,transcriber's ,notes3 ,this e-text contains a translation of ,herbart's 8,umriss pdagogischer ,vorlesungen01 the main text of which is divided into numbered paragraphs4 ,the numbers in the ,index are references to these paragraphs4 ,de ,garmo's annotations are indented in this e-text by two spaces4 ,herbart's own annotations have the run-in heading 8,note0 and are indented by four spaces4 ,italic text is denoted by underscores and small-capped text by equal signs4 ,,outlines ,,of ,,educational ,,doctrine ,illustration3 ,publisher's logo ,,outlines ,,of ,,educational ,,doctrine ,,by ,,john ,,frederick ,,herbart ,,translated ,,by ,,alexis ,f4 ,,lange1 ,ph4,d4 ,associate ,professor of ,english and ,scandinavian ,philology1 and ,dean of the ,faculty of the ,college of ,letters1 ,university of ,california ,,annotated ,,by ,,charles ,,de ,,garmo1 ,ph4,d4 ,professor of the ,science and ,art of ,education1 ,cornell ,university ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,london3 ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,ltd4 #aijd ,all rights reserved ,copyright1 #aija1 ,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,february1 #aija4 ,reprinted ,june1 #aijd4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,the reasons for translating and annotating ,herbart's 8,outlines0 are1 first1 to present to the ,english-speaking public ,herbart's latest1 and also his most complete1 work on education2 and1 second1 to note to some extent at least the advances made in educational thought since ,herbart laid down his pen4 ,herbart's educational writings are distinguished by two marked characteristics3 #a1 their helpfulness in actual teaching2 and #b1 their systematic completeness4 ,the thoughtful reader can see the bearing of each part upon all the others2 the purposes of education are so completely correlated with the means1 that1 whether the topic under discussion be apperception or interest or methods of teaching or school government or moral training or the presentation of a particular study1 the reader is never at a loss to see the relation of this part to the whole4 ,the eminent practicability of ,herbart's thought depends upon his psychological point of view1 which is always that of concrete experience4 ,the moment one tries to apply rational psychology to actual teaching1 one begins to rise into the clouds1 to become vague or1 at least1 general4 ,the reason for this is that rational psychology deals with unchangeable presuppositions of mind4 ,we may conform our work to these standards1 but we cannot modify them1 any more than we can a law of nature4 ,but when we have to deal with an apperceiving content1 we feel at home1 for over this we have some control4 ,we can build up moral maxims1 we can establish permanent interests1 we can reveal the unfolding of whole developments of thought and effort1 we can fix the time order of studies and parts of studies2 in short1 we can apply our pedagogical insight with some degree of success to actual school problems4 ,though empirical psychology has in the last fifty years had as rapid a development as any other department of science1 it has never departed essentially from the direction fixed by ,herbart4 ,new methods have indeed been applied1 but the leading motive has remained empirical2 it has had small tendency to drift toward rational psychology4 ,this fact makes ,herbart's educational thought1 so far as psychological bearing is concerned1 seem as fresh and modern as when it was first recorded4 ,in one important respect1 however1 ,herbart's system needs modernizing4 ,it is in relating education to conditions of society as it now exists4 ,german society has never been that of ,english-speaking countries2 much less does ,german society of the early part of the nineteenth century correspond to ,anglo-,saxon society at the beginning of the twentieth4 ,indeed1 even had there been correspondence before1 there would be divergence now4 ,it is one of the main purposes of the annotation1 therefore1 to point out the social implications of various parts of the 8,outlines40 ,the annotation has made no attempt to improve ,herbart's prophetic vision concerning many important matters1 or to elucidate self-evident propositions1 or to supplement observations already complete1 true1 and apt4 ,especial attention is called to the exactness and illuminating character of ,herbart's diagnosis of mental weaknesses and disorders in children1 together with his suggestions as to proper treatment4 ,students of child-study1 moreover1 will find in this work not only encouragement in their work1 but also assistance in determining what is worth studying in the child4 ,the reader is constantly reminded of the fact that1 when written by a master1 no book is newer than an old one4 ,cornell ,university1 ,january1 #aija4 ,,contents ,,page ,introduction #a ,,part ,i ,,the ,,double ,,basis ,,of ,,pedagogics ,,chapter ,i4 ,the ,ethical ,basis #g ,,ii4 ,the ,psychological ,basis #ae ,,part ,,ii ,,outlines ,,of ,,general ,,pedagogics ,,section ,i4 ,,government ,,of ,,children ,i4 ,theoretical ,aspects #cj ,,ii4 ,practical ,aspects #cc ,,section ,,ii4 ,,instruction ,i4 ,the ,relation of ,instruction to ,government and ,training #ci ,,ii4 ,the ,aim of ,instruction #dd ,,iii4 ,the ,conditions of ,many-sidedness #ea ,,iv4 ,the ,conditions ,determining ,interest #fj ,v4 ,the ,main ,kinds of ,interest #gf ,,vi4 ,the ,material of ,instruction from ,different ,points of ,view #ic ,,vii4 ,the ,process of ,instruction #aje ,,viii4 ,remarks on the ,plan of ,instruction as a ,whole #acd ,,section ,,iii4 ,,training ,i4 ,the ,relation of ,training to ,government and to ,instruction #adj ,,ii4 ,the ,aim of ,training #adc ,,iii4 ,differentiation of ,character #adf ,,iv4 ,differentiation of ,morality #aea ,v4 ,helps in ,training #aed ,,vi4 ,general ,method of ,training #afj ,,section ,,iv4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,general ,,pedagogics ,,from ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view ,,of ,,age ,i4 ,the ,first ,three ,years #aih ,,ii4 ,the ,ages from ,four to ,eight #bja ,,iii4 ,boyhood #bji ,,iv4 ,youth #baf ,,part ,,iii ,,special ,,applications ,,of ,,pedagogics ,,section ,i4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,teachings ,,of ,,particular ,,branches ,,of ,,study ,i4 ,religion #bai ,,ii4 ,history #bbc ,,iii4 ,mathematics and ,nature ,study #bda ,,iv4 ,geography #bfc ,v4 ,the ,mother-tongue #bfi ,,vi4 ,greek and ,latin #bge ,,vii4 ,further ,specification of ,didactics #bhi ,,section ,,ii4 ,,the ,,faults ,,of ,,pupils ,,and ,,their ,,treatment ,i4 ,general ,differentiation #bib ,,ii4 ,the ,sources of ,moral ,weakness #cja ,,iii4 ,the ,effects of ,training #cjh ,,iv4 ,special ,faults #cab ,,section ,,iii4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,education ,i4 ,home ,education #cag ,,ii4 ,concerning ,schools #cba ,,outlines ,,of ,,educational ,,doctrine ,,introduction #a4 ,the plasticity1 or educability1 of the pupil is the fundamental postulate of pedagogics4 ,the concept plasticity1 or capacity for being moulded1 extends far beyond the confines of pedagogics4 ,it takes in even the primary components of matter4 ,it has been traced as far as the elementary substances entering into the chemical changes of organic bodies4 ,signs of plasticity of will are found in the souls of the higher animals4 ,only man1 however1 exhibits plasticity of will in the direction of moral conduct4 ,had not the youthful mind the capacity to receive culture1 education would be impossible4 ,this educability of the young has rarely if ever been questioned in actual practice4 ,much philosophical strife1 however1 has raged about the various conceptions of ,,will1 and the consequent possibility of teaching virtue1 or of training the moral character4 ,the extremes have been fatalism1 or the determination of conduct by means of forces lying entirely outside the power of the individual2 and absolute caprice of will1 or the determination of conduct entirely by the individual himself without regard to outside influences4 ,the doctrine of fatalism makes moral education mechanical2 that of volitional caprice makes it futile4 ,educational theory must therefore assume a middle ground1 in which the self-activity of the individual and the moulding influence of education are both recognized4 #b4 ,pedagogics as a science is based on ethics and psychology4 ,the former points out the goal of education2 the latter the way1 the means1 and the obstacles4 ,this relationship involves the dependence of pedagogics on experience1 inasmuch as ethics includes application to experience1 while psychology has its starting-point1 not in metaphysics alone1 but in experience correctly interpreted by metaphysics4 ,but an exclusively empirical knowledge of man will not suffice for pedagogics4 ,it is the less adequate in any age the greater the instability of morals1 customs1 and opinions2 for1 as the new gains on the old1 generalizations from former observations cease to hold true4 ,in order to accept the statement that ethics points out the goal of education1 we must conceive of ethics in a broad way4 ,at some periods in the history of the world1 the development of purely individual1 or subjective1 character would have been thought a worthy and adequate conception of the final purpose of education4 ,other-worldliness was the ruling ideal4 ,at present1 however1 we regard that man as most fit for the world to come who best performs all his functions in the world that now is4 ,ethics must therefore be conceived to embrace an estimation of the value of a man's conduct in every department of life4 ,not only must it estimate the worth of pious feeling1 but it must embrace a consideration of every action in its relation to the actor's social1 economic1 and political environment4 ,a man having a praiseworthy character must be a good citizen of state1 nation1 and community2 he must be public-spirited1 law-abiding1 given to honest dealing4 ,every child should be trained to be a useful member of civilization as it now exists4 ,piety alone is insufficient2 it must be accompanied by honesty1 industry1 patriotism1 public spirit4 ,non-social1 or purely individualistic1 conceptions of character as the goal of education must give way to those social ideals through which alone the highest welfare of both individual and community are to be conserved4 ,without such conceptions an industrial state1 such as now exists1 becomes a human jungle in which men enter upon a fiercer struggle than do the beasts of the real jungle4 ,social coperation is essential when we wish to transform a struggle of mutual destruction into one of mutual helpfulness4 #c4 ,philosophical systems1 involving either fatalism or its opposite1 pure caprice of will1 are logically shut out from pedagogics1 because the notion of plasticity1 implying as it does a transition from the indeterminate to the determinate1 cannot by such systems be brought in without inconsistency4 ,common sense overcomes the logical difficulties of even the worst systems4 ,herbart's remark has1 therefore1 no practical significance4 ,the philosophy of ,spinoza might easily be described by an opponent as 8fatalistic10 since it leaves no room for special providences in the physical universe2 yet ,professor ,paulsen1 who holds substantially to ,spinoza's view1 is one of the most eminent promoters of the theory of education in the university of ,berlin4 ,herbart thought ,kant's doctrine of transcendental will one of absolute volitional caprice1 yet the followers of ,kant have been among the most energetic promoters of mental and moral training4 ,herbart thinks he sees in this remark a chance to put his philosophical opponents out of court1 to the benefit of his own system4 ,if one philosopher develops a system of 8fatalism0 and another one of 8absolute free will10 the one may be charged with making education impossible and the other with making it futile4 ,in either case1 since we know that education is neither impossible nor futile1 the presumption is that both systems are defective4 ,this paragraph and others like it are mere indirect methods of defending ,herbart's system of philosophy3 they have no real significance for the theory of education itself4 #d4 ,on the other hand1 the assumption of unlimited plasticity is equally inadmissible2 it is for psychology to guard against this error4 ,the educability of the child is1 to begin with1 limited by his individuality4 ,then1 too1 the possibility of determining and moulding him at will through education is lessened by time and circumstances4 ,lastly1 the established character of the adult develops by an inner process which in time passes beyond the reach of the educator4 #e4 ,education seems thus to find a barrier1 first1 in the order of nature1 and later in the pupil's own will4 ,the difficulty is indeed a real one1 if the limitations of education are overlooked3 hence an apparent confirmation of fatalism as well as of the doctrine of absolute free will4 ,modern scientific evolutionary study of anthropology and history tends to confirm the hasty thinker in the idea that the circumstances of the environment completely determine the character and destiny of men1 since their debt to the moulding influences of society and physical surroundings becomes more and more apparent2 yet however powerful the environment may prove to be in fixing the direction of mental growth in the race1 it cannot rightly be conceived as creating the growing forces4 ,all the sunshine and warmth in the world will not cause a pebble to sprout2 so no external influences whatever can develop mind where there is none to develop4 ,the exigencies of ,herbart's metaphysics drove him into a crusade against ,kant's doctrine of innate freedom1 or transcendental will2 all the freedom that ,herbart would admit was that psychological freedom which is acquired through instruction and training4 ,the quarrel belongs to eighteenth-century metaphysics1 not to modern psychology1 nor to education2 for however potentially free an infant may be1 nobody thinks of making it responsible1 except so far as growing experience gives it insight and volitional strength4 ,note4--,many thinkers fluctuate constantly between these two erroneous extremes4 ,when looking historically at mankind as a whole1 they arrive at fatalism1 as does ,gumplowicz in his 8,outlines of ,sociology40 ,teacher and pupil alike seem to them to be in the current of a mighty stream1 not swimming1--that is1 self-active1--which would be the correct view1 but carried along without wills of their own4 ,they arrive1 on the other hand1 at the idea of a perfectly free will1 when they contemplate the individual and see him resist external influences1 the aims of the teacher very often included4 ,here they fail to comprehend the nature of will1 and sacrifice the concept of natural law for that of will4 ,young teachers can hardly avoid sharing this uncertainty1 favored as it is by the philosophies of the day2 much is gained1 however1 when they are able to observe fluctuations of their own views without falling into either extreme4 #f4 ,the power of education must be neither over- nor under-estimated4 ,the educator should1 indeed1 try to see how much may be done2 but he must always expect that the outcome will warn him to confine his attempts within reasonable bounds4 ,in order not to neglect anything essential1 he needs to keep in view the practical bearings of the whole theory of ideas2 in order to understand and interpret correctly the data furnished by observation of the child1 the teacher must make constant use of psychology4 #g4 ,in scientific study concepts are separated which in practice must always be kept united4 ,the work of education is continuous4 ,with an eye to every consideration at once1 the educator must always endeavor to connect what is to come with what has gone before4 ,hence a mode of treatment which1 following the several periods of school life1 simply enumerates the things to be done in sequence1 is inadequate in a work on pedagogics4 ,in an appendix this method will serve to facilitate a bird's-eye view2 the discussion of general principles1 arranged according to fundamental ideas1 must needs precede4 ,but our very first task will necessarily consist in dealing1 at least briefly1 with the ethical and the psychological basis of pedagogics4 ,,part ,i ,,the ,,double ,,basis ,,of ,,pedagogics ,,chapter ,i ,the ,ethical ,basis #h4 ,the term virtue expresses the whole purpose of education4 ,virtue is the idea of inner freedom which has developed into an abiding actuality in an individual4 ,whence1 as inner freedom is a relation between insight and volition1 a double task is at once set before the teacher4 ,it becomes his business to make actual each of these factors separately1 in order that later a permanent relationship may result4 ,insight is conceived as the perception of what is right or wrong4 ,this perception is founded on the spontaneous1 or intuitive1 feeling that arises in the mind when certain elementary will-relations are presented to the intelligence4 ,the unperverted mind has a natural antipathy to strife1 malevolence1 injustice1 selfishness2 it has a corresponding approval of harmony1 good-will1 justice1 benevolence4 ,these feelings arise1 naturally1 only when the appropriate ideas are present4 ,insight1 therefore1 is a state of feeling or disposition arising from knowledge1 or ideas4 ,when volition has come into permanent accord with educated insight1 virtue has been attained4 ,conscience approves every virtuous act2 it disapproves every deviation from virtue4 ,inner freedom1 therefore1 is marked by approving conscience2 lack of it1 by accusing conscience4 ,the development of virtuous character is not so easy1 however1 as might appear from these simple statements1 for virtue has a shifting1 not to say a developing character4 ,elementary as the fundamental ethical ideas may be when presented in the home or in the kindergarten1 they are not elementary when met with in modern civilization4 ,at times virtue has been of a military character1 as in ,sparta and ,rome2 at other times it has been ecclesiastical1 as in the ,middle ,ages4 ,at the present time1 in addition to all that it has ever been from a purely ,christian character1 it is civil1 social1 industrial4 ,virtue in a modern city has a content quite different from that in a pioneer mining camp4 ,furthermore1 virtue is uneven in its development4 ,the race has1 for instance1 been trained long and hard to respect unprotected property1 so that we may fairly say such respect has become instinctive2 yet when unprotected property comes into new relations to the individual1 as in the case of borrowed books1 we may find only a rudimentary conscience4 ,what scholar is not a sufferer from this form of unripe virtue8 #i4 ,but even here at the outset we need to bear in mind the identity of morality with the effort put forth to realize the permanent actuality of the harmony between insight and volition4 ,to induce the pupil to make this effort is a difficult achievement2 at all events1 it becomes possible only when the twofold training mentioned above is well under way4 ,it is easy enough1 by a study of the example of others1 to cultivate theoretical acumen2 the moral application to the pupil himself1 however1 can be made1 with hope of success1 only in so far as his inclinations and habits have taken a direction in keeping with his insight4 ,if such is not the case1 there is danger lest the pupil1 after all1 knowingly subordinate his correct theoretical judgment to mere prudence4 ,it is thus that evil in the strict sense originates4 ,it is helpful to give the pupil abundant opportunity to pass judgment upon the moral quality of actions not his own4 ,the best opportunities are at first the most impersonal ones1 for where the child himself is immediately concerned1 the quality of his judgment may be impaired by intense personal feelings1 such as fear of blame or punishment4 ,literature furnishes the earliest and most copious examples2 later1 history may be helpful1 though there is great danger of taking partial or mistaken views as to the moral quality of historical deeds4 ,a selection of literature is an artistic whole4 ,all the relations can be easily perceived1 but any given historical event is likely to be a small section of a whole too vast for the youthful mind to comprehend4 ,it is for this reason that caution is needed when passing judgment upon historical facts4 ,to encourage the child to pass judgment in these impersonal cases is to sharpen his natural perceptions of right and wrong1 and to influence his disposition favorably4 ,one who has been led to condemn cruelty to animals in this way is likely to be more thoughtful himself1 and less disposed wantonly to inflict pain4 ,but every resource of authority and persuasion1 as well as appeal to sensibility and conscience1 must be employed to make virtuous action habitual1 and to prevent the generation of evil4 #aj4 ,of the remaining practical or ethical concepts1 the idea of perfection points to health of body and mind2 it implies a high regard for both1 and their systematic cultivation4 ,perfection here means completeness of efficiency1 rather than acquisition of holiness4 ,an efficient will is strong1 vigorous1 decided2 it is self-consistent in the pursuit of leading purposes1 not vacillating or incoherent4 ,still1 the idea of moral perfection is not a remote one1 for1 in order to be thoroughly efficient1 a will must be in substantial accord with the ethical order of a rational society4 ,all its deviations from established law and custom will be for their improvement1 not for the destruction of what is good in them4 #aa4 ,the idea of good-will counsels the educator to ward off temptation to ill-will as long as such temptation might prove dangerous4 ,it is essential1 on the other hand1 to imbue the pupil with a feeling of respect for good-will4 ,good-will is one of the three concrete virtues lying at the basis of social order4 ,it is both passive1 as in laissez faire attitudes of mind1 and active as in thoroughgoing civic1 business1 and social coperation4 ,school training must seek to impress the mind with respect for the active rather than the passive type of good-will4 ,so1 too1 must it ward off the dangers both of passive and active ill-will1 as manifested1 in covetousness1 malice1 malevolence1 envy1 treachery1 stinginess1 cruelty1 hard-heartedness4 ,how these ends may be attained1 will be considered later4 #ab4 ,the idea of justice demands that the pupil abstain from contention4 ,it demands1 furthermore1 reflection on strife1 so that respect for justice may strike deep root4 ,no idea appeals more strongly to the unperverted youthful mind than that of justice or fair play2 even the gentlest natures become indignant at manifestations of injustice4 ,the basis of the idea is1 in the thought of our author1 our natural displeasure in contention over that which1 in the nature of the case1 only one person can have4 ,primarily1 it concerns property rights1 but secondarily it may extend to other relations in which two or more wills are at issue4 ,justice in the acquisition1 possession1 and disposition of wealth is the theme of the greater part of every judicial system4 ,the idea of justice is the second of the three concrete moral virtues necessary for civilized society4 #ac4 ,the idea of equity is especially involved in cases where the pupil has merited punishment as requital for the intentional infliction of pain4 ,here the degree of punishment must be carefully ascertained and acknowledged as just4 ,note4--,this kind of punishment should not be confounded with educative punishment--so called1 i4e41 punishment through natural consequences4 ,the third concrete moral idea is that of equity1 or requital4 ,it arises when existing will-relations are altered either for good or bad4 ,the natural demand is that the requital shall be adequate to the deed4 ,lack of requital for good deeds we call ingratitude1 one of the most hateful of human failings4 ,in savagery and barbarism private vengeance is the normal method of requiting injuries4 ,remnants of this system still exist in the duel1 and in the fierce vendettas of some sparsely settled regions4 ,civilization demands that requital for evil deeds shall be remanded to the executors of established law4 ,only in this way is society saved from destructive broils4 ,in this respect1 as in so many others1 the school is the miniature of the institutional world4 ,the teacher is1 to a considerable extent1 lawgiver1 judge1 and executive4 ,not a small part of his moral influence upon his pupils depends upon the justice of his requitals for violated law4 ,good-will1 justice or rights1 and requital are the three fundamental concrete moral ideas upon which sound character1 both individual and national1 is based4 ,the remaining two are that of inner freedom and that of efficiency4 ,though formal in character1 i4e41 devoid of positive content1 they are equally important with the more concrete conceptions4 #ad4 ,where a number of pupils are assembled there arises1 naturally1 on a small scale1 a system of laws and rewards4 ,this system1 and the demands which in the world at large spring from the same ideas1 must be brought into accord4 ,the school is a miniature world1 to be regulated by the same system of moral ideas as that which obtains in society4 ,compare #ahb1 #caj4 #ae4 ,the concept of an administrative system has great significance for pedagogics1 since every pupil1 whatever his rank or social status1 must be trained for coperation in the social whole to fit him for usefulness4 ,this requirement may assume very many different forms4 #af4 ,of the system of civilization only the aspect of general culture1 not that of special training1 must be emphasized at this point4 ,note4--,the principles of practical philosophy which have just been briefly indicated are at the same time the starting-points of ethical insight for the pupils4 ,if the resolve to direct the will accordingly be added1 and if the pupil obeys this resolve1 such obedience constitutes morality4 ,quite distinct from this is the obedience yielded1 be the motive fear or affection1 to the person of the teacher1 so long as that higher obedience is not securely established4 #ag4 ,for the business of education1 the idea of perfection1 while it does not rise into excessive prominence1 stands out above all others on account of its uninterrupted application4 ,the teacher discovers in the as yet undeveloped human being a force which requires his incessant attention to intensify1 to direct1 and to concentrate4 ,note4--,the maxim perfice te is neither so universal as ,wolff asserted1 as though it were the sole fundamental principle of ethics1 nor so objectionable as ,kant represents it to be4 ,perfection1 quantitatively regarded 7,vollkommenheit--the state of having come to fulness71 is the first urgent task wherever man shows himself lower1 smaller1 weaker1 more narrowly limited1 than he might be4 ,growth1 in every sense of the word1 is the natural destiny of the child1 and the primary condition of whatever else of worth may be expected of him in later life4 ,the principle perfice te was deprived of its true meaning by the attempt to define by it the whole of virtue--a blunder1 since no single practical idea ever exhausts the contents of that term4 ,quite different is the import of the next remark1 which applies solely to the practice of pedagogy4 #ah4 ,the constant presence of the idea of perfection easily introduces a false feature into moral education in the strict sense4 ,the pupil may get an erroneous impression as to the relative importance of the lessons1 practice1 and performance demanded of him1 and so be betrayed into the belief that he is essentially perfect when these demands are satisfied4 #ai4 ,for this reason alone1 if others were wanting1 it is necessary to combine moral education proper1 which in everyday life lays stress continually on correct self-determination1 with religious training4 ,the notion that something really worthy has been achieved needs to be tempered by humility4 ,conversely1 religious education has need of the moral also to forestall cant and hypocrisy1 which are only too apt to appear where morality has not already secured a firm foothold through earnest self-questioning and self-criticism with a view to improvement4 ,finally1 inasmuch as moral training must be put off until after insight and right habits have been acquired1 religious education1 too1 should not be begun too early2 nor should it be needlessly delayed4 ,it is well known what obstacles confront the ,american teacher who desires to give a religious basis to moral character4 ,for a full discussion of the subject viewed from numerous standpoints1 the reader is referred to 8,principles of ,religious ,education10 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 ,this book is a series of lectures by prominent school men and others4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,psychological ,basis #bj4 ,it is an error1 indeed1 to look upon the human soul as an aggregate of all sorts of faculties2 but this error only becomes worse when1 as is usually done1 the statement is added that faculties are after all at bottom one and the same active principle4 ,the traditional terms should rather be employed to distinguish mental phenomena that present themselves to experience as successively predominant4 ,in this way we get the leading features of soul-life1 which reminds us sufficiently of psychology for our immediate purpose4 #ba4 ,the stage of predominant sense-activity is followed by that of memory in the sense of exact reproduction of series of percepts previously formed4 ,traces of higher activities are as yet absent4 ,the only thing to be noted is that the series1 unless rendered long by frequent repetition1 are generally short2 necessarily so1 since while forming they are exposed to continual disturbances caused by great sensitiveness to new impressions4 #bb4 ,even very young children betray at play and in speech that form of self-activity ascribed to imagination4 ,the most insignificant toys1 provided they are movable1 occasion changes and combinations of percepts1 attended even with strong emotion1 that astonish the mature observer1 and perhaps excite anxiety lest some of these motley fancies should become fixed ideas4 ,no evil after effects are to be feared1 however1 so long as the emotional excitement does not threaten health1 and passes over quickly4 ,a strong play impulse is1 on the contrary1 a promising sign1 especially when it manifests itself energetically1 though late1 in weak children4 #bc4 ,soon there follows a time when the observation of external objects prompts the child to ask innumerable questions4 ,here that activity which is called power of judgment begins to stir in conjunction with reasoning4 ,the child now strives to subsume what is new under conceptions already in his mind1 and to affix their symbols1 the familiar words4 ,he is still far1 withal1 from being able to follow an abstract train of thought1 to employ periodic sentences1 and to conduct himself rationally throughout4 ,the slightest occasions will prove him a child still4 #bd4 ,in the meantime1 the child manifests1 besides the physical feelings of pleasure and pain1 affection for one person and aversion to another2 furthermore1 a seemingly strong will1 together with a violent spirit of contradiction1 unless this is suppressed in time4 #be4 ,on the other hand1 the ethical judgment as a rule shows itself at first very seldom and transiently--a foreshadowing of the difficulty of securing for it later1 in spite of obstinacy and selfishness1 the function of control1 on which control depend both morality and the higher sense of art4 #bf4 ,the boy asks fewer questions1 but tries all the more to handle and shape things4 ,he is gaining knowledge by himself and acquiring dexterity4 ,gradually his respect for his elders increases2 he fears their censure and stands in awe of their superiority4 ,at the same time he attaches himself more closely to other boys of the same age4 ,from now on it becomes more difficult to observe him4 ,the teacher who has no previous knowledge of boys who have reached this age1 may long deceive himself in regard to them and will seldom obtain complete frankness4 ,this reserve is indicative of more or less self-determination1 which is commonly attributed to pure reason4 #bg4 ,the names for the mental faculties acquire renewed importance with the beginning of systematic instruction4 ,their import1 however1 shows a marked difference4 ,now memory is relied on for the acquisition1 without additions or omissions1 of prescribed series1 the order being fixed or not1 as the case may be2 usually there is a slight connection with older ideas4 ,imagination is called for to lay hold of the objects of distant lands and ages4 ,the understanding is expected to derive general notions from a limited number of particulars1 to name and to connect them4 ,the development of the ethical judgment teachers rarely wait for2 obedience to commands is demanded4 ,obedience of this kind depends chiefly on the ease with which antecedent ideas are revived and connected in response to1 but not beyond1 a given stimulus4 ,in extreme cases the fear of punishment effectively takes the place of all other motives4 ,but often not even the usual memory-work can be successfully exacted through fear1 much less obedience without oversight4 #bh4 ,many pupils reveal a curious contrast4 ,in their own sphere they display a good memory1 a lively imagination1 keen understanding2 by the teacher they are credited with little of all these4 ,they rule perhaps over their playmates because of their superior intelligence1 or possess at least the respect of the latter1 while in their classes they show only incapacity4 ,such experiences suggest the difficulty of making instruction take proper hold of the inner growth of the pupil4 ,it is evident1 at the same time1 that what is customarily ascribed to the action of the various mental faculties takes place in certain groups of ideas4 #bi4 ,the grown man has one group of ideas for his church1 another for his work at home1 a third for society1 and so on4 ,these groups1 though partially interacting and mutually determinant1 are far from being connected at every point4 ,this is true as early as boyhood4 ,the boy has one set of ideas for his school1 another for the family circle1 still another for the playground1 etc4 ,this fact explains better than intentional reserve the observation that a boy is one being at home or at school and quite another among strangers4 #cj4 ,each body of ideas is made up of complications of ideas1 which1 if the union is perfect1 come and go in consciousness as undivided wholes1 and of series1 together with their interlacings1 whose members unfold successively1 one by one1 provided they are not checked4 ,the closer the union of parts within these complications and series1 the more absolute the laws according to which ideas act in consciousness1 the stronger is the resistance against everything opposing their movement2 hence the difficulty of acting upon them through instruction4 ,they admit1 however1 of additions and recombinations1 and so may in the course of time undergo essential changes2 up to a certain point they even change of themselves if repeatedly called into consciousness by dissimilar occasions1 e4g41 by the frequent delivery of the same lecture before different audiences4 ,the general notions of things are complexes or complications of their attributes4 ,other examples of complexes important to instruction are furnished by logical concepts and words4 ,but since words of several languages may be perfectly complicated or bound together with the same concept1 without being just as intimately connected with one another1 it should be noted that when the object or concept comes up at different times1 it will be joined now with this and next with another language4 ,yet the repeated perception of the object is not quite the same perception as before1 although earlier ideas mostly coalesce so fully with later homogeneous ideas that the difference makes itself felt but little4 #ca4 ,the inner structure of groups of ideas becomes discernible in a measure when thoughts are bodied forth in speech4 ,its most general aspect is disclosed in the construction of a period4 ,conjunctions particularly are important in that they1 without denoting a content of their own1 serve as hints to the listener4 ,they point out to him the connection1 the antitheses1 the positiveness1 or the uncertainty of the speaker's utterances2 for the meanings of conjunctions can be traced back to the series-form1 to negation and certitude4 ,it should be noted that want and refusal are related to negation2 expectation1 together with hope and fear1 to uncertainty1 so that the consideration of thought masses must also include emotional states4 ,children possess the structure of thought just as they experience the emotional states1 long before they know how to embody the same in words with the help of conjunctions4 ,certain conjunctions1 such as1 to be sure1 although1 on the contrary1 either--or1 neither--nor1 etc41 are not adopted by children until late4 #cb4 ,of equal importance with the inner organization of the pupil's ideas are1 for the teacher1 the degree of ease or difficulty with which a given mass of ideas is called into consciousness1 and its relatively long or brief persistence in consciousness4 ,here we are face to face with the conditions of efficient instruction and training4 ,the most necessary statements relative to this subject will be made under the head of interest and character-building4 #cc4 ,the capacity for education1 therefore1 is determined not by the relationship in which various originally distinct mental faculties stand to one another1 but by the relations of ideas already acquired to one another1 and to the physical organism4 ,every pupil must be studied with reference to both4 ,note4--,in the minds of those whose early training has been in the hands of several persons1 whose early life has1 perhaps1 even been spent in different households or has been tossed about by changes of fortune1 there are usually formed thought masses that are heterogeneous and poorly correlated4 ,nor is it easy to win the single-hearted devotion of such boys4 ,they cherish secret wishes1 they feel contrasts1 the nature of which it is difficult to get at1 and soon strike out in directions which education can frequently not encourage4 ,far more susceptible of educative influences are pupils that have been1 for a long time1 under the guidance of only one person1--of the mother especially1--who has had their full confidence4 ,it now remains to base their further training on what already exists and to refrain from demanding sudden leaps4 #cd4 ,now1 in order to gain an adequate knowledge of each pupil's capacity for education1 observation is necessary--observation both of his thought masses and of his physical nature4 ,the study of the latter includes that of temperament1 especially with reference to emotional susceptibility4 ,with some1 fear is the first natural impulse1 with others1 anger2 some laugh and cry easily1 others do not4 ,in some cases a very slight stimulus suffices to excite the vascular system4 ,we need to note furthermore3-- 7#a7 ,the games of pupils4 ,do they in a thoroughly childlike manner still play with any object that comes to hand8 ,do they intentionally change their games to suit a varying preference8 ,can distinct objects of persistent desire be discovered8 7#b7 ,their mental capacity and processes as shown in their studies4 ,is the pupil able to grasp long or only short series8 ,does he make many or few slips in the recitation8 ,do his lessons find a spontaneous echo in his play8 7#c7 ,their depth and consistency4 ,are their utterances superficial1 or do they come from the depths of the soul8 ,a comparative study of words and actions will gradually answer this question4 ,such observations will take account also of the rhythm of the pupil's mental life as well as of the character of his store of thoughts4 ,the insight thus obtained determines the matter and method of instruction4 ,the reader will not fail to notice that much of modern child study is anticipated in the foregoing paragraphs4 ,further important contributions to the same subject are made in paragraphs #bid-cbi4 #ce4 ,instruction in the sense of mere information-giving contains no guarantee whatever that it will materially counteract faults and influence existing groups of ideas that are independent of the imparted information4 ,but it is these ideas that education must reach2 for the kind and extent of assistance that instruction may render to conduct depend upon the hold it has upon them4 ,facts1 at least1 must serve as material for methodical treatment1 otherwise they do not enlarge even the scope of mental activity4 ,they rise in value when they become instinct with life and acquire mobility so as to enrich the imagination4 ,but their ethical effect always remains questionable so long as they do not help to correct or modify the ethical judgment1 or desire and action1 or both4 ,this point calls for a few additional distinctions4 ,generally speaking1 rudeness decreases in proportion to the expansion of the mental horizon by instruction4 ,the mere diffusion of desires over the enlarged thought area causes them to lose something of their one-sided energy4 ,moreover1 if instruction presents ethical subjects of some kind in a comprehensible way1 the pupil's disposition undergoes a refining process so that it at least approximates a correct estimate of the will1 that is1 the creation of ethical ideas4 ,such favorable results are1 however1 apt to be outweighed by the harm done when mere knowledge becomes the chief aim of ambition4 #cf4 ,in order that instruction may act on the pupil's ideas and disposition1 every avenue of approach should be thrown open4 ,the mere fact that we can never know with certainty1 beforehand1 what will influence the pupil most1 warns us against one-sidedness of instruction4 ,ideas spring from two main sources1--experience and social intercourse4 ,knowledge of nature--incomplete and crude--is derived from the former2 the later furnishes the sentiments entertained toward our fellow-men1 which1 far from being praiseworthy1 are on the contrary often very reprehensible4 ,to improve these is the more urgent task2 but neither ought we to neglect the knowledge of nature4 ,if we do1 we may expect error1 fantastical notions1 and eccentricities of every description4 #cg4 ,hence1 we have two main branches of instruction1--the historical and the scientific4 ,the former embraces not only history proper1 but language study as well2 the latter includes1 besides natural science1 mathematics4 8,historical0 must be interpreted to include all human sciences1 such as history1 literature1 languages1 sthetics1 and political1 economic1 and social science4 8,scientific0 may include applied as well as pure science1 and then we add all forms of industrial training to the curriculum4 ,other divisions of the subject-matter of instruction are often helpful4 ,thus one may speak of the human sciences1 the natural sciences1 and the economic sciences4 ,the economic sciences include those activities where man and nature interact4 ,dr4 ,wm4 ,t4 ,harris speaks of five cordinate groups of subjects1 corresponding to what he calls the 8five windows of the soul40 #ch4 ,other reasons aside1 the need alone of counteracting selfishness renders it necessary for every school that undertakes the education of the whole man to place human conditions and relations in the foreground of instruction4 ,this humanistic aim should underlie the studies of the historical subjects1 and only with reference to this aim may they be allowed to preponderate4 ,an interesting attempt to realize the aim here demanded is found in ,professor ,john ,dewey's 8,school and ,society10#a which is in effect a description of what he is working out in his practice or experimental school in connection with his department in the ,university of ,chicago4 8,if the aim of historical instruction is to enable the child to appreciate the values of social life1 to see in imagination the forces which favor and let men's effective coperations with one another1 to understand the sorts of character that help on and that hold back1 the essential thing in its presentation is to make it moving1 dynamic4 ,history must be presented not as an accumulation of results or effects1 a mere statement of what has happened1 but as a forceful1 acting thing4 ,the motives1 that is1 the motors1 must stand out4 ,to study history is not to amass information1 but to use information in constructing a vivid picture of how and why men did thus and so3 achieved their successes and came to their failures40#b ,note4--,this view does not shut out the other held in regard to ,gymnasia1 namely1 that their business is to preserve and perpetuate a knowledge of classical antiquity2 the latter aim must be made congruent with the former4 #a ,dewey1 8,the ,school and ,society10 ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #ahii4 #b ,dewey1 8,the ,aim of ,history in ,elementary ,education10 ,elementary ,school ,record1 ,no4 #h1 ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #aijj4 #ci4 ,mathematical studies1 from elementary arithmetic to higher mathematics1 are to be linked to the pupil's knowledge of nature1 and so to his experience1 in order to gain admission into his sphere of thought4 ,instruction in mathematics1 however thorough1 fails pedagogically when the ideas generated form an isolated group4 ,they are usually soon forgotten1 or1 if retained1 contribute but little toward personal worth4 ,it may be added that the leading practical motive in the teaching of arithmetic has been economic1 the cost of things forming the chief reliance for problems4 ,only those parts of nature study that involve important quantitative relations are fitted for correlation with mathematics4 ,biology1 for instance1 which is qualitative1 since it deals with life1 is a poor support for mathematics2 but physics is a good one4 #dj4 ,in general1 it will always remain a matter of uncertainty whether and how instruction will be received and mentally elaborated4 ,to diminish this uncertainty1 if for no other reasons1 there is need of constant endeavor to put the pupil in a frame of mind suitable for instruction4 ,this task falls within the province of training4 #da4 ,but even apart from reference to instruction1 training must seek to ward off violent desires and to prevent the injurious outbursts of emotion4 ,we may grant that after the days of school life are over1 individual traits will always break forth again in this respect2 but experiences1 too1 follow1 and in connection with these the after-effect of education comes to light in proportion as education has been more or less successful4 ,it shows itself in the nature and the amount of self-knowledge through which the adult strives to restrain his native faults4 ,seeming exceptions are in most cases accounted for by impressions produced in very early youth and long concealed4 ,as soon as a person attains freedom of action1 he usually endeavors to achieve the life which in his earlier years seemed most desirable4 ,hence training and instruction have each to be directed against the springing up of illusive longings and toward a true picture of the blessings and burdens of various social classes and professions4 ,what modifications of individuality training may accomplish1 is brought about less by restrictions1 which cannot be permanent1 than by inducing an early development of the higher impulses whereby they attain predominance4 #db4 ,the larger portion of the restrictions necessary during the period of education falls under another head1 that of government4 ,the question of completeness of education aside1 children no less than adults need to experience the constraint imposed on every one by human society3 they1 too1 must be kept within bounds4 ,this function the state delegates to the family1 to guardians1 and to the schools4 ,now the purpose of government refers to present order2 that of training to the future character of the adult4 ,the underlying points of view are accordingly so different that a distinction must necessarily be made in a system of pedagogics between training and government4 #dc4 ,in matters of government1 too1 much depends on how keenly its disciplinary measures are felt4 ,only good training can insure the right kind of sensibility4 ,a gentle rebuke may prove more effective than blows4 ,the first thing to do1 of course1 when unruly children create disorder1 is to govern1 to restore order2 but government and training should1 if possible1 go together4 ,the distinction between these two concepts serves to aid the reflection of the teacher1 who ought to know what he is about1 rather than to suggest a perceptible separation in practice4 #dd4 ,in the following pages1 general pedagogics1 which is followed necessarily by observations of a more special nature1 will be discussed under the three main heads1--government1 instruction1 training4 ,what needs to be said concerning government as the primary condition of education will be disposed of first4 ,next comes the theory of instruction and didactics4 ,the last place is reserved for training2 for an enduring effect could not be expected from it1 if it were severed from instruction4 ,for this reason the teacher must always keep the latter in view when he fixes his attention on methods of training1 which in actual practice always work hand in hand with instruction4 ,the other customary form of treatment1 that according to age1 while not adapted to the exposition of principles1 finds its proper place in the chapter leading over to the discussion of special topics4 ,,part ,,ii ,,outlines ,,of ,,general ,,pedagogics ,,section ,i ,,government ,,of ,,children ,,chapter ,i ,theoretical ,aspects #de4 ,we assume at the outset the existence of all the care and nurture requisite for physical growth and well-being2 a bringing up that shall be as free from pampering as from dangerous hardening4 ,there must be no actual want to lead a child astray1 nor undue indulgence to create unnecessary demands4 ,how much hardening it is safe to risk will depend in each case on the child's constitution4 #df4 ,the foundation of government consists in keeping children employed4 ,no account is taken as yet of the prospective gain to mental culture2 the time is to be fully occupied1 at all events1 even if the immediate purpose be merely the avoidance of disorder4 ,this purpose1 however1 involves the requirement of ample provision1 according to the ages of pupils1 for the need of physical activity1 that the cause of natural restlessness may be removed4 ,this need is more urgent with some than with others2 there are children that seem ungovernable because compelled to sit still4 #dg4 ,other things being equal1 self-chosen occupations deserve the preference2 but it rarely happens that children know how to keep themselves busy sufficiently and continuously4 ,specific tasks1 not to be abandoned until completed1 assure order much better than random playing1 which is apt to end in ennui4 ,it is desirable that adults possessing the requisite patience assist children1 if not always1 at least frequently1 in their games2 that they explain pictures1 tell stories1 have them retold1 etc4 ,with advancing maturity1 a steadily increasing proportion of the occupations assumes the character of instruction or of exercises growing out of it2 this work should be properly balanced by recreations4 #dh4 ,next in order comes supervision1 and with it numerous commands and prohibitions4 ,under this head several things must be considered4 ,in the first place this3 ,whether under certain circumstances one might withdraw a command or permit what has once been forbidden4 ,it is ill-advised to give an order more sweeping than the execution is meant to be2 and it weakens government to yield to the entreaties1 the tears1 or1 worse still1 the impetuous insistence of children4 ,also this question3 ,whether it is possible to make sure of obedience4 ,where children are not kept busy and are left without oversight1 the issue becomes doubtful4 ,the difficulty grows at a rapid rate with an increase in numbers4 ,this is true especially of larger educational institutions1 but1 on account of the coming and going of pupils1 applies in a measure also to common day schools4 #di4 ,the usual solution is greater strictness of supervision4 ,but this involves the risk of utter failure to receive voluntary obedience1 and of inciting a match game in shrewdness4 ,as to voluntary obedience1 much depends on the ratio of restraint to the freedom that still remains4 ,ordinarily1 youth submits readily enough to many restrictions1 provided such restrictions bear upon specific fixed points1 and leave elbow room for independent action4 ,in the work of supervision the teacher will find it hard to rely on himself entirely1 particularly if he has charge of classes only at stated times4 ,others must assist him2 he himself will have to resort occasionally to surprises4 ,supervision is always an evil when coupled with unnecessary distrust4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 to make those who do not merit distrust understand that the measures adopted are not directed against them4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,practical ,aspects #ej4 ,since supervision is not to be vigorous to the point of ever felt pressure1 child government1 to be effective1 requires both gentle and severe measures4 ,in general1 this effectiveness results from the natural superiority of the adult1 a fact of which teachers sometimes need to be reminded4 ,whatever the plan of supervision1 there must be coupled with it an adequate mode of disciplinary procedure4 ,a record should be kept in schools1 not for the law-abiding pupils1 but for those guilty of repeated acts of disobedience4 ,these remarks do not thus far include any reference to marks and records pertaining to education proper2 they are confined to what is popularly1 but loosely1 called discipline1 that is1 the training of pupils to conform to the system of order that obtains in the school4 ,home training seldom requires such bookkeeping2 but even here it may at times be useful4 ,of course1 the individual child knows in any case that some one is keeping an eye on his actions1 but the fact becomes more deeply impressed upon his memory if the reproofs incurred by him are recorded4 #ea4 ,it would be in vain to attempt to banish entirely the corporal punishments usually administered after fruitless reprimands2 but use should be made of them so sparingly that they be feared rather than actually inflicted4 ,recollection of the rod does not hurt a boy4 ,nor is there any harm in his present conviction that a flogging is henceforth as much beyond the range of possibility as his meriting such treatment4 ,but it would1 no doubt1 be injurious to actually violate his self-respect by a blow1 however little he might mind the physical pain4 ,and pernicious in the highest degree1 although1 nevertheless1 not quite obsolete yet1 is the practice of continuing to beat children already hardened to blows4 ,brutish insensibility is the consequence1 and the hope is almost vain that even a long period of now unavoidable indulgence will restore a normal state of feeling4 ,there is less objection to making use1 for a few hours1 of hunger as a corrective4 ,here only an act of deprivation takes place1 not one involving a direct insult4 ,curtailment of freedom is the most commonly employed form of punishment2 justly so1 provided it be properly adjusted to the offence4 ,moreover1 it admits of the most varied gradations from standing in a corner to confinement in a dark room1 perhaps even with hands tied together behind the back4 ,only1 for several serious reasons1 this punishment must not be of long duration4 ,a whole hour is more than enough unless there is careful supervision4 ,besides1 the place must be chosen judiciously4 ,solitary confinement1 especially in a dark room1 is seldom if ever resorted to in ,american public schools4 ,for remarks upon the social basis of modern school punishments1 see #ee4 #eb4 ,corrections of such severity1 as removal from home or expulsion from an institution1 are to be administered only in extreme cases2 for what is to become of the expelled pupil8 ,a burden to another school8 ,and in case the transfer implies the same freedom1 the old disorderly conduct will usually be resumed4 ,such pupils must1 therefore1 be placed under very strict supervision and given new occupations4 ,we must trust to the new environment to obliterate gradually the old vitiated circle of thought4 #ec4 ,it is a well-known fact that authority and love are surer means of securing order than harsh measures are4 ,but authority cannot be created by every one at will4 ,it implies obvious superiority in mind1 in knowledge1 in physique1 in external circumstances4 ,love can1 indeed1 be gained in the course of time by a complaisant manner--the love of well-disposed pupils2 but just where government becomes most necessary1 complaisance has to cease4 ,love must not be purchased at the expense of weak indulgence2 it is of value only when united with the necessary severity4 #ed4 ,in early childhood and with healthy children1 government is1 on the whole1 easy4 ,it continues to be easy after they have once formed habits of obedience4 ,but it should not be interrupted4 ,even if children have been left to themselves or in charge of strangers only a few days1 the change is noticeable4 ,it requires an effort to tighten the reins again--something not to be done too suddenly4 ,where boys have been allowed to run wild1 the attempt to bring them back to orderly conduct reveals the differences of individuality4 ,some are easily made to return to appropriate work by kindness combined with a moderate measure of forbearance1 others have sense enough to fear threats and to avoid penalties2 but we may unfortunately also expect to find a few whose sole thought is to escape from supervision1 however unpleasant for them the consequences may be4 ,where home ties are wanting1 this spirit may develop even during boyhood with ominous rapidity2 during adolescence the difficulty of checking it may grow to be insuperable4 #ee4 ,as a rule1 it is reasonable to assume that youth will try to break through restraints as soon as these are felt4 ,a sufficient amount of satisfying activity1 together with uniform firmness of the lines of restraint1 will1 indeed1 soon put an end to persistent attempts of this kind2 yet they will be repeated from time to time4 ,as boys grow older there is a change of pursuits2 now the restraining boundaries must gradually be enlarged4 ,the question now is whether education has progressed sufficiently far to make government less indispensable4 ,moreover1 the choice of work comes to be determined by the prospects opening before the young man1 according to his rank and means1 together with his native capabilities and acquired knowledge4 ,to encourage such pursuits as being appropriate for him1 and1 on the other hand1 to reduce mere hobbies and diversions to harmless proportions1 still remains the function of government4 ,in any case government should not be wholly surrendered too early1 least of all when the environment is such as to justify apprehension of temptation4 ,though ,american teachers are perhaps not accustomed to emphasize the distinction between government for order and training for character1 the difference1 nevertheless1 exists1 often in an exaggerated form4 ,just as fever is looked upon as the measure of functional disturbance in the body1 so disorder in the schoolroom is looked upon as the measure of the teacher's failure4 ,as fever is the universal symptom of disease1 so disorder is the index of failure4 ,the diagnosis may err in either case as to what the seat of the difficulty really is1 but that something is wrong is plain to all4 ,the fact that the public usually gauge a teacher's efficiency by the order he keeps has led in the past to an exaggerated emphasis upon school discipline4 ,the means for securing good order have greatly changed since ,herbart's time4 ,a growing sense of social solidarity in the community1 together with the all but universal employment of women as teachers in the elementary grades1 has transferred the basis of discipline from the teacher to the community4 ,it is social pressure in and out of the school that is the main reliance for regularity1 punctuality1 and order4 ,herbart wonders what will become of the bad boy if he is expelled4 ,the modern answer is1 he will be sent to the reform school or to the truant school4 ,the teacher still stands as of old at the point of contact between the institution and the individual2 nor can he entirely escape the heat generated at times by such contact1 but1 after all1 it is society that now supplies the pressure formerly exerted by will and birch4 ,the teacher is now more of a mediator between the pupil and the organized community1 than an avenger of broken law4 ,,section ,,ii ,,instruction ,,chapter ,i ,the ,relation of ,instruction to ,government and ,training #ef4 ,instruction furnishes a part of those occupations which lie at the basis of government2 how large a part depends on circumstances4 ,children must be kept employed at all events1 because idleness leads to misbehavior and lawlessness4 ,now if the employment consists of useful labor1 say in the workshop or on the farm1 so much the better4 ,better still1 if the work teaches the child something that will contribute to his further education4 ,but not all employment is instruction2 and in cases where the mere government of children is a difficult matter1 lessons are not always the most adequate employment4 ,many a growing boy will be taught orderly conduct much sooner when placed with a mechanic or merchant or farmer than in school4 ,the scope of government is wider than that of instruction4 ,teachers of manual training everywhere testify to the quieting effect of directed physical labor upon stormy spirits4 ,even a truant school or a school for incorrigibles becomes an attractive place to the inmates when adequate provision is made for the exercise of the motor powers4 ,most children can be controlled through mental occupation1 but there are some to whom motor activity is indispensable4 ,that a judicious apportionment of sensory and motor activity would favorably affect the development of all children is not to be questioned4 #eg4 ,instruction and training have this in common1 that each makes for education and hence for the future1 while government provides for the present4 ,a distinction should1 however1 be made here4 ,instruction is far from being always educative or pedagogical4 ,where acquisition of wealth and external success or strong personal preference supply the motives for study1 no heed is paid to the question3 ,what will be the gain or loss to character8 ,one actuated by such motives sets out1 such as he is1 to learn one thing or another1 no matter whether for good or bad or for indifferent ends2 to him the best teacher is he who imparts tuto1 cito1 jucunde1 the proficiency desired4 ,instruction of this kind is excluded from our discussion2 we are concerned here only with instruction that educates in the moral sense of the term4 #eh4 ,man's worth does not1 it is true1 lie in his knowing1 but in his willing4 ,but there is no such thing as an independent faculty of will4 ,volition has its roots in thought2 not1 indeed1 in the details one knows1 but certainly in the combinations and total effect of the acquired ideas4 ,the same reason1 therefore1 which in psychology accounts for considering the formation of ideas first1 and then desire and volition1 necessitates a corresponding order in pedagogics3 first the theory of instruction1 then that of training4 ,note4--,formerly1 strange to say1 no distinction was made between government and training1 although it is obvious that the immediate present demands attention more urgently than does the future4 ,still less was instruction given its true place4 ,the greater or smaller amount of knowledge1 regarded as a matter of secondary importance in comparison with personal culture1 was taken up last4 ,the treatment of education as the development of character preceded that of instruction1 just as though the former could be realized without the latter4 ,during the last decades1 however1 a demand has arisen for greater activity on the part of schools1 primarily the higher schools4 ,humanistic studies are to bestow humanity1 or culture4 ,it has come to be understood that the human being is more easily approached from the side of knowledge than from the side of moral sentiments and disposition4 ,furthermore1 examinations might be set on the former1 but not on the latter4 ,now the time for instruction was found to be too limited--a want that the old ,latin schools had felt but little4 ,this led to discussions as to the relative amount due each branch of study4 ,we shall treat chiefly of the correlation of studies1 for whatever remains isolated is of little significance4 #ei4 ,in educative teaching1 the mental activity incited by it is all important4 ,this activity instruction is to increase1 not to lessen2 to ennoble1 not to debase4 ,note4--,a diminution of mental activity ensues1 when1 because of much study and of sitting--especially at all sorts of written work1 often useless--physical growth is interfered with in a way sooner or later to the injury of health4 ,hence the encouragement given in recent years to gymnastic exercises1 which may1 however1 become too violent4 ,deterioration sets in when knowledge is made subservient to ostentation and external advantages--the objectionable feature of many public examinations4 ,schools ought not to be called upon to display all they accomplish4 ,by such methods instruction not only works against its own true end1 but also conflicts with training1 whose aim for the whole future of the pupil is--mens sana in corpore sano4 #fj4 ,if all mental activity were of only one kind1 the subject-matter of instruction would be of no consequence4 ,but we need not go beyond experience to see that the opposite is true1 that there is a great diversity of intellectual endowment4 ,yet while instruction must thus be differentiated1 it should not be made so special as to cultivate only the more prominent gifts2 otherwise the pupil's less vigorous mental functions would be wholly neglected and perhaps suppressed4 ,instruction must rather be manifold1 and its manifoldness being the same for many pupils in so far as it may help to correct inequalities in mental tendencies4 ,not only is subject-matter to be varied on account of mental diversity1 but also for social reasons as well4 ,for an enlargement of this theme1 see the annotation to paragraph #fe4 #fa4 ,what is to be taught and learned is1 accordingly1 not left for caprice and conventionality to decide4 ,in this respect instruction differs in a striking manner from government1 for which1 if only idleness is prevented1 it hardly matters what work children are given to do4 ,note4--,children are sent to school from many homes simply because they are in the way and their parents do not wish them to be idle4 ,the school is regarded as an institution whose chief function is to govern1 but which incidentally also imparts useful knowledge4 ,here there is a lack of insight into the nature of true mental culture2 teachers1 on the contrary1 sometimes forget that they are giving pupils work1 and that work should not exceed reasonable limits4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,aim of ,instruction #fb4 ,the ultimate purpose of instruction is contained in the notion1 virtue4 ,but in order to realize the final aim1 another and nearer one must be set up4 ,we may term it1 many-sidedness of interest4 ,the word interest stands in general for that kind of mental activity which it is the business of instruction to incite4 ,mere information does not suffice2 for this we think of as a supply or store of facts1 which a person might possess or lack1 and still remain the same being4 ,but he who lays hold of his information and reaches out for more1 takes an interest in it4 ,since1 however1 this mental activity1 is varied 7#fj71 we need to add the further determination supplied by the term many-sidedness4 ,it has been pointed out#c what the content of the word virtue must be1 if this word is to be an adequate expression for the ultimate purpose of instruction4 ,virtue must embrace not only what is purely individual1 or subjective1 such as piety and humaneness of disposition1 but it must likewise include what is objective1 or social1 in conduct4 ,this fact lends a new significance to the doctrine of interest1 for though a normal child is not naturally interested in introspective analysis of his feelings1 he is spontaneously interested in what is objective and within the range of his experience4 ,the enterprises of his mates1 the regulations of his school or home1 the erection of houses1 the introduction of new machinery1 the social doings of the neighborhood1 the havoc created by the elements1 the prominent features of the changing year--all these claim his closest attention4 ,the common school studies deal with these very things4 ,literature 7reading7 and history reveal to him the conduct of men2 the one considering it ideally1 the other historically4 ,mathematics teaches the mastery of material when considered quantitatively1 whether in trade or manufacture or construction4 ,nature studies bring the child into intimate touch with the significant in his natural environment4 ,geography shows him the most obvious features of the industrial activity about him4 ,it shows him the chief conditions of production in crops and manufactures2 it also gives him hints of the great business of commerce4 ,in all these studies1 the natural inclinations of the mind are directly appealed to4 ,not a little of the importance of the doctrine of interest in instruction depends upon these facts2 for both the insight and the disposition that instruction is capable of imparting to the pupil relates specifically to the objective side of his character1 the one most in need of development and most susceptible of it4 #c ,paragraphs #h-ae4 #fc4 ,we may speak also of indirect as distinguished from direct interest4 ,but a predominance of indirect interest tends to one-sidedness1 if not to selfishness4 ,the interest of the selfish man in anything extends only so far as he can see advantages or disadvantages to himself4 ,in this respect the one-sided man approximates the selfish man1 although the fact may escape his own observation2 since he relates everything to the narrow sphere for which he lives and thinks4 ,here lies his intellectual power1 and whatever does not interest him as means to his limited ends1 becomes an impediment4 ,it is important for the teacher to see the full scope of the doctrine of interest in its relation to effort4 ,in ,herbart's psychology it assumes a most important place1 since the primacy of mental life is1 in this system1 ascribed to ideas4 ,in other systems1 notably those of ,kant1 ,schopenhauer1 ,von ,hartmann1 ,paulsen1 primacy is ascribed to the will1 first in unconscious or subconscious striving1 later in conscious volition4 ,this fundamental difference in standpoint will account for the emphasis laid now upon interest1 now upon effort4 ,herbart conceives that conscious feelings1 desires1 motives1 and the like have their source in ideas1 and that volition in turn arises from the various emotional states aroused by the ideas4 ,interest with him thus becomes a permanent or ever renewed1 ever changing1 ever growing desire for the accomplishment of certain ends4 ,it is1 consequently1 a direct1 necessary stimulus to the will4 ,systems1 however1 that regard the will as the primary factor in mental life1 conceiving of ideas only as a means for revealing more clearly the ends of volition1 together with the best methods of reaching them1 are naturally prone to place the emphasis upon effort1 leaving to interest but a secondary or quite incidental function4 ,dr4 ,john ,dewey has attempted to reconcile these two views4#d ,interest and effort are complementary1 not opposing ideas4 ,to emphasize one at the expense of the other1 is to assume that the ends for which we act lie quite outside of our personality1 so that these ends would1 on the one hand1 have to be made interesting1 or1 on the other1 struggled for without regard to interest4 ,this assumption is an error4 ,the ends for which we strive must be conceived as internal1 our efforts being regarded as attempts at self-realization in definite directions4 ,the purpose of our action is therefore an end desired4 ,in this we have an interest surely4 ,as an educational doctrine1 however1 interest concerns chiefly the means of reaching these ends4 ,if interest in the means is wanting1 the child works with a divided attention4 ,he gives only so much to the means as he must2 the remainder is devoted to his own affairs1--the past or coming ball-game1 the picnic1 the walk in the woods1 the private enterprises of home or school4 ,but if a lively interest is felt in the means to the end1 then the whole self is actively employed for the time being in the accomplishment of the purpose of the hour4 ,the attention is no longer divided1 it is concentrated upon the matter in hand4 ,this in the school is work4 ,when the attention is divided we have drudgery4 ,this signifies that the interest felt in the end1 say a dollar1 is not felt in the means of attaining it1 say a day's labor4 ,however inevitable drudgery may be in life1 it should have no place in the schoolroom4 ,the teacher must so present the studies that the pupil can perceive at least a fraction of their bearing upon life4 ,this awakens an interest in them as ends4 ,he must1 then1 by conformity to the psychological order of learning1 by enthusiasm and ingenuity1 so teach the subjects that the natural interest in the end will be constantly enhanced through a lively interest in the daily lesson as the means of reaching it4 ,the result is unified attention1 zeal in the pursuit of knowledge1 hospitality for ethical ideals4 #d 8,interest as ,related to the ,will10 second supplement to the ,herbart ,year ,book1 revised and reprinted1 ,chicago ,university ,press1 #ahii4 #fd4 ,as regards the bearings of interest on virtue1 we need to remember that many-sidedness of interest alone1 even of direct interest such as instruction is to engender1 is yet far from being identical with virtue itself2 also that1 conversely1 the weaker the original mental activity1 the less likelihood that virtue will be realized at all1 not to speak of the variety of manifestation possible in action4 ,imbeciles cannot be virtuous4 ,virtue involves an awakening of mind4 ,the conception1 that by awakening many-sided direct interest in the studies we can powerfully affect character1 is perhaps peculiar to the thought of ,herbart4 ,yet when we consider that the knowledge taught in the school goes to the root of every vital human relation1 that1 in other words1 the studies may be made instruments for progressively revealing to the child his place and function in the world1 it follows as a necessary consequence1 that to interest the pupil thoroughly in these branches of learning1 is to work at the foundation of his character1 so far1 at least1 as insight into duty and disposition to do it are concerned4 ,even if interest in ethical things is not of itself virtue1 it is an important means for securing virtue4 ,this idea adds to the teacher's resources for the development of character4 ,it also opens up to him a new realm for research4 ,all literature1 history1 science1 mathematics1 geography1 language1 may be examined from this new standpoint1 both with respect to selection and to methods of presentation4 ,select the portions that pertain intimately to life2 teach them so that their important bearing upon it may be seen4 ,note4--,as has been stated already 7#ag71 the most immediate of the practical ideas demanding recognition from the teacher is the idea of perfection4 ,now1 with reference to this idea1 three factors are to be considered3 the intensity1 the range1 the unification of intellectual effort4 ,intensity is implied in the word interest2 extension is connoted by many-sidedness2 what is meant by unification will be briefly indicated in the next paragraph4 #fe4 ,scattering no less than one-sidedness forms an antithesis to many-sidedness4 ,many-sidedness is to be the basis of virtue2 but the latter is an attribute of personality1 hence it is evident that the unity of self-consciousness must not be impaired4 ,the business of instruction is to form the person on many sides1 and accordingly to avoid a distracting or dissipating effect4 ,and instruction has successfully avoided this in the case of one who with ease surveys his well-arranged knowledge in all of its unifying relations and holds it together as his very own4 ,this section points to the correlation of studies1 a subject to be considered hereafter in detail4 ,it also throws light upon the modern system of elective courses or elective studies in secondary and higher education4 ,the teachable subjects have now become so numerous that election is imperative unless what is to be taught is determined arbitrarily without regard to the needs or inclinations of students4 ,furthermore1 election is made imperative by the fact that the higher education is now open to all minds of all social classes1 and that differentiated industry calls for many kinds of education4 ,but the need for mental symmetry1 no less imperative now than in the past1 is reinforced by the need for social symmetry4 ,education must put the student into sympathetic touch with the whole of life1 not a mere segment of it4 ,since many-sidedness cannot be interpreted to mean knowledge of all subjects1 this being impossible1 it must be interpreted to mean knowledge of all departments of learning4 ,election may be permitted to emphasize departments of study1 but not to ignore them entirely4 ,there are four or more languages worth teaching1 many departments of history1 numerous sciences1 and various branches of mathematics1 not to speak of the economic1 political1 and social sciences4 ,enough of each department being given to insure intelligent sympathy with the aspect of civilization it presents1 the student may be allowed to place the emphasis upon such groups of studies as best conserve his tastes1 his ability1 and his destination in life4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,the ,conditions of ,many-sidedness #ff4 ,it becomes obvious at once that a many-sided culture cannot be brought about quickly4 ,the requisite store of ideas is acquired only by successive efforts2 but unification1 a view of the whole1 and assimilation are to be attained besides 7#fe71 whence an alternation1 in time1 of absorption and reflection4 ,the apprehension of the manifold is of necessity a gradual process1 and the same is true of the unification of knowledge4 ,in absorption the mind surrenders itself to the acquisition or contemplation of facts4 ,thus a child will stand in open-eyed wonder at beholding a novel spectacle1 the scientist becomes absorbed in watching the outcome of a new experiment1 the philosopher loses consciousness to all about him in the unfolding of some new train of thought4 ,not only may absorption concern momentary experiences1 but it may in a broad way be said to cover considerable periods of life1 as1 for instance1 when a student becomes absorbed in the mastery of foreign languages having no immediate relation to his daily life4 ,reflection is the assimilation of the knowledge gained by absorption4 ,the mind1 recovering from its absorption in what is external1 relates its new-found experience to the sum of its former experiences4 ,new items of knowledge in this way find their appropriate places in the organic structure of the mind4 ,they are apperceived4 ,the many-sided thus comes to unity4 ,rosenkranz calls absorption and reflection1 self-estrangement and its removal4 8,all culture10 he says1 8whatever may be its special purport1 must pass through these two stages1--of estrangement1 and its removal40 ,again1 he says1 8,the mind is 7#a7 immediate 7or potential72 but 7#b7 it must estrange itself from itself1 as it were1 so that it may place itself over against itself as a special object of attention2 7#c7 this estrangement is finally removed through a further acquaintance with the object 444 it feels itself at home in that on which it looks1 and returns again enriched to the form of immediateness 7to unity with itself74 ,that which at first appeared to be another than itself is now seen to be itself40#e ,this is an abstract statement of the fact that 7#a7 in learning the mind becomes absorbed for a time in external objects1 ignoring temporarily their inner meaning and relation to self1 and 7#b7 this period of absorption is succeeded by one of reflection1 in which the mind perceives the significance of what has been observed1 noting the laws and principles underlying the phenomena and thus assimilating them to what it conceives to be rational4 ,owing to the fact that absorption and reflection may refer to very short and also to comparatively long periods1 they may be studied with respect to their bearing in conducting recitations1 and to their importance in fixing courses of study4 ,the former aspect of the two processes will in this connection chiefly occupy our attention4 #e 8,philosophy of ,education10 pp4 #bg1 #bh1 ,new ,york1 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #fg4 ,some teachers lay great stress on the explication1 step by step1 of the smaller and smallest components of the subject1 and insist on a similar reproduction on the part of the pupils4 ,others prefer to teach by conversation1 and allow themselves and their pupils great freedom of expression4 ,others1 again1 call especially for the leading thoughts1 but demand that these be given with accuracy and precision1 and in the prescribed order4 ,others1 finally1 are not satisfied until their pupils are self-actively exercising their minds in systematic thinking4 ,various methods of teaching may thus arise2 it is not necessary1 however1 that one should be habitually employed to the exclusion of the rest4 ,we may ask rather whether each does not contribute its share to a many-sided culture4 ,in order that a multitude of facts may be apprehended1 explications or analyses are needed to prevent confusion2 but since a synthesis is equally essential1 the latter process may be started by conversation1 continued by lifting into prominence the cardinal thoughts1 and completed by the methodical independent thinking of the pupil3 clearness1 association1 system1 method4 ,in teaching we need to have 7#a7 clearness in the presentation of specific facts1 or the elements of what is to be mastered2 7#b7 association of these facts with one another1 and with other related facts formerly acquired1 in order that assimilation1 or apperception1 may be adequately complete2 7#c7 when sufficient facts have been clearly presented and sufficiently assimilated1 they must be systematically ordered1 so that our knowledge will be more perfectly unified than it could be did we stop short of thorough classification1 as in the study of botany1 or of the perception of rules and principles1 as in mathematics and grammar2 7#d7 finally the facts1 rules1 principles1 and classifications thus far assumed must be secured for all time by their efficient methodical application in exercises that call forth the vigorous self-activity of the pupil4 ,these four stages of teaching may be considered fundamental1 though varying greatly according to the nature of the subject and the ability of the pupil4 ,it is good exercise for a pupil to take long1 rapid steps when able to do so2 it is hopeless confusion to undertake them when they are too great or too rapid for his capacity4 ,these four stages in methods of teaching conceived to be essential1 form the nucleus of an interesting development in the ,herbartian school1 under the title of 8,the ,formal i4e4 ,essential ,steps of ,instruction40 ,the leading ideas will be further described in a subsequent paragraph 7#gj74 #fh4 ,on closer inspection we find that instead of being mutually exclusive1 these various modes of instruction are requisite1 one by one1 in the order given above1 for every group1 small or large1 of subjects to be taught4 ,for1 first1 the beginner is able to advance but slowly4 ,for him the shortest steps are the safest steps4 ,he must stop at each point as long as is necessary to make him apprehend distinctly each individual fact4 ,to this he must give his whole thought4 ,during the initial stage1 the teacher's art consists1 therefore1 preminently in knowing how to resolve his subject into very small parts4 ,in this way he will avoid taking sudden leaps without being aware that he is doing so4 ,secondly1 association cannot be effected solely by a systematic mode of treatment1 least of all at first4 ,in the system each part has its own fixed place4 ,at this place it is connected directly with the nearest other parts1 but also separated from other more remote parts by a definite distance1 and connected with these only by way of determinate intervening members1 or links4 ,besides1 the nature of this connection is not the same everywhere4 ,furthermore1 a system is not to be learned merely4 ,it is to be used1 applied1 and often needs to be supplemented by additions inserted in appropriate places4 ,to be able to do this requires skill in diverting one's thoughts from any given starting-point to every other point1 forward1 backward1 sideways4 ,hence two things are requisite2 preparation for the system1 and application of the system4 ,preparation is involved in association2 exercise in systematic thinking must follow4 #fi4 ,during the first stage1 when the clear apprehension of the individual object or fact is the main thing1 the shortest and most familiar words and sentences are the most appropriate4 ,the teacher will often find it advisable also to have some1 if not all1 of the pupils repeat them accurately after him4 ,as is well known1 even speaking in concert has been tried in many schools not entirely without success1 and for young beginners this method may indeed at times answer very well4 ,for association1 the best mode of procedure is informal conversation1 because it gives the pupil an opportunity to test and to change the accidental union of his thoughts1 to multiply the links of connection1 and to assimilate1 after his own fashion1 what he has learned4 ,it enables him1 besides1 to do at least a part of all this in any way that happens to be the easiest and most convenient4 ,he will thus escape the inflexibility of thought that results from a purely systematic learning4 ,system1 on the other hand1 calls for a more connected discourse1 and the period of presentation must be separated more sharply from the period of repetition4 ,by exhibiting and emphasizing the leading principles1 system impresses upon the minds of pupils the value of organized knowledge2 through its greater completeness it enriches their store of information4 ,but pupils are incapable of appreciating either advantage when the systematic presentation is introduced too early4 ,skill in systematic thinking the pupil will obtain through the solution of assigned tasks1 his own independent attempts1 and their correction4 ,for such work will show whether he has fully grasped the general principles1 and whether he is able to recognize them in and apply them to particulars4 #gj4 ,these remarks on the initial analysis and the subsequent gradual uniting of the matter taught1 hold true1 in general and in detail1 of the most diverse objects and branches of instruction4 ,much remains to be added1 however1 to define with precision the application of these principles to a given subject and to the age of the pupil4 ,it will suffice1 for the present1 if we remind ourselves that instruction provides a portion of the occupations necessary to government 7#ef74 ,now1 instruction produces fatigue in proportion to its duration2 more or less1 of course1 according to individual differences4 ,but the more fatiguing it is1 the less it accomplishes as employment4 ,this fact alone shows clearly the necessity of intermissions and change of work4 ,if the pupil has become actually tired1 that is1 has not lost merely inclination to work1 this feeling must be allowed1 as far as is practicable1 to pass away1 at any rate to diminish1 before the same subject is resumed in a somewhat modified form4 ,in order to have time enough for this1 the systematic presentation must in many cases be postponed until long after the first lessons in the elements have begun1 and conversely1 the rudiments of a subject frequently have to be at least touched upon long before connected instruction can be thought of4 ,many a principle needs to be approached from a great distance4 ,herbart found his basis for the four steps of method1 viz4 clearness1 association1 system1 method1 in the ideas of absorption and reflection1 the alternate pulsation of consciousness in absorbing and assimilating knowledge4 ,others1 adopting this classification as essentially correct1 have related these steps to customary psychological analysis4 ,thus ,drpfeld and ,wiget point out that the mind goes through three well-marked processes when it performs the complete act of learning1 namely1 perception of new facts2 thought1 or the bringing of ideas into logical relations2 and application1 or the exercise of the motor activities of the mind in putting knowledge into use4 ,perception gives the percept1 thought gives the conception 7or rule1 principle1 generalization71 and application gives power4 ,in other words1 the receptive and reflective capacities of the mind come to their full fruition when they result in adequate motor activities4 ,with respect to perception a good method will first prepare the mind for facts and will then present them so that they may be apperceived4 ,the first two steps are therefore preparation and presentation4 ,the first step1 as ,ziller pointed out1 is essentially analytic in character1 since it analyzes the present store of consciousness in order to bring facts to the front that are closely related to those of the present lesson2 the second step1 i4e41 presentation1 is essentially synthetic1 since its function is to add the matter of the new lesson to related knowledge already in possession4 ,both together constitute the initial stages of apperception4 ,thought consists of two processes that may also be termed steps1 and that are more or less observable in all good teaching2 they are 7#a7 the association of newly apperceived facts with one another and with older and more firmly established ideas in order that rational connection may be established in what one knows1 and especially in order that what is general and essential in given facts may be grasped by the mind2 and 7#b7 the condensation of knowledge into a system1 such for instance as we see in the classifications of botany and zology1 or in the interdependence of principles as in arithmetic4 ,thought1 in brief1 involves the association of ideas and the derivation of generalizations such as are appropriate to the matter in hand and to the thought power of the pupils4 ,the third stage1 that of application1 is not subdivided4 ,most other followers of ,herbart1 both ,german and ,american1 though varying in methods of approach1 conform essentially to the results of this analysis1 distinguishing five steps1 as follows3-- #a4 ,preparation--,analysis #b4 ,presentation--,synthesis ,apperception of percepts4 #c4 ,association ,thought4 ,the derivation and arrangement #d4 ,systemization of rule1 principle1 or class4 #e4 ,application4 ,from knowing to doing3 use of motor powers4 ,the reader is referred to the following-named works for extended discussion of this topic3 ,mc,murray1 8,general ,method02 ,de,garmo1 8,essentials of ,method02 ,lange1 8,apperception10 pp4 #bjj-bde2 ,rein 7,van ,liew's translation71 8,outlines of ,pedagogy02 ,herbart 7,felkins' translation71 8,science of ,education02 ,mc,murray1 ,c4 ,a4 ,f4 ,m41 8,the ,method of the ,recitation40 ,a comparative view of the treatment of the ,steps of ,instruction by various authors is found in ,van ,liew's translation of ,rein's 8,outlines of ,pedagogy10 p4 #ade4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,the ,conditions ,determining ,interest #ga4 ,interest means self-activity4 ,the demand for a many-sided interest is1 therefore1 a demand for many-sided self-activity4 ,but not all self-activity1 only the right degree of the right kind1 is desirable2 else lively children might very well be left to themselves4 ,there would be no need of educating or even of governing them4 ,it is the purpose of instruction to give the right direction to their thoughts and impulses1 to incline these toward the morally good and true4 ,children are thus in a measure passive4 ,but this passivity should by no means involve suppression of self-activity4 ,it should1 on the contrary1 imply a stimulation of all that is best in the child4 ,at this point a psychological distinction becomes necessary1 namely1 that between designedly reproduced1 or 8given10 and spontaneous representations4 ,in recitations of what has been learned we have an example of the former2 the latter appear in the games and fancies of children4 ,a method of study that issues in mere reproduction leaves children largely in a passive state1 for it crowds out for the time being the thoughts they would otherwise have had4 ,in games1 however1 and in the free play of fancy1 and accordingly also in that kind of instruction which finds an echo here1 free activity predominates4 ,this distinction is not intended to affirm the existence of two compartments in which the ideas1 separated once for all1 would1 of necessity1 have to remain4 ,ideas that must by effort be raised into consciousness because they do not rise spontaneously1 may become spontaneous by gradual strengthening4 ,but this development we cannot count on unless instruction1 advancing step by step1 bring it about4 ,interest must be conceived as self-propulsive activity toward an end4 ,it is a part of the teacher's function to assist the pupil in making the appropriate ideas strong and spontaneous4 ,occasionally a mere suggestion will change the whole mental attitude toward an end and the means for reaching it4 ,a student one day approached his instructor with this query3 8,how can ,i get through this study with the least expenditure of time and effort80 ,the desired answer was first given4 ,the instructor then remarked that there was another way of viewing the matter1 viz41 that one might consider how to get the most rather than the least out of the study4 ,he then briefly unfolded its nature and possibilities1 whereupon the student became one of the most interested members of the class4 ,he had come with only an indirect interest in the subject as an end2 he regarded the study as a required task and the means of passing upon it as so much drudgery2 but he so changed his attitude toward it1 that the study became an end personally desired1 and the daily effort a pleasurable exercise of his self-directed power of thought4 ,the interest that the instructor had aroused in the end was transferred to the means4 #gb4 ,it is the teacher's business1 while giving instruction1 to observe whether the ideas of his pupils rise spontaneously or not4 ,if they do1 the pupils are said to be attentive2 the lesson has won their interest4 ,if not1 attention is1 indeed1 not always wholly gone4 ,it may1 moreover1 be enforced for a time before actual fatigue sets in4 ,but doubt arises whether instruction can effect a future interest in the same subjects4 ,attention is a factor of such importance to education as to call for a more detailed treatment4 #gc4 ,attention may be broadly defined as an attitude of mind in which there is readiness to form new ideas4 ,such readiness is either voluntary or involuntary4 ,if voluntary1 it depends on a resolution2 the teacher frequently secures this through admonitions or threats4 ,far more desirable and fruitful is involuntary attention4 ,it is this attention that the art of teaching must seek to induce4 ,herein lies the kind of interest to be sought by the teacher4 ,forced and spontaneous are more truly expressive terms than voluntary and involuntary in this connection4 ,it is not meant that interested activity is against the will1 or even indifferent to it4 ,on the contrary1 it is a form of activity that calls every resource of the mind into full play4 ,the will is never so promptly active as when it is doing the things in which it is most interested2 it is1 however1 a spontaneous1 not a forced activity4 ,there is1 as ,dr4 ,john ,dewey points out1#f a contradiction between ,herbart's ,pedagogy and his ,psychology1 as follows3 the ,pedagogy regards interest as the lever of education1 the means for securing spontaneous activity of mind2 the ,psychology regards interest as a feeling arising from the relation of ideas4 ,ideas must therefore be given1 in right relations1 to arouse interest1 while interest is in turn conceived as the means of arousing them4 ,this is reasoning in a circle4 ,the difficulty arises from asserting the primacy of ideas in mental life1 and then speaking of self-activity1 which presupposes the primacy of motor1 or impulsive activities4 ,the reader will avoid all contradictions in educational theory by accepting the modern view of the primacy1 not of ideas1 but of what may broadly be termed will4 ,the latter view is in accord with biological and historical science4 ,ideas are a later production of mind2 they serve to define more clearly the ends for which we work1 at the same time giving us insight into the best means of attaining them4 ,for an interesting discussion of the primacy of the will1 the reader is referred to ,professor ,paulsen's 8,introduction to ,philosophy10 pp4 #aaa-abb4g #f 8,interest as ,related to ,will10 pp4 #bcg-bda1 ,second ,supplement to ,first ,herbart ,year ,book4 #g ,henry ,holt ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 #gd4 ,involuntary spontaneous attention is subdivided into primitive and apperceiving4 ,the latter especially is of the greatest importance in teaching1 but it rests on the former1 the conditions of which must constantly be taken into account4 ,apperception1 or assimilation1 takes place through the reproduction of previously acquired ideas and their union with the new element1 the most energetic apperception1 although not necessarily the best1 being effected by the ideas rising spontaneously4 ,this topic will be treated more fully below 7#gg74 ,here it suffices to say that the apperceiving attention obviously presupposes the primitive attention2 otherwise apperceiving ideas would never have been formed4 ,the psychological and educational importance of the idea of apperception1 or the assimilation of knowledge1 has been much emphasized in recent years4 ,for a psychological interpretation of the theory1 the reader is referred to ,wundt's 8,human and ,animal ,psychology10#h pp4 #bce-bea4 ,the educational significance of the doctrine has been well brought out by ,dr4 ,karl ,lange1 in his able monograph on 8,apperception40#i ,the subject has been more popularly treated in ,dr4 ,mc,murray's 8,general ,method10#aj and in the writer's 8,essentials of ,method0#aa2 also in a number of other works4 #h ,new ,york1 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahid4 #i ,boston1 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath ,co41 #ahid4 #aj ,bloomington1 ,ill41 ,public ,school ,pub4 ,co41 #ahid4 #aa ,boston1 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath ,co41 #ahic4 #ge4 ,the primitive or original attention depends primarily on the strength of the sense-impression4 ,bright colors and loud speaking are more easily noticed than dark colors and low tones4 ,it would be an error1 however1 to infer that the strongest sense-perceptions are at the same time the most adequate4 ,these quickly blunt the receptivity1 while weak sense-impressions may1 in the course of time1 engender ideation as energetic as that produced by originally obtrusive perceptions4 ,for this reason1 a middle course must be chosen from the first4 ,for children1 however1 the direct sense-perception1 even of a picture1 if the object itself is not to be had1 is altogether preferable to mere description4 ,the presence in the minds of children of ideas--those supplied by instruction itself not excepted--contrary to the new representations to be mastered1 acts as a hindrance or check4 ,this very fact explains why clearness of apprehension is not gained where instruction piles up one thing upon another in too rapid succession4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 in the case of beginners1 so to single out each fact1 to separate part from part1 and to proceed step by step1 that apprehension may be rendered easy for them4 ,a second hindrance to attention is of a more temporary character1 but may nevertheless work much mischief4 ,it makes a vast difference whether the ideas aroused are in a state of equilibrium or not4 ,long sentences in speech and in books are less easily apprehended than short ones4 ,they excite a movement of many albeit connected thoughts1 which do not at once subside into their proper places4 ,now1 just as in reading and writing pauses must be observed1 which is done more easily in short than in long sentences1 instruction in general must have its chosen stopping-places and resting-points at which the child may tarry as long as may be necessary4 ,otherwise the accumulation of thoughts will become excessive1 crowding in upon what follows1 and this upon the next new element1 until finally the pupils arrive at a state where they no longer hear anything4 #gf4 ,the four essentials then for primitive attention are3 strength of sense-impression1 economy of receptivity1 avoidance of harmful antitheses to existing ideas1 and delay until the aroused ideas have recovered their equilibrium4 ,but in actual teaching it will be found difficult to do justice to all of these requirements simultaneously4 ,sameness of presentation should not be carried too far lest the child's receptivity be taxed too heavily4 ,monotony produces weariness4 ,but a sudden change of subject frequently discloses the fact that the new is too remote from what has preceded1 and that the old thoughts refuse to give way4 ,if the change is delayed too long the lesson drags4 ,too little variety causes ennui4 ,the pupils begin to think of something else1 and with that their attention is gone completely4 ,the teacher should by all means study literary masterpieces for the purpose of learning from great authors how they escaped these difficulties4 ,that he may strike the right chord in the earlier stages of instruction1 he should turn particularly to simple popular writers1 ,homer1 for example1 whose story-telling is1 on the other hand1 too general and nave for older pupils who have lost the power to put themselves back into a past period of culture4 ,yet it is safe to say in general1 that classic writers seldom take sudden leaps and never stand still entirely4 ,their method of unfolding consists in a scarcely perceptible1 at any rate an always easy1 advance4 ,they dwell1 indeed1 long on the same thought1 but nevertheless achieve1 little by little1 most powerful contrasts4 ,poor writers1 on the contrary1 pile up the most glaring antitheses without other than the natural result--the antagonistic ideas expel each other and the mind is left empty4 ,the same result threatens the teacher who aims at brilliancy of presentation4 #gg4 ,the apperceiving1 or assimilating1 attention 7#gd71 though not the first in time1 is yet observed very early4 ,it shows itself when little children catch and repeat aloud single1 familiar words of an otherwise unintelligible conversation between adults2 when a little later they name1 in their own way1 the well-known objects that they come upon in their picture-books2 when later still1 while learning to read1 they pick out from the book single names coinciding with their recollection2 and so on in innumerable other instances4 ,from within ideas are suddenly bursting forth to unite with whatever similar elements present themselves4 ,now this apperceiving activity must be exercised constantly in all instruction4 ,for instruction is given in words only2 the ideas constituting their meaning must be supplied by the hearer4 ,but words are not meant to be understood merely2 they are intended to elicit interest4 ,and this requires a higher grade and greater facility of apperception4 ,universally popular poems do not produce their pleasing effect by teaching something new4 ,they portray what is already known and utter what every one feels4 ,ideas already possessed are aroused1 expanded1 condensed1 and consequently put in order and strengthened4 ,on the other hand1 when defects are apperceived1 e4g41 misprints1 grammatical blunders1 faulty drawings1 false notes1 etc41 the successive unfolding of the series of ideas is interrupted so that their interlacing cannot take place properly4 ,here we see how instruction must proceed and what it must avoid in order to secure interest4 ,note4--,the apperceiving attention is of so great importance in instruction that a word or two more will be in place4 ,the highest stage of this kind of attention is indicated by the words--gaze1 scrutinize1 listen1 handle4 ,the idea of the examined object is already present in consciousness1 as is likewise the idea of the class of sense-perceptions looked for4 ,the psychic result turns on the ensuing sense-impressions1 on their contrasts1 combinations1 and reproductions4 ,these are able to induce the corresponding mental states unhindered1 because disturbing foreign elements have already been removed and remain excluded4 ,passing from this highest grade to lower degrees of attention1 we find that the idea of the object is not yet--at least not prominently--present1 that this itself first needs to be reproduced and made more vivid4 ,the question arises whether this can be accomplished directly or only indirectly4 ,in the former case the idea must be in itself strong enough2 in the second it must be sufficiently united with other ideas which it is possible to arouse directly4 ,moreover1 the obstacles to reproduction must be such that they can be overcome4 ,when the apperceiving attention is once under way1 it should be utilized and not disturbed4 ,the teaching must take the promised direction until it has satisfied expectation4 ,the solutions must correspond clearly to the problems4 ,everything must be connected4 ,the attention is disturbed by untimely pauses and the presence of extraneous matter4 ,it is also disturbed by apperceptions that bring into light that which should remain in shadow4 ,this is true of words and phrases too often repeated1 of mannerisms of speech--of everything that gives prominence to the language at the expense of the subject-matter1 even rhymes1 verse-forms1 and rhetorical adornment when used in the wrong place4 ,but that which is too simple must be avoided also4 ,in this case the apperception is soon completed2 it does not give enough to do4 ,the fullest unit possible is to be sought4 ,a rule of vital importance is that1 before setting his pupils at work1 the teacher should take them into the field of ideas wherein their work is to be done4 ,he can accomplish this at the beginning of a recitation hour by means of a brief outline view of the ground to be covered in the lesson or lecture4 #gh4 ,instruction is to supplement that which has been gained already by experience and by intercourse with others 7#cf72 these foundations must exist when instruction begins4 ,if they are wanting1 they must be firmly established first4 ,any deficiency here means a loss to instruction1 because the pupils lack the thoughts which they need in order to interpret the words of the teacher4 ,in the same way1 knowledge derived from earlier lessons must be extended and deepened by subsequent instruction4 ,this presupposes such an organization of the whole work of instruction that that which comes later shall always find present the earlier knowledge with which it is to be united4 #gi4 ,ordinarily1 because their eyes are fixed solely on the facts to be learned1 teachers concern themselves little with the ideas already possessed by the pupils4 ,consequently they make an effort in behalf of the necessary attention only when it is failing and progress is checked4 ,now they have recourse to voluntary attention 7#gc71 and to obtain this rely on inducements1 or1 more often1 on reprimands and penalties4 ,indirect interest is thus substituted for direct interest1 with the result that the resolution of the pupil to be attentive fails to effect energetic apprehension and realizes but little coherence4 ,it wavers constantly1 and often enough gives way to disgust4 ,in the most favorable case1 if instruction is thorough1 i4e41 scientific1 a foundation of elementary knowledge is gradually laid sufficiently solid for later years to build on2 in other words1 out of the elementary knowledge an apperceiving mass is created in the mind of the pupil which will aid him in his future studies4 ,there may be several of such masses2 but each constitutes by itself its own kind of one-sided learning1 and it is after all doubtful whether even here direct interest is implied4 ,for there is small hope that this interest will be aroused in the youth when the years of boyhood have been devoted merely to the mastering of preliminary knowledge4 ,the prospects of future station and calling are opening before him and the examinations are at hand4 #hj4 ,the fact should not be overlooked1 however1 that even the best method cannot secure an adequate degree of apperceiving attention 7#ge-gh7 from every pupil2 recourse must accordingly be had to the voluntary attention1 i4e41 the pupil's resolution4 ,but for the necessary measures the teacher must depend1 not merely on rewards and punishments1 but chiefly on habit and custom4 ,instruction unites at this point with government and training4 ,in all cases where the pupil begins his work not entirely without compulsion1 it is particularly important that he should soon become aware of his own progress4 ,the several steps must be distinctly and suitably pointed out to him2 they must at the same time be easy of execution and succeed each other slowly4 ,the instruction should be given with accuracy1 even strictness1 seriousness1 and patience4 #ha4 ,the voluntary attention is most frequently demanded for memorizing1 for which1 apart from all else1 the presence of interest is not always a perfectly favorable condition4 ,this is true even of spontaneous interest1 for the ideas that rise spontaneously have a movement of their own1 which by deviating from the given sequence may lead to surreptitious substitutions4 ,like observation1 intentional memorizing presupposes a certain amount of self-control4 ,at this point a question arises as to the proper place of learning by heart4 ,committing to memory is very necessary2 use is made of it in every department of knowledge4 ,but memorizing should never be the first thing except when it is done without effort4 ,for if the memorizing of new matter1 which the pupil cannot as yet have associated incorrectly1 costs him an effort1 it is plain that the single presentations encounter some opposition or other by which they are repelled too quickly for their mutual association to take place4 ,the teacher must in this case talk the subject over first1 set the pupil to work upon it1 make him more familiar with it1 and must sometimes even wait for a more opportune moment4 ,where clearness in single perceptions and their association 7#fg et seq47 are still deficient1 these must be attended to first of all4 ,after the ideas have been strengthened in this way1 memorizing will be accomplished more easily4 ,the assigned series should not be too long4 ,three foreign words are often more than enough4 ,many pupils have to be shown how to memorize4 ,left to themselves they will begin over and over again1 then halt1 and try in vain to go on4 ,a fundamental rule is that the starting-point be shifted4 ,if1 for example1 the name ,methuselah is to be learned1 the teacher would1 perhaps1 say successively3 lah1--selah1--thuselah1--,methuselah4 ,some have to be warned against trying to get through quickly4 ,we have to do here with a physical mechanism which requires time and whose operation the pupil himself as little as the teacher should endeavor to over-accelerate4 ,slow at first1 then faster4 ,it is not always advisable to put a stop to all bodily movements4 ,many memorize by way of speaking aloud1 others through copying1 some through drawing4 ,reciting in concert also may prove feasible at times4 ,incorrect associations are very much to be feared2 they are tenacious4 ,a great deal1 to be sure1 may be accomplished through severity2 but when interest in the subject-matter is wholly lacking1 the pupil begins by memorizing incorrectly1 then ceases to memorize at all1 and simply wastes time4 ,the absolute failure of some pupils in memory work may perhaps be partly owing to unknown physical peculiarities4 ,very often1 however1 the cause of the evil lies in the state of false tension into which such pupils put themselves while attempting with reluctance what they regard as an almost impossible task4 ,a teacher's injudicious attitude during the first period1 his remarks1 for instance1 about learning by heart as a thing of toil and trouble1 may lead to this state of mind1 for which perhaps awkward first steps in learning to read have prepared the way4 ,it is foolish to look for means of lightening still more the exercises of children that retain and recite with facility2 but1 on the other hand1 great caution is necessary because there are also others who may be rendered unfit for memorizing by the first attempt of the teacher to make them recite1 or even only to repeat after him1 a certain series of words4 ,in attempting1 by such early tests1 to find out whether children retain and reproduce easily1 it is essential that the teacher put them in good humor1 that he select his matter with this end in view1 and that he go on only so long as they feel they can do what is asked of them4 ,the results of his observations must determine the further mode of procedure4 #hb4 ,however carefully the process of memorizing may have been performed1 the question remains3 ,how long will the memorized matter be retained8 ,on this point teachers deceive themselves time and again1 in spite of universally common experiences4 ,now1 in the first place1 not everything that is learned by heart needs to be retained4 ,many an exercise serves its purpose when it prepares the way for the next1 and renders further development possible4 ,in this way a short poem is sometimes learned as a temporary means for an exercise in declamation2 or chapters from ,latin authors are committed to memory in order to speed the writing and speaking of ,latin4 ,in many cases it is sufficient for later years if the pupil knows how to look for literary helps1 and how to make use of them4 ,but if1 secondly1 that which has been memorized is to remain impressed on the memory for a long time1 forever if possible1 it is only a questionable expedient to reassign the same thing as often as it is forgotten4 ,the feeling of weary disgust may more than offset the possible gain4 ,there is only one efficient method--practice2 practice consisting in the constant application of that which is to be retained to that which actually interests the pupils1 in other words1 that which continually engages the ideas rising spontaneously4 ,here we find the principle that governs the choice of material for successful memorizing4 ,and as to the amount--so much as is needed for the immediate future2 for excessive quantity promotes an early forgetting4 ,besides1 in instruction1 as in experience1 there is a great deal that may not be accurately remembered1 but nevertheless renders abundant service by stimulating the mind and qualifying it for further work4 ,,chapter ,v ,the ,main ,kinds of ,interest #hc4 ,instruction is to be linked to the knowledge that experience provides1 and to the ethical sentiments that arise from social intercourse 7#cf74 ,empirical interest relates directly to experience2 sympathetic interest to human association4 ,discursive reflection on the objects of experience involves the development of speculative interest1 reflection on the wider relations of society that of social interest4 ,with these we group1 on the one hand sthetic1 on the other religious interest1 both of which have their origin not so much in discursive thought as in a non-progressing contemplation of things and of human destiny4 ,the classification of interests into two groups1 namely1 7a7 those which arise from knowledge1 and 7b7 those which arise from association with others1 and the subdivision of each of these into three groups1 making six in all1 is one not of necessity1 but of convenience4 ,the knowledge interests are1 7a7 empirical1 7b7 speculative1 7c7 sthetic2 the interests arising from association are1 7a7 sympathetic1 7b7 social1 7c7 religious4 ,this classification is adopted without criticism by most ,herbartian writers4 ,that the classification is made simply for convenience may be seen from such considerations as the following3-- #a4 ,strictly speaking1 all interests arise from experience1 the social no less than the speculative2 hence experience is not a basis for classification at all4 #b4 sthetic interests1 resting upon contemplation1 need not be put into a group with those that rest upon the perception of cause and effect1 or other relations perceived by discursive reflection4 #c4 ,the same is true for those empirical interests that are supposed to rest upon immediate sense apprehension1 such as the interest in color1 shape1 sound1 taste1 odor4 #d4 ,if perception1 reasoning1 and sensibility are made bases for the classification of interests1 why should not the active volitional powers of the mind become a basis likewise8 ,some claim that pleasure and pain rest primarily upon the motor side of our activity1 rather than upon the sensory4 ,our interest in doing is antecedent to our interest in knowing or feeling4 ,this fact is fully recognized by all ,herbartians in the theory of methods1 though it finds no recognition in their classification of interests4 ,it must be granted1 however1 that ,herbart's classification is convenient1 even if not especially scientific4 ,the empirical interest is the mental eagerness aroused by direct appeal to the senses1 as by novel shapes1 colors1 sounds1 odors1 and the like4 ,its first stage is wonder1 admiration1 fear1 awe4 ,the child that drops his picture-book to chase a butterfly abandons one empirical interest for a stronger one4 ,this form of interest is usually transient2 unless it develops into a new kind of interest1 it is soon abandoned for some other attraction4 ,a primary teacher may catch but cannot hold the attention of a child by sensuous devices leading to nothing beyond themselves4 ,the speculative interest is more permanent than the empirical4 ,it rests primarily on the perception of the relations of cause and effect2 it seeks to know the reasons of things4 ,on this account it is a higher form of apperception1 or mental assimilation4 ,the most fundamental idea in the speculative interest is that of purpose4 ,we want to know the purpose of things1 the function they are to perform1 the end they are expected to reach4 ,thus a child has a key to the understanding of even so complicated a machine as a self-binder1 or a printing press1 provided he sees clearly the purpose of each4 ,until this is perceived the facts are an unintelligible jumble of particulars4 ,a crude form of the speculative interest is seen very early in the child1 when he demands a reason for everything4 ,it always remains the mainspring of intellectual life2 when it ceases to be a motive power to thinking1 thought is dead4 ,the sthetic interest rests upon the enjoyment of contemplation1 when an ideal1 sometimes distinct1 sometimes vague1 can be perceived through a sense medium4 ,in the ,greek statue of ,apollo ,belvidere1 a divinity is represented in marble4 ,in the painting1 ,breaking ,home ,ties1 the feelings of a lad and his mother upon parting are portrayed upon canvas4 ,in music the ideal is usually vague1 in poetry it is clear and distinct4 ,the sthetic value of the latter is enhanced by good oral recitation1 both because appeal is made to an additional sense1 and because the ears of men were attuned to beautiful poetry long before the eye learned to apprehend it4 ,all of these interests1 the empirical1 the speculative1 and the sthetic1 may be classed as individual1 since they rest upon purely subjective grounds4 ,they might belong to any ,robinson ,crusoe who became isolated from his fellows4 ,but the remaining groups1 the sympathetic1 the social1 and the religious1 rest upon the idea of intercourse with others4 ,they are1 therefore1 of supreme importance for civilized life4 ,without the sympathetic coperation of men civilization would become impossible4 ,mephistopheles in 8,faust0 defines himself as 8the ,spirit that ever denies40#ab ,consequently any man who becomes so absorbed in his individual concerns as to deny all social duties and renounce all social benefits becomes thereby a kind of civic devil4 ,the cynics of old repudiated all social obligations1 thus making themselves bitter civic devils1 while the ,cyrenaics1 choosing self-indulgence1 but denying likewise social duties1 transformed themselves into sensualistic civic devils4 ,it is an imperative duty of the teacher1 therefore1 to arouse the social and civic interests of the children1 since upon these as active forces the welfare and possibly the stability of society rest4 ,the school is the place1 the studies and daily intercourse the means1 whereby this class of interests may be aroused4 ,pupils brought up in isolation by private tutors are likely to become non-social in their disposition4 ,idiosyncrasies are fostered1 there being little or no development of ideals of social coperation4 ,the kindergarten1 however1 when rightly conducted1 is nearly always able to foster the social instincts so powerfully that even the lack of later education is not able to obliterate them4 ,when this training is reinforced by the well-governed school1 a solid foundation for civic character is likely to be laid4 ,the studies most important for the fostering of social and civic interests are literature1 history1 civil government1 and geography1 though others have a more or less intimate relation to them4 #ab 8,ich bin der ,geist der stets verneint40 #hd4 ,we cannot expect to see all of these interests unfold equally in every individual2 but among a number of pupils we may confidently look for them all4 ,the demand for many-sidedness will accordingly be satisfied the better1 the nearer the single individual likewise approaches a state of mental culture in which all these kinds of interest are active with equal energy4 #he4 ,as has already been suggested 7#cg71 these six kinds of interest arise from two sources to which historical and nature studies respectively correspond4 ,with this the facts observed in classical high schools 7,gymnasia7 coincide3 pupils usually lean toward one side or the other4 ,it would be a serious blunder1 however1 to affirm1 on this account1 an antithesis between the historical and the natural science interest2 or1 worse still1 to speak of a philological and a mathematical interest instead--as is1 indeed1 not infrequently done4 ,such confusion in ideas should not continue2 it would lead to utterly erroneous views of the whole management of instruction4 ,the easiest means to counteract the evil is a consideration of the multitude of one-sided tendencies that occur even within the six kinds of interest2 we shall be able1 at all events1 to bring out still more clearly the manifold phases of interest that must be taken into account4 ,for the possible cases of one-sidedness are differentiated far more minutely than could be shown by the discrimination of only six kinds of interest4 8,is the ideal education classical or scientific80 ,this question1 which is still debated1 really means1 shall we cultivate chiefly the social or the knowledge interests4 ,the historical1 or culture1 studies belong preminently on the one side1 the natural sciences most largely on the other4 ,herbert ,spencer in #ahfj made a special plea for science studies in his monograph1 8,education10 claiming that such studies are of chief worth both for knowledge and training4 ,at that time classical1 or culture1 studies had possession of almost every institution for higher education1 so that ,spencer's special plea was justified4 ,at present1 however1 science1 which has developed its own methods of instruction1 holds an equal place with social studies in the colleges and universities4 ,when we are asked which half of human interests we will choose1 the knowledge or the social1 our reply can only be3 ,we will abandon neither1 but choose both4 ,both are essential to human happiness2 both are necessary for social and material advance4 #hf4 ,empirical interest becomes one-sided in its way when it seizes upon one kind of objects of experience to the neglect of the rest4 ,when1 for instance1 a person wants to be a botanist exclusively1 a mineralogist1 a zologist2 or when he likes languages only1 perhaps only the ancient or only the modern1 or of all these only one2 or when as a traveller he wishes to see1 like many so-called tourists1 only the countries that everybody talks about1 in order to have seen them too2 or when1 as a collector of curiosities1 he confines himself to one or the other fancy2 or when1 in the capacity of historian1 he cares only about the information bearing on one country1 or one period1 etc4 ,speculative interest becomes one-sided by confining itself to logic or to mathematics1 mathematics perhaps only as treated by the old geometricians2 or to metaphysics restricted possibly to one system2 or to physics narrowed down perhaps to one hypothesis2 or to pragmatic history4 sthetic interest in one case is concentrated exclusively on painting and sculpture2 in another on poetry1 perhaps only on lyric or dramatic poetry2 in still another on music1 or perhaps only on a certain species of music1 etc4 ,sympathetic interest is one-sided when a man is willing to live only with his social peers1 or only with fellow-countrymen1 or only with members of his own family2 while a fellow-feeling for all others is wanting4 ,social interest grows one-sided if one gives himself up wholly to one political party1 and measures weal or woe only by party success or failure4 ,religious interest becomes one-sided according to differences of creed and sect1 to one of which allegiance is given1 while those who hold a different view are regarded as unworthy of esteem4 ,much of this one-sidedness is brought about in later life by one's vocation4 ,but a man's vocation must not isolate him4 ,yet this would happen if such narrowness should make headway in youth4 #hg4 ,a still more detailed analysis of the varieties of one-sidedness would be possible2 it is not needed1 however1 for ascertaining the position of the above-mentioned high school studies among the subjects of instruction calculated to stimulate interest4 ,languages1 to begin with1 form a part of the curriculum2 but why among so many languages is the preference given to ,latin and ,greek8 ,obviously because of the literature and history opened through them4 ,literature with its poets and orators falls under sthetic interest2 history awakens sympathy with distinguished men and the weal and woe of society1 indirectly contributing in either case even to religious interest4 ,no better focus for so many different stimuli can be found4 ,even speculative interest is not slighted if inquiries into the grammatical structure of these languages are added4 ,moreover1 the study of history does not stop with the ancients2 the knowledge of literature also is widened that the various interests may be developed still more completely4 ,history1 if taught pragmatically1 assists speculative interest from another direction4 ,in this respect1 however1 mathematics has precedence2 only1 in order to effect a sure entrance and abiding results1 it must unite with the natural sciences1 which appeal at once to the empirical and the speculative interest4 ,if now these studies coperate properly1 a great deal will be done1 in conjunction with religious instruction1 toward turning the youthful mind in the directions that answer to a many-sided interest4 ,but if1 on the contrary1 the languages and mathematics were allowed to fall apart1 if the connecting links were removed1 and every pupil were permitted to choose one or the other branch of study1 according to his preferences1 mere bald one-sidedness of the kind sufficiently characterized above would be the outcome4 #hh4 ,it is admitted now that not only classical but also public high schools in general should provide for this same many-sided culture1 that is1 should take account of the same main classes of interests4 ,the only difference lies in the fact that for the pupils of the classical high schools the practice of a vocation is not so near at hand2 whereas1 in the public high schools1 there is a certain preponderance of modern literature and history1 together with inability to equip completely with the helps to a manifold mental activity those who purpose to go on4 ,much the same is true of all the lower schools whose aim is to educate4 ,it is different with trade schools and polytechnic institutes2 in short1 with those schools which presuppose a completed education--completed to the extent permitted by circumstances4 ,if1 then1 the programme of a public high school is of the right sort1 it will show as well as the curriculum of a classical preparatory school does1 that an attempt is being made to guard against such one-sidedness as would be the outcome if one of the six main classes of interest were slighted4 ,how one-sidedness under an elective system may be avoided is discussed in a previous section 7#fe74 #hi4 ,but no instruction is able to prevent the special varieties of one-sidedness that may develop within the limits of each main group4 ,when observation1 reflection1 the sense of beauty1 sympathy1 public spirit1 and religious aspiration have once been awakened1 although perhaps only within a small range of objects1 the farther extension over a greater number and variety of objects must be left largely to the individual and to opportunity4 ,to pupils of talent1 above all of genius1 instruction may give the necessary outlook by enabling them to see what talent and genius achieve elsewhere2 but their own distinguishing traits they must themselves answer for and retain4 ,moreover1 the above-mentioned forms of one-sidedness are not all equally detrimental1 because they do not assert themselves with the same degree of exclusiveness4 ,each may1 indeed1 lead to self-conceit2 but this tendency does not attach to all in the same measure4 ,holding to the idea of many-sided interest1 what justification is there for elective studies8 ,to this1 the reply must be made that in elementary and in a part of secondary education the principle of indiscriminate election must be rejected4 ,the only rational election in secondary education1 as already explained 7#fe71 is election among the various members of a group of similar studies4 ,in this way the destination and ability of the pupil may be regarded1 without sacrificing the needed many-sidedness4 ,the case is different in higher education1 however1 for election and many-sidedness are here quite reconcilable4 ,higher education is the comparative study of a few branches4 ,thus1 for example1 on the social side1 the whole civilization of ,greece is focussed now in her political history1 now in her art1 now in her language1 now in her education1 now in her philosophy4 ,the student who studies any one of these subjects thoroughly gets a comparative view of the whole of ,greek life4 ,it is not necessary for him to study them all4 ,the same is true of each important country or epoch4 ,every culture study is an eminence from which the whole is seen4 ,likewise in science1 to study a typical form of life exhaustively by the comparative method gives one an insight into all related life1 as well as many glimpses into physical and chemical science4 ,in a large sense1 therefore1 we study all nature1 whether we elect biology1 physics1 or chemistry1 provided we use the comparative method of higher education4 ,in the college or university1 therefore1 a large amount of election is justifiable4 ,that would be a one-sided course which neglected entirely all social or all science studies4 #ij4 ,under favorable circumstances of time and opportunity1 such as obtain in classical and other high schools1 effort1 as we know1 is not restricted to the initial stimulation4 ,hence the question arises3 ,in what sequence shall the aroused interests be further developed8 ,of instruction-material there is no lack2 we must select and arrange1 guided in the main by what was said on the conditions of many-sidedness and of interest4 ,thus to recapitulate3 there must be progress from the simple to the more complex1 and solicitous endeavor to make spontaneous interest possible4 ,but in applying these principles we must not shut our eyes to the particular requirements and the difficulties in our way4 #ia4 ,the empirical material of languages1 history1 geography1 etc41 calls for specific complications and series of ideas1 together with the network of their interrelations4 ,as to language1 even words are complex wholes1 made up of stems plus whatever elements enter into inflection and derivation1 and further resolvable into single speech sounds4 ,history has its time-series1 geography its network of spatial relations4 ,the psychological laws of reproduction determine the processes of memorizing and of retaining4 ,the mother-tongue serves as a medium through which foreign languages become intelligible1 but at the same time offers resistance to the foreign sounds and constructions4 ,furthermore1 it takes a young boy a long time to get familiar with the thought that far away in time and in space there have been and are human beings who spoke and speak languages other than his own1 and about whom he need concern himself at all4 ,teachers1 moreover1 very commonly proceed on the fallacious and very mischievous assumption that1 because their mode of expression is clear1 it will1 of course1 be understood by the pupil4 ,the resources of child-language increase but slowly4 ,such impediments as these must be removed4 ,geography extends the knowledge of spatial distances1 but the inhabitant of a flat country lacks the sense-images of mountain ranges2 one who grows up in a valley is without the sense-perception of a plain2 the majority of pupils lack the concrete idea of an ocean4 ,that the earth is a sphere revolving about its own axis and about the sun1 for a long time sounds to children more like a fairy-tale than like a statement of fact2 and even educated young men sometimes hesitate to accept the theory of the planetary system because they are unable to comprehend how it is possible to know such things4 ,difficulties of this kind must be met and not massed together unnecessarily4--,for history1 old ruins might serve as starting-points if only the material they furnish do not prove altogether too scanty and is not too recent1 when the object is to take pupils at an early age into the times and places of ,jewish1 ,greek1 and ,roman antiquity4 ,here the only satisfactory helps are stories that excite a very lively interest2 these establish points of support for the realization in thought of a time long vanished4 ,there is still lacking1 however1 a correct estimate of chronological distances down to our own time4 ,this is attained only very gradually through the insertion of intermediate data4 #ib4 ,material for the exercise of reflection1 and so for the excitation of speculative interest1 is supplied by whatever in nature1 in human affairs1 in the structure of languages1 and in religion1 permits us to discover1 or even merely to surmise1 a connection according to general laws4 ,but everywhere--the most common school studies1 such as elementary arithmetic and grammar not excepted--the pupil encounters concepts1 judgments1 and inferences4 ,but he clings to the particular1 to the familiar1 to the sensuous4 ,the abstract is foreign to his mind2 even the geometrical figures traced for the eye are to him particular things whose general significance he finds it hard to grasp4 ,the general is to displace individual peculiarities in his thoughts2 but in his habitual thought-series the well-known concrete crowds to the front4 ,of the general there remains in his mind almost nothing beyond the words used to designate it4 ,called upon to draw an inference1 he loses one premise while pondering the next2 the teacher is obliged to go back to the beginning again and again1 to give examples1 and from them lead up to generalizations2 to separate and to connect concepts1 and by degrees to bring the propositions closer to one another4 ,when the middle terms and extremes have been successfully fused in the premises1 they are still only loosely connected at first4 ,the same propositions are repeatedly forgotten1 and yet must not be reviewed too many times for fear of killing instead of quickening interest4 ,since forgetting cannot be prevented1 it is wise to abandon for a time a large portion of that into which pupils have gained an insight1 but later on to go back to the essentials by other paths4 ,the first preliminary exercises serve their purpose if the particulars are made to reveal the general before generalizations become the material for technical propositions1 and before propositions are combined into inference-series4 ,the processes of association 7#fi7 must not be omitted between the first pointing out of common features and the systematic teaching of their rational connections4 #ic4 sthetic contemplation may1 indeed1 receive its impulse from many interests other than the sthetic1 as also from aroused emotions4 ,art itself1 however1 is possible only in a state of mind sufficiently tranquil to permit an accurate and coherent apprehension of the simultaneously beautiful1 and to experience the mental activity corresponding to the successively beautiful4 sthetic objects adapted to the pupil's power of appreciation must be provided2 but the teacher should refrain from forcing contemplation4 ,he may1 of course1 repress unseemly manifestations1 above all the damaging of objects possessing sthetic value and entitled to respectful treatment4 ,frequently imitative attempts--although very crude at first--in drawing1 singing1 reading aloud1 and1 at a later period1 in translating1 are indications of sthetic attention4 ,such efforts may be encouraged1 but should not be praised4 ,the genuine warmth of emotion1 which in sthetic culture kindles of itself1 is easily vitiated by intensifying artifices4 ,excess of quantity is injurious4 ,works of art appealing to a higher state of culture must not be brought down to a lower plane4 ,art judgments and criticisms should not be obtruded4 #id4 ,the sympathetic interests depend still more on social intercourse and family life than the foregoing classes of interests do on experience in the world of sense4 ,if the social environment changes frequently1 children cannot become deeply attached anywhere4 ,the mere change of teachers and of schools is fraught with harm4 ,pupils make comparisons in their own way2 authority that is not permanent has little weight with them1 whereas the impulse to throw off restraint gains in strength4 ,instruction is powerless to obviate such evils1 especially since instruction itself must often change its form1 thereby giving the impression of a real difference in teachers4 ,this fact makes it all the more necessary that the instruction in history impart to pupils the glow of sympathy due to historical characters and events4 ,for this reason--a reason of momentous significance to the whole process of education--history should not be made to present to pupils the appearance of a chronological skeleton4 ,this rule should be observed with special care during the earlier lessons in history1 since on these depends largely what sort of impression the whole subject will produce at a future time4 ,of religious instruction1 needless to say1 we demand that it shall bring home to pupils the dependent condition of man1 and we confidently expect that it will not leave their hearts cold4 ,but historical instruction must coperate with religious instruction1 otherwise the truths of religion stand isolated1 and there is ground for fearing that they will fail to enter as potent factors into the teaching and learning of the remaining subjects4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,the ,material of ,instruction from ,different ,points of ,view #ie4 ,differences in point of view give rise to conflicting opinions concerning not only the treatment1 but also the choice of subject-matter for instruction4 ,if1 now1 first one opinion then another wins predominance over the rest1 the harmony of the purposes underlying both learning and teaching is wanting4 ,not only that1 but the pupils suffer also directly through the lack of consistency where work is begun on one plan and continued on another4 #if4 ,the teacher in charge of a given branch of study only too often lays out his work without taking account of pedagogical considerations4 ,his specialty1 he thinks1 suffices to suggest a plan2 the successive steps in its organized content will1 of course1 be the proper sequence for instruction to follow4 ,in teaching a language1 he insists that pupils must master declensions and conjunctions in order that he may read an author with them later4 ,he expects them to understand ordinary prose before he passes on to elucidate the finished style of a poet1 etc4 ,in mathematics1 he demands that pupils bring to the subject perfect facility in common arithmetic2 at a more advanced stage they must be able to handle logarithms with ease before formul requiring their use are reached1 etc4 ,in history1 the first thing for him to do is to erect a solid chronological framework to hold the historical facts to be inserted afterward4 ,for ancient history1 he presupposes a knowledge of ancient geography1 etc4 ,this same view which derives the principle determining the sequence of studies from the instruction-material itself1 as though it had been unconditionally and finally settled that such and such things must be taught1 asserts itself on a larger scale in requirements for admission to higher grades or schools4 ,children are to be able to read1 write1 and cipher well before being allowed to enter the grammar school2 promotions to higher grades are to take place only when the goal set for the grade immediately preceding has been reached4 ,the good pupil1 accordingly1 is one who fits into and willingly submits to these arrangements4 ,the natural consequence of all this is1 that little heed is paid to the condition of attention1 namely1 the gradual progress of interest4 #ig4 ,but still another consequence ensues1 occasioning a different point of view4 ,pupils are commiserated on the ground that they are overburdened4 ,all sorts of doubts spring up as to the wisdom of teaching the branches causing the trouble4 ,their future utility is called in question4 ,a host of instances is adduced of adults neglecting and forgetting--forgetting without appreciable loss--that which it cost them so much toil to learn4 ,of course1 examples showing the opposite to be true may also be cited1 but that does not settle the question4 ,it cannot be denied that there are many1 even among the educated1 who aspire to nothing higher than freedom from care by means of a lucrative calling1 or a life of social enjoyment1 and who1 accordingly1 estimate the value of their knowledge by this standard4 ,such a state of things is not mended by a kind of instruction that awakens little interest1 and that in after years constitutes the dark side of reminiscences connected with early youth4 #ih4 ,what is urged in reply is1 generally speaking1 true3 youth must be kept busy2 we cannot let children grow up wild4 ,and their occupation has to be serious and severe1 for government 7#de-ee7 must not be weak4 ,but now1 more than ever1 doubt fastens on the choice of studies4 ,might not more useful things be offered for employment8 ,if1 by way of rejoinder1 the ancient languages are commended as being preminently suited to give pupils diversity of work1 this fact is accounted for by the faulty methods pursued in teaching the other subjects4 ,with the proper method the same many-sided activity would be called forth4 ,for the modern languages especially1 the claim is made that they1 too1 are language studies involving reading1 writing1 translating1 and training in the forms of thought4 ,to this argument the unfortunate answer should not be returned1 that the classical high schools must retain their ,latin and ,greek because they are educating future officials to whom the ancient languages are just as useful1 nay1 indispensable1 as the modern languages to other classes4 ,for1 if the classical studies have once been degraded to the level of the useful and necessary1 the door is thrown open to those who go a step farther still and demand to know of what use ,hebrew is to the country parson1 and ,greek to the practising jurist or physician4 #ii4 ,controversies like these have often been conducted as if the humaniora or humanistic studies were radically opposed to the realia and could not admit them to partnership4 ,in reality1 the latter are at least as much a legitimate part of a complete education as the former4 ,the whole matter has been made worse by the practice of some of the older generation of teachers who1 in order to make the prescribed studies more palatable1 descended to all kinds of amusement and play1 instead of laying stress on abiding and growing interest4 ,a view that regards the end as a necessary evil to be rendered endurable by means of sweetmeats1 implies an utter confusion of ideas2 and if pupils are not given serious tasks to perform1 they will not find out what they are able to do4 ,we must1 however1 note in this connection that there are legitimate occasions even for the sweetening of study1 just as in medicine there is a place for palliatives1 notwithstanding the firm conviction of the physician that remedies promising a radical cure deserve the preference4 ,harmful and reprehensible as habitual playing with a subject is when it usurps the place of serious and thorough instruction1 in cases where a task is not difficult1 but seems so to the pupil1 it often becomes necessary to start him by a dexterous1 cheerful1 almost playlike presentation of that which he is to imitate4 ,superfluous prolixity and clumsiness1 through the ennui alone that they produce1 cause failure in the easiest things4 ,all this applies especially to the teaching of younger children and to the first lessons in a new subject1 e4g41 learning to read ,greek1 the beginning of algebra1 etc4 #ajj4 ,if1 among the conflicting opinions referred to1 there is any vital point of controversy1 it lies in the a priori assumption that certain subjects must be taught 7#if74 ,such an assumption educative instruction cannot allow to be severed from the end aimed at3 the intellectual self-activity of the pupil4 ,this1 and not mere knowledge1 any more than utility1 determines the point of view with regard to the instruction-material4 ,experience and social intercourse are the primary sources of the pupil's ideas4 ,it is with reference to these two factors that we estimate strength or weakness in the ideas1 and decide what instruction may accomplish with comparative ease or difficulty1 at an earlier or at a later period4 ,good child literature turns to these sources even while children are only just learning to read1 and gradually enlarges their range of thoughts4 ,not until this has been done can the question of instruction in one or the other department of knowledge claim consideration4 ,the term educative instruction frequently occurs4 ,it means1 primarily1 instruction that has1 in the broad sense1 an ethical bearing1 or an influence upon character4 ,it is based on the idea that1 not school discipline alone1 but also school instruction in the common branches should be of service to the child in moral and especially in social growth4 ,the studies help to reveal to him his place and function in the world1 they form his disposition toward men and things1 they give him insight into ethical relations4 ,instruction that contains this element of moral training is therefore called educative instruction 7,erziehender ,unterricht74 #aja4 ,the realia--natural history1 geography1 history--possess this one unquestionable advantage1 viz41 easy association with experience and intercourse4 ,partially1 at least1 the pupil's spontaneous ideas 7#ga7 may go out toward them4 ,properly used1 collections of plants1 picture-books1 maps1 will contribute their share4 ,in history1 the fondness of youth for stories is utilized4 ,the fact that these stories are partly taken from old books written in foreign languages1 and that these languages were once actually spoken1 has often to be mentioned in passing1 before the study of these languages themselves is taken up1 nay1 even after they have been begun4 ,it is useless to undertake a demonstration of the utility of the realia4 ,the young do not act for the sake of the more remote ends4 ,pupils work when they feel they can do something2 and this consciousness of power to do must be created4 ,the remark that it is useless to undertake to demonstrate to the young the ultimate utility of natural science studies leads naturally to a distinction between interest in the studies as ultimate ends and as immediate ends4 ,it is suggested in this paragraph that pupils are interested in showing their capacity to accomplish results4 ,it is very evident that one of the teacher's chief anxieties must be to awaken an interest in the studies as ends1 not perhaps in their final utility in life1 but as fields in which useful work can be done even in the immediate present4 ,the chief category by which to measure the pupil's interest in the various activities of the schoolroom is the quality of work that he can be taught to accomplish4 ,one need not go far to learn that children like those studies best in which they can do the best work4 ,this is true in several respects4 ,they are interested in the artistic perfection of what they can accomplish1 as in drawing1 painting1 writing1 the arrangement of arithmetical problems1 so that the page presents a neat appearance1 and so that all the processes are plainly revealed to the eye4 ,they are interested in reading when they can call the words with facility1 with neatness1 without stumbling1 mispronouncing or miscalling--when the tones of the voice are agreeable4 ,the quality of the work1 however1 which appeals perhaps most powerfully to the children1 is that of intellectual comprehension4 ,in the reading class it is a constant delight to discover the finer shades of meaning1 to express them with the voice1 to detect in others any deviation from the true thought4 ,reading in ,english is particularly susceptible to this kind of treatment4 ,for the ,english language being largely devoid of inflections does not show through the form of the words the finer distinctions of thought1 but the mind must perceive these from a text largely devoid of grammatical inflections4 ,it is quite possible1 therefore1 to read in such a manner as to miss all but the most salient points of the matter presented4 ,there is in reading an intensive and an extensive magnitude4 ,our older method of teaching reading was to devote the time to a few extracts from literary masterpieces1 which were exhausted by minute study4 ,the more recent tendency in elementary education is to neglect this side of reading and to devote the time to the cursory reading1 not of extracts1 but of whole masterpieces of literature4 ,the danger of such a proceeding is that the finer qualities of reading will be neglected for the sake of quantitative mastery of a large amount of reading matter4 ,a middle course between the two would doubtless bring better results4 ,it would1 on the one hand1 secure an interest that attaches to masterpieces as wholes1 and1 on the other1 the literary appreciation that comes from minute analysis both in thought and expression of the finer distinctions of thought4 ,in mathematical studies1 the sthetic interest of form1 or the active interest of actual performance of problems1 is not the sole or even the chief interest that should be appealed to4 ,but the pupil should feel that he is making a progressive mastery of the principles of number4 ,it is a pleasure to apply a rule1 to solve a problem neatly2 but it is a still greater pleasure to comprehend thoroughly the meaning of the rule1 to grasp and to feel its universality1 so that although it is not worth while1 as ,herbart suggests1 to urge the ultimate function of mathematics in the life of the world1 it is quite worth while to set up those immediate ends of interest such as appear in the activity of solving problems1 in the sthetic appearance of the work upon paper or board or slate1 and in the comprehension of mathematical principles4 ,these ends are near at hand2 they can be made to appeal to the pupil through the quality of the work that the teacher demands of him4 ,the same is true in the natural sciences4 ,even though the ultimate function of biology is an idea too remote or too complex for the child to grasp with enthusiasm1 the immediate mastery of a principle in physics1 or the discovery of a law of plant life1 or of a fact in chemistry1 may be an end in which the pupil's most intense interest can be excited4 #ajb4 ,geometry has other advantages of association1 advantages we have begun only recently to turn to account in earnest4 ,figures made of wood or pasteboard1 drawings1 pegs1 bars1 flexible wires1 strings1 the use of the ruler1 of compasses1 of the square1 counted coins arranged in long or short1 in parallel or diverging series1--all these may be offered to the eye ad libitum and connected with other concrete objects4 ,they may be made the basis of systematic employment and exercises1 and this will be done more and more when the fact is once grasped that concrete ideas possessing the proper degree of strength constitute the surest foundation of a branch of instruction whose success depends on the manner in which the pupil forms in his mind the ideas of spatial relations4 ,this is not grasped1 of course1 by those who regard space once for all as a form of sense-perception common to all minds alike4 ,a careful study of the data of experience will convince the practical educator that the opposite is true2 for in this respect individual differences are very marked4 ,pupils rarely hit upon geometrical constructions unaided2 the aptitude for drawing1 that is1 for imitating the objects seen1 is met with more often4 ,it is easy by abstraction to form arithmetical concepts out of the apprehension of geometrical relations4 ,to do so should not be regarded as superfluous1 not even when the pupil has already fully entered upon his work in arithmetic4 #ajc4 ,to ,germans the two ancient classical languages do not offer the advantages of easy transition4 ,on the other hand1 the study of ,latin1 even if only moderately advanced1 prepares the soil for the most indispensable modern foreign languages4 ,herein lies an argument against beginning with ,french1 as was often done formerly4 ,the linking of ,latin to ,french will1 moreover1 hardly win the approval of students of languages1 since1 not to mention other reasons1 ,gallicisms are a source of no little danger to ,latinity4 ,the ancient languages require long-continued labor4 ,this fact alone renders it advisable to begin them early4 ,the strangeness of ,latin for ,germans should not lead to the conclusion that the study of ,latin should be commenced late1 but rather that during the earlier years of boyhood it should be carried on slowly4 ,the sounds of foreign languages must be heard early1 in order that the strangeness may wear off4 ,single ,latin words will be easily mastered even by a child4 ,these may soon be followed by short sentences consisting of two or three words4 ,no matter if they are forgotten again for a time4 ,that which is said to be forgotten is not on that account lost4 ,the real difficulty lies in the multitude of strange elements that accumulate in relatively long sentences2 it lies also in the many ways of connecting subordinate clauses1 in the qualifying insertions1 in the order of words1 and in the structure of the period4 ,furthermore1 we must not overlook the fact that children are very slow to acquire the use of dependent clauses1 even in ,german2 their speech for a long time consists merely of a stringing together of the simplest sentences4 ,the attempt to advance them more rapidly in the syntactical forms of ,latin than is possible in their mother-tongue is a waste of time2 and1 besides1 their inclination to study is put to a very severe test4 ,perhaps the most serious defect of secondary education in the ,united ,states is its brevity4 ,languages are not begun until the pupil is well on to fifteen years old4 ,a reform most urgently needed in this country is the extension of high school influence to the two grades of the grammar school lying immediately below the high school4 ,this would enable pupils to begin foreign languages at about the age of twelve1 or two years later than they are now begun in ,germany4 #ajd4 ,the foregoing remarks show plainly enough that in educative instruction some subjects will be found a comparatively easy and sure means of awakening intellectual activity1 while others involve a more strenuous effort1 which1 under certain circumstances1 may end in failure4 ,the concrete studies are nearest to the pupil2 mathematics requires some apparatus to render it tangible and vivid2 to get pupils started properly in modern languages can be but a slow process4 ,but this difference is1 after all1 not fundamental enough1 nor does it affect the whole course of instruction sufficiently1 to constitute a serious pedagogical objection to the study of foreign languages1 so long as there is time to teach them4 ,their fruits mature later4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,the ,process of ,instruction #aje4 ,whether or not instruction will begin well and go on properly depends on a combination of three factors1--the teacher1 the pupil1 and the subject taught4 ,failure of the subject-matter to excite the pupil's interest is followed by evil consequences moving in a circle4 ,the pupil seeks to avoid the task set for him2 he remains silent or returns wrong answers2 the teacher insists on getting a correct answer2 the lesson is at a standstill2 the pupil's dislike grows more intense4 ,to conquer dislike and indolence1 the teacher now refuses altogether the assistance he could give2 as best he may1 he compels the pupil to collect his thoughts1 to work by himself1 to prepare his lesson1 to memorize1 even to apply in written exercises what he knows but imperfectly1 etc4 ,the presentation proper has come to an end2 at all events it has ceased to be consecutive4 ,now the right kind of an example is wanting1 which the teacher should set--one of reading1 thinking1 writing1 that implies complete absorption in the subject4 ,and yet it is this example concretely illustrating how to take hold of the subject1 how to present it1 and how to associate it with related subjects1 which effects the best results in good instruction4 ,the teacher must set such an example1 the pupil must imitate it as well as he can2 the teacher must render him active assistance4 #ajf4 ,instruction is either synthetic or analytic4 ,in general1 the term synthetic may be applied wherever the teacher himself determines directly the sequence and grouping of the parts of the lesson2 the term analytic1 wherever the pupil's own thoughts are expressed first1 and these thoughts1 such as they chance to be1 are then1 with the teacher's help1 analyzed1 corrected1 and supplemented4 ,but there are many things under this head that need to be defined and discriminated more sharply4 ,there are analyses of experience1 of facts learned in school1 and of opinions4 ,there is one kind of synthesis which imitates experience2 there is another kind which consists in constructing designedly a whole whose component parts have been presented one by one previously4 ,here1 again1 many differences arise1 owing to diversities inherent in the subject-matter4 #ajg4 ,since instruction builds on the pupil's experience1 we shall deal first with that form of synthesis which imitates1 or copies experience4 ,we may name it purely presentative instruction4 ,the term synthetic1 on the other hand1 will henceforth be reserved for that form of instruction which reveals clearly the process of building up a whole out of parts presented singly beforehand4 ,the purely presentative method of instruction1 although practicable only to a limited extent1 is nevertheless so effectual as to entitle it to separate treatment1 so effectual that the teacher--and this is the main thing--will do well to train himself carefully in its use4 ,skill in this direction is the surest means of securing interest4 ,it is customary to demand that the pupil acquire facility in narration and description1 but we ought not to forget that here above all the teacher must lead the way by setting a good example4 ,to be sure1 there is an abundance of printed narrative and description1 but reading does not produce the effect that hearing does4 ,viva vox docet4 ,as a rule1 we cannot take for granted that a boy has even the skill and patience required for reading2 and if perfect facility has been attained1 the reading is done too rapidly4 ,there is too much hurry to get to the end1 or too much delay over the wrong passages1 so that the connection is lost4 ,at the most1 we may let the pupils that read exceptionally well read aloud to the class4 ,by far the surer means to the end in view is the oral presentation by the teacher4 ,but in order that such presentation may produce its effect undisturbed1 it needs to be perfectly free and untrammelled4 #ajh4 ,the first requisite for free oral presentation is a cultivated style of speaking4 ,many teachers need to be warned against the use of set phrases1 against mere expletives1 faulty enunciation1 pauses filled in with inarticulate sounds1 against fragments of sentences1 clumsy parentheses1 etc4 ,in the second place1 adaptation of the vocabulary employed1 both to the subject-matter and to the intelligence of the pupils1 and adjustment of phraseology to the pupil's stage of culture are essential4 ,lastly1 careful memorizing4 ,at first this should be done almost verbatim4 ,at all events1 the teacher must prepare his lesson as though he had his pupils before him and were talking to them4 ,later on he must memorize at least the facts and turning-points of the subject to be presented1 in order that he may not be compelled to consult books or look at notes4 ,a few remarks on some particular points will be made farther on4 #aji4 ,the effect of the teacher's narrative and description should be to make the pupil realize events and objects as vividly as if they were actually present to his eye and ear4 ,the pupil must1 therefore1 have actually heard and seen much previously4 ,this recalls to our minds the necessity1 pointed out before1 of first enlarging the young pupil's range of experience1 when found too limited1 through excursions and the exhibition of objects4 ,again1 this form of instruction is adapted only to things that might be heard or seen4 ,we must therefore avail ourselves of all the help pictures can give4 ,if the presentation has been a success1 the reproduction by the pupils will show that they recall1 not merely the main facts1 but largely even the teacher's language4 ,they have retained more exactly than they have been asked to do4 ,besides1 the teacher who narrates and describes well gains a strong hold on the affections of his pupils2 he will find them more obedient in matters pertaining to discipline4 ,the foregoing paragraphs on presentative instruction may seem strange to the ,american teacher4 ,we must remember1 however1 that they were written before the modern era of text-books1 when1 in point of fact1 the teacher was practically the sole reliance for the facts that the children were to learn4 ,it is the custom1 even to the present1 in the lower schools of ,germany1 to rely very largely upon the teacher for the information which the children are to acquire4 ,in ,american schools1 this method is not followed1 for so enormous has been the development of text-book industry1 that in every field of education the richest material is offered to the schools in the form of text-books4 ,there is1 however1 still a legitimate field for purely presentative instruction in the earlier grades of the elementary school1 especially in literature and in the beginnings of history4 ,the most primitive method of instruction1 as we see clearly in the earlier periods of ,grecian education1 was the narrative4 ,the children of those days received their instruction in history1 mythology1 literature1 geography1 by listening to the tales of heroes and heroic deeds narrated by their parents1 by wandering minstrels and rhapsodists4 ,to this day1 the teacher who can narrate biographical or literary matter in an attractive manner is sure to awaken intense interest in the children under her control4 ,perhaps one facility which the modern teacher needs to acquire more than any other is the capacity of happy1 vivacious1 interesting narrative cast1 at the same time1 into simple yet excellent literary form4 ,such a teacher is an undoubted treasure in the primary school4 ,there is occasion1 moreover1 in nearly all school study for the presentation of supplementary material in almost every school study4 ,this is true especially in literature and history4 ,it is also true in geography and in mathematics1 as where1 for instance1 the teacher narrates the methods of the ancient ,egyptians in the development of geometrical ideas1 or those of the ,greeks4 ,if one is teaching a foreign language1 one may always find happy opportunities for introducing bits of history1 biography1 or other illuminating material4 ,in the sciences nothing is more interesting to children1 more stimulative of renewed effort1 than narratives concerning our great scientists1 their desire for education1 their struggle to attain knowledge1 their misfortunes1 and their triumphs4 ,every aspect of instruction may be supplemented and illumined by instruction given in the purely presentative form of narration4 #aaj4 ,while skilful presentation produces results akin to an extension of the pupil's range of actual experience1 analysis helps to make experience more instructive4 ,for1 left to itself1 experience is not a teacher whose instruction is systematic4 ,it does not obey the law of actual progress from the simple to the complex4 ,things and events crowd in upon the mind in masses2 the result is often chaotic apprehension4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as experience presents aggregates before it gives the component particulars1 it becomes the task of instruction to reverse this order and to adjust the facts of experience to the sequence demanded in teaching4 ,experience1 it is true1 associates its content2 but if this earlier association is to have the share in the work of the school that it should have1 that which has been experienced and that which has been learned must be made to harmonize4 ,with this end in view we need to supplement experience4 ,the facts it has furnished have to be made clearer and more definite than they are1 and must be given an appropriate embodiment in language4 #aaa4 ,let us consider first the earliest stage of analytic instruction4 ,in order to understand the significance of this method of teaching1 we must examine the nature of a child's experience4 ,children are indeed in the habit of familiarizing themselves with their surroundings2 but the strongest impressions predominate4 ,objects in motion have greater attraction for them than objects at rest4 ,they tear up and destroy without troubling themselves much about the real connection between the parts of a whole4 ,in spite of their many why's and what for's1 they make use of every tool or utensil without regard for its purpose2 they are satisfied if it serves the impulse of the moment4 ,their eyes are keen1 but they rarely observe2 the real character of things does not deter them from making a plaything of everything1 as their fancy may direct1 and from making one thing stand for every other thing4 ,they receive total impressions of similar objects1 but do not derive concepts2 the abstract does not enter their minds of itself4 ,these and similar observations1 however1 apply by no means equally to every child4 ,on the contrary1 children differ greatly from one another2 and1 with the child's individuality1 his one-sidedness already begins4 #aab4 ,it follows at once that the first thing to be done1 in a school where many children are to be taught together1 is to make the children more alike in their knowledge4 ,to this end the store of experiences which they bring with them must be worked over4 ,but the homogeneity of pupils1 desirable as it is1 is not the sole aim4 ,we must take care also that the whole of instruction acts upon the particular stock of ideas of each pupil taken individually4 ,we must seek those points of contact and departure to which attention has repeatedly been called above1 and hence cannot leave the pupil's mass of ideas in its original crude state4 ,thoughtful teachers have long since testified to the necessity of this requirement1 which mere scholars in their zeal for learning fail again and again to appreciate4 ,niemeyer1 in his widely read work1 opens his treatment of the particular laws of instruction with a chapter entitled3 8,the ,first ,steps in awakening ,attention and ,reflection through ,instruction1 or ,exercises in ,thinking40 ,these exercises are no other than the elementary processes of analytic instruction4 ,he says3 8,when the age1 the health1 and the strength of children have made instruction proper seem expedient1 the first lesson should be one of the kind described in the chapter heading4 ,such exercises might be profitably continued in some form or other until the ninth or tenth year1 and probably even later4 ,the fact that it is not easy to describe them in a word very likely explains why we fail to find them in most programmes of private and public schools4 ,that at last some attention is being given even in the common schools to this matter is one of the venerable ,canon ,rochow's imperishable services to education40 ,pestalozzi1 in his book for mothers1 strikes out in the same direction4 ,it will not serve the purpose1 to be sure1 to confine oneself1 as he does1 to a single object2 still1 the kind of exercises is indicated very definitely by him2 indeed1 more definitely1 in some ways1 than by ,niemeyer4 #aac4 ,the notions of pupils about surrounding objects1 that is1 notions in which the strongest impressions predominate 7#aaa71 must be made to approach uniformity first4 ,this is accomplished by uniform reproduction4 ,on this point ,niemeyer says1 8,the teacher should begin by talking with his pupils about those objects which are1 at the time1 affecting their senses directly4 ,pointing to these objects1 he asks the pupils to name them4 ,he then passes on to things that are not present1 but that the children have seen or felt before4 ,at the same time he exercises their powers of imagination and expression by making them enumerate what they are able to recall4 ,suitable material3 everything in the schoolroom2 the human body2 everything pertaining to food1 dress1 comfort2 things found in the fields1 in the garden1 in the yard2 animals and plants so far as they are known by the children40 #aad4 ,the next step consists in pointing out the main facts of a given whole1 the relative position of these parts1 their connection1 and their movability1 if they can be moved without damage4 ,to this are properly linked the simplest facts concerning the uses of things4 ,at the same time children are taught how they must not use things1 and how1 instead of ruining them1 they ought to look after them and use them with care4 ,the abundance and number of things1 their size1 form1 and weight1 should likewise be referred to as early as this stage1 and should furnish occasion for comparisons4 ,but something more is needed to give distinctness to the ideas of pupils1 and to prepare the way for future abstract thinking4 ,beginning first with the objects1 we derive from them the predicates by searching out the attributes2 this done1 we must in turn make the predicates our starting-point1 and classify the objects under the heads thus obtained4 ,this distinction has been made before by ,pestalozzi2 it is one of fundamental importance in the preparation for generalization4 ,while engaged in such work pupils will of themselves learn to compare1 to discriminate1 and1 in some instances1 to observe more accurately3 erroneous notions due to an active imagination will be corrected by the appeal to experience as the source of knowledge4 #aae4 ,of what remains to be done1 the most important task consists in securing a comprehensive view of a somewhat extended time-series1 of which objects1 together with their natural or artificial origins1 are members4 ,an elementary knowledge will thus be gained1 especially of the simplest facts about manufacturing processes1 and about intercourse among human beings1 which facts will serve subsequently as the groundwork for instruction in natural history and geography4 ,but for history also the way must be prepared by referring1 although only in the most general way1 to times when the utensils and tools of the present had not yet been invented1 when the arts of to-day were as yet unknown1 and when people were still without those materials that are now imported from foreign countries4 #aaf4 ,it does not follow1 because no definite periods are set apart for the instruction described1 that it is not being given at all4 ,we may find it incorporated1 to a large extent1 with something else1 particularly with the interpretation of elementary reading matter1 which forms part of the first work in the mother-tongue4 ,nevertheless1 a subject that is taught only incidentally is always liable to suffer1 if not from indifference1 at least from inadequate treatment4 ,on the other hand1 we cannot fail to recognize that the appointment of separate periods for analytic instruction may prove difficult1 owing to the fact that the rate of progress depends so largely on the stock of ideas pupils bring with them1 and on their readiness to utter what they think and feel4 ,besides1 while ,niemeyer expressly says1 8,children taught in this manner know nothing of tedium10 he also hastens to add1 8but it is easy to spoil them by too rapid changes of subject40 ,the same1 or similar bad consequences1 may result from other school exercises where the teacher himself supplies a profusion of instruction-material1 and so relieves his pupils of the trouble of gathering such material from their own recollections4 ,on the whole1 therefore1 it will be well enough to set apart but few hours1 or weeks1 for the first attempts2 and these can be made a part of the lessons in the mother-tongue4 ,in private instruction the difficulty spoken of is not encountered4 ,besides1 the ample opportunities afforded for observing the pupil's store of ideas make it easy to devise a suitable plan for the earliest analytic teaching4 ,in the foregoing paragraphs on analytical instruction1 the question naturally arises1 8,is such instruction to be regarded as an end in itself1 or as a means for preparing the mind for more perfect assimilation of the subject-matter to be presented from day to day in the various studies80 ,since the time these paragraphs were written1 not only ,germany herself1 but also ,america has gone through a varied experience with respect to what we call object teaching4 ,it was at one time conceived that a specific hour should be set apart each day for instructing the children in the observation of objects4 ,in other words1 object lessons were a distinct part of the programme4 ,it was supposed that in this way the children could be made conscious of the significance of their environment1 and that it was highly desirable that such an end should be brought about4 ,in ,germany the same effort was undertaken under the name of ,anschauungsunterricht1 but since the multiplication of text-books1 and the increased pressure upon the schools brought about through the introduction of new subjects of study1 it has been found inadvisable to devote a specific period of the day to isolated analytic instruction upon objects4 ,such instruction1 however1 has by no means passed from the field of usefulness1 even in our very best schools4 ,the necessity of appealing powerfully to previous experience1 in and out of the schoolroom1 as a basis for understanding a matter presented in the daily lessons1 is everywhere recognized4 ,from being an end of school work1 therefore1 analytic instruction has passed to the realm of a useful means for arousing the mental activity of the children concerning the regular lessons of the schoolroom4 ,it is1 in modern terms1 an apperceptive basis for all instruction4 #aag4 ,at a later time analytic instruction reappears in other forms1 those of review and the correction of written exercises4 ,the teacher has presented a body of facts2 he has furnished the helps necessary for the solution of certain problems4 ,what he has given1 the pupils are expected to produce again in their review exercises and essays4 ,where necessary1 their work is analyzed and corrected4 ,in conducting reviews a pedagogical blunder is apt to be made--a blunder that brings on the evils specified in a former paragraph 7#aje72 review is confounded with examination4 ,the two are radically different4 ,if the teacher could be sure of both perfect attention and full comprehension1 he himself would go over the ground covered by his first talk once more for the purpose of assisting the memory2 the pupils would not be called upon to take part4 ,in this case1 we should have neither analytic instruction nor anything resembling an examination4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 pupils are usually asked to reproduce what and as much as they remember4 ,this is easily taken to mean that they should have retained everything1 which1 strictly speaking1 is not expected even in an examination4 ,the purpose of an examination is to ascertain the actual state of knowledge1 whatever it may prove to be2 reviews are conducted for the purpose of increasing and deepening knowledge4 ,if an examination is followed by praise or censure1 well and good2 a review has nothing to do with either4 ,since reviewing and drilling1 which resembles the former1 claim the larger portion of the time devoted to school work1 it will be worth while to examine the subject somewhat more closely4 #aah4 ,repetition of several ideas intensifies those ideas4 ,it does more than that4 ,if they are of opposed nature1 the reciprocal arrest that ensues resists their fusion less during the reproduction than it did in the original act of apprehension4 ,the fusion increases in completeness1 and1 besides1 becomes more uniform1 i4e41 the weaker ideas hold their own better alongside of the stronger4 ,again1 if a series of successive ideas is repeated1 the first members of the series of themselves tend to reproduce those that follow before the latter are repeated--a tendency gathering energy in proportion to the frequency of repetition4 ,this fact underlies the increase in rapidity which comes with growing skill4 ,extraneous thoughts1 however1 very easily interrupt the psychical process of reproduction4 ,let us assume that the teacher's presentation has been an adequate one and has lasted no longer than the capacity of the pupils permitted1 only a few minutes1 perhaps4 ,he himself might now repeat2 but asks his pupils to do so1 lest their thoughts begin to wander from the subject in hand4 ,he comes to their aid and repeats only when their own attempts have failed4 ,but very often they have retained some things and forgotten others4 ,in this case it becomes his business to reinforce the ideas striving to rise into consciousness1 but without disturbing their movement4 ,in other words1 he should prompt neither more nor less1 should lend aid neither sooner nor later1 than will serve to make the pupil's train of thought coincide as nearly as possible with that of the presentation properly given4 ,unless this is done1 the reproduction fails to effect the required association and facility4 ,the same ground is gone over again and again in vain2 fatigue sets in1 and the wrong association takes place--a matter for grave apprehension4 ,if the pupils are in an unresponsive mood1 the teacher must go slow1 for the time being2 if interest is lacking1 he cannot incite the proper movement of ideas4 ,if the teacher is not conducting the repetition with skill1 the fragmentary answers of the pupils indicate well enough after a time that the desired current of thought has not been generated4 #aai4 ,we have taken it for granted that the presentation was an adequate one--one that might serve as a model 7#aje74 ,where this adjustment of means and ends extends1 as it may1 even to the language1 the latter should be closely followed in the repetition1 but without pedantic insistence on unimportant details4 ,but very frequently the essential feature of the presentation is found in the sequence of thought4 ,in that case expression will vary1 and the teacher is satisfied at first if1 in repeating1 the pupils furnish evidence that they understand2 he allows them to use their own words1 though less appropriate4 ,he must1 still1 however1 look carefully after the given sequence1 which the repetition is to reproduce with the greatest possible coherence4 #abj4 ,the case is different when later on larger sections of a course of successful instruction are to be repeated4 ,during all the earlier stage particular facts were moved far apart 7#fh7 for the sake of clearness2 by means of conversation1 or of incidental mention in other recitations1 or through experience itself 7#aaj71 provision was made also for association of various kinds4 ,now it becomes the business of repetition in the first place to gather together into a smaller compass what has been expanded2 next it subserves the purpose of systematic arrangement1 and lastly1 is often of use for making the instruction more complete and for adding the difficult to the comparatively easy4 ,here the mode of presentation itself changes to meet the requirements of a more advanced grade of work4 ,but repetition immediately after the presentation1 or1 perhaps1 during the next hour1 will1 as a rule1 remain necessary even at this higher stage4 #aba4 ,here1 where compression and insertions are to modify the material of instruction1 we need to inquire into the forms of connection peculiar to the objects1 together with those essential for use1 and to determine accordingly the series and web of ideas to be formed in the mind of the pupil4 ,for such organization of ideas1 repetition is1 at all events1 far better adapted than presentation1 which can traverse only one of several series at a time1 and which passes into repetition the moment an effort is made to bring the other series forward also4 ,in natural history1 for example1 various classifications occur1 in history the ethnographic divisions are crossed by the synchronistic1 while the history of culture demands yet another basis of association2 in geography each noted city is to be a landmark1 enabling the pupil to take his bearings in every direction1 but cities on rivers suggest river basins and mountain ranges2 in mathematics each theorem is to be kept ready for separate application1 but it has also its special place in the chain of demonstrations2 grammatical rules1 too1 should be available when called for1 but it is very necessary at the same time that the pupil become perfectly at home in his grammar and know where to look for information4 ,the teacher who1 by skilful repetition1 does justice to these multiform associations1 is not always the one who shows most skill in systematic presentation1 and who knows best how to make prominent the main thoughts1 and to link to them those that are subordinate4 #abb4 ,the impulse to repeat must1 as a rule1 come from points with which pupils are familiar4 ,it is further requisite that the teacher1 in conducting the repetition1 adapt himself to their train of thought2 he must not adhere strictly to an inflexible plan4 ,the necessary corrections require delay here and there2 the corrected statements often constitute new points from which to take bearings4 ,at times the pupils themselves should feel free to indicate which topics it seems most necessary to repeat4 ,by so doing they assume a certain responsibility as to the rest1 and are made to realize all the more their obligation to make up deficiencies4 #abc4 ,the correction of written work likewise falls under the head of analytic instruction1 but the toil exceeds the profit if written work is demanded too early4 ,while writing the pupil consolidates his ideas4 ,now if he does so incorrectly1 the effect is mischievous1 his mistakes cling to him4 ,moreover1 the teacher has to be on his guard lest1 while orally correcting and reading over the composition1 he overestimate the pupil's attention4 ,when many slips occur1 when a whole forest of mistakes is found to have sprung up1 the pupil becomes indifferent to them all2 they make humble1 but they also dishearten4 ,such tasks should1 therefore1 be very brief1 if the pupil is weak2 nay1 it is preferable to have none at all1 as long as progress is being made more surely by a different kind of exercises4 ,the teacher who assigns home work with a view to saving labor in school miscalculates utterly2 his work will soon have become all the harder4 ,to many it seems that the exercises they assign should be very easy1 rather than short2 and to make them easy1 outlines1 turns of expression1 everything1 is indicated as definitely as possible4 ,this is a delusion4 ,if composition has any purpose1 it consists in making the pupil try to see what he can do without the teacher4 ,now if the pupil actually gets started on the exercise1 the teacher ought not to step in his way with all sorts of prescriptions4 ,if the pupil fails to make headway1 the attempt was premature4 ,we must either wait or else shorten the task1 no matter if it should shrink to no more than three lines4 ,three lines of the pupil's own work are better than three pages written by direction4 ,it may take years before the self-deception due to leading-string methods is superseded by a true estimate of the pupil's actual power4 #abd4 ,the case is quite different if1 before writing1 the pupil has been assisted orally in developing his thoughts4 ,this kind of analysis is of special importance in later boyhood2 but the teacher should see to it that the pupil gives free expression to his own opinion4 ,if he does1 a theme has been furnished for discussion during which the teacher will avoid harsh dissent in proportion to his eagerness to accomplish something with his pupil4 ,to rebuke presuming boldness or impudence is a different matter1 of course4 ,self-chosen themes are preferable by far to those that are assigned1 only they cannot be expected of the majority of pupils4 ,but when they do turn up1 the character of the choice alone1 but still more the execution1 will throw light on the opinions current among the pupils1 and on the impressions which not only the school1 but experience and society as well1 have been constantly at work to produce4 ,the writer's individuality reveals itself even more distinctly4 ,every teacher must be prepared to come upon these individual traits1 however much he might prefer to have his pupils reflect himself4 ,it would be futile if he attempted to correct their essays by interpolating his own view2 he would not by that means make the latter their own4 ,the mode of treatment can be corrected2 but other opportunities will have to serve for the rectification of opinions--provided this can ever be undertaken successfully4 #abe4 ,with regard to synthetic instruction1 we assume at the outset that it will be supported during the whole course of training by the merely presentative and the analytic methods of teaching1 wherever these are in place4 ,otherwise the ultimate result will always remain problematical1 particularly the union of learning and life4 ,synthetic instruction brings in much that is new and strange2 and we must take advantage of the universal charm of novelty4 ,it must coperate with acquired habits of application1 and with the interest peculiar to each subject taught4 ,the affairs1 not of ,italy alone1 but also those of ,greece and the ,orient1 have become a matter of everyday discussion4 ,there has been a general diffusion of knowledge about the facts and laws of nature4 ,hence even younger children cannot help but pick up many things now that will tend to forestall the indifference or aversion with which school studies were regarded not longer than fifty years ago4 ,they seemed to be something foreign to life4 ,at present1 it cannot prove difficult to turn curiosity in the direction of distant lands1 and of past ages even1 especially where collections of rare articles and antiquities are accessible4 ,this stimulation would not persist long1 however1 in the face of the labor of learning1 if there did not exist at the same time a widespread conviction of the necessity of study1 a conviction reinforced by the legal requirements of schools1 particularly of the gymnasia4 ,accordingly1 families exert a good influence with respect to the industry of children2 and with the right sort of government and training in school1 willingness to learn is easily secured4 ,less easy is it to incite a genuinely scientific desire to know1 one that will endure beyond examinations4 ,this brings us back to many-sidedness of interest 7#hc-id74 ,if interest were not already the end of instruction1 we should have to look upon it as the only means whereby the results of teaching can be given permanence4 ,interest depends partly1 it is true1 on native capacity1 which the school cannot create2 but it depends also on the subject-matter of instruction4 #abf4 ,synthetic instruction must offer subjects capable of arousing lasting and spontaneously radiating interest4 ,that which affords only temporary pleasure or light entertainment is of too little consequence to determine the plan of operation4 ,nor can the choice of such studies be recommended as stand isolated1 as do not lead to continued effort2 for1 other reasons aside1 we are unable to decide beforehand to which of the main classes of interest 7#hc-id7 the individual pupil will especially incline4 ,the first place belongs rather to those studies which appeal to the mind in a variety of ways and are capable of stimulating each pupil according to his individuality4 ,for such subjects ample time must be allowed2 they must be made the object of prolonged1 diligent effort4 ,we may then hope that they will take hold in some way1 and we shall be in a position to know what kind of interest they have inspired in one pupil or another4 ,where1 on the contrary1 the end of the thread of work is soon reached1 it remains questionable whether any effort at all will be produced1 let alone a lasting impression4 #abg4 ,the subject-matter having been chosen1 the treatment must be adjusted to it in such a way as to bring it within reach of the pupils4 ,for the exercises growing out of such treatment1 the well-known rule holds in general3 the easy before the difficult1 or1 more specifically1 that which prepares the way before that which cannot be firmly grasped without preliminary knowledge4 ,to insist1 however1 on perfect mastery in this respect1 is often equivalent to scaring away interest4 ,absolute proficiency in preliminary knowledge is a late achievement1 nor is it attained without fatigue4 ,the teacher has to be satisfied if the mastery acquired is such that what is lacking can1 without serious delay1 be added by him in practice4 ,to make the road so level as to do away entirely with the necessity for occasional leaps 7#if71 means to provide for the convenience of the teacher rather than for that of the pupils4 ,the young love to climb and jump2 they do not take kindly to an absolutely level path4 ,but they are afraid in the dark4 ,there must be light enough for them to see by2 in other words1 the subject must lie spread out before their eyes with such distinctness that each step is seen to be a step forward1 which brings them perceptibly nearer to a distant goal4 #abh4 ,with regard to the sequence of studies we need to distinguish first of all between preparatory knowledge and ability to do4 ,as is well known1 the latter1 even when it has been fully attained1 can be secured against loss only by long-continued practice4 ,hence the practice of the pupil's skill must go on constantly from the time when he first learns to apply what he knows4 ,but merely preliminary knowledge1 which produced fatigue before it was mastered1 may be allowed to drop out of the memory4 ,enough remains to make it easier to resume the subject at a later time 7#ib1 #ajc74 ,accordingly1 not the preliminary knowledge just referred to1 but the pupil's facility in doing1 supplies the principle determining sequence4 ,in the case of all essential elementary information--knowledge of rudiments of grammar1 arithmetic1 and geometry--it will be found expedient to begin with the simplest elements long before any practical application is made4 ,in such first lessons individual facts only are presented4 ,these are made clear to the pupils 7#fh1 #fi72 here and there they are associated4 ,fatigue is avoided if possible4 ,even if the earliest attempts at memorizing should prove successful1 it will be safer1 instead of relying on this fact1 to postpone the whole matter for a time4 ,at a later period the same subject is resumed from the beginning without any demand on the teacher's part that some things should have been retained4 ,this time1 however1 it will be possible to introduce a somewhat larger quantity of the instruction-material1 and it will not be too early to make pupils perceive the connection between individual facts4 ,if pupils experience difficulty in comprehending1 we should be careful not to advance too rapidly2 the greater the difficulty1 the greater the need for caution4 ,when the time comes for practical application1 an earnest1 diligent effort must be insisted on1 but only for tasks of moderate length1 and without exacting too much by harsh means4 ,not every pupil can do everything4 ,sometimes a pupil will at a later period acquire the power he does not possess now1 if only his chances for success have not been spoiled by earlier blindness on the part of his teacher4 #abi4 ,again1 corresponding to each stage of instruction1 there is a certain capacity for apperceiving attention 7#gg7 which deserves careful consideration4 ,for we ought to avail ourselves of the comparatively easy in order to facilitate indirectly what would otherwise prove difficult and time-consuming4 ,we need to distinguish between insertion and continuation1 and to connect this distinction with the division of ideas into spontaneous and induced 7#ga74 ,it is easier to fill in between familiar points than it is to continue1 because the continued series is in close contact with the well known only at the starting-point4 ,easiest of all is insertion between free-rising ideas1 between those ideas that occur to the pupil spontaneously1 when he has been led into a certain field of consciousness4 ,hardest of all1 and least certain of success1 is the continuation of lessons that can be revived in consciousness only by a laborious effort of memory4 ,intermediate in difficulty are the insertion of new elements between induced or reproduced ideas1 and continuation on the basis of free-rising1 or spontaneous1 ideas4 ,that there may be many gradations besides is of course self-evident4 ,the teacher who knows his pupils well will be able to make frequent use of these distinctions4 ,only a very general outline of their application can be given here4 ,the realia and mathematics can be connected more easily than other studies with the pupil's experience 7#aja1 #ajb74 ,if the teacher has properly availed himself of this advantage1 he may count on ideas that rise spontaneously1 and his task will then consist in first establishing a few suitable cardinal points so that insertions may be made farther on4 ,languages present more serious difficulties4 ,it is true that progress in the vernacular is made through apperception by the pupil's earlier attainments in his mother-tongue1 and through the insertion of the new into the old4 ,but in foreign languages1 which associate themselves with the mother-tongue only gradually1 apperception and insertion cannot take place until after some knowledge of the language has been acquired4 ,and this knowledge must grow considerably before we can reasonably look for spontaneous ideas4 ,if now the reproduced ideas become encumbered with additional new ones1 worst of all through mere continuation1 we need not wonder if the result is useless chaos4 ,this explains1 no doubt1 why the attempts to teach the ancient languages ex usu1 after the manner in which the language of a foreign country is easily learned by residence in that country1 had to end in failure4 ,one who learns ,french in ,france has persons and actions before his eyes2 he easily infers that which concerns him4 ,such apperception takes place undoubtedly by means of spontaneous ideas with which the foreign language becomes associated4 ,before long the language itself becomes an apperceiving factor and participates in the process of learning4 ,for the ancient languages1 on the contrary1 a grammatical working basis is needed first1 especially a knowledge of inflectional endings1 pronouns1 and particles4 ,the blunder should not be made1 to be sure1 of beginning with a marshalling of the hosts of grammar1 as though grammar itself needed no base of operations4 ,long practice of what is most necessary must precede4 ,but the worst plan would be to start in with cursory reading2 in other words1 to continue without making sure of anything4 ,even cursory reading1 however1 produces good results under one condition2 namely1 the existence of a lively interest in the contents4 #acj4 ,when the thoughts of the reader hasten on in advance of the words and get hold of the general sense correctly1 the required apperception is performed by means of spontaneous ideas together with the insertion of whatever was not inferred4 ,but this presupposes a very favorable relation of the book to the reader4 ,hence texts used in the teaching of a language must be chosen with very great care1 and their contents explained4 ,such work should not be slighted in favor of grammar2 on the other hand1 as much grammar must be given as is necessary4 ,some of the essentials will have to precede the reading2 complementary facts will be presented in connection with the reading2 other portions of the grammatical apparatus will be introduced at suitable halting-places4 ,written exercises belong elsewhere and stand in a different relation to grammar4 ,the interest in an author depends very largely on historical preparation2 here we cannot fail to discover connection between philology and the so-called real studies4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,remarks on the ,plan of ,instruction as a ,whole #aca4 ,where many diverse means are to coperate for the attainment of one end1 where many obstacles have to be overcome1 where persons of higher1 equal1 and lower rank enter as factors requiring consideration1 it is always a difficult matter to keep the end itself1 the one fixed goal1 steadily in view4 ,in instruction the difficulty is increased by the fact that no one single teacher can impart the whole1 and that consequently a number of teachers are obliged to depend on one another4 ,but for this very reason1 however much circumstances may vary the courses of study1 the common end1 namely1 many-sided1 well-balanced1 well-connected interest1 in the achievement of which the true development of mental powers consists1 needs to be lifted into prominence as the one thing toward which all details of procedure should point4 #acb4 ,no more time1 we need to realize at the outset1 should be demanded for instruction than is consistent with the proviso that the pupils retain their natural buoyancy of spirits4 ,this must be insisted on1 and not merely for the sake of health and physical vigor2 a more direct argument for our present purpose lies in the fact that all art and labor employed to keep the attention awake will be thwarted by the disinclination to study caused by sitting too long1 and even by excessive mental application alone4 ,forced attention does not suffice for instruction1 even though it may be had through disciplinary measures4 ,it is urgently necessary that every school have not only spacious schoolrooms1 but also a playground2 it is further necessary that each recitation be followed by an intermission1 that after the first two periods permission be granted for exercise in the open air1 and that the same permission be given after the third period if there is a fourth to follow4 ,still more urgent is the demand that pupils shall not be deprived of their hours of needed recreation by an excessive amount of school work to be done at home4 ,the teacher who loads pupils down with home tasks in order to dispense as much as possible with perhaps uncertain home supervision1 substitutes a certain and general evil for a possible and partial one4 ,the neglect of such precautions has given rise in recent times to very bitter complaints1 which will continue to be heard in future for similar reasons4 ,violent gymnastic exercise is not the means to put a stop to them4 ,they threaten to lead to another extreme--such restrictions upon instruction as will make an inner unity of work impossible4 ,the subjects of fatigue and school hygiene have now grown to unexpected dimensions4 ,many periodicals are devoted to them1 while the volume of literature bearing upon them has passed the stage where one person can be expected to command it all4 ,in his 8,bibliography of ,school ,hygiene10 published in the 8,proceedings of the ,national ,educational ,association for #ahih10 ,professor ,william ,h4 ,burnham enumerates four hundred and thirty-six standard works1 articles1 and journals dedicated to this cause4 ,many of these books1 like those of ,eulenberg and ,bach1 or ,burgerstein and ,netolitzky1 comprise hundreds of pages1 being based on extended experiment and research4 #acc4 ,the time properly belonging to instruction must not be scattered4 ,the deep-rooted practice of assigning two hours per week to one study and two hours to another1 each lesson separated from the next by an interval of two or three days1 is absurd1 because incompatible with continuity of presentation4 ,of course1 if the teacher can stand this arrangement1 the pupils will have to endure it4 ,the subjects of instruction must be taken up in order that each may have its share of continuous time4 ,to give a whole term to each is not always practicable2 frequently shorter periods will have to suffice4 ,again1 one subject must not be split into several1 according to the names of its branches4 ,if1 for example1 we should set apart separate hours for ,greek and ,roman antiquities and again for mythology in addition to the time designated for the reading of ancient authors1 separate hours for the systematic survey of the branches of knowledge besides those reserved for ,german in the highest class of the gymnasium1 separate hours for analytic geometry alongside of algebra1 we should tear asunder where we ought to join together1 and should dissipate the time at our disposal4 ,saving time depends on methods better than these1--on proficiency in presenting a subject and skill in conducting recitations4 ,despite the protest here entered1 ,german schools still adhere to the plan of presenting many subjects simultaneously1 few hours per week being devoted to each4 ,american schools are fairly free from the reproach1 it being an exception to find standard subjects taught less than four or five times per week4 #acd4 ,as boys grow older1 they may derive a great deal of profit from reading and doing many things by themselves4 ,following their own choice1 they develop in accordance with their individual traits4 ,we question1 however1 the wisdom of calling for reports on such outside pursuits4 ,pupils of ordinary capacity should not be made ambitious to imitate what they are not fitted for2 extensive reading must not impair feeling and thinking4 ,breadth of learning is not identical with depth1 and cannot make up for lack of depth4 ,instead of reading1 some engage in the study of a fine art4 ,others are compelled at an early age to give lessons in order to support themselves4 ,these learn while teaching4 ,the essentials of a coherent scheme of studies must not be dependent on outside reading2 they must be embraced in the plan of instruction itself4 #ace4 ,from beginning to end the course of study must be arranged so as to provide for each of the main classes of interest4 ,the empirical interest1 to be sure1 is called forth everywhere more easily than any of the other kinds4 ,but religious instruction always fosters sympathetic interest2 in this it must have the assistance of history and language study4 sthetic culture at first depends on the work in the mother-tongue2 it is desirable to have1 in addition1 instruction in singing1 which at the same time promotes the health of the pupil4 ,later on1 the ancient classics contribute their share of influence4 ,training in thinking is afforded by analytic1 grammatical1 and mathematical instruction2 toward the end1 also1 by the study of history1 which then becomes a search for causes and effects4 ,coperation of this sort is to be sought everywhere2 the authors to be studied must be selected with this end in view1 and interpreted accordingly4 ,if there is a defect in ,herbart's scheme of interests as a guide to the selection of the studies of the curriculum1 it lies in the fact that the interests named are too exclusively applied to the pupil's individual life1 and not enough to his life as a member of the social whole4 ,there is an important sense in which even natural science1 which may be expected to cultivate the speculative interests1 is social2 for science becomes truly significant only when it contributes to the service of men4 ,the fact that we now live in an industrial age1 that life is preserved from disease in so large a measure1 that the well-being of every community is advancing so rapidly1 that universal education is now a fact rather than a dream1 is due to the application of science to human welfare4 ,consequently1 we are not restricted to a few humanitarian topics1 like history and literature1 for the development of our social interests4 ,we find that every study has its sociological as well as its personal bearings4 ,on the other hand1 since all studies are both subjective and objective in the interests they arouse1 it would be possible to awaken all the six classes of interest enumerated by teaching but a fraction of what we now consider needful in a good curriculum4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that the six classes of interest1 at best1 indicate what the quality of our teaching should be1 not with sufficient accuracy what subjects should be taught4 ,the latter is determined quite as much by social as by psychological needs4 ,,section ,,iii ,,training ,,chapter ,i ,the ,relation of ,training to ,government and to ,instruction #acf4 ,training looks toward the pupil's future4 ,it is founded on hope1 and shows itself1 to begin with1 in patience4 ,it tempers government1 the object of which might perhaps be realized more speedily by greater rigor4 ,it moderates even instruction in case the latter puts too great a strain upon the pupil4 ,but it also combines with government as well as instruction1 and lightens their work4 ,training consists primarily in a certain personal attitude1 identical if possible with a kind way of treating pupils4 ,this implies readiness on the part of the teacher to listen to the wishes and utterances of the pupil1 who1 in the midst of strangers1 looks to his teacher 7and to the family in charge of his education7 for sympathy and support4 ,but training becomes active where the pupil needs help1 especially help against his own weaknesses and faults1 which might frustrate the hopes centred in him4 #acg4 ,training insists on becoming conduct2 it encourages cheerfulness of disposition4 ,in either case it remains within limits compatible with the occupations connected with government and instruction4 ,the pupil is never to lose sight of the subject on which he is engaged2 it would be bad if a desire to show off1 or to amuse himself1 should take possession of him and cause him to forget his work4 ,the wise teacher will be glad to make himself personally agreeable to his pupil as long as the conduct of the latter does not call for the opposite treatment4 ,supervision grows less irksome in consequence4 ,gentle words forestall1 if anything can1 all severer measures4 #ach4 ,the teacher does not look upon the progress resulting from his teaching with feelings of indifference4 ,his sympathy1 even solicitude it may be1 coperates powerfully with the greater or lesser degree of interest awakened in the learner4 ,training1 however1 can never be made a substitute where there is no interest or1 worse still1 where indifference has become positive dislike4 #aci4 ,in instruction the presence of interest cannot be simply assumed2 just as little can good intentions on the pupil's part always be presupposed in training4 ,one thing1 however1 must be taken for granted3 the pupil must not have come to feel that the discipline is weak and the instruction poor4 ,any defect in either direction must therefore be traced to its source and remedied4 ,when pupils feel free to do as they please1 when they think they have good cause to blame the teacher for their failure to make progress1 his manner will be of no avail2 and futile attempts only make matters worse4 #adj4 ,in some cases training becomes blended with government to such an extent that it can scarcely be distinguished from the latter4 ,as an example1 we may mention the large educational institutions conducted on a military basis1 where the individual pupil is carried along by the general system1 rather than made the object of special care4 ,in other cases1 training and government remain farther apart than is necessary2 an instance of this is when a strict father keeps himself at a distance1 and leaves the business of training1 within the prescribed rigid limits1 to the tutor of his children4 ,at all events1 a distinction must be made between the two concepts1 training and government1 in order that the teacher may know what he is doing1 and may notice what is perhaps lacking2 we are justified in adding1 in order that he may save himself useless effort4 ,for training is not uniformly effectual1 regardless of circumstances2 the teacher needs to be watchful in this matter in order that the opportune moment for doing what can be done may not escape him4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,aim of ,training #ada4 ,while the aim of instruction was rendered sufficiently determinate1 as we saw above 7#ag1 #fd1 #fe71 by the injunction1 be perfect1 the aim of training1 which supplements educative instruction1 comprehends virtue as a whole4 ,now virtue is an ideal1 the approximation toward which is denoted by the term morality4 ,again1 since1 generally speaking1 a child passes on from mere capacity for culture to culture itself1 from the indeterminate to fixedness of knowledge1 the approximation to virtue consists likewise in development toward stability4 ,where conduct in moral affairs vacillates1 there is a deficiency2 where something morally hateful becomes confirmed1 there is a defect4 ,excluding both1 we define the aim of training properly as moral strength of character4 8,training0 means such will-training as conduces to the formation of good character2 8government0 means such training as conduces to good order4 ,the first is for a permanent1 the second for an immediate1 purpose4 ,in government we can appeal both to a positive and a negative means4 ,the positive means is interest in a study and the affairs of the schoolroom2 the negative means is inhibition of disturbing impulses4 ,as ,professor ,james1 in his 8,talks on ,psychology10#ac points out1 this inhibition may be of two sorts1--that of forcible suppression1 and that of substitution4 ,a teacher who uses negative means of inhibiting mischief or inattention1 employs command or punishment4 ,this method1 though sometimes seemingly unavoidable1 often results in mental strain1 if not permanent alienation between teacher and pupil4 ,the method of substitution attempts to secure inhibition of the undesirable state of mind by giving rise to a set of favorable ideas strong enough to displace it4 8,if1 without saying anything about the street disturbances10 which may be distracting the attention of your pupils1 8you open a counter attraction by starting some very interesting talk or demonstration yourself1 they will altogether forget the distracting incident1 and1 without any effort1 follow you along40 ,training1 however1 has a more difficult task4 ,it must succeed in implanting what may be called regulative principles in the mind4 ,it must furthermore succeed in establishing habits of conduct that will enable the pupil to become self-governing4 ,that is1 we must establish in him habits of feeling and action that will enable him to substitute the higher for the lower good1 or1 at least1 instantly to inhibit the temptation to evil4 ,this is a task not for a day or a year1 but for the whole school period4 #ac ,james1 8,talks on ,psychology10 p4 #aic1 ,henry ,holt ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 #adb4 ,in succeeding chapters character and moral conduct will each have to be differentiated more minutely4 ,for our present purpose we need only to remind ourselves that the determinateness of the will1 which is called character1 depends not only on willing1 but also on not willing4 ,the latter is either a deficient or a denying willing1 which repels or rejects4 ,stern methods of governing1 which bar access to everything that might lead astray1 are likely to produce a deficient will rather than the permanence of formed strength2 with the end of school days1 the dreaded opportunities arrive after all1 and the pupil may quickly undergo a change beyond recognition4 ,the task of training must therefore be thought of as embracing both affirmative willing and rejecting4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,differentiation of ,character #adc4 ,our will activities result from ideas4 ,different masses of ideas give rise to different will action2 hence the difficulty experienced in harmonizing and unifying the manifold acts of will4 ,the various groups of ideas do not simply succeed one another in consciousness2 the relation of one to the other may also be that of apperception4 ,apperceiving attention is not confined to sense-perception 7#gg72 it embraces inner perception as well4 ,the process of apperception1 however1 consists rarely or never in mere perceiving4 ,it involves more3 one mass of ideas exerts a determining influence on the other4 ,now1 since each may be the source of will action1 it happens that often one act of will accepts or rejects another4 ,again1 conscious of himself preminently as a being that wills1 man gives commands to himself and decides concerning himself2 he seeks to acquire self-control4 ,in such efforts he makes himself more and more the object of his own observation4 ,that part of his will activity which his self-observation reveals to be already in existence1 we call the objective part of character4 ,to the new will action1 on the other hand1 which first springs into existence in and with self-examination1 we give the name subjective part of character4 ,the subjective side of character can attain its full development only during the years of maturity4 ,its beginnings1 however1 reach back into boyhood1 and its normal growth during adolescence is noticeably rapid1 due allowance being made for variations of kind and degree in different individuals4 ,the assumption of the unconditional primacy of ideas can no longer be seriously entertained4 ,just as there is an unfolding of ideas in sensation1 perception1 apperception1 and rational insight1 so there is an unfolding of our volitional life in impulse1 conscious will action1 and the control of conduct in accordance with the regulative principles of moral obligation4 ,knowledge and will doubtless spring from a common root1 but they are not primarily so related that volition waits on knowledge4 ,impulse is antecedent to idea1 while in the last analysis and in the highest realm of mind1 the actual is subordinate to the ideal1 the ought is more powerful than the is4 ,in other words1 there is1 as ,dr4 ,harris maintains1 a sense in which the will is self-determining1 even though the extent to which this self-active control obtains is uncertain4 ,as ,natorp says1#ad 8,it is folly to call upon the weak to be strong1 to concentrate consciousness upon the categorical imperative1 so that the inflexible demands of the ought shall be complied with40 ,yet even in the weak there is a bar of consciousness or perhaps conscience before which judgment must be pronounced as to the worthiness or unworthiness of a given line of conduct4 ,it is the function of moral education--and this includes all education--to make the weak strong1 to strengthen the good impulses1 to clarify the insight1 to accustom the mind to dwell on the right set of ideas1 to cultivate desirable feelings and interests4 ,in this process of moral development1 the world of ideas has perhaps all the validity claimed for it by ,herbart4 ,what is here called the 8subjective0 side of character pertains to that regulation of conduct which arises from its examination before the bar of consciousness as to its agreement or disagreement with the regulative principles of moral obligation4 ,it is that advanced stage of development in character in which the mind is consciously self-directive4 ,naturally it is later than the 8objective0 side1 where action is more spontaneous1 more governed by impulses1 more subject to hypnotic suggestion2 in short1 more subordinated to 8ideo-motor0 activity and less governed by reflection4 #ad ,natorp1 8,socialpdagogik10 p4 #i1 tr4 ,fromman1 ,stuttgart1 #ahii4 #add4 ,in view of the very manifold volitional elements which the objective foundations of character may obviously contain1 it will facilitate a survey if we distinguish 7#a7 that which the pupil does or does not endure willingly1 7#b7 that which he does or does not long to have1 7#c7 that which he does or does not like to do4 ,now one1 now the other class predominates1 the strongest controlling and restricting the rest4 ,but this restriction is not always an easy matter4 ,accordingly the objective phase of character attains at first to inner harmony only with difficulty4 #ade4 ,in consequence of frequent repetitions of similar acts of will1 general concepts are gradually formed in the subjective side of character1 concepts comprehending both the similar will actions already present under similar circumstances1 and the requirements man sets up for himself with a view to determining his willing one way or another4 ,these requirements fall largely within the province of prudence2 they pertain to forethought and cautious reserve1 or1 may be1 to action1 in order that an end may be gained by the choice of suitable means4 ,the boy wants to be wiser than the child2 the youth wiser than either4 ,in this way man seeks to rise above himself4 #adf4 ,moral conduct is not always furthered by man's effort to surpass himself1 so that the teacher's task becomes a twofold one1--a watching and directing not only of the objective but also of the subjective side of character4 ,temperament1 native bent1 habit1 desire1 and passion fall under the former2 to the latter belong the frankness or cunning displayed by the pupil1 and his habitual method of practical reasoning4 #adg4 ,as a rule1 we may consider it auspicious for character building if the pupil1 instead of being swayed by moods and whims1 is constant in his willing4 ,such uniformity as requires no effort we may designate by the expression memory of will4 ,when a pupil possesses this natural advantage1 the objective part of his character easily arrives at harmony with itself4 ,he sees that among his many preferences relative to enduring1 having1 doing1 one imposes restrictions upon the other2 that it is often necessary to submit and endure in order to have and do that which is desired2 that pursuits of which he is fond do not always yield what he longs to have1 and so on4 ,when these truths have become sufficiently clear to him1 he soon comes to a point where he decides which things he cares about a great deal1 and which less4 ,he chooses1 and choice largely determines character1 primarily character in its objective aspects4 ,in the course of the development of the subjective part of character1 there are formed in succession resolves1 maxims1 and principles1 a process involving subsumptions1 conclusions1 and motives4 ,it will cost many a struggle before these motives can assert themselves4 ,the strength of a character depends on the agreement between its two parts1 the objective and the subjective4 ,where there is want of accord1 the character is weak4 ,but both must be morally good2 where that is not the case1 strength ceases to be desirable4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,differentiation of ,morality #adh4 ,pupils at once active and kindly are not rare1 and so far as the ideas of perfection and good-will are concerned1 give rise to no anxiety1 at least not at first4 ,with a firm government1 moreover1 they are easily induced to make the golden rule their own1 and they soon become disposed to yield in contention1 or rather1 become more careful about picking a quarrel4 ,accordingly1 with reference also to equity and justice1 they cause little anxiety4 ,in time they gain mental balance1 the basis of genuine self-control1 and are now on the road to inner freedom4 ,in short1 they are in possession of that which1 in the light of fundamental ethical ideas1 constitutes morality4 ,but these constituents of moral conduct are not found together in every one1 nor do they always remain together4 ,side by side with the praiseworthy traits mentioned1 others of an opposite nature frequently manifest themselves2 it becomes evident that the latter are not excluded1 and thus the former do not determine the character4 #adi4 ,in order to exclude the morally evil1 the praiseworthy traits of the objective side of character need to be reinforced by the good resolutions of the subjective part4 ,these resolutions1 to be worth anything morally1 must rest on that theoretical judgment whereby the pupil through examples comes to distinguish between better and worse in willing4 ,as long as his judging lacks clearness1 energy1 and completeness1 his resolutions are without a foundation in his mind and heart4 ,they are hardly more than memorized words4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the theoretical judgment has become interwoven with the totality of interest growing out of experience1 social intercourse1 and instruction1 it creates a warm affection for the good wherever found1 an affection which influences not only all of the pupil's efforts of will1 but also the manner in which he assimilates what instruction and life henceforth offer4 #aej4 ,finally1 in order to fortify moral decisions1 we must avail ourselves of the assistance derived from the logical cultivation of maxims1 from the systematic unification of the same1 and from their constant application in life4 ,here the organic connection between character growth and the formation of habits of reflection becomes apparent2 training is1 therefore1 obviously unable to accomplish its work except in conjunction with instruction4 ,as soon as a pupil gets a clear notion that a presented ideal of conduct promotes the true realization of his own being1 he is in a position to acquire an interest in reaching that ideal4 ,an end1 hitherto remote1 comes nearer1 so that it begins to exercise influence upon the conduct that leads to it4 ,convention1 appeal1 or even compulsion from without1 are now reinforced by the good resolutions arising from the pupil's own subjective states4 ,here we see the interaction of intellectual and emotional capacities4 ,the intellect perceives relations1 thus bringing into consciousness a new ideal2 this distant end is mediated inasmuch as desire or feeling impels the pupil to enter upon a course of conduct whose stages lead to the ideal goal4#ae #ae ,see ,dewey1 8,interest as ,related to ,will10 reprint by the ,national ,herbart ,society for #ahii1 pp4 #ae-af4 ,,chapter ,v ,helps in ,training #aea4 ,the function of training does not consist1 it is true1 in always restraining and meddling2 still less in ingrafting the practices of others to take the place of the pupil's self-activity4 ,nevertheless1 refusal and permission are so much a part of training that the pupil becomes far more dependent through training than mere government could make him4 ,in government a few rules may be enforced very strictly1 while in other respects the boy is left to himself2 in training a similar relaxation of vigilance is scarcely ever permissible4 ,only the strongest grounds for confidence in a pupil would justify such a course4 ,the watchful teacher1 even without aiming to do so1 always shows some degree of approbation or dissatisfaction4 ,in many cases this is all that is necessary2 at times1 with sensitive pupils1 even this is too much4 ,unaccustomed censure hurts them more than was intended1 while no evidence1 however slight1 of approval1 escapes their notice4 ,the teacher should be considerate in his treatment of such sensibility4 #aeb4 ,with regard to restraint of freedom1 keenness of sensibility is more common4 ,in this connection another point also calls for consideration4 ,freedom is of the utmost direct importance to formation of character1 provided it issues in well-weighed and successful action4 ,for from success springs the confidence of will whereby desire ripens into decision4 ,where rational action may be looked for1 freedom of action must be granted2 where the opposite is true1 the early appearance of a vivid consciousness of self-activity is fraught with danger4 ,frequent censure and curtailment of freedom generally blunt sensibility1 rather more1 however1 sensibility to words than to restrictions4 ,accordingly1 where repetition of censure is necessary1 the language may and should vary4 ,on the other hand1 the teacher's practice with respect to permission and prohibition must1 where possible1 be felt to be permanent1 even if it were only to confine the granting of the same permission to stated times1 in accordance with an adopted habit4 ,lack of uniformity1 except for obvious reasons1 impresses pupils as arbitrariness and caprice2 fixed limits are endured more easily4 #aec4 ,the sensibilities are irritated least by mere directions1 by daily reminding1 by calls at the appointed hour1 without words of reproach4 ,there are numerous details of daily life which must be placed under the rule of order1 but it would be unwise to make more of them than they deserve4 ,sharp reprimands ought not to be wasted on petty acts of negligence2 they are needed for important things4 ,rules must be obeyed2 but a light punishment1 one that does not wound the feelings1 is more suitable here than harsh words could be4 #aed4 ,closely related to the foregoing is the cultivation of habits that imply endurance1 or the bearing of deprivation without murmur1 or even an inuring to positive hardships4 ,in efforts tending in this direction it is not sufficient merely to refrain from hurting the pupil's feelings2 youthful good humor and love of fun must be allowed free expression besides4 #aee4 ,mischievous consequences follow if children become accustomed to frequent1 unnecessary gratification of desires1 or to a round of artificial pleasures which include neither work nor exercise4 ,to mention only one such consequence1 the attendant blunting of the sensibilities renders ineffectual numerous minor aids of training which may be employed to good advantage with unspoiled children4 ,it takes little to give children a great variety of pleasures when great moderation is a matter of daily practice1 and for this very reason we need to husband1 as it were1 our resources for giving enjoyment1 in order that much may be accomplished with little4 ,harmless games1 particularly1 should not be spoiled for children by making them feel that they must cultivate the staid behavior of adults4 ,their own ambition fills them only too early with the desire to appear no longer as children4 #aef4 ,the good teacher's watchfulness will extend even to petty details1 which may indeed prove momentous enough in his little world4 ,these are not so important1 however1 as the mutual relations of the coperating factors3-- 7#a7 ,relation between ,action and ,rest4 ,the powers of the child must be given something to do1 but exercise is to further their growth and hence must not be carried to the point of exhaustion4 ,now and then a boy must convince himself by experience that great things may be achieved by strenuous effort1 but severe tests of this kind must never be permitted to become the rule4 7#b7 ,relation between that which puts down and that which lifts up4 ,the means of training that humble and those that encourage should balance as nearly as possible4 ,that which rises of its own accord requires no raising up2 but when along the whole course of training criticism perceptibly exceeds encouragement1 it loses its effectiveness and often embitters pupils more than it benefits them4 7#c7 ,relation between ,restraint and ,freedom4 ,the child's surroundings and companionship should afford protection against temptation1 but his environment must be sufficiently ample and rich to prevent much longing for that which is outside4 #aeg4 ,the outcome is uncertain in the case of those aids to training whose effect on the sensibilities of the pupils cannot be foreseen4 ,some of them are1 nevertheless1 well worth trying1 final judgment being suspended until after the result has been observed4 ,under this head belong especially the strictly pedagogical punishments and rewards which are patterned after the natural consequences of doing or not doing4 ,the boy who comes late loses the anticipated enjoyment2 if he destroys his things1 he must do without them2 over-indulgence is followed by bitter medicine2 tattling by removal from the circle in which matters requiring discretion are discussed1 etc4 ,such punishments do not subserve moral improvement1 but they warn and teach a lesson4 ,to what extent they will do so we are often unable to tell beforehand2 a profitable reminiscence may be retained at all events4 ,the discipline of consequences has been much emphasized by ,herbert ,spencer in his 8,education40 ,its limited usefulness in moral training is pointed out in the foregoing section4 ,acting like a mechanical law1 it tends to have the same effect upon the feelings that a physical law has4 ,how could one's moral sensibilities be impressed by the law of gravitation8 ,nature makes us prudent1 but scarcely good4 #aeh4 ,sometimes the question is how to set pupils on the right track again4 ,they have grown listless1 for instance1 or pursue their tasks with reluctance4 ,here we may profitably resort to a sudden interruption by a change of employment4 ,it happens occasionally that pupils1 physically strong1 are guilty of very bad behavior that persists in spite of admonitions and punishments1 or reappears in another form1 but which is1 after all1 at bottom1 only the result of a state of ill humor that can easily be corrected4 ,an unexpected1 trifling present1 an unusual act of attention1 will very likely break down the pupil's reserve1 and when the cause of the trouble has once been ascertained1 it will be possible to discover a remedy4 #aei4 ,in the case of those that are weak physically1 furtherance of health combined with persevering patience is the first and chief duty4 ,but kindness should not degenerate into weak indulgence2 on the other hand1 close supervision must take the place of every form of harsh treatment4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,general ,method of ,training #afj4 ,the distinctions relative to character and morality 7#adc-aej7 furnish the thread of reflection on this subject4 ,concisely stated1 the function of training is to support1 to determine1 and to regulate2 to keep the pupil1 on the whole1 in a tranquil and serene frame of mind2 to arouse him occasionally by approval and reproof2 to remind at the proper moment1 and to correct faults4 ,a more definite significance will be imparted to this brief summary by a comparative study and application of the ideas analyzed in the preceding chapters4 ,while we may accept the statement that the function of training is to support1 to determine1 and to regulate1 we must not forget to ask3 ,to what end shall it do these things8 ,the answer is1 that though the means of moral training are always psychological1 the ends are always social4 ,support must hold the pupil up to social standards1 the directive power of the teacher must be exercised for social ends1 while all regulation of the pupil's activities must point to the same result4 ,there is scarcely a virtue to be named that does not find its ultimate meaning in its application to conduct as affecting others4 ,this is true even in primitive society4 ,in modern urban society it is not only true1 but vastly important4 ,the discussion in ,chapter ,,vi is psychological throughout4 ,it must be the purpose of the annotation to point out the social implications4 #afa4 ,first1 what is meant by the supporting activity of training becomes clearer if we recall the remarks made concerning memory of the will 7#adg7 as opposed to the thoughtlessness usually ascribed to youth4 ,the thoughtless boy does not remember past acts of will4 ,he stands in need of being supported by training4 ,this1 further analysis shows1 is done in two ways3 by holding him back from the wrong course1 and by holding him up to the right course4 ,training presupposes an efficient government and the obedience consequent to it4 ,by implication1 the pupil would not dare to disobey a command if given4 ,but commands ought to be employed sparingly1 and only when inevitable4 ,imposed too frequently1 they would preclude self-development2 if given to adolescents for any but obvious and urgent reasons1 obedience would not long continue4 ,in short1 government acts at intervals4 ,but the pupil cannot be permitted to live in a state of lawless liberty in the meantime4 ,he must remain sensible1 be it ever so little1 of certain limits which he is not allowed to overstep4 ,this result is the aim of the supporting function of training4 ,but the pupil1 even though he be generally obedient1 does not obey every one1 nor under all circumstances1 nor always fully1 promptly1 and without opposition2 and when he once fails to comply with gentle words1 he will be still less ready to yield to a severe manner toward himself4 ,of course1 the teacher must know on what support he may depend2 the father needs to have made up his mind how far he would be willing to go with coercive measures if necessary2 the private tutor1 to what extent he may count on the backing of parents2 the teacher in a public institution1 how far his course of action would be upheld by his superiors4 ,but all this involves an appeal from training to government1 a step to be avoided as much as possible4 ,most of the unpleasant cases of intractability1 where recourse to government becomes unavoidable1 are the gradual result of continued weak indulgence4 ,of such cases no account is taken here1 and justly so1 since1 apart from all else1 even defiant obstinacy1 provided restraint has not been cast off utterly1 soon breaks down and gives way to remorse when it is met by serious and deliberate firmness4 ,the most obvious ways that the school has of securing a good 8memory of will0 are those by which it enforces the well-known school virtues1--regularity1 punctuality1 silence1 and industry4 ,it is to the acquisition of these habits that the government1 or discipline1 of the school is chiefly directed4 ,dr4 ,wm4 ,t4 ,harris has pointed out in detail the significance of this acquisition in the development of character4#af ,it is interesting to note how the teacher's personal authority is reinforced by social pressure both within and without the school4 ,the ,superintendent of a city of thirteen thousand inhabitants reports that but #adfb cases of tardiness occurred during a whole school year4 ,the pupils of each room are given a brief holiday1 from time to time1 provided nobody in that room is tardy during the stated period4 ,this brings an immense social pressure within the school to bear in securing prompt attendance4 ,happening to visit the ,superintendent's office in a city of some sixty thousand people1 the writer observed the following scene3 ,a young girl of perhaps fourteen years of age1 accompanied by her father1 who was a foreigner1 unable to speak ,english fluently1 entered the office4 ,the girl began at once to make excuses for her brother who was a somewhat confirmed truant1 and to beg that he might be excused and reinstated4 ,to objections stated by the ,superintendent1 the father with much emotion replied1 8,oh1 ,mr4 ,superintendent1 won't you give my boy another trial80 ,the boy had been #8tried again' so many times that father and daughter were referred to the judge1 an officer having jurisdiction over such cases4 ,the penalty for persistent truancy was attendance at a state reformatory school4 ,this is a case in which the authority of the teacher in securing regularity of attendance was reinforced by the community outside the school4 ,the constant pressure of school and community tend to establish habits of will memory that serve as an excellent foundation for later moral training4 #af ,third ,year ,book of the ,national ,herbart ,society4 #afb4 ,before training can have within itself the power to make up deficiencies in obedience1 there must be awakened in the pupil a vivid feeling that the approval of his teacher is a valuable possession1 which he would be loath to lose4 ,this the teacher will bring about in proportion to the effective and welcome share he has in the life of his pupil4 ,he must give before he can receive4 ,furthermore1 if in his opinion the pupil needs to be turned in a different direction1 he should not underestimate the difficulty of the task before him2 he must proceed slowly4 ,the initial steps in character training are admirably described by ,niemeyer in the following words3 8,the teacher's first duty is to study the positively good elements in the native character of the being to be educated4 ,to preserve these1 to strengthen them1 to transform them into virtue1 and to fortify them against every danger1 should be his incessant endeavor4 ,they should constitute the keynote1 as it were1 of his whole method of education4 ,he should look for the good even in the spoilt and vicious pupil1 and should try to bring it to light1 no matter how many weeds may have sprung up alongside of it4 ,for all subsequent moral education must start from this point40 ,although this passage belongs in strictness to the discussion on moral education1 it is plainly entitled to a place here also4 ,an appeal to the pupil's better nature promotes ready compliance on his part1 especially when it is accompanied by those little courtesies that go with cultivated social intercourse4 ,it is most effective with those who possess at the same time the strongest memory of will1 which it will not be difficult for the supporting activity of training to strengthen still further4 #afc4 ,on the other hand1 the task of training grows arduous in proportion as the pupil fails to bear in mind his acts of will4 ,but even here there is a difference between capricious unruliness and downright flightiness and levity4 ,cases may arise where the impetuosity of the pupil challenges the teacher to a kind of combat4 ,rather than accept such a challenge1 he will usually find it sufficient at first to reprove calmly1 to look on quietly1 to wait until fatigue sets in4 ,the embarrassing situations into which such a pupil gets himself will furnish occasions for making him feel ashamed1 and now it remains to be seen whether or not he can be made to adopt a more equable behavior4 ,here and there training may in this way even make good the lack of government2 scarcely1 however1 for large numbers1 after unruliness has once begotten vicious habits4 ,combats of any kind between teacher and pupil are to be deplored4 ,a good teacher is always strong enough in his mental superiority1 his authority1 and his influence as an executive to avoid it4 ,such a contest shows that the pupil has become self-conscious in a bad sense4 ,he sets his personality over against that of the teacher4 ,if the teacher is so weak as to meet him on his own ground1 the pupil has a good chance for a bad victory--bad for himself1 the teacher1 and the school4 ,it should be a constant aim of the teacher to supplant introspection1 whether pertaining to feelings or to wilfulness1 with motor activity4 ,the pupil should always be doing something that will promote not only his own best good1 but that of the school also4 ,authority should rarely so assert itself as to incite or to permit a personal contest with the pupil4 ,it should be a strong but almost unseen presupposition of all school affairs4 ,here as elsewhere idleness is the mother of mischief4 ,lively action is sure to banish morbid introspection4 #afd4 ,thoughtlessness in the narrower sense1 which manifests itself in forgetfulness1 in negligence1 in want of steadiness1 and in so-called youthful escapades1 is a defect in native capacity1 and does not admit of a radical cure1 imperceptible as it may become with age1 by reason of repeated warnings and diminishing susceptibility to external impressions4 ,all the more imperative is it in such cases to support by training1 in order that the evil consequences of this character weakness may be prevented1 or at least reduced to a minimum4 ,for as soon as a thoughtlessly impulsive boy comes to take pleasure in his conduct1 he will set himself against order and industry1 and will strive to discover the means which promise to secure for him a life without restrictions4 ,this danger must be forestalled by training4 ,at the beginning1 and before an evil will has had time to develop1 training must take the place of will4 ,it must bring home to the pupil that of which he had lost sight4 ,to his fluctuating and roving impulses it must lend its own external firmness and uniformity1 which cannot be created at once1 if at all1 within the pupil4 ,here is the proper place for the injunction1 not to argue with children4 8,i cannot be too emphatic and outspoken in my warning against too much arguing10 says ,caroline ,rudolphi2 and ,schwarz1 who quotes this passage1 adds1 8,once is too often40 ,niemeyer1 after speaking of the excesses of abnormal liveliness and characterizing thoughtlessness1 which1 he says1 8causes inattention1 a disregard for consequences1 and hasty actions10 continues thus3 8,all these are not faults of the heart2 still they are faults that need to be amended1 and about the only sure educational method for amending them is to cultivate right habits4 ,positive punishments wisely chosen may indeed be employed as auxiliary means1 but only when there are evidences of a lack of good intention1 or when these faults have become ominously prominent40 ,he further advises teachers to insist on this1 that pupils rectify on the spot what can be rectified1 since vague recollections prove barren of good results4 ,this does not1 of course1 dispose of the whole matter1 but we are still discussing training as a supporting agency1 and from this point of view it is true that argument should not be substituted for the cultivation of habits4 #afe4 ,to restrain the lively but thoughtless boy is more difficult than to keep him properly active1 for the latter is comparatively easy1 in some cases at least1 if instruction excites his interest4 ,the reverse holds true for the sluggish boy because an attack has to be made on his indolence4 ,here the stimulation to physical exertion through association with wide-awake playmates is the first thing to be secured2 and where hard lessons cannot as yet be managed successfully1 lighter occupations will have to suffice4 ,where sluggishness is traceable to bodily feebleness1 improvement may be hoped for from sanitary measures and increasing years4 ,the following rule is to be observed everywhere3 ,no exercise must exceed the pupil's strength1 but that which has once been begun must be completed4 ,at the least1 pupils must not be allowed to drop their work as they choose2 they must look upon it as a whole1 however small4 #aff4 ,that the supporting procedure of training rests on the teacher's own bearing--on the uniformity of his demeanor--need hardly be said2 but this evenness must also stand out clearly before the eyes of the pupils4 ,the teacher ought to guard particularly against causing the complaint that no one knows how to please him1 that nothing one may do is done to his satisfaction4 ,when matters have come to this pass1 the first thing pupils do is to watch his moods as they might the weather1 and to interchange observations4 ,his ugly mood is dreaded2 his pleasant mood is taken advantage of for importunate requests4 ,the pupils try to move the firm centre which is to support them1 and the faintest signs of success awaken and foster extravagant hopes4 ,gradually the after-effects of earlier government die out1 and a renewal of severe measures draws with it a train of new evils4 ,goldsmith in his 8,deserted ,village0 has well portrayed the 8moody0 teacher3-- 8,a man severe he was1 and stern to view2 ,i knew him well1 and every truant knew3 ,well had the boding tremblers learned to trace ,the day's disasters in his morning face2 ,full well they laughed1 with counterfeited glee1 ,at all his jokes1 for many a joke had he2 ,full well the busy whisper1 circling round1 ,conveyed the dismal tidings when he frowned40 #afg4 ,second4 ,training is to exert a determining influence2 it is to induce the pupil to choose 7#adg74 ,under this head falls the discrimination spoken of above between varieties of volitional impulse--the will to bear1 to have1 and to do2 hence also experiential knowledge of the natural consequences of doing or of failure to do 7#aeg71 for unless these are taken into consideration1 the manifold of will cannot be reduced to harmony4 ,now the first point to be noticed in connection with this aspect of training is that the teacher does not choose for the pupil4 ,the pupil himself must choose1 for it is his own character that is to be determined4 ,he must himself experience a part1 although only the smallest part1 of that which is desirable or harmful4 ,that the flame burns that a pin pricks1 that a fall or knock hurts1 this lesson even the little child must learn2 and similar experiences must be gained later1 provided they do not carry the pupil to the verge of serious danger4 ,everything essential has been accomplished if1 in consequence of actual experiences confirming the teacher's words of warning1 the pupil believes other warnings without waiting for confirmation4 ,not second in importance to the act of choosing is the content of the choice4 ,if conduct must have a social outcome1 all the activities of the school will focus at this point4 ,in order to have rational choice there must be first of all social intelligence4 ,this it is the function of instruction to develop4 ,according to a well-known doctrine of ,herbart1 it is the chief duty of instruction to make a progressive revelation to the pupil of the ethical world1 in order that his puny will may gradually be reinforced by race experience4 ,the instruments for this revelation are the studies on the one hand1 and the conduct of the school according to social principles on the other4 ,in the second place1 that the ethical choice may truly express the pupil's inward state1 rather than his outward constraint1 it must grow out of his insight as suffused by his social responsiveness to ethical ideas4 ,in other words1 his disposition should confirm his intellectual perception of the right line of conduct4 ,this raises the whole matter of interest as related to will4#ag ,here again natural1 spontaneous1 almost unconscious attitude is vastly superior to morbid introspection1 no matter how #8good' the pupil's disposition may prove to be4 ,a boy should not have to #8reflect' as to whether he will rob a bird's nest or not4 #ag ,see ,dr4 ,john ,dewey1 8,interest as ,related to ,will10 ,national ,herbart ,society1 reprint for #ahii4 #afh4 ,pleasure and pain arise so largely out of social relations that the pupil must grow up amidst a social environment in order to become somewhat acquainted with his natural place among men4 ,this requirement gives rise accordingly to solicitous precautions against a bad example and rudeness4 ,on the other hand1 a boy's companions should not be chosen with such anxious care as if the intention were to spare him the feeling of pressure which in all human society is generated by the efforts and counter-efforts of men4 ,too great complaisance on the part of playmates causes delusions as to the actual conditions of life4 ,again1 society and seclusion must alternate4 ,the social current is not to carry everything else along with it1 and to become more powerful than education4 ,even the boy1 and much more the youth1 must learn to be alone1 and to fill up his time profitably4 ,unbroken association of the child with his mates tends to bring him too exclusively under the influence of imitation and of acting impulsively upon those forms of unreasoning suggestion which sway the crowd1 the gang1 and the mob4 ,to quote ,professor ,baldwin3#ah 8,the characteristics of the social suggestions upon which the crowd act show them to be strictly suggestions4 ,they are not truths1 nor arguments1 nor insights1 nor inventions4444 ,the suggestible mind has very well known marks4 ,balzac hit off one of them in #8,eugnie ,grandet' in the question1 #8,can it be that collectively man has no memory8' ,we might go through the list of mental functions asking the same question of them one by one4 ,has man collectively no thought1 no sense of values1 no deliberation1 no self-control1 no responsibility1 no conscience1 no will1 no motive1 no purpose8 ,and the answer to each question would be the same1 ,no1 he has none4 ,the suggestible consciousness is the consciousness that has no past1 no future1 no height1 no depth1 no development1 no reference to anything2 it is only in and out4 ,it takes in and it acts out--that is all there is to it40 ,it is here that we find the source of the youthful escapade so common to street1 school1 and college1 as well as of the adult deeds of diabolism that have so often shocked the moral sense of the ,american people4 ,the child needs frequent opportunities to be alone1 when he can 8come to himself0 as a responsible person4 ,even where the association with his mates is perfectly innocent1 there is a growing responsiveness to mere suggestion4 ,this tendency is corrected by attention to individual tasks and responsibilities4 #ah 8,social and ,ethical ,interpretations10 pp4 #bcf-bcg4 #afi4 ,by living alternately with his equals in age and with adults1 the pupil grows familiar with diverse standards of honor4 ,to unite these1 and to subordinate one to the other in a proper manner1 will prove an easy or a difficult part of training1 according to the smaller or greater gap between the value set on brute force on the one hand1 and the demand for good-breeding1 as well as regard for talent and knowledge1 on the other4 ,the main thing is not to foster ambition artificially1 though care must be taken at the same time to refrain from crushing out a natural and true self-esteem4 ,usually1 however1 those interested in the progress of a pupil stand in need themselves of guarding against the self-deception due to extravagant hopes4 ,by giving themselves up to these1 they involuntarily turn flatterers1 and push the boy1 and the young man still more1 beyond the position he is able to maintain4 ,bitter experiences follow4 ,the tendency to an abnormal overestimation of the value of physical excellence is seen in the attitude of the modern college toward athletics4 ,doubtless the public as a whole still underestimates the importance of fine physical development4 ,our modern life with its nerve-racking occupation will shatter the efficiency of large portions of the race1 unless the physical organism is so developed as to withstand the strain4 ,this1 if true of men1 is still more true of women1 who are now undertaking many new lines of exhausting labor1 not the easiest of which is teaching4 ,but the college student is prone to adore muscle4 ,the successful athlete is1 for a brief period1 praised1 petted1 and advertised far more than is the ablest student or professor in the institution4 ,scarcely do the noblest achievements of science or philanthropy receive so much notice as a successful full-back on a foot-ball team4 ,the athlete goes up indeed like a rocket1 startling the ear and dazzling the eye for a moment--then oblivion1 or deserved obscurity4 ,the teacher must endeavor to displace this false estimate of values by one more true if less exciting4 #agj4 ,the regard for the value of things in their relation to the ordinary necessities of life develops somewhat more slowly than the natural sense of honor4 ,this is true especially of money1 which at first boys rarely know how to use4 ,instead of saying1 either this or that1 which a fixed sum will buy1 the boy falls a victim to the deception that lurks in saying1 this and that4 ,in this respect also the pupil needs to gain experience on a small scale2 he must1 moreover1 come to know the value of objects last1 not merely in terms of money1 but also in terms of the inconvenience of doing without them4 ,warnings against petty closeness are seldom necessary2 not infrequently1 however1 a boy follows common talk1 and it may happen that he practises parsimony by imitation1 and squanders in obedience to his own impulses4 ,where faults of this sort are not conquered by the pupil's own sense of honor1 they fall within the province of moral education4 ,a modern device for teaching children the value of money1 and especially the usefulness of saving it1 is the institution of school savings banks4 ,here the pupil develops his instincts for accumulation4 ,at the same time he learns to inhibit his often inordinate fondness for spending4 ,if indulgence to self1 accompanied by penuriousness toward others1 is permitted to grow into a habit in childhood and youth1 it becomes a source of much unhappiness in later family life4 ,wife and children are often victims of this kind of selfishness4 ,now that women are in the main the teachers of children1 they should have the interest of their sex sufficiently at heart to inculcate suitable ideals and habits respecting the gathering and spending of money4 ,no form of selfishness is so obnoxious as self-indulgence at the expense of those who have a natural right to an equitable share of what is produced4 ,the #8meanness' of such conduct if constantly unveiled will effect its own cure4 #aga4 ,when experience has taught the pupil to what extent he must endure or need not endure the pressure of human society1 and what honors1 objects1 enjoyments1 he can have or must do without1 the question arises3 ,how does he connect all this with the pursuits which attract or repel him8 ,the thoughtful pupil soon realizes1 without being told1 that one thing often makes another possible1 that one thing involves or conditions another4 ,but upon the thoughtless boy this truth does not impress itself with sufficient force2 consequently1 the teacher has to help him to deepen that impression1 because a man without a settled mind regarding these matters remains devoid of character4 ,yet a lack of fixedness is often desirable rather than otherwise--a statement applying to those pupils whose intellectual interests it is the business of instruction to awaken1 or whose moral and religious culture are as yet in a backward state4 ,the objective part of character 7#adb7 should not become fixed too soon2 and very often a large part of the value of training consists in retarding this process4 ,such an end is subserved by the restraint under which the pupil is kept by the subordinate position assigned to him in conformity with his age1 and particularly by the refusal of freedom to act without permission1 and according to his own inclination 7#aeb74 ,the theoretical judgment of will relations 7#adi7 is frequently late in maturing1 or remains weak in comparison with the impression produced by the experiences mentioned4 ,in that case moral ardor is also wanting1 and if the pupil were given liberty to do as he chose1 his character would be formed1 to be sure1 but in the wrong way4 ,rather would it be better to encourage juvenile amusements1 and even boyish games1 beyond the usual age limit4 #agb4 ,third4 ,regulative training begins its work with the first appearance of the subjective part of character 7#adc74 ,for an earlier period the rule not to argue with children holds good 7#afd72 that is1 it holds good as long as we can get along with it4 ,that stage1 however1 is passed when the pupil begins to reason for himself2 in other words1 when his thinking has acquired such consecutiveness that his thoughts no longer come and go as momentary fancies1 but attain to permanency and coherence4 ,reasoning processes of this sort ought not to be left to themselves1 nor can they be repressed by dictatorial decrees4 ,the educator must now enter into his pupil's trains of reflection1 must argue with him and prevent further development in the wrong direction4 ,the tendency to set up rules reveals itself early2 for example1 in the games of children4 ,commands as to what to do are given every moment1 only these imperatives are imperfectly obeyed and often changed4 ,neither is there lack of original1 childish resolutions2 but they can mean little so long as they do not remain the same4 ,it is very different when they acquire stability1 when means and ends combine into plans1 when execution is attempted under difficulties1 and finally when these resolves are thought in the forms of general concepts1 thereby laying claim to validity in possible future instances1 and becoming thus transformed into maxims4 #agc4 ,the wise forethought essential to regulative training requires in the first place that the teacher shall rather tolerate an inconvenient discussion than check a frank expression of opinion1 provided the objections of the pupil are indubitably sincere1 and his vanity1 we will say1 is not flattered too much by the unexpected consideration accorded to his remarks4 ,the same foresight is to be exercised in cases where it proves impossible to convince the pupil at once4 ,here the final judgment1 instead of being insisted upon1 should rather be postponed2 it will always be easy to point out to the pupil his lack of adequate knowledge and to refer him to future studies4 ,the positiveness that usually characterizes the assertions of boys and young men1 generally has its roots in their great ignorance4 ,they have not the least inkling of how many opinions have been held and disputed4 ,instruction will gradually cure them of their excessive self-confidence4 ,only in a pure despotism would the enforcement of unquestioning obedience to authority be admissible4 ,no country aspiring to political liberty could tolerate such a system4 ,even if all political considerations were dismissed1 the development of subjective character alone would demand a condemnation of such a method4 ,but in a country like ours1 where men are both personally and politically self-governing1 education to leadership is not second to education to obedience4 ,there comes a time1 therefore1 when argument is in place1 provided its purpose is to clarify the pupil's insight into prudence or duty4 ,it will not be too much to insist upon obedience without argument with all pupils so far as the ordinary school virtues--regularity1 punctuality1 silence1 and industry--are concerned4 ,old and young can see their necessity4 ,when it comes to the more intricate phases of conduct1 the grounds for authority1 if it is still exercised1 may be revealed through dialogue4 ,it is the constant effort of training to establish regulative principles in the minds of the older pupils1 so that within the range of their capacity they may become self-governing4 ,in other words1 the moral plateaus of ,kant are to be attained1 not at a bound1 but by a gradual progress in moral autonomy4 ,herein we see the superiority of ,herbart's conception of moral training4 ,what ,kant gave up as an unsolvable problem1 can be seen to be only a natural process4 ,says ,kant1 8,how a law can of itself directly determine the will is for human reason an insoluble problem1 for it is identical with the problem how a free will is possible40#ai ,the difficulty with ,kant's theory was that he admitted no psychological means for attaining the free directive power of the mind4 ,he could only say to the child3 8,you are free2 be free4 ,you are morally autonomous2 exercise your power2 be a free1 self-governing citizen40 ,kant regarded natural impulses1 emotions1 desires1 pleasures1 interests1 as impure1 hence to be rejected4 ,they are indeed to be rejected as the final ends of character1 but what ,kant did not recognize is that they are the psychological means for attaining character4 ,primarily these feelings1 far from being radically bad1 as he thought1 are radically good1 since they help to furnish the necessary conditions of survival1 both for the individual and for the race4 ,hunger1 fear1 courage1 combativeness1 prudence1 sexual instinct1 inquisitiveness1 love of adornment1 frugality1 and a hundred other elemental passions have preserved the race from destruction in the past4 ,a new set of social and intellectual impulses will in the future provide the instruments of survival1 now that the field of evolution is transported from the jungle to the city4 ,it is through intellectual insights that new ideals are formulated2 it is through these elemental feelings that the active powers of the mind are stirred up to motor efficiency for their realization4 ,from being biological means for physical survival1 the feelings of man have now become psychological means for civic survival4 ,psychologically1 therefore1 men are not born free2 they become free4 ,to become free they must have opportunity to exercise freedom2 at first within definite but widening limits while they are under the tuition of the school2 later within the limits set by civil society2 at last absolutely1 when they have recognized that what is rational law in society is the law of their own being4 #ai 8,selections10 p4 #bhd4 #agd4 ,but the matter of greatest importance from the point of view of training is consistency or inconsistency of action4 ,one who lightly sets up maxims must be made to feel the difficulty of living up to them4 ,in this way a mirror is held up to the pupils1 partly in order to put to rout untenable maxims1 and partly to reinforce valid principles4 ,among the untenable maxims we include also those which1 although in accord with prudence1 would offend against morality4 ,if the pupil does not see already that they cannot be maintained1 the application1 by exhibiting their objectionable consequences1 must bring to light their true character4 #age4 ,regulative training often calls for rousing words from the teacher4 ,he has to remind the pupil of happenings in the past and predict future consequences in case his faults should continue2 he has to induce him to look within himself for the purpose of tracing the causal connection of his actions to its source4 ,if1 however1 this was done earlier1 with a view to moral education1 no long speeches are now needed4 ,moreover1 the teacher's remarks become calmer and briefer the more effective they have been1 the more he is justified in expecting independent judgment on the part of the pupil1 and finally the more fully the latter has entered upon that period during which he looks about him to observe the words and actions of strangers4 ,for1 at the time when he has begun to compare the new with the old1 his receptivity for the old is very weak1 and soon vanishes completely2 unless1 indeed1 the old had been deeply impressed beforehand4 ,the purpose of the 8rousing word0 is to stimulate the mind to exercise its dynamic force to moral ends4 ,the pupil must not be permitted to assume the attitude of negation1 or to be a mere passive observer1 or an innocent1 devoid alike of power and significance1 but he must be roused into a responsible character1 an efficient participant in life's activities4 ,successful appeal may be made to insights already acquired1 but theoretically held2 to dispositions implanted1 but not yet actively exercised2 to the application of old habits to new uses4 ,even where appeal must be made against objectionable conduct1 it is better to apply the 8inhibition of substitution0 to that of 8negation40#bj ,while protesting against the evil1 point the way to the right road4 #bj ,james1 8,talks on ,psychology10 p4 #aib4 #agf4 ,fourth4 ,the pupil is to be kept in a quiet frame of mind2 his intellect in a state suitable for clear apprehension4 ,to outbursts of passion this applies absolutely2 not so generally to emotions4 ,above all1 tranquillity is the condition for the formation of theoretical judgments and hence also1 although not exclusively so1 for laying the foundation of morality4 ,every desire may develop into passion1 if the soul is so often and so long in a desiring state that thoughts become focussed in the object longed for1 whereby plans shape themselves1 hopes arise1 and ill-will toward others strikes root4 ,accordingly1 watchful attention must be given to all persistent and recurrent desires4 #agg4 ,the most usual desires are those which arise from the physical need of food and of bodily activity4 ,now the first step to take is1 while guarding against excess1 to satisfy these natural impulses in order to subdue the unruliness springing from unsatisfied cravings4 ,we ought not to permit hunger to tempt a boy to steal1 nor encourage truancy by making him sit still too long4 ,this warning is not superfluous4 ,such things happen even in families where less irrational practices might be expected4 ,over-indulgence1 to be sure1 is of far more frequent occurrence4 ,when the natural wants have lost their sting1 a positive and irrevocable refusal must be opposed to further desires4 ,with it should be combined some occupation capable of diverting the attention4 ,if the object which continues to excite desire can be removed1 all the better4 ,in one's own home this is more often practicable1 and more necessary as well1 than in that of strangers4 ,if the object cannot be removed1 gratification may be put off until some future time4 ,the foregoing statement may be illustrated by reference to the eating of fruit from the tree4 ,an unconditional prohibition carries with it a dangerous temptation to disobedience1 while unconditional permission would be equally inadmissible on account of the plucking of green fruit1 let alone the possible injury to the orchards of others4 ,analogy will suggest many similar applications of the rule given4 #agh4 ,again1 children must be watched at their games4 ,the more free play of the imagination we discover1 and the more change there is1 the less cause for concern4 ,but when the same game is frequently repeated according to the same fixed rules1 when a species of study is devoted to it in order to attain special proficiency1 passions may be generated1 such1 for instance1 as an excessive fondness for playing at cards1 even where no stakes are involved4 ,gambling must be forbidden entirely1 and in case compliance with this prohibition is doubtful1 obedience must be secured by watchful supervision4 ,to what end shall a teacher watch the games of children8 ,to prevent the bullying of the weak by the strong1 to see that unfairness does not creep in1 to ward off vulgarity and profanity--these and similar purposes will be in the mind of the teacher4 ,one of the chief functions of play1 however1 is to cultivate social efficiency4 ,this has two aspects1 willingness to coperate with a group and ability to lead a group4 ,it is necessary that there should be alternation of leadership and coperation4 ,if one child is allowed to lead all the time1 he becomes overbearing2 if another is always compelled to follow1 he becomes subservient4 ,each has a one-sided development4 ,without discouraging unduly natural capacity for leadership1 it is well for the teacher quietly to see to it that each child has his chance1 both to lead and to follow4 ,just as the kindergarten utilizes play to simulate the occupations of men1 arousing sympathy with them and respect for them1 so the school may by proper modification make the numerous group games1 in which children delight1 a potent means for securing coperative habits and a general aptitude for social activities4 ,not a little attention is now paid to the various forms of children's play4 ,this is especially true of such publications as the ,pedagogical ,seminary1 published at ,clark ,university1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 #agi4 ,an excellent means to avert the dangers connected with passionate tendencies is to engage in the acquisition of one of the fine arts1 say music or drawing1 even though there should be no more than a modicum of talent4 ,the student must be given to understand1 however1 that he is not to take up the study of several musical instruments at once1 nor give himself up to distracting attempts in sundry branches of pictorial representation4 ,on the contrary1 he is to strive consistently for proficiency in one definite direction4 ,in the total absence of aptitude we may avail ourselves of preferences of one kind or other1 such as fondness for collecting plants or shells1 for work in papier-mach1 for joinery1 for gardening even1 etc4 ,poetical talent1 highly desirable in itself1 nevertheless demands a solid counterweight in the shape of serious scholarly effort2 for the young poet sets up claims that are likely to prove dangerous if he becomes absorbed in them4 ,the importance of this suggestion can hardly be overestimated4 ,it is a case of the permanent inhibition of a host of possible evil tendencies by substitution4 ,the youth who can turn with pleasure to his violin at every spare moment1 never seriously misses the companionship of his mates4 ,he has1 moreover1 a never failing source of enjoyment when there is nothing to interfere with his happiness1 and an equally inexhaustible source of consolation when the waves of life are rough4 #ahj4 ,projects springing from passionate impulses1 and betraying their existence by their interference with order1 diligence1 and the distribution of time1 must be resolutely thwarted4 ,this step is rendered all the more urgent when several share in the same plan1 above all when ostentation1 party spirit1 and rivalry enter as impelling factors4 ,such things must not be allowed to gain ground2 they very quickly vitiate the soil which education has been at such pains to prepare for tillage4 #aha4 ,the passions being kept at a distance1 the successful grounding of the pupil in morality depends in general on the manner in which instruction coperates with his occupations4 ,the branch of instruction primarily most important in this respect is religious instruction4 ,the most immediate source1 however1 of the development of disposition is found in the pupil's social environment1 and it becomes the business of training to cultivate a right spirit or disposition4 ,let us1 therefore1 take up the practical ideas one by one4 ,england and ,germany are a unit in insisting upon the necessity of religious instruction in the schools4 ,half the elementary schools of the former country are in charge of the ,church of ,england1 five per cent are controlled by ,roman ,catholics1 three per cent by ,wesleyans1 and some forty-two per cent by public boards of education4 ,all of these schools are subsidized by the state1 yet all1 with few exceptions1 give religious instruction4 ,in ,germany there are but two strong religious organizations--the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 mostly at the south1 and the ,lutheran1 mostly at the north4 ,the state establishes all schools1 furnishing most of the funds for sustaining them and controlling their administration in large measure2 yet the morning hour of the day is devoted to instruction in religion4 ,not so in the ,united ,states4 ,here1 religious teaching is1 to all appearances1 permanently excluded from the public schools4 ,in this condition of affairs there is but one resource3 we must the more diligently insist upon those things that reflect the content of religion4 ,that is1 we must teach children to live in close coperative union with their fellows4 ,the subjective side of this training is portrayed in the sections that follow1 where the transformation of ethical insights into ethical habits is discussed4 #ahb4 ,to speak of strife first1 which cannot easily be wholly prevented among children1 and which is present to their minds1 at least as a possibility1 self-help against unexpected bodily assaults cannot be forbidden4 ,a determined self-defence is rather to be recommended1 but self-defence paired with a merciful treatment of one's assailant4 ,on the other hand1 it is necessary to prohibit absolutely any arbitrary appropriation of objects1 even though these objects should consist of ownerless or discarded trifles4 ,no one must imagine that his mere pleasure is a law unto others4 ,on the contrary1 children ought to get used to limitations on ownership4 ,that which has been given them for a certain purpose is to be used for that purpose alone1 and must be taken care of with that purpose in view4 ,promises among children should not lightly be declared void1 however foolish and impossible of fulfilment4 ,the boy who1 by a hasty promise1 puts himself in an embarrassing position must be made conscious of the fact4 ,let his perplexity serve as a warning for the future4 ,but over-hasty promises are to be accepted as little as they are to be made2 and here is where we have to begin in untying the knots in which children occasionally entangle themselves4 ,it is not undesirable that pupils by their own acts furnish themselves with a few keenly-felt instances of complicated questions of rights4 ,but pleasure in wrangling must be discountenanced2 the pupils should learn to prevent and to avoid contention4 ,they may gain enough familiarity with it to realize that it gives displeasure4 #ahc4 ,at this point two paths open to our reflection4 ,in the first place1 contention pleases children because it implies strength2 in seeking it they are1 as a rule1 merely giving vent to excess of animal spirits4 ,the outlet in this direction we must block1 but we must furnish another elsewhere4 ,gymnastic exercises1 too1 are exhibitions of strength2 emulation1 which is not contention1 is a welcome feature of sport and play4 ,mental activity likewise affords suitable opportunities for excelling2 it also provides proper occasions for making comparisons2 but relative excellence1 children must understand distinctly1 is not to be advanced by them as a basis for claims4 ,where the question is one of degree of attainment1--therefore one of perfice te1--the pupil is supplied with a practically useful standard by his own progress and retrogression4 ,to hold up one pupil as a model for another to follow awakens envy2 it will be much better1 instead1 to make allowances where a weak pupil cannot do more than he is actually doing4 ,in all the ages of the past men have been the teachers of boys4 ,being men1 they have naturally taken the man's attitude toward youthful conduct4 ,when one boy is gratuitously assaulted by another1 they have upheld a sturdy self-defence as belonging to self-respect4 ,in their eyes an unsuccessful defence is better than a cowardly retreat4 ,with the advent of women as the teachers of boys it is natural that the doctrine of passive non-resistance should be emphasized4 ,when women were only the physical mothers of the race1 there was no danger of the decay of virility1 but now that they have become the intellectual mothers as well1 there may be such a danger4 ,it is generally conceded that the ,english boys' schools1 like ,eton1 ,harrow1 and ,rugby1 have been the best ,english conservers of independent manhood1 for there every boy stood on his own merits1 having to fight his own battles1 being responsible for his own conduct1 and at the same time living under a high code of boyish honor4 ,in our own public schools1 where no such esprit de corps is possible1 and where the doctrine of peace at any price is likely to be insisted upon1 it is possible that there may be a distinct decline of virility in the boys4 ,such a result would be deplorable2 it would work to the detriment of public education1 and would decrease in public estimation the value of woman's services in the schoolroom4 ,while discouraging strife1 a teacher may1 by a word of approval or excuse1 justify an exercise of primitive defence of the person against unwarranted assault4 ,manly social games1 like foot-ball1 basket-ball1 base-ball1 are our best resources in developing those phases of character that are closely associated with motor efficiency4 ,here under proper guidance1 self-control1 sense of power and efficiency1 courage1 and almost every characteristic of virility may be happily developed4 ,that forethought and supervision are needed is most true1 else unlovely traits of character may easily get the upper hand4 #ahd4 ,the second of the two ways alluded to takes us from the idea of rights to that of equity4 ,strife is displeasing1 but revenge still more1 notwithstanding the truth of the saying3 what is fair for one is fair for another4 ,children may indeed exercise their ethical acumen by trying to determine how much one deserves to suffer or to receive at the hands of others for the liberties he has taken or the self-restraint he has practised1 but they are not to arrogate to themselves the function of inflicting punishments or of bestowing rewards4 ,without surrendering their own insight1 they must in this respect submit willingly to the authority of their superiors4 ,a similar course is to be pursued with reference to the distribution of presents1 enjoyments1 and marks of approval4 ,to avoid giving the appearance of favoritism1 the teacher should not1 except for very good reasons1 depart from the principle of equal division2 but1 on the other hand1 he should refuse to accord to the pupils a right to these free gifts4 ,while permitting them to have an opinion on the appropriateness of a greater or smaller share1 he will properly deny them any right to demand by virtue of this opinion4 #ahe4 ,in cases deeply engaging the children's own sense of justice and equity1 complaisance and readiness to yield should not be exacted on the spot4 ,children must have time to get to the end of their thoughts1 and to weary of what is often very fruitless brooding1 before they realize that to yield is after all a necessity1 and hence in no sense a matter of magnanimous choice4 ,at some future time they may be reminded that their path would have been smoother if the sentiment of good-will had been in control from the beginning and had arbitrated the dispute1 or rather had prevented it entirely4 ,good-will is to be revered everywhere as higher than right2 still the latter must be represented as something that cannot be set aside with impunity1 unless it be by common agreement2 that is1 in consequence of the consent of the holders of rights4 ,there are two distinct aspects to good-will1--the benevolent1 and the coperative or social4 ,the well-known story of the ,jericho ,road illustrates the first4 ,he is the good neighbor who rescues the life of the man who has been assaulted by the way4 ,but social good-will is more than benevolence2 it is coperation for the accomplishment of common purposes4 ,among farmers it means mutual care to prevent aggression1 because of unruly stock or bad fences2 it involves combined efforts for good schools1 good roads1 public libraries1 educational agencies for promoting successful farming1 associations for promoting successful pleasures4 ,in cities social good-will means coperation for paving and lighting streets1 for the suppression of crime1 for furnishing good water and efficient sewerage1 for defence against fire1 for rapid transit1 besides the myriad agencies for promoting the mental1 moral1 and spiritual welfare of the people4 ,a man in a city needs to be a good neighbor to everybody1 even though he may know personally but one in a million4 ,in other words1 the civic man must be a brother1 not only to him who falls among thieves1 but to him who lives among them2 not only to his brother in adversity1 but also to his brother in prosperity4 #ahf4 ,finally1 the degrees of difference among older boys1 and especially among young men1 with respect to the nearness with which they approach the still distant realization of the idea of inner freedom1 are1 as a rule1 sufficiently marked to be patent to all4 ,the superior excellence of those distinguished for steady and rational conduct is usually dwelt on by the teacher rather too much than too little2 children are themselves too keen in observing each other's shortcomings not to see how far behind the best some are4 ,we ought1 therefore1 rather to avoid stimulating in children the tendency to belittle others1 than to turn their attention to that which does not escape them anyway4 #ahg4 ,the bad conduct of adults near to the pupils will not1 of course1 be exposed by the teacher2 and if publicly known1 the example set will repel more than allure1 so long as self-interest does not prompt imitation or a search for excuses4 ,but we need not entertain much hope either that a worthy example will be followed2 youth is too prone to regard rectitude as a matter of course4 ,hence it will not be superfluous to call special attention to right conduct1 and to give expression to the esteem which is its due4 ,this applies particularly to the time when a growing boy's outlook over society widens1 and he begins to compare many things whose false glitter might deceive him4 ,there are many aspects of inner freedom4 ,it is possible for a narrow-minded man to live in perfect tranquillity1 so far as his conscience is concerned4 ,even if one lived true to ,kant's categorical imperative1 which says1 8,so act that the maxims1 or rules1 of your conduct might1 through your own will1 become universal laws10 it would still be possible for one to have a mind at peace with itself while doing things that a higher code of morality would forbid4 ,for example1 suppose ,i am an ,american ,indian1 and the question arises1 ,shall ,i torture my enemies8 ,of course3 do not the traditions of my tribe prescribe it8 ,this simply means that our ideals of conduct grow out of our environment2 they are social in their genesis4 ,this truth shows the infinite importance of making instruction reveal clearly the best ideals of religion and civilization1 for there may be as much inward freedom1 or good conscience1 in the slums as in the wealthy districts of the city4 ,subjective peace of mind may mean much or little4 ,a murderer may sleep as soundly as a missionary1 but a man of high ideals is whipped as with scorpions1 if his conduct be base4 ,he feels that his higher self is outraged2 he has no peace except through repentance1 restitution1 and reform4 #ahh4 ,fifth4 ,the pupil's mind1 we will suppose1 has been properly directed1 partly through the social relations obtaining among children1 partly through examples and instruction1 to the requirements of the various moral ideas1 and he has learned accordingly to discriminate with some keenness between will relations4 ,now the time has arrived for moral education in the strict sense4 ,for we cannot leave it to chance whether our young charges will1 of their own initiative1 synthesize for themselves noble actions on the one hand and base actions on the other1 whether they will take time to reflect1 and will1 each for himself1 apply the lessons taught4 ,on the contrary1 they all have to be told1 each one individually has to be told1 truths that no one is wont to hear with pleasure4 ,the more thoroughly the teacher knows his pupils1 the better4 ,by showing them that he divines their thoughts1 he supplies them with the most effectual incentive to self-observation4 ,now the basis of what is commonly known as moralizing is furnished by a retrospective view of the pupil's conduct for some time past1 by references to influences formerly at work within him1 and by an analysis of his good and bad qualities4 ,such teaching is by no means to be condemned1 nor even to be regarded as superfluous4 ,in its proper place it is absolutely essential4 ,many1 it is true1 grow up without ever having heard a serious word of deserved censure1 but no one ought to grow up in that way4 #ahi4 ,only praise and censure are thought of here1 not harsh words1 much less harsh treatment4 ,reprimands and punishments following upon single acts are something different2 they1 too1 may lead to moral reflections1 but must first have become things of the past4 ,moral improvement is not brought about by the constraint of government1 nor is it the result of those pedagogical punishments which warn the pupil and sharpen his wits by means of the natural consequences of actions 7#aeg74 ,but it is brought about through the imitation of the language of conscience and of genuine honor1 as seen in impartial spectators4 ,moreover1 this does not exclude consideration of the excuses which every one readily finds in his heart4 ,but while due allowance is made for mitigating circumstances1 the pupil is cautioned against relying on them in future4 #aij4 ,ordinarily youth deserves neither strong commendation nor severe criticism1 and it is well to guard carefully against exaggeration in either direction1 if for no other reason than merely this1 that exaggeration either detracts from effectiveness1 or else causes1 if not timidity1 at least an unfortunate embarrassment4 ,there is one species of magnifying1 however1 which subserves a good purpose1 because it enables pupils to see more clearly the importance of trifles and the great significance of their own actions1 and in this way helps to counteract thoughtlessness4 ,we refer to viewing the present in the light of the future4 ,the pettiest faults are liable to grow through habit2 the faintest desire1 unless kept under control1 may turn into passion4 ,then1 too1 the future circumstances of one's life are uncertain2 allurements and temptations may come into it1 or unlooked-for misfortunes4 ,this prevision of the possibilities of the future is1 of course1 not prophecy1 and no such claim should be made for it2 nevertheless1 it does good service as a warning4 #aia4 ,when the pupil has been brought to the point where he regards his moral education as a matter of serious import1 instruction in conjunction with a growing knowledge of the world may bring it about that a glow of moral sentiment permeates his whole thought1 and that the idea of a moral order unites on the one hand with his religious concepts1 and with his self-observation on the other4 ,henceforth the direct1 emphatic expression of praise or censure will have to be less frequent4 ,it will no longer be as easy as formerly to give a clearer account to the pupil of what goes on within him than he has already rendered to himself4 ,we may still1 however1 come to his assistance from another direction1 namely1 that of general concepts1--a field in which advancing youthful reflection is little by little finding its bearings4 #aib4 ,sixth4 ,it is the business of training to remind at the right moment and to correct faults4 ,we may safely assume that1 even after a young man has reached the plane of moral decisions1 he will still stand in need of frequent reminders1 although in this respect individuals exhibit great differences1 which observation alone is able to reveal4 ,but that which he is reminded of consists of resolves which lay claim to something like universal validity1 but which are not likely to make good that claim when incorrectly formulated or conceived in the wrong connection4 ,general considerations become predominant with only a very few at best2 but youth especially sees and experiences so much that is new that the old is easily slighted for the new1 and1 accordingly1 the general for the particular still more4 ,nevertheless1 it is far easier for training to remind and to correct with success where a good1 firm foundation has been laid1 than it is to support 7#afa-aff7 when in adolescence nothing is found by which the pupil might try to steady himself4 #aic4 ,it is evident from the wide divergence among the principles which schools old and new have accepted as the basis of ethics and of systems of justice1 that many conflicting1 or at any rate1 one-sided views may arise when the attempt is made to introduce order1 definiteness1 and consistency into existing ethical concepts4 ,this whole conflict and one-sidedness of opinion1 together with the innumerable fluctuations that may find a place here besides1--all this is likely to be reproduced in youthful minds1 particularly where they make it a point of going their own way4 ,very frequently acquired principles adjust themselves to inclinations2 the subjective side of character adapts itself to the objective4 ,now1 while it is the business of instruction to correct error1 training must avail itself of those opportunities that reveal a directing of thoughts by inclination4 #aid4 ,when1 however1 the pupil has once established confidence in his disposition as well as in his principles1 training must withdraw4 ,unnecessary judging and over-anxious observation would only impair naturalness1 and give rise to extraneous motives4 ,when once self-culture has been assumed1 it should be left alone4 ,,section ,,iv ,,synopsis ,,of ,,general ,,pedagogics ,,from ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view ,,of ,,age ,,chapter ,i ,the ,first ,three ,years #aie4 ,owing to the delicate character of the thread of life during the earliest years1 care for the body1 a subject falling outside the limits of the present discussion1 has precedence of everything else4 ,the state of health1 accordingly1 implies great variations in the time available for profitable culture of the mind4 ,but short as this time may be1 it is extremely important1 because of the great receptivity and susceptibility of the first period of life4 ,the lines of study suggested by these few remarks upon infancy have been arduously pursued in recent years by ,perez1#ba ,preyer1#bb ,baldwin1#bc and others4 ,the attempt has been made in these works to show how the psychical and physical powers of the young child actually unfold4 ,in this way it has been possible to correct many erroneous deductions from adult psychology1 thus making elementary training more successful4 #ba ,perez1 8,the ,first ,three ,years of ,childhood40 #bb ,preyer1 7a7 8,mental ,development in the ,child10 7b7 8,the ,development of the ,intellect10 7c7 8,the ,senses and the ,will40 #bc ,baldwin1 7a7 8,mental ,development in the ,child and the ,race10 7b7 8,social and ,ethical ,interpretations40 #aif4 ,those moments when the child is fully awake and free from suffering should always be utilized by presenting1 but not obtruding1 something for sense-perception4 ,powerful impressions are to be avoided4 ,the same caution applies to violent changes2 very slight variations often suffice to revive waning attention4 ,it is desirable to secure a certain completeness of eye- and ear-impressions1 so that the senses may be equally at home everywhere within the fields of sight and sound4 #aig4 ,as far as safety permits1 the spontaneous activity of the child should have free play1 primarily that he may get practice in the use of every limb1 but also in order that by his own attempts his observations of objects and their changeableness may be enlarged4 #aih4 ,unpleasant1 repellent impressions of persons1 whoever they are1 must be most carefully guarded against4 ,no one can be allowed to treat a child as a plaything4 #aii4 ,on the other hand1 no one must allow himself to be ruled by a child1 least of all when the child becomes importunate4 ,otherwise1 wilfulness will be the inevitable consequence1 a result almost unavoidable with sickly children1 by reason of the attention demanded by their sufferings4 #bjj4 ,a child must always feel the superiority of adults1 and often his own helplessness4 ,the necessary obedience is founded on this feeling4 ,with consistent treatment1 persons constantly about the child will secure obedience more readily than others who are rarely present4 ,outbursts of passion must be given time to subside unless circumstances urgently require a different course4 #bja4 ,on rare occasions there may be an exhibition of force inspiring enough fear to make a threat effective and to check an excess of animal spirits4 ,for if government is to escape the extremely harmful necessity of severe disciplinary measures later on1 it must become firmly established during the earliest years of childhood4 #bjb4 ,the language of children demands scrupulous attention from the beginning1 in order to prevent the formation of incorrect and careless habits of speech1 which at a later period it usually requires much trouble and loss of time to eradicate4 ,but literary forms of expression that are beyond the comprehension of children are to be strictly avoided4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,ages from ,four to ,eight #bjc4 ,the real boundary line is fixed not by age1 but by that stage of development when the helplessness of the first stage is superseded by control of the limbs and a connected use of language4 ,and the mere fact that children are now able to free themselves from much momentary discomfort carries with it greater calmness and cheerfulness4 #bjd4 ,in proportion as the child learns to help himself1 assistance from without must be withdrawn4 ,at the same time government must increase in firmness1 and with many children in severity1 until the last traces of that wilfulness vanish1 which the former period does not as a rule wholly escape4 ,but this presupposes that no one provoke the child unnecessarily to any kind of resistance4 ,the firmer the established order of things about the child1 the readier his compliance4 #bje4 ,the child must be given as much freedom as circumstances will permit1 one purpose being to induce frank self-expression1 and to obtain data for a study of his individuality4 ,still1 the main thing at this age is to guard against bad habits1 especially such as are connected with objectionable tendencies of disposition4 #bjf4 ,two of the ethical ideas concern us here directly1 each1 however1 in its own way4 ,they are the ideas of good-will and perfection4 ,some particular aspects of the latter a child will almost always hit upon himself4 ,the former less often springs up spontaneously2 it has to be implanted1 and this cannot always be done directly4 #bjg4 ,the ill-will1 which many children exhibit frequently1 is always a bad sign1--one that needs to be treated very seriously4 ,a character once perverted in this respect can no longer be radically changed for the better4 ,and this perversion sometimes begins very early4 ,the steps to be taken in this connection are determined by the following considerations3-- #bjh4 ,in the first place1 younger children are not to be left alone very much4 ,their life should be a social life1 and their social circle one subject to strict order4 ,this requirement fulfilled1 all manifestations of ill-will are at variance with the rule2 and as soon as they appear1 the child finds himself opposed by the existing state of things4 ,now1 the more he has grown accustomed to participation in the common will1 to occupying his time1 and being happy within its pale1 the less will he be able to bear the feeling of isolation4 ,to punish a child for an exhibition of ill-will1 leave him alone4 #bji4 ,but such punishment presupposes the undiminished sensitiveness of the younger child1 who1 on being left alone1 begins to cry1 and feels utterly helpless and weak1 but who1 on the other hand1 becomes cheerful again the moment he is readmitted into the social circle4 ,if this period has been neglected1 if the ill-disposed child has already caused aversion in the circle in which he could have been happy1 one feeling of ill-will begets another in return1 and nothing remains but to insist on strict justice4 #baj4 ,the mere social spirit which keeps ill-will at a distance1 is1 of course1 very far from being good-will2 children are even prone to look upon descriptive illustrations of the latter1 in the ordinary run of books for children1 as fables easily invented4 ,hence the first thing to make sure of is faith in good-will4 ,we have in mind here especially the child who through force of habit has lost his appreciation of the kindnesses constantly showered upon him in the course of his education4 ,deprive him of some of the care to which he is accustomed2 its renewal will then make him recognize and prize it as a voluntary act4 ,when1 on the contrary1 children regard what is being done for them as their right1 or as the effect of some sort of mechanism1 this blunder of theirs becomes a fruitful source of the most manifold moral evils4 #baa4 ,to the union of kindness with the necessary degree of severity1 we must add friendliness1 lest the heart of the child become chilled1 and the germs of good-will perish4 ,during the period under consideration1 the child's frame of mind is still determined directly by the treatment he receives4 ,continued unfriendliness of manner produces dull indifference4 ,the twofold problem of lifting the idea of good-will into adequate prominence and of actually awakening sentiments of good-will can1 it is true1 not be solved as early as childhood4 ,but much has been gained if sympathy1 supported by sociable cheerfulness1 unites with a belief in the good-will of those on whom the child feels dependent1 as if they were higher beings4 ,the soil is ready now for religious culture and its furthering influences4 #bab4 ,the idea of perfection in its universal aspect is indeed as foreign to the child's mind as that of good-will2 nevertheless1 the rudiments of what this idea implies can be imparted with far greater assurance of success4 ,as the child grows and thrives1 his strength and accomplishments increase likewise1 and he takes pleasure in his own progress4 ,but here innumerable differences in kind and in degree demand our observation1 particularly in view of the purpose of linking instruction to the stage of growth4 ,for it is during this period that synthetic as well as analytic instruction begins1 although it does not as yet normally constitute the chief occupation of the child4 #bac4 ,as the child's sphere of free activity widens and his own attempts create a growing store of experiences1 which the teacher will often find it very necessary to augment by purposely showing him about1 the earlier fancies are gradually being overbalanced by experiential knowledge1 although different individuals may exhibit great variations of ratio4 ,from this impulse to appropriate the new1 spring the numerous questions children put to the teacher1 on the tacit assumption that he is omniscient4 ,they are the outcome of the mood of the moment1 they are purposeless1 and most of them do not recur if not answered then and there4 ,many of them concern words alone1 and cease on mention of some suitable designation of the object in question4 ,others relate to the connection of events1 especially to motives underlying the actions of human beings1 fictitious and real alike4 ,now1 although many questions cannot1 while others must not1 be answered1 the tendency to ask questions should1 generally speaking1 receive constant encouragement as a sign of native interest1 of the absence of which the teacher often becomes painfully aware later on without being able by any skill on his part to revive it4 ,here an opportunity is presented for preparing the ground in many directions for future instruction4 ,only1 the teacher has to refrain1 in answering questions1 from the prolixity of untimely thoroughness2 what he ought to do is to sail on the waves of childish fancy4 ,and this does not usually lend itself to experiments2 its movements are1 on the contrary1 often inconveniently capricious4 #bad4 ,so long as there can be no fixed time for the analytic lessons woven into answers to the questions of children1 analytic instruction is coincident with the guidance of the child's attention1 with his social intercourse1 with his occupations and the consequent cultivation of habits1 with hardening exercises1 ethical judgments1 and the earliest religious impressions2 in some measure also with reading exercises4 #bae4 ,to the latter portion of this period belong the first steps in synthetic instruction1 reading1 writing1 ciphering1 the simplest modes of arrangement1 and the first observation exercises4 ,if the child is as yet incapable of uniform attention during a whole hour1 the teacher will be satisfied with smaller divisions of time2 the degree of attention is more important than its duration4 ,note that the subjects enumerated fall into different groups4 ,counting1 arranging1 observing1 are different phases of the natural development of the mind4 ,instruction does not create these activities2 its business is merely to accelerate them4 ,at the beginning1 therefore1 our mode of procedure must be as much as possible analytic4 ,on the other hand1 reading and writing can be taught only synthetically1 although on the basis of an antecedent analysis of speech sounds4 7#a7 ,arranging--commonly neglected1 though wrongly so--is an exceedingly easy exercise in itself1 and facilitates the performance of many other tasks4 ,it is therefore appropriate for children4 ,that three objects may change places from right to left 7from front to rear1 from above to below7 and vice versa--this is the beginning4 ,the next step is to show that three objects admit of six permutations in a straight line4 ,to find how many pairs can be formed out of a given number of objects1 is one of the easiest problems4 ,how far to go1 is a matter to be determined by circumstances4 ,not letters1 however1 but objects1--the children themselves1--should be changed about1 permuted1 and varied in position4 ,the teaching of a subject like this must in a measure have the semblance of play4 7#b7 ,the first observation exercises begin with straight lines drawn vertically or cross-wise4 ,use may be made also of knitting needles variously placed1 side by side or across each other1 of domino checks1 and of similar objects4 ,next comes the circle1 subdivided and presented in manifold ways4 7#c7 ,for arithmetic1 likewise1 concrete objects are needed1--coins1 for example1 which are counted and arranged in different groups to illustrate sums1 differences1 and products4 ,at first the highest number employed should not exceed1 say1 twelve or twenty4 7#d7 ,for work in reading we may avail ourselves of letters and numbers printed on cards1 which lend themselves to a variety of arrangements4 ,if children are slow about learning to read1 the blunder must not be made of neglecting their mental culture in other directions1 as though reading were its necessary prerequisite4 ,reading often demands a large amount of patience1 and should never be allowed to produce a feeling of aversion to teachers and books4 7#e7 ,writing is ushered in by the elementary drawing that must accompany observation exercises4 ,writing itself1 when once well started1 furthers reading4 #baf4 ,but already at this point many fall behind4 ,puzzled at first by the demand upon them for the dull labor of learning1 they surrender themselves later on to the feeling of incapacity4 ,in large schools1 where there are always some outstripping the rest1 and where the majority are trying to keep up with the pace set1 performance can be had more readily1 although it is performance by imitation rather than by an inner sequence of thought4 ,and even here we find thoroughly disheartened laggards4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,boyhood #bag4 ,the boundary line between boyhood and early childhood is fixed1 so far as this is possible at all1 by the fact that the boy1 if allowed to do so1 will leave the company of adults4 ,formerly he felt insecure when left alone3 now he considers himself fairly well acquainted with his immediate environment1 beyond which vistas of all sorts are opening4 ,accordingly1 at this stage it becomes incumbent on the adult to attach himself to the boy1 to restrain him1 to divide the time for him1 and to circumscribe the fancies born of his self-confidence1--a course of action rendered all the more necessary by the circumstance that the boy is a stranger as yet to the timidity with which the youth joins the ranks of men4 ,for boyhood is marked off from adolescence by this1 that the boy's aims are still unsettled2 he plays and takes no thought of to-morrow4 ,moreover1 his dream of manhood is one of arbitrary power4 ,the play-impulse remains active for a long time1 unless checked by conventionality4 ,during this period1 the work of linking instruction to sense-impression is by no means to be omitted entirely1 not even where fair progress has already been made in scholarship4 ,we must make sure of a solid foundation4 #bah4 ,our chief concern during the age of boyhood must be to prevent the premature fixation of the circle of ideas4 ,it is for instruction to undertake the task of doing so4 ,true1 by far the greatest part of the process of learning1 however manifold1 is performed through the interpretation of words1 the pupil supplying the meaning out of the mental store collected previously4 ,but this very fact obviously implies that quantitively the pupil's stock of ideas is for the most part complete2 instruction merely works it up into new forms4 ,accordingly1 such shaping must take place while the material is still in a plastic state2 for with increasing years it gradually assumes a more solid character4 #bai4 ,boys differ from girls1 individuals differ from one another2 and the subjects taught1 together with the methods of teaching them1 should be differentiated accordingly4 ,but here the family interposes the interests of rank or station1 and claims the right to determine by these how much or how little instruction a boy needs4 ,looked at pedagogically1 each study calls for a corresponding mental activity to be suited to the general condition of the individual4 ,its success must not involve exhaustion of the pupil's powers1 nor make demands upon them at the wrong time4 ,but it would be an error to argue that one who is being initiated into one subject ought to combine with that subject a second1 third1 or fourth1 on the ground that subjects one1 two1 three1 and four are essentially interrelated4 ,this conclusion holds for scholars1 who1 so far as they are personally concerned1 have long passed beyond preliminary pedagogical considerations1 and even in their case it applies only to those branches which are intimately connected with their specialties2 it has nothing to do with the psychological conditions by which the course of education must be governed4 ,only too frequently do masses of ideas remain isolated despite the fact that the objects corresponding to them are most intimately and necessarily interconnected2 and such isolation could not have been prevented by merely starting work in a large web of erudition in a number of places4 ,the case is different where certain studies constitute the necessary preparation for thorough knowledge of one kind or another4 ,here we are right in concluding that one who cannot master the former is equally unable to get hold of the latter4#bd #bd ,these remarks upon correlation are instructive in view of later developments of the ,herbartian school in ,germany4 ,the reader is referred to discussions in the ,first and ,second ,year-,books of the ,national ,herbart ,society4 #bbj4 ,it is difficult to deal with the rare instances of tardy development unless we find that they are due to neglected health1 or to lack of assistance in enlarging the range of experience1 and to failure to change the mode of instruction4 ,here an attempt may be made to supply what is wanting4 ,but even where the rate of progress becomes more rapid at once1 the teacher's efforts will have turned out favorably only when the boy gives also clear proof of a vigorous striving for advancement4 #bba4 ,to revert to fundamental ethical principles1 particular mention of the ideas of justice and equity needs to be made in this connection4 ,these ideas issue from reflection on human relations2 they are consequently less accessible to early childhood1 which finds itself subordinated everywhere to the family4 ,the boy1 on the other hand1 lives more among his peers1 and the necessary corrections are not always administered so promptly as to leave no time for independent judgment4 ,not infrequently voluntary association takes place among boys1 personal authority plays a part1 and even usurpation of power is not rare4 ,now1 education has to provide for clear ethical concepts and for government and training besides4 ,but not only that2 it must also furnish the kind of instruction that will exhibit similar but remote relations1 for purposes of unbiassed contemplation4 ,such instruction must borrow its material from poetry and history4 #bbb4 ,to history we are referred by still another consideration4 ,as has already been shown 7#bjf-baa71 the idea of good-will points to the necessity of religious culture2 and this relies for support on stories1 old stories at that4 ,the expansion of the pupil's power of thought which is here demanded must be generally attained1 even though very incompletely1 in every course of instruction1 that of the village school included4 #bbc4 ,another fixed goal1 the importance of which exceeds even that of reading and writing1 is furnished by arithmetic1 which gives clearness to the common concepts of experience1 and is indispensable in the practical affairs of life4 #bbd4 ,decimal arithmetic no pupil would be likely to think out by himself2 he would very certainly not invent ,bible history4 ,both must accordingly be regarded as belonging preminently to the province of synthetic instruction1 which always involves the difficult problem of how to assure its entrance1 as a potent factor1 into existing masses of ideas4 ,as to this1 it would be a blunder to conclude that1 since ,bible history and history as a whole1 arithmetic and mathematics as a whole1 hang together1 there is also a corresponding pedagogical connection 7#bai74 ,but so much is certain1 that the efficiency of a group of ideas increases with expansion and with multiplied association4 ,it will be an advantage1 therefore1 to ,bible history and to arithmetic1 if as wide a range is given to historical and mathematical teaching as circumstances and ability permit1 even if the conditions should be such that a many-sided culture is not to be expected4 #bbe4 ,the subjects next to be considered in the choice of material for instruction are poetry and natural history1 great care being taken not to disregard the necessary sequence4 ,the time for fables and stories should not be curtailed2 it is important to make sure that boys do not lose the taste for them too early4 ,the easiest and safest facts of zology will have been presented already in connection with the picture-books of childhood4 ,the right moment for introducing the elements of botany has arrived when the boy is collecting plants4 ,foreign languages would be assigned the lowest place1 if particular circumstances did not in many cases lend them a special importance4 ,the ancient classical languages1 at any rate1 form to such an extent the basis of the study of theology1 of jurisprudence1 and of medicine1 they are so necessary to all higher scholarship1 that they will always constitute the fundamental branches of instruction in academic preparatory schools4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that the extent of instruction depends too much on external conditions of rank and means to permit a definite prescription of instruction-material for all cases4 ,far less dependent is the development of many-sided interest in its relation to branches of study4 ,if the limits set to the latter are narrow1 it is still the business of instruction to secure an approximation to many-sided culture2 while under highly favorable circumstances the very abundance of educational help must put the teacher on his guard against losing sight of the real aim of instruction4 #bbf4 ,frequently the burden of necessary and useful studies is made excessively heavy1 a fact which the members of the teaching profession try to conceal from themselves1 but which attracts the attention of outsiders4 ,a few hours of gymnastics do not sufficiently counteract such evil effects4 ,as an offset we have at best the prevention of the vices of idleness4 ,from every point of view1 for the mere reason that this matter calls for special attention and that the method of procedure has to be determined in accordance with the results of observation1 the home must do its part toward relieving that natural strain which even good instruction exerts--and the school must not encroach on the time necessary for that purpose4 ,in extreme cases1 to be sure1 it may be expressly demanded that the school engage the whole of a boy's time4 ,but1 as a rule1 outside school-work should take up1 not the largest1 but1 on the contrary1 the smallest amount of time possible4 ,how the remaining hours are to be employed is for parents and guardians to decide according to individual needs1 ascertained by observation2 and it is on them that the responsibility for the consequences rests4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,youth #bbg4 ,whether instruction comes to an end or is continued during this period1 all it can accomplish depends now on the fulfilment of the condition that the young man himself regard the retention and increase of his attainments as something valuable4 ,accordingly1 the interrelations of knowledge1 as well as its connection with action1 must be brought before his mind with the greatest possible distinctness4 ,he must be furnished1 also1 with the strongest incentives to reach the goal determined upon1 provided the question is merely how to overcome indolence and thoughtlessness4 ,for it is just at this stage that the teacher needs to fear and to prevent those wrong motives which would issue merely in an artificial semblance of talent4 #bbh4 ,moreover1 the allowance made for the child and the boy can no longer be made for the youth4 ,his whole ability is to be put to the test1 and his position in human society determined according to the outcome4 ,he must experience something of the difficulty of obtaining a foothold among men4 ,positions for which he does not seem quite prepared are contested2 he is surrounded by rivals1 and is spurred on by expectations1 which it is often difficult to moderate when most necessary4 #bbi4 ,if now the young man puts his trust in favorable circumstances1 and1 in spite of all appeals1 gives himself up to the pursuit of ease and pleasure1 education is at an end4 ,it only remains to conclude with precepts and representations which future experiences may possibly recall4 #bcj4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the youth has his eyes fixed on a definite goal1 the form of life which he is striving to attain1 and the motives that impel him1 will determine what else may be done for him4 ,according as the ideals of honor that he makes his own are directed more outwardly or inwardly1 they stand more or less midway between plans for actions and maxims4 #bca4 ,the youth is no longer pliant1 except when his failures have made him feel ashamed of himself4 ,such cases must be made use of for the purpose of making good deficiencies4 ,but on the whole1 duty requires that the stern demands of morality be held up to him without disguise4 ,perfect frankness can hardly be looked for any longer1 and to insist on it is out of the question entirely4 ,the reserve of the age of adolescence marks the natural beginning of self-control4 ,these brief paragraphs on the development of the individual through infancy1 childhood1 boyhood1 and youth1 mark an early interest in what is now known as child-study1 the literature of which has become voluminous4 ,for a dissertation on the experimental study of children1 and a bibliography of the subject1 the reader is referred to the monograph by ,arthur ,mc,donald1 of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 entitled 8,experimental ,study of ,children40 ,a smaller but more useful bibliography has been compiled by ,l4 ,n4 ,wilson4 ,it is found in ,pedagogical ,seminary for ,september1 #ahii4 ,,part ,,iii ,,special ,,applications ,,of ,,pedagogics ,,section ,i ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,teachings ,,of ,,particular ,,branches ,,of ,,study ,,chapter ,i ,religion #bcb4 ,the content of religious instruction is for theologians to determine1 while philosophy bears witness that no knowledge is able to surpass the trust of religious faith4 ,but both the beginning and the end of religious instruction call for remarks from the point of view of pedagogy4 ,religious instruction culminates1 if it does not end1 in the rite of confirmation1 and the subsequent admission to the ,holy ,communion4 ,the former is characteristic of a particular ,christian denomination2 the latter1 on the contrary1 of the whole brotherhood of ,christians4 ,now the profound emotion which marks the first ,communion service should imply a conquest over the feeling of separation from other denominations1 especially since the mere admission to ,communion is conditioned on the general requirement of earnest ethical aspiration4 ,it is thus assumed that members of other confessions1 provided they are communicants at all1 have fulfilled the same condition4 ,preparatory instruction must work toward this end all the more1 since with many persons ,christian love for those who differ from them in important articles of faith belongs to the more difficult duties4 ,moreover1 the fact that this same instruction necessarily had to set forth clearly fundamental denominational differences1 lends additional weight to the necessity of inculcating the virtue of ,christian charity4 #bcc4 ,in academic schools1 if ,greek is begun early enough1 it is possible to deepen the impressions of ,christian teaching by the dialogues of ,plato that bear on the death of ,socrates1 particularly the 8,crito0 and the 8,apology40 ,being the weaker1 however1 impressions of this sort should precede the time when the solemn initiation into ,christian fellowship produces its whole powerful effect4 #bcd4 ,going back in thought1 we find that the portion of religious instruction which deals with characteristic denominational distinctions1 presupposes that which deals with tenets common to all ,christians1 and we find that this in turn has been preceded by ,bible stories1 including those of the ,old ,testament4 ,but the question arises1 8,must we not go back to something more fundamental still80 #bce4 ,religion cannot possibly be adequately presented by treating of it merely as a perpetuation of something historical and past4 ,the teacher must needs make use also of the present testimony furnished by the adjustment of means to end1 in nature4 ,but even this1 for which some knowledge of nature is prerequisite1 and which leads up to the ideas of wisdom and power1 is not the first step4 #bcf4 ,true family feeling is elevated easily and directly to the idea of the ,father1 of the father and mother4 ,only where such feeling is wanting does it become necessary to make churches and ,sunday observance the starting-point as indications of humility and gratitude4 ,an all-pervading love1 providence1 and watchful care constitute the first concept of the ,highest ,being1--a concept limited by the mental horizon of the child1 and expanding and becoming more elevated only by degrees4 #bcg4 ,the process of elevating religious concepts and purifying them of unworthy admixtures must1 however1 have taken place1 and the true concepts must have been deeply impressed1 before the mythological conceptions of antiquity become known2 in which case the latter will produce the right effect by the contrast between the manifestly fabulous and crude1 and the worthy and sublime4 ,if managed properly1 this subject presents no difficulties4 #bch4 ,but there are other difficulties1--difficulties growing out of individual peculiarities4 ,while some would be harmed by much talk about sin1 because they would thus either become acquainted with it1 or else be filled with fantastic terror1 there are others whom only the strongest language can move1 and still others who themselves preach against the sins of the world1 and1 at the same time1 front the world in proud security4 ,then there are those who brood over ethical problems1 and who1 without having heard of ,spinoza1 argue that what the ,highest ,judge has permitted to happen he has approved of1 whence might is the practical proof of right4 ,there are contemners of mere morality1 who think that prayers will consecrate their evil actions4 ,isolated traces of such perversions may indeed be met with even in children1 especially if their glib reproduction of the sermon1 or worse yet1 their praying aloud1 has happened to receive praise4 ,hence it is necessary to observe the effect of religious instruction on each individual4 ,another task for home training4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,history #bci4 ,the most common blunder that younger teachers of history are apt to make is that1 without intending it1 they become increasingly prolix in presentation4 ,it is not that interest deepens1 but that the network of events lures them1 now one way1 now another4 ,this of itself evinces preparation2 but mental preparation alone does not suffice2 preliminary practice1 too1 is necessary4 ,young teachers of history1 like young teachers in other subjects1 are prone to error4 ,what the prevailing error in a given study will be1 is likely to depend upon conventional methods of presenting it4 ,in ,germany it is customary for the teacher himself to be the historian through whose mind all historical knowledge passes on its way to the children4 ,but just as good writers of history are rare1 so good teachers of history are likely to be few1 since in an important sense they are at once teachers and oral historians4 ,where the text-book is depended upon for the narrative1 as in the ,united ,states1 a different difficulty presents itself to the teacher4 ,what shall he do with the text1 all the pupils having read it8 ,perhaps the commonest method is to call upon them one by one to reproduce it in class4 ,but this is a deadening process1 since it compels nineteen pupils to sit passive while the twentieth recites the words that the nineteen could repeat equally well4 ,if1 therefore1 the besetting fault of the teacher of history in ,german is prolixity1 that of the ,american teacher is tediousness4 ,the ,german method is that of primitive man1 where the legends of the tribe are handed down from father to son by word of mouth2 the ,american presentation of history is modern1 where all the resources of scholarship and the advantages of the printing press are utilized4 ,each method has peculiar advantages1 the former having the possible charm of first-hand narrative1 the latter that of accuracy and comprehensiveness4 ,the narrative method is greatly superior to that of the text-book with children whose powers of reading are not well developed2 the text-book1 together with its available accessories1 is greatly to be preferred with older pupils capable of large amounts of reading4 ,the following sections give a vivid description of the narrative method at its best2 the commentary will attempt to show how the printed page may be made equally attractive1 and1 at the same time1 much more useful4 #bdj4 ,if1 to begin with1 a purely chronological1 but accurate1 outline-view of history is to be imparted1 the teacher must be able to traverse mentally the whole historical field1 going with equal readiness back1 forward1 or across 7synchronistically74 ,the notable names must form definite groups and series2 and the teacher must possess facility in making the most notable names stand out clearly from the groups1 and in condensing the most salient points of a long series into a short series4 ,if this mastery of subject-matter is important for the narrator1 it is equally important for the teacher who depends upon print for the narration4 ,observation of current history teaching betrays the fact that the teacher rarely becomes master of his material to such an extent that he can throw it into new forms4 ,as it stands in the book1 he probably knows it2 but to take liberties with the facts1 to expand parts1 or throw masses into brief outline1 to make new groupings1 or to change a long series into a short one1 usually lies beyond his ability4 ,this lesson the ,american teacher must learn through a better mastery of his materials4 #bda4 ,again1 the teacher must make himself perfectly familiar with general notions that relate to classes of society--constitutions1 institutions1 religious customs1 stages of culture--and that serve to explain events4 ,but not only this2 he must study likewise the conditions under which he can develop them and keep them present in the minds of his pupils4 ,this consideration alone shuts out most generalizations from the first lessons in history4 ,and1 accordingly1 ancient history1 whose moving causes are simpler than the more modern political factors1 maintains its place in presentations of historical material to younger pupils4 ,american history is better than ancient history in respect to its richness of picturesque variety4 ,it is1 moreover1 easier for children to comprehend1 since our present conditions have emerged directly from our pioneer state4 ,not only are constitutions1 institutions1 and religious customs to be studied1 but the economic conditions of those early times are particularly worthy of study1 since they are both important and interesting4 ,methods of farming1 of conducting household affairs1 such as cooking1 making fires1 producing clothing1 securing shelter1 means of transportation on land and water1 methods of communication1 and many other similar topics are of interest to the young4 #bdb4 ,furthermore1 due attention must be given to the difficulty of narrating well a complex event4 ,the very first condition is continuity of the thought-current1 in order that the thread of the story may remain unbroken1 except where there are intentional rests4 ,this1 in turn1 presupposes fluency of speech1 careful cultivation of which is indispensable to a good presentation of historical events4 ,but mere fluency does not suffice4 ,there must also be resting-places1 because otherwise alternate absorption and reflection cannot be secured2 and because1 without such pauses1 even the formation of the series fails1 since what has preceded arrests what follows4 ,it is therefore not immaterial where a historical lesson begins and ends1 and where the reviews are inserted4 ,while the narrator can utter words in succession only1 the event has1 in his mind1 a very different form1 which it is his business to convey to his hearers4 ,nor does the form of the event resemble a level plane2 on the contrary1 a manifold interest lifts some things into prominence and lets others sink4 ,it is essential1 accordingly1 to distinguish how far1 in a given instance1 the narration should follow in a straight line the succession of events1 and where1 on the other hand1 it should deviate to include accessory circumstances4 ,the very language used must possess the power to induce side-glances and retrospective views1 even without leaving the main road4 ,the narrator must have skill to introduce descriptions here and to linger over pictures there1 but must be able also1 while moving his hearers1 to retain his own self-control and to keep his bearings4 #bdc4 ,there remains one other requisite of prime importance1 namely1 the utmost simplicity of expression4 ,the condensed and abstract language of more recent historians is hardly suited even to the highest class of a secondary school2 a sentimental or witty treatment1 such as that found in modern novelists1 must be avoided entirely4 ,the only safe models are the ancient classics4 ,the most serious fault with the text-book method is the barrenness arising from condensation4 ,to teach history solely from a single book1 even if this be among the best1 is to produce an atrophy of the historical interest4 ,it is on this account that successful teachers introduce large amounts of collateral reading1 not of similarly condensed books1 which would be like remedying the drouth with more dry weather1 but of sections from fuller works on the same subject4 ,in ,american history the pupil is directed to read selected portions of standard works like those of ,fiske1 ,parkman1 ,mc,master1 ,turner1 ,tyler1 or earlier historians4 ,in ,english history he is sent directly to such men as ,gardiner1 ,green1 ,freeman1 ,traill1 ,ransome1 ,cunningham and ,mc,arthur1 ,harrison and ,macaulay4 ,the method of copious readings has1 in turn1 its disadvantages1 the most conspicuous of which is diffusiveness4 ,it is easy for the student to become so absorbed in a mass of details that he lose the proper sense of proportion1 or overlook the relative importance of events1 or fail to fix firmly in mind the causal series that binds all together4 ,in the case of either of the methods described1 it is the teacher who is responsible for order and for clearness of detail4 ,in the one case his narrative must have the artistic unity of the finished historian2 in the other he must so manage a wealth of given material that the golden chain of cause and effect shall be seen binding diversity into unity4 ,the ability to do the first is of a much rarer order than that of the second1 for the art of teaching is not so difficult as the art of historical composition4 ,the remedy for the specific difficulty which modern text-book teaching of history encounters will be discussed under paragraph #bdg4 ,the stories of ,herodotus should serve the teacher as the basis for practice4 ,in fact1 they should actually be memorized in an accurate but fluent translation4 ,the effect on children is surprising4 ,at a later stage use may be made of ,arrian and ,livy4 ,the method of the ancients of letting the principal characters utter their views and set forth their motives with their own lips1 the narrator abstaining from reflections of his own1 should be scrupulously imitated1 and should be departed from only in the case of manifestly artificial rhetorical devices4 #bdd4 ,the course of preparation outlined above 7#bdj-bdc7 having gone hand-in-hand with a thorough1 pragmatic study of history1 it is further necessary1 in the exercise of the art acquired1 to learn to expand or contract1 according to circumstances and the specific aims of each occasion4 ,concerning this point no generally applicable rules can be given1 on account of the great variety of possible cases2 but the following suggestions should be noted3-- ,in general1 all helps whereby historical objects may be represented to sense--portraits1 pictures of buildings1 of ruins1 etc4--are desirable2 maps for the more ancient times must be regarded as particularly indispensable4 ,they should always be at hand1 and their study should not be neglected4 ,among these helps must be included charts1 substantially like that by ,strass entitled 8,the ,stream of ,time10 which places before the eye not only synchronistic events1 but at the same time shows also the alternate union and division of countries4 ,the lack of such aids causes the loss of much time and temper over mere memory work4 ,again1 attention is due to the following four aspects of the teaching of history3-- #bde4 7#a7 ,in the first place1 even the earliest lessons in geography give rise to the question1 whenever the description of a country is finished1 8,how did things look in this country formerly80 ,for it is a part of correct apprehension that cities and other works of man should not be regarded as of equal age with mountains1 rivers1 and oceans4 ,now1 although the teacher cannot stop1 during the time set apart for geography dealing with the present1 to show and explain maps illustrative of the past1 it will be useful1 nevertheless1 to add a few remarks about the early history of the country under discussion4 ,the art of narration1 however1 is out of place here1 inasmuch as the question1 although reaching back in time1 is suggested by the country4 ,mention of former activity1 such as migrations and wars1 is made simply for the purpose of adding life to the conception of a stationary surface4 ,at the beginning1 the notes on by-gone periods in connection with the geography of ,germany will accordingly be as brief as possible2 gradually1 however1 as ,france1 ,england1 ,spain1 ,italy1 are being studied in succession1 these historical notes become knit together1 and history is thus1 so to speak1 made to loom up in the distance4 ,how far to go in this direction can be determined more definitely by distinguishing between the requirements of the first1 and of the second course in geography4 ,in the first course the most general statements may suffice1 e4g41 that not so very long ago ,germany was split up more than now2 that there were older times1 when cities and neighboring princes often made war upon each other2 that the barons used to live on more or less inaccessible heights2 but that1 in the interest of better order and stricter surveillance1 ,germany was divided into ten districts1 etc4 ,the second course will admit of more historical facts than the first1 although still only very few pertaining to an older epoch4 ,only the more recent events can be conveniently connected with geography1 except in the case of still extant historical monuments1--such1 for instance1 as the ruins in ,italy1 the composite language of ,england1 the peculiar political organization of ,switzerland with its many subdivisions1 visible on the map1 and its diversities of language4 ,if1 as is sometimes recommended1 the plan is adopted of preparing the way for the study of medival and modern history by a separate introductory course in short biographies1 such a plan1 though at best only fragmentary in its results1 becomes at least more feasible where historical notes of the kind just mentioned are incorporated with the lessons in geography4 ,but in this case it is all the more essential to have a chronological chart upon the wall1 to some dates of which the teacher must take every opportunity to refer1 in order that the pupils may obtain at least some fixed points4 ,otherwise scattered biographies are liable to occasion great confusion4 #bdf4 7#b7 ,the chief basis for the earlier stages of historical teaching will always be ,greek and ,roman history4 ,it will not be inappropriate to commence with a few charming stories from ,homeric mythology1 since there is a close connection between the history of a people and their religion4 ,two wrong ways1 however1 are to be avoided3 one1 that of giving a detailed theogony or of including objectionable myths1 for the sake of completeness1 which would here be devoid of a rational purpose2 the other1 that of having the mythological elements memorized4 ,only true history should be memorized by children4 ,mythology is a study for youths or men4 ,persian history must be told approximately in the sequence and setting given by ,herodotus2 to it the history of ,assyria and of ,egypt may be joined in the form of episodes1 ,greece being kept well in the foreground4 ,the stories from the ,old ,testament1 on the other hand1 form a chain of lessons by themselves4 ,the history of ,rome must at first retain its mythical beginnings4 ,whatever ,german opinion may be regarding the beginnings of historical instruction for their own children1 ,american history possesses strong claims for precedence when we come to children of the ,united ,states4 ,if we regard the chief intellectual purpose of history for the student to be the understanding of the present status through a knowledge of the historical progress that has led to it1 then the primitive and pioneer history of this country is infinitely more valuable than any other to an ,american child1 for in it lie enfolded the forces that have developed our people2 whereas ,greece and ,rome are as distant in influence as they are in time4 ,it is the mythology of ,greece and ,rome that most attracts children2 but this belongs to literature rather than to history4 ,accounts of battles are about the same the world over1 but it takes more maturity of mind to understand the ,greek rage for individuality after the rise of philosophy1 than it does to understand a corresponding feeling among the ,american pioneers1 to say nothing of the desirability of teaching the latter as a phase of our own development4 ,for reasons of simplicity1 therefore1 as well as for psychological nearness and national importance1 ,american history must take precedence over that of ,greece and ,rome for ,american children4 #bdg4 ,suppose1 now1 that detailed stories after the models furnished by the ancients have won the attention of the pupils2 the mere pleasure of listening to stories can nevertheless not be allowed to determine continuously the impression to be produced4 ,condensed surveys must follow1 and a few of the main facts be memorized in chronological order4 ,the following suggestions will be in place here4 ,the chief events are to attach themselves in the memory to the memorized dates in such a way that no confusion can arise4 ,now1 a single date may suffice for the group of connected incidents constituting one main event2 if it seems necessary to add another1 or a third1 well and good1 but to keep on multiplying dates defeats the very end aimed at4 ,the more dates the weaker their effect1 on account of the growing difficulty of remembering them all4 ,in the history of one country dates should rather remain apart as far as possible1 in order that the intervening numbers may be all the more available for purposes of synchronistic tabulation1 by which the histories of different countries are to be brought together and connected4 ,the same sparing use should be made of the facts of ancient geography1 but those that are introduced must be learned accurately4 ,granted that the primitive method of historical narration by the teacher is the most effective in its appeal to the beginner1 it must be maintained that the combined knowledge and literary skill of modern historians infinitely surpass the powers of the ordinary teacher4 ,the modern problem is1 not how to compose history1 but how to utilize that which has been composed4 ,it is1 in short1 to guard against the confusion that comes from diffuseness4 ,wide historical reading may be as bad for the student as wide reading of novels4 ,the mind may surrender itself to the passing panorama as completely in the one field as in the other1 until the impressions made are like those of a ship upon a sea4 ,the remedy is the thorough organization in the mind of the student of the knowledge gained in diverse fields4 ,this is secured by teacher or author1 or both4 ,some authors secure clearness of outline by topics1 references1 and research questions4 ,larned's 8,history of ,england0 concludes every chapter in this way4 ,as an illustration we may quote from ,chapter ,,xvi1 which narrates the quarrel between ,king ,charles and his people3-- #bjb4 ,charles ,i4 ,topic4 #a4 ,charles's character and views4 ,references4--,bright1 ,,ii1 #fjh1 #fji2 ,green1 #die2 ,montague1 #aah2 ,ransome1 #ach1 #aci4 #bjc4 ,bad ,faith in the ,beginning of the ,reign4 ,topic4 #a4 ,charles's marriage and broken pledges4 ,reference4--,bright1 ,,ii1 #fjh1 #fad4 #bjd4 ,the ,first ,parliament of ,king ,charles4 ,topics4 #a4 ,charles's designs and his treatment of ,parliament4 #b4 ,attitude of ,commons and their dissolution4 #c4 ,the ,king's levies4 ,reference4--,gardiner1 ,,ii1 #ejb1 #ejc4 ,research ,questions4--7#a7 ,what were the legal and illegal sources of the ,king's revenues8 7,ransome1 #aea1 #aee74 7#b7 ,what might be said to constitute the private property of the crown8 7#c7 ,what contributed to make ,charles's court expensive8 7,traill1 ,,iv1 #gf74 7#d7 ,how would this need for money make for parliamentary greatness8#be ,in a similar way the remaining topics of this section of ,english history are recorded1 guiding the pupil in his outlines and his readings4 ,with suitable care on the part of the teacher to see that the student fixes the outline firmly in mind1 there is no danger of becoming lost in a wilderness of words4 ,at the same time the pupil's mind is enriched from many noble sources1 instead of being limited by the presumably meagre resources of a single teacher4 ,by this method the child may enjoy the benefits of modern erudition1 without at the same time being harmed by dissipation of mental energy4 ,other authors reach the same ends by different means4 ,fiske's 8,history of the ,united ,states10 for example1 concludes each chapter with a topical outline in which cause and effect are emphasized4 ,at the close of ,chapter ,x1 on the 8,causes and ,beginning of the ,revolution10 we find the following3-- ,topics and ,questions #gf4 ,causes of ,ill ,feeling between ,england and her ,colonies4 #a4 ,what was the ,european idea of a colony1 and of its object8 #b4 ,what erroneous notions about trade existed8 #c4 ,what was the main object of the laws regulating trade1 etc48 #gg4 ,the ,need of a ,federal ,union4 #a4 ,one difficulty in carrying on the ,french wars4 #b4 ,an account of ,franklin4 #c4 ,franklin's plan of union1 etc4 #gh4 ,the ,stamp ,act ,passed and ,repealed4 #a4 ,the kind of government needed by the colonies4 #b4 ,how ,parliament sought to establish such a government4 #c4 ,the nature of a stamp act1 etc4 #gi4 ,taxation in ,england4 #a4 ,how ,pitt's friendship for ,america offended ,george ,,iii4 #b4 ,the representation of the ,english people in ,parliament4 #c4 ,how the representation of the people is kept fair in the ,united ,states4 #d4 ,how it became unfair in ,england4 #e4 ,corrupt practices favored by this unfairness4 #f4 ,the party of ,old ,whigs4 #g4 ,the ,tories1 or the party of ,george ,,iii4 #h4 ,the party of ,new ,whigs and its aims4 #i4 ,why ,george ,,iii was so bitter against ,pitt4 #aj4 ,the attitude of the ,king toward taxation in ,america4 #aa4 ,the people of ,england not our enemies1 etc4 ,at the close of these topics there follows a list of fifteen 8,suggestive ,questions and ,directions10 with page references to ,fiske's 8,the ,american ,revolution10 ,vol4 ,i1 the whole being concluded by eighteen topics for collateral reading from 8,the ,american ,revolution10 and from ,cooke's 8,virginia40#bf ,it is a significant fact that modern text-books for children are being prepared by masters in the various departments of knowledge1 not a little thought being bestowed upon the highest utilization of all modern instruments for arousing the intelligent interest of the pupils4 ,this being the case1 it is idle to rely upon primitive methods1 however potent they may have been in the past1 with pupils who have learned to read fluently4 #be ,larned1 8,history of ,england10 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 p4 #cif4 #bf ,fiske1 ,john1 8,a ,history of the ,united ,states for ,schools10 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston1 pp4 #baa-bae4 #bdh4 ,the general surveys that follow the detailed narratives have this advantage for the pupil3 he infers of his own accord1 that in periods of which not much is told1 a great deal took place1 nevertheless1 which the history or the teacher passes over in silence4 ,in this way the false impressions are prevented that would be produced by purely compendious instruction1 which indeed1 at a later stage1 becomes in a measure unavoidable4 #bdi4 7#c7 ,medival history derives no assistance from the study of the ancient languages1 nor is it closely related to present conditions2 there is difficulty in imparting to the presentation of it more than the clearness obtainable through geography and chronology4 ,but more than this is requisite3 the burden of mere memory work without interest would become too great4 ,the fundamental factors1 ,islamism1 ,papacy1 the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 ,feudalism1 must be explained and given due prominence4 ,most of the facts down to ,charlemagne may be made to contribute additional touches to the panorama of the ,great ,migration4 ,with ,charlemagne the chain of ,german history begins1 and it will usually be considered advisable to extend this chain to the end of the ,middle ,ages1 in order to have something to which synchronous events may be linked later on4 ,yet some doubt arises as to the value of such a plan4 ,to be sure1 the reigns of the ,ottos1 the ,henrys1 the ,hohenstaufen1 together with intervening occurrences1 form a tolerably well-connected whole2 but as early as the interregnum there is a sad break1 and although the historical narrative recovers1 as it were1 with the stories of ,rudolph ,albrecht and ,ludwig the ,bavarian1 there is nothing in the names of succeeding leaders1 from ,carl ,,iv to ,frederick ,,iii1 that would make them proper starting-points and connecting centres for the synchronism of the whole period in question4 ,it might be better1 therefore1 to stop with the excommunication of ,ludwig the ,bavarian1 with the assembly of the electors at ,rhense1 and with the account of how the popes came to reside in ,avignon4 ,then--going back to ,charlemagne--,france1 ,italy1 even ,england1 may be taken up1 and greater completeness given to the history of the crusades4 ,farther on1 special attention might be called1 in a synchronistic way1 to ,burgundy and ,switzerland1 and to the changing fortunes of the wars between ,england and ,france4 ,french history may then leave off with the reign of ,charles ,,viii1 and ,english history with that of ,henry ,,vii1 while ,german history1 from ,maximilian on1 is placed again in the foreground4 ,the ,hussite wars will be treated as forerunners of the ,reformation4 ,other events must be skilfully inserted4 ,many modifications of grouping will have to be reserved for subsequent repetitions4 #bej4 7#d7 ,in presenting modern history1 the teacher will do well to avail himself of the fact that modern history does not cover so long reaches of time as medival history does1 and that it falls into three sharply defined periods1 the first of which ends with the treaty of ,westphalia1 the second extends from this date to the ,french ,revolution1 and the third1 to the present4 ,these periods should be carefully distinguished1 the leading events of each should be narrated synchronistically1 and a recital of the most essential historical facts about each country should follow4 ,only after each has been handled in this way1 and the subject-matter presented has been thoroughly impressed upon the memory by reviews1 will it be well to pass on to a somewhat fuller ethnographical account reaching back into the medival history of each country and extending forward to our own times4 ,no harm is done by going over the same ground again for the purpose of amplifying that which before appeared in outline only4 ,the chief point is1 that no course of instruction which claims at all to give completeness of culture can be regarded as concluded before it has introduced the pupil to the pragmatic study of history1 and has taught him to look for causes and effects4 ,this applies preminently to modern history1 on account of its direct connection with the present2 but medival and ancient history1 too1 have to be worked over once more from this point of view4 ,history should be the teacher of mankind2 if it does not become so1 the blame rests largely with those who teach history in schools4 #bea4 ,a well-compiled and well-proportioned brief history of inventions1 arts1 and sciences should conclude the teaching of history1 not only in gymnasia1 but also and especially in higher burgher schools1 because their courses of study are not supplemented by the university4 ,moreover1 the whole course in history is properly accompanied by illustrative poetical selections1 which1 although perhaps not produced during the different epochs1 yet stand in some relation to them2 and which in some measure1 even if only by illustrating ages very far apart1 exhibit the vast differences in the freest activities of the human mind4 ,note4--,national history is not the same for each land1 nor everywhere of equal interest1 and1 owing to its connection with larger events1 often unintelligible to young minds when torn out of its place and presented by itself4 ,if its early introduction is desired in order to kindle the heart1 special pains must be taken to select that which is intelligible and which appeals to boyhood4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,mathematics and ,nature ,study #beb4 ,aptitude for mathematics is not rarer than aptitude for other studies4 ,that the contrary seems true1 is owing to a belated and slighted beginning4 ,but that mathematicians are seldom inclined to give as much time to children as they ought is only natural4 ,the elementary lessons in combination and geometry are neglected in favor of arithmetic1 and demonstration is attempted where no mathematical imagination has been awakened4 ,the first essential is attention to magnitudes1 and their changes1 where they occur4 ,hence1 counting1 measuring1 weighing1 where possible2 where impossible1 at least the estimating of magnitudes to determine1 however vaguely at first1 the more and the less1 the larger and the smaller1 the nearer and the farther4 ,special consideration should be given1 on the one hand1 to the number of permutations1 variations1 and combinations2 and1 on the other hand1 to the quadratic and cubic relations1 where similar planes and bodies are determined by analogous lines4 ,note4--,this is not the place for saying much that might be said concerning that which renders early instruction in mathematics unnecessarily difficult4 ,but it may be remarked in brief that some of these difficulties arise from the terminology1 some from the teacher's accustomed point of view1 and some from the multiplication of varying requirements4 7#a7 ,the phraseology used forms an obstacle1 even to the easiest steps in fractions4 ,the fraction 1 for example1 is read two-thirds1 and1 accordingly1 1 two-thirds times four-fifths1 instead of1 multiplication by two and by four1 and division by three and by five4 ,the fact is overlooked that the third part of a whole includes the concept of this whole1 which cannot be a multiplier1 but only a multiplicand4 ,this difficulty the pupils stumble over4 ,the same applies to the mysterious word square root1 employed instead of the expression3 one of the two equal factors of a product4 ,matters grow even worse later on when they hear of roots of equations4 7#b7 ,still more might be said in criticism of the erroneous view according to which numbers are recorded as sums of units4 ,this is true as little as that sums are products2 two does not mean two things1 but doubling1 no matter whether that which is doubled is one or many4 ,the concept of a dozen chairs is not made up of #ab percepts of single chairs2 it comprises only two mental products1--the general concept chair and the undivided multiplication by #ab4 ,the concept one hundred men likewise contains only two concepts1--the general concept man and the undivided number #ajj4 ,so1 also1 in such expression as six foot1 seven pound1 in which language assists correct apprehension by the use of the singular4 ,number concepts remain imperfect so long as they are identified with series of numbers and recourse is had to successive counting4 7#c7 ,in arithmetical problems the difficulty attaching to the apprehension of the things dealt with is confounded with that of the solution itself4 ,principal and interest and time1 velocity and distance and time1 etc41 are matters which must be familiar to the pupils1 and hence must have been previously explained1 long before use can be made of them for practice4 ,the pupil to whom arithmetical concepts still give trouble should be given concrete examples so familiar to him that out of them he can create over again the mathematical notion and not be compelled to apply it to them4 #bec4 ,the measuring of lines1 angles1 and arcs 7for which many children's games1 constructive in tendency1 may present the first occasion7 leads over to observation exercises dealing with both planes and spheres4 ,skill in this direction having been attained1 frequent application must be made of it1 or else1 like every other acquirement1 it will be lost again4 ,every plan of a building1 every map every astronomical chart1 may afford opportunities for practice4 ,these observation exercises are to be organized in such a manner that upon the completion of mensuration the way is fully prepared for trigonometry1 provided that besides the work in plain geometry1 algebra has been carried as far as equations of the second degree4 ,extended discussions as to the place and value of the ratio idea in elementary arithmetic are found in 8,the ,psychology of ,number10 by ,mc,lellan ,dewey1#bg and in 8,the ,new ,arithmetic10 by ,w4 ,w4 ,speer4#bh ,the former work advocates early practice in measuring with changeable units1 claiming that the child should early acquire the idea of number as the expression of the relation that a measured somewhat bears to a chosen measurer1 and making counting a special case of measuring4 ,mr4 ,speer makes the ratio idea still more prominent by furnishing the school with numerous sets of blocks of various sizes and shapes with which to drill the pupils into instantaneous recognition of number as the ratio between two quantities4 ,for an extended examination of these principles the reader may well consult ,dr4 ,david ,eugene ,smith's able treatise on the teaching of elementary mathematics4#bi ,note4--,it is now nearly forty years since the author wrote a little book on the plan of ,pestalozzi's ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 of observation1 and he has often had it used by teachers since4 ,numerous suggestions have been given by others under the title1 8,study of ,forms40 ,the main thing is training the eye in gauging distances and angles1 and combining such exercises with very simple computations4 ,the aim is not merely to secure keenness of observation for objects of sense1 but1 preminently1 to awaken geometrical imagination and to connect arithmetical thinking with it4 ,indeed1 exercises of this sort constitute the necessary1 although commonly neglected1 preparation for mathematics4 ,the helps made use of must be concrete objects4 ,various things have been tried and cast aside again2 most convenient for the first steps are triangles made from thin hard-wood boards4 ,of these only seventeen pairs are needed1 all of them right-angled triangles with one side equal4 ,to find these triangles1 draw a circle with a radius of four inches1 and trace the tangents and secants at #e1 #aj1 #ae1 #bj1 etc41 to #he4 ,the numerous combinations that can be made will easily suggest themselves4 ,the tangents and secants must be actually measured by the pupils2 from #de on1 the corresponding figures1 at first not carried out beyond tenths1 should be noted1 and1 after some repetition1 learned by heart4 ,on this basis very easy arithmetical examples may be devised for the immediate purpose of gaining the lasting attention of the pupils to matters so simple4 ,observations relating to the sphere require a more complicated apparatus1 namely1 three movable great circles of a globe4 ,it would be well to have such means at hand in teaching spherical trigonometry4 ,needless to say1 of course1 observation exercises do not take the place of geometry1 still less of trigonometry1 but prepare the ground for these sciences4 ,when the pupil reaches plain geometry1 the wooden triangles are put aside1 and observation is subordinated to geometrical construction4 ,meanwhile arithmetic is passing beyond exercises that deal merely with proportions1 to powers1 roots1 and logarithms4 ,in fact1 without the concept of the square root1 not even the ,pythagorean ,theorem can be fully grasped4 8,herbart's ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 of ,sense ,perception10 together with a number of minor educational works1 has been translated into ,english4#cj ,it abounds in shrewd observations and ingenious devices1 yet as a whole it represents one of those side excursions1 which1 though delightful to genius1 is not especially useful to the world4 ,to drill children into the habit of resolving a landscape into a series of triangles1 may indeed be possible1 but like any other schematization of the universe1 is too artificial to be desirable4 ,nevertheless1 a limited use of the devices mentioned in this section might tend to quicken an otherwise torpid mind4 #bg ,mc,lellan ,dewey1 8,the ,psychology of ,number10 ,international ,education ,series1 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 #bh ,speer1 ,w4 ,w41 8,the ,new ,arithmetic10 ,ginn ,co41 ,boston1 #ahif4 #bi ,smith1 ,david ,eugene1 8,the ,teaching of ,elementary ,mathematics10 ,ch4 ,v1 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 #cj ,eckoff1 ,william ,j41 8,herbart's ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 of ,sense ,perception10 ,international ,education ,series1 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 #bed4 ,but now a subject comes up that1 on account of the difficulties it causes1 calls for special consideration1 namely1 that of logarithms4 ,it is easy enough to explain their use1 and to render the underlying concept intelligible as far as necessary in practice--arithmetical corresponding to geometrical series1 the natural numbers being conceived of as a geometrical series4 ,but scientifically considered1 logarithms involve fractional and negative exponents1 as also the application of the ,binomial ,theorem4 ,the latter1 to be sure1 is merely an easy combinatory formula so far as integral positive exponents are concerned1 but1 limited to these1 is here of comparatively little use4 ,now1 since trigonometry in its main theorems is independent of logarithms1 but is little applied without their aid1 the question arises whether beginners should necessarily be given a complete and vigorously scientific course in logarithms1 the highly beneficial instruction in trigonometry being postponed until after the successful completion of such a course1 or whether the practical use of logarithms is to be permitted before accurate insight into underlying principles has been gained4 ,note4--,the difficulty encountered in this subject--undoubtedly one of those difficulties most keenly felt in teaching mathematics--is after all only an illustration of the injurious consequences of former sins of omission4 ,if the geometrical imagination were not neglected1 there would be ample opportunity1 not only for impressing far more deeply the concept of proportion1 demanded even by elementary arithmetic1 but also for developing early the idea of function4 ,the object lessons mentioned above have already illustrated the dependence of tangents and secants on angles4 ,when these relations of dependence have become as familiar as may be expected after a half year's instruction1 sines and cosines also are taken up4 ,but it is not sufficient to leave the matter here4 ,somewhat later1 about the time when mensuration is introduced1 the squares and cubes of natural numbers must be emphasized1 and very soon committed to memory4 ,next it should be pointed out how by finding the differences of squares and cubes respectively1 and then adding these differences1 the original numbers may be obtained again4 ,a similar treatment should be accorded to figurate numbers4 ,small wooden disks1 like checker-pawns1 commend themselves for the purpose4 ,by means of them various figures are found4 ,the pupils are asked to indicate how many disks they need to construct one or the other kind of figures4 ,a further step will be to show the increase of squares and cubes corresponding to the increase of the root1 and to make this information serve as the preparation for the elementary parts of differential calculus4 ,now the time has come for passing on to the consideration of consecutive values of the roots1 which are found to differ by quantities of continuously decreasing smallness as one progresses continuously through the number system4 ,and so1 after the logarithms of #a1 #aj1 #ajj1 #ajjj1 etc41 also of #a_/aj1 #a_/ajj1 etc41 have been gone over many times1 forward and backward1 the conception is finally reached of the interpolation of logarithms4 #bee4 ,in schools where practical aims predominate1 logarithms should be explained by a comparison of the arithmetical with the geometrical series1 and the practical application will immediately follow4 ,but even where recourse is had to ,taylor's ,theorem and the ,binomial ,theorem1 the gain to the beginner will not usually be very much greater4 ,not as though these theorems1 together with the elements of differential calculus1 could not be made clear2 the real trouble lies in the fact that much of what is comprehended is not likely to be retained in the memory4 ,the beginner1 when he comes to the application1 still has the recollection of the proof and of his having understood it4 ,indeed1 with some assistance he would be able1 perhaps1 to again retrace step by step the course of the demonstration4 ,but he lacks perspective2 and in his application of logarithms it is of no consequence to him by what method they have been calculated4 ,what has been said here of logarithms may be applied more generally4 ,the value of rigid demonstrations is fully seen only when one has made himself at home in the field of concepts to which they belong4 ,it is customary in ,american schools to take up elementary algebra and elementary geometry upon the completion of arithmetic1 both algebra and geometry being anticipated to some extent in the later stages of arithmetic4 ,the following paragraphs from the pen of ,david ,eugene ,smith#ca indicate some of the advance in algebra since ,herbart's time3-- 8,the great revival of learning known as the ,renaissance1 in the sixteenth century1 saw algebra take a fresh start after several centuries of complete stagnation4 ,tartaglia solved the cubic equation1 and a little later ,ferrari solved the biquadratic4 ,by the close of the sixteenth century ,vieta had put the keystone in the arch of elementary algebra1 the only material improvements for some time to come being in the way of symbolism4 ,for the next two hundred years the struggle of algebraists was for a solution of the quintic equation1 or1 more generally1 for a general solution of an equation of any degree4 8,the opening of the nineteenth century saw a few great additions to the theory of algebra4 ,the first was the positive proof that the general equation of the fifth degree is insoluble by elementary algebra1 a proof due to ,abel4 ,the second was the mastery of the number systems of algebra1--the complete understanding of the negative1 the imaginary1 the incommensurable1 the transcendent4 ,other additions were in the line of the convergency of series1 the approximation of the real roots of numerical equations1 the study of determinants--all finding their way into the elements1 together with the theories of forms and groups1 which must soon begin to influence the earlier chapters of the subject4 8,this hasty glance at the development of the subject is sufficient to show how it has been revolutionized in modern times4 ,to-day it is progressing as never before4 ,the higher culture is beginning to affect the lower2 determinants have found place in the beginner's course2 graphic methods1 objected to as innovations by some who are ignorant of their prominence in the childhood of science1 are reasserting their rights2 the #8imaginary' has become very real2 the inheritances of the algebra-teachers' guild are being examined with critical eyes1 and many an old problem and rule must soon go by the board4 ,it is valuable to a teacher to see what changes have been wrought so that he may join in the movement to weed out the bad1 to cling to the good1 and to reach up into the realm of modern mathematics to see if1 perchance1 he cannot find that which is good and usable and light-shedding for the elementary work40 ,the true order of elementary mathematics1 according to ,dr4 ,smith1 is substantially as follows3-- #a4 ,elementary operations of arithmetic4 #b4 ,simple mensuration1 correlation with drawing1 the models in hand3-- ,inductive geometry--the primitive form of the science4 #c4 ,arithmetic of business and of science1 using the simple equation with one unknown quantity wherever it throws light upon the subject4 #d4 ,simple theory of numbers1 the roots1 series1 logarithms4 #e4 ,elementary algebra1 including quadratic and radical equations4 #f4 ,demonstrative plane geometry begun before the algebra is completed and correlated with it4 #g4 ,plane trigonometry and its elementary applications4 #h4 ,solid geometry4 ,trigonometry4 ,advanced algebra1 with the elements of differentiation and integration4 8,the student should then take a rapid review of his elementary mathematics1 including a course in elementary analytic geometry and the calculus4 ,he would then be prepared to enter upon the study of higher mathematics40 #ca ,compare ,smith1 ,david ,eugene1 8,history of ,modern ,mathematics10 in ,merriman ,woodworth's 8,higher ,mathematics10 ,wiley1 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 #bef4 ,demonstrations taking a roundabout way through remote auxiliary concepts are a grave evil in instruction1 be they ever so elegant4 ,such modes of presentation are rather to be selected as start from simple elementary notions4 ,for with these conviction does not depend on the unfortunate condition requiring a comprehensive view of a long series of preliminary propositions4 ,thus ,taylor's ,theorem can be deduced from an interpolation formula1 and this1 in turn1 from the consideration of differences1 for which nothing is needed beyond addition1 subtraction1 and knowledge of the permutation of numbers4 ,the following account of imaginary and complex numbers by ,dr4 ,david ,eugene ,smith is so lucid that it is given at length3-- 8,the illustrations of the negative number are so numerous1 so simple1 and so generally known from the common text-books that it is unnecessary to dwell upon them4#cb ,debt and credit1 the scale on the thermometer1 longitude1 latitude1 the upward pull of a balloon compared with the force of gravity1 and the graphic illustration of these upon horizontal and vertical lines--all these are familiar4 8,but the imaginary and complex numbers have been left enshrouded in mystery in most text-books4 ,the books say1 inter lineas1 #8,here is #a2 it means nothing2 you can't imagine it2 the writer knows nothing about it2 let us have done with it1 and go on4' ,such is the way in which the negative was treated in the early days of printed algebras1 but now such treatment would be condemned as inexcusable4 ,but there is really no more reason to-day for treating the imaginary so unintelligently than for presenting the negative as was the custom four hundred years ago4 ,the graphic treatment of the complex number is not to-day so difficult for the student about to take up quadratics as is the presentation of the negative to one just beginning algebra4 8,briefly1 the following outline will suffice to illustrate the procedure for the complex number3-- #e #d #c #b #a #a #b #c #d #e #j 8#a4 ,negative numbers may be represented in a direction opposite to that of positive numbers1 starting from an arbitrary point called zero4 ,hence1 when we leave the domain of positive numbers1 direction enters4 ,but there are infinitely many directions in a plane besides those of the positive and negative numbers1 and hence there may be other numbers than these4 8#b4 ,when we add positive and negative numbers we find some results which seem strange to a beginner4 ,for example1 if we add #d and #c we say the sum is #a1 although the length #a is less than the length #d or the length #c2 yet this does not trouble us because we have considered something besides length1 namely1 direction2 it is true1 however1 that the sum of #d and #c is less than the absolute value of either4 ,this is seen to be so reasonable1 however1 from numerous illustrations 7as the combined weight of a balloon pulling up #c lbs41 tied to a #d-lb4 weight71 that we come not to notice the strangeness of it2 graphically1 we think of the sum as obtained by starting from #j1 going #d in a positive direction1 then #c in a negative direction1 the sum being the distance from #j to the stopping-place4 ,illustration3 ,graph of #a multiplied by #a twice 8#c4 ,if we multiply #a by #a1 or by #a #a1 or by #a twice1 we swing it counter-clockwise through #ahj1 and obtain #a2 hence1 if we multiply it by #a once1 we should swing it through #ij4 ,hence we may graphically represent #a as the unit on the perpendicular axis ,,yy1 and this gives illustration to #a1 #ba1 #ca1 #a1 #ba1 #ca1 or1 more briefly1 i1 #b;i1 #c;i1 where i stands for #a4 ,we therefore see that i is a symbol of quality 7graphically of direction71 just as is or 1 and that #c #e;i1 i#e1 etc41 are just as real as #c #e1 #e1 etc4 ,it is impossible to look out of a window #c #e times as it is to look out #c #e;i times2 strictly1 one number is as #8imaginary' as the other1 although the term has come by custom to apply to one and not to the other4 8#d4 ,the complex number #c #b;i is now readily understood4 ,just as #c 7#b7 is graphically represented by starting from an arbitrary zero1 passing #c units in a positive direction 7say to the right71 then #b units in the opposite direction1 calling the sum the distance from #j to the stopping-point1 so #c #b;i may be represented graphically4 ,starting from #j1 pass in the positive direction 7to the right in the figure7 #c units1 then in the i direction #b units1 calling the sum the distance from #j to the stopping-place4 ,illustration3 ,graphical representation of #c #b;i as the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle with sides of #c and #b;i units 8,of course the question will arise as to the hypotenuse being the sum of the two sides of the right-angled triangle4 ,but the case is parallel to that mentioned in paragraph #b2 it is not the sum of the absolute values1 any more than is #a the sum of the absolute values of #d and #c2 it is the sum when we define addition for numbers involving direction as well as length4 8,a simple illustration from the parallelogram of forces is often used to advantage4 ,illustration3 ,parallelogram of two forces #c and #b;i with resultant ,,op 8,suppose a force pulling #c lbs4 to the right 7#c lbs47 and another pulling #b lbs4 upwards 7#b;i lbs472 required the resultant of the two4 ,it is evident that this is ,,op1 i4e41 ,,op #c #b;i4 8,this elementary introduction to the subject of complex numbers shows that the #8imaginary' element is easily removed1 and that students about to begin quadratics are able to get at least an intimation of the subject4 ,this is not the place for any adequate treatment of these numbers3 such treatment is easily accessible4 ,it is hoped that enough has been presented to render it impossible for any reader to be content with the absolutely meaningless and unjustifiable treatment found in many text-books40#cc #cb ,see ,beman ,smith's 8,elements of ,algebra10 p4 #ag4 #cc ,for an elementary presentation of the subject1 see ,beman and ,smith's 8,elements of ,algebra10 ,boston1 #aijj4 ,for a history of the subject1 see ,beman and ,smith's translation of ,fink's 8,history of ,mathematics10 ,chicago1 #aijj1 or ,professor ,beman's ,vice-,presidential ,address before the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 #ahih1 or the author's 8,history of ,modern ,mathematics10 already mentioned4 #beg4 ,the pedagogical value of mathematical instruction1 as a whole1 depends chiefly on the extent to which it enters into and acts on the pupil's whole field of thought and knowledge4 ,from this truth it follows1 to begin with1 that mere presentation does not suffice2 the aim must be rather to enlist the self-activity of the pupil4 ,mathematical exercises are essential4 ,pupils must realize how much they can do by means of mathematics4 ,from time to time written work in mathematics should be assigned2 only the tasks set must be sufficiently easy4 ,more should not be demanded and insisted on than pupils can comfortably accomplish4 ,some are attracted early by pure mathematics1 especially where geometry and arithmetic are properly combined4 ,but a surer road to good results is applied mathematics1 provided only the application is made to an object in which interest has already been aroused in other ways4 ,but the pupils ought not to be detained too long over a narrow round of mathematical problems2 there must also be progress in the presentation of the theory4 ,were the only requisite to stimulate self-activity1 the elementary principles might very easily suffice for countless examples affording the pupil the pleasure of increasing facility1 and even the delight arising from inventions of his own1 without giving him any conception of the greatness of the science4 ,many problems may be compared to witty conceits1 which may be welcome enough in the right place1 but which should not encroach on the time for work4 ,there ought to be no lingering over things that with advancing study solve themselves1 merely for the sake of performing feats of ingenuity4 ,incomparably more important than mere practice examples is familiarity with the facts of nature1 and such familiarity renders all the better service to mathematics if combined with technical knowledge4 #beh4 ,even young children may very well busy themselves with picture books illustrating zology1 and later with analyses of plants which they have gathered4 ,if early accustomed to this1 they will1 with some guidance1 readily go on by themselves4 ,at a later time they are taught to observe the external characteristics of minerals4 ,the continuation of the study of zology is beset with some difficulties on account of the element of sex4 ,though industriously debated1 there is no field of education more undecided both as to matter and method than nature work in the grades4 ,some scientists would teach large amounts of well-classified knowledge2 others are content when they have secured a hospitable frame of mind toward nature4 ,if a love for flowers and birds can be cultivated in children1 the latter class are satisfied that the best result has been attained4 ,thus a discussion arises as to which is the more valuable1 attitude or knowledge4 ,it is feared by some that any attempt to teach real science1 even of an elementary kind1 will result in a paralysis of permanent scientific interest4 ,to this it is replied that a sentimental regard for sthetic aspects of nature insures little or no true scientific interest4 ,both sides are1 in large measure1 wrong2 for1 though apparently antagonistic in their aims1 they make merely a different application of a common principle1 which1 if not wholly erroneous1 is at least inadequate4 ,both parties assume that the end to be attained in nature study is something only remotely related to the pupil's practical life4 ,one would present nature for its own sake as scientific knowledge2 the other would offer it for its own sake as a source of sthetic or other feeling4 ,the scientist often assumes that to a pupil a scientific fact or law is its own excuse for being4 ,he thinks there must be a natural1 spontaneous response to such a fact or law in the breast of every properly constituted child1 so that1 to imbue the mind with the scientific spirit1 it is only necessary to expose it to scientific fact4 ,perhaps1 unfortunately for the normal child1 this view is somewhat encouraged by the biographies of scientific geniuses4 ,on the other hand1 those who hold the poetic view of nature assume that there must be a native response to natural beauties in every child2 so that the true method is to expose him to nature's beauty1 when rapture is sure to follow4 ,unfortunately again for the pupil1 this view is also encouraged by the influence of the nature poets4 ,the result is that natural science is presented as an end in itself--in the one case as scientific knowledge1 in the other as the lovable in nature4 ,while it may be admitted that a few children will respond now to the one stimulus1 now to the other1 the great mass are not thrilled with rapture at nature's beauty1 nor are they fettered by scientific interest in her laws4 ,to become an object of growing interest to children1 nature must have a better basis than natural childish delight in the novel1 or reverence for scientific law4 ,the first of these is evanescent1 the second feeble4 ,we may agree with the scientist as with the poet1 that both science and poetic appreciation are desirable ends1 but they cannot be imparted to the childish mind by didactic fiat4 ,if there is one service greater than another that ,herbart has rendered to education1 it is in bringing clearly to our consciousness the supreme importance of the principle of apperception1 or mental assimilation1 as a working basis for educative processes4 ,so long as a fact or a principle or system of knowledge stands as an end in itself1 just so long is it a thing apart from the real mental life of the child4 ,even a formally correct method of presentation1 should it even appeal at once to all #8six' classes of interest1 will fail to create more than a factitious mental enthusiasm4 ,it is like conversation that is #8made' interesting2 it may suffice to lighten a tedious hour1 but it awakens no vital response4 ,when1 however1 the natural love of novelty or inborn response to the true is reinforced by a sense of warm personal relationship1 when the facts of forest1 or plain1 or mine1 or animal life flood the mind with unexpected and significant revelations concerning either the present or the past in close personal touch with the learner1 then instruction rests upon an apperceptive basis4 ,abstractions that before were pale1 beauties that were cold1 now receive color and warmth because they get a new subjective valuation that before was impossible4 ,a sedate sheep nibbling grass or resting in the shade1 a skipping lamb gambolling on the green1 are suitable objects of nature study4 ,their pelts1 their hoofs1 their horns1 their wool1 are worthy of note as scientific facts4 ,a diluted interest may even be added by recitation of the nursery rhymes about 8,little ,bo-,peep0 and 8,mary had a ,little ,lamb40 ,but these are devices for the feeble-minded4 ,if the teacher can reveal to the pupil the function of wool in making garments for the race1 and can lead him to repeat the processes by which1 from time immemorial1 the wool has been spun into yarn and woven into cloth2 if1 at the same time1 the influence of this industry upon the home life1 both of men and women1 can be shown1 the study of the sheep becomes worthy the attention even of a boy who can play foot-ball or of a girl who can cook4 ,the literature of the sheep is no longer infantile or fatuous4 ,we have a gamut reaching from ,penelope to ,priscilla4 ,in the words of ,professor ,dewey3 8,the child who is interested in the way in which men lived1 the tools they had to do with1 the transformation of life that arose from the power and leisure thus gained1 is eager to repeat like processes in his own action2 to make utensils1 to reproduce processes1 to rehandle materials4 ,since he understands their problems and their successes only by seeing what obstacles and what resources they had from nature1 the child is interested in field and forest1 ocean and mountain1 plant and animal4444 ,the interest in history gives a more human coloring1 a wider significance1 to his own study of nature40#cd ,the conclusion arising from this argument is that nature study as an end in itself1 or a thing apart from the real or imagined experiences of the pupil1 is but a faint reflection of what it may become under a more rational treatment4 ,in order of time1 nature study in the earliest grades may indeed rest upon the mere delight of the childish mind in the new1 the strange1 the beautiful1 and especially in the motion of live creatures1 and may be reinforced by childish literature4 ,when boyhood and girlhood begin1 however1 then the industrial motive1 first in the home environment1 then of primitive times1 becomes the chief reliance for an abiding interest4 ,in the reproduction of primitive processes1 there is of necessity a historical element4 ,when nature has attained a firm apperceptive basis through imitation of primitive industrial processes1 and has obtained a historical background1 then it may properly be further reinforced by literary reference4 ,the poetic value of nature will now appeal to the mind with a potency that springs from inner life and experience2 scientific law will now have some chance of appealing to the mind with something of the same reverence that ,kant besought for the moral law4 ,the true order of appeal in nature study is therefore as follows3 ,for infancy1 natural curiosity and delight in the movements of living creatures2 for the age of boyhood and girlhood1 imitation1 real or imaginary1 of processes depending upon natural objects and forces1 together with historical and literary reference2 secondarily1 nature work may also appeal to youthful interest in natural law or beauty4 #cd ,dewey1 ,john1 8,the ,aim of ,history in ,elementary ,education10 ,elementary ,school ,record1 ,november1 #aijj1 ,university of ,chicago ,press4 #bei4 ,with the foregoing should be conjoined much attention to external nature1 to the changes corresponding to the seasons1 and to means of intercommunication4 ,under this head belongs1 on the one hand1 observation of the heavenly bodies1--where sun and moon rise1 how the latter waxes and wanes1 where the north star is found1 and what arcs are described by the brighter stars and the most conspicuous constellations4 ,here belongs1 on the other hand1 technological knowledge1 acquired partly through direct observation1 partly through lessons in descriptive physical science4 ,technology ought not to be considered merely from the side of the so-called material interests4 ,it furnishes very important connecting links between the apprehension of the facts of nature and human purposes4 ,every growing boy and youth should learn to handle the ordinary tools of the carpenter as well as rule and compasses4 ,mechanical skill would often prove far more useful than gymnastic exercises4 ,the former benefits the mind1 the latter benefit the body4 ,with burgher schools should go manual training-schools1 which does not mean that the latter must necessarily be trade schools4 ,finally1 every human being ought to learn how to use his hands4 ,the hand has a place of honor beside language in elevating mankind above the brute4 ,the foregoing store of information also enters into the study of geography2 how1 will appear in the next chapter4 ,the soundness of the foregoing remarks is witnessed by the rapid development of manual training-schools in the last decade1 and the almost universal desire1 if not practice1 of providing considerable amounts of manual training for the pupils of the grammar grades4 ,the girls usually have some form of sewing and cooking1 while the boys have sloyd or other similar tool work in wood4 ,the rationale of requiring girls to do carpenter work instead of the forms of manual exercise that especially pertain to their sex is not yet satisfactorily established4 #bfj4 ,on the observation of the heavenly bodies is based popular astronomy1 which provides a test as to whether the mathematical imagination has been properly cultivated4 #bfa4 ,elementary statics and mechanics will serve as an early introduction to physics1 which combines with the easiest portions of chemistry4 ,long before physics is formally presented1 it must be foreshadowed by many things stimulating the attention4 ,notice is directed to clocks1 mills1 the most familiar phenomena of atmospheric pressure1 to electrical and magnetic toys1 etc4 ,in burgher schools1 at least1 so much must be said about buildings and machines as is necessary to incite to further study in the future4 ,the same holds for the fundamental facts of physiology4 #bfb4 ,as often as a new topic for study is introduced1 it is important to give prominence to some of the salient facts1 and these must be accurately memorized4 ,moreover1 pupils need to have practice in exact description4 ,where practicable1 these descriptions are corrected by actually looking at the objects themselves4 ,hasty and superficial observation of objects presented for inspection always calls for severe criticism2 else collections and experiments become valueless4 ,nor should objects be shown too lavishly2 pupils must often be told beforehand what they will have to look for4 ,frequently it may serve the purpose to employ successively good descriptions1 pictures1 and direct observation4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,geography #bfc4 ,as to geography1 at least two courses may be distinguished4 ,one of these is analytic and begins with the pupil's immediate neighborhood1 the topography of the place1 while the other starts with the globe4 ,here only the former will be discussed1 as the latter can be had directly from good text-books4 ,note4--,the usual method of taking the globe as the point of departure would be less open to criticism1 if1 in order to render the conception of the earth's sphericity more intelligible1 attention were directed to the shape of the moon1 the observation being carried on occasionally with the aid of a telescope4 ,but even if this is done1 it still remains a blunder to substitute the faint and vague idea of a huge ball for direct perception4 ,equally injudicious is the plan of beginning with ,portugal and ,spain4 ,that spot where pupils and teacher are at the moment is the point from which the pupils must take their bearings1 and in thought extend their horizon4 ,it will never do to pass over the natural starting-points provided by sense-perception4 ,had the note to this section been properly heeded1 we should not have had to wait for fifty years after ,herbart's death before witnessing the present rational methods of applying geographical science to elementary education4 ,it is the proud boast of the modern elementary geography that it begins with a study of the pupil's actual environment4 ,the term home geography has now become a familiar one4 ,it signifies that the pupil is taught to observe the geographical elements as they exist in his own neighborhood4 ,he studies hills1 watercourses1 soil1 woods1 lakes1 together with the industrial phenomena that come within the reach of his investigation4 ,upon this primary sense-basis he rears the structure of his geographical knowledge4 #bfd4 ,geography is an associating science1 and use must be made of the opportunities it offers for binding together a variety of facts1 none of which should be allowed to remain isolated in the mind of the learner4 ,it is not the mathematical portion1 supplemented and made interesting by popular astronomy1 that serves as the first connecting link between mathematics and history 7second course72 even the rudiments of geography may1 on the basis of observation exercises1 furnish practice in the determination of triangles which occur on the first maps used1 although this step is not always necessary when once some skill has been acquired in singling out features worthy of note4 7,the determination of position by latitude and longitude is1 for the first course1 as irrational as the action of a traveller in ,germany or ,france would be if he set about to put together the picture of the places where he expects to remain1 with the aid of their relation to the equator and the first meridian47 ,physical geography presupposes some knowledge of nature1 and furnishes the occasion for enriching that knowledge4 ,political geography designates the manner in which man inhabits and uses the earth's surface4 ,it is the pedagogical aim of instruction in geography to associate all this4 #bfe4 ,the teacher must cultivate the art of narration2 his accounts must resemble those of a traveller4 ,but the narrative should conflict with the determination of the relative position of places 7by grouping them about one principal place1 and in the case of more than one by the use of triangles7 as little as1 in teaching history1 the story of events should conflict with the scheme of chronology4 ,the two go together4 ,the narrative is to present a clear picture1 and to this end requires the support of a few fixed points in space4 ,on the other hand1 these points should not remain isolated2 they are to be connected by the lines of the picture4 #bff4 ,it is not a matter of indifference how many unfamiliar names are mentioned in one minute or hour4 ,nor is it immaterial whether they are uttered before or after perception of the picture which the map presents4 ,the first requisite is that every map placed before the pupils be conceived of as a country2 three1 at most four1 names of rivers1 and the names of a few mountains are sufficient2 completeness is out of place here4 ,the few names given provide ample opportunity for fixing the position of notable points1 both with reference to one another and to the boundary lines of the country4 ,due prominence having been given to these geographical features1 they should then be connected1 say with the aid of a blackboard1 on which they are roughly sketched one by one1 and properly joined together afterward4 ,in the case of the sources and outlets of rivers1 this may be done by a line to indicate the course4 ,if now the pupils have made good previous use of their eyes1 especially if they have noticed the fall of brooks and rivers1 and have observed the slope of the ground in a particular region1--if they have not1 the deficiency must be made good first of all1--it will not be too early to pass on to a general description of the appearance which the country under consideration would present to a traveller4 ,and now the time has come for a somewhat fuller mention of the names of rivers and mountains1 but these names must at once be gone over several times by the pupils4 ,doing so will reveal whether the list of new names has been made too long2 it is often largely due to carelessness in this respect1 if the study of geography proves barren or onerous4 ,next in order follow detailed descriptions of particular wonders of nature1 where there are such4 ,attention is then given to some of the principal cities1 mention being made of the number of inhabitants4 ,here the determination of relative location comes in again1 and for this the self-activity of the pupils is indispensable4 ,finally1 human industry and art1 so far as they relate to the products of the country1 together with the little of political organization that pupils can grasp4 ,the names of the provinces should ordinarily be omitted from the first course4 ,this section is suggestive of the old geography of the last half century1--location1 names1 maps1 the barren details of the science4 ,geography is something richer than all this4 ,the old geography was political in the foregoing sense4 ,the first break was in making it physiographical1 the last in making it social4 ,names as such are nothing1 and physical facts little more1 but both become of value as soon as they are brought into relation to man1--his life1 his work1 his recreation4 ,geography is not essentially the location of places1 nor is it physiography1 but it is a study of the essential facts concerning the surface of the earth as they are related to man himself2 it is1 in short1 human in the fullest sense4 ,it gives a concrete explanation of civilization2 it explains the production1 the exchange1 and1 to some extent1 the consumption of goods4 ,it contrasts countries1 not so much by square miles1 as by the number of miles of railroads they possess4 7,the most momentous fact of modern civilization is the railroad4 ,twelve billions of dollars are invested in it in the ,united ,states alone4 ,in view of these facts1 what shall be said of those recent geographies that keep the children poring over primitive maps for years--maps without a suggestion of a railroad in them8 ,this is an illustration of how prone education is to lag behind the progress of society47 #bfg4 ,the reviews1 which should be frequent1 must steadily work toward a growing firmness of association between names and places4 ,each name is to be referred to the place it designates2 hence the sequence of names must often be reversed1 and the map looked over in all directions and from all points of view4 ,how far to go is determined in accordance with individual capacity4 ,from some1 only what is absolutely essential can be demanded2 from others1 much more1 in order that they may exert themselves properly4 #bfh4 ,in the midst of other studies on which greater stress is laid1 geography is as a rule slighted by pupils and sometimes even by teachers4 ,this attitude merits severe criticism4 ,instruction in geography may be reduced to a minimum1 the first course even requires this1 but it should not be disparaged4 ,with many pupils1 geography is the first study which gives them the consciousness that they can learn as they are expected to learn4 ,with all pupils1 geography must connect the remaining studies and must keep them connected4 ,without it everything remains unstable4 ,historical events lack places and distances2 products of nature are without the regions where they are found2 popular astronomy1 which is called upon so often to prevent and dispel erroneous notions1 is deprived of its very basis1 and the geometrical imagination of one of its most important incentives4 ,if the facts of knowledge are allowed to fall asunder in this way1 instruction endangers the whole of education4 ,,chapter ,v ,the ,mother-tongue #bfi4 ,there would be less controversy about language teaching if existing differences in conditions were given proper attention4 ,the most general distinction to make is that between understanding and speaking4 ,the distance between the two is a given factor at the time when regular instruction begins4 ,it is very great in some cases1 and1 again1 slight in others1 according to individual aptitude and early surroundings4 #bgj4 ,first of all1 one's language was acquired by hearing it spoken1 by receiving it from others1 by imitation2 it was refined or vulgar2 it was perceived accurately or indistinctly2 it was imitated by organs1 good1 bad1 or indifferent4 ,little by little the imperfections of the earliest stage are outgrown1 where cultured persons set a daily example and insist on correctness of speech4 ,sometimes1 however1 it takes years to bring about such a result4 #bga4 ,another factor1 and one deeply rooted in individual temperament1 is the stronger or weaker impulse toward expression through language4 ,this fact elevates the language of each one above mere imitation2 its improvement must start from the thoughts which it seeks to express4 ,striking progress of this kind often occurs during adolescence4 ,the differences noted in this and the two preceding sections are psychological1 hence common to ,german and ,american children4 ,the problem of teaching ,american children their mother-tongue1 assumed to be ,english1 is both harder and easier than to teach ,german to ,german children4 ,it is easier in that ,english is mostly uninflected1 hence unencumbered by nice distinctions in grammatical form4 ,this same fact1 on the other hand1 causes didactic difficulties1 since most teachers are at a loss as to what definite body of knowledge they should or can impart that will train the child into a mastery of good ,english speech4 ,the last twenty years have seen a large number of experiments on the part of authors in the effort to present a body of information and exercises calculated to secure a good training in the mother-tongue4 ,these efforts have met with but partial success1 owing to the inherent difficulties of the subject4 ,many who can teach a foreign language1 where there is a movable fulcrum of difficulties to be overcome1 such as those found in inflection1 or in the meaning of foreign words1 fail when confronted by a language that is practically uninflected1 and in which the words are easily understood4 ,the old recourse was technical grammar4 ,but this is an analytical study1 calculated to lead to apprehension of subtle meanings1 rather than to an instinct for correct form4 ,furthermore1 the grammar cannot be successfully studied until after the habits of speech are fairly fixed4 ,for these reasons1 it bears much the same relation to living speech that formal logic does to real thinking4 ,grammar makes the mind keen to detect formal errors of speech1 just as logic trains one to detect fallacies in reasoning4 ,the first important instrument for securing good ,english in the early primary grades is narration by the teacher and repetition by the children4 ,this means1 potent enough to form the speech of any child whether from the slums or from the homes of those who know no ,english1 is rarely utilized up to the full measure of its efficiency4 ,teachers are filled with the prepossession that they must enable their pupils to write good ,english1 forgetting that if the mind is habituated to think in good ,english first1 the problem of writing it is well-nigh solved4 ,the requisites for successful oral training in the mother-tongue are first1 the selection of a body of interesting and appropriate literature1 and second1 skill in narration by the teacher4 ,given these two things1 and we have the first in great abundance1 and every child will be able in a year to give extended and correct speech within the range of his sphere of thought to an almost unlimited extent4 ,his tenacious memory for forms frequently heard1 together with his delight in repeating almost word for word stories told in his presence1 will produce astonishing facility in correct speech4 ,as much of this may be written as seems best1 but it is probable that there would not be great loss if a child were not called upon to write a #8composition' before he is ten or twelve years old4 ,could we be sure he would go through the high school1 formal writing might be postponed until he enters it4 ,not much is ever gained by attempts to produce fruit before its natural period for appearing4 ,upon the basis of this training in correct oral speech1 the children may begin1 when nine or ten years of age1 to have systematic language lessons1 which should be calculated to produce two results3 first1 a facile use of the pen in recording thought1 special caution being given not to weary the mind and body too much by unduly extending the length of the written exercises2 second1 an inductive approach1 through brief written exercises1 toward the classifications and distinctions of technical grammar4 ,to be of use1 this latter requirement should be clearly understood4 ,the method of approach is purely synthetic4 ,it consists in devices to enable the pupil repeatedly to use a given construction1 say a relative pronoun1 until the name and construction seem natural from use alone4#ce ,at the age of thirteen or fourteen the analytical study of grammar should be begun4 ,the essential thing here is that the pupil should connect words with the ideas they express1 and sentences with the thoughts that give rise to them4#cf ,seeing mental distinctions clearly1 he has small difficulty in their written or oral expression4 #ce ,for extended illustration of this point1 see the 8,annotator's ,language ,lessons10 the ,werner ,school ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and ,chicago4 #cf ,this position is best exemplified by ,mr4 ,george ,p4 ,brown in his 8,essentials of ,english ,grammar10 the ,werner ,school ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and ,chicago4 #bgb4 ,now such facts might seem to point to the conclusion that no special periods of instruction are needed for the mother-tongue1 or at least not for language lessons alone4 ,on the one hand1 it might be urged that cultured teachers will improve the language of their pupils by their mere example1 and by the occasional corrections which will of course be necessary2 while1 on the other hand1 the gradual progress of mental development will shape the means of expression from within1 to the natural limits of individual capacity4 ,but before accepting the view here given1 we need to remind ourselves1 in the first place1 that for a long time the educated teacher is only imperfectly understood by the uneducated listener1 and that instruction is very much impeded if each unusual turn of expression necessitates an inquiry as to whether its meaning is clear4 #bgc4 ,but this is not all4 ,language is also to be read and written4 ,hence1 it becomes a standing object for consideration1 and1 to one whose knowledge of it is deficient1 a source of embarrassment4 ,accordingly1 the first thing for the teacher to do is to show analytically1 on the basis of what has been read or written1 how the meaning would be lost or altered if either single words were interchanged1 or the inflectional endings 7especially in ,german7 were incorrectly chosen4 ,that the synthesis of sentences should follow next1 advancing step by step toward greater complexity1 especially by means of various conjunctions1 may be assumed to be well understood4 #bgd4 ,now if all experienced equal difficulty in their reading and writing1 the language lessons designed as a remedy would commend themselves in all cases1 and might fittingly be carried to the same extent everywhere4 ,but here the widest divergence appears4 ,accordingly1 where many are being taught together1 the teacher will seek to connect language work with other subjects4 ,thus1 in the course of the same recitation1 analytic instruction may be directed to the language side for some pupils1 while for others it may be given a far wider scope4 ,moreover1 the accompanying written exercises may have a corresponding diversity4 #bge4 ,the work of a recitation period will be further diversified by the introduction of exercises in reading aloud1 and in oral reproduction4 ,but never will it be possible to raise all pupils to the same plane of proficiency4 ,here1 above all1 the determining power of individuality must be acknowledged4 #bgf4 ,for older boys and young men1 the work in the mother-tongue will consist partly in the study of excellent examples of the various kinds of poetry and oratory1 partly in the writing of essays4 ,such study will prove the more profitable1 the more perfect the models1 the more suitably they are adapted to the stage of culture already attained by the student1 and the more scrupulously the teacher refrains from forcing upon him a literary taste not congenial to his nature4 ,the least promising of all written exercises are those in letter-writing4 ,confidential letters every one can write1 each in his own way4 ,best of all are written exercises with a definite and rich store of thought to draw from and admitting of various forms of treatment4 ,several may then emulate each other in handling the same theme1 and the process of correcting will awaken greater interest in consequence4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,greek and ,latin #bgg4 ,as is well known1 the exposition of grammatical distinctions and of the many turns of expression whereby language may become an adequate symbolization of thought1 gains very materially in clearness by a comparison of the mother-tongue with ,latin and ,greek4 ,even with boys not more than eight years old the attempt may be made to utilize this advantage in the teaching of ,english1 whether it has been finally decided1 or not1 that they are to take the regular classical course4 ,some boys learn1 without much trouble1 enough of ,latin inflections to enable them soon to translate short sentences from the mother-tongue into ,latin1 and vice versa4 ,the present plan in ,germany is to have boys in the gymnasia begin the study of ,latin at the age of ten4 ,the study is continued for a period of nine years4 ,greek is begun three years later and continued for six years4 ,in the ,united ,states the prevailing plan is to postpone the study of ,latin until the pupil enters the high school at the age of fourteen or fifteen4 ,good private schools and many city grammar schools permit children to begin when some two years younger than this4 ,the ,report on ,college ,entrance ,requirements made before the ,national ,educational ,association in #ahii suggested the propriety of extending the influence of the high school over the two highest grades of the grammar school1 making in effect a six-year high school course4 ,for students who expect to enter college or technical schools this plan offers great advantages1 since it permits the desirable preparation to be distributed over six years instead of being concentrated into four4 #bgh4 ,this experiment will not1 however1 be long continued2 since1 with the large majority of pupils1 the difficulties accumulate so rapidly as to lead unavoidably to the admission that the burden cannot be assumed merely for the sake of incidental advantages4 ,moreover1 the customary view1 handed down from the time of the ,reformation1 of the relation of the classical languages to the sciences1 and to the needs of the age1 is undergoing a change more and more apparent from decade to decade4 ,the labor implied in the study of the ancient languages now pays only where talent combines with the earnest purpose to achieve the most complete scholarship4 ,this remark is prophetic of the enormous increase of instruction in the sciences since ,herbart's day1 yet ,latin has also enjoyed a phenomenal increase in popularity in ,american schools4 ,according to the ,report of the ,national ,commissioner of ,education the increase of enrollment in high schools for the years between #ahij and #ahih was #hd per cent1 while the increase in the number of students pursuing ,latin was #agd per cent4#cg ,this surprising growth in the number pursuing an ancient language can hardly be accounted for by increased stringency in college entrance requirements in ,latin1 but must rather be ascribed to a growing conviction among the people that the study is indispensable in secondary education4 ,that this must be the case is seen by the attendant circumstances4 ,in the first place1 ,latin has become an elective in nearly all high schools2 in the next place1 many rich equivalents are offered1 both in science and in modern languages2 and finally our system of universal elementary education has sent large classes of persons into the secondary schools that have never previously been there4 ,yet the number of students electing this study grows by leaps and bounds4 ,note4--7#a7 ,the assertion is often heard that the ancient languages supply a permanent standard by which to judge of the progress and the decay of modern languages2 also that the ancient classics must be regarded as furnishing the models for purity and beauty in style4 ,these and similar contentions are undeniably correct1 and carry the greatest weight1 but they are unpedagogical4 ,they embody the absolute requirement1 but not that which younger pupils need for their culture2 and the large majority of those who are fitting themselves for official positions cannot afford to make themselves guardians of language and style4 ,they must take language as it is1 and acquire the manner of expression which is adapted to the world of affairs4 ,those higher cares belong to authors1 but no one is educated for authorship4 7#b7 ,it is a familiar notion that the difficulty would diminish if the ancient languages were begun later1 that then the ability to learn would prove greater4 ,on the contrary1 the older the pupil the stronger the tendency of his thought-mass toward exclusion4 ,memory work must be introduced early1 especially where its usefulness depends wholly on the acquisition of facility4 ,it is essential to begin early in order to make it possible to proceed slowly and to avoid unpedagogical pressure4 ,four hours a week of ,latin do not hurt a healthy1 bright boy1 provided his other tasks are arranged with pedagogical correctness4 ,to put modern languages first would be to put the cart before the horse4 ,useful enough1 however1 are single ,french and ,english expressions relating to everyday life4 ,they will be of service in acquiring the pronunciation2 but a few phrases do not constitute the teaching of a language4 #cg ,bennett and ,bristol1 8,the ,teaching of ,latin and ,greek10 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 #bgi4 ,the manner of teaching the ancient languages1 where they are regarded as a matter of necessity or conventionality1 no account being taken of pedagogical considerations1 need not be discussed here4 ,it must rather be admitted at once that no pedagogical means whatever exist1 whereby those who live with their interests strictly confined to the present could be brought to acquire1 with genuine sympathy1 the content of the works of antiquity4 ,american teachers in estimating the value of ,latin for the high school student lay more stress upon training in the mastery of the mother-tongue than upon the literary contents of the classical writings4 ,professor ,bennett in his treatment of 8,the ,teaching of ,latin in the ,secondary ,school10#ch places in strong light the splendid linguistic training a youth undergoes when taught by a good teacher of this subject4 ,in ,germany1 since ,herbart's time1 ,professor ,russell tells us that the teaching of ,latin has fluctuated between two aims--8between that view which makes the classics a purely formal discipline1 and that other view which bases the worth of such a study on the acquisition of humanistic culture1 in contact with #8the best thoughts of the best men of antiquity4' ,in the one case it is considered of equal value as a means of preparation for all trades and professions dependent on intellectual acumen2 in the other case it is of worth only for those who can practically apply the technical knowledge thereby acquired1 or may have sufficient leisure to enjoy its sthetic qualities4 ,it is a question of making the ancient literature a means to an end or an end in itself40#ci ,the dogma of formal discipline as a leading aim in education has nowhere been more discredited than among ,herbartian writers4 ,a judicious estimate of its truth and error is made by ,professor ,hinsdale4#dj ,his main conclusions are as follows3-- #a4 ,the degree to which power generated by education is general depends upon the extent to which it energizes the mind1 and particularly the extent to which it overflows into congruent channels4 #b4 ,such power is far more special than general2 it is only in a limited sense that we can be said to have a store of mobilized mental power4 #c4 ,no one kind of mental exercise--no few kinds--can develop the whole mind4 #d4 ,no study1 no single group of studies1 contains within itself the possibilities of a whole education4 ,on the other hand1 ,american students rarely study classics long enough to acquire much facility in mastering the literary contents of the ancient writers4 ,if1 to considerable extent1 the idea of formal discipline is a delusive one1 and the idea of a broad1 humanistic culture is an illusion of the ,american schoolmaster1 we must justify the study of ,latin upon other grounds4 ,the linguistic advantages arising from it are obvious and decided4 ,among these stands first the mastery of the mother-tongue1 first through the comparative study rendered necessary by translation1 then by study of the roots of a large part of the ,english vocabulary1 and more remotely by the light thrown by ,latin upon history and institutional life4 ,there is an advantage in ,latin of great1 though usually unmentioned1 importance1 and that is its peculiar usefulness as an educational instrument1 in that it presents to the pupil a graduated scale of surmountable difficulties4 ,in this respect it is surpassed only by mathematics4 ,the difference between a good and a poor educational instrument lies in this3 a study offering few surmountable obstacles is a poor educational instrument1 for the pupil can find no fulcrum upon which to use his mental powers4 ,thus he may stare at a natural object when directed to observe its characteristics1 but he finds it hard to think when no thought problem is presented to him4 ,but a study that involves thought problems of a definite and solvable kind is a good educational instrument1 for the pupil finds something to move and a fulcrum upon which he may exert his power4 ,translation from an ancient language exercises the working powers of a student up to their highest efficiency1 for the translation of ten sentences may easily provide the hardest kind of work for an hour2 if ten lines do not1 then more lines will4 ,when a foreign language ceases to offer such surmountable difficulties1 we leave it for something else that does offer them4 #ch ,bennett and ,bristol1 8,the ,teaching of ,latin and ,greek10 pp4 #aa-cb1 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 #ci ,russell1 8,german ,higher ,schools10 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 #dj ,hinsdale1 8,studies in ,education10 pp4 #df-fa1 ,werner ,school ,book ,co41 ,chicago1 #ahif4 #bhj4 ,pedagogically considered1 every difference in the degree of vivid realization of antiquity1 in the degree of its correlation with other main departments of knowledge1 and in the extent to which a disagreeable aftertaste of school-day drudgery is prevented1 determines the greater or smaller value to be ascribed to the knowledge acquired4 ,if the same realization could be secured without the ancient languages and without the potency of early impressions1 then the studies mentioned in preceding chapters1 which outline the work of burgher schools1 would leave nothing further to be desired2 and the study of the ancient languages in gymnasia would be a necessary evil1 highly as their incidental advantages are usually extolled4 #bha4 ,but languages alone give to a boy a picture neither of bygone ages nor of men of the past2 to him they are solely troublesome tasks imposed by the teacher4 ,nor can golden maxims1 fables1 and short narratives change his attitude4 ,for even if these are well suited to the youthful mind1 they do not materially offset the aversion to the work on stems1 which have to be memorized2 inflections1 which must be practised2 and conjunctions1 which are required for guidance in the study of periods4 ,ancient history 7#bdc1 #bdf7 is the only possible groundwork for the pedagogical treatment of the ancient languages4 #bhb4 ,now it is true that if ,latin is begun first1 ,eutropius and ,cornelius ,nepos suggest themselves as suitable authors for study1 as soon as the merest rudiments of ,latin have been learned in connection with instruction in the mother-tongue 7#bgg74 ,and their use is not to be entirely condemned1 provided the teacher takes it upon himself to make the past present through narration4 ,but1 as is well known1 these authors are after all very meagre1 and1 besides1 where to look for a path beyond them still remains an open question4 #bhc4 ,the reasons which accord to ,homer's 8,odyssey0 the preference for early use are familiar4#da ,they are patent to every one who attentively reads the 8,odyssey0 with constant reference to the various main classes of interest which teaching is to awaken 7#hc-id74 ,but the question involved is not merely one of immediate effect1 but also of finding points of departure for the later stages of instruction4 ,there can be no better preparation for ancient history than to establish an interest in ancient ,greece by means of the ,homeric story4 ,at the same time1 the soil is being made ready for the cultivation of taste1 and for language study4 ,to reasons of this kind1 derived directly from the chief aim of all teaching and opposed only by tradition 7the conventional doing of the classics71 the philologists will have to listen some time1 if they are not willing that1 with the growing importance of history and of the natural sciences1 and with the increasing pressure of material interests1 the study of ,greek in schools should be pushed into a corner and suffer a reduction similar to that which has already taken place in the case of ,hebrew4 7,a few decades ago ,greek came very near being remitted for all but those intending to study theology47 ,of course1 the 8,odyssey0 possesses no miraculous power to inspire those who have no talent whatever for language studies or do not take them seriously2 nevertheless1 as many years of experience have shown1 it surpasses every other work of antiquity that might be selected in definite pedagogical effect4 ,moreover1 its study does not preclude an early commencement of ,latin 7nor even of ,greek1 where that seems necessary72 only ,latin cannot be pushed with the customary rapidity at the same time2 for the 8,odyssey0 requires an hour daily1 and grammatical and lexicological work besides4 ,experience has proved that the grammatical rudiments pertaining to declension and conjugation must be worked over very carefully first1 although reduced to what is absolutely essential4 ,besides1 the first lessons in the 8,odyssey0 ought not to exceed a few lines each time2 and1 during the first months1 no accurate memorizing of words is to be demanded4 ,but farther on the acquisition of a vocabulary must be vigorously insisted on2 in fact1 it becomes the pupil's most necessary collateral work4 ,by continued effort in this direction a considerable portion of the whole stock of words is gradually acquired2 the language forms are supplied with the content to which they refer1 and through which they become significant4 ,the teacher must know exactly1 not only when to hasten on1 but also when to delay2 for every perceptible gain in facility is likely to betray pupils into some carelessness which needs to be corrected at once4 ,with good pupils it is not infeasible to read the whole of the 8,odyssey10 since facility increases very rapidly toward the end4 ,nevertheless1 such work should not extend much beyond two years2 otherwise weariness sets in1 or time is taken from other things4 ,in schools it will be well to assign the first four books to one class1 perhaps the class composed of pupils nine or ten years old1 the next class to begin with ,book ,v4 ,to determine exactly how many books each class can work up thoroughly is unnecessary1 as good translations can be used to fill in the gaps that occur4 ,the reason for the division just made will be manifest at once upon a closer inspection of the 8,odyssey40 ,some books more advanced pupils may later on read by themselves1 but they should be expected to render an account of what they are doing4 ,it is not necessary at this stage to explain in detail the rarer peculiarities of the ,homeric dialect4 ,such things may well be deferred until1 later in the course1 the study of ,homer 7of the 8,iliad07 is resumed4 ,the teacher who is afraid of the difficulties connected with the plan presented should remind himself of the fact that progress by any other path is equally beset with difficulties4 ,while at work on ,homer1 care should be taken to keep pupils from being influenced simultaneously by such tales as those from the ,arabian ,nights1 because they blunt the sense of the wonderful4 #da ,these reasons apply in no way to the 8,iliad10 but only to the 8,odyssey40 ,moreover1 it is presupposed that religious feeling has been sufficiently awakened long beforehand4 ,in that case the mythical elements can do no harm whatever1 for1 in so far as they are inconsistent with religious feeling1 their effect is decidedly repellent1 and renders an excess of illusion impossible4 #bhd4 ,only two poets1 two historians1 and two philosophers need to be mentioned to indicate the continuation of the course4 ,homer and ,virgil2 ,herodotus and ,csar2 ,plato and ,cicero4 ,what authors should precede these1 or should intervene1 or follow1 may be left for circumstances to determine4 ,xenophon1 ,livy1 ,euripides1 ,sophocles1 and ,horace will probably always retain a place by the side of those mentioned2 ,horace especially offers brief maxims1 the after-effect of which the educator should by no means underestimate4 ,it is obvious that ,virgil and ,herodotus are rendered much easier by taking up ,homer first2 on the other hand1 the return to ,homer 7to the 8,iliad07 during adolescence1 is as little to be omitted1 if only on account of mythology1 as the return to ancient history for purposes of pragmatic study 7#bej74 ,again1 the syntactical scheme of the ancient languages1 which involves far greater difficulties than do even inflections and vocabulary1 is more easily mastered by placing the poets before the prose-writers1 because then the pupils are not compelled to struggle with all the difficulties of sentence structure at once4 ,at any rate1 it is desirable that1 just as the student's ,greek vocabulary is built up from the 8,odyssey10 his hoard of ,latin words should be drawn from the 8neid40 ,the latter1 however1 will hardly be read entirely1 because it cannot be gone over with nearly the same rapidity as the latter books of the 8,odyssey10 when facility in reading has been attained4 ,csar's 8,bellum ,gallicum0 must be studied with exceptional carefulness1 since its style comes nearer to being a desirable first model for the student of ,latin than the style of the other authors in use4 ,after this has been accomplished1 the strictly systematic teaching and memorizing of ,latin syntax1 together with selected brief examples1 is in order as one of the main lines of work4 ,in ,plato several books of the 8,republic10 especially the first1 second1 fourth1 and eighth1 constitute a desirable goal4 ,that ,cicero should be revealed to young minds on his brilliant side first1 namely1 as orator1 need scarcely be mentioned4 ,later on his philosophical writings become important2 but many passages require a fuller development of the subject-matter than is given by him4 ,cicero should frequently be read aloud1 or rather declaimed1 by the teacher4 ,an orator demands the living voice2 the usual monotonous reading by the pupils fails to do justice to him4 ,as regards ,tacitus for school use1 there is a difference of opinion4 ,generally speaking1 authors that say much in few words are particularly welcome1 not merely to the explaining teacher1 but also to the responsive pupil4 ,the opposite is true of ,cicero2 he must be read rapidly in order to be appreciated4 ,for a full discussion of ,latin texts to be read1 the reader is referred to ,professor ,bennett's chapters on 8,the ,teaching of ,latin in the ,secondary ,schools10#db pp4 #aaa-acj4 ,for a discussion of the ,greek texts1 see ,professor ,bristol's exposition in the same volume4 #db ,bennett and ,bristol1 8,the ,teaching of ,latin and ,greek10 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 #bhe4 ,experience has long since shown how much or how little can be done with students in ,greek and ,latin composition2 and no method will ever be devised which would induce earlier than at present that degree of mental maturity which reveals itself in a good ,latin style4 ,so long as gymnasium pupils are no more select than they now are1 the majority1 so far as writing ,latin is concerned1 will begin something that will never lead to successful performance4 ,it would be better1 instead1 to practise diligently that which can be achieved1 namely1 composition during the recitation hour1 with the assistance of the teacher1 and1 afterward coperative consideration of the appointed task1 by the pupils4 ,this plan secures the advantage of set essays without the disadvantage of innumerable mistakes1 the correction of which the pupil rarely remembers4 ,joint labor is interesting1 and can be adapted to every age4 ,as a substitute for essays1 abstracts in ,latin of texts previously interpreted are to be recommended1 these abstracts to be made at first with the help and afterward without the help of the book in question4 ,to abstract does not mean to imitate1 and ought not to mean that4 ,to imitate ,cicero requires ,cicero's talent1 and unless this exists1 the attempt to imitate1 it is to be feared1 will result in cold artificiality4 ,even ,csar is not so simple that his style could be taught and learned4 ,but many passages of ,csar may be memorized2 at first short sentences1 then longer periods1 finally whole chapters4 ,the usefulness of this practice is attested by experience4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,further ,specification of ,didactics #bhf4 ,the more precise determination of the theory of instruction depends on the nature of particular subjects of instruction1 on the individuality of the pupil1 and on the external conditions of ethical life4 #bhg4 ,where the goal to be reached is technical knowledge and multiformity of scholarship1 each branch of study asserts its claims to thoroughness without regard to the rest4 ,such is the attitude of the state1 which requires many men with special training1 together constituting an efficient whole4 ,hence it disseminates knowledge and establishes institutions of learning1 without inquiring1 save with reference to future official appointments1 who the individuals are that avail themselves of the offered opportunities4 #bhh4 ,the family1 on the other hand1 interested as it is in the individual1 must take the pedagogical point of view1 according to which every human being is to realize the best he is capable of4 ,it is essential that families should grasp this distinction1 and accordingly concern themselves1 not with greatness of particular achievements1 but with the totality of culture possible for the individual4 #bhi4 ,closely connected with the foregoing is the difference between interest and skill4 ,skill of various sorts can be obtained by force2 but it is of no value to general culture when the corresponding interest is lacking4 ,insistence on this distinction is a sufficient answer to much uncalled-for criticism and much unwarrantable assumption of superior knowledge concerning the results of early stages of instruction4 ,these results1 it is charged1 are inadequate2 if this or that had been converted earlier into ability to do1 greater progress would have been made4 ,but when interest has not been aroused1 and cannot be aroused1 compulsory acquisition of skill is not only worthless1 leading as it does to soulless mechanical activity1 but positively injurious1 because it vitiates the pupil's mental attitude and disposition4 #bij4 ,whether the pupil's individuality will endure without injury the pressure which drill in skilful performance would necessitate1 is a question which at times cannot be decided except by trial4 ,reading1 arithmetic1 grammar1 are familiar instances4 #bia4 ,the more perfect the instruction1 the greater the opportunity it affords for comparing the excellences and faults of the individuals receiving it simultaneously4 ,this point is of importance both to the continuation of instruction and to training2 to the latter1 because the teacher's insight into the causes of the faults which training has to combat is deepened4 #bib4 ,the ethical life may attach itself to views embracing the universe2 it may1 on the contrary1 move within a very narrow range of thought4 ,now while it is true that external circumstances will usually set limits to instruction1 its scope should nevertheless not be narrower1 but in every way wider than the realm of necessary1 everyday prudence4 ,otherwise the individual will always be in danger of exaggerating his own importance and that of persons closely related to him4 #bic4 ,it is more difficult1 as a rule1 to extend the mental horizon in the direction of the past1 than within the present4 ,in teaching girls1 therefore1 and children from the lower classes1 greater prominence is given to geography and whatever can be grouped about it than to historical studies4 ,again1 in cases where a shortening of the course of study becomes necessary1 it becomes well-nigh necessary to take account of the difference in question4 ,but1 conversely1 where the scope of instruction is to be wide1 the historical side1 because more difficult1 must receive increased attention4 ,,section ,,ii ,,the ,,faults ,,of ,,pupils ,,and ,,their ,,treatment ,,chapter ,i ,general ,differentiation #bid4 ,some faults are inherent2 they are a part of the pupil's individuality4 ,others have sprung up in the course of time2 and of these1 again1 some have been influenced by the factor of individuality more than others4 ,faults that the pupil commits are left out of account for the present4 ,with increasing years some of the inherent faults grow1 others diminish4 ,for there is a continual change of relation between that which man derives from experience1--between those ideas which rise spontaneously1 and those masses of ideas which approach stability4 ,there is1 besides1 an ever varying succession of diverse reproductions4 ,all this change is pervaded throughout by the consciousness of one's own body 7the original base of support for self-consciousness7 with respect not merely to its needs1 but also to its powers of motion and fitness for use4 ,again1 the apprehension of the similar is being multiplied2 the ideas of things approximate to general concepts4 ,in addition1 the process of judging is shaping more and more the material presented2 accordingly the manner in which the individual analyzes and puts in order his knowledge becomes gradually determined4 ,on the one hand there is a growing confidence of affirmation2 on the other1 questions remain1 the answer to which is given over to the future4 ,in part they become transformed into longing expectation4 ,upon all that has been enumerated1 the physical organization of the individual exerts retarding and furthering influences4 ,the effect of the body is seen in a certain physiological resistance to psychical processes1 and in strong physical impulses far more complex1 no doubt1 than ordinary experience shows4 #bie4 ,very frequently the fact forces itself upon us1 that persons who have passed through many vicissitudes of fortune can nevertheless be recognized by individual traits that were already noticeable in youth4 ,here a certain uniformity reveals itself in the characteristic way and manner in which such persons involuntarily seize upon and work up various impressions4 ,in order to arrive at a just estimate of his pupils1 the teacher should observe this permanent element as early as possible4 ,some always know the right moment and whither it calls them2 they always perform the nearest duty1 and have their stock of knowledge uniformly well in hand4 ,others bury themselves in thought1 and give themselves up to hopes and fears1 to plans and projects3 they live in the past or in the future1 resent being disturbed by the present1 and require time and effort to bring themselves back to it4 ,between the former and the latter are found others1 who do indeed note the given and the present1 not1 however1 to take it as it appears1 but rather to look beyond1 for the purpose of spying what lies concealed behind1 or in order to move1 displace1 interfere1 perhaps to distort1 ridicule1 and caricature4 ,with many the tendency described is merely superficial4 ,they play and tease--a common manifestation of youthful animal spirits4 ,now the question arises3 how much seriousness lies back of the playfulness4 ,how much depth beneath the animated surface8 ,here temperament enters as a factor4 ,the play of one with a sanguine temperament comes to an end2 but where sourness of temper is habitual1 there danger threatens1 if1 as commonly happens1 sport turns to earnest4 ,self-assertion plays a part also1 manifesting itself in various ways4 ,it assumes one form in him who has confidence in his strength1 physical or mental1 and another form in those who know their weakness--with or without the mental reservation as to the future employment of artifice or cunning1 and so also with more or less acknowledgment of the superior power or authority4 ,passionate playing1 on the whole1 implies little seriousness2 but may well indicate sensitiveness and a propensity to freedom from restraint4 ,prudence in sport is a sign of ability to take the opponent's point of view1 and to foresee his plans4 ,love of play is far more welcome to the teacher than indolence1 or languid curiosity1 or gloomy seriousness2 it is one of the minor faults1 if now and then work is forgotten over a game and time wasted2 the situation is more grave1 sometimes very grave indeed1 where extravagance1 or greed of gain1 or secretiveness1 or bad company is involved4 ,in such cases decided interference on the part of the teacher is necessary4 #bif4 ,since courage and rationality grow with increasing years1 the faults of mere weakness leave room for hope of improvement1 although there is need of an invigorating mode of life1 invigorating physically and mentally1 and of counsel and reproof in particular instances4 ,under continued watchful care weak natures improve much more than at first thought would seem to be likely4 #big4 ,unsteadiness1 continual restlessness1 where they accompany good health without being the result of external stimulation1 are doubtful indications4 ,here it will be well to look to the sequence of thoughts4 ,where1 in spite of variableness in general1 thoughts are sound and well connected1 this restlessness is not a serious matter4 ,the case is worse when the opposite is true1 especially when the vascular system appears very irritable1 and dreamlike reveries occur4 ,here the danger of insanity is seen lurking in the distance4 ,the appropriate treatment for such pupils consists in holding them strictly to definite tasks1 especially to those occupations that compel a close observation of the external world1 and in exacting the performance of the work assigned1 without failing to encourage whatever is undertaken from choice4 #bih4 ,sensual impulses and violence of temper are apt to go from bad to worse as pupils grow older4 ,against these1 careful supervision1 earnest censure1 and the whole rigor of moral principles must be brought to bear4 ,momentary ebullitions of passion1 however1 unless persistently obstinate attempts are made to justify them1 need to be handled gently1 that is1 as evils calling for precaution and vigilance4 #bii4 ,the faults hitherto noted lie for the most part on the surface4 ,others have to be studied as occasion offers in instruction4 ,there are minds so dull that even the attempt merely to secure connection with definite portions of such thoughts as they have does not succeed4 ,easy questions intended to raise their ideas into consciousness only increase the resistance to be overcome4 ,they are seized with embarrassment from which they seek to escape1 sometimes by a simple1 8,i don't know10 sometimes by the first wrong answer that comes to hand4 ,mental activity has to be enforced1 yet remains feeble at best1 and it is only in after years1 under pressure of necessity1 that they acquire some facility for a limited sphere4 ,others1 whom one would be inclined to call contracted rather than generally limited1 because by them reproduction is performed successfully but within a narrow compass1 exhibit a lively endeavor to learn1 but they learn mechanically1 and what cannot be learned in that way they apprehend incorrectly4 ,these undertake1 nevertheless1 to form and express judgments1 but their judgments turn out to be erroneous2 hence they become first discouraged and then obstinate4 ,again1 there are those whose ideas cannot be dislodged1 and still others whose ideas cannot be brought to a halt4 ,these two classes call for a more detailed consideration4 #cjj4 ,among the various masses of ideas 7#bi7 some necessarily acquire permanent predominance1 others come and go4 ,but if this relation reaches full development and becomes fixed too early1 the controlling ideas no longer admit of being arrested to the extent necessary for the reception of the new material offered by instruction4 ,this fact explains the experience that clever boys1 notwithstanding the best intentions to receive instruction1 yet frequently appear very unreceptive1 and that a certain rigidity of mind1 which in later manhood would not occasion surprise1 seems to have strayed1 as it were1 into boyhood4 ,no one should allow himself to be betrayed into encouraging such narrowness by commendatory terms such as pertain to strength and energy2 just as little1 however1 should clumsy teaching and its sequel1 listless learning1 be left out of account1 as having no bearing on this state of affairs4 ,for1 rather may it be assumed that the fault mentioned might have been largely forestalled by very early instruction of all kinds1 provided such instruction had been combined with a variety of attractive rather than of too difficult tasks4 ,where1 on the other hand1 mental nervousness has once taken root1 it cannot be eradicated by all the art and painstaking effort of a multitude of teachers4 ,when the questions of a child1 six years old let us say1 give rise to the apprehension that they proceed from a too contracted mental horizon1 there should be no delay about resorting to manifold forms of stimulation1 especially in the way of widening the pupil's experience to the greatest practicable extent4 #cja4 ,on the other hand1 it is not rare to find boys1 and even young men1 in whose minds no one thought-mass attains to any very prominent activity4 ,such boys are always open to every impression and ready for any change of thought4 ,they are wont to chat pleasantly1 and to form hasty attachments4 ,here belong those who learn easily and forget as quickly4 ,this defect1 too1 when once confirmed1 resists all skill and good intentions2 strength of purpose1 from the very nature of the case1 is out of the question4 ,the situation varies in gravity1 however1 according to the influences of the earliest environment4 ,if these proved distracting1 the fault mentioned assumes alarming proportions even in minds otherwise well endowed4 ,but where some form or other of necessary respect has been steadily at work1 the youth will raise himself to a higher plane than the boy gave promise of doing4 ,least of all1 however1 can the teacher allow himself to be betrayed into hoping for a future development of talent by superficial alertness1 combined1 it may be1 with droll fancies1 bold pranks1 and the like4 ,talent reveals itself through persistent endeavor1 sustained even under circumstances little favorable to it1 and not until such endeavor clearly manifests itself is the thought of giving it support to be entertained4 ,the two faults under discussion may indeed come to light only in the course of time2 nevertheless1 they are inherent faults1 and can be mitigated1 to be sure1 but not completely cured4 #cjb4 ,far easier to deal with are the erratic movements of energetic characters capable of ardent enthusiasm4 ,the mere thoroughness and many-sidedness of good instruction1 which emphasizes and aims to effect rational connection and balance of mind1 obviously supply the corrective4 #cjc4 ,originally it would have been easier to have prevented those faults which are due to the mismanagement or to the omission of early government1 instruction1 or training4 ,but with time1 the difficulties of a cure grow in a very rapid ratio4 ,in general1 it is well to note that the teacher has every reason to congratulate himself1 if1 after early neglect1 there appear under improved treatment some belated traces of those questions which belong to the sixth or seventh year of childhood 7#bac74 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,sources of ,moral ,weakness #cjd4 ,under this head five main points come up for consideration3-- 7#a7 ,tendencies of the child's will impulses4 7#b7 ,ethical judgments and their absence4 7#c7 ,formation of maxims4 7#d7 ,organization of maxims4 7#e7 ,application of organized maxims4 #cje4 7#a7 ,where training has not provided for occupation and for the distribution of time1 we must always expect to encounter an activity which has no aim1 and which forgets its own purposes4 ,from such a state of affairs arise a craving for liberty averse to all control1 and1 where several pupils are grouped together1 contention1 either for the possession of something or for the sake of showing off4 ,each wants to be first2 recognition of the just equality of all is deliberately refused4 ,mutual ill-will intrenches itself and stealthily waits for an opportunity to break forth4 ,here is the fountain head of many passions2 even those which spring from excessive sensuousness must be classed under this first head1 in so far as they are promoted by lack of regulated activity4 ,the havoc caused by passions is a pervading element in the discussion of all of the remaining topics4 #cjf4 7#b7 ,it is true that education usually counteracts the tendency to indolence and to unruliness1 not only by the use of the spur and the bridle1 but also through guidance in the direction of the proprieties2 giving rise to the thought 8what will others say10 it shows existing conditions as mirrored in the minds of others4 ,but when these others are compelled to remain silent1 or when the pupil is sure of their partiality1 or is exposed to their errors of judgment1 the effect is to vitiate rather than to arouse the ethical judgment4 ,nevertheless1 calling attention to the judgment of others1 and not merely of particular individuals1 is very much better than waiting for the spontaneous awakening of ethical judgment4 ,in most cases the waiting would be in vain4 ,matters of ethical import are either too close to the ordinary human being1 and so1 of course1 to the boy left entirely to himself1 or they are too remote1 i4e41 either they have not as yet passed outside the pale of affection or aversion1 or else they are already fading from the field of vision4 ,in neither case can an ethical judgment be formed with success4 ,at any rate1 it will vanish before it can produce an effect4 ,in order to reach those ethical judgments on which morality rests1 the child must see will images1 see them without the stirring of his own will impulse4 ,these will images1 moreover1 must embrace relations1 the single members of which are themselves wills1 and the beholder is to keep such members equally in sight1 until the estimate of value rises spontaneously within him4 ,but such contemplation implies a keenness and calmness of apprehension not to be looked for in unruly children4 ,hence it may be inferred how necessary training is--serious1 not to say severe1 training4 ,unruliness must have been tamed and regular attention secured4 ,the preliminary condition fulfilled1 it is further essential that there shall be no lack of sufficiently distinct presentations of the foregoing will images4 ,and even then the ethical judgment often matures so tardily that it has to be pronounced in the name of other persons--persons higher in authority4 #cjg4 ,in this connection the instances of one-sidedness of ethical judgment must not be overlooked1 such as occur when one of the practical ideas stands out more prominently than another1 or when that which is outwardly proper rises above them all4 #cjh4 7#c7 ,all desires persistently operative and productive of fluctuating states of emotional excitement1 therefore rightly called passions1 lead to experiential knowledge of the beneficial and the injurious4 ,the beneficial suggests frequent repetition in the future1 the injurious continued avoidance4 ,accordingly rules of life take shape1 and the resolution always to observe them is made4 ,in other words1 maxims result4 ,from simple resolution to actual observance is still1 to be sure1 a far cry4 ,but the claim for the universal validity of the rule1 so that the individual may regard it as applicable to others as well as to himself1 enters the mind far more directly by way of desires which point forward to similar cases in the future1 than it does under the guidance of ethical judgments whose universal element is abstracted from given single instances with difficulty4 ,in fact1 this difficulty is often so great that the ethical judgment itself may be missed in the search for the universal4 #cji4 ,now1 the promptness and loyalty of obedience to the sum total of duties1 once recognized as such and fixed through the maxims adopted1 are passed upon by the moral judgment4 ,correct moral judgment1 therefore1 presupposes true insight into the value of will1 which insight again can be obtained only through the ethical estimate as a whole4 ,but in view of the circumstances pointed out a moment ago1 we must expect to come upon maxims that are false or at least inaccurate4 ,under the latter head fall points of honor1 social obligations1 fear of ridicule4 #caj4 7#d7 ,maxims ought to form a unit1 but in youth they are not fully determined even singly1 much less are they closely united into a definite whole4 ,the proviso of exceptions still clings to them1 so also that of future tests through experience4 ,the maxims arising out of the desires and pleasures can never be brought into perfect union with those springing from ethical judgments4 ,accordingly the wrong subordination takes place1 or1 at all events1 a contamination of the latter by the former4 #caa4 7#e7 ,in the application of maxims more or less unified1 the volition of the moment is apt to prove stronger than the previous resolves4 ,hence1 man becomes only too prone to condone and fall in with discriminations between theory and practice4 ,the consequence is a certain moral empiricism1 which1 if nothing else will do to justify its disregard of moral law1 falls back upon pious feelings4 ,plans of action are formed without regard to maxims1 but with the apparent compensation of another kind of morally regular life4 ,such contempt of moral judgment gains ground and spreads ruin all the more1 the farther the ethical judgments on which morality must rest fall short of the clearness that ought to mark them1 and the cruder the pupil's knowledge is of the antithesis between them and maxims of utility or pleasure4 #cab4 ,the natural aid to the formation and union of maxims is the system of practical philosophy itself4 ,but the teaching of it involves difficulties4 ,one of them is that such marked differences occur among young men in the relation of systematic exposition to the grade of culture which they have attained4 ,for observations of this nature1 religious instruction prior to confirmation provides an early opportunity4 ,how such instruction is to be given1 is1 of course1 by no means immaterial1 but1 after all1 the moral sentiments1 which it gathers together and strengthens1 must1 in substance1 already exist4 ,again1 if the end sought were more strictly scientific form for the moral sentiments1 there would have to be ground for presuming that the student is able to appreciate that form and has acquired skill in the use of logical methods4 ,the study of logic1 together with appropriate exercises1 would obviously be a necessary preliminary step4 ,prerequisites like these need to be borne in mind1 especially in the case of lower schools and all other institutions that do not1 as a rule1 lead to the university4 #cac4 ,erroneous systems of ethics1 moreover1 might occasion the adoption of very absurd measures1 concerning which1 on account of the importance of the subject1 at least something has to be said4 ,everything would be turned upside down1 if1 instead of bringing together and uniting maxims under the concept virtue1 the attempt were made to deduce from some one formula of the categorical imperative a multiplicity of maxims and from these1 rather than from the original ethical judgments1 the estimates of will values1 the final undertaking being1 perhaps1 to divert the will itself by such operations4 ,on the contrary1 the will must early have been given such direction by government and training1 that its lines of tendency will of themselves coincide as nearly as possible with the paths disclosed later1 when the pupil is being shown the way through ethical judgments4 ,those beginnings of evil noted above 7#cje7 must not be permitted to appear at all1 for their consequences usually prove ineradicable4 ,but even so1 it is not certain that a way can be hewn through the errors of others to truer judgments4 ,when1 however1 both ends have been gained1 experience and history and literature must next be called in1 in order to show clearly the confusion into which the maxims based upon pleasure and passion plunge human beings4 ,not until now has the time come for more or less systematic lectures1 or for the study of suitable classical writers4 ,lastly1 there will still be need of frequent appeals to moral obedience1 and it will be found necessary to reinforce these appeals by reflections of a religious character4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,the ,effects of ,training #cad4 ,a4 ,training prevents passions in that it3-- 7#a7 satisfies needs1 7#b7 avoids opportunities for violent desires1 7#c7 provides employment1 7#d7 accustoms to order1 7#e7 demands reflection and responsibility4 ,b4 ,training influences the emotions in that it3-- 7#a7 checks violent outbreaks1 7#b7 creates other emotions1 7#c7 and supplements self-control4 ,c4 ,training impresses the courtesies of life 7counteracts bad manners71 consequently3-- 7#a7 the deportment of individuals is made approximately uniform2 7#b7 the number of possible points of social contact becomes much greater than where strife and contention rule2 7#c7 while the development of one or the other individual is checked1 the more important energies are not stifled1 provided excess of severity be avoided4 ,d4 ,training makes cautions1 for3-- 7#a7 ,it restricts foolhardiness1 7#b7 ,it warns against dangers1 7#c7 ,it punishes in order to make wiser1 7#d7 ,it observes and accustoms the human being to the thought of being observed4 #cae4 ,looked at as a whole1 these obvious and familiar effects of training show at once that1 generally speaking1 its power to lessen evil is very great1 and that it is capable of effectively acting upon the interrelations of various masses of ideas4 ,but they suggest also the presence of danger4 ,training1 by driving evil from the surface1 may give rise to clandestine deeds4 #caf4 ,when this happens1 the relations between teacher and pupils grow increasingly abnormal1 since secret practices become general and concerted1 and the pupils assume a studied behavior in the presence of the teacher4 ,the consequences are well known3--,inexorable severity in dealing with concealed offences when discovered2 great leniency in the case of open transgressions2 recourse to the machinery of supervision1 often even to secret watching1 in order that the system of concealment may not get the better of education4 #cag4 ,it lowers the dignity of the teacher to take part habitually in a competition between spy and concealers4 ,he must not demand to know everything1 although he ought not to allow his confidence to be victimized by clumsy or long-continued deception4 ,such difficulties1 however1 only make it more intensely necessary that the foundation of education be laid during the earliest years1 when supervision is still easy1 and the heart is reached by formative influences with greater certainty than ever afterward1 and that1 if possible1 families should not for any length of time lose sight of their own members4 ,ethical and moral judgments can be simulated2 the finest maxims and principles may be learned by rote2 piety may be put on as a cloak4 ,unmask the hypocrite1 however1 and turn him out1 and1 forthwith1 he plays his game over again elsewhere4 ,nothing remains but recourse to severity which deters1 and constant occupation under close supervision in another quarter1 in order that he may get away from the hiding places of his misdeeds4 ,sometimes banishment is capable of bringing about improvement4 #cah4 ,the will is most directly tractable in social relations1 where it appears as common will4 ,in infancy1 the child1 wholly devoted to his mother1 is manageable through her2 at a later period training is surest of success when it promotes attachments among the young and carefully fosters the seeds of goodness4 ,the social ideas1 purified by teaching1 must gradually be added4 #cai4 ,but as far back as boyhood1 factions spring up and exclusive sets are formed1 facts which the teacher cannot permit to elude his vigilance4 ,when a kind of authority is granted to some older and tried pupils over those younger and less mature in judgment1 the former become responsible2 but the latter are not on that account relieved of all reflection on their own part1 nor are they obliged to submit to every1 though plainly unreasonable1 demand of the former4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,special ,faults #cbj4 ,first of all it is necessary to distinguish between those faults which the pupil commits and those which he has4 ,not all faults one commits are direct manifestations of those he possesses2 but those which are committed repeatedly may grow permanent4 ,this truth must be made clear1 and must be impressed upon the mind of the pupil to the full extent of his powers of comprehension4 #cba4 ,in the case of false steps caused from without by unnoticed pitfalls1 or made in spite of a firm resolve to the contrary1 the pupil is himself usually frightened by what he has done4 ,if so1 all depends on the gravity of his offence as compared with the degree of his horror4 ,there is a host of minor faults1 blunders1 and even acts resulting in damage1 which tax the patience of the teacher severely2 but it would imply a mistaken conception of the difficulty of moral education1 if he should repel the frankness of his pupils by harsh treatment of such offence4 ,frankness is too essential a factor to be sacrificed2 once gone it will hardly ever wholly return4 #cbb4 ,but the first lie uttered with evil intent1 the first act of theft1 and similar actions positively detrimental to morality or health1 have to be dealt with severely1 and always in such a way that the pupil who thought he was permitting himself a slight fault1 is made to experience most thoroughly both fear and censure4 #cbc4 ,serious treatment of a first offence is demanded also where pupils try to see how far they may safely disregard authority and command4 ,it is important1 however1 not to overestimate the intention of these attempts2 important also to exhibit strength1 but not anger4 ,yet there are cases where the teacher must seem to act with some warmth1 because the necessary treatment1 if combined with coldness1 would only intensify bitterness and cause pain an inordinate length of time4 ,but very likely as much feeling as is expedient will show itself upon simply laying aside the assumed coldness4 #cbd4 ,on the restoration of perfect order after a period during which government and training were lacking1 a large number of faults will disappear of themselves1 and accordingly do not require to be combated one by one4 ,respect for order1 and incentives sufficiently strong to regular activity1 are the main things4 #cbe4 ,faults which the pupil seems to possess are often only the borrowed maxims of the society which he hopes to enter4 ,here it becomes the business of education to set him right1 if possible1 and to elevate his view of human relations1 in order that he may disdain the false appearances he before held in esteem4 #cbf4 ,faults which an older pupil actually possesses rarely occur singly4 ,moreover1 they are seldom fully disclosed2 their appearance is determined by a prudent regard for circumstances4 ,during the period of education such faults can1 indeed1 be largely prevented from growing worse1 but the radical improvement of those who are secretive from prudence is rarely to be thought of before they have become more prudent still1 too proud for concealment1 and more susceptible to the true estimate of moral values4 ,where older boys and young men are found to possess unused talents1 and where instruction can be so arranged as to develop them1 there is some prospect of supplying a counterbalance to those habits which have been contracted4 ,but1 in general1 efforts looking toward a lasting reform are successful only when made at an early age4 ,at all events1 where there is much to amend1 the feeling of dependence on strict training must be kept alive for a long time4 #cbg4 ,more success is likely to attend the endeavor to correct those faults which are not tolerated within the social class of which the pupil regards himself a member4 ,two factors determine the proper mode of procedure3 the importance of making the pupil acquainted with the worthiest side of his social group1 and1 on the other hand1 the unavoidable necessity of causing him to see its less noble features in case he discovers in it free scope for his inherent faults4 #cbh4 ,here the pupil's capacity for education1 as well as the limits of that capacity1 are brought home to the teacher4 ,as boys approach manhood1 they let birth and external circumstances designate for them that class of society to which they will belong4 ,the class defined1 they seek to acquire its form of life1 and to get into its main current4 ,on the way thither they accept and take along so much of higher motives1 of knowledge and insight1 as1 on the one hand1 instruction offers and training favors1 and as1 on the other hand1 the individuality of each one1 which the earliest impressions have further determined1 is ready to assimilate4 ,those are rare exceptions who1 through the development of an absorbing interest of some kind1 in religion1 or science1 or art1 have become less susceptible to the attractive force of their social class4 ,their course has been marked out by the instruction which induced the absorption2 henceforth they are self-actively engaged in the pursuit of whatever accords with the end in view1 and accept only a small part of what is presented to them4 #cbi4 ,specific forms of a pupil's attitude toward society1 especially the relative prominence in his mind of state or family relations1 will have to receive due consideration in marshalling motives to counteract particular faults4 ,indeed1 the same is true of the appeal to those motives through which it is sought to establish a preponderance of worthier endeavor over moral imperfection in general4 ,,section ,,iii ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,education ,,chapter ,i ,home ,education #ccj4 ,on discovering that his own efforts encounter impediments1 the individual teacher might easily come to think that society could do everything1 if it only would1 and if it possessed the necessary insight4 ,further reflection1 however1 reveals the existence of difficulties peculiar both to state and family4 #cca4 ,the state needs soldiers1 farmers1 mechanics1 officials1 etc41 and is concerned with their efficiency4 ,its attitude toward a large number of persons1 whose existence as individuals has significance only in a narrow sphere1 is1 in general1 far more that of supervision designed to prevent the harm they might do1 than one of direct helpfulness4 ,he who is able to render competent service receives preferment2 the weaker has to give way to the stronger2 the shortcomings of one are made good by another4 #ccb4 ,the state applies its tests to what can be tested1 to the outward side of conduct and of knowledge4 ,it does not penetrate to the inner life4 ,teachers in public schools cannot penetrate much farther2 they1 too1 are more concerned with the sum total of knowledge imparted by them1 than with the individual and the way in which he relates his knowledge to himself4 #ccc4 ,to the family1 however1 no stranger can make up for what one of its members lacks2 to the family the inner condition becomes so manifest1 and is often felt so keenly1 that the merely external does not satisfy4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that moral education will always remain essentially a home task1 and that the institutions of the state are to be resorted to for educative purposes only with a view to supplementing the home4 ,but on closer inspection it is found that family life is very often too busy1 too full of care1 or too noisy1 for that rigor which is undeniably required both for instruction and for morality4 ,luxury and want alike harbor dangers for youth4 ,consequently families lean on the state for support more than they ought4 #ccd4 ,private institutions as such do not possess the same motive power as either state or family1 and are seldom able to make themselves independent of the comparisons to which they are exposed1 because of the fact that they are expected in one case to take the place of the state schools1 and in another that of the family4 ,nevertheless1 sturdy minds which do not require the emulation obtaining in schools can be advanced more rapidly1 and instruction adapted more easily to individual needs1 than in public institutions4 ,as for training1 moreover1 the evils that may spring from environment can be prevented more successfully than is possible in many families4 ,if the institutions in question could choose from among many teachers and many pupils1 they might1 under otherwise favorable circumstances1 be able to achieve great results4 ,but the fact of a picked set of pupils alone shows how little the whole need of education would be met4 ,besides1 even those that were chosen would bring with them their earliest impressions2 they would incline toward the social conditions for which they believe themselves to be destined2 the faults of individuality 7#bid et seq47 would cling to them1 unless such faults were recognized before the selection1 and were avoided by exclusion4 #cce4 ,as much as possible1 then1 education must return to the family4 ,in many cases private tutors will be found to be indispensable4 ,and of instructors excellently equipped as to scholarship1 there will be the less lack1 the better the work done by the gymnasia4 ,it must be noted1 also1 that instead of being the most difficult1 the most advanced instruction is the easiest of all1 because imparted with the least departure from the way in which it was received4 ,people are therefore mistaken when they assume that private tutors are capable of furnishing an equivalent only for the lowest classes in gymnasia4 ,a far greater difficulty lies in the fact that even the most skilful and active tutor cannot give as many lessons as a school provides1 and that accordingly more has to be left to the pupil's own efforts4 ,to be sure1 this is exactly the mode of instruction which suits the bright student better than one that must accommodate itself to the many1 and which on that account must progress but slowly4 #ccf4 ,but home education presupposes that sound pedagogical views have been arrived at in the home1 and that their place is not occupied by absurd whims or half knowledge4 7,niemeyer's famous work1 8,the ,principles of ,education and of ,instruction10 is intelligible to every educated person1 and has been widely known for many years47 #ccg4 ,the necessity of sound pedagogical knowledge in the home becomes all the more urgent where teachers1 private or public1 change frequently--whereby inequalities of instruction and treatment are introduced which need to be corrected4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,concerning ,schools #cch4 ,the school system and its relations to local authorities1 on the one hand1 and to the general government1 on the other1 form a vast and difficult subject involving not merely pedagogical principles1 but also such aims as the maintenance of higher learning1 the dissemination of useful information1 and the practice of indispensable arts4 ,in university lectures a few words on such topics suffice1 since young men who accept a school position assume1 at the same time1 obligations which for a long time to come prescribe for them the path they must follow4 #cci4 ,they must1 in the first place1 consider the character of the school in which they are to instruct4 ,the school programme provides them with information concerning the scope of the curriculum1 the established relations of the branches of instruction to one another1 and the various stages in each subject4 ,the teachers' conference affords them an insight into multiplex relations to authorities1 parents1 and guardians1 and to the pupils1 also relations leading to coperation1 more or less perfect1 on the part of the teachers4 ,the whole of the educational effort directed upon younger1 intermediate1 and older pupils is presented in one view2 it is known also where the pupils come from1 with what kind of preparation1 and where as a rule they go upon leaving the school4 #cdj4 ,it must obviously make a vast difference whether pupils look forward to the university1 or whether the gymnasium is filled with boys who do not intend to pursue higher studies2 whether a burgher school sets a final examination to mark the stage of general culture to which the school is expected to advance the pupils1 or whether the pupils enter and leave without well-defined reasons according to what seems best to their respective families2 whether an elementary school is conducted merely as an institution preparing for gymnasia or burgher schools1 or whether its course provides for the suitable education1 during his whole boyhood1 of the future artisan1 etc4 ,the ,american school system possesses this great advantage over that of ,germany1--it has an educational ladder planted in every elementary school upon which any child from any social class may mount as high as his ambition incites1 or his means and ability permit4 ,it is the only suitable system in a democracy1 where opportunity should be open to all4 ,even to obtain greater perfection than the ,german school system has ever attained1 a democratic nation cannot afford to impair its present organization1 in so far as it makes advancement possible to every aspiring soul4 #cda4 ,in each case the official activity entered upon must adjust itself properly to the whole1 the outlines of which are given4 ,these determine the proportion and the subdivision of the store of learning to be kept ready for use1 the degree of confidence to be shown to pupils as to knowledge already acquired1 and the manner in which they are to be addressed4 ,it is important that the teacher should appear before his class adequately prepared and with confident self-possession1 that he should look about attentively at every one and make each pupil feel at once that it would not be easy for him to undertake anything without being noticed4 #cdb4 ,the questions to be put to the pupils need to be formulated clearly and concisely1 and they must follow each other in easy sequence4 ,the answers must be corrected and1 when necessary1 repeated1 in order that all may hear them4 ,no pause should be unduly prolonged2 no explanation to the weaker pupil should be allowed to become oppressively tedious to the more advanced4 ,those who are at work at the moment must be assisted1 but ought not to be disturbed by much interrupting talk4 ,the current of thought is to be invited and accelerated in all1 but not hurried1 etc4 ,such requirements instruction will meet with greater or less difficulty1 according as classes are small or large and the inequality of pupils great or slight4 #cdc4 ,in the assigning of work the capacity of each pupil must be taken into account as much as possible1 in order that no one may surrender to ill-humor and discouragement on account of excessive demands1 nor any one permit himself carelessly to abuse a task too easy for him4 #cdd4 ,inequalities of division resulting from rearrangements of classes1 or other changes1 must be pointed out to the authorities as clearly as possible1 for the purpose of urging a more even distribution and a reduction of excessive numbers4 #cde4 ,in the course of the gradual extension of such efforts many a defect will come to light4 ,it may be found1 for instance1 that the school is not a whole1 because of the lack of a competent teacher for an important subject1 or because of marked inequalities of knowledge and culture due to the preparatory schools1 or because the school 7such as those in small towns7 follows the curriculum of a gymnasium while its real aim is supposed to be that of a burgher school1 etc4 #cdf4 ,reports of such single defects will as a rule lead only to correspondingly partial improvements in the system and to relief from the most onerous perplexities1 since it is seldom found possible to organize the system of a whole province at once in such a way as to make one harmonious whole4 #cdg4 ,but in case comprehensive reforms of the school system were undertaken1 it would be necessary not merely to tolerate great multiformity1 but even to create it purposely4 ,for division of labor is in all human performance the right path to better things2 and the preceding discussion must have shown with sufficient clearness how much depends on a more discriminating segregation of pupils4 ,,index ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 of ,perception1 #bec4 ,absorption and ,reflection1 #ff4 ,action1 clandestine1 #cae4 ,action and ,rest1 #aef4 ,administrative ,system1 #ae4 ,adolescence1 and obedience1 #afa2 bibliography for1 #bca4 sthetics1 #ic4 ,affection1 #bd4 ,algebra1 history of1 #bee4 ,alertness of mind1 superficial1 #cja4 ,american ,history vs4 that of ,greece and ,rome1 #bda4 ,analytic instruction1 definition1 #ajf2 first stages of1 #aaa2 other forms of1 #aag2 with children1 #bad4 ,ancient ,languages1 their use as employment1 #ih2 labor of mastering1 #ajc4 ,apperceiving attention1 capacity for1 #abi4 ,application1 #fg2 a stage of method1 #gj4 ,approbation1 #aea4 ,arguing with children1 evils of1 #afd4 ,arithmetic1 with boys1 #bbc-bbd4 ,arranging of objects1 #bae4 ,arrested development1 #aga4 ,art of narration1 #gf4 ,arts1 #bea4 ,assistance1 gradual withdrawal1 #bjd4 ,association1 #fg2 promoted by conversation1 #fi4 ,athletics1 over-valuation of1 #afi4 ,attention1 divided1 #fc2 forced and spontaneous1 #gc2 primitive and apperceiving1 #gd4 ,authority1 #ec-afc2 delegated1 #cai4 ,aversion1 #bd4 ,bad conduct of adults1 #ahg4 ,baldwin1 quoted1 #afh1 #aie4 ,barrenness of text-book method1 #bdc4 ,barriers to education1 #e4 ,bennett and ,bristol1 8,the teaching of ,latin and ,greek10 #bgi4 ,bible stories1 #bcd4 ,biblical stories vs4 ,mythology1 #bcg4 ,boundary between boyhood and adolescence1 #bag4 ,boyhood1 boundary between1 and adolescence1 #bag4 ,brown1 ,george ,p41 #bga4 ,capacity for education in children1 #cc4 ,caprice of will1 #a1 #c4 ,categorical imperative1 not the true source of maxims1 #cac4 ,censure1 #aea4 ,character1 development of1 #fd2 objective side of1 #adc2 subjective side of1 #adc2 strength of1 #adg4 ,cheerfulness1 social1 #baa4 ,children1 government of1 #de-ee4 ,childhood1 #bjc-baf4 ,child study1 #cc1 #cd4 ,choice1 content of1 #afg2 of subject-matter1 #ie4 ,choosing1 #afg4 ,chronology in history1 #bdj4 ,clandestine action1 #cae4 ,classical vs4 scientific education1 #he4 ,classification of interests1 #hc2 how to provide for1 #ace4 ,clearness1 #fg4 ,combats between teacher and pupils1 #afc4 ,commands1 sweeping1 #dh4 ,committing to memory1 #ha4 ,communion1 #bcb4 ,comparative study1 #hi4 ,complication of ideas1 #cj4 ,composition1 true nature of1 #abc2 in ,latin and ,greek1 #bhe4 ,concealed offences1 severity for1 #caf4 ,concert work1 #fi4 ,conduct1 becoming1 #acg4 ,conferences1 teachers'1 #cci4 ,confirmation1 #bcb4 ,conjunctions1 children's use of1 #ca4 ,consequences1 discipline of1 #aeg4 ,consistency of action1 #agd4 ,contempt of moral judgment1 #cab4 ,contention1 why it pleases children1 #ahc4 ,continuity of education1 #g4 ,contrasts in pupils1 #bh4 ,control1 restlessness under1 #cje4 ,conversation1 #fg4 ,corporal punishment1 #ea4 ,correlation of studies1 #fe2 limits of1 #bai4 ,courage1 #bif4 ,culture1 ,dogma of ,formal1 ,hinsdale1 #bgi4 ,cynics1 #hc4 ,cyrenaics1 #hc4 ,dates1 #bdg4 ,delegated authority1 #cai4 ,demonstrations1 #bef4 ,depression and elevation1 #aef4 ,desire and passion1 #agf2 bodily1 #agg2 gratification of1 #aee4 ,determining influence of training1 #afg4 ,dewey1 ,dr4 ,john1 #ch1 #fc1 #gc1 #aej2 and ,mc,lellan1 #bec4 ,differences1 individual and sex1 #bai4 ,discipline1 social basis of1 #ee2 of consequence1 #aeg4 ,diffusion of thought1 #ce4 ,disorder as index of failure1 #ee4 ,disposition1 cheerful1 #acg4 ,divided attention1 #fc4 8,dogma of ,formal ,culture10 ,hinsdale1 #bgi4 ,drpfeld1 #gj4 ,drudgery vs4 work1 #fc4 ,duel1 #ac4 ,dulness1 #bii4 ,ease of government1 #ed4 ,easy before the difficult1 #abg4 ,eckoff1 ,wm4 ,j41 #bed4 ,educability of pupils1 #a4 ,education according to age1 #aie-bca2 first three years1 #aie-bjb2 from four to eight1 #bjc-baf2 boyhood1 #bag-bbf2 youth1 #bbg-bca4 ,education as home task1 #ccc4 ,educational bookkeeping1 #ej4 ,educative instruction1 #ei1 #ajj2 value in fixing curriculum1 #ajj4 ,election1 basis of1 #fe4 ,electives1 #hi4 ,elevation and depression1 #aef4 ,employment1 the foundation of government1 #df2 for children1 #ef4 ,endurance1 #aed4 ,english schools1 effect on character of boys1 #ahc4 ,environment1 influence of1 #e1 #ee2 of pupils1 #id4 ,equilibrium of ideas1 #ge4 ,equity1 definition1 #ac4 ,erratic mental movements1 #cjb4 ,estrangement and its removal1 #ff4 ,ethical ,basis of ,pedagogics1 #h-ai4 ,ethical judgment1 #be4 ,ethical life1 range of1 #bib4 ,ethics1 the goal of education1 #b4 ,examination vs4 review1 #aag4 ,experience1 limits of1 #aaj4 ,explication1 #fg4 ,expulsion1 #eb4 ,evil1 exclusion of1 #adi4 ,faculties1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc2 names for1 #bg4 ,family1 its interest in the individual1 #bhh2 its lack of vigor1 #ccc4 ,fatalism1 #a1 #c4 ,fatigue1 produced by instruction1 #gj4 ,favoritism1 #ahd4 ,faults of children and their treatment1 #bid-cbi2 general differentiation1 #bid-cjc2 sources of moral weakness1 #cjd-cac2 effects of training upon1 #cad-cai2 special faults1 #cbj-cbi2 habitual1 #cbf2 minor1 #cba2 committed vs4 faults possessed1 #cbj4 ,faust1 #hc4 ,first offences1 treatment of1 #cbc4 ,fiske1 method of using text-books of history1 #bdg4 8,five windows of the ,soul10 #cg4 ,fixation of ideas1 premature1 #bah4 ,formal ,culture1 ,dogma of1 ,hinsdale1 #bgi4 ,formal steps1 #fg4 ,frankness1 lack of1 #bf2 need of1 #cbb4 ,freedom and restraint1 #aef4 ,friendliness1 with children1 #baa4 ,games1 the supervision of1 #agh2 coperative1 #agh4 ,general notions1 definition1 #cj4 ,generalizations1 #ib4 ,gentle measures1 #dc4 ,geography1 #bfc-bfh2 home geography1 #bfc2 an associating science1 #bfd2 narration in1 #bfe2 the old vs4 the new1 #bff2 reviews in1 #bfg4 ,geographical aspects of history1 #bde4 ,geographical vs4 historical studies1 #bic4 ,geometry1 advantages of association1 #ajb4 ,good will1 definition1 #aa2 in children1 #bjf2 two aspects of1 #ahe4 ,golden rule1 #adh4 ,goldsmith on the moody teacher1 #aff4 ,government of children1 #de-ee4 ,grading1 #cdd-cde4 ,grammar1 amount to be given1 #acj4 ,greek and ,latin1 #bgg-bhe2 time for beginning1 #bgg-bgh2 manner of teaching1 #bgi4 ,greek and ,roman history1 priority of1 #bdf2 vs4 ,american history1 #bdf4 ,greek1 authors to be used1 #bhc2 relation of1 to religious impressions1 #bcc4 ,groups of ideas1 #bi4 ,gumplowicz1 #e4 ,gymnastic exercises1 excessive1 #acb4 ,harris1 ,dr4 ,wm4 ,t41 #cg1 #adc4 ,harmony of insight and volition1 #i4 ,heavenly bodies1 observation of1 #bei4 ,herbert ,spencer1 #he1 #aeg4 ,herodotus1 stories of1 #bdc4 ,higher education1 the comparative study of branches1 #hi4 ,higher vs4 lower schools1 #cdj4 ,high school1 six-year course in1 #ajc4 ,hinsdale1 8,dogma of ,formal ,culture10 #bgi4 ,history1 #bci-bea2 prevailing error of young teachers of1 #bci2 ,american vs4 ,greek and ,roman1 #bda2 medival1 #bdi2 modern1 #bej4 ,historical instruction1 a branch of education1 #cg4 ,home education1 #ccj-ccg4 ,home work1 not a saving of labor1 #abc4 ,homogeneity of pupils1 #aab4 ,honor1 standards of1 #afi2 a feeling of1 #bbc4 ,humaniora vs4 realia1 #ii4 ,ideas1 groups of1 #bi2 their source1 #cf2 equilibrium of1 #ge2 degree of strength1 #ajb4 8,iliad0 and 8,odyssey10 #bhc4 ,imaginary and complex numbers1 #bef4 ,imagination1 #bb4 ,incapacity1 feeling of1 in children1 #baf4 ,inclinations vs4 principles1 #aic4 ,individuality1 modification of1 #da2 differences of1 #ed4 ,individual traits1 permanency of1 #bie4 ,indolence of youth1 #bbg4 ,inequalities1 correction of1 #fj4 ,infancy1 #aie-bjb4 ,inherent faults1 #bid4 ,inner freedom1 aspects of1 #ahg4 ,instability of ideas1 #cja4 ,instruction1 #ef-ace2 relation to government and training1 #ef-fa2 aim of1 #fb-fe2 conditions of many-sidedness in1 #ff-gj2 conditions determining interest in1 #ga-hb2 as information giving1 #ce2 and rudeness1 #ce2 in relation to pupils' ideas and disposition1 #cf2 branches of1 #cf2 its good beginning1 #aje4 ,insertion vs4 continuation1 #abi4 ,insight1 definition1 #h2 harmony of with volition1 #i4 ,intercourse1 social1 #gh4 ,interest1 conditions of1 #ga-hb2 main kinds of1 #hc-id2 many-sidedness of1 #fb2 direct and indirect1 #fc2 vs4 effort1 #fc2 bearing of on virtue1 #fd2 classification of1 #hc2 not sole guide to selection of studies1 #ace2 compared with skill1 #bhi4 ,inventions1 #bea4 ,irritability1 #big4 ,james1 quoted1 #age4 ,judgment1 #bc2 of moral quality of actions1 #i2 ethical1 #be4 ,justice and equality with boys1 #bba4 ,kant1 #c2 his views on moral obedience1 #agc4 ,lange's 8,apperception10 #gd4 ,language lessons vs4 grammar1 #bga4 ,languages1 difficulties of1 #abi4 ,larned1 method of using text-books1 #bdg4 ,latin and ,greek1 #bgg-bhe2 time for beginning1 #ajc2 composition in1 #bhe4 ,latin1 increase in study of1 #bgh2 reasons for teaching1 #bgi2 authors to be read1 #bhb4 ,letter writing1 #bgf4 ,listlessness1 #aeh4 ,literary masterpieces1 study of1 #gf4 ,logarithms1 #bed4 ,love1 #ec4 ,magnitudes in mathematics1 #beb4 ,main kinds of interest1 #hc-id2 materials of1 #ie-ajd2 process of1 #aje-acj2 plan of1 #aca-ace4 ,manly games1 effects of on boys1 #ahc4 ,manual training1 #bei2 effect of on discipline1 #ef4 ,many-sidedness1 #ff-gj2 of interest1 #fb4 ,materials of instruction1 #ie-ajd4 ,mathematics1 #beb-beg2 linked to nature1 #ci2 correlation of1 #ci2 aptitude for1 #beb4 ,mathematical teaching1 order of1 #bee4 ,maxims1 origin of1 #caj4 ,mc,lellan and ,dewey1 #bec4 ,mc,murray1 #gd4 ,measuring1 #bec4 ,medival history1 #bdi4 ,memorizing1 #ha1 #ajh4 ,memory of will1 #afa4 ,mental faculties1 names for1 #bg4 ,mental instability1 #cja4 ,mephistopheles1 #hc4 ,method1 #fg4 ,mob spirit1 the1 #afh4 ,mobility of ideas1 #ce4 ,modern history1 #bej4 ,modern languages1 arguments for their study1 #ih4 ,modern methods of using text-books in history1 #bdg4 ,money1 teaching the use of1 #agj4 ,moodiness in the teacher1 #aff4 ,moods and whims1 #adg4 ,moral eccentricity1 #cjg4 ,moral freedom1 possibility of1 #agc4 ,moral education in strict sense1 #ahh4 ,moral judgment1 contempt of1 #cab4 ,moral revelation of the world1 #afg4 ,morality1 demand of upon youth1 #bca4 ,mother-tongue1 the1 #bfi4 ,motives of youth1 #bbi4 ,musical instruments1 study of1 #agi4 ,narration1 art of1 #gf2 historical1 #bci-bdc4 ,natorp1 #adc4 ,natural science1 #beh-bfb4 ,nature study1 #beh-bfb2 apperceptive basis for1 #beh2 and history1 #beh4 ,niemeyer1 #aab1 #aac4 ,obedience1 #dh2 to authority1 #agc2 promptness of1 #cji4 ,object lessons1 how to teach1 #aad-aaf4 ,observation1 of children1 #cc1 #cd2 exercises1 #bae2 which does not observe1 #aaa4 ,occupations1 #dg1 #ih2 self-chosen1 #acd4 8,odyssey10 #bhc4 ,offences1 concealed1 #caf4 ,one-sidedness1 #hf4 ,order1 restoration of1 #cbd4 ,organization of pupil's ideas1 #ca1 #cb2 of education1 #ccj-cdg4 ,outlines of general pedagogics1 #de-bca4 ,outside occupations1 #acd4 ,overburdening of pupils1 #ig1 #bbf4 ,pampering1 #de4 ,passions1 #ahj1 #aha2 prevention of by training1 #cad2 what they lead to1 #cjh4 ,paulsen1 #c1 #gc4 8,pedagogical ,seminary10 #agh4 ,pedagogics1 ethical basis of1 #h-ai2 psychological basis of1 #bj-dd2 outlines of general1 #de-bca4 ,perez1 #aie4 ,perfection1 idea of1 definition1 #aj2 importance of1 #ag2 false idea of1 #ah2 in children1 #bjg-baj4 ,perfice te1 #ag4 ,pestalozzi1 #aab1 #aad4 ,physical activity1 need of1 #df4 ,physical weakness1 consideration for1 #aei4 ,physics1 elementary1 #bfa4 ,plan of instruction1 #aca-ace4 ,play1 love of1 #bie4 ,playground1 need for1 #acb4 ,plasticity1 limited1 #d4 ,pleasure and pain1 sources of1 #afh4 ,praise and censure1 #ahi-aij4 ,premature fixation of ideas1 #bah4 ,preparation1 #gj4 ,presentation1 #gj1 #aai4 ,presentative instruction1 its present function1 #aji4 ,presentative method1 meaning of1 #ajf4 ,preyer1 #aie4 ,primacy of ideas1 #gc1 #adc2 of will1 #gc1 #adc4 ,principles vs4 inclinations1 #aic4 ,private vs4 public schools1 #ccd4 ,process of instruction1 #aje-acj4 ,proficiency in knowledge a late acquirement1 #abg4 ,prudence1 #ade4 ,psychological basis of pedagogics1 #h-ai4 ,psychology as instrument1 #b4 8,psychology of ,number10 #bec4 ,public opinion1 respect for1 #cjf4 ,public vs4 private schools1 #ccd4 ,punishment1 #ea-ec4 ,pupil's interest1 how to measure and secure it1 #aja4 ,quality vs4 quantity1 in securing interest1 #aja4 ,questions1 childish1 #bac2 character of1 #cdb4 ,quietude of mind1 #agf4 ,rationality1 growth of1 #bif4 ,reading1 #bgc-bge4 ,realia1 advantage of1 #aja4 ,recitations1 number per week1 #acc4 ,records1 of conduct1 #ej4 ,recreations1 #acb4 ,reflection and absorption1 #ff4 ,reform1 school1 #ajc4 ,regulative principles1 establishment of1 #agc4 ,regulative training1 #agb4 ,religion1 #bcb-bch4 ,religious culture with boys1 #bbb4 ,religious feeling1 beginnings of1 #bcf4 ,religious instruction1 #id2 in ,england1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states1 #aha4 ,religious training1 need of1 #ai4 ,reminders1 #aib4 ,repetition1 what it accomplishes1 #aah4 ,reproduction1 #aji4 ,rest and action1 #aef4 ,restlessness1 #big2 under control1 #cje4 ,restraint1 #ee2 and freedom1 #ahf4 ,revelation of the world1 moral1 #afg4 ,reviews1 conduct of1 #aag4 ,rigidity of mind1 #cjj4 ,rosenkranz1 #ff4 8,rousing word10 the1 #age4 ,rudeness vs4 instruction1 #ce4 ,russell1 8,german ,higher ,schools10 #bgi4 ,savings banks1 #agj4 8,school and ,society10 ,dr4 ,john ,dewey1 #ch4 ,school hygiene1 literature of1 #acb4 ,schoolrooms1 need for spacious1 #acb4 ,schools1 organization of1 #cch-cdg4 ,school system1 #cch4 ,scientific instruction1 a branch of education1 #cg4 ,scientific vs4 classical education1 #he4 ,seclusion vs4 society1 #afh4 ,secondary education in ,united ,states1 its brevity1 #ajc4 ,self-activity1 #ga4 ,self-defence1 #ahc4 ,self-determination1 #bf4 ,sensibility1 kindness of1 #aeb4 ,sensual impulses1 #bih4 ,sequence1 common view1 #if2 of studies1 #abh4 ,series of ideas1 #aba4 ,severity for concealed offences1 #caf4 ,simulation of ethical judgments1 #cag4 ,sin1 #cch4 ,six-year high school course1 #ajc4 ,skill vs4 interest1 #bhi4 ,sluggishness of pupils1 #afe4 ,smith1 ,david ,eugene1 #bee1 #bef4 ,social cheerfulness1 #baa4 ,social circle1 relation of child to1 #bjh4 ,social ends of training1 #afj4 ,social environment of pupils1 #id4 ,social faults1 correction for1 #cbg4 ,social intercourse1 #gh4 ,social pressure in government1 #afa4 ,social relations the source of will1 #cah4 ,social1 the1 in conduct1 #fb4 ,society vs4 seclusion1 #afh4 ,source of ideas1 #cf4 ,special applications of pedagogics1 #bcb-bic2 religion1 #bcb-bch2 history1 #bci-bea2 mathematics and natural science1 #beb-bfb2 geography1 #bfc-bfh2 the mother-tongue1 #bfi-bge4 ,speer1 #bec4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #he1 #aeg4 ,spinoza1 #c4 ,spy1 the teacher as1 #cag4 ,standards of honor1 #afi4 ,state1 its attitude toward the individual1 #cca4 ,strife1 #ahb4 ,structure of groups of ideas1 #ca4 ,studies1 social function of1 #fb2 as social instruments1 #fd2 for boys1 #bbe4 ,study of literary masterpieces1 #gf4 ,style of speaking1 #ajh4 ,subjects to be taught1 #ajj4 ,supervision1 #dh2 strictness of1 #di1 #ej4 ,sweetmeats1 educational1 #ii4 ,syntax1 ,latin1 #bhd4 ,synthetic instruction1 definition1 #ajf2 nature and course of1 #abe-abf4 ,system1 #fg2 promoted by connected discourse1 #fi2 of laws and rewards1 #ad2 of civilization1 #af4 ,tardiness1 #afa4 ,teacher as spy1 #cag4 ,teachers' conferences1 #cci4 ,temperaments1 #bie4 ,temper1 violent1 #bih4 ,tests by the state1 #ccb4 ,text-book methods1 barrenness of1 #bdc4 ,text-book vs4 oral presentation of history1 #bci4 ,themes for composition1 #abd4 ,the mob spirit1 #afh4 ,the mother-tongue1 #bfi-bgf4 ,thoughtlessness of pupils1 #afd4 ,time1 amount to be given to instruction1 #acb4 ,training1 #acf-aid2 definition1 #acf1 #ada2 relation to government and instruction1 #acf-adj2 aim of1 #ada-adb2 differentiation of character1 #adc-adg2 differentiation in morality1 #adh-aej2 helps in1 #aea-aei2 general method1 #afj-aid2 blended with government1 #adj2 function of1 #aea4 ,transfer of pupils1 #eb4 ,translation1 difficulty of1 for ,german children1 #ajc4 ,trigonometry1 #bed4 ,tutors1 place of1 #cce4 ,unification1 #fe1 #ff4 ,use of things1 how taught1 #aad4 ,vendettas1 #ac4 ,violin1 value of use of1 #agi4 ,virility in the school1 #ahc4 ,virtue1 definition1 #h1 #fb2 unevenness of development1 #h2 its relation to interest1 #fd4 ,viva vox docet1 #ajg4 ,volition1 harmony with insight1 #i2 of the moment1 #caa4 ,wiget1 #gj4 ,will1 memory of1 #afa4 ,women teachers and fighting pupils1 #ahc4 ,work vs4 drudgery1 #fc4 ,written exercises in the mother-tongue1 #bgf4 ,written work1 tediousness of1 #ei2 correction of1 #abc4 ,wundt1 #gd4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,teaching ,,delivered ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,cambridge ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,,fitch1 ,m4,a4 ,,with ,,an ,,introductory ,,preface ,,by ,,thomas ,,hunter1 ,ph4,d41 ,president of the ,normal ,college1 ,new ,york #afmo4 ,cloth4 #a4jj 8,this is eminently the work of a man of wisdom and experience4 ,he takes a broad and comprehensive view of the work of the teacher1 and his suggestions on all topics are worthy of the most careful consideration40--,new ,england ,journal of ,education4 8,the lectures will be found most interesting1 and deserve to be carefully studied1 not only by persons directly concerned with instruction1 but by parents who wish to be able to exercise an intelligent judgment in the choice of schools and teachers for their children4 ,for ourselves1 we could almost wish to be of school age again1 to learn history and geography from some one who could teach them after the pattern set by ,mr4 ,fitch to his audience4 ,but perhaps ,mr4 ,fitch's observations on the general conditions of school work are even more important than what he says on this or that branch of study40--,saturday ,review4 ,,notes ,,on ,,american ,,schools ,,and ,,training ,,colleges ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author #afmo4 ,cloth4 #fj cents 8,mr4 ,fitch is a wise and enthusiastic student of pedagogy1 the author of some specially excellent ,lectures on ,teaching delivered in the ,university of ,cambridge1 and a rarely good observer of new facts4444 ,the book is a treasure of clever description1 shrewd comment1 and instructive comparison of the ,english system and our own40--,the ,churchman4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,recent ,,books ,,on ,,education ,the ,meaning of ,education ,and ,other ,essays and ,addresses4 ,by ,nicholas ,murray ,butler1 ,columbia ,university4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #a4jj4 ,social ,phases of ,education in the ,school and the ,home ,by ,samuel ,t4 ,dutton1 ,superintendent of ,schools1 ,brookline1 ,mass4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #a4be4 ,education of the ,central ,nervous ,system ,a ,study of ,foundations1 especially of ,sensory and ,motor ,training4 ,by ,reuben ,post ,halleck1 ,author of 8,psychology and ,psychic ,culture40 #abmo4 ,cloth4 #a4jj4 8,he has succeeded admirably in presenting the subject in a simple1 clear1 logical way4 ,it is just the book1 it seems to me1 for the reading of all persons interested in #8,child ,study4'0--,francis ,w4 ,parker1 ,chicago ,normal ,school4 ,educational ,aims and ,educational ,values ,by ,paul ,h4 ,hanus1 of ,harvard ,university4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #a4be4 8,a very readable book4444 ,his insight into educational problems is good1 his experience wide1 and his power of expression admirable40--,myron ,t4 ,s4 ,scudder in ,the ,educational ,review4 ,the ,development of the ,child ,by ,nathan ,oppenheim1 ,m4,d41 ,attending ,physician to the ,children's ,department1 ,mt4 ,sinai ,hospital ,dispensary4 ,cloth4 #a4be4 8,interesting and suggestive40--,the ,tribune1 ,new ,york4 ,the ,physical ,nature of the ,child and ,how to ,study ,it ,by ,stuart ,h4 ,rowe1 ,ph4,d41 ,new ,haven1 formerly ,professor of ,pedagogy and ,director of ,practice in the ,state ,normal ,school1 ,mankato1 ,minn4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #a4jj4 8,the average school-teacher could read no better work on school hygiene40--,c4 ,h4 ,thurber in ,the ,school ,review4 ,the ,teaching and ,study of ,elementary ,mathematics ,by ,david ,eugene ,smith1 ,ph4,d41 ,principal of the ,state ,normal ,school at ,brockport1 ,new ,york4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #a4jj4 ,the first issue in a series to be known as ,the ,teacher's ,professional ,library1 edited by ,nicholas ,murray ,butler1 ,professor of ,philosophy and ,education in ,columbia ,university4 ,the ,study of ,children and ,their ,school ,training ,by ,dr4 ,francis ,warner1 ,author of 8,the ,growth and ,means for ,training of the ,mental ,faculty40 ,cloth4 #afmo4 #a4jj4 ,the ,nervous ,system of the ,child ,its ,growth and ,health in ,education4 ,a handbook for teachers4 ,by the same author4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,recent ,books on ,philosophy1 ,etc4 ,the ,making of ,character ,some ,educational ,aspects of ,ethics4 ,by ,john ,mac,cunn1 of ,university ,college1 ,liverpool4 ,cambridge ,series4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #a4be4 ,the subject is divided into four general parts3 ,congenital ,endowment1 ,educative ,influences1 ,sound ,judgment1 and ,self-development and ,self-control4 ,each of these parts contains several chapters dealing with the various phases of character-building and its influence upon education4 ,teachers will find much that is new and stimulating in these pages4 ,the ,world and the ,individual ,gifford ,lectures delivered before the ,university of ,aberdeen4 ,first ,series4 ,the ,four ,historical ,conceptions of ,being4 ,by ,josiah ,royce1 ,ph4,d41 of ,harvard ,university4 ,cloth4 #hvo4 #c4jj4 ,a ,brief ,introduction to ,modern ,philosophy ,by ,arthur ,kenyon ,rogers1 ,ph4,d4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #a4be4 ,methods of ,knowledge ,an ,essay in ,epistemology4 ,by ,walter ,smith1 of ,lake ,forest ,university4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #a4be4 ,a definition of knowledge and theory of the method by which knowledge may be attained4 ,an ,outline of ,philosophy ,with ,notes ,historical and ,critical4 ,by ,john ,watson1 of ,queen's ,university1 ,kingston1 ,canada4 ,second ,edition4 ,cloth4 #hvo4 #b4be4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,descriptions of the illustrations were added by the transcriber4 ,all punctuation errors were corrected4 ,inconsistent hyphenation was retained4 ,in ,contents1 the following changes were done to match chapter titles in the text3 8of0 after 8,conditions0 was deleted 7,the ,conditions ,determining ,interest74 8,material0 was changed from 8,materials0 7,the ,material of ,instruction74 8,the0 was inserted before 8,relation0 7,the ,relation of ,training74 ,in paragraph #cf1 8one-sidedness0 was changed from 8one-sideness0 7one-sidedness of instruction74 ,in paragraph #ch1 8counteracting0 was changed from 8counter3 acting0 7counteracting selfishness74 ,in paragraph #gj1 alternate spelling of annotator's surname as 8,de,garmo0 was retained4 ,in the ,index1 8as0 was changed from 8an0 7,disorder as index of failure74 8,humaniora0 was changed from 8,humanoria0 7,humaniora vs4 realia74