cut off1 the strain of the export trade fell upon the coin1 and within a little more than a generation the effect become apparent in a degeneration of the currency4 ,to make good her position as a centre of exchanges1 ,england had no choice but to supply her necessities by force4 ,cromwell understood the situation perfectly1 and had hardly assumed the office of ,protector when he laid plans to cut the evil at the root by conquering ,spanish ,america1 and robbing ,spain of her mines4 ,to this end he fitted out his great expedition against ,saint ,domingo1 which was to serve him as his base2 but for once his military genius failed him1 his commanders blundered1 the attack miscarried1 and the island of ,jamaica was all that came of the campaign4 ,meanwhile1 however1 that no time might be lost while fighting for the mines themselves1 ,cromwell sent ,blake to intercept the treasure ships off the coast of ,spain4 ,at first ,blake also had ill-luck4 ,in #afee the plate fleet escaped him1 but the next year1 though forced himself to go to port for supplies1 he detached ,captain ,stayner1 with six sail1 to cruise off ,cadiz1 and on ,september #ai1 ,general ,montague was able to report that his 8hart was very much warmed with the apprehension of the singular providence of ,god10 who had permitted ,stayner to meet1 8with the ,kinge of ,spain's ,west ,india fleete10 and take among other prizes 8a gallion reported to have in her two million pieces of plate40#cbe ,if the 8plate0 were ,mexican 8pieces of eight0 at four shillings and sixpence1 the cargo was worth #dej1jjj1 or considerably more than the whole annual export to the ,east at the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,had the ,protector lived1 there can be little doubt that1 by some such means as this1 he would have fostered ,british resources1 and maintained the integrity of ,british coin2 but in less than two years from the date of ,montague's dispatch1 ,cromwell was dead1 and the inertia of the ,tory landlords paralyzed the nation for another generation4 ,no foreigner was robbed1 and the stock of domestic silver dwindled from year to year1 until at the ,revolution the golden guinea1 which1 from its first issue in #affb down to the accession of ,william and ,mary1 had been nominally current for twenty shillings1 actually sold in the market for thirty shillings of the money in use4 8,this diminishing and counterfeiting the money was at this time so excessive1 that what was good silver was worth scarcely one-half of its current value1 whilst a great part of the coins was only iron1 brass1 or copper plated1 and some no more than washed over40#cbf ,one of the first acts of the new government was a complete recoinage1 which was finished in #afii2 but the measure failed of its purpose1 for the reason that the exports of silver regularly exceeded the imports4 ,in #agag1 a committee of the ,house of ,lords considered the condition of the currency1 and ,lord ,stanhope then explained very lucidly the cause of the scarcity of silver4 ,among other papers he produced a report from the ,custom ,house1 by which it appeared that1 in the year #agag1 8the ,east ,india ,company had exported near three million ounces of silver1 which far exceeding the imports of the bullion in that year1 it necessarily followed that vast quantities of silver specie must have been melted down1 both to make up the export1 and to supply the silversmith40#cbg ,for the decade from #agaa to #agbj the annual export of bullion by the ,east ,india ,company averaged #dcd1jjj4cbh ,at the accession of ,george ,,iii41 in #agfj1 ,lord ,liverpool estimated that shillings had lost one-sixth1 and sixpences one-quarter of their original weight1 while the crown-piece had almost wholly disappeared4#cbi ,even ,adam ,smith admitted that because of this outflow silver had risen in value1 and probably purchased 8a larger quantity both of labour and commodities0 than it otherwise would4#ccj ,in this emergency the ,british merchants showed the resource which has always been their characteristic1 and1 in default of an adequate supply of specie1 relieved the strain upon their currency by issuing paper4 ,medival banking had gone no further than the establishment of reserves of coin1 to serve as a medium for clearing bills of exchange2 the ,english took the great step of accelerating the circulation of their money1 by using this reserve as a basis for a paper currency which might be largely expanded4 ,the ,bank of ,england was incorporated in #afid1 the ,bank of ,scotland in #afie1 and the effect was unquestionably considerable4 ,adam ,smith has thus described the impetus received by ,glasgow3-- 8,the effects of it have been precisely those above described4 ,the business of the country is almost entirely carried on by means of the paper of those different banking companies1 with which purchases and payments of all kinds are commonly made4 ,silver very seldom appears except in the change of a twenty shillings bank note1 and gold still seldomer4 ,but though the conduct of all those different companies has not been unexceptionable 444 the country1 notwithstanding1 has evidently derived great benefit from their trade4 ,i have heard it asserted1 that the trade of the city of ,glasgow doubled in about fifteen years after the first erection of the banks there2 and that the trade of ,scotland has more than quadrupled since the first erection of the two public banks at ,edinburgh40#cca ,but although by this means a certain degree of relief was given1 and though prices rose slowly throughout the first half of the eighteenth century1 the fundamental difficulty remained4 ,there was insufficient silver for export1 exchanges were adverse1 and that stock of coined money was lacking which is the form in which force clothes itself in highly centralized communities4 ,how ,england finally supplied her needs is one of the most dramatic pages of history4 ,as ,jevons has aptly observed1 ,asia is 8the great reservoir and sink of the precious metals40 ,from time immemorial the ,oriental custom has been to hoard1 and from the ,mogul blazing with the diamonds of ,golconda1 to the peasant starving on his wretched pittance1 every ,hindoo had1 in former days1 a treasure stored away against a day of trouble4 ,year by year1 since ,pizarro had murdered the ,inca ,atahualpa for his gold1 a stream of bullion had flowed from ,america to ,europe1 and from ,europe to the ,east3 there it had vanished as completely as though once more buried in the bowels of the mine4 ,these hoards1 the savings of millions of human beings for centuries1 the ,english seized and took to ,london1 as the ,romans had taken the spoil of ,greece and ,pontus to ,italy4 ,what the value of the treasure was1 no man can estimate1 but it must have been many millions of pounds--a vast sum in proportion to the stock of the precious metals then owned by ,europeans4 ,some faint idea of the booty of the conqueror may be drawn from ,macaulay's description of the first visit of an ,english soldier to an ,oriental treasure chamber3-- 8,as to ,clive1 there was no limit to his acquisitions but his own moderation4 ,the treasury of ,bengal was thrown open to him4 ,there were piled up1 after the usage of ,indian princes1 immense masses of coin1 among which might not seldom be detected the florins and byzants with which1 before any ,european ship had turned the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 the ,venetians purchased the stuffs and spices of the ,east4 ,clive walked between heaps of gold and silver1 crowned with rubies and diamonds1 and was at liberty to help himself40#ccb ,the lives of few men are better known than those of ,clive and ,hastings1 and yet there are few whose influence upon the fate of mankind has had such scant appreciation4 ,it is not too much to say that the destiny of ,europe hinged upon the conquest of ,bengal4 ,robert ,clive was of the same stock as ,drake and ,hawkins1 ,raleigh1 ,blake1 and ,cromwell2 he was the eldest son of one of those small farmers whose ancestors had held their land ever since the ,conquest1 and who1 when at last evicted and driven out to sea1 had fought and conquered on every continent and on every ocean4 ,among the throng of great ,english adventurers none is greater than he4 ,he was born in #agbe1 and from childhood displayed those qualities which made him pre-eminent on the field of battle2 fighting was his delight1 and so fierce was his temper that his family could not control him4 ,at last1 when eighteen1 his father gladly sent him to ,madras as a clerk in the service of the ,east ,india ,company2 and there1 in a torrid climate which shattered his health1 poor and neglected1 lonely and forlorn1 he pined1 until in melancholy he twice attempted suicide4 ,but he was destined to found an empire1 and at last his hour came4 ,when ,clive went to ,india1 the ,company was still a purely commercial concern1 holding only the land needed for its warehouses1 and having in their pay a few ill-disciplined sepoys4 ,in the year #agdf1 when ,clive was twenty-one1 the war of the ,austrian ,succession was raging1 and suddenly a ,french fleet1 commanded by ,labourdonnais1 appeared off ,madras1 and attacked ,fort ,saint ,george4 ,resistance was hopeless1 the place surrendered1 and the governor and chief inhabitants were taken to ,pondicherry4 ,clive1 however1 managed to escape1 and1 volunteering1 received an ensign's commission1 and began his military career4 ,shortly after1 peace was made in ,europe1 but in ,india the issue of the struggle lay undecided between the ,french and ,english1 the prize being the peninsula4 ,dupleix1 the ,french governor of ,pondicherry1 was a man of commanding intellect1 who first saw the possibility of constructing a ,european empire in ,hindostan by controlling native princes4 ,following up his idea1 he mixed in a war of succession1 and having succeeded in establishing a sovereign of the ,deccan1 he made himself master of ,southern ,india4 ,the ,nizam's treasure was thrown open to him1 and beside many jewels of price1 he is said to have appropriated two hundred thousand pounds in coin4 ,this was the man whom ,clive1 when only a clerk of twenty-five1 without military education or experience1 attacked and overthrew4 ,clive began his campaigns by the capture and defence of ,arcot1 one of the most daring deeds of a generation given over to perpetual war4 ,aided by their native allies1 the ,french had laid siege to ,trichinopoly1 and ,clive represented to his superiors that with the fate of ,trichinopoly was bound up the fate of the whole peninsula4 ,he recommended making a diversion by assaulting ,arcot1 the capital of the ,carnatic2 his plan met with approval1 and1 with two hundred ,europeans and three hundred sepoys1 he marched to fight the greatest power in the ,east4 ,he succeeded in surprising and occupying the town without loss1 but when within the city his real peril began4 ,arcot had neither ditches nor defensible ramparts1 the ,english were short of provisions1 and the ,nabob hurried forward ten thousand men to relieve his capital4 ,with four officers1 one hundred and twenty ,british1 and two hundred sepoys1 ,clive held the town for fifty days1 and when the enemy assaulted for the last time he served his own guns4 ,he won a decisive victory1 and from that hour was recognized as among the most brilliant officers of the world4 ,other campaigns followed1 but his health1 undermined by the tropics1 gave way1 and at twenty-seven he returned home to squander his money and contest an election to ,parliament4 ,he soon reached the end of his resources1 and1 just before the opening of the ,seven ,years' ,war1 he accepted a lieutenant-colonel's commission1 and set sail to take command in ,hindostan4 ,the ,company appointed him governor of ,fort ,saint ,david1 a settlement near ,madras2 but he had hardly assumed his office before an event occurred which caused the conquest of ,bengal4 ,the ,nabob of ,bengal captured ,calcutta1 and imprisoned one hundred and forty-six of the ,english residents in the 8,black ,hole10 where1 in a single night1 one hundred and twenty-three perished4 ,clive was summoned1 and acted with his usual vigour4 ,he routed the ,nabob's army1 recovered ,calcutta1 and would have taken vengeance at once had not the civilians1 who wanted to be restored to their places1 interfered4 ,long and tortuous negotiations followed1 in which ,clive displayed more than ,oriental cunning and duplicity1 ending in a march into the interior and the battle of ,plassey4 ,there1 with one thousand ,english and two thousand sepoys1 he met and crushed the army of the ,nabob1 sixty thousand strong4 ,on ,june #bc1 #ageg1 one of the richest provinces of ,asia lay before him defenceless1 ripe for plunder4 ,eight hundred thousand pounds were sent down the ,hooghly to ,calcutta1 in one shipment2 ,clive himself took between two and three hundred thousand pounds4 ,like ,drake and ,hawkins1 ,clive had done great things for ,england1 but he was a military adventurer1 one of the class in whom the aristocracy recognized an enemy2 and though in ,london he was treated with outward respect1 and even given an ,irish peerage1 the landed interest hated him1 and tried to destroy him1 as in the next generation it tried to destroy ,hastings4 ,upon the plundering of ,india there can be no better authority than ,macaulay1 who held high office at ,calcutta when the administration of ,hastings was still remembered2 and who less than any of the writers who have followed him1 was a mouth-piece of the official class4#ccc ,he has told how after ,plassey 8the shower of wealth0 began to fall1 and he has described ,clive's own gains3 8,we may safely affirm that no ,englishman who started with nothing has ever1 in any line of life1 created such a fortune at the early age of thirty-four40#ccd ,but the takings of ,clive1 either for himself or for the government1 were trifling compared to the wholesale robbery and spoliation which followed his departure1 when ,bengal was surrendered a helpless prey to a myriad of greedy officials4 ,these officials were absolute1 irresponsible1 and rapacious1 and they emptied the private hoards4 ,their only thought was to wring some hundreds of thousands of pounds out of the natives as quickly as possible1 and hurry home to display their wealth4 8,enormous fortunes were thus rapidly accumulated at ,calcutta1 while thirty millions of human beings were reduced to the extremity of wretchedness40 8,the misgovernment of the ,english was carried to a point such as seems hardly compatible with the very existence of society4 ,the ,roman proconsul1 who1 in a year or two1 squeezed out of a province the means of rearing marble palaces and baths on the shores of ,campania1 of drinking from amber1 of feasting on singing birds1 of exhibiting armies of gladiators and flocks of camelopards2 the ,spanish viceroy1 who1 leaving behind him the curses of ,mexico or ,lima1 entered ,madrid with a long train of gilded coaches1 and of sumpter-horses trapped and shod with silver1 were now outdone40#cce ,thus treasure in oceans flowed into ,england through private hands1 but in ,india the affairs of the ,company went from bad to worse4 ,misgovernment impoverished the people1 the savings of long years of toil were exhausted1 and when1 in #aggj1 a drought brought famine1 the resources of the people failed1 and they perished by millions3 8the very streets of ,calcutta were blocked up by the dying and the dead40 ,then came an outbreak of wrath from disappointed stockholders2 the landed interest seized its opportunity to attack ,clive in ,parliament2 and the merchants chose ,hastings to develop the resources of ,hindostan4 ,as ,sheridan said1 the ,company 8extended the sordid principles of their origin over all their successive operations2 connecting with their civil policy1 and even with their boldest achievements1 the meanness of a pedlar and the profligacy of pirates40 ,in ,hastings the ,company found a man fitted to their hands1 a statesman worthy to organize a vast empire on an economic basis4 ,able1 bold1 cool1 and relentless1 he grasped the situation at a glance1 and never faltered in his purpose4 ,if more treasure was to be wrung from the natives1 force had to be used systematically4 ,though ,bengal might be ruined1 the hoards of the neighbouring potentates remained safe1 and these ,hastings deliberately set himself to drain4 ,macaulay has explained the policy and the motives which actuated him3-- 8,the object of his diplomacy was at this time simply to get money4 ,the finances of his government were in an embarrassed state1 and this embarrassment he was determined to relieve by some means1 fair or foul4 ,the principle which directed all his dealings with his neighbours is fully expressed by the old motto of one of the great predatory families of ,teviotdale1 #8,thou shalt want ere ,i want4' ,he seems to have laid it down1 as a fundamental proposition which could not be disputed1 that1 when he had not as many lacs of rupees as the public service required1 he was to take them from anybody who had4 ,one thing1 indeed1 is to be said in excuse for him4 ,the pressure applied to him by his employers at home1 was such as only the highest virtue could have withstood1 such as left him no choice except to commit great wrongs1 or to resign his high post1 and with that post all his hopes of fortune and distinction40#ccf ,how he obtained his money1 the pledges he violated1 and the blood he spilt1 is known as few passages of history are known1 for the story has been told by ,macaulay and by ,burke4 ,how he robbed the ,nabob of ,bengal of half the income the ,company had solemnly promised to pay1 how he repudiated the revenue which the government had covenanted to yield to the ,mogul as a tribute for provinces ceded them1 and how1 in consideration of four hundred thousand pounds1 he sent a brigade to slaughter the ,rohillas1 and placidly saw 8their villages burned1 their children butchered1 and their women violated10 has been described in one of the most popular essays in the language4 ,at ,hastings' impeachment1 the heaviest charge against him was that based on his conduct toward the princesses of ,oude1 whom his creature1 ,asaph-ul-,dowlah1 imprisoned and starved1 whose servants he tormented1 and from whom he wrung at last twelve hundred thousand pounds1 as the price of blood4 ,by these acts1 and acts such as these1 the treasure which had flowed to ,europe through the extermination of the ,peruvians1 was returned again to ,england from the hoards of conquered ,hindoos4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,modern ,,centralization ,in discussing the phenomena of the highly centralized society in which he lived1 ,mill defined capital 8as the accumulated stock of human labour40 ,in other words1 capital may be considered as stored energy2 but most of this energy flows in fixed channels1 money alone is capable of being transmuted immediately into any form of activity4 ,therefore the influx of the ,indian treasure1 by adding considerably to the nation's cash capital1 not only increased its stock of energy1 but added much to its flexibility and the rapidity of its movement4 ,very soon after ,plassey the ,bengal plunder began to arrive in ,london1 and the effect appears to have been instantaneous1 for all authorities agree that the 8industrial revolution10 the event which has divided the nineteenth century from all antecedent time1 began with the year #agfj4 ,prior to #agfj1 according to ,baines1 the machinery used for spinning cotton in ,lancashire was almost as simple as in ,india2#ccg while about #agej the ,english iron industry was in full decline because of the destruction of the forests for fuel4 ,at that time four-fifths of the iron in use in the kingdom came from ,sweden4 ,plassey was fought in #ageg1 and probably nothing has ever equalled the rapidity of the change which followed4 ,in #agfj the flying-shuttle appeared1 and coal began to replace wood in smelting4 ,in #agfd ,hargreaves invented the spinning-jenny1 in #aggi ,crompton contrived the mule1 in #aghe ,cartwright patented the power-loom1 and1 chief of all1 in #agfh ,watt matured the steam-engine1 the most perfect of all vents of centralizing energy4 ,hut though these machines served as outlets for the accelerating movement of the time1 they did not cause that acceleration4 ,in themselves inventions are passive1 many of the most important having lain dormant for centuries1 waiting for a sufficient store of force to have accumulated to set them working4 ,that store must always take the shape of money1 and money not hoarded1 but in motion4 ,thus printing had been known for ages in ,china before it came to ,europe2 the ,romans probably were acquainted with gunpowder2 revolvers and breech-loading cannon existed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 and steam had been experimented upon long before the birth of ,watt4 ,the least part of ,watt's labour lay in conceiving his idea2 he consumed his life in marketing it4 ,before the influx of the ,indian treasure1 and the expansion of credit which followed1 no force sufficient for this purpose existed2 and had ,watt lived fifty years earlier1 he and his invention must have perished together4 ,considering the difficulties under which ,matthew ,boulton1 the ablest and most energetic manufacturer of his time1 nearly succumbed1 no one can doubt that without ,boulton's works at ,birmingham the engine could not have been produced1 and yet before #agfj such works could not have been organized4 ,the factory system was the child of the 8industrial revolution10 and until capital had accumulated in masses capable of giving solidity to large bodies of labour1 manufactures were necessarily carried on by scattered individuals1 who combined a handicraft with agriculture4 ,defoe's charming description of ,halifax about the time ,boulton learned his trade1 is well known3-- 8,the nearer we came to ,halifax1 we found the houses thicker1 and the villages greater1 in every bottom2 444 for the land being divided into small enclosures1 from two acres to six or seven each1 seldom more1 every three or four pieces of land had an house belonging to them4 8,in short1 after we had mounted the third hill1 we found the country one continued village1 tho' every way mountainous1 hardly an house standing out of a speaking distance from another2 and1 as the day cleared up1 we could see at every house a tenter1 and on almost every tenter a piece of cloth1 kersie1 or shalloon2 which are the three articles of this countries labour4444 8,this place then seems to have been designed by providence for the very purposes to which it is now allotted4444 ,nor is the industry of the people wanting to second these advantages4 ,tho' we met few people without doors1 yet within we saw the houses full of lusty fellows1 some at the dye vat1 some at the loom1 others dressing the cloths2 the women and children carding1 or spinning2 all employed from the youngest to the oldest2 scarce anything above four years old1 but its hands were sufficient for its own support4 ,not a beggar to be seen1 nor an idle person1 except here and there in an alms-house1 built for those that are antient1 and past working4 ,the people in general live long2 they enjoy a good air2 and under such circumstances hard labour is naturally attended with the blessing of health1 if not riches40#cch ,to the capitalist1 then1 rather than to the inventor1 civilization owes the steam engine as a part of daily life1 and ,matthew ,boulton was one of the most remarkable of the race of producers whose reign lasted down to ,waterloo4 ,as far back as tradition runs the ,boultons appear to have been ,northamptonshire farmers1 but ,matthew's grandfather met with misfortunes under ,william1 and sent his son to ,birmingham to seek his fortune in trade4 ,there the adventurer established himself as a silver stamper1 and there1 in #agbh1 ,matthew was born4 ,young ,boulton early showed both energy and ingenuity1 and on coming of age became his father's partner1 thenceforward managing the business4 ,in #agei1 two years after the conquest of ,bengal1 the father died1 and ,matthew1 having married in #agfj1 might have retired on his wife's property1 but he chose rather to plunge more deeply into trade4 ,extending his works1 he built the famous shops at ,soho1 which he finished in #agfb at an outlay of #bj1jjj1 a debt which probably clung to him to the end of his life4 ,boulton formed his partnership with ,watt in #aggd1 and then began to manufacture the steam-engine1 but he met with formidable difficulties4 ,before the sales yielded any return1 the outlay reduced him to the brink of insolvency2 nor did he achieve success until he had exhausted his own and his friends' resources4 8,he mortgaged his lands to the last farthing2 borrowed from his personal friends2 raised money by annuities2 obtained advances from bankers2 and had invested upwards of forty thousand pounds in the enterprise before it began to pay40#cci ,agriculture1 as well as industry1 felt the impulsion of the new force4 ,arthur ,young remarked in #aggj1 that within ten years there had been 8more experiments1 more discoveries1 and more general good sense displayed in the walk of agriculture than in an hundred preceding ones02 and the reason why such a movement should have occurred seems obvious4 ,after #agfj a complex system of credit sprang up1 based on a metallic treasure1 and those who could borrow had the means at their disposal of importing breeds of cattle1 and of improving tillage1 as well as of organizing factories like ,soho4 ,the effect was to cause rapid centralization4 ,the spread of high farming certainly raised the value of land1 but it also made the position of the yeomanry untenable1 and nothing better reveals the magnitude of the social revolution wrought by ,plassey1 than the manner in which the wastes were enclosed after the middle of the century4 ,between #agaj and #agfj only #cce1jjj acres of the commons were absorbed2 between #agfj and #ahdc1 nearly #g1jjj1jjj4 ,in eighty years the yeomanry became extinct4 ,many of these small farmers migrated to the towns1 where the stronger1 like the ancestor of ,sir ,robert ,peel1 accumulated wealth in industry1 the weaker sinking into factory hands4 ,those who lingered on the land1 toiled as day labourers4 ,possibly since the world began1 no investment has ever yielded the profit reaped from the ,indian plunder1 because for nearly fifty years ,great ,britain stood without a competitor4 ,that she should have so long enjoyed a monopoly seems at first mysterious1 but perhaps the condition of the ,continent may suggest an explanation4 ,since ,italy had been ruined by the loss of the ,eastern trade1 she had ceased to breed the economic mind2 consequently no class of her population could suddenly and violently accelerate their movements4 ,in ,spain the priest and soldier had so thoroughly exterminated the sceptic1 that far from centralizing during the seventeenth century1 as ,england and ,france had done1 her empire was in full decline at the revolution of #afhh4 ,in ,france something similar had happened1 though in a much less degree4 ,after a struggle of a century and a half1 the ,church so far prevailed in #afhe as to secure the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes4 ,at the revocation many ,huguenots went into exile1 and thus no small proportion of the economic class1 who should have pressed ,england hardest1 were driven across the ,channel1 to add their energy to the energy of the natives4 ,germany lacked capital4 ,hemmed in by enemies1 and without a seacoast1 she had been at a disadvantage in predatory warfare2 accordingly she did not accumulate money1 and failed to consolidate until1 in #ahgj1 she extorted a treasure from ,france4 ,thus1 in #agfj1 ,holland alone remained as a competitor1 rich1 maritime1 and peopled by ,protestants4 ,but ,holland lacked the mass possessed by her great antagonist1 beside being without minerals2 and accordingly1 far from accelerating her progress1 she proved unable to maintain her relative rate of advance4 ,thus isolated1 and favoured by mines of coal and iron1 ,england not only commanded the ,european and ,american markets1 at a time when production was strained to the utmost by war1 but even undersold ,hindoo labour at ,calcutta4 ,in some imperfect way her gains may be estimated by the growth of her debt1 which must represent savings4 ,in #agef1 when ,clive went to ,india1 the nation owed #gd1ege1jjj1 on which it paid an interest of #b1gec1jjj4 ,in #ahae this debt had swelled to #hfa1jjj1jjj1 with an annual interest charge of #cb1fde1jjj4 ,in #agfa the ,duke of ,bridgewater finished the first of the canals which were afterward to form an inland water-way costing #ej1jjj1jjj1 or more than two-thirds of the amount of the public debt at the outbreak of the ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,meanwhile1 also1 steam had been introduced1 factories built1 turnpikes improved1 and bridges erected1 and all this had been done through a system of credit extending throughout the land4 ,credit is the chosen vehicle of energy in centralized societies1 and no sooner had treasure enough accumulated in ,london to offer it a foundation1 than it shot up with marvellous rapidity4 ,from #afid to ,plassey1 the growth had been relatively slow4 ,for more than sixty years after the foundation of the ,bank of ,england1 its smallest note had been for #bj1 a note too large to circulate freely1 and which rarely travelled far from ,lombard ,street4 ,writing in #agij1 ,burke mentioned that when he came to ,england in #agej there were not 8twelve bankers' shops0 in the provinces1 though then1 he said1 they were in every market town4#cdj ,thus the arrival of the ,bengal silver not only increased the mass of money1 but stimulated its movement2 for at once1 in #agei1 the bank issued #aj and #ae notes1 and1 in the country1 private firms poured forth a flood of paper4 ,at the outbreak of the ,napoleonic wars1 there were not far from four hundred provincial houses1 many of more than doubtful solvency4 ,macleod1 who usually does not exaggerate such matters1 has said1 that grocers1 tailors1 and drapers inundated the country with their miserable rags4#cda ,the cause of this inferiority of the country bankers was the avarice of the ,bank of ,england1 which prevented the formation of joint stock companies1 who might act as competitors2 and1 as the period was one of great industrial and commercial expansion1 when the adventurous and producing classes controlled society1 enough currency of some kind was kept in circulation to prevent the prices of commodities from depreciating relatively to coin4 ,the purchasing power of a currency is1 other things being equal1 in proportion to its quantity4 ,or1 to put the proposition in the words of ,locke1 8the value of money1 in general1 is the quantity of all the money in the world in proportion to all the trade40#cdb ,at the close of the eighteenth century1 many causes combined to make money plentiful1 and therefore to cheapen it4 ,not only was the stock of bullion in ,england increased by importations from ,india1 but1 for nearly a generation1 exports of silver to ,asia fell off4 ,from an average of #fjj1jjj annually between #agdj and #agfj1 the shipments of specie by the ,east ,india ,company fell to #ig1ejj between #agfj and #aghj2 nor did they rise to their old level until after the close of the administration of ,hastings1 when trade returned to normal channels4 ,after #ahjj the stream gathered volume1 and between #ahaj and #ahbj the yearly consignment amounted to #b1hbg1jjj1 or to nearly one-half of the precious metals yielded by the mines4 ,from the crusades to ,waterloo1 the producers dominated ,europe1 the money-lenders often faring hardly1 as is proved by the treatment of the ,jews4 ,from the highest to the lowest1 all had wares to sell2 the farmer his crop1 the weaver his cloth1 the grocer his goods1 and all were interested in maintaining the value of their merchandise relatively to coin1 for they lost when selling on a falling market4 ,by degrees1 as competition sharpened after the ,reformation1 a type was developed which1 perhaps1 may be called the merchant adventurer2 men like ,child and ,boulton1 bold1 energetic1 audacious4 ,gradually energy vented itself more and more freely through these merchants1 until they became the ruling power in ,england1 their government lasting from #afhh to #ahae4 ,at length they fell through the very brilliancy of their genius4 ,the wealth they amassed so rapidly1 accumulated1 until it prevailed over all other forms of force1 and by so doing raised another variety of man to power4 ,these last were the modern bankers4 ,with the advent of the bankers1 a profound change came over civilization1 for contraction began4 ,self-interest had from the outset taught the producer that1 to prosper1 he should deal in wares which tended rather to rise than fall in value1 relatively to coin4 ,the opposite instinct possessed the usurer2 he found that he grew rich when money appreciated1 or when the borrower had to part with more property to pay his debt when it fell due1 than the cash lent him would have bought on the day the obligation was contracted4 ,as1 toward the close of the eighteenth century1 the great hoards of ,london passed into the possession of men of the latter type1 the third and most redoubtable variety of the economic intellect arose to prominence1 a variety of which perhaps the most conspicuous example is the family of ,rothschild4 ,in one of the mean and dirty houses of the ,jewish quarter of ,frankfort1 ,mayer ,amschel was born in the year #agdc4 ,the house was numbered #aeb in the ,judengasse1 but was better known as the house of the ,red ,shield1 and gave its name to the ,amschel family4 ,mayer was educated by his parents for a rabbi2 but1 judging himself better fitted for finance1 he entered the service of a ,hanoverian banker named ,oppenheim1 and remained with him until he had saved enough to set up for himself4 ,then for some years he dealt in old coins1 curiosities and bullion1 married in #aggj1 returned to ,frankfort1 established himself in the house of the ,red ,shield1 and rapidly advanced toward opulence4 ,soon after he gave up his trade in curiosities1 confining himself to banking1 and his great step in life was made when he became 8,court ,jew0 to the ,landgrave of ,hesse4 ,by #ahjd he was already so prosperous that he contracted with the ,danish ,government for a loan of four millions of thalers4 ,mayer had five sons1 to whom he left his business and his wealth4 ,in #ahab he died1 and1 as he lay upon his death-bed1 his last words were1 8,you will soon be rich among the richest1 and the world will belong to you40#cdc ,his prophecy came true4 ,these five sons conceived and executed an original and daring scheme4 ,while the eldest remained at ,frankfort1 and conducted the parent house1 the four others migrated to four different capitals1 ,naples1 ,vienna1 ,paris1 and ,london1 and1 acting continually in consort1 they succeeded in obtaining a control over the money market of ,europe1 as unprecedented as it was lucrative to themselves4 ,of the five brothers1 the third1 ,nathan1 had commanding ability4 ,in #agih he settled in ,london1 married in #ahjf the daughter of one of the wealthiest of the ,english ,jews1 and by #ahae had become the despot of the ,stock ,exchange2 8peers and princes of the blood sat at his table1 clergymen and laymen bowed before him40 ,he had no tastes1 either literary1 social1 or artistic2 8in his manners and address he seemed to delight in displaying his thorough disregard of all the courtesies and amenities of civilized life02 and when asked about the future of his children he said1 8,i wish them to give mind1 soul1 and heart1 and body--everything to business4 ,that is the way to be happy40#cdd ,extremely ostentatious1 though without delicacy or appreciation1 8his mansions were crowded with works of art1 and the most gorgeous appointments40 ,his benevolence was capricious2 to quote his own words1 8,sometimes to amuse myself ,i give a beggar a guinea4 ,he thinks it is a mistake1 and for fear ,i shall find it out off he runs as hard as he can4 ,i advise you to give a beggar a guinea sometimes4 ,it is very amusing40#cde ,though an astonishingly bold and unscrupulous speculator1 ,nathan probably won his chief successes by skill in lending1 and1 in this branch of financiering1 he was favoured by the times in which he lived4 ,during the long wars ,europe plunged into debt1 contracting loans in depreciated paper1 or in coin which was unprecedentedly cheap because of the abundance of the precious metals4 ,in the year #ahji1 prices reached the greatest altitude they ever attained in modern1 or even1 perhaps1 in all history4 ,there is something marvellously impressive in this moment of time1 as the world stood poised upon the brink of a new era4 ,to the contemporary eye ,napoleon had reached his zenith4 ,everywhere victorious1 he had defeated the ,english in ,spain1 and forced the army of ,moore to embark at ,corunna2 while at ,wagram he had brought ,austria to the dust4 ,he seemed about to rival ,csar1 and establish a military empire which should consolidate the nations of the mainland of ,europe4 ,yet in reality one of those vast and subtle changes was impending1 which1 by modifying the conditions under which men compete1 alter the complexion of civilizations1 and which has led in the course of the nineteenth century to the decisive rejection of the martial and imaginative mind4 ,in ,april #ahaj ,bolivar obtained control at ,caracas1 and1 with the outbreak of the ,south ,american revolutions1 the gigantic but imaginative empire of ,spain passed into the acute stage of disintegration4 ,on ,december #ai of the same year1 the ,emperor ,alexander opened the ports of ,russia to neutral trade4 ,by so doing ,alexander repudiated the 8continental system0 of ,napoleon1 made a breach with him inevitable1 and thus brought on the campaign of ,moscow1 the destruction of the ,grand ,army1 and the close of ,french military triumphs on the hill of ,waterloo4 ,from the year #ahaj1 nature has favoured the usurious mind1 even as she favoured it in ,rome1 from the death of ,augustus4 ,moreover1 both in ancient and modern life1 the first symptom of this profound economic and intellectual revolution was identical4 ,tacitus has described the panic which was the immediate forerunner of the rise of the precious metals in the first century2 and in #ahaj a similar panic occurred in ,london1 when prices suddenly fell fifteen per cent1#cdf and when the most famous magnate of the ,stock ,exchange was ruined and killed4 ,the great houses of ,baring and of ,goldsmid had undertaken the negotiation of a government loan of #ad1jjj1jjj4 ,to the surprise of these eminent financiers values slowly receded1 and1 in ,september1 the death of ,sir ,francis ,baring precipitated a crisis2 ,abraham ,goldsmid1 reduced to insolvency1 in despair committed suicide2 the acutest intellects rose instantaneously upon the corpses of the weaker1 and the ,rothschilds remained the dictators of the markets of the world4 ,from that day to this the slow contraction has continued1 with only the break of little more than twenty years1 when the gold of ,california and ,australia came in an overwhelming flood2 and1 from that day to this1 the same series of phenomena have succeeded one another1 which eighteen hundred years ago marked the emasculation of ,rome4 ,at the peace1 many causes converged to make specie rise2 the exports of bullion to the ,east nearly doubled2 ,america grew vigorously1 and mining was interrupted by the revolt of the ,spanish colonies4 ,yet favourable as the position of the creditor class might be1 it could be improved by legislation1 and probably no financial policy has ever been so ably conceived1 or so adroitly executed1 as that masterpiece of state-craft which gave ,lombard ,street control of the currency of ,great ,britain4 ,under the reign of the producers1 values had generally been equalized by cheapening the currency when prices fell4 ,in the fourteenth1 fifteenth1 and sixteenth centuries1 the penny had been systematically degraded1 to keep pace with the growing dearth of silver4 ,when the flood of the ,peruvian bullion had reached its height in #aefa1 the currency regained its fineness2 but in #afja the penny lost another half-grain of weight1 and1 though not again adulterated at the mint1 the whole coinage suffered so severely from hard usage that1 under the ,stuarts1 it fell to about two-thirds of its nominal value4 ,a re-coinage took place under ,william1 but then paper came in to give relief1 and the money in circulation continued to degenerate1 as there was no provision for the withdrawal of light pieces4 ,by #aggd1 the loss upon even the guinea had become so great that ,parliament intervened1 and ,lord ,north recommended 8that all the deficient gold coin should be called in1 and re-coined0 and also that the 8currency of the gold coin should1 in future1 be regulated by weight as well as by tale 444 and that the several pieces should not be legal tender1 if they were diminished1 by wearing or otherwise1 below a certain weight1 to be determined by proclamation40#cdg ,by such means as this1 the integrity of the metallic money was at length secured2 but the emission of paper remained unlimited1 and in #agig even the ,bank of ,england suspended cash payments4 ,then prices advanced as they had never advanced before1 and1 during the first ten years of the nineteenth century1 the commercial adventurers reached their meridian4 ,from #ahaj they declined in power2 but for several preceding generations they had formed a true aristocracy1 shaping the laws and customs of their country4 ,they needed an abundant currency1 and they obtained it through the ,bank4 ,on their side the directors recognized this duty to be their chief function1 and laid it down as a principle that all legitimate commercial paper should always be discounted4 ,if interest rose1 the rise proved a dearth of money1 and they relieved that dearth with notes4 ,lord ,overstone has thus explained the system of banking which was accepted1 without question1 until #ahaj3 8,a supposed obligation to meet the real wants of commerce1 and to discount all commercial bills arising out of legitimate transactions1 appears to have been considered as the principle upon which the amount of the circulation was to be regulated40#cdh ,and yet1 strangely enough1 even the adversaries of this system admitted that it worked well4 ,a man as fixed in his opinions as ,tooke1 could not contain his astonishment that 8under the guidance of maxims and principles so unsound and of such apparently mischievous tendency1 as those professed by the governors and some of the directors of the ,bank in #ahaj1 such moderation and 444 such regularity of issue should1 under chances and changes in politics and trade1 unprecedented in violence and extent1 have been preserved1 as that a spontaneous readjustment between the value of the gold and the paper should have taken place1 as it did1 without any reduction of their circulation40#cdi ,with such a system the currency tended to fall rather than to rise in value1 in comparison with commodities1 and for this reason the owners of the great hoards were at a disadvantage4 ,what powerful usurers1 like ,rothschild1 wanted1 was a legal tender fixed in quantity1 which1 being unable to expand to meet an increased demand1 would rise in price4 ,moreover1 they needed a circulating medium sufficiently compact to be controlled by a comparatively small number of capitalists1 who would thus1 under favourable conditions1 hold the whole debtor community at their mercy4 ,if the year #ahaj be taken as the point at which the energy stored in accumulations of money began to predominate in ,england1 the revolution which ended in the overthrow of the producers1 advanced1 with hardly a check1 to its completion by the 8,bank ,act0 of #ahdd4 ,the first symptom of approaching change was the famous 8,bullion ,committee10 appointed on the motion of ,francis ,horner in #ahaj4 ,this report is most interesting1 for it marks an epoch1 and in it the struggle for supremacy between the lender and the borrower is brought out in full relief4 ,to the producer1 the commodity was the measure of value2 to the banker1 coin4 ,the producer sought a currency which should retain a certain ratio to all commodities1 of which gold was but one4 ,the banker insisted on making a fixed weight of the metal he controlled1 the standard from which there was no appeal4 ,a distinguished merchant1 named ,chambers1 in his evidence before the ,committee1 put the issue in a nutshell3-- ,q4 8,at the ,mint price of standard gold in this country1 how much gold does a ,bank of ,england note for one pound represent8 ,a4 8#e dwts4 #c grs4 ,q4 8,at the present market price of standard gold of #d #ab4 per ounce1 how much gold do you get for a ,bank of ,england note for one pound8 ,a4 8#d dwts4 #h grs4 ,q4 8,do you consider that a ,bank of ,england note for one pound1 under these present circumstances1 is exchangeable in gold for what it represents of that metal8 ,a4 8,i do not conceive gold to be a fairer standard for ,bank of ,england notes than indigo or broadcloth40 ,although the bankers controlled the 8,bullion ,committee10 the mercantile interest still maintained itself in ,parliament1 and the resolutions proposed by the chairman in his report were rejected in the ,commons by a majority of about two to one4 ,the tide1 however1 had turned1 and perhaps the best index of the moment at which the balance of power shifted1 may be the course of ,peel4 ,of all the public men of his generation1 ,peel had the surest instinct for the strongest force4 ,rarely1 if ever1 did this instinct fail him1 and after #ahab his intuition led him to separate from his father2 as1 later in life1 it led him to desert his party in the crisis of #ahde4 ,the first ,sir ,robert ,peel1 the great manufacturer1 who made the fortune of the family1 had the producer's instinct and utterly opposed contraction4 ,in #ahaa he voted against the report of the ,bullion ,committee1 and then his son voted with him4 ,after #ahaf1 however1 the younger ,peel became the spokesman of ,lombard ,street1 and the story is told that when the bill providing for cash payments passed in ,july1 #ahai1 the old man1 after listening to his son's great speech1 said with bitterness3 8,robert has doubled his fortune1 but ruined his country40#cej ,probably ,waterloo marked the opening of the new era1 for after ,waterloo the bankers met with no serious defeat4 ,at first they hardly encountered opposition4 ,they began by discarding silver4 ,in #ahag the government made #abc #cgdajjj grs4 of gold the unit of value1 the coin representing this weight of metal ceasing to be a legal tender when deficient by about half a grain4 ,the standard having thus been determined1 it remained to enforce it4 ,by this time ,peel had been chosen by the creditor class as their mouthpiece1 and in #ahai he introduced a bill to provide for cash payments4 ,he found little resistance to his measure1 and proposed #ahbc as the time for the return2 as it happened1 the date was anticipated1 and notes were redeemed in gold from ,may #a1 #ahba4 ,as far as the coinage was concerned1 this legislation completed the work1 but the task of limiting discounts remained untouched1 a task of even more importance1 for1 as long as the ,bank continued discounting bills1 and thus emitting an unlimited quantity of notes whenever the rate of interest rose1 debtors not only might always be able to face their obligations1 but the worth of money could not be materially enhanced4 ,this question was decided by the issue of the panic of #ahbe1 brought on by the ,resumption ,act4 ,at the suspension of #agig1 paper in small denominations had been authorized to replace the coin which disappeared1 but this act expired two years after the return to specie payments4 ,therefore1 as time elapsed1 the small issues began to be called in1 and1 according to ,macleod1 the country circulation1 by #ahbc1 had contracted about twelve per cent4 ,the ,bank of ,england also withdrew a large body of notes in denominations less than five pounds1 and1 to fill the gap1 hoarded some twelve million sovereigns1 a mass of gold about equal to the yield of the mines for the preceding seven or eight years4 ,this gold had to be taken from the currency of ,europe1 and the sudden contraction caused a shock which vibrated throughout the ,west4 ,in ,france gold coinage almost ceased1 and prices dropped heavily1 declining twenty-four per cent between #ahai and #ahbb4 ,yet perhaps the most vivid picture of the distress caused by this absorption of gold1 is given in a passage written by ,macleod1 to prove that ,peel's act had nothing to do with the catastrophe3-- 8,there was one perfectly satisfactory argument to show that the low prices of that year had nothing to do with the ,act of #ahai1 namely1 that prices of all sorts of agricultural produce were equally depressed all over the continent of ,europe from the same cause4 ,the fluctuations1 indeed1 on the continent were much more violent than even in ,england4444 ,the same phenomena were observed in ,italy4 ,a similar fall1 but not to so great an extent1 took place at ,lisbon4 ,what could the ,act of #ahai have to do with these places80#cea ,the severe and protracted depression1 while affecting all producers1 bore with peculiar severity upon the gentry1 whose estates were burdened with mortgages and all kinds of settlements1 so much so that frequently properties sank below their encumbrances1 and the owners were beggared4 ,at the opening of ,parliament1 both ,houses were overwhelmed with petitions for aid4 ,among these petitions1 one of the best known was presented to the ,commons in ,may1 #ahbb1 by ,charles ,andrew ,thompson1 of ,chiswick1 which serves to show the keenness of the distress among debtors owning land4 ,thompson stated1 in substance1 that in #ahaa he and his father1 being wealthy merchants1 purchased an estate in ,hertfordshire for #fb1jjj1 and afterward laid out #aj1jjj more in improvements4 ,that in #ahab they entered into a contract for another estate1 whose price was #fj1jjj1 but1 a question having arisen as to the title1 a lawsuit intervened1 and1 before judgment1 the petitioner and his father had experienced such losses that they could not pay the sum adjudged due by the court4 ,thereupon1 to raise money1 they mortgaged both estates for #fe1jjj4 ,in ,july1 #ahba1 both estates were offered for sale1 but they failed to bring the amount for which they were mortgaged4 ,estates in other counties which cost #cc1aff1 had been sold for #ab1jjj1 and through the depression of trade the petitioners had become bankrupt4 ,in #ahbb the petitioner's father died of a broken heart2 and he himself remained a ruined man1 with seven children of his own1 ten of his brother's1 and seven of his sister's all depending on him4#ceb ,the nation seemed upon the brink of some convulsion1 for the gentry hardly cared to disguise their design of effecting a readjustment of both public and private debts4 ,passions ran high1 and in ,june1 #ahbb1 a long debate followed upon a motion1 made by ,mr4 ,western1 to inquire into the effects produced by the resumption of cash payments4 ,the motion was indeed defeated1 but defeated by a concession which entailed a catastrophe up to that time unequalled in the experience of ,great ,britain4 ,to save the 8,resumption ,act0 the ministry in ,july brought in a bill to respite the small notes until #ahcc1 a measure which at once quieted the agitation1 but which produced the most far-reaching and unexpected results4 ,according to ,francis1 the country banks augmented their issues fifty per cent between #ahbb and #ahbe1cec nor was this increase of paper the only or the most serious form taken by the inflation4 ,the great hoard of sovereigns1 accumulated by the ,bank to replace its small notes1 was made superfluous2 and1 in a memorandum delivered by the directors to the ,house of ,commons1 no less than #ad1bjj1jjj were stated to have been thrown on their hands in #ahbd by this change of policy4#ced ,the effect was to create a veritable glut of gold in the ,united ,kingdom2 prices rose abnormally--fifteen per cent--between #ahbd and #ahbe4 ,as values tended upward1 a frenzy of speculation seized upon a people who had long suffered from the grinding of contraction1 and meanwhile the ,bank1 adhering to its old policy1 freely discounted all the sound bills brought them4 ,in #ahbd prices rose above the ,continental level1 and gold1 being cheaper in ,london than in ,paris1 began to flow thither4 ,the ,bank reserve steadily fell4 ,in ,march1 #ahbe1 the fever reached its height1 and a decline set in1 while the directors1 anxious at the condition of their reserve in ,may1 attempted to restrict their issues4 ,the consequence was sharp contraction1 and in ,november the crash came4 ,mr4 ,huskisson stated1 in the ,house of ,commons1 that for forty-eight hours it was impossible to convert even government securities into cash4 ,exchequer bills1 bank stock1 and ,east ,india stock were alike unsalable1 and many of the richest merchants of ,london walked the streets1 not knowing whether on the morrow they might not be insolvent4 8,it is said0 the ,bank itself 8must have stopped payment1 and that we should have been reduced to a state of barter1 but for a box full of old one and two-pound notes which was discovered by accident40#cee ,what happened in the ,bank parlour during those days is unknown4 ,probably the pressure of the mercantile classes became too sharp to be withstood1 perhaps even the strongest bankers were alarmed2 but1 at all events1 the financial policy changed completely4 ,contraction was abandoned1 the ,bank reverted to the system of #ahaj1 and in an instant relief came4 8,we lent by every possible means1 and in modes we had never adopted before2 444 we not only discounted outright1 but we made advances on deposit of bills of exchange to an immense amount40 ,the ,bank emitted five millions in notes in four days1 and 8this audacious policy was crowned with the most complete success1 the panic was stayed almost immediately40#cef ,with an expansion of the currency sufficient to furnish the means of paying debts1 the panic passed away1 but the disaster gave the bankers their opportunity2 they seized it1 and thenceforward their hold upon the community never1 even for an instant1 relaxed4 ,the administration fell into discredit1 and turned for assistance to the only men who promised to give them effective support3 these were the capitalists of ,lombard ,street1 whose first care was to obtain a statute prohibiting the small notes1 which1 they alleged1 were the cause of the misfortune of #ahbe4 ,the act they demanded passed in #ahbf1 and about this time ,samuel ,loyd rose into prominence1 who was1 perhaps1 the greatest financier of modern times4 ,cautious and sagacious1 though resolute and bold1 gifted with an amazing penetration into the complex causes which control the competition of modern life1 he swayed successive administrations1 and crushed down the fiercest opposition4 ,apparently he never faltered in his course1 and down to the day of his death he sneered at the panic-stricken directors1 who only saved themselves from bankruptcy by accidentally remembering and issuing a 8parcel of old discarded one-pound notes 444 drawn forth from a refuse cellar in #ahbe40ceg ,loyd's father began life somewhat humbly as a dissenting minister in ,wales1 but1 after his marriage1 he entered a ,manchester firm1 and subsequently founded in ,london the house of ,jones1 ,loyd and ,co41 afterward merged in the ,london and ,westminster ,bank1 one of the largest concerns in the world4 ,samuel did not actually succeed his father until #ahdd1 but much earlier he had grown to be the recognized chief of the monied interest1 and ,sir ,robert ,peel long served as his lieutenant4 ,loyd was the man who conceived the ,bank ,act of #ahdd1 who succeeded in laying his grasp upon the currency of the kingdom1 and in whose words1 therefore1 the policy of the new governing class is best stated3-- 8,a paper-circulation is the substitution of paper 444 in the place of the precious metals4 ,the amount of it ought therefore to be equal to what would have been the amount of a metallic circulation2 and of this the best measure is the influx or efflux of bullion40#ceh 8,by the provisions of that ,act the ,bank ,act of #ahdd it is permitted to issue notes to the amount of #ad1jjj1jjj as before--that is1 with no security for the redemption of the notes on demand beyond the legal obligation so to redeem them4 ,but all fluctuations in the amount of notes issued beyond this #ad1jjj1jjj must have direct reference to corresponding fluctuations in the amount of gold40#cei ,thus ,loyd's principle1 which he embodied in his statute1 was the rigid limitation of the currency to the weight of gold available for money4 8,when 444 notes are permitted to be issued1 the number in circulation should always be exactly equal to the coin which would be in circulation if they did not exist40#cfj ,in #ahde the ,bank ,act was extended to ,scotland1 except that there small notes were still tolerated2 the expansion of provincial paper was prohibited1 and ,england reverted to the economic condition of ,byzantium1--a condition of contraction in which the debtor class lies prostrate1 for1 the legal tender being absolutely limited1 when creditors choose to withdraw their loans1 payment becomes impossible4 ,perhaps no financier has ever lived abler than ,samuel ,loyd4 ,certainly he understood as few men1 even of later generations1 have understood1 the mighty engine of the single standard4 ,he comprehended that1 with expanding trade1 an inelastic currency must rise in value2 he saw that1 with sufficient resources at command1 his class might be able to establish such a rise1 almost at pleasure2 certainly that they could manipulate it when it came1 by taking advantage of foreign exchanges4 ,he perceived moreover that1 once established1 a contraction of the currency might be forced to an extreme1 and that when money rose beyond price1 as in #ahbe1 debtors would have to surrender their property on such terms as creditors might dictate4 ,furthermore1 he reasoned that under pressure prices must fall to a point lower than in other nations1 that then money would flow from abroad1 and relief would ultimately be given1 even if the government did not interfere2 that this influx of gold would increase the quantity of money1 by so doing would again raise prices1 and that1 when prices rose1 pledges forfeited in the panic might be resold at an advance4 ,he explained the principle of this rise and fall of values1 with his usual lucidity1 to a committee of the ,house of ,lords1 which investigated the panic of #ahdg3-- 8,monetary distress tends to produce fall of prices2 that fall of prices encourages exports and diminishes imports2 consequently it tends to promote an influx of bullion4 ,i can quote a fact of rather a striking character1 which tends to show that a contracting operation upon the circulation tends to cheapen the cost of our manufactured productions1 and therefore to increase our exports40 ,he then stated that during the panic he had received a letter 8from a person of great importance in ,lancashire10 begging him to use his influence with the ministry 8to be firm in maintaining the act1--to be firm in resisting these applications for relaxation10 because in ,lancashire the manufacturers were struggling to 8resist the improperly high price of the raw material of cotton40 8,that letter reached me the very morning that the letter of the government was issued suspending the act1 and almost immediately the raw cotton rose in price40 ,q4 8,the writer of that letter was probably a man of considerable substance1 a very wealthy man1 with abundant capital to carry on his business8 ,a4 8,he had recently retired from business4 ,i can state another circumstance that occurred in ,london corroborative of the same results4 ,within half an hour of the time that the notes summoning the ,court of ,directors 444 were issued1 parties1 inferring probably 444 that a relaxation was about to take place1 sent orders to withdraw goods from a sale which was then going on40#cfa ,the history of half a century has justified the diagnosis of this eminent financier4 ,as followed out by his successors1 ,loyd's policy has not only forced down prices throughout the ,west1 but has changed the aspect of civilization4 ,in ,england the catastrophe began with the passage of the ,bank ,act4 ,no sooner had this statute taken effect than it necessarily caused a contraction of the currency at a time when gold was rising because of commercial expansion4 ,between #ahci and #ahdi there was a fall in prices of twenty-eight per cent1 and1 severe as may have been the decline1 it seems moderate considering the conditions which then prevailed4 ,the yield of the mines was scanty1 and of this yield ,india absorbed annually an average of #b1cjh1jjj1 or somewhat more than one-sixth4 ,america was growing with unprecedented vigour1 industrial competition sharpened as prices fell1 and the year of the 8,bank ,act0 was the year in which railway building began to take the form of a mania4 ,the peasantry are always the weakest part of every population1 and therefore agricultural prices are the most sensitive4 ,but the resources of a peasantry are seldom large1 and1 as the value of their crops shrinks1 the margin of profit on which they live dwindles1 until they are left with only a bare subsistence in good years1 and with famine facing them in bad4 ,the ,irish peasants were the weakest portion of the population of ,great ,britain when ,lord ,overstone became supreme1 and when the potato crop failed in #ahde they starved4 ,although the landlords had lost their command over the nation in #afhh1 they yet1 down to the last administration of ,peel1 had kept strength enough to secure protection from ,parliament against foreign competition4 ,by #ahae the yeomanry had almost disappeared1 the soil belonged to a few rich families whose revenue depended on rents1 and the value of rents turned on the price of the cereals4 ,to sustain the market for wheat became therefore all-important to the aristocracy1 and when1 with the peace1 prices collapsed1 they obtained a statute which prohibited imports until the bushel should fetch ten shillings at home4 ,this statute1 though frequently amended to make it more effective1 partially failed of its purpose4 ,a contracting currency did its resistless work1 prices dropped1 tenants went bankrupt1 and1 as the value of money rose1 encumbered estates passed more frequently into the hands of creditors4 ,thus when ,peel took office in #ahda1 the ,corn ,laws were regarded by the gentry as their only hope1 and ,peel as their chosen champion2 but only a few years elapsed before it became evident that the policy of ,lombard ,street must precipitate a struggle for life between the manufacturers and the landlords4 ,in the famine of #ahdf the decisive moment came1 and when ,sir ,robert sided1 as was his wont1 with the strongest1 and abandoned his followers to their fate1 he only yielded to the impulsion of a resistless force4 ,as a class both landlords and manufacturers were debtors1 and1 by #ahdd1 cheap bread appeared to be as vital to the one as dear corn was to the other4 ,with a steadily falling market the manufacturers saw their margin of profit shrink1 and at last ,manchester and ,birmingham believed themselves to be confronted with ruin unless wages fell proportionately1 or they could broaden the market for their wares by means of international exchanges4 ,the ,corn ,laws closed both avenues of relief2 therefore there was war to the death between the manufacturers and the aristocracy4 ,the savageness of the attack can be judged by ,cobden's jeers at gentlemen who admitted that free corn meant insolvency3-- 8,sir ,edward ,knatchbull could not have made a better speech for the ,league than that which he made lately1 even if he were paid for it4 ,i roared so with laughter that he called me specially to order1 and ,i begged his pardon1 for he is the last man in the world ,i would offend1 we are all so much obliged to him4 ,he said they could not do without this ,corn ,law1 because1 if it were repealed1 they could not pay the jointures1 charged on their estates4 ,lord ,mountcashel1 too 7he's not over-sharp7 said that one half the land was mortgaged1 and they could not pay the interest unless they had a tax upon bread4 ,in ,lancashire1 when a man gets into debt and can't pay1 he goes into the ,gazette1 and what is good for a manufacturer is1 ,i think1 good for a landlord40#cfb ,in such a contest the gentry were overmatched1 for they were but nature's first effort toward creating the economic type1 and they were pitted against later forms which had long distanced them in the competition of life4 ,bright and ,cobden1 as well as ,loyd and ,peel1 belonged to a race which had been driven into trade1 by the loss of their freeholds to the fortunate ancestors of the men who lay at their mercy in #ahdf4 ,peel himself was the son of a cotton-spinner1 and the grandson of a yeoman1 who1 only in middle life1 had quitted his hand-loom to make his fortune in the 8industrial revolution40 ,in modern ,england1 as in ancient ,italy1 the weakest sank first1 and the landed gentry succumbed1 almost without resistance1 to the combination which ,lombard ,street made against them4 ,yet1 though the manufacturers seemed to triumph1 their exultation was short1 for the fate impended over them1 even in the hour of their victory1 which always overhangs the debtor when the currency has been seized by the creditor class4 ,by the 8,bank ,act0 the usurers became supreme1 and in #ahdf the potato crop failed even more completely than in #ahde4 ,credit always is more sensitive in ,england than in ,france1 because it rests upon a narrower basis1 and at that moment it happened to be strained by excessive railway loans4 ,with free trade in corn1 large imports of wheat were made1 which were paid for with gold4 ,a drain set in upon the ,bank1 the reserve was depleted1 and by ,october #b1 #ahdg1 the directors denied all further advances4 ,within three years of the passage of his statute1 the event ,loyd had foreseen arrived4 8,monetary distress0 began to force down prices4 ,the decision of the directors to refuse discounts created 8a great excitement on the ,stock ,exchange4 ,the town and country bankers hastened to sell their public securities1 to convert them into money4 ,the difference between the price of consols for ready money and for the account of the #adth of ,october showed a rate of interest equivalent to #ej per cent per annum4 ,exchequer bills were sold at #ces4 discount40444 8,a complete cessation of private discounts followed4 ,no one would part with the money or notes in his possession4 ,the most exorbitant sums were offered to and refused by merchants for their acceptances40#cfc ,additional gold could only be looked for from abroad1 and as a considerable time must elapse before specie could arrive in sufficient quantity to give relief1 the currency actually in use offered the only means of obtaining legal tender for the payment of debts4 ,consequently hoarding became general1 and1 as the chancellor of the exchequer afterward observed1 8an amount of circulation which1 under ordinary circumstances1 would have been adequate1 became insufficient for the wants of the community40 ,boxes of gold and bank-notes in 8thousands and tens of thousands of pounds0 were 8deposited with bankers40 ,the merchants1 the chancellor said1 begged for notes3 8,let us have notes2 444 we don't care what the rate of interest is4444 ,only tell us that we can get them1 and this will at once restore confidence40#cfd ,but1 after ,october #b1 no notes were to be had1 money was a commodity without price1 and had the policy of the 8,bank ,act0 been rigorously maintained1 ,english debtors1 whose obligations then matured1 must have forfeited their property1 since credit had ceased to exist and currency could not be obtained wherewith to redeem their pledges4 ,the instinct of the usurer has1 however1 never been to ruin suddenly the community in which he has lived3 only by degrees does he exhaust human vitality4 ,therefore1 when the great capitalists had satisfied their appetites1 they gave relief4 ,from the #b;d to the #beth of ,october1 contraction was allowed to do its work2 then ,overstone intervened1 the government was instructed to suspend the 8act10 and the community was promised all the currency it might require4 ,the effect was instantaneous4 ,the letter from the cabinet1 signed by ,lord ,john ,russell1 which recommended the directors of the ,bank to increase their discounts1 8was made public about one o'clock on ,monday1 the #beth1 and no sooner was it done so than the panic vanished like a dream6 ,mr4 ,gurney stated that it produced its effect in ten minutes6 ,no sooner was it known that notes might be had1 than the want of them ceased60#cfe ,large parcels of notes were 8returned to the ,bank of ,england cut into halves1 as they had been sent down into the country40 ,the story of this crisis demonstrates that1 by #ahdd1 the money-lenders had become autocratic in ,london4 ,the ministry were naturally unwilling to suspend a statute which had just been enacted1 and the blow to ,sir ,robert ,peel was peculiarly severe2 but the position of the government admitted of no alternative4 ,at the time it was said that the private bankers of ,london intimated to the chancellor of the exchequer that1 unless he interfered forthwith1 they would withdraw their balances from the ,bank of ,england4 ,this meant insolvency1 and to such an argument there was no reply4 ,but whether matters actually went so far or not1 there can be no question that the cabinet acted under the dictation of ,lombard ,street1 for the chancellor of the exchequer defended his policy by declaring that the 8act0 had not been suspended until 8those conversant with commercial affairs1 and least likely to decide in favour of the course which we ultimately adopted10 unanimously advised that relief should be given to the mercantile community4#cff ,there was extreme suffering throughout the country1 which manifested itself in all the well-known ways4 ,the revenue fell off1 emigration increased1 wheat brought but about five shillings the bushel1 while in ,england and ,wales alone there were upwards of nine hundred thousand paupers4 ,discontent took the form of ,chartism1 and a revolution seemed imminent4 ,nor was it ,great ,britain only which was convulsed3 all ,europe was shaken to its centre1 and everything portended some dire convulsion1 when nature intervened and poured upon the world a stream of treasure too bountiful to be at once controlled4 ,in #ahdi the first ,californian gold reached ,liverpool4 ,in four years the supply of the precious metals trebled1 prices rose1 crops sold again at a profit4 ,as the farmers grew rich1 the demand for manufactures quickened1 wages advanced1 discontent vanished1 and though values never again reached the altitude of #ahji1 they at least attained that level of substantial prosperity which preceded the ,french ,revolution4 ,nevertheless1 the fall in the purchasing power of money1 and the consequent ability of debtors to meet their obligations1 did not excite that universal joy which had thrilled ,europe at the discovery of ,potosi1 for a profound change had passed over society since the buccaneers laid the foundations of ,england's fortune by the plunder of the ,peruvian galleons4 ,to the type of mind which predominated after #ahaj1 the permanent rise of commodities relatively to money was unwelcome1 and1 almost from the opening of the gold discoveries1 a subtle but resistless force was working for contraction--a force which first showed itself in the movement for an uniform gold coinage1 and afterwards in general gold monometallism4 ,the great change came with the conquest of ,france by ,germany4 ,until after the middle of the nineteenth century1 ,germany held only a secondary position in the economic system of ,europe1 because of her poverty4 ,with few harbours1 she had reaped little advantage from the plunder of ,america and ,india1 exchanges had never centred within her borders1 and her accumulated capital had not sufficed to stimulate high consolidation4 ,the conquest of ,france suddenly transformed these conditions4 ,in #ahga she acquired an enormous booty1 and the effect upon her was akin to the effect on ,england of the confiscations in ,bengal2 the chief difference being that1 unlike ,england1 ,germany passed almost immediately into the period of contraction4 ,the spoliation of ,india went on for twenty years1 that of ,france was finished in a few months1 and1 while in ,england the 8industrial revolution0 intervened between ,plassey and the adoption of the gold standard1 in ,germany the bankers dominated from the outset4 ,the government belonged to the class which desired an appreciating currency1 and in #ahgc the new empire followed in the steps of ,lombard ,street1 and demonetized silver4 ,germany's action was decisive4 ,restrictions were placed on the mints of the ,latin ,union and of the ,united ,states1 and thus1 by degrees1 the whole stress of the trade of the ,west was transferred from the old composite currency to gold alone4 ,in this way1 not only was the basis of credit in the chief commercial states cut in half1 but the annual supply of metal for coinage was diminished4 ,in #ahic the gold mined fell nearly nine per cent short of the value of the gold and silver produced in #ahfe1 and yet1 during those twenty-eight years1 the demand for money must have increased enormously1 if it in any degree corresponded with the growth of trade4 ,the phenomena which followed the adoption of the gold standard by ,western countries were precisely those which had been anticipated by ,loyd4 ,lord ,overstone had explained them to an earlier generation4 ,in one of his letters on the 8,bank ,charter10 as early as #ahee1 he developed the whole policy of the usurers3-- 8,if a country increases in population1 in wealth1 in enterprise1 and activity1 more circulating medium will probably be required to conduct its extended transactions4 ,this demand for increased circulation will raise the value of the existing circulation2 it will become more scarce and more valuable1 444 in other words--gold will rise44440#cfg ,by the action of ,germany1 ,overstone's policy was extended to the whole ,western world1 with the results he had foreseen4 ,gold appreciated1 until it acquired a purchasing power unequalled since the ,middle ,ages1 and while in the silver-using countries prices remained substantially unchanged and the producers accordingly prospered1 prostration supervened in ,europe1 the ,united ,states1 and ,australia4 ,as usual the rural population suffered most1 and the ,english aristocracy1 who had been respited by the gold discoveries1 were the first to succumb4 ,they not only drew their revenues from farming land1 but1 standing at the focus of competition1 they were exposed to the pressure of ,asia and ,america alike4 ,the harvest of #ahgi was one of the worst of the century1 land depreciated hopelessly1 and that year may probably be taken as marking the downfall of a class which had maintained itself in opulence for nearly three hundred and fifty years4 ,this ,tudor aristocracy1 which sprang up at the ,reformation1 was one of the first effects of the quickened movement which transferred the centre of exchanges from ,italy to the ,north ,sea4 ,they represented sharpening economic competition1 and they prospered because of an intellectual gift1 an aptitude they enjoyed1 of absorbing the lands of the priests and soldiers amidst whom they dwelt4 ,these soldiers were the yeomen who1 when evicted1 became pirates1 slavers1 commercial adventurers1 religious colonists1 and conquerors1 and who together poured the flood of treasure into ,london which1 transmuted into movement1 made the 8industrial revolution40 ,when by their efforts1 toward the beginning of the nineteenth century1 sufficiently vast reservoirs of energy in the shape of money had accumulated1 a new race rose to prominence1 fitted to give vent to this force--men like ,nathan ,rothschild and ,samuel ,loyd1 probably endowed with a subtler intellect and a keener vision than any who had preceded them1 financiers beside whom the usurers of ,byzantium1 or the nobles of ,henry ,,viii41 were pigmies4 ,these bankers conceived a policy unrivalled in brilliancy1 which made them masters of all commerce1 industry1 and trade4 ,they engrossed the gold of the world1 and then1 by legislation1 made it the sole measure of values4 ,what ,samuel ,loyd and his followers did to ,england1 in #ahdg1 became possible for his successors to do to all the gold standard nations1 after #ahgc4 ,when the mints had been closed to silver1 the currency being inelastic1 the value of money could be manipulated like that of any article limited in quantity1 and thus the human race became the subjects of the new aristocracy1 which represented the stored energy of mankind4 ,from the moment this aristocracy has determined on a policy1 as1 for example the 8,bank ,act0 or monometallism1 resistance by producers becomes most difficult4 ,being debtors1 producers are destroyed when credit is withdrawn1 and1 at the first signs of insubordination1 the bankers draw in their gold1 contract their loans1 and precipitate a panic4 ,then1 to escape immediate ruin1 the debtor yields4 ,since #ahgc prices have generally fallen1 and the mortgage has tended to engulf the pledge2 but1 from time to time the creditor class feels the need of turning the property it has acquired from bankrupts into gold1 and then the rise explained by ,overstone takes place4 ,the hoards are opened1 credit is freely given1 the quantity of currency is increased1 values rise1 sales are made1 and new adventurers contract fresh obligations4 ,then this expansion is followed by a fresh contraction1 and liquidation is repeated on an ever-descending scale4 ,for many years farming land has fallen throughout the ,west1 as it fell in ,italy in the time of ,pliny4 ,everywhere1 as under ,trajan1 the peasantry are distressed2 everywhere they migrate to the cities1 as they did when ,rome repudiated the denarius4 ,by the census of the ,united ,kingdom taken in #ahia1 not only did it appear that over seventy-one per cent of the inhabitants of ,england and ,wales lived in towns1 but that1 while the urban districts had increased above fifteen per cent since the last census1 the population of the purely agricultural counties had diminished4#cfh ,moreover1 within a generation1 there has been a marked loss of fecundity among the more costly races4 ,the rate of increase of the population has diminished4 ,in the ,united ,states it is generally believed that the old native ,american blood is hardly reproducing itself2 but1 in all social phenomena1 ,france precedes other nations by at least a quarter of a century1 and it is1 therefore1 in ,france that the failure of vitality is most plainly seen4 ,in #aghi the average ,french family consisted of #d4b children4 ,in #ahia it had fallen to #b4a1cfi and1 since #ahij1 the deaths seem to have equalled the births4#cgj ,in #ahhi legislation was attempted to encourage productiveness1 and parents of seven children were exempted from certain classes of taxes1 but the experiment failed4 ,levasseur1 in his great work on the population of ,france1 has expressed himself almost in the words of ,tacitus3 8,it can be laid down as a general law that1 if in such a social condition as that of the ,french of the nineteenth century1 the number of children is small1 it is because the majority of parents wish it should be small40#cga ,such signs point to the climax of consolidation4 ,and yet1 even the rise of the bankers is not the only or the surest indication that centralization is culminating4 ,the destruction1 wrought by accelerated movement1 of the less tenacious organisms1 is more evident below than above1 is more striking in the advance of cheap labour1 than in the evolution of the financier4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,conclusion ,apparently nature needs to consume about three generations in perfecting the selection of a new type4 ,accordingly the money-lenders did not become absolute immediately after ,waterloo1 and a period of some sixty years followed during which the adventurers kept up a struggle1 wherein they were aided by the discoveries of gold near the middle of the century4 ,seemingly they met their final defeat at ,sedan1 for the decay of the soldier1 which had been in progress since the fall of ,napoleon1 reached a point1 after the collapse of the ,second ,empire1 even lower than after the consolidation of ,rome4 ,from ,alaric to ,napoleon the soldier had served as an independent vent to energy4 ,often1 even when opposed to capital1 he had been victorious1 and the highest function of a leader of men had been1 in theory at least1 military command4 ,the ideal statesman had been one who1 like ,cromwell1 ,frederic the ,great1 ,henry ,,iv41 ,william ,,iii41 and ,washington1 could lead his followers in battle1 and1 on the ,continent1 down to #aghi1 the aristocracy had professedly been a military caste4 ,in ,france and ,germany the old tradition lasted to within a generation4 ,only after #ahga came the new era1 an era marked by many social changes4 ,for the first time in their history the ruler of the ,french people passed admittedly from the martial to the monied type1 and everywhere the same phenomenon appeared2 the whole administration of society fell into the hands of the economic man4 ,nothing so radical happened at ,rome1 or even at ,byzantium1 for there the pressure of the barbarians necessitated the retention of the commander at the head of the ,state2 in ,europe he lost this importance4 ,since the capitulation of ,paris the soldier has tended to sink more and more into a paid official1 receiving his orders from financiers with his salary1 without being allowed a voice even in questions involving peace and war4 ,the same fate has overtaken the producing classes2 they have failed to maintain themselves1 and have become subjects of the possessors of hoarded wealth4 ,although the conventions of popular government are still preserved1 capital is at least as absolute as under the ,csars1 and1 among capitalists1 the money-lenders form an aristocracy4 ,debtors are in reality powerless1 because of the extension of that very system of credit which they invented to satisfy their needs4 ,although the volume of credit is gigantic1 the basis on which it rests is so narrow that it may be manipulated by a handful of men4 ,that basis is gold2 in gold debts must be paid2 therefore1 when gold is withdrawn1 the debtor is helpless and becomes the servant of his master4 ,the elasticity of the age of expansion has gone4 ,the aristocracy which wields this autocratic power is beyond attack1 for it is defended by a wage-earning police1 by the side of which the legions were a toy2 a police so formidable that1 for the first time in history1 revolt is hopeless and is not attempted4 ,the only question which preoccupies the ruling class is whether it is cheaper to coerce or to bribe4 ,on looking back over long periods of time1 the sequence of causes may be followed which have led to this result4 ,first1 inventions from the ,east facilitated trade2 then1 the perfection of weapons of attack made police possible1 and individual bravery unnecessary2 on this followed the abasement of the martial and exaltation of the economic type2 and finally that intense acceleration of movement by machinery supervened1 which1 in annihilating space1 has destroyed the protection that the costly races long enjoyed against the competition of simpler organisms4 ,roman civilization was less complex than modern because of the relative inflexibility of the ,latin mind4 ,unable to quicken his motions by inventions1 the ancient ,italian failed to discover ,america or absorb ,india1 and1 for the same reason1 collapsed without an effort under the insidious attack of ,asiatic and ,african labour4 ,no industrial expansion followed the influx of bullion under ,csar1 and therefore1 when the value of cereals fell1 the evicted farmer either sank into slavery or begged for bread from the magnates of the ,senate4 ,in modern times an industrial period has intervened2 the evicted long found employment in the factories of the towns1 and it has only been as contraction has reduced the demand for merchandise1 by diminishing the purchasing power of the agricultural population1 that those stagnant pools of the unemployed have collected1 which exactly correspond to the proletariat4 ,but1 as each special faculty which1 for a time1 enables its possessor to excel in competition1 seems to bear with it the seeds of its own decay1 so the inventive1 which once enabled the ,western races to undersell the ,eastern in their homes seems destined to reduce all to a common economic level1 as ,rome sank to the level of ,egypt4 ,for nearly a century the inventions of ,hargreaves1 of ,crompton1 of ,cartwright1 and of ,watt1 enabled ,lancashire to supply ,bombay and ,calcutta with fabrics1 as1 in the seventeenth century1 ,surat and ,calicut had supplied ,london1 and this superiority appeared assured until ,orientals should acquire the momentum necessary for machinery4 ,one effect in ,europe was the rapid increase of a population congregated in towns1 and bearing a marked resemblance to the 8humiliores0 of ,rome in their disinclination for war4 ,true to their instincts1 the adventurers ever quickened their movements1 ever extended the sphere of their enterprises1 and1 finally1 just as the ,second ,empire verged upon its fall1 they opened the ,suez ,canal in #ahfi4 ,the consequences of this great engineering triumph have probably equalled in gravity the establishment of the gold standard1 but the two phenomena had this marked difference4 ,the producers saw their danger and resisted to the utmost the contraction of the currency1 whereas the ,canal was a case of suicide4 ,thenceforward grain1 raised by the most enduring labour of the world1 could be thrown without limit on the ,european market1 and1 agricultural competition once established1 industrial could only be a question of time4 ,the ,canal made the importation and the reparation of machinery cheap throughout ,asia4 ,from a period1 perhaps1 as remote as ,clive's victories1 the ,hindoos had experienced a certain impulsion from contact with the ,british1 but it was not until the building of railroads1 under ,lord ,dalhousie1 that the severer phases of competition opened among the inhabitants of ,india4 ,lord ,dalhousie became ,governor ,general in #ahdh1 and1 that the acceleration of the next nine years culminated in a catastrophe seems certain1 for nothing can be plainer than that the ,mutiny of #aheg was an outbreak of a martial ,mohammedan population crushed under an intolerable pressure4 ,the locality of the disturbance alone is enough to demonstrate the accuracy of this inference4 ,dalhousie's last act was the annexation of the ,kingdom of ,oude4 ,of this province ,lucknow is the capital1 and while ,lucknow was one focus of the insurrection1 ,delhi1 the capital of the ancient ,mogul empire1 was the other4 ,once subdued by the ,british1 and reduced to an economic equality with subtler races1 the old ,moslem gentry rapidly disappeared4 ,since #aheg these families1 which had maintained themselves for six or seven hundred years1 have rapidly fallen into ruin1 and their estates have been bought by their creditors1 the rising usurer class4 ,under immemorial native custom the money-lender1 generally speaking1 had no forcible means of collecting debt2 he relied on public opinion and conducted himself accordingly4 ,on the other hand1 unrestricted alienation of land was not usually incidental to proprietorship1 and thus the tenant for life1 as he would be called in ,english law1 could only pledge his crops2 he could not sell the succession4 ,with centralization came full ownership1 and with it summary process for debt4 ,following her immutable law1 nature1 having changed the form of competition1 proceeded to select a quality of mind to correspond with the new conditions of life4 ,she demanded improved vents for her energy4 ,forthwith1 under the pressure of accelerated movement and advancing consolidation1 the trammels of caste relaxed1 the population fused1 and a new aristocracy arose1 composed of the strongest economic types culled from all the peoples who inhabit the plains south of the ,himalayas4 ,this aristocracy is a strange mixture of blood1 an amalgam of the most diverse elements1 of ,parsees1 ,brahmins1 ,bunniahs of different races1 with gifted individuals from other castes1 like the leather-workers or the goldsmiths2 but among them all the most ruthless1 the corruptest1 the most hated1 and the most successful1 are the ,marwaris1 who have been thus described by a ,british commission3-- 8,the average ,marwari money-lender is not a pleasant character to analyze2 his most prominent characteristics are love of gain and indifference to the opinions or feelings of his neighbour4 ,he has considerable self-reliance and immense industry1 but the nature of his business and the method by which it is pursued would tend to degrade and harden even a humane nature1 which his is not4 ,as a landlord he follows the instincts of the usurer1 making the hardest terms possible with his tenant1 who is also his debtor and often little better than his slave40#cgb ,the effect of the selection of such a type as a dominant class must be destructive to a martial population1 whether it be ,french or ,english1 ,mohammedan or ,hindoo4 ,the social revolution which swept over ,oude after its annexation has been referred to1 but the fate which overtook the famous ,mahratta nation is even more tragic and impressive4 ,when1 toward the close of the last century1 the ,british were pushing their conquests inland1 the most formidable enemy they met were the ,mahrattas2 and1 perhaps1 the most renowned battle1 next to ,plassey1 ever fought by ,europeans against natives1 was ,assaye1 where ,wellesley defeated ,sindhia in #ahjc4 ,these ,mahrattas were tribes of ,hindoo farmers1 who inhabited the mountainous country about one hundred miles to the east of ,bombay2 a territory of which ,poona has always been considered the capital4 ,mounted on their hill ponies1 these bold and hardy spearmen were always ready to follow their chiefs to battle1 and1 in the eighteenth century1 became the terror not only of the ,mohammedans of the ,deccan1 but of the ,mogul himself1 at ,delhi4 ,even the ,english respected and feared them1 and only subdued them in #ahah after desperate fighting4 ,then they were disarmed and subjected to the combined action of peace and ,english law4 ,soon after this conquest an inflow of ,marwaris began4 ,as early as #ahed1 in ,dalhousie's administration1 ,captain ,anderson stated that 8two-thirds of the ryots were in the hands of the ,marwaris1 and that the average debt of each individual was not less than ,rs4 #ajj40cgc ,competition continued unchecked as time flowed on1 and in #ahge disturbances broke out in certain villages near ,poona1 serious enough to cause the government to appoint a commission of inquiry4 ,after full investigation this commission reported that up to #ahgb or #ahgc the peasantry had seemed relatively prosperous1 but that afterward 8prices fell quickly10 and that this fall had been accompanied by a rise in taxation of somewhat more than fifty per cent4#cgd ,under this double pressure the peasantry had rapidly sunk into insolvency1 and the whole real estate of the ,deccan was passing into the hands of usurers1 while the farmers had become serfs toiling on the soil they had once owned1 to satisfy an inextinguishable debt4 ,precisely like the colonus1 the delinquent was not evicted1 but remained1 8recorded as occupier of his holding1 and responsible for the payment of revenue assessed on it1 but virtually reduced by pressure of debt to a tenant-at-will1 444 sweated by his ,marwari creditor4 ,it is in that creditor's power to eject him any day2 444 and if allowed to hold on1 it is only on condition of paying over to his creditor all the produce of his land not absolutely necessary for next year's seed grain or for the support of life4 ,he is indebted on an average to the extent of sixteen or seventeen years' payment of the government revenue4 ,he has nothing to hope for1 but lives in daily fear of the final catastrophe40#cge ,since ,assaye three generations have passed away1 and the ,mahratta spearmen have vanished4 ,the ,western ,ghats are now tilled by a sluggish race whom the ,british officers deem unworthy of their cavalry1 and in the place of those renowned and daring chiefs ,sivaji and ,holkar1 stands the ,marwari under whom no ryots can prosper save those 8who having received some education are able to combat the sowkars with their own weapons1 fraud1 chicanery1 and even forgery40#cgf ,apparently the same destiny awaits every people which requires more than the minimum of nutriment1 or which is not gifted with the economic mind1#cgg for the 8money-lenders sweep off the crops as soon as harvested1 only leaving with the ryots barely sufficient to eke out a subsistence till the following year40#cgh ,that allowance1 in the ,deccan1 is estimated at about a dollar a month in silver--too little to sustain any but the most tenacious organisms1 even among ,asiatics4 ,consequently1 though the population of ,india is increasing rapidly1 the increase lies chiefly among the aboriginal tribes who form the lowest castes1 or in other words among the non-martial or servile races4 ,men who1 though enslaved by the ,aryan invaders of prehistoric times1 and who have always been subjected to extremest hardship1 have been gifted1 like the ,egyptian fellah1 with an endurance which has enabled them to survive4#cgi ,herein1 likewise1 may be plainly perceived the destructive effects of the policy of the ,western usurers upon the population subject to them4 ,by enhancing the value of their own money they have nearly doubled the intensity of this ,asiatic competition4 ,in ,india1 silver has substantially retained its purchasing power1 therefore the ryot now1 as in the days of ,captain ,cunningham1 can exist on two rupees a month1 but he cannot live on less4 ,accordingly1 the severity of his competition with ,europeans must be measured by the value of his wages when reckoned on the ,european scale4 ,in #ahed the ryot's two rupees were worth one dollar2 now1 through the appreciation of gold1 they are worth about sixty cents1 and the effect is the same as though the tenacity of life of the ,asiatic had been increased four-sixths4 ,everything the ,indian or ,chinese peasant produces with his hands1 whether on the farm or in the factory1 has been reduced in price1 in relation to ,western peoples1 in the ratio of six to ten4 ,the cheapest form of labour is thus being bred on a gigantic scale1 and this labour is being accelerated by an industrial development which is stimulated by eviction of the farmers1 as the 8industrial revolution0 was stimulated in ,england one hundred and thirty years ago4 ,for many years the cotton mills of ,bombay have undersold ,lancashire in the coarser fabrics1 and when1 by means of a canal to the ,pacific1 ,american cotton can be imported cheaply1 they will spin the finer also4 ,moreover1 ,hindostan is full of iron and coal which has never been utilized because of the immense difference in the rapidity of ,european and ,asiatic labour1 but the steadily falling range of ,western prices must force the cheapest product on the market1 and when the ,indian railways have been assumed by the government1 a new era will have opened4 ,the same causes are affecting ,china and ,japan1 and1 under precisely similar conditions1 the centre of exchanges passed from the ,tiber to the ,bosphorus sixteen hundred years ago4 ,such uniformity of development in the most distant times1 and among the most divergent peoples1 points to a progressive law of civilization1 each stage of progress being marked by certain intellectual1 moral1 and physical changes4 ,as the attack in war masters the defence1 and the combative instinct becomes unnecessary to the preservation of life1 the economic supersedes the martial mind1 being superior in bread-winning4 ,as velocity augments and competition intensifies1 nature begins to sift the economic minds themselves1 culling a favoured aristocracy of the craftiest and the subtlest types2 choosing1 for example1 the ,armenian in ,byzantium1 the ,marwari in ,india1 and the ,jew in ,london4 ,conversely1 as the costly nervous system of the soldier becomes an encumbrance1 organisms1 which can exist on less1 successively supplant each other1 until the limit of endurance is reached4 ,thus the ,slavs exterminated the ,greeks in ,thrace and ,macedonia1 the ,mahrattas and the ,moslems dwindle before the low caste tribes of ,india1 and the instinct of self-preservation has taught white races to resist an influx of ,chinese4 ,when nature has finished this double task1 civilization has reached its zenith4 ,humanity can ascend no higher4 ,in view of this possible extermination of the martial blood in the higher stages of civilization1 the attention necessarily becomes concentrated on what is1 perhaps1 the main point of divergence between ancient and modern society1--the presence and the absence of a supply of barbaric life4 ,all the evidence points to the conclusion that the infusion of vitality which ,rome ever drew from territories beyond her borders1 was the cause both of her strength and of her longevity4 ,without such aid she could never have consolidated the world4 ,on the other hand1 the lack of this resource has been the weakness of modern nations4 ,one after another they have dreamed of universal conquest1 and one after another they have fallen through exhaustion in war4 ,spain levied never a pikeman in ,america1 and her colonies were a source of debility in so far as they drained her of her youth4 ,had ,rome been similarly situated1 she could hardly have carried the eagles beyond the ,bosphorus and the ,alps4 ,perhaps ,csar's army was the best an ancient general ever put in the field1 and yet it was filled with barbarians4 ,all his legions were raised north of the ,po1 and most of them1 including the tenth1 north of the ,alps4#chj ,when pitted against this force native ,italians broke in rout1 and one of the most striking pages of ,plutarch is the story of the gradual awakening of ,pompey to a sense of the impotence of ,romans4 ,pompey himself was a commander of high ability1 and1 until he split upon the rock of the pure martial blood1 battle had been with him synonymous with victory4 ,at first he felt such confidence1 he laughed at the suggestion of an attack within the ,rubicon4 ,with the conviction of the conqueror he said3 8,whenever ,i stamp with my foot in any part of ,italy1 there will rise up forces enough in an instant1 both horse and foot40#cha ,a very short experience of the men of the north sufficed to sober him2 for1 though ,csar's command amounted to only twenty-two thousand1 and his to twice as many1 he not only declined an action1 but took what care he could to keep the threats of the ,gauls from his men1 8who were out of heart and despondent1 through terror at the fierceness and hardiness of their enemies1 whom they looked upon as a sort of wild beasts40#chb ,pharsalia stunned him4 ,when the tenth legion routed his left wing1 he went to his tent and sat speechless until the invasion of the camp2 then he walked away 8softly afoot1 taken up altogether with thoughts such as probably might possess a man that for the space of thirty-four years together had been accustomed to conquest and victory1 and was then at last1 in his old age1 learning for the first time what defeat and flight were40#chc ,thus1 in reality1 barbarians consolidated the ancient world1 and the force which created the ,empire1 afterward upheld it4 ,with each succeeding century the drafts of centralized society upon the blood of the country beyond the ,danube and the ,rhine increased1 but the supply proved limitless2 and1 when the ,western provinces disintegrated1 a new imaginative race poured over ,italy and ,france1 creating a new religion1 a new art1 a new literature1 and new institutions4 ,among modern nations the ,russians alone have developed this power of absorbing kindred conquered peoples2 and yet1 obviously1 ,napoleon would have fought his campaigns under very different circumstances1 and1 perhaps1 brought them to a different end1 had he1 like ,csar1 had an exhaustless supply of the best soldiers1 altogether independent of the population of ,france4 ,religious phenomena become explicable when viewed from the same standpoint4 ,unquestionably scepticism has been to the full as rife in ,paris since #aghi as it ever was in ,rome1 and yet no new religion has been born4 ,supposing1 however1 that a vast and highly emotional emigration flowed annually into ,france1 the aspect of life would be completely changed4 ,christian saints and martyrs were not begotten by the usurers of ,constantinople or of ,rome1 but by barbarian soldiers and ,asiatic serfs1 and ,christianity could hardly have become a ,state religion had the composition of society1 as it existed under ,trajan1 remained unaltered4 ,even in the reign of ,justinian the aristocracy carped at faith1 and ,byzantine architecture did not bloom until the invasions of ,alaric and ,attila4 ,if1 then1 although nature never precisely repeats herself1 she operates upon the human mind according to immutable laws1 it should be possible by comparing a living civilization with a dead1 to estimate in some degree the course which has been run4 ,for such an attempt an infinite variety of standards might be suggested1 but few1 perhaps1 are more suitable than the domestic relations which lie at the basis of the reproduction of life4 ,in a martial and imaginative age1 where energy vents itself through fear1 and every man must be a soldier1 the family generally forms a unit2 the women and children being under the control of the father1 as they were under the control of the patriarchs in the ,bible1 or of the paterfamilias in ,rome4 ,in such periods the woman is sought after by the man1 and even commands a high money value2 8,and ,shechem said unto her father1 444 ,ask me never so much dowry and gift1 and ,i will give according as ye shall say unto me3 but give me the damsel to wife40#chd ,the ,homeric heroes bought their wives1 and1 moreover1 were very fond of them--an affection the women returned1 for in all classical literature there are few more charming legends than that of ,penelope4 ,divorce was unknown to ,hector and ,agamemnon1 ,ulysses and ,achilles4 ,marriage1 in these simple ages1 is usually a rite half sacred1 half warlike4 ,when ,abraham's servant found ,rebekah at the well1 he bowed his head1 and blessed the ,lord ,god of his master ,abraham1 which had led him in the right way4 ,a ,roman wedding was a solemn religious function accompanied by prayer and sacrifice1 and1 at the end1 the bride was carried to her husband's house1 where she was violently torn from her mother's arms4 ,aristotle1 with his unerring acumen1 made this observation3 8,that all warlike races are prone to the love of women10 and also that they tend to 8fall under the dominion of their wives40#che ,undoubtedly this is the instinct of the soldier1 and1 in martial ages1 women are idealized4 ,when a foreigner asked the wife of ,leonidas1 8,why do you ,lacedmonian wives1 unlike all others1 govern your husbands80 the ,spartan answered1 8,because we alone are the mothers of men40 ,when at ,rome ,tiberius killed the male serpent1 thereby devoting himself to death to save ,cornelia1 ,plutarch1 telling the story1 remarked1 8that ,tiberius seemed to all men to have done nothing unreasonable1 in choosing to die for such a woman2 who1 when ,king ,ptolemy himself proffered her his crown1 and would have married her1 refused it1 and chose rather to live a widow40#chf ,in the ,middle ,ages1 that greatest of martial and imaginative epochs1 marriage developed into the most solemn of sacraments1 and the worship of women became the popular religion4 ,in ,france1 especially1 the centre of thought1 enthusiasm1 and war1 from the mighty fane of ,paris downward1 the churches were dedicated to ,mary1 and the vow of chivalry bound the knight to fight for ,god and for his lady4 8,it hath bene through all ages ever seene ,that with the praise of armes and chevalrie ,the prize of beautie still hath ioyned beene40#chg ,it might almost be said that the destinies of ,france have been moulded by men's love for women1 and that this influence still prevailed down to the advent of the usurers after the rout of ,waterloo4 ,on the other hand1 nature bred a type of woman fit to mate with the imaginative man4 ,the devotion of ,saint ,clara to ,saint ,francis is one of the most exquisite lyrics of the ,church1 and for six hundred years ,hlose remained an ideal of the ,west4 ,perhaps1 indeed1 that strange blending of tenderness and enthusiasm1 which was peculiar to the medival mind1 never found more refined and exalted expression than in the simple hymn which ,hlose is said to have composed and sung at the grave of ,ablard3-- 8,tecum fata sum perpessa2 ,tecum dormiam defessa1 ,et in ,sion veniam4 ,solve crucem1 ,due ad lucem ,degravatam animam40 ,in primitive ages children are not only a source of power1 but of wealth1 and therefore the highest merit of the woman is fecundity4 8,and they blessed ,rebekah1 and said unto her1 444 be thou the mother of thousands of millions40 ,also maternity is then a glory1 and childlessness a shame2 and ,rachel said1 8,give me children1 or else ,i die40 8,and she conceived and bare a son2 and said1 ,god hath taken away my reproach40 ,that she might live for her boys1 ,cornelia refused a crown2 and when they grew up1 she would upbraid them because 8the ,romans as yet rather called her the daughter of ,scipio than the mother of the ,gracchi40 ,but ,cornelia's father was the conqueror of ,hannibal1 and her son was an agrarian agitator1 whom the monied oligarchy murdered for reviving the ,licinian ,laws4 ,apparently1 one of the first signs of advancing civilization is the fall in the value of women in men's eyes4 ,not very long after the siege of ,troy1 husbands must have ceased paying for their wives2 for1 at a comparatively early date1 they demanded a price for wedding them4 ,euripides1 born in #dhj ,b4,c41 made ,medea complain that women had to buy their husbands for great sums of money4 ,in other words1 the custom of the wedding portion had come to prevail4 ,as the pressure of economic competition intensifies with social consolidation1 the family regularly disintegrates1 the children rejecting the parental authority at a steadily decreasing age2 until1 finally1 the population fuses into a compact mass1 in which all individuals are equal before the law1 and all are forced to compete with each other for the means of subsistence4 ,when at length wealth has accumulated sufficiently to find vent through capitalistic methods of farming and manufacture1 children lose all value1 for then hiring labour is always cheaper than breeding4 ,thenceforward1 among the more extravagant races1 the family dwindles1 as in ancient ,rome or modern ,france1 and marriage1 having become a luxury1 decreases4 ,moreover1 the economic instinct impels parents to reduce the number of possible inheritors of their property1 that its bulk may not shrink4 ,upon women the effect of these changed conditions is prodigious4 ,their whole relation to society is altered4 ,from a religious sacrament marriage is metamorphosed into a civil contract1 dissoluble1 like other contracts1 by mutual consent2 and1 as the obligations of maternity diminish1 the relation of husband and wife resolves itself into a sort of business partnership1 tending always to become more ephemeral4 ,frequent as divorce now is1 it was even more so under the ,antonines4 ,on men the action of natural selection is1 at least1 as drastic4 ,the change wrought in ,roman character in about three hundred years has always been one of the problems of history4 ,in the words of ,aristotle1 the primitive ,roman 8was prone to the love of women40 ,strong in his passions1 austere in his life1 fierce in his jealousy1 he set the undisputed possession of the female as his supreme happiness4 ,virginius slew his daughter to keep her from ,appius ,claudius1 and his comrades in the legions washed out his wrong in the ,decemvir's blood2 while among the stirring ballads of the fabled time which were sung at the farmer's fireside1 none roused such emotion as the tale of the vengeance wreaked on ,tarquin for ,lucretia's death4 ,compare this virile race with the aristocracy of the middle ,empire4 ,by the second century female purity weighed light against money4 ,marcus ,aurelius is said to have condensed the whole economic moral code in one short sentence4 ,his wife1 ,faustina1 was accused1 by scandal1 of being the most abandoned woman of her generation1 more notorious even than had been ,messalina4 ,when the philosopher was urged to repudiate her1 he replied1 8,then ,i should have to surrender her portion0 7the ,empire72 and he not only lived with her1 but built a temple to her memory4 ,even if the story be false1 it reflects none the less truly the temper of the age4 ,the minds of noble ,romans of the third and fourth centuries1 under the same impulsion1 worked differently from those of their primitive ancestors2 they lacked the martial and the amatory instincts4 ,as a general rule one salient characteristic of the later reigns was a sexual lassitude yielding only to the most potent stimulants4 ,the same phenomena were noticed among ,frenchmen at the collapse of the ,empire1 since when like symptoms have become notorious in ,london4 ,taking history as a whole1 women seem never to have more than moderately appealed to the senses of the economic man4 ,the monied magnate seldom ruins himself for love1 and chivalry would have been as foreign to a ,roman senator under ,diocletian1 as it would be now to a ,lombard ,street banker4 ,on the other hand1 in proportion as women's influence has declined when measured by their power over men1 it has increased when measured by the economic standard4 ,in many ways the female seems to serve as a vent for the energy of capital almost as well as men2 in the higher planes of civilization they hold their property in severalty1 and1 by means of money1 wield a power not unlike ,faustina's4 ,if unmarried1 the economic woman competes with the man on nearly equal terms1 and everywhere1 and in all ages1 the result is not dissimilar4 ,the stronger and more fortunate members of the sex have grown rich and have bought social and political power4 ,roman politics under ,septimius ,severus and ,caracalla was much in the hands of women1 and ,julia ,msa1 who was enormously wealthy1 carried through a most famous intrigue by purchasing the throne for ,elagabalus4 ,in ,rome1 however1 there was always a strong admixture of barbaric blood1 and1 to the last1 the barbarians married for love4 ,justinian was an example4 ,born of an obscure race of barbarians in the desolate ,bulgarian country1 he fell uncontrollably in love with ,theodora1 who had scandalized even the theatres of ,constantinople4 ,his mother died of shame2 but ,justinian persevered1 and1 while she lived1 his devotion to his wife never wavered4 ,in ,rome and in ,byzantium such women were the stronger or the more fortunate2 their counterparts are easily to be found in any economic age4 ,the fate of the weaker there was slavery2 now they are forced by competition into the ranks of the cheapest labour1--a lot1 perhaps1 hardly preferable4 ,and yet art1 perhaps1 even more clearly than religion1 love1 or war1 indicates the pathway of consolidation2 for art reflects with the subtlest delicacy those changes in the forms of competition which enfeeble or inflame the imagination4 ,of ,greek art1 in its zenith1 little need be said2 its great qualities have been too fully recognized4 ,it suffices to point out that it was absolutely honest1 and that it formed a vehicle of expression as flexible as the language itself4 ,a temple apparently of marble1 was of marble2 a colonnade apparently supporting a portico1 did support it2 and1 while the ornament formed an integral part of the structure1 the people read it as intelligently as they read the poems of ,homer4 ,nothing similar ever flourished in ,rome4 ,unlike the ,greeks1 the ,romans were never sensitive or imaginative4 ,properly speaking1 they had nothing which they could express through art2 they were utilitarian from the outset1 and their architecture finally took shape in the most perfect system of materialistic building which1 probably1 has ever existed4 ,obviously such a system could only be matured in a capitalistic society1 and1 accordingly1 ,roman architecture only reached perfection somewhat late1 perhaps1 toward the close of the first century4 ,the ,romans1 though vulgar and ostentatious1 understood business4 ,they knew how to combine economy and even solidity with display4 ,as ,viollet-le-,duc has observed1 8,they were rich1 and they wanted to appear so10#chh but they strove to attain their end without waste4 ,therefore they first ran up a cheap core of rubble1 bricks1 and mortar1 which could be put together by rude slave labour under the direction of an engineer and a few overseers2 and their squalid interior they afterward veneered with marble1 adding1 by way of ornament1 tier above tier of ,greek columns ranged against the walls4 ,that gaudy exterior had nothing whatever to do with the building itself1 and could be stripped off without vital injury4 ,from the ,greek standpoint nothing could be falser1 more insulting to the intelligence1 or1 in a word1 more plutocratic2 but the work was sound and durable1 and1 to a certain degree1 imposing from its mass4 ,this system lasted1 substantially unimpaired1 even to ,constantine or until the final migration of capital to the ,bosphorus1 the only difference between the monuments of the fourth century and the first being that the former are somewhat coarser1 just as the coins of ,diocletian are coarser than those of ,nero4 ,yet1 although the monied aristocracy remained supreme down to the final disintegration of the ,west1 emigration began very early to modify the base of society1 by the injection of a considerable amount of imaginative blood2 and1 as early as the reign of ,claudius1 this new store of energy made its presence felt through the outlet of ,christianity4 ,the converts were1 of course1 the antipodes of the ruling class4 ,they were 8humiliores10 poor people1 below the notice of a rich man like ,tacitus2 8quos1 444 vulgus ,christianos appellabat40#chi ,these ,christians held a position analogous to that of ,nihilists now1 whom they resembled save in respect to violence4 ,they were socialists living under a monied despotism1 and they openly prayed for the end of the world2 therefore they were thought 8haters of the human race10#cij and they suffered the penalty4 ,primitive ,christianity was incompatible with the existence of ,roman society1 against which it was a protest1 for it 8fully accepted the idea that the rich1 if he did not surrender his superfluity1 kept what belonged to another40#cia ,by right the ,kingdom of ,heaven was closed to the wealthy4 ,probably very few of these early ,christians were ,italians2 most of them were from the ,levant1 and that they were intensely emotional is proved by their lust for martyrdom--they voluntarily sought death as a means of glorifying ,god4 ,one day ,arrius ,antoninus1 proconsul of ,asia1 having ordered certain ,christians arrested1 saw all the faithful of the town present themselves before his tribunal1 demanding to share the fate of those chosen for martyrdom4 ,he dismissed them in wrath1 telling them that if they were so in love with death they might commit suicide2#cib and ,renan's account of the persecutions under ,nero shows an incredible exaltation4#cic ,almost at once the effect of this emotional temperament became perceptible4 ,the paintings in the catacombs are1 perhaps1 the oldest example of ,christian art1 and of these ,m4 ,vitet thus spoke many years ago3-- 8,these decorations1 made with the hand raised1 in secret1 hurriedly1 and more for pious reasons than for love of the beautiful1 nevertheless reveal to the most rebellious eyes and in spite of strange negligence and incorrectness1 ,i know not what of animation1 of youth1 of fecundity1 and1 so to speak1 a real transformation of that very art which1 in the service of paganism1 seemed then1 we are all agreed1 dying of exhaustion40#cid ,as the world disintegrated1 and the imagination everywhere acquired power1 and with power wealth and the means of expression1 an entirely new architecture sprang up in the ,east1 whose growth closely followed upon the barbarian invasions and the progressive failure of the ,roman blood4 ,the system of construction was ,asiatic modified by ,greek influences1#cie and with this new construction came an equally new decoration1 a decoration which once more served as a language4 ,mosaics of stone had long been used1 but mosaics of glass1 which give such an incomparable lustre to the dome1 were the invention of ,levantine ,christians1 and seem to have come into general use toward the beginning of the fifth century4 ,but the fifth century was the period of the great invasions of ,alaric1 ,attila1 and ,theoderic1 and during this period the population of ,italy1 ,macedonia1 and ,thrace must have undergone profound changes4 ,in ,italy the whole fabric of consolidated society crumbled2 south of the ,danube it survived1 but survived in a modified form1 a form on which the recent migrations left an unmistakable imprint4 ,galla ,placidia1 the first great patron of the pure ,byzantine school1 died in #dej1 after an eventful life largely passed among the barbarians1 one of whom she married4 ,she began to embellish ,ravenna1 and a comparison of these remains with those of ,france and ,italy of the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth centuries1 exposes the difference in the forces which moulded these three civilizations4 ,with all its grace and refinement the characteristic of ,ravenna was not religious ecstasy1 but rather an absence of fear of the unknown1 and a respect for wealth4 ,there is nothing mysterious or terrible about these charming buildings1 which are manifestly rather a glorification of the ,empire on the ,bosphorus1 than of the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,at ,san ,vitale it is ,justinian1 with an aureole about his head and surrounded by his courtiers1 carrying a gift to the shrine2 or ,theodora1 blazing with jewels1 and followed by the magnificent ladies of her household4 ,at ,san ,apollinare the long procession of saints are richly clad and bear crowns1 while the ,virgin herself1 seated on a throne and revered as a sovereign1 is as far removed from the vulgar as ,theodora herself4 8,byzantine etiquette no longer permits her to be approached directly2 four angels surround her and separate her from humanity40#cif ,the terrifying was scrupulously avoided4 8,by a most significant scruple1 the artist1 in reproducing various episodes of the ,passion1 avoided the most painful1 the ,crucifixion40#cig ,saint ,sophia offers every indication of having been expressly contrived to provide the large light spaces needful for such functions as those depicted in ,san ,vitale1 and the account given by ,procopius of its erection sustains this supposition4 ,according to ,procopius1 ,saint ,sophia was a hobby of ,justinian1 who not only selected the architect ,anthemius because he was the most ingenious mechanic of his age1 but who also supplied the funds and 8assisted it by the labour and powers of his mind40#cih ,the dome1 8from the lightness of the building 444 does not appear to rest upon a solid foundation1 but to cover the place beneath as though it were suspended from heaven by the fabled golden chain02 and the interior 8is singularly full of light and of sunshine2 you would declare that the place is not lighted by the sun from without1 but that the rays are produced within itself1 such an abundance of light is poured into this church40#cii ,of the decorations it is impossible to speak with certainty1 since it is probable that the mosaics which now exist were of a later period4 ,perhaps1 however1 the most significant phenomenon about the church is its loneliness2 nothing like it was built elsewhere1 and the reason seems plain4 ,there was but one imperial court which needed so superb a setting1 and but one emperor who could pay for it4 ,herein lies the radical divergence between the ,east and ,west2 the great tabernacle of ,constantinople stood alone because it represented the wealth1 the pomp1 and the imagination of the barbarian shepherd who had been raised by fortune to be the chief of police of the city where the world's wealth had centralized4 ,in ,france every diocese had a temple magnificent according to its means1 some of which exceeded in majesty that of ,paris2 and the cause was that1 in ,france1 the artistic and imaginative caste formed a theocracy1 who were not hired by king or emperor1 but who were themselves the strongest force in all the land4 ,in the ,east1 the imaginative inroad was not strong enough to cause disintegration1 and the artists always remained wage-earners4 ,in the ,west1 society fell back a thousand years1 and consolidation began afresh4 ,six centuries intervened between the death of ,galla ,placidia and the famous dream of the monk ,gauzon which contained the revelation of the plan of the ,abbey of ,cluny1 and yet six hundred years by no means represented the gap between the ,franks and the ,burgundians1 and the ,eastern ,empire1 even when it sank lowest under ,heraclius4 ,to ,justinian the building of ,saint ,sophia was a matter of time and money2 to ,saint ,hugh the church of ,cluny was a miracle4 ,in ,france the churches long were miracles2 the chronicles are filled with the revelations vouchsafed the monks2 and none can cross the threshold of one of these noble monuments and fail to grasp its meaning4 ,they are the most vigorous of all expressions of fear of the unseen4 ,the ,gothic architect heeded no living potentate2 he held kings in contempt1 and oftener represented them thrust down into hell than seated on their thrones4 ,with the enemy who lurked in darkness none but the saints could cope1 and them he idealized4 ,no sculpture is more terrible than the demons on the walls of ,rheims1 none more majestic and pathetic than that over the door of the ,virgin at ,paris1 while no colour ever equalled the windows of ,saint ,denis and ,chartres4 ,with the thirteenth century came the influx of the ,eastern trade and the rise of the communes4 ,immediately the glory of the ,gothic began to fade2 by the reign of ,saint ,louis it had passed its prime1 and under ,philip the ,fair it fell in full decline4 ,the men who put dead cats in shrines were not likely to be inspired in religious sculpture4 ,the decay1 and the reasons for it1 can be readily traced in colour4 ,the monks who conceived the twelfth century windows1 or painted the pictures of the saints1 only sought to render an emotion by a conventional symbol which should rouse a response4 ,consequently they used marvellous combinations of colours1 in which blue was apt to predominate1 and they harmonized their colours with gold4 ,viollet-le-,duc has elaborately explained how this was done4#djj ,but such a system was not pretentious1 and was incompatible with perspective4 ,the medival burgher1 like the ,roman1 was rich1 and wanted to appear so4 ,he demanded more for his money than a solemn portrait of a saint4 ,he craved a picture of himself1 or of his guild1 and above all he insisted on display4 ,the fourteenth century was the period when the reds and yellows superseded the blues1 and when the sense of harmony began to fail4 ,furthermore1 the burgher was realistic and required a representation of the world he saw about him4 ,hence came perspective1 the abandonment of gold1 and the final degradation of colour1 which sank into a lost art4 ,for hundreds of years it has been impossible to imitate the work of the monks of ,saint ,denis4 ,in ,italy1 the economic phenomena were yet more striking2 for ,italy1 even in the ,middle ,ages1 was always a commercial community1 which looked on art with the economic eye4 ,one example will suffice1--the treatment of the dome4 ,placed between the masterpieces of the ,east and ,west1 and having little imagination of his own1 the ,florentine banker conceived the idea of combining the two systems and embellishing them in a cheap and showy manner4 ,accordingly on ,gothic arches he placed an ,eastern dome1 and instead of adorning his dome with mosaics1 which are costly1 he had his interior painted at about one-quarter of the price4 ,the substitution of the fresco for the mosaic is one of the most typical devices of modern times4 ,before the opening of the economic age1 when the imagination glowed with all the passion of religious enthusiasm1 the monks who built the abbeys of ,cluny and ,saint ,denis took no thought of money1 for it regarded them not4 ,sheltered by their convents1 their livelihood was assured2 their bread and their robe were safe2 they pandered to no market1 for they cared for no patron4 ,their art was not a chattel to be bought1 but an inspired language in which they communed with ,god1 or taught the people1 and they expressed a poetry in the stones they carved which far transcended words4 ,for these reasons ,gothic architecture1 in its prime1 was spontaneous1 elevated1 dignified1 and pure4 ,the advent of portraiture has usually been considered to portend decay1 and rightly1 since the presence of the portrait demonstrates the supremacy of wealth4 ,a portrait can hardly be the ideal of an enthusiast1 like the figure of a god1 for it is a commercial article1 sold for a price1 and manufactured to suit a patron's taste2 were it made to please the artist1 it might not find a buyer4 ,when portraits are fashionable1 the economic period must be well advanced4 ,portraiture1 like other economic phenomena1 blossomed during the ,renaissance1 and it was then also that the artist1 no longer shielded by his convent or his guild1 stood out to earn his living by the sale of his wares1 like the ,venetian merchants whom he met on the ,rialto1 whose vanity he flattered1 and whose palaces he adorned4 ,from the sixteenth century downward1 the man of imagination1 unable to please the economic taste1 has starved4 ,this mercenary quality forms the gulf which has divided the art of the ,middle ,ages from that of modern times--a gulf which cannot be bridged1 and which has broadened with the lapse of centuries1 until at last the artist1 like all else in society1 has become the creature of a commercial market1 even as the ,greek was sold as a slave to the plutocrat of ,rome4 ,with each invention1 with each acceleration of movement1 prose has more completely supplanted poetry1 while the economic intellect has grown less tolerant of any departure from those representations of nature which have appealed to the most highly gifted of the monied type among successive generations4 ,hence the imperiousness of modern realism4 ,thus the history of art coincides with the history of all other phenomena of life2 for experience has demonstrated that1 since the ,reformation1 a school of architecture1 like the ,greek or ,gothic1 has become impossible4 ,no such school could exist in a society where the imagination had decayed1 for the ,greek and ,gothic represented imaginative ideals4 ,in an economic period1 like that which has followed the ,reformation1 wealth is the form in which energy seeks expression2 therefore1 since the close of the fifteenth century1 architecture has reflected money4 ,viollet-le-,duc has said of the ,romans1 that1 like all parvenus1 the true expression of art lay1 for them1 rather in lavish ornament than in purity of form1#dja and what was true of the third century is true of the nineteenth4 ,the type of mind being the same1 its operation must be similar1 and the economic1 at once ostentatious and parsimonious1 produces a cheap core fantastically adorned4 ,the ,romans perched the travesty of a ,grecian colonnade upon the summit of a bath or an amphitheatre1 while the ,englishman1 having pillaged weaker nations of their imaginative gems1 delights to cover with coarse imitations the exterior of banks and counting-houses4 ,and yet1 though thus alike1 a profound difference separates ,roman architecture from our own2 the ,romans were never wholly sordid1 nor did they ever niggle4 ,when they built a wall1 that wall was solid masonry1 not painted iron2 and1 even down to ,constantine1 one chord remained which1 when struck1 would always vibrate4 ,usurers may have sat in the ,senate1 but barbarians filled the legions1 and1 as long as the triumph wound its way through the ,forum1 men knew how to raise triumphal arches to the victor4 ,perhaps1 in all the ages1 no more serious or majestic monument has been conceived to commemorate the soldier than the column of ,trajan1 a monument which it has been the ambition of our century to copy4 ,in ,paris an imitation of this trophy was erected to the greatest captain of ,france1 and the column of the ,place ,vendme serves to mark the grave of the modern martial blood4 ,raised in #ahaj1 almost at the moment when ,nathan ,rothschild became despot of the ,london ,stock ,exchange1 the tide from thence ran swiftly1 and1 since ,sedan1 the present generation has drained to the lees the cup of realism4 ,no poetry can bloom in the arid modern soil1 the drama has died1 and the patrons of art are no longer even conscious of shame at profaning the most sacred of ideals4 ,the ecstatic dream1 which some twelfth-century monk cut into the stones of the sanctuary hallowed by the presence of his ,god1 is reproduced to bedizen a warehouse2 or the plan of an abbey1 which ,saint ,hugh may have consecrated1 is adapted to a railway station4 ,decade by decade1 for some four hundred years1 these phenomena have grown more sharply marked in ,europe1 and1 as consolidation apparently nears its climax1 art seems to presage approaching disintegration4 ,the architecture1 the sculpture1 and the coinage of ,london at the close of the nineteenth century1 when compared with those of the ,paris of ,saint ,louis1 recall the ,rome of ,caracalla as contrasted with the ,athens of ,pericles1 save that we lack the stream of barbarian blood which made the ,middle ,age4 ,footnotes #a ,history of ,rome1 ,mommsen1 ,dickson's trans41 i4 #bhh1 #bij4 #b ,history of ,rome1 ,niebuhr1 ,hare's trans41 i4 #egf4 ,niebuhr has been followed in the text1 although the 8nexum0 is one of the vexed points of ,roman law4 7,see ber das altrmische ,schuldrecht1 ,savigny47 ,the precise form of the contract is1 however1 perhaps1 not very important for the matter in hand1 as most scholars seem agreed that it resembled a mortgage1 the breach of whose condition involved not only the loss of the pledge1 but the personal liberty of the debtor4 ,see ,gaius1 iv4 #ba4 #c ,history of ,rome1 ,niebuhr1 ,hare's trans41 ii4 #eii4 ,but compare ,aulus ,gellius1 xx4 #a4 #d ,ibid41 i4 #ehb4 #e ,history of ,rome1 ,niebuhr1 ,hare's trans41 i4 #ehc4 #f ,history of ,rome1 ,mommsen1 ,dickson's trans41 i4 #dgb4 #g ,livy1 xlv4 #ah4 #h ,history of ,rome1 ,niebuhr1 ,hare's trans41 i4 #ehc4 #i ,ibid41 ii4 #fjc4 #aj ,history of ,rome1 ,niebuhr1 ,hare's trans41 i4 #egd4 #aa ,preface to ,virginia4 #ab ,history of ,rome1 ,mommsen1 ,dickson's trans41 i4 #dhd4 #ac ,see ,history of ,rome1 ,mommsen1 ,dickson's trans41 i4 #bih-i4 #ad ,see ,history of ,rome1 ,niebuhr1 ,hare's trans41 iii4 #bb1 #cj4 #ae ,preface to ,virginia1 ,macaulay4 #af ,histoire de l',esclavage1 ,wallon1 ii4 #ch4 #ag ,suet4 ,aug41 ii4 #da4 #ah ,tacitus1 ,ann41 ii4 #dh4 #ai ,ann41 vi4 #ci4 #bj ,ibid41 iv4 #ba4 #ba ,sat41 iii4 #afd4 #bb ,l',invasion ,germanique1 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 #adf-aeg4 #bc ,diod4 xxxiv4 #ch4 ,on the subject of the ,sicilian slavery1 see ,histoire de l',esclavage1 ,wallon1 ii4 #cjj et seq4 #bd ,polybius1 ii4 #ae1 ,shuckburgh's trans4 #be ,provinces of the ,roman ,empire1 ,mommsen1 ii4 #bcc4 #bf ,ibid41 ii4 #bci4 #bg ,deipnosophists1 v4 #cg4 #bh ,martial1 ,ep41 xii4 #gf4 #bi ,vopiscus1 ,aurelianus1 #ce4 #cj ,l',invasion ,germanique1 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 #aij4 #ca ,le ,colonat ,romain3 ,recherches sur quelques ,problmes d',histoire1 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 #adc4 #cb ,organisation ,financire chez les ,romains1 ,marquardt1 #fe et seq4 #cc ,tacitus1 ,ann41 ,murphy's trans41 iii4 #ec4 #cd ,nat4 ,hist41 xii4 #ah4 #ce ,vopiscus1 ,saturninus1 #h4 #cf ,provinces of the ,roman ,empire1 ,mommsen1 ii4 #adj4 #cg ,ann41 vi4 #af1 #ag4 #ch ,see ,geschichte des ,rmischen ,mnzwesens1 ,mommsen1 #gef4 #ci ,monnaies ,byzantines1 ,sabatier1 i4 #ea1 #eb4 #dj ,monnaies ,byzantines1 ,sabatier1 i4 #ej4 #da ,geschichte des ,rmischen ,mnzwesens1 ,mommsen1 #hcg4 #db ,monnaies ,byzantines1 ,sabatier1 i4 #ea1 #eb4 #dc ,pliny's ,letters1 iii4 #ai4 #dd ,ibid41 ix4 #cg4 #de ,digest1 xix4 #b1 #ae1 and xxxiii4 #g1 #bj4 #df ,letters1 x4 #bd4 ,on this whole subject see ,le ,colonat ,romain3 ,recherches sur quelques ,problmes d',histoire1 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 ch4 i4 #dg ,code of ,justinian1 xi4 #ea1 #a4 #dh ,le ,colonat ,romain1 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 #ba4 #di ,organisation ,financire chez les ,romains1 ,marquardt1 #bdj2 ,les ,manieurs d',argent ,rome1 ,deloume1 #cgg4 #ej ,see ,decline and ,fall1 ch4 xvii4 #ea ,in ,c4 ,verrem1 ,,iv4 lxxxix4 #eb ,cicero's ,letters1 ,ad ,att4 vi4 #b2 also ,ad ,att4 v4 #ba1 and vi4 #a4 #ec ,diod4 xxxvi4 #c4 ,see also ,histoire de l',esclavage1 ,wallon1 ii4 #db1 #dd4 #ed ,satire1 viii4 #hi1 #ij4 #ee ,letters1 viii4 #bd4 #ef ,dio ,cassius1 lxii4 #b4 #eg ,nat4 ,hist41 xiv41 ,promium4 #eh ,decline and ,fall1 ch4 xvii4 #ei ,morals1 ,trans4 of #agah1 #d1 #aa4 #fj ,histoire de l',esclavage1 iii4 #bfh4 #fa ,decline and ,fall1 ch4 xii4 #fb ,l',invasion ,germanique1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #bbc4 #fc ,dio ,cassius1 lvi4 #g4 #fd ,dio ,cassius1 lvi4 #e-h4 #fe ,ann41 iii4 #be4 #ff ,ibid41 xxviii4 ,latin literature is full of references to these famous laws4 ,tacitus1 ,pliny1 ,juvenal1 and ,martial constantly speak of them4 ,there were also many commentaries on them by ,roman jurists4 #fg ,l',organisation ,militaire chez les ,romains1 ,marquardt1 #adc4 #fh ,dio ,cassius1 lxxiv4 #b4 #fi ,monnaies ,byzantines1 ,sabatier1 i4 #ej4 #gj ,history of the ,byzantine ,empire1 ,finlay1 #i4 #ga ,vopiscus1 ,tacitus1 #aj4 #gb ,greece under the ,romans1 ,george ,finlay1 #bad4 #gc ,byzantine ,empire1 ,finlay1 #bef4 #gd ,byzantine ,architecture1 ,texier1 #bd4 #ge ,decline and ,fall1 ch4 lii4 #gf ,itinerary of ,rabbi ,benjamin of ,tudela1 trans4 from the ,hebrew by ,asher1 #ed4 #gg ,monnaies ,byzantines1 i4 #bf4 #gh ,see treaty with ,bohemund4 ,anna ,comnena1 xiii4 #g4 #gi ,l',art ,byzantin1 ,bayet1 #af1 #ag4 #hj ,theb41 iii4 #ffa4 #ha ,decline and ,fall1 ch4 xx4 #hb ,mark v4 #bh1 #cj4 #hc ,chronicles1 ii4 #abd4 #hd ,anglican ,schism1 ,sander1 trans4 by ,lewis1 #adc4 #he ,a ,relation1 or rather a ,true ,account of the ,island of ,england1 ,camden ,soc4 #cj4 #hf ,cal4 x4 ,no4 #cfd4 ,references to the calendar of ,state papers edited by ,messrs4 ,brewer and ,gairdner will be made by this word only4 #hg ,histoire du ,sacrament de l',eucharistie1 ,corblet1 i4 #dgd4 ,see also on this subject ,csarii ,dialogus ,miraculorum2 ,de ,corpore ,christi4 #hh ,hist4 ,lit4 de la ,france1 xxii4 #aai4 #hi ,les ,moines d',occident1 ,montalembert1 vi4 #cd4 #ij ,histoire de la ,grande-,sauve1 ii4 #ac4 #ia ,monasticon1 v4 #fbh1 ,ed4 #ahdf4 #ib ,les ,moines d',occident1 ,montalembert1 vi4 #aja4 #ic ,sacerdotal ,celibacy1 ,lea1 #abi4 #id ,annales ,lauressenses1 ,perz1 i4 #ahh4 #ie ,recueil des ,chartes de l',abbaye de ,cluny1 ,bruel1 i4 #abd4 #if ,bull4 ,clun41 p4 #b1 col4 #a4 ,also ,manuel des ,institutions ,franaises1 ,luchaire1 #ic1 #ie1 where the authorities are collected4 #ig ,annales ,ecclesiastici1 ,baronius1 year #ajgf4 #ih ,migne1 cxlviii4 #gij4 #ii ,decline and ,fall1 ch4 lx4 #ajj ,dictionnaire de l',architecture1 v4 #ej4 #aja ,annales ,ecclesiastici1 ,baronius1 year #ajie4 #ajb ,les ,familles d',outre-,mer1 ed4 ,rey1 #c4 #ajc ,dictionnaire de l',architecture1 viii4 #ajh4 #ajd ,l',art ,arabe1 #aaa et seq4 #aje ,l',art ,arabe1 #bjc4 #ajf ,mlanges1 #deh4 #ajg ,see ,dictionnaire de l',architecture1 ,viollet-le-,duc1 vi4 #ddf4 #ajh ,see ,les glises de la ,terre ,sainte1 ,vog1 #bag2 ,notre ,dame de ,noyon2 tudes sur l',histoire de l',art1 ,vitet1 ii4 #abb2 ,dictionnaire de ,l',architecture1 ,viollet-le-,duc1 ii4 #cja4 #aji ,hist4 des ,croisades1 xii4 #g4 #aaj ,see1 on the ,syrian castles1 tude sur les ,monuments de l',architecture ,militaire des ,croiss en ,syrie1 ,rey4 #aaa ,letter #cfc1 ed4 #ahgg1 ,paris4 #aab ,sancti ,bernardi1 ,vita et ,res ,gestae1 ,auctore ,guillelmo1 #a-c4 #aac ,secunda ,vita ,s4 ,bernardi ,auctore ,alano1 vi4 #aad ,exordium ,magnum ,cisterciense1 viii4 #aae ,nos4 #cfc and #dbc1 ed4 of #ahgg1 ,paris4 #aaf ,letter #cfc4 #aag ,de ,vita ,s4 ,bernardi1 ,auctore ,gaufrido1 iv4 #e4 #aah ,letter #bef1 ed4 of #ahgg1 ,paris4 #aai ,hist4 des ,croisades1 xvi4 #be4 #abj ,hist4 des ,croisades1 xvi4 #bg4 #aba ,de ,consideratione1 ii4 #a4 #abb ,willam of ,tyre1 xvi4 #aa1 #ab4 #abc ,les ,familles d',outre-,mer1 ,du ,cange1 #dje4 #abd ,histoire de la ,commerce de la ,france1 #acb4 #abe ,histoire du ,commerce du ,levant1 ,heyd1 ,french trans41 i4 #afc4 #abf ,histoire du ,levant1 ,heyd1 ,french trans41 i4 #ie4 #abg ,see1 on this question of cheaper money in the ,carlovingian period1 ,nouveau ,manuel de ,numismatique1 ,blanchet1 i4 #aja2 also ,histoire du ,commerce de la ,france1 ,pigeonneau1 #hg et seq4 #abh ,le ,monete di ,venezia1 ,papadopoli1 #gc4 #abi ,ville-,hardouin1 ed4 ,wailly1 xiv4 #fe4 #acj ,ibid4 #aca ,historiens de la ,france1 xix4 #bc4 #acb ,patrologi ,cursus ,completus1 ,migne1 ccxiv4 #aahj4 #acc ,historiens de la ,france1 xix4 #dba4 #acd ,chronique1 ed4 ,buchon1 #dd4 #ace ,ville-,hardouin1 ed4 ,buchon1 #ea4 #acf ,chronique de ,ville-,hardouin1 ed4 ,buchon1 #fi4 #acg ,chronique1 ed4 ,wailly1 xxxvii4 #agh4 #ach ,chronique1 ed4 ,wailly1 lii4 #bci4 #aci ,chronique1 ed4 ,buchon1 #if4 #adj ,chronique1 ed4 ,buchon1 #ii4 #ada ,patrologi ,cursus ,completus1 ,migne1 ccxv4 #ded4 #adb ,migne1 ccxv4 #gab4 #adc ,historia ,capt a ,latinis ,constantinopoleos1 ,migne1 ccxii4 #ai4 #add ,bibl4 de l'cole des ,chartes1 #c;d series1 ii4 #cec4 #ade ,histoire del',abbaye de ,saint ,denis1 ,d',ayzac1 i4 #cfa-i4 #adf ,vie de ,louis le ,gros1 ,suger1 ed4 ,molinier1 #fa1 #fb4 #adg ,vie de ,louis le ,gros1 ,suger1 ed4 ,molinier1 #gj4 #adh ,ibid41 #ah4 #adi ,suger1 ed4 ,molinier1 #ah4 #aej ,ibid4 #aea tudes sur les origines de la commune de ,saint ,quentin1 ,giry1 #i4 #aeb ,see tudes sur les ,faires de ,champagne1 ,bourquelot1 #gb1 #gd2 and generally on this subject4 #aec ,les ,communes ,franaises1 ,luchaire1 #bba-bbe4 #aed ,les ,communes ,franaises1 ,luchaire1 #he4 #aee ,les ,communes ,franaises1 ,luchaire1 #bcc-bcd4 #aef ,les ,communes ,franaises1 ,luchaire1 #bfj4 #aeg ,documents sur les ,relations de la ,royaut avec les ,villes de ,france1 ,giry1 #ei1 #fa4 #aeh ,les ,communes ,franaises1 ,luchaire1 #ahi4 #aei ,manuel des ,institutions ,franaises1 ,luchaire1 #ece4 #afj ,les ,communes ,franaises1 ,luchaire1 #bhc4 #afa ,mmoires du ,duc de ,saint-,simon1 ed4 #ahgd1 xii4 #ai4 #afb ,le ,commerce de ,marseille au ,moyen ,age1 ,blancard1 #c4 #afc ,la ,libert delle ,banche a ,venezia1 ,lattes1 #bf4 #afd ,les ,grandes ,compagnies de ,commerce1 ,bonnassieux1 #bc4 #afe ,la ,rapport entre l'or et l'argent au ,temps de ,saint ,louis1 ,marchville1 #bb1 #cc4 #aff ,ibid41 #db4 #afg ,les ,communes ,franaises1 #bjj1 #bja4 #afh ,the documents relating to the controversy are printed in the ,histoire du ,differend1 ,dupuy4 #afi ,dupuy1 #dh4 #agj ,ibid41 #dd4 #aga ,see letters of ,beauvais and ,laon1 of #acjc1 ,documents1 ,giry1 #afj4 #agb ,dupuy1 #ee4 #agc ,dupuy1 #cea4 ,articles presented ,june1 #acjc4 #agd ,see ,cronica di ,villani1 viii4 #fc4 #age ,cronica di ,villani1 viii4 #hj4 ,also ,ann4 ,eccl41 ,baronius1 year #acje4 #agf ,documents ,indits sur l',histoire de ,france1 ,procs des ,templiers1 ,michelet1 i4 #aff4 #agg ,procs des ,templiers1 ,michelet1 i4 #cg4 #agh ,ibid41 #bfd4 #agi ,ibid41 #ge4 #ahj ,cronica di ,villani1 viii4 #ib4 #aha ,continuatio ,chronici ,guilelmi de ,nangiaco1 mcccxiii4 #ahb ,la ,maison du ,temple1 ,curzon1 #bjj1 #bjd4 #ahc ,a ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 ,j4 ,e4 ,thorold ,rogers1 iv4 #gb4 #ahd ,on ,justification1 ,works1 i4 #fj4 #ahe ,on ,justification1 ,works1 i4 #ea4 #ahf ,institutes1 ,i4 vii4 #a and #e4 #ahg ,zwinglis ,theologie1 ,august ,baur1 #cai1 #cbj4 #ahh ,institutes1 ,,iv4 viii4 #i4 #ahi ,john ,wicliffe and his ,english ,precursors1 ,lechler1 ,eng4 trans41 #cjb4 #aij ,lechler1 #cdi1 note #a4 #aia ,lechler1 #cdh1 note4 ,extract from ,de ,eucharistia4 #aib ,acts and ,monuments1 iii4 #bjd1 #bje4 #aic ,the ,praise of ,folie1 #aeda4 ,englished by ,sir ,thomas ,challoner4 #aid ,parl4 ,hist41 ,cobbett1 i4 #bie4 #aie ,ibid41 #caj4 #aif ,a ,supplicacyon for ,beggers1 #b4 ,early ,eng4 ,text ,soc4 #aig ,acts and ,monuments1 v4 #djd4 #aih ,ibid41 iii4 #bah4 #aii ,acts and ,monuments1 iv4 #aif4 #bjj ,agriculture and ,prices1 iv4 #ah4 #bja ,reformation of the ,church of ,england1 ,blunt1 ii4 #bbb4 #bjb ,acts and ,monuments1 iv4 #gjf4 #bjc ,industrial and ,commercial ,history of ,england1 ,rogers1 #dh4 #bjd ,agriculture and ,prices1 iv4 #gae4 #bje ,agriculture and ,prices1 iv4 #ded4 #bjf ,ibid41 iv4 #bjj4 ,for the average prices of grain see tables in vol4 i4 #bde1 and iv4 #bib4 #bjg ,agriculture and ,prices1 iv4 #gcd4 #bjh ,chapuys to ,granville1 ,cal4 ix4 ,no4 #hfb4 ,the ,state ,papers edited by ,messrs4 ,brewer and ,gairdner are referred to by the word 8,cal40 #bji ,acts and ,monuments1 v4 #cfe4 #baj ,state ,papers1 ii4 #eeb4 #baa ,chronicles1 #a1 clxvii4 #bab ,chapuys to ,perrenot1 ,cal4 x4 ,no4 #ija4 #bac ,see ,anne ,boleyn1 ,friedmann1 i4 #dc1 and elsewhere4 #bad ,cal4 x4 ,no4 #ijh4 #bae ,burleigh and his ,times1 ,essays4 #baf ,cal4 vii4 ,no4 #bif4 #bag ,ibid41 xi4 ,no4 #egf1 ,chapuys to ,charles4 #bah ,ibid41 xi4 ,no4 #egf4 #bai ,ibid41 xi4 ,no4 #hfd4 #bbj ,cal4 xi4 ,no4 #ajde4 #bba ,cal4 xi4 ,no4 #gbi4 #bbb ,ibid41 xi4 ,no4 #hbf4 #bbc ,ibid41 xii4 pt4 i4 ,no4 #fih4 #bbd ,cal4 xii4 pt4 i4 ,no4 #igf4 #bbe ,marillac au ,conntable1 ,kaulek1 #baa4 #bbf ,acts and ,monuments1 v4 #ahj4 #bbg ,cal4 viii4 ,no4 #gbf4 #bbh ,sander1 ,lewis' trans41 #aai4 #bbi ,state ,papers1 i4 #ech4 #bcj ,cal4 xii4 pt4 i4 ,no4 #dih4 #bca ,kaulek1 #aic1 #aid4 #bcb ,ibid41 #hb4 #bcc ,cal4 x4 ,no4 #iji4 #bcd ,kaulek1 #bgd2 ,sander1 ,lewis1 #afb1 and note #b4 #bce ,kaulek1 #ej4 #bcf ,lettres de ,henri ,,viii ,anne ,boleyn1 ,crapelet1 ,lettre #c4 #bcg ,kaulek1 #aii4 #bch ,acts and ,monuments1 v4 #bbi4 #bci ,history of ,england1 chap4 #a4 #bdj ,rise and ,growth of the ,anglican ,schism1 ,sander1 trans4 by ,lewis1 #afa4 #bda ,chapuys to ,charles1 ,cal4 vi4 ,no4 #aeaj1 date ,dec41 #aecc4 #bdb ,the ,homilies1 ,corrie1 #di4 #bdc ,the ,homilies1 ,corrie1 #ef1 #eh4 #bdd #ca ,henry ,,viii41 c4 #ad4 #bde ,acts and ,monuments1 v4 #cfh1 #cfi4 #bdf ,cal4 x4 pref4 xliii4 #bdg ,see citations to the original authorities in ,henry ,,viii4 and the ,english ,monasteries1 ,gasquet1 i4 #ded1 and note4 #bdh ,cal4 ix4 ,no4 #fbb4 ,in the ,calendar the letter is condensed4 ,the extract is given in full in ,gasquet1 i4 #bfa1 #bfb4 #bdi ,ibid41 ,no4 #fcj4 ,in full in ,gasquet1 i4 #bfc4 #bej ,ibid41 ,no4 #fcj4 #bea ,henry ,,viii4 and the ,english ,monasteries1 i4 #dci4 #beb ,cal4 ix4 ,no4 #db4 #bec ,cal4 x4 pref4 xlv4 note4 #bed ,ibid41 ix4 ,no4 #ajje4 #bee ,ibid41 ix4 ,no4 #ajje4 #bef ,cal4 x4 ,no4 #cfd4 #beg ,ibid41 ,no4 #aaia4 #beh ,ibid41 ,no4 #cfd4 #bei ,ibid41 ,no4 #aaia4 #bfj ,rites of ,durham1 ,surtees ,soc41 #hf4 #bfa ,wright1 #bfj4 #bfb ,ellis1 #ast ,series1 ii4 #ii4 #bfc ,wright1 #bfa1 #bfb4 #bfd ,ellis1 #ast ,series1 ii4 #ii4 #bfe ,agriculture and ,prices1 iv4 #fd4 #bff #f ,henry ,,viii41 c4 #e2 #g ,henry ,,viii41 c4 #a4 #bfg ,jewel of ,joy1 ,becon4 ,also ,england in the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii41 ,early ,eng4 ,text ,soc41 ,extra ,ser41 ,no4 xxxii4 p4 #ge4 #bfh ,first ,sermon before ,edward ,,vi4 ,sermons of ,bishop ,latimer1 ed4 of ,parker ,soc41 #ajj1 #aja4 #bfi #bb ,henry ,,viii41 c4 #ab4 #bgj #bg ,henry ,,viii41 c4 #be4 #bga #a ,edward ,,vi41 c4 #c4 #bgb ,brit4 ,mus41 ,cole ,,ms4 xii4 #da4 ,cited in ,henry ,,viii4 and the ,english ,monasteries1 ,gasquet1 ii4 #ead1 note4 #bgc ,eccl4 ,mem41 ii4 pt4 #a1 #bfj4 #bgd ,sermon on ,rebellion1 ,cranmer1 ,miscellaneous ,writings and ,letters1 #aid-f4 #bge ,sermon on ,rebellion1 ,cranmer1 ,miscellaneous ,writings and ,letters1 #aie1 #aif4 #bgf ,cal4 ix4 ,no4 #aic4 #bgg ,eccl4 ,mem41 ii4 pt4 #a1 #aeb4 #bgh #e and #f ,edw4 ,,vi41 c4 #b4 #bgi ,cromwell's ,letters and ,speeches1 ,carlyle1 ,speech ,,xi4 #bhj ,raleigh to ,burleigh1 ,life of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 ,edwards1 ii4 #gf1 letter xxxiv4 #bha ,the ,reformation of the ,church of ,england1 ii4 #fh4 #bhb ,history of ,england1 v4 #dcb4 #bhc ,gorham's ,reformation ,gleanings1 #fa4 #bhd ,ridley's disputation at ,oxford in #aeed1 ,acts and ,monuments1 vi4 #dgd4 #bhe ,a ,godly ,letter to the ,faithful1 ,works1 iii4 #agf4 #bhf ,ibid41 #agg4 #bhg ,a ,faithful ,admonition1 ,works1 iii4 #bhc4 #bhh ,ibid41 iii4 #bha1 #bhb4 #bhi ,on ,true ,obedience1 ,heywood's ed41 #gc4 #bij ,the ,institution of a ,christian ,man1 ,preface1 ,formularies of ,faith of ,henry ,,viii41 ,lloyd1 #bf4 #bia ,see ,burnet's ,history of the ,reformation1 ,records1 part ,i4 book iii4 quest4 #i4 #bib ,s4 ,p4 ,dom4 ,eliz4 vol4 #agf1 ,no4 #fi4 #bic ,zurich ,letters1 #ast ,series1 #bhg4 #bid ,towchinge the bill and the booke exhibited in the ,parliament #aehf for a further reformation of the ,churche1 ,s4 ,p4 ,dom4 ,eliz4 #aii1 ,no4 #a4 #bie ,history of the ,non-jurors1 ,lathbury1 #ej4 #bif ,see ,history of the ,reformation1 ,burnet1 ,pocock's ed4 ,records1 part ,i4 book iii4 quest #i4 #big ,history of ,england1 ch4 #a4 #bih ,history of ,england1 ch4 iii4 #bii ,ibid41 ch4 vi4 #cjj ,history of ,england1 ch4 xiv4 #cja ,queen's conference upon ,graunt of a ,subsedy1 etc41 #aehd4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom4 ,eliz41 #agf1 ,no4 #fi4 #cjb ,history of ,england1 ch4 iii4 #cjc ,cal4 x41 ,no4 #egj4 #cjd ,ambassades1 v4 #aej4 ,quotation from ,history of the ,church of ,england1 ,dixon1 iv4 #dej4 #cje ,pretended ,divorce of ,henry ,,viii41 ,harpsfield1 ,camden ,society1 #bia4 #cjf ,burnet's ,history of the ,reformation1 ,pocock's ed41 i4 #dbh4 #cjg ,ibid41 iii4 #cgf4 #cjh ,blunt's ,reformation1 i4 #dge4 #cji ,anglican ,schism1 ,sander1 ,lewis' trans41 #aha4 ,also ,pretended ,divorce of ,henry ,,viii41 ,harpsfield1 #bij4 #caj ,acts and ,monuments1 v4 #bcj4 #caa ,agriculture and ,prices1 ,rogers1 v4 #hjd4 #cab ,history of ,england1 viii4 #dbe4 #cac ,influence of the ,sea ,power upon ,history1 ,mahan1 #da4 #cad ,english ,seamen of the ,sixteenth ,century1 #f4 #cae ,anderson's ,history of ,commerce1 i4 #djj4 #caf ,s4 ,p4 ,dom4 ,eliz41 #ec4 #cag ,wealth of ,nations1 book #d1 ch4 i4 #cah ,discourse of ,trade1 ,child1 ed4 #agge1 #h4 #cai ,history of ,england1 ch4 iii4 #cbj ,discourse of ,trade1 ,josiah ,child1 ed4 #agge1 #h1 #i1 #aj4 #cba ,ibid41 ,pref4 xxxi4 #cbb ,ibid41 #da4 #cbc ,american ,biography1 ,sparks1 ii4 #chh4 #cbd ,wealth of ,nations1 bk4 iv4 c4 #c1 pt4 #a4 #cbe ,thurloe's ,state ,papers1 v4 #dcc1 #dcd4 #cbf ,annals of the ,coinage of ,britain1 ,ruding1 iii4 #cgh4 #cbg ,annals of the ,coinage1 ,ruding1 iii4 #dgj4 #cbh ,investigations in ,currency and ,finance1 ,jevons1 #adj4 #cbi ,annals of the ,coinage1 ,ruding1 iv4 #bf4 #ccj ,wealth of ,nations1 bk4 iv4 c4 #a4 #cca ,wealth of ,nations1 bk4 ii4 c4 #b4 #ccb ,lord ,clive4 #ccc ,macaulay's essays have been the subject of much recent adverse criticism2 but1 in regard to the plundering of ,hindostan1 nothing of consequence has been brought forward against him4 ,all recent historical work relating to ,india must be taken with suspicion4 ,the whole official influence has been turned to distorting evidence in order to make a case for the government4 #ccd ,lord ,clive4 #cce ,lord ,clive4 #ccf ,warren ,hastings4 #ccg ,history of the ,cotton ,manufacture1 #aae4 #cch ,a ,tour ,thro' the whole ,island of ,great ,britain1 ed4 #agec1 iii4 #acf1 #acg4 #cci ,lives of ,boulton and ,watt1 ,smiles1 #dhd4 #cdj ,first ,letter on a ,regicide ,peace4 #cda ,theory and ,practice of ,banking1 i4 #ejg4 #cdb ,considerations of the ,lowering of ,interests4 ,works1 ed4 #ahbc1 v4 #di4 #cdc ,the ,rothschilds1 ,reeves1 #ea4 #cdd ,the ,rothschilds1 ,reeves1 #aib1 #aii4 #cde ,ibid41 #bjj4 #cdf ,wherever reference is made to comparative prices of commodities1 the authority used has been the tables published by ,w4 ,s4 ,jevons in ,investigations in ,currency and ,finance1 #add4 #cdg ,annals of the ,coinage1 ,ruding1 iv4 #cg4 #cdh ,overstone ,tracts1 #di4 #cdi ,history of ,prices1 i4 #aeh4 #cej ,political ,life of ,sir ,robert ,peel1 ,doubleday1 i4 #bah1 note4 #cea ,theory and ,practice of ,banking1 ,macleod1 ed4 #ahic1 ii4 #ajc4 #ceb ,see ,hansard1 ,new ,series1 viii4 #ahi4 #cec ,history of the ,bank of ,england1 i4 #cdh4 #ced ,history of the ,bank of ,england1 i4 #cdg4 #cee ,history of the ,currency1 ,maclaren1 #afa4 #cef ,theory and ,practice of ,banking1 ,macleod1 ii4 #aag1 #aah4 #ceg ,overstone ,tracts1 #cbe4 #ceh ,ibid41 #aia4 #cei ,ibid41 #cah4 #cfj ,theory and ,practice of ,banking1 ii4 #adg4 #cfa ,overstone ,tracts1 #egc1 #egd4 #cfb ,cobden and the ,league1 ,ashworth1 #agd4 #cfc ,theory and ,practice of ,banking1 ,macleod1 ii4 #afi1 #agj4 #cfd ,hansard1 ,third ,series1 xcv4 #cii4 #cfe ,theory and ,practice of ,banking1 ii4 #agj4 #cff ,hansard1 ,third ,series1 xcv4 #cih4 #cfg ,overstone ,tracts1 #cai4 #cfh ,see ,journal of ,roy4 ,stat4 ,soc41 liv4 #dfd4 #cfi ,dnombrement de #ahia1 #bfa4 #cgj ,annuaire de l'conomie ,politique1 #ahid1 ,block1 #ah4 #cga ,la ,population ,franaise1 ii4 #bad4 #cgb ,report of the ,commission appointed in ,india to enquire into the ,causes of the ,riots which took place in the year #ahge1 in the ,poona and ,ahmednagar ,districts of the ,bombay ,presidency1 #ab4 #cgc ,report ,of ,the ,commission ,appointed ,in ,india ,to ,enquire ,into ,the ,causes ,of ,the ,riots ,which ,took ,place ,in ,the ,year #ahge1 ,in ,the ,poona ,and ,ahmednagar ,districts ,of ,the ,bombay ,presidency1 #aei4 #cgd ,report of the ,commission1 etc41 #be1 #bf4 #cge ,ibid41 #afg4 #cgf ,report of the ,commission1 etc41 #afh4 #cgg ,see ,musalmans and ,money-lenders in the ,punjab1 ,thorburn4 #cgh ,report of the ,commission1 etc41 #afh4 #cgi ,see ,brief ,history of the ,indian ,peoples1 ,hunter1 #ej4 #chj ,see ,history of the ,romans1 ed4 of #aheb1 ,merivale1 ii4 #ha1 where the authorities are collected4 #cha ,plutarch's ,lives1 ,clough's trans41 iv4 #abc4 #chb ,ibid41 #bih4 #chc ,ibid41 #adb4 #chd ,genesis xxxiv4 #aa1 #ab4 #che ,aristotle1 ,pol41 ii4 #i4 #chf ,plutarch's ,lives1 ,clough's trans41 iv4 #ejg4 #chg ,faery ,queene1 ,spenser1 iv4 #e1 #a4 #chh ,entretiens sur l',architecture1 i4 #ajb4 #chi ,ann41 xv4 #dd4 #cij ,ann41 xv4 #dd4 #cia ,marc-,aurle1 ,renan1 #fjj4 #cib ,tertullian1 ,ad ,scapulam1 #e4 #cic ,l',antechrist1 #afc et seq4 #cid tudes sur l',histoire de l',art1 ,vitet1 i4 #bjj4 #cie ,l',art de ,batir chez les ,byzantins1 ,choisy1 #e1 #f4 #cif ,recherches pour servir l',histoire de la ,peinture et de la ,sculpture ,chrtiennes en ,orient1 ,bayet1 #ii4 #cig ,ibid41 #ii4 #cih ,buildings of ,justinian1 ,procopius1 trans4 by ,stewart1 i4 #a4 #cii ,ibid4 #djj ,dictionnaire de l',architecture1 ,art4 8,peinture40 #dja ,entretiens1 i4 #ajb4 ,,index ,acre3 siege of #acj2 defence of by ,templars #aga4 ,alaric3 served in ,roman army #fa4 ,alexander1 ,emperor of ,russia3 breach with ,napoleon #cbd4 ,alexis3 treats with crusaders #aci2 death of #adc4 ,anastasius3 wealth of #ea2 builds long wall #ea4 ,anglicanism1 see ,church of ,england4 ,antwerp3 rise of #bja2 centre of exchanges #bja2 sack of #bhg4 ,architecture3 ,italian #hh2 ,gothic #hi2 ,byzantine #hi2 ,saracenic #ij2 crusading #ajj2 ,greek and ,roman #cgb2 ,byzantine #cge et seq42 ,gothic #cgh2 modern #chb2 see ,ogive4 ,armada3 defeated by yeomen #bef2 loss of #bhg4 ,army1 see ,police4 ,art3 decline of #chj1 #cha2 see ,architecture4 ,articles1 ecclesiastical3 ,six #bcb1 #bfh2 ,forty-two #bfb2 ,lambeth #bfh4 ,attila3 ransoms ,constantinople #ej2 vision of #fc4 ,aureus3 depreciation of #bg2 passes by weight #ca4 ,baldwin1 ,count of ,edessa3 #aje2 ,king of ,jerusalem #aje4 ,baldwin1 ,emperor of the ,east3 #adf2 reproved by ,innocent #adg4 ,bank of ,england3 incorporated #cjc2 early issues of #cai2 suspends cash payments #cbg2 policy of prior to #ahaj #cbg2 resumes specie payments #ccj2 hoards gold #cca-ccc2 paper in panic of #ahbe #cce2 ,bank ,act of #ahdd #ccf2 suspension of ,bank ,act #cdd4 ,bank of ,genoa3 #afh4 ,bank of ,venice3 #afh1 #afi4 ,bankers3 medival #afh2 increase of ,english country after #agfj #cai2 poor credit of #cbj2 increase issues in #ahbc #ccc2 rise of great modern houses #cba2 policy of #cbh2 supremacy of #cdd2 absolute government by #cec4 ,barbarians3 imported by ,roman emperors #ci2 lack of in modern times #cfc2 formed strength of ,roman armies #cfc2 want of weakness in modern civilization #cfd2 see ,coloni4 ,boadicea3 revolt of #cg4 ,boleyn1 ,anne3 #bab2 sweating sickness #bbf2 crowned #bcj4 ,boleyn1 ,thomas3 character and rise of #bac4 ,boniface ,,viii43 character of #agb2 quarrel with ,philip #agc2 bulls of #agd1 #age2 seized at ,anagni #agg4 ,bosra3 retreat from #aai2 miracle at #aai1 #abj4 ,boulton1 ,matthew3 rise of #cad2 partnership with ,watt #caf2 debts of #caf4 ,bullion ,committee3 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,burleigh1 ,lord3 rise of #bac2 hostile to adventurers #bef2 family of typical landlords #bfg4 ,csar3 army of #cfc4 ,capital3 centres at ,constantinople #bh2 ,mill's definition of #cac2 accelerates movement #cad2 accumulates at ,london #cai2 see ,england and ,london4 ,carthusians3 martyrdom of #bba4 ,cecil1 see ,burleigh4 ,champagne3 fairs of #aeh2 centres of ,eastern trade #aeh2 decline of #bja4 ,chantries3 confiscation of #bei4 ,child1 ,sir ,josiah3 rise of #bid2 estimates ,england's wealth #bie4 ,church1 ,catholic3 see ,early ,christian2 becomes dominant in ,italy #fc2 secular character of medival clergy of #ga2 secular clergy of #gc2 claims of under ,hildebrand #ge2 makes papacy self-perpetuating #ge2 emancipates itself from civil power #gf1 #gg2 schism of with ,constantinople #gh2 character of clergy of at ,reformation #bfd1 #bfe2 miracles of1 see ,miracles1 ,cluny1 ,convents4 ,church1 ,early ,christian3 socialistic #fj2 acquires wealth in third century #fj2 officially recognized #fa2 favours barbarians #fb2 subservient to ,roman emperors #fb2 based on miracles #fc et seq42 imaginative #cgc2 poverty of #cgc2 art of #cgd4 ,church1 ,eastern3 remains subject to the emperors #gh-hh2 architecture of #hi2 plundered #ade2 art of #cgf4 ,church of ,england3 an economic phenomenon #bbh2 ,henry supreme head of #bbh2 robbed by landlords #bcj2 orthodox under ,henry ,,viii4 #bcb2 spoiled by ,edward ,,vi4 #bei1 #bfj2 ,calvinistic #bfb2 docile to lay dictation #bfd2 faith of regulated by statute #bff2 without fixed faith #bfh2 ruled by ,elizabeth #bfi2 hated by ,puritans and ,catholics #bgj2 divine right distinctive doctrine of #bga2 organized as police by landlords #bgb2 mercenary #bgc2 types of clergy of #bge2 great bishops of #bgf et seq42 upheld by ,james ,i4 #bhd2 persecutes ,puritans under ,bancroft #bhe4 ,clairvaux3 foundation of #aji2 appeals to pope against ,philip the ,fair #agb2 see ,saint ,bernard4 ,claudius1 ,appius3 a usurer #g2 enslaves ,virginia #h2 enforces usury laws #i4 ,clement ,v43 election of #agh2 bargain with ,philip #agh2 entices ,molay to ,paris #ahj2 persecutes ,templars #aha2 tries ,molay #ahd2 death of #ahe4 ,clermont3 council of #hc4 ,clive1 ,lord3 birth of #cjf2 campaigns of #cjg2 ,plassey #cjh2 wealth of #cji2 attacked by landlords #caj4 ,cluny3 founded #gb2 growth of #gc2 controls papacy #ge4 ,cobden3 attacks landlords #cda2 origin of #cda4 ,cobham1 ,lord3 trial of #aic2 attempts conventual confiscation #aie4 ,cur-de-,lion3 leads crusade #acj2 treats with ,saladin #aca4 ,coinage1 ,roman3 copper #ae2 silver #bj2 debasement of #bf2 becomes gold monometallic #bg1 #cj2 passes by weight #ca2 of ,constantinople #ee2 debasement of coinage of ,constantinople #ef2 becomes silver under ,charlemagne #abi2 ,venetian #abi2 gold of thirteenth century #abi2 debasement of ,french pound #agj2 debasement of ,english penny #aie2 base money of ,henry ,,viii4 #bjf2 standard restored by ,elizabeth #cjj2 recoinage by ,william ,,iii4 #cjb2 depreciation in eighteenth century #cjc2 ,english gold of nineteenth century #ccj2 passes by weight #cbf1 #ccj2 see ,gold standard4 ,coloni3 debtors #cc2 barbarians settled as #ci2 predecessors of medival serfs #bdd4 ,commerce3 see ,eastern trade1 ,fairs of ,champagne1 ,slaving1 ,west ,indies4 ,commons3 rights of tenants in #bdd2 enclosure of1 in sixteenth century #bde2 cause of ,kett's rebellion #bej2 final absorption of #cag4 ,communes3 rise of #aeg2 character of #afj2 hostile to clergy #afb2 not martial #afd2 insolvency of #afi4 ,constantine3 built ,constantinople #bh2 vision of #fj2 victory of ,milvian ,bridge #fa4 ,constantinople3 becomes the economic centre of the world #bh2 prosperity of after fall of ,western ,empire #di1 #ej2 colonized by ,roman capitalists #di2 taxation of #di2 poverty of under ,theodosius ,,ii4 #ej2 prosperity of under ,justinian ,i4 #ea2 population changes under ,heraclius #eb2 becomes an ,asiatic city #eb2 declines in eleventh century #ec2 civilization of economic #ec2 description of by ,rabbi ,benjamin #ec2 population of economic and cowardly #ed2 economic condition of in twelfth century #hg2 army of #hh2 sack of #add2 see ,coinage and ,architecture4 ,convents3 medival founders of #fh2 efficacy of intercession of #fi2 ,benedictine #gb2 early discipline of #gb2 consolidation of #gb2 ,cluny #gc2 control papacy #gh2 armies organized by #ii2 fortresses built by #ii2 patronized for miracles #aji2 wealth of #aed2 attacked by feudal nobles #aee2 hostile to communes #afj1 #afa2 taxed by ,philip the ,fair #agb2 revenues seized by ,edward ,i4 #aie2 attacked by ,lollards #aif2 bill to suppress #bca2 visitation of #bce2 visitors of #bce-bch2 spoliation of #bci4 ,corn3 price of at ,rome #ag2 distribution of at ,rome #ah2 price of in #ahdi #cde2 ,corn ,laws #cdj2 repeal of #cdj4 ,councils of the ,church3 ,hildebrand's propositions at council of #ajgf #ge2 of ,clermont #hc2 of ,troyes #ih2 of tampes #aaj2 ,nelle #acf2 ,vienne #ahd4 ,cranmer3 rise of #bgh2 character of #bgi2 death of #bhj4 ,credit3 dawn of in thirteenth century #afg2 rise of modern system of #cjc2 extension of after ,plassey #cai2 regulated by ,bank ,act of #ahdd #ccf2 prices dependent on #ccg2 weapon of the creditor class #cdi4 ,cromwell1 ,oliver3 raises ,ironsides #beb2 attacks ,spanish ,america #cja2 intercepts plate fleet #cja4 ,cromwell1 ,thomas3 rise of #bjh2 arrest of #bbd2 vicar general #bca2 proceeds against convents #bcc3 prosecutes ,abbot of ,glaston #bdj2 death of #bdb4 ,cross3 miracle worked by at ,bosra #aai2 see ,relics4 ,crusade3 first #hd2 takes ,jerusalem #he2 second1 preached by ,saint ,bernard #aab2 suffers before ,atalia #aae2 defeat of #aah2 crusading becomes commercial #abd2 third1 led by ,cur-de-,lion #abi2 takes ,acre #acj2 of ,constantinople1 preached #acb2 reaches ,venice #acd2 diverted by ,dandolo #aci2 attacks ,zara #ach2 sacks ,constantinople #ade2 of ,damietta #aej2 defeated in ,egypt #aea4 ,currency3 regulated by ,charlemagne #abi2 medival #afh2 contraction of in thirteenth century #afi2 debasement of ,english #aid2 depreciation of in ,middle ,ages #bjd2 under ,henry ,,viii4 #bjg2 paper #cjc2 management of by producers #cbf2 by bankers #ccj2 see ,coinage1 ,bank of ,england1 ,bankers4 ,dalhousie1 ,lord3 administration of #cef4 ,damietta1 see ,crusade4 ,dandolo1 ,henry3 character of #acb2 treats with ,franks #acc2 takes command of crusade #acg2 diverts crusade #aci2 excommunicated #aci2 assaults ,constantinople #ada2 shriven #adg4 ,darcy1 ,thomas1 ,loid3 character of #baf2 declines to betray ,aske #bag2 execution of #bai2 dying speech to ,cromwell #bai4 ,denarius3 depreciation of at ,rome #bf2 repudiation of #bf2 of ,charlemagne #abh2 of ,venice #abi2 see ,penny4 ,diocletian3 a slave #bg2 established capital at ,nicomedia #bg2 returns to silver coinage #cj4 ,divine right3 defined #bgb2 see ,church of ,england4 ,divorce3 see ,domestic relations4 ,domestic relations3 ancient and modern #cfe et seq4 ,dovercourt3 rood of #bjj4 ,drake3 rise of #bee2 death of #bef2 cruises of #bhh4 ,dudley1 ,john1 ,duke of ,northumberland3 rise of #bea2 suppresses ,kett's rebellion #beb2 supersedes ,seymour #bfa2 quarrel with ,knox #bfb4 ,east ,india ,companies3 organized #bib2 ,english company commercial up to #ageg #cjf2 administration of #cji4 ,eastern ,empire1 see ,constantinople4 ,eastern trade3 in ,rome #bc1 #bd2 centres at ,constantinople #bh2 migrates to ,italy #abf2 early routes of #abh2 character of in twelfth century #abh2 brings bullion to ,europe #abi2 centres in ,champagne #aei2 centres at ,antwerp #bja2 at ,amsterdam #bhg2 at ,london #bia2 drains silver from ,europe #bii2 effect of ,plassey on #caj4 ,edessa3 position of #hf2 capture of #ajc2 occupied by ,baldwin #aje4 ,egypt3 cheap labour of #ai2 grain ships of #ai2 architecture of #ij2 conquered by ,saladin #ajc2 slave trade with ,venice of #abf2 crusaders defeated in #aea4 ,elizabeth3 greed of #beg2 severe to clergy #bfi2 letter about ,ely ,house #bgj4 ,england3 ,lollardy in #ahf2 ,reformation in1 an economic phenomenon #aij2 debasement of currency in #aid2 martyrdoms in #aii2 condition of in ,middle ,ages #bjb2 new nobility of #bab et seq42 convents suppressed in #bcc et seq42 population of in ,middle ,ages #bdc2 social revolution in1 in sixteenth century #bde1 #bdf2 not originally maritime #bed2 seamen of #bee2 prosperity of in seventeenth century #bib2 industrial revolution in #cae2 distress in after #ahae #ccb2 ruin of aristocracy of #cda1 #cdh2 money-lenders autocratic in #cdd2 see ,bank1 and ,church of ,england1 and ,yeomen4 ,exchanges3 see ,rome1 ,constantinople1 ,eastern trade1 ,fairs of ,champagne1 ,venice4 ,fairs1 see ,champagne4 ,fetish1 see ,relics4 ,fisher3 temperament of #bgg4 ,flotte3 chancellor of ,philip the ,fair #afe4 ,france3 convents of in tenth century #gb2 ,cluny #gc2 decentralization of in eleventh century #hj2 money of #hj2 barbarian invasions of #hj2 seat of ,gothic architecture #hi2 ogive introduced into #ie2 emotional in eleventh century #ajg2 disintegration of in tenth century #aeb2 kings of enjoy supernatural powers #aec2 alliance of crown with clergy #aed2 consolidation of under ,philip ,augustus #aeh2 centralization of under ,saint ,louis #afe2 depreciation of coinage of #agj2 estates of sustain ,philip the ,fair #agd2 castles of #bjb4 ,frumentari ,leges1 see ,corn4 ,gardiner1 ,stephen3 on ,true ,obedience #bfe2 rise of #bgf2 death of #bgg4 ,germans3 hunted by ,romans for slaves #ci2 used as recruits #dj2 invade the ,empire #df2 character of in fourth century #dh2 adopt the gold standard #cdg4 ,glastonbury3 suppression of #bdj4 ,godfrey de ,bouillon3 elected ,king of ,jerusalem #he2 his kingdom #hf2 his alliance with ,venice #abg4 ,gold3 ratio of to silver in ,roman ,empire #cj2 fall of value of in sixth century #dh2 ratio of to silver in thirteenth century #afi4 ,gold standard3 in ,rome #ca2 under the ,merovingians #hj2 in ,england #ccj2 ,overstone's views on #ccg2 in ,germany #cdg2 elsewhere #cdh2 effect of #cdg4 ,gunther3 chronicle of #acg2 sails with ,dandolo #ach4 ,hanse of ,london3 organization of #aeh2 trades at fairs of ,champagne #aei2 ,italian merchants frequent #aei4 ,hastings3 ,governor-,general #caj2 policy of #caa4 ,hattin3 battle of #abc4 ,hawkins1 ,john3 a slaver #bhi4 ,hlose1 hymn of #cfh4 ,henry ,,iv41 ,emperor3 breach with ,hildebrand #ge2 penance at ,canossa #gg2 death of #gg4 ,henry ,,viii43 court of #bab2 character of #bbj2 ,lambert's trial #bbf2 supreme head #bbh2 orthodox #bbi2 suppresses convents #bcc2 revises ,formularies of ,faith #bff2 helpless without landlords #bfg4 ,heraclius3 disasters under #eb4 ,hildebrand3 prior of ,cluny #gd2 propositions presented by in council of ,rome #ge2 excommunicates ,henry ,,iv4 #gf2 ,canossa #gg4 ,holland3 decay of #cah4 ,hospital1 see ,knights of4 ,howard1 ,thomas1 ,duke of ,norfolk3 family of #bad2 character of #bae2 commands against ,pilgrims of ,grace #bae2 tries to corrupt ,darcy #bag2 arrests ,cromwell #bbd4 ,hugh ,capet3 elected by clergy #aec4 ,hugh du ,puiset1 see ,louis the ,fat4 ,hun1 ,richard3 death of #aih4 ,imagination3 basis of medival ,church #fj2 gives power to priesthood #fc2 cause of relic worship #fd2 vivid in age of decentralization #fi2 most intense in tenth century #gb2 evolves ,cluny #gc2 cause of ,hildebrand's power #gh2 cause of crusades #hb2 inspires ,gothic architecture #hi2 strong in ,saint ,bernard #ajh2 weakness of ,louis ,,vii4 #aag3 lacking in ,venetians #abf2 its power in ,france in thirteenth century #acf2 strength of in ,church up to #abjj #adh2 a weakness in war #aea2 economic mind lacks #afb2 cause of ,templars' martyrdom #ahc2 lacking in ,english reformers #aia2 ,anglican clergy without #bei2 ,tudor aristocracy without #bfh2 strong in early ,christians #cgc2 in contempt in nineteenth century #chj1 #cha4 ,india3 failure of ,romans to conquer #ab2 hoards in #cje2 conquered by ,england #cjg et seq42 spoliation of #cji-caa2 influx of treasure from #cac2 flow of silver to #cbj2 value of bullion exported to in #ahaj #cba2 in #ahdj #cci2 centralization of #cef2 mutiny in #cef2 money-lenders of #ceg2 fate of warlike tribes in #ceh2 see ,eastern trade4 ,industrial revolution3 begins #cac2 caused by ,indian treasure #cad4 ,innocent ,,iii43 incites crusade #acb2 excommunicates ,philip ,augustus #ace2 ,dandolo #ach2 absolves ,dan dolo #adg2 reproves ,baldwin #adg4 ,inquisition3 organized #aia4 ,jacques de ,vitry3 hates bourgeoisie #afc4 ,jerusalem3 capture of #he2 kingdom of #hf2 conquest of kingdom by ,saracens #abc4 ,joscelin de ,courtney1 ,count of ,edessa3 #aje2 death of #ajf2 son's death #aah4 ,justification by faith3 corner stone of ,protestantism #ahg2 economic device #ahh2 taught by ,cranmer #bca2 included in ,forty-two ,articles #bfb4 ,justinian ,i43 prosperity of #ea2 army of #ea2 taxation by #eb2 architecture under #ec4 ,karak3 castle of #hf1 #aba4 ,kett1 see ,rebellion4 ,knights of ,temple and ,hospital3 origin of #ig1 #ih2 manors owned by in ,europe #ih2 castles of #ii2 ,knights of the ,temple3 possessions of #agj2 faith of #aga2 arrested #ahj2 tortured #aha2 defence of #aha2 burned #ahc2 disposition of property of #ahe4 ,knox1 ,john3 appointed royal chaplain #bfb2 offered bishopric #bfb2 breach with ,dudley #bfc4 ,krak des ,chevaliers3 #ajj4 ,lambert3 martyrdom of #bha4 ,landlords3 ,roman #ba2 enslave their tenants #cc2 form aristocracy of ,empire #da2 not martial #db2 ,english mercenary #bab2 rise of #bbg2 confiscate ,church property #bcj2 evict yeomen #bde2 despoil chantries #bei1 #bjj2 control ,crown #bfg2 without faith #bfh2 organize ,church #bgb2 fear army #bgc2 not martial #bbg1 #bde1 #bed1 #bee1 #bef1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bhc2 persecute ,nonconformists #bie2 persecute adventurers #bie2 conquered in #afhh #big2 jealous of ,clive and ,hastings #cji2 suffer after #ahae #ccb2 distressed in #ahda #cdj2 attacked by ,cobden #cda2 ruined #cdh2 of ,oude #cef4 ,latimer3 describes his father's farm #bdg2 martyrdom of #bhb4 ,leo the ,great3 visits ,attila #fc4 ,leo ,,ix43 election of #ge4 ,licinian ,laws #aj2 effect of #aa4 ,lollards3 description of #ahg2 ,book of ,conclusions of #aic2 policy of toward monks #aie4 ,london3 hot-bed of ,lollardism #aig2 population of in #aejj #bjc2 power of #bic2 population of in #afhe #bie2 economic centre of the world #cbb2 art of #cha-chc2 see ,eastern trade and ,hanse of ,london4 ,louis the ,fat3 defeats ,hugh du ,puiset #aee2 obtains ,montlhri #aeg4 ,louis ,,vii43 character of #aab2 leads second crusade #aad2 quarrels at ,antioch #aag2 superstition of #aag2 repulsed at ,damascus #aag2 see ,crusade4 ,madre-de-,dios3 capture of #beg4 ,mahrattas3 conquest of #ceh2 disappearance of #cej4 ,margat3 castle of #aja4 ,marriage3 see ,domestic relations4 ,martin1 ,abbot3 sails with ,dandolo #ach2 steals relics #adh4 ,marwaris3 #ceg2 destroy ,mahrattas #cei4 ,milo1 ,archbishop of ,rheims3 #ga4 ,miracles3 early ,christian #fc2 medival #fd et seq42 see ,bosra1 ,relics4 ,molay1 ,grand ,master3 lured to ,paris #ahj2 burned #ahd4 ,monasticism3 see ,convents4 ,money3 ,rome depleted of #bc2 centres at ,constantinople #bh2 rises in value under ,empire #ce2 falls in value under ,charlemagne #abi2 rises in value in thirteenth century #afi2 rises in fifteenth century #aid2 rises under ,henry ,,viii4 #bjf2 falls after opening of ,potosi #bjg2 abundant stimulates movement #bii2 a form of energy #cjd2 hoarded in ,india #cjd2 falls at close of eighteenth century #cbj2 rises in nineteenth century #ccg1 #cfj2 see ,capital1 ,coinage1 ,currency1 ,prices4 ,mons ,sacer3 secession to #i4 ,monte ,casino3 founded #gb4 ,montfort1 ,simon de3 joins crusade #acb2 leaves ,dandolo #ach4 ,montlhri3 lords of #aef2 castle #aeg4 ,nantes3 revocation of ,edict of #cah4 ,napoleon3 decline of #cbd2 lacking soldiers #cfd2 column erected to #cha4 ,nobility3 feudal ,french #aed2 ,english #baf1 #bdc2 ,tudor1 see ,landlords4 ,nogaret3 captures ,boniface #agf1 #agg4 ,northumberland3 see ,dudley4 ,nour-ed-,din3 ,sultan of ,aleppo #ajc2 occupies ,cairo #ajc2 repulses ,louis ,,vii4 #aag2 kills ,raymond de ,poitiers #aah4 ,ogive3 of ,eastern origin #ie2 appears in transition architecture #if4 ,overstone1 ,lord3 rise of #ccf2 conceives ,bank ,act #ccf2 financial policy of #ccg et seq4 ,panic3 under ,tiberius #be2 of thirteenth century #afi1 #agj2 of #ahaj #cbe2 of #ahbe #ccd2 allayed by paper money #cce2 of #ahdg #cdb4 ,passive obedience3 see ,divine right4 ,patricians3 usurers #g2 not martial #g2 sanction ,licinian ,laws #aj2 see ,usury4 ,pauperism3 under ,henry ,,vii ,i4 #bdi2 in #ahdh #cde4 ,peel1 ,sir ,robert3 represents ,lombard ,street #ccj2 separates from his father on money issue #ccj2 his ,resumption ,act #cca2 effect of #cca2 repeals ,corn ,laws #cdj2 parentage #cdb4 ,pelagius1 ,cardinal3 commands crusade #aej4 ,penny3 the ,roman1 see ,denarius2 of ,charlemagne #abi2 depreciation of ,venetian #abi2 depreciation of ,english in fourteenth century #aie2 under ,henry ,,viii4 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,philip ,augustus3 regal of ,france vowed for recovery of #fe2 belief in intercession #fi2 commands crusade #abi2 returns to ,fiance #acj2 divorced from ,ingeburga #ace2 excommunicated #ace4 ,philip the ,fair3 character of #aga2 quarrel with ,boniface #agb2 defeated at ,courtray #age2 seizes ,boniface #agg2 makes ,clement ,v4 pope #agh2 arrests ,templars #ahj2 tortures ,templars #ahb2 death of #ahe4 ,pilgrimage of ,grace3 see ,rebellion4 ,plassey3 battle of #cjh2 effect of #cac4 ,plebeians3 farmers #f2 form infantry #f2 sold for debt #g2 secede to ,mons ,sacer #i2 favoured by ,licinian ,laws #aj2 overthrow patricians #aj2 suffer from ,asiatic competition #aa2 suffer from slave labour #ab2 insolvent #bb2 become coloni #cc2 disappear #dd1 #de4 ,police1 a paid3 lack of1 causes defeat of patricians #ci2 an effect of money #de2 organized by ,augustus #de2 makes capital autocratic at ,rome #df2 impossible when the defence in war is superior to the attack #gi2 lack of1 causes weakness of the ,kingdom of ,jerusalem #ii1 #aba1 #abb2 the weapon of an economic community #afd2 an effect of wealth and the basis of centralization #afe2 in ,england under ,henry ,,viii4 #bde2 destroys martial type #bde2 drives adventurers from ,england #bed2 resistless in nineteenth century #cec4 ,pompey3 defeat of #cfd4 ,potosi3 discovery #bjg4 ,prices3 fall of1 under ,trajan #cc2 rise of in thirteenth century #afg2 fall of in fifteenth century #bjc2 rise of in sixteenth century #bjg1 #bhc2 rise of after ,plassey #cai2 culminate in #ahji #cbd2 fall of in ,england after #ahae #ccj2 depressed by gold standard #ccg2 fall of after ,bank ,act #cci2 rise of after #ahdi #cde2 fall of since #ahgc #cdi4 ,producers3 predominance of #cba2 currency system of #cbh1 #cbi2 weakness of modern #cdi2 ,indian #cfj4 ,puritans3 reject royal supremacy #bfd2 resist ecclesiastical confiscation #bgj2 eviction of clergy #bhe2 emigration of #bhe2 foes of ,spaniards #bhi4 ,pyrrhus3 admires ,roman infantry #aa2 defeat of #aa4 ,raleigh3 family of #bee2 captures ,madre-de-,dios #beg2 death of #beg4 ,raymond de ,poitiers3 at feud with de ,courtney #ajg2 breach with ,louis ,,vii4 #aag2 death of #aah4 ,rebellion3 of ,pilgrimage of ,grace #baf2 suppression of #bbb2 ,kett's #bej2 in ,west of ,england #bej1 #beb4 ,reformation3 an economic movement #ahh2 in ,england #bcj2 under ,edward ,,vi4 #bei1 #bfj2 see ,church of ,england1 ,convents1 ,lollards4 ,reginald de ,chatillon #aba4 ,regulus3 poverty of #ae4 ,relics3 magical #fd2 gifts to #fe2 list of ,english #ff2 worship of cause of crusades #ha2 true cross #aai2 plunder of at ,constantinople #adh2 despised #aea2 relic worship costly #aib-aif2 desecrated in ,england #bjj4 ,rent3 rise of money value of in ,rome #cb2 effect of #cc1 #cd2 substitution of for military service #bde2 rises in sixteenth century #bdg2 effect of rise #bdh2 rise of in seventeenth century #bhc2 fall of after #ahae causes insolvency of landlords #ccb2 dependent on ,corn ,laws #cdj2 fall of after #ahgc ruins gentry #cdh4 ,ridley3 doctrine concerning sacrament #bfa2 burned #bhb4 ,robinson1 ,john3 congregation of #bhe4 ,rome3 early society of #a2 classes in #b2 law of debt in #b-d2 early army of #i2 not maritime #ab2 slavery in #ac2 economic revolution in #ad2 a plutocracy #ae2 annexes ,egypt #ag2 senators land-owners #ba2 great domains of #ba2 conquests of #bc2 unable to compete with ,asia #bc2 foreign exchanges unfavourable to #bc2 insolvent #bh2 decline of #cg2 ceases breeding soldiers #dj2 later emperors of foreign adventurers #dj2 governed by a monied oligarchy #da2 economic type autocratic in #db2 women of emancipated #dc2 paid police of #de2 barbarian invasions #df1 #dg2 domestic relations in #cfi2 art of #cgb2 architecture of #cha2 see ,coinage1 ,slaving1 ,usurers1 ,usury4 ,rothschilds3 rise of #cbb2 establish house in ,london #cbc4 ,russell1 ,john1 ,earl of ,bedford3 conducts trial of ,abbot of ,glaston #bda4 ,saint ,bernard3 birth of #ajh2 enters ,citeaux #ajh2 founds ,clairvaux #aji2 recognizes ,innocent ,,ii4 #aaj2 preaches second crusade #aab2 miracles of #aac2 declines to lead crusade #aad2 remarks on defeat of crusade #aah4 ,saint ,cuthbert3 plunder of shrine of #bci4 ,saint ,denis3 ,abbey of #aed4 ,saint ,riquier3 sacrilege at #afb4 ,saint ,sophia3 architecture of #hi1 #cgg2 desecration of #ade4 ,saint ,thomas ,becket3 shrine of #fe4 ,saint ,thomas ,aquinas3 veneration of for ,eucharist #fg4 ,saladin3 sends physician to ,richard #id2 crowned ,sultan #ajd2 kills ,reginald de ,chatillon #aba2 ,hattin #abb2 campaign against ,richard #acj2 treats with ,richard #aca4 ,saracens3 architecture of #hi1 #ij2 household decorations of #ij2 philosophy of #ic2 sciences of #id2 see ,crusades1 ,nour-ed-,din1 ,saladin1 ,zenghi4 ,schism3 ,greek #gh4 ,seymour1 ,protector3 confiscations under #bfa2 executed #bfa4 ,sicily3 cheap labour in #af2 servile war in #af2 cheap grain of #ag4 ,silver3 ,roman standard #bf2 discarded in ,rome #ca2 restored by ,charlemagne #abh2 ratio of to gold in ,rome #cj2 to gold in thirteenth century #afi2 ,potosi #bjd2 ,spaniards plundered of #bhh2 brought to ,england by piracy #bia2 ratio to gold in seventeenth century #cjj2 standard in ,england #cjj2 exported to ,india in eighteenth century #bii-cjb2 in #ahaj #cbj2 discarded by ,england #ccj2 by ,germany #cdg2 relation to ,asiatic competition #cfj2 see ,coinage1 ,currency1 ,denarius1 ,gold standard4 ,slavery3 for debt in ,rome #e2 plebeians sink into #cc2 ,roman population exhausted by #cf2 in ,west ,indies #bhi1 #bij4 ,slaving3 part of ,roman fiscal system #cd2 by ,roman emperors #ci2 ,venetian #abf2 ,english #bia2 see ,hawkins4 ,smith1 ,captain ,john3 career of #bie4 ,solidus3 see ,aureus4 ,somerset3 ,duke of1 see ,seymour4 ,spain3 empire of #bhf2 war with ,flanders #bhg2 plundered by ,drake #bhh2 attacked by ,cromwell #cja2 see ,armada1 ,west ,indies4 ,spanish ,america3 revolution of #cbd4 ,suez ,canal3 effect of #cee4 ,sylvester ,,ii43 thought a sorcerer #ha2 proposes a crusade #hc4 ,syria3 industrial #be2 see ,architecture1 ,crusades1 ,eastern trade1 ,saracens4 ,temple1 see ,knights of the4 ,tenures3 primitive ,roman #a2 servile ,roman #cc2 ,english military #bdd2 the manor #bdd2 modern economic #bde2 ,indian peasant #cef4 ,thompson1 ,charles ,andrew3 petition of #ccb4 ,tiberias3 battle of1 see ,hattin4 ,tortosa3 fortress of #aja2 surrender of #aga4 ,trade1 see ,eastern trade1 ,fairs of ,champagne1 ,slaving4 ,urban ,,ii43 preaches at ,clermont #hc4 ,usurers3 form ,roman aristocracy #b2 checked by ,licinian ,laws #aj2 absolute in ,rome #df2 rise of in ,england #cba2 absolute in ,europe #cec2 ,indian #ceg2 see ,bankers4 ,usury3 a patrician privilege #b2 stronghold of in ,roman fiscal system #e2 ruins ,roman provinces #ce2 basis of ,roman slaving #cf2 see ,usurers4 ,vagrant ,acts3 ,english #bdh4 ,venice3 rise of #abe2 slave trade of #abf2 illicit trade of with ,saracens #abf2 population unimaginative #abf2 navy of #abg2 co-operates with ,godfrey de ,bouillon #abg2 holds ,syrian ports #abg2 coinage of #abi2 participates in crusade of ,constantinople #acg2 see ,crusade2 packet service to ,flanders #bja2 decline of #bih4 ,vzelay3 second crusade preached at #aab2 feud with ,counts of ,nevers #afa4 ,ville-,hardouin3 chronicle of #acb4 ,virginia3 story of #h4 ,war3 see ,police4 ,watt1 ,james3 invents engine #cad2 partnership with ,boulton #caf4 ,west ,indies3 ,spanish revenue drawn from #bhg2 trade of lucrative #bia2 ,cromwell attacks #cja4 ,whiting1 ,abbot of ,glaston3 martyrdom of #bda4 ,wickliffe3 begins his agitation #aib4 ,william of ,tyre3 describes origin of ,temple #ig2 defeat of ,louis ,,vii4 in ,cadmus ,mountains #aae2 breach between ,louis and ,prince ,raymond #aag2 the collapse of ,kingdom of ,jerusalem #aah4 ,wiltshire3 ,earl of1 see ,boleyn4 ,yeomen3 form ,british infantry #bdc2 small farmers #bdd2 decline of under ,henry ,,viii4 #bde2 form ,ironsides #beb2 weaker become agricultural labourers #bec2 become merchants #bed2 become adventurers #bed2 form ,english martial type #bee2 extinction of #cag2 migration to towns of #cag2 descendants of become manufacturers and usurers #cda1 #cdb4 ,zara3 attack on #acd2 stormed #ach4 ,zenghi3 rise of #ajc2 captures ,edessa #ajc4