,,the ,,printed ,,book1 ,its ,history1 ,illustration1 and ,adornment1 ,,from ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,gutenberg ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time4 ,,by ,,henri ,,bouchot1 ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,library1 ,,paris4 ,translated and ,enlarged by ,,edward ,c4 ,,bigmore4 ,,with ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,eighteen ,,illustrations ,,of ,,facsimiles ,,of ,,early ,,typography1 ,,printers' ,,marks1 ,,copies ,,of ,,book ,,illustrations1 ,,and ,,specimens ,,of ,,bindings ,,of ,,all ,,ages4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,scribner ,,and ,,welford1 #gdc and #gde1 ,,broadway4 #ahhg4 ,,preface4 ,considering that this short study can claim to be nothing more than a rapid and somewhat summary survey of the history of ,,the ,,book1 it eschews all controversial matter1 nor does it pretend to convey much fresh information to those already possessing a special knowledge of the subject4 ,it is rather a condensed1 but at the same time1 it may be hoped1 a useful1 compendium of the thousand unknown or now forgotten essays1 involving endless contradictory statements1 that have been issued on this theme4 ,the mere enumeration of such works would simply suffice to fill a volume4 ,we have accordingly no intention to attempt a bibliography1 satisfying ourselves with the modest avowal of having found so many documents in all languages1 that the very abundance has been at least as embarrassing to us as the lack of materials may have been to others4 ,the ,book appealing in its present form to a special public interested more in artistic than in purely typographical topics1 our attention has been more particularly given to the illustrators1 the designers1 engravers1 etchers1 and so forth4 ,such graphic embellishment seemed to us of more weight than the manufacture of the paper1 the type-casting1 the printing properly so called4 ,this technical aspect of the subject has been very briefly dealt with in a separate chapter1 and has also been enlarged upon in the early section4 ,to the binding also we have devoted only a single chapter1 while fully conscious that a whole volume would not have sufficed merely to treat the subject superficially4 ,at the same time1 we would not have the reader conclude from all this that our book abounds in omissions1 or has overlooked any important features4 ,the broad lines1 we trust1 have been adhered to1 while each section has been so handled as to give a fair idea of the epoch it deals with4 ,this is the first attempt to comprise within such narrow limits an art and an industry with a life of over four centuries1 essaying to describe its beginnings and its history down to our days1 without omitting a glance at the allied arts4 ,the engravings selected for illustration have1 as far as possible1 been taken from unedited materials1 and have been directly reproduced by mechanical processes1 while fifteen new illustrations1 having special relation to the history of the ,book in ,england1 have been added to this edition1 which is also considerably enlarged in the text on the same subject4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page #ad44 ,,to #adfb #a ,origin of the ,book--,engravers in relief--,the ,st4 ,christopher of #adbc--,origin of the ,xylographs--,the ,xylographs1 ,donatus1 and ,speculum--,the ,laurent ,coster legend--,from block books to movable characters--,john ,gaensefleisch1 called ,gutenberg--,the ,strasbourg trial--,gutenberg at ,mayence--,fust and ,schoeffer--,the letters of indulgence--,the ,bible--,the ,catholicon--,the ,mayence ,bible--,causes of the dispersion of the first ,mayence printers--,general considerations4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 #adfb ,,to #aejj #cc ,the ,book and the printers of the second generation--,the ,german workmen dispersed through ,europe--,caxton and the introduction of printing into ,england--,nicholas ,jenson and his supposed mission to ,mayence--,the first printing in ,paris2 ,william ,fichet and ,john ,heinlein--,the first ,french printers2 their installation at the ,sorbonne and their publications--,the movement in ,france--,the illustration of the ,book commenced in ,italy--,the ,book in ,italy2 engraving in relief and metal plates--,the ,book in ,germany3 ,cologne1 ,nuremberg1 ,basle--,the ,book in the ,low ,countries--,french schools of ornament of the ,book2 ,books of ,hours2 booksellers at the end of the fifteenth century--,literary taste in titles in ,france at the end of the fifteenth century--,printers and booksellers' marks--,the appearance of the portrait in the ,book--,progress in ,england--,caxton and his followers4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 #aejj ,,to #afjj #ih ,french epics and the ,renaissance--,venice and ,aldus ,manutius--,italian illustrators--,the ,germans2 ,theuerdanck1 ,schufelein--,the ,book in other countries--,french books at the beginning of the century1 before the accession of ,francis ,i4--,geoffroy ,tory and his works--,francis ,i4 and the ,book--,robert ,estienne--,lyons a centre of bookselling2 ,holbein's ,dances of ,death--,school of ,basle--,alciati's emblems and the illustrated books of the middle of the century--,the school of ,fontainebleau and its influence--,solomon ,bernard--,cornelis de la ,haye and the ,promptuaire--,john ,cousin--,copper plate engraving and metal plates--,woriot--,the portrait in the ,book of the sixteenth century--,how a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the century--,influence of ,plantin on the ,book2 his school of engravers--,general considerations--,progress in ,england--,coverdale's ,bible--,english printers and their work--,engraved plates in ,english books4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 #afjj ,,to #agjj #aea ,tendencies of the regency of ,marie de ,medicis--,thomas de ,leu and ,leonard ,gaultier--,j4 ,picart and ,claude ,mellan--,lyons and ,j4 de ,fornazeris--,the ,book at the beginning of the seventeenth century in ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,holland--,crispin ,pass in ,france--,the ,elzevirs and their work in ,holland--,sebastian ,cramoisy and the ,imprimerie ,royale--,illustration with ,callot1 ,della ,bella1 and ,abraham ,bosse--,the publishers and the ,hotel de ,rambouillet--,the reign of ,louis ,,xiv42 ,antoine ,vitr syndic at his accession--,his works and mortifications2 the ,polyglot ,bible of ,le ,jay--,art and illustrators of the grand century--,sbastien ,leclerc1 ,lepautre1 and ,chauveau--,leclerc preparing the illustration and decoration of the ,book for the eighteenth century--,the ,book in ,england in the seventeenth century4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,book ,,in ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century #ahd ,the regency--,publishers at the beginning of the eighteenth century--,illustrators in ,france2 ,gillot--,the school of ,watteau and ,boucher--,cars--,the younger ,cochin2 his principal works in vignettes--,french art in ,england2 ,gravelot--,eisen--,choffard--,the ,baisers of ,dorat2 the ,contes of ,la ,fontaine--,the publisher ,cazin and the special literature of the eighteenth century--,the younger ,moreau and his illustrations--,the ,revolution--,the school of ,david--,duplessis-,bertaux--,the ,book in ,germany2 ,chodowiecki--,in ,england2 ,boydell and ,french artists--,caslon and ,baskerville--,english books with illustrations--,wood engraving in the eighteenth century2 the ,papillons--,printing offices in the eighteenth century4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,book ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century #bah ,the ,didots and their improvements--,the folio ,racine--,the school of ,didot--,fine publications in ,england and ,germany--,literature and art of the ,restoration--,romanticism--,wood engraving--,bewick's pupils1 ,clennell1 etc4--,the illustrators of romances--,the generation of #ahdj--,the ,book in our days in ,europe and ,america4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,types1 ,,impression1 ,,paper1 ,,ink #bci ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,bookbinding #bec ,the binding of the first printed books--,ancient ,german bindings--,binding in the time of ,louis ,,xii4--,italian bindings--,aldus--,maioli--,grolier--,fr ancis ,i4--,henry ,,ii4 and ,diane de ,poitiers--,catherine de ,medicis--,henry ,,iii4--,the ,eves--,the fanfares--,louis ,,xiii4--,le ,gascon--,florimond ,badier--,louis ,,xiv4--,morocco leathers--,cramoisy--,the bindings of the time of ,louis ,,xiv4--,the regency--,pasdeloup--,the ,deromes--,dubuisson--,thouvenin--,lesn- -,the nineteenth century--,english binders--,roger ,payne--,francis ,bedford4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,libraries #bij ,,index #cje ,,the ,,printed ,,book4 ,,chapter ,i4 #ad44 ,,to #adfb4 ,origin of the ,book--,engravers in relief--,the ,st4 ,christopher of #adbc--,origin of the ,xylographs--,the ,xylographs1 ,donatus1 and ,speculum--,the ,laurent ,coster legend--,from block books to movable characters--,john ,gaensefleisch1 called ,gutenberg--,the ,strasbourg trial--,gutenberg at ,mayence--,fust and ,schoeffer--,the letters of indulgence--,the ,bible--,the ,catholicon--,the ,mayence ,bible--,causes of the dispersion of the first ,mayence printers--,general considerations4 ,like its forerunner1 ,painting1 the ,book has ever been the most faithful reflection of the times when it was written and illustrated4 ,natural and genuine from the first1 and simply embellished with crude illustrations1 it assumed in the sixteenth century the grand airs of the ,renaissance1 gay or serious according to circumstances1 decked in what were then called histoires--that is to say1 wonderful engravings--and daintily printed in ,gothic1 ,roman1 or choice ,italic characters4 ,but at the close of the century it had already abandoned wood for line engravings1 heightening its mysticism or its satire at the whim of passing politics and religious wranglings4 ,then1 under the influence of the painters and courtiers of the ,grand ,monarque1 it becomes completely transformed1 donning the peruke1 so to speak1 indulging in allegory and conventionalities1 pompous and showy1 tricking itself out in columns and pilasters instead of the old arabesques and scroll work of the ,renaissance1 thus continuing amid the coquetries of the regency1 the pastorals and insipidities of the following reigns1 until at last it suddenly assumes with the heroes of the ,revolution the austere mien and airs of classic art4 ,the ,book has always been as closely connected with the manners of our predecessors as art itself4 ,the artist submits more than he thinks to the tendency of his surroundings2 and if he at times makes his taste appreciated1 it is because he has more or less received his first influence from others4 ,in the sixteenth century the fashion of emblematic representation placed under the portrait of ,gaston de ,foix a figure of a young plant in full bloom2 and the inscription in ,latin was ,nascendo maturus--,mature at birth4 ,the ,book deserves the same device2 from its first day up to now it is a marvel of simplicity and harmony4 ,the tentative efforts which preceded the discovery of printing were but few2 it may be said that from the moment that ,gutenberg conceived the idea of separating the characters1 of arranging the words in the forme1 of inking them1 and of taking a proof on paper1 the ,book was perfect4 ,at best we see in following times some modifications of detail2 the art of printing was mature1 mature from its birth4 ,but before arriving at the movable type placed side by side1 and forming phrases1 which appears to us to-day so simple and so ordinary1 many years passed4 ,it is certain that long before ,gutenberg a means was found of cutting wood and metal in relief and reproducing by application the image traced4 ,signs-manual and seals were a kind of printing1 inasmuch as the relief of their engraving is impressed upon a sheet by the hand4 ,but between this simple statement and the uncritical histories of certain special writers1 attributing the invention of engraving to the fourteenth century1 there is all the distance of legendary history4 ,remembering that the numerous guilds of tailleurs d'images1 or sculptors in relief1 had in the ,middle ,ages the specialty of carving ivories and of placing effigies on tombs1 it can be admitted without much difficulty1 that these people one day found a means of multiplying the sketches of a figure often asked for1 by modelling its contour in relief on ivory or wood1 and afterwards taking a reproduction on paper or parchment by means of pressure4 ,when and where was this discovery produced8 ,we cannot possibly say2 but it is certain that playing cards were produced by this means1 and that from the year #adbc popular figures were cut in wood1 as we know from the ,st4 ,christopher of that date belonging to ,lord ,spencer4 ,it is not our task to discuss this question at length1 nor to decide if at first these reliefs were obtained on wood or metal4 ,it is a recognised fact that the single sheet with a printed figure preceded the xylographic book in which text and illustration were cut in the same block4 ,this process did not appear much before the second quarter of the fifteenth century1 and it was employed principally for popular works which were then the universal taste4 ,the engraving also was nothing more than a kind of imposition palmed off as a manuscript2 the vignettes were often covered with brilliant colours and gold1 and the whole sold as of the best quality4 ,the first attempts at these little figures in relief discovered by the image-makers and diffused by the makers of playing cards were but indifferent4 ,the drawing and the cutting were equally unskilful1 as may be seen in the facsimiles given by ,m4 ,h4 ,delaborde in his ,histoire de la ,gravure4 ,an attempt had been made to put some text at the foot of the ,st4 ,christopher of #adbc1 and the idea of giving more importance to the text was to the advantage of the booksellers4 ,at the mercy of the writers who fleeced them1 obliged to recoup themselves by the exaggerated prices of the most ordinary books1 they hoped to turn engraving to account in order to obtain on better terms the technical work needed for their trade4 ,at the epoch of the ,st4 ,christopher1 in #adbc1 several works were in vogue in the universities1 the schools1 and with the public4 ,among the first of these was the ,latin ,syntax of lius ,donatus on the eight parts of speech1 a kind of grammar for the use of young students1 as well as the famous ,speculum1 a collection of precepts addressed to the faithful1 which were copied and recopied without satisfying the demand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,part of a ,donatus taken from a xylograph1 the original of which is preserved in the ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,to find a means of multiplying these treatises at little cost was a fortune to the inventor4 ,it is to be supposed that many artisans of the time attempted it2 and without doubt it was the booksellers themselves1 mostly mere dealers1 who were tempted to the adventure by the sculptors and wood-cutters4 ,but none had yet been so bold as to cut in relief a series of blocks with engravings and text to compose a complete work4 ,that point was reached very quickly when some legend was engraved at the foot of a vignette1 and it may be thought that the ,donatus was the most ancient of books so obtained among the ,incunabuli1 as we now call them1 a word that signifies origin or cradle4 ,the first books then were formed of sheets of paper or parchment1 laboriously printed from xylographic blocks1 that is to say wooden blocks on which a tailleur d'images had left in relief the designs and the letters of the text4 ,he had thus to trace his characters in reverse1 so that they could be reproduced as written2 he had to avoid faults1 because a phrase once done1 well or ill1 lasted4 ,it was doubtless this difficulty of correction that gave the idea of movable types4 ,if the cutter seriously erred1 it was necessary to cancel altogether the faulty block4 ,this at least explains the legend of ,laurent ,coster1 of ,haarlem1 who1 according to ,hadrian ,junius1 his compatriot1 discovered by accident the secret of separate types while playing with his children4 ,and if the legend of which we speak contains the least truth1 it must be found in the sense above indicated1 that is in the correction of faults1 rather than in the innocent game of a merchant of ,haarlem4 ,however1 we shall have occasion to return to the subject of these remarks4 ,it should be well established that engraving in relief on wood alone gave the idea of making xylographic blocks and of composing books4 ,movable type1 the capital point of printing1 the pivot of the art of the ,book1 developed itself little by little1 according to needs1 when there was occasion to correct an erroneous inscription2 but1 in any case1 its origin is unknown4 ,doubtless to vary the text1 means were found to replace entire phrases by other phrases1 preserving the original figures2 and thus the light dawned upon these craftsmen1 occupied in the manufacture and sale of their books4 ,according to ,hadrian ,junius1 ,laurent ,janszoon ,coster 7the latter name signifying the discoverer7 published one of the celebrated series of works under the general title of ,speculum which was then so popular 7the mystic style exercising so great an attraction on the people of the fifteenth century71 the ,speculum ,human ,salvationis4 ,written before the middle of the fifteenth century1 made popular by manuscripts1 in spite of its fantastic ,latinity and of its false quantities1 this ascetic and crude poem was easy of access to the xylographists4 ,junius1 as we see1 attributes to ,laurent ,coster the first impression of the ,speculum1 no longer the purely xylographic impression of the ,donatus from an engraved block1 but that of the more advanced manner in movable types4 ,in point of fact1 this book had at least four editions1 similar in engravings and body of letters1 but of different text4 ,it must then be admitted that the fount was dispersed1 and typography discovered1 because the same cast of letters could not be adapted to different languages4 ,on the other hand1 the vignettes do not change1 indicating sufficiently the mobility of the types4 ,in comparison to what may be seen in later works1 the illustrations of the ,speculum are by no means bad2 they have the appearance1 at once nave and picturesque1 of the works of ,van ,eyck1 and not at all of the style of the ,german miniaturists2 properly illuminated and gilded1 they lent themselves to the illusion of being confounded with the histoyres1 drawn by the hand1 and this is what the publisher probably sought4 ,all the xylographic works of the fifteenth century may be classed in two categories3 the xylographs1 rightly so called1 or the block books1 such as the ,donatus1 and the books with movable types1 like the ,speculum1 of which we speak4 ,this mystic and simple literature of pious works for the use of people of modest resources found in printing the means of more rapid reproduction4 ,then appeared the ,biblia ,pauperum1 one of the most celebrated and the most often reproduced1 and the ,ars ,moriendi1 a kind of dialogue between an angel and a devil at the bedside of a dying person1 which1 inspired no doubt by older manuscripts1 retained for a long time in successive editions the first tradition of its designs4 ,on labels displayed among the figures are found inscribed the dialogue of the demons and angels seeking to attach to themselves the departing soul1 the temptations of ,satan on the subject of faith1 and the responses of the angel on the same subject4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,xylographic figure from the ,ars ,moriendi1 copied in reverse in the ,art au ,morier4 ,we can see what developments this theme could lend to the mysticism of the fifteenth century4 ,composed in eleven designs1 the ,ars ,moriendi ran up to eight different editions4 ,from the middle to the end of the fifteenth century1 the text was in ,latin1 then in ,french1 under the title ,l',art au ,morier4 ,in the ,french edition will be found the blocks that served for the second impression of the work4 ,about #adhj1 more than fifty years after the first essays1 the ,ars ,moriendi enjoyed so much vogue that it employed all the resources of typography as much as in its earliest days4 ,the original subjects1 copied in a very mediocre manner1 adorned the text1 which was composed in ,gothic letters1 with a new and more explicit title3 ,tractatus brevis ac valde utilis de ,arte et ,scientia bene moriendi 7#dto1 s4l4n4d471 but the order is inverted1 figure #e of the xylograph becoming ,no4 #c of the edition of #adhj4 ,the ,ars ,memorandi1 another xylographic work1 of which the subject1 taken from the ,new ,testament1 was equally well adapted to the imagination of the artists1 had also a glorious destiny4 ,the work originally comprised thirty blocks1 the fifteen blocks of text facing the fifteen engravings4 ,the designs represented the attributes of each of the ,evangelists1 with allegories and explanatory legends4 ,thus1 in that which relates to the ,apostle ,matthew1 ,no4 #a represents the birth and genealogy of ,jesus ,christ1 ,no4 #b the offerings of the ,magi1 ,no4 #c the baptism of ,st4 ,john1 ,no4 #d the ,temptation of ,christ1 ,no4 #e the ,sermon on the ,mount1 ,no4 #f the parable of the birds4 ,the angel that supports the whole is the emblem of ,st4 ,matthew the ,evangelist4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,figure of the school of ,martin ,schongauer1 taken from the ,rationarium ,evangelistarum of #aeje1 and copied from the corresponding plate of the ,ars ,memorandi4 ,this mnemonic treatment of the ,gospels began with symbols of which we have no means of finding the origin1 but which without doubt were employed many centuries earlier4 ,however that may be1 their success was as great as that of the already-quoted works4 ,in #aeje a ,german publisher put forth an imitation1 under the title of ,rationarium ,evangelistarum2 and this time the copier of the illustrations1 retaining the tradition of the first xylographers1 no less reveals an artist of the first order1 at least a pupil of ,martin ,schongauer4 ,some of the conceptions of the ,rationarium recall exactly the engravings of the great ,german master1 among others that of the ,infant ,jesus 7plate #ab71 which nearly approaches the style of the ,infant ,jesus of ,schongauer2 besides1 the principal figures leave but little doubt on the subject4 ,the same wings are on the angels and on the eagles1 the same coiffures on the human characters1 often the same attitudes4 ,from the preceding can be judged the extraordinary favour these productions enjoyed4 ,from their origin they were diffused through the whole of ,europe1 and attracted the attention of excellent artists4 ,nevertheless their beginnings were difficult4 ,the movable types used1 cut separately in wood1 were not constituted to give an ideal impression4 ,we can understand the cost that the execution of these characters must have occasioned1 made as they were one by one without the possibility of ever making them perfectly uniform4 ,progress was to substitute for this irregular process types that were similar1 identical1 easily produced1 and used for a long time without breaking4 ,following on the essays of ,laurent ,coster1 continuous researches bore on this point2 but as the invention was said to be his1 and it being of importance to him not to divulge it1 so that he should not lose his profit1 much time was lost over it in his workshop without much success4 ,here history is somewhat confused4 ,hadrian ,junius positively accuses one of ,laurent ,coster's workmen of having stolen the secrets of his master and taken flight to ,mayence1 where he afterwards founded a printing office4 ,according to ,junius1 the metal type was the discovery of the ,dutchman1 and the name of the thief was ,john4 ,who was this ,john8 ,was it ,john ,gaensefleisch1 called ,gutenberg1 or possibly ,john ,fust8 ,but it is not at all apparent that ,gutenberg1 a gentleman of ,mayence1 exiled from his country1 was ever in the service of the ,dutch inventor4 ,as to ,fust1 we believe his only intervention in the association of printers of ,mayence was as a money-lender1 from which may be comprehended the unlikelihood of his having been with ,coster1 the more so as we find ,gutenberg retired to ,strasbourg1 where he pursued his researches4 ,there he was1 as it were1 out of his sphere1 a ruined noble whose great knowledge was bent entirely on invention4 ,doubtless1 like many others1 he may have had in his hands one of the printed works of ,laurent ,coster1 and conceived the idea of appropriating the infant process4 ,in #adci he was associated with two artisans of the city of ,strasbourg1 ostensibly in the fabrication of mirrors1 which may be otherwise understood as printing of ,speculums1 the ,latin word signifying the same thing4 ,these men needed to surround themselves with precautions2 printing was as yet only a practical means of multiplying manuscripts1 to impose a little on the innocent1 and fortune awaited him who1 without saying anything1 made this invention serve him4 ,the following will prove this1 as well as its tendency4 ,a legal document discovered in #agfj by ,wencker and ,schoepflin in the ,pfennigthurm of ,strasbourg1 and afterwards translated into ,french by ,m4 ,leon de ,laborde1 makes us at length acquainted with the work of ,gutenberg and of his associates ,andrew ,dritzehen and ,andrew ,heilmann4 ,apparently these three men were1 as we have said1 ,spiegelmacher1 that is makers of mirrors4 ,they had jointly entered into a deed by the terms of which1 if one of the partners died in the course of their researches1 his heirs would have no rights beyond an indemnity corresponding to the amount invested by him4 ,it happened that ,andrew ,dritzehen did die1 and that one of his brothers aspired to occupy his place in the partnership4 ,the dead man left debts behind him2 he had squandered his florins by hundreds in his experiments4 ,gutenberg having offered to pay the amounts expended1 the heirs of ,dritzehen1 who wanted more1 summoned him before the courts to show why he should not make place for them in the work of experiments and making of mirrors4 ,the witnesses in their testimony before the court told what they knew of the inventions of the partnership4 ,one among them deposed that after the death of ,dritzehen1 ,gutenberg's servant went to the workshop and begged ,nicholas ,dritzehen1 brother of the deceased1 to displace and break up four formes placed in a press4 ,a second testified that the works of ,andrew had cost him at the least three hundred florins1 an enormous sum for those days4 ,other witnesses painted ,gutenberg in a curious light3 they made him out to be a savage1 a hermit1 who concealed from his associates certain arts of which the deed stipulated nothing4 ,one fact proved that the experiments referred to the manufacture of metallic characters4 ,a goldsmith1 named ,dnne1 maintained that he had received more than a hundred florins for printing material das zu dem trucken gehoret4 ,trucken6--,typography6 ,the word was found1 and from that day usage has consecrated it4 ,before #adci1 then1 ,john ,gaensefleisch1 or ,gutenberg1 was devoted to the art of reproduction of texts1 and had consecrated his life and feeble resources to it4 ,three problems presented themselves to him4 ,he wanted types less fragile than wooden types and less costly than engraving4 ,he wanted a press by the aid of which he could obtain a clear impression on parchment or paper4 ,he desired also that the leaves of his books should not be anopistograph1 or printed only on one side4 ,there were many unknown things to vex his soul1 of which he himself alone could have a presentiment4 ,until then1 and even long after1 the xylographs were printed au frotton or with a brush1 rubbing the paper upon the forme coated with ink1 thicker than ordinary ink4 ,he dreamed of something better4 ,in the course of his work ,john ,gutenberg returned to ,mayence4 ,the idea of publishing a ,bible1 the ,book of books1 had taken possession of his heart4 ,the ,spiegelmacher of ,strasbourg was on the road to loss4 ,the cutting of his types had ruined him1 and on his arrival in his native town1 his stock in trade1 transported by him1 was of no great weight3 some boxes of type1 an inconvenient forme1 and perhaps an ordinary press1 a wine-maker's press1 with a wooden screw4 ,the idea of using this unwieldy instrument for the impression of his formes had already occurred to him2 but would not the frotton serve still better8 ,the force of the blow from the bar would break the miserable type1 the raised parts of which could not resist the repeated strokes4 ,in this unhappy situation1 ,gutenberg made the acquaintance of a financier of ,mayence1 named ,fust1 who was in search of a business1 and who put a sum of eleven hundred florins at his disposal to continue his experiments4 ,unfortunately this money disappeared1 it melted away1 and the results obtained were absolutely ludicrous4 ,it is certain that ,john ,fust did not enter on the engagement without protecting himself4 ,from the first he bound his debtor in a contract for six per cent4 interest1 besides a share in the profits4 ,in addition he stipulated repayment in case of failure4 ,gutenberg1 improvident1 as is the way of inventors1 had signed away all that he possessed to procure funds4 ,it is presumed1 besides1 that during the continuance of his investigations1 he composed some current books with the resources at his disposal1 that served a little to lighten his debts4 ,but the printing house of the ,zum ,jungen at ,mayence was far from shining in the world1 because the association of ,fust concerned itself only with the publication of a ,bible1 and not at all with the ,speculums and ,donatuses that were so much in vogue at this time4 ,besides1 the money-lender made a point of pressing his debtor1 and did not allow him any leisure to labour outside the projected work4 ,about this time a third actor enters on the scene4 ,peter ,schoeffer1 of ,gernsheim1 a writer1 introduced into the workshop of ,gutenberg to design letters1 benefited by the abortive experiments1 and taking up the invention at its deadlock1 conducted it to success4 ,john of ,tritenheim1 called ,trithemius1 the learned abbot of ,spanheim1 is the person who relates these facts2 but as he got his information from ,schoeffer himself1 too much credence must not be given to his statements4 ,besides1 ,schoeffer was not at all an ordinary artisan4 ,if we credit a ,strasbourg manuscript written by his hand in #addi1 he was a student of the most glorious university of ,paris4 ,in the workshop of ,gutenberg1 his industrious and inventive intellect found a fecund mine1 and this caligraphist dreamt of other things than shaping letters for the use of wood engravers4 ,gutenberg1 arrested in his career by the wants of life1 the worries of business1 and perhaps also the fatigues of his labours1 may have let the new-comer know something of his experiences4 ,one cannot know1 but it is certain that1 shortly after1 ,john ,fust was so fascinated by ,schoeffer1 so attracted by his youth and his application1 that he resolved to put new capital into the business4 ,he did more3 to permanently attach him1 he gave him his grand-daughter in marriage1 not his daughter1 as was thought until ,m4 ,auguste ,bernard rectified this mistake4 ,we have now come to #adec1 the year preceding the first dated monument of printing in movable types3 the letters of indulgence4 ,it may be acknowledged that the sudden affection of ,fust for his workman depended on some interested motive1 and not at all on attraction of the heart4 ,had this former student of the university of ,paris found the means of rapidly founding metallic types1 the search for which had cost ,gutenberg many sleepless nights8 ,had he completed it by applying to it the matrix and punch which had then and for centuries served the makers of seals and the money-coiners8 ,perhaps1 as was most probable1 the two associates had agreed1 and putting their experiences together1 had conquered hitherto insurmountable difficulties4 ,the year #aded witnessed the diffusion throughout ,christendom of letters of indulgence1 accorded by ,pope ,nicholas ,v41 who wished to aid in funds the ,king of ,cyprus against the ,turks4 ,these circular letters1 scattered by thousands to every corner of the world1 employed numerous copyists4 ,arrived at ,mayence1 the distributers found a workshop ready prepared to furnish copies in the shortest possible time4 ,they set to work and brought together all the type they possessed1 cast or engraved1 to set up these famous letters4 ,among the impressions was that of which we give a reproduction1 which belongs to the edition called that of thirty-one lines4 ,the original was delivered for a consideration to ,josse ,ott von ,mospach on the #cast of ,december1 #aded4 ,it is not without interest1 for the history of the ,book and of printing1 to note here that these letters of indulgence1 the clandestine traffic in which was largely accelerated by rapidity of production and the small cost of each copy1 formed one of the causes of the religious reform of ,martin ,luther4 ,they afforded a means of raising money1 and were so generally resorted to that in the register of the ,hotel de ,ville of ,paris preserved in the ,archives ,nationales 7,h #aggh7 it may be seen that the sheriffs requested the ,pope to allow them to employ them in the reconstruction of the bridge at the ,hotel de ,ville4 ,the ice once broken1 ,fust and ,schoeffer found it hard to nourish a useless mouth4 ,for them ,gutenberg was more of a hindrance than a profit1 and they sought brutally to rid themselves of him4 ,fust had a most easy pretext1 which was to demand purely and simply from his associate the sums advanced by him1 and which had produced so little4 ,gutenberg had probably commenced his ,bible1 but1 in face of the claims of ,fust1 he had to abandon it altogether1 types1 formes1 and press4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,letters of indulgence1 from the so-called edition of thirty-one lines1 printed at ,mayence in the course of #aded4 ,in ,november1 #adee1 he had retired to a little house outside the city1 where he tried his best1 by the aid of foreign help1 to establish a workshop1 and to preserve the most perfect secrecy4 ,relieved of his company1 ,fust and ,schoeffer were able to take up the impression of the ,bible and to complete it without him4 ,if matters did so happen1 and ,schoeffer had not the excuse that he had previously discovered the casting of type1 there is but one word to designate his conduct3 robbery1 and moral robbery1 the worst of all4 ,but what can be said to-day of these people8 ,one thing is certain3 that the ,bible of ,schoeffer1 commenced by ,gutenberg or not1 put on sale by ,fust and ,schoeffer alone about the end of #adee or beginning of #adef1 proves to be the first completed book4 ,retired to his new quarters1 ,gutenberg was taking courage1 so as not to appear too much behindhand1 but the reconstitution of his workshop cost him enormous time4 ,and1 besides1 he missed the letter-maker ,schoeffer1 his own ,gothic letters1 engraved on steel with a punch1 not having the same elegance4 ,when his work appeared1 it could not sustain comparison4 ,the ,bible of ,schoeffer was more compact1 the impression was more perfect1 the ink better1 the type less irregular4 ,the original inventor1 in his business with ,fust1 made an unhappy competition for himself4 ,we give here a fragment of this celebrated book1 a kind of mute witness of the science and mortifications of the first printer4 ,it is now called the ,mazarine ,bible1 from the fact that the copy in the ,mazarin ,library was the first to give evidence concerning it4 ,the book was put on sale at the end of #adee or beginning of #adef1 for a manuscript note of a vicar of ,st4 ,stephen at ,mayence records that he finished the binding and illuminating of the first volume on ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,day1 #adef1 and the second on the #aeth of ,august4 ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,day is the #acth of ,june1 and not the #bdth of ,august1 as the catalogue of the ,bibliothque ,nationale has it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,fragment of the ,mazarine ,bible1 printed in two columns4 ,beginning of the text in the second column2 original size4 ,all these remarks show that the printers did not proclaim themselves1 and were making pseudo-manuscripts4 ,they did not make known their names or address4 ,the rubricators sided with them1 for many of the copies are illuminated with as much care and beauty as if they were the finest manuscripts4 ,there is no record extant of the number of copies printed1 but it was done on both vellum and paper4 ,copies are by no means uncommon1 most of the great libraries having one1 and many are in private collections4 ,one is shown among the typographical monuments in the ,king's ,library of the ,british ,museum1 and there is a finely illuminated copy in the show-room of the ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,from its very great importance as the first book that is known to have been printed1 its value has a constant increase4 ,of the copies recently sold1 one at the ,perkins sale in #ahgc on vellum sold for #c1djj1 another on paper at the same sale fetched #b1ijj1 while one on paper in the ,syston ,park ,library sold in ,december1 #ahhd1 for #c1ijj4 ,it has been asserted that the copies on paper were the first issued by ,gutenberg and his partners1 and those on vellum subsequently printed by ,fust and ,schoeffer1 after they had obtained possession of the inventor's stock4 ,but so many copies absolutely similar in aspect1 and of so regular a style1 put in the market from day to day by ,fust and ,schoeffer1 gave rise to protests from the caligraphists4 ,criticism always attends upon success1 but having obtained the result1 the two associates did not hesitate to proclaim themselves the printers of the ,bible4 ,on the publication of the ,psalter1 which followed the ,bible at a year's interval1 they gave their names and added a date1 #adeg1 the first instance of a date being recorded in a book4 ,this second work was of so skilful a typography1 that it might have been shown as the work of an expert penman2 the faults remarked in the letters of indulgence are no longer seen2 type had attained perfection2 in two years printing had reached its culminating point4 ,in spite of his disappointments1 ,gutenberg did not rest idle4 ,if he had seen his two enemies rob him of his claim of priority in the invention1 he had to show that1 reduced to his own exertions and to the restricted means furnished him by charitable people1 he also could print well4 ,two years after the ,bible a dated book1 composed in ,gothic letters1 appeared at ,mayence2 this was the ,catholicon of ,john ,balbus1 of ,genoa4 ,it had not yet occurred to these first printers to exercise their art otherwise than on religious works4 ,it is admitted by general opinion that the ,catholicon issued from the press of ,gutenberg2 on the other hand1 ,m4 ,bernard believes that it ought to be attributed to a printer of ,eltvil1 who published in #adfg a vocabulary called the ,vocabularium ex quo with the same types4 ,the former theory may be sustained by the words of the colophon of the book1 which is a sort of hymn to ,god and a recognition of the city of ,mayence without any mention of the name of the printer4 ,now in the situation in which ,gutenberg found himself1 in the face of his rivals1 had he not some claim to regard the great discovery as his own8 ,but if ,m4 ,bernard is mistaken1 and if our supposition has no foundation1 what a beautiful act of humility1 what a noble idea of his character1 ,gutenberg gives us in writing1 ,with the aid of the ,most ,high1 ,who releases the tongues of infants and often reveals to babes that which is sealed to learned men1 this admirable book the ,catholicon was finished in the year of the incarnation of our ,saviour ,,mcccclx4 in the mother-country of ,mayence1 famous city of ,germany1 which ,god1 in ,his clemency1 has deigned to render the most illustrious and the first of cities2 and this book was perfected without the usual help of pen or style1 but by the admirable linking of formes and types6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,colophon of the ,catholicon1 supposed to have been printed by ,gutenberg in #adfj4 ,the history of these men1 it is easy to understand1 has to be regarded with caution1 people of so little consequence then that the authentic documents relating to them have for ever disappeared4 ,if we except that of the ,pfennigthurm of ,strasbourg1 of which we have before spoken1 and the deed of claim for money from ,fust to ,gutenberg dated #adee1 we are forced to quote from authors living long afterwards1 who submitted1 without knowing better1 to the miserable errors of oral tradition4 ,it is nearly always the same with men who have occupied a large place in the history of art2 posterity only knows of their genius at the time when no one knows anything of them4 ,for ,gutenberg the situation was still more terrible2 a rival1 ,peter ,schoeffer1 survived him1 and he did not for his own reputation care to preserve his rival's memory2 and if1 as is believed1 ,gutenberg left pupils and heirs1 ,henry ,bechtermuncze1 ,ulrich ,zell1 and ,weigand ,spyes1 his misfortune is crowned by ,bechtermuncze being now reputed to be the printer of the ,catholicon1 of which we have just given the history4 ,even ,albert ,pfister1 one of his workmen1 dismissed at the end of his work1 having obtained from his master some rejected types1 was presumed later to have invented printing4 ,we find this artisan established at ,bamberg about #adfj1 composing ,bibles in movable types1 the first known being that published in #adfa4 ,but ,albert ,pfister showed that he was not at all an inventor by the mediocrity of his work1 and more by the old types that he used4 ,if he had known the secret of engraving the punches1 he would have cast new letters and have given a better aspect to his work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,colophon of the ,bible printed in #adfb by ,fust and ,schoeffer1 which is the first dated ,bible4 ,there are two different editions with this signature4 ,the above is from the second edition4 ,in these statements all is supposition and contradiction4 ,that which is certain--and the dates are there to prove it--is the enormous progress in the productions of ,peter ,schoeffer4 ,in #adei he published his third book1 ,durand's ,rationale ,divinorum ,officiorum1 in folio4 ,as in the ,psalter1 ,schoeffer employed initial letters printed in red1 which the rival workshop could not do in the ,catholicon1 the rubrics of which are painted by hand1 as in manuscripts4 ,in time he put forth a second edition of the ,psalter1 always with ,fust's name joined to his own4 ,a great number of types were broken at the beginning1 but he dreamed of doing yet better4 ,in #adfj he gave the ,constitutiones of ,pope ,clement ,v41 with a gloss and commentaries by ,john ,andr2 here was the first example of a process much employed in manuscripts1 but of which the typographical composition was very difficult4 ,again1 in #adfb a new ,latin ,bible issued from their workshops in two folio volumes4 ,it is the first dated edition4 ,the first volume has two hundred and forty-two folios in double columns1 the second two hundred and thirty-nine4 ,it commences with an epistle of ,st4 ,jerome1 and on the last leaf of the second volume is the colophon on the preceding page4 ,this book1 one of the first worthy of the name1 and which is called by preference the ,mayence ,bible1 appeared in one of the most troubled epochs that the episcopal city had had to go through4 ,subject to its archbishops1 who were at the head of all the lay lords and fighting men1 the city found itself in #adfb the prey of two prelates of equal title who refused to give way to one another3 ,thierry of ,isembourg and ,adolph of ,nassau-,wiesbaden4 ,adolph surprised ,mayence on the #bgth ,october1 #adfb1 pursuing his adversary1 who scaled the walls with a rope to escape quicker1 and the city was sacked and pillaged from its foundations4 ,in the middle of this turmoil1 what became of the obscure persons who were then the printers of the ,bible8 ,doubtless their insignificance saved them from disaster1 but as it was long before peace was re-established1 and the entire edition of their last volume could not be kept back1 we incline to believe that they were for a time going about the country as itinerant booksellers4 ,paris was to them a well-indicated point of travel--,paris1 toward which all ,german commerce tended4 ,the university where ,peter ,schoeffer was instructed in letters1 and that truly passed for the first in ,europe1 appeared to them a market of the first order4 ,if we may believe ,walchius 7,decas fabularum generis humani3 ,strasbourg1 #afji1 #dto1 p4 #aha71 ,john ,fust himself went to that city1 where he put books on sale from sixty crowns a copy1 then fifty1 then forty1 according to the prevailing system in matters of discount4 ,fust was above all things a merchant2 he led it to be believed that he had the marvellous establishment of a copyist beyond the ,rhine1 and he had disposed of many copies1 when the corporate scribes of the university1 becoming aware of the imposition1 cried out furiously and declared it a diabolical invention4 ,we may now take this tale of ,walchius as a fable1 as the registers of ,parliament1 on being consulted1 rest silent on the proceedings instituted against the magician of ,mayence4 ,only we must not lose sight of the fact that the booksellers had their masters1 their syndicate1 if we may use the modern word1 charged to prohibit fraudulent publications4 ,they were too much interested in the suppression of printed books to judge the matter coldly4 ,the ,parliament had nothing to see to in this4 ,the revolution of ,mayence had otherwise great results1 which were not affected by these minor reverses4 ,the printing workshops1 or at least the successors of ,gutenberg1 began to be dispersed1 and ,fust and ,schoeffer having established a school of printers in the city1 their trade was no longer secret4 ,deprived of their liberties by the new ,archbishop1 many of them expatriated themselves4 ,we shall take occasion later to name some of these exiles1 through whom the art of printing spread itself almost simultaneously throughout the world3 to ,cologne and ,strasbourg1 to ,italy and ,spain1 without reckoning ,holland1 ,france1 ,switzerland1 and the country around ,mayence4 ,we have before named the episcopal city of ,bamberg2 it had the singular fortune to be the second city to possess a printing office1 but it disappeared as quickly as it was established1 with ,albert ,pfister1 without leaving the least trace2 we do not find printing there again before #adhj1 more than twenty years later4 ,gutenberg was dead before #adfh4 ,he was interred in the ,church of the ,rcollets of ,mayence1 by the pious care of a friend1 who attributed the invention of printing to him on his tomb4 ,we may begin to comprehend the influence of this man upon the discovery of which all the world was then talking1 but the troubles of the archiepiscopal city hampered the respective merit of the inventors4 ,peter ,schoeffer and ,john ,fust were not much affected by the political crisis4 ,after two years' suspension1 they reappeared with a ,cicero1 ,de ,officiis1 #adfe1 quarto1 always at work and always surpassing themselves4 ,this time they freely gave up religious publications1 and1 still more extraordinary1 they employed ,greek types4 ,such is1 detached from the incredible contradictions of writers on art1 and sketched solely on its main lines1 the origin of printing as it is established at this day4 ,first came the image engraved in relief1 which we have not gone to ,china to find1 with some of our predecessors4 ,upon this image were often cut1 by the same economical process1 legends of explanation that presented the idea of imitation of manuscript2 and the xylographs appeared with or without illustrations4 ,then from the correction of errors in these books followed the discovery of movable characters4 ,this wooden type1 possible when it was used with a frotton for printing1 would quickly break under the press1 the idea of which was gained from the common press of the wine-makers4 ,then a kind of metallic type had to be found which would run in a mould struck by a punch4 ,this punch was not invented for the purpose2 it served previously for the makers of coins and seals4 ,the fabrication of type from the matrix was a simple adoption4 ,the lead thrown into the matrix gave the desired type4 ,thus were made the first books1 of which we have briefly related the composition4 ,as to the proportion of glory due to each one of the first printers1 it is necessary equally1 to guard against error on one side or the other4 ,we have sought to separate from the heap of publications probable opinions or those based on certain documents4 ,that the origin of the ,donatus1 the block books1 was ,dutch would be puerile to deny1 because1 on one side1 the engravings on blocks are surely of the school of ,van ,eyck1 and1 on the other hand1 ,ulrich ,zell1 who inspired the ,cologne ,chronicle of #adii1 assigned positively to ,holland the cradle of the ,donatus4 ,at any rate1 it was a pupil of ,gutenberg1 a question we have discussed4 ,after that we will trouble ourselves but little about ,laurent ,coster4 ,the name makes no difference in a matter of this kind4 ,as to ,gutenberg1 we have not been able to go as far as ,m4 ,e4 ,dutuit1 who in his ,manuel a',estampes 7vol4 i41 p4 #bcf1 etc47 doubts ,gutenberg's right to the title of inventor4 ,it is stated that in a letter of ,william ,fichet1 prior of the ,sorbonne1 of whom we shall have more to say presently1 to ,robert ,gaguin1 which ,m4 ,a4 ,claudin found at the beginning of a work entitled ,gasparim ,pergamensis orthographi liber1 published in #adgj1 nearly twenty years after the first work at ,mayence1 ,gutenberg is proclaimed the inventor of printing4 ,without any other1 this testimony of a savant who was the first to bring the ,german printers to ,paris appears to us well nigh irrefutable4 ,as to ,john ,fust and his grandson by marriage1 ,peter ,schoeffer1 they are so well defended by their works1 that there is no more to say here2 doubtless grave presumptions arise as to the delicacy of their conduct with ,gutenberg1 but we are not so bold as to censure them beyond measure4 ,we know nothing precise either of the time or of the men4 ,let us now imagine humble workmen1 the most simple of gens de mestiers1 to employ the ,french expression then in use1 shut up in a kind of dark workshop1 like a country forge1 formed in little groups of two or three persons1 one designing and the other cutting the wood1 having near them a table1 on which is held the engraved block after its reliefs have been rubbed with sombre ink1 who afterwards1 by means of the frotton1 apply the damped paper to the raised parts of the block2 we shall have without much stretch of thought all the economy of the xylographic impression4 ,if we add to this primitive workshop the matrix in which the types are cast1 the box in which they are distributed1 the forme on which they are arranged to compose the pages1 and a small hand-press1 with blacker ink and paper damped to permit the greasy ink to take better1 we have a picture of the work-room of ,gutenberg1 ,fust1 and ,schoeffer1 and of the first printers with movable types4 ,thus typography was born of painting1 passing in its infancy through wood-cutting1 revolutionising ideas and somewhat the world4 ,but the mighty power of the new art was not confined to itself2 it extended the circle of engraving1 which till then had suffered from the enormous difficulties of reproduction4 ,as if the time were ripe for all these things1 nearly at the moment when the first printers were distinguishing themselves by serious works1 a ,florentine goldsmith accidentally discovered the cutting of cast metal4,a ,what would have become of this new process if the presses of ,gutenberg had not brought their powerful assistance to the printing of engravings8 ,it will be found then that printing rendered a hundredfold to engraving for that which it received from it and bore it along with its own rapid advance4 ,then reappeared1 following the new processes1 the figures somewhat abandoned by the ,mayence workmen during the period of transformation4 ,our object is to speak at length of the ,book ornamented and illustrated according to the means of relief-cutting or casting2 to demonstrate the influence of painting1 of sculpture1 of art1 on the production of the ,book2 and thus to help the reader at the same time to understand the almost sudden and irresistible development of typography1 and to mention its foremost representatives4 ,footnote ,a3 ,the opinion that ,finiguerra was the unconscious inventor of casting engravings is now abandoned4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 #adfb ,,to #aejj4 ,the ,book and the printers of the second generation--,the ,german workmen dispersed through ,europe--,caxton and the introduction of printing into ,england--,nicholas ,jenson and his supposed mission to ,mayence--,the first printing in ,paris2 ,william ,fichet and ,john ,heinlein--,the first ,french printers2 their installation at the ,sorbonne and their publications--,the movement in ,france--,the illustration of the ,book commenced in ,italy--,the ,book in ,italy2 engraving in relief and metal plates--,the ,book in ,germany3 ,cologne1 ,nuremberg1 ,basle--,the ,book in the ,low ,countries--,french schools of ornament of the ,book2 ,books of ,hours2 booksellers at the end of the fifteenth century--,literary taste in titles in ,france at the end of the fifteenth century--,printers and booksellers' marks--,the appearance of the portrait in the ,book--,progress in ,england--,caxton and his followers4 ,considering the influence of printing on the book trade of the fifteenth century1 as referred to in the preceding pages1 the dealers in manuscripts were not disposed to give way at the first blow4 ,an entire class of workmen would find themselves from day to day without employment if the new art succeeded2 these were the copyists1 miserable scribes1 who for meagre remuneration frequented the shops of the merchants1 where they transcribed manuscripts by the year4 ,before printing the publication of books was so effected1 and the booksellers were rather intermediaries between the copyist and the buyer1 than direct dealers having shops and fittings complete4 ,it is evident that they would not provide themselves with these costly books long in advance without being sure of disposing of them4 ,small as was the remuneration of the writers1 it was much to them2 and they were naturally the first to protest against the new invention4 ,at the same time1 their opposition and that of the booksellers was soon overcome1 swamped1 and choked by the growing crowd of printers4 ,then1 as always happens in similar cases1 in place of fighting against the current1 most of the former workers in manuscript followed it4 ,the writers designed letters for engraving in wood1 the booksellers sold the printed works1 and some of the illuminators engraved in relief or cast their histoyres4 ,for a long time these last continued to decorate books with the ornamental drawings with which they had adorned the manuscripts1 and so contributed to form the fine school of illustrators who carried their art to so high a point from the end of the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,imprint of ,arnold ,ther ,hoernen1 printer1 of ,mayence4 ,as previously related1 the revolution of ,mayence caused the flight of a crowd of artisans who found their liberty suddenly compromised by the conqueror4 ,the want of money at this time always brought a diminution of patronage1 and working printers have been at all times tenacious of their privileges4 ,it so happened that their guild1 in place of remaining established at ,mayence many years longer1 was1 as it were1 turned out1 scattered to the four cardinal points by the dispersion of its members1 and scattered many years before the natural time4 ,in point of fact1 in the common order of things1 a workman here and there quits the principal workshop to try the world4 ,he makes his way timidly1 unconscious apostle of a marvellous art4 ,if he succeeds1 he gathers some pupils round him2 if he fails1 no trace of him remains2 in any case invention propagates itself more gradually4 ,with printing it was a thunderclap4 ,hardly had it made its appearance when the exodus commenced4 ,the greater part of the ,mayence men went to ,italy3 to ,subiaco and to ,rome1 ,arnold ,pannartz1 ,conrad ,sweynheim1 ,ulrich ,hahn2 to ,venice1 ,john of ,spire1 ,vendelin of ,spire1 ,christopher ,valdarfer1 ,bernard ,pictor 7of ,augsburg71 ,erhardt ,ratdolt1 ,peter ,loslein2 to ,ferrara1 ,andrew ,belfort2 to ,foligno1 ,john ,neumeister2 ,henry ,alding tried ,sicily2 ,andrew ,vyel1 of ,worms1 printed at ,palermo4 ,lambert ,palmart was at ,valencia1 in ,spain1 in #adgg2 ,nicholas ,spindeler at ,barcelona2 ,peter ,hagenbach at ,toledo2 not far from ,mayence--that is1 at ,cologne--,ulrich ,zell1 a pupil of ,gutenberg1 who dated his first work #adff4 ,it was ,arnold ,ther ,hoernen who numbered a book with ,arabic figures2 it was ,koelhof who first used signatures to indicate to the binder the order of the sheets2 it was at ,eltvil that ,henry ,bechtermuncze1 as we have already said1 printed his ,vocabularium in ,german1 with the types of the ,catholicon2 at ,basle1 ,berthold ,rppel1 of ,hanau1 was the first established in that city which after ,mayence did the most for printing2 at ,nuremberg1 ,koburger1 who took nearly the first rank among his contemporaries1 set as many as twenty-four presses to work1 and was named by ,badius the prince of printers4 ,and how matters went on6 ,for instance1 the very year that followed the death of ,gutenberg1 monks1 the ,brothers of the ,common ,life of ,marienthal1 in the ,rheingau1 themselves published a copy of the indulgences accorded by ,adolph of ,nassau1 ,archbishop of ,mayence4 ,before #adhj1 presses were everywhere in ,germany3 at ,prague1 ,augsburg1 ,ulm1 ,lubeck1 ,essling1 etc4 ,it is to be remarked that the ,mayence men did not turn towards ,holland4 ,is it that they found there the descendants of ,laurent ,coster firmly established in their workshops8 ,must the coexistence1 the simultaneous advance1 of the invention in ,germany and in the ,low ,countries be admitted8 ,it is a secret for us and for many others1 but we know for certain that ,flemish printers were established at ,utrecht in #adgc1 at ,delft1 ,bruges1 ,gouda1 ,zwoll1 ,antwerp1 and ,brussels4 ,at ,louvain there was besides ,john of ,westphalia1 who published in #adgd a work of ,peter ,crescens1 and several other works4 ,colard ,mansion was printing at ,bruges about #adgc2 and was employed by ,william ,caxton1 who had been for some years trading as a merchant in the ,low ,countries1 to print the ,recuyell of the ,histories of ,troy1 by ,raoul ,le ,fevre1 which ,caxton had translated into ,english at the command of ,queen ,margaret4 ,this was issued in #adgd1 and was the first book printed in the ,english language4 ,in #adge or #adgf ,caxton returned to ,england with a fount of types1 which he had employed ,mansion to cut and cast for him1 and established himself as a printer in the precincts of ,westminster ,abbey4 ,in #adgg he produced the first book printed in ,england1 ,the ,dictes and ,sayings of the ,philosophers1 followed by a large number of important works1 many of them written or translated by ,caxton himself4 ,thus was typography firmly established in ,england2 and ,caxton's immediate successors1 ,wynken de ,worde1 ,richard ,pynson1 ,william ,machlinia1 have had a glorious roll of followers1 which has never been broken to this day4 ,from ,westminster the art spread in ,england to ,oxford1 where ,theodoricus ,rood1 from ,cologne1 printed an ,exposicio ,sancti ,jeronimi in #adgh2 and to ,st4 ,albans in #adhj by a printer who has never been identified1 and who produced the famous ,chronicle and ,boke of ,st4 ,albans4 ,the invasion1 we see1 had been most rapid4 ,in less than fifteen years1 every important city had followed the movement1 and was ready to establish printing offices4 ,if we may credit a certain controverted document1 ,charles ,,vii4 had on the #crd of ,october1 #adeh1 sent to ,mayence one of the best medal engravers of the ,mint of ,tours to study the process of which marvels were spoken3 ,the #crd of ,october1 #adeh1 the ,king having learned that ,messire ,guthenberg1 living at ,mayence1 in the country of ,germany1 a dexterous man in carving and making letters with a punch1 had brought to light the invention of printing by punches and types1 desirous of inquiring into such a treasure1 the ,king has commanded the generals of his mints to nominate persons well instructed in the said cutting and to send them secretly to the said place to inform themselves of the said mode and invention1 to understand and learn the art of them1 in order to satisfy the said ,lord ,king2 and it was undertaken by ,nicholas ,jenson1 who took the said journey to bring intelligence of the said art and of the execution of it in the said kingdom1 which first has made known the said art of impression to the said kingdom of ,france 7,bibliothque de l',arsenal1 ,hf #dfg1 pp4 #daj1 #daa74 ,nicholas ,jenson on his return met with a cool reception from ,louis ,,xi41 who did not continue the works of his father4 ,it may be supposed that this coolness was the cause of his expatriating himself and retiring to a place where his industry could be better exercised4 ,ten years after the above mission we find him established at ,venice1 his art of engraver of letters joined to that of printer4 ,his ,eusebius1 translated by ,trapezuntius1 and his ,justinian1 were composed in #adgj with such marvellous and clear types that from that day the best typographers have imitated his founts4 ,in spite of its success1 he did not confine himself to these letters1 but he made use also of ,gothic1 in which he printed by preference pious books4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,imprint of ,nicholas ,jenson to a ,justinian1 printed in #adgj at ,venice4 ,this type has prevailed up to now4 ,in spite of the attempts of ,jenson in the name of the ,king of ,france--that is1 if these attempts ever took place in the manner indicated above--the invention was not known to have commended itself to the powerful university of ,paris4 ,in general1 and especially for the introduction of innovations in that learned body1 it was necessary to fight1 to strike without much chance of success1 save in case of having acquaintance in the place4 ,we have seen ,john ,fust1 obliged suddenly to retake the road to ,germany1 in a fair way to find himself taxed with sorcery1 not an inconsiderable matter4 ,for others the sale of unauthorised books had had most unhappy consequences unless the ,parliament intervened4 ,so ten years had passed since the journey of ,jenson1 and ten or twelve since the first manifestations of typography at ,mayence1 without the diabolical discovery finding admittance to the ,sorbonne4 ,a still more extraordinary thing1 a ,cologne printer issued about #adgb a small folio in ,gothic type1 thirty-one long lines to a page1 which was a work written in ,french4 ,the ,histoires de ,troyes of ,raoul ,le ,fevre1 chaplain of the dukes of ,burgundy1 first found a publisher in ,germany1 and soon after another in ,england1 before a single press was definitely installed at ,paris4 ,as we have said of ,peter ,schoeffer1 numerous ,german students were in the university1 where they pursued their studies1 and frequently remained later as masters4 ,it has been found that in #adeh a former student of ,leipzig named ,john ,heinlein1 a native of ,stein1 in the diocese of ,spire1 entered as regent of the college of ,burgundy1 from whence he passed to the ,sorbonne in #adfb1 the year of the troubles in ,mayence4 ,after the manner of latinising names so common at that time1 he called himself ,lapidanus1 from the name of his native place1 which means ,stone in ,german4 ,heinlein met in ,paris a ,savoyard1 ,william ,fichet1 born in #adcc at ,petit ,bornand1 who became an associate of the ,sorbonne about #adfa1 and finally rector in #adfh4 ,these two men were great friends1 and their particular instincts attracted them to men of elevated studies4 ,they divined at once the enormous help printing would bring to their work4 ,besides1 it grieved them to see through the whole of ,france1 especially in ,touraine1 ,german colporteurs carrying on their trade under cover of other commerce1 a practice from which the most grave inconveniences might result4 ,it occurred to them that to prevent fraud they would themselves create a printing establishment2 but if they deliberated on it1 it must have been in secret1 for the registers of the ,sorbonne are silent on their enterprise4 ,if ,fichet conceived the idea1 it may be believed that1 from his ,german origin1 ,heinlein put it into execution4 ,m4 ,philippe thinks that he was formerly at ,basle4 ,in all probability it was from that city he tried to obtain his workmen4 ,in #adfh six years had elapsed since the craftsmen were dispersed and fled from ,mayence4 ,at all events1 it was from ,basle that ,ulrich ,gering1 ,michael ,freyburger1 and ,martin ,krantz1 printers recommended to the two ,sorbonnists1 departed1 and in due course arrived in ,paris4 ,of these three men1 who were the first to establish a printing office on the ,french side of the ,rhine1 ,ulrich ,gering was a student as well as a printer1 so was ,freyburger1 originally of ,colmar4 ,krantz was a letter-founder1 and the only real workman of the three companions4 ,we have often regretted with regard to these men1 as also to ,gutenberg1 ,fust1 and ,schoeffer1 that no really authentic portrait has transmitted their features to us4 ,every one will recall the fur cap and loose pantaloons of the mediocre statue at ,mayence1 but there is really no portrait of ,gutenberg4 ,as to ,gering1 ,m4 ,philippe1 in his ,histoire de l',origine de l',imprimerie ,paris1 publishes a grotesque figure muffled in the ruff of the sixteenth century1 after a picture preserved at ,lucerne1 but for which much cannot be said4 ,lacaille1 in his ,histoire de l',imprimerie1 gives a full-length portrait of ,gering1 said to be taken from a painting in the ,college ,montagu4 ,the workshop of the three ,germans was set up within the walls of the ,sorbonne--in dibus ,sorbonnicis--in #adfi4 ,there they set to work at once1 their printing establishment consisting simply of a room1 none too light1 a table1 a press1 and formes4 ,krantz doubtless struck the types chosen by the ,sorbonnists1 for there were then in use two sorts of letters3 ,german ,gothic and ,roman4 ,they kept to the ,roman1 as being more round and clear2 and as soon as they obtained matrices and cast their type1 they entered on their task with ardour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,letters of ,gasparin of ,bergamo4 ,first page of the first book printed at ,paris1 in #adgj4 ,the tendencies of ,fichet and ,heinlein were not towards transcendent theology1 but rather towards the literature of the ancients and contemporary rhetorical works4 ,besides1 it may be said1 considering that men are far from perfect1 ,fichet counted on making the authorised presses serve his own purpose4 ,we find him publishing a treatise on rhetoric in quarto in #adga2 meantime he supervised the work confided to his artists4 ,they commenced with a large volume of ,letters of ,gasparin of ,bergamo1 which was set up in quarto with the ,roman type1 the form of which had been accepted4 ,at the end of the work1 the impression of which cost much time--possibly a year--the three printers placed a quatrain in ,latin distichs1 which is at once a statement of identity and a promise for the future4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,colophon in distichs in the ,letters of ,gasparin of ,bergamo1 first book printed at ,paris1 at the office of the ,sorbonne4 ,if we try to apportion to each of the three printers his share in the making of the book1 it may be supposed that the intellectual part of the composition and the correction fell to ,freyburger and ,gering1 while the heavier work of founding1 placing in formes1 and press work fell to ,krantz4 ,this essay1 satisfactory as it appeared1 was far from perfection4 ,the first ,parisian printers had multiplied abbreviations and irregular contractions1 and enormous difficulties and inevitable faults ensued4 ,further1 either they had more than one punch1 or the leaden matrix was deformed1 for the characters frequently differ4 ,at the same time1 we must commend them for having used the and oe1 which were uniformly written e in the manuscripts1 thus giving rise to errors without number4 ,their punctuation was the comma1 semicolon1 and full stop4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,rhetorique of ,fichet1 printed at ,paris in #adga4 ,the marginal ornaments are drawn by hand4 ,fichet and ,heinlein had become the modest librarians of the ,sorbonne1 and this new employment gave them greater facilities for surveillance4 ,the printing office did not remain inactive4 ,it issued successively the ,orthography of ,gasparin of ,bergamo1 the ,letters of ,phalaris1 two books of neas ,sylvius1 the ,conspiracy of ,catiline of ,sallust1 the ,epitome of ,titus ,livius of ,florus1 and finally the ,rhetorics of ,william ,fichet1 which1 if we may credit a letter addressed to ,bessarion1 was finished in #adga4 ,following came the ,letters of ,bessarion1 the ,elegantia ,latin ,lingu of ,valla1 the first folio volume from the ,sorbonne presses2 and others1 thirteen volumes in #adgj-ga and seventeen in #adgb4 ,at the end of #adgb the workshop was somewhat broken up1 ,fichet having left for ,rome and ,heinlein preaching in ,germany4 ,the three printers had shown by their works that they were in earnest2 besides1 they had from the first gratuitously distributed copies among the nobles1 who1 being accustomed to pay highly for manuscripts1 did not fail to note the difference4 ,the associates then resolved to quit the ,sorbonne and create an establishment for themselves2 their patrons being no longer there to sustain them in case of failure1 and in giving up their presses and types it may be judged that they were not without anxiety on that point4 ,their oldest dated book1 the ,manipulus ,curatorum of ,montrochet1 was also the first that they printed in their new quarters1 at the sign of the ,golden ,sun in the ,rue ,st4 ,jacques4 ,they remained united up to the year #adgg1 when ,gering alone printed at the ,golden ,sun1 but he obtained associates1 ,george ,mainyal in #adhj and ,berthold ,rembold in #adid1 who lived with him in the ,rue de la ,sorbonne1 where he established himself on leaving the ,rue ,st4 ,jacques4 ,ulrich ,gering died on the #bcrd of ,august1 #aeaj1 after a half-century of work4 ,the movement inaugurated by the ,sorbonne was promptly followed4 ,german workmen opened their shops nearly everywhere in ,france2 then the ,french themselves scattered4 ,at ,lyons in #adgb a ,frenchman was established1 the same at ,angers1 ,caen1 ,metz1 ,troyes1 ,besanon1 and ,salins4 ,but in the central provinces we find ,henry ,mayer at ,toulouse1 ,john ,neumeister at ,albi2 in the east ,metlinger at ,dijon2 and ,michael ,wensler1 of ,basle1 at ,macon1 among others1 about #adic4 ,we have now arrived at an epoch of greater efforts4 ,the ,lyons printers used ornamental letters1 from which were developed engravings in the ,book4 ,since the block books illustration had been neglected1 as the means were wanting to distribute the plates here and there in the forme2 ,schoeffer still employed initial letters in wood very like vignettes4 ,john ,fust was now dead1 but ,peter ,schoeffer continued to print without intermission4 ,if we search for the precise epoch in which illustration appeared in the history of the ,book1 we shall perhaps have to go back to the time of ,albert ,pfister1 printer of ,bamberg1 who issued in #adfa an edition of the ,fables of ,ulrich ,bohner with a hundred and one figures on wood4 ,this may be said to be the unconscious combination of xylography with typography1 a kind of transformation of old elements to new things without other importance2 art had no place in this adaptation4 ,up to this time ,germany had not1 in its school of painters or miniaturists1 men capable of giving a personal impulse to ornament4 ,in the ,german editions of the block books the influence of ,van ,eyck had made itself felt very sensibly1 and the ,flemish had preserved their supremacy on this point2 on the other hand1 the ,german printers who went to seek their fortune in ,italy fell into the middle of a circle admirably prepared to receive them and to communicate their ideas to them4 ,it is believed that the first book printed in ,italy with woodcuts in the text and with an ascertained date is the work of a ,german established at ,rome1 ,ulrich ,hahn1 in #adfg4 ,an account in the ,annuaire du ,bibliophile1 which1 being without citation of authority1 we quote for what it is worth1 relates that ,ulrich ,hahn was established as a printer at ,vienna about #adfb1 but was driven thence by the publication of a pamphlet against the burgomaster of the city1 and was attracted to ,rome by ,torquemada1 who confided to him the impression of his work the ,meditationes4 ,hahn was an engraver1 as were also most of his confrres at that time--that is1 he cut in relief designs to be intercalated in the text--and ,passavant relates that the designs of the ,meditationes were from compositions of ,fra ,angelico1 who died in #adee4 ,be that as it may1 the book1 the printing of which was finished on ,st4 ,sylvester's ,day1 #adfg1 is the first known with engravings1 and only three copies of it exist3 one at ,vienna1 one at ,nuremberg1 and one in ,lord ,spencer's library2 it is composed in ,gothic type in folio4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,wood engraving of ,matteo ,pasti for ,valturius' ,de ,re ,militari3 ,verona1 #adgb4 ,illustration found a true artist at ,verona1 ,matteo ,pasti1 who furnished designs for a volume on military art by ,valturius1 printed in ,roman characters in folio1 at the expense of ,john of ,verona1 and dedicated to ,sigismond ,pandolfi4 ,pasti's eighty-two figures are simple outlines1 and we here reproduce one of the principal--an archer shooting at a butt4 ,published in #adgb1 the volume of ,valturius followed soon after the ,meditationes1 but the engravings enable us to see how the ,italian process1 consisting mostly of lines without shadows1 differed from the ,dutch and ,german4 ,one thing to be remarked here is the purity of the design1 in spite of the roughness of the engraving2 we see in these figures ,italian art at its height1 despite the somewhat coarse translation of the wood-cutter4 ,at ,venice the ,german inventors had reaped their harvest4 ,at the end of the fifteenth century1 fifty years after the invention of typography1 the printing offices and booksellers' shops were counted by hundreds4 ,it was in this city that for the first time a title with frontispiece carrying indication of the contents1 the place1 the date1 and the name of the printer1 was given to the ,book4 ,we give here this ornamental title1 placed before a ,calendario of ,john de ,monteregio1 printed by ,pictor1 ,loslein1 and ,ratdolt in #adgf1 folio4 ,the ,german ,erhardt ,ratdolt was probably the promoter of these innovations4 ,he soon afterwards published the first geometrical book with figures1 the ,elements of ,euclid1 #adhb1 folio2 in the same year he produced the ,poeticon ,astronomicum of ,hyginus1 previously printed at ,ferrara1 with illustrations on wood of excellent design1 but laboriously and unskilfully engraved4 ,yet the art of the ,book could not remain mediocre in this city1 where the artists were creating marvels4 ,john of ,spire and afterwards ,nicholas ,jenson1 the emigrant from ,france1 of whom we have spoken above1 had created1 after ,italian manuscripts1 that ,roman letter1 the primitive type of which has come down to our time very little retouched4 ,at the death of ,jenson in #adha1 his materials passed into the hands of ,andrew d',asola1 called ,andrea ,torresani1 who did not allow the good traditions of his master to die1 and who produced among others a book bearing signatures1 catchwords1 and paging 7,letters of ,st4 ,jerome1 #adhh74 ,torresani was the father-in-law of ,aldus ,manutius1 who was to be for ever illustrious in the art of printing at ,venice1 and raised his art to the highest perfection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,title-page of the ,calendario1 first ornamental title known4 ,printed in #adgf at ,venice4 ,but if decoration by means of relief blocks found a favourable reception in ,italy and1 above all1 a group of artists capable of carrying it to success1 there were at the same time other experiments conceived in a different way4 ,the discovery of ,maso ,finiguerra gave to the art a new process of reproduction1 and printing presses had now to render possible and practicable the working of engraved plates4 ,in order to make that which follows comprehensible1 we enter into a few technical details1 the whole subject having been so admirably and fully treated by ,,mm4 ,delaborde and ,duplessis4 ,in the engraved wood block1 as in the printing type1 it is a projection in the wood or metal which1 being inked and passed under a press1 leaves on paper its lines in black4 ,naturally then the intercalation of an engraving of this kind in typographical composition is made without difficulty1 and the impression of both is taken at once4 ,on the other hand1 a line engraving is obtained from incised lines on a plate of copper2 that is1 an instrument called a burin traces the lines1 which are filled with greasy ink4 ,these incised lines only are inked4 ,the surface of the plate is cleaned off to avoid smudging4 ,the sheet of paper destined for the impression has then to be made very pliable1 so that at the striking of the press it runs1 so to speak1 to find the ink in the lines and hold it4 ,it is therefore impossible to take a text from relief characters at the same time as an engraved plate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,engraving on metal by ,baccio ,baldini for ,el ,monte ,santo di ,dio1 in #adgg4 ,however1 this kind of reproduction1 which1 contrary to that from wood1 allowed of half-tints or toning down1 attracted in good time the workers at the ,book4 ,it appeared to them possible to reconcile the two printings by the successive passage of the same sheet of paper through the press1 to receive at first the impression from the type and afterwards to find the ink deposited in the incisions in the copper4 ,the first manifestation of this new method of illustration was made at ,florence1 the home of line engraving1 by ,nicholas di ,lorenzo in #adgg1 for the work of ,antonio ,bettini1 of ,siena1 called ,el ,monte ,santo di ,dio4 ,here the artists were never known4 ,common opinion has it that ,baccio ,baldini borrowed from ,sandro ,botticelli the subjects of his plates4 ,italian engraving always seeks its source in ,pollajuolo1 ,botticelli1 and ,baldini4 ,it is not the simple work of a niellist1 but it had not yet reached perfection either in the work or in the impression2 the illustrations of the ,monte ,santo are proof of this1 as are also those of the ,dante1 by ,baldini1 in #adha1 for the same ,nicholas di ,lorenzo4 ,from this we reproduce the ,misers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,metal engraving by ,baccio ,baldini from the ,dante of #adha4 ,at this epoch engravings from the burin were taken with a pale ink1 the composition of which is very different from the fine black ink of ,schoeffer as well as of the old ,italian printers4 ,and besides in most cases the proofs were obtained with the frotton1 like the ancient block books1 an eminently defective process4 ,the press was not yet well adapted to the delicate work of line engraving1 and the workmen1 who did not apply the plates until after the text was printed1 preferred not to risk the loss of their sheets by the use of inappropriate presses4 ,these1 with the insignificant attempts made by the ,germans in #adgi1;,a are the beginnings of the process of line engraving in the ornamentation of the ,book4 ,in fact1 the process failed to take its due position for want of a more convenient mode of working4 ,relief engraving had got ahead2 with it the sheets used for the impression did not require working more than once to register the figures with the text2 in a word1 the labour was not so great4 ,a century had to pass before line engraving completely dethroned the vignette on wood1 a century in which the latter attained its height1 and showed what able artisans could make of a process apparently the least flexible4 ,footnote ,a3 ,breviarium ecclesie ,herbipolensis3 ,et4 ,dold41 #adgi1 folio1 copper plate engravings4 ,not to leave ,italy1 which had the honour of making the book with engraved illustrations known to the world1 we pass by some years1 during which ,arnold ,bucking gave at ,rome a ,cosmographia of ,ptolemy1 #adgh1 with incised plates1 which is the first printed atlas that was produced1 whilst as regards ordinary publications there appeared in all parts classical and ,italian works1 such as ,cicero1 ,virgil1 ,tacitus1 ,pliny1 ,eusebius1 among the ancients1 and ,dante1 ,petrarch1 ,boccaccio1 etc41 among moderns4 ,among the editions of ,dante1 we may cite that of ,peter of ,cremona1 dated #ahth ,november1 #adia1 with one engraving to each canto1 of which the earlier are after ,botticelli1 and perhaps drawn by him directly on the wood4 ,passavant believes these figures to be cut in relief in the metal4 ,on some of the plates there is a signature1 a ,gothic b1 the signification of which leaves a free field for conjecture1 and perhaps for error4 ,copies of this book with the complete series of twenty plates are extremely rare2 one in the ,hamilton ,palace ,library sold in ,may1 #ahhd1 for #chj2 the ,royal ,library of ,berlin recently agreed to pay #a1bjj for a proof set of the plates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,plate from the ,hypnerotomachia ,poliphili1 printed by ,aldus ,manutius1 in #adii4 ,as we shall see later apropos of ,german vignettes of the same period1 the characteristic of ,italian engraving was sobriety1 the complete absence of useless work and the great simplicity of the human figure4 ,this special manner will be found in the famous edition of the ,hypnerotomachia ,poliphili of ,francis ,colonna1 printed in #adii by ,aldus1 copied sixty years later by a ,french printer1 and lately reproduced in reduced size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,plate from ,bonino de ,bonini's ,dante1 at ,brescia1 in #adhg4 ,the ,italian illustrators1 whether they were working in wood1 or1 as some writers have it1 in metal1 adroitly brought their figures forward by contrasting some rudimentary work in the persons with the more accentuated and often stippled ground1 which formed a dark background4 ,this was also the ordinary process in their ornaments1 among the most interesting of which are the borders of the plates to an edition of ,dante by ,bonino de ,bonini1 ,brescia1 #adhg1 of which a specimen is here reproduced4 ,if we return from ,italy1 which then took the lead1 to ,germany1 a school of ,formschneiders is found about the year #adgj at ,augsburg1 whose secluded workshops were of no benefit to the booksellers4 ,these ill-advised artisans went still further4 ,apparently furious to see printing so widely spread as to render their bad woodcuts difficult to get rid of1 they united in a body to interdict ,gunther ,zainer and ,schssler from putting engravings into their books4 ,they must nevertheless have come to an ultimate arrangement1 for ,zainer printed in #adgg a book on chess by ,jacopo da ,cessole1 with vignettes4 ,he was one of the few ,german printers who employed ,roman characters in place of the ,gothic of ,peter ,schoeffer4 ,at ,cologne in #adgd ,arnold ,ther ,hoernen published a work entitled ,fasciculus ,temporum1 with small illustrations engraved on wood4 ,a ,bible without date contains most interesting illustrations4 ,as to the celebrated ,todtentantz1 or ,dance of ,death1 published about #adhe1 it contains forty-one relief plates of the most ordinary kind1 the same as in the ,chronicle of ,cologne of #adii1 of which the figures1 though less ,german1 less distorted1 are worth little compared with those of the ,nuremberg books1 more ,german1 but more artistic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,the creation of woman1 plate from the ,schatzbehalter1 engraved after ,michael ,wolgemuth4 ,at ,nuremberg1 ,antony ,koburger1 called by ,badius the prince of booksellers1 directed an immense establishment1 employing more than a hundred workmen1 without counting smaller houses at ,basle and ,lyons4 ,koburger was a capable and a fortunate man4 ,he had at first put forth a ,bible very indifferently illustrated with the cuts of the ,cologne ,bible1 but he had before him something better than copying others4 ,michael ,wohlgemuth1 born at ,nuremberg in #adcd1 was then in the full vigour of his talent4 ,to his school the young ,albert ,drer came to study2 and as he was able to draw on wood as well as to engrave on copper and paint on panel1 ,koburger was attracted to him1 and engaged him to make a set of illustrations for a book4 ,the projected work was the ,schatzbehalter1 a sort of ascetic compilation1 without interest1 without arrangement4 ,michael ,wohlgemuth set to work2 and1 thanks to the ability of his engravers1 of whom ,william ,pleydenwurff was probably one1 ,koburger was able to put the book on sale in the course of #adia in three hundred and fifty-two folios of two columns4 ,without being perfection1 the designs of ,wohlgemuth1 very ,german1 very striking1 present the vigour and merit of the future school of ,nuremberg4 ,the figure is no longer a simple line1 in the manner of the block books1 but a combination of interlaced cuttings1 intended to imitate colour4 ,those representing the creation of ,eve and the daughter of ,jephthah are here reproduced4 ,in the search for harmony between the text and engravings of this curious work1 we shall find grace and gaiety laid aside1 on the other hand a freedom and boldness that interest and permit us to appreciate at their value the ,nuremberg artists and ,koburger1 the printer4 ,in fact1 the ,german artists are more individual1 each one taken by himself1 than the ,italian illustrators could be1 condemned as they were to the hierarchical commonplace and to a certain form of idealism into which the art of ,italy entered little by little4 ,the ,german painters1 naturalists and believers1 presented their heroes in the image of that robust nature that was before their eyes4 ,it was in this rude and unpolished spirit that ,michael ,wohlgemuth decorated the ,schatzbehalter2 he also composed the designs for the ,nuremberg ,chronicle of ,dr4 ,hartman ,schedel1 printed by ,koburger in #adic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,the daughter of ,jephthah1 plate taken from the ,schatzbehalter1 engraved after ,michael ,wolgemuth4 ,with ,drer1 at the latter end of the fifteenth century1 the ,book was no more than a pretext for engravings4 ,thausing1 his biographer1 says that the great artist felt the necessity of designing an ,apocalypse at ,rome at the time that ,luther was premeditating his religious revolution in face of the worldly splendours of the pontifical court4 ,the ,apocalypse1 published in #aeaa in ,latin1 with ,gothic characters1 was an album of fifteen large wood engravings4 ,the ,four ,horsemen is the best of these plates1 and the boldest2 but in this gross fancy1 in these poor halting old hacks1 the fantastic and grand idea which the artist meant to convey can hardly be seen4 ,it may be said the genius of ,drer was little adapted to vignettes1 however large they were1 and did not easily lend itself to the exigencies of a spun-out subject4 ,the title of his ,apocalypse is of its kind a curious example of ,german genius1 but1 in spite of its vigour1 it does not please like an ,italian headpiece or like a ,french or ,flemish frontispiece4 ,the other works of ,drer published in the fifteenth century1 ,the ,life of the ,virgin and ,the ,passion1 were also sets of prints that received a text in the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,title of the ,apocalypse1 by ,albert ,drer1 printed in #adih4 ,first edition1 without text4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,title of ,sebastian ,brandt's ,ship of ,fools1 printed in #adig at ,basle by ,bergman de ,olpe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,the ,bibliomaniac4 ,engraving from the ,ship of ,fools4 ,for the rest of his illustrations ,drer belongs to the sixteenth century1 and we shall have occasion to recur to his works4 ,at present it remains to speak of a curious work printed at ,basle by ,bergman de ,olpe in #adig1 which appears to be the first comic conception of fifteenth century artists3 the ,navis ,stultifera1 or ,ship of ,fools1 of ,sebastian ,brandt4 ,this work of the school of ,basle lacks neither originality nor vigour4 ,at the time when it was published its success was immense1 from the strange tricks of its clowns1 with fools' caps1 with which every page was adorned4 ,alas6 the best things fall under the satire of these jesters1 even the ,book and the lover of books1 if we may judge by the sarcasms against useless publications volleyed by the personage here reproduced4 ,i have the first place among fools4444 ,i possess heaps of volumes that ,i rarely open4 ,if ,i read them1 ,i forget them1 and ,i am no wiser4 ,brunet sees in these humorous caricatures more art than is really to be found in them4 ,their value is owing more to their spirit and humour than to any other artistic merit4 ,even the engraving is singularly fitted to the subject1 with its peculiar cutting1 somewhat executed in hairlines4 ,the designer was certainly not a ,holbein1 but he is no longer the primitive artisan of the first ,german plates1 and his freedom is not displeasing4 ,we have before spoken1 apropos of engraving by the burin in ,italy1 of the small share of ,germany in the essay at illustration by that means1 and we do not see a real and serious attempt in the two little coats of arms in copper plate in the ,missale ,herbipolense1 printed in #adgi4 ,the ,flemish had not taken any great flights in the midst of this almost ,european movement4 ,the school of ,burgundy1 whose influence was felt in all the surrounding countries1 had lost its authority in consequence of the progress realized at ,mayence4 ,without doubt the great ,flemish artists were there1 but they were honoured painters1 and their inclination did not descend to seeking the booksellers beyond making them offers of service4 ,besides1 the first of these1 officially established in ,flanders1 were two ,germans1 ,john of ,westphalia and ,john ,veldener1 of ,cologne1 who established themselves in the university of ,louvain in #adgc1 three years after the first ,paris printers4 ,john of ,westphalia1 who took his own portrait for his mark1 edited the ,fasciculus ,temporum1 a book which had enormous success in the fifteenth century4 ,at ,haarlem1 in spite of the block books attributed to ,laurent ,coster1 illustration was backward4 ,about #adhe1 a ,dutch translation of the ,malheurs de ,troye of ,le ,fevre was put on sale4 ,this ,french book was published at ,cologne before ,france possessed the smallest typographical workshop4 ,at ,bruges ,colard ,mansion illuminated the cuts of his ,metamorphoses of ,ovid in #adhd4 ,simple engraving appeared to him far remote from manuscripts of which the vogue had not yet passed away4 ,at ,zwoll ,peter van ,os1 the publisher1 cut up and used the xylographic plates of the ,biblia ,pauperum1 while the master la navette1 ,john of ,cologne1 an artist in the best sense of the word1 was ornamenting certain popular publications with his designs4 ,at ,utrecht ,veldener came from ,louvain to establish a workshop4 ,he published for the second time a ,fasciculus in #adhj2 he created a style of decoration with flowers and leaves1 which shortly after developed into the trade of ,rahmenschneiders4 ,antwerp had attracted ,gerard de ,leeu from ,gouda1 and he produced the romance of ,belle ,vienne4 ,schiedam had an inventive engraver who illustrated an edition of the ,chevalier ,delibr of ,oliver de la ,marche1 in folio1 with ,gothic letters1 after #adhc1 as we read in the colophon3-- ,cet traitti fut parfait l'an mil ,quatre cens quatre vings et trois ,ainsi que sur la fin d'avril ,que l'yver est en son exil1 ,et que l'est fait ses explois4 ,au bien soit pris en tous endrois ,de ceulx qui il est offert ,par celui qui ,tant a souffert1 ,la ,marche4 ,the ,french language1 bright and harmonious1 thus found hospitality in other countries4 ,for many examples of ,french books published abroad1 we cannot cite one ,german work printed in ,france4 ,spreading from the north to the south1 typography had from #adij its two principal centres at ,paris and ,lyons4 ,after the success of the three ,germans at the ,sorbonne1 events took their own course4 ,in #adgd ,peter ,csaris and ,john ,stol1 two students who had been instructed by ,gering and ,krantz1 founded the second establishment in ,paris1 at the sign of the ,soufflet ,vert2 and they printed classical works4 ,ten years later appeared ,antony ,vrard1 ,simon ,vostre1 and ,pigouchet1 the first of whom gave to ,french bookselling an impulse that it has not since lost2 but before them ,pasquier-,bonhomme published his ,grandes ,chroniques in #adgf1 three volumes folio1 the oldest in date of books printed at ,paris in ,french4 ,the ,french school of illustration was at its most flourishing point at the end of the fifteenth century1 but solely in miniature and ornamentation by the pencil4 ,the charming figures of the manuscripts had at this time a ,flemish and naturalistic tendency4 ,the most celebrated of the great artists in manuscripts1 ,john ,foucquet1 could not deny the source of his talent nor the influence of the ,van ,eyck school1 yet the touch remained distinctly personal4 ,he had travelled1 and was not confined to the art circles of a single city1 as were so many of the earliest painters of ,flanders4 ,he had gone through ,italy1 and from thence he transported architectural subjects for his curious designs in the ,heures of ,etienne ,chevalier1 now at ,frankfort2 a precious fragment of it is preserved in the ,national ,library of ,paris4 ,side by side with this undoubted master1 whose works are happily known1 lived a more modest artist3 ,john ,perral1 called ,john of ,paris1 painter to ,charles ,,viii41 ,louis ,,xii41 and ,anne of ,brittany4 ,in joining with these two masters1 to serve as a transition between ,foucquet and ,perral1 ,john ,bourdichon1 designer to the kings of ,france from ,louis ,,xi4 to ,francis ,i41 we obtain already a not despicable assemblage of living forces4 ,without doubt these men were not comparable either with the admirable school of ,flanders1 or the ,germans of ,nuremberg1 or the masters of ,italy2 but1 moderate as we may deem their merit1 they did their tasks day by day1 painting miniatures1 colouring coats of arms1 rendering to the kings1 their masters1 all the little duties of devoted servants without conceit1 and preparing1 according to their means1 the great artistic movement in ,france of the seventeenth century4 ,that these men1 leaving the brush for the pencil1 devoted themselves to design figures on wood1 is undeniable4 ,it is said that one of them followed ,charles ,,viii4 to the ,italian wars1 and probably sketched the battles of the campaign as they took place4 ,now in the books published at this epoch in ,france we meet with vignettes which so very nearly approach miniatures1 that we can easily recognise in them ,french taste and finish4 ,such are1 for example1 the illustrations of the ,mer des ,histoires1 printed by ,le ,rouge in #adhh1 where suppleness of design is blended in some parts with extraordinary dexterity in engraving4 ,nevertheless1 others leave something to be desired2 they maim the best subjects by their unskilful line and their awkwardness of handling4 ,were not these engravers on wood printers themselves3 the ,commins1 ,guyot ,marchants1 ,pierre ,lecarrons1 ,jean ,trepperels1 and others8 ,we are tempted to see in certain shapeless work the hasty and light labour of an artisan hurried in its execution4 ,as mentioned above1 the part taken by the booksellers in the making of the plates does not make our supposition in itself appear inadmissible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,mark of ,philip ,pigouchet1 ,french printer and wood engraver of the fifteenth century4 ,printing had been established about twenty years in ,paris when ,philip ,pigouchet1 printer and engraver on wood1 began to exercise his trade for himself or on account of other publishers4 ,formerly bookseller in the ,university1 he transported his presses to the ,rue de la ,harpe1 and took for his mark the curious figure here reproduced4 ,at this moment a veritable merchant1 ,simon ,vostre1 conceived the idea of putting forth ,books of ,hours1 until then disdained in ,france1 and of publishing them in fine editions with figures1 borders1 ornaments1 large separate plates1 and all the resources of typography4 ,the trials made at ,venice and ,naples between #adgc and #adgf warranted the enterprise4 ,entering into partnership with ,pigouchet1 the two were able on the #agth of ,april1 #adhh1 to place on sale the ,heures l',usaige de ,rome1 octavo1 with varied ornaments and figures4 ,the operation having succeeded beyond their hopes1 thanks to the combination of the subjects of the borders1 subjects that could be turned and re-turned in all ways so as to obtain the greatest variety1 ,simon ,vostre reapplied himself to the work1 and ordered new cuts to augment the number of his decorations4 ,passavant's idea is commonly received that the engraving was in relief on metal2 the line in it is very fine1 the background stippled1 and the borders without scratches4 ,wood could not have resisted the force of the press2 the reliefs would have been crushed1 the borders rubbed and broken4 ,in all the successive editions hard work and wear are not remarked1 and we are forced to admit the use of a harder material than the pear or box-wood of ordinary blocks4 ,according to his wants1 ,simon ,vostre designed new series of ornaments4 ,among them were histories of the saints1 ,biblical figures1 even caricatures against ,churchmen1 after the manner of the old sculptors1 who thought that sin was rendered more horrible in the garb of a monk4 ,then there were the ,dance of ,death and sibyls1 allying sacred with profane1 even the trades1 all forming a medley of little figures in the margins1 in the borders1 nestled among acanthus leaves1 distorted men1 fantastic animals1 and saints piously praying4 ,the ,middle ,ages live again in these bright and charming books1 ,french in their style1 imbued with good sense and perfect toleration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,border in four separate blocks in the ,heures l',usaige de ,rome1 by ,pigouchet1 for ,simon ,vostre1 in #adhh4 ,small figures from the ,dance of ,death4 ,the ,book rose under ,simon ,vostre and ,philip ,pigouchet to the culminating point of ornamentation4 ,here design and engraving improve and sustain each other4 ,it is not only the stippled backgrounds of the borders that please the eye4 ,and who was this unknown designer1 this painter of bold conceptions1 whose work is complete in little nothings8 ,however1 the large full-page figures have not always an originality of their own1 nor the ,french touch of the borders4 ,thus that of the ,passion here reproduced is inspired line for line by the ,german1 ,martin ,schongauer4 ,are we to suppose1 that duplicates of blocks passed between ,france and ,germany1 or was a copy made by a ,french designer8 ,it is difficult to say4 ,still the coincidence is not common to all the missals of the great ,parisian bookseller4 ,the ,death of the ,virgin here reproduced is an evident proof of it4 ,it forms part of the #adhh book1 and is a truly ,french work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,plate copied from ,schongauer's ,carrying of the ,cross1 taken from the ,heures of ,simon ,vostre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,the ,death of the ,virgin1 plate taken from the ,heures of ,simon ,vostre1 printed in #adhh4 ,the border is separate4 ,it may be said that from the artistic association of ,philip ,pigouchet and ,simon ,vostre was born the art of illustration of the ,book in ,france2 they worked together for eighteen years1 in steady collaboration1 and1 as far as we know1 without a cloud4 ,at ,vostre's commencement in #adhh he lived in the ,rue ,neuve ,notre ,dame1 at the sign of ,st4 ,jean l',evangeliste2 and in #aebj he was still there1 having published more than three hundred editions of the ,missal1 according to the use of the several cities4 ,contemporary with ,simon ,vostre1 another publisher was giving a singular impulse to the ,book by his extreme energy1 true taste1 and the aid of first-class artists4 ,antony ,verard1 the most illustrious of the old ,french booksellers1 was a writer1 printer1 illuminator1 and dealer4 ,born in the second half of the fifteenth century1 he established himself in ,paris on the ,pont ,notre ,dame1 both sides of which were then covered with shops1 and about #adhe commenced his fine editions with a ,decameron in ,french by ,laurent de ,premierfait4 ,m4 ,renouvier remarks in his notice of ,verard that his first books were not good1 the plates were often unskilful1 and were probably borrowed or bought from others2 this may be very well understood in a beginner whose modest resources did not permit bold enterprises2 the figures were in most cases groundworks for miniatures1 outlines and sketches rather than vignettes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,border of the ,grandes ,heures of ,antony ,verard3 ,paris1 #adih 7874 ,antony ,verard was accustomed to take a certain number of fine copies on vellum or paper of each book published by him1 in which authorised painters added miniatures and ornaments4 ,it is curious now to find what the cost to one of the great lords of the court of ,charles ,,viii4 was of one of these special copies in all the details of its impression1 and we find it in a document published by ,m4 ,senemaud in a provincial journal 7,bulletin de la ,socit ,archologique de la ,charente1 #ahei1 part #b1 p4 #ia71 which enables us at the same time to penetrate into a printing office of a great ,french publisher of the fifteenth century4 ,according to this document1 ,verard did not disdain to put his own hand to the work1 even to carrying the book to the house of his patron if he were a man of consequence4 ,it is an account of ,charles de ,valois-,angoulme1 father of ,francis ,i4 ,he was then living at ,cognac2 and he ordered ,verard to print separately for him on vellum the romance of ,tristan1 the ,book of ,consolation of ,boetius1 the ,ordinaire du ,chrtien1 and ,heures en ,franois1 each with illuminations and binding4 ,in the detail of expenses ,verard omits nothing4 ,he reckons the parchment at three sous four deniers the sheet1 the painted and illuminated figures at one cu the large and five sols the small4 ,we give here the outline of one of the plates of the ,tristan1 ordered by the ,duc d',angoulme1 reduced by two-thirds1 and from it it may be judged that the profession of the illuminator1 even for the time1 was by no means brilliant4 ,the binding was in dark-coloured velvet1 with two clasps with the arms of the ,duke1 which cost sixty sous each4 ,the work finished1 ,verard took the route for ,cognac1 carrying the precious volumes4 ,he was allowed twenty livres for carriage2 and this brings the total to #bjg livres #aj sous1 equivalent to #bjj to #bdj of present money4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,plate from the ,tristan published by ,antony ,verard1 a copy of which was illuminated for ,charles of ,angoulme4 ,verard had preceded ,simon ,vostre in the publication of books of hours1 but his first volume dated #adhg was not successful for the want of borders and frontispieces4 ,at the most he had introduced figures intended for illumination1 which1 as well as the vignettes1 were cut in wood4 ,in #adhh1 the same year that ,simon ,vostre commenced his publications1 ,verard put forth1 by command of the ,king our lord1 the book called the ,grandes ,heures1 which is in quarto1 ,gothic letter1 without paging1 twenty lines to the full page4 ,this ,grandes ,heures contained fourteen engravings1 large borders in four compartments1 smaller subjects and initials rubricated by hand4 ,he also published more than two hundred editions between #adhg and #aeac1 and among them the ,mystre de la ,passion1 with eighty figures2 the ,grandes ,chroniques1 in three folio volumes1 printed by ,john ,maurand2 the ,bataille ,judaque of ,flavius ,josephus2 the ,legende ,dore of ,voragine1 all books for which he called to his aid rubricators1 illuminators1 and miniaturists4 ,from the first he had two shops where he put his productions on sale3 one on the ,pont ,notre ,dame1 the other at the ,palace of ,justice1 au premier pilier devant la chapelle o l'on chante la messe de messeigneurs les prsidents4 ,from #adii1 when the ,pont ,notre ,dame was burned1 ,verard transported his books to the ,carrefour ,st4 ,severin4 ,at his death in #aeac he was living in the ,rue ,neuve ,notre ,dame1 devant ,nostre-,dame de ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--,page of the ,grandes ,heures of ,antony ,verard3 ,paris1 fifteenth century4 ,besides ,verard1 ,vostre1 and ,pigouchet1 many others will be found who imitated them in the publication of books of hours4 ,the first was ,john du ,pr1 who published a ,paris missal in #adha1 and who was at once printer and bookseller4 ,like ,pigouchet1 ,du ,pr printed books of hours on account of provincial publishers1 without dreaming of the competition he was creating for himself4 ,the encroachments of the publishers upon one another1 the friendly exchanges1 the loans of plates and type1 form one of the most curious parts of the study of the ,book4 ,thielman ,kerver1 a ,german1 also began to put forth books of hours in #adig in ,paris1 ornamenting them with borders and figures on wood1 and modelling his work completely upon that of ,simon ,vostre4 ,but after having imitated him1 he was associated with him in the publication and sale of the ,paris ,missal2 the competition of these men was evidently an honest one1 or the sale of pious works was sufficient to maintain all engaged in it4 ,established on the ,pont ,st4 ,michel1 at the sign of the ,unicorn1 he sold his stock to ,gilles ,remacle about the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,thielman ,kerver in his own works shows himself as the rival of ,simon ,vostre4 ,the ,hardouins1 who followed the same profession1 do not appear to have attained the success of their predecessors2 and1 excepting in the ,heures l',usage de ,rome1 published in #aejc by ,gilles ,hardouin on the ,pont au ,change1 at the sign of the ,rose1 they servilely imitated them4 ,there was also among the disciples of ,vostre ,william ,eustache1 bookseller to the ,king1 tenant la boutique dedans la grant salle du palais du cost de messeigneurs les prsidens1 ou sur les grans degrs du cost de la conciergerie l'ymage ,st4 ,jean levangeliste4 ,eustache made use of the work of ,pigouchet and ,kerver1 not to mention the printers of the end of the fifteenth century4 ,we have named the principal1 the fortunate ones2 but what becomes of the crowd of other publishers whose hopes vanished before the success of ,vostre and ,verard8 ,there were ,denis ,meslier1 with his quarto ,heures de ,bourges1 and ,vincent ,commin1 bookseller of the ,rue ,neuve ,notre ,dame1 who thus appealed to his customers3-- ,qui veult en avoir8 ,on en treuve ,a tres grand march et bon pris ,a la ,rose1 dans la rue ,neuve ,de ,nostre-,dame de ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,plate from a book of hours of ,simon ,vostre1 representing the massacre of the ,innocents4 ,there were also ,robin ,chaillot1 ,laurent ,philippe1 and a hundred others whose names have died with them or are only preserved on the torn pages of their works4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,dance of ,death1 said to be by ,verard4 ,the ,pope and the ,emperor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,dance of ,death of ,guyot ,marchant in #adhf4 ,the ,pope and the ,emperor4 ,but if books of this kind found vogue and a large sale at this epoch1 the dealers did not keep to pious publications only4 ,by a singular mixture of the sacred and the profane1 the bookmen put on sale on their stalls the ,decameron of ,boccaccio as well as the ,hours of the ,immaculate ,virgin1 and the purchasers thought fit to make the acquaintance of the one as well as the other4 ,besides1 the end of the fifteenth century had its literary preferences1 its alluring titles1 its attractive frontispieces4 ,at the commencement of the present century double titles--,atala2 or1 ,the ,child of ,mystery2 ,waverley2 or1 ,sixty ,years ,since--were common1 although now out of fashion4 ,since then came books of travels--,voyages au ,pays des ,milliards1 etc4 ,in the fifteenth century1 and even since the fourteenth1 a series of titles was in public favour4 ,there was first the ,dbats1 or ,dialogues3 ,dbat de la ,dame et de l',escuyer1 ,paris1 #adij1 folio2 ,dialogue of ,dives and ,pauper1 ,london1 ,richard ,pynson1 #adic2 and many other eccentric titles4 ,there came also thousands of complaintes1 a kind of lay in verse or prose2 blasons1 light pieces describing this or that thing2 doctrinals1 that had nothing to do with doctrine4 ,and among the most approved subjects1 between the piety of some and the gaiety of others1 the ,dances of ,death established themselves firmly1 showing1 according to the hierarchy of classes then prevalent1 ,death taking the great ones of the earth1 torturing equally pope1 emperor1 constable1 or minstrel1 grimacing before youth1 majesty1 and love4 ,long before printing appeared1 the ,dances of ,death took the lead2 they were some consolation for the wretched against their powerful masters1 the revenge of the rabble against the king2 they may be seen painted1 sculptured1 illuminated1 when engraving was not there to multiply their use2 they may be seen largely displayed on walls1 sombre1 frightful1 at ,dresden1 ,leipzig1 ,erfurt1 ,berne1 ,lucerne1 ,rouen1 ,amiens1 and ,chaise-,dieu4 ,it was the great human equality1 attempted first by the ,french1 then by the inimitable ,holbein4 ,we can imagine the impression these bitter ironies made on the oppressed and disdained lower classes4 ,the first ,dance of ,death was produced by ,guyot ,marchant in #adhe1 in ten leaves and seventeen engravings1 in folio1 with ,gothic characters4 ,marchant describes himself as demeurant en ,champ ,gaillart ,paris le vingt-huitiesme jour de septembre mil quatre cent quatre-vingtz et cinq4 ,the book must have gone off rapidly1 for it was republished in the following year1 with additions and new engravings4 ,french illustration was already moving forward1 as may be judged by the reproductions here given from the folio edition of #adhf4 ,pope and emperor1 glory and power1 are led and plagued by ,death1 hideous ,death1 with open body and frightful grin4 ,we could wish that the tendencies and processes of what may be called the second generation of printers were well understood4 ,in a few years they surmounted the difficulties of their art1 and made the ,book a model of elegance and simplicity4 ,the smallest details were cared for1 and things apparently the most insignificant were studied and rendered practical4 ,speaking of titles1 an enormous progress was here made in the publications of the end of the century4 ,in ,italy the subjects of decoration ordinarily formed a framework for the front page1 wherein were included useful indications4 ,the most ancient specimen of this kind has already been referred to4 ,a model of this species is the ,st4 ,jerome1 published at ,ferrara by ,lorenzo ,rossi1 of ,valenza1 in #adig1 folio2 the title1 much adorned1 is in ,gothic letters2 the engraved initial is very adroitly left in outline1 so as not to burden or break the text4 ,in ,germany there was already the appearance of bad taste and prodigality1 the letters crossing each other1 the ,gothic type covered with bizarre appendices1 the titles intricate2 later they became illegible even for the ,germans4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,typographical mark of ,thielman ,kerver4 ,in ,france the first page gave the most circumstantial indications of the contents of the work1 the name and abode of the printer and bookseller4 ,often these titles were ornamented with movable frameworks1 printed in ,gothic1 sometimes in two colours1 which necessitated two printings1 one for the black and one for the red ink4 ,the mark of the printer or publisher generally appeared1 and it was nearly always a charming work4 ,these ,french marks were all more or less treated heraldically2 that is to say1 the initials occupy a shield1 sustained by supporters and cut with extreme care4 ,the first was that of ,fust and ,schoeffer at ,mayence1 of admirable simplicity and grace4 ,in ,france this early specimen of the trade mark took with ,simon ,vostre and ,verard the shape of delicate illustrations1 finely designed and carefully engraved2 but the custom of allusive marks did not prevail1 as we shall have occasion to see1 until the sixteenth century4 ,the mark of ,pigouchet has already been given2 that of ,thielman ,kerver is conceived in the same principles of taste and art4 ,the sign of his house being the ,unicorn1 ,kerver took as supporters to his shield two unicorns affrontes4 ,in these colophons are found philosophic aphorisms1 satirical remarks1 marvels of poetry4 ,a certain bookseller paid court to the powerful university1 which dispensed glory and riches to the poor tradesmen by buying many books4 ,andrew ,bocard engraved on his mark this flattery as a border3-- ,honneur au ,roy et la court1 ,salut l'universit ,dont nostre bien procde et sourt4 ,dieu gart de ,paris la cit6 ,the ,germans introduced into their colophons some vainglorious notices4 ,arnold ,ther ,hoernen1 already mentioned1 who printed the ,theutonista at ,cologne in #adgg1 boasted in it of having corrected it all with his own hands4 ,jean ,treschel1 established at ,lyons in #adic1 proclaims himself a ,german1 because the ,germans were the inventors of an art that he himself possessed to an eminent degree4 ,he prided himself on being what we may call a skilled typographer2 virum hujus artis solertissimum1 he writes without false modesty4 ,at times1 in the colophons of his books1 he attempted ,latin verse1 the ,sapphic verse of ,horace1 of a playful turn1 to say that his work was perfected in #adid4 ,arte et expensis vigilique cura ,treschel explevit opus hoc ,joannes1 ,mille quingentos ubi ,christus annos ,sex minus egit4 ,jamque ,lugduni juvenes1 senesque1 ,martias nonas celebres agebant ,magna ,regin quia prepotenti ,festa parabant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--;,frontispiece to ,terence1 published by ,treschel at ,lyons in #adic4 ,the author writing his book4 ,the portrait is another element of illustration1 the figure of the author prefixed to his work4 ,it had already been a custom in the manuscripts to paint on the first leaf of the work the likeness of him who composed it1 frequently in the act of presenting his book to some noble patron2 and in this way is often preserved the only known portrait of either patron or author4 ,printing and engraving rendered these effigies more common1 the portraits of one often served for another1 and the booksellers used them without very much scruple4 ,as we shall see later1 this became in the sixteenth century a means of illustrating a book plainly1 but only at the time when the portrait1 drawn or painted1 commenced to be more widely used4 ,previously the clichs of which we speak went everywhere1 from the ,italians to the ,french1 from sop to ,accursius2 these uncertain physiognomies began with the manuscript romances of chivalry1 from whence they were servilely copied in typography4 ,from the first the ,italians mixed the ancient and the modern4 ,thus in a ,breviarium1 printed in #adgh1 there is an engraved portrait of ,paul ,florentin4 ,on the same principle1 the portrait of ,burchiello1 an early ,italian poet1 was later reproduced in ,england as a likeness of ,william ,caxton4 ,in ,france the author is often represented writing1 and it was so up to the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,in an edition of ,des ,cas des ,nobles ,hommes1 by ,jean ,dupr1 in #adhc1 ,boccaccio is represented seated1 having before him his ,french translator1 ,laurent de ,premierfait4 ,this plate is one of the oldest representations of authors in ,french books4 ,in the ,roman de la ,rose1 first edition of ,paris and ,lyons1 in folio1 probably published by ,william ,leroy about #adhe1 ,william de ,lorris1 the author1 is shown in his bed3-- ,une nuyt comme je songeoye1 ,et de fait dormir me convient1 ,en dormant un songe m'advint4444 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,woodcut from ,caxton's ,game and ,playe of the ,chesse4 ,there is also a portrait of ,alain ,chartier in his ,faits1 printed in #adhi4 ,in the ,terence of ,treschel1 of ,lyons1 in #adic1 we see a grammarian of the fifteenth century in a furnished room of the time occupied in writing at a desk2 this is ,guy ,jouvenal1 of ,mans1 the author of the commentary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,the ,knight1 a woodcut from ,caxton's ,game and ,playe of the ,chesse4 ,while this good work was progressing so nobly in ,france1 ,italy1 and ,germany1 the typographers of ,england were by no means idle1 although the illustration of the ,book in the fifteenth century was not there so forward4 ,william ,caxton had produced over sixty works1 the colophons of many of them revealing much of the personal life and character of the first ,english printer4 ,some of them were ornamented with woodcuts2 we reproduce two from the ,game and ,playe of the ,chesse1 printed in folio1 about #adgf4 ,the first represents a king and another person playing at chess2 the smaller cut is a representation of the knight1 who is thus described in ,caxton's own words3 ,the knyght ought to be maad al armed upon an hors in suche wise that he have an helme on his heed and a spere in his right hond1 and coverid with his shelde1 a swerde and a mace on his left syde1 clad with an halberke and plates tofore his breste1 legge harnoys on his legges1 spores on his heelis1 on hys handes hys gauntelettes1 hys hors wel broken and taught1 and apte to bataylle1 and coveryd with hys armes4 ,the other ,caxton block which we reproduce is a representation of music from the ,mirrour of the ,world1 a thin folio volume of one hundred leaves printed in #adha1 with thirty-eight woodcuts4 ,these specimens will serve to show the rudimentary character of ,english wood engraving in the fifteenth century4 ,no authentic portrait of ,caxton is known1 and the one that is generally accepted is really a portrait of an ,italian poet1 ,burchiello1 taken from an octavo edition of his work on ,tuscan poetry1 printed #aeed2 this was copied by ,faithorne for ,sir ,hans ,sloane as the portrait of ,caxton1 and was reproduced by ,ames in his ,typographical ,antiquities1 #agdi4 ,lewis prefixed the portrait here given to his ,life of ,mayster ,willyam ,caxton1 #agcg1 which is a copy of ,faithorne's drawing with some alterations4 ,john ,lettou and ,william ,machlinia issued various statutes and other legal works4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,music1 a woodcut from ,caxton's ,mirrour of the ,world4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,william ,caxton1 from ,rev4 ,j4 ,lewis' ,life4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,mark of ,wynken de ,worde4 ,wynken de ,worde continued printing up to #aecd1 and issued over four hundred works4 ,he used no less than nine different marks1 all of them bearing ,caxton's initials1 evidencing the regard of the pupil for his master2 the mark which we reproduce is one of rare occurrence4 ,richard ,pynson began in #adic1 and continued well into the sixteenth century1 and was one of the first of the privileged printers1 authorised to issue the legal and parliamentary publications4 ,one of the marks used by him is here reproduced4 ,julian ,notary began in #adih4 ,the only style of illustration used by any of these early printers was the woodcut1 and of this there was very little beyond the title-page and printer's mark4 ,the artistic form of the ,book originated on the ,continent1 but ,england was not slow to adopt it and fashion it to her own ends4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--,mark of ,richard ,pynson4 ,thus was printing spread abroad1 carrying with it to the countries where it was established the rules of an unchangeable principle2 but1 according to its surroundings1 it was so transformed in a few years that its origin was no longer recognised4 ,it was light in ,italy1 heavy in ,germany1 gay in ,france4 ,painting1 of which it was accidentally the issue1 returned to it under the form of illustration a short time after its first and fruitful essays4 ,the ,gothic character1 generally used in ,germany1 continued in ,france with the ,vostres1 the ,verards1 and others up to the middle of the sixteenth century1 although the first artisans before this used ,roman type2 it was also the prevailing type used in ,english books4 ,in ,italy it was ,jenson1 a ,frenchman1 who gave to the matrix the alphabet preserved to the present time2 and it was the ,venetians and ,florentines who learned before all others the art of judicious ornamentation of the ,book4 ,the ,french came very near perfection1 thanks to their printers and booksellers1 at the end of the century2 and the ,germans found illustrious artists to scatter their compositions in their large1 heavy works4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iii4 #aejj ,,to #afjj4 ,french epics and the ,renaissance--,venice and ,aldus ,manutius--,italian illustrators--,the ,germans3 ,theuerdanck1 ,schufelein--,the ,book in other countries--,french books at the beginning of the century1 before the accession of ,francis ,i4--,geoffroy ,tory and his works--,francis ,i4 and the ,book--,robert ,estienne--,lyons a centre of bookselling2 ,holbein's ,dances of ,death--,school of ,basle--,alciati's emblems and the illustrated books of the middle of the century--,the school of ,fontainebleau and its influence--,solomon ,bernard--,cornelis de la ,haye and the ,promptuaire--,john ,cousin--,copper plate engraving and metal plates--,woriot--,the portrait in the ,book of the sixteenth century--,how a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the century--,influence of ,plantin on the ,book2 his school of engravers--,general considerations--,progress in ,england--,coverdale's ,bible--,english printers and their work--,engraved plates in ,english books ,our simple division into chapters will be understood without difficulty as not corresponding exactly with the most momentous epochs in the history of the ,book in ,france and abroad4 ,doubtless it would be easy for ,france alone to find some limits and to furnish scholastic formul by which contemporary publishers might be grouped4 ,but in order to present1 as in a synoptical table1 an essential and abridged sketch of the ,book in all ,european countries1 it appeared to us more convenient to begin with the confused and tangled notions by centuries and to unfold in our review the characteristic facts of each country conjointly4 ,moreover1 after the sixteenth century neither ,italy nor ,germany could compare with ,france1 which1 less fortunate1 perhaps1 at the beginning than her neighbours1 surpassed them in all the pride of her genius4 ,the commencement of the sixteenth century found the ,french army in ,italy1 under the command of ,louis ,,xii4 ,marching from glory to glory1 the ,french successively saw ,pisa1 ,capua1 and ,naples1 and that which has since been called the ,renaissance displayed itself little by little to the conquerors4 ,at ,venice was living ,aldus ,pius ,manutius1 then the greatest printer of the entire world4 ,aldus was proprietor of the celebrated printing office of ,nicholas ,jenson1 through his father-in-law1 ,andrea ,torresani1 of ,asola1 who acquired it on the death of the ,french printer2 and he had in a few years reached a position in which he was without a rival4 ,we have seen that he composed1 at the end of the fifteenth century1 the admirable volume ,hypnerotomachia1 the renown of which became universal4 ,aldus was fifty-two years of age1 having been born in #addg2 and his learning was increased by daily intercourse with learned ,italians1 among them the celebrated ,pico de la ,mirandola4 ,his establishment at ,venice in #adhh had for its object the creation of a chair in ,greek1 in which language he was well instructed from his youth4 ,occupied with the idea of issuing editions of the principal ,greek writers1 which up to then remained in manuscript1 he engaged himself in the formation of a printing office4 ,he first published the ,herone et ,leandro of ,musus in #adid1 quarto1 in a ,greek character apparently designed by him1 and perhaps engraved by ,francisco da ,bologna2 then the ,greek grammar of ,constantine ,lascaris1 with the date of #adid2 and the works of ,aristotle in five folio volumes4 ,at the time of the ,italian wars ,aldus was making a revolution in typography1 by producing more practical sizes and finer characters1 which would permit a volume of the smallest height to contain the matter of a folio printed with large type4 ,legend says that the new letters were copied exactly from the handwriting of ,petrarch1 inclining like all cursive writing2 the name of ,italic was given to this character1 which was also called ,aldine1 from its inventor4 ,it was engraved by ,francisco da ,bologna4 ,aldus published in octavo size1 with this kind of letter1 an edition of ,virgil in #aeja1 then a ,horace1 a ,juvenal1 a ,martial1 and a ,petrarch in the same year4 ,the following year1 #aejb1 he gave an edition of the ,terze ,rime of ,dante1 and for the first time took as his typographical mark an anchor encircled by a dolphin4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,tory in his ,champfleury explains thus the mark of ,aldus and his device1 which was in ,greek the ,make haste slowly of ,boileau3 ,the anchor signifies tardiness1 and the dolphin haste1 which is to say that in his business he was moderate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--,the anchor and dolphin1 mark of ,aldus ,manutius1 after the original in the ,terze ,rime of #aejb1 where it appears for the first time4 ,his marriage with the daughter of ,andrea ,torresani1 of ,asola1 brought together into his possession two printing houses4 ,the burden became too heavy for ,manutius to think henceforth of publishing by himself4 ,besides1 the wars did not allow him any repose1 of which he bitterly complained in his prefaces4 ,he attracted learned ,greek scholars1 who supervised1 each one in his specialty1 the works in progress1 and founded a society1 an ,aldine academy1 in which the greatest names of the epoch were united4 ,aldus conveys the perfect idea of a great printer of those times1 doing honour to celebrated men1 in spite of business preoccupations and of the annoyance caused by the war4 ,it is said that ,erasmus1 passing through ,venice1 called on him1 and not making himself known1 was badly received by the powerful printer4 ,all at once1 at the name of the distinguished visitor1 ,aldus1 overwhelmed for an instant1 rose in great haste and showed him how highly he appreciated men of letters4 ,the war finished by ruining this state of affairs4 ,in #aeje ,aldus quitted ,venice to travel1 and on his return found it poorer than when he went away4 ,andrea d',asola1 his father-in-law1 came to his aid2 but the great printer had received his death-blow2 and in spite of the activity which he brought to the new establishment1 he further declined until #aeae1 when he expired1 leaving an inextricable confusion to his son ,paul4 ,he had early abandoned illustration for the scientific and useful in his publications2 besides1 the size of book chosen by him did not admit of plates2 but other publishers employed artists in the ornamentation of the ,book4 ,lucantonio ,giunta1 the most celebrated among them1 was printer and engraver1 a striking example of the affinity of the two trades from their origin4 ,in #aejh ,lucantonio ,zonta1 as he then spelt his name1 published a ,roman breviary in large quarto1 with twelve engravings in the ,lombardo-,venetian manner1 signed ,l4 ,a41 in very good style4 ,the same artist-publisher cut a portrait of ,virgil for an edition of that poet about #aeae4 ,furthermore1 ,giunta did not alone illustrate the book from his own office4 ,other designers lent him their assistance4 ,we find evidence of this in the ,bible printed by him in #aeai in small octavo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,mark of ,lucantonio ,giunta1 of ,venice4 ,the most meritorious of the artists of ,venice at this time was ,john ,andrea1 known as ,guadagnino4 ,he designed the vignettes for ,florus's epitome of ,livy1 printed at ,venice for ,melchior ,sessa and ,peter of ,ravenna 7#aebj1 folio72 in #aeaf he copied the plates of ,drer's ,apocalypse for that of ,alexander ,paganini1 of ,venice4 ,a ,venetian work which signalised the beginning of the sixteenth century was the ,trionfo di ,fortuna of ,sigismond ,fanti1 of ,ferrara1 printed by ,agostino da ,portese in #aebg4 ,venice was the home of ,titian1 and at the present time the great artist was at the height of his glory4 ,in #aeah two brothers1 ,nicholas and ,dominic dal ,ges1 published a translation of the celebrated ,golden ,legend of ,voragine4 ,the plates which were added to the work were manifestly inspired by the school of the ,venetian master4 ,unhappily the engravers have not always equalled the genius of the drawings4 ,to resume1 the city of ,venice was1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 one of the most prolific in publishers and artists of talent4 ,since the first establishments of the ,germans1 typography had successively employed in ,venice ,nicholas ,jenson1 a ,frenchman1 inventor of the ,roman character2 ,erhard ,ratdolt1 the first to employ illustration there2 and ,aldus ,manutius1 scholar and printer1 whose progress in printing elevated that art to the highest rank among human discoveries2 there were also remarkable engravers and draughtsmen1 among others ,guadagnino and ,giunta1 besides the anonymous masters of the school of ,titian4 ,the part of ,venice in the movement1 then1 was great1 but it may be explained by the riches of its citizens1 the extent of its commerce1 and the genius it possessed4 ,if we now return from ,venice to the north1 to ,milan1 the school of ,leonardo da ,vinci will make itself apparent in the ,book4 ,in order of date we will mention the ,mysterii ,gesta ,beat ,veronic ,virginis1 published by ,gotardo de ,ponte #aeah1 small quarto1 with figures in the style of ,luini1 and ,vitruvius in ,italian by ,cesariano4 ,on the testimony of the author1 the wood engravings in a book of ,fra ,luca ,pacioli1 ,de ,divina ,proportione1 are attributed to ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,m4 ,delaborde does not believe this1 but ,m4 ,passavant does4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,title of the ,theuerdanck4 ,the flourishes of the letters are printed4 ,in ,germany1 ,nuremberg continued1 with ,albert ,drer and the artists of his school1 to furnish book illustrations at the beginning of the century4 ,the master reprinted his valuable engravings of the ,life of the ,virgin in #aeaa1 and also the ,apocalypse4 ,but after him the art commenced to decline2 a hundred years later nothing remained of the honour and glory gained by ,germany in the commencement4 ,among the most interesting of the ,nuremberg publications is a chivalric poem by ,melchior ,pfinzfing1 composed for the marriage of ,maximilian and ,mary of ,burgundy4 ,as ,m4 ,delaborde in his ,dbuts de ,i',imprimerie well remarks1 this is not a book destined for sale by a bookseller2 it is a work of art destined by an emperor for his friends1 and he saw that it was an unapproachable work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,plate taken from the ,theuerdanck1 representing ,maximilian and ,mary of ,burgundy4 ,engraved on wood after ,schufelein4 ,bold strokes1 majestic letters1 intertwined ornaments1 are here multiplied4 ,three persons worked upon it for five years2 these were1 ,peutinger says1 ,hans ,leonard ,schufelein1 the painter1 ,jost ,necker1 the engraver1 and ,schnsperger1 the printer of ,augsburg1 who quitted his native city for ,nuremberg4 ,when they were able to take a proof1 craftsmen were unwilling to believe it to be a book composed in movable characters2 they were sure1 on the contrary1 that it was a true xylograph1 cut in wood2 and1 in fact1 from the title here reproduced1 the error was excusable4 ,this work1 which is now called the ,theuerdanck1 from the name of the hero of the romance1 is ornamented with a number of wood engravings1 numbered by ,arabic figures4 ,we reproduce one of the last plates1 in which ,theuerdanck--,maximilian--is introduced to the ,queen--,mary of ,burgundy4 ,the designs of ,schufelein recall very nearly the work of ,albert ,drer1 his master2 but1 as we said of him1 these works1 heavy and dull1 although very clever1 do not always suit as vignettes4 ,again1 our criticism does not extend so much to the ,theuerdanck1 whose letters1 excessively ornamented and much flattened1 furnish a framework more suitable for the engravings than would a more slender character1 which would be completely overshadowed by the ,german plate4 ,when we have mentioned the ,passional ,christi of ,lucas ,cranach1 published by ,j4 ,grnenberg at ,wittemberg in #aeba--twenty-six mediocre wood engravings--we shall have cited the most important of the interesting and rare volumes published in ,germany at the commencement of the sixteenth century4 ,the ,netherlands1 ,spain1 and ,england were working1 but without great success4 ,in the ,low ,countries ,plantin and his gigantic enterprises may be recalled4 ,in ,spain the taste had not yet developed itself2 and although the drawing of illustrations may be careful enough1 the wood-cutting is pitiable4 ,we will mention the ,seneca of ,toledo in #aeaj1 and the ,chronicle of ,aragon in #aebc4 ,of ,england we will speak later4 ,in ,france1 on the contrary1 we find an enormous commerce in books at the commencement of the sixteenth century4 ,all the publishers mentioned in the preceding chapter were still living1 and they were feeling the effects of the ,french conquests in ,italy4 ,the dithyrambic literature then inaugurated1 and which had its origin under ,louis ,,xii41 exercised a bad influence equally upon the printers and decorators of the ,book4 ,doubtless the composition of the text and engravings was done hastily1 for the great people did not like to wait for this kind of history4 ,le ,vergier d',honneur1 written by ,octavian de ,st4 ,gelais and ,andry de la ,vigne1 was thus published about the end of the fifteenth century and ornamented with hasty vignettes1 probably at the expense of ,antoine ,verard4 ,upon the accession to the throne of ,louis ,,xii41 ,claude de ,seyssel1 his master of council1 composed ,les ,louenges du ,roy ,louis ,,xii41 and soon after translated it from ,latin into ,french for the same ,verard1 who printed it in #aejh4 ,the taste for historical works induced the publishers to produce ,la ,mer des ,histoires1 which had already been published in the fifteenth century2 ,thielman ,kerver put forth the ,compendium of ,robert ,gaguin in #aejj on account of ,durand ,gerlier and ,john ,petit4 ,the ,french version of this work was given in #aead by ,galliot du ,pr1 with vignettes1 and afterwards under the name of ,mirouer ,historial1 by ,renaud ,chaudire in #aebj1 by ,nyverd1 and others2 the same with the ,rozier ,historial1 with figures1 in #aebb and #aebh4 ,among the most popular works was the ,illustrations de la ,gaule et ,singularitez de ,troye1 by ,john le ,maire de ,belges1 printed in ,paris and ornamented4 ,in #aeab it was published by ,geoffroy de ,marnef1 in #aeae by ,john and ,gilbert de ,marnef1 by ,regnault1 by ,philip le ,noir1 and others1 always in the ,gothic characters which prevailed in ,france at the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,we give from the curious book of ,john le ,maire an interesting woodcut representing ,queen ,anne of ,brittany as ,juno1 in which we can without much difficulty see a remarkable sketch by a ,bourdichon or a ,perral4 ,the truly ,french style of this figure leaves no doubt as to its origin4 ,at the same time1 it may possibly have been inspired by the ,virgin of a ,german master1 say one of #adff1 judging from the accessories1 and even from the pose4 ,this engraving will be found in the edition of #aeab of ,gilbert de ,marnef1 in ,gothic letter1 quarto4 ,on the reverse are the arms and device of ,john le ,maire de ,belges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--,vignette taken from the ,illustrations de la ,gaule et ,singularitez de ,troye4 ,queen ,anne of ,brittany as ,juno4 ,the time that elapsed from the death of ,louis ,,xi4 until the accession of ,francis ,i4--that is to say1 from #adhc to #aeae--was1 to employ an old expression1 the golden age of ,french printing and illustration4 ,under ,charles ,,viii4 and ,louis ,,xii4 the designers on wood were not yet affected by the neighbouring schools2 neither the accentuated ,italian influence nor the ,german processes had reached them2 they did in their own way that which came to them1 and they did it in their own fashion and habit1 without foreign influence4 ,further1 the kings did not ignore them1 and ,louis ,,xii4 preserved to the printers of the university all their rights and privileges in a magniloquent ordinance1 in which the art of typography was extolled in the highest terms4 ,it restores to them all the advantages that they had lost4 ,it recites1 ,in consideration of the great benefit that has come to our kingdom by means of the art and science of printing1 the invention of which seems more ,divine than human1 which1 thanks to ,god1 has been invented and found in our time by the help and industry of booksellers1 by which our holy ,catholic faith has been greatly augmented and strengthened1 justice better understood and administered1 and ,divine service more honourably and diligently made1 said1 and celebrated1 444 by means of which our kingdom precedes all others1 etc41 etc4 7,blois1 #ith ,april1 #aeac74 ,certainly ,louis made the best of himself and his kingdom in this preamble1 but it must be recognised that ,france already held a predominant rank in the new industry1 and that beyond the ,italians she had no fear of serious rivalry4 ,the school of ornamentists made constant progress4 ,before the books of hours1 the booksellers contented themselves with miserable blocks1 placed side by side1 forming a framework of good and bad together2 but after ,simon ,vostre1 ,verard1 and the others they were singularly refined4 ,the borders1 at least in the books of hours1 had become the principal part of the book2 they had in them flowers1 architectural1 complicated1 and simple subjects1 all of perfect taste and extreme elegance2 and1 as we have observed in the representation of ,anne of ,brittany in the ,illustrations de la ,gaule1 the figure subjects were no longer mechanical1 commonplace1 and tiresome blocks1 but1 on the contrary1 more often works specially designed and engraved by artists of merit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,title of the ,entree d',elonore d',autriche a ,paris1 by ,guillaume ,bochetel4 ,printed by ,geoffroy ,tory in ,may1 #aeca1 quarto4 ,geoffroy ,tory1 born at ,bourges in #adhj1 continued after ,vostre and ,verard the onward march of illustration of the ,book4 ,he was a sort of encyclopdist1 who knew and foresaw everything1 but with a singularly subtler and finer genius than his predecessors4 ,there is now very little doubt that at first ,tory was an engraver and printer4 ,moreover1 he published with ,jean ,petit one of his first volumes1 the geography of ,pomponius ,mela1 printed by ,gilles de ,gourmont in #aejg4 ,tory was then an erudite and diffusive commentator4 ,later he published a book with poor engravings 7,valerii ,probi ,grammatici ,opusculum1 #aeaj71 waiting until his good star should place him on the right road4 ,he had for his mark1 say the bibliographers1 the cross of ,lorraine ,symbol3 double cross1 small enough to be lost in the ornamentation of his plates4 ,really this sign is found in ,tory's mark--the ,pot ,cass--the broken jar--and also sometimes in the letter ,g1 which was his ordinary signature4 ,this opinion1 which we will not try to contradict in a popular work like this1 appears to us to err1 as others used this mark1 as may be judged from the essentially different touches of engravings bearing the cross of ,lorraine1 and particularly those of ,woriot in the middle of the century4 ,if ,m4 ,a4 ,bernard,a may be credited1 ,geoffroy ,tory cultivated all the sciences with equal success4 ,for our purpose1 suffice it to recognise his right to one of the first places in the art of decoration of books of hours4 ,doubtless his travels in ,italy had contributed to modify his taste and to detach him a little from the sober and simple manner that then characterised ,french engraving2 but he nevertheless preserved the indelible traces of the origin of his art1 in the same way as some people cannot correct their provincial accent4 ,the ,heures de la ,vierge1 which he designed1 and which he had engraved about #aebj1 on account of ,simon de ,colines1 is marvellously surrounded by ornaments1 until then unknown in ,france2 at the same time1 and in spite of other tendencies1 it is purely a ,french work1 and the specimen given here is a convincing proof4 ,footnote ,a3 ,geoffroy ,tory1 ,peintre et ,graveur1 ,premier ,imprimeur ,royal1 ,rformateur de l',orthographe et de la ,typographie3 ,paris1 #aheg1 #hvo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--;,full page of the ,heures of ,simon de ,colines1 by ,tory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--;,heures of ,geoffroy ,tory4 ,the ,circumcision4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,heures of ,simon de ,colines1 with the mark of the ,cross of ,lorraine4 ,geoffroy ,tory composed a curious book1 as poetic as learned1 in which he studied at once the form of the letter from the typographic and the emblematic point of view1 and also the ,french orthography of the time4 ,he tells us himself that he was brought to commence this book on the fte-day of the kings1 #aebc1 when1 after a frugal repast1 he was1 he says1 dreaming on my bed and revolving my memory1 thinking of a thousand little fancies1 serious and mirthful1 among which ,i thought of some antique letters that ,i had made for ,monseigneur the treasurer for war1 ,master ,jehan ,grolier1 councillor and secretary of our lord the ,king1 amateur of fine letters and of all learned personages4 ,tory called his book ,champfleury1 auquel est contenu l'art et science de la deue proportion des lettres 444 selon le corps et le visage humain1 and he published it himself in small folio1 putting upon it the sign of ,gilles de ,gourmont1 in #aebi4 ,at heart ,tory had been fascinated by the theories of ,drer on the proportions of the human body2 and he says1 ,the noble ,german painter ,albert ,drer is greatly to be praised that he has so well brought to light his art of painting in designing geometrical forms1 the ramparts of war1 and the proportions of the human body4 ,he wished to indicate the true measure of letters to his contemporaries1 the number of points and turns of the compass that each one requires4 ,the most amusing part of this curious treatise is his short academical preface1 where1 under a playful form1 the great publisher studies the orthography of his time1 and exclaims against the forgers of new words1 the ,latinisers of the language1 the skimmers of ,latin1 jesters and gibberers1 444 who mock not only their shadows1 but themselves4 ,the entire passage was copied by ,rabelais1 nearly literally1 and it indicates that its author was possessed of good sense1 which1 unhappily1 all his contemporaries were not4 ,for the technical part1 he added to his theories a number of designs of geometrical letters1 but he was carried away1 after the fashion of the time1 by ,greek and ,roman models1 perhaps a little further than he meant1 losing himself in the midst of idle dissertations4 ,to these geometrical engravings he added small and charming figures1 said to be by ,jean ,perral1 as well as emblematical letters of the nature of the ,y which is here given1 with explanatory text and commentary4 ,to him this ,y had two branches3 one of virtue and one of vice2 that of virtue shows palms1 crowns1 a sceptre1 and a book2 that of vice birches1 a gallows1 and fire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--;,emblematical letter ,y1 taken from the ,champfleury of ,geoffroy ,tory4 ,with the importance that cannot be denied to his works1 ,geoffroy ,tory founded a school2 and it was from his workshop that the plates came for the book of ,paulus ,jovius on the dukes of ,milan1 published by ,robert ,estienne in #aedi1 quarto4 ,the portraits of the dukes in this work have been attributed to ,tory himself1 but he died in #aecc1 and there is not the least indication that he engraved these sixteen portraits with his own hand sixteen years before their publication4 ,besides1 our doubts as to the cross of ,lorraine being the exclusive signature of ,tory1 as has been believed1 lead us to think it the collective mark of a workshop1 as we meet it on works long after the death of the master4 ,as a proof1 the mark is found on the engravings of ,l',entre du ,roi ,paris in #aedi1 which cannot be taken as a posthumous work of ,tory1 for these engravings had their origin at a certain and special date4 ,but in spite of the absence of the monogram1 the admirable block from the ,diodorus ,siculus of ,antoine ,macault might1 from its design and engraving1 be considered as by ,tory himself4 ,holbein1 who1 about the same time1 designed a somewhat similar scene1 the ,king of ,france seated on a throne receiving poison from the hands of ,death1 never did anything better4 ,within the scanty proportions of the design1 all the figures are portraits4 ,duprat1 ,montmorency and the three sons of the ,king may be recognised2 ,macault1 on the left1 is reading his translation to a circle of nobles and men of letters4 ,this admirable page is one of the truest and most skilful of the monuments of ,french engraving2 it is equal to the best inventions of ,holbein1 and it marks the culminating point of the illustration of the ,book before the exaggerations of the school of ,fontainebleau4 ,geoffroy ,tory was not the publisher4 ,the ,diodorus ,siculus1 doubtless prepared two or three years before1 was not published until #aece1 in quarto1 with his ordinary mark of the ,pot ,cass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,macault reading to ,francis ,i4 his translation of ,diodorus ,siculus4 ,wood engraving attributed to ,tory4 ,we have now arrived through him at the reign of ,francis ,i41 who was called the father of letters1 and who for various reasons favoured the arts4 ,doubtless grand paintings and the decoration of the royal palaces interested him more than vignettes in books and the efforts of printers2 but1 at the same time1 books occupied him4 ,he studied much1 and in his travels accumulated many volumes4 ,an account in the ,french ,national ,archives shows that ,claude ,chappuis1 his librarian1 packed entire cases1 which were sent to ,dauphin at the time of the wars of ,piedmont1 the carriage costing twenty livres tournois4 ,francis had1 moreover1 following sudden impulses1 curious fits of wantonness and mischief4 ,it was perceived a little later that the doctrines of ,luther were propagated by the ,book2 and the ,sorbonne was up in arms1 on the pretence of imposing its own expurgated text of the ,bible on the publishers and tolerating no other4 ,theodore ,beza1 enemy of the ,sorbonnists1 said with regard to this 7we translate the antique ,french literally71 ,our great doctors with cherubic visage have forbidden men to see the ,holy ,bible in vulgar language1 of which every one has knowledge1 because1 they say1 the desire of knowing everything engenders nothing but error1 fear1 and care4 ,arguo sic1 if they so1 for its abuse1 wish to take away this book1 it is clear also that it is their duty to put away the wine with which each of them makes himself drunk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,robert ,estienne1 after the engraving in the ,chronologie ,colle4 ,this piece is only cited to show to what lengths matters had gone1 thanks to printing4 ,it is very certain that all the pamphlets1 placards1 and other horrors published to raise religious warfare1 did not aid in the progress of the ,book4 ,the ,king was not always disinterested on the technical question2 books merited encouragement1 at least as much as castigation1 and besides1 as time passed1 they gradually transformed men and ideas4 ,in spite of apparent severities1 was not the ,king himself a little touched by contact with the new religion1 like his sister ,marguerite1 or his sister-in-law1 ,rene of ,ferrara8 ,however that may be1 he twice showed himself a resolute partisan of the celebrated ,robert ,estienne1 son-in-law and associate of ,simon de ,colines1 whose works in point of erudition and typography assumed day by day more importance4 ,robert ,estienne had the great honour of being chosen from all his contemporaries by ,king ,francis as the royal printer4 ,this prince had ordered to be engraved for him by ,claude ,garamond1 after the design of ,ange ,vergce1 the first cutter of matrices of his time1 a special ,greek character in three sizes1 which was used in #aedd to compose the ,ecclesiastical ,history of ,eusebius4 ,these are the famous royal types--typi regii--as ,estienne did not fail to indicate on the title-pages of his works4 ,it has been said since that ,francis ,i4 founded the ,royal ,printing ,house1 but the truth is that ,estienne kept these characters in his own office for use in the royal editions2 they may now be seen in the ,imprimerie ,nationale at ,paris4 ,robert ,estienne married the daughter of ,josse ,badius1 of ,asch--,badius ,ascencianus1 one of the first ,parisian typographers of the time4 ,we reproduce the mark of ,badius1 representing the interior of a printing house1 and shall return in a special chapter to the functions of these workshops4 ,meantime it appears proper to present to the reader a printing office of the time of ,robert ,estienne and ,geoffroy ,tory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,printing office of ,josse ,badius at the commencement of the sixteenth century4 ,robert ,estienne does not appear to have concerned himself much about the decoration of the ,book4 ,the purity of the text and the characters were essentials with him1 erudition1 and not art4 ,he published many works in ,latin and ,greek1 among them the ,thesaurus1 a great ,latin dictionary published in #aecb1 also a ,bible1 with notes by ,vatable1 revised by ,leon de ,juda4 ,from that came trouble4 ,leon de ,juda was a partisan of ,zwingli2 the ,sorbonne accused the ,bible of leaning towards the ,huguenots2 ,francis ,i4 took the part of ,estienne1 but when that prince died ,estienne fled to ,geneva1 where he was accused of having imported the royal types4 ,the truth was that he simply imported the matrices4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,portrait of ,nicholas ,bourbon4 ,wood engraving of the commencement of the sixteenth century4 ,at this time everything served for the decoration of the ,book3 portraits1 blazons1 topographical plates1 costumes1 and emblems4 ,small portraits engraved on wood usually ornamented the works of the poets1 like that of ,nicholas ,bourbon1 for example1 marvel of truth and skill4 ,the blocks of frontispieces in the folios were multiplied2 large initial letters1 ingeniously engraved and stippled1 like that at the commencement of this chapter1 were used4 ,jacques ,kerver reproduced in #aede for himself1 and with plates made for him1 the famous ,songe de ,poliphile1 published by ,aldus in #adii4 ,the widow of the publisher ,denis ,janot1 ,jeanne de ,marnef1 published one of the most delightful books of the time1 ,l',amour de ,cupidon et de ,psyche of ,apuleius1 with delicious figures in wood after ,italian engravings4 ,many more could be named in the extraordinary profusion of charming books4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,king and ,death4 ,vignette from the ,dance of ,death by ,holbein4 ,without entering into detail1 something must be said of ,lyons1 then a most extensive and prosperous centre of bookselling4 ,lyons had the signal honour of publishing first in ,france the celebrated cuts of the ,dance of ,death of ,holbein1 the ,basle painter4 ,doubtless ,treschel1 the printer1 was not the first1 as a copy of a ,german edition is known1 because in the ,lyons edition the cuts are worn and broken4 ,however1 the ,cabinet d',estampes of ,paris has some of the figures of the ,dance with a ,german text1 probably printed by ,froben at ,basle4 ,treschel's title was ,les ,simulachres et ,histories ,faces de la ,mort autant elegamment pourtraictes que artificiellement imagines1 and the volume in quarto was printed by ,frelon4 ,the ,icones veteris testamenti1 which preceded the publication of the ,dance of ,death1 had also been printed at ,basle before ,lyons4 ,with ,holbein1 as with ,geoffroy ,tory1 we arrive at the zenith of illustration and marvellous skill of the engraver4 ,if we were to institute comparisons1 it was ,hans ,lutzelburger who cut the blocks after the designs of the ,basle master1 but1 contrary to what generally happens1 the translator reaches almost to the height of his model2 the line is perfection itself1 it is precise and intelligent1 simple1 and1 above all1 explicit4 ,if the work of ,lutzelburger be admitted1 it must also be admitted that ,holbein designed his cuts before #aebf1 date of the death of the ,basle engraver2 but it was precisely before #aebf that ,holbein lived in ,basle1 and it was after he had travelled4 ,we will add nothing to the universal praise of the book of ,treschel1 of ,lyons2 everything has been written of ,holbein1 and repetitions are unnecessary4 ,we would ask the reader to compare the ,francis ,i4 of ,tory and the ,king in ,holbein's ,dance of ,death2 there is a certain family resemblance between the two cuts1 which is a singular honour for ,tory4 ,at the commencement of the century ,basle had a school of ,formschneiders working for export4 ,besides the numerous products used at ,lyons1 it had also a trade in wood blocks1 which1 having been used1 were afterwards sold4 ,among these exchanges of engravings were many plates of ,brandt's ,ship of ,fools1 sold in #aebj to ,galliot du ,pr1 publisher1 of ,paris1 who used them in the ,eloge de la ,folie of ,erasmus4 ,the reign of ,francis ,i4 saw a great advance in the national art of illustration4 ,the arrival at the court of ,italian artists of the decadence1 such as ,rosso and ,primaticcio1 produced a revolution in taste4 ,the exaggerated slightness of the figures brought by these artists from beyond the ,alps was considered as of supreme distinction2 in their twisted draperies and mannered poses was seen a precious beauty that tempted the ready intelligence of the court of ,france4 ,the simple and ingenuous figures of the old ,french artists were ranked among the refuse of another age1 and their compositions were regarded with contempt1 and deemed antique4 ,the rage for emblems and for allegories and mythological figures generally was well suited to these eccentric and bizarre inventions4 ,from another side1 an entire class of artists or artisans1 book illustrators first1 then enamellers and jewellers1 made use of these ,italian models1 with which the ,king encumbered his galleries1 and which1 at great expense1 covered the walls of ,fontainebleau4 ,one can understand what these skilful men made of such a movement and of so thoughtless an infatuation4 ,the publishers saw the demand1 and composed works of which the sale was assured by the subjects that they furnished to other designers4 ,this explains the quantity of ,alciati's ,emblems and ,ovid's ,metamorphoses published at ,lyons and ,paris1 and copied and recopied a hundred times by the art industries of the time4 ,without it the enormous success of mediocre productions1 as the ,emblems1 for example1 in which the meaning of the enigma or rebus cannot always be seized1 is ill understood4 ,it was ,alciati who made this literature the fashion4 ,he was a sort of ,epicurean and miserly jurisconsult1 who had as many lords and masters on earth1 as the kings and princes who liked to bid against each other to engage him4 ,he had quitted ,italy1 seduced by the offers of ,francis ,i41 but when ,sforza paid him a larger sum1 he returned1 giving as reason for his vacillation that the sun had to travel the earth and warm it by its rays2 this was an emblematic answer1 for his emblems had all the coarse1 sceptical humour which not a few had then already discovered4 ,at most these philosophical aphorisms1 if we take them seriously1 have their droll side in that their author often practised the reverse of his teaching4 ,a miser1 he abuses the avaricious2 flying his country for the love of gain1 he blames those to whom a better condition is offered by strangers4 ,yet he is sometimes logical and consistent1 as when he assures us that poverty hinders the success of intelligence1 and when1 finally1 lover of good cheer1 he died of indigestion in #aeej4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,page of the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid1 by ,petit ,bernard4 ,edition of #aefd4 ,his book of ,emblems had a vogue that lasted until the seventeenth century1 and repetitions were infinitely multiplied3 at ,paris by ,wechel in #aecd2 at ,lyons by ,hans de ,tornes1 of ,suabia1 one of the greatest ,lyons publishers2 by ,roville1 also one of the first ,lyons publishers1 and by ,bonhomme2 at ,venice by the ,alduses2 in fact1 everywhere1 translated into ,french1 ,spanish1 and ,italian4 ,bernard ,salomon1 called le ,petit ,bernard1 born at ,lyons1 was one of the designers of the school of ,fontainebleau--that is to say1 of the ,franco-,italian school of which we have spoken above--who furnished many of the engravings for books printed at ,lyons4 ,he illustrated the edition of ,alciati's ,emblems published by ,bonhomme in #aefj2 and designed skilful little plates1 which1 with the text1 were surrounded by a border from the workshop of ,geoffroy ,tory1 for ,ovid's ,metamorphoses1 published by ,hans de ,tornes in #aefd4 ,bernard had all the defects and all the qualities of those of his time1 from ,john ,cousin to the least of them2 he was a ,primaticcio on a small scale1 but agreeably so4 ,his designs for the ,new ,testament were also very careful1 but in them more than elsewhere the manner and the affectation of the school of ,fontainebleau are apparent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,portraits of ,madeleine1 ,queen of ,scotland1 and of ,marguerite1 ,duchess of ,savoy1 after the originals of ,cornelis of ,lyons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,portraits of ,francis1 dauphin1 and of ,charles1 ,duke of ,angoleme1 after the originals of ,cornelis of ,lyons4 ,woodcuts taken from ,roville's ,promptuaire des ,mdailles4 ,the workshops of the second city of ,france1 we see1 had at this time attained considerable importance2 but before the books of which we shall speak1 ,roville published two anonymous books1 one ,l',entre du ,roi ,henri ,,ii4 ,lyon1 in #aedi1 ornamented with very graceful woodcuts1 the other the ,promptuaire des ,mdailles1 comprising a series of charming portraits under the pretence of reproductions from the antique4 ,the designs of the ,entre are often attributed to ,john ,cousin1 as it is a rule with certain amateurs to give a known name to a work2 but it must be remembered that ,lyons then had celebrated artists1 ,petit-,bernard1 alluded to above1 and ,cornelis de la ,haye1 of whom we have more to say2 and it is not necessary to go to ,paris or to ,rome to find the author of these illustrations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,captain of foot from the ,entree de ,henri ,,ii4 ,lyon 7#aedi74 ,cornelis de la ,haye was a painter who executed nearly the same work as ,francis ,clouet in ,paris1 portraits on panel1 in a clear and harmonious tone1 then much the fashion4 ,during a journey of the ,king1 he had1 if ,brantme may be credited1 portrayed the entire court1 keeping the sketches for himself4 ,ten or fifteen years after1 ,catherine de ,medicis1 passing through ,lyons1 saw these portraits and highly praised them1 recognising the old costumes1 astonished at the courtiers of the day1 whom she had never seen in such dress4 ,this artist is now known1 thanks to various works that have been found1 among others two portraits of the sons of ,francis ,i41 preserved by ,gaignires1 who attributed them resolutely to ,cornelis1 doubtless on the faith of inscriptions that have disappeared4 ,both of them were engraved on wood at ,lyons and published in ,roville's book the ,promptuaire des ,mdailles1 mentioned above1 with small differences of detail altogether insignificant4 ,it is not impossible then that ,cornelis designed these portraits1 and that they were drawn on wood after the cabinet models spoken of by ,brantme4 ,the delicate figures of the ,promptuaire are the work of a master2 and the differences mentioned are those of the artist1 not of the copyist1 who would not be permitted to change anything4 ,it is the first time1 we believe1 that these comparisons have been made2 they will perhaps help the learned ,lyonnais to pierce the mystery1 but in any case our suppositions are more honourable to ,cornelis de la ,haye than the fancies of ,robert ,dumesnil 7,peintre-graveur ,franais1 tome vi41 p4 #cdc74 ,to judge by the four little medallions here reproduced1 the art of engraving on wood was rarely more skilful than in these portraits4 ,it would not be astonishing if a man like ,cornelis had designed the figures of the ,entre de ,henri ,,ii4 ,in any case1 why should we choose ,john ,cousin instead of ,petit-,bernard8 ,at this time1 we know1 the kings carried in their suite their ordinary painters2 but we do not know that ,john ,cousin followed the court to ,lyons in #aedi4 ,he did not hold an official position1 like ,clouet4 ,this artist produced well-authenticated works2 one of them is signed1 and leaves no doubt3 the ,livre de ,perspective de ,jehan ,cousin ,senonois1 ,maistre ,painctre1 published in #aefj by ,jean le ,royer1 printer to the ,king for mathematics4 ,this profession of printer for mathematics had its difficulties of engraving1 for ,le ,royer tells us in his preface that he had himself finished the plates commenced by ,albin ,olivier4 ,in another practical treatise1 entitled ,livre de ,portraiture1 published in #aeic1 ,john ,cousin is styled peintre gometrien4 ,it is beyond doubt that this master produced for many works figures and ornaments1 but what were the books8 ,the manner was then to repeat the engraved borders of titles1 the passe-partout1 in the centre of which the text was printed4 ,cousin designed many of these title-pages on wood2 that of the ,livre de ,portraiture affords a curious element of comparison2 but he was not by any means the inventor4 ,in #aeee was sold at ,antwerp a book printed from engraved plates after ,john ,vriedman1 by ,gerard ,juif1 which is simply a collection of engravings for title-pages for the use of publishers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,title of ,john ,cousin's ,livre de ,portraiture1 published in #aeic by ,le ,clerc4 7,the spot on the title is in the original1 preserved among the prints of the ,bibliothque ,nationale47 ,it is about this time that metal plates may be seen in conjunction with wood engraving in the illustration of the ,book1 and the best artists attached their names to important publications of this kind4 ,we have explained in a former chapter in what this process is least convenient in the impression of a book4 ,in fact1 two successive printings1 that of the plates and that of the text1 were additional trouble and a frequent cause of errors2 but wood-cutting was somewhat abandoned in the middle of the sixteenth century1 especially for separate plates1 and engraved plates took a considerable importance under different artistic influences4 ,the first was the facility of engraving a metal plate compared to the difficulty of cutting a wood block4 ,it thus naturally happened that the artists of the burin wished to employ their art in illustration1 and taste was soon drawn to the new process4 ,in ,france the first volume of this kind was printed in #adhh by ,topie de ,pymont in folio3 the ,prgrinations en ,terre ,sainte of ,bernard de ,breydenbach1 with figures on engraved plates copied from the ,mayence edition of #adhf4 ,since this manner was abandoned until about #aeej1 as much for the reasons given above as for others1 we only meet with a stray plate now and again1 which remains as a bait1 and relates to nothing4 ,under the reign of ,henri ,,ii4 the smallness of the volumes did not always admit of wood engravings1 and the artists in metal found a footing among illustrators2 they made attempts1 such as that of the ,histoire de ,jason of ,rn ,boivin in #aefc1 which came out under ,charles ,,ix4 in a charming volume of engraved plates by ,p4 ,woriot4 ,the ,emblems of ,georgette de ,montenay were also in the burlesque style of ,alciati1 but they had an advantage1 as the author assures us3-- ,alciat fist des emblmes exquis1 ,lesquels1 voyant de plusieurs requis1 ,dsir me prist de commencer les miens1 ,lesquels je croy estre premiers chrestiens4 ,this orthodoxy does not make them more intelligible1 but the engravings of ,woriot1 unskilful as they are1 import an element of interest which surpasses the rest4 ,it was always at ,lyons1 the rival and often the master of ,paris in typography1 that the author printed his work4 ,by the privilege dated #aeff1 five years before publication1 we see that it is permitted to ,peter ,woriot1 engraver of the ,duke of ,lorraine1 to portray1 engrave1 and cut in copper the said figures called emblems for the time and term of five years 7#ahth ,october1 #aeff74 ,peter ,woriot sometimes signed his prints with the small ,lorraine cross adopted by ,geoffroy ,tory's workshop1 as may be seen in our engraving4 ,copper plate engraving had by this time established itself1 and the works that were so illustrated spread themselves4 ,du ,cerceau published his admirable collection of ,plus ,beaux ,bastiments de ,france in folio #aegf-gi1 which had numerous plans and views of the royal and princely castles4 ,thevet put forth his ,cosmographie ,universelle and his ,hommes ,illustres1 the latter adorned with skilfully engraved portraits4 ,in ,paris the publishers ,mamert ,patisson1 who married the widow of ,robert ,estienne and took his mark1 ,adrien le ,roy1 and ,robert ,ballard1 published the celebrated ,ballet ,comique de la ,royne ,faict aux ,nopces de ,monsieur le ,duc de ,joyeuse1 composed by ,balthasar de ,beaujoyeux1 valet de chambre to ,henri ,,iii42 and in this book1 in which were put hasty etchings1 the ,king displayed all his immodesty and depravity4 ,the ,book has often had the unconscious mission of transmitting to posterity the unworthiness of its author or of its heroes4 ,from this time the ,book has left its golden age to enter into the boastings of courtiers and political abstractions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--;,engraving by ,p4 ,woriot for ,georgette de ,montenay's ,emblmes4 ,among the publications opposed to the ,government of the time1 the two associates ,james ,tortorel and ,john ,perrissin1 of ,lyons1 had published a celebrated collection of plates on the religious wars that stained the reign of ,charles ,,ix4 with blood4 ,at first engraved on metal1 these plates were worn out1 and were gradually replaced by others engraved on wood1 on which several artists worked1 among them ,james le ,challeux and also ,john de ,gourmont1 one of the most celebrated wood-cutters of the sixteenth century4 ,this was a work composed of single leaves in folio size1 which had an extraordinary sale among the religious people of the time4 ,at the same time1 illustration on wood did not stand still4 ,the portraits of authors diffused by the pencil of ,clouet and his school were commonly put at the head of their works4 ,we cannot say whether ,clouet himself designed the portraits of ,tiraqueau and of ,taillemont in #aeec2 of ,du ,billon1 the author of the ,fort ,inexpugnable1 in #aeee2 ,papon and ,ambroise ,par in #aefa2 ,grevin1 ,ramus1 and others2 but the precision of these physiognomies recalls the peculiar manner of the ,french artists of the sixteenth century4 ,the ,poems of ,ronsard in #aehf contains a series of very clever portraits1 among them that of ,muret1 his commentator1 one of the most perfect of its kind4 ,christopher de ,savigny1 author of the ,tableaux ,accomplis de ,tous les ,arts ,liberaux1 published by ,john and ,francis de ,gourmont in #aehg1 is represented at full length in the frontispiece of his work1 offering the book to the ,duc de ,nevers1 to whom it is dedicated4 ,this plate in folio1 probably engraved by ,john de ,gourmont1 is the best finished that we have seen4 ,the work of ,savigny1 forgotten as it may be now1 had a great reputation in its own time2 and ,bacon took from it the idea of his ,advancement of ,learning4 ,speaking of the ,duc de ,nevers1 it will not be without interest to our readers to mention here a manuscript found by us in the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 which enables us to give an account of the work then necessary for the publication of an illustrated book4 ,in #aegg the ,duke arranged for the impression of an apologetic book1 of which no trace remains2 and his intendant writes a long letter to him on the subject of composition and bindings4 ,it was necessary that the work should be produced quickly1 bound and gilt1 for presents4 ,the intendant thinks calf will be the most expeditious covering4 ,it would be much the best to use black or red calf1 444 well gilt above1 and not vellum1 which is a thin parchment that quickly shrinks4 ,the statements of this man of business show that five proofs of each sheet were taken for typographical correction1 and that twelve full days were wanted for the binding4 ,the most interesting part of this memoir is that which treats of the engraving on wood of the portrait4 ,the plate was designed by an artist who had afterwards gone away2 it was not satisfactory1 but the ornaments would pass4 ,the intendant proposes to fix a little piece of wood in the block that could be drawn upon4 ,here we see correction by elimination4 ,the pear-wood on which the original figure was engraved was to be cut out1 and a square of boxwood substituted1 forasmuch as in this task the pear-wood1 which is the successful1 well-cut block1 is the wood that is harder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,portrait of ,christopher ,plantin1 printer of ,antwerp4 ,engraved by ,wierix4 ,the portrait of the ,duchesse de ,nevers was better1 yet the pear-wood had given way under the work4 ,that of ,madame is more passable4 ,nevertheless1 there is still something to say to one eye4 ,the wood cannot carry the subtlety of the line4 ,here1 in a few clear and explicit lines by a man of the time1 we see the economy of a publication of the sixteenth century1 at a time when wood engraving was declining1 to give place to engraving on metal1 which was soon to reign supreme1 through the most important book house of the century3 the ,plantins of ,antwerp4 ,christopher ,plantin1 like ,jenson1 came originally from ,tours4 ,after having learned his art with ,mac at ,caen1 he went to ,paris1 from which the wars soon drove him4 ,he left for the ,low ,countries1 and there ,philip ,,ii4 nominated him as chief printer--architypographus4 ,established at ,antwerp in #aeee1 he surrounded himself1 as had the ,estiennes and ,alduses1 with most of the learned and literary men of his time1 among them ,justus ,lipsius1 to whom ,balzac attributed the ,latin prefaces signed by ,plantin4 ,it is certain that he was neither an ,estienne nor an ,aldus4 ,his artistic probity caused him to submit the proofs of his works to strangers1 with promise of recompense for faults indicated2 the ,estiennes employed the same system4 ,plantin1 not to be behind any of his contemporaries in typographical perfection1 brought from ,france the celebrated type-founder ,william ,leb1 and charged him to furnish a special fount4,a ,under the orders of ,philip ,,ii41 he printed the celebrated ,polyglot ,bible1 in eight folio volumes1 absolutely perfect in its execution2 unfortunately the ,spanish ,government1 having advanced funds in the course of publication1 prosecuted him with the utmost rigour to obtain repayment4 ,this very nearly shut up his printing house1 but he took courage and overcame his difficulties1 until he became1 in #aehi1 the year of his death1 the principal publisher of ,flanders4 ,his mark was a hand holding a compass1 with the motto ,labore et constantia4 ,footnote ,a3 ,in the ,bibliothque ,nationale is a copy of an octavo ,album de ,caractres1 in which ,leb has written1 ,this gloss1 made in ,paris 7#aegd7 by me1 is my fourteenth letter1 and the text is made on the pattern of the preceding one for size1 but of a better art2 and from this was printed the great ,bible of ,antwerp by ,plantin1 to whom ,i sold a fount 7folio #f74 ,on folio #bj he wrote1 ,i do not know whence came this small ,hebrew that ,i received from ,plantin to make a smaller one for him4 ,he sent me this half-sheet1 and ,i have not seen at ,venice another part4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,plantin's mark4 ,plantin died at the age of seventy-four1 leaving a prosperous business to be divided between his three daughters4 ,his first house at ,antwerp employed seventeen presses even at the time when he was in trouble1 and he had branches at ,paris and ,leyden1 of less consequence4 ,his second daughter married ,moretus1 and to him descended the ,antwerp workshop2 he and his descendants continued the printing house until recently2 the house of the great printer and publisher is now a typographical museum4 ,the ,plantin printing office--,officina ,plantiniana--was as well managed by its descendants as by himself4 ,the fashion of engraving in metal spread itself before the death of the head of the house1 and his successors continued it4 ,the principal engravers with the burin of the ,low ,countries were employed by them3 ,wierix1 ,galle1 ,pass1 ,mallery1 ,van ,sichern2 it was a real school of illustration1 that created by degrees a precious and sustained style1 not without influence on the artists of that epoch4 ,it was from this particular manner that came ,thomas de ,leu and ,leonard ,gaultier in ,france2 and from ,antwerp came those small religious figures that have lasted to our time in their incomprehensible mysticism4 ,the title-pages of the ,plantin printing office inaugurated the passe-partout engraved by the burin1 overloaded and complicated1 of which the seventeenth century took advantage4 ,to tell the truth1 these elaborate displays1 blackened by ink1 do not accord well with the titles2 and there is a long distance between this decadence and the books ornamented with wood blocks by the ,italians and ,french of the commencement of the century4 ,exception must be made in favour of ,rubens1 who designed many of these titles4 ,the heavy and squat architecture of the time was least of all appropriate to these decorations1 which wanted grace4 ,it passed from ,plantin into ,france through the engravers2 it went to ,rome with ,martin de ,vos and ,john ,sadeler2 it imposed itself everywhere2 and from that day to this it has not ceased4 ,at the time of which we write it had taken its flight in ,france1 and spread itself in ,europe with extraordinary success4 ,engraving in relief1 holding its own until then1 gave way little by little before this invasion4 ,when ,henri ,,iv4 mounted the throne wood engraving had finished its upward movement1 it still remained in the canards1 or popular pieces sold at low prices1 but it is easy to see what these hasty vignettes are worth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--;,frontispiece of a book from ,plantin's printing office4 ,metal engraving4 ,we have now seen the history of the ,book and its decoration in the sixteenth century in ,france3 at first ,french epics in ,italy1 books of hours1 romances of chivalry2 then about #aeej1 with the reign of ,henri ,,ii41 the religious pamphlets commenced1 bookselling spread itself2 the strife between illustrations on metal plates and those in relief assumed shape1 it continued under ,henri ,,iii41 and terminated abruptly by the victory of the first at the extreme end of the century4 ,with political passions1 printing had become a weapon of warfare1 which it will never cease to be4 ,they knew in the sixteenth century what perfidious accusations or excessive praises were worth4 ,the ,book followed the fate of its author4 ,if the writer was burned1 so was his book4 ,witness the ,christianismi ,restitutio of the ,catholic ,servetus1 printed at ,vienne1 in ,dauphin1 and consigned to the flames with its author at ,geneva in #aeec4 ,a single copy was saved from the fire1 and is now preserved in the ,bibliothque ,nationale2 it is the identical copy annotated by ,colladon1 the accuser of the unhappy ,servetus1 and still bears traces of fire on its leaves4 ,typography and the illustration of the ,book in ,england in the sixteenth century did not make the same progress as in ,france and ,italy4 ,much good work was done1 but it was mostly with foreign material4 ,type was obtained from ,french and ,dutch founders1 and most of the woodcuts had the same origin4 ,in the early part of the century most of the publications were translations of popular foreign books1 such as ,voragine's ,golden ,legend1 ,caxton's translations of ,cicero1 ,boetius1 etc4 ,too many restrictions and privileges obtained to encourage or allow of the establishment of an ,english school1 which was to come later with the spread of wealth and education4 ,books were mostly printed in ,gothic type1 or black letter1 and the woodcuts were of the coarsest kind4 ,an exception was the beautiful ,prayer-book of ,john ,day1 #aegh1 known as ,queen ,elizabeth's ,prayer-book1 from the fine portrait of the ,queen1 which we reproduce1 on the previous page2 but in this the woodcuts were designed by ,albert ,drer and ,hans ,holbein4 ,pynson was the first to use ,roman type in ,england1 in the ,oratio in pace nuperrim1 #aeah1 quarto2 and the first ,english ,bible in ,roman type was printed at ,edinburgh in #aegf4 ,it is thought that until about #afjj printers were their own type-founders1 as no record exists of founding as a separate trade until that time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--,portrait of ,queen ,elizabeth from the ,book of ,christian ,praiers1 printed by ,john ,day1 #aegh4 ,the greatest achievement of the sixteenth century in ,england was the printing of the first ,english ,bible1 in ,coverdale's translation1 in #aece1 folio1 but even this was printed abroad1 the latest investigation giving it to ,van ,meteren at ,antwerp4 ,the woodcuts in it are by ,hans ,sebald ,beham2 we reproduce one representing ,cain killing ,abel4 ,tyndall had previously printed abroad an ,english ,new ,testament4 ,another importation was ,brandt's ,shyp of ,folys1 printed by ,pynson1 #aeji1 and ,john ,cawood1 #aegj1 the woodcuts in both being copied from the originals before referred to4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,woodcut from ,coverdale's ,bible1 #aece4 ,cain killing ,abel4 ,folio was the size usually adopted1 and in this size the series of chronicles appeared3 ,arnold1 printed abroad in #aejb2 ,fabian1 in #aeaf2 ,froissart1 by ,pynson1 in two volumes1 #aebc-e2 ,harding1 by ,grafton1 #aedc2 ,hall1 by the same1 #aedh2 ,holinshed1 in two volumes1 #aegg4 ,in the same size ,chaucer was first given to the world entire by ,t4 ,godfrey in #aecb1 and many times reprinted1 and ,sir ,thomas ,more in #aeeg4 ,polemical and religious treatises were mostly printed in quarto1 as were the poets3 ,spenser's ,faerie ,queene1 in #aeij2 ,langland's ,pierce ,plowman1 in #aeej2 and ,sidney's ,arcadia1 in #aeij4 ,plays were also printed in quarto1 in which shape at the end of the century some of ,shakespeare's single plays were issued4 ,from the great perfection to which the liturgies1 or books of hours1 had been brought by ,vostre1 ,verard1 and others in ,france1 it is not perhaps extraordinary that the service books for ,english use should have been mostly printed abroad4 ,those for ,salisbury and ,york were produced at ,paris1 ,rouen1 and ,antwerp4 ,a ,salisbury ,primer in ,english was printed by ,john ,kyngston and ,henry ,sutton in #aeeg1 and ,wynken de ,worde printed a ,york ,manual in #aeji4 ,the first ,english ,common ,prayer ,book1 known as ,edward ,,vi4's1 was printed by ,grafton in #aedi1 who also printed in #aede ,henry ,,viii4's ,primer in ,latin and ,english4 ,edward's book is curious as having on the last page a royal order as to the price at which it was to be sold3 ,no maner of persone shall sell the present ,booke vnbounde aboue the price of two shillynges and two pence4 ,and bound in ,forell for iis4 xd41 and not aboue4 ,and the same bound in ,shepes ,lether for iiis4 iiid41 and not aboue4 ,and the same bounde in paste or in boordes1 in ,calues ,lether1 not aboue the price of iiiis4 the pece4 ,cranmer's ,catechism was printed by ,nicholas ,hill in #aedh1 with twenty-nine woodcuts by ,hans ,holbein1 one of which we reproduce1 representing ,christ casting out devils4 ,translations from the classics were popular1 and in the second half of the century arose that passion for voyage and travel which has so largely contributed to the wealth and extension of ,england4 ,this was begun by ,eden's translation of ,peter ,martyr's ,decades of the ,new ,world2 or1 ,west ,india1 ,london1 #aeee1 quarto1 followed by ,hakluyt's ,principall ,navigations1 ,voyages1 and ,discoveries1 #aehi1 folio4 ,many accounts of single voyages and discoveries were issued1 and the taste thus created culminated in the establishment of the ,east ,india ,company in the last year of the century4 ,the first specimen of copper plate engraving for books in ,england is a frontispiece to ,galen's ,de ,temperamentis1 printed at ,cambridge #aeba1 and the number of books containing copper plates engraved before #afjj is extremely limited1 the most notable being portraits of ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,lord ,leicester1 and ,lord ,burleigh in ,archbishop ,parker's ,bible of #aefh2 ,saxton's ,atlas1 #aegi1 the first atlas in ,england2 ,harrington's translation of ,ariosto1 #aeia1 with forty-seven engraved plates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,woodcut by ,hans ,holbein from ,cranmer's ,catechism1 #aedh4 ,the first printer at ,cambridge was ,john ,siberch1 #aeba4 ,peter of ,treves established himself at ,southwark in #aead4 ,among his productions is a ,higden's ,polychronicon1 #aebg1 folio4 ,john ,oswen printed at ,ipswich #aech1 and among the ,english towns in which printers established themselves in the century were ,york1 ,canterbury1 ,tavistock1 ,norwich1 and ,worcester4 ,the establishment of the ,reformed ,church1 and the diffusion of education among the people which followed1 created an original ,english school of literature in the sixteenth century1 and this gave employment and great impetus to typography in ,england1 so that by the time we reach the end of the century we find a great improvement in the art of the ,book1 to be carried to still greater perfection in the next4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iv4 #afjj ,,to #agjj4 ,tendencies of the regency of ,marie de ,medicis--,thomas de ,leu and ,leonard ,gaultier--,j4 ,picart and ,claude ,mellan--,lyons and ,j4 de ,fornazeris--,the ,book at the beginning of the seventeenth century in ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,holland--,crispin ,pass in ,france--,the ,elzevirs and their work in ,holland--,sebastian ,cramoisy and the ,imprimerie ,royale--,illustration with ,callot1 ,della ,bella1 and ,abraham ,bosse--,the publishers and the ,hotel de ,rambouillet--,the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 ,antoine ,vitr syndic at his accession--,his works and mortifications2 the polyglot ,bible of ,le ,jay--,art and illustrators of the grand century--,sbastien ,leclerc1 ,lepautre1 and ,chauveau--,leclerc preparing the illustration and decoration of the ,book for the eighteenth century--,the ,book in ,england in the seventeenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,letter engraved by ,a4 ,bosse4 ,now we have arrived at a critical epoch1 in which the science of the old printers transformed itself gradually into commerce1 in which taste lost itself under the influence of religious architecture4 ,the title of the ,book represents the portico of a cathedral1 with columns1 mitred saints1 and crosses1 of little decorative aspect4 ,figures on copper plates replaced the foliage and arabesques of the older booksellers4 ,through the ,plantins and their imitators1 the architectural passion was far spread4 ,it inundated ,france1 ran through ,germany and ,italy1 and reigned pre-eminent in ,holland4 ,literary taste also underwent change2 manners were no longer those of the sixteenth century3 bold1 free1 and gay2 from the religious wars a certain hypocrisy arose2 bombast replaced the natural2 the gods were preparing1 as a contemporary said1 to receive ,louis and his spirit4 ,it is not that artists were wanting at the opening of the seventeenth century who could1 in giving scope to their talent1 show themselves worthy successors of those who went before them4 ,unhappily the booksellers no longer had a loose rein2 they had the rope1 for they were hung or burned at the least infraction of political or religious propriety4 ,yet the reign of ,henri ,,iv4 was relatively an easier period for the artisans of the ,book1 in which they were less confined to the strict terms of excessive regulations2 but after this prince severity increased1 and during the year #afbf a new law was promulgated punishing with death the printers or distributers of prohibited books4 ,doubtless the books that were thus secretly sold1 and prohibited in defence of good manners1 were neither chefs-d'oeuvre of typography nor art4 ,the author threw off the indecencies by which he hoped to make profit and fame1 regardless of type or illustration4 ,but during the regency of ,marie de ,medicis1 it was not only the authors of a bad standard that were in danger of being hung2 the printer or seller of the pamphlet or book of a reputed heterodox author was also hung1 and it became difficult to steer safely among the prohibitions4 ,enormous numbers of works were made with frontispieces decorated with colonnades and mitred saints1 and bearing high-sounding titles of sound orthodoxy4 ,a somewhat gross mysticism1 from the office of ,plantin1 formed the most solid stock of every respectable dealer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,title of the ,metanealogie1 engraved by ,leonard ,gaultier4 ,under ,henri ,,iv4 and the minority of ,louis ,,xiii41 two ,french illustrators received from the school of ,antwerp their inspiration for the ornament of the ,book4 ,thomas de ,leu1 probably from ,flanders1 was allied with the old ,parisian painter and engraver of celebrated portraits1 ,antoine ,caron1 in furnishing the engraved plates for the ,images de ,plate ,peinture des ,deux ,philostrates1 ,sophistes ,grecs1 ,paris1 ,claude ,cramoisy1 #afji1 folio2 and ,leonard ,gaultier1 his contemporary1 collaborated with ,jaspar ,isaac and other artists in the ,book4 ,leonard ,gaultier contributed most to spread in ,france the ,plantinian style1 and his somewhat cold but characteristic talent suited this art more than that of any one else then could4 ,he was an engraver of portraits1 now rare and valuable1 in the style of ,wierix or ,thomas de ,leu2 but1 at the demand of publishers and booksellers1 he composed other plates1 at first historical figures representing the royal family and the nobles for the publisher ,leclerc1 in a simple and true manner2 he also designed pious figures1 recording a miracle or representing the ceremonies of a jubilee and other devotional things4 ,but he made his great success in the composition of frontispieces to theological and pious works1 printed for nearly all the booksellers4 ,leonard ,gaultier had a fashion of his own with pilasters and ,grecian columns1 under which he boldly placed entire councils of cardinals and bishops2 witness the heading of the ,bibliotheca ,veterum ,patrum1 into which he crowded nearly forty figures4 ,he united also with a certain grace the sacred and the profane1 placing among ideal saints the sinning fine ladies of the time1 with their large collarettes and jewels falling on naked breasts4 ,the work of ,andrew ,valladier1 chaplain of the ,king1 entitled ,mtanalogie ,sacre1 published by ,peter ,chevallier in #afji1 was adorned with a title of this particular kind1 in which ,gaultier had no rival1 and which preserves the precision of ,flemish masters in the detail of ornaments of the toilet4 ,he was one of the first to work for ,sebastian ,cramoisy1 printer and publisher1 who had established his shop in the ,rue ,st4 ,jacques at the sign of the ,stork4 ,we shall have occasion to speak of him later in connection with the ,royal ,printing ,house1 of which he was the first director2 he is mentioned now because in #afaa ,leonard ,gaultier engraved for him the frontispiece of ,l',aigle ,franais1 a collection of sermons by ,thomas ,girault4 ,the publisher used the same plate in #afah for the sermons of ,raymond de ,hzque4 ,besides the publications of ,sebastian ,cramoisy and ,chevallier1 ,leonard ,gaultier adorned also those of ,nicholas ,buon and many other publishers of the time in ,paris and ,lyons4 ,with such a profusion of works emanating from a single artist1 without reckoning those which were produced in great quantity by men of less note1 wood engraving was dead4 ,at most it dared to put a wood block of a printer's mark on a title2 more ordinarily this mark was not alone sufficient1 and showed the disdain in which taste then held wood-cutting4 ,thus goes fashion1 heedless of the most elementary rules of art4 ,to put type within an engraved title1 or to ornament a printed text with engravings1 is a heresy of principle that was established in the eighteenth century1 by the strength of its cleverness and talent4 ,but at the beginning of the seventeenth1 in spite of ,leonard ,gaultier or ,thomas de ,leu1 these overloaded titles1 overpowering the opening of the ,book1 offend the eye by their excessive blackness1 and incontestably make us regret the admirable frontispiece on wood of the preceding century4 ,this is all the ornament1 properly so called1 of the reign of ,louis ,,xiii4 ,leonard ,gaultier composed also small vignettes for an edition of ,homer1 but they are mediocre and unskilful1 and it must be said that there were others following the same path4 ,john ,picart made a frontispiece with architecture and figures for the ,histoire de la ,maison de ,chtillon-sur-,marne for account of ,sebastian ,cramoisy4 ,a cold and hard artist he was1 the rival of ,gaultier1 and one of the most employed of the vignette engravers of ,paris4 ,there was also ,jaspar ,isaac1 a mediocre craftsman1 but who could design clever titles1 among them that of the continuation of the ,annales of ,baronius for the publisher ,denis de la ,noue4 ,then ,claude ,mellan1 whose great and clever talent did not disdain second-rate works1 in which he gave free play to his burin4 ,it must be said1 however1 that his bold touch did not well accommodate itself to reduced spaces1 and that he was not working in the field necessary to his inventive powers4 ,we mention his portrait of ,louis ,,xiv4 at the head of the ,code ,louis ,,xiv42 the title of the ,perfection du ,chrestien1 in which is included a portrait of ,cardinal ,richelieu1 ,a4 ,vitr1 #afdg1 folio2 that of the ,instruction du ,dauphin for ,cramoisy1 #afdj2 that of the works of ,st4 ,bernard for the ,royal ,printing ,house2 and1 perhaps the best of all1 the ,posies of ,pope ,urban ,,viii41 of which we here give a copy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,title engraved by ,claude ,mellan for ,urban ,,viii4's ,posies1 printed at the ,royal ,printing ,house1 in #afdb4 ,lyons did not remain far behind in the movement1 but how changed from its great reputation of the sixteenth century6 ,j4 de ,fornazeris engraved the frontispieces to ,justus ,lipsius1 published by ,horace ,cardon in #afac4 ,peter ,favre and ,audran imitated them4 ,c4 ,audran designed for ,claude ,landry the ,theologia ,naturalis of ,theophilus ,reynaud1 and the bookseller ,picquet ordered from him the title for the ,annales ,minorum in #afbh4 ,everywhere taste was modelled on the works of the capital1 to name only the principal centres1 ,rouen1 ,rheims1 ,sens1 down to ,venes1 a small town of ,tarn1 where ,william de ,nautonnier published in #afjc his curious book ,mcomtrie1 whose frontispiece was bordered by views of cities1 with an equestrian portrait of ,king ,henry4 ,and if we pass to ,germany1 we find ,mayence with mediocre engravings for titles according to the formula and process used elsewhere1 the title of the ,droit ,civil of ,aymar ,vailius1 that of the works of ,st4 ,bonaventura in #afji for the bookseller ,antoine ,hirat1 and that of the ,viridarium ,virtutm1 rather cleverly treated by the burin in #afaj4 ,what a period had passed since ,gutenberg1 ,fust1 and ,schoeffer6 ,there was still one ,yves ,schoeffer at ,mayence1 but only the name lived2 nothing more remained of the old printers of the other century4 ,it was the same at ,bamberg1 ,cologne1 ,nuremberg1 and ,basle1 in all the cities that made the honour of typography and the ,book in former times4 ,cologne was neither better nor worse favoured than others4 ,the booksellers ,boetzer1 ,kinck1 and ,de ,binghy had passable engravings for their titles2 and the ,commentaries of ,salmeron may be mentioned1 with portraits from the ,german originals of the fifteenth century4 ,at ,nuremberg there was a curious specimen treating of natural history by ,basil ,besler1 in which the artist gives the interior of a zoological cabinet of the time2 but the blocks and the typography of the city of ,koburger are wanting4 ,basle held its own later in relief engraving4 ,meantime there was a mediocre set of the ,dance of ,death on copper1 published by ,miegen1 #afba4 ,at ,jena and ,frankfort-on-the-,main were prosperous printing houses1 but engravings and ornamentation were neglected4 ,frankfort employed the frontispiece in the ,trait du ,commerce of ,sigismond ,scaccia1 published by ,zuner in #afdh2 it was divided into compartments1 in which the ,bourse1 the ,exchange1 and the port of the city were represented4 ,it is scarcely necessary to mention the ,italian cities which followed the movement4 ,venice from the middle of the sixteenth century had used engraved frontispieces1 among which was that of ,domenic ,zenoi for the ,portraits des ,hommes ,illustres of ,nicholas ,valegio4 ,in the same city ,james ,piccini worked for account of ,sgava in #afdh1 but he was equally at the service of ,roman publishers1 for whom he designed a number of titles4 ,along with him ,frederic ,greuter adorned the publications of ,alexander ,zanetti1 not without talent1 but without individuality4 ,bologna1 ,brescia1 ,florence1 and ,naples1 had no original sentiment2 they followed indifferently the manner of the day4 ,in ,holland1 artists were rather numerous4 ,the family of the ,passes designed vignettes for books1 and engraved frontispieces1 admirably studied and composed4 ,the clear and truly personal style of their works places their illustrations in the first rank among those of their time4 ,they had1 at the same time1 the genius that created and the intelligent burin that faithfully translated an idea4 ,they imagined with art the scenes that they depicted without at all copying their predecessors4 ,from #aeii1 the date of the publication of the ,hortus ,deliciarum1 one of their best works1 up to about #afbc1 they were in ,holland1 at ,arnheim and at ,amsterdam4 ,in #afbc we find one of them1 the most celebrated1 ,crispin the younger1 designing figures for the ,mange ,royal of ,pluvinel1 published by ,angelier in ,paris1 and for another edition1 with folding plates1 in #afbd for ,william ,lenoir1 at the sign of the ,white ,rose ,crowned4 ,this magnificent work1 in which the ,king1 ,louis ,,xiii41 is represented receiving lessons from the rider ,pluvinel1 had a third and more complete reimpression in #afbe with another publisher1 ,michael ,nivelle4 ,here we see the ,dutch accredited in ,france1 in ,paris1 in the city then the most ready to understand and pay for the works of eminent artists4 ,in #afbd ,gombauld published an ,endymion--,boileau later associated ,gombauld with other poets to declare him a maker of pitiable sonnets--,nicholas ,buon1 the bookseller named above1 undertook the publication1 and employed ,pass1 ,leonard ,gaultier1 and ,j4 ,picart to furnish plates in octavo size4 ,heavy and black as were these vignettes1 they do not the less make a good appearance in the edition of the forgotten poet2 and it is due to truth to recognise how much ,pass was above his collaborators4 ,the following year1 #afbe1 he engraved the ,dionysiaques of ,nonus1 for ,robert ,fouet1 and the ,roman des ,romans of ,du ,verdier1 comprising more than ten engravings1 in a very free and bold manner4 ,the ,berger ,extravagant and the ,acadmie de l',espe came in #afbh1 among numerous others4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,title of ,pluvinel's ,mange ,royal1 engraved by ,crispin ,pass in #afbd4 ,to speak truly1 ,crispin ,pass did not devote himself entirely to ,parisian publishers2 he always preserved interests in ,flanders so as to return there from time to time2 but he did not find in his own country the ready and assured sales of ,paris4 ,still the city of ,leyden had then one of the most renowned workshops of typography2 the ,elzevirs had commenced to make a good place for themselves among the printers of ,europe by the extreme correctness of their editions1 the distinctness of their work1 and their marvellous art in the taste and economy of the ,book4 ,in reality1 the sizes and characters of their books were very small1 but if the smallness of the page did not allow room for vignette or ornament1 they bore a certain practical elegance that was not without charm4 ,the origin of the printing house was due to ,louis ,elzevir1 who published in #aeib an edition of ,eutropius at ,leyden4 ,he left sons1 who associated themselves together1 and founded a house which was unrivalled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,title of the ,imitation of the ,elzevirs4 ,bonaventure ,elzevir1 grandson of ,louis1 was the most illustrious of this family1 so remarkably devoted to its art4 ,he took ,abraham as partner1 and together they put forth those little ,latin classics in duodecimo of which the value is now so great4 ,among others1 ,pliny issued from their presses in the year #afce1 in three volumes1 ,virgil in #afcf1 and ,cicero in #afdb4 ,to-day amateurs1 above all those afflicted with bibliomania1 hunt for unbound ,elzevirs1 because they have full margins4 ,from about #afcc to #afci these volumes were composed of paper of rather small size1 making a page of a hundred and thirty to a hundred and thirty-three millimetres2 from #afci onwards the paper was larger1 and the page from about a hundred and thirty-five to a hundred and thirty-seven4 ,one must be a book-lover to understand the interest attaching to these figures1 and employ his entire activity in the discovery of these undiscoverable books1 which are concealed as soon as they are met with4 ,one of the most esteemed of their works is the ,de ,imitatione of ,thomas ,kempis1 printed by ,john and ,daniel ,elzevir about #afec1 and known as the edition without date4 ,but as the association of ,john and ,daniel is known to have lasted from #afeb to #afed1 the date #afec appears to be very plausible4 ,we reproduce the entire title of this typographical bijou1 which merited a cleverer engraver4 ,the rarest of all the numerous ,elzevirs1 possibly by reason of the popularity of its subject1 is the ,pastissier ,franois1 ,louis and ,daniel ,elzevir1 ,amsterdam1 #afee1 of which ,m4 ,morgand had an uncut copy1 measuring a hundred and forty-three millimetres1 in #ahgh4 ,the ,benzon copy sold in #ahge for three thousand two hundred and fifty-five francs4 ,it is to be remarked that the ,elzevirs frequently avoided dating or even signing their books1 for reasons easy to comprehend4 ,publishing numerous works1 they were afraid of compromising themselves in the eyes of the powerful1 and they let them go forth without any trade mark4 ,these artists in typography were1 besides1 the most prudent and subtle of men4 ,working at a time when bookselling had become an acknowledged commerce1 and a trade requiring all the skill and resources of others1 they wisely availed themselves of these1 gathering for themselves honour and profit without having done more than seize their opportunity4 ,employing the characters of ,claude ,garamond1 of ,james ,sanlecques1 and the papers of ,angoulme1 ,m4 ,didot thence claims them as ,french publishers4 ,in ,france the ,elzevirs had no rivals2 but a fashion was introduced from the end of the sixteenth century of associating together publishers in the production of important and costly books4 ,there were1 among others1 the company of the ,grand ,navire in #afaj1 of the ,source in #afbb1 and of the ,soleil in #afbi4 ,in #afca several publishers united and founded a second company of the ,grand ,navire4 ,these were the two ,cramoisys1 ,sebastian and ,gabriel1 ,denis ,bchet1 ,john ,branchu1 ,denis ,moreau1 ,claude ,sonnius1 and ,denis ,thierry4 ,the associates took a ship as their mark1 but without putting their names on the masts1 as the original company of the ,grand ,navire had done4 ,they published1 at common expense and divided profits1 great works1 of which each one of them had the right of sale1 but of course reserving to themselves the right to publish such others as they pleased4 ,sebastian ,cramoisy passes as the chief1 the moral director of another company1 formed to publish the ,fathers of the ,church1 with the royal types1 a company affiliated to the ,grand ,navire and signed in #afch by ,denis ,moreau1 ,gille ,morel1 ,stephen ,richer1 ,claude ,sonnius1 and ,gabriel ,cramoisy4 ,but as regards their personal works1 if they had neither the perfection nor the aspect of those of ,froben1 ,aldus1 the ,estiennes1 or even of ,plantin1 they at least surpassed the ,french books of the time4 ,formerly syndic of the ,corporation in #afjb1 twenty-nine years before the constitution of the ,grand ,navire1 ,cramoisy was besides sheriff of ,paris1 and he exercised his trade in a shop in the ,rue ,st4 ,jacques which had been that of ,father ,nivelle1 the doyen of booksellers1 who died in #afjc at the age of eighty years4 ,the position of ,cramoisy made it natural for ,cardinal de ,richelieu to fix his eyes on him for the direction of the ,royal ,printing ,house4 ,this establishment1 founded by the ,king in #afdj1 was installed within the ,louvre1 in a long series of rooms which formed a workshop without rival in the world4 ,sublet des ,noyers was named superintendent1 ,trichet du ,fresne corrector2 and under this triple direction the presses commenced to work4 ,the first book was the ,imitation de ,jsus-,christ1 dated #afdj1 folio1 a fine book enough1 but not to be compared to the ,elzevir editions4 ,the types used in this book are attributed to ,claude ,garamond1 founder of the sixteenth century1 to whom are due the ,greek types of ,francis ,i4 ,with the ,royal ,printing ,house1 as often happens with ,state enterprises1 the cost was great1 and the return nothing4 ,only a few years after its foundation it had swallowed up nearly #djj1jjj livres1 a very heavy sum for a badly balanced treasury2 it had produced sixty or seventy volumes of moderate value2 and after ,cramoisy the management was so little in earnest that it turned the workshops into a stable1 called the little stable of the ,king1 at the commencement of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,plate taken from the ,lumire du ,cloistre4 ,copper plate by ,callot4 ,to return to the artists of the ,book under ,louis ,,xiii4 and ,cardinal ,richelieu1 we must go back a little1 before the foundation of the ,royal ,printing ,house1 and we shall find the ,french school of illustration at a time when ,callot was giving it a vigorous lift and trying to do away with its affected and hard style4 ,it must be acknowledged that ,callot was not a vignettist1 a special designer2 his art aimed higher1 and ordinarily succeeded better2 yet he did not disdain frontispieces1 and made them for the ,coustumier de ,lorraine1 the ,harpalice of ,bracciolini1 and for a crowd of others of which the enumeration would be tedious4 ,certain of his works passed into ,italy1 where they raised a little the debased level of the ,book4 ,then he adorned several works with etchings1 among them the ,lumire du ,cloistre1 published by ,francis ,langlois #afdf4 ,it was one of the symbolic and sententious works with which the public taste is never satiated1 and a kind of guide for the priest4 ,at the bottom of the little etching here given1 representing birds falling from a tree1 we read1-- ,ses petits hors du nid le courbeau jette en bas1 ,lorsque par leur blancheur ils lui sont dissemblables4 ,le bon prlat de mesme au cloistre n'admet pas ,ceux qui n'ont rien d'esgal ses moeurs vnrables4 ,callot also made another set of emblems on the life of the ,virgin ,mary1 and published in #afbj a series of prints in quarto for the tragedy of ,soliman of ,bonarelli1 for the account of ,cecconnelli4 ,france imposed herself on fallen ,italy1 she got her works dispersed there1 and if an engraver arose there1 he did not disdain to consecrate himself to ,france4 ,witness ,della ,bella1 who went from ,italy to ,france1 where he was taken under the protection of ,cardinal ,richelieu4 ,it was about the time of the establishment of the ,royal ,printing ,house1 and it was expected that employment would be found at once for him4 ,callot was the model chosen by the young ,italian artist1 and this choice might have been less happy4 ,della ,bella took from his master the philosophic vein1 the drollery of design1 which he exercised at first in humorous frontispieces1 among others that of ,scarron's works1 where nine fish-women1 taking the place of the ,muses1 dance around the poet4 ,but he passed from gay and pleasant to severe1 and made large pages of architecture for serious titles4 ,in #afdi he designed the plates for the large and undigested volume of ,valdor on ,louis ,,xiii41 published by ,antoine ,estienne at the ,royal ,printing ,house4 ,his success was not there2 ,della ,bella was a painter of groups1 of ornaments1 of subjects somewhat heavy and overdrawn1 but which1 after numerous transformations1 opened a new way to the vignettists of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,title of the ,manire ,universelle1 by ,desargues1 in #afdc1 by ,abraham ,bosse4 ,with ,abraham ,bosse the decoration of the ,book took a considerable extension4 ,numerous and charming ornamented letters1 heads of pages1 and tailpieces appear4 ,there are few artists that have done so much as he for graceful illustration and harmony between the vignette and the printed page4 ,his prodigious fecundity made him attempt every style2 and after the gaieties of the print in which he laughed with his contemporaries1 he adopted a grave air to trace more severe subjects on copper4 ,however1 the book entitled ,la ,manire ,universelle1 by ,desargues1 with numerous geometrical figures and an agreeable frontispiece1 bearing the dedication to the ,seigneur de ,noyers1 superintendent of the ,royal ,printing ,house1 was a critical work1 in which ,bosse1 under a serious standard1 did not spare an enemy4 ,we do not bear ill-will to the artist1 however1 for the following year he published fourteen plates for the ,suetonius printed at the ,louvre4 ,he successively designed plates for the ,histoire de ,st4 ,louis1 numerous vignettes for pious books1 figures for the ,pucelle of ,chapelain and for the ,larcins de la ,fortune4 ,he was always himself1 refined and ingenious1 whether in the most barren or the most complicated subjects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,print by ,abraham ,bosse representing the booksellers of the ,palace under ,louis ,,xiii4 ,he has left us in a celebrated print a representation of a bookseller's shop of his time4 ,it is for us an interesting page1 in which is shown simply and rather navely the picturesque side of these stores1 with the dealer and his wife selling new works to their customers4 ,the shop is compact1 and very much like the open-air stalls of to-day2 posting-bills above the shelves indicate the new books2 and if the inscriptions given by ,bosse be credited1 the ,palace dealer offered his books with singular eclecticism3 ,boccaccio1 ,aretin1 the ,astre of ,d',urf1 the ,bible1 and ,machiavelli4 ,in the hands of the woman is seen the romance ,marianne3 ,icy les cavaliers les plus adventureux ,en lisant les romans s'animent combattre2 ,et de leur passion les amants langoureux ,flattent les mouvements par des vers de thtre1 says the text of ,bosse4 ,what was commonly done then is still done1 shopping and rummaging the stalls1 and those of the ,palace were attractive4 ,if we credit ,sauval1 the great number of booksellers1 in the middle of the century1 was due to the wits of the ,hotel de ,rambouillet4 ,the passion for novelty1 for recent works1 had produced that quantity of publishers1 he says1 that we have seen on the ,pont ,neuf1 and that we still see to-day at the ,palace and the ,university1 but of which the number is so multiplied in all these places that in the ,palace they count more than other dealers2 and as to the neighbourhood of the ,university1 they are obliged1 in order to lodge the rest1 to extend the ancient bounds from ,st4 ,yves to the river 7,sauval1 ,antiquits de ,paris1 viii41 #ced74 ,in fact1 each year saw an increase in the number of publishers in corporation1 with syndicate and adjuncts4 ,under the reign of ,louis ,,xiii41 the single year #afaj had fifty to take rank1 and among them ,antoine ,vitr1 who was to become the most illustrious of his contemporaries4 ,but1 as there were no more than six printers1 it may be inferred that all the rest were booksellers1 in the true sense of the word1 of those who encumbered afterwards the great salle of which ,sauval speaks4 ,antoine ,vitr was syndic in ,may1 #afdc1 on the accession of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,he had four adjuncts4 ,with him the ,book marked the solemn style that the commencement of the century had given to it4 ,royal printer for the ,oriental languages from #afba1 he undertook a ,syriac work1 the first that was attempted in ,paris4 ,the project of a ,polyglot ,bible gave him the idea of acquiring for the ,king the ,oriental manuscripts and matrices of ,savary de ,brves4 ,the ,king left to him the care of negotiating the business1 but did not reimburse him without numerous difficulties1 in the midst of which the printer was made to lose the means of conveniently continuing his trade4 ,the advocate ,le ,jay charging himself with the enormous expenses necessitated by the ,polyglot ,bible1 it was composed in the hope that ,cardinal ,richelieu would pay the cost4 ,he was willing to do so1 but required that his name should figure on the book2 and as ,le ,jay1 an independent man1 formally opposed it1 ,vitr met with ill-will from the ,minister1 which increased from day to day4 ,in #afde the impression was finished1 but ,le ,jay was ruined1 and if we admire the paper1 the type1 and the extraordinary size of the nine volumes of the ,polyglot ,bible1 we find in it so many faults1 errors1 and misprints that it has fallen to nearly nothing1 hardly being worth its binding4 ,there were terrible mortifications in the business1 and ,vitr had to submit to them more than any one4 ,nevertheless he did not let his presses stand still1 and he published successively ,arabic1 ,turkish1 and ,persian works4 ,his action against the ,savary heirs1 as representing the ,king1 in the acquisition mentioned above1 continued also after the impression of the ,bible1 and hindered his progress4 ,he struggled on2 and the assembly of clergy1 of which he was the printer1 sought to help him out of his difficulties4 ,the matter being once terminated1 the ,cardinal being dead1 and ,vitr having been named by ,colbert director of the ,royal ,printing ,house in place of ,cramoisy1 he died in his turn1 and was later accused of having destroyed the types and matrices of the ,polyglot ,bible1 so that they should not be used after him4 ,this fable1 long accredited1 has since been ascertained to be false1 for the punches and matrices passed to the ,royal ,library1 thence to the ,royal ,printing ,house1 reorganised in #afia4 ,antoine ,vitr1 in spite of his misfortunes1 was a great personage4 ,he was painted by ,champagne and engraved by ,morin1 as was ,richelieu himself4 ,the portrait was reproduced in the book of ,m4 ,delaborde1 ,la ,gravure 7p4 #ahi74 ,such was the man whom we meet at the beginning of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 as syndic of booksellers2 and it was by no means a sinecure1 a canonry giving honour and profit1 quite the other way4 ,with the ,draconian rules on the subject1 the syndic assumed a heavy burden towards the ,king1 as well as towards his kinsmen4 ,religious quarrels envenomed questions1 and the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes was to have for its immediate corollary new and more severe royal ordinances4 ,the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 saw the zenith of engraving with the burin1 but not that of printing or illustration4 ,doubtless it would be puerile to pretend that typography had not made any material progress2 it had done so in engraving and in composition2 work was done more quickly1 because the presses had been made more perfect4 ,but the wise harmony of the old printers1 their sure taste1 even in their old irregular blocks1 was no longer there to form a graceful and charming whole1 which is to modern precision as a picture by ,van ,eyck is to a chromo-lithograph4 ,under ,louis ,,xiv41 titles became regular1 following1 as we have said above1 and modelling themselves on1 the affected and peruked people who read them4 ,all art entered on this path of sublimity and grandeur4 ,the painter ,le ,brun is the highest exponent of this false ,olympus1 where an heroic pose became necessary for the most humble movements4 ,made popular by engraving by ,pesne1 ,audran1 ,poilly1 ,edelinck1 and a hundred others1 this tendency overran everything3 art and industry1 painting and tapestry1 illustration and typography itself4 ,all was grand1 in reverse of other times1 when all was small and mean4 ,the embellishments of the ,book were full of gods in perukes and goddesses in armour1 ,louis ,,xiv4 as ,apollo1 as the sun illuminating the world4 ,nec pluribus impar was not the device of one man2 it was the mighty and glorious cry of a whole people1 from great to small1 from the sublime painter to the modest printer4 ,ordinarily these exaggerations are not useful to the arts4 ,here they were4 ,but1 for the matter that specially occupies us1 it does not appear that the ,book was much advanced4 ,it approached a marvellous epoch of a delicate and graceful art2 but it did not find its form2 it dragged painfully after the ,plantinian works1 heavily throwing its etchings and burins in the middle of texts1 gross and in bad taste4 ,yet taste in literature had an onward tendency2 ,molire and ,la ,fontaine produced on their contemporaries the effect that in our day the naturalists have produced on the romanticists2 but this was not for long4 ,majesty recovered its rights with ,bossuet1 ,boileau1 and the others4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,tailpiece of ,sbastien ,leclerc for the ,promenade de ,st4 ,germain4 ,sbastien ,leclerc was one of the rare artists of the end of the seventeenth century who dreamed of the vignette in the midst of this invasion of pompous commonplace4 ,successor of ,callot in manner1 induced by the publishers1 he began this style with a romance of ,la ,calprende1 and continued with the ,promenade de ,st4 ,germain of ,louis le ,laboureur1 bailie of ,montmorency1 of whom ,boileau said such curious things4 ,this is one of the rarest books of ,leclerc1 and we reproduce one of the pages1 with a charming tailpiece1 which comes very near those of the eighteenth century4 ,there was1 moreover1 a charm in this ingenious designer2 he adorned the works of his contemporaries with graceful vignettes and decorations full of suppleness4 ,it may be believed1 besides1 that he did not remain behind his confrres in figure composition or allegorical and ,divine emblems4 ,his art did not throw off the errors of the existing school2 he was content not to copy any one and to make his works truly his own4 ,such were1 for example1 the vignettes of the ,histoire de ,turenne1 where the heads of the chapters1 the ornamented letters1 and the tailpieces1 harmoniously agree1 and make the book1 a little heavy in impression1 a most agreeable work4 ,leclerc then found himself ready to design vignettes for the works of ,racine for the publisher1 ,claude ,barbin1 another name frequently encountered in ,boileau4 ,the title of ,vol4 ii4 merits attention4 ,the same year of this last publication1 #afgf1 ,sbastien ,leclerc illustrated the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid for ,benserade1 the engraving of which cost the ,king more than #aj1jjj livres4 ,thus adorned1 the book had not a bad appearance1 but a satirist of the time1 ,hardin very probably1 made on it this quatrain3-- ,mais quant moi j'en trouve tout fort beau3 ,papier1 dorure1 images1 caractre1 ,hormis les vers qu'il fallait laisser faire ,a ,la ,fontaine4 ,it may be imagined what an engraver could produce working from #afej and dying in #agae1 that is1 a life of work the longest that could be hoped for4 ,leclerc was the absolute contemporary of the ,king4 ,he died1 like him1 at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 leaving work widely scattered among books1 funeral orations1 and placards4 ,after the example of ,callot and ,bosse1 he did not disdain satire4 ,one of his prettiest vignettes served to illustrate some pamphlet of ,richesource against the journalists of his time2 it represents a dandy of about #afgi offering his gazette4 ,by the side of this unrivalled antagonist it is permitted to place ,lepautre1 twenty years older than ,leclerc1 but whose studies had been principally on architecture4 ,in the moments that he left his special work he devoted himself to frontispieces and vignettes2 nevertheless1 although he had before him the charming designs of ,leclerc1 he confined himself to a cold and hard manner1 keeping1 besides1 as much as possible to titles1 in which his particular talent could find scope4 ,he designed also the ,chartreux ,missal of #afgi1 the ,gallia ,christiana after ,marot1 the ,dioptrique ,oculaire of ,p4 ,chrubin1 engraved by ,edelinck1 and a thousand other works of small repute4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,small figure of ,sbastien ,leclerc for ,richesource's pamphlet4 ,very different was ,francis ,chauveau1 who1 without having the delicacy of ,sbastien ,leclerc or his art of arrangement1 treated at least with grace little figures and illustrations4 ,certainly there is an enormous distance between these correct and commonplace engraved plates and the delightful wood engravings of the time of ,geoffroy ,tory1 for example4 ,but1 be their worth what it may1 they suited very well2 and even with ,molire they did not make such a bad figure4 ,chauveau was associated with many of the works of ,leclerc1 who caused him often to be less heavy1 inasmuch as ,leclerc corrected in engraving many of his compositions4 ,it was so with ,molire1 and still more with ,racine in the plate of the ,plaideurs1 in which ,chauveau revealed himself a precursor of the eighteenth century4 ,unhappily he did not always follow this manner4 ,successively1 and with various luck1 he illustrated ,alaric1 ,andromaque1 and the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid for ,benserade1 with ,leclerc2 the ,pucelle of ,chapelain1 and the ,tragdies of ,racine1 to which ,le ,brun did not disdain to put his hand4 ,in short1 the connecting link between the beginning of the seventeenth and that of the eighteenth century in the development of illustration is ,sbastien ,leclerc4 ,he had known the artists of the first period2 he was to see at his death appear one of the precursors of the vignettists of the following century1 ,claude ,gillot4 ,thanks to him1 overburdened titles and unskilful vignettes underwent a gradual transformation4 ,in the delicacy and tenuity of his designs may be seen the dominant note of the eighteenth century1 coquetry1 and ,choffard is divined4 ,he was nearly the only one who did not fall into the exaggerations of the engravers of the time2 he kept beside them without touching them1 and preciously preserved his own well-accentuated personality4 ,by the smallness and slenderness of his figures1 ,leclerc recalls somewhat the school of ,fontainebleau2 but he is above all the reflection of ,callot1 a ,lorrainer like himself4 ,in ,holland1 a ,frenchman1 ,bernard ,picart1 son of ,stephen and pupil of ,leclerc1 was making a great name as an illustrator4 ,he established himself as a print-seller at ,amsterdam at the sign of ,l',etoile1 and successively designed vignettes for many works1 among others the ,boileau of #agah4 ,his vignettes and tailpieces1 without possessing either the spirit of ,leclerc or the grace of the eighteenth century1 express an ingenious and inventive art that had broken with the strained traditions of preceding epochs4 ,from these two artists the decoration of the ,book rapidly advanced4 ,the form is found1 and charming designers are not wanting to apply it4 ,the troubled state of ,england during the greater part of the seventeenth century no doubt accounts for the fact that the art of the ,book made but very little progress4 ,theological controversies1 the persecutions by the ,puritans1 and1 above all1 the great civil war and its antecedents and results1 gave rise to a flood of publications of an ephemeral kind1 which from their nature were hurriedly produced2 and there was little room for pure literature and art4 ,in the early part of the century1 under the influence which ,elizabeth left1 and which ,james fostered1 some important works were issued1 with finely engraved illustrations2 but wood engraving declined further and further1 until it was artistically dead1 to be revived in the next century4 ,the works of the numerous poets and dramatists were printed in quarto1 and collected editions of them in folio4 ,thus were issued the works of ,shakespeare1 first collected by ,jaggard and ,blount1 #afbc1 folio1 with an engraved portrait by ,droeshout1 the faithfulness of which was vouched in an opposite page of verse signed by ,ben ,jonson4 ,don ,quixote first appeared in an ,english dress in #afab-bj1 published by ,e4 ,blount in quarto2 and ,jaggard1 ,blount's partner in the ,shakespeare1 published ,boccaccio's ,decameron1 in two volumes folio1 #afbj4 ,among other notable works of the early part of the century were ,drayton's ,polyolbion1 #afac2 ,chapman's ,homer1 #afaa-ae1 folio1 three volumes2 ,lord ,bacon1 whose essays and other single publications appeared in the seventeenth1 to be collected as his ,works in the next century2 and ,william ,prynne1 whose ,histrio ,mastrix1 #afcc1 so offended ,charles ,i4 by its references to the ,queen and the court ladies1 that the author had to undergo a severe and degrading punishment4 ,many of these works were illustrated with meritorious engravings on steel and copper by ,w4 ,hollar1 ,p4 ,lombart1 ,w4 ,marshall1 ,hole1 ,w4 ,pass1 ,w4 ,faithorne1 and ,r4 ,vaughan4 ,so that here were all the materials for the foundation of an ,english school1 to be cruelly broken up shortly afterwards by the distractions of civil warfare4 ,in #afaa ,robert ,barker first printed the ,authorised ,version of the ,holy ,bible1 which has been more often reprinted than any other book1 and which exists to this day as the great standard of the ,english language4 ,the taste for books of travel which arose in the last century was largely increased by the voyages and discoveries of the ,english in ,north ,america and the subsequent ,puritan exodus there4 ,these early accounts of ,virginia and ,new ,england1 many of which are tracts of a few leaves only1 now command fabulous prices4 ,the great collection of voyages under the name of ,purchas3 his ,pilgrimes1 was printed in five folio volumes1 #afbe-f1 while ,de ,bry1 ,hulsius1 and ,linschoten were enriching the world with their collections of travels1 printed in ,germany and ,holland4 ,all of these works were adorned with finely engraved plates1 those to ,purchas being engraved by ,elstrack1 and1 besides1 it had a famous map of the world1 engraved by ,hondius4 ,the controversial spirit engendered by the religious quarrels of the century and by the great civil war gave incessant work to the printers2 and the many tracts and pamphlets thus produced were frequently illustrated by rude and coarse woodcuts1 of no value from an artistic point of view1 but curious from the indications they afford of the costumes and manners of the time4 ,the first edition of ,walton's ,angler was printed by ,r4 ,marriott in #afec1 #afmo1 with plates in the text1 engraved on steel by ,lombart4 ,butler's ,hudibras appeared in #affc-gh1 and ,milton's ,paradise ,lost in #affg1 quarto4 ,fuller's ,worthies of ,england was printed #affb1 folio4 ,we have roughly mentioned the principal ,english books of the century1 and next approach the revival of literature and art in the eighteenth century4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,book ,,in ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,the regency--,publishers at the beginning of the eighteenth century--,illustrators in ,france2 ,gillot--,the school of ,watteau and ,boucher--,cars--,the younger ,cochin2 his principal works in vignettes--,french art in ,england2 ,gravelot--,eisen--,choffard--,the ,baisers of ,dorat2 the ,contes of ,la ,fontaine--the publisher ,cazin and the special literature of the eighteenth century--,the younger ,moreau and his illustrations--,the ,revolution--,the school of ,david--,duplessis-,bertaux--,the ,book in ,germany2 ,chodowiecki--,in ,england2 ,boydell and ,french artists--,caslon and ,baskerville--,english books with illustrations--,wood engraving in the eighteenth century2 the ,papillons--,printing offices in the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--,letter by ,cochin for the ,mmoires d' ,artillerie of ,suvirey de ,st4 ,remy4 ,like experience has shown us in our time1 but in another manner1 the beginning of the eighteenth century produced1 in the manners and tastes of the ,french1 an unconscious but tenacious reaction4 ,it seemed as if the conceptions of romanticism had lasted long enough1 and that the cycle of ,middle ,age chevaliers had passed away1 and that a return to what is called nature was effected in literature and art4 ,at the death of ,louis ,,xiv41 ,olympus and its gods1 majestic poses and suns1 had become wearisome4 ,by a little half-open door1 gaiety escaped from its prison and fled4 ,for the ,book that door was the hand of ,sbastien ,leclerc4 ,the ancient school was replaced4 ,constrained during three quarters of a century1 ,french manners began to be joyous under the regency of the ,duc d',orleans4 ,if the representatives of another age still lived1 if ,rigaud always painted his portraits in peruke1 there were new-comers1 enlivened by the new fashions1 less solemn and more bewitching4 ,le ,brun was then far in the past1 and as amusing to the ladies of the regency as are now to us the fashions of the ,second ,empire4 ,the ,book1 after its manner1 followed the movement1 and gradually found the elements of its decoration in the tendencies of the day4 ,small sizes were multiplied1 types showed elegance1 and vignettes became more and more agreeable and intellectual4 ,amateurs had their ex-libris engraved4 ,the smallest pamphlets were covered with ornamental letters1 vignettes1 and tailpieces1 already very clever4 ,costume also1 in its shorter and lighter form1 gave to designers a means of agreeably composing a page of illustration and disseminating fancy in the figures4 ,these revolutions worked themselves simply from day to day1 as taste became more pronounced and exacting4 ,the commerce of the ,book was still extending from the end of the preceding century2 and if the number of printers was limited and arrested by certain somewhat hard laws1 production in ,paris was enormous4 ,among regulations that weighed most heavily on publishers figured the obligation put upon them by the ordinance of #agac to deposit eight copies of illustrated books4 ,in #agbe the ,king issued other regulations to affirm the rights of the university against the corporation1 forcing the masters to assist in a body at the processions of the ,sorbonne and to offer on the ,day of the ,purification a candle to the rector4 ,in spite of this ordinance1 more religious than useful to commerce1 the fashion of vignettes increased4 ,the principal shops were searched1 as they are still1 for novelties2 the ,rue ,st4 ,jacques and the ,quai des ,augustins1 where they were grouped1 were resorted to4 ,the most important booksellers in #agbg were ,coignard1 the ,barbous--who essayed afterwards1 with ,lengley ,dufresnoy1 to copy the ,elzevirs1--,cavalier1 ,robustel1 ,fournier1 ,ballard1 and ,d',houry4 ,of the two last1 ,d',houry printed the calendars1 and ,ballard had the privilege for music4 ,another1 ,leonord1 published the books of the ,dauphin4 ,at these and other publishers'1 recent works were examined1 those who did not buy gave their advice and took ideas1 and so fashion slowly formed itself4 ,it was thus that ,houdart de la ,motte published with ,g4 ,dupuis in #agai a collection of fables1 with illustrations of ,claude ,gillot1 which was the talk at the booksellers'4 ,in this book all was original3 the author1 who had had1 five years before1 the eccentric idea of translating the ,iliad without knowing a word of ,greek2 the text1 a kind of imitation of ,la ,fontaine1 without salt or savour2 the size1 quarto1 admirably printed by ,dupuis1 in the ,rue ,st4 ,jacques1 with plates by ,coypel1 ,mass1 and1 above all1 the charming vignettes of ,gillot1 the most pleasing and clever of all his collaborators1 a sort of ,callot fallen into the eighteenth century1 and who ought to take the first place by birthright4 ,gillot has been called1 not without reason1 the last pagan of the ,renaissance2 and this pagan had the honour to give us ,watteau4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--,vignette by ,gillot for the ,chien et le ,chat1 fable by ,houdart de la ,motte1 in #agai4 ,the ,count de ,caylus tells the story4 ,gillot had quitted the pencil for the etching needle on seeing the work of his pupil4 ,he had no reason to complain2 his pictures were of no value1 and his prints gave other artists the idea of imitating them4 ,the whole ,french school of the eighteenth century may have had its origin in this forgotten book1 illustrated by the master of ,watteau4 ,in fact1 in the manner of the little etching here given we may easily perceive the coquetry and affectation that were later the dominant tone of vignettes4 ,for1 it may well be said1 the graceful1 feminine1 and arch manner of which we speak was1 above all1 conventional and false4 ,in opposition to the designers and engravers of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century1 who reproduced naturally scenes of daily life in ideal conceptions1 it came1 through the moral education of the artists1 that they put forth the ideal in the most ordinary things of life4 ,shepherds were no longer the gross1 rustic peasants that we find in primitive ,flemish paintings or in the ,hours of ,simon ,vostre2 they were coxcombs1 pomaded and adorned with ribbons1 playing the bagpipes1 and making love to the shepherdesses of the court4 ,at first it was ,watteau who influenced all the engravers in the pretty and the smart2 ,boucher did the rest2 and fatally the ,book followed1 and followed impetuously1 surpassing1 if possible1 the painted works4 ,if the severe poses1 the grave touch1 of the preceding century are no longer found1 they often go a little far in the contrary sense4 ,it may be well said here that the arts are ordinarily the result of the manners of an epoch4 ,the system of ,law was not without influence on the entire eighteenth century1 by the terrible manner in which he upset fortunes1 awoke appetites1 gave rein to aspirations hitherto held in check4 ,claude ,gillot1 the designer1 was one of the first victims of the ,scotch banker2 he lost his fortune on the ,exchange2 but who may say what his artistic ambition dreamed of in the midst of all these disorders8 ,one thing is certain3 that ,watteau1 his pupil1 broke off very short with the style of the seventeenth century4 ,laurent ,cars was the engraver who multiplied the compositions of ,boucher1 and made them the fashion4 ,he engraved also1 after the painter of shepherds and nymphs1 illustrations to ,molire1 the most agreeable that there are for style and spirit4 ,in engraving certain works of ,lemoyne1 ,cars did not completely desert the ancient school4 ,he appears at the beginning of the eighteenth century as if divided between two manners each equally possible to him4 ,the work of these engravers was almost exclusively in etching1 biting with acid a copper plate covered with varnish1 on which the drawing was made by means of a point4 ,this process1 always previously used for sketches1 served also for finishing vignettes1 which up to then had been finished by the burin4 ,the suppleness of the work was greater1 and the artist remained more himself than he could be with the stiff cutting instrument of the seventeenth century4 ,the sizes of books had not yet all come to octavo or duodecimo4 ,the works of ,molire published by ,prault in #agcd in six volumes quarto1 under the direction of ,marc ,antoine ,joly1 give the idea of an important work1 not at all of theatrical pieces4 ,to tell the truth1 these somewhat exaggerated dimensions allow artists more room for illustration2 later1 when smaller forms predominated1 text and engravings were so compressed that they were not always clear and readable to every eye2 but the quarto was not graceful1 it was not in harmony with the finikin1 the pastoral pieces1 then presented1 and it had to disappear as a current size in illustrated publications4 ,the class of artisans employed on the ,book is not identical in the eighteenth century with that of printers and publishers4 ,in the beginning1 as we have seen1 the cutters of wood blocks and the printers were often the same people1 preparing their characters or their blocks1 and afterwards putting them under the press4 ,large printing offices had very quickly changed that4 ,each particular work had its special workman4 ,typography had its type-founders1 compositors1 forwarders1 inkers1 and pressmen4 ,in the eighteenth century this was complicated by designers1 engravers1 plate-printers1 and these different professions occupied themselves on the ,book in manipulating the sheets in their turn4 ,in the midst of this crowd1 the designers and engravers1 esteemed as was their collaboration1 were not the most honoured4 ,their homes often reflected the effect of their life as clever artists1 quick to spend the money earned during the week2 and we shall have occasion to name some of the more miserable among them4 ,the booksellers1 on the contrary1 had become great personages4 ,in the preceding chapter we have seen ,cramoisy and ,vitr1 to name only them1 acquire the greatest honours1 the latter painted by ,philip de ,champagne1 with many others lords of the court4 ,in the eighteenth century there were ,brunet1 ,ballard1 ,mariette1 ,chardon1 ,didot1 and a host of others1 during the time of ,watteau1 ,boucher1 and ,cars1 of which we shall shortly speak2 and these several publishers had houses of their own1 and furnished shops and printing offices with the best apparatus4 ,saved from falling into negligences by royal regulations on printing1 they composed with admirable characters1 on paper of the first order1 imperishable works2 and1 usual consequence of their high situation1 they paid the artists badly charged with their work4 ,it would be long and tedious to enter into this matter in detail4 ,they made progress by slow degrees1 and in good time they marvellously united copper plate engraving to printed text1 so marvellously1 that in comparing their works to the wood blocks of the sixteenth century1 it may be asked which of the two styles is superior in elegance and good taste4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,vignette for ,daphnis et ,chloe by ,cochin1 for ,coustelier's edition4 ,one of the ancestors of this group of vignettists was the younger ,cochin1 who had engraved the plate of the monks in the fables of ,houdart1 illustrated by ,gillot4 ,cochin1 in spite of his passion for allegory and his very marked taste for affectation1 gave1 it may be said1 with the designer-engraver ,st4 ,aubin1 an enormous impulse to the art of adorning books4 ,from the beginning of his career he worked for the publishers1 composing frontispieces1 ornamented letters1 and tailpieces1 or transferring to copper the drawings of others4 ,singular type of artist1 besides1 educated1 well brought up1 epicurean and spendthrift1 friend of great lords1 and protected by ,madame de ,pompadour4 ,when he travelled in ,italy with her young brother ,abel ,poisson1 ,cochin did everything1 was ready at the least request1 inventing curious menus1 giving representations of ftes1 and yet finding the time to decorate books and design vignettes profusely4 ,he worked chiefly for ,jombert1 a sort of learned bookseller1 ,king's printer for the artillery1 who dates from ,july1 #agcf4 ,jombert was visited by painters4 ,he gave little private soires1 which ,cochin attended1 and where he daily made numerous friends4 ,it was in this house1 of so special a character1 and1 it may be said1 so little artistic at first sight1 that ,cochin invented his best frontispieces1 among them that of the ,calcul ,diffrentiel1 that of the ,astronomie ,physique1 and the plates of the ,mthode de ,dessin1 after ,boucher4 ,he was one of the first to produce engraved titles1 with which the publisher ,prault ornamented his dainty volumes1 and which were imitated1 up to the end of the eighteenth century1 by all the illustrators who followed4 ,in that to the works of ,madame ,deshoulires the letter itself is engraved4 ,since then the open letter has been copied in typography4 ,these vignettes were used many times by publishers1 sometimes simply effacing the inscription1 sometimes reproducing the original design by a different artist4 ,the boy with the swan had decorated in #agdd a ,jerusalem ,delivered in ,italian1 by the same publisher1 ,prault2 it was then engraved by ,aveline4 ,fessard engraved the second plate1 which is here reproduced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4--,title-page engraved by ,fessard after ,cochin for the works of ,madame ,deshoulires1 #agdg4 ,nearly all the frontispieces of the ,book with vignettes of the eighteenth century preserve this arrangement3 an ornamented and draped border1 with garlands of roses1 symbols1 and cupids1 in the middle the title1 in red and black1 composed in open letter1 often a scroll with the address of the publisher1 but rarely a mark4 ,it was the time of little winged cupids1 goddesses1 and gods4 ,the goddesses were the favourites of the kings1 ,madame de ,pompadour or the princesses1 but rarely the virtuous ,marie ,leczinska1 too homely and too much ignored to tempt the artists2 the kings or the princes were the gods4 ,after ,jombert1 ,prault1 and ,coustellier1 ,cochin worked for ,franois ,didot1 syndic of the printers1 for whom he prepared a set of illustrations to ,molire4 ,unfortunately ,didot died in #ageg1 and the project fell with him4 ,of the work of ,cochin there only remains the set of ,tartufe etchings in octavo4 ,in the vortex into which he was plunged1 he successively illustrated the works of ,rousseau1 published at ,brussels1 quarto2 those of ,boileau1 published by ,david and ,durand1 octavo2 and ,henault's ,history of ,france1 in the same size1 with numerous vignettes4 ,one of these should be noted in a book treating of printing2 it is that in which ,cochin pretends to show to his contemporaries the interior of a workshop in #adgj4 ,without doubt the sketch of this print was taken in one of the houses frequented by him--at ,jombert's1 ,didot's1 or ,david and ,durand's--for that room in which compositors are working and printed sheets drying was not an invention of ,cochin1 and served to reproduce a printing office of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,vignette taken from ,p4 ,corneille's ,thtre1 by ,gravelot4 ,with ,cochin soon worked a number of designers and aqua-fortists1 too prudent to lose the opportunity4 ,the fashion arrived for books beribboned1 festooned1 and flowered4 ,hubert ,franois ,gravelot had carried to ,london this style of new works1 which he knew how to decorate1 in his manner1 better than any one1 with letters1 figures1 and tailpieces4 ,he did not engrave much himself1 leaving this work to lesser artists1 and contenting himself with subtle invention and graceful subjects4 ,with ,eisen1 ,cochin1 and ,moreau1 he is the ,french artist in the sense of the time1 free1 bold1 and ingenious1 but perhaps a little out of place in ,england4 ,he published his plates to the ,decameron in #ageg1 one of the most curious of his sets of plates1 and a hundred various vignettes4 ,on his return to ,france he designed the ,thtre of ,p4 ,corneille1 from which the ,galerie de ,palais is here reproduced1 on account of the illustration of bookselling which it gives4 ,in #agfd the large salon of the ,palace was still1 as in the time of ,abraham ,bosse1 a place where shops were fitted up and the new books discussed4 ,side by side with the dressmakers and merchants of every category1 the bookseller offers to his customer the recent products of ,parisian presses4 ,certain works were sold under cover and not shown2 there is here something to pique the curiosity of unoccupied young men who strolled about and prolonged their stay in the galleries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--;,border designed by ,choffard in #ageh4 ,eisen has a simplicity1 a good taste1 and a special and singularly perfect economy of artistic effect combined with typography4 ,it appears hard that the designer had no consultative voice in the choice of impression and disposition of the ,book4 ,the union of the two forces1 the vignette and the composition1 is so close that it may be believed one was made for the other1 neither venturing to assert itself4 ,in the pretty and elaborate inventions of the artists reigned a lackadaisical affectation that was delightfully becoming2 the rock-work1 which it still had1 suited admirably the borders of the first page4 ,the ,lettres d'une ,peruvienne has a very agreeable title1 but little different1 on the whole1 from that of ,madame ,deshoulires1 by ,cochin4 ,it is the same with the ,lettres ,turques1 published at ,amsterdam in #agej1 and generally in all the frontispieces signed by him4 ,as to the other decorations of the ,book1 there were also a number of ingenious artists1 confusing cupids and flowers1 imposing blazons1 delighting in playing with accumulated difficulties4 ,under this assuredly involuntary but real direction1 publications attained proportions of luxury and coquetry until then unknown4 ,the volume of ,baisers of ,dorat would not have lived but for ,eisen and the delightful fancies with which he adorned it4 ,at the same time1 we find ,choffard1 another designer and etcher of much repute1 and sought after by the booksellers4 ,under his pencil the vignette became a chef-d'oeuvre1 the tailpiece was a delightful compound of judicious and sportive ornament1 the taste for which grew more and more4 ,from delicate foliage are suspended roses1 shepherds' pipes1 lyres1 and zithers4 ,with the zephyrs scrolls or ribbons float1 carried by winged cupids4 ,the initial letters are real pictures1 of such fineness and precision that the difficulties of their reproduction prevent us from putting them before the reader4 ,when the fermiers gnraux1 those great amateur financiers of the last century1 conceived the idea of an edition of the ,contes of ,la ,fontaine at their expense1 their eyes naturally fell upon the artists best prepared to illustrate the inimitable fancies of the great poet1 ,eisen and ,choffard4 ,the first had for his task the composition of the plates1 ,choffard the general decoration4 ,ficquet was added for the portrait of the bonhomme ,la ,fontaine--,ficquet1 whose specialty in this genre was dazzling in its delicacy and spirit2 ,diderot wrote a short introduction2 the composition was confided to a printer of the first order1 and it was put on sale by ,barbou4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--,vignette by ,eisen for the ,quiproquo in the ,contes of ,la ,fontaine1 in the edition of the fermiers gnraux4 ,it is not a book to be recommended from a moral point of view1 but the typographical art1 joined to that of designers and engravers1 never obtained a more complete success3 the size in octavo1 the impression clear1 united with the dimensions of the plates in a harmonious elegance1 well calculated to please the three rich personages and the joyous amateurs to whom the ,contes address themselves4 ,true1 ,eisen has dressed the greater part of the characters in the costume of his time1 which is a little hurtful to one's feelings to-day2 it may be imagined1 however1 that it was ,la ,fontaine who was mistaken1 so that these delicate1 risky tales appear to be created for the seigneurs of the time of ,louis ,,xv4 ,all the special literature sought for then by rich people had not the value of the ,contes4 ,there was at ,rheims a person1 who has to-day become the mode1 as he was in the time of ,louis ,,xvi41 who sold under cover a quantity of licentious books of the better kind1 adorned with figures by ,eisen1 ,marillier1 or ,cochin2 this was ,cazin1 an artist in his way1 but whose good name suffered under a scandalous trial4 ,an order of the ,council of ,state in #agfd enjoined him to cease his trade in the ,place ,royale at ,rheims1 where he sold his particular merchandise4 ,it appears that the sentence was not without appeal1 for we find ,cazin at ,paris about #aghe4 ,he was one of those who were ruined by the ,revolution1 after he had popularised the editions known as ,petits ,formats1 printed by ,valade1 of ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--;,card of the publisher ,prault1 uncle by marriage of ,moreau le ,jeune4 ,we have come to the most beautiful illustrated books of the eighteenth century1 and to the illustrious artists of whom we shall speak in good time should be added the younger ,moreau and ,st4 ,aubin1 the former nephew by marriage of the publisher ,prault1 and therefrom a decorator of the ,book1 the other thrown by ,gravelot into full work1 and rapidly becoming the most subtle and adroit of the etchers of the time4 ,moreau did not wait long after his marriage before setting to work4 ,he began with ornaments destined for the ,histoire de ,france of ,president ,henault2 then he composed1 in his own personal manner1 titles and tailpieces for his uncle4 ,in the ,book he is the propagator of garlands of roses1 which he grouped with an ideal grace2 he twined them in the borders of his frontispieces1 and put them judiciously in his tailpieces4 ,he excelled in inventing subjects referring to the text which were not commonplace ornaments suitable for anything4 ,the tailpiece on p4 #bjb1 taken from the works of ,molire1 brings forcibly to mind the ,mdecin malgre ,lui1 with its wood-cutter unmercifully beaten with sticks and muffled in a scientific robe4 ,it is the same with other illustrations1 that cannot be displaced from the position assigned to them by the artist without disappointment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,tailpiece from the ,mdecin malgre ,lui1 by ,moreau le ,jeune4 ,the year #aggc1 which saw the publication by ,de ,bret of the works of ,molire1 may perhaps be considered as that in which the ,french ,book of the eighteenth century reached its culminating point4 ,m4 de ,laborde1 first valet de chambre of the ,king and governor of the ,louvre1 published with ,de ,lormel1 printer to the ,academy of ,music1 his celebrated collection of ,chansons1 dedicated to the young ,dauphiness ,marie ,antoinette1 and partly illustrated by the younger ,moreau4 ,the work is exquisite1 of powerful yet simple grace4 ,the sentimental note of the century was struck in it1 the insipid love of shepherdesses there tenderly sighed1 and the designer has delightfully rendered this arch side of the pastoral song4 ,our task does not permit us to linger over the works of this prodigious and charming artist1 but we must mention his inimitable plates to ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau1 the finest and most agreeable of his compositions and vignettes1 also his chef-d'oeuvre1 the ,histoire du ,costume4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--,vignette of the ,pardon ,obtenu1 designed by ,moreau le ,jeune1 for ,laborde's ,chansons1 in #aggc4 ,as evidencing the activity of ,french artists of the ,book in the eighteenth century1 we cite the number of works illustrated by the respective artists enumerated in the last edition of ,m4 ,h4 ,cohen's valuable ,guide de l',amateur de ,livres ,gravures du ,,xviiie ,sicle3-- ,aliamet1 #cd4 ,audran1 #af4 ,aveline1 #cc4 ,baquoy1 #hg4 ,basan1 #i4 ,binet1 #dh4 ,borel1 #bi4 ,boucher1 #dg4 ,bovinet1 #cd4 ,cars1 #ac4 ,chedel1 #ba4 ,chenu1 #ah4 ,choffard1 #ej4 ,cochin1 #adc4 ,coypel1 #bd4 ,dambrun1 #gg4 ,delaunay1 ,n41 #ie4 ,delignon1 #ej4 ,delvaux1 #ff4 ,duclos1 #di4 ,duflos1 #ef4 ,dunker1 #ae4 ,duplessis-,bertaux1 #bb4 ,eisen1 #ace4 ,elluin1 #ad4 ,fessard1 ,e41 #fi4 ,ficquet1 #ad4 ,flipart1 #bd4 ,fokke1 #ad4 ,folkema1 #ag4 ,fragonard1 #aj4 ,freudeberg1 #g4 ,gaucher1 #ee4 ,ghendt1 #gh4 ,godefroy1 #bi4 ,gravelot1 #hf4 ,grignion1 #ac4 ,gutenberg1 #bj4 ,halbou1 #eh4 ,helman1 #bb4 ,ingouf1 #ah4 ,langlois1 #ah4 ,le ,barbier1 #ed4 ,le ,bas1 #ci4 ,lebran1 #ba4 ,leclerc1 #aa4 ,legrand1 #de4 ,lemire1 #gg4 ,lempereur1 #fh4 ,leveau1 #ca4 ,longueil1 #ig4 ,marillier1 #aaf4 ,martinet1 #bg4 ,masquelier1 #db4 ,massard1 #dj4 ,monnet1 #fg4 ,monsiau1 #bb4 ,moreau1 #ach4 ,ne1 #dh4 ,pasquier1 #ah4 ,patas1 #fe4 ,pauquet1 #bc4 ,petit1 #bc4 ,picart1 #fb4 ,ponce1 #fe4 ,prvost1 #dj4 ,prud'hon1 #ad4 ,queverdo1 #ed4 ,rigaud1 #ah4 ,roger1 #ag4 ,romanet1 #bf4 ,rousseau1 #bd4 ,st4 ,aubin1 #gj4 ,scotin1 #bg4 ,sve1 #bi4 ,simonet1 #hc4 ,tardieu1 #fd4 ,tilliard1 #ae4 ,trire1 #ci4 ,doubtless some of these ascriptions are for frontispieces only1 but as a list of the principal book illustrators of the time1 and as showing the measure of their popularity1 this table is of much interest4 ,with the ,revolution the decline of the ,book arrives1 as that of all the arts4 ,moreau1 friend of ,david1 had become affected by the new ideas and the burlesque renaissance of ,greek and ,roman art4 ,he made his apology on the altar of the gods1 and engraved portraits on wood to punish himself for having painted the elegancies of fallen tyrants4 ,at this game1 nerve1 as well as suppleness1 was lost2 and if he had had only the artistic knack of the ,revolution1 his daughter1 married to ,charles ,vernet1 could not have written of him1 ,that which can be most admired is1 at the same time1 the fecundity and flexibility of ,moreau's talent1 that marvellous facility of conceiving a picturesque scene and disposing it in an interesting and truthful manner in the least extended space4 ,this was true before1 but after8 ,in spite of his passion for the ideas and men of the ,revolution1 ,moreau found himself at the end of his resources4 ,renouard1 the publisher1 received him as he had received ,st4 ,aubin1 to whom he advanced sum after sum to prevent him dying of hunger4 ,like most of his contemporaries1 ,moreau1 pressed by want1 took1 quitted1 and retook the cuirass and the hair-shirt4 ,he had drawn for everybody3 for ,louis ,,xvi41 for the ,republic1 for ,napoleon ,i4 ,the worst of it is that after his designs for ,ovid1 ,molire1 and ,rousseau1 dating from the reign of ,louis ,,xvi41 he should have done them again in #ahjd1 #ahjf1 and #ahjh4 ,the difference was great1 even probably for his publishers1 ,renouard and ,duprel4 ,it does not appear that the pontiff of the new school1 ,david1 knew of his distress2 and ,moreau succumbed in #ahad to a cancerous scirrhus of the right arm1 forgotten and in the greatest misery4 ,we have passed a little quickly to the end of the century because it is of no importance to name each of the publishers and artists1 but only to sketch briefly their tastes or their manner4 ,we have not dwelt long on the engravers so called1 because of their number2 but their dexterity remains proverbial2 they handled etching with extreme suppleness1 and often interpreted the drawings of illustrators in remitting them to the needle4 ,many of these1 not to say all1 made use themselves of the etching needle1 ,st4 ,aubin for example1 who knew how to give to the work of others his personal mark and distinction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--,title designed by ,moreau le ,jeune in #agfi for the publisher ,prault4 ,the ,revolution passed over some among those that it ruined1 and1 as stated above1 they followed the movement1 and lost themselves in the school of ,david4 ,it was ,duplessis-,bertaux who1 after having furnished to ,cazin1 the publisher1 vignettes for his ,recueil des ,meilleurs ,contes en ,vers1 #aggh1 and many other books1 after having worked for ,didot1 devoted himself to patriotic engraving and to the reproduction of scenes of the ,revolution4 ,when he published his ,tableaux ,historiques1 in three volumes folio1 adorned with nearly two hundred large plates1 it was under the ,consulate1 that is to say far from the time when the work was begun4 ,renouvier assures us1 with his exclusive disdain for the eighteenth century1 that ,duplessis-,bertaux was a mystifier1 and that his scenes of the ,revolution were a hoax1 in the kind of spirit in vogue under the ,directory4 ,the truth is that the artist1 in place of being a cheerful ,callot1 as might be thought from his manner of engraving1 so like that of the ,lorraine artist1 was imbued with the emphatic and exaggerated impressions of the first ,republic1 its sans-culottes in the poses of the ,sabines and its tricoteuses apeing ,penelope4 ,the immense artistic advance made in ,france in the eighteenth century in the manufacture and illustration of the ,book made itself felt throughout ,europe4 ,in ,germany1 ,chodowiecki1 born at ,dantzic of a family of apothecaries1 developed his talent from ornamenting the boxes of his father1 and from #ageh to #agid he designed numerous plates for books and almanacs1 a little heavy in engraving1 but singularly clever in composition4 ,there were a few others also designing1 and ,kilian1 ,folkema1 and ,ridinger produced some fine engravings1 but the ,book did not make so much progress in ,germany as in ,france and ,england4 ,in ,england a vast improvement was manifested4 ,fine types were cast by ,baskerville and ,caslon2 printing machines were perfected4 ,the illustration of books by engraved plates was in the first half of the century almost entirely done by foreigners1 but an ,english school was arising1 which attained perfection in the latter half of the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth century4 ,wood engraving also1 which1 with the exception of blocks for head and tailpieces1 had become almost a lost art1 was revived by ,bewick1 to become later one of the chief adornments of the ,book4 ,before #agaf ,english printers obtained their best founts of type from ,holland1 but the establishment of the ,caslon foundry rendered them independent4 ,william ,caslon1 the first great ,english type-founder1 was born #afib1 and died #agff4 ,the foundry still exists1 pre-eminent in the beauty of its characters4 ,baskerville established a foundry about #agej1 and printed at ,birmingham with his own types a number of extremely beautiful books4 ,the impetus given to fine printing by these two men rapidly spread itself1 and laid the foundation of the perfection which ,english book-making reached4 ,as mentioned above1 ,gravelot illustrated many ,english books in the early part of the century4 ,he designed a set of plates to ,shakespeare in #abmo1 #agdj1 and another in quarto1 #agdd1 besides numerous frontispieces and other plates in all kinds of books4 ,among other foreigners who engraved for ,english publishers were ,grignion1 ,kip1 ,van der ,gucht1 ,houbraken1 and ,bartolozzi4 ,bartolozzi1 who was very prolific in the production of engraved plates1 may perhaps be called the founder of that great ,english school of engraving which arose with the establishment of the ,royal ,academy in #agfi and the encouragement given by ,alderman ,boydell4 ,houbraken and ,vertue engraved a set of fine portraits in folio for ,rapin's ,history of ,england1 #agcf2 ,william ,hogarth designed plates for ,butler's ,hudibras1 #agdd2 and among other curiosities of ,english engraving before #agej were ,sturt's edition of the ,common ,prayer1 entirely engraved on copper plates1 #agag1 and an edition of ,horace entirely engraved by ,pine1 #agcc4 ,that the taste for illustrated books soon grew to be great is evidenced by the publication of such expensive works as ,boydell's edition of ,shakespeare1 in nine volumes folio1 commenced in #agia1 and adorned with a hundred plates from pictures specially commissioned by the spirited publisher2 ,claude's ,liber ,veritatis1 with three hundred engravings by ,richard ,earlom #aggg1 ,sir ,robert ,strange's engravings of fifty historical prints about #agej1 collections of views in ,great ,britain by ,kip1 ,buck1 and ,boydell2 ,holbein's ,collection of ,portraits #agib1 a hundred and fifty plates to ,shakespeare engraved by ,s4 and ,e4 ,harding #agic1 all of which cost great sums to produce1 and greatly contributed to the elevation of public taste4 ,among the artists of the latter half of the century who contributed to the decoration of the ,book are ,thomas ,stothard1 whose very beautiful designs1 extending into the next century1 excelled those of all his contemporaries in their grace and spirit2 ,robert ,smirke1 best known by his plates for ,shakespeare1 ,don ,quixote1 and ,gil ,blas2 ,burney2 and ,richard ,westall4 ,it may be said generally that the ,english books of the eighteenth century were of a more solid character than the ,french1 although ,english art1 especially in the decoration of the ,book1 owes much to ,french initiation4 ,it is curious to read now the opinion of a contemporary ,french engraver on ,english art4 ,choffard1 in the preface to ,basan's ,dictionnaire #agfg1 wrote1 ,they 7the ,english71 having been supported by some foreign talent1 are trying to create talent among themselves2 but they have not seized the flame of genius that vivifies all art in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--,tailpiece engraved on wood by ,john ,baptist ,papillon 7before #agff74 ,however1 what had become of engraving by cutting in reverse1 the figure in relief1 from which printing could be done8 ,it had1 we may think1 nearly disappeared in the midst of the continued invasion of the burin and etching4 ,it only appeared from time to time in head and tailpieces1 remaining purely typographical and lost in other decorations4 ,there were always wood engravers1 not very clever1 capable only of working simple lines without charm4 ,one of them resolved to resuscitate the art1 and made various attempts about the end of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 and beginning of that of ,louis ,,xv4 ,he was named ,john ,papillon1 and was born at ,st4 ,quentin in #affa4 ,his experiments did not go beyond a book of prayers1 with thirty-six figures in relief after ,sbastien ,leclerc4 ,his son1 ,john ,baptist1 succeeded him1 and continued to engrave without ceasing subjects of ornament1 letters1 often tailpieces1 of a good style upon the whole1 and taking an excellent place in an elaborate book4 ,unfortunately1 grace had fled2 the processes that the practitioners exhibited one after the other were lost2 and the ,papillons reconstituted1 we may say1 a vanished art4 ,john ,baptist also published in #agff a theoretical treatise on wood engraving1 abounding in historical errors1 but in which something to learn may be found if taken with discernment4 ,he says in his preface1 ,now that excellent work is done on copper1 wood engraving is neglected1 and the use lost of designing and cutting the shadows of the pencil on the wood block2 most of those who work in it have neither design nor taste1 and only follow their own ideas2 it is not astonishing that only very mediocre pieces come from their hands1 to say nothing stronger2 the profound ignorance of nearly all who meddle with it contrives more and more to destroy the beauties of this art in which many people find neither pleasure nor grace4 ,to obviate all this1 if it be possible to me1 ,i have undertaken to give my precepts and observations to those who wish to apply themselves to my engraving4 ,it was probably the essays of ,papillon that provoked curious experiments on the part of other wood engravers4 ,duplat1 at the beginning of this century1 proposed to prepare a relief on stone1 and as this would be broken under pressure1 he invented a mould2 that is to say1 he took a leaden matrix from the stone cutting1 and ran a resistant metal into this mould1 thus obtaining a relief similar to the stone4 ,renouard1 the publisher1 made the trials2 and the younger ,moreau made the designs4 ,moreau become an essayer of processes in #ahaa6 ,one of the plates of ,la ,fontaine's ,fables1 published by ,renouard in #ahab1 in two volumes1 #abmo1 is here reproduced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4--;,experiment in engraving in relief by ,moreau le ,jeune for ,renouard's edition of ,la ,fontaine's ,fables4 ,it appears1 however1 that the publisher was thwarted by bad printing4 ,the printers of ,didot or ,mame1 much as they consecrated all their care to it1 did not yet know perfect workmanship2 they put the most intense blacks into fine sheets4 ,the great publishers trusted that better days would leave to more clever men the task of perfecting the invention4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4--,portrait of ,thomas ,bewick4 ,wood engraving owes its revival and almost perfection in ,england to ,thomas ,bewick1 who published his first work in #aggj1 his ,general ,history of ,quadrupeds #agij1 and his ,birds #agig4 ,in these works he not only depicted his subjects with the most scrupulous fidelity1 but in the tailpieces of the several chapters he drew the most quaint1 humorous1 and faithful representations of country life4 ,he1 with his brother1 ,john ,bewick1 and their pupils1 among whom was ,luke ,clennell1 had an influence upon ,english art and the decoration of the ,book in ,england which exists to our day4 ,not alone with us1 for he may be said to have repaid the debt which we owed to ,france for her illustrated books of the eighteenth century by stimulating the art of wood engraving1 which was practised by ,tony ,johannot and the other illustrators of the nineteenth century4 ,to return to the eighteenth century1 with which this chapter is specially occupied1 we have said that the ,royal ,printing ,house1 after various fortunes1 still existed2 and in #aghh it worked1 for better or for worse1 at the ,louvre4 ,according to the budget of that year1 it cost the ,king #ij1jjj livres1 of which the director had #a1djj4 ,there were1 on the other hand1 a certain number of official printing offices1 that of war1 for example1 which was devoted entirely to the work of the ,ministry4 ,it was situated at ,versailles1 and was created in #agfh4 ,it is told of ,louis ,,xv4 that1 being one day in this workshop1 he found a pair of spectacles1 left as if in inadvertence on a printed sheet4 ,as his sight was weakening1 he took the spectacles and looked through them4 ,the sheet was a hyperbolical eulogium composed1 as if at random1 by the director ,bertier1 in honour of the ,king4 ,louis ,,xv41 having read the dithyramb1 replaced the spectacles1 and quietly said1 ,they are too strong2 they make objects too large4 ,who would believe that at the end of the century of ,voltaire and ,rousseau a craftsman would be found desirous of leading back the typographical art to its cradle1 and of making xylographs again1 under the name of polytypes8 ,a ,german was the original who conceived the plan4 ,he obtained an order of council for the establishment of his presses in #aghe1 but the same council suppressed them #ast ,november1 #aghg4 ,his process was to substitute for movable characters a plate of fixed letters1 and probably engraved4 ,another eccentricity of typography at the end of the century was the introduction of logography by ,john ,walter1 the proprietor and printer of the ,times newspaper1 which consisted in casting whole the words in most common use1 in place of separate letters4 ,the system had soon to be abandoned1 but the early numbers of the ,times1 which was started ,january #ast1 #aghe1 were printed on it4 ,in the eighteenth century there was a printing establishment for each of the constituted bodies2 the ,king1 the ,queen1 the princes1 each had their own4 ,the royal lottery occupied a special printing house4 ,the young inmates of the blind asylum worked under the direction of ,m4 ,clousier1 royal printer4 ,louis ,,xvi4 authorised the celebrated ,hay1 their master1 to allow them to print2 and in #aghf they composed an essay on the education of the blind4 ,pierre ,franois ,didot was in #aghe printer to the ,prince1 afterwards ,louis ,,xviii42 and he published the ,aventures de ,tlmaque1 in two quarto volumes1 from this special printing office4 ,the ,english colonies in ,north ,america early established printing there1 their first book1 the ,book of ,psalms1 known as the ,bay ,psalm ,book1 being dated #afdj4 ,by the middle of the eighteenth century literature held a strong position in the colonies1 the greater part of it being1 as might be expected1 ,english2 but the revolution and subsequent establishment of the ,united ,states created a national ,american literature1 which has flourished to this day4 ,among the printers of ,north ,america in the eighteenth century1 the most famous was the celebrated philosopher ,dr4 ,benjamin ,franklin1 who served his apprenticeship to the printing press in ,london4 ,he returned to ,america in #agbf1 and worked as a printer with his brother at ,philadelphia4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,book ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,the ,didots and their improvements--,the folio ,racine--,the school of ,didot--,fine publications in ,england and ,germany--,literature and art of the ,restoration--,romanticism--,wood engraving--,bewick's pupils1 ,clennell1 etc4--,the illustrators of romances--,the generation of #ahdj--,the ,book in our days in ,europe and ,america4 ,political imitators had not been found for the ,french ,revolution in all the neighbouring countries of ,europe1 but its ,greco-,roman art established itself1 and by degrees was introduced into the studios of painters and the printing offices4 ,prud'hon1 ,gerard1 ,girodet1 and later ,desenne1 without counting the younger ,moreau and his contemporaries of the older regime1 rallied to the new study1 forming a school of illustrators and vignettists with which the publishers could resolutely advance4 ,england followed suit with ,flaxman1 ,west1 ,fuseli1 ,barry1 and a crowd of others4 ,among the publishers the powerful family of the ,didots took first rank1 and its members1 at once type-founders1 printers1 booksellers1 and savants of the first order1 were the best fitted to direct an artistic and literary movement4 ,when ,napoleon crowned himself emperor of the ,french1 the elders of the family had already brought about a number of perfections and discoveries in their profession by which their workshops had profited4 ,franois ,ambroise1 who died in the year of the ,empire1 had given an exact proportion to types1 a free and elegant turn1 but perhaps too regular and precise to be agreeable4 ,he had also invented a press called the presse un coup1 in which the impression was taken by a single pull instead of being produced by a series of successive strikings4 ,his brother1 ,pierre ,franois1 spoken of in the preceding chapter1 was a type-founder and paper-maker at ,essones1 and counted among his official titles printer to the ,comte de ,provence1 as ,franois ,ambroise was to the ,comte d',artois4 ,of these two branches equally faithful to typography1 ,pierre ,didot1 son of ,franois ,ambroise1 became the head on the death of his father4 ,born in #agfj1 he had studied his art with passion1 and had merited the installation of his workshops in the ,louvre1 where he published a celebrated collection known as the ,louvre editions1 the chef-d'oeuvre of which was the works of ,racine4 ,the splendid execution of this book1 in three large folio volumes1 was a true typographical revolution4 ,never in any country had scrupulous perfection of detail been joined to so masterly a knowledge of disposition and form of characters4 ,the great artists of the ,davidian school had the honour of seeing their drawings reproduced as illustrations1 and those named above designed the fifty-seven plates with which the edition was adorned4 ,pierre ,didot displayed a great affectation in only printing two hundred and fifty copies of his irreproachable and marvellous work1 of which a hundred had proofs of the plates before letters4 ,published by subscription1 the ordinary edition was issued at #a1bjj francs1 and with proofs #a1hjj francs4 ,to these superb works ,firmin ,didot1 his brother1 added ingenious discoveries4 ,struck with certain difficulties of printing as well as of correction1 he imagined the welding together of the types of a forme1 when once obtained without faults1 so as to avoid the trouble of new composition4 ,this process1 useless for books of small number1 had a capital importance in the case of reimpressions of popular and successful works4 ,he named this method stereotype1 and from #agii he published a ,racine in #ahmo by this method2 but the originality of the method1 which he was the first to call stereotype1 ended with its name1 for the process had already been discovered by ,william ,ged1 a goldsmith of ,edinburgh1 in #agbe1 the first book produced in this manner being an edition of ,sallust1 printed in #agdd1 #hvo1 non typis mobilibus ut vulgo fieri solet1 sed tabellis seu laminis fusis1 excudebat4 ,this admirably directed house1 we may indeed say this school of typography1 formed with ,renouard1 ,claye1 ,rignoux1 and others1 the greater number of the ,french publishers of the middle of the century4 ,when the ,czar ,alexander went to ,paris1 he wished to do honour to the greatest ,french practitioners in the science of printing1 in the persons of the brothers ,pierre and ,firmin ,didot4 ,but these were not the only ones4 ,the sons of ,pierre ,franois1 ,henri and ,pierre ,franois ,,ii4--the latter specially applied himself to paper-making1 under the name of ,didot ,st4 ,leger--followed in the footsteps of their father and uncle4 ,pierre ,franois made at ,essones an excellent paper1 which he brought to the perfection of making it in endless rolls1 such as are made to-day for rotary machines4 ,bernardin de ,st4 ,pierre retired to ,essones about the end of the last century1 and there married the daughter of ,pierre ,franois ,,ii4 ,it is a curious coincidence that the same village contained at once the man whose works at the beginning of the century had so extraordinary a success and the great family of printers who had given definitive impetus to typographical work4 ,it was in this tranquil circle that the author of ,paul and ,virginia1 at the age of sixty1 sought repose2 that the publication of his book was resolved upon with all the luxury due to its success1 with admirable type and with plates by ,prud'hon and others4 ,he added to it the ,chaumire ,indienne1 written in #agij1 on the eve of the ,terror1 which is one of the most delicate novels of the time4 ,the homely and sweet literature of ,bernardin de ,st4 ,pierre1 the heroic inventions of ,girodet1 ,gerard1 and ,chaudet in the ,greek or ,roman style1 the clever but severe typography of the ,didots--such is the composition of the ,book at the beginning of the century1 and also its avowed tendency and good taste4 ,under ,louis ,,xv4 the nymphs carried panniers2 ,polyeucte had peruke and sword4 ,it would be unbecoming not to give ,juno or ,venus the head-dress adopted in paintings and vignettes4 ,at the time which now occupies us fashion in clothing directed designers also4 ,the hair of goddesses was la ,titus2 the waist was under the arms2 golden circles were on the brow4 ,simple mortals walked naked on the roads1 with plumed casques and superb shields4 ,there were heroes putting forth their disproportioned arms1 others raising their eyes to heaven in impossible attitudes4 ,such were all the vignettes1 from ,girodet to the humblest1 the last1 the most forgotten4 ,it happens1 by an oddity of which the cause is vainly sought1 that this classic and revolutionary school of ,david identifies itself so well with the ,napoleonic epoch1 then with the people of the ,restoration1 that it seems expressly made for them4 ,at the same time1 under ,louis ,,xviii4 and ,charles ,x4 the ,romans and ,greeks had not the bold carriage of their early days2 they became more citizenised1 and assumed the air of the national guards of the kingdom of which later an excessive use was made4 ,england also had a splendid series of publishers and printers4 ,from ,boydell1 ,harding1 the ,murrays1 ,fisher2 from ,bulmer1 ,bensley1 ,strahan1 the ,whittinghams1 and ,hansard1 to our day1 there has been an unbroken and constantly increasing line of clever1 practical men1 adorning the professions to which they devoted their energies1 often realising that fortune which properly directed energies command4 ,in the first half of the century a vast number of splendidly printed books were issued1 ornamented in the most lavish manner with beautiful illustrations1 engraved on steel or copper plates1 and with delicate woodcuts4 ,book illustration in ,england may be said now to have reached perfection4 ,when the banker-poet ,samuel ,rogers wished to bring out an illustrated edition of his works1 he employed the two most capable artists of the time1 ,thomas ,stothard and ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner2 and they produced an admirable series of designs1 which were exquisitely engraved by ,finden1 ,goodall1 and ,pye4 ,the work was printed by ,t4 ,davidson1 in two volumes1 octavo3 the ,italy in #ahcj and the ,poems in #ahcd2 these two volumes1 from the perfect harmony of the typography and illustration and their combined beauty1 may be referred to as the perfection of book-making4 ,a very charming series of volumes is found in the ,annuals1 ,keepsakes1 ,amulets1 and similar annual publications1 illustrated with beautiful steel plates by the best engravers4 ,the splendidly printed and illustrated bibliographical works of ,dr4 ,t4 ,f4 ,dibdin may also be mentioned4 ,they extend to several volumes1 and were printed by ,bulmer and his successors ,nicoll and ,t4 ,bensley1 illustrated by engraved plates and woodcuts by ,f4 ,c4 ,lewis and others4 ,h4 ,g4 ,bohn1 besides the fine series known as ,bohn's ,libraries1 numbering over six hundred volumes1 in every branch of literature1 art1 and science1 published many finely illustrated books1 and as a bookseller had the largest stock of his day4 ,charles ,knight did marvels in popularising literature in his day4 ,william ,pickering published a long series of very beautiful books1 and in conjunction with ,charles ,whittingham1 printer1 of the far-famed ,chiswick ,press1 revived the ,aldine or old-faced types2 one of the most beautiful of his publications was ,sir ,harris ,nicolas's edition of ,walton's ,angler1 in two volumes1 imperial octavo1 with a very fine set of steel plates1 designed by ,stothard and engraved by ,augustus ,fox and ,w4 ,j4 ,cooke1 besides engraved vignettes and representations of fish drawn by ,inskipp4 ,in ,germany perhaps the most remarkable achievement of the century is the extraordinary series of volumes of ,english authors1 now 7#ahhg7 numbering #b1ejj1 issued by ,baron ,tauchnitz1 of ,leipzig1 which1 although eminently popular in their character1 are well and tastefully printed4 ,among the most notable of the printing and publishing houses of ,germany1 many of them combining the two trades1 are ,j4 ,g4 ,cotta1 dating from #afdj2 ,breitkopf and ,hrtel1 dating from #agai2 ,justus ,perthes1 founded #agif2 ,t4 ,o4 ,weigel1 #agig2 ,f4 ,a4 ,brockhaus1 #ahje2 ,b4 ,g4 ,teubner1 #ahaa2 ,w4 ,drugulin1 #ahbi2 ,j4 ,j4 ,weber1 #ahcd1 etc4 ,germany has advanced with ,england and ,france in fine typography and illustration in their several kinds4 ,the modern school of book illustration in ,germany undoubtedly has its origin in the influence given to it by the designs of the artist ,adolph ,menzel1 amongst which a series of two hundred illustrations to the works of ,frederick the ,great1 engraved on wood by the ,vogels1 ,unzelman and ,mller1 show him to be one of the most powerful and accurate draughtsmen of the century4 ,to return to ,france1 a new literature arose that was to react against the ,greek full of ,gallicisms2 but the movement1 in reversing the ancient state of things1 in wishing to replace antiquity by the ,middle ,ages1 old ,romans by old ,french1 completely changed the physiognomy of the ,book4 ,the engraved vignette and the copper plate of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were to lose their supremacy and to give way to etching and wood engraving1 also a revival of the ,middle ,ages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4--,wood engraving by ,clennell after ,west1 for the diploma of the ,highland ,society4 ,it is not sufficiently known that wood engraving1 after the unfortunate attempts of ,papillon in ,france1 was restored in ,england by ,thomas ,bewick1 who founded a school1 of which1 at the commencement of our century1 ,clennell and the brothers ,thompson were members4 ,one of the ,thompsons went to ,france about the middle of the ,restoration1 doubtless with the hope of profiting by his art1 and he offered to the ,print ,department of the ,national ,library the diploma of the ,highland ,society1 a large folio wood block1 very adroit and very curiously cut1 after the drawing of the celebrated ,benjamin ,west1 and copied from ,clennell's original block of the same subject4 ,m4 ,duchesne1 then ,keeper of the ,prints1 speaks of this last process as of an apparition3 ,this print makes apparent the long-neglected and often reappearing art of wood engraving1 which1 though it could never equal copper engraving1 nevertheless merits the attention of amateurs when a capable hand is exercised upon it4 ,it was1 we see1 a curiosity then1 this relief cutting1 of which the resurrection was to give an enormous impulse to the ,book from the facilities of printing and the economies realised by the possibility of intercalation in periodicals4 ,in fact1 metal printing necessitated so much trouble1 more for engraving than for the impression4 ,with wood blocks surrounded by type the ordinary press sufficed4 ,the ,magasin ,pittoresque1 which was commenced in #ahcc1 and the success of which from the first was very great1 was born of these new combinations4 ,before it the ,messager ,boiteux of ,strasbourg and other popular almanacs progressed very well with their illustrations on wood4 ,a kind of firm of engravers1 at the head of which were ,best and ,andrew1 undertook the illustrations of the ,magasin ,pittoresque4 ,in a few years progress was immense1 other publications came into existence1 and a definitive return was made to the vignette in relief4 ,the ,french illustrated paper preceded our ,illustrated ,london ,news by nine years4 ,lavish use was now made of wood engraving1 which had thus been suddenly revived in the very midst of the new romantic effervescence1 amid a war of books1 which1 in order to please1 had above all to captivate the eye1 reacting at once against the spirit and the art of the ,restoration4 ,never before had artists to such an extent taken active part in a purely literary warfare4 ,all the fantastic tendencies of young ,france were embodied in the lame and halting lines of the time and similar wretched doggerel4 ,doubtless the leaders of the school did not go quite so far1 and their reputation even suffered from such theories2 but1 as always happens in such cases1 the disciples outstripped their masters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4--,vignette by ,devria for the ,fianc de la ,tombe4 ,the brothers ,johannot were the first to join in the fray1 under the flag of the poets and others of the romantic school1 such as ,victor ,hugo1 ,de ,vigny1 ,paul ,lacroix1 ,george ,sand1 and ,devria1 most ruthless of illustrators4 ,the last-named had designed vignettes on wood1 of all others1 for ,baour-,lormian1 that is to say for the foe of the new ideas1 at once the interpreter of ,ossian and the bourgeois bard1 full of fire and fury against everything in turn4 ,the ,lgendes1 ,ballades1 et ,fabliaux1 illustrated by ,devria in #ahbi1 although a sort of compromise with the lovesick swains of medival times1 did not escape the shafts of ridicule4 ,in the midst of this movement the ,book became democratic2 it was printed on sugar-paper for reading-rooms and scullery maids4 ,the generation of romancists diffused its paper-covered works1 printing a thousand copies and selling five hundred with great difficulty4 ,poets publishing five hundred were happy with a sale of two hundred and fifty4 ,unheard-of titles were then needed to catch the eye1 ridiculous and ghastly frontispieces to tickle the fancy of the riffraff4 ,paul ,lacroix called himself the ,bibliophile ,jacob1 and invented surprising headpieces and foolish designs4 ,and then1 as in the fifteenth century1 as in the old times1 certain signs become popular with the reading public4 ,in the place of the ,doctrinals1 ,complaints1 and ,disputes1 so common in the titles of those epochs1 new fancies spring up and have their day4 ,eccentric devices recommend romantic trash1 in which the assassin's dagger1 blood1 and the horrors of the tomb have replaced the insipid fantasies of the fallen regime4 ,ptrus ,borel1 the werewolf1 a sort of historic ghoul prowling about the graveyards1 enjoyed a monopoly1 as it were1 of the ghastly titles and contents of this charnel-house literature2 it was for his ,champavert1 published in #ahcc1 that ,gigoux composed a kind of ,bluebeard surrounded by female skeletons1 that opened the eyes of publishers to his value as a vignettist4 ,although he threw himself soul and body into the romantic movement1 the young artist did not alone design subjects called abracadabrants1 following the neologism of the time1 any more than the booksellers only published romances4 ,an attempt was made1 by publishing them in parts1 to still further popularise the old writers at all harmonising with the current taste4 ,the publisher ,paulin thus issued the ,gil ,blas of ,le ,sage1 with illustrations in the text by the younger ,gigoux1 of which the best was hoped4 ,the history of this celebrated enterprise has been written by the artist himself in the curious ,causeries published recently by him1 fifty years after his work on ,gil ,blas2 and this interesting view of an epoch already far distant gives us in a few words the ordinary economy of these popular impressions in parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4--,vignette by ,john ,gigoux for ,gil ,blas4 ,it appears that ,paulin1 publisher in the ,rue de ,seine1 not being very well off1 had associated himself with a man of business named ,dubochet1 who had before made an enormous fortune with gas4 ,the two represented fifteen thousand to twenty thousand francs1 and they ordered a hundred drawings on wood from the young artist4 ,he set to work with precaution1 for ,dubochet was hard to please1 without knowing much about the business1 and fined the engravers for the least faults4 ,gigoux set himself to give his compositions in simple line1 without complicated shadows1 so as to allow the wood-cutters to preserve a free outline4 ,it was nearly the same thing as the process of the old artists of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 of ,vostre and ,holbein3 true engraving in relief4 ,the success of the first sheets was extraordinary2 new vignettes were ordered from ,gigoux2 in place of a hundred they wanted three hundred1 then four hundred2 then at the end of the work they counted six hundred at least4 ,money filled the chests of the firm1 but when the artist claimed a small share of the benefits1 they laughed in his face4 ,properly speaking1 it was the first serious attempt at illustration by the recovered method of engraving in relief1 but it was not the only one4 ,curmer1 the publisher of the ,rue ,richelieu1 prepared a ,bible in #ahce and several other volumes1 among which were the ,paul and ,virginia and the ,chaumire ,indienne of ,bernardin de ,st4 ,pierre4 ,he had also collected around him a circle of artists that included ,wattier1 ,devria1 and ,meissonier1 who was the most perfect and correct of the designers on wood4 ,meissonier designed very soberly1 without effects of light1 little scenes admirably cut by an engraver named ,lavoignat1 a master in the largest sense of the word4 ,curmer wrote in #ahce in the preface to one of his books1 ,we hope we have raised a monument to wood engraving4 ,it is easy to judge of the resources presented by this art4 ,we are compelled to have recourse to ,england to accomplish our work4 ,peace to willing publishers6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4--,vignette by ,daumier for the ,cholera ,paris4 ,curmer acknowledges the importance of ,english specialists in this new process for vignettes1 and the willing publishers were not wanting2 they came from all parts4 ,he himself did not stop on the way2 he continued his work on a large scale2 and ,charles ,blanc was able to say of him later1 as well as of ,furne1 ,he desired to illustrate books for everybody1 as the great booksellers of the last century had illustrated their rare editions for a small number of privileged persons4 ,but he did not always confine himself to wood engraving2 he also employed etching and lithography4 ,these1 requiring separate printing1 did not make intercalation with the text any easier than engraving with the burin2 but they served to illustrate periodicals1 the ,charivari and ,l',artiste1 as well as some books1 where they replaced the engraved plates of the preceding century4 ,at the same time1 the latter process was not altogether neglected2 about #ahdj it was revived1 and steel was used in place of copper1 as it better resisted repeated impressions4 ,the publisher ,furne1 while he employed wood engraving1 adorned with separate plates on steel his better publications4 ,for him worked ,raffet1 one of the romanticists enamoured of the ,napoleonic epic1 which he had popularised1 with ,charlet and ,bellang1 by the pencil1 wood1 and lithography4 ,raffet had transferred upon wood1 as if in play1 the three hundred and fifty-one vignettes of the ,histoire de ,napolon1 by ,de ,norvins1 which would to-day suffice for the glory and reputation of many artists4 ,in fact1 the analytical and inductive spirit of the artist led him to leave nothing to the chances of inspiration and commonplace of illustration4 ,he laboriously reconstituted1 fragment by fragment1 the physiognomy of the old army2 and imbued with the perfect science of detail1 he allowed his pencil full play in bold and luminous inventions1 where may be seen again1 with their peculiar appearance1 the heroes of other days1 the soldiers of the ,rhine and ,italy1 of ,austerlitz and ,waterloo4 ,a truly lively period was that of #ahdj1 a living and unthinking generation4 ,by the side of those great artists of whom we have spoken1 and who will be more admired some day1 there were the fantasists ,travis and ,daumier1 who adorned the illustrated journals with innumerable sketches1 and ,grandville and ,gavarni1 one caricaturing animals in a celebrated book1 ,les ,animaux ,peints par ,eux-mmes1 which is more than a chef-d'oeuvre2 the other coolly studying the vices and faults of his time1 with the precision of an anatomist1 in ,les ,anglais ,peints par ,eux-mmes of ,labedollire1 in the ,diable ,paris1 without counting a thousand other works which his penetrating imagination produced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--,vignette by ,gavarni for ,paris ,mari4 ,presently photography came1 which was to reverse completely the conditions of illustration of the ,book by the numerous means of reproduction to which it gave birth4 ,then wood engraving entered on a new phase1 a complete transformation of its ordinary terms1 under the influence of ,gustave ,dor4 ,little by little it had been attempted to render in relief that which engraved plates only had hitherto done4 ,black1 half-tints1 lowered tones1 were tried where formerly a simple line1 bold and spirited1 signified everything4 ,the house of ,hachette1 founded by one of the normal teachers of the liberal movement1 at the beginning of the century1 was1 together with ,lahure1 the promoter of relief so inclusive and practical4 ,the numerous periodicals of these publishers spread the taste afar4 ,england1 for its part1 entered on the road1 followed by ,america and ,germany4 ,to-day wood engravings have reached perfection1 finesse1 and suppleness2 but they are not1 properly speaking1 engravings on wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--;,balzac writing his ,contes ,drlatiques4 ,vignette by ,gustave ,dor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--,wood block by ,bewick1 from his ,fables1 #ahah4 ,the fox and the goat4 ,we have seen that ,french publishers were largely indebted to ,english wood engravers for their blocks4 ,the school that was established by ,bewick and his pupils made enormous progress4 ,from the ,fables1 published in #ahah1 we reproduce an illustration as also a specimen from the second volume of the ,british ,birds4 ,luke ,clennell was one of the most distinguished of ,bewick's pupils2 and he made some excellent blocks1 among them the illustrations to an edition of ,rogers's ,poems 7#ahab71 engraved from pen-and-ink drawings by ,thomas ,stothard4 ,it was ,stothard's opinion that wood engraving best reproduced pen-and-ink drawings4 ,other pupils of ,bewick were ,j4 ,jackson1 ,john ,thompson1 who engraved ,harvey's beautiful illustrations to ,milton and ,henderson's ,history of ,wines1 ,s4 ,williams1 ,orrin ,smith1 ,robert ,branston1 and ,c4 ,nesbit4 ,the most prolific and perhaps the most popular book-illustrator of the century in ,england1 was ,george ,cruikshank1 who engraved most of his own designs on wood1 steel1 or with the etching needle2 the catalogue of his works by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,reid1 formerly keeper of the ,prints in the ,british ,museum1 occupies three quarto volumes4 ,the designs of ,phiz1 as ,h4 ,k4 ,browne called himself1 largely contributed to the popularity of the works of ,charles ,dickens2 and the mere mention of ,richard ,doyle and ,john ,leech will recall the palmy days of ,punch1 although both of these artists did excellent work in book illustration4 ,from the days of the ,bewicks to the present wood engraving has formed the most widely used means of illustration in ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,its adaptability to the printing machine renders it admirably suited to the production of books in large numbers and at low expense4 ,without it we could not have our ,graphics and ,illustrated ,news1 nor the floods of cheap but splendidly illustrated magazines which are appearing on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,true1 many of these blocks are due to the processes which photography has made available1 but they are nevertheless the outcome of wood engraving4 ,we cannot leave this subject without mentioning the admirable ,treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 by ,w4 ,a4 ,chatto1 with numerous illustrations1 published originally by ,h4 ,g4 ,bohn in #ahci and since reprinted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--,wood block from ,bewick's ,british ,birds4 ,the common duck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--,wood engraving by ,clennell1 after ,stothard1 for ,rogers's ,poems1 #ahab4 ,in our days the great ,paris publishers have returned to the books of the eighteenth century1 ornamented with vignettes on copper2 many of them purely and simply imitate by photographic processes the pretty editions of ,eisen and ,moreau1 but they do not merit the name which they bear4 ,as to those whose specialty is handsome books with figures by contemporary artists1 those who always are in the front1 as the ,mames1 ,quantins1 ,hachettes1 ,plons1 ,jouausts1 of ,france2 the ,longmans1 ,murrays1 ,macmillans1 ,kegan ,pauls1 ,cassells1 and ,chattos of ,england2 the ,harpers1 ,scribners1 ,lippincotts1 and ,houghtons of the ,united ,states1 they are to us what the ancients of whom we have spoken were to their contemporaries4 ,now the processes of illustration are without number3 wood1 metal1 heliogravure1 phototype1 and others4 ,and if the mechanical means1 if the heliogravures1 have at present the importance claimed1 they by no means add to the intrinsic value of wood engravings1 but to the rapidity and economy of their manufacture4 ,the ,book1 the true ,book1 has nothing to do with all these inventions1 and may well confine itself to the burin or the relief block4 ,but as regards the ,book1 properly so called1 it never was the object of more excessive care or of more unfortunate precipitation4 ,it may be remarked that works least destined to live in the libraries1 those thousands of lame pamphlets on questions of small provincial erudition or the cap-and-sword romances1 are ordinarily the best and most carefully printed1 in opposition to other more important works composed in heads of nails and on worn-out paper4 ,there are in reading-rooms a good number of pamphlets that will not be found in fifty years1 and will be worth their weight in banknotes1 even if dirty and tattered1 on account of their intrinsic value4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,types1 ,,impression1 ,,paper1 ,,ink4 ,after this summary1 and necessarily very compressed1 sketch of the general history of the ,book1 it will not be without importance to place some technical information before the reader1 to explain as clearly as possible the function of the presses1 the practical side of typography1 from the engraving of the character and the founding of types up to the binding1 taking by the way composition1 impression1 and collation4 ,many of these operations have been already sketched in the preceding part of our work2 we have spoken of engraving of the punch1 of impression1 of the thousand details that constitute the typographic art1 and the knowledge of which is so little diffused4 ,we return to it now1 with more method1 on the different subjects1 and shall try to point out the principal features4 ,we have seen in our first chapter what patient researches the discovery necessitated for the ,mayence printers in the founding of the character in matrix4 ,true1 the punch and the matrix had existed from time immemorial for coins and seals4 ,to engrave in relief a punch of material hard enough to strike a resisting metal1 and to run into the space obtained by this blow a melted alloy1 which took at its extremity the same form as the punch had given1 is1 in a few words1 the whole economy of the process4 ,for the engraving of the punches a sort of burin of tempered steel was used1 which scooped out the part intended to remain white in the letter4 ,from the beginning the printers themselves engraved their own characters4 ,the most ancient1 whose constant preoccupation was the imitation of manuscript1 copied the ,gothic letter of ordinary writing4 ,soon afterwards1 ,jenson1 the ,french refugee at ,venice1 designed a round letter1 like that of ,sweynheim and ,pannartz1 the ,roman publishers1 in #adfg2 and his type1 absolutely perfect1 is used to this day4 ,in ,france the introducers of the invention in ,paris also imitated the ,roman1 but multiplied abbreviations until they became tedious4 ,we can imagine what the engraving of a character could be where so few letters stood alone1 where lines abridged the nasals2 the words pro1 pre1 figured as in manuscripts2 the sign #i signified cum or con in ,latin or ,french words1 without reckoning a thousand other rigorous usages4 ,this truly perplexing profusion of signs as well as the want of precision and clearness in the letter enables us now to recognise the first ,parisian incunabula4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,see above1 figs4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab4 ,the first ,english printers used ,gothic or black letter4 ,caxton brought his first fount from ,cologne1 but that which he made afterwards for himself was of the same character4 ,wynkyn de ,worde1 ,pynson1 and their successors used the same style2 and for official publications and ,bibles the black letter was used up to the seventeenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--,type-founder in the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,engraving by ,jost ,amman4 ,but the art of the founder-engraver was destined to specialise itself4 ,there were artisans in this branch1 and among them in ,france1 in the fifteenth century1 ,simon de ,collines1 who engraved good ,roman characters about #adhj4 ,later was ,claude ,garamond1 of ,paris1 who died about #aefa1 a pupil of ,geoffroy ,tory1 the most celebrated of all of them2 ,tory definitely proscribed the ,gothic character1 of which ,vostre and ,verard had made constant use4 ,garamond worked in this way1 producing with microscopical precision new letters1 among others those of ,robert ,estienne1 the most marvellous and the most distinct4 ,it was he who was charged by ,francis ,i4 to form the celebrated royal ,greek types4 ,he assisted in getting up the ,champfleury of ,geoffroy ,tory4 ,on his death ,william ,leb succeeded him1 and inherited his punches4 ,leb engraved by preference ,hebrew characters1 of which he made a specialty4 ,his travels to ,rome and ,venice had given him a singular value in his art2 and when he died about the end of the century1 he was incontestably the first cutter of ,oriental characters in the whole world4 ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain had begged him to engrave the letters of the ,bible of which ,plantin had undertaken the impression1 and ,francis ,i4 had charged him to make types for the ,estiennes4 ,at the commencement of the seventeenth century we find ,james ,sanlecque1 pupil of ,leb1 and his son4 ,during this period several women succeeded their husbands as type-founders4 ,in the eighteenth century ,philip ,grandjean1 an artist who was royal printer to ,louis ,,xiv41 was keeper of the foundry afterwards united1 in #agbe1 to the ,royal ,printing ,house2 ,fournier succeeded the ,lebs1 then ,p4 ,s4 ,fournier the younger1 who engraved with great success4 ,in our days we have seen above the ,didots themselves working their punches2 and one of them1 ,henri1 founded microscopical characters for a ,la ,rochefoucauld about the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,we have referred to ,english type-founders of the eighteenth century in ,chapter ,v4 ,the type1 or character used in printing1 is a composition of lead and pure antimony1 which1 melted1 form a resisting and at the same time supple mixture4 ,lead alone would be crushed1 and the first printers often suffered in making their experiments4 ,the proportion of the mixture is four of lead to one of antimony4 ,the matrix is combined in such manner that the eye--that is to say1 the part of the character intended to produce the impression--and also the shank intended to hold the letter are cast together4 ,the letters1 once founded according to their different forms1 are afterwards disposed in boxes with compartments1 or cases4 ,these cases serve to classify the character by letters1 italics1 capitals1 lower case1 punctuations1 accents1 etc4 ,as we have said1 the relation of letters among themselves in the composition of a language is called the fount4 ,for example1 it is certain that the ,italian employs the letter a more than b1 the letter a appearing in nearly every word2 a compositor to compose in this language should therefore have more of a than of b4 ,the relation between these two letters and all the others is the fount4 ,in ,french the proportion of a fount is about #e1jjj a for #hjj b1 #c1jjj c1 #c1jjj d1 #aa1jjj e1 etc4 ,the fount varies with the languages4 ,in ,english the proportion is #h1ejj a to #a1fjj b1 #c1jjj c1 #d1djj d1 etc4 ,before #aghi there were in all twenty different bodies of letters that bore fantastic names4 ,the ,parisienne was the smallest size1 and the ,grosse ,nonpareille the largest4 ,in the sixteenth century a character called ,civilit was invented4 ,it sought to imitate fine cursive writing4 ,in the last century this idea was reproduced1 and the ,btarde ,coule1 which did not have great success1 was made4 ,in ,english types1 ,joseph ,moxon in #affi had eleven sizes2 ,caslon in #agcd had thirty-eight4 ,illustration3 ,specimen of imposition ,when a printer wishes to compose a work1 he first decides in which body he will print it4 ,his choice made1 he places in the compositors' cases--that is1 in the boxes placed before each one of his workmen--the chosen character1 with its italics1 capitals1 signs1 etc4 ,then he gives them the copy1 that is to say the manuscript of the author to be reproduced4 ,the compositors take a galley according to the size of the book2 and1 letter by letter1 by running their fingers through the different cases1 they place side by side the words laboriously composed1 and necessarily presenting their reverse1 so that they will show their proper face when printed4 ,the composition terminated1 the process of imposition takes place4 ,this is the disposition by pages in an iron chase1 in such manner that the sheet of paper shall be printed on both sides1 the pages exactly following one another4 ,it will be seen by the specimen on the preceding page that if the two sheets be brought together1 page #b of ,,ii4 will fall exactly opposite page #a of ,i1 page #g opposite page #h1 and so on4 ,nothing is easier than this combination for folio1 quarto1 or octavo sizes1 but as the smaller sizes are multiplied even to #abhmo1 tables are necessary to prevent error4 ,the imposition is completed by building up the composition in a chase by means of pieces of metal called furniture1 which regulate the margins4 ,when the whole is in proper place1 it is squeezed up and adjusted by means of sunk reglets4 ,the chase may now be placed under the press without fear of the characters falling out or getting mixed4 ,a pressman takes a proof after having rubbed the relief of the characters with ink1 and on this proof are corrected the author's or compositor's faults by indications in the margin by understood signs4 ,by this amended proof the compositor amends his faults one by one3 leaves out superfluous characters1 puts turned characters straight1 spaces or draws closer the lines1 etc4 ,the corrections finished1 the time has come to print4 ,in the time of ,geoffroy ,tory this operation was made as we shall explain2 it was the same before and the same after4 ,two pressmen have tempered with water the tympan1 or more elastic part of the carriage1 against which will be directed in good time the blow from the type2 they have also damped the paper intended for the impression1 so that it may retain the greasy ink with which the characters are charged2 then the formes are washed before putting them under the press4 ,in the figure which we reproduce1 which dates from about #aecj1 we see the workshop of ,jodocus ,badius1 of ,asch1 father-in-law of two celebrated printers1 ,vascosan and ,robert ,estienne4 ,the press rolls--that is to say1 the formes--have been placed in the carriage1 or movable chase1 which1 coming forward1 receives the sheet of paper and the ink1 and returns under the press to receive the blow of the bar4 ,in the room1 lighted by two windows1 the compositors work4 ,in front one works at the bar1 while his comrade distributes the ink on the balls4 ,these balls are leather pads1 on which the greasy ink1 made of lampblack and oil1 is spread1 to more easily rub the forme after each blow4 ,ordinarily the inker had two functions3 he prepared the ink1 distributed it1 and kept his eye on the printed sheets to correct faults1 blots1 and difference of tint4 ,here the workman is simply occupied by the balls4 ,printed sheets and prepared paper are on a table by the side of the press4 ,this press is composed of the rolling chase1 the tympan1 and the frisket1 a smaller tympan1 which work against one another4 ,the tympan1 we have said above1 receives directly the blow4 ,and it was so for nearly four centuries2 the mechanical means of our days have a little changed the work1 but the principle is always the same4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--,mark of ,jodocus ,badius of ,asch1 representing the interior of a printing office about #aece4 ,engraving la croix de ,lorraine4 ,towards the end of the sixteenth century1 a press cost about a hundred and twenty-seven crowns1 with its diverse utensils1 as may be seen in an unpublished piece analysed by ,dr4 ,giraudet1 of ,tours1 in a very interesting pamphlet3 ,une ,association d',imprimeurs et de ,libraires de ,paris ,rfugis ,tours au ,,xvie ,sicle4 ,the workshop of ,jamet ,mtayer1 of ,tours1 cost a rent of eighty-three crowns--about twenty pounds of current money4 ,workmen were then paid by the day2 and it came to be one of the expressions then so much used in manual labour1 corresponding to the sum of the least work of a good workman4 ,m4 ,ladevze1 printer1 thought that the day represented the work of about twenty thousand ,roman or ,cicero letters employed by a compositor4 ,with us the day of compositors and pressmen is differently calculated4 ,the latter have to take a certain number of sheets4 ,the sheet1 composition and press work1 cost nearly seven crowns1 or nearly two pounds4 ,jamet ,mtayer paid twenty crowns for four sheets in ,italics2 he demanded three months for the work4 ,the primitive presses were wooden screw presses1 and they so remained until the beginning of this century1 when ,lord ,stanhope1 a celebrated electrician1 author1 and politician1 perfected them and gave his name to a new machine4 ,his improvement consisted in that the bar was no longer fixed to the vice1 but to a cylinder outside4 ,a counter-weight brought back the platen at each blow4 ,pierre ,didot had previously made metal platens4 ,in #ahbj the use of the ,stanhope press commenced in ,france4 ,england had1 besides1 taken a preponderating place in typographical invention4 ,the printer of the ,times1 ,john ,walter1 at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 seeking to publish his journal quicker1 associated himself with craftsmen who constructed mechanical presses for him4 ,the ,didots lost no time1 and themselves made improvements4 ,in #ahdh1 the presses of the ,constitutionnel1 thanks to the application of steam1 produced twenty thousand papers an hour4 ,in our time there are machines that print only on one side1 as well as double machines1 printing both sides at once4 ,the rotary machines1 with endless paper1 take thirty-five thousand impressions an hour4 ,in the newspaper machines of ,marinoni1 the great inventor1 the paper is unrolled1 printed1 cut1 and folded without leaving the machine1 and falls into a place from which it is taken ready for the subscriber4 ,the latest perfection of the printing press is the ,walter press and the rotary machine of ,r4 ,hoe and ,co41 of ,new ,york1 extensively used throughout the world4 ,the elaborate book has little to do with these marvellous processes1 although in its turn it largely benefits by the improvement of the printing machine4 ,it is apart from our purpose to speak at length on the manufacture of paper4 ,it is certain that it was well made before the invention of printing1 for most of the accounts of the fifteenth century are written on linen paper1 very resisting and well sized4 ,later on rags were used in this manufacture2 and here1 in a few words1 is how paper was made in the mould1 or hand-made before the invention of machinery for the purpose3-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--,paper-making4 ,workman engaged on the tub with the frame of wires4 ,engraving by ,jost ,amman4 ,the rags1 having been thoroughly cleansed1 were put into vats1 where they were worked up under a beating press until they were reduced to pulp4 ,this pulp was thrown into hot water and stirred until the mixture was uniformly made4 ,then a mould of fine wire cloth1 fixed upon a wooden frame1 and having a deckle to determine the size of the sheet1 was taken2 in the middle of this frame was disposed1 also in brass wire1 a factory mark1 intended to appear in white in the sheet of paper1 and called the water mark4 ,this mould was dipped into the vat of pulp and drawn out again4 ,after gently shaking it to and fro in a horizontal position1 the fibres of the pulp became so connected as to form one uniform fabric2 and the water escaped through the wires4 ,the deckle was then removed from the mould1 and the sheet of paper turned off upon a felt1 in a pile with many others1 a felt intervening between each sheet1 and the whole subjected to great pressure1 in order to absorb the superfluous water4 ,after being dried and pressed without the felts1 the sheets were dipped into a tub of size and again pressed to remove surplus size4 ,this primitive method of paper-making is represented in fig4 #ajd1 and the same principle is still in use for the production of hand-made paper4 ,machinery has effected many improvements and economies in the production of woven paper4 ,china and ,japan have their special paper manufacture4 ,in ,japan the material employed is the bark of the morus papifera sativa4 ,illustration3 ,balance used by ,jenson1 at ,venice4 ,according to their fineness1 size1 and weight1 papers have received different names1 proceeding from the water mark4 ,faust at ,mayence used paper marked with a bull's head4 ,jenson at ,venice used a balance of which the form varied4 ,this latter came from a mill which furnished ,vicenza1 ,perugia1 and ,rome4 ,jenson used1 besides a crown1 a cardinal's hat4 ,the bull's head underwent transformations1 it had stars and roses1 and was special to ,germany1 and it may sometimes be found in ,italy4 ,the wires and bridges served to determine the size of a book4 ,looking at a folio leaf against the light1 the wires will be seen to be horizontal1 and the bridges vertical4 ,in quarto they will be reversed1 the paper having been folded in four instead of in two4 ,the bridges become horizontal4 ,they return to the vertical in octavo1 and so on4 ,as for ink1 it was from the beginning a composition of lampblack and oil of different quality and nature1 mixed with resin to obtain a greater and quicker dryness4 ,ink for engravings was more carefully made4 ,for coloured inks various powders are mixed with the oil and resin1 and a title in red and black has to go through the press twice3 once for the red and once for the black4 ,from the above it can be understood that illustrations in relief can easily be introduced into the composition1 whether in combination with text or in separate pages4 ,another question presents itself3 ,did the old printers employ casting1 or did they print directly from the wood block itself8 ,in other words1 the block having been cut1 did they make with it a mould into which melted metal could be poured to obtain a more resistant relief8 ,the fact is difficult to elucidate4 ,it appears to-day that ,simon ,vostre1 ,verard1 and others printed relief engravings on metal1 but were they cut directly or obtained by casting1 as they are now8 ,it cannot be determined yet4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,bookbinding4 ,the binding of the first printed books--,ancient ,german bindings--,binding in the time of ,louis ,,xii4--,italian bindings--,aldus--,maioli--,grolier--,fr ancis ,i4--,henri ,,ii4 and ,diane de ,poitiers--,catherine de ,medicis--,henri ,,iii4--,the ,eves--,the fanfares--,louis ,,xiii4--,le ,gascon--,florimond ,badier--,louis ,,xiv4--,morocco leathers--,cramoisy--,the bindings of the time of ,louis ,,xiv4--,the regency--,pasdeloup--,the ,deromes--,dubuisson--,thouvenin--,lesn- -,the nineteenth century--,english binders--,roger ,payne--,francis ,bedford4 ,leading the reader now towards the final perfection of the ,book3 printing1 which had stirred up and reversed so many things1 created1 so to speak1 the art of binding4 ,previously the binder was simply a workman sewing together the leaves of a manuscript1 with no science or device but to clasp the whole together solidly with cord and string4 ,as luxury increased the old binder was no longer thought of4 ,on the wooden boards which closed the ,book1 jewellers encrusted their wares1 lavishing ivory and precious stones to the taste of the amateur or the bookseller4 ,generally these works covered books of precious miniatures1 the ,horoe1 or manuscripts that were deemed worthy of such magnificent clothing1 rarely copies without importance4 ,printing at once disordered the tribe of copyists as well as the binders did jewellers4 ,the demand increasing1 rich bindings were soon abandoned1 and each bookseller applied himself to the work1 or at least covered in his own house books intended for sale4 ,the fashion was not then to expose for sale1 as now1 unbound books4 ,purchasers wanted an article easy to handle1 and which they were not obliged to return for ulterior embellishment4 ,so to the public were presented the works laboriously composed by ,gutenberg1 ,schoeffer1 and ,fust1 somewhat after the manner of manuscripts1 which they pretended to imitate1 with their solid wooden boards covered with pig or calfskin4 ,at the four corners1 copper nails1 with large heads1 prevented rubbing against the shelves of the bookcase1 for at that time books were ranged on their sides1 and not as they are to-day4 ,we must return to the bibliomaniac of the ,ship of ,fools to get an idea of these depositories2 before him may be seen ranged on a desk large folios1 with nails on their sides1 in the shelves1 so defying the dust1 in place of being placed upright on their edges1 which rendered them liable to spots and stains4 7,see fig4 #bc47 ,unhappily the wooden sides had in themselves a germ of destruction1 the worm1 capable first of reducing the sides to powder and then ravaging the body of the work1 the ligatures and cords4 ,certain preparations destroy the insect1 but the precaution often has no effect1 and it is thus that the disappearance of volumes formerly so abundant1 but almost impossible to find now1 may be explained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--;,bookbinder's shop in the sixteenth century4 ,engraving by ,jost ,amman4 ,from the beginning the operations of the binder were what they still are1 except for improvements4 ,they consist in the collation of the sheets of a book1 folding them1 beating them to bring them together and give them cohesion1 and sewing them1 first together1 then on the cords or strings1 which form the five or six bands seen on the backs4 ,primitively these cords were united to the wooden boards1 and over both was placed a resistant skin1 on which from relief or metal engravings were struck the most pleasing decorative subjects4 ,pigskin1 white and fine1 lent itself1 especially among the ,germans1 to these fine editions2 and although they were issued in great number1 the wooden boards have not permitted them all to exist in our time4 ,the most ancient that we are able to cite are ,german works of the time of ,louis ,,xi42 they are very strong and coarse4 ,the cords in them form an enormous and massive projection4 ,the inside of the board was often without lining of paper or stuff4 ,in the case of fine editions a sombre velvet was sometimes used1 such as ,verard used to bind the books of the father of ,francis ,i41 as we have before said4 ,art did not enter into these works of preservation until about the end of the fifteenth century1 with arms and emblems4 ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 some bindings were ornamented for ,louis ,,xii4 and the ,queen1 ,anne de ,bretagne2 but not more than five or six specimens remain4 ,they are of coarse aspect4 ,the workman who tooled the binding here reproduced from the curious example of ,m4 ,dutuit1 of ,rouen1 has thrown his subjects one upon another4 ,arms1 porcupines1 ermines1 are treated so as to be confusing1 and form a medley that is not pleasing4 ,in recalling the delightful borders of ,vostre and ,pigouchet1 contemporaries of this mediocre work1 it is astonishing to see the degree of inferiority reached by a profession that should be inspired by graceful subjects of decoration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--;,binding for ,louis ,,xii4 ,collection of ,m4 ,dutuit1 of ,rouen4 ,it happened that ,france again found in ,italy masters capable of revealing secrets of composition and arrangement to enable her to strike out a new road4 ,the ,italian wars would not have had these artistic results if it had not been for the enormous sums that they swallowed up4 ,the curious part of the enterprise was that a war treasurer1 a financier1 employed by the ,french kings in these expeditions1 through his relations of taste and friendship with the ,alduses of ,venice1 brought to ,france the love of sumptuous bindings1 of editions superbly clothed4 ,he was named ,jean ,grolier1 that bibliophile of the sixteenth century1 who was1 above all others1 even ,king ,francis1 the first to appreciate the art of binding4 ,it is not too much to say art1 for if better had not been done before1 it may safely be said that nothing better has been done since2 and the books of ,grolier remain as the most perfect and most admirable types of this kind of decoration4 ,born of an ,italian family established at ,lyons1 where most of his relatives did a great business1 ,jean ,grolier had the good fortune to succeed his father1 ,stephen ,grolier1 treasurer of the ,duke of ,milan4 ,he became in his turn ,minister of ,finances1 and was called to accompany the kings in their expeditions in ,italy4 ,the situation of the treasurers during these campaigns was important2 they handled the pence levied with great trouble in the cities of ,france for making war4 ,many abused their trust1 and were punished1 and among others the ,lallemants1 whom documents show us to have been in connection with ,grolier1 and who suffered1 with ,semblanay1 the most terrible trials of the time4 ,italian art gave then a free course in the decoration of books4 ,of the interior we have spoken in our first chapters on the wood engravings2 for the exterior1 the cover of the volume1 foliage1 golden flowers worked with a hot iron1 and polychromatic compartments obtained by coloured pastes were multiplied4 ,thus was produced on the outside that which it was not sought to obtain on the inside1 the variation of tints so select among the ,italians1 and so forsaken since the invention of printing4 ,in the midst of these literary men was a lover of books and fine connoisseur who1 not content with choosing the best editions1 such as those of ,ferrara1 ,venice1 and ,basle1 bound them superbly1 with compartments of admirable tone1 and had his name and device inscribed on the sides in the fashion of the time4 ,he was named ,thomas ,maioli1 and following the custom of the amateurs of the time1 he offered the enjoyment of his library to his friends4 ,tho4 ,maioli et amicorum1 he inscribed1 as did later ,grolier1 as also did others1 but he somewhat modified the enthusiasm of his friendship by a sceptical device1 ,ingratis servire nephas1 which might very well be the cry of the owner of books betrayed by his borrowers4 ,maioli did not alone use these devices2 he had also a macaronic phrase of which the sense is not very clear3 ,inimici mei mea michi1 non me michi4 ,he also sometimes used his monogram1 which was composed of all the letters of his name4 ,the relations of ,grolier with this unknown and mysterious bibliophile1 whose name is not always found outside his volumes1 are not doubtful4 ,brunet possessed a volume that had belonged to ,maioli and had passed through the hands of ,grolier4 ,what better proof could be wished of the communion of ideas and tastes between the two collectors8 ,but these amateurs were not alone4 ,beside them were princes and great lords1 lay and ecclesiastic4 ,from the commencement of the sixteenth century bookbinding had received an enormous impulse from the tastes and the predilections for these lofty fancies4 ,and it cannot be ascribed to the simple skill of the workmen experimenting in that line4 ,in the century that saw ,italian artists occupied in making designs for mounted plates and painting beautiful ladies1 the courtesans of ,venice could not be alarmed at finding them painting models for bindings1 with compartments of varied tone and style4 ,maioli affected white on a dark background1 that is to say on a background of dark leather4 ,he made scrolls of foliage in white or clear paste with a very happy effect4 ,this was the time when ,grolier travelled in ,italy1 in the suite of the ,french1 and when he began his collections4 ,he had adopted as his heraldic emblem the gooseberry bush1 which in ,french came very near to his name--groseillier2 and his motto was ,nec herba nec arbor 7,neither tree nor herb71 explicative of the moderation of his wealth4 ,he was soon in connection with the ,alduses1 and through them with the principal learned men and binders of the time1 for it was not in the offices of the ,manutiuses that could be found workmen1 like those of the ,chamber of ,accounts in ,france1 obliged to swear that they did not know how to read4 ,the master was not hindered by details of difference of language1 and it followed that his workmen understood ,greek and ,latin1 for he often gave them instruction in those languages4 ,how far off these erudite and conscientious workmen appear to-day6 ,following the fashion1 ,grolier put his name on the upper side of his books--,jo4 ,grolierii et amicorum--in gold letters1 and on the other side a pious motto1 the sense of which was a hope often uttered by the financiers of the sixteenth century1 imprisoned and hung every instant3 ,portio mea1 ,domine1 sit in terra viventium4 ,generally all the ,grolier books which came from the ,alduses have the name on the upper side and the motto on the other side2 the title was placed above the name1 and often disposed in rows4 ,some large volumes had the cover ornamented with an architectural design1 like the ,jamblichus of the ,libri collection1 which had on the front the faade of a temple1 with the title in rows on the door4 ,this volume was printed by ,aldus in #aeaf1 and probably decorated by him for the account of the great ,french amateur4 ,jean ,grolier is said to have himself designed some of the subjects of his ornaments1 and their perfection indicates an active and enlightened supervision4 ,on his return to ,france1 where he had a house near the ,porte de ,bucy1 he was put in relation with ,geoffroy ,tory1 the artist best fitted to understand him1 and who was at once painter1 engraver1 printer1 and binder4 ,it was there that1 in the leisure of his financial functions1 between two projects of revictualling the forts of ,outre ,seine and ,yonne1 ,grolier invented combinations1 sought interlacings1 and laid out foliage4 ,tory himself teaches us these works in combination4 ,he invented antique letters for ,grolier1 he tells us in his ,champfleury4 ,it was for him1 too1 that he interwove so finely his compartments for binding1 and that he reproduced the delightful ornaments of his books of hours in golden scrolls4 ,as we have said1 ,grolier placed his titles on the sides of his books on account of the arrangement of the works on the shelves of the library where they were laid4 ,for this reason also the back was neglected1 and no ornament used upon it2 thick and heavy with its projecting bands1 without decoration between the bands1 this part of the bound volume was a kind of waste in a splendidly cultivated garden4 ,the profusion of books brought about a revolution4 ,there was no longer room to place on their sides the innumerable books that were produced2 they were then placed on their edges1 as now1 and the back also was decorated4 ,for this the bands were made to disappear1 and replaced by decorative subjects in compartments like the sides4 ,then with ,grolier the bands reappeared1 and the title was placed between them1 as it still is4 ,the books of ,grolier have been divided1 according to their production1 in four or five principal classes1 in which they may always be placed4 ,first were the works ornamented in compartments1 gilt1 with scrolls in full gold2 then the same with the scrolls azurs1 that is to say equally gilt1 but having parallel lines like the azure of heraldry4 ,following comes the school of ,geoffroy ,tory1 with gilt compartments in the style of the great ,french decorator2 last the polychromatic bindings1 in which1 by the aid of colour or mastic1 the alternating tones are mixed4 ,grolier also had some mosaic bindings1 composed of little pieces of leather connected by incrustation or paste1 pure ,italian bindings2 but these were not numerous1 especially if compared with those conceived in the manner of ,geoffroy ,tory4 ,one of these latter works is here reproduced from one of the beautiful books in the collection of ,m4 ,dutuit4 ,this copy has the back flat1 and the interlacings of the decoration are most complicated and clever4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--;,binding for ,grolier in the collection of ,m4 ,dutuit4 ,grolier got his ,levant moroccos through the dealers of ,venice1 to make sure of the material he employed4 ,born in #adgi1 the ,treasurer-general of ,outre ,seine lived until #aefe4 ,in #aefc an original manuscript shows him much occupied with finance at over eighty-four years of age2 but his passion for bindings had cooled down1 for few books signed with his name are found the manufacture of which could descend to the son of ,henri ,,ii4 ,after great trials1 after having seen ,semblanay suffer at ,montfaucon1 ,john ,lallemand beheaded1 and himself having come nearly to losing life and fortune at one blow1 ,grolier passed away quietly in his house1 having collected most of the fine books of the time and many curious medals4 ,christopher de ,thou1 his friend and confrre in the love of books1 had saved his reputation before the ,parliament of ,paris4 ,after his death his library was transported to the ,hotel de ,vic1 and from there dispersed in #afge1 a hundred years after4 ,thus from ,italian art came ,french binding1 still remaining original4 ,the kings did not fail to follow the movement1 and even to anticipate it1 thanks to the means at their disposal4 ,we have seen ,francis ,i4 at work with the energy of an artisan at least2 but ,geoffroy ,tory was his principal inspirer1 and who knows but that he was the chief operative for the prince1 as for the great financier8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--;,binding for ,francis ,i41 with the arms of ,france and the salamander4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4--,mark of ,guyot ,marchant1 printer and bookbinder4 ,he published the ,danse ,macabre of #adhe4 ,we have said that ,louis ,,xii4 knew nothing of fine bindings4 ,during his travels in ,italy he had received presentation copies of magnificently covered books1 and among others that of ,faustus ,andrelinus1 that was bound in calf in honour of the ,king4 ,he1 who was so little expert in fine arts1 purchased the entire library of the ,sire de la ,gruthuse1 and substituted his own emblems for those of the high and mighty lord4 ,francis ,i41 with innate sentiment for masterpieces and the powerful protection he had given them1 did not allow the experiments of ,grolier to pass unnoticed4 ,the ,king did not desire to be behind the treasurer1 and the workmen were put to the task4 ,he adopted the salamander1 which emblem he used on his castles and furniture and the liveries of his people2 he lavished it also on the sides of his books4 ,on the side the ,f is often seen crowned1 then the emblem of ,france and the collar of ,st4 ,michael4 ,in the binding of which a facsimile is here given1 ,geoffroy ,tory has singularly inspired the gilder1 if he did not himself make the design4 ,for it must not be thought that this work is done at a single blow by means of an engraved plate or a block4 ,on the contrary1 every line is impressed by the hot tool that the workman applies by hand to the gold laid on in advance1 making it1 so to speak1 enter into the skin or morocco4 ,there is the art2 blocks serve only for commercial bindings1 quickly impressed and intended for ordinary purchasers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--;,binding for ,henri ,,ii41 with the ,h and crescents4 ,under the reign of ,francis ,i4 the binders were the booksellers1 as ,verard and ,vostre were4 ,the ,king was ordinarily served by a publisher named ,pierre ,roffet1 and he frequently figures in accounts that have been preserved4 ,roffet not only bound1 but it appears that he rebound books to patterns which the ,king desired4 ,philip ,lenoir and ,guyot ,marchant were also royal workmen4 ,the latter1 whose mark is here reproduced1 frequently added to it the saints ,crispin and ,crispinian1 patrons of the leather-dressers1 who prepared the leather for the binder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--;,binding for ,henri ,,ii4 7,mazarine ,library7 ,the discoveries of ,grolier did not allow the binders much time to be idle4 ,thousands of volumes were then destroyed to make the boards for sides4 ,from this many discoveries are made in our days by pulling to pieces sixteenth century work1 unknown playing cards1 and early printed works4 ,to mention only one example1 twenty leaves of the ,perspective of ,viator were discovered in the ,national ,library of ,paris4 ,the board thus formed was covered indifferently with sheepskin1 parchment1 calf1 morocco1 or goatskin2 the books were sewn on raised or sunk bands1 according to the owner's taste2 the edges were gilt1 sometimes gauffered1 and designs often impressed upon them to match those of the sides4 ,in large folios wooden boards were still used1 more solid1 and protected from rubbing by nails in relief4 ,but the inside of the cover was as yet only covered with paper4 ,leather linings were very uncommon4 ,the reign of ,henri ,,ii4 increased yet more the importance of bindings2 it was the time when ,grolier collected1 and clever artists came from all parts4 ,geoffroy ,tory had given the best models for letters and interlacings4 ,the ,queen1 ,catherine1 derived from her parents the taste for decoration in gold and colours1 and patronised the artists called by her from the court of ,florence2 and the favourite1 ,diane de ,poitiers1 ,duchess of ,valentinois1 rivalled her in luxury and expenditure4 ,henri ,,ii4 in the decoration of his castles1 as well as his books1 introduced equivocal emblems1 of which the signification may be doubtful1 but those of his mistress may be recognised1 not those of the legitimate ,queen4 ,he interlaced two reversed ,d's by an ,h1 in the form shown in the border on the preceding page4 ,strictly speaking1 we ought to see there two ,c's back to back2 but as we find the ,d on all the bindings displaying the arms of ,diana1 there can be no doubt1 and ,queen ,catherine doubted less than anybody4 ,other emblems of ,diana are to be found in the arcs and crescents that are plentifully displayed4 ,the library of ,diana was large1 owing to the ,king not hesitating to take valuable books from the public collections for her4 ,two centuries after her death it was dispersed1 and the greater part of the books belonging to the national collections were restored on the deaths of those who then purchased them4 ,hence the largest number of the bindings of ,henri ,,ii4 and ,diana of ,poitiers will be found in the ,national ,library of ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4--;,italian binding for ,catherine de ,medicis1 with the initials ,c4 ,c4 ,queen ,catherine also had special patterns with a monogram identical with the double ,d mentioned above1 but the branches of the ,c were a little longer than the branches of the ,h2 she also used a ,k on the sides of her books4 ,the specimen which we reproduce is a purely ,italian work4 ,from kings and queens the fashion passed to the great lords1 it having come to the kings and queens from a private individual4 ,the ,constable ,anne de ,montmorency adorned his bindings with a cross and spread eagle4 ,among the amateurs of binding of the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries using distinctive marks1 we may mention ,philip ,desportes1 the poet1 who used two phi enlaced1 as did also ,superintendent ,fouquet in the seventeenth century4 ,the brothers ,dupuy adopted the double delta1 arranged as a star4 ,colbert had a curled snake 7coluber for ,colbert671 the ,gondis two masses of arms1 ,madame de ,pompadour three towers1 etc4 ,fouquet beside the phi used a squirrel on some of his bindings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4--;,binding with the arms of ,mansfeldt1 with azure scroll work1 from the ,didot collection4 ,in ,germany1 ,count ,mansfeldt adopted the ornamental style with arms1 of which a specimen is here given2 and ,marc ,laurin de ,watervliet also decorated and dedicated his books to his friends1 using the motto ,virtus in arduo4 ,among the lords of the ,french courts who favoured polychromatic ornament and bold compositions were the young ,valois1 ,louis de ,sainte ,maure1 ,marquis of ,nesle1 and ,henri de ,guise1 called ,le balafr4 ,charles ,,ix4 had his emblems and devices1 the double ,c crowned the legend ,pietate et justitia1 but his brother1 ,henri ,,iii41 loved the decoration of books more than he did4 ,the passion of the ,king for miniatures which he cut out of books is known2 this passion for golden things he repeated on bindings1 for which he chose special designs4 ,henri ,,iii4 was an amateur of dances of death2 he visited cemeteries1 attended funerals1 and took a death's-head for his emblem4 ,this emblem was not his invention2 long before him ,marot had addressed an epigram to a lady in which he brought love and death into close conjunction4 ,however that may be1 the ,king chose skeletons and penitents' tears to ornament his books4 ,he also tolerated diamonds1 although he absolutely prohibited them in the clothing of ladies or fixed the number pro rata with the rank of the authorised person4 ,there was in this prince a singular mixture of taste and artistic acuteness by the side of a mania or hallucination which was reflected on the most intimate objects of his apparel or of his furniture4 ,thus if we find1 at the end of the sixteenth century1 a death's-head on the sides or the back of a volume1 the binding is of the period of ,henri ,,iii4 ,the binders of his time are known by the mention that is made of them in the royal accounts2 the ,eves were the most celebrated among all of them4 ,nicholas ,eve was charged with the binding of the ,statutes of the ,order of ,st4 ,esprit1 with which the ,king gratified his friends4 ,mention of this work is found in the ,clairambault manuscripts1 where we read1 ,to ,nicholas ,eve1 washer and binder of books and bookseller to the ,king1 forty-seven and a half escus for washing1 gilding1 and squaring the edges of forty-two books of statutes and ordinances of the ,order1 bound and covered with orange ,levant morocco1 enriched on one side with the arms of the ,king1 fully gilt1 and on the other of ,france and ,poland1 with monograms at the four corners1 and the rest flames1 with orange and blue ribbons1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4--,sixteenth century binding1 called la fanfare4 ,in the ,dutuit collection4 ,louise de ,lorraine1 wife of ,henri ,,iii41 counted for little in the life of her husband2 nevertheless she had a certain number of books decorated with their united escutcheons4 ,the bindings attributed to ,eve were decorated all over the sides and back with interlacing patterns of geometrical character1 the spaces between the parallel lines and in the middle of the figures left at first quite blank1 but afterwards filled in with palm branches and wreaths of foliage2 to these delicate and elaborate yet brilliant toolings have been given the name of bindings la fanfare4 ,this designation requires explanation1 and is a good example of the grotesque style adopted by modern amateurs in their appellations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4--,le ,gascon binding4 ,the fine work of that time prepared for the coming in the seventeenth century--about #afbj--of the works of ,le ,gascon1 or at least for the artist with whom in our days are connected the works of the reign of ,louis ,,xiii4 ,under ,henri ,,iv4 the fleur-de-lys occupied most of the covers of the royal books1 from vellum to ,levant morocco2 works in this class had nothing very remarkable4 ,the first years of ,louis ,,xiii4 revealed a new process1 inspired by the ,eves4 ,le ,gascon embroidered delightfully on the fanfare ornaments2 showing the fibres of the leaves1 he made a new kind of ornament1 consisting of minute gold dots elaborated into lines and curves of singular brilliancy and elegance4 ,of this style1 called pointill1 we give a specimen from the collection of ,m4 ,dutuit4 ,the fashion had arrived all at once2 lace1 banished from clothing by severe edicts1 found a refuge on the covering of books4 ,the times were hard then for binders2 they were constrained to live in the university and to employ only its workmen4 ,a binder was never his own gilder2 he employed the gaufreurs of shoe-leather1 more expert and bolder1 to gild his leather4 ,among these artisans was one named ,pigorreau1 whom the edict found living in the midst of publishers and working for them2 he was compelled to choose either to remain bootmaker or become bookseller2 he chose the latter1 against the syndics of the trade1 against every one1 and he made enemies for himself4 ,he revenged himself by turning the masters into ridicule in a placard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--,le ,gascon binding for ,cardinal ,mazarin4 ,le ,gascon was probably the assumed name of an artist in this style4 ,the ,guirlande de ,julie1 worked by him for ,mademoiselle de ,rambouillet1 gave him great honour in the special circle of this little literary court4 ,it was the fashion then for poor authors to put a fine covering on their works and to offer them to the great for their own profit4 ,tallement des ,reaux notably signalises the poet ,laserre1 who displayed his luxury in irreproachable bindings4 ,and then the farmers of the revenue1 successors of ,grolier in financial trusts1 formed libraries for pure fashion1 never opening the volumes covered for them in sumptuous attire4 ,if we may believe ,sauval1 author of the ,antiquits de ,paris1 they went further1 and on covers without books inscribed imaginary titles and fantastic squibs to mislead their visitors4 ,the bookcase being carefully closed1 it was difficult to discover the imposition4 ,sauval writes1 ,in place of books1 they are content with covers of ,levant morocco1 on the backs of which1 in gold letters1 are inscribed the names of the most celebrated authors4 ,a binder of the university assured me that not long since he and his confrres had made them for a single financier to the amount of #aj1jjj crowns6 ,the works of ,le ,gascon will be found more among great personages than with the so-called collectors1 which gives value to their grace and charm4 ,the ,king's brother ,gaston possessed them1 then ,mazarin1 an example from whose library is here reproduced4 ,on this binding ,le ,gascon worked gilt compartments and elaborate arabesques2 in the middle of the sides are the arms of the ,cardinal and his pretentious device3 ,arma ,julii ornant ,franciam6--,the arms of ,jules the ornament of ,france6 ,in spite of the profusion of subjects1 nothing could better please the eye or indicate a man of taste4 ,but if ,le ,gascon be a legendary personage1 he had an imitator or rival1 very near to him1 named ,florimond ,badier1 whose works had at least the advantage of being signed4 ,at the bottom of the inside cover of an inlaid morocco binding in the ,national ,library at ,paris is the inscription ,florimond ,badier fec41 inv4 ,the analogy between this work and those known as ,le ,gascon's is palpable2 inside and outside1 the cover is stippled with small tools 7au petit fer7 in the same manner4 ,florimond ,badier was not appointed bookseller until #afde1 and so could not have composed earlier bindings attributed to ,le ,gascon1 but this resemblance of style evidences the existence of a ,parisian school1 the adepts of which copied one another1 as they do nowadays4 ,the work was soon simplified2 pallets and wheel-shaped tools were invented to produce that which was improperly called dentelle2 this mechanical work was done by a wheel-shaped tool1 previously heated1 on gold in sized leaves1 on which it impressed its projections4 ,with ,louis ,,xiv4 the passion for gilding increased4 ,charming festoons were designed1 but they were soon abused1 and inundated the libraries4 ,on the sides were seen rising suns1 arms1 and golden garlands4 ,cramoisy directed the royal bindings1 the ,king having devoted large sums to the purchase of ,levant leathers4 ,in #afff the ,director of ,works ordered red moroccos2 in #affg he received twenty-two dozen skins1 amounting1 with the expenses of transport1 to #a1jbj livres tournois4 ,successive supplies were made1 and were used for the royal library1 sixty-nine dozen in #affg1 forty-six dozen in #affh1 and three hundred and thirty-three dozen in #afgj1 costing the ,king more than #ab1jjj livres4 ,on these admirably dressed skins1 which1 in spite of incessant use1 still remain now as in their first days1 the ,king caused to be applied1 according to the size1 tools of borders1 having in the middle the arms of ,france1 with the collar of ,st4 ,esprit4 ,among the binders mentioned in the very useful work of ,m4 ,j4 ,j4 ,guiffrey on the expenditure of ,louis ,,xiv41 we find ,gilles ,dubois1 who died before #afgj2 ,levasseur1 binder of ,huet1 ,bishop of ,avranches2 ,la ,tour1 ,mrins or ,mrius1 who died before #afgf2 and also ,ruette1 the reputed inventor of marbled paper for fly-leaves of books3 to him the bindings of the ,chancellor de ,sguier1 with their ornament of the golden fleece1 and of ,madame de ,sguier1 are attributed4 ,it was probably these men who decorated the books of the brothers ,dupuy1 ,fouquet1 and ,colbert1 marvellous works of solidity1 if not always of elegance1 which have resisted all assaults4 ,unhappily1 in many instances the mechanical dentelle overburdened the work1 and gave it a commonplace regularity4 ,in the ,cond1 ,colbert1 and perhaps even ,madame de ,longueville's collections1 there are many specimens of this kind with two or three filleted borders4 ,we have come to an epoch when the difficulties resulting from confusion between the booksellers' and binders' trades began to be understood4 ,the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes had implicitly prepared a crowd of measures and rules in all branches of national industry4 ,it was a good occasion to prevent the artisans of binding unduly parading themselves as booksellers and selling merchandise of which they understood nothing2 ,louis ,,xiv4 interfered1 and separated the two communities4 ,the binders then became the relieurs-doreurs of books2 they had their own organisation1 but remained subject to the university2 the heads of the fraternity were called the guards4 ,the principal arrangements of the regulation of #agdi were3 the members of the corporation had the sole right to bind books1 from the elegant volume to registers of blank paper4 ,five years of apprenticeship and three of companionship were necessary to obtain the brevet of freedom and to hold a shop4 ,moreover1 it was indispensable to read and write4 ,one regulation ordained that the workman should be able to bind and ornament ordinary books or others1 to render them perfect and entire1 to sew the sheets at most two together with thread and real bands1 with joints of parchment1 and not paper1 and in case of infraction the said books were to be remade at the expense of the offender1 who was besides condemned to a penalty of thirty livres for each volume4 ,their establishment was confined to the quarter from the ,rue ,st4 ,andr des ,arts to the ,place ,maubert2 they regulated the sale of calfskin and of tools2 in a word1 they were surrounded by precautions by which the production remained always under the supervision of the masters and completely satisfied the client4 ,this calculating policy was1 in fact1 a close imitation of the royal ordinance of #afhf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4--,mosaic binding of the eighteenth century for the ,spaccio de la ,bestia ,trionfante4 ,the mosaic bindings used from the end of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 were an application of pared leathers of colours different from the background1 pasted on to the side4 ,the binders of the regency composed a great number1 attributed now to ,pasdeloup1 as all the crayons of the sixteenth century are called ,clouets1 and all the panels on wood ,holbeins4 ,it is not that there was great originality in these works1 or a particular art2 more often the workman did no more than transcribe ,le ,gascon or ,eve or the older binders1 and accommodated the processes of these artists to the fashion of his time4 ,in this style we may cite the ,spaccio de la ,bestia ,trionfante1 printed at ,paris #aehd1 for which the binder designed a cover of doubtful taste and1 above all1 an undeniable want of proportion4 ,the tendency was then to flowers occupying three-fourths of the page1 to compartments too large1 to open pomegranates1 like the ,spaccio here reproduced4 ,if ,pasdeloup had discovered these mediocre combinations1 he could not be proclaimed the regenerator of a fallen art4 ,the bastard style of these works may be compared to their mosaics1 constructed of pieces2 it is a little of everything1 and together it is nothing4 ,however1 in the midst of the quantity of mediocre things1 some pleasing decoration is from time to time met with2 the design of a volume with the arms of the ,regent and his wife1 ,mademoiselle de ,blois1 wants neither elegance nor taste2 without being perfection1 it has better proportion and balance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4--,mosaic binding of the eighteenth century1 with the arms of the ,regent4 ,m4 ,morgand's collection4 ,we should1 however1 hesitate to give names to all these works4 ,besides ,pasdeloup1 there were the ,deromes1 abandoning a little the mosaics1 devising flowers and dentelles in combination1 and no longer the simple products of the fillet4 ,they formed a dynasty2 and if the ,pasdeloups were at least twelve1 there were fourteen ,deromes all booksellers and binders from the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the most celebrated was ,james ,anthony1 who died in #agfa4 ,peter ,paul ,dubuisson was not only a binder2 he was a designer4 ,he invented heraldic ornaments1 and composed models of gilding tools1 in which his contemporaries emulated him4 ,he was intimate with the delicate vignettist ,eisen1 and the counsels of an artist of this value could not but be useful to him4 ,it is an extraordinary thing that in this world of celebrated printers1 amateur financiers1 and notable painters and engravers1 not a single man can be met to give a real impulse to the art of which we speak1 and to prevent the dull continuance of experiments on the whole so poor4 ,doubtless the dentelles of ,derome had a certain air of gaiety1 to which the books of the eighteenth century accommodated themselves perfectly2 the tools of ,dubuisson produce most pleasing designs2 but the old1 the great binders1 had altogether disappeared4 ,besides1 ,derome massacred without pity the rarest works4 ,he loved edges very regularly cut1 and he did not fail to hew down margins opposed to his taste4 ,he sawed books as well2 that is to say1 in place of sewing the sheets on to projecting bands1 he made a groove in the back1 in which the cord was embedded4 ,the books have no resistance4 ,to these celebrated names of ,french binders of the eighteenth century we may add ,le ,monnier1 who worked for the ,orleans princes2 ,tessier1 his successor2 ,lafert1 who decorated the small volumes of the ,duc de la ,vallire as ,chamot covered the large ones2 in #agff ,chamot was royal binder4 ,there was also ,pierre ,engerrand1 then ,biziaux1 an original1 who worked for ,madame de ,pompadour and ,beaumarchais4 ,boyet1 or ,boyer1 worked 7#afgj-hj7 in the style of ,le ,gascon1 with the same minute tooling1 but simpler in character4 ,duseuil put very elaborate and delicate tooling on his covers from about #agaj to #agbj4 ,the ,revolution effaced many of the fine works which displayed the symbols of a royalty justly detested1 and ,mercier wrote certain wicked little poems against binding4 ,lesn was the poet of bookbinding1 and he invented the process of plain calf without boards4 ,certainly from ,grolier to ,lesn there were numerous changes1 so numerous that1 in spite of the nude calf1 it may be said that the art was nearly dead4 ,in our days it has a little recovered4 ,amateurs have found new names1 and often artists1 to patronise3 ,trautz-,bauzonnet1 ,cap1 ,duru1 ,lortic1 ,marius ,michel1 in ,france2 ,bedford1 ,rivire1 ,zaehnsdorf1 ,pratt1 in ,england2 ,matthews1 ,bradstreet1 ,smith1 in the ,united ,states2 and many others4 ,unhappily1 fortune does not permit every one to furnish his library luxuriously2 the true connoisseur searches rather for ,groliers1 ,eves1 and ,le ,gascons1 than concerns himself about modern workmanship4 ,whatever may be its value1 it is only fit to clothe the works of the time4 ,a book published by ,lemerre and bound by ,petit is in true character1 but a fifteenth or sixteenth century book passed under the hands of ,trautz-,bauzonnet himself will be very much like an ancient enamel in a modern frame newly gilt4 ,bookbinding in ,england has1 with very few exceptions1 never attained the artistic excellence reached in ,france4 ,from the earliest times to the present day servile imitations of foreign work only are seen4 ,the one purely original ,english binder is ,roger ,payne1 who from about #aggj worked for thirty or forty years in ,london1 performing with his own hands every stage of the work1 even to cutting his own tools4 ,the result was good1 solid work1 with perfectly original and often very beautiful decoration1 appropriate to the character of the work itself4 ,his favourite style was drooping lines of leaf ornaments in the borders and geometrical patterns in small tools4 ,after him came ,charles ,lewis1 who was an artist in the true sense of the word1 and1 coming down to our own time1 ,francis ,bedford1 who1 never pretending to originality1 copied the best designs of the old ,french and ,italian binders4 ,his full calf books1 with handsomely tooled backs1 are models of solidity and taste2 and his decorations on the sides of morocco-bound books are always in good taste1 and often of great elegance4 ,the binders of the present day1 perhaps for lack of patronage1 seem to have abandoned originality2 and although much excellent work is done1 it is no more than a copy of the ,eves1 ,le ,gascon1 ,derome1 and the older artists4 ,parallel with the luxurious bindings with which we have been exclusively occupied1 there has always been the commercial work1 prepared in advance4 ,liturgical works1 above all1 are sold in this form4 ,books in the ,grolier style or other grand personages were worked from a pattern engraved in relief1 leaving nothing to the caprice of the artist1 by being applied to the side by a press4 ,this process is termed blocking4 ,germany made use of this process principally2 also ,vostre1 ,verard1 and ,tory employed the same means4 ,even the interlacings and the capricious arabesques of ,grolier were imitated by means of a fixed plate1 parts of which were finished by hand to make it appear a complete work of imagination and handicraft4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,libraries4 ,art1 science1 and literature took refuge in convents before the invention of ,printing1 and libraries did not count many books4 ,according to daily wants1 the monastery scribes copied the treatises lent by neighbouring houses1 and the collection was thus painfully made during many centuries4 ,two or three hundred works constituted ordinary collections2 the powerful abbeys found in their staff the means of enriching their libraries1 as we have said1 but they were the privileged ones4 ,excepting kings and some princes1 few people possessed a library4 ,the great expense of transcription1 the want of facility for procuring originals1 and the enormous price of manuscripts left no hope to bibliophiles of moderate fortune4 ,typography1 on the contrary1 having multiplied books and put at relatively modest prices reproductions formerly inaccessible1 private collections commenced4 ,we have had occasion to speak before of ,grolier and ,maioli2 they were the most illustrious1 but not the only ones4 ,at first a public library was an unknown thing4 ,the richest and the most easily got together1 that of the ,king of ,france1 was private4 ,since ,john the ,good in ,france the acquisitions were numerous1 and ,gutenberg's invention contributed to augment the stock of volumes everywhere4 ,charles ,,viii4 and ,louis ,,xii4 found or took in their expeditions in ,italy1 and were able to add to the original nucleus1 many rare editions1 especially from the ,sforzas at ,pavia1 who had marvels without number4 ,brought together at ,blois1 under the care of ,john de ,labarre1 the royal library did not yet occupy a very large space1 in spite of its increase4 ,under ,charles ,v4 the number of books was about a thousand2 about #aejj or #aeaj they were nearly doubled1 and the printed books did not number more than two hundred4 ,so restricted1 the royal library travelled with the other treasures of the ,crown2 ,francis ,i4 transported it from ,blois to ,fontainebleau1 and even parts of it to the ,italian wars1 as related above4 ,in its new quarters the royal collection1 in spite of the successive accessions of the books of ,john d',angoulme1 grandfather of the ,king1 and of those of the dukes of ,orleans1 counted but #a1gha manuscripts and a hundred and nine printed books on the shelves4 ,the ,king1 ambitious in literature no less than in arts1 nominated an illustrious savant1 ,guillaume ,bud1 to the office of master of his library2 and this qualification was maintained by his successors until the fall of the royal power4 ,with ,bud commenced the system of continuous acquisitions4 ,the treasury was liberally opened to vendors of rarities4 ,at this time the books1 placed upon their sides1 one upon another1 gave no idea of a modern library1 with its volumes ranged on end1 having their titles between the bands of the back4 ,in speaking of ,grolier1 we remarked that the sides of a binding alone had importance on account of their place on the shelves2 it was the same with ,francis ,i4 ,under ,henri ,,ii4 the ,fontainebleau collection was somewhat pillaged for ,diana of ,poitiers1 but1 as a corrective for this dilapidation1 the ,king adopted a measure1 since preserved1 which substituted for acquisitions a regular and uninterrupted supply2 this was the contribution by publishers to the library of one bound copy on vellum of all the works printed under privilege4 ,the ordinance was made in #aeef2 the successors of ,henri ,,ii4 had only this means of increasing the number of their volumes1 with the exception that ,charles ,,ix4 expended a large sum in the purchase of ,grolier's collection of medals4 ,such was the working of the royal library for about a half-century1 but the idea of making it public had not come4 ,diffused as was then the passion for books1 it had not yet been democratised to the point of being understood by the people4 ,amateurs and lovers of reading formed special collections in their houses1 at times rivalling that of the ,king4 ,then the fashion was no more to lay the books on their sides1 but they were now ranged to allow room for new acquisitions4 ,henri ,,iv41 who had not his great-uncle's predilection for ,fontainebleau1 commanded the removal to ,paris of the books buried in the castle4 ,he added to them those of ,catherine de ,medicis coming from ,marshal ,strozzi2 and as the college of ,clermont had become vacant by the dispersion of the ,jesuits1 he lodged the library in #aeii in one of the rooms of that establishment1 under the care of ,james ,augustus de ,thou1 master of the library4 ,we now see the royal collection brought to ,paris1 which it has never quitted2 but before its definitive installation1 before it was made public1 it passed through a century1 during which additions were made1 purchases increased1 and the number of manuscripts and printed books augmented in enormous proportions4 ,henri ,,iv4 desired to place it near the court1 to avoid pillage and to have the chief librarian near to him4 ,the return of the ,jesuits in #afjd upset the first establishment a little2 the college of ,clermont was evacuated2 the books were transported to the ,cordeliers and distributed in rooms on the ground and first floors1 whence the names of upper and lower libraries4 ,there was a mass of volumes very little used1 for the public did not enjoy them1 and the ,king held them as his own2 but the time was near when the collection was to take a very serious step under the influence of the brothers ,dupuy in #afde1 and afterwards of ,jerome ,bignon4 ,always shut up in the incommodious chambers of the ,cordeliers1 the library contained #e1bei volumes1 manuscript and printed1 perhaps less than some private libraries2 after the ,dupuys it had at least #aj1cbi printed books4 ,mazarin was the first to comprehend the natural use of collections of books3 publicity4 ,his private library1 placed before #afea in his magnificent house in the ,rue ,richelieu1 where later was definitively lodged the royal library1 was opened to readers every ,tuesday1 from eight to eleven and two to five4 ,dispersed in #afea1 at the fall of the ,cardinal1 it was later reconstituted1 and in less than ten years afterwards the former minister was able to open it in its new quarters1 the ,college of the ,four ,nations1 where it is still4 ,while the ,mazarin library was administering liberally to the wants of the public1 that of the ,king remained closely shut up in the rooms of the ,cordeliers4 ,colbert1 influenced by this state of things1 offered two houses in the ,rue ,vivienne to the ,king1 where the books could find a more convenient lodging1 and allow room for increase4 ,the removal was made in #afff4 ,the royal collection for fifty-five years was lodged only a few steps from its final resting-place1 the ,hotel de ,nevers4 ,so was called at the end of the seventeenth century the splendid mansion of ,mazarin1 situated near the ,porte de ,richelieu1 in the street of the same name1 whence his books had been previously torn and sold to all the dealers4 ,divided into two parts at the death of the ,cardinal in #affa1 the palace fell1 one part to the ,duc de ,mazarin1 the other to the ,duc de ,nevers1 his nephews4 ,at first the ,king dreamed1 under the advice of ,louvais1 of acquiring the land in the neighbourhood of the ,rue ,vivienne and of elevating a monument for his library1 for the thought of putting the ,hotel de ,nevers to this use had not then occurred to him2 but the ,duc de ,mazarin having alienated his part of the palace in favour of the ,company of the ,indies1 ,abb ,bignon1 then royal librarian1 perceived the part he could play from that fact4 ,thanks to the administration of ,colbert and the liberalities of the ,king1 the collection had been augmented threefold4 ,at the time of the removal to the ,rue ,vivienne1 ,nicolas ,clment worked at the classifying and cataloguing of #ce1jjj volumes4 ,he distributed them into methodical classes1 and devoted nine years--#afge to #afhd--to his work4 ,but this first unravelling was soon insufficient4 ,less than four years after1 he commenced a new inventory in twenty-one volumes1 which occupied thirty years1 having been finished in the course of ,march1 #agad4 ,this time the numbers amounted to #dc1jjj printed volumes2 his twenty-three principal divisions1 containing all the letters of the alphabet1 are very nearly preserved up to our day4 ,in #afig the question of publishing this enormous work was agitated1 and on this point ,clment had a curious correspondence with a learned ,dane named ,frederick ,bostgaard2 he also1 in a celebrated pamphlet1 ,ide d'une ,nouvelle ,manire de dresser le ,catalogue d'une ,bibliothque1 indicated practical observations2 he resolved this arduous question for important collections by difference of sizes2 but his project was not executed1 although favoured from the first by ,abb ,bignon4 ,as the collection was not available for workers1 the work of ,clment had only a relative importance4 ,a councillor of the ,prince of ,waldeck1 a ,german of the name of ,nemeitz1 who travelled in ,france in the beginning of the eighteenth century1 having seen it in the houses of the ,rue ,vivienne1 says that the library occupied then twenty-six rooms and contained #ge1jjj volumes in all2 it was shown voluntarily to strangers1 but not to the public4 ,nemeitz gives some other curious particulars as to the libraries of ,paris 7,sjour ,paris3 ,leyde1 #agbg1 #hvo74 ,the bank of ,law1 that had been lodged for some time in the ,hotel de ,nevers1 alienated by the heirs of ,mazarin1 soon disappeared with the ruin of his system4 ,as we have said above1 ,bignon appreciated the importance of the neglected palace for commodiously lodging the royal collections4 ,this was in #agba4 ,the collection was about to be subdivided into four sections1 or1 as they were then called in the administrative style1 four distinct departments3 manuscripts1 printed books1 titles1 and engraved plates4 ,the master of the library pressed the ,regent to profit by the occasion1 to which he agreed4 ,in the month of ,september the removal commenced1 and from the ,rue ,vivienne1 the royal library1 the first in the world and the most valuable1 as ,naud says1 entered the former palace of the ,cardinal1 which it was never to quit again4 ,we approach the epoch when this great scientific establishment was to quit its private character and to open its doors to the learned of all countries4 ,in #agce it was decided to print the catalogue of some divisions only3 theology1 canonical law1 public law1 and belles lettres4 ,this resolution coincided precisely with the opening of the doors which took place in #agcg1 in which year appeared the first volume of the catalogue comprising the sacred ,scriptures4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century the royal library was finally established2 the printed books then comprised about #bjj1jjj volumes1 and access was had by a staircase leading to six grand saloons1 which were surrounded by galleries4 ,from this moment the rooms became too small4 ,at the ,revolution the number of books had increased to #cjj1jjj1 and projects of enlargement commenced1 to be continued to our time2 but1 in spite of these proposals1 the surface occupied by the library has remained the same since the time of ,louis ,,xv4 ,enlargements and alterations have been made year after year on the same ground without much new construction4 ,but how the treasures have been augmented to this time6 ,if the printed books at the ,revolution represented a little more than #cjj1jjj volumes1 to-day they exceed two millions2 the prints number two and a half millions2 the medals1 #ajj1jjj2 the manuscripts1 something over #ij1jjj4 ,if we have thus brought the summary history of the ,national ,library of ,paris to our days1 it was to avoid mixing it with other matters4 ,we have entered into such detail regarding it as is fitting for the most important library in the world4 ,we now return to the seventeenth century4 ,at the time when ,henri ,,iv4 carried from ,fontainebleau to ,paris the nucleus of volumes that was to have so brilliant a destiny1 the passion for books had singularly spread itself in ,france4 ,we have already spoken of ,mazarin2 after him ,cardinal ,richelieu designed to open his private collection to the public1 and in his will he manifested his clearly held intention4 ,he went further in his last wishes3 he prescribed the daily sweeping and dusting of the precious collection1 and its augmentation by a thousand livres tournois each year4 ,the great personages of the time were not behind2 and ,sauval says that in the seventeenth century there were #a1jjj or #a1bjj private libraries in ,paris1 numbering #a1gjj1jjj volumes4 ,in the provinces there were few public libraries4 ,the communities and learned ,societies1 the ,jesuits and other religious houses1 and the universities had collections ,at ,orleans a library was opened for ,germans1 and the students of that country were able to work at their ease under the supervision of two librarians4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century the number of libraries had increased in large proportions2 the amateurs had made their influence felt4 ,the ,book was not sought only for what it contained1 but also for its exterior clothing4 ,only the great libraries open to everybody remained eclectic1 and provided a little of everything4 ,besides the royal library1 there were in ,paris a great number of other collections1 which the revolutionary storm upset and often destroyed4 ,that of ,st4 ,germain des ,prs was burnt in #agid4 ,that of ,st4 ,genevive1 founded in #afbe1 had benefited by celebrated donations1 among others those of the cardinals ,de ,berulle and ,de la ,rochefoucauld2 the ,arsenal1 created by the ,marquis de ,paulmy1 was successively enriched by important acquisitions1 among which was the collection of the ,duc de la ,vallire4 ,these collections still exist1 and are open to the public1 as also are the ,national ,library1 the ,mazarine1 the ,sorbonne1 the ,museum1 the ,school of ,fine ,arts1 the ,city of ,paris1 the ,institute1 the ,louvre1 and the several scientific faculties4 ,the provinces have not been behind in the movement4 ,many of the great cities contain a considerable number of books easily accessible1 among them the libraries of ,bordeaux and ,rouen1 amounting to #aej1jjj volumes2 ,troyes and ,besanon1 #ajj1jjj1 etc4 ,few important centres have less than #bj1jjj4 ,these collections have been generally composed of those of the religious establishments1 closed by the ,revolution4 ,in our time public libraries are augmented by the legal deposit1 gifts of the ,state1 legacies of private persons1 and purchases4 ,the legal deposit in ,france relates almost exclusively to the ,national ,library1 and proceeds from the measures taken by ,henri ,,ii4 in #aeef4 ,each ,french printer has now to deposit a certain number of copies of the works that he issues1 and these volumes go to swell the number of books in the ,rue de ,richelieu4 ,at the rate of #cj1jjj a year1 the time is easily anticipated and very near when the space will be found insufficient4 ,some measures will have to be taken4 ,germany1 the cradle of printing1 was not favoured in the beginning4 ,it had1 however1 in the seventeenth century1 in ,wolfenbttel1 a little town in the duchy of ,brunswick1 a curious collection of books1 in a detached building1 of which the engraver ,merian has preserved for us the physiognomy2 it contained nearly #bjj1jjj volumes1 an enormous number for the time4 ,the rather low rooms were shelved all round2 in the middle were cases of the height of a man1 also filled with books2 the readers helped themselves1 and were seated for working4 ,the exterior of the building1 without being sumptuous1 was isolated and detached4 ,in our time this collection includes the ,bible1 glass1 and inkstand of ,luther and his portrait by ,lucas ,cranach4 ,another curious library1 dating from the beginning of the seventeenth century1 is that of the city of ,leyden4 ,an engraving by ,woudan shows its state in #afaj1 with its classifications and divisions4 ,the books were ranged in cases provided with breast-high desks4 ,the books were placed with the edges in front1 and not as now1 and were so attached that they could only be consulted in their place4 ,each body of shelving contained a series of authors3 theology1 philosophy1 mathematics1 history1 medicine1 law1 and literature4 ,the room1 of square shape1 was lighted by windows right and left4 ,between the bays were portraits1 views of cities1 and maps4 ,on the right1 in a shrine1 was enclosed the legacy of ,joseph ,scaliger4 ,communication was less liberal than at ,wolfenbttel2 the readers were obliged to take the books from the shelves themselves and read them standing before the desks4 ,in ,england1 the celebrated ,oxford ,library should be mentioned1 augmented and restored in #aeig by ,sir ,thomas ,bodley1 ambassador of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,the generous overtures of this rich gentleman met with unanimous approbation4 ,he offered to the library of the university the volumes collected by him during his travels on the ,continent1 whose value exceeded #aj1jjj4 ,the first stone of a new building was laid in #afaj1 but from #afjb the collection was open to readers in a provisional locality4 ,david ,loggan1 the engraver1 has preserved for us interior views of the ,bodleian of the seventeenth century4 ,the rooms are disposed in the form of the letter ,h1 with pavilions to east and west1 united by a gallery4 ,the books were and are still in the body of the library1 placed against the walls1 with tables and immovable seats4 ,the volumes were not displaced2 they were consulted in their own place4 ,each room had two floors1 with access to the second by stairs4 ,in ,london it was ,hans ,sloane who had the idea of founding a great collection by offering to the ,state for #bj1jjj his collection of books1 which was valued at #ej1jjj4 ,created in #agec by an ,act of ,parliament1 the ,british ,museum1 as it was named1 was quickly augmented by many private libraries1 among which was the library of printed books and manuscripts collected by the kings of ,england from ,henry ,,vii4 to ,william ,,iii41 which was added in the reign of ,george ,,ii4 ,the very extensive and valuable library of ,george ,,iii41 #bej1jjj volumes1 was added by ,george ,,iv4 ,the ,harleian collection added #g1ejj volumes1 and ,robert ,cotton his manuscripts4 ,to-day the printed books amount to #a1cjj1jjj1 and are only surpassed by the ,national ,library of ,france as well in number of books as in number of readers4 ,this immense collection increases at a great rate1 one source being the compulsory deposit of a copy of every new book in order to secure copyright4 ,donations and legacies are constantly being made1 and an annual sum for purchases is voted by ,parliament4 ,besides the copy deposited by publishers in the ,british ,museum1 the law of copyright compels the deposit of four other copies1 which go to augment the collections of the ,bodleian ,library of ,oxford1 the ,university ,library of ,cambridge1 and the libraries of ,edinburgh and ,dublin4 ,if we search among the cities of ,europe where establishments of this kind are most honoured1 ,berlin will take the third place with #ijj1jjj printed books and #bj1jjj manuscripts1 preserved in the ,imperial ,library4 ,the building1 constructed between #agge and #aghj1 owes its special form to ,frederick ,,ii41 who desired that it should take the form of a chest of drawers4 ,on the faade an inscription in the ,latin tongue1 but conceived in ,german spirit1 indicates that here is a spiritual refectory--nutrimentum spiritus4 ,following come ,munich1 with #hjj1jjj printed books2 ,vienna #djj1jjj2 ,dresden1 #cjj1jjj2 then the universities3 ,leipzig1 whose library1 founded in #adji and reorganised in #ahcj1 contains #aej1jjj books and #b1jjj manuscripts2 ,heidelberg2 ,gttingen1 etc4 ,in ,italy1 ,florence keeps1 in the ,national ,library1 #cjj1jjj volumes1 proceeding from various amateurs1 and formed since #ahfj4 ,the collection of the goldsmith ,magliabecchi1 that was open to readers since #agdg1 has been transported there4 ,besides this library1 ,florence possesses the celebrated ,laurentian1 created by ,cosmo de ,medicis in the middle of the fifteenth century1 where are united more than #h1jjj manuscripts of an incalculable value4 ,milan has at the ,brera a collection of #bjj1jjj printed books and #ej1jjj medals1 and at the ,ambrosian1 due to ,cardinal ,frederick ,borromeo1 #afj1jjj printed books and #h1jjj manuscripts4 ,rome possesses a dozen collections and celebrated deposits4 ,the ,vatican1 not numerous1 is most choice2 the importance of its manuscripts is known to the entire world1 but only a part of the #ej1jjj printed books are catalogued4 ,the ,library of ,victor ,emmanuel1 formerly of the ,jesuits1 amounts to about #ff1jjj volumes4 ,at ,venice the splendid monument called the ,antiqua ,libraria di ,st4 ,marco has changed its destination2 constructed in the sixteenth century and commenced by ,sansovino for a library1 it is now a royal palace4 ,this city has lost that which had made its glory1 and its collections are very modest in our days4 ,the magnificent educational establishments in the form of public libraries provided in the ,united ,states deserve special mention4 ,nearly every city has its public library1 supported by a small tax2 and many large libraries are wholly supported by private munificence4 ,the first to be established was founded in #agcb by ,benjamin ,franklin in ,philadelphia1 and still exists as the ,library ,company2 many important bequests have been made to it1 the latest being #bjj1jjj by ,dr4 ,richard ,rush4 ,the library now numbers #aej1jjj volumes4 ,the ,congressional ,library of ,washington1 besides its annual income from ,government1 receives by deposit for copyright a copy of every work published in the ,united ,states2 it now has #efe1jjj volumes4 ,the ,astor ,library and the ,lenox ,library of ,new ,york were both founded and endowed by the families whose name they bear2 the former has #bbc1bhd volumes1 the latter #be1jjj4 ,the city of ,chicago recently fell heir to the magnificent sum of over one million sterling for the establishment of a library of reference1 and ,new ,york was benefited by the late ,mr4 ,tilden to the extent of #hjj1jjj for a public library4 ,when we have named the libraries of ,st4 ,petersburg and ,moscow for ,russia1 ,stockholm for ,sweden1 and the ,escurial for ,spain1 we shall have mentioned very hastily the most important establishments in the world4 ,for more than four centuries the love of books has preserved and fortified itself1 and increases each day4 ,if we were to endeavour to approximately imagine the number of printed books diffused1 we should be frightened at it4 ,it is by miles that to-day are counted the shelves of the ,national ,library or of the ,british ,museum2 and each year the production is accelerated1 as is also the number of readers4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,index4 ,albi1 first printer at1 #dg4 ,alciati1 books of emblems1 #abf4 ,alding1 ,henry1 printer in ,sicily1 #ce4 ,aldus ,manutius1 son-in-law of ,torresani1 #ea2 printer in ,venice1 #ii1 #ajc1 #abh2 books for ,grolier1 #bfj4 ,america1 ,north1 printing in1 #baf4 ,antwerp1 early printing at1 #fg2 ,plantin1 #adj4 ,ars ,memorandi1 block book1 #aj4 ,ars ,moriendi1 block book1 #h4 ,asola1 ,andrew d'1 successor of ,jenson1 #ej4 ,audran1 ,c41 engraver1 #aeh4 ,augsburg1 ,formschneiders at1 #eh4 ,badier1 ,florimond1 bookbinder1 #bhj4 ,badius1 ,jodocus1 printer in ,paris1 #abb1 #bdf4 ,baldini1 designs for early ,italian books1 #ed4 ,ballard1 printer for music1 #ahf4 ,bamberg1 early printing at1 #be1 #bi4 ,barcelona1 first printer1 #cf4 ,bartolozzi1 engraver1 #bji4 ,baskerville1 printer of ,birmingham1 #bjh4 ,basle1 first printer1 #cf2 school of engraving1 #abe4 ,beaujoyeux1 ,balthasar de1 ,ballet ,comique1 #acf4 ,bechtermuncze1 ,henry1 pupil of ,gutenberg1 #be1 #cf4 ,bedford1 ,francis1 bookbinder1 #bhh4 ,belfort1 ,andrew1 printer at ,ferrara1 #ce4 ,berlin1 ,imperial ,library of1 #cja4 ,bernard1 le petit1 designer1 #abh4 ,bewick1 ,thomas1 engraver1 #bji1 #bac1 #bbe1 #bcd4 ,bible1 ,gutenberg's1 #ae1 #bj2 of #adfb1 the ,mayence1 #bg2 first ,english1 #adf2 ,authorised ,version1 #ahb2 the ,polyglot1 ,plantin's1 #ada2 ,richelieu's1 #agc4 ,biblia ,pauperum1 block book1 #h4 ,bignon1 ,jerome1 royal librarian1 #bic4 ,binding1 early1 #bec4 ,biziaux1 bookbinder1 #bhg4 ,blind ,asylum1 printers in #aghf1 #baf4 ,bocard1 ,andrew1 printer in ,paris1 #hh4 ,bodleian ,library1 #cjj4 ,bohn1 ,h4 ,g41 publisher1 #bbc4 ,bologna1 ,francisco da1 engraver of type1 #ajj4 ,bonhomme1 printer in ,lyons1 #abh4 ,book1 the1 earliest forms of1 #a1 #f4 ,books of ,hours1 #gj1 #aab2 for ,english use1 #adg4 ,booksellers of ,paris1 #agj1 #ahf1 #aij1 #aif4 ,bosse1 ,abraham1 engraver1 #agj4 ,botticelli1 plates to ,dante1 #ee4 ,boucher1 designer1 #ahh4 ,bourdichon1 ,john1 artist1 #fi4 ,boydell1 ,alderman1 publisher1 #baj4 ,boyet1 bookbinder1 #bhg4 ,brandt's ,ship of ,fools1 #fe4 ,british ,museum1 library1 #cja4 ,brothers of ,common ,life1 printers1 #adfh1 #cf4 ,browne1 ,h4 ,k41 book illustrator1 #bce4 ,bruges1 early printing at1 #cg1 #fg4 ,buckinck1 ,arnold1 printer at ,rome1 printed the first atlas1 #ee4 ,bud1 ,guillaume1 royal librarian1 #bia4 ,csaris1 ,peter1 and ,john ,stol1 second ,paris printers1 #fh4 ,callot1 engraver1 #afg4 ,cambridge1 first printing at1 #adi4 ,cars1 ,laurent1 engraver1 #ahi4 ,cases 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century1 #h4 ,zainer1 ,gunther1 printer at ,augsburg1 #eh4 ,zell1 ,ulrich1 pupil of ,gutenberg1 #be1 #cj1 #cf4 ,zwoll1 book illustration at1 #fg4 ,transcriber's ,note ,in this text version1 symbols and ,greek letters in the text are replaced by their name1 enclosed in square brackets1 e4g4 phi1 double cross4 ,in addition1 oe ligatures are replaced with the letters oe1 and superscripts are introduced with the caret character1 e4g4 ,,xviiie