,established by ,edward ,l4 ,youmans    
,,appletons'             ,,popular      
,,science                 ,,monthly     
,,edited ,,by           ,,william ,,jay 
,,youmans                   ,,vol4 ,,lv 
,,may ,,to ,,october1 #ahii             
,,new ,,york         ,d4 ,,appleton     
,,and ,,company                  #ahii  
,,copyright1 #ahii1       ,,by ,d4      
,,appleton ,,and ,,company4             
,illustration3 ,,william ,,pengelly4    
,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science        
,,monthly4    ,,may1 #ahii4             
,,alaska ,,and ,,the ,,klondike4    ,a  
,,journey ,,to ,,the ,,new ,,eldorado4  
,,by ,,angelo ,,heilprin1    ,,professor
 ,,of ,,geology ,,at ,,the ,,academy    
,,of ,,natural ,,sciences ,,of          
,,philadelphia1 ,,fellow ,,of ,,the     
,,royal ,,geographical ,,society ,,of   
,,london4      ,i4--,,in ,,by ,,the     
,,white ,,pass ,,and ,,out ,,by ,,the   
,,chilkoot4    ,hardly two years ago the
 names ,dawson and ,klondike were       
entirely  unknown to the outside world1 

and geographers were as ignorant of     
their existence as was at that time the 
less learned laity4 ,to-day it  may be  
questioned if any two localities of     
foreign and uncivilized  lands are as   
well known1 by name at least1 as these  
that mark the  approach to the arctic   
realm in the northwest of the ,american 
continent4 ,one of those periodic       
movements in the history of peoples     
which mark epochs in the progress of the
 world1 and have their source  in a     
sudden or unlooked-for discovery1       
directed attention to this new  quarter 
of the globe1 and to it stream and will 
continue to stream  thousands of the    
world's inhabitants4 ,probably not less 
than from  thirty-five thousand to forty
 thousand people1 possibly even         
considerably more1 have in the short    
period following the discovery of  gold 
in the ,klondike region already passed  
to or beyond the portals of  what has   
not inaptly been designated the ,new    
,eldorado4 ,to some of  these a fortune 

has been born2 to many more a hope has  
been shattered  in disappointment2 and  
to still more the arbiter of fate1      
whether for  good or for bad1 has for a 
while withheld the issue4    ,in its    
simplest geographical setting ,dawson1  
this ,mecca of the north1  is a         
settlement of the ,northwest ,territory 
of ,canada1 situated at a  point        
thirteen hundred miles as the crow flies
 northwest of ,seattle4  ,it is close   
to1 if not quite on1 the ,arctic        
,circle1 and it lies the  better part of
 three hundred miles nearer to the pole 
than does ,st4  ,petersburg in ,russia4 
,by its side one of the mighty rivers of
 the  globe hurries its course to the   
ocean1 but not too swiftly to permit  of
 sixteen hundred miles of its lower     
waters being navigated by craft  of the 
size of nearly the largest of the       
,mississippi steamers1 and  five hundred
 miles above by craft of about half this
 size4 ,in its own  particular world1   
the longest day of the year drawls      

itself out to  twenty-two hours of      
sunlight1 while the shortest contracts  
to the same  length of sun absence4     
,during the warmer days of summer the   
heat feels almost tropical2 the  winter 
cold is1 on the other hand1 of almost   
the extreme ,siberian  rigor4 ,yet a    
beautiful vegetation smiles not only    
over the valleys1  but on the hilltops1 
the birds gambol in the thickets1 and   
the tiny  mosquito1 either here or near 
by1 pipes out its daily sustenance to   
the wrath of man4 ,the hungry forest    
stretches out its gnarled and  ragged   
arms for still another hundred or even  
three hundred miles  farther to the     
north4    ,up to within a few years the 
white man was a stranger in the land1   
and  the ,indian roamed the woods and   
pastures as still do the moose and      
caribou4 ,to-day this has largely       
changed4 ,the banks of the once silent  
river now give out the hum of the       
sawmill1 the click of the hammer1  and  
the blast of the time-whistle1          

commanding either to rest or to  work4  
,a busy front of humanity has settled   
where formerly the grizzly  bear lapped 
the stranded salmon from the shore1 and 
where at a still  earlier               
period--although perhaps not easily     
associated with the  history of man--the
 mammoth1 the musk ox1 and the bison    
were masters  of the land4 ,the red man 
is still there in lingering numbers1 but
 his  spirit is no longer that which    
dominates1 and his courage not that of  
the untutored savage4    ,the modern    
history of ,dawson begins with about the
 middle of #ahif1  shortly after the    
public discovery of gold in the         
,klondike tract4  ,three or four months 
previous there was hardly a habitation1 
whether  tent or of logs1 to deface the 
landscape1 and the voice of animate     
,nature was hushed only in the sound of 
many waters4 ,at the close of  the past 
year1 as nearly as estimate can make it1
 there were probably  not less than from
 fourteen thousand to fifteen thousand  

men1 women1  and children1 settled on   
the strip of land that borders the      
,yukon1  both as lowland and highland1  
for about two miles of its course near  
the confluence of the ,klondike4 ,many  
of these have located for a  permanence1
 others only to give way to successors  
more fortunate than  themselves4 ,some  
of the richest claims of the ,bonanza1  
now a famed  gold creek of the world1   
are located hardly twelve miles distant1
 and  the wealth of the ,eldorado is    
discharged within a radius of less than 
twenty miles4 ,over the mountains that  
closely limit the head springs  of      
,bonanza and ,eldorado1 ,hunker1        
,dominion1 and ,sulphur ,creeks  thread 
their own valleys of gold in deep       
hollows of beautiful                    
woodland--fascinating even to-day1 but  
already badly scarred by the  work that 
man has so assiduously pressed in the   
region4 ,this is the  ,klondike1 a land 
full of promise and of equal            
disappointment1 brought  to public      

notice in the early part of #ahig1 when 
intelligence was  received by the       
outside world regarding the first       
important gold  location on ,bonanza    
,creek in ,august of the year previous4 
,illustration3 ,,looking ,,down ,,the   
,,lynn ,,canal--,,skaguay ,,river1      
,,with  ,,skaguay ,,on ,,the ,,left4    
,on the #bdth of ,july of the past year 
,i found myself on the principal        
thoroughfare of ,skaguay1 the ubiquitous
 ,broadway1 contemplating a  journey to 
the new north4 ,the route of travel had 
been determined for  me in part by the  
non-arrival at ,seattle of the expected 
steamers from  the mouth of the ,yukon  
,river1 and by that woeful lack of      
knowledge  regarding conditions which so
 frequently distinguishes steamship     
companies4 ,it was to be1 therefore1 the
 overland route1 and from  ,skaguay it  
was merely the alternative between the  
,white ,pass and the  ,chilkoot ,pass or
 ,dyea trails4 ,the two start from      
points barely four  miles apart1 cross  

their summits at very nearly the same   
distance from  one another1 and         
virtually terminate at the same body of 
inland water1  ,lake ,lindeman1 the     
navigable head of the great ,yukon      
,river4 ,a more  than generous supply of
 summer heat gave little warning of that
 bleak  and severe interior with which  
the world had been made so well         
familiar during the last twelvemonth1   
and from which we were barely  six      
hundred miles distant2 nor did the      
character of the surroundings  betray   
much of an approach to the ,arctic      
,circle4 ,mountains of aspiring         
elevations1 six thousand to seven       
thousand feet1 most symmetrically       
separated off into pinnacles and knobs1 
and supporting here and there  enough of
 snow to form goodly glaciers1 look down
 upon the narrow  trough which to-day is
 the valley of the ,skaguay ,river4 ,at 
the foot of  this ancient fiord lies the
 boom town of ,skaguay4 ,charming       
forests1  except where the hand of man  

has leveled the work of ,nature to suit 
the requirements of a constructing      
railway1 yet clothe the mountain  slopes
 and fill in the gap that lies between  
them1 shadowing the dense  herbage and  
moss which almost everywhere form an    
exquisite carpeting  to the underlying  
rock4 ,the ear may catch the strains of 
a few  mosquitoes1 or the mellow notes  
of the robin or thrush1 but rising far  
above these in the majesty of tone and  
accent is the swish of the  tumbling    
cataracts which bring the landscape of  
,norway to ,america4  ,man1 it is       
claimed1 is much the same the world     
over2 but there is a  limitation4 ,the  
second habitation of white man in       
,skaguay was  established less than a   
year before my visit2 yet at that time1 
presumably to meet the demands of a     
resident population of nearly five      
thousand1 and of the wandering hordes   
pressing to the interior1 the           
destructive hand of the advertiser had  
already inscribed on the walls  of rock1

 in characters twenty feet or more in   
height1 and sufficiently  elevated to   
make them nearly the most conspicuous   
elements of the  landscape1 the glories 
of cigars1 the value of mental and      
physical  specifics1 and of other       
abominations which were contrived to    
fatten  the ,yankee pocket4             
,illustration3 ,a ,,summer ,,day ,,on   
,,the ,,skaguay4    ,had it not been for
 the kindly advice of one who had just  
returned  from the ,klondike1 and who   
claimed to have crossed both passes     
fifty  times1 ,i should almost          
unhesitatingly have taken the ,white    
,pass trail2  but the representation    
that beyond the summit the mud would be 
neck-deep and virtually impenetrable for
 a distance of twenty miles or  more1   
cast the decision in favor of the       
,chilkoot4 ,the fortunate or            
unfortunate circumstance that a billowy 
sea made a landing of  passengers at    
,dyea impossible on that day threw me   
back upon my first  resource1 and about 

two hours before midday of the #cjth ,i 
was mounted  on a horse following out   
the ,skaguay trail4 ,by seven o'clock in
 the  evening of the following day ,i   
had reached ,lake ,lindeman1 and about a
  half hour later ,lake ,bennett1 the   
starting point of the lines of ,upper   
,yukon steamers which had just recently 
been established4 ,we had made  the     
forty miles of the dreaded ,white ,pass 
trail without serious  hindrance or     
delay1 up over the summit of #b1hfj feet
 elevation1 and  down over a course     
which was depicted in colors of hardship
 that would  have done more truthful    
service in describing a pass in the     
,himalayas4  ,there was no mud1 not a   
trace of snow or ice except on the      
mountain  declivities1 and had it not   
been for a horse that was both stiff and
  lame1 and required my attention as    
pedestrian to an extent that had  not   
been bargained for1 the journey would   
have been an exceptionally  delightful  
one4    ,it is true that an unfortunate 

fall at one time almost deprived me of  
my animal1 but the service of tackle    
soon put him to rights and to his  feet1
 and but few blood marks were left on   
the rocks to tell of the  struggle4 ,the
 most disagreeable incident of the      
journey was a dense  and shifting fog1  
which so blocked out the landscape of   
early evening  as to necessitate feeling
 the brokenness of a glaciated country  
in  order to ascertain wherein lay the  
trail4 ,but beyond this there was a     
perpetual delight in the landscape--in  
the narrow rocky defile1 the  bursting  
torrent1 the open meadows1 with their   
carpet of green and  variegated with    
fireweed1 gentian1 rose1 and            
forget-me-not1 which more  than         
compensated for the little vexations    
that allied themselves with  the        
journey4    ,illustration3 ,,coming     
,,down ,,the ,,white ,,pass--,,winter4  
,it is not often that the selection of a
 route of travel is determined  by the  
odorous or malodorous qualities which   

appertain thereto4 ,such a  case was1   
however1 presented here4 ,it was not the
 depth of mud alone  which was to deter 
one from essaying the ,white ,pass      
route2 sturdy  pioneers who had toiled  
long and hard in opening up one or more 
new  regions1 laid emphasis upon the    
stench of decaying horse-flesh as a     
factor of first consideration in the    
choice of route4 ,so far as stench  and 
decaying horse-flesh were concerned1    
they were in strong evidence4  ,the     
,desert of ,sahara1 with its lines of   
skeletons1 can boast of no  such        
exhibition of carcasses4 ,long before   
,bennett was reached ,i had  taken count
 of more than a thousand unfortunates   
whose bodies now made  part of the      
trail2 frequently we were obliged to    
pass directly over  these ghastly       
figures of hide1 and sometimes1 indeed1 
broke into them4  ,men whose veracity   
need not be questioned assured me that  
what ,i saw  was in no way the full     
picture of the life of the trail2 the   

carcasses of that time were less than   
one third of the full number  which in  
,april and ,may gave grim character to  
the route to the new  ,eldorado4        
,equally spread out1 this number would  
mean one dead animal  for every sixty   
feet of distance6 ,the poor beasts      
succumbed not so  much to the hardships 
of the trail as to the inhuman          
treatment1 or  lack of care and         
assistance1 which they received on the  
part of their  owners4 ,once out of the 
line of the mad rush1 perhaps unable to 
extricate themselves from the holding   
meshes of soft snow and of  quagmires1  
they were allowed to remain where they  
were1 a food  offering to the army of   
carrion eaters which were hovering      
about1  only too certain of the meal    
which was being prepared for them4      
,oftentimes pack saddles1 and sometimes 
even the packs1 were allowed to  remain 
with the struggling or sunken           
animal--such was the mad race  which the
 greed of gold inspired4    ,on ,october

 #ith ,i was again at ,bennett1 this    
time returning from my  journey into the
 interior1 and full of experience of    
what steam  navigation on the upper six 
hundred miles of ,yukon waters might    
mean4  ,there was now a change in the   
sentiment regarding the quality of the  
two passes4 ,the ,pacific and ,arctic   
,railway1 the pioneer of ,alaska  steam 
railways1 was operating twelve miles of 
track1 and had thus  materially reduced 
the hardships of the ,skaguay trail2 the
 ,chilkoot1  on the other hand1 was     
represented to be in the worst of mood1 
and  prepared to put the passing        
traveler into the same condition4 ,it   
was  more than late in the season1 but  
the winter's blasts had been stayed  off
 by a full month1 and there were still  
no signs of their coming4 ,a  little ice
 had begun to form along the river's    
margin and over  sheltered pools1 and an
 occasional cool night made demands for 
moderately warm clothing proper2 but1 on
 the whole1 the temperature  was mild   

and balmy1 and to its influence         
responded a vegetation which  in its    
full glory might easily have called to  
mind the region of the  ,juniata4       
,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,grade ,,for  
,,the ,,pacific ,,and ,,arctic          
,,railway--,,tunnel ,,mountain1 ,,white 
,,pass ,,route4    ,although strongly   
warned against taking the ,chilkoot     
,pass so late in  the season1 many of   
the outgoers1 whose recollections of    
events in the  early part of the year   
were still vividly fresh1 and who could 
not be  persuaded that the period of a  
few months had so effaced the           
conditions of the past as to permit a   
steam railway to enter for  twelve miles
 into the region1 chose it in preference
 to the ,white  ,pass4 ,my own mind had 
been cast in the same direction2 not1   
however1  from a point of judicious     
preference1 but merely because ,i was   
anxious  to see for myself that which   
had become historic in the movement of  
#ahih1 and of instituting a direct      

comparison of the physical features  and
 general characteristics of the two     
routes4 ,with no serious  hindrance1 the
 journey from ,bennett out was that of a
 full day only1  and there was no       
particular reason to suspect that there 
would be  delay4 ,snow had fallen on the
 summit and whitened all the higher     
points1 but seemingly it hung in only a 
measurably thin crust1 and  with not    
enough to necessitate breaking a trail4 
,a crude steam ferry across ,lake       
,lindeman cuts off about six miles from 
the first part of the trail1 after which
 a rapidly rising path1  sufficiently   
distinct to permit it to be easily      
followed1 winds over  the rocks and     
among rock dbris to ,long ,lake1        
situated at an  elevation of some       
twenty-six hundred feet1 where night    
shelter is  found in a fairly           
comfortable tent4 ,up to this point we  
had  encountered but little snow1 and   
the condition of the trail was such  as 
to allow of rapid travel4 ,a wise       

caution detained us here for the  night1
 and the incoming of a solitary traveler
 warned us that a  blizzard had struck  
the summit of the pass1 and buried it   
beneath a  heavy mantle of snow4 ,had we
 been a day earlier we might have       
crossed  dry shod1 a very exceptional   
condition at this time of the year1 but 
now the possibilities of a struggle     
gravely presented themselves4 ,a  light 
frost of the night had fairly congealed 
the soil1 but the lake  did not carry   
enough surface ice to interfere with the
 progress of a  scow1 and we reached the
 farther end without difficulty4 ,the   
two-mile  portage to ,crater ,lake was  
largely a snow traverse1 but an easy    
one2  at this time1 however1 it began to
 snow heavily1 and the immediate        
prospect was anything but cheerful4 ,a  
low fog hung over the waters1  but not  
so low or so dense as to prevent us from
 occasionally catching  glimpses of the 
rocks which projected with disagreeable 
frequency from  an assumed bottomless   

pit or crater4 ,the ascent from ,crater 
,lake to  the summit1 somewhat less than
 three hundred and fifty feet1 was made 
in about half an hour1 and then began   
the steep and sudden plunge  which marks
 the southern declivity of this famous  
mountain pass4 ,some  little caution was
 here required to keep a foothold1 and a
 too sudden  break might have led to an 
exhilarating1 even if not anxiously     
sought  after1 glissade2 but in truth1  
to any one only moderately practiced in 
mountaineering1 even this steep face1   
which descends for a thousand  feet or  
more from a summit elevation of         
thirty-four hundred feet1  presents     
little difficulty and hardly more       
danger4 ,what there is of a  trail      
zigzags in wild and rapid courses over  
an almost illimitable  mass of rock     
dbris1 at times within sheltered or     
confined hollows1  but more generally on
 the open face of the declivity4 ,this  
it is more  particularly that carries to
 many a certain amount of fear in the   

making of the passage1 but1 with proper 
caution and the right kind of  boots1   
nothing of danger need be apprehended4  
,unfortunately for the enjoyment of the 
scenery of the pass1 ,i could  see but a
 modest part of it4 ,although snow was  
no longer falling1 and  the atmosphere  
had settled down to a condition of      
almost passive  inactivity--much to the 
surprise1 if not disappointment1 of a   
few who  had prophesied a stiff and     
biting wind the moment we passed the    
divide--heavy cloud banks hovered about 
the summits1 and only at  intervals did 
they afford glimpses of the majestic    
mountain peaks by  which we were        
surrounded4 ,enough1 however1 could be  
seen to justify  for the pass the claims
 of most imposing scenery1 and its      
superiority  in this respect over the   
,white ,pass4 ,the temperature at the   
time of  our crossing was a few degrees 
below freezing1 perhaps #be or #bg ,f41 
but our rapid walk brought on profuse   
perspiration1 and it would have  been a 

pleasure1 if a sense of proper caution  
had permitted1 to divest  ourselves of  
mackinaws and travel in summer fashion4 
,we made ,sheep  ,camp1 with its        
surroundings of beautiful woodland1     
shortly after noon1  and ,caon ,city1   
which1 as the terminus of a good coach  
road to ,dyea1  virtually marks the end 
or beginning of the ,chilkoot trail1 at 
two  o'clock4    ,illustration3 ,,the   
,,final ,,ascent ,,to ,,chilkoot        
,,summit--,,winter4    ,to a mountaineer
 or traveler of ordinary resource       
neither the ,white  ,pass nor the       
,chilkoot ,pass will appear other than  
it actually  is--i4 e41 a mountain pass1
 sufficiently rough and precipitous in  
places1 and presenting no serious       
obstacle to the passage of man1  woman1 
or child4 ,true1 ,i did not see them at 
their worst1 but they  were both        
represented to be frightfully bad even  
at the time of my  crossing4 ,the       
seasonal effects1 doubtless1 do much to 
modify the  character of the trails1 and

 even local conditions must mold them to
 a  very considerable extent4 ,it is not
 difficult to conceive of miry  spots   
along the ,white ,pass trail1 or of     
snow-swept areas on the  ,chilkoot1 and 
there certainly must be times when both 
trails are in a  measure or way         
impassable4 ,all trails are1 however1   
subject to  modifications in character1 
and even the best is at times           
sufficiently  bad4 ,trains of pack      
animals cross the ,white ,pass both     
winter and  summer1 and1 even with the  
great loss to their forefathers1 their  
testimony of steady work is a           
recommendation of the class of service  
in which they are engaged4 ,a limited   
number of cattle and horses have  also  
found their way over the summit of the  
,chilkoot ,pass--some  crossing         
immediately after us--but the trail is  
too steep on the ocean  side to fit it  
for animal service1 although ,i strongly
 suspect that  were the location in     
,mexico instead of in ,alaska1 there    

would be a  goodly number of caballeros 
and arrieros to smile at the            
proposition of presented difficulties4  
,indian women seem to consider  it no   
hardship to pack a fifty-pound sack of  
flour and more over the  summit1 and    
there are many men who do not hesitate  
to take double this  load1 and make     
several journeys during the same day4   
,it is the load  that kills1 and it was1
 doubtless1 this influence1 united to a 
cruel  method1 which so strongly        
impressed the pioneers with the notion  
of  extreme hardship4 ,the most level   
and perfect road1 to one carrying for   
miles a pack of from sixty to eighty    
pounds1 soon begins to loom up a  steep 
incline4    ,both the northern and      
southern slopes of the ,chilkoot ,pass  
are largely  surfaced with shattered    
rocks1 over which1 with occasional      
deflections  across more pleasant snow  
banks1 a fairly well-defined trail      
mounts on  either side to the summit4   
,in its grim landscape effects1 more    

particularly on the inner face1 where a 
number of rock-bound  tarns--,crater    
,lake1 ,long ,lake1 ,deep ,lake--afford 
a certain relief to  the degree of      
desolation which the scene carries1 it  
reminded me much  of the famous ,grimsel
 ,pass1 and here as well as there the   
modeling of  the surface through glacial
 action was strongly in evidence4 ,the  
vastly towering ,alpine peaks were1     
however1 wanting1 and the glaciers  that
 still appeared showed that they had    
long since passed their  better days4   
,the actual summit is trenched by a     
narrow rocky gap1  roughly worn through 
walls of granite1 and by it have passed 
the  thousands who have pressed to the  
interior4 ,there is no timber growth  at
 or near this summit1 nor is there soil 
sufficient to give support  to an       
arboreal vegetation4 ,nearest to the top
 line a prostrate form of  scrubby      
hemlock 7,tsuga ,pattoniana7 alone makes
 pretense to being a  tree1 but below it
 of itself grows to majestic            

proportions1 and about  ,sheep ,camp1   
with ,menzie's spruce1 a birch1 and     
cottonwood 7,populus  balsamifera71     
forms part of the beautiful woodland1   
which with  ever-increasing freshness   
descends to the lower levels4    ,lest  
,i be accused of too freely seeing the  
beauties of the northern  landscape1 ,i 
venture in my defense the following     
graphic description  of the ,dyea       
,valley from the pen of another traveler
 and geologist1  ,prof4 ,israel         
,russell3 ,in the valley of the ,taiya  
the timber line is  sharply drawn along 
the bordering cliffs at an elevation of 
about  twenty-five hundred feet4 ,above 
that height the mountain sides are      
stern and rugged2 below is a dense      
forest of gigantic hemlocks1  festooned 
with long streamers of moss1 which grows
 even more  luxuriantly than on the oaks
 of ,florida4 ,the ground beneath the   
trees  and the fallen monarchs of the   
forest are densely covered with a soft1 
feathery carpet of mosses1 lichens1 and 

ferns of all possible tints of  brown   
and green4 ,the day ,i traversed this   
enchanted valley was bright  and sunny  
in the upper regions1 but the valley was
 filled with  drifting vapors4 ,at one  
minute nothing would be visible but the 
somber  forest through which the white  
mist was hurrying2 and the next the     
veil would be swept aside1 revealing    
with startling distinctness the         
towering mountain spires1 snowy         
pinnacles1 and turquoise cliffs of ice  
towering heavenward4 ,these views       
through the cloud rifts seemed  glimpses
 of another world4 ,below was a sea of  
surging branches that  filled all the   
valley bottom and dashed high on the    
bordering cliffs4  ,much space could be 
occupied with descriptions of the       
magnificent  scenery about ,lynn ,canal1
 and of the wonderful atmospheric       
effects to  be seen there1 but the      
poetry of travel is foreign to these    
pages1 and  must be left for more facile
 pens4    ,illustration3 ,,the          

,,chilkoot ,,trail--,,power ,,house ,,of
 ,,the ,a,,rial ,,tramway4    ,in its   
present condition the ,chilkoot trail   
has the advantage over the  ,skaguay in 
its shorter length1 the distance from   
,dyea to the head of  ,lake ,lindeman1  
the virtual head of river navigation1   
being about  twenty-four miles2 from    
,skaguay to ,bennett1 along the usual   
,white ,pass  trail1 the distance is    
fully ten or twelve miles longer1       
although a  cut-off by way of the summit
 lakes reduces the traverse             
considerably4  ,at intervals along both 
routes fairly good accommodation can now
 be  had4 ,one condition of the         
,chilkoot ,pass1 and that a not         
altogether  light one1 places it during 
certain months at a disadvantage as     
compared with the ,white ,pass4 ,i refer
 to the dangers from avalanches4  ,these
 are of the true ,alpine type1 having   
their source in the heavy  beds of snow 
which cling with bare support to the    
steeply pitching  mountain walls1 in    

places along some of the narrowest parts
 of the  pass4 ,the appalling           
catastrophe of ,april1 #ahih1 which     
caused the loss  of sixty-three lives1  
and followed closely upon an earlier    
event of  like nature1 had its seat in  
the steep1 rocky ledges of the east wall
  between ,sheep ,camp and the ,scales4 
,it is claimed that the ,indians  along 
the trail clearly foresaw the impending 
event1 and announced it  in unmistakable
 language1 but their warnings were      
allowed to go  unheeded4 ,they          
themselves did not make the traverse on 
that day4 ,the  minor disaster of the   
following ,december 7#ith71 when but six
 lives  were sacrificed1 took place on  
the steep declivity which faces ,crater 
,lake1 not far from the service house of
 the ,chilkoot ,pass ,arial  ,tramway   
,company4 ,here the mountain face is    
very precipitous and gives  but insecure
 lodgment to the snow4 ,the ,indians    
carefully watch all  natural signals and
 urge a rapid journey4 ,however useful  

these trails  may have been in the past1
 how well or how indifferently they may 
have  met the wants of the pioneers of  
#ahig and #ahih1 they are destined      
before long to be thrown into that same 
obscurity which they held when  the     
,indians and a few adventurous trappers 
and traders alone made use  of them as  
avenues of communication between the    
inner and outer  worlds4 ,the advance of
 the iron horse is now an assured fact1 
and the  ,pacific and ,arctic ,railway1 
whose construction is engineered by some
  of the most experienced mechanical    
talent of ,great ,britain and  ,america1
 will minister before many months not   
alone to the  professional interlopers  
in the new land1 but to hosts of        
tourists as  well4 ,the road1 which in  
reaching ,white ,pass summit will have a
  maximum gradient of a little more than
 five per cent1 is of  narrow-gauge     
construction1 solidly supported on      
dressed ties brought  from the forests  
of ,oregon4 ,no terminal appears to have

 been as yet  definitely determined     
upon1 although the charter act recites  
,fort  ,selkirk on the ,yukon1 about one
 hundred and sixty miles above ,dawson1 
as such4 ,operating as it now does      
sixteen miles or more of road1 it is    
already an extensive freight carrier2   
but until its completion to  ,bennett or
 to some point close to a navigable part
 of the ,yukon ,river1  the ,chilkoot   
,pass tramway1 a remarkable construction
 which crosses  over the summit and     
deposits at ,crater ,lake1 must continue
 to handle a  large part of the business
 intended for the interior4             
,illustration3 ,,summit ,,of ,,the      
,,chilkoot ,,pass1 ,,with ,,impedimenta 
,,of  ,,prospectors1 ,,april1 #ahih4    
,it is safe to say that the stirring    
scenes which were enacted on the  passes
 during the winter of #ahig-'ih1 when   
the impedimenta of travel  and          
occupation were packed together in the  
manner of an army camp1  will not be    
repeated again4 ,the past history was a 

short one1 and it  gives way to one of  
greater promise4           ,,note4--,for
 most of the photographic illustrations 
the author is       indebted to the work
 of ,curtis1 ,barley1 and ,e4 ,a4 ,hegg2
       especially to the last-named     
gentleman1 of ,skaguay and ,dawson1 is  
he under obligations for permission to  
use several of the       copyrighted    
views4          ,,the ,,origin ,,of     
,,european ,,culture4,a    ,,by         
,,william ,z4 ,,ripley1 ,,ph4 ,d41      
,,assistant ,,professor ,,of            
,,sociology1 ,,massachusetts ,,institute
 ,,of  ,,technology1 ,,boston1          
,,lecturer ,,in ,,anthropology ,,at     
,,columbia ,,university1  ,,new ,,york4 
,prehistoric archology is possessed of a
 distinct advantage over  linguistics in
 the investigation of racial problems2  
for human remains  are often discovered 
in connection with the implements1      
utensils1 or  trinkets by which the     
civilization of an extinct people is    
archologically determined4 ,to attempt  

even an outline of the cultural  history
 of ,europe would be obviously          
impossible in this place4 ,it  would    
fill a complete volume by itself alone4 
,furthermore1 the short  span of forty  
years since the inception of            
archological science has  not sufficed  
to produce complete unanimity of opinion
 among the  leading authorities4 ,many  
important questions1 especially         
concerning  eastern ,europe1 are still  
awaiting settlement4 ,all that we can   
hope to  do is to describe what may be  
termed a few fixed points in ,european  
cultural history4 ,this1 as in our      
discussion of physical origins1,b  we   
shall attempt to do by means of definite
 propositions1 concerning  which there  
is now substantial agreement4    ,i4 ,in
 western and southern ,europe an        
entirely indigenous culture  gradually  
evolved during the later stone age4     
,this was characterized  by great       
technical advance in fashioning         
implements1 carvings1 and  designs in   

stone1 bone1 ivory1 and copper2 by the  
construction of  dolmens and habitations
 of stone2 by pottery-making2 and       
possibly even  by a primitive system of 
writing4    ,a marked reaction has taken
 place during the last ten years among  
archologists respecting the course of   
cultural development in ,france4  ,it   
was long believed that after the first  
crude attempts of the  palolithic epoch 
an extended hiatus ensued1 followed by  
the sudden  appearance of a more highly 
developed civilization1 brought by an   
immigrant broad-headed race from the    
,east4 ,two waves of invasion were      
described3 the first bringing polished  
stone1 a later one introducing  bronze1 
cereals1 agriculture1 and the           
domestication of animals4 ,not  even    
credit for the construction of the great
 stone dolmen tombs was  granted to the 
natives in ,gaul1 for these were all    
ascribed to an  invasion from the       
,north4 ,the undoubted submergence of   
the primitive  long-headed population of

 ,france by a brachycephalic type from  
the  ,east1 to which we have already    
adverted1 was held accountable for a    
radical advance in civilization4 ,even  
the existence of a bronze age  was      
denied to this country1 it being        
maintained that the introduction  of    
bronze was retarded until both metals   
came in together from the  ,orient in   
the hands of the cultural deliverers of 
the land4 ,the  absence of a distinct   
bronze age was speedily disproved2 but  
the view  that ,france and western      
,europe were saved from barbarism only  
by a new  race from the ,east still held
 sway4 ,it is represented by the        
classical  school of ,g4 de ,mortillet1 
,bertrand1 ,topinard1 and a host of     
minor  disciples4 ,the new school1      
holding that a steady and uninterrupted 
development of culture in situ was      
taking place1 is represented  notably by
 ,reinach,c in ,france and by ,sergi,d  
in ,italy4 ,their proof  of this seems  
to be unanswerable4 ,granting that it is

 easier to borrow  culture than to      
evolve it1 a proposition underlying the 
older view1 it  seems nevertheless that 
the ,west has too long been denied its  
rightful  share in the history of       
,european civilization4                 
,illustration3 ,,neolithic ,,ivory      
,,carving4 ,mas d',azil4    7,by special
 permission4 ,further reproduction      
prohibited47    ,a notable advance in   
the line of culture entirely indigenous 
to  southwestern ,europe has been lately
 revealed through the interesting       
discoveries by ,piette at the station of
 ,brassempuoy and in the grotto  of ,mas
 d',azil4 ,carvings in ivory1 designs   
upon bone1 evidence of a  numerical     
system1 of settled habitations1 and1    
most important of all1  of a            
domestication of the reindeer1 of the   
horse1 and the ox in the  pure stone age
 have been found2 and that1 too1 in the 
uttermost  southwestern corner of       
,europe4 ,in the lake dwellings of      
,switzerland1  as also in ,scandinavia1 

a knowledge of agriculture1 pottery1 and
 the  domestication of animals is       
evinced1 likewise as a native discovery4
  ,from other quarters of the continent 
in the stone age comes similar          
testimony to a marked advance of man    
culturally4 ,the justly celebrated      
carving of a reindeer from ,thayngen1   
almost worthy of a modern  craftsman1   
betrays no mean artistic ability4 ,the  
man who drew it was  far from being a   
savage1 even if he knew no metals1 and  
buried his  dead instead of cremating   
them4 ,the evidence as to early         
domestication  of animals is perhaps the
 most startling4 ,carved horses' heads1 
with  halters and rude bridles1 have    
been surely identified by ,piette and   
others4    ,illustration3 ,,bone        
,,carving4 ,thayngen4 7,after ,bertrand1
 #ahia47    ,a system of writing seems  
also to have been invented in western   
,europe  as far back as the stone age4,e
 ,letourneau and ,bordier have advanced 
good evidence to this effect1 although  

it is not yet incontestably  proved4    
,the ,phoenicians were perhaps antedated
 in their noted  invention by the dolmen
 builders1 by the lake dwellers of the  
earliest  times1 and1 according to      
,sergi1 also by the people of the       
,villanova  pre-,etruscan culture in    
,italy4 ,in an earlier time still in the
 ,po  ,valley1 as far back as the       
stone-age ,terramare period1 pottery was
  made1 and that1 too1 of a very decent 
sort4 ,and all this time there is  not  
the slightest evidence of contact with  
or knowledge of the ,east4  ,as ,reinach
 says1 in no dolmen1 no lake station1 no
 excavation of the  stone age is there  
any trace of an ,assyrian or ,babylonian
 cylinder1 or  even an ,egyptian amulet4
 ,even the jade and nephrite found in   
western  ,europe from ,switzerland to   
,norway1 which has so long been regarded
 as  evidence of early commerce with the
 ,east1 he denies as proof of such      
contact4 ,the case thus put may perhaps 
be over-strenuously stated1 yet  one can

 not but realize from it that western   
,europe has too long been  libeled in   
respect of its native aptitude for      
civilization4 ,this is  not constituted 
of bronze alone1 nor is its trade-mark  
cremation4  ,thus1 while an intensive   
outbreak of culture of a high order may 
not  have arisen west of the ,alps1 it  
can no longer be denied that the        
general standard of intelligence was    
surely rising of its own native         
volition4    ,,ii4 ,throughout the      
eastern ,alpine highlands1 a culture far
 more  highly evolved than the neolithic
 one in the ,west1 and betraying        
certain ,oriental affinities1 appears at
 a very early time1 a thousand  years or
 more before the ,christian era4 ,this  
prehistoric civilization  represents a  
transitional stage between bronze and   
iron4    ,in a secluded valley in upper 
,austria1 close to the border line of   
,salzburg1 by the little ,alpine hamlet 
of ,hallstatt1 a remarkable  necropolis 
was discovered more than a half century 

ago1 which marked  an epoch in          
archological research4 ,excavations at  
this place alone1  far from any present 
considerable seat of population1 have   
already  revealed more than three       
thousand graves4 ,the primitive culture 
here  unearthed1 represented by all     
kinds of weapons1 implements1 and       
ornaments1 bore no resemblance to any of
 the then known classical ones  of the  
,mediterranean basin4 ,its graves       
contained no ,roman coins or  relics4   
,there was nothing ,greek about it4 ,it 
contained no trace either  of writing or
 chronology4 ,it was obviously          
prehistoric2 there was no  suggestion of
 a likeness to the early civilizations  
in ,scandinavia4 ,it  was even more     
primitive than the ,etruscan1 and       
entirely different from  it1 especially 
in its lack of the beautiful pottery    
known to these  predecessors of the     
,romans4 ,little wonder that von        
,sacken1 who first  adequately described
 it in #ahfh1 and ,hochstetter1 who     

worthily carried  on his researches1    
believed that ,hallstatt represented an 
entirely  indigenous and extinct ,alpine
 civilization4 ,on the other hand1 so   
exceedingly rich and varied were the    
finds in this out-of-the-way  corner of 
,europe1 that another and quite         
different view seemed  justifiable4     
,might this not be an entirely exotic   
culture8 products  gained by trade from 
all parts of the world1 being here      
deposited with  their dead by a people  
who controlled the great and very       
ancient salt  mines hereabouts8 ,neither
 of these interpretations of this find  
at  ,hallstatt have been exactly        
verified by later researches1 and yet   
its  importance has not lessened in the 
least4 ,by later discoveries all  over  
eastern ,europe south of the ,danube1   
from the ,tyrol over to the  ,balkan    
peninsula1 as well as throughout        
northern ,italy1 ,wrtemberg1  and even  
over into northeastern ,france1 the wide
 extension of this  civilization,f      

proves that it must in a large measure  
have developed  upon the spot1 and not  
come as an importation from abroad4 ,on 
the  other hand1 its affinity in many   
details with the cultures both of       
,italy and ,greece proved that it had   
made heavy drafts upon each of  these1  
profiting greatly thereby4 ,the best    
opinion to-day is1 that it  constitutes 
a link in the chain of culture between  
eastern and western  ,europe4 ,as such  
it is of primary importance in any study
 of ,european  origins4                 
,illustration3 ,,bronze ,,situla4       
,watsch1 ,austrian ,tyrol4    ,the      
primitive stage of ,european            
civilization1 to which the term         
,hallstatt is specifically applied by   
archologists1 is characterized  by a    
knowledge both of bronze and iron1      
although the latter is  relatively      
insignificant4 ,its rarity indicates    
that we have to do with  the very       
beginnings of its use4 ,in this early   
combination of bronze  and iron the     

,hallstatt culture is in strong contrast
 with the rest of  ,europe4 ,almost     
everywhere else1 as in ,hungary for     
example1 a pure  bronze age--sometimes  
one even of copper also--intervenes     
between the  use of stone and iron4     
,here1 however1 the two metals1 bronze  
and iron1  appear simultaneously4 ,there
 is no evidence of a use of bronze      
alone4  ,bearing in mind1 what we shall 
subsequently emphasize in the case of   
,scandinavia1 that in that remote part  
of ,europe man had to put up with  the  
inferior metal for close upon a thousand
 years before the  acquisition of a     
better substitute1 it will be seen that 
at ,hallstatt  a remarkable             
foreshortening of cultural evolution had
 ensued4 ,iron1 as  we have said1 was   
still comparatively rare4 ,only in the  
case of small  objects1 less often in   
the blades of bronze-handled swords1    
does this  more precious metal appear4  
,but it is far more common than in the  
earliest ,greek civilizations made known

 to us by ,schliemann and  others4      
,pages of description would not give so 
clear an idea of this early             
civilization as the pictures of their   
lives1 which the ,hallstatt  people have
 fortunately left to us4 ,these are     
found in repouss upon  their bronzes1   
and particularly upon their little      
situl1 or  metallic pails4 ,these situl 
are1 in fact1 the most distinctive      
feature among all the objects which they
 have left to us4 ,by means of  them    
their civilization has been most        
accurately traced and identified        
geographically4 ,on the opposite page we
 have reproduced the design  upon the   
most celebrated of these situl1         
discovered by ,deschmann in  #ahhb1 at  
,watsch in the ,tyrol4 ,another from    
,bologna1 typical of the  pre-,etruscan 
,italian time1 will be found upon a     
later page4 ,upon each  of these1 the   
skill manifested in the representation  
of men and  animals is no less          
remarkable than the civilization which  

it depicts4  ,the upper zone of this    
situla from ,watsch apparently shows a  
festal  procession1 possibly a wedding1 
for a lady rides in the second  chariot4
 ,the grooms and outriders betoken a    
party of distinction4 ,as  for the      
second zone1 doubt as to its exact      
interpretation prevails4  ,hochstetter  
declares it to be a banquet1 food and   
entertainment being  offered to the     
personages seated upon chairs at the    
left4 ,bertrand is  disposed to give it 
more of a religious interpretation4 ,as 
for the  contest between gladiators     
armed with the cestus1 all is plain4    
,the  spectators1 judges1 even the ram  
and the helmet for reward of the        
victor1 are all shown in detail4 ,it is 
not necessary for us to cite  more      
evidence4 ,a civilization already far   
from primitive is surely  depicted4 ,as 
for its date1 all are agreed that it is 
at least as early  as ten centuries     
before ,christ2,g not far1 that is to   
say1 from the  supposed ,homeric epoch  

in ,greece4    ,illustration3 ,,bronze  
,,breastplate ,,from ,,olympia4 7,after 
,furtwaengler's  ,olympia1 #ahib47      
,the ,hallstatt civilizations betray    
unmistakable affinities with three      
other prehistoric ,european cultures1   
widely separated from one  another4 ,it 
contains many early ,greek elements2 it 
is very similar to  a notable           
prehistoric culture in the ,caucasus    
,mountains2 and it  resembles most      
nearly of all perhaps the pre-,etruscan 
civilization in  ,italy4 ,with the third
 of these--the ,italian--it seems to    
have been  most nearly upon terms of    
equality1 each borrowing from the other1
  after a fashion of which we shall have
 occasion to speak shortly4 ,on  the    
other hand1 the relation of the         
,hallstatt culture to that of  ,greece  
and ,caucasia seems to be somewhat more 
filial rather than  fraternal4 ,in      
describing the area of this             
civilization1 we have seen  how firmly  
it is intrenched all through the        

southern part of  ,austria-,hungary and 
well over into the north of the ,balkan 
peninsula4  ,a comparison of            
,furtwaengler's magnificent collection  
of objects from  ,olympia with those of 
,hallstatt instantly reveals their      
similarities4  ,to make this clear1 we  
have reproduced one of the ,olympian    
breastplates1 ornamented with figures1  
which at once suggest those  upon the   
situla from ,watsch above described4    
,this design is doubly  interesting4 ,it
 shows us a slightly higher stage of the
 art of figural  representation1 as well
 as of conventional design4 ,not only   
the men  and horses1 but the borders1   
are far better drawn4 ,more than this1  
we  begin to detect a distinctly        
,oriental motive in other details4 ,the 
bulls and the lions--lions are not      
indigenous to ,europe nowadays--at  once
 remind us of their ,babylonian and     
,assyrian prototypes4 ,we have  entered 
the sphere of ,asiatic artistic         
influence1 albeit very  indistinctly4   

,this design here represented1 it should
 be said1 is  rather above the average  
of the ,olympian finds of the earlier   
epoch4  ,many of the other objects1     
especially the little votive figures of 
beasts and men1 are much more crude1    
although always characteristic  and     
rudely artistic in many ways4 ,through  
this ,olympian stage of  culture we pass
 transitionally on to the ,mycenan1     
which brings us  into the full bloom of 
the classic ,greek4    ,the ,oriental   
affinities of the ,hallstatt culture    
have been especially  emphasized by     
recent archological discoveries at      
,koban1 in the  ,caucasus ,mountains4 ,a
 stage of culture transitional between  
bronze and  iron1 almost exactly        
equivalent to that of the eastern ,alps1
 is  revealed4 ,similarities in little  
objects1 like fibul1 might easily be    
accounted for as having passed in trade1
 but the relationship is too  intimate  
to be thus explained4 ,hungary forms the
 connecting link  between the two4 ,in  

many respects its bronze age is         
different from  that of ,hallstatt1     
notably in that the latter seems to have
 acquired  the knowledge of iron and of 
bronze at about the same time4 ,in      
,hungary  the pure bronze age lasted a  
long time1 and attained a full maturity4
  ,a characteristic piece is represented
 herewith4 ,in respect of the           
representation of figures of animals    
such as these1 ,hallstatt1  ,hungary1   
and ,koban are quite alike4             
,illustration3 ,,hungarian ,,bronze     
,,vessel4 7,after ,hampel1 #ahgf47      
,have we proved that bronze culture came
 from ,asia by reason of these  recent  
finds in the ,caucasus8 ,great stress   
has been laid upon them in  the         
discussion of ,european origins4 ,are we
 justified in agreeing with  ,chantre   
that two currents of culture have swept 
from ,asia into  ,europe--one by the    
,caucasus north of the ,black ,sea and  
up the ,danube2  the other across ,asia 
,minor and into the ,balkan peninsula1  

thence  joining the first in the main   
center of ,hallstatt civilization1 east 
of the ,alps8 ,the point seems by no    
means established4 ,relationship  does  
not prove parentage4 ,far more likely   
does it appear that the  ,koban culture 
is a relic or an offshoot rather than a 
cradle of bronze  civilization4 ,and    
even ,chantre1 ardent advocate as he is 
of ,oriental  derivations1 seems to feel
 the force of this in his later         
writings1  for he confesses that ,koban 
is rather from ,mediterranean ,european 
sources than that ,europe is from       
,koban4 ,most probable of all is it1    
that both ,hallstatt and ,koban are     
alike derived from a common root in  the
 neighborhood of ,chaldea4    ,,iii4    
,the ,hallstatt 7or ,celtic87           
civilization of bronze and iron  roughly
 overlies the present area occupied by  
the broad-headed ,alpine  race2 yet this
 type is not always identified with the 
,oriental  culture4 ,it seems to have   
appeared in ,europe in a far lower stage

 of  civilization1 and to have          
subsequently made progress culturally   
upon  the spot4    ,to trace any        
definite connection between race and    
civilization in  ,europe is rendered    
extremely hazardous scientifically by   
reason of the  appearance along with    
bronze of the custom of burning instead 
of  burying the dead1 their ashes being 
disposed in cinerary urns1 jars1  or    
other receptacles4 ,by this procedure   
all possible clew to the  physical type 
of the people is1 of course1 annihilated
 at once4 ,it has  become almost an     
axiom among archologists that bronze    
culture and  incineration are constant  
companions4 ,wherever one appears1 the  
other  may confidently be looked for4   
,together they have long been supposed  
to be the special and peculiar          
attributes of a new broad-headed        
immigrant race from the ,east4 ,to prove
 this conclusively is1 of  course1      
absolutely impossible for the           
above-mentioned reason4 ,of the  two1 it

 seems as if incineration would be a    
more reliable test of race  than a      
knowledge of bronze2 for burial customs1
 involving as they do  the most sacred  
instincts and traditions of a people1   
would be most  persistently maintained1 
even throughout long-continued          
migrations4  ,the use of bronze1 on the 
other hand1 being a matter of obvious   
utility1 and capable of widespread      
dissemination commercially1 is          
seemingly of far less ethnic            
significance4    ,to indicate the       
uncertainty of proof in these matters1  
let us suppose  that the ,hallstatt     
civilization1 for example1 is the result
 of an  immigration of a brachycephalic 
,oriental civilized race overlying a    
primitive native long-headed one4 ,that 
seems best to conform to the  data1     
which northern ,italy at least affords4 
,suppose the new  people--call them     
,celts with the best authorities1 if you
  please--brought not only bronze and   
iron1 but the custom of  incineration4  

,prior to their appearance inhumation   
was the rule4 ,what  would be the result
 if one attempted to determine the      
physical  character of that people from 
a study of the remains in their         
necropoli8 ,all the crania to be found  
in the graves with the precious  objects
 of bronze would in no wise represent   
the people who brought  that bronze4    
,they burned their bridges behind them  
at death1 and  disappeared for good and 
all4 ,and the remains left to the       
archologist  would represent precisely  
that class in the population which had  
nothing to do with the main             
characteristics of its civilization4    
,and  then1 again1 we must bear in mind 
that the interments in these  necropoli 
as a whole1 both with burned or buried  
dead1 constitute a  selected type4      
,neither ,hallstatt1 ,watsch1 nor any of
 the burial places  of their type were  
open to the great mass of the common    
people4 ,they  were sacred spots1 far   
removed among the mountains from any    

centers of  population4 ,only the rich  
or powerful presumably had access to    
them4  ,they are no more typical of the 
,hallstatt people1 therefore1 than      
interments in ,westminster ,abbey are   
representative of the ,english  masses4 
,all our data are necessarily drawn from
 a class within a  class4 ,inductions   
from them must be very gingerly handled4
    ,the situation above described seems
 to prevail almost everywhere in  the   
,hallstatt cultural area4 ,two distinct 
burial customs denote  possibly two     
separate peoples1 the inhumers being    
certainly the older4  ,in the ,hallstatt
 necropolis1 for example1 about one     
third of the  graves once contained     
human remains1 all the others containing
 mere  ashes4 ,so ancient are these     
graves that only eight crania from the  
hundreds of interments of the first     
class are available for study4  ,these  
are of a pronounced long-headed type4,h 
,the modern populations  of this part of
 ,europe are1 as we have seen1 among the

 broadest-headed  people in the world1  
as are also all the modern ,illyrians4  
,yet from  the great necropolis at      
,glasinac in ,bosnia1 with its twenty   
thousand  tumuli1 the meager ,hallstatt 
returns are amply corroborated4,i ,the  
ancient inhabitants were as long-headed 
as they are pronouncedly of  the        
opposite type to-day4 ,up in ,bohemia   
and ,moravia also1 according to         
,niederle1 the first bronze-age people1 
such as we know them1 were  still       
dolichocephalic quite like their        
predecessors in the pure stone  age4    
,and here also is incineration just     
about frequent enough to make  it       
uncertain whether the human remains are 
typical or not4    ,under these         
circumstances1 three suppositions are   
open to us4 ,we may  hold that these    
long-headed crania of the ,hallstatt    
people are  worthless for any           
anthropological purposes whatever4 ,this
 one would  certainly be tempted to do  
were the testimony1 such as it is1 not  

so  unanimous4 ,or1 secondly1 we may    
assume that these long-headed           
,hallstatt people belonged to a period  
subsequent to the appearance of  the    
brachycephalic type in western ,europe4 
,if we do so1 we place them  in the same
 class with the ,teutonic race which so 
certainly appears  to overlie this one  
in the later iron age in ,switzerland   
and  throughout southern ,germany2 for  
the ,helvetians and the ,reihengrber    
conquerors from the north surely imposed
 a novel culture1 albeit a  militant    
one1 upon the long-settled ,alpine      
people1 racially speaking4  ,the        
,hallstatt civilization is immeasurably 
too early to permit of this  hypothesis4
 ,at this time the long-headed ,teutonic
 peoples about  ,scandinavia were       
certainly vastly inferior in culture1 as
 we shall  attempt to prove shortly4    
,thus we are forced to the third        
conclusion  if we admit the competency  
of our cranial evidence--namely1 that   
the  ,hallstatt people in this early    

bloom of civilization in ,europe were   
allied to the ,mediterranean type of the
 south4 ,no other source for  such a    
dolichocephalic population is possible4 
,our stock of types of  this kind is    
exhausted4    ,it does not require a    
great credulity to admit of this        
hypothesis1  that the ,hallstatt people 
were of ,mediterranean type4 ,were not  
the  ,greeks1 the ,phoenicians1 and the 
,egyptians all members of this same     
race8 ,one single difficulty presents   
itself4 ,over in ,italy1 throughout  the
 valley of the ,po1 an entirely         
analogous civilization to that of  the  
eastern ,alps occurs4 ,hallstatt and    
,villanova1 ,watsch and ,bologna1  are  
almost identical culturally4 ,and yet   
over here in ,italy the new  culture of 
bronze and of incineration seems to be  
borne by a  broad-headed people of the  
same type as the modern one4 ,thus1 for 
example1 at ,novilara so long as the    
bodies were all inhumed1 the  people    
were of the long-headed ,mediterranean  

type once indigenous to  the whole of   
,italy1 now surviving1 as we have seen1 
only in the  southern half4 ,on the     
other hand1 when incineration begins to 
appear  in this place1 the human remains
 still left to us are of a mixed and    
far more broad-headed type4 ,it would   
seem admissible to assume that  when the
 modern brachycephalic ,alpine race     
submerged the native one it  brought new
 elements of civilization with it4 ,many
 ,italian  authorities1 at all events1  
agree in ascribing the new culture--call
  it ,umbrian with ,sergi1 or           
proto-,etruscan with ,helbig--to a new  
race of  ,veneto-,illyrian or ,alpine   
physical proclivities4 ,what they have  
not  definitely proved1 however1 is that
 any necessary connection between  race 
and culture exists4 ,there is much to   
show that the broad-headed  race came in
 some time before the introduction of   
the new arts4 ,even  in the later       
,terramare period1 preceding the        
,italian ,hallstatt  culture1 when stone

 and copper only are in evidence1 a     
change of  physical type in the people  
apparently begins1 just as also in      
,france  in the neolithic period4       
,the most indubitable testimony that the
 ,alpine race did not appear in  western
 ,europe1 armed cap--pie with bronze and
 other attributes of  culture1 is       
afforded by the lake dwellings of       
,switzerland4 ,here in the  pile-built  
villages of the ,swiss lakes we can     
trace an uninterrupted  development of  
civilization from the pure stone age    
through bronze and  into iron4          
,beginning at a stage of civilization   
about equal to that of  the ancient     
,aryan-speaking peoples1 judged by the  
root words known to  us2 not only       
knowledge of the metals1 but of         
agriculture1 of the  domestication of   
animals1 and of the finer arts of       
domestic life1 have  little by little   
been acquired4 ,equally certain is it   
that no change  of physical type has    
occurred among these primitive ,swiss1  

at least  until the irruptions of the   
,teutonic ,helvetians and others at the 
opening of the historic period4 ,from   
the very earliest times in the  stone   
age a broad-headedness no less          
pronounced than that of the  modern     
,swiss prevailed among these people4,j  
,here would seem to be  pretty          
conclusive proof that the ,alpine race  
entered ,europe long  before the culture
 with which its name has been all too   
intimately  associated4    ,in the      
outlying parts of ,europe1 perhaps even 
in ,gaul1 it is extremely  doubtful     
whether any closer connection between   
race and culture exists  than in the    
,alps4 ,it has long been maintained that
 the brachycephalic  people of the      
,round ,barrows introduced bronze into  
,britain4 ,surely1 as  we have already  
shown1 things point to that             
conclusion4,k ,beddoe1  ,dawkins1 and   
other authorities maintain it at all    
events4 ,yet ,canon  ,taylor makes it   
pretty evident that the new race arrived

 in ,britain1  as it certainly did in   
,gaul1 considerably in advance of any   
knowledge  of the metals4 ,as for       
,scandinavia1 much the same relation    
holds true4  ,both race and culture1 as 
we shall see1 came from the south1 but  
it is  by no means clear that they      
arrived at the same time or that one    
brought the other4 ,in ,spain1 ,siret   
has asserted that bronze came in  the   
hands of a new immigrant broad-headed   
race1 but the authoritative  opinion of 
,cartailhac discovers no direct evidence
 to this effect4    ,the final          
conclusions which would seem to follow  
from our tedious  summary is this3 ,that
 the nearly contemporaneous appearance  
of a  brachycephalic race and the first 
knowledge of metals indicative of       
,oriental cultural influences in western
 ,europe1 is more or less a             
coincidence4 ,the first civilized       
peoples of the ,hallstatt period seem   
to have been closely allied1 both in    
physical type and culture1 with  the    

,greeks and other peoples of the classic
 ,east4 ,among them1 perhaps  over them1
 swept the representatives of our       
broad-headed ,alpine type  who came from
 the direction of ,asia4 ,these invaders
 may have been the  ,scythians1 although
 the matter is incapable of proof4      
,pressure from  this direction set both 
culture and population in motion toward 
the  west1 in much the same way that the
 fall of ,constantinople in the         
fifteenth century induced the           
,renaissance in ,italy4    ,,iv4 ,the   
remarkable prehistoric civilization of  
,italy is due to the  union of two      
cultures3 one from the ,hallstatt region
 having entered  ,europe by way of the  
,danube1 the other coming from the      
southeast by  sea being distinctly      
,mediterranean4 ,from these evolved the 
,umbrian and  the ,etruscan             
civilizations1 followed in the historic 
period by the  early ,latin4    ,the    
earliest culture in ,italy worthy the   
name is found in the  palafitte or pile 

dwellings1 in the northern lakes1 and in
 the  so-called terramare settlements in
 the valley of the ,po4 ,the former  are
 not distinguishable from similar       
structures in the ,swiss lake           
dwellings1 but the terramare are        
entirely peculiar to ,italy4 ,their     
like is not found anywhere else in      
,europe4 ,briefly described1 they are   
villages built upon raised platforms of 
earth1 encircled by a moat1  and        
generally having a ditch or small pond  
in the middle1 in which an  altar is    
erected4 ,these complicated structures  
are built upon the low1  marshy1        
alluvial plains along the ,po1 but show 
many points of  similarity with the true
 pile dwellings4 ,the people of this    
early  period were in the pure stone    
age1 with few arts save that of making  
the coarser kinds of pottery4 ,from     
their osseous remains1 they seem to     
have been of a long-headed type1 quite  
like their predecessors1 who  were cave 
dwellers4 ,after a time1 without any    

modification of the  modes of           
construction of their settlements1 new  
elements appear among  these terramare  
people1 bringing bronze and introducing 
cremation4  ,at about the same period1  
as we have said1 the ,alpine            
broad-headed  race began its submergence
 of the primitive ,ligurian type1       
leading to  the formation of the north  
,italian population as we see it to-day4
  ,this type surely invaded ,italy from 
the north and northeast4    ,from the   
foregoing considerations it will appear 
that there were two  constituent streams
 of culture and also of men here uniting
 in the  valley of the ,po and on the   
northern slopes of the ,apennines4      
,possibly1 as ,chantre affirms1 these   
two streams were from a common          
,oriental source1 here being reunited   
after long and independent  migrations4 
,at all events1 a remarkable advance in 
culture speedily  ensued1 superior to   
either of those from which its elements 
were  derived4 ,for the civilization    

unearthed at ,villanova1 in the ,certosa
  at ,bologna1 at ,este1 and elsewhere1 
while in much of its bronze work        
similar to the ,hallstatt types1        
contained a number of added features1   
obviously either indigenous or brought  
directly from the south4 ,the           
,hallstatt affinities are especially    
revealed in the situl to which  we have 
already called attention4 ,that of      
,arnoaldi1 discovered at  ,bologna1     
betrays much the same grade of skill in 
manufacture as the  one from ,watsch4   
,its flat development is shown by the   
accompanying  cut4 ,the scenes          
represented are not dissimilar4 ,the    
boxers armed with  the cestus1 the      
chariots1 and horses closely resemble   
one another4 ,no  doubt of a close      
intercourse between the two regions of  
,bologna and  ,austria can possibly     
exist4    ,illustration3 ,,arnoaldi     
,,situla1 ,,bologna4    7,from ,revue   
,archologique1 #ahhe1 vol4 ii1 ,plate   
,,xxv47    ,the influence of the second 

or native element in prehistoric        
,italian  civilization appears most     
clearly in the ,etruscan period4        
,etruria1  lying south of the           
,apennines1 was more essentially        
,italian1 as we  might expect1 than the 
region about ,bologna1 where the        
,umbro-,hallstatt  or continental       
culture flourished4 ,it is easy to note 
the superiority  in the former case4 ,it
 is most clearly indicated in the       
pottery4 ,here  we find an art which is 
truly indigenous to the climate and soil
 of  the ,mediterranean4    ,popularly1 
the word ,etruscan at once suggests the 
ceramic art2 the  progress effected in a
 short time was certainly startling4 ,to
 give an  idea of the sudden change1 we 
have reproduced upon page #cj           
illustrations of typical bits of        
,italian pottery4,l ,the first vase1    
prior to the full ,etruscan culture1    
shows its crudity at once1 both in  its 
defects of form and the plainness and   
simplicity of its  ornamentation4 ,such 

a vessel might have been made in ,mexico
 or even by  our own ,pueblo ,indians4  
,in a century or two some teacher made  
it  possible to produce the sample      
depicted in the next cut4 ,perfect in   
form1 superb in grace of outline1 its   
decoration is most effective2  yet it   
betrays greater skill in geometrical    
design than in the  representation of   
animate life4 ,the dog drawn on the     
girdle is still  far from lifelike4     
,then come--probably after inspiration  
from ,greek  art--the possibilities in  
complex ornamentation represented by our
  third specimen4 ,not more pleasing in 
form1 perhaps less truly artistic       
because of its ornateness1 it manifests 
much skill in the delineation  of human 
and animal forms4 ,the culture          
culminates at this point4 ,from         
profusion of ornament and overloaded    
decoration1 degeneracy begins4 ,it  is  
the old story of the life and decay of  
schools of art1 time in and  time out1  
the world over4    ,illustration3       

,,early ,,etruscan4    ,,later          
,,etruscan4    ,,greek ,,etruscan4      
,the advance in culture typified by our 
vases was equaled in all the  details of
 life4 ,the people built strongly walled
 cities2 they  constructed roads and    
bridges2 their architecture1 true       
predecessor of  the ,roman1 was unique  
and highly evolved4 ,all the plain and  
good  things of life were known to these
 people1 and their civilization was     
rich in its luxury1 its culture and art 
as well4 ,in costumes1 jewelry1  the    
paraphernalia of war1 in painting and   
statuary they were alike  distinguished4
 ,their mythology was very complex1 much
 of the ,roman  being derived from it4  
,most of our knowledge of them is       
derived from  the rich discoveries in   
their chambered tombs1 scattered all    
over  ,italy from ,rome to ,bologna4    
,there can be no doubt of a very high   
type  of civilization attained long     
before the ,christian era4 ,roman       
history  is merged in the obscurity of  

time1 five or six hundred years later   
than this4 ,the high antiquity of the   
,etruscan is therefore beyond  question4
 ,but its highly evolved art and culture
 show that we have no  longer to do with
 ,european origins2 to discuss it       
further would lead  us to trench upon   
the field of classical rather than      
prehistoric  archology4    ,v4 ,the     
northwestern corner of ,europe1         
including ,scandinavia1 ,denmark1  and  
the ,baltic plain of ,germany1          
throughout the prehistoric period has   
been characterized by backwardness of   
culture as compared with the  rest of   
,europe4 ,it was populated from the     
south1 deriving a large part  of such   
primitive civilization as it possessed  
from the south and the  southeast as    
well4    ,that this region was          
necessarily uninhabited during the      
,glacial epoch1  long after the advent  
of man in southern ,europe1 is          
indubitable4 ,it is  proved by the      
extent of the glaciated area1 which     

extends on the  mainland as far south as
 ,hamburg1 ,berlin1 and ,posen1 and over
 the  entire ,british ,isles at the same
 time4,m ,it was by the melting of  this
 vast sheet of ice that those high level
 river terraces in ,france  and ,belgium
 were formed1 in which the most ancient 
and primitive  implements of human      
manufacture occur4 ,in the area beneath 
this ice  sheet no trace of human       
occupation until long after this time   
occurs4  ,this fact of itself1 is not   
absolutely conclusive1 for glaciation   
would have obliterated all traces of    
anterior habitation or activity4  ,as to
 the possibility of a tertiary          
population before the ,glacial  epoch1  
it presents too remote a contingency for
 us to consider1  although we do not    
deny its possibility4 ,it too far       
antedates  prehistory1 so to speak4     
,at the notable ,international ,congress
 of ,anthropology and ,prehistoric      
,archology at ,stockholm in #ahgd a     
landmark in these sciences was          

established by substantial agreement    
among the leading authorities  from all 
over ,europe upon the proposition now   
before us4,n ,first of  all1 every one  
subscribed to the view that the         
palolithic or oldest  stone age was     
entirely unrepresented in ,sweden4 ,the 
earliest and  simplest stone implements 
discovered in the southern part of that 
country betray a degree of skill and    
culture far above that so long          
prevalent in ,france and ,germany4      
,stone is not only rubbed and polished  
into shape1 but the complicated art of  
boring holes in it has been  learned4   
,norway also seems to be lacking in     
similar evidence of a  human population 
in the very lowest stage of             
civilization4 ,stone  implements        
anterior to the discovery of the art of 
rubbing or  polishing are almost        
unknown4 ,only about ,christiania have  
any finds at  all been made4 ,in        
,denmark some few very rude implements  
have been  found4 ,they are so scarce as

 to suggest that they are mere rejects  
or  half-finished ones of a later type4 
,the kitchen middens1 or shell  heaps1  
of ,jutland1 for which the region is    
most notable1 as described  by          
,steenstrup1 abound in stone implements4
 ,they all represent man in  the        
neolithic age4 ,polished stones are as  
abundant as the rudely  hammered ones   
are rare4 ,from the absence of all the  
very early stone  implements1 and from  
the sudden appearance of others of a far
 more  finished type1 the possibility of
 a gradual evolution of culture about   
,scandinavia in situ is denied on all   
hands4 ,the art of working stone  has   
surely been introduced from some more   
favored region4 ,the only  place to look
 for the source of this culture is to   
the south4    ,illustration3 ,,flint    
,,dagger4    7,from ,montelius1 #ahie   
b47    ,illustration3 ,,stone ,,axe4    
7,from ,montelius1 #ahie b47            
,illustration3 ,,bronze ,,axe4    7,from
 ,montelius1 #ahie b47    ,tardy in its 

human occupation and its stone culture1 
,scandinavia was  still more backward1  
as compared with the rest of ,europe1 in
 its  transition to the age of bronze4  
,this is all the more remarkable in     
view of the rich store of raw materials 
on every hand4 ,nowhere else in  ,europe
 does the pure stone age seem to have   
been so unduly protracted4  ,a necessary
 consequence of this was that           
stone-working reached a  higher stage of
 evolution here than anywhere else in   
the world save in  ,america4 ,in other  
parts of ,europe the discovery of       
metal-working1 of  course1 immediately  
put an end to all progress in this      
direction4 ,the  ultimate degree of     
skill to which they attained is         
represented in the  accompanying cuts4  
,the first1 a flint poniard1 shows the  
possibilities1 both in the line of form 
and finish1 of manufacture by  the      
chipping process4 ,to equal this example
 one must look to the most  skillful of 
the ,american ,indians1 as in           

,tennessee1 where they were  too remote 
from mines of native copper to make use 
of a ready  substitute for stone4 ,our  
second implement is an axe hammer1 made 
of  diorite4 ,to shape1 sharpen1 bore1  
and polish a piece of stone like  this  
certainly required a long apprenticeship
 in the art4    ,illustration3 ,,bronze 
,,bracelet3 #fej-ejj ,b4 ,c4 7,from     
,montelius1 #ahie  b47    ,bronze       
culture1 when it did at last appear in  
this remote part of  ,europe1 came upon 
the scene suddenly and in full maturity4
 ,whether  this was as early as the     
eighth to the tenth century1 as         
,montelius  avers1 is disputed by many4 
,all are nevertheless agreed that       
evidence  is absolutely lacking that the
 art was of indigenous origin4 ,from    
what  part of the world this knowledge  
of bronze ultimately came we leave an   
open question1 as also whether it came  
with ,phoenician traders or  direct from
 ,greece1 as ,worsaae affirms4 ,it was  
certainly introduced  into ,sweden1     

making its way into ,norway about the   
same time directly  from the peninsula  
of ,jutland4 ,its first appearance is in
 a highly  evolved state4 ,such crude   
attempts at manufacture as ,chantre     
finds so  long prevalent along the      
,rhone ,valley1 for example1 are        
entirely  absent4 ,both in form and     
ornamentation the hand of the master is 
apparent4 ,this bronze age1 like that of
 stone1 lasted a very long  time--far   
longer than anywhere else on the        
continent4 ,central ,europe  passed     
through three stages of metallic        
progress while ,scandinavia was         
evolving two4 ,not until the second or  
third century of our era--not  until the
 time of the ,romans1 it would          
appear--did iron begin to  supplant     
bronze4 ,history repeats itself4 ,the   
excessive duration of the  bronze age1  
as in the case of stone antecedently1   
led to the  attainment of a remarkable  
skill4 ,the two accompanying cuts are   
typical of the best work of this time4  

,in the one case1 merely  superficial   
ornament1 especially the skillful use of
 the spiral2 in  the other1 real beauty 
of form in the bracelet1 are clearly    
apparent4  ,possessed of such skill in  
the working of bronze1 it is small      
wonder  that the need of a better metal 
was not felt4 ,only when fashioned into 
weapons of war does iron reveal its     
supremacy over bronze4 ,this1 of        
course1 with the campaigns of historical
 times1 brings us to the end  of our    
chronicle4    ,the prehistoric          
experience of metal-working in          
,scandinavia is typical  of the other   
details of its cultural evolution4 ,in  
its earliest epoch  no trace of domestic
 animals is present4 ,it is rather a    
remarkable  fact that even the reindeer 
seems to have been unknown4,o ,what can 
,penka say to this in his positive      
affirmation that the original ,aryans   
got up into ,scandinavia1 having        
followed the reindeer from central      
,europe north after the retreat of the  

ice sheet8 ,the fact is1  archologically
 speaking1 from the evidence furnished  
by the kitchen  middens1 that if they   
ever did this they left a fine country1 
where  deer were plenty1 to subsist upon
 shellfish on the foggy coasts of       
,denmark4,p ,the entire absence of      
economic motive for such a  migration is
 at once apparent4 ,men seldom travel   
far under such  conditions4 ,quite      
early1 however1 even in the stone age1  
do evidences  of domestic animals occur1
 to the dog being added the ox1 horse1  
swine1 and sheep4 ,pottery in a rude    
form also follows4 ,finally1 and in     
apparent coincidence with the bronze    
culture1 comes a new custom of          
incineration4 ,the dead are no longer   
buried1 but burned4 ,a profound         
modification of religious ideas is      
hereby implied4 ,it seems to have  been 
at about this time also that our ,alpine
 racial type entered  ,scandinavia from 
,denmark1 although1 as we have already  
observed1 it is  yet far from certain   

that the new race was the active agent  
in  introducing the new elements of     
culture4 ,all that we know is that they 
both came from the south1 and reached   
this remote region at about the  same   
time4           99       99       99    
99       99    ,that the origins of     
culture in ,europe are certainly mixed  
would seem  to be about the main        
conclusion to be drawn from our extended
  discussion4 ,it has an iconoclastic   
tone4 ,yet we would not leave the       
matter entirely in the air1 nor would we
 agree with ,mantegazza 7#ahhd7  in his 
conclusion that ,ignoramus sums up our  
entire knowledge of the  subject4 ,there
 is some comfort to be drawn even from  
this mass of  conflicting opinions4 ,our
 final destructive aim has been achieved
 if  we have emphasized the danger of   
correlating data drawn from several     
distinct sciences1 whose only bond of   
unity is that they are all  concerned   
with the same object--man4 ,the positive
 contribution which  we would seek to   

make is that the whole matter of        
,european origins is  by no means so    
simple as it has too often been made to 
appear4 ,it is  not imperative that     
conclusions from all the contributory   
sciences of  physical anthropology1     
philology1 and cultural history should  
be  susceptible of interweaving into a  
simple scheme of common origins for     
all4 ,the order of races1 for example1  
need mean nothing as respects  priority 
of culture4 ,nor do the two sciences1   
philology and  archology1 involve one   
another's conclusions so far as         
civilization  is concerned4 ,language   
and industrial culture may have had very
  different sources2 their migrations   
need stand in no relation to one        
another in the least4 ,each science is  
fully justified in its own  deductions1 
but must be content to leave the results
 of others in  peace4 ,such is the      
ultimate conclusion to which all the    
latest  authority is tending4 ,only by a
 careful comparison of data from each   

sphere of investigation may we finally  
hope to combine them all in a  composite
 whole1 as many-sided and complex as the
 life and nature of  man itself4        
,,footnotes3    ,a ,advance sheets from 
,the ,races of ,europe1 now in the press
 of ,d4  ,appleton and ,company1 to     
appear in ,may4 ,footnotes and          
references are  herein largely omitted4 
,b ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,january1
 #ahih1 pp4 #cjd-cbb4    ,c ,le ,mirage 
,orientale1 #ahic a2 and in his         
admirable outline of  sculptural origins
 in ,europe 7#ahid-'if74    ,d ,arii e  
,italici1 ,torino1 #ahih1 especially pp4
 #aii-bbj4    ,e ,reinach1 #ahic a1 pp4 
#edc-edh4 ,g4 de ,mortillet1 #ahig1     
denies the  claim4    ,f ,chantre1      
#ahhd2 ,hoernes1 #ahib2 ,bertrand and   
,reinach1 #ahid a2 ,sergi1  #ahih a2 and
 ,orsi 7,bull4 ,paletnologia ,italiana1 
xi1 #ahhe1 p4 #a et  seq47 are best     
authorities4 ,see also ,hallstatt in the
 subject index  of our ,bibliography1   
soon to be published as a ,special      

,bulletin of the  ,boston ,public       
,library4    ,g ,hoernes1 #ahib1 p4     
#ebi2 ,bertrand1 #ahgf a1 second        
edition1 pp4  #bjg-baf1 fixes about #hjj
 ,b4 ,c42 but #ahid a1 p4 #hj1 carries  
it back to  #abjj-acjj ,b4 ,c4    ,h    
,zuckerkandl1 #ahhc1 p4 #if4    ,i      
,weisbach1 #ahig b4    ,j ,this fact has
 been established beyond doubt by the   
recent great  work of ,studer and       
,bannwarth1 ,crania ,helvetica ,antiqua1
 #ahid4 ,vide  p4 #ac4 ,sergi's attempt 
to interpret the data otherwise 7#ahih  
a1 p4 #fg7  is entirely erroneous4      
,gross's data apparently refer entirely 
to the  later period of ,teutonic       
invasions in the iron age 7#ahhc1 p4    
#ajf74  ,cf4 ,munro1 pp4 #ecg and #eda4 
,k ,popular ,science ,monthly1          
,december1 #ahig1 p4 #aea4    ,l ,from  
,montelius1 #ahig4    ,m ,cf4 maps and  
data in ,j4 ,geikie1 #ahid2 ,penck1     
#ahhd2 and ,niederle1  #ahic1 p4 #be4   
,n ,bertrand1 #ahgf a and #ahgf b1 gives
 a full account of it4 ,the best  recent

 authorities upon ,scandinavian culture 
are ,sophus ,mueller1 #ahig1  and       
,montelius1 #ahie b4 ,other works of    
reference are those of ,worsaae1        
,nilsson1 ,hildebrand1 ,madsen and      
,rygh1 full titles being given in our   
supplementary ,bibliography of the      
,anthropology and ,ethnology of         
,europe4 ,comprising nearly two thousand
 titles1 it will be provided  with a    
detailed subject index4    ,o ,bertrand1
 #ahgf b1 p4 #dj4    ,p ,reinach1 #ahib1
 pp4 #gb-gh1 for severe criticism of    
,penka's  hypotheses4          ,,liquid 
,,air4    ,,by ,,ira ,,remsen1          
,,professor ,,of ,,chemistry ,,in ,,the 
,,johns ,,hopkins ,,university4         
,water1 the substance most familiar to  
us1 is known in the liquid1 in  the     
solid1 and in the gaseous state4        
,everybody knows that by heating  the   
solid it passes into the liquid state1  
and that by heating the  liquid it      
passes into the form of gas or vapor4   
,so also everybody  knows that when the 

vapor of water is cooled it is          
liquefied1 and that  by cooling liquid  
water sufficiently it becomes solid or  
turns to ice4  ,in the same way many of 
the substances that are known to us as  
liquids1 such as alcohol and ether1 can 
be converted into the form of  gas or   
vapor by heat4 ,in fact1 this is true of
 most liquids4 ,the  temperature at     
which a solid passes into the liquid    
state is called  its melting point1 and 
the temperature at which a liquid passes
 into  the gaseous state is called its  
boiling point4 ,the boiling point of    
water1 for example1 is #ajj ,c4 7#bab   
,f47 in the open air4 ,but the  boiling 
point varies with the pressure exerted  
upon the surface4 ,the  pressure that we
 ordinarily have to deal with is that of
 the  atmosphere4 ,if the pressure is   
increased the boiling point is raised1  
and if the pressure is decreased the    
boiling point is lowered4 ,in  dealing1 
then1 with the conversion of a gas into 
a liquid1 or that of  a liquid into a   

gas1 both the temperature and the       
pressure have to be  considered4        
,just as water is most familiar to us in
 the liquid form1 so there are          
substances that are most familiar to us 
in the gaseous form4 ,in fact1  the only
 gaseous substances that can be said to 
be familiar to  everybody are the gases 
contained in the air4 ,the principal    
constituents of the air are nitrogen and
 oxygen1 which form  respectively about 
four fifths and one fifth of its bulk4  
,besides  these gases1 however1 the air 
contains water vapor1 carbonic-acid gas1
  ammonia1 argon in small quantities1   
and many other substances in still      
smaller quantities4 ,for the purposes of
 this article it is only  necessary to  
have in mind the nitrogen1 oxygen1 water
 vapor1 and  carbonic acid4 ,of these1  
the water vapor is easily converted into
  liquid1 as1 for example1 in the       
formation of rain1 while the other      
constituents are liquefied with         
difficulty4 ,the name liquid air is     

applied to the substance that is        
obtained by converting the air as a     
whole into a liquid2 but in this process
 the water and the carbonic  acid become
 solid and can be filtered from the     
liquid so that the  latter consists     
almost wholly of oxygen and nitrogen4 ,a
 few years ago  this liquid was         
obtainable in only very small           
quantities4 ,to-day1  thanks especially 
to the efforts of ,mr4 ,charles ,e4     
,tripler1 of ,new  ,york1 it can be     
produced in any desired quantity1 and at
 moderate  cost4 ,in consequence of     
this1 it has come to be talked about in 
a  familiar way1 and many persons have  
had the privilege of seeing and  feeling
 it1 and of learning something about its
 wonderful properties4  ,the object of  
this article is to explain the method   
employed in the  production of liquid   
air1 to give an account of some of its  
properties1 and to indicate some of the 
uses to which it may possibly  be put4  
,in the older text-books of physics and 

of chemistry certain gases were  classed
 as permanent1 under the impression that
 these could not be  liquefied1 and this
 impression was based upon the fact that
 all  efforts to liquefy them had       
failed4 ,a brief account of these       
efforts  will be helpful4    ,among the 
so-called permanent gases was chlorine4 
,an ,english chemist1  ,northmore1 first
 succeeded1 early in this century1 in   
liquefying  chlorine4 ,his work was1    
however1 lost sight of1 and in #ahbc    
,faraday at  the ,royal ,institution    
showed independently that this          
transformation of  gaseous chlorine into
 the liquid can be effected             
comparatively easily4  ,the method used 
by him is this3 ,when chlorine gas is   
passed into cold  water it forms with   
the water a solid product known as      
chlorine  hydrate4 ,if kept well cooled 
this hydrate can be dried4 ,if then its 
temperature is raised even to the       
ordinary temperature of the room1  the  
solid hydrate is decomposed into liquid 

water and gaseous  chlorine4 ,faraday   
put some of the solid hydrate into a    
stout glass  tube sealed at one end and 
bent at the middle4 ,the other end of   
the  tube was then closed4 ,the tube was
 then suspended so that the two ends    
were turned downward4 ,on gently warming
 the end in which was the solid         
hydrate1 this was decomposed into       
chlorine and water4 ,but the gas  given 
off would under ordinary conditions have
 occupied a much larger  space than the 
solid hydrate4 ,being prevented from    
expanding by the  tube in which it was  
inclosed1 it was under very considerable
  pressure4 ,the end of the tube that   
was not warmed was cooled1 and in  this 
end1 in consequence of the pressure and 
the comparatively low  temperature1     
chlorine1 which is gaseous under the    
ordinary pressure of  the air1 appeared 
as a liquid4 ,the general method made   
use of by  ,faraday in this classical   
experiment is that which is always made 
use  of for the purpose of liquefying   

gases1 but for some gases pressures     
very much higher and temperatures very  
much lower are required4  ,faraday      
himself succeeded in liquefying all the 
gases then known  except oxygen1        
hydrogen1 nitrogen1 nitric oxide1 and   
marsh gas4 ,he  subjected oxygen to a   
pressure of about one thousand pounds to
 the  square inch1 or nearly seventy    
atmospheres1 but it showed no signs of  
liquefaction4 ,later experimenters      
increased the pressure to four  thousand
 pounds to the square inch1 with no     
better results1 so that it  is not      
surprising that it came to be held that 
some gases are  permanent4    ,within   
comparatively recent years several gases
 have been liquefied on  the large scale
 by means of pressure4 ,these are       
ammonia1 carbonic  acid1 nitrous oxide1 
and chlorine4 ,ammonia is used for      
producing low  temperatures1 as in      
breweries and in cold-storage plants and
 in the  manufacture of ice2 carbonic   
acid1 for fire extinguishers and for    

charging beer with the gas2 nitrous     
oxide1 for producing ansthesia2  and    
chlorine in connection with several     
branches of chemical  manufacture4 ,the 
production of low temperatures by means 
of liquid  ammonia and of liquid        
carbonic acid will be more fully dealt  
with  further on1 when the principles   
involved will be briefly presented4 ,it 
is to be borne in mind that these       
substances are liquefied by means of    
pressure alone1 at temperatures that are
 easily reached1 so that it  appears    
that by mechanical pressure it is       
possible to produce low  temperatures4  
,in #ahfi an important fact was         
discovered by ,andrews4 ,it  was that   
for every gas there is a temperature    
above which it is  impossible to liquefy
 it by pressure4 ,thus1 if chlorine is  
at any  temperature above #adf ,c4 7#bid
 ,f47 it can not be liquefied4 ,this    
temperature is called the critical      
temperature of chlorine4 ,the  pressure 
to which the gas must be subjected at   

the critical  temperature in order that 
the gas may be liquefied is called the  
critical pressure4 ,in the case of      
chlorine this is #ic4e atmospheres4     
,now1 the critical temperature of the   
gases that were called permanent  gases 
are very low--lower than could be       
reached by the means at the  command of 
earlier experimenters4 ,the critical    
temperature of oxygen1  for example1 is 
-#aah4h ,c4 7-#ahb ,f471 while that of  
nitrogen is -#adf  ,c4 7-#bcj ,f474 ,the
 critical pressures are #ej4h and #ce   
atmospheres  respectively4 ,as there is 
no difficulty in obtaining these        
pressures1  the problem of liquefying   
oxygen and nitrogen and air resolves    
itself  into finding a method of        
producing temperatures below the        
critical  temperatures of these gases4  
,it is well known that a temperature    
somewhat below the freezing point  of   
water can be produced artificially by   
mixing ice and salt4 ,the  ordinary     
ice-cream freezer is a familiar         

application of this method of  producing
 cold4 ,other freezing mixtures that are
 sometimes used  consist of calcium     
chloride and snow1 that gives the       
temperature -#dh  ,c4 7-#ed4d ,f471 and 
solid carbonic acid and ether1 that is  
capable of  lowering the temperature to 
-#ajj ,c4 7-#adh ,f474 ,but even with   
the  latter mixture it is not possible  
to reach the critical temperature of    
oxygen or that of nitrogen4 ,how1 then1 
is it possible to reach these  extremely
 low temperatures8    ,in order to      
answer this question it will be         
necessary to take into  consideration   
certain temperature changes that are    
observed when  solids are melted and    
liquids are boiled1 as well as when     
gases are  liquefied and liquids are    
frozen4 ,when heat is applied to a mass 
of  ice at its melting point it melts   
and forms a mass of water having the    
same temperature4 ,heat disappears in   
the operation4 ,it is stored up in  the 
water4 ,this disappearance of heat that 

accompanies the melting of  ice can be  
shown in a very striking way by mixing a
 certain weight of  ice with the same   
weight of water that has been heated to 
#hj ,c4 7#agf  ,f474 ,the ice will melt 
and all the water obtained will be found
 to  have the temperature of the melting
 ice--that is1 #j ,c4 7#cb ,f474 ,the   
water of #hj ,c4 is thus cooled down to 
#j by the melting of the ice4  ,again1  
when heat is applied to water its       
temperature rises until the  boiling    
point is reached4 ,then it is converted 
into vapor1 but this  vapor has the     
temperature of the boiling water4       
,during the process of  boiling there is
 no rise in the temperature of the water
 or of the  vapor4 ,heat disappears1    
therefore1 or is used up in the process 
of  vaporization4 ,similar phenomena are
 observed whenever a solid is  melted or
 a liquid is boiled4 ,when1 however1 a  
gas is liquefied it  gives up again the 
heat that is absorbed by it when it is  
formed from  a liquid2 and so also when 

a liquid solidifies it gives up the heat
 it  absorbs when it is formed from a   
solid4    ,but it is not necessary that 
a gas should be converted into a liquid 
in order that it should give up heat4   
,whenever it is compressed it  becomes  
warmer4 ,some of the heat stored up in  
it is1 as it were1  squeezed out of it4 
,conversely1 whenever a gas expands1 it 
takes up  heat and1 of course1          
surrounding objects from which the heat 
is taken  become colder4 ,now1 it is a  
comparatively simple matter to compress 
air4 ,every wheelman knows that1 and he 
also knows that the process  causes a   
rise in temperature2 at least he knows  
it if he uses a small  hand pump4 ,with 
large pumps run by steam any desired    
pressure can be  reached4 ,this is      
simply a question of securing the proper
 engines1 and  vessels sufficiently     
strong to stand the pressure4 ,it has   
already been  pointed out that several  
gases are now liquefied on the large    
scale by  means of pressure4 ,it is to  

be noted that low temperatures can be   
produced by converting certain gases1   
such as ammonia and carbonic  acid1 into
 liquids1 and by compressing certain    
gases1 as1 for example1  air4 ,when     
liquefied gases are used it is only     
necessary to allow them  to pass rapidly
 into the gaseous state1 when more or   
less heat is  absorbed4 ,this is the    
basis for the use of liquid ammonia in  
the  manufacture of ice4 ,a vessel      
containing the liquid ammonia is placed 
in another containing water4 ,the inner 
vessel being opened1 the liquid  ammonia
 is rapidly converted into the gas2 heat
 is absorbed from the  water2 it        
freezes4 ,when a vessel containing      
liquid carbonic acid is  opened so that 
the gas that is formed escapes through a
 small valve1  so much heat is absorbed 
that a part of the liquid carbonic acid 
is  itself frozen4 ,in this case the    
substance is present in all three       
states of aggregation--the solid1 the   
liquid1 and the gaseous4 ,the use  of a 

mixture of ether and solid carbonic acid
 as a freezing mixture  has already been
 referred to4 ,its value depends1 of    
course1  principally upon the fact that 
solid carbonic acid is liquefied1 and   
the liquid then converted into gas1 both
 of which operations involve  absorption
 of heat4    ,we are now prepared to    
understand the important experiments of 
,cailletet and of ,pictet1 the results  
of which were published in #ahgg4  ,it  
should be said that they worked         
independently of each  other--,cailletet
 in ,paris and ,pictet in ,geneva4      
,pictet liquefied  carbonic acid and    
sulphur dioxide by pressure4 ,the liquid
 carbonic  acid was passed through a    
tube that was surrounded by liquid      
sulphur  dioxide boiling in a partial   
vacuum4 ,the liquid carbonic acid thus  
cooled was then boiled under diminished 
pressure in a jacket  surrounding a tube
 in which the gas to be liquefied was   
contained  under high pressure4 ,when   
this gas was allowed to escape from a   

small  opening its temperature was so   
reduced by the expansion that a part of 
it was liquefied in the tube and passed 
off as a liquid4 ,cailletet  worked in  
essentially the same way1 but on a      
smaller scale4 ,neither of  these       
experimenters liquefied oxygen or       
nitrogen on the large scale1  but they  
pointed out the way that must be        
followed in order that  success may be  
attained4 ,they destroyed the belief in 
permanent  gases4    ,later             
experimenters in this field are         
,wroblewski1 ,olszewski1 and  ,dewar1   
who have been interested mainly in the  
purely scientific side  of the problem1 
while ,linde in ,germany1 ,hampson in   
,england1 and  ,tripler in the ,united  
,states have their minds on the         
practical side4  ,notwithstanding the   
low temperatures involved in the        
experiments1 a  number of heated        
discussions have been carried on in the 
scientific  journals touching the       
question of priority4 ,to the           

unprejudiced  observer it appears that  
all of those named above are entitled to
  credit4 ,they have all helped the     
cause along1 but just how to  apportion 
the credit no one knows4 ,in a general  
way1 however1 some of  the results      
obtained by each in turn should be      
given4 ,wroblewski and  ,olszewski have 
carried on the work begun by ,cailletet 
and ,pictet1 and  have produced lower   
temperatures4 ,in the latest form of    
apparatus used  by ,olszewski1 liquid   
ethylene is used as the cooling agent4  
,its  boiling point is -#ajb ,c4        
7-#aea4f ,f474 ,by causing it to boil   
rapidly  under diminished pressure a    
temperature below the critical          
temperature  of oxygen can be reached4  
,as early as #ahia ,olszewski obtained  
as much  as two hundred cubic           
centimetres of liquid air by this       
method4 ,dewar  has also made use of    
liquid ethylene4 ,this was passed       
through a spiral  copper tube surrounded
 by solid carbonic acid and ether4 ,it  

was then  passed into a cylinder        
surrounded by another cylinder          
containing solid  carbonic acid and     
ether4 ,a spiral copper tube1 which runs
 through the  outer cylinder and also   
through the inner cylinder in which the 
ethylene was boiling under diminished   
pressure1 carried the air4 ,this  was   
liquefied and then collected in a vacuum
 vessel below4 ,later he  found that air
 can be liquefied by using liquid       
carbonic acid alone as  the cooling     
agent4 ,a sectional drawing of his      
apparatus described in  #ahif is given  
herewith4 ,as he remarks3 ,with this    
simple machine1 one  hundred cubic      
centimetres of liquid oxygen can readily
 be obtained1  the cooling agent being  
carbon dioxide1 at the temperature of   
-#gi4 ,if  liquid air has to be made by 
this apparatus1 then the carbonic acid  
must be kept under exhaustion of about  
one inch of mercury pressure1  so as to 
begin with a temperature of -#aae4      
,illustration3    ,,fig4                

#a4--,,laboratory ,,liquefaction        
,,apparatus ,,of ,,dewar ,,for ,,the    
,,production  ,,of ,,liquid ,,oxygen1   
,,etc4    ,a1 air or oxygen inlet2 ,b1  
carbon-dioxide inlet2 ,c1 carbon-dioxide
  valve2 ,d1 regenerator coils2 ,f1 air 
or oxygen expansion valve2 ,g1  vacuum  
vessel with liquid oxygen2 ,h1          
carbon-dioxide and air outlet2  o1 air  
coil2 1 carbon-dioxide coil4    ,the    
introduction of the vacuum vessel by    
,dewar has been of great  service in all
 the work on liquefied gases4 ,a vacuum 
vessel is a  double-walled glass vessel1
 as shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,g4 ,the space   
between  the inner and outer walls of   
the vessel is exhausted by means of an  
air pump before it is closed4 ,the      
vessel is therefore surrounded by a     
vacuum4 ,as heat is not conducted by a  
vacuum1 it is possible to keep          
specimens of liquefied gases in such    
vessels for a surprisingly long  time4  
,heat enough can not pass through the   
vacuum to vaporize the  liquid rapidly4 

,the most common form of these vessels  
is that of a  globe4 ,such a vessel is  
known as a ,dewar globe or bulb4    ,it 
has been found that liquid air can be   
kept very well by putting it  in a tin  
or galvanized iron vessel1 which in turn
 is placed in a  larger one1 and then   
filling the space between the two with  
felt4  ,under these conditions          
vaporization takes place quite slowly1  
and it  is possible to transport the    
liquid comparatively long distances4 ,it
  has1 for example1 been transported    
from ,new ,york to ,baltimore and       
,washington4 ,in one case with which the
 writer is familiar two cans  were taken
 from ,mr4 ,tripler's laboratory in the 
morning1 delivered at  the ,johns       
,hopkins ,university in the afternoon1  
and used to illustrate  a lecture in the
 evening4 ,after the lecture there was  
enough left for  certain experiments    
that were carried on during the rest of 
the night4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#b4--;,,diagram ,,showing ,,working ,,of

 ,,compression  ,,apparatus ,,for       
,,making ,,liquid ,,air4    ,tripler1   
,linde1 and ,hampson have all succeeded 
in devising forms of  apparatus by means
 of which air can be liquefied without  
the aid of  other cooling agents than   
the expanding air4 ,in principle the    
methods  employed by these three workers
 are essentially the same4 ,it appears  
from the published statements that at   
the present time ,tripler's plant  is   
the most efficient4 ,while a few years  
ago a half pint or so of  liquid air is 
said to have cost five hundred dollars1 
now five gallons  can be made for about 
twenty dollars1 and probably much less4 
,the  general working of ,tripler's     
apparatus can be made clear by the aid  
of  the accompanying drawing1 ,fig4 #b4 
,a#a1 ,a#b1 ,a#c represent steam        
compression pumps4 ,air is taken through
 ,i from above the roof of the          
laboratory4 ,in the first pump it is    
compressed to sixty-five pounds to  the 
square inch4 ,it1 of course1 becomes    

heated as it is compressed4 ,in  order  
to cool it down again it is passed      
through a coil1 ,b#a1 which is          
surrounded by water of the ordinary     
temperature4 ,this compressed and       
cooled air is then further compressed in
 the second pump1 ,a#b1 to four  hundred
 pounds to the square inch4 ,again it is
 cooled in the same way  as before by   
means of water which circulates around  
the coil ,b#b4 ,once  more the air is   
compressed1 this time in the cylinder   
,a#c1 in which it  is subjected to a    
pressure of two thousand to twenty-five 
hundred  pounds to the square inch2 and 
then this compressed air is brought     
down to the ordinary temperature in the 
cooler ,b#c4 ,the air under this  great 
pressure is now passed through the      
purifier ,c1 where it is freed  from    
particles of dust and to a great extent 
from moisture4 ,from ,c the  air passes 
into the inner bent tube1 about thirty  
feet in length1  until it reaches ,d4   
,this may be called the critical point  

of the  apparatus4 ,here is situated a  
needle valve from which the air is      
allowed to escape4 ,it1 of course1      
expands enormously1 and is              
correspondingly cooled4 ,this very cold 
air passes into the space  between the  
inner and outer tubes1 and finally      
escapes at ,f4 ,the  result of this is  
that the compressed air in the inner    
tube is soon  cooled down so far that a 
considerable part of the air that       
escapes at  ,d appears in the liquid    
form4 ,this collects in the lower part  
of the  jacket1 and on opening the      
stopcock at ,e the liquid escapes in a  
stream the size of one's finger4    ,in 
,mr4 ,tripler's laboratory the liquid is
 collected in the cans  already referred
 to4 ,although for the reasons mentioned
 the  evaporation of the liquid is      
comparatively slow1 it is constantly    
going on1 and as the gas formed occupies
 a very much larger volume  under the   
pressure of the atmosphere than the     
liquid from which it is  formed1 it is  

necessary to leave the cans loosely     
covered4 ,otherwise  the pressure would 
increase to such an extent as to burst  
any but the  strongest vessels4 ,one    
cubic foot of liquid air gives at       
atmospheric  pressure eight hundred     
cubic feet of gaseous air4    ,liquid   
air obtained as described is a turbid1  
colorless liquid4 ,the  turbidity is due
 to the presence of solid water and     
solid carbonic  acid4 ,by passing the   
liquid through a paper filter the solids
 are  removed1 and a transparent liquid 
is thus obtained4 ,this1 as already     
stated1 consists mostly of nitrogen and 
oxygen in the proportion of  about four 
fifths of the former to one fifth of the
 latter4 ,though it  should not be      
forgotten that this liquid contains     
argon in small  quantity1 besides three 
or four other substances in still       
smaller  quantities1 as has recently    
been shown by ,professor ,ramsay1 we may
  disregard everything except the       
nitrogen and oxygen4 ,liquid air is a   

mixture of these two substances4 ,they  
are not chemically combined as  hydrogen
 and oxygen are1 for example1 in water4 
,this mixture boils at  -#aia ,c4 7-#cab
 ,f471 which is the temperature of the  
liquid as it is  in the cans4 ,as the   
nitrogen boils at a lower temperature   
7-#aid ,c4 or  #cah ,f47 than oxygen    
7-#ahc ,c4 or #big ,f471 more nitrogen  
is converted  into gas in a given time  
than oxygen1 and after a time the liquid
  that is left is much richer in oxygen 
than ordinary air4 ,when liquid  air is 
poured upon water it1 being a little    
lighter than the water1  floats1 not    
quietly1 to be sure1 but in a very      
troubled way4 ,soon1  however1 the      
liquid sinks to the bottom because the  
nitrogen1 which is  the lighter         
constituent1 passes into the gaseous    
state1 and the liquid  oxygen which is  
left is a little heavier than water4    
,the experiment is  a very beautiful    
one4 ,a scientific poet could alone do  
justice to it4  ,the beauty is enhanced 

by the fact that while liquid air is    
colorless1  or practically so1 liquid   
oxygen is distinctly blue4    ,although 
liquid air has the temperature -#aia ,c4
 7-#cab ,f471 one can  without danger   
pass the hand through it rapidly4 ,the  
sensation is a  new one1 but it is      
evanescent4 ,very serious results would 
follow if  the hand were allowed to     
remain in the liquid even for a short   
time4  ,the tissues would be killed4 ,so
 also1 it is possible to pass the hand  
rapidly through molten lead without     
injury4 ,in the latter case the         
moisture on the hand is converted into  
vapor which forms a protecting  cushion 
between the hand and the hot liquid2    
while1 in the former  case1 the heat of 
the hand converts the liquid air        
immediately  surrounding it into gas    
which prevents the liquid from coming in
  contact with the hand4    ,when the   
liquid is poured out of a vessel in the 
air it is rapidly  converted into gas4  
,the great lowering in the temperature  

causes a  condensation of the moisture  
of the air in the form of a cloud4 ,the 
same thing is seen when the cover is    
removed from a can containing the       
liquid4 ,of course1 this liquid does not
 wet things as water does4  ,when1      
however1 as happened in ,new ,york1 the 
lecturer deliberately  pours a dipperful
 of the liquid upon a priceless ,worth  
gown1 he may  expect to hear expressions
 of horror from the owner4 ,this        
experiment  passed off most             
successfully4 ,every trace of the liquid
 air was  converted into invisible gases
 before the fleeting agony of the       
sympathetic audience had passed away4   
,the effects of very low temperature    
upon a number of substances have  been  
studied1 and some of them can easily be 
shown4 ,paraffin1 resin1  and rubber    
immersed in liquid air soon become very 
brittle1 and the  color of the resin is 
completely changed4 ,a beefsteak or an  
onion also  becomes brittle1 and can be 
broken into small fragments by the blow 

of  a hammer4 ,a similar effect is      
produced in the case of some metals4    
,tin  and iron1 for example1 become     
brittle1 and the tenacity of the iron is
  greatly increased4 ,a copper wire1    
however1 retains its flexibility4 ,at   
low temperatures the electric           
conductivity of all metals is increased4
  ,in general1 the lower the temperature
 the greater the conductivity4 ,if  a   
copper wire could by any means be kept  
cold enough1 electrical  energy could be
 transmitted by it with but little      
loss--perhaps none4  ,mercury is easily 
frozen by surrounding it with liquid    
air1 and the  solid thus formed is very 
hard1 though if it is cooled down       
sufficiently it becomes brittle4        
,alcohol can be frozen without          
difficulty by means of liquid air4 ,by  
the aid of the lowest temperatures      
hitherto attainable it has only  been   
possible to convert alcohol into a pasty
 mass4 ,the frozen alcohol  is as hard  
as ice4 ,when alcohol is dropped into   

liquid air the drops  retain the        
globular form4 ,when taken out on a     
platinum loop the flame  of a ,bunsen   
burner does not set fire to it4         
,phosphorescence is greatly increased by
 cooling substances down to the         
temperature of liquid air4 ,this has    
been shown by means of water1  milk1    
paper1 eggs1 and feathers4 ,an egg and a
 feather could be  distinctly seen in a 
dark room4    ,scarlet iodide of mercury
 is converted into the yellow variety   
when it  is subjected to the temperature
 of liquid air4 ,some other colors are  
changed under the same circumstances1   
but not enough is known of this  subject
 to warrant a general statement4        
,attention has already been called to   
the fact that liquid air loses  its     
nitrogen more rapidly than it does its  
oxygen1 and that1 after a  time1 the    
residue contains a large proportion of  
oxygen4 ,as combustion  is combination  
with oxygen1 combustion or burning takes
 place more  readily in contact with    

this liquid oxygen than it does in the  
air4 ,if  a lighted match is attached to
 the end of a steel watch spring1 and   
this then plunged beneath the surface of
 liquid air1 the spring will  soon take 
fire and burn brilliantly1 the sparks   
flying off for some  distance in        
beautiful coruscations4 ,hair felt1     
which does not burn in  the air1 burns  
in a flash when soaked with liquid air4 
,finally1 when  liquid air is confined  
in any vessel not capable of sustaining 
an  enormous pressure1 say about ten    
thousand pounds to the square inch1  the
 vaporization goes on until the vessel  
bursts or the stopper is  forced out4   
,it might therefore be used as an       
explosive without any  addition1 but its
 manipulation is not altogether simple4 
,now for the inevitable question3 ,of   
what use is liquid air likely to  be8   
,this is a perfectly proper question1   
and yet1 if scientific  workers always  
stopped to ask it1 and would not work   
unless they could  find a favorable     

answer1 progress would1 to say the      
least1 be much  slower than it is4 ,most
 great practical discoveries have       
necessarily  passed through the         
plaything stage4 ,some of the most      
important  discoveries have not even    
furnished playthings1 and have found no 
practical applications as this          
expression is commonly understood4 ,but 
the production of liquid air1 while     
furnishing mankind with a  beautiful and
 instructive plaything1 seems likely to 
find practical  applications4 ,we may   
look for these in four directions1 to   
each of  which a short paragraph may be 
devoted3    ,first1 as a cooling agent4 
,low temperature is marketable4 ,to be  
sure1  the demand for the extremely low 
temperature that can be produced by     
liquid air does not exist to-day1 but   
this concentrated low  temperature can  
be diluted to suit conditions4 ,the only
 question to be  answered in this       
connection is1 then1 ,what is the cost  
of cold  produced by liquid air8 ,it is 

impossible for any one to answer this   
question at all satisfactorily at       
present4 ,it can only be said that  this
 is what experimenters are trying to    
find out4 ,it appears1  however1 that   
they are on the way to cheap liquid air1
 and that as the  processes are improved
 the price will become lower and lower4 
,second1 for the construction of motors4
 ,there is no doubt that liquid  air    
with its enormous power of expansion can
 be used as a source of  motive power   
just as compressed air is4 ,in the case 
of steam it is  necessary to heat the   
water in order to convert it into steam1
 and to  heat the steam to give it the  
power of expansion4 ,the cost is1 in the
  first instance1 that of the fuel4     
,given a certain amount of heat1 and  a 
certain amount of work is obtained4 ,if 
liquid air is used1 the  problem is much
 the same4 ,engines must be run in order
 to compress the  air which is to be    
liquefied4 ,every gallon of liquid air  
has been  produced at the expense of    

work of some kind4 ,now1 the question   
arises  at once1 ,what proportion of the
 work that was put in that gallon of    
liquid air in the course of its         
production can be got out of it again8  
,it is certain that all of it can not be
 got out unless all that we  have ever  
learned about such matters goes for     
nothing4 ,in dealing with  the problem  
of the application of liquid air as a   
source of motive  power we are therefore
 doubly handicapped4 ,in the first      
place1 we do  not know the cost of the  
liquid when produced on the large scale2
 and1  in the second place1 we do not   
know the probable efficiency of a       
liquid-air motor4 ,i say we do not know4
 ,perhaps ,mr4 ,tripler and the  others 
engaged in the experiments on this      
subject do know  approximately4 ,we     
certainly can not blame them for not    
telling us all  they know at this stage 
of the work4 ,it is unfortunate1        
however1 that  such a statement as was  
recently published in a popular magazine

  should be allowed to gain             
currency--apparently with the sanction  
of  ,mr4 ,tripler4 ,the statement       
referred to is to the effect that ten   
gallons of liquid air have been made by 
the use of three gallons of  liquid air 
in the engine4 ,if that means that the  
ten gallons of liquid  air are made from
 air at the ordinary pressure1 the      
statement is in  direct conflict with   
well-established principles4 ,if it     
means that the  ten gallons of liquid   
air are made from air that has already  
been  partly compressed1 we must know   
how much work has been done before the  
liquid-air engine began4 ,leaving out of
 consideration the question of  cost1 it
 may be pointed out that liquid-air     
engines would have the  advantage of    
compactness1 though they would          
necessarily be heavy1 as  they would    
have to be strong enough to stand the   
great pressure to  which they would be  
subjected4    ,the third application of 
liquid air that has been suggested is in

 the  preparation of an explosive4 ,in  
fact1 an explosive has been made and    
used for some time in which liquid air  
is one of the constituents4  ,when the  
liquid from which a part of the nitrogen
 has boiled off is  mixed with powdered 
charcoal1 the mixture burns with great  
rapidity  and great explosive force4 ,to
 make this explosive1 ,dr4 ,linde pours 
the liquid containing about forty or    
fifty per cent of oxygen on  fragments  
of wood charcoal1 two or four cubic     
millimetres in size4  ,these are kept   
from scattering under the ebullition of 
the liquid by  mixing them into a sort  
of sponge with about one third of their 
weight  of cotton wool4 ,of course1 this
 explosive must be made at or near the  
place where it is used4 ,it has been in 
use in the way of a practical  test in a
 coal mine at ,pensberg1 near ,munich4  
,it is claimed that the  results were   
satisfactory4 ,the chief advantage of   
the explosive is its  cheapness1 and the
 fact that it soon loses its power of   

exploding4    ,finally1 the fourth      
application of liquid air is for the    
purpose of  getting oxygen from the air4
 ,this can be accomplished by chemical  
means1 but the chemical method is       
somewhat expensive4 ,oxygen has         
commercial value1 and cheap oxygen would
 be a decided advantage in a  number of 
branches of industry4 ,it will be       
observed that it is the  liquid oxygen  
that makes possible the preparation of  
the explosive  described in the last    
paragraph4 ,oxygen as such in the form  
of gas is  of value in ,deacon's process
 for the manufacture of chlorine4 ,in   
this  process air and hydrochloric acid 
are caused to act upon each other so  as
 to form water and chlorine4 ,the       
nitrogen takes no part in the act1  and 
it would be an advantage if it could be 
left out4 ,it is only the  oxygen that  
is wanted4 ,there are many other        
possible uses for oxygen  either in the 
liquid or in the gaseous form1 but these
 need no mention  here4    ,in          

conclusion it may safely be said that it
 is highly probable that  liquid air    
will be found to be a useful substance1 
but it is  impossible at present to     
speak with any confidence of the        
particular  uses that will be made of   
it4 ,as work with it is being carried on
  energetically in at least three       
countries1 we may confidently expect    
important developments in the near      
future4          ,,the ,,physical       
,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,indies4 
,,by ,f4 ,l4 ,,oswald4                  
,,ii4--,,birds4    ,the abundance of    
birds on the four largest islands of the
 ,west ,indian  archipelago1 where      
indigenous mammals are almost limited to
 rodents  and bats1 has often suggested 
the conjecture that the ancestors of    
those islanders must have been          
immigrants from the east coasts of the  
,american mainland2 and that theory     
seems to be confirmed by two facts3  the
 identity1 or similarity1 of numerous   
,mexican and ,west ,indian  species1 and

 the circumstance that those analogies  
include so many  swift-winged birds4    
,there are no woodpeckers in the forests
 of the ,antilles1 and only two  species
 of large gallinaceous birds1 but a     
prodigious variety of  pigeons1         
swallows1 finches1 and crows4 ,the      
alcedos 7kingfishers7 are  scarce1 but  
the blackbirds so numerous that some of 
the countless  species seem to claim a  
,south ,american and even transatlantic 
ancestry4 ,the restless estornino of the
 ,cuban highland forests1 for  instance1
 might be mistaken for a varnished      
starling1 resembling the  ,sturnus      
vulgaris of western ,europe in          
everything but the more  brilliant      
luster of its plumage4 ,the curious     
codornilla1 or dove  quail1 too1 has its
 nearest relatives on the other side of 
the  ,atlantic1 in ,syria1 ,arabia1 and 
the foothills of the ,atlas4 ,it builds 
its nest on the ground and1 judging from
 its appearance1 would seem to  form a  
connecting link between the doves and   

small gallin2 but its  wings are those  
of a pigeon1 and with the assistance of 
a northeast  gale may possibly have     
carried it across the ocean4            
,illustration3 ,,crown ,,pigeon4    ,in 
studying the geographical distribution  
of animals1 we may estimate  the        
prevalence of special genera by the     
number of their varieties1 or  by the   
aggregate sum of individuals1 and in the
 latter sense the  migratory pigeons of 
our forest ,states once nearly          
outnumbered all the  other birds of     
,north ,america1 though the family is   
limited to five or  six species4 ,but in
 the ,west ,indies the ,columbid        
predominate in  both respects4 ,cuba is 
a country of wild pigeons as            
pre-eminently as  ,south ,africa is a   
land of pachyderms and ,madagascar of   
night monkeys4  ,the ,columba           
leucocephala 7a congener of our         
ringdove7 inhabits the  mountain forests
 in countless swarms1 and at the end of 
the rainy  season visits grainfields in 

such numbers that hundreds are sometimes
  captured in nets1 by means of corn    
scattered along the furrows4    ,a      
closely allied variety is found in ,san 
,domingo1 where in many upland  regions 
a darkey1 equipped with a shotgun and a 
supply of gunpowder1  can dispense with 
agriculture and raise a family of       
anthropoids on  pigeon pies and         
tortillas1 compounded from the grain    
found in the  crops of his victims4     
,but the tittyblang 7tte-blanc7 has     
scores of smaller and larger  cousins1  
culminating in the ,cuban primate of the
 family1 the splendid  paloma real1 with
 its coronet of pearl-gray plumes and   
dark-blue  wings4    ,illustration3     
,,crested ,,curassow4    ,illustration3 
,,porto ,,rico ,,parrakeet4    ,ducks1  
too1 must number some twenty ,west      
,indian species1 and one kind  of wild  
geese often obliged the rice planters to
 employ mounted  sharpshooters1 who     
galloped up and down the long dikes1    
yelling  blasphemies1 and every now and 

then enforcing their quotations with a  
handful of buckshot4 ,but1 for all that1
 the planter could think  himself lucky 
to gather a sixty-per-cent harvest of   
the total produce1  for experience soon 
enabled the long-necked depredators to  
estimate  the target range of the       
cazador within a dozen yards and take   
wing  in the nick of time1 only to      
resume their feast at the other end of  
the plantation4    ,illustration3       
,,vervain ,,humming ,,bird ,,and ,,nest4
    ,a long-continued process of natural
 selection has also modified the  habits
 of numerous species of ,west ,indian   
parrots4 ,four hundred years  ago1 when 
,fernan ,oviedo superintended the placer
 mines of ,hayti1  loris were so        
abundant and tame that his assistants   
often amused  themselves prowling about 
a thicket of berry bushes and capturing 
the  chattering visitors by means of a  
common ring net4 ,nestlings could be    
taken from every hollow tree1 and often 
from the thatchwork of  deserted ,indian

 cabins2 but the overconfident specimens
 came to grief1  and the survivors have 
learned to give the ,caucasian varieties
 of the  ,simia destructor a wide berth4
 ,they raise their young in the         
cavities of the tallest forest trees1   
and approach human habitations  only at 
dawn of day and sometimes during the    
noonday heat1 when  creoles can be      
relied upon to indulge in a siesta nap4 
,in reliance  on their protective       
colors1 gray parrakeets frequent the    
dead timber  of the coffee plantations1 
while the leaf-green ,amazon parrot     
sticks  to leaf trees4    ,when they    
alight on a dry branch1 says ,captain   
,gosse1 in his ,jamaica  chronicle1     
their emerald hue is conspicuous and    
affords a fair mark  for the gunner1 but
 in a tree of full foliage their color  
proves an  excellent concealment4 ,they 
seem aware of this1 and their sagacity  
prompts them to rely on it for          
protection4 ,often we hear their voices 
proceeding from a certain tree1 or have 

marked the descent of a flock1  but on  
proceeding to the spot1 though the eye  
has not wandered from  it1 we can not   
discover an individual2 we go close to  
the tree1 but  all is silent2 we        
institute a careful survey of every part
 with the  eye1 to detect the slightest 
motion1 or the form of a bird among the 
leaves1 but in vain1 and we begin to    
think that they have stolen off         
unperceived1 but on throwing a stone    
into the tree a dozen voices  burst     
forth into cry1 and as many green birds 
dart forth upon the  wing4    ,the      
gorgeous macaws1 on the other hand1 seem
 to owe their color  contrasts to sexual
 selection4 ,ya son vencidos los pavos  
de  ,india--,that does beat a ,hindostan
 peacock--exclaimed ,king  ,ferdinand1  
when ,columbus introduced those most    
splendid products of  the ,american     
tropics4    ,nor can the exigencies of  
protection have evolved the glaring     
colors  of the ,west ,indian hornbill4  
,the toco 7toucan71 as the ,cubans call 

the yellow-billed species1 can be       
descried from a distance of two  hundred
 yards1 and is1 indeed1 not anxious to  
be admired at close  range4 ,old        
specimens get as wary as mountain       
ravens1 but1 like crows1  become        
ridiculously tame in captivity1 and will
 follow their  proprietors with loud    
croaks1 every now and then opening their
  lunch-trap to indicate their desire   
for refreshment4 ,they are1 on the      
whole1 the hardiest of all tropical     
birds1 and can weather the winters  of  
our coast towns as far north as         
,wilmington1 in open-air cages1  owing  
perhaps to their habit of extending     
their excursions to the high  mountain  
ranges of their native land4            
,illustration3 ,,the ,,smallest ,,bird4 
,economical ,nature rarely wastes the   
gift of song on a bird of bright        
plumage1 but it is less easy to         
understand why so many feathered        
beauties should have been afflicted with
 harsh and positively  repulsive voices4

 ,the horrid screams of the peacocks1   
guinea hens1 and  macaws can hardly be  
supposed to charm their mates1 and are  
too easily  recognized to deter their   
natural enemies4 ,but the roars 7there  
is no  more adequate word7 of some      
species of hornbills would almost seem  
intended to serve the latter purpose4   
,the voice of the ,buceros bicornis1    
says ,wallace1 can be plainly  heard at 
a distance of a mile1 so that the       
amazement of travelers  visiting its    
haunts seems explicable enough4 ,its    
screams may be  described as something  
between the bray of a jackass and the   
shriek of  a locomotive1 and are not    
surpassed in power by any sound that an 
animal is capable of making4 ,they      
re-echo through the hills to such a     
degree that it is difficult to assign   
the noise to a bird1 and are  sometimes 
kept up so continuously as to become    
absolutely unbearable4    ,the condor   
and the harpy eagle have not found their
 way across the  ,caribbean ,sea1 but   

the ,west ,indies boast three varieties 
of fish  eagles1 several species of     
mountain falcons1 and a curious singing 
owl1 the oriya1 that chants its         
serenades in the plaintive strain of    
the whip-poor-will1 and is dreaded by   
the ,porto ,rico darkeys as a bird  of  
ill-omen3          ,grita l'oriya3      
,venga amigo1        ,venga conmigo a mi
 patria1        ,venga te-digo6         
,small hooting owls abound1 and there   
are four species of sparrow  hawks1 one 
of them not much larger than a finch4   
,it is probably the smallest bird of    
prey1 and there is no doubt that  one   
species of ,west ,indian humming bird is
 the smallest bird on earth1  the       
,vervain colibri1 of ,jamaica1 that     
hides its nest under an orange  leaf1   
and1 though an insect-eater1 could be   
easily overpowered by an  able-bodied   
bumblebee4 ,in beauty some of the south 
,cuban species rival  those of the      
,amazon ,valley1 and frequent every     
flowering shrub from  the jungles of the

 coast lands to the highland meadows of 
the ,sierra  ,maestra4 ,in ,hayti there 
are parklike plateaus where they often  
appear  in swarms at a time of the year 
when the forests of the foothills are   
drenched by the afternoon cloudbursts of
 the rainy season1 and on some  of the  
smaller ,antilles they are seen only    
during the flowering period  of special 
plants4    ,in the solitudes of the     
,morne ,range 7,san ,domingo7 mountain  
ravens rear  their brood in the crevices
 of steep rocks1 and fiercely attack    
birds  of prey1 not excepting the       
black-crested eagle1 that now and then  
visits the sierras in quest of conies4  
,but the winged constables of  the      
highlands rarely leave their mountain   
reservation4 ,of  ,abd-el-,wahab1 the   
,arabian heretic1 it used to be said    
that ,mohammedan  zealots shrank in     
affright from his superior fanaticism1  
and on the  midway terraces of the      
,dominican sierras the persecution mania
 of the  giant crow yields to that of   

the great shrike1 the ,lanius rufus1    
that operates pairwise and assails all  
winged comers with absolutely  reckless 
courage4    ,the raven of the ,mornes   
seems to be identical with the          
cosmopolitan  forager that is found in  
the uplands of the eastern continent    
from  the bleak summit regions of the   
,hindu-,kush to the sierras of          
,portugal1  and from the ,atlas to the  
,norwegian ,alps2 but there are several 
exclusively ,west ,indian species of the
 genus ,corvus1 including a  steel-blue 
rook that flits about the ,cuban coffee 
plantations and has  a curious habit of 
perching on a stump and talking to      
itself in a sort  of croaking chuckle   
for half hours together4    ,the gallin1
 as might be expected from their limited
 wing-power1 are  well represented in   
the number of individuals1 rather than  
of species4  ,turkeys1 though abundant  
in the coast forests of ,central        
,america1 are  not found wild in any    
part of the ,west ,indies1 where the    

perennial  presence of berries would be 
as inviting as the absence of foxes4    
,illustration3 ,,the ,,caribbean        
,,albatross4    ,in the mountains some  
species of curassow have1 however1      
developed  into a stately game bird1 the
 ,oreophasis niger1 or highland         
pheasant1 that lays a dozen large eggs1 
and in its courtship season  becomes so 
infatuated that it can be approached and
 killed with a  common walking-stick4   
,the consequent persecution has made it 
rather  scarce in famine-stricken ,cuba1
 but in ,hayti it can still be seen in  
troops of a dozen or more1 scratching up
 the dry leaves of the sierra  forests1 
or pecking at insect-haunted shrubs1    
exactly like a flock of  ,tennessee     
turkeys4    ,there are also several     
varieties of true pheasants1 and two    
species of  quail 7besides the          
above-mentioned codornilla71 and in     
eastern ,cuba  numerous barnyard        
chickens have taken to the woods and    
become so shy  that it seems a puzzle   

how their ancestors in the coast range  
of  ,burmah could ever be captured and  
domesticated4 ,they still practice      
polygamy1 combined with a system of     
co-operative housekeeping1 to  judge    
from the number of eggs that are often  
found in one nest4 ,at  the approach of 
an unfeathered biped the hen bird takes 
wing with a  screech1 and is apt to     
vanish for the rest of that day4 ,the   
roosters  are rarely seen1 their glaring
 colors having faded into more          
protective shades of olive and brown1   
but at dawn of day their shrill         
reveille can be heard from afar in the  
heart of the pathless jungle  woods4    
,to be continued4          ,,insane     
,,characters ,,in ,,fiction ,,and ,,the 
,,drama4    ,,by ,,prof4 ,,cesare       
,,lombroso4      ,one of the things that
 most strikes one who compares the      
ancient  theater1 and even the theater  
of a few years ago1 with the modern     
theater1 is the enormous difference in  
the character of the  personages1 and   

particularly the curious frequency of   
insane as  principal personages in the  
modern theater4 ,we have come to such a 
point that one may be almost sure that  
in reading over a new play1 by  ,ibsen1 
for example1 he will find three or four 
insane personages in  it1 if1 the       
characters are not all so4 ,these madmen
 have  characteristics so particularized
 as to seem as if they might have  been 
depicted by an alienist4 ,if the        
protagonists are not mad1 they  are     
agitated by such violent and strange    
passions as the ordinary  world never   
meets in life2 which it therefore       
refuses to accept when  they are        
described in a scientific book1 but     
nevertheless receives  them when it sees
 them in the scenes or meets them in the
 romances of  the great modern          
novelists4    ,ibsen1 for example1 has  
made a most exact picture of the        
progressive  general paralysis which    
arises1 precisely as he depicts it1 in  
men of  genius1 of great mental         

activity1 who have wasted their         
hereditary  power in pleasures or       
excessive work2 and there is in them    
both  impulsiveness and want of will    
power1 complete perversion of all the   
instincts1 and mental confusion1        
alternating here and there with  genial 
flashes2 but he is wrong in accumulating
 in a single subject  the maladies of a 
large number of diseased1 and therefore 
exaggerating  their eccentricities--as  
he exaggerates atavism and heredity of  
disease when he makes the morbid son    
repeat the same incoherent  phrases as  
the father from whom he inherits his    
disorder used4    ,just and true1       
however1 is that other form of heredity 
under which  from a father corrupted by 
licentious indulgence and by alcohol1   
and  criminally vicious1 is born1       
besides a paresic son1 a lascivious and 
criminal daughter1 who throws herself   
into prostitution at the first          
opportunity without any special cause4  
,so1 too1 that love of art existing now 

as only a dream1 and that  egotistic    
good nature which enjoys the advantages 
of a mother's care  without gratitude1  
those short accesses of genial eloquence
 followed  by fury which burst out from 
the midst of apathy1 and which are      
drowned in the intoxication of alcohol  
with a complete1 immediate              
forgetfulness of everything1 are        
specific traits of paralytic  dementia4 
,ibsen1 in ,hedda ,gabler1 describes to 
us a neurotic woman who1 being          
pregnant1 and therefore suffering more  
acute attacks1 avenges herself1  though 
married1 upon her former lover1 who had 
left her1 by burning  the manuscripts   
which he expected to make him famous4   
,virile1 like all  criminals1 she nursed
 her resentment from youth4    ,in the  
,pillars of ,society the great political
 characters are rogues  and neurotics4  
,in ,berkmann the true criminal banker  
comes into play4 ,he does not kill  or  
ravish1 but appropriates the money      
belonging to his bank under the         

illusion that he will be able to make   
great gains with it through the         
accomplishment of wonderful things that 
will secure to him his single           
joy--power2 and that he can then restore
 the sum with redoubled  interest4      
,this case is of a kind of very frequent
 occurrence1 and shows a  complete      
absence in the banker of affection and  
of moral sense4 ,he  sacrifices the     
woman who loves him to further the      
desires of an  accomplice4 ,he has a    
faithful friend who1 robbed by him1     
continues to  visit him every day and   
give him the solace of admiration even  
when  all despise him2 and he repels him
 when he fails to absolve him and to    
believe in the possibility of his return
 to power4 ,later the defaulter         
pretends that he has studied his own    
case1 and has probed it in every  way1  
with the result of a complete acquittal 
of himself4 ,and why all  this8 ,because
 he has used the money of others for    
great purposes3 to  connect seas1 to    

excavate the millions that are shut up  
in the bosom  of the earth and are      
crying out to be brought into the light4
 ,thus it  is that with the combined    
genius and delirium of megalomaniacs he 
hears the call of the minerals and the  
groaning of the ships longing  to be set
 free4 ,conscience1 duty1 and probity do
 not exist for him4 ,he  believes that  
his quality as a man of genius permits  
him everything2  therefore he sacrifices
 to his chimeras the beings who love him
 most4  ,i am1 he says1 like a ,napoleon
 disabled by a shot in his first        
battle2 and he does not perceive that he
 has grown old1 that he has a  mortal   
heart disease2 and he dreams of         
returning to power and of  hearing men  
ask the benefit of his advice1 and no   
longer talks with  anybody1 because     
there is nobody but his old lover who   
does not  believe him guilty4           
,finally1 repulsed by all1 he plunges   
into the whirl of life and the  torment 
of the mountain1 and dies at last of    

syncope2 while his  equally egotistical 
son deserts the mother who adores him to
 go to  the south with the wealthy      
,amasia1 daughter of his father's enemy4
    ,in ,dostoievski1 madmen1 especially
 epileptics1 constitute the absolute    
majority of the characters2 or else they
 are born criminals1 such as  my school 
has attempted to identify by the figures
 on the hand4    ,this strange family1  
he writes in ,the ,house of the ,dead1  
had an air  which attracted notice at   
the first glance4 ,all the prisoners    
were  melancholy1 envious1 terribly     
vain1 presumptuous1 susceptible1 and    
formal in the highest degree4 ,vanity   
ruled always1 without the least  sign of
 shame or repentance or the least sorrow
 over the commission of  an offense4    
,nearly all the convicts dreamed aloud  
or raved during  sleep4 ,most usually   
they spoke words of abuse and slang1    
talked of  knife and axe4 ,we are a     
ruined people1 they said2 we have no    
bowels2 therefore we cry out in the     

night4    ,this impossibility of feeling
 remorse or penitence1 along with vanity
  and exaggerated love of pomp1 are     
characteristics well known to all       
observers4 ,but other traits were       
manifested perhaps more conspicuous1    
and such as are common to children4 ,on 
feast days the more elegant  ones       
dressed gorgeously1 and could be seen   
parading themselves through  the        
barracks4 ,pleasure in being well       
dressed amounted to childishness  in    
them4    ,reasoning has no power upon   
men like ,petroff1 because they have not
  any decisive will4 ,if they have1     
there are no longer obstacles to it4    
,such persons are born with an idea that
 moves them unconsciously all  their    
lives hither and thither4 ,they are     
quiet till they have found  some object 
that strongly arouses their desire2 then
 they no longer  spare even their heads4
 ,more than once have ,i wondered to see
 how  ,petroff robbed me in spite of the
 affection he had for me4 ,this         

happened to him at intervals1 when he   
had a strong desire to drink4 ,a  person
 like him is capable of assassinating a 
man for twenty-five  soldi1 only to     
drink a litre2 on other occasions he    
would scorn  thousands of rubles4 ,he   
often confessed his thefts to me1       
lamenting  that ,i no longer had the    
objects1 but showed no penitence for    
having  stolen them2 bore reproofs      
because he thought they were inevitable1
 or  because he deserved to receive     
them2 because ,i ought to punish him to 
compensate myself for the things ,i had 
lost1 but thought within  himself that  
they were trifles that one ought to be  
above speaking  of4    ,further on the  
novelist speaks of the smuggler by      
profession1 a  pleasant fellow1         
condemned for life for his offenses1 who
 could not  lose the instinct for       
smuggling brandy into the prison4 ,he   
received  only a ridiculous profit1 was 
greatly afraid of the rod1 although he  
had rarely passed under it1 wept1 swore 

that he would not offend any  more1 and 
then fell down4    ,zola also reproduces
 my epileptic moral madman in ,la ,bte  
,humaine1  in the alcoholic in          
,l',assommoir1 the paranoiac in ,work1  
and himself  confesses to having taken  
the brief of his immortal chain of      
romances1  ,rougon1 from a study made by
 ,aubry in a provincial family          
celebrated  for its richness in         
degenerates1 criminals1 and insane1 all 
derived  from a dull1 neurotic ,keratry4
    ,daudet depicts in ,jack a series of
 mattoidi1 that particular species  of  
insane which ,i first discovered1 that  
occupies a position between  paranoiacs1
 geniuses1 and imbeciles4    ,,ancient  
,,romance ,,and ,,theater4--,we turn now
 to the ancient theater and  romance4   
,all the ,roman novels of ,petronius and
 ,apuleius are rich in  obscene1        
mythological1 and magical adventures1   
most improbable and  satirical1 without 
ever defining a character or including a
 real  madman4    ,in the ancient ,greek

 theater1 while the idea of heredity is 
discernible under the form of fate1     
while violent passion is every now  and 
then depicted under marvelous forms1    
while anomalies strike us1  and furies  
of ,ajax and ,dejanira1 of ,orestes and 
,oedipus1 and the  melancholy of        
,philoctetes1 they all still have a     
common type1 which is  not perceived in 
ordinary life4 ,they are madmen who do  
not exist in  any asylum1 who seem      
symbolical1 and have little             
correspondence with  the men of the     
mythological and heroic epoch to which  
they all  belonged2 they never1 except  
in ,euripides1 present a specific       
personage1 nor ever1 unless with rare   
exceptions--as in the ,persians  of     
schylus and a few other lost works1 like
 the ,siege of  ,miletus--deal with     
contemporary historical facts4    ,these
 poets were concerned with the symbol1  
the moral1 the tradition1  and1 if ,i   
may be permitted the term1 the          
blasphemy1 the declamation1  rather than

 with depicting the person4 ,this is    
further seen in the  comedy of the      
,greek decadence1 and still further in  
that of the  ,romans1 in which1 except  
in the political squibs1 the same       
personages  nearly always appear1 as    
well as showing out of the masks        
intended for  the common people--and    
these figures have come down to us4     
,there are  nearly always the old miser 
or rake1 the go-between slave1 the      
braggart soldier4 ,the plots were       
likewise the same3 changed children1    
reconciled lovers1 except in the ,greek 
political satires1 in which the         
demerits of the adversary were          
exaggerated into the most atrocious     
caricature1 and which became like real  
humorous journals of the  political     
trifles of the day4    ,yet these highly
 cultivated peoples1 agitated by grand  
public  passions1 had absorbing1 moving 
controversies--the struggles of the     
,gracchi1 the banishment of             
,themistocles and ,aristides1 and the   

varying  fortunes of ,marius1 of which  
no trace is found4 ,nor1 for the rest1  
did  the ,latins1 who were our masters1 
and were1 as we are after them1         
copyists1 followers in the footsteps of 
their ,greek predecessors1  readapt     
contemporary events to their dramatic   
lines4 ,we in our turn1  down to        
,goldoni and ,molire1 and even to this  
very century1 have  copied those ancient
 comic and tragic writers1 warming them 
up afresh  from ,orestes and            
,clytemnestra1 and from events which had
 not the least  echo among us4 ,trissin1
 ,maffei1 and ,alfieri delineated more  
or less1  on one side tyrants1 on the   
other tyrannicides1 which have little to
  distinguish them from one another4 ,so
 in ,schiller and ,goethe1 all the      
passions are of the scene rather than of
 personages4 ,thus ,faust1 for  example1
 and ,margaret1 are not persons who have
 a special character4  ,they are1 in    
fact1 personages who cover a symbol1 who
 would tell the  story of literature1   

the story of the beautiful1 the         
skepticism of  knowledge1 but they tell 
it with a number of interesting1 moving 
facts1 without delineating an           
individuality4 ,faust is neither very   
good nor very bad1 since he with his    
easy way of speaking commits  rogueries 
of every kind till finally he is        
redeemed4 ,he is a  scientific student  
with a passion for investigation1 but in
 his  enthusiasm1 instigated by the     
devil or by doubt1 he too often deserts 
the search for the truth for that of    
pleasure1 too often forsakes the        
studies that had ennobled his life from 
youth1 and as a man to enjoy  the nights
 of the ,brocken1 and worse1 the favors 
of ,margaret1 of  ,helen1 till the      
moment when he redeems himself by saving
 a people2 but  he does this at the last
 instant1 when he is about to die1 and  
has  nothing more to enjoy4 ,margaret1  
too1 is a child like other children1    
who1 like so many others1 suffers       
herself to be beguiled by manly  beauty1

 and has no good qualities except that  
of being able to die  with fortitude1   
hoping with the penalty to expiate the  
sin1 which is1  in fact1 more the       
devil's than hers4    ,the elder ,dumas 
invented an immense diverting confusion 
of facts1 but  his personages are always
 the same1 and are the occasion1 the    
instrument1 the setting of the          
adventures4    ,,the ,,reasons ,,for    
,,this ,,absence4--,the inquiry into the
 reasons of this  absence of insane     
persons in the older romances and dramas
 is a  curious one4 ,the first cause    
lies evidently in the law of proceeding 
in every organism as in every work from 
the simple to the complex4 ,as  in penal
 law1 not the criminal but the crime was
 studied at first1  while now both are  
studied together2 as in primordial      
medicine only  the disease was studied1 
while now the patient is studied first  
of  all2 so in the drama and in comedy1 
in the measure that the thought  has    
become discriminating1 it has           

substituted or rather associated  with  
observation of the fact per se1 that of 
the author of the fact4  ,the study1 of 
course1 exacts more acumen1 but it also 
better satisfies  our reinvigorated     
culture and opens broader horizons to   
us4    ,we have thus done more than     
abandon the pedantesque scale of the old
  time and the mere study of the fact2  
we have introduced characters  into the 
personages1 which1 while they correspond
 to living and real  characters that we 
have under our eyes1 attempt to resolve 
a problem  and teach us a moral1 and go 
so far as to represent to us a          
symbolical  idea which is a pure        
abstraction of the author's1 reaching   
thence the  maximum of complication4    
,naturally1 such salient characters as  
madmen1 eccentrics1 and  criminals would
 not be likely to escape the notice of  
the dramatist1  who finds in them       
motives for great effects without       
departing from  truth and probability4  
,but there is another more material     

reason for the recent introduction  of  
insane characters into the theater1 and 
for their greater frequency  and        
participation in real life4 ,it has been
 remarked that insane  persons have     
multiplied a hundredfold with           
civilization1 to such an  extent that   
where a few years ago one madhouse was  
enough1 now five  hundred and six are   
needed4 ,taking1 for example1 the       
statistics of the  most progressive     
country in the world1 those of the      
,united ,states1  furnished by its      
invaluable census report1,a we see that 
the number  of insane persons1 which was
 #ae1faj in #ahej1 #bd1jdb in #ahfj1 and
  #cg1dcb in #ahgj1 rose in #ahhj to    
#ia1iid2 while the population1 from     
#bc1aia1hgf in #ahej1 increased to      
#ch1eeh1cga in #ahgj1 to #ej1aee1ghc in 
#ahhj--that is1 while the population    
doubled in a little more than  thirty   
years1 the insane increased sixfold2 so1
 in the last decade the  increase in    
population was thirty per cent1 and that

 of insane one  hundred and fifty-five  
per cent4    ,in ,france,b there were   
#aca4a insane per #ajj1jjj inhabitants  
in #ahhc1  #acc in #ahhd1 #acf in #ahhh4
 ,these figures indicate that the number
 of  insane is larger in the most       
civilized countries1 and is increasing  
every year4 ,it may indeed be said that 
many of these insane are not  produced  
but are only revealed by civilization1  
and that the opening  of the large      
asylums has caused a considerable number
 to be brought  into the light who were 
not known of before4 ,it is true that   
the  greater care we give now to the    
insane1 as well as to consumptives1     
makes them longer-lived4 ,and it is true
 that as the mind grows  enlightened    
criminals come to be regarded as insane 
and thus increase  the apparent number  
of such4 ,but all this is not sufficient
 to explain  a doubling in a decade1 a  
tenfold increase in twenty years4    ,we
 know1 too1 that civilization has       
brought on the development of new  forms

 of disease1 which hardly existed       
before4 ,for example1 general           
progressive paralysis was formerly so   
rare that no special name was  given to 
it till our time1 while now it forms the
 larger quota of the  maladies of the   
wealthy1 of thinkers1 and of military   
men4 ,epilepsy  has greatly increased in
 its psychical form1 so that what are   
called  psychical and obscure epilepsy  
are a revelation of our times1 and that 
its close association with crime 7which 
,i believe to be one of the  sure facts 
of modern psychiatry7 is still accepted 
by only a very few  alienists1 not to   
say that it is rejected with            
indignation1 and1 ,i  will remark1 with 
profound ignorance1 by most modern      
jurists4    ,alcoholism1 too1 has taken 
on enormous proportions4 ,not that the  
ancients did not drink1 but rather that 
pure alcohol had not yet been           
introduced2 while in the middle ages it 
passed for one of the most  efficacious 
remedies--aqua vita1 living water4 ,dr4 

,beard has made a  most judicious       
observation in ,america which ,i have   
been able to verify  in ,sicily--that   
there must be a very advanced degree of 
civilization1  or rather of degeneracy  
produced by civilization1 for inebriety 
to be  transformed into that aggregation
 of disasters1 especially of the        
nervous system1 which is called         
alcoholism4 ,now we have not alcoholism 
only1 but morphinism1 cocainism1 all    
stimuli of the nervous system1  which   
are used by barbarians as potent        
excitants1 but not to the point  of     
producing stable alterations except in  
rare cases1 like the amuck  of the      
,malays4    ,and now1 we all of us1 at  
least in the capitals and the great     
centers1  find ourselves consumed by a  
feverish activity which makes the mind  
labor much more than ,nature intended it
 should1 under which is  produced all   
this mass of neurasthenics1 hystericals1
 besides the  multitudes of moral       
insane1 profoundly egotistical persons1 

without  affection and wholly directed  
by a powerful passion for gold1 for     
which they sacrifice everything1 even   
salvation6    ,and1 finally1 we have    
that group of semi-insane1 which ,i call
  mattoidi1 and who are known as dtraqus
 in ,france and cranks in  ,north       
,america--that is1 those who have the   
livery of genius with a  substratum of  
weakness and the practical cunning of   
the average man1  who betray their      
errors only when they write1 who hardly 
exist save  among males 7with a few     
exceptions1 like ,michel7 and in the    
great  centers4 ,i have never seen them 
in the country4 ,civilization is now    
depopulating the country and building up
 the cities1 as it is also  augmenting  
physical excitants with alcoholism1     
morphinism1 etc4  ,civilization         
emblazons the baton of the marshal1 and 
not only of the  marshal but of the     
president of the republic1 in the eyes  
of everybody  who can read and write4   
,why1 then1 should we not suppose that  

civilization can further derange the    
equilibrium of mental labor and1        
indirectly1 therefore cause an increase 
of insanity8    ,not only has the number
 of insane increased1 but their         
importance in  society has multiplied   
fourfold2 for which reason we can not   
fail to  give them attention4 ,the      
morally insane in politics and the      
megalomaniac insane in the bank who     
inspired ,ibsen are to be found  walking
 around in every country4 ,the          
blood-criminal1 transmuted into  the    
forger and the bankrupt1 penetrates into
 our houses1 and we suffer  from him    
every day2 while the insane man at first
 was not regarded1 or  was adored under 
the form of a saint or hated as a       
wizard1 possessed  of the devil always1 
or seemed a phenomenon strange to       
society1 a  species of extraplanetary   
meteor4 ,if we add that the degeneration
  provoked by the abuses of civilization
 has begotten a multitude of  forms akin
 to madness which afford a field for    

combinations now  tragic1 now strangely 
comic--like the phobia by which one is  
afraid to  cross a room1 or avoids a    
certain group of words1 or refuses to   
know  how many doors and windows there  
are on the street1 or can not be at     
ease without saying sexual pacifying    
formulas2 a class who with their        
perverted tastes form a real new world  
apart2 and they all may inspire  new    
dramatic settings forth4    ,as a third 
cause we add that in our age psychology 
has penetrated into  all departments4   
,there are psychologies of the senses1  
of the  sentiments1 of the will1 the    
psychology of the crowd1 of the insane1 
of criminals1 and finally the psychology
 of the cell1 or at least of  the       
infusoria 7,binet74 ,therefore1 as      
statistics is applied to history1  to   
politics1 to religion1 in the same way  
psychology has at last  entered into    
romance and the drama1 and has taken the
 lion's share4  ,and1 far from being    
repelled by the public1 the authors who 

use it or  abuse it1 like ,euripides and
 to a certain point ,shakespeare1 win   
the  admiration of the public2 and we   
are proud to see ,zola taking from      
,l',uomo delinquente the ,jacques of his
 ,bte humaine to make an  immortal      
figure of him1 and ,dostoiewski         
depicting innate criminals in  his      
,house of the ,dead1 and the criminaloid
 in his ,crime and  ,punishment2 and we 
do not despise ,bourget when1 making    
more a  caricature of psychology than a 
psychology1 he assumes to apply it to   
the toilets of women and the ,parisian  
cocottes under the form of a  psychology
 of love4    ,it may at first sight seem
 a contradiction that we have shown that
  there were also found in antiquity at 
great intervals dramatic poets  and     
romancers like ,shakespeare1 ,dante1 and
 ,euripides who1 led by the  observing  
and creative instinct1 did not confine  
themselves to events1  but studied      
characters too1 and1 keenly perceiving  
the dramatic  potencies in the character

 of insanity1 treasured it up in their  
works4 ,thus ,euripides depicts ,helena1
 vain even into her old age1  saving a  
part of the hair she was offering at the
 tomb of her sister  so as not to lose  
what remained of her former beauty2 and 
,orestes has  not the simple bestial    
fury depicted by schylus1 but has       
choreic  movements1 genial intervals1   
and a tendency to suicide1 which show   
that the author had attained a true     
conception of the maniac4    ,in the    
,mahabharata the maiden ,damaianti is   
described as made insane by  love 7,book
 ,,ii1 st4 iii7 and ,nalo1 who1         
possessed by the demon ,kali1  stakes   
his kingdom on the dice1 and1 denying   
his wife1 abandons her in  the wood3    
,and with soul slave to the thought1    
discolored face1 and all absorbed  in   
sighs1 now lifting up the head1 now     
musing1 bereft of sense1 you  would say2
 a sudden pallor came on4 ,with mind    
occupied with one  desire1 nor sleep1   
nor the table1 nor the sight of familiar

 friends  afforded pleasure1 nor day nor
 night gave repose4 ,ah6 poor miserable 
one6 thus exclaiming and bursting into  
tears1 by that lament1 by those         
soul-sick acts1 she was recognized by   
her friends4    ,niceforus has shown how
 ,dante in his ,inferno has delineated  
in the  damned the characteristics which
 my school gives to the born criminal4  
,shakespeare has done better1 and has   
divined many criminal  characteristics  
through the greater intensity of the    
crime in the  criminal woman4 ,virile   
even when compared with the criminal    
man1 ,lady  ,macbeth is crueler than her
 husband1 and1 more than that1 has many 
of  the characteristics of men3         
,bring forth men-children only1         
,for thy undaunted mettle should compose
        ,nothing but males4    ,and     
,macbeth1 as cool in the crime as the   
artful contriver of it1 is  hysterical  
and hypnotic1 and in the accesses       
reproduces the acts and  words of the   
tragedy1 showing that the author knew   

that hysterics and  somnambulists often 
repeat the acts and the emotions which  
mark the  climax of their malady4       
,hamlet has the folly of doubts and     
hallucinations1 simulates the  ravings  
of a madman1 but in his suspicious      
cunning discovers and  anticipates what 
is contemplated to his harm1 is         
homicidal through  fear1 and is yet     
often discreet1 and a good lover1 save  
that his love  vanishes before the fixed
 idea4    ,in ,ophelia1 disappointed    
love1 the contact with a madman or a    
pretended one1 the death of her father  
almost under her very eyes1  provoke a  
species of madness which would now be   
called mental  confusion1 with vague    
ideas of persecution1 dim recollections 
of love  betrayed and of her father1    
incoherent and confused expressions     
ending  in automatic suicide4 ,this     
confirms our conclusions4    ,genius has
 also anticipated an epoch in the use   
and abuse of lunatics1  just because    
time is canceled for genius1 because    

genius anticipates  the future work of  
centuries4 ,but on this subject the     
inquiry is  pertinent why1 while in the 
complaisant literary world such         
creations  as the ,argenson of ,daudet1 
the ,jack of ,zola1 and the ,eliza of   
,goncourt  find1 if not an immediate1 a 
kindly and ready acceptance--while all  
the great artists1 even the most ancient
 ones1 have given the type  which ,i    
assign to the born delinquents to       
executioners and  criminals--the world  
has refused to accept the existence of  
the  criminal type of insanity in       
genius1 and the relations in criminals  
between epilepsy and crime which are    
nevertheless received in romance  and   
the drama4 ,it is because when we are in
 the presence of true  figures1 made to 
move before us under a strong light by  
the great  artists1 the consciousness of
 the truth which lies dormant in all of 
us1 smothered and broken under          
distortion by the schools1 reawakens1   
and rebels against the conventional     

forms which they have imposed2 all  the 
more so because the charm of art has    
vastly magnified the lines of  the      
truth1 has rendered them more evident1  
and has thus much  diminished the effort
 required to master them4 ,if1 on the   
other hand1  we base our conclusion upon
 cold statistics and what ,i should call
 a  skeleton study of the facts1 we find
 the old views rising in confusion  with
 those of sentiment and the artistic    
sense1 and we arrive at  nothing4       
,,footnotes3    ,a ,compendium of the   
,tenth ,census of the ,united ,states1  
,part ,,ii1 p4  #afei4 ,see documents in
 the new statistical laboratory1 the    
only one in  ,italy1 of ,professor      
,cognetti1 recently published at ,turin4
    ,b ,bodio4 ,bulletin de l',institut 
international de ,statistique1 #ahhi1   
pp4 #aab and #abh4 ,see some ,sanitary  
,statistics in ,italy and other         
,european ,states1 by ,dr4 ,rasori4     
,,colonial ,,expansion ,,and ,,foreign  
,,trade4    ,,by ,,jacob ,,schoenhof4   

,fifty years have elapsed since the     
adoption of free trade by ,england4  ,it
 was hoped that the free entrance of    
commodities extended to all the  world  
would pave the way to an era of mutual  
peace and good will4 ,but1  judging by  
the political situation1 and taking the 
armaments as an  outward sign of good   
intentions1 the era of peace and good   
will among  nations is certainly far    
off4 ,to get a trading advantage here   
and a  concession from a semibarbarous  
country there is still the ambitious    
striving of the cabinets and the        
diplomacy of ,europe4 ,to give the      
striving emphasis1 industry is taxed to 
the breaking point and labor  to the    
starving point4 ,russia exhausts her    
resources in a railroad  through the    
,siberian waste in her endeavor to      
obtain an outlet to the  sea1 which is  
jealously closed to her at the          
southwestern end of her  dominions by   
,england4 ,the trader of ,manchester1   
fearing for his  markets1 grows frantic 

at the prospect of ,russian cotton goods
 being  brought to ,china or to ,india4 
,the mere acquisition of a port in      
,manchuria by ,russia threatens to seal 
his doom4 ,but he might look on  with   
complacency4 ,russia's labor is very    
dear1 capital is dear1 wages  are on the
 ,asiatic level1 famine still stalks    
through the land1  intercommunication is
 made difficult by the lack of roads1   
and her  wonderful natural resources lie
 unimproved because the eyes of greed1  
like those of the dog crossing the      
stream1 are turned on the coveted  piece
 of meat he sees reflected in the water1
 and to grasp which he  drops the one he
 holds in his mouth4 ,france bristles   
with bayonets1  and is constantly at    
pains to increase her naval armaments1  
about  whose seaworthiness her own      
minister of marine expresses suspicions1
  in obedience to a nervous restlessness
 for foreign acquisition4  ,england1    
after her feat in civilizing savages and
 barbarians in the  customary fashion1  

shown again at ,omdurman1 is ready to   
turn her war  dogs on ,france1 because  
the latter has the temerity to demand a 
slice  of ,soudanese territory4 ,well   
might she have given as hush-money1 or  
for the mere grace of the action1 a few 
thousand square miles of a  country     
closed to access except by the          
permission of ,great ,britain1  which   
has successfully pre-empted every       
desirable bit of land in  sight4        
,germany1 instead of using her newly    
liberated energies at home in an        
endeavor to elevate the miserable       
condition of her working classes1  taxes
 their bread and meat1 never too freely 
supplied1 to increase the  size of her  
armies and the number of her battle     
ships4 ,the defense and  expansion of   
her colonial empire is her leading      
thought4 ,a strange  paradox3 ,the      
workingman and the peasant are          
overburdened with taxes on  the         
necessaries of life1 so as to procure   
markets for a limited  quantity of      

factory products outside of the field   
secured in open  competition4    ,while 
professing friendship and brotherly     
love1 they all have their  eyes on their
 neighbor's throat1 fearful only lest   
the other might  clutch first4    ,as we
 are in danger of being drawn into this 
vortex1 it is well to  examine the range
 of possibilities and see what the trade
 amounts to1  to obtain which the       
scientific intellect of ,europe and     
,america has  been strained to its      
limits to discover new means of         
destruction for  attack and defense     
unknown to the other brothers in the    
common bond of  civilization4    ,it is 
a matter of course that trade among     
,european nations does not  come within 
this circle1 nor of ,european nations   
with the ,united  ,states4 ,it does not 
depend on battle ships4 ,in the annexed 
tables ,i  have classified the countries
 in three classes3 7#a7 ,independent    
states2 7#b7 colonies of ,european      
countries1 populated by people of       

,european stock2 and 7#c7 colonies and  
dependencies of ,european  countries1   
but of non-,european stock4    ,i have  
reduced the values of imports and       
exports of the different  countries1    
published in their own currencies1 to   
,american dollars4 ,as  the values are  
paper currencies1 silver currencies1 or 
conventional  values1 and of fluctuating
 rates1 ,i have in such instances taken 
a  yearly average1 which will be found  
in the footnotes of the tables4      ,i4
 ,trade of ,independent ,countries other
 than of ,europe and ,north  ,america4  
,key3    7,a7 ,number of inhabitants4   
7,b7 ,importations4 ,thousands of       
dollars4    7,c7 ,exportations4         
,thousands of dollars4    7,d7 ,imports 
per capita4 ,dollars4    7,e7 ,exports  
per capita4 ,dollars4                   
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,,names ,,of ,,countries4      7,a7     
7,b7      7,c7     7,d7    7,e7         
----------------------------------------

---------------------------             
,asia 7#ahie74                          
,china,a                    #chc1bec    
#abh1ggb  #ajg1dii    4#cd    4#bh      
,japan,b                     #db1bgj    
#ij1fha   #fb1ddc   #b4ad   #a4dg       
,all other states             #bg1jjj   
#cj1jjj   #hb1jjj   #a4aj   #a4ah       
,america4                               
,argentina,c                  #d1jjj    
#ajc1jeh  #ajh1fga  #bf4ej  #bg4ag      
,brazil,d                    #af1jjj    
#if1jjj   #ig1jjj   #f4jj   #f4jf       
,chile,e                      #b1gjj    
#fi1bjj   #gb1ijj  #be4fb  #bg4jj       
,peru,f                       #b1fjj    
#g1efj    #i1jjj   #b4ij   #c4cj        
,mexico,g                    #ab1fjj    
#db1jjj   #bb1jjj   #c4cb   #a4gf       
,uruguay,h                      #hjj    
#be1jjj   #cj1jjj  #ca4be  #cg4ej       
,venezuela,i                  #b1cjj    
#ag1jjj   #bb1jjj   #g4dj   #i4ef       
,all other states             #aa1cjj   
#cd1jjj   #df1hjj   #c4jj   #d4ad       

,south ,africa                          
,independent states            #a1jjj   
#ge1jjj   #ab1jjj  #ge4jj  #ab4jj       
---------------------------             
,total independent states  #eje1hjj     
#gah1bga  #fbb1cac                      
,asiatic states              #deb1ejj   
#bdi1dec  #bja1idb            ,american 
and ,south ,african   #ec1cjj  #dfh1hah 
#dbj1cga                                
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,,footnotes3      ,a ,haikwan tael1     
#gd4i cents4      ,b ,yen1 #eb4i cents4 
,c ,peso1 gold1 #if4e cents4      ,d    
,milreis1 paper 7#ahif71 #bj-a_/b cents4
      ,e ,peso1 gold4      ,f ,soler1   
#dc cents4      ,g ,dollar 7#dg cents7  
for exports1 gold dollar for imports4   
,h ,peso1 #a4      ,i ,bolivar1 #ai4c   
cents4      ,the year is #ahif1 and     
where a different one is taken it is so 
marked  against the country in the      
table4 ,the figures only represent the  
direct merchandise trade4 ,all specie   

and bullion shipments are  eliminated   
from the account4      ,,ii4 ,trade of  
,india and ,dependencies and of         
,colonies and other  ,possessions of the
 ,united ,kingdom 7,year ending ,march1 
#ahig74      ,key3    7,a7 ,number of   
inhabitants4    7,b7 ,importations4     
,thousands of dollars4    7,c7          
,exportations4 ,thousands of dollars4   
7,d7 ,imports per capita4 ,dollars4     
7,e7 ,exports per capita4 ,dollars4     
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,,names ,,of ,,colonies ,,and           
,,other ,,possessions4       7,a7       
7,b7      7,c7     7,d7    7,e7         
----------------------------------------
---------------------------    ,india   
and its                                 
dependencies,a         #bij1fij         
#bhd1jbf  #cgh1gcb    4#ig   #a4cj      
,colonies4                              
,cape ,colony                   #a1hbj  
#ia1hjj   #ci1jjj  #ej4jd  #bj4ae       
,natal                           #ggh   

#ah1jjj    #f1ejj  #bc4ae   #h4bj       
,gold ,coast and other                  
,central ,african                       
possessions              #cf1gjj        
#ai1jjj   #ag1jjj    4#eb    4#df       
,canada                        #e1abe   
#aah1jjj  #aba1jjj  #bc4je  #bd4jd      
,west ,indies                   #c1fad  
#cj1jjj   #be1jjj   #h4cc   #f4id       
,australasia and ,oceanica      #d1gic  
#bjd1ejj  #baj1jjj  #db4fe  #dc4ge      
---------------------------             
,trade of all countries                 
under ,british flag    #cdc1ebj         
#gfe1cbf  #gig1bcb                      
,trade of colonies with                 
white population         #af1acj        
#dfa1cbj  #daa1ehd            ,trade of 
,asiatic                                
dependencies            #bij1fij        
#bhd1jbf  #cgh1gcb                      
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,,footnote3      ,a ,rupee1 #cb cents4  
,for ,straits ,settlement and ,ceylon1  

,mexican    dollars  #dg cents4         
,,iii4 ,trade of ,foreign ,possessions  
of all other ,countries than the        
,united ,kingdom4      ,key3    7,a7    
,number of inhabitants in thousands4    
7,b7 ,importations in thousands of      
dollars4    7,c7 ,exportations in       
thousands of dollars4    7,d7 ,imports  
per capita4 ,dollars4    7,e7 ,exports  
per capita4 ,dollars4                   
----------------------------------------
----------------------      ,,countries 
,,and ,,their     7,a7     7,b7     7,c7
     7,d7    7,e7     ,,colonial        
,,possessions4                          
----------------------------------------
----------------------    ,a4 ,france   
7#ahid74                                
,asia                     #ba1hba       
#af1jjj  #be1jjj    4#gc   #a4ad        
,africa1 outside of                     
,algeria and ,tunis      #bd1ejj        
#ac1jjj  #bb1jjj    4#ec    4#ej        
,america and ,oceanica        #dfj      
#ad1ejj  #ab1fjj  #ca4ej  #bg4dj        

,b4 ,germany 7#ahig74                   
,africa                   #aj1bjj       
#b1ahi   #a1jgh    4#ba    4#aj    ,new 
,guinea                  #djj      #gb  
#ej    4#ah    4#ab                     
,c4 ,italy4                             
,africa                      #djj       
#e1fjj   #c1jjj                         
,d4 ,netherlands 7#ahie74               
,east ,india               #cd1jjj      
#fa1jjj  #hi1fjj   #a4hj   #b4fc        
,e4                                     
,philippines               #g1fjj       
#aa1jjj  #bj1jjj   #a4ej   #b4fc        
----------------------------------------
----------------------      ,summary of 
,statistical ,tables of the ,trade of   
,colonies and  ,dependencies of         
,european ,states and of ,independent   
,states other than  of ,europe and the  
,united ,states4      ,key3    7,a7     
,number of inhabitants in thousands4    
7,b7 ,importations4 ,thousands of       
dollars4    7,c7 ,exportations4         
,thousands of dollars4    7,d7          

,inhabitants4 ,per cent to total4       
7,e7 ,imports4 ,per cent to total4      
7,f7 ,exports4 ,per cent to total4      
----------------------------------------
-------------------------    ,,names    
,,of ,,divisions ,,by                   
,,countries1 ,,colonies1    7,a7        
7,b7      7,c7    7,d7  7,e7  7,f7      
,,and ,,races4                          
----------------------------------------
-------------------------    ,totals of 
tabulations                             
,i1 ,,ii1 and ,,iii      #a1ehd1jii     
#a1ehg1geha1edj1hehajj  #ajj  #ajj4j    
,under ,british flag      #cdc1ebj      
#gfe1cbj  #gig1bcb #cf   #dh4c #ej4j    
,under all other flags   #fje1ahj       
#hah1ggi  #gij1ebg #fd   #ea4g #di4h    
,peoples of ,european                   
descent                #fi1dcj          
#iji1jbj  #hca1ihd  #g4c #eg4d #eb4d    
,peoples of other races  #hgi1bga       
#fge1jgi  #gee1ggd #ib4g #db4f #dg4f    
,anglo-,saxon              #ag1acj      
#eai1cjj  #djg1ehd  #a4h #cb4h #be4g    

,latin-,american           #eb1cjj      
#chi1gjj  #dbd1djj  #e4e #bd4f #bf4g    
,asiatic races           #hjf1faa       
#fah1jgi  #gjf1bgd #he4j #ci4j #dd4j    
,african races            #gb1ejj       
#eg1jjj   #di1ejj  #g4g  #c4f  #c4f     
,states and colonies1                   
wool chief export      #aa1ajj          
#dda1cjj  #cid1ejj  #a4b #bg4h #bd4i    
----------------------------------------
-------------------------      ,in      
examining these tables carefully the    
reader can form an idea as to  how the  
world's trade is divided1 and see what  
the world is arming to  its teeth about4
    ,the only ,asiatic country about    
whose trade the possibilities of war    
may be entertained is ,china4 ,japan has
 shown her teeth and claws4 ,the        
history of ,poland1 ,port ,arthur1 or   
,kiao-tchow is not likely to find       
repetition on her territory4 ,only the  
defenseless tempt the avidity of  the   
civilizing nations4 ,the import trade of
 ,china1 an empire with one  fourth the 

population of the entire world1 is but  
half as much again  as that of ,japan1  
with but one ninth of the population of 
the  ,celestial ,empire4 ,japan's trade 
has trebled within the last dozen       
years4 ,her imports of merchandise are  
over two dollars per capita4  ,those of 
,china are thirty-four cents4 ,it will  
be said that ,china  parceled out to    
modern nations will vastly extend in    
trading  opportunities4 ,so it may4 ,we 
have1 however1 national disposition to  
take into consideration4 ,england has   
devoted her best efforts to  ,india4    
,after a century spent in bringing the  
various races to  submission1 the       
process of benevolent assimilation is   
helped along  by a never-ending flow of 
capital from ,england4 ,she has become  
the  teacher and administrator of the   
people of ,hither and ,farther ,india4  
,it is doubtful whether under existing  
conditions any better government  for   
their three hundred millions could be   
devised by any outer force4  ,though    

,england does her utmost1 as she        
understands it1 to make the  people     
under her dominion happy and prosperous1
 although the rule of  law and a degree 
of local independence are established1  
yet she finds  small thanks from her    
wards4 ,they have their own notions of  
happiness1  and seem to prefer misery of
 their selection to the advantages of   
the  white man's ordering4 ,the fact is1
 the brown man and the yellow man  have 
different notions and desires from the  
white man4 ,no amount of  jostling1     
pushing1 and urging will make them take 
up our views1 our  tastes1 our working  
methods1 except in the due development  
of time4  ,our ideas as to necessaries  
of life and theirs are widely different4
  ,their simple needs are easily        
supplied from native hands1 who         
understand far better than our potters  
do the clay they have to deal  with4    
,the progress in trade will not be      
rapid1 and will certainly be            
disappointing to those who expect to see

 it extend into general lines  of       
merchandise4 ,the import trade of ,india
 and its dependencies 7#ahig7  is       
#bhd1jjj1jjj1 inclusive of ,ceylon and  
the net trade of the ,straits           
,settlements4 ,this amount1 directly    
catering to the wants of fully  three   
hundred millions of people1 is but about
 one third more than the  net import    
trade of ,australasia1 with a population
 of less than five  millions of people4 
,the per-capita consumption of imported 
merchandise of the ,asiatic possessions 
of ,england is ninety-seven  cents2 of  
,australasia1 #da4ff4 ,i must say here  
in explanation that the  values of      
importations of merchandise1 as         
published in the ,english  returns and  
lately reproduced by the ,bureau of     
,statistics of the  ,treasury           
,department1 ,colonial ,systems of the  
,world1 is #cje1jjj1jjj1  which would   
make a showing of #fc4cc per capita4    
,but in the ,english  returns the       
intercolonial trade figures are         

included4 ,the ,treasury  ,bureau did   
not mention this in its publication1 and
 gave thereby a  basis for erroneous    
deductions4 ,i have deducted all the    
intercolonial  trade figures of imports 
and exports from the returns of each of 
the  ,australian colonies1 so as to     
bring the figures to a basis of parity  
with the accounts of ,canada1 and other 
colonies and dependencies where  no     
duplications of this kind are possible4 
,the figures of importations  remaining 
over are reduced by this process to     
#dj1ejj1jjj1 or about                   
#bjj1jjj1jjj--da4ff per capita4 ,the    
inhabitants of the ,anglo-,saxon        
colonies of the world number but        
seventeen million4 ,their net imports   
of merchandise are #dfj1jjj1jjj4 ,the   
seven hundred and thirty millions  of   
,hindu and ,mongolian populations import
 #ecj1jjj1jjj4 ,these are the  lands of 
fabled wealth4 ,antiquity and the middle
 ages dreamed of  riches inexhaustible  
in connection with their names4 ,to-day 

still the  popular belief is that the   
wealth of nations is dependent on the   
conduct of direct trade with the far    
,east4 ,the country can not be rich     
whose millions find happiness in a      
sufficient supply of millet or  rice1   
whatever the wealth of a small favored  
class may be4 ,but these  nations were  
the teachers of the barbarians whose    
descendants now  populate ,america and  
,europe4 ,the disciples have improved on
 the  masters4 ,we have improved the    
tools which they invented and applied   
new forces of production4 ,we have      
cheapened the processes of  production4 
,we have quintupled1 we have decupled   
time4 ,but whatever  our improvements in
 the tools1 they are still our masters  
in the work4  ,any one who would        
endeavor to substitute the product of   
our mills in  cotton1 in silk1 in wool1 
in wood1 iron1 clay1 in lacquer1        
cloisonn1  or enamel1 for theirs1 and   
not see at a glance the hopelessness1   
would  indeed prove his incapacity for  

grasping the situation4 ,our best       
producers study with profit the work of 
,china and1 chiefly1 of ,japan1  and are
 grateful for the inspiration they      
derive from it4 ,but they do  not       
attempt to copy4 ,neither in color      
effect nor design could they  stand the 
test of comparison4 ,five thousand years
 have been recovered  from the sepulcher
 under which they had been sleeping4    
,but the oldest  traces unearthed in the
 valley of the ,euphrates still take us 
back to  the farthest ,east as the      
originator of what we cover by the term 
civilization4 ,the ,mongolian shares the
 lot of all who have benefited  the     
race4    ,if we can not expect great    
openings for our mill products in ,asia1
  ,africa is a new field for the        
civilizing efforts of ,europe1 and will 
repay cultivating1 perhaps4 ,the negro  
has neither factories nor  workshops4   
,there at least is an unlimited field   
for trade expansion4  ,germany1 the     
latest comer1 with the zeal of all fresh

 missionaries1 is  eagerly taking up her
 colonizing mission4 ,the result is not 
very  encouraging4 ,there is a fine set 
of buildings with garden spots and      
harbor improvements in the settlement at
 ,cameroon1 and a well-stocked          
graveyard of what were once good ,german
 boys1 victims of the deadly  climate   
and of the expansion fever4 ,so far this
 is the only net  showing to the credit 
side of the ledger4 ,the territory in   
,africa  covers nearly one million      
square miles4 ,the possession of such an
  empire is worth a sacrifice1          
apparently1 and ,germany is not         
parsimonious in this direction4 ,the    
contribution of the ,german  ,government
 to the administration fund of the      
,african colonies was  #b1aid1jjj in    
#ahif-'ig4 ,this does not include the   
expense of  maintaining the military and
 naval forces stationed in the ,african 
settlements4 ,the annual importations of
 all the colonies amounted 7in  #ahig7  
to #b1bfa1jjj1 inclusive of ,new        

,guinea4 ,so it costs the  ,government  
more than one dollar to enable its      
citizens to do a  dollar's worth of     
trade4 ,the population is estimated at  
#aj1bjj1jjj4  ,what possibilities       
stretch out before us1 if they could be 
made to  wear shirts or uniforms like   
the native police force1 which has been 
organized at ,cameroon6 ,the extent of  
the territory1 however1 precludes  the  
possibility of successfully conducting  
the missionary effort to  induce them to
 wear clothes4 ,the question also       
remains open what  return could be made1
 even if the recipients could be brought
 to  appreciate the advantage of a      
fuller covering of their nakedness than 
the traditional one4    ,france is in   
possession of territories in ,africa1   
the population of  which is on a more   
advanced status4 ,the territories of the
 ,senegal  have been under ,french      
dominion for a period of two hundred    
years and  more1 and trade relations    
with the ,senegal and ,soudan have been 

assiduously cultivated4 ,in ,asia1      
,tonquin and ,annam were to open the    
road to a very active trade with ,china4
 ,she has held undisputed  lodgment     
since #ahad in ,pondicherry and other   
towns in ,india that  remained over to  
her from her ,east ,indian empire       
conquered by ,dupleix  and abandoned by 
,louis ,,xv's weak policy4 ,still1 with 
all the tender  care and an expenditure 
for the colonial service1 as per budget 
of  #ahih1 of about #hj1jjj1jjj francs1 
and not counting the colonial  expense  
tat of the ministry of war and of the   
navy1 the entire  export trade of       
,france to her ,asiatic possessions is  
#ce1jjj1jjj  francs2 to her ,african    
dominions1 outside of ,algiers1         
#bb1jjj1jjj  francs2 and to her         
,american possessions1 with barely five 
hundred  thousand inhabitants1          
#ce1jjj1jjj francs4 ,the territories to 
which this  trade caters have a         
population of about twenty-two million  
in ,asia and  twenty-five million in    

,africa4 ,if we include the ,french     
islands in  ,america and ,french        
,guiana1 the exports of ,french         
merchandise to all  her colonies amount 
to about #ie1jjj1jjj francs4 ,if we     
include the  allowance for colonial     
service from the naval and military     
budget1  ,france has an expense that    
exceeds the amount of her colonial      
export  trade4 ,how much better off     
,france would be if she would drop this 
burden6 ,she could do the same trading  
and save her money1 annually  wasted1   
and her men annually slaughtered to the 
mania of colonial  expansion4    ,the   
forty-five millions peopling the ,french
 possessions in ,asia and  tropical     
,africa consume altogether about        
#cj1jjj1jjj worth of foreign  imports4  
,the ,french share of this is about     
#aa1jjj1jjj1 or a little  over one      
third--eleven millions of trade against 
fourteen millions of  direct expense4   
,the contributions to the ,american     
colonies are but  #b1jjj1jjj1 inclusive 

of about #a1jjj1jjj to the penal        
establishment  at ,cayenne4    ,italy's 
demonstration of the extent to which    
this madness can carry  otherwise sane  
statesmen is fresh in everybody's       
memory4 ,outside of  ,russia1 the       
poor--meaning the working classes--are  
in no country of  ,europe as poor as in 
,italy4 ,if we take the production per  
acre in all  the cereals as a gauge of  
interior development1 then no ,european 
country west of ,russia1 not excepting  
,spain1 is in a more backward  state4   
,wise statesmanship would have found    
here a field for  cultivation           
sufficiently large to tax all its       
energies4 ,the peaceful  acquisitions of
 industry did not satisfy the ambition  
of the  ,government4 ,conquests in      
equatorial ,africa were deemed more     
essential  to the kingdom's material    
welfare1 but lately freed from the      
deadening  grasp of clericalism and     
absolutism1 than the improvement of     
opportunities lavishly present at home4 

,what she has cultivated at an  enormous
 expense of blood and treasure has borne
 the ordinary harvest  of failure and   
disaster4 ,the entire import trade of   
,massowah1 to which  the whole world    
contributed1 and which is largely a     
transit trade1  amounts to about        
#e1jjj1jjj4 ,the expenditure on account 
of her ,red ,sea  possessions for the   
year #ahie-'if is given in the          
,statesman's ,year  ,book as            
#abc1gch1jfd lires 7#bd1jjj1jjj74 ,the  
contribution to the  maintenance of this
 her white man's burden1 from #ahhb to  
#ahie1 was  #cjc1ije1ibf lires4 ,at     
present 7#ahig-'ih71 after the sobering 
lesson  received in #ahif1 the net      
expense is about #c1ejj1jjj 7#ag1jjj1jjj
  lires74    ,the three powers--,france1
 ,italy1 and ,germany--point a lesson of
  unmistakable significance4 ,the       
figures speak for themselves4 ,no amount
  of expense can make the ,african and  
the ,asiatic consume an appreciable     
amount of ,european merchandise4 ,no    

amount of cultivation can make the      
tropics endurable to the northern man4  
,labor and exertion on his part  under  
the rays of a deadly sun and a          
miasma-breeding soil are entirely  out  
of the question4 ,those who would make  
the endeavor in the manner  of the      
temperate zone would only succeed the   
sooner in reaching the  end of white    
man's settlement in the tropics1 disease
 and death4    ,many point to the ,dutch
 ,east ,india settlements as a          
successful  commercial enterprise4 ,but1
 taking the best construction given to  
the  story from the trader's point of   
view1 the present satisfactory          
conditions have been reached after a    
great deal of disappointment1  loss1 and
 bloodshed4 ,a large revenue is acquired
 from ,government sales  of colonial    
produce2 still1 with all this added to  
the other revenues  from land tax1      
excise1 and other duties1 the           
,government has a  deficiency of over   
#aj1jjj1jjj florins a year in her ,east 

,india  possessions4 ,the budget for    
#ahih shows an expense tat of           
#adf1aej1afd florins1 which is met by a 
revenue from all sources of but         
#ace1bjd1bjc florins4    ,this is the   
richest part of the ,malay world1 and   
for centuries has  been in the          
possession of ,europe's most enlightened
 people4 ,the  results1 if the          
per-capita unit of imports and exports  
is taken as a  criterion1 are not       
different from those shown in the       
account of the  ,philippines1 governed  
for centuries by ,spain4 ,the loss of   
their  colonies is ascribed to the      
oppressive rule which the ,spaniards    
exercised4 ,the ,netherlands1 devoting  
all their efforts to the  development of
 the resources of the islands1 at least 
during the  greater part of this        
century1 do not show much better        
results4 ,the  imports per capita of the
 ,dutch possessions are #a4hj1 and the  
exports #b4fc4 ,the imports of the      
,philippines are #a4ej and the  exports 

#b4fc per capita4    ,from this we may  
be permitted to deduce that the ,malay  
,islands are not  likely to prove a more
 thankful field for cultivation by our  
traders  than to the extent indicated in
 the trade reports set forth above4     
,under the conditions here delineated1  
it would be inviting all the  risks and 
dangers connected with expansion and    
colonization1 while  nothing is to be   
gained in a commercial sense that can   
not be realized  by the means now in our
 hands4    ,all the ends of trade can be
 attained without territorial expansion4
  ,the trade in the hands of peoples    
under ,english sovereignty is open to   
all commerce on equal terms4 ,not even  
the sovereign country1 except in  the   
recent concessions by ,canada1 receives 
a preference4 ,the  protection of the   
,british flag is tendered gratis to the 
colonies and  dependencies4 ,the imports
 of these countries cover about one half
 of  the trade of all the world1 outside
 of ,europe and the ,united ,states4    

,though they have but #d4fg per cent of 
the population1 the ,anglo-,saxon       
colonies do sixty-nine per cent of the  
trade of all the colonies and           
dependencies of the ,british ,empire4   
,south and ,central ,america absorb     
about one fourth--#bd4f per cent of     
imports and #bf4g per cent of           
exports--of the world's trade here      
summarized4 ,the colonies peopled by    
,anglo-,saxon population and the        
,latin-,american states together1 though
 but #g4c per cent of the  inhabitants1 
do an importing trade of #eg4d per cent 
of the trade of  the world here         
reviewed4 ,the countries trading under  
the protection of  the ,british flag and
 the ,latin-,american states combined   
have about  seventy-three per cent of   
that trade among them4 ,all this trade1 
as  well as by far the greatest part of 
the rest1 is incontestably  accessible  
to-day on an equal basis to all the     
world4 ,the key to it  lies in the best 
terms1 the best value4 ,the trader and  

not the admiral  governs the field4     
,prince ,heinrich will not succeed      
better than  ,admiral von ,diederichs in
 convincing ,china of the advantages    
,germany  can offer if ,mr4 ,carnegie's 
rails are cheaper than ,mr4 ,krupp's4 ,a
  whole fleet of ,american battle ships 
will not convince the ,asiatics  that   
our cotton goods are as desirable as the
 ,english so long as the  latter make   
goods suitable to their markets1 and the
 ,americans offer  only products        
calculated to cover the home demands4   
,the golden rule is a more effective    
trade opener than the cannon's  mouth4  
,fair and square dealing among nations  
does not entail expense1  but brings in 
good returns4 ,our national policy1     
however1 has been one  studiously       
calculated to array the world against   
us4 ,like every policy  in behalf of a  
selfish interest1 it injures the foreign
 people against  which it is directed   
far less than the nation which devises  
it4    ,the trade of ,australasia1      

,argentina1 and ,uruguay1 and the ,cape 
is  based chiefly on wool and hides4    
,the imports of these countries1        
numbering but eleven million            
inhabitants1 amount to #ddj1jjj1jjj1    
equaling in amount the trade of ,china1 
,japan1 ,persia1 and ,india1 with  their
 seven hundred and fifty million        
inhabitants4 ,though but #a4b per  cent 
of the population of the world 7outside 
of ,europe and the ,united  ,states71   
their imports are #bg4h per cent of the 
totals of the figures  in the tables4   
,in exports they do about #djj1jjj1jjj1 
or #bd4i per cent  of the total sum of  
exports here given4 ,it would be worth  
cultivating  friendly relations with    
them4 ,they are inhabited by people of  
,european  stock1 and come nearer to the
 standard of life of ,americans than any
  of the other nations of the globe4    
,our latest effort to draw them  closer 
to us was the ,dingley tariff1 with its 
duty of eleven cents a  pound on greasy 
wool and of fifteen per cent on raw     

hides4 ,the action  can not be construed
 as a very friendly one4 ,but neither is
 the effect  as calculated by the wise  
heads who insisted on the provisions of 
the  wool tariff1 the woolen and worsted
 manufacturers of the ,east1 and the    
wool raisers of the ,west4 ,the wool and
 woolen trade of ,america has  suffered 
many vicissitudes during the thirty-five
 years of high  tariffs4 ,it has gone   
through many periods of depression4 ,but
 it is  doubtful whether at any time    
more disastrous conditions existed than 
have marked the twelve months ending at 
this writing 7,march1 #ahii74    ,the   
situation can be appreciated from the   
fact that wool1 imported  prior to the  
passing of the ,dingley tariff1 is being
 reshipped to  ,england1 where it is    
bringing better prices than can be      
obtained here  under the gis of the     
protective duty of eleven cents a pound4
 ,three  and a half million pounds were 
shipped in the seven months ending      
,january #cast4    ,we should profit by 

this experience1 try to cultivate       
friendly  relations in parts of the     
world where advantageous trade          
connections  can be established1 instead
 of following the ignis fatuus of       
,asiatic  expansion4          ,,the     
,,interpretation ,,of ,,nature4    ,,by 
,,edmund ,,noble4      ,it is an        
interesting and suggestive fact in      
,nature study that at the  outset man   
was thrown utterly upon himself for the 
very vocabulary of  the world-puzzle    
which presented itself to him for       
solution4 ,he had  not only to unriddle 
his inscription in an unknown tongue1   
but to  evolve even the possibility of  
an explanation out of his inner         
consciousness4 ,his first theories of   
the universe were based1 not on         
anything which the cosmos was1          
independently of him1 but upon his own  
nature and activities as a living       
animal4 ,this resort to himself as  his 
chief means of interpretation resulted  
from the very nature of the  knowing    

process2 for knowledge of things is     
never in any absolute  sense what things
 are1 but is rather what they are like4 
,when we  cognize an object we do it by 
referring that object to the class of   
objects which in one or more respects it
 resembles4 ,and as in this  process we 
draw from the objects most familiar to  
us the principle of  explanation which  
we need for the less familiar things    
that have not  yet become part of our   
mental possessions1 much depends upon   
priority  in the setting up of mental   
classes1 as well as on the strength of  
the  impression which they make upon the
 mind4 ,the earliest and deepest  class 
impressions are necessarily those which 
arise out of man's  knowledge of        
himself--of his body and the parts      
thereof1 of his  corporeal activities1  
and of his feelings and thoughts2 next1 
of the  bodies of other men and of their
 movements2 finally1 in the order of    
vividness1 of the animate and inanimate 
objects most nearly related to  his     

life4 ,it is these classes which1 by    
virtue of their priority and  strength1 
naturally acquire dominating influence  
over all later  acquirements1 and it is 
to them that the mind refers the        
impressions  gained from the more remote
 inorganic world4    ,among the simpler 
illustrations of the effort man makes to
 assimilate  the external system to     
himself are those with which we are more
 or  less familiar in the domain of     
language4 ,we find them first in the    
forms for gender by which1 in all       
inflectional tongues1 inanimate  objects
 are to this extent likened to living   
animals4 ,a similar  tendency is at work
 in the widespread lingual habit of     
naming things  after parts of the body1 
as in the case of door1 called the eye  
of  the house by the native of ,banks'  
,island2 of son-tree1 the term  applied 
by the ,siamese to fruit2 of the        
,malay's use of the noun  child for     
lock2 of house-belly1 the ,african      
,mandingo's  equivalent for in the      

house2 and of hair1 often used for leaf 
or  feather in many ,melanesian         
languages4,a ,in more modern forms of   
speech the process is suggested by such 
expressions as the head of a  bridge1   
the eye of a needle1 the mouth of a     
river1 the neck of  an estuary1 the     
trunk and arms of a tree1 the lungs of a
  bellows1 the bones of an umbrella1 the
 nose of a promontory1 the  ears of a   
book1 the fingers of a clock1 the legs  
of a table1 the  veins of marble1 the   
foot of a mountain4 ,then there are     
analogies  based on the activities of   
the human body1 for when we describe    
things  as standing1 sitting1 or lying2 
as rising1 falling1 running1 or         
climbing--when we use expressions like  
striking clock1 dancing  light1 sleeping
 lake1 yawning precipice1 laughing      
skies1  babbling brooks1 raging billows1
 we are applying to the objects  named  
terms originally used to describe our   
own acts4 ,the sense of  hearing1 again1
 is utilized in such expressions as     

taube ,nuss 7with  nothing in the shell7
 and taube ,kohlen 7those which have    
burned  out74 ,so the defect of         
blindness is objectified in the ccum    
vallum  of ,roman speech1 in ciego1 said
 in ,spanish of cheese that has no      
eyes1 and in the blinder ,schuss of the 
,germans1 whose more familiar           
,augenblick everybody recalls4 ,not less
 suggestive are the numerous            
expressions which project conceptions of
 life and death into the  environment1  
such as the caput mortuum 7tte morte7 of
 chemistry1  eau vive 7,quellwasser71   
dead water 7turn of the tide71 todte    
,farbe and lebhafte ,farbe1 vivus lapis 
7firestone71 quicksand  and quicksilver1
 the dead of night1 dead weight1 a dead 
level1  and todtes ,kapital4 ,nor must  
we forget that the reading of vitality  
into inorganic objects1 common enough   
among savages1 has by no means          
disappeared from civilized races4 ,dr4  
,stanley ,hall's inquiries have  shown  
that out of forty-eight children just   

attaining school age1  twenty believed  
the moon and stars to be alive1 fifteen 
thought a doll  and sixteen thought     
flowers would suffer pain if burned4    
,one pupil  described the crescent moon 
as half stuck or half buttoned into  the
 sky2 the spluttering of coals in a fire
 was called barking by a  girl four     
years and a half old4 ,miss ,ingelow    
says that when over two  years old1 and 
for about a year after1 she had the     
habit of  attributing intelligence not  
only to all living creatures1 but even  
to  stones and manufactured articles4   
,this projection of words originally    
descriptive of the human body or  of its
 activities into the objective world of 
,nature finds its richest  illustrations
 in poetry1,b where it may be held to   
represent less the  elaborate artifice  
of a cultured mind than one of the most 
primitive  tendencies of that mind      
powerfully swayed by emotion4 ,yet the  
process  belongs equally to the more    
prosaic efforts which man puts forth to 

utilize the objects of his environment  
in the interests of  self-maintenance4  
,one of the earliest of these is seen in
 the use of  words describing parts of  
the body to facilitate the description  
of  the external world in its numerical 
aspects4 ,thus the ,chinese use for  two
 certain syllables 7ny and ceul7 which  
originally mean  ears1 the ,hottentots  
employing the word for hand in the same 
sense4 ,in middle high ,german the word 
for sheaf 7,schock7 signifies  sixty1   
and is applied in that sense to all     
kinds of objects4 ,the  ,letts1 owing to
 their habit of throwing fish three at a
 time1 employ  the word mettens1 a      
throw1 in the sense of three4 ,among the
 same  people flounders are tied in lots
 of thirty1 whence has arisen the       
practice of designating thirty by the   
word kahlis1 meaning cord4  ,the        
,quichuas attach the significance of ten
 to the word chuncu1  heap4 ,the ,gallas
 word for half has been traced to the   
verb  chaba1 to break1 and is the       

equivalent of our own word fraction4    
,so in a large number of languages the  
term for hand signifies five1  two hands
 meaning ten1 and man 7two hands and two
 feet7 twenty4    ,a like origin must be
 claimed for the measures of space and  
weight  needed by man in his industrial 
and commercial activities4 ,the finger1 
the thumb1 the hand1 the palm1 the      
forearm1 the foot--the extended  arms1  
as in the ancient orgya1 and the        
extended legs1 as in the  modern        
yard--have all played a fundamental part
 in determining the  standard measures  
of the civilized world4 ,to the same    
class belong the  ,greek3 gy1 the extent
 of field that could be worked by a     
laborer in  one day2 the stade1 the     
distance which a good runner could      
traverse  without stopping to take rest2
 also measures of time1 such as the old 
division of the day based on the length 
of a man's shadow4    ,the human body   
was thus of primary importance as a     
means of  comprehending and coming into 

relations with the external world4 ,but 
men also sought to make the environment 
intelligible to them by  projecting into
 it the images gained from the more     
general aspects of  their life4 ,such   
phrases as pig of iron1 monkey wrench1  
battering  ram1 lifting crane1 remind us
 of a period in which objects were      
actually shaped so as to enable the mind
 to accommodate itself more  completely 
to the thought of their vitality4 ,the  
,greek sailing vessel1  for example1 was
 so constructed--with the body of a     
bird1 with cheeks1  eyes1 and projecting
 ears--as to make it seem to the        
navigators of  the time as almost alive4
 ,and the dolphins1 eagles1 ravens1 and 
dragons which threatened ,england from  
the prows of the invading ,danish  fleet
 have had their prototypes in almost    
every nation that has  betaken itself to
 the sea4    ,not less suggestive are   
the more general aspects of the process4
 ,our  ancestor called the earth's      
satellite the moon1 or measurer1        

because it served him as a divider of   
time4 ,the familiar grains of  wheat and
 barley which he harvested became the   
units of his measures4  ,so the names of
 his seasons were based on the fall of  
the leaves1 the  reappearance of        
particular stars1 or the periodical     
inundations upon  which he depended for 
his food4 ,the most primitive method in 
chronology is that which enables man to 
orient himself in the world of  time by 
associating particular lunations with   
vicissitudes of weather1  with seasonal 
aspects of vegetation1 and with the     
constantly changing  sights and sounds  
of the animal world4 ,in the calendar of
 the  ,crees1,c for example1 we find    
such designations as duck-month1        
frog-moon1 leaf-moon1                   
berries-ripe-month1 buffalo-rutting     
moon1 leaves-entirely-changed1          
leaves-in-the-trees1                    
fish-catching-moon1                     
moon-that-strikes-the-earth cold1       
coldest-moon1 ice-thawing-moon1         

eagles-seen-moon4 ,so in the  calendars 
of ,central ,america and ,mexico1,d the 
months are named  variously after the   
arrival of birds1 the blossoming of     
flowers1 the  blowing of winds1 the     
return of mosquitoes1 and the appearance
 of  fishes4 ,the ,greeks constantly    
used the movements of birds to mark the 
seasons2 the arrival of the swallow and 
kite were thus noted4 ,hesiod  tells us 
how the cry of the crane signaled the   
departure of winter1  while the setting 
of the ,pleiades gave notice to the     
plowman when to  begin his work4 ,the   
,incas,e called ,venus the hairy1 on    
account of  the brightness of her rays1 
just as the ,peruvians named her the    
eight-hour torch1 or the twilight lamp1 
from the time of her  shining4 ,one at  
least of the three portions into which  
the ,greeks  divided their night        
received its name--,greek3 peri lychnn  
haphas--from the social custom of       
lighting the lamps at dusk4 ,for  whole 
races the departure of the sun made     

night a time of danger1 and  man did his
 best to lessen the mystery of the      
heavens by filling their  obscure depths
 with the figures of animals and heroes1
 or by likening  their shining lines of 
cosmic cloud to a road or highway for   
the march  of beings celestial and      
terrestrial4 ,thus1 for the speakers of 
,sanskrit the ,milky ,way was ,the ,path
 of the ,gods2 the ,lithuanians  dubbed 
it ,the ,bird ,road2 in ,low ,german it 
is known as ,the ,way of  ,cows2 the    
,cymris associated it with the course of
 the wind2 for  ,scandinavians it was   
,the ,road of ,winter2 the ,persians    
viewed it as  the route along which the 
straw carrier drew his burden2 to this  
day  the ,winnebagoes call it ,the ,way 
of the ,chiefs4,f    ,science itself is 
indebted to terms and phrases in which  
outer  realities are assimilated to the 
circumstances of the life lived by  man 
and by the societies which he forms4    
,such words as attraction1  repulsion1  
resistance1 nature1 body1 atom1 current1

  contain obviously anthropomorphic     
elements4 ,the human origin of the  idea
 conveyed by the term inertia may be    
more or less veiled by  unfamiliar      
,latin elements1 yet it is recovered for
 us again in  ,trgheit1 idleness1 the   
,german form of the word4 ,the phrase   
natural selection contains a            
teleological element which has more     
than once been used to throw discredit  
on the process which it  describes4 ,and
 when one observes how persistently such
 an  anthropopathic expression as       
affinity is still applied to chemical   
reaction1 or with what navet the term   
law is transferred from  the realm of   
human jurisprudence into the domain of  
natural processes1  one ceases to wonder
 at the constant confusions of outer    
with inner in  which so much of the     
psychomorphism of the time has had its  
origin4    ,it would be strange1 then1  
if1 seen in so many of man's efforts to 
interpret the inanimate things around   
him1 this process of  self-projection   

should not also be valid for the larger 
relations of  his mental activity to the
 universe4 ,it is but a step1 in fact1  
from  the application of anthropomorphic
 words to the objects and processes  of 
,nature1 to the employment regarding    
such processes of  anthropomorphic      
thought4 ,as the child finds the        
satisfaction of its  fancy in the       
discovery of some strange face as       
suggested to him in the  decorations of 
the wall paper which surrounds his      
sick-bed1 or in  tracing out from the   
contours of clothes hung up within range
 of his  vision the preposterous outline
 or figure of some human likeness or    
caricature1 so the savage1 with a deeper
 purpose born of necessity1  traces out 
from the larger patterns of the moving  
world about him the  organic shapes1    
embodying will and personality1 that are
 to serve him  as explanations of the   
external power which touches his        
existence for  good or for evil1 and    
which1 thus serving him1 enable him to  

come into  relations with that power4   
,it is the deepest interests of human   
life  which make this process necessary1
 and it is of the very nature of the    
process that the characters thus        
projected into the environment must     
always--throughout the history of human 
ascent1 and at every  particular stage  
of it--be closely and definitely        
correlated with the  degree and kind of 
the self-knowledge which is its source4 
,the earliest of the animal characters  
displaying this correlation1  and used  
as a means of understanding the         
environment1 could not well  have been  
other than that of motion4 ,that by the 
higher mammals1 at  any rate1 moving    
things1 even when inorganic1 are        
generally regarded  as alive1 is a view 
rendered probable by a large body of    
evidence4,g  ,but when man finally      
appeared on the scene1 a new element    
came in to  complicate the merely animal
 attitude in which vitality was         
attributed  to inanimate objects in     

motion4 ,by contemplating the phenomena 
of his  subjective life1 and observing  
analogous phenomena in his              
fellow-beings--through the consideration
 of dreams1 swoons1 even death          
itself--our ancestor discovered in      
himself a character deeper than  that of
 vitality2 came to recognize that the   
living creature1 animal  and human1     
possesses an inner principle or essence 
underlying its  activities2 is not only 
alive1 but also animated4 ,at first the 
conception of vitality was one with the 
conception of bodily activity2  at last 
man learned to differentiate the        
movements of the body from an  inner    
essence to which he believed them to be 
due--learned1 in a word1  to distinguish
 between the corporeal existence and the
 soul4 ,and  having effected this first 
rude division of the characters of soul 
from the merely physical attributes of  
life1 our ancestor soon  projected the  
new view which he had reached of himself
 into the  objects of his environment4  

,the beneficent influences of ,nature1  
so  necessary to his life1 he now       
invested with the good purposes of the  
better nature within him2 in the        
maleficent forces of the cosmos he  read
 the malignant will of his own angry    
passions4    ,but it is not as mere     
phenomena that these powers1 thus       
finally  ensouled and regarded as       
personal1 can be thought about4 ,in the 
beginning the human mind carries on its 
mental processes largely with  the aid  
of images--recovered images of something
 seen1 heard1 felt1 or  tasted--and is  
yet far off from the stage of scientific
 thought in  which abstract concepts    
take the place of the recovered mental  
pictures which have been yielded through
 the senses4 ,man thus needed  concrete 
images with which to think about the    
personal powers of the  external world1 
and he naturally found them in the      
animal and human  shapes already        
familiar to him4 ,discovering some      
likeness between a  ,nature force and   

some animal1 he henceforth associated   
the two1 and  recalled the image of the 
animal as the more concrete means of    
mental  recovery when he wished to think
 of the abstract ,nature power4 ,or1    
associating some departed ancestor1     
relative1 hero1 or king with the        
,nature force--an association which     
would be greatly strengthened by  belief
 in the survival of the soul after      
death--he gradually  confounded the     
disembodied human power with the soul of
 the ,nature  power1 and through the law
 of least effort1 used the concrete     
image of  the departed human being to   
stand in his mental processes for the   
much  more difficult thought of the     
,nature force4 ,but1 whatever the       
process1  animal shapes were obviously  
needed to reduce the ,nature powers to  
such a degree of concreteness as would  
make it possible for primitive  man to  
deal with them as objects of thought4   
,and it is not less  certain that while1
 for some races1 the earliest shapes    

thus utilized  were those of the lower  
animals1 the final form for all races   
was that  of man himself4    ,in the    
anthropomorphic stage1 then1 there is   
the same effort to  understand the      
external system by assimilating it to   
something with  which man is already    
familiar4 ,the worshiped deities may be 
many or  few1 numberless as the ,nature 
forces1 polytheistic as among the       
,greeks  and ,romans1 or one as in the  
monotheism of the ,semite4 ,man likens  
them  to himself1 attributes to them not
 only his outward shape1 but also  his  
failings and virtues1 making his        
,pantheon resemble not only the  social 
order1 but also the political system    
under which he happens to  live4 ,it is 
the completeness of this assimilation   
which made  anthropomorphism the most   
persistent aspect of man's intellectual 
growth the world has known4 ,yet the    
view could linger only as the           
possession of the intellectually        
slothful and immature4 ,the  inadequacy1

 the crudeness1 of the conception in    
which ,deity was imaged  as a gigantic  
man gradually forced itself upon the    
attention of the  more thoughtful4      
,increased mental activity1 a better    
acquaintance with  natural processes1   
brought the idea of a power above       
,nature rather  than merely superior to 
man2 and as the human mind passed from  
the  conception of the superhuman to    
that of the supernatural--as1  moreover1
 the thought of merely local gods gave  
way to the idea of  gods not limited in 
their functions to particular areas--the
  anthropomorphic shapes naturally fell 
away from the powers they could  no     
longer adequately represent4    ,then   
other changes1 strictly correlated with 
man's advancing knowledge  of himself1  
ushered in the latest stage of his      
attitude toward the  external system4   
,for in the same mind which had been    
compelled to  reject crude              
anthropomorphism1 there had been growing
 the  consciousness of man as something 

more than a mere compound of  vitality1 
consciousness1 and will--something more 
than a set of bodily  and mental        
capacities essential to the work of     
self-maintenance--the  thought that man 
was the sum of his higher1 not of his   
lower  qualities1 that henceforth he    
must be measured by the activities which
  he carried on in the domain of pure   
thought4 ,and this recognition of       
mental attributes as the most worthy1   
the most exalted characters of  human   
personality1 could not fail to impress  
itself upon the  conception of deity    
already undergoing                      
deanthropomorphization4 ,more  and more1
 therefore1 in the higher mind of the   
race1 the ,divine ,being1  not only     
losing his former bodily form1 but      
yielding even the grosser  attributes of
 personality with which he has been     
invested1 becomes for  the thought of   
man a psychical being in the deepest    
sense of that  term4 ,anthropomorphism1 
or man-likening1 passes away1 and in its

 place  comes psychomorphism1 or        
mind-likening4    ,two aspects are thus 
recognizable in the mental              
interpretation of the  environment3 on  
the one hand an aspect which may be     
called causal1  since it seeks the      
source of the power exerted by ,nature  
forces and  objects2 on the other1 an   
aspect which is obviously formal1 its   
main  significance being that it        
condenses1 so to speak1 groups of       
qualities  into a single mental sign4   
,the causal aspect yields1 in howsoever 
simple or complex a form1 a theory of   
the cosmos or of its parts2 the  formal 
aspect is no more than a means1 ready at
 hand1 in the visible  bodies of animals
 and men for facilitating the use of    
that theory in  processes of thought4   
,hence we may regard vitalism1 animism1 
psychomorphism as so many stages of     
man's attitude toward the external      
system1 corresponding with the degree of
 his power to apprehend the  more       
abstract as distinguished from the more 

particular and  superficial characters  
of things that come within the range of 
his  knowledge4 ,in the first1 he       
explicitly recognizes vitality1 the most
  obvious character of ,nature force2 in
 the second1 subsuming vitalism1  he    
raises the soul life to the place of    
honor2 in the third1 subsuming  both    
vitalism and animism1 he emphasizes in  
psychomorphism the highest  human       
qualities which his mind enables him to 
recognize4    ,the passage from the idea
 of multiplicity to that of unity is    
itself  an inseparable part of the total
 process4 ,as at the beginning man      
reads vitality into the separate objects
 and forces of ,nature1 without  any    
thought of their underlying unity1 so he
 regards as discrete1  unconnected1     
objectively unrelated1 the multifarious 
souls with which1  in his thought1 these
 various powers of the environment have 
come to  be animated4 ,but in course of 
time1 by an inner necessity of          
intellectual growth1 relations come to  

be perceived between the forces  of     
,nature1 likenesses are recognized      
between the functions of spirits  and   
deities--between the powers put forth   
and the results achieved4  ,the result  
is a process of coalescence which1 to   
describe it in the  briefest way1 first 
merges a large number of spirit-evolved 
gods into  a smaller number of          
relatively independent divinities1 forms
 these  into pantheons of gods each     
subordinated to a superior1 and finally 
unites all beings regarded as divine in 
the single1 all-comprehending1          
omniscient and omnipotent ,deity of     
monotheism4    ,in all this advance1    
moreover1 we find that the process      
illustrated  by the changing phases of  
man's mental attitude toward ,nature    
also  holds good of the multifarious    
acts by which1 in what is known as      
religion1 man has sought to realize that
 attitude in conduct4 ,for1 in  seeking 
to adjust himself to the system of      
,power1 man has been forced  to conceive

 of his ,pantheon in terms as well of   
his social  arrangements as of the      
political system under which he happened
 to be  living4 ,the spirit world of a  
horde of savages could only reflect the 
indefiniteness and disunion of the      
nomads whose imagination it  satisfied4 
,but as the household made its          
appearance1 as a definite  social       
structure arose1 and the straggling     
tribes began to be united  into nations1
 the gods themselves took on the        
characters of an  analogous             
transformation4 ,the divine             
selfishness--the remota ab  nostris     
rebus--long ago satirized by the poet   
,lucretius1 obviously  correlated with  
the attitude of man toward man1 just as 
naturally gave  way1 with the growth of 
the social sympathies1 to the thought of
 that  more active concern in human     
affairs which is one of the salient     
characters of the later phases of       
monotheism4 ,the original  indifference 
of ,deity toward ethical issues--a      

widespread feature of  the earlier      
religious conceptions--could not but    
pass away with the  moral stagnation of 
the ancient communities out of which it 
had  arisen4 ,so the comparatively new  
thought of a ,god definitely  identified
 in his aims and activities with the    
cause of moral reform  is no less       
obviously a result of the new attitude  
of man himself  toward problems of      
social improvement2 while the           
persistence with  which1 in human       
thought1 morals remain associated with  
religion  sufficiently illustrates the  
extent to which man's view of each has  
been determined by the self-knowledge   
which underlies his attitude  toward    
both4 ,note also1 finally1 the manifest 
relation in which our  human thought    
regarding mind and body has always stood
 toward  conceptions of a world-soul1   
and then the dependence of man's view of
  the relation of ,god to the world upon
 the knowledge of his own planet  and of
 its place in the universe4 ,for as long

 as our ancestor held the  old          
geocentric theory of the                
cosmos--regarded the heavens as a set of
  spheres revolving around a flat       
earth--the thought of a deity outside   
the world related to it as a mechanician
 might be to a cunningly  devised piece 
of clockwork which he had brought into  
existence1 was  inevitable4 ,but when   
the geographical discoveries of the     
fifteenth  century co-operated with the 
revelations of ,galilei to secure the   
final triumph of the ,copernican over   
the ,ptolemaic theory of the            
world-order1 the ancient view of ,deity 
as external to his creation  gave place 
to the essentially modern conception of 
his immanence4    ,if now we attentively
 examine the progress above described1  
we shall  find that the earliest        
attitude of the human mind toward the   
external  system tends in the latest to 
repeat itself on a higher plane and     
with a richer content4 ,thus vitalism1  
by the process of unification  and      

intensification1 culminates in          
anthropomorphic monotheism1 while       
animism1 through the coalescence of     
objects and forces at first  believed to
 be separately animated1 finally        
develops into pantheism4  ,these two    
lines of thought1 moreover1 tend        
themselves to converge1 or1  at any     
rate1 to become interchangeable1 since  
monotheism1 by  deanthropomorphizing    
itself1 approximates to pantheism1 as is
 well  seen in the ,christian theologies
 and ethical religions of the world2    
while pantheism1 by emphasizing the     
characters of intelligence and  will1 is
 sometimes hardly to be distinguished   
from those modern forms  of monotheism  
which teach the doctrine of immanence4  
,the intellectual  outcome of the whole 
movement1 embodying the modern attitude 
in ,nature  philosophy1 is thus no      
longer anthropomorphism1 but            
psychomorphism1  since it reads into the
 universe1 not the characters which     
distinguish  human beings from the lower

 animals1 but the highest manifestation 
of  the characters recognized to be     
common to both1 namely1 psychic         
characters--the characters1 in a word1  
of mind4 ,for the deepest  reaches of   
human thought1 the process of           
man-likening has thus given  way to the 
process of mind-likening4 ,on the       
subjective side of mental  inquiry we   
get psychomorphic monotheism1 or what   
may be called  theological pantheism2   
while on the objective side we reach    
scientific  pantheism1 or monism4 ,it is
 true that the psychomorphism of        
scientific  monism is reached by a      
process different from that which has   
culminated in the mind-likening of      
theological pantheism4 ,yet in both     
cases there is the same projection of   
intelligence into the external  system  
as a means of comprehending it4 ,and as 
the intelligence of  atoms implies their
 vitality1 we really return in          
scientific monism to  the vitalistic    
attitude of the primitive observer of   

,nature4 ,the  salient difference       
between the two views is this3 that     
while early man  subsumed under his     
concept of vitality only the rudest     
characters  thereof1 the terms in the   
mind of the monist connotes in all their
  richness the ideas associated with    
mind4    ,enough has now been said to   
show the basis on which rests the whole 
superstructure1 of man's mental attitude
 toward the cosmos4 ,despite  all       
uncertainties regarding the details of  
the process1 we may be  assured of its  
fundamental nature1 and are thus        
compelled to recognize  the dependence  
of the forms of man's mental attitude   
toward the  universe upon his knowledge 
of himself4 ,it is because his own      
actions  have their source in a personal
 will that he refers external movements 
to will4 ,he is conscious of his own    
acts1 and the world around him can  not 
be devoid of a like illumination4 ,does 
he himself plan8 ,nature  must also be  
intelligent4 ,and the highest qualities 

which he can  discover in himself he    
reads unhesitatingly into the cosmos4   
,at first sight1 then1 knowledge may    
seem inextricably involved in the       
process here described4 ,if man can not 
know the external system to  which he   
must adapt himself save by assimilating 
it to himself--save  by interpreting it 
on the basis of analogies which he      
discovers  between his own body and its 
activities1 and the world with its      
activities--are we not committed by our 
very nature as organisms to  all the    
errors which that nature imposes upon   
us8 ,if1 in other words1  every effort  
to view the universe as it is1          
independently of us1 be  rendered       
impossible by the very nature of the    
knowing process1 with  what chance of   
success shall we seek to eliminate those
 vitalistic and  psychomorphic          
characters which seem to belong to that 
process as its  very warp and woof8 ,in 
reality our knowledge inflicts upon us  
no such  dilemma4 ,man is the helpless  

measure of the universe only to the     
extent that his reasoning processes are 
undeveloped4 ,that knowledge  must      
always have a subjective element is     
undoubted1 but that man must  always    
mistake the subjective vesture with     
which things are clothed by  the senses 
for the things themselves is an         
inference which the whole  history of   
thought negatives4 ,while his life      
remained simple1  primitive man could   
regard appearances as realities without 
prejudicing the overplus of utility     
brought to him by his knowledge4  ,yet  
as his relation to the natural          
surroundings grew in complexity1  the   
importance of the reasoning process1    
with its veto power over the            
deliverances of the senses1 began to    
assert itself4 ,at first accepted  with 
little or no demur1 these deliverances  
came more and more to be  challenged in 
the interest of self-maintenance2 and   
finally1 by  expansion of a germ        
possessed by the mind in the beginning1 

there was  developed that way of dealing
 with the testimony of appearances which
  we call the objective method4 ,the    
evidence previously accepted had  been1 
though on the whole useful1 in large    
measure misleading4 ,for in  appearances
 men saw and felt mainly what ,nature   
was for them1 and only  to a minor      
degree what the external world was for  
and in itself4 ,the  great need of the  
investigator of ,nature is to know what 
things are  independently of man1 in    
order to know how they act on one       
another1 as  a means of knowing how they
 will act on the human organism1 and how
  that organism may react on them in the
 interest of its own life4 ,the         
prejudice done by implicit reliance on  
sense testimony arose out of  the fact  
that it presented objects as largely    
unrelated to each  other--as so much    
being1 rather than as so much doing1    
acting and  interacting1 determining and
 interdetermining4 ,it became the       
function  of reason to develop1 out of  

the material furnished by the senses1 a 
knowledge of the true nature of the     
system external to man and  involving   
him in its scope which we call universe4
 ,in the carrying out  of this function 
the analogical process has remained1 but
 the  analogies utilized1 from being    
likenesses between what things seem to  
be to the senses1 have more and more    
become analogies between  propositions  
made regarding what things do1 regarding
 how things act  upon1 are related to   
and determine each other4    ,our       
knowledge of ,nature1 therefore1        
illustrates progress from a stage  in   
which external objects are viewed as so 
much doing--from a stage in  which they 
seem more or less isolated1 more or less
 independent of  each other--to a stage 
in which we know them as acting and     
interacting1 and therefore1 by virtue of
 this action and interaction1  as       
interrelated and interdependent4 ,it was
 because man had to begin  with the     
thought of the world around him as a    

series of unconnected  aspects that he  
fell into the error of regarding every  
object as  containing within itself the 
powers which it put forth2 it was by    
gradually progressing to the knowledge  
of the external system as a  process    
that he discovered how inextricably the 
smallest flower in  the crannied wall is
 linked to its vastest environment1 and 
how  dependent must be the mechanism of 
the molecule1 as well as of the  solar  
system1 upon the whole universe ,power  
which we call cosmos4    ,thus also is  
it with man's method of interpreting the
 external world  system4 ,at first      
unable to fully perceive his own        
relation to that  system1 as part of his
 inability to perceive general cosmic   
relations1  and therefore viewing       
himself as more or less independent of  
,nature--as something imposed upon it   
rather than as something arising  out of
 it--he naturally sought to force it for
 purposes of explanation  into the      
narrow limits of his knowledge of       

himself1 of his feelings1  his thoughts1
 his institutions4 ,but as he grew in   
the power to  comprehend his place in   
the system of things--to understand the 
way in  which the objects and forces of 
the world were related to each other1   
together with the way in which he1 as   
knowing organism1 was related to  the   
universe--he gradually ceased from his  
vain striving to subject  the cosmos to 
himself1 and at last learned not only to
 subordinate  himself to the cosmos1 but
 to trace to it unreservedly the whole  
method and meaning of his origin as a   
living1 thinking organism4 ,man  in the 
beginning could be no more than the     
measure of the universe4  ,that he has  
come at last1 wielding the objective    
method1 to be its  measurer1 is the     
culmination of a struggle between false 
and true ways  of interpreting ,nature  
which has had the whole history of human
  thought for its arena1 and for its    
final triumph the establishment of  the 
objective or scientific method of       

investigation upon impregnable          
foundations4      ,,footnotes3    ,a    
,codrington4 ,the ,melanesian           
,languages4    ,b ,see ,henle4          
,poetische ,personification4    ,c      
,contributions to the ,ethnology and    
,philology of the ,indian ,tribes  of   
the ,missouri ,valley4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,v4     
,hayden1 #ahfb4    ,d ,the ,native      
,calendars of ,central ,america and     
,mexico4 ,daniel ,g4  ,brinton4    ,e   
,popular ,science ,monthly1 vol4 xlv1   
article ,astronomy of the ,incas4    ,f 
,les ,origines ,indo-,europennes4       
,pictet1 p4 #efh4    ,g ,see a paper by 
,g4 ,k4 ,schneider in vol4 ii of        
,vierteljahrsschrift  fr                
wissenschaftliche ,philosophie4         
,,from ,,serfdom ,,to ,,freedom4    ,,by
 ,,edward ,,bicknell4      ,however keen
 our interest in the problems arising   
out of the recent  ,spanish war1 and    
however earnest our study of the policy 
to be pursued  toward our new           
dependencies1 we should not forget that 

the problems  pressing for a solution   
before the war are still with us4 ,the  
labor  question1 which then commanded so
 much of our thought1 is still          
unsettled1 and is by no means dwarfed by
 the subjects now upon every  lip4      
,rather1 as has been shown in an article
 in a recent number of  this magazine1  
this question really forms one of the   
most important  elements of the present 
situation1 and should not be lost sight 
of in  shaping public policy4 ,we are   
entering upon an untilled field as far  
as our institutions are concerned1 and  
we have the opportunity to  start on a  
higher level in treating the relations  
of capital and labor  in our new        
possessions1 if we have the wisdom to   
know how1 and the  courage to do as well
 as we know4    ,it will help us in a   
consideration of the present status of  
the  laborer and of his future if we    
study his past1 beginning1 if not with  
,adam1 at least with the laborer's      
entrance into ,english history as a     

distinct class4 ,any one at all familiar
 with ,green's ,short ,history of  the  
,english ,people will see how much use  
,i have made of that  instructive and   
fascinating work4 ,and if ,i tell only  
an old story1 it  may still be of value 
to many of us in recalling facts almost 
forgotten1 and a help to others whose   
vision into the past is limited4        
,brushing away the cobwebs in the old   
attic of our father's house  usually    
brings to light treasures the           
recollection of which had  slipped from 
our minds4    ,the free laborer1 the man
 who works for wages1 for whom and where
 he  chooses1 did not exist as a class  
until within about six hundred  years4  
,in the early days the laborer was tied 
to the soil where he was  born4 ,such a 
thing as a laborer going about to seek  
work where he  would1 or having much to 
say about his master or his wages1 was  
usually out of the question4    ,at a   
very early day the towns or boroughs of 
,england had preserved old  rights1 or  

regained them1 which the rural part of  
,england had lost1  and in general      
serfage could not exist there as it did 
in the country  round them4 ,trade and  
manufacture1 such as they were in that  
day1 did  not make the demand for labor 
which was made by the agricultural      
pursuits of the country or in the       
castles of the nobility4 ,so we do  not 
find in the towns of the eleventh or    
twelfth century the large  labor class  
we do to-day4 ,in general we may fairly 
say that the labor  class began in the  
country4    ,the manorial system had    
divided the rural part of ,england for  
cultivation and general order into large
 estates4 ,the lord of the  manor       
occupied a part of the estate for his   
own demesne and divided  the rest among 
his villeins or serfs1 who in return    
were obliged to  render services to him4
 ,it is not necessary for my purpose to 
enter  into any long description or     
discussion of the different relations   
existing between different tenants and  

their overlord1 or the  differences     
existing under ,saxon or ,norman rule4  
,the general relation  of lord of the   
manor and his tenants or villeins or    
serfs is the main  point to be observed4
 ,the villeins or serfs of the manor    
cultivated  the lord's home farm or     
demesne1 filled his barn1 cut his wood1 
and  did all his work4 ,these services  
were the labor rent by which they  held 
their lands4 ,some of these tenants1 the
 villeins1 were obliged  to work on the 
lord's demesne at harvest only and to   
help plow and  sow1 while the others1   
the serfs1 to speak in general terms1   
were  obliged to help on the home farm  
or in the castle the year round4    ,in 
course of time the use of a certain     
parcel of land by the tenant  and a     
right to pasturage and so forth on the  
one hand1 and the amount  and kind of   
service required on the other1 became   
definitely regulated  by custom2 and    
instead of the use of the land being a  
mere indulgence  given to the tenant to 

be taken away from him on any whim of   
his lord1  it became a definite right in
 the land which must be respected and   
could be pleaded at law4    ,the number 
of teams1 and so forth1 the services    
that a lord could  claim1 at first mere 
matter of oral tradition1 came to be    
entered on  the court roll of the manor1
 a copy of which became the title deed  
of  the villein4 ,so after a while      
instead of villein he became a          
copyholder4    ,as time went on it grew 
to be customary1 instead of rendering   
services  for the use of the land held  
by copyhold1 to pay a money rent4 ,in   
other words1 the system of leasing the  
little farms came into use1 and  from   
that came the tenant farmer4 ,this left 
the other laborers about  the lord's    
demesne or his castle as before4 ,while 
the class of  villeins1 who did only    
occasional services1 although definite  
as to  amount and time1 gradually       
commuted these services into money      
payments1 and became farmers1 the other 

serfs still remained on the  manor1     
liable to do their work when and where  
it was customary4 ,this  rise of the    
wealthier tenants made a new class      
between the large  proprietors1 the     
lords of the manor1 and the tenants or  
serfs still  bound by custom to work for
 their lords4 ,but the same process     
which  freed the farmer from personal   
service in time became the chief way of 
freeing the serf also4 ,until this came 
about the serf or laborer1  whatever    
other rights he might have1 and he was  
not a slave1 was born  to his holding   
and his lord4 ,he could choose neither  
master nor place  of work4 ,he paid head
 money for license to remove from the   
estate in  search of trade or hire1 and 
a refusal to return on recall by his    
owner would have ended in his pursuit as
 a fugitive outlaw4 ,but the  advance of
 society silently worked to free the    
laborer from this local  bondage4 ,the  
runaway serf gained freedom by residence
 in a chartered  town for a year and a  

day4 ,the influence of the church was   
directed  toward his emancipation1 at   
least on all estates outside of its own1
  but the main cause was the growing    
tendency to commute labor services  for 
money payments4 ,as ,mr4 ,green says3   
,the luxury of the castle hall1  the    
splendor and pomp of chivalry1 the cost 
of campaigns1 drained the  purses of    
knight and baron1 and the sale of       
freedom to a serf or  exemption from    
services to a villein afforded an easy  
and tempting  mode of refilling them4   
,in this process even kings took part4  
,edward  ,,iii sent commissioners to    
royal estates for the especial purpose  
of  selling manumissions to the king's  
serfs1 and we still possess the  names  
of those who were enfranchised with     
their families by a payment  of hard    
cash in aid of the exhausted exchequer4 
,the ,crusades1  whatever else they may 
have accomplished1 aided in this freedom
 for  the serf4 ,those costly           
expeditions dissipated the estates of   

the  barons1 and1 to use ,hume's        
somewhat strained expression1 ,their    
poverty extorted from their pride those 
charters of freedom which  unlocked the 
fetters of the slave4 ,and so1 following
 the rise of the  farmer1 came this new 
class--the free laborer4 ,by the latter 
part of  the fourteenth century labor   
was no longer1 as a rule1 bound to one  
spot or one master2 it was free to hire 
itself to what employer and to  choose  
what field of employment it would4      
,this is the beginning of the labor     
class as we know it4 ,in those times    
labor was abundant and therefore cheap4 
,the landowners in the country  and the 
craftsmen in the town found plenty of   
help1 and the new class  then coming    
upon the stage could go where it was    
needed4 ,from a serf  the common laborer
 had become his own master as far as    
choosing his  own employer and the place
 of his employment4 ,but just at this   
time a  condition of affairs arose which
 put an end to this state of things4    

,in #acdh came the ,great ,plague4 ,that
 swept away more than half of the  three
 or four millions who then made up the  
population of ,england4 ,the  plague and
 the sudden rise of wages which         
followed1 although coupled  with an     
increase in the cost of living1 quite   
naturally brought on an  outburst of    
lawless self-indulgence which told      
especially upon the  laborer looking for
 work4 ,he easily became the sturdy     
beggar or  bandit of the woods4 ,while  
harvests rotted to the ground from lack 
of hands1 in the towns labor was just as
 scarce and equally as  independent4    
,the landowners and wealthier craftsmen 
were startled and  terrified by what    
seemed in their age the extravagant     
demands of the  new labor classes4 ,here
 we have the labor problem at once and  
at the  beginning4 ,and from that time  
to this that problem has been with us4  
,with the capitalist one person and the 
laborer another there has been  always  
more or less discord4 ,as ,richard ,t4  

,ely has somewhere said1  although in   
theory capital and labor should be      
allies and not enemies1  the interests  
of those furnishing capital or labor are
 not precisely  identical4 ,but five    
hundred years ago the labor class of    
to-day had  just come into existence4   
,it had no organization then1 and its   
members  few political rights4 ,the     
landowners and craftsmen could appeal   
effectively to the crown and ,parliament
 through their wealth1 their  political 
power1 and the craftsmen1 especially1   
through their  organizations4 ,the      
laborer had only himself and brute      
force4 ,as a  result1 the legislation of
 that day reflects the demands of the   
upper  and middle classes only4 ,the    
laboring class was considered only as it
  affected the landowners and craftsmen4
 ,so the labor troubles of that  day    
were met with the ,statute of ,laborers4
 ,every man or woman1 runs  this famous 
provision1 of whatsoever condition1 free
 or bond1 able in  body1 and within the 

age of threescore years1 444 and not    
having of  his own about the tillage of 
which he may occupy himself1 and not    
serving any other1 shall be bound to    
serve the employer who shall  require   
him to do so1 and shall take only the   
wages which were  accustomed to be taken
 in the neighborhood where he is bound  
to serve  two years before the plague   
began4 ,a refusal to obey was punished  
by  imprisonment4 ,here was an attempt  
to fix the rate of wages by statute1    
and to fix them very much lower than a  
fair market rate2 and1 further1  to     
force the unemployed laborer to serve   
any man who first demanded  it4 ,the    
statute failed in its object1 naturally1
 and so sterner  measures were adopted4 
,not only was the price of labor fixed  
by  ,parliament in the next statute of  
#acea1 but the labor class was once     
more tied to the soil4 ,it was made the 
servant not of one master but  of a     
class--the employers4 ,the laborer was  
forbidden to quit the  parish where he  

lived in search of better-paid          
employment2 if he  disobeyed1 he became 
a 'fugitive1' and subject to            
imprisonment at the  hands of the       
justices of the peace4 ,provisions had  
risen so that a  day's work at the legal
 wages would not purchase enough for a  
man's  support1 and therefore no such   
law could be enforced literally4 ,still1
  the landowners persisted in trying1   
and at last the runaway laborer1  the   
man looking for better wages1 was       
branded on the forehead with a  hot     
iron1 while the harboring of serfs in   
towns was rigorously put  down4 ,as the 
landowners wanted all the labor they    
could get1 the  commutation of labor    
service for money payments ceased1 and  
every  effort was made and every quibble
 taken advantage of to annul            
manumissions previously made4 ,in the   
towns1 under the pressure of the        
craftsmen1 the system of forced labor   
was applied with even more  rigor than  
in the country1 and strikes and         

combinations became  frequent4    ,that 
is the state of things in free ,england 
at a time when labor was  not strong    
enough to protect itself--called upon by
 the law of the  land to work for less  
than living wages or be branded as      
cattle6 ,the  irrepressible conflict    
between capital and labor began with the
 very  beginning of the existence of the
 labor class4    ,in such a condition of
 things as here indicated1 is it any    
wonder that  there were labor           
disturbances in those days--that there  
was a peasant  revolt8 ,already the     
doctrine of the equality of man and     
social  inequality was being preached to
 the lower classes4 ,in #acfj ,john     
,ball--a mad priest in ,kent1 as        
,froissart calls him--preached such a   
communistic sermon as this to the sturdy
 yeomen of that day3 ,good  people1     
things will never go well in ,england so
 long as goods be not  in common1 and so
 long as there be villeins and          
gentlemen4 ,by what  right are they whom

 we call lords greater folk than we8 ,on
 what  grounds have they deserved it8   
,why do they hold us in serfage8 ,if we 
all came of the same father and mother1 
of ,adam and ,eve1 how can they  say or 
prove that they are better than we1 if  
it be not that they make  us gain for   
them by our toil what they spend in     
their pride8 ,they are  clothed in      
velvet1 and warm in their furs and their
 ermines1 while we  are covered with    
rags4 ,they have wine and spices and    
fair bread2 and  we oatcake and straw1  
and water to drink4 ,they have leisure  
and fine  houses2 we have pain and      
labor1 the rain and wind in the fields4 
,and  yet it is of us and of our toil   
that these men hold their state4 ,that  
is the same cry against the inequality  
of property and social  condition which 
we hear to-day4 ,and we may thank him1  
and men like him  and with his          
inspiration1 that the conditions of five
 hundred years  ago have changed1 and   
that the dawn of a better and higher    

humanity  has broken upon us4 ,filled   
with socialism and communism as the     
words  are1 they still have a truth     
which appeals to every sympathetic and  
thoughtful man4    ,and it was in those 
early days that the old rhyme was heard 
all over  the land3          ,when ,adam
 delved and ,eve span4        ,who was  
then the gentleman8    ,the sermon was  
preached against the tyranny of         
property1 the rhyme was  full of the    
democracy of the coming years4    ,i do 
not imagine that the instigators of such
 laws as the ,statute of  ,laborers were
 hard men as men go4 ,they could see    
only their side of  the case4 ,the      
laborer had become a necessity for them1
 and they rather  believed that the     
,almighty had put him on earth for their
 advantage4 ,i  am afraid that something
 of that spirit still is left among us4 
,the  feeling still exists that the     
employer and capitalist can take care   
of and provide for the employees better 
than they can themselves2 that  they    

should be very thankful when out of his 
abundance the employer  builds them a   
library or permits them to live in some 
finely ordered  village as he directs4  
,but somehow the feeling is growing now 
that if  the wage-earner had a larger   
and fairer share in the profits he could
  take care of himself better in the end
 and grow faster1 because he  would be  
more his own master2 and that the good  
things now and then  given him with more
 or less ostentation as gifts are bought
 with the  money he really ought to have
 and in the future hopes to have        
himself4    ,well1 the result of such   
laws and the general social discontent  
and  the levy of new taxes upon even the
 lower classes brought about the        
,peasant ,revolt in #acha4 ,of course1  
the power of the upper classes1  aided  
by the courage of ,richard ,,ii1 then   
only a boy1 put down the  revolt1 but   
not until the king had promised amnesty 
and emancipation  to the serfs4 ,death  
on the scaffold and in the field soon   

showed the  participants how little such
 promises were worth4 ,the serfs were   
subdued1 but strife between the laborers
 and employers was not ended4  ,the     
legislation still reflects the terror   
and greed of the landowners1  for1 in   
spite of all1 labor was in demand and   
had the market at its  feet4            
,legislation forbade the child of any   
tiller of the soil to be  apprenticed in
 a town1 and the landowners prayed      
,richard to ordain  'that no bondman or 
bondwoman shall place their children at 
school1 as  has been done1 so as to     
advance their children in the world by  
their  going into the church4' ,but     
villeinage continued to disappear1 and  
within the next hundred and fifty years 
it had become an antiquated  thing4 ,the
 failure of the landowners to again     
fasten labor to the  soil and to fix low
 wages drove their energies in a new    
direction4  ,sheep farming required     
fewer hands than tillage1 and the       
scarcity and  high price of labor tended

 to throw more and more land into sheep 
farms4 ,as personal service died away it
 became the interest of the  lord to    
unite the small holdings on his estate  
into larger ones4 ,the  evictions       
consequent upon this course threw many  
laborers upon the  market1 and the sheep
 farms diminished the number required1  
while the  smaller amount of holdings   
devoted to agriculture increased the    
price  of food4 ,and so it is not       
surprising that within the course of a  
comparatively few years1 instead of a   
scarcity there was a glut of  labor2    
that pauperism increased1 and social    
discontent continued2 that  vagabondage 
with its dangers to society at large    
became a difficult  problem4 ,indeed1   
the poor have always been with us1 but  
those of us  who find so much to depress
 us in these modern days can get new    
courage by looking back to those old    
days and can see the real  progress     
which has been made4 ,the whole lower   
class in ,england down to  the time of  

,elizabeth stood looking into the face  
of want4 ,henry ,,viii  confiscated the 
monasteries1 but put nothing in their   
place1 and in a  measure by so doing    
deprived the poor of some relief from   
the wealth  of the church4 ,but         
,elizabeth inaugurated a system of      
poor-laws which1  although crude and    
somewhat hard1 still served to ward off 
some of the  social danger4 ,the course 
of events1 however1 and the rise of new 
industries did more to make life for the
 laborer1 the landless man1  less       
bitter4 ,with the discovery of ,america 
and the opening of  fisheries in these  
western waters1 and the adventurous and 
buccaneering voyages of ,drake and his  
compeers1 came the gradual  development 
of manufacture1 and a more careful and  
constant  cultivation of the land4 ,all 
these were new and larger avenues for   
the employment of labor4 ,by this time  
the laborer had grown entirely  away    
from serfage1 had been freed from the   
terrible grasp of a  hopeless future1   

and the possibility of a degree of      
comfort and  independence had come into 
existence4 ,we need not linger longer   
over  his early days4 ,the laborer still
 had his peculiar trials and  hardships1
 but he had a future4 ,from a subject   
class1 the terror as  well as necessity 
of its employers1 he has grown to be    
their equal  before the law1 and this by
 his own efforts1 aided1 of course1 by  
the  advance of society and the broader 
humanity of mankind4    ,the increase of
 manufacture brought with it a new      
danger to the  working class as we reach
 our times1 and brought about a state of
  things which gave rise to trades      
unions4 ,manufacture naturally in the   
beginning was carried on in a small way1
 but in modern times1  especially as we 
get into this century1 the small        
concerns grew into  large ones4 ,instead
 of one man or partnership with a       
comparatively  small amount of capital1 
the corporation or joint-stock company  
with  its large aggregation of capital  

carries on the business of  manufacture 
and trade4 ,this aggregation of capital 
has made an entire  change in the       
relation between employer and employee4 
,the corporation  came in the line of   
progress4 ,consolidation of capital has 
come to  stay1 and properly so1 but it  
brought with it dangers1 just as every  
step in advance has done4 ,it was to    
meet the new dangers to the             
wage-earners that trades unions came    
into being1 for trades unions and  labor
 unions are really only organizations of
 labor as corporations  are aggregations
 of capital4    ,when industrial        
establishments were small1 the owner1   
whether in trade  or manufacture1 had   
practically absolute direction of his   
business4 ,in  the industrial world what
 corresponds to an unlimited monarchy in
 the  political world has been the      
system4 ,as establishments grew larger1 
the autocratic power of the owner passed
 to the manager acting for the  owners4 
,as one writer puts it3 ,huge industrial

 establishments are  under the          
unrestrained control of a single man4   
,at his will they are  set in motion2 at
 his will they stand still2 at his will 
capital and  labor unite and are        
fruitful2 at his will they are parted   
and remain  barren4 ,men come and go at 
his bidding4 ,he knows no superior and  
recognizes no limitations4 ,he calls an 
attempt at control 'dictation'  and     
resents it with anger4 ,that is the     
extreme case1 and is  industrial        
despotism4 ,while the results doubtless 
are good in many  cases1 and the laborer
 receives fair and decent treatment in  
most  cases1 that is owing to the       
temperament or prudence and good        
judgment  of the master and not to the  
system4 ,such a condition of things is  
becoming more and more modified4 ,we    
have reached in many cases a  condition 
which may be said to correspond to a    
monarchy with  constitutional           
limitations--the master is restrained in
 the exercise  of his power by public   

opinion1 the strength of the workingmen1
 and in  some cases by legal            
limitations4 ,the organization of boards
 of  arbitration1 and the recognition of
 the right of the employee to a  share  
in the profits1 are daily extending4    
,the tendency toward giving  the        
wage-earners a share in the business1   
some modified form of  co-operation1 is 
daily extending4 ,the trend is toward   
what may be  called industrial          
democracy1 just as in the political     
world real  democracy is fast becoming  
the universal principle1 whatever the   
style  of the government may be4        
,this advance in the industrial world   
has come about through the  agitation   
and power of labor organizations1 of    
which1 as they exist  now1 trades unions
 were the early manifestation4 ,the     
employer1 as a  rule1 looked after his  
own interests mainly1 and the employee  
alone by  himself had to take what he   
could get and do as he was told4 ,just  
as  the people1 after they sunk into    

subjection in the earlier days1 had     
little political power as against the   
nobility until they were strong  enough 
to take it1 so the laborer still would  
be of little account  except as a more  
or less intelligent machine unless he   
had proved  himself a man1 with a man's 
aspirations and a man's energy4         
,labor organizations or trades unions   
came into existence in ,england4  ,the  
democratic spirit1 the spirit of        
liberty1 the ,saxon spirit of           
independence1 which wrested from kings  
and the nobility all the rights  which  
the common people enjoy1 has been doing 
in the industrial world  only what it   
did in the political world years before4
    ,we may say that trades unions find 
their prototype in the frith  guilds or 
peace guilds of the ,anglo-,saxon4 ,a   
few words in general  about them and    
their successors and the spirit         
pervading them1 the  causes of their    
existence and decay1 will have a bearing
 on labor  organizations1 which are like

 them in being founded on similar mental
  faculties and desires and as          
contemplating similar purposes4         
,these frith guilds seem to have been   
associations of neighbors for  mutual   
help and protection4 ,they replaced the 
older brotherhood of  kinsfolk1 which   
had existed among the ,german races1 by 
a voluntary  association of neighbors   
for the same purposes of order and      
self-defense4 ,an isolated existence for
 a man1 even a freeman1 was  one of     
danger1 especially when the feudal      
temper of the nobles  increased and the 
,danish incursions broke over ,england4 
,the ties of  kindred had become        
weakened1 and the frith guild took the  
place of the  family4 ,a mutual oath    
bound the members together1 and the     
monthly  guild feast became the         
substitute for the old gathering round  
the  family hearth4 ,a member could call
 upon the guild in case of violence  or 
wrong2 when charged with crime1 the     
guild answered for him1 and  when       

guilty1 punished him2 when poor1 it     
supported him2 and when dead1  buried   
him4 ,when these guilds were located in 
towns rather than in the  country1 they 
inevitably tended in time to combine1   
and eventually the  town passed from a  
collection of guilds into one large     
guild1 and we  have the town guild4 ,the
 word town is used in contradistinction 
from the word country1 just as we say   
town and country1 going to  town1 and so
 on4 ,the spirit of independence and    
freedom1 kept alive  in our town        
meetings here1 and in our local         
self-government1 has come  down to us   
through those old town guilds and the   
boroughs of ,england4  ,it is to the    
towns of ,england and not to the country
 that we owe much  of our liberty       
to-day4    ,so these guilds in towns1 by
 joining together and making a town     
guild1  became quite strong communities4
 ,they made demands upon the crown      
itself1 and took upon themselves the    
government of the towns where  they were

 located4 ,their members were the       
landowners of the town1 and  the other  
people who came there to settle1 no     
matter how numerous1 had  no part in the
 government4 ,from being democratic in  
the beginning1 as  the frith guilds     
were1 the towns became oligarchies4     
,in the course of time the differences  
between town and country became  more   
marked4 ,the town guilds began to have  
less and less to do with  agriculture1  
although at first they were interested  
in it4 ,the wealth  in the town is      
turned to trade and manufacture1 such as
 there was in  those days4 ,so1 by the  
time of the ,norman conquest1 in #ajff1 
we hear  little of town guilds1 but in  
almost every case merchant guilds4 ,the 
town guild has become a merchant guild1 
although composed of the  same          
constituency4 ,the commercial spirit has
 become the ruling spirit  of the town4 
,as time went on and life and property  
became safer and trade  increased1 the  
consequent accumulation of wealth in    

towns produced  important results in the
 character of these municipal           
institutions4  ,in becoming a merchant  
guild the body of citizens who formed   
the  government of the town enlarged    
their powers of civic legislation by    
applying them to the control of their   
internal trade4 ,no longer  confining   
themselves to providing for public order
 or protection from  unjust oppression  
or dangers from without1 they began to  
legislate for  their own immediate      
advancement and for their own pockets4  
,it became  their especial business to  
obtain from the crown or from their     
lords  wider commercial privileges1     
rights of coinage1 grants of fairs1 and 
exemptions from tolls2 while within the 
town itself they framed  regulations as 
to the sale and quality of goods1 the   
control of  markets1 and the recovery of
 debts4 ,and further1 the members of the
  guild withdrew from the humbler trades
 to confine themselves to the  larger   
business of commerce or trades requiring

 large capital1 leaving  the trades and 
traffic given up to their poorer        
neighbors4 ,this ruling  class comprised
 only a part of the inhabitants1 only   
the members of  the merchant guild4 ,the
 great mass of the people1 the artisans 
and the  poor1 the men without land1 the
 serfs escaped from the country and     
gaining their freedom in the town1 all  
had no voice in the government          
whatever4 ,they lived and worked and    
earned their daily bread  practically by
 permission or at least under the direct
 control of the  merchant guild4 ,from a
 simple association1 the guilds in towns
 had  become the governing body1 and a  
government in the hands of a few at     
that4 ,from the need of protection on   
account of individual weakness1  the    
members of the guilds had grown to be in
 need of repression2 and  with the      
demand for repression came the          
instrument of repression--the  craft    
guild4 ,against the autocratic power of 
the merchant guild  arose the craft     

guilds1 or associations of workers in   
the various  trades1 those trades       
abandoned by the merchants1 and these   
guilds  soon rose into dangerous rivalry
 with the original merchant guild of    
the town4    ,these craft guilds in the 
old ,english towns1 in order to attain  
their  objects1 considered it necessary 
to compel the whole body of craftsmen   
belonging to the trade to join the guild
 of that craft or trade2 and  further1  
that the guild should have legal control
 over the trade  itself--who should be  
admitted to it1 and so forth4 ,a royal  
charter  was indispensable for these    
purposes1 and over the grant of these   
charters took place the first struggle  
with the merchant guild1 which  had till
 then solely exercised jurisdiction over
 trade within the  borough4 ,the        
struggle was a fierce one and long      
continued1 but the  spread of the craft 
guilds went steadily on1 and the control
 of trade  passed into their hands4     
,then the next step--a share in the     

government  of the borough itself--was  
taken1 and the government of the towns  
passed from an oligarchy into the hands 
of the middle classes4    ,the craft    
guild came into being just as its       
predecessor had1 from the  necessity of 
association for protection1 and like it 
was democratic at  first2 and1 again    
like it1 became in time an oligarchy as 
narrow as  that which it had deposed4   
,the craft guild arose because the      
artisans  and tradesmen had grown to a  
position where they could recognize the 
injustice and oppression of the merchant
 guild1 and were strong enough  and     
persistent enough to assert themselves1 
and as long as the craft  guilds were   
democratic in spirit and were true to   
the needs for which  they were organized
 they flourished4 ,but with age and     
success came  narrowness and bigotry and
 opposition to progress4 ,they became   
monopolies of employment and societies  
of greedy capitalists1 and in  ,england 
withered away before the growth of the  

modern vast industrial  establishment4  
,i have ventured to give this general   
sketch of these guilds because  the same
 spirit and necessities which inspired  
them brought the trades  union into     
being4 ,the trades union or labor       
organization was created  to protect the
 laborer and gain for him a better      
position in life1 to  raise his standard
 of living4 ,it is like the old guilds  
in being  subject to the same dangers as
 they were1 and when it proves false to 
its true objects it will pass away as   
did the old guilds4 ,it will last  only 
so long as there is a necessity for its 
existence1 as long as it  does the work 
it is born to do4 ,and when it has come 
to deny freedom1  to refuse another's   
rights1 and to repress industry1 the    
seeds of  dissolution are already sown4 
,trades unions or labor unions arose    
from the necessity of organization      
among the laborers or wage-earners if   
they were to hold their own  against the
 aggregation of capital4 ,the craft     

guild arose at a time  when trading and 
manufacturing concerns were small1 when 
the interest  of both master and workman
 in a business were alike joined in     
opposition to the exactions of a        
superior class--the merchant guild2     
while the trades union came upon the    
field to protect the laborer  against   
his employer4 ,whatever other objects   
and aims it may have had  do not enter  
into my purposes in this paper4 ,the    
personal relation  which had existed    
between the master and servant1 the     
employer and his  few employees1 the    
manufacturer and his half dozen workmen 
or  apprentices1 no longer existed when 
the workers became scores and  hundreds1
 and the owner of the business was      
replaced by the manager or              
superintendent4 ,that personal relation 
was in some measure a  protection for   
both1 but when that disappeared the     
temptation to  gratify owners and       
stockholders with big dividends became  
too strong  to be overcome4 ,against    

organized capital there was absolute    
need of  organized labor1 and trades    
unions and labor unions and such        
organizations came into existence4      
,there was no possibility of their      
existence until the laborer had  become 
intellectually and socially capable of  
organization1 and until  the divine     
spirit of discontent drove him to       
association with his  brother worker4   
,during all the years from the time of  
his serfdom up  to the time these       
organizations began he had been slowly  
growing in  development and gaining     
something in political position1 but it 
was  not until political power came     
nearer and nearer to him that he gained 
the strength to raise his standard of   
living1 to make a stand for  himself4   
,he knew the struggle would be a hard   
one1 for everything he  gained seemed to
 be something taken away from those who 
held  themselves above him and better   
than he4    ,as a rule1 we are very well
 content to let things alone if we      

ourselves are fairly comfortable1 and   
especially are we blind to  another's   
ills if the remedy for them is found in 
a renunciation of  part of that which we
 have always considered our own4 ,there 
is nothing  particularly new in this4   
,we easily can imagine some worthy      
burgher in  the olden time expostulating
 at the demand of the craft guild even  
to  be allowed to exist1 and ,i do not  
imagine his language varied much in     
spirit from the indignant disgust shown 
by some large employer of  labor to-day 
when he talks of labor unions4          
,doubtless these unions  to-day seem to 
him to have the same dangerous          
tendencies which the  craft guilds were 
talked of as having eight hundred years 
ago4    ,if there were no wrongs to     
right1 if selfishness did not exist1 if 
there were a real belief in the         
brotherhood of man1 and life were in    
accordance with that belief1 such       
organizations might not be  necessary1  
or if they existed have other aims2 but 

until all men have  an equal chance for 
self-development1 and a chance for      
something more  than a mere existence1  
labor unions or something to take their 
place  must exist4    ,and so we stand  
to-day with labor unions and the labor  
problem1 so  called1 with us4 ,the      
laboring class is discontented4 ,men    
claim as  rights what their fathers     
would have been glad to get as favors4  
,there  are violence and bad blood and  
waste1 and so there have been from the  
beginning4 ,but there have been also    
injustice and oppression and greed  from
 the beginning4 ,while we may condemn   
strongly much of the violence  and      
wrongdoing of labor organizations1 we   
can find many extenuating               
circumstances4 ,the same spirit of      
independence1 the same desire for  equal
 justice which animated the old guilds  
of ,england1 and which have  made the   
,englishman and those who have sprung   
from him the freest as  well as most    
law-abiding people on the earth1 are    

found within the  organizations of      
labor4 ,we in this country hardly can   
find only danger  in the spirit which   
impels the workingman to resist every   
encroachment  upon his rights1 to strive
 for that better future to which he     
believes  he is entitled4 ,there were   
many things done in the youth of our    
history which in our manhood we regret1 
and ,i hardly think1 as a  nation1 our  
own robe is so unspotted that we must   
draw it round us  lest it be soiled by  
the violence of a perhaps uneducated and
  inadvisable but still earnest effort  
after higher and better  conditions of  
life4 ,let us read and ponder over our  
histories anew1  and with humble hearts 
try to find a better way both for the   
laborer  and ourselves4    ,i have said 
that it was through his organization    
that the laborer has  made the          
industrial and social advance he        
certainly has made in the  last century4
 ,the trades unions1 like the guilds    
before them1 had to  struggle for a     

legal existence1 and their early days   
were full of  violence4 ,dr4 ,brentano1 
in his work on ,trades ,unions1 says3   
,they have  fought contests quite as    
fierce as those of the old craftsmen    
against  the patricians1 if not fiercer4
 ,the history of their sufferings since 
the end of the eighteenth century1 and  
of the privations endured for  their    
independence1 is a real record of       
heroism4 ,may not we hope with  him that
 now they may cease using the arms of   
violence which belong to  former times  
and use the legal means which belong to 
our days8    ,we can not approve of     
their violence1 but let us not be unduly
 alarmed  by it4 ,if society becomes so 
ossified in its usages and habits and   
thinking that a newer and better thought
 can not get in1 a nobler way  of living
 for all be entered upon1 it sometimes  
seems as if in the  very nature of      
things violence must come to rend away  
the  obstructions4 ,i believe that labor
 organizations are as much the          

instruments of progress as the town     
guilds and craft guilds of old4  ,they  
will do their work1 and the world will  
be the better for it4 ,they  tend to    
make society more democratic            
industrially as well as  politically1 as
 their predecessors did1 and therefore  
better4 ,for what  is democracy but a   
practical recognition of the brotherhood
 of man8 ,if  ,christianity amounts to  
anything1 what higher aim should we have
 than  that8    ,many students of the   
problems involved state that in the long
 run  labor still does not receive its  
full share of the profits2 that in      
order to keep up the standard of living 
which the wage-earner already  has      
reached he must have a larger reserve   
fund4 ,in other words1 he  must be able 
to save more4 ,to do that and still live
 as he claims he  ought1 his share in   
the profits1 his wages1 must be larger  
than now4  ,we can not claim that the   
standard is too high because admittedly 
it  is higher than ever before4 ,hon4   

,carroll ,d4 ,wright1 in a recent       
address1 says3 ,under the iron law of   
wages as announced by ,ricardo1  it the 
labor question is a struggle simply to  
secure barely enough  of food and       
raiment and shelter to preserve the     
working physical  machine1 the rule     
being that wages ought not to be paid   
over the bare  necessities4 ,to-day the 
standard of living of the ordinary wage 
receiver involves margins above the iron
 law of from ten to fifteen  per cent1  
out of which margin is to be found what 
are now called  spiritual necessities1  
means of leisure1 reading1 music1       
recreation1  etc41 so that the demand of
 the worker in all civilized countries  
is  for the expansion of this margin4   
,he feels entitled to this because      
society has insisted upon educating him1
 giving him a taste for higher  things1 
making him a social and political       
factor2 in fact1 fitting  him for       
membership in a democratic community4   
,labor organizations1 in spite of much  

extravagant language and many           
ill-advised acts1 certainly aim at a    
better condition for the  wage-earner4  
,we fail to see the intelligence        
underlying industrial  controversies    
because progress has been so rapid4     
,some of the methods  of labor          
organizations are violent and the       
weapons used are in a great  measure    
strikes and boycotts4 ,that is          
industrial warfare and is as  costly and
 wasteful and cruel in many ways as any 
warfare is1 but very  often these       
organizations seem to have no other     
method of making their  power felt2 no  
other way of bringing about a needed    
reform4 ,and we can  not say that all   
strikes have been or are necessarily    
wrong1 except in  the same way that all 
warfare is an evil4 ,the very readiness 
to strike  will effect a reform which a 
known weakness or lack of courage on the
  part of the organization would have   
prevented4 ,such an authority as  ,john 
,stuart ,mill says that strikes1        

therefore1 and the trade  societies     
which render strikes possible1 are for  
these various reasons  not a            
mischievous1 but1 on the contrary1 a    
valuable part of the  existing machinery
 of society4 ,whether in a particular   
case a strike  or boycott is right or   
wrong depends upon the facts of that    
case1 and  whether we have reached a    
point where strikes are no longer right1
 no  matter what may have been the case 
in the past1 is another question4  ,let 
us hope we are nearer that time1 at any 
rate4 ,it will depend upon  the attitude
 of employers as well as employees4     
,out of strikes themselves comes a      
remedy4 ,daniel ,j4 ,ryan1 in his       
article on ,arbitration1 records that   
for sixteen years the disputes  of labor
 and capital in the rolling mills of    
,england have been settled  by          
arbitration1 and it has been an era     
remarkably free from strikes4  ,the     
,board of ,arbitration for the north of 
,england iron business was1  as all     

efforts of this kind usually are1 the   
outgrowth of a strike4  ,now1 in this   
part of ,england before the formation of
 this board1  strikes were chronic4 ,the
 works in that section recently had     
#a1iac  puddling furnaces--more than in 
all ,pennsylvania1 and half as many as  
in the entire ,united ,states4    ,the  
limits of this article will not allow a 
discussion of voluntary or  involuntary 
arbitration1 but let me say that in the 
above case we see  that a simple        
arrangement between the parties changed 
all the strife  to peace4 ,will society 
long tolerate a continuance of          
industrial  warfare when it has in its  
own hands a preventive8 ,for its own    
protection will it not tell employer and
 laborer1 ,you must settle  your        
differences quietly by mutual agreement1
 or1 if you can not1 ,i  will settle    
them for you8 ,it says this now to the  
individual4 ,men and  women are not     
allowed in these days to settle their   
rights and wrongs  by brute force4 ,that

 method passed away long years ago in   
civilized  communities4 ,and society    
must continue to suffer from the        
violence and  waste of strikes until it 
teaches employers and workingmen and    
itself  a higher and better way4    ,may
 not it be possible that the outcome    
will be that associations of            
wage-earners are to be treated as the   
equals of the employer8 ,will not  the  
democratic spirit of the age to come so 
permeate the industrial as  well as the 
political world that the laborer and the
 employer will  each have a share in the
 business they together carry on8    ,i 
have tried to make a very broad sketch  
of the change which has taken  place in 
the condition of the laborer1 with a    
consideration of some of  the means by  
which that has come about4 ,no longer is
 he a serf--no  longer even the servant 
of a ruling class4 ,he at length has    
risen to a  share in the government of  
his town and country4 ,no longer are    
laws  passed against him specially1 but 

in his favor4 ,the laborer has become   
free--free to follow along the path of  
his predecessors1 to gain full  justice1
 but not to oppress others4 ,before the 
law at least he is the  equal of his    
employer4 ,i have implied at least that 
he has but  followed the spirit which   
led his older brother of the middle     
class up  from practical subjection to  
power4 ,the craft guilds of the one1 the
  labor unions of the other1 are in the 
same line as the old town  guilds4 ,they
 all are manifestations of that         
democratic independence  which seems    
necessary for political freedom4 ,they  
all imply the  capacity for organization
 as they all have shown its power4 ,let 
us  believe that1 like the old guilds1  
these labor organizations are  helpful  
parts of the machinery of human         
progress4 ,they force upon us  the fact 
that there have been and are injustices 
which must be  righted4 ,we are         
beginning to learn that we can not      
depend upon one  side alone for our     

political economy or our facts2 that we 
need an  organization strong enough to  
compel respect in order to protect those
  who without it would be1 as they have 
been1 helpless4    ,all the smoke and   
clash of industrial warfare seem        
terrifying2 the  innocent victims shock 
our sense of justice1 but it is leading 
to the  perfect peace4 ,the true        
democracy--the brotherhood of man--is   
forcing  itself upon mankind4 ,if we in 
our prejudice1 our selfishness1 our     
ignorance1 defy the signs of its coming1
 try to prevent its growth1 or  find    
only license in liberty1 we shall       
continue to suffer all the ills  which  
an obstruction of progress or a         
violation of its laws always  brings    
with it4 ,is it not true that never in  
the history of the world  has there been
 an agrarian rising1 a peasant revolt1 a
 labor war1 that  back of it we do not  
find as a main cause the injustice1 the 
oppression1 the selfishness of a more   
powerful class8 ,and will there  be     

perfect peace1 perfect prosperity1 until
 the divine harmony--the  real          
brotherhood of man--is the rule of life8
 ,wrong always breeds  violence4 ,but   
out of that violence1 when the wrong is 
made right1  comes peace4 ,massachusetts
 in her motto declares that by the sword
  she seeks peace1 and1 to use ,richard 
,t4 ,ely's words1 the ,prince of  ,peace
 proclaimed1 ',think not that ,i am come
 to send peace on earth2 ,i  came not to
 send peace1 but a sword'2 and yet truly
 was he called the  ,prince of ,peace4  
,often is war the price of peace4 ,and  
no one1 no  class of men1 deserve their 
freedom unless1 when all other means    
fail1  they have the courage and energy 
to pay the price4    ,therefore1 we will
 not be alarmed at struggles which in   
the end will  bring about a better      
condition of life for all4 ,rather let  
us try to  end those struggles by       
pushing bravely on toward the end       
mankind is  striving for4 ,we1 with such
 a past as ours1 must not be false to   

the  ideal which is our birthright2 we  
should not be incapable of finding  the 
true way4 ,if we will forget our merely 
partisan strife1 our petty  jealousies1 
our class distinctions1 and have only   
one aim1 justice for  all1 an equal     
chance for self-development for all1    
whether he be born  rich or poor1 the   
ruling spirit of the next century will  
keep ,america  still true to her high   
calling1 and mankind still will find in 
her the  inspiration to raise the       
disheartened and lowly of other lands4  
,the  truest patriotism is broad enough 
to help the unfortunate everywhere1  and
 with courage1 intelligence1 and a faith
 in true democracy we shall  not fail4  
,,the ,,bering ,,sea ,,controversy      
,,once ,,more4    ,,by ,,prof4 ,t4 ,c4  
,,mendenhall4      ,mr4 ,clark's        
interesting and1 on the whole1 fair     
review of my article  on ,expert        
,testimony in the ,bering ,sea          
,controversy1 printed in this  journal  
in #ahig1 might be allowed to stand1    

without comment1 as the  best possible  
vindication of the work of the ,bering  
,sea ,commission of  #ahia-'ib1 and as  
strong corroborative evidence of the    
soundness of the  position taken in the 
article referred to4 ,one or two        
quotations which  he makes1 however1 are
 placed in such relation to other parts 
of the  paper as to imply meanings which
 a reading of the article as a whole    
will show were never intended4 ,this is 
notably true of the description  of the 
frame of mind in which a scientific man 
should approach or  conduct any         
investigation1 which ,mr4 ,clark quotes1
 and the further  statement that1       
unfortunately1 he often fails to come up
 to the  standard set1 and especially   
when his own interests are involved4    
,it might easily be inferred that these 
remarks were meant to have  special     
application to the members of one or    
both ,bering ,sea  commissions1 while as
 a matter of fact they were a part of   
the general  introduction1 occurring    

some time before any reference is made  
to the  commissions4 ,i should greatly  
regret having any one understand that   
there was the slightest intimation of   
the existence of a handsome  retainer1  
or anything of the sort1 in connection  
with any or all of  the ,bering ,sea    
investigations4    ,as far as the       
,american representatives on the first  
commission are  concerned1 it is no harm
 to say that the pecuniary residual was 
unfortunately affected by the wrong     
sign1 and this was doubtless the  case  
as well with ,dr4 ,jordan and his       
colleagues4    ,as to the truth of the  
statement regarding the scientific      
expert1 no  evidence need be offered    
here1 for it is furnished by every court
 in  the land1 and not a day passes that
 does not witness a struggle  between   
experts who have nearly always started  
from the same  premises1 but whose      
conclusions are diametrically opposed to
 each  other4 ,what ,i do want to say is
 that this is quite consistent with the 

perfect honesty and good intent of the  
experts themselves4 ,it is the  result  
of the limitations to which the         
operations of the human  intellect are  
still subjected1 and it is a fact always
 to be reckoned  with in matters of this
 kind4 ,there should be no skepticism as
 to the  honesty and frankness of ,sir  
,george ,baden-,powell and ,dr4 ,george 
,m4  ,dawson in assuming an attitude so 
opposed to that of the ,american        
commissioners in #ahib4    ,mr4 ,clark  
regards my article of #ahig as a        
prediction of failure for  the new      
commission1 an assumption quite         
unjustified and unsustained  by the     
article itself1 in which the fullest    
recognition is shown of  the great value
 of the work of ,dr4 ,jordan and his    
colleagues4 ,indeed1  the article was   
purposely prepared and published before 
the meeting of  the second commission1  
that it might not seem to be in any way 
a  criticism upon its work4 ,now that   
both commissions have made public  their

 findings1 the whole matter is easily   
accessible1 but ,mr4 ,clark  is hardly  
just to the first commissioners on      
either side1 by the  slight reference he
 makes to their separate reports to     
their  respective governments4 ,a more  
careful study of both might have led to 
some modification of his views1 even    
concerning the partition of  authorship 
which he has ventured to make4 ,it is no
 mean compliment1  however1 to find him 
admitting1 in regard to the report of   
the  ,american commissioners1 that not a
 single statement of fact in it has     
proved fallacious1 and the more         
exhaustive investigations of #ahif and  
#ahig corroborate its conclusions in    
every particular4 ,and this  admission  
lies adjacent to his assertion that the 
investigations  conducted by the two    
commissions of #ahia were1 from a       
scientific  point of view1 of the nature
 of a farce4 ,the fact is1 ,mr4 ,clark  
seems  to have strangely misunderstood  
the character of the investigations     

which were contemplated and desired4    
,the natural history of the fur  seal   
was not the question submitted to the   
joint commission1 except  in so far as  
it specially affected seal life in      
,bering ,sea and the  measures necessary
 for its proper protection and          
preservation4    ,facts1 causes1 and    
remedies were the subjects to be        
considered4  ,there is an old saying    
that the flavor of the pudding may often
 be  revealed by chewing the string1 and
 no long and exhaustive  investigation  
was necessary to enable the ,american   
commissioners to  arrive at what ,mr4   
,clark admits to be the facts1 causes1  
and  remedies for the ,bering ,sea      
problem4 ,not many weeks were occupied  
in  the field1 it is true1 for the      
commission was delayed in its           
appointment and notification1 and the   
season was nearly over when it  reached 
the islands4 ,but1 as ,mr4 ,clark justly
 remarks1 one member of  the commission1
 ,dr4 ,merriam1 was already             

exceptionally well informed  concerning 
the habits of the fur seal1 and some    
things may be so in  evidence that even 
a physicist can see them4    ,it is true
 that the joint report of the commission
 of #ahia-'ib was  meager1 and the      
explanation lies close at hand in the   
unwillingness of  the ,american         
commissioners to swerve from what they  
were convinced was  absolutely true4    
,mr4 ,clark will look in vain for the   
handwriting of  diplomacy mingled with  
that of science1 for the appearance of  
which  in the report of the commission  
of #ahig he offers apologies1 except1   
indeed1 it be the diplomacy of going    
straight at the facts without           
concealment or evasion1 on which        
,americans have sometimes prided        
themselves4    ,the joint report was    
limited to that1 and only that1 on which
 the  commissioners were actually       
agreed1 and the ,american commissioners 
have explained in their separate report 
that had they been willing to  concede  

certain points the joint report would   
have been greatly  augmented in volume4 
,mr4 ,clark has reviewed the conclusions
 of the  commission of #ahig1 which he  
justly considers a most important and   
valuable document4 ,it has not escaped  
his attention that in a number  of the  
paragraphs of this report the ,american 
commissioners have  committed themselves
 to the approval of several doubtful    
statements1  such as that the pelagic   
industry is conducted in an orderly     
manner1  and in a spirit of acquiescence
 in the limitations imposed by law2     
that a certain number of females may be 
killed without involving the  actual    
diminution of the herd2 the tendency    
toward equilibrium  theory2 that the    
herd is still far from a stage that     
threatens  extermination1 and others4   
,these statements he excuses as balm for
  the wounded feelings of the pelagic   
sealer2 a concession to  diplomacy2 a   
diplomatic concession to take the sting 
out of the real  admission2 another     

concession to diplomacy1 etc4 ,i do not 
wish to  be understood as questioning   
the necessity or wisdom of inserting    
these paragraphs in the joint report1   
but is it not a little strange  that    
with them in1 and apologizing for them  
as he does1 ,mr4 ,clark  should have    
selected this as a model of what the    
report of a  scientific commission ought
 to be and sufficient of itself to      
forever  fix the value of the scientific
 expert in the settlement of government 
disputes8 ,as ,i have already intimated1
 no one appreciates more highly  than ,i
 the great work done by ,dr4 ,jordan and
 his associates in the  study of the    
natural history of the seal4 ,may not   
the work of the two  commissions1 as    
bearing on the problem of the fur-seal  
industry1 be  summed up about as        
follows8--,the report of the ,american  
members of the  first commission related
 facts1 declared causes1 and proposed   
remedies4 ,the ,american case at the    
,paris arbitration rested on these4  ,as

 almost universally happens1 arbitration
 resulted in compromise1  unsatisfactory
 to both parties1 and1 as has since     
turned out1  decidedly unfavorable to   
one4 ,the commission of #ahig has made a
 joint  report of considerable length   
and much importance1 in which the       
facts1 causes1 and remedies of the      
report of #ahib are in a sense          
confirmed1 but with a number of         
concessions that do not strengthen the  
,american contention regarding pelagic  
sealing1 the justice of which  seems to 
be admitted by ,mr4 ,clark4 ,but the    
practical question is1 ,what  has been  
the effect of either or both of these   
commissions upon the  fur-seal industry8
 ,it would be unkind to press this      
question upon one  who characterizes the
 work of the first commission as above  
quoted1  and who speaks of the second as
 having1 after being in joint session   
one week1 concluded its labors1 reaching
 a full and satisfactory  agreement4 ,if
 he really wishes to know what progress 

is being made  under such an agreeable  
state of affairs1 let him inquire of the
  ,international ,joint ,commission1    
which is endeavoring to arrange all     
outstanding differences between this    
country and ,canada4          ,,causes  
,,and ,,prevention ,,of ,,insanity4     
,,by ,,smith ,,baker1 ,m4 ,d4      ,it  
is being found out that cases of        
insanity may of themselves fall         
naturally into two classes3 the first   
comprising those who get well1  and the 
second those who do not4 ,to the first  
class belong the  deliriums of fevers   
and other like diseases1 and also       
certain acute  manias and melancholias  
and the so-called generalized           
insanities4 ,in  the second class are   
included the insanities which last      
indefinitely1  or1 if seemingly cured1  
which1 in the proportion of from twelve 
to  fourteen per cent1 come back again  
one or more times1 and finally do  not  
recover4 ,says ,regis3 ,out of all forms
 of mental alienation or  insanity only 

the generalized types--i4 e41 mania and 
melancholia--are  curable4 ,the         
systematized insanities are essentially 
chronic and  recover only exceptionally 
7,practical ,manual of ,mental          
,medicine1 page  #ed74 ,the latter are  
known by such specific names as         
paranoia1 chronic  mania1 chronic       
melancholia1 insanity of doubt1 circular
 insanity1  hereditary insanity1 and the
 like4 ,what makes such a division of   
insanities into these two classes       
significant is not only that those  of  
the first class get well and the others 
do not1 but that1 generally  speaking1  
these latter are so founded in the      
constitution of the  individual that    
they can not recover1 let everything as 
yet possible  be done for them as it    
may4 ,probably there are exceptions to  
this2  but1 if so1 they are not very    
often met with4 ,all these cases seem to
  be doomed from the very first either  
to follow a slowly downward grade  to   
the very end1 or else to manifest a     

series of alternate better and  worse   
stages1 which1 while giving rise to     
bright hopes of ultimate  recovery1     
nevertheless just as surely tend more or
 less rapidly  downward1 in pretty      
strict accordance with the rule4 ,in    
passing1 it  may be noted that not only 
the tragedy of such alternations of     
emphatic despair and delusive hope      
constitutes not the least of the        
wretchedness involved in the history of 
these cases1 but that it is by  no means
 the easiest thing about them to manage2
 for1 in the earlier  stages1 it is     
almost impossible to make associates or 
relatives  understand the full meaning  
of the disease1 or to take a correct    
view  of its probable outcome4 ,even    
much later on they cling to the         
possibility of recovery1 which is as    
delusive as it is painful1 for  the     
disease goes on1 nevertheless1 with     
varying stride and  manifestation1 until
 it finally becomes evident that hope is
 almost  absolutely without any real    

foundation4    ,now1 when a case of     
persistent or recurrent but really      
irrecoverable  insanity is studied1 with
 respect not only to the life of the    
individual affected but to the lives of 
his ancestors1 both remote and  near1   
and in sufficient detail1 it is seen    
that the causes of the  present         
breakdown have been long and surely     
operative in those from  whom he has    
inherited certain unfavorable           
characteristics1 and at  whose hands he 
has had his bringing up and education2  
and this even  much more weightily than 
in himself or the life which he has     
lived4 ,so  far as the patient's own    
responsible life is concerned1 the      
common  causes1 such as accident1       
infection1 overwork1 mental and moral   
strain--in fact1 all the usual forms of 
stress--have1 of course1 been  just as  
variously to blame1 and in just the same
 way as they have been  in the          
production of insanities in other       
individuals who finally  recover4 ,but  

even in respect to these latter1 it     
probably may be most  frequently        
discovered that the harmful effects of  
certain so-called  exciting causes have 
been experienced1 not because of the    
common  emergencies and exigencies of   
life so much as because of some peculiar
  but unrevealed characteristics which  
have produced and maintained a  sort of 
vicious maelstrom into which have been  
attracted all the  detrimental          
influences that have accidentally or    
intentionally come  within reach4 ,for  
instance1 such persons are almost always
  predetermined to grow up into harmful 
bodily and mental habits4 ,says         
,peterson3 ,among all degenerates there 
is a taste or appetite for  certain     
foods or drugs which tend to favor their
 dissolution 7alcohol1  morphine1       
cocaine1 and the like7 7,state          
,hospitals ,bulletin1 vol4 i1  p4 #cgb74
 ,so also are they apt to be wrongly    
educated1 or to draw  around them       
harmful associates2 to develop the most 

wearying and  exhausting enthusiasms1 or
 to choose a business and place of      
residence  to which they are not        
adapted2 to marry some one who will     
chiefly wear  and burden them2 to assume
 responsibilities and positions out of  
keeping with their native strength and  
endurance2 in fact1 to get  entangled in
 all the affairs of life in just the    
very way calculated  to bring about the 
one thing which should have been1 by    
every known  means1 sought to be        
avoided4 ,it is in this way that        
physiological  fate unconsciously spins 
the web which ultimately fastens its own
  doom4 ,that such a pernicious course  
should eventually result in  disaster is
 no wonder at all2 for when investigated
 deeply and  comprehensively enough1 it 
is seen that of all possible persons1   
such  are1 by birth1 the very least     
calculated to endure the wear and tear  
thus engendered and maintained2 while1  
as scarcely a word is ever  heard and   
scarcely an effort is ever made as to   

the necessity for so  training and      
educating and inspiring these people    
that the defects of  heredity will be   
remedied1 it follows that the most      
ordinary ventures  of commonplace life  
are by far more dangerous to them than  
to their  better-endowed fellows4,a     
,when properly endowed by heredity1 and 
adequately bred and educated1 it is     
almost beyond wonder1 the amount  and   
character of persistent stress which    
human nature can triumphantly  endure4  
,when otherwise1 however1 it is no      
wonder at all that sooner or  later     
serious breakdown comes to pass4    ,the
 importance of saying this is obvious   
when we consider that as a  rule active 
life is allowed to be entered upon      
without adequate  preparation and       
intelligent adaptation of either bodily 
or mental  strength to the stress that  
is likely to be encountered4 ,always it 
is  asked1 if anything is asked at all1 
,has he the skill to make his  way8     
instead of1 ,has he the prospective     

endurance required by what  he purposes 
undertaking8 while1 if the latter       
chances to be  considered at all1 the   
conclusion is most usually based upon   
present  appearances rather than upon   
past tendencies or actual developments4 
,elsewhere ,i have said3 ,in almost     
every instance 7of breakdown7 ,i  have  
come across the result of some big      
educational blunder1 owing  either to   
the system in vogue or else to those who
 execute it4 7,see  ,steps toward       
,insanity1 ,new ,york ,medical ,journal1
 ,august #ad1 #ahig47    ,there is one  
fact about heredity which seems not to  
be commonly  considered--namely1 that   
each individual is really the descendant
 of  not only his immediate parents1 but
 of the two lines of ancestry           
indefinitely far back and widespread4   
,thus1 in many instances1 the           
dominating characteristics are not those
 of father and mother1 but of           
grandparents1 or of some other          
antecedent or collateral relatives      

instead4 ,in fact1 each individual in   
its development from the germ to        
adulthood passes through not only many  
animal forms1 but through many          
ancestral phases of character as well4  
,and1 as in the first case1 the  size   
and strength of adult physical features 
depend on the stage at  which growth    
becomes abnormally extended1 perverted1 
or arrested1 so1  with regard to mental 
and moral qualities and their           
persistence under  stress1 the outcome  
mostly if not entirely depends upon the 
extent to  which they are allowed or    
constrained to develop1 or the reverse4 
,here  we often see the absolutely      
limiting influence of atavism1 or what  
is characterized as reversion1 to       
generations further removed than  the   
parental1 but which really is the result
 of an exaggeration or a  stoppage1 or a
 perversion of development before the   
stage of parental  dominance is finally 
reached4 ,in this way the featural and  
mental  characteristics of relatives as 

far removed as great-grandparents or    
great-granduncles1 as well as           
grandparents and uncles1 are seen to    
appear in children even when young1 to  
be finally either accentuated  and made 
prominent1 or else possibly outgrown or 
otherwise overcome as  the years go by1 
and as the later parental determining   
powers and the  corresponding           
environment come to manifest their      
influence4    ,with this view of        
heredity in mind1 it is easy to see how 
the real  basis of every mental         
breakdown may be and probably is simply 
an  overdoing or perversion or other    
irregularity at some premature or       
atavistic stage of development2 and that
 anything and everything  which may have
 had to do in causing this should be    
considered as a  primary step toward the
 insanity itself4 ,but easy as it is to 
see this  theoretically1 it does not    
necessarily follow that it is easy to   
get  hold of the real facts or to help  
the matter in any given case4 ,many     

times families are loath to reveal      
things which might indicate such a      
basis of the dreaded disease4 ,many     
times they do not recognize the         
necessity of telling what they would    
otherwise be willing enough to  reveal4 
,many things are absolutely forgotten or
 have been at best only  vaguely        
comprehended4 ,sometimes conscious      
deception is practiced2 at  others1 the 
party who really has known the facts is 
dead or is  otherwise inaccessible4 ,but
 more often1 and more interfering still1
 is  the unconscious perversion of      
facts1 either from the false meanings   
which1 owing to specific views and      
predilections and fears1 are read  into 
them1 not only by the laity1 but often  
by the profession1 or else  from the    
wrong deductions derived from actual    
facts clearly  understood4 ,try as one  
may1 it is often most difficult to get a
  sufficient number of clearly defined  
facts to enable even the most  expert to
 form a true and comprehensive idea of  

the case in hand4,b  ,this leads to the 
remark that what is now absolutely      
needed is some  form of record-keeping  
which shall become a general practice on
 the  part of heads of families and     
their physicians1 and which may be      
handed down from generation to          
generation2 and not only this1 but that 
these shall be so accurately and fully  
kept that they may be worthy of         
consideration as the best and in fact   
the only basis of a scientific          
generalization in case of mental or     
moral emergency4 ,that people as a  rule
 would probably resent this1 as         
constituting an undue interference  with
 the sanctity of personal and family    
rights1 while undoubtedly  rendering it 
practically nugatory for the time being1
 does not in any  good sense militate   
against either the scientific need or   
the great  good which would accrue from 
the use of such family records          
faithfully  and intelligently kept4 ,it 
is encouraging to note that already the 

way  for such records is being opened in
 the demands made by the various        
questionnaires sent out by ,dr4 ,g4     
,stanley ,hall and others who are       
interested in the scientific study of   
children4 7,see various issues of  the  
,american ,journal of ,psychology1 and  
of the ,pedagogical ,seminary1  for     
pertinent suggestions and results4 ,also
 an article by ,dr4 ,william  ,h4       
,thomson1 in the ,yale ,medical ,journal
 for ,april1 #ahih47 ,much more  useful 
and in general satisfactory would this  
be than the blind  staggering after     
elusory causation now so universally and
 yet so  futilely pursued4    ,and the  
same may be said with reference to      
statistics as commonly  tabulated4      
,these having reference but to the      
surface showings1 the                   
after-the-mischief-is-done results1 and 
so often obtained under  misleading     
constraint or other unfavorable         
influences1 are scarcely  capable of    
even hinting the significance of real   

conditions1 and  especially of          
tendencies that have existed antecedent 
to the  individual breakdown4 ,for      
instance1 such statistics as those      
compiled  by ,dr4 ,wise 7see ,state     
,hospitals ,bulletin1 vol4 i1 page      
#aeg71 when  subjected to the           
requirements of an accurate causative   
consideration1  easily lend themselves  
to the criticism made by the author     
himself1  who says1 ,the careful        
inquirer can receive no reliable        
information  from the study of insane   
hospital statistics except the bare fact
 of  the number of insane persons under 
care and treatment4 ,yet a glance  at   
his tables shows that forty-two per cent
 of the cases admitted to  the ,new     
,york ,state hospitals for the year     
ending ,september #cj1 #ahie1  are to be
 noted as suffering from constitutional 
degeneracies1 and so  presumably to be  
incurable4 ,the more than twenty per    
cent of cases of  insanity reported to  
have had hereditary antecedents1        

although  undoubtedly as accurate as    
possible under the circumstances1 merely
  chronicle the more obvious matters1   
and must necessarily have left out  of  
account all the less obvious but in many
 respects even more  important ones4    
,and so with all the other series thus  
far published4  ,they are good as       
indicating where we are to look for some
 of the steps  toward insanity1 but for 
the most part they are quite inadequate 
for a  basis of comprehensive discussion
 or anything like accurate  conclusion4 
,the pressing need1 then1 is that there 
shall be obtained a series of           
statistics which shall be founded upon  
the most definite1 penetrating1  and    
far-reaching studies of cases that it is
 possible for the trained  scientist1   
with the help of an intelligent1 willing
 laity1 to make4 ,in  this respect it   
may be said that the assistance of the  
latter is just  as essential as the     
painstaking devotion of the former2 for 
it is upon  the facts which an          

intelligent laity can observe and report
 that the  scientist can bring his      
training to bear in such a way as to    
arrive  eventually at accurate and      
therefore most useful generalizations4  
,but  such concurrent observation and   
study will never be until the public    
shall have come to look upon insanity as
 merely an unfortunate disease  instead 
of a stigmatized disgrace1 which1 with  
certain exceptions1 it  should not be   
considered to be4 ,nor will this be the 
case until  professional examiners in   
lunacy shall regularly ask for such     
family  records1 and thus create a need 
for their being made4 ,when both the    
public as well as the profession lay    
aside entirely the common notions  of a 
transcendental origin of insanity1 and  
set to work to study the  perfectly     
natural steps through which degeneration
 and breakdown  eventually come to be1  
all will see the desirability of such   
health  records being accurately and    
fully kept1 not only as a help toward   

determining the nature and prospects of 
any given case1 but also  toward        
preventing the development of those     
constitutional tendencies  which lead to
 trouble1 as well as in helping on those
 that provide  against it4    ,when we  
come to study the causes of insanity    
with a view to  successfully preventing 
it1 we are led to the supposition that  
the  nearer to very first steps we can  
push our investigations the greater     
will be our service4 ,remembering that  
the well-born1 well-bred  personality   
generally bears almost every sort of    
stress with  comparative impunity1 it   
becomes us to ask just how does the     
opposite--the ill-born1                 
ill-bred--constitution come so to be1   
and  hence to break down so easily4     
,certainly1 the weak1 easily breaking   
strains must have their origin and      
growth just as definitely as the  more  
enduring ones1 and if we can get an     
accurate notion of such  origin and the 
conditions of subsequent growth1 it     

seems probable that  useful knowledge   
will thus be attained4    ,with this    
object in view an investigation was     
undertaken which should  cover the life 
histories of a series of families with  
sufficient  detail and extension to     
warrant at least tentative conclusions  
as well  as also to indicate probable   
lines for future work4 ,so far as       
possible1 inquiries were pushed along   
collateral as well as direct  lines of  
ancestry2 and not only ill health but   
common habits and  experiences were1 so 
far as possible1 given the consideration
 strictly  their due4 ,in every way the 
attempt was made to properly estimate   
the  factors appertaining to the more   
intimate personal life as well as  those
 that were more obvious and impersonal4 
,often1 however1 the  completed record  
proved to be more or less broken2 more  
often still1  important items--the most 
important of all1 in fact--could only be
  obtained under promise of absolute    
secrecy as to future use4 ,so1 as       

matters of absolute science1 the        
following conclusions must stand        
chiefly as challenges for future        
confirmation or change4 ,but1 so far  as
 they can be allowed to go1 they may be 
accepted as pretty  thoroughly based in 
ascertained fact and legitimate         
generalization4    ,the very first      
conclusion1 so far as the natural       
history of the steps  toward insanity is
 concerned1 is that the weak            
constitutional strands  and tendencies  
have their beginnings in those ancestral
 marriages  which1 chiefly for          
educational reasons1 ,i have chosen to  
call  unphysiological4,c ,by an         
unphysiological marriage one need not   
mean  a marriage between people         
obviously deformed or imbecile or       
insane1 or  otherwise permanently       
unfitted1 but rather between people who 
are  found to be not well adapted to    
each other in some important sense4     
,thus1 too great physical disproportion2
 too great disparity of age1 or  of     

temperament1 or of family or of natural 
tendencies2 or1 on the  other hand1 too 
near a sameness1 either through         
consanguinity or other  sources2 or too 
fixed constitutional characteristics2 or
 even too  great differences of         
education1 religion1 taste1 or ambition4
 ,in fact1  it seems probable that      
anything and everything which           
difficultly  amalgamates in marriage1   
and as surely fails to blend in progeny1
 may  be considered as unphysiological  
in this connection4 ,as ,i have said    
elsewhere3 ,the parties entering into   
such an unphysiological marriage  may   
both be normal individually1 but yet not
 physiologically  marriageable1 because 
they are either too distantly or too    
nearly1 or  in fact too                 
unphysiologically1 related1 either      
physically or  psychically4 ,in such    
cases the ultimate outcome is almost    
absolutely  certain1 and is noted       
chiefly by a definite class of tensions 
and  reactions of both mind and body    

which invariably impress themselves     
upon progeny1 and which for the most    
part are made obvious in this           
particular way4 ,no matter how          
unphysiological such marriages may be1  
however1 they do not necessarily or very
 often result in the evolution  of      
insanity in the parties contracting     
them1 but rather they do lay  the       
foundation of degenerative tendencies   
which almost invariably  predetermine   
the development of this affection in    
more or less remote  succeeding         
generations4 ,nor do the children of    
such marriages  necessarily or generally
 become insane1 although they sometimes 
do2  but1 impressed as these are by the 
degenerative malnutritions and  tensions
 and reactions of their parents1 they   
tend to exhibit arrests  and            
eccentricities of development1 which in 
turn become intensified in  the next1   
and again1 in turn1 in all the          
generations following1 until  the       
instability becomes so marked that      

explosion occurs4 ,in passing1  it may  
be said that the most frequent source of
 the initiatory  tensions and reactions 
resulting from unphysiological marriage 
is  undoubtedly found in abnormal       
cohabitation1 and the unrest and        
unsatisfaction and exhaustion resulting 
therefrom4 ,such a condition of  things 
begets in perfectly normal people an    
irritating1 nagging1  exhausting1       
persistent erethism1 which in time      
involves the whole  organism and        
deflects it from its norm4 ,two people  
enmeshed in such a  bond always go to   
excesses and irregularities1 either in  
abstinence or  indulgence2 or1 if not   
this1 then the whole matter becomes     
aversional1  with straining antipathy1  
perverting practices1 and ideational    
distrusts and loathings more and more   
predominating4 ,no wonder that  such    
people predetermine succeeding          
generations to abnormal  sensitiveness1 
irregular growth1 and erratic           
manifestations in both  mental and      

physical spheres4 7,see ,new ,york      
,medical ,journal for ,august  #ad1     
#ahig2 also ,journal of ,nervous and    
,mental ,diseases1 vol4 xvii1 page      
#ffi47    ,now1 the outcome of such     
marriages seems to be a vitiated stream 
of  tendency1 which carries with it in  
its progress from generation to         
generation certain elements which       
predetermine to still fuller  vitiation1
 even with incurable insanity1 as noted 
above4 ,thus1 people  endowed with such 
natural characteristics1 being          
altogether too prone  to gravitate      
toward each other1 eventually marry1 and
 thus emphasize  in progeny the         
vitiation already doubly initiated4     
,nature's course  demands that such     
people marry1 if at all1 into the       
healthiest1 most  corrective stock      
possible4 ,but here immediately there   
arises not only  a scientific           
prohibition1 but an ethical question    
which should be  heeded3 ,should such   
people really marry even the best of    

stock1 with  the probability of thus    
vitiating a stream which until this time
 has  evidently been becoming clearer   
and stronger8 ,again1 people who are    
constitutionally tending to mental      
breakdown are very apt to load          
themselves down with duties and get     
themselves into situations which  must  
necessarily prove to be too onerous and 
too perplexing for their  poorly        
developed strength and skill4 ,of       
course1 circumstances often  require    
this4 ,many times1 however1 there is a  
kind of impulsive  restlessness coupled 
with a short-sighted optimism1 both     
constitutional1 which1 altogether more  
than ordinary circumstances1  are to    
blame for undue assumption of work or   
care1 and whose effect  is1 perhaps1    
best seen in the persistent tendency of 
such people to  originate and perpetuate
 exhausting habits1 both of mind and    
body4  ,thus1 the habit of              
self-poisoning from poorly digested and 
poorly  assimilated food is easily      

acquired by such people1 and always     
becomes  a source of progressive brain  
starvation and often of consequent      
mental breakdown4 ,says ,dr4 ,a4 ,s4    
,thayer 7,journal of ,medicine and      
,science1 vol4 iii1 page #agc71 ,there  
is ground for belief that               
exhaustion--fatigue--is dependent upon  
poisoning of the cells of the  brain1   
muscles1 and other tissues by the waste 
products of functional  activity4,d     
,again1 as already noted1 perversions of
 the natural  instincts--of appetite for
 food1 of desire for gain1 of social or 
other ambitions1 and especially of the  
sexual impulse and its habitual         
indulgence--fasten themselves upon such 
individuals with a permanence  and      
destructiveness that must almost of     
necessity lead to disaster4,e  ,and so  
we may see that as a most natural1      
although often a  far-removed1 result of
 unphysiological marriages1 proceeding  
through  generations which have been    
thus predestinated to weakening choices 

and practices1 insanity finally appears 
to mark the ultimate extent  both of the
 mental disorganization and bodily      
inefficiency1 which  extent is owing not
 only to the original initiating steps1 
but also to  subsequent stages of       
causation1 progressively developed from 
generation to generation4    ,another   
great source of vitiation of the stream 
of tendency is found  in two people who 
marry in a truly enough physiological   
sense1 but who  find or force themselves
 in lives of wear and tear which        
progressively  unfit them for           
childbearing and child nurture4 ,poorly 
calculated  ambitions1 unexpected       
difficulties to be surmounted1          
depressing  oppositions1 with perhaps   
more or less actual disease or accident1
  largely account for this in a general 
way4 ,obviously1 during the             
child-rearing age1 the effect of what   
parents are obliged to endure  and      
execute upon the fortunes of progeny    
becomes a matter of  far-reaching       

importance4 ,that anything which        
persistently exhausts or  overstrains   
the parents must tell in the later      
dynamic tendency and  development is    
premised at least by certain recent     
studies1 especially  those of ,hodge on 
the influence of fatigue1 and of ,van   
,gieson on the  effects of exhaustion   
and intoxication upon the nervous       
elements4 7,see  also ,peterson1 op4    
cit47 ,in no sense can parents be said  
to live for  themselves chiefly4 ,always
 the influence of their own health1     
happiness1 and prosperity upon their    
children should be remembered1  and     
should be made as constructive as       
possible4 ,that this can be  consciously
 attempted with commensurate results is 
more or less  evidenced not only by     
common observation but by investigation4
 ,not1  however1 in the sense that      
parents are always able to endow        
children  with some particular1         
much-wished-for characteristic1 as so   
many  suppose--for it must be remembered

 that perhaps pretty fixed  tendencies  
for several generations may have to be  
overcome and  reversed before such      
special results can be obtained1 but in 
the much  better sense of giving such an
 impetus healthward and strengthward and
  lifeward as may later on be the       
beginning of a constitutional           
foundation that shall support many      
generations of full health and          
longevity4    ,if1 then1 the first      
steps--and1 generally speaking1 the most
 important  steps--are discovered in the
 unphysiological marriage and its       
influence upon the bearing and rearing  
of progeny1 then it is obvious  enough  
that prevention of incurable insanity   
should begin with giving  adequate      
attention to this phase of the subject1 
and this first and  emphatically4       
,already the law says that certain      
peculiarly afflicted  individuals can   
not marry2 and probably this is about as
 far as the  law can helpfully go until1
 at least1 public intelligence as well  

as  private sentiment will sustain it in
 going further4 ,so we must look to     
these latter--a widespread intelligence 
and a corresponding earnest  sentiment  
founded upon such intelligence--for the 
means of making  progress toward the    
prevention of insanity4 ,but how can    
this needed  knowledge and helpful      
sentiment come to be8 ,certainly not by 
perpetuating the present notions of     
so-called modesty and purity1  which1 as
 now held1 must always interfere with   
the study and practice  necessary for   
ascertaining the truth1 and for applying
 it to the needs  of race-building4 ,the
 time ought to come soon1 very soon1    
when matters  of such serious content   
shall not be so absolutely subject to   
the  dominance of conventionality and   
guesswork and recklessness as now1  but 
shall instead be subject to the sway of 
accurate science and its  careful       
adaptation to human conditions4 ,every  
marriage now is at best  but an         
experiment--blind and chance-taking     

often1 in a most wasteful  and dangerous
 sense4 ,let it remain1 if it must1 an  
experiment still1  but one which shall  
be henceforth conducted with such       
foresight and  skill1 and withal with   
such intelligent purpose1 as shall      
certainly  point to improved results    
from generation to generation4          
,experience  shows that it is           
comparatively easy to ascertain what    
marriages1  generally speaking1 are     
prone to result in obviously vitiated   
progeny2  or if not in these1 then1 to  
some extent at least1 in the progeny    
which1 being unnaturally constituted1   
are prone to develop their  weaker      
strands of personality1 and so to break 
down in the end4 ,but to  this course   
neither prudery nor superstition nor    
selfishness will ever  assent2 it must  
be pursued in spite of these1 and by the
 only method  which science now         
recognizes--namely1 accurate            
observation1 careful  record1 and the   
most comprehensive1 skillful comparison1

 all in order  that truthful inductions 
may be finally secured4 ,that parents   
should  train up their children to look 
forward to marriage not as the acme of  
personal indulgence and satisfaction1   
but as a most responsible  partnership  
for the developmental keeping of unborn 
fortunes1 and the  proper nurturing of  
the children that may come to them1 is  
no longer  speculation1 but a           
science-founded fact4 ,undoubtedly the  
highest state  of adult satisfaction    
will always be closely associated with  
what may  be characterized as child     
completion4 ,moreover1 that an          
educational  system which so thoroughly 
ignores this most important of all      
educational subjects must1 in time1 be  
subjected to the criticism  which       
science may justly develop1 is amply    
borne out by the cases  studied4 ,often1
 indeed1 has it appeared that had a     
modicum of real  knowledge been at hand1
 most disastrous results would naturally
 have  been obviated4 ,educators lead   

the day2 why not they lead in directions
  which shall most truly correct the    
results of physiological ignorance  and 
daring8 ,that no man or woman should go 
forth from college with  such vital     
knowledge unlearned is probably the     
first and most  important means of      
preventing incurable insanity           
conceivable2 and that  these in turn    
should never hesitate to diffuse        
popularly that which  they have been so 
favored in the learning1 implies a duty 
which the  intelligence itself makes    
clear4    ,so1 too1 if persistent       
overstrain and exhaustion of parents1   
either  prospective or actual1 leads    
directly to starvation of their own     
structural elements1 how probable that  
the initiating and bearing and          
nurturing of children is to a like      
extent detrimentally interfered  with in
 any given case through the development 
of an erratic cell  growth4 ,certain it 
is that completeness of development     
depends on two  things--namely1         

nutrition and exercise4 ,in a biological
 sense both  these are dependent upon a 
right adjustment of supply to demand4   
,hence  starvation or engorgement1      
inactivity or overwork1 each may lead to
  the same dynamic result--that is to   
say1 to an interference with the  proper
 growth of the organism4 ,that due heed1
 then1 should always be  given to the   
necessary health preservation of those  
who essay to  become parents1 not only  
in preparation for but during the whole 
so-called childbearing period1 is so    
scientifically deducible that it  may be
 for all practical purposes considered  
as axiomatic4 ,the way to  have healthy1
 long-lived1 and happy children is for  
parents to be  healthful and            
intelligently careful themselves2 while 
the whole  science of health must       
eventually consist in the science of    
such  symmetrical and high development  
as will enable individuals to endure    
necessary strain1 resist disease1 and   
rapidly and fully recover from  accident

 and infection4      ,,footnotes3    ,a 
,it is perfectly certain that two in    
every three children are  irretrievably 
damaged or hindered in their mental and 
moral  development in the schools2 but  
,i am not sure that they would fare     
better if they stayed at                
home4--,baldwin1 in ,mental             
,development1 p4  #ch4    ,b ,see an    
instance clearly elucidative of this in 
an account of the  ,kelly murder trial1 
given by ,dr4 ,walter ,channing in the  
,american  ,journal of ,insanity for    
,january1 #ahih1 page #che4    ,c ,see  
,new ,york ,medical ,journal for ,august
 #ad1 #ahig4    ,d ,see also ,dr4       
,edward ,cowles4 ,shattuck ,lecture on  
,neurasthenia4    ,e ,see ,peterson4    
,the ,stigmata of ,degeneration4 ,state 
,hospitals  ,bulletin1 vol4 i1 p4 #cbg4 
,,sketch ,,of ,,william ,,pengelly4     
,the name of ,william ,pengelly is most 
closely associated with the             
explorations of caves in ,england       
containing relics of men together  with 

the remains of extinct animals1 the     
results of which1 confirming  similar   
conclusions that had been reached in    
,france1 convinced ,english  geologists 
of man's extreme antiquity4 ,speaking of
 him at the time of  his death as one of
 the last survivors of the heroes who   
laid the  foundation of geological      
science1 ,prof4 ,t4 ,g4 ,bonney said1   
,he has  left behind an example of what 
one man can do in advancing knowledge   
by energy and perseverance4    ,,william
 ,,pengelly was born at ,east ,looe1 a  
fishing village in ,cornwall1  ,england1
 ,january #ab1 #ahab1 and died in       
,torquay1 ,march #af1 #ahid4 ,the  name 
of ,pengelly is not uncommon in         
,cornwall1 and has figured in  ,english 
history--among others1 in the person of 
,sir ,thomas ,pengelly1  who was chief  
baron of the exchequer1 and left certain
 sums for the  discharge of debtors from
 the jails of ,bodmin and ,launceston4  
,his  father was captain of a small     
coasting vessel1 and he acquired a      

strong attachment to the sea4 ,he was   
sent to the ,dame's ,school in his      
native village when very young1 and     
before he was five years old had  made  
so rapid progress that his mother       
applied to the master of a  school for  
larger boys to receive him as a pupil4  
,the master declined  to take him1 but1 
hearing him reading as he passed the    
door of the  house not long afterward1  
concluded to grant the mother's request4
 ,at  school he soon gained such a      
reputation for scholarship that the boys
  made him spend all his play hours     
helping them in their lessons4 ,his     
school days ended when he was twelve    
years old1 and he accompanied his       
father to sea1 making1 however1 voyages 
that were seldom more than  three days  
long1 most of the work of which         
consisted in taking in and  taking out  
cargo4 ,the sailors soon discovered his 
clerkly gifts and  employed him to write
 their letters1 but did not so well     
appreciate  his excellent conversational

 powers4 ,on tailoring days it was      
understood that his clothes should be   
repaired for him1 while he read  aloud  
for the general benefit1 and the sailors
 would amuse themselves  by finding     
solutions to questions in ,walkingham's 
,arithmetic4 ,his  seafaring life closed
 in his sixteenth year1 when the death  
of a  brother made it desirable that he 
should remain at home4    ,though       
working hard all the day for a mere     
support1 young ,pengelly  managed to    
spend several hours every night in      
study1 seeking to master  mathematics4  
,he had no tutor and no really good     
text-books1 but made  such progress in  
his studies that in a comparatively     
short time he  became a mathematical    
tutor of no mean order4 ,he bought his  
first  ,euclid of a peddler who         
occasionally visited the place2 then1   
having  saved up a little money for the 
purpose1 it was a happy day for him     
when he walked thirty miles to          
,devonport and back1 bearing1 on his    

return1 twenty volumes in a bundle over 
his shoulder2 among them were  the works
 of some of the standard authors1 for he
 cultivated a  literary as well as a    
mathematical taste4    ,he received his 
first lesson in geology while he was    
still a sailor  boy1 at ,lyme ,regis--a 
spot exceedingly rich in fossils4 ,a    
laborer whom  he was observing broke a  
stone1 the opening of which disclosed a 
fine  ammonite4 ,to his question as to  
what the fossil was1 the laborer        
replied that if he had read his ,bible  
he would have known2 that there  was    
once a flood that covered all the world2
 the things that were  drowned were     
buried in the mud1 and this was a snake 
which had  suffered that fate4 ,a snake6
 but where's his head8 ,he was again    
referred to the ,bible1 which would tell
 him why the snakes in the  rocks had no
 heads4 ,we're told there that the seed 
of the woman shall  bruise the serpent's
 head4 ,that's how 'tis4 ,the second    
lesson came a  few years later1 in a    

reading club of which ,pengelly was a   
member4  ,they were reading ,dick's     
,christian ,philosopher1 and came to a  
geological section1 when the reader     
remarked that as geology was very       
likely to be extremely dry1 and as many 
good people thought it  dangerous if not
 decidedly infidel in its teachings1 he 
would propose  that the selection should
 not be read4 ,this was passed by       
acclamation1  and the reader passed on  
to astronomy4    ,while still young1    
,pengelly removed to ,torquay1 where he 
spent the  remainder of his life4       
,shortly after arriving there1 he opened
 a small  day school on the             
,pestalozzian system1 into which he     
introduced the  novelty of the use of   
chalk and the blackboard in giving      
instruction4  ,beginning with six       
pupils1 the school grew rapidly4 ,he had
 private  pupils1 too1 and in #ahdf     
these had become so numerous that he    
gave up  his school1 and as a special   
tutor in mathematics and the natural    

sciences found his life occupation4     
,some of his pupils became              
distinguished in after life2 while      
others1 like the two ,russian  princes1 
nephews of the ,czar ,alexander ,,ii1   
and ,princess ,mary1 of the             
,netherlands1 all of whom became much   
attached to him1 were famous by  reason 
of their position4 ,his attention was   
brought for a third time  to geology    
while looking over some books which he  
thought might be  useful to his pupils1 
when he found one published by the      
brothers  ,chambers1 which contained a  
chapter on that science4 ,this was not  
much1 but it was enough to inform him   
how much had already been done  in      
geology1 and1 perhaps1 to give him a    
hint of some of the  possibilities that 
lay in it4 ,from this time on1 he was   
ardently  interested in geology4 ,the   
journal of his first visit to ,london   
and  the ,british ,museum1 in #ahdc1    
attests how he was becoming absorbed in 
it4 ,he spent his holidays in geological

 explorations and in excursions  which  
gradually grew larger1 until his        
position as a geologist was  recognized1
 and he became an authority respecting  
all points and  phenomena which had come
 under his personal knowledge4 ,a hint  
dropped  to him by ,professor ,jameson  
as he was about to visit the ,isle of   
,arran  taught him to make his notes of 
observations on the spot1 and greatly   
helped1 his daughter ,hester observes in
 the biography on which we have  drawn  
very largely1 to form those habits of   
extreme accuracy which  characterized   
all his scientific work4    ,in #ahcg   
,mr4 ,pengelly assisted in the          
reorganization of the ,torquay          
,mechanics' ,institute1 with which he   
maintained a connection for more  than  
twenty years1 and before which he       
delivered many lectures4 ,in  #ahdd he  
participated in the organization of the 
,torquay ,natural  ,history ,society1 of
 which he became1 in #ahea1 honorary    
secretary1 and  remained so for more    

than thirty-nine years4 ,under his      
guidance it  became a scientific power  
in the country4 ,year after year he     
lectured  there1 tincturing the locality
 with his own enthusiasm2 and from the  
society there ultimately sprang the     
museum in ,babbacombe ,road1 with  its  
admirable collections4    ,his lectures1
 delivered gratuitously at ,torquay1    
were very popular1  and were attended by
 large audiences4 ,the fame of them     
spread1 and he  was called to other     
places--,exeter1 ,exmouth1 and larger   
towns and  farther off1 and to the great
 learned societies--where he lectured1  
always with success1 and to the         
satisfaction and delight of his         
audiences4 ,those persons living1 and   
they are many1 says ,mr4 ,f4 ,s4  ,ellis
 in the preface to ,hester ,pengelly's  
biography of her father1  who had the   
good fortune to hear ,pengelly lecture  
will bear ready  witness to the complete
 mastery he always had of his subject1  
and of  the faculty of imparting his    

knowledge4 ,even when speaking upon     
abstruse subjects to a mixed audience1  
he would make the matter  perfectly     
clear without in any degree appearing to
 talk down to the  capacity of those he 
was addressing4444 ,his manner was no   
less  pleasing and attractive than the  
language in which he clothed his  ideas 
was grateful to the ear4 ,geology and   
astronomy furnished the  subjects of the
 lectures4    ,it would be impracticable
 in a brief sketch to follow the detail 
of  ,pengelly's geological              
investigations previous to his engaging 
in  systematic cave exploration4 ,they  
embraced fields chiefly in  ,devonshire 
and ,cornwall1 and afforded subjects for
 correspondence and  discussion with    
many of the most eminent ,british       
geologists1 and some  of other countries
 than ,england4 ,a study of some fossil 
fish1 first  observed by ,mr4 ,charles  
,w4 ,peach in ,cornwall1 furnished the  
occasion  for one of his first recorded 
papers1 ,on the ,ichthyolites of ,east  

,cornwall1 in the ,transactions of the  
,royal ,geological ,society of ,east    
,cornwall1 #ahdi-'ej2 and a single      
volume--the seventh--of these           
,transactions contains nine of his      
papers4 ,another subject of interest    
was the beekites1 curious formations of 
chalcedonic silica on the  limestone    
fragments in the ,new ,red ,sandstone of
 ,devonshire1 first  observed by ,dr4   
,beek1 of ,bristol1 concerning which he 
read a paper at  the ,cheltenham meeting
 of the ,british ,association1 the first
 which he  attended1 in #ahef4 ,in #ahfj
 he completed the formation of a        
collection  of ,devonian fossils from   
,devon and ,cornwall1 which was         
presented by  the ,baroness             
,burdett-,coutts to the new museum of   
the ,university of  ,oxford1 in         
connection with the foundation of a     
geological scholarship1  and was named  
the ,pengelly ,collection4    ,the first
 of the more important geological       
researches with which  ,pengelly's name 

is intimately associated was the        
exploration of the  peculiar formation  
at ,bovey ,tracey1 for the              
identification of its  fossils and the  
determination of its age4 ,the plain in 
which the  formation lay had an aspect  
suggesting the basin of an ancient lake1
  and its deposits1 very different from 
the solid rocks of the  surrounding     
hills1 confirmed the suggestion4 ,they  
consisted of  gravels1 sands1 and clays1
 distinctly stratified1 with seams of   
lignite1 for which they had been worked4
 ,the pits had already  attracted some  
notice1 and the deposits had been       
mentioned in  scientific literature1 but
 very little had been learned concerning
  their age4 ,in #ahfj the subject was  
mentioned by the late ,dr4 ,falconer1   
an eminent paleontologist1 to ,miss     
,burdett-,coutts as one the             
investigation of which would be a boon  
to science4 ,miss ,coutts  supplied the 
money that was needed1 and the direction
 of the  systematic investigation was   

intrusted to ,pengelly2 on learning     
which1  ,sir ,charles ,lyell wrote to   
him3 ,i am very glad of the prospect of 
our  knowing something of the ,bovey    
coal plants4 ,it is almost a reproach to
  ,english geology that they have been  
so little explored1 as they are  perhaps
 the only fossils of the ,tertiary      
period to which they belong4  ,in order 
to determine accurately the nature1     
thickness1 and order of  the successive 
beds1 and to make a satisfactory        
collection of fossils1  a new section of
 the deposit was made1 measuring one    
hundred and  twenty-five feet1 down to  
the bottom of a seam of lignite four    
feet in  thickness1 the last bed of the 
workmen1 but not at the actual base  of 
the deposit4 ,thirteen of the thirty-one
 beds of lignite which were  cut        
through1 and two of the beds of clay1   
yielded distinguishable  plant remains4 
,these were sent to ,dr4 ,oswald ,heer1 
of ,switzerland1 for  examination2 and  
he determined from the collection fifty 

species1  including ferns1 conifers1    
figs1 cinnamon trees1 an oak1 a laurel1 
vines1 andromedas1 a bilberry1 a        
gardenia1 a water lily1 and some        
leguminous plants4 ,heer referred the   
group to the ,lower ,miocene  period1   
but some modification was afterward made
 in this determination  in the light of 
a fuller knowledge of the ,tertiary     
flora4 ,the deposits  and work at ,bovey
 ,tracey were the subject of a memoir to
 the ,royal  ,society by ,sir ,charles  
,lyell2 and ,dr4 ,heer's account of his 
work--,the  ,fossil ,flora of ,bovey    
,tracey--was published in #ahfc4        
,while this investigation was going on1 
,lyell was preparing the fifth  edition 
of his ,manual of ,geology4 ,he invited 
,pengelly to suggest  corrections to the
 text1 saying that1 besides positive    
mistakes1 he  would be glad of any hints
 and suggestions made freely1 which your
  knowledge of the manner in which      
beginners are struck may enable you  to 
send us4 ,the criticisms supplied by    

,mr4 ,pengelly were adopted by  ,lyell  
except where they had already been made 
unnecessary4    ,on the accidental      
discovery by workmen1 in #aheh1 of a    
cavern in  ,windmill ,hill1 overhanging 
the town of ,brixham1 ,pengelly at once 
thought of finding what was in it1 and  
what story it might have to  tell4 ,he  
visited the place and applied to the    
owner for permission to  explore it in  
behalf of the ,torquay ,natural ,history
 ,society4 ,but on  consultation with   
,dr4 ,hugh ,falconer it was decided that
 as that  society probably had not means
 sufficient to bear the expense of the  
exploration1 the ,royal and             
,geographical ,societies should be      
applied to  for a grant4 ,this was      
obtained1 and the work was carried on   
under the  superintendence of ,professor
 ,prestwich and ,mr4 ,pengelly1 on whom1
 as a  resident of the place1 the burden
 substantially fell4 ,the decision to   
explore the cave was brought about      
largely by the fact that it was a       

virgin cave which had been inaccessibly 
closed during an incalculably  long     
period1 the last previous event in its  
history having been the  introduction of
 a reindeer antler1 which was found     
attached to the  upper surface of the   
stalagmitic floor4 ,it was therefore    
free from the  objection urged against  
,kent's ,cavern that1 having been long  
known and  open1 it had probably been   
ransacked again and again4 ,a thorough  
method of exploration was determined    
upon1 beginning with the  examination   
and removal of the stalagmitic floor2   
after which the  upper bed should be    
dealt with in a similar manner          
horizontally  throughout the entire     
length of the cavern1 or so far as      
practicable2  then the next lower bed1  
and so on1 till all the deposits had    
been  removed4 ,by this method the      
general stratigraphical order of the    
deposits and their characteristics could
 be learned1 all their fossils  secured1
 and the highest possible exactness     

attained4 ,the excavations  were        
continued through twelve months1 at the 
end of which the cave had  been         
practically emptied4 ,besides furnishing
 interesting indications  relative to   
its physical history1 the cave yielded  
sixteen hundred and  twenty-one bones   
and thirty-six flints4 ,while most of   
the flints were  flakes1 some of which  
possibly might not be artificial1 three 
were  fairly well made implements of    
paleolithic type2 and it was therefore  
concluded that man either frequented or 
at any rate sometimes entered  the      
,brixham ,cave while ,devonshire was    
inhabited by various mammals  which are 
now extinct4 ,previous to the execution 
of this work1 all  geological evidence  
as to the antiquity of man had been     
received1 even  by ,english geologists  
of the first rank1 with what ,pengelly  
called  apathy and skepticism4 ,after   
the work it soon became evident1        
,pengelly  said in an address to the    
,section of ,anthropology of the        

,british  ,association1 in #ahhc1 that  
this geological apathy had been more    
apparent than real4 ,in fact1 geologists
 were found to have been not  so much   
disinclined to entertain the question of
 human antiquity1 as  to doubt the      
trustworthiness of the evidence which   
had previously been  offered to them on 
the subject4 ,the discoveries are       
thought to have  had a considerable     
share in disposing ,mr4 ,prestwich to   
undertake the  investigation of the     
remains at ,amiens and ,abbeville in    
,france and  ,hoxne in ,england1 which  
added to his own great reputation and   
rescued  ,m4 ,boucher de ,perthes from  
undeserved neglect4 ,prof4 ,boyd        
,dawkins  says that they established    
beyond all doubt the existence of       
paleolithic man in the ,pleistocene age1
 and caused the whole of the  scientific
 world to awake to the fact of the vast 
antiquity of the  human race4 ,of       
course1 they aroused a theological      
controversy which  was long and bitter1 

and has only recently died out4         
,pengelly had no  trouble through it    
all4 ,geologists1 he said1 see no mode  
of  reconciling the ,mosaic account of  
creation with geological science4444    
,for myself1 ,i am satisfied that       
science can do nothing for the          
salvation of the soul1 and that the     
,bible is able1 through ,god's  grace1  
to make us wise unto salvation4 ,no     
doubts or difficulties  could ever      
undermine his faith as a ,christian4    
,the evidence accumulated at ,brixham   
suggested the propriety of a            
re-examination of other evidences of    
man's antiquity1 and  particularly1 in  
,england1 of those from ,kent's ,hole1  
or ,cavern1 at  ,torquay4 ,the existence
 of this cave had been known from time  
immemorial1 but the first recorded      
exploration of it was made in #ahbd  by 
,mr4 ,northmore1 of ,cleve1 looking for 
organic remains and an ancient  temple  
of ,mithras4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,trevelyan    
followed him1 and first  obtained       

results of value to science4 ,the ,rev4 
,j4 ,mac,enery1 a ,roman  ,catholic     
priest1 began a four years' exploration 
of the cave in #ahbe1  and prepared a   
narrative of his work1 which was not    
published for  several years after his  
death1 having been lost1 and found by   
,pengelly  after a long search4 ,he     
showed that the cave had been inhabited1
  practically at the same time1 by man  
and various extinct animals2 but  the   
antiquity of man not being yet a live   
subject1 little regard was  paid to his 
evidences4 ,with a grant of a hundred   
pounds from the  ,british ,association1 
the work was begun under the direction  
of a  committee of which ,pengelly was  
the leading spirit and the working      
member4 ,it opened a new chapter in his 
life1 his daughter says1 for  he not    
only superintended the exploration of   
the cavern1 but undertook  its entire   
management1 throwing himself1 heart and 
soul1 into the  numerous duties which it
 entailed4 ,the labor was arduous1 and  

severely  taxed his energies for fifteen
 years2 but it was a congenial          
employment1 and most faithfully         
performed4444 ,after undertaking the    
exploration1 ,pengelly became such an   
enthusiast in the progress made  that1  
when in ,torquay1 he never 7unless      
prevented by illness7 failed  on a      
single week day to visit the cavern1    
while he devoted many hours  at home in 
the examination of the specimens        
exhumed4 ,he even abridged  his short   
holidays1 and all idea of living in     
,london was abandoned on  this account4 
,in the investigation1 the surface      
accumulations having  been removed and  
preserved for examination1 the floor of 
granular  stalagmite was stripped off1  
so as to lay bare the cave earth1 and   
this was dug out ultimately to a depth  
of four feet in a series of  prismatic  
blocks1 a yard long and a foot square in
 section1 layer by  layer4 ,this        
material was examined in the cave by    
candlelight1 then at  the door by       

daylight4 ,a box was appropriated to    
each yard1 in which  all the objects of 
interest found in that particular earth 
were put4  ,the boxes1 with the record  
of what they contained1 were sent daily 
to  ,pengelly1 who cleaned the articles 
and repacked them1 and kept regular     
records of his day's works4 ,other      
materials were dealt with with  similar 
thoroughness in ways according to their 
nature4 ,whatever was  discovered       
beneath the stalagmite flooring must    
have been sealed up by  it for1 at the  
very least1 two thousand years1 probably
 for a much  longer time4 ,the          
exploration was completed ,june #ai1    
#ahhj4 ,the more  than seventy-three    
hundred prisms of material which proved 
productive  yielded1 besides fifty      
thousand bones examined by ,prof4 ,boyd 
,dawkins1  numerous implements1         
including those of bone1 the work of    
man4 ,two  deposits were evident1 one of
 cave earth1 and one of breccia beneath 
it4 ,a glance at the implements from    

them showed that they were very         
dissimilar4 ,those from the breccia were
 more massive and ruder in  every way   
than the others1 and none of them were  
of bone4 ,in short1  the stone tools1   
though both sets were unpolished and    
coeval with  extinct mammals1 represent 
two distinct civilizations4 ,it is      
equally  clear that the ruder men were  
the more ancient1 for their tools were  
lodged in a deposit which1 whenever the 
two occurred in the same  vertical      
section1 was invariably the undermost4  
,various conditions in  the deposits    
united in indicating that the interval  
between them must  have been very       
considerable4 ,other caves were examined
 by ,pengelly1  but his most important  
discoveries were made in those of       
,brixham and  ,kent4    ,a third section
 of ,pengelly's scientific work reviewed
 by ,prof4 ,t4 ,g4  ,bonney in the      
summary he has added to ,miss           
,pengelly's biography1 from  which we   
have quoted freely1 includes            

miscellaneous papers on geology  and    
kindred subjects1 relating almost       
exclusively to the southwest of         
,england4 ,as a rule1 the papers are    
comparatively short1 being the  fruits  
of researches which either did not      
demand a long time1 or could  be carried
 on at intervals as circumstances       
allowed1 and appeared  mostly in the    
transactions of local societies4        
,pengelly was one of the prime movers   
and a leading spirit in the             
organization1 in #ahfb1 of the          
,devonshire ,association for the        
,advancement of ,science1 ,literature1  
and ,art1 at ,plymouth1 and was its     
president in #ahfg-'fh4 ,the objects of 
the association were to give a  stronger
 impulse and a more systematic direction
 to scientific inquiry  in ,devonshire1 
and to promote the intercourse of those 
who cultivate  science1 literature1 or  
art in different parts of the country4  
,it  worked according to the methods of 
the ,british ,association1 with         

literature and art added to its objects1
 besides giving some attention  to      
history and archology4 ,the first       
meeting was held under the  presidency  
of ,sir ,john ,bowring4 ,in #ahgb the   
president was the bishop  of the        
diocese1 ,dr4 ,temple1 now ,archbishop  
of ,canterbury4 ,in #ahfc  ,pengelly was
 elected a ,fellow of the ,royal        
,society4    ,from #ahef1 when he read a
 paper at the ,cheltenham meeting1 ,mr4 
,pengelly was almost a constant         
attendant upon the meetings of the      
,british ,association1 and gained1 as   
the years advanced1 a prominent         
position among its leading members4 ,he 
was president of the ,geological        
,section at the ,plymouth meeting1      
#ahgg4 ,at the jubilee meeting of the   
association1 held at ,york in #ahhj1 he 
made the acquaintance of ,prof4  ,asa   
,gray1 which ripened into a friendship  
and resulted in a visit of  ,professor  
,gray and ,mrs4 ,gray to ,torquay4 ,he  
met another distinguished  ,american man

 of science1 ,prof4 ,o4 ,c4 ,marsh1     
recently deceased1 at the               
,international ,geological ,congress in 
,london1 in #ahhh4 ,in #ahja he         
received a visit from ,prof4 ,g4 ,f4    
,wright4 ,he opposed the transference   
of the meeting of the ,british          
,association to ,montreal in #ahhd1 on  
account of the expense and the sacrifice
 of time which he thought many  who     
would like to attend could not afford1  
and did not go himself4 ,in  ,march1    
#ahgd1 he was visited at ,torquay by    
,professor ,phillips and  others in     
behalf of a number of members of the    
,british ,association1  and presented   
with an illuminated parchment containing
 the signatures  of the contributors and
 a check1 as a testimonial in           
recognition of  his long and valued     
services to science in general1 and more
  especially for the exploration of     
,kent's ,cavern4 ,replying to the       
addresses1 he said he had done the work 
in connection with ,kent's  ,cavern     

simply because he liked it4444 ,he had  
experienced intense  pleasure in it1 and
 he could assure them that1 on his      
finding a  ,machairodus latidus1 after  
seven years and a half exploration1 the 
discovery of that one tooth1 in his     
opinion1 was worth all the money  that  
had been spent in the exploration of the
 cavern4    ,besides geology1 ,mr4      
,pengelly had a living concern with     
astronomy1 on  subjects of which he     
lectured and read papers1 and in        
folklore1 and  was extremely interested 
in the religious history of ,cornwall4  
,he  became a member of the ,society of 
,friends about #ahec1 and married his   
second wife1 ,lydia ,spriggs1 in that   
body4 ,she assisted him in his          
scientific work1 preparing diagrams4    
,of ,pengelly's character as a man1     
,professor ,bonney speaks of the great  
charm in his personality1 and the union 
in him of such strong mental  powers1   
and no less strong sense of what was    
just1 true1 and right1 to  such genuine 

humor and hearty enjoyment of wit4 ,sir 
,archibald ,geikie  speaks of his       
genial1 kindly1 and helpful nature1 and 
his invariably  bright1 cheery1 and     
witty talk4 ,prof4 ,rupert ,jones       
characterizes him  as a good example of 
a religious man--earnest1 persevering1  
and exact  in scientific research4 ,the 
,rev4 ,robert ,hardy says1 ,he did not  
obtrude his theological opinions1 but it
 was easy to perceive that he  was a man
 of true religious character4 ,sir      
,joseph ,lister1 looking  back to the   
times of his acquaintance with him1     
recalled vividly the  impression of his 
great intellectual powers1 his genial   
benevolence1  and his sparkling humor4  
,as a lecturer his style is described as
 having been most attractive4  ,it is   
incisive1 clear1 and at times there are 
touches of humor4 ,his  perfect         
knowledge of the subject1 combined with 
intense earnestness1  clothed his       
lecture with genuine eloquence4    ,miss
 ,pengelly's biography abounds with     

illustrations of her father's  rare     
faculty of attracting and interesting   
workingmen4 ,a letter from  one such man
 expresses gratitude1 mingled with great
 pleasure1 for the  lasting happiness he
 was so anxious and constant to impart  
to us  young men during the ,young      
,men's ,society and afterward at the    
,mechanics' ,institute1 444 and ,i have 
often felt and said ,i owe more         
gratitude for the small amount of       
knowledge ,i possess1 to ,mr4           
,pengelly1 of ,torquay1 than to any     
living man1 and ,i think there are a    
few now in ,torquay who might truly say 
so too4          ,editor's ,table4      
,,kindergartenized ,,children4    ,we do
 not know whether the verb to           
kindergartenize has yet crept  into the 
language1 but1 after reading the article
 of ,miss ,marion  ,hamilton ,carter in 
the ,march ,atlantic on ,the            
,kindergarten ,child--after  the        
kindergarten1 one is disposed to think  
that such a verb is a  present          

necessity4 ,the question as to whether  
the kindergarten on the  whole is a good
 institution is too wide for discussion 
within the  restricted limits of the    
,table2 but no one can read ,miss       
,carter's  article without being forced 
to the conclusion that1 in some of its  
aspects1 kindergarten work is of very   
doubtful utility4 ,that lady  found by  
actual experience with two or three     
successive levies of  kindergarten      
children that they seemed to have an    
impaired rather than  an improved       
faculty of acquiring knowledge1 that    
their infancy seemed  to have been      
artificially prolonged1 that they had   
become accustomed  to a nauseating      
amount of endearment in the language    
addressed to them  by their instructors1
 that they seemed to expect to be       
continually  amused1 and that a certain 
drill through which they had been put   
for  the alleged purpose of developing  
their powers of imagination had gone  a 
long way toward making them incapable of

 speaking of things simply  as they     
found them4 ,all this is set forth in   
,miss ,carter's article in  a manner    
which leaves little doubt that she has  
described things  substantially as they 
fell under her observation4    ,there is
 one important principle in education   
which it seems to us the  kindergarten  
system too much ignores1 if it does not 
completely set it  at defiance1 and that
 is that very young children require a  
great deal  of letting alone4 ,the      
spontaneous activity of the little      
ones--and  they are sure to be active if
 they get the chance--is worth more for 
their education than any amount of      
directed activity4 ,their  imaginations1
 too1 will take care of themselves much 
better than we  can take care of them4  
,nothing is less favorable to the       
development of  imagination in a child  
than constant intercourse with grown    
people who  have passed the imaginative 
stage1 and whose daily duty it is to lay
  out ordered knowledge for assimilation

 by these babes4 ,it is no wonder  that 
part of the system should consist of    
special exercises for the  cultivation  
of the very faculty which the system as 
a whole is so  adapted to dull and to   
weaken4 ,anything much more silly1      
however1 than  the method described by  
,miss ,carter it would be difficult to  
imagine4    ,the great popularity of the
 kindergarten is due in large measure to
  the fact that it relieves mothers     
during part of the day of the care  of  
their small children4 ,that it does this
 in very many cases at the  expense of  
weakening the tie between mother and    
child there is too  much reason to fear4
 ,the ,state has been stepping in more  
and more  between parents and children1 
until now it lays its hand almost upon  
the cradle4 ,the mothers of the republic
 are giving way1 so far as  influence   
over the rising generation is concerned1
 to the schoolmarms2  but it is idle to 
expect that the latter can take the     
place of the  mothers we used to know4  

,the kindergarten constitutes a vast    
extension  of the educational machinery 
previously in operation1 and machinery  
is  always impressive1 especially to    
those who do not understand it4 ,what   
people see is that the system works very
 smoothly and uniformly and             
rhythmically1 and that it saves1 or     
seems to save1 them a great deal  of    
trouble2 and that it is enough to make  
them think it something very  fine4     
,whether it is really saving trouble in 
the end is a question  which we consider
 quite open to discussion4 ,there is    
room1 in our  opinion1 to inquire       
whether the stimulus of society is not  
too early  and too systematically       
brought to bear on the infants who      
throng the  educational nursery--whether
 it is well for children of three and   
four  to be brought every day under the 
eye of1 and more or less into           
competition with1 a large number of     
companions of their own age4 ,we  doubt 
much whether it tends to simplicity of  

character1 and we can not  but regard it
 as distinctly unfavorable to the       
development of  individuality4 ,the rule
 of fashion begins at once to operate   
with  great intensity1 and the child    
loses the power of conceiving life      
except in the herd4 ,as to whether      
trouble on the whole is being saved  to 
parents by the new system1 the question 
could best be answered by  ascertaining 
whether1 in the long run1 parents have  
more or less  trouble with their        
children now than formerly4 ,we should  
be surprised  to hear any one           
maintaining that they had less4    ,we  
are aware that parents1 for the most    
part1 enthusiastically testify  that    
their children enjoy the kindergarten   
very much2 but may it not  be possible  
for children1 as well as their elders1  
to like what is not  altogether for     
their good8 ,we do not consider that we 
can safely  follow all a child's likes  
and dislikes in the matter of diet1 or  
companionship1 or hours for going to bed

 and rising4 ,sensible people  do not   
think that everything children crave    
should be given to them1  or that more  
than a limited number of excitements    
should be thrown in  their way4 ,it is  
one of the drawbacks to wealth that the 
possessors of  it can hardly refrain    
from half burying their children beneath
 a  profusion of toys1 and crowding upon
 them such a multitude of  distractions1
 in the way of travel1 shows of all     
kinds1 and society1  that all chance of 
development from within is well-nigh    
destroyed4 ,it  has been remarked by    
many that the children of to-day who    
rarely read  a story that is not        
illustrated1 have much less imagination 
than the  children of former days1 who  
in reading had to make and did make     
their  own mental pictures4 ,yet what   
pampered child ever said he or she was  
pampered too much8 ,what overflattered  
child ever asked for a surcease  of     
flattery8 ,what child suffering from an 
excessive amount of social  excitement  

ever requested that it might have less  
of such unhealthy  stimulation8 ,the    
inference we draw is that it does not   
settle the  question finally in favor of
 the kindergarten to say that children  
enjoy it4 ,if ,miss ,carter's experience
 is to be depended on1 the result  at   
least of some kindergarten training is  
to stimulate the vanity of  the little  
ones and give them a quite undue sense  
of their  self-importance4 ,they would  
enjoy that while it lasted1 poor little 
things6 but it would be a bad           
preparation for the subsequent work of  
education4 ,one broad fact stares the   
educational world in the face1  and that
 is that the average child has to-day1  
at a given age1 a less  capacity for    
learning than the average child of      
twenty-five or thirty  years ago4 ,what 
share the kindergarten may have had in  
this retardment  of intellectual        
development is a question which deserves
  investigation4 ,messrs4 ,mc,lellan and
 ,dewey1 in their work on ,the          

,psychology of ,number 7,international  
,education ,series71 say 7page #aed73   
,we have known the seven-year-old 'head 
boy' of a kindergarten1  conducted by a 
noted kindergarten teacher1 who could   
not recognize a  quantity of three      
things without counting them by ones4444
 ,there is  surely something lacking    
either in the kindergarten as a         
preparation  for the primary school1 or 
in the primary school as a continuation 
of  the kindergarten1 when a child1     
after full training in the              
kindergarten1 together with two years'  
work in the primary school1 is          
considered able to undertake nothing 7in
 arithmetic7 beyond the number  twenty4 
,these authors enter into a very        
elaborate analysis of the  number       
concept1 and lay down with extreme care 
what they conceive to  be the best lines
 of approach to the youthful mind in the
 teaching of  arithmetic4 ,it seems to  
us1 however1 that the number concept    
will dawn  upon the youthful mind       

without much effort on the part of      
teachers  when the time arrives for it  
to be of use4 ,in most childish games   
the  element of number is involved4 ,the
 smallest girl with a skipping rope     
will get into the way of counting her   
skips with a more or less  distinct     
conception of the difference between one
 number and another4  ,so in the matter 
of turns in any game in which two or    
more are  engaged3 if one child wants to
 have more turns than it is entitled    
to1 the others have to be very young    
indeed not to protest4 ,in a  tug-of-war
 with1 say1 four on each side1 the      
addition of a fifth to  one side without
 permission would make trouble in the   
camp4 ,when  candies are being          
distributed the arithmetical sense is   
generally  keenly alive4    ,we conclude
 by commending ,miss ,carter's article  
to the careful  consideration of all who
 are interested in educational problems4
 ,she  writes with a certain tinge of   
vexation1 and1 without meaning it1 may  

have somewhat forced the case against   
her kindergarten children4 ,the         
,atlantic ,monthly deserves credit1 we  
must add1 for the many able and  timely 
articles which it has lately been       
publishing on educational               
topics--articles stamped by the breadth 
of thought and high culture  which are  
characteristic of our contemporary1 and 
eminently adapted to  assist in         
delivering our educational methods from 
bondage to a  mechanical routine1 and   
bringing them nearer to the simplicity  
and  freedom of ,nature4      ,,is      
,,freedom ,,limited ,,by ,,climate8     
,since the ,united ,states turned its   
ambition toward the tropics1 the        
question as to whether its political    
institutions can be extended to  the    
inhabitants there has been widely       
discussed4 ,as might be expected1  the  
philanthropic advocates of expansion    
have insisted that the  blessings of    
freedom and civilization are not limited
 by latitude or  longitude4 ,any other  

position would1 of course1 have involved
 them in  the charge of inconsistency   
and hypocrisy4 ,but certain philosophic 
expansionists1 as they may be politely  
called1 have taken the opposite  view4  
,it is a cardinal fact1 they say1       
quoting the language of a  recent essay 
of ,mr4 ,benjamin ,kidd1 that in the    
tropics the white man  lives and works  
only as a diver lives and works under   
water4444  ,neither physically1 morally1
 nor politically can he be acclimatized 
in  the tropics4 ,still quoting his     
language1 they say again that a  clearer
 insight into the laws that have shaped 
the course of human  evolution must     
bring us to see that the process which  
has gradually  developed the energy1    
enterprise1 and social efficiency of the
 race  northward1 and which has left    
less richly endowed in this respect the 
people inhabiting the regions where the 
conditions of life are  easiest1 is no  
passing accident1 nor the result of     
circumstances  changeable at will1 but  

part of the cosmic order of things which
 we  have no power to alter4    ,whether
 ,mr4 ,kidd recognizes the odious       
significance of his captivating         
speculation or not1 it is certainly a   
plea and an apology for slavery  and    
political despotism in the tropics4     
,most welcome will it be to all  those  
nations and people of easy conscience   
and measureless greed that  now hold in 
bondage of greater or less intensity    
millions of the  inhabitants of that    
rich and splendid region4 ,but there is 
reason to  believe that it must be      
relegated to the limbo of a kindred and 
popular superstition4 ,within the past  
year much has been said about  the      
genius of the ,anglo-,saxon for freedom 
and the ethnic incapacity of  the       
,latins for that boon of civilization4  
,even so great a scholar as  ,guizot    
encourages this extraordinary theory4   
,again and again does he  point out in  
his ,history of ,civilization how the   
spirit of freedom may  be traced to the 

,teutonic hordes that swarmed the       
forests of ,germany4  ,he does so       
despite the overwhelming evidence       
against him to be found  in his own     
pages even4 ,in apology for his         
misinterpretation of social  phenomena  
there can be urged his ignorance of the 
law of evolution and  of the hardly less
 important law of the militant origin of
 despotism  and the pacific origin of   
freedom4 ,no such apology can1 however1 
be  made in behalf of ,mr4 ,kidd1 or of 
any other apostle of imperialism4  ,not 
only have they at command all the       
generalizations of social  science1 but 
all the facts upon which those          
generalizations are based1  to prove    
that neither climate nor race is a      
limitation upon freedom4    ,if climate 
determined the character of the         
political institutions of a  people1    
many questions would be suggested at    
once that would be beyond  solution4    
,why1 for instance1 should a certain    
freedom have existed in  ,athens1 and   

the most intolerable despotism in       
,sparta8 ,again1 why  should there be   
despotism in ,russia and ,germany as    
well as in ,morocco  and ,egypt8        
,another series of questions equally    
perplexing can be  raised4 ,why should  
there be more freedom in ,england to-day
 than six  hundred or even one hundred  
years ago8 ,the climate has not changed 
in  the interval4 ,why should the       
institutions of ,spain in the thirteenth
  century have been more liberal than in
 the seventeenth8 ,why was it  that the 
freedom that existed in ,germany before 
the ,thirty ,years' ,war  had virtually 
ceased to exist at the ,peace of        
,westphalia8 ,here also  the climate had
 not changed4 ,why1 finally1 was there a
 reaction toward  despotism in ,france  
after the ,french ,revolution1 in       
,germany after the  disturbances of     
#ahdh1 in ,england after the ,crimean   
,war1 and in the  ,united ,states after 
the rebellion8 ,the only satisfactory   
answer to  these questions is to be     

found in the fact that militant         
activities  always lead to despotism1   
and pacific activities always to        
freedom4  ,when people get into war1 the
 central power must exercise all the    
authority over life and property        
essential to success in battle4 ,the    
impulse thus given to despotism spreads 
to every part of the social  fabric4    
,when people are devoted to the pursuits
 of peace1 the forces  that make for    
freedom transform their ideas1 feelings1
 morals1 and  institutions1 political1  
industrial1 and social4    ,whether     
despotism exists1 as ,mr4 ,kidd and his 
followers assume1 among  all the        
indigenous populations of the tropics1  
only a careful  investigation of the    
subject would permit one to say4 ,but   
that it  must1 as they contend1 always  
exist there1 none of the laws of social 
evolution gives the slightest warrant4  
,wherever it does exist1 it had  the    
same origin that it had in ,england1 and
 in obedience to the same  forces of    

peace and industry that operated against
 it in that country1  it must pass away4
 ,the struggles between clans and tribes
 for the  possession of desirable       
territory1 or for the capture of food or
  slaves1 or for the gratification of   
predatory and belligerent  instincts1   
gave rise to the permanent chief1 to the
 ruling hierarchy1  and to all the other
 characteristics of a militant society4 
,the degree  of heat or humidity or the 
luxuriant vegetation of the tropics had 
no  more to do with this political      
organization than the degree of cold1   
or the dryness of the atmosphere1 or the
 comparative poverty of the  soil of    
some of the ,western ,states with the   
similar political  organization of the  
,indians that roamed over them4 ,none of
 these  physical characteristics can    
prevent the play of those forces that   
drive people eventually to the adoption 
of that form of social  organization    
that will best promote their happiness4 
,as the social  philosophy of evolution 

shows1 the social organization best     
fitted for  this purpose is the one     
where the largest individual freedom    
prevails4  ,since the abolition of      
slavery and serfdom and many other forms
 of  despotism has been found necessary 
for the best interests of society  in   
,europe1 we have a right to believe that
 the abolition of the same  forms of    
despotism will be found necessary for   
the best interests of  society in the   
tropics4    ,it is true that in the     
tropics the white man has found it      
uncomfortable to work1 and has often    
reduced the indigenes to a kind  of     
slavery4 ,but that either is inevitable 
and unavoidable because of  the laws of 
social evolution1 or any more than a    
temporary reversion1  there is no reason
 for holding4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 
who spent  twelve years in the tropics1 
says in a recent article that the white 
man can and does work in every part of  
them4 ,if he does not work1 it  is      
simply for the same reason that he does 

not work in ,europe or the  ,united     
,states--namely1 because he does not    
have to4 ,when1 however1  necessity lays
 its heavy hands on him1 driving him to 
earn his living  by the sweat of his    
brow1 he does it in the tropical region 
quite as  well as he does in the        
temperate4 ,that is shown particularly  
in  ,queensland4 ,but when natives can  
be reduced to slavery the crime is      
committed with slight compunction1 and  
defended on the same ground  that it was
 defended in the ,south and elsewhere4  
,the time must come1  however1 as it    
came in ,brazil and in other countries  
where slave labor  was found too        
wasteful and demoralizing1 when it will 
be displaced  with free labor4 ,the time
 must come1 too1 when free institutions 
will  be found as essential under the   
equator as farther north4 ,without them 
social evolution can not reach its      
highest point1 nor man attain to  his   
greatest happiness1 a state that he is  
always seeking1 no matter  where he     

lives4          ,scientific ,literature4
      ,,special ,,books4    ,the famous 
discovery in ,java1 by ,dubois1 of the  
skullcap1 femur1 and  two teeth in the  
upper ,tertiary rocks has led to many   
interesting  discussions1 among which   
was a paper read by ,ernst ,haeckel     
before the  ,international ,congress of 
,zologists1 held in ,cambridge1         
,england1 last  year4 ,in this paper    
,haeckel contended that in these remains
 we had at  last the long-sought-for    
missing link4,a ,this paper excited much
  interest1 which led to a request for  
its publication4 ,the intelligent       
public1 without knowing much about the  
value of the osteological  points under 
discussion1 were ready to grant that    
here indeed was the  missing link1 since
 the highest authorities in science were
 divided in  opinion as to whether the  
remains belonged to a very low member of
 the  human race or a very high member  
of the manlike apes4 ,the conclusion    
would naturally follow that it made but 

little difference whether the  remains  
proved to be those of man or monkey1 as 
here was a creature so  intermediate in 
structure that it stood on the dividing 
line1 so to  speak4 ,in this little book
 ,haeckel presents the old evidences as 
to  the structural similarities between 
man and the higher apes1 and  places the
 ,java remains 7,pithicanthropus        
erectus7 as the last link  in the chain 
of descent4 ,he also traces the         
ancestors of the apes  through the      
mammalian series down1 step by step1 to 
the lowest  vertebrates1 and on through 
the invertebrates to the lowest forms of
  life4 ,the suggestions are in many    
cases hypothetical yet instructive1  as 
showing the possible lines of descent4  
,the unaccountable attitude of the      
distinguished ,virchow in the  presence 
of these remains is in harmony with his 
uncompromising and1  one might say1     
unreasoning attitude in regard to the   
derivative  theory4 ,haeckel shows this 
up very clearly in the following1 which 

we  quote3 ,virchow went to the ,leyden 
,congress with the set purpose of       
disproving that the bones found by      
,dubois belonged to a creature which    
linked together apes and man4 ,first1 he
 maintained that the skull was  that of 
an ape1 while the thigh belonged to man4
 ,this insinuation was  at once refuted 
by the expert paleontologists1 who      
declared that  without the slightest    
doubt the bones belonged to one and the 
same  individual4 ,next1 ,virchow       
explained that certain exostoses or     
growths  observable on the thigh proved 
its human nature1 since only under      
careful treatment the patient could have
 healed the original injury4  ,thereupon
 ,professor ,marsh1 the celebrated      
paleontologist1 exhibited a  number of  
thigh bones of wild monkeys which showed
 similar exostoses1  and had healed     
without hospital treatment4 ,as a last  
argument the  ,berlin pathologist       
declared that the deep constriction     
behind the  upper margin of the orbits  

proved that the skull was that of an    
ape1  as such never occurred in man4 ,it
 so happened that a few weeks later     
,professor ,nehring1 of ,berlin1        
demonstrated exactly the same formation 
on a human prehistoric skull received by
 him from ,santos1 in ,brazil4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,mr4 ,russell expresses a hope that the 
review of some of the  characteristics  
of rivers given in one of the chapters  
of his ,rivers  of ,north ,america,b may
 stimulate a desire in ,american        
students to  know more of the many and  
varied charms of their native land4 ,the
  study of rivers is an alluring one1   
whether pursued upon the little  local  
stream of one's neighborhood or upon the
 grand rivers that form  systems and    
determine geographical districts2       
whether made with the  assistance of a  
fishing-rod or of a steamboat4 ,it can  
not fail to be  promoted by ,mr4        
,russell's instructive book1 which the  
local student or  the excursionist may  

consult with profit1 while the          
geographer and  geologist will find it a
 convenient manual4 ,a river1 when we   
come to  think of it1 means a great     
deal4 ,economically1 it is the most     
valuable  topographical feature a       
country can possess2 geologically and   
geographically1 it is a result of       
prominent features of the earth's       
structure1 and is the cause of          
modifications in its surface which in   
time may revolutionize the topographical
 conditions and produce  climatic and   
physical changes4 ,all these            
characteristics of rivers are           
systematically and comprehensively set  
forth in ,mr4 ,russell's book1  where   
the life-history of the stream is       
presented1 from its beginning  in a     
little mountain torrent or hillside     
rill1 through its course as  it descends
 to the plain1 wearing and tearing and  
deepening its  channel4 ,in the plain   
its character and action are modified   
under the  new conditions in which it   

finds itself1 and gradually1 as it      
approaches its mouth1 it deposits1      
whereas it had torn away at its         
beginning1 and shows contrasts quite as 
marked as those between youth  and old  
age4 ,rivers have their growth in time1 
too1 and a stream that  has been        
carrying on its work for long ages      
presents different  characteristics     
throughout its course from one that     
comes fresh to its  task1 and these     
differences are pointed out4 ,we are    
told1 too1 how  rivers grow1 drawing new
 affluents to themselves and extending  
their  sources backward1 and how when   
the sources of streams on different     
sides of a watershed approach on the    
summit1 there is a struggle for  the    
mastery4 ,these are only a few of the   
new suggestions which the  book offers  
us4 ,coming to the more matter-of-fact  
details1 the laws  governing streams and
 their course2 the influence of         
inequalities and  the hardness of rocks1
 especially on riverside scenery2 and   

the office  of rivers as carriers of    
material in suspension and in solution1 
are  considered2 then their deposits1   
under various heads and aspects1 and    
the effects of changes in the elevation 
of the land1 of variations in  the load 
of material and of changes of climate   
upon them2 the origin  and              
characteristics of stream terraces and  
stream development1 the  topics         
concerning which are too many and varied
 to bear more than a  passing reference4
 ,the more salient characteristics of   
,american rivers  are discussed as to   
the nine drainage slopes--the ,atlantic1
 ,st4  ,lawrence1 ,hudson ,bay1 ,arctic1
 ,bering1 ,pacific1 ,great ,basin1      
,gulf1 and  ,caribbean--each slope      
presenting its own general              
characteristics1 with  varieties in     
detail almost as numerous as the rivers4
 ,the whole is  briefly summarized in   
the last chapter1 ,the ,life ,history of
 a ,river4  ,we have given merely the   
tamest inventory of only a part of the  

topics  of ,mr4 ,russell's book4 ,as the
 subject is treated by the author with  
careful attention to specific features1 
as the magnitude of our river  systems  
is indicated1 and as rivers with        
different or contrasting                
characteristics--the ,st4 ,lawrence and 
the ,colorado1 for example--are         
compared with one another1 the subject  
takes on an aspect that is  really      
grand4      ,,footnotes3    ,a ,the     
,last ,link4 ,our ,present ,knowledge of
 the ,descent of ,kan4 ,by  ,ernst      
,haeckel4 ,adam and ,charles ,black4    
#ahih4    ,b ,rivers of ,north ,america4
 ,a ,reading ,lesson for ,students of   
,geography and ,geology4 ,by ,israel ,c4
 ,russell4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's
  ,sons4 ,pp4 #cbg4 ,price1 #b4         
,,general ,,notices4    ,an unfulfilled 
intention entertained by two successive 
prosectors of  the ,london ,zological   
,society--the late ,professor ,garrod   
and the late  ,w4 ,a4 ,forbes--of       
writing a treatise on bird anatomy1 is  

carried out in  the present work,a by   
their successor1 ,frank ,e4 ,beddard4   
,professor  ,garrod had nearly completed
 an account of the ,anatomy of the      
,fowl1  which was to be followed by a   
presentation of the anatomical          
characters of the different groups4     
,professor ,forbes died before he  was  
able to add anything to the manuscripts 
left by ,professor ,garrod4  ,in the    
instance of the present work the        
detailed account of ,gallus1  with which
 ,professor ,garrod intended to preface 
his book1 has been  rendered unnecessary
 by ,dr4 ,shufeldt's monograph on the   
,raven1 dealing  with one particular    
bird type4 ,accepting this as a         
sufficient  presentation of that feature
 of the subject1 ,mr4 ,beddard begins   
with a  general sketch of bird          
structure1 purposely avoiding           
histological  detail and the elaborate  
description of anatomical facts1 which  
in the present state of our knowledge   
are not of great use in  classification4

 ,the main part of the book is the      
account of the  structure of the        
different groups of birds1 which is     
treated of to a  considerable extent2   
and a large number of facts1 some of    
which are  recorded for the first time1 
are incorporated in the systematic part 
of the book4 ,while all the principal   
facts pertaining to the subject  are    
believed to have been given1 and nothing
 of importance to have  been left out1  
references are made in each section to  
most of the  memoirs already published4 
,the majority of the facts of bird      
structure  have been verified by the    
author1 especially those relating to    
osteology and anatomy1 and he has drawn 
liberally on the notebooks of  his two  
predecessors4 ,the book gives first an  
account of the general  structure of    
birds2 next of the reproductive and     
renal organs1 the  circulatory1         
respiratory1 and muscular systems1      
osteology1 brain and  nervous system1   
and affinities of birds1 and1 finally1  

the  classification4    ,bush ,fruits,b 
is the first of a proposed series of    
monographs on  the various types of     
,american fruits1 to be published under 
the  editorial direction of ,prof4 ,l4  
,h4 ,bailey4 ,its purpose is to present 
both the practical and the technical    
phases of all the important  questions  
concerned in the cultivation and        
domestication of the fruits  that grow  
on bushes2 and the attempt is made to   
present these two  sides separate from  
the details of history1 botany1 and     
entomology1 so  that the practical      
reader may be introduced at once to the 
information  he is seeking4 ,the aim is 
made to treat general truths and        
principles  rather than mere details of 
practice1 leaving the reader to think   
out  and solve the local problems for   
himself4 ,the author1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4      
,card1 who presented the work originally
 as a ,cornell ,university  thesis1 was 
first a bush-grower1 and then a student 
and teacher1  acquiring first the       

practice and then the theory4 ,the      
fruits treated  of are raspberries1     
blackberries1 dewberries1 currants1     
gooseberries1  buffalo berry1 gounie1   
huckleberries1 ,juneberries1 the        
cranberry1  barberry1 and sand          
cherry--all1 as to their important      
types1 except  the currants1 evolutions 
from the species of our own woods4 ,a   
useful  list of ,american books on bush 
fruits is given in the appendix4    ,the
 ,history of the ,world1 from the       
,earliest ,historical ,time to the      
,year #ahih1;,c is the latest addition  
to the ,concise ,knowledge  ,library1 a 
series of volumes on great subjects1    
containing in an  abridged form a wealth
 of exact information which can be      
thoroughly  relied upon by the student1 
and yet of such a popular character as  
to  meet the needs of the general       
reader4 ,this compact volume of #gij    
pages presents a complete survey of the 
world's history4 ,after a brief         
introduction describing the various     

races that have furthered  civilization1
 ancient history proper begins with the 
,egyptians1 the  people of whom we      
possess the earliest records1 and who   
were the first  to emerge out of the    
darkness of prehistoric times4 ,closely 
connected  with them1 both by racial    
affinities and political ties1 were the 
other great empires in the southwestern 
part of ,asia that one after  the other 
rose1 flourished1 and fell into decay4  
,the interesting part  of the book here 
is the constant reference to the        
familiar facts of  the ,bible1 the      
connection of the known with the        
unknown4 ,the rise and  development of  
,greece and ,rome1 following in due     
course1 bring us down  to the middle    
ages4 ,medival history has for its stage
 ,europe1 and for  its argument the     
upbuilding of the states on which our   
modern  political institutions rest4    
,modern history1 dating from the        
discovery  of ,america1 then turns the  
eyes of the nations westward1 to found  

empires beyond the sea4 ,nor is the     
,east forgotten4 ,asia1 the cradle of   
man1 and ,africa1 where he first rose   
into consciousness of himself and       
recorded his deeds1 again claim the     
historian's attention4 ,but now it  is  
,china and ,japan on the one continent1 
and the conquests and  colonies of the  
,europeans on the other4 ,neither is the
 country  youngest in civilization1     
,australasia1 passed by4 ,and the       
history of  all these countries1 whether
 east or west1 is brought down to date4 
,even our recent war with ,spain is     
briefly told4 ,indeed1 the value of  the
 book as a work of reference lies in the
 fact that it encompasses  all the      
world's history1 giving in compact1     
handy form the chief  data in the       
progress of the human race1 that        
otherwise must be sought  for in a dozen
 different places4 ,another valuable    
feature of the book1  attainable only on
 the plan of rigid selection of salient 
points1 is  the connection between the  

different peoples4 ,their               
interdependence1  the sequence of their 
appearance on the stage of action1 and  
their  decline1 are most vividly        
realized in such a bird's-eye view4 ,the
 book  has maps and a full index4       
,the essays comprised in ,mr4 ,william  
,m4 ,bryant's volume entitled  ,life1   
,death1 and ,immortality1 and ,kindred  
,essays,d have developed1  as he        
expresses it1 one by one during a number
 of years past4 ,the term  developed is 
a happy one1 for the papers were        
certainly not made to  order1 but read  
like results of systematic1 continuous  
thinking4 ,they  concern the religious  
aspect of human nature4 ,the author     
thinks that  negative criticism has for 
the time being exhausted its resources1 
and  the time has come for further      
positive interpretation of the          
fundamental conceptions of the          
,christian doctrine as to man's nature  
and destiny4 ,a reference to a few of   
the points in the first essay1  which   

gives the title to the book1 will afford
 a view of the author's  method4 ,men of
 science are constantly insisting that  
the total  quantity of energy is        
changeless1 and nothing can be added to 
it and  nothing taken away4 ,what are   
the total quantity of energy and the    
great first cause but the same1 to the  
activity of which is due  every phase of
 reality8 ,this being changeless1 it    
could not at some  period have created a
 world and afterward left it to spin on 
of its  own accord 'without             
interference4' ,mind is a form of       
energy1  consequently indestructible and
 undying1 and the question of           
immortality is reduced to the form      
whether in respect of man's  essential  
nature as a thinking unit1 death can    
ever be more than  transition from one  
to another grade of life4 ,other essays 
are on  ,oriental ,religions1 ,church   
,organization1 ,the ,heresy of          
,non-,progressive  ,orthodoxy1          
,christian ,ethics and those of other   

religions1 and  ,eternity4    ,professor
 ,merriman's ,elements of ,sanitary     
,engineering,e is a  thoroughly         
practical treatise setting forth the    
principal rules and  laws relating to   
sanitation1 both individual and         
municipal1 as it is  practiced to-day4  
,a brief historical introduction is     
followed by a  classification of        
diseases1 and a general consideration of
 such  questions as filth and disease1  
impure air and disease1 drinking water  
and disease1 etc4 ,the second chapter   
takes up the question of the            
purification of water4 ,chapter ,,iii   
discusses the practical aspects1  for a 
municipality1 of water-supply systems4  
,consumption of water1  capacity of     
storage reservoirs1 pipe lines1 pumping 
engines1 tanks and  stand pipes and     
street mains are among the special      
headings4 ,sewerage  systems are next   
dealt with4 ,a discussion of questions  
connected with  the disposal of garbage 
and sewage forms the fifth and last     

chapter of  the book4 ,an item which    
adds value to the volume is the series  
of  exercises and problems1 practically 
applying the laws set forth1 which      
follows each chapter4    ,an ,epitome of
 ,human ,histology,f has been written by
 ,mr4 ,weysse to  meet the difficulty in
 which the conscientious student of     
microscopic  anatomy is placed who finds
 himself in possession of a great many  
isolated facts about the minute         
structure of the body1 but with rather  
an indefinite conception of the relation
 of those facts to one another  and of  
the subject as a whole4 ,in the writing 
the author has sought to  present all   
the facts that are of real importance to
 the student2 to  express them in the   
briefest and clearest language1 omitting
 whatever  is not strictly required2 and
 to arrange them in such a way that the 
reader1 in considering any organ1 may1  
if he will1 actually sketch  each part  
as he proceeds1 and thus make a         
diagrammatic plan or picture  of the    

entire structure4 ,the book is not for  
idle students1 but for  serious ones1   
and it is not a text-book or intended to
 take the place  of one2 and it can     
serve its true purpose only when used by
 students  who have had laboratory      
practice as well as lectures in         
histology1 and  have thus examined the  
actual structures4    ,in his work on   
,elementary ,botany1,g ,professor       
,atkinson introduces  the method which  
he has found successful in teaching     
beginners4 ,many  of the newer botanical
 text-books1 in reacting against the    
plan of  presenting first the higher    
types of plant life1 overwhelm the      
student  not only with a multitude of   
unfamiliar forms1 but demand from him   
powers of comparison and analysis that  
are generally the result of  much       
scientific discipline4 ,in this book the
 pupil receives some  preliminary       
guidance in habits of correct induction4
 ,by studying the  processes of         
transpiration1 nutrition1 growth1 and   

irritability in  plants belonging to    
higher as well as lower groups1 he      
learns the  universality of these life  
principles1 and is led to see the       
foundations for sound generalization4   
,this the author considers vastly  more 
important than the knowledge of         
individual plants4 ,the student1        
however1 in this investigation becomes  
acquainted with special forms  among the
 lower plants1 and is thus prepared to  
take up morphology  systematically4     
,this topic begins with the study of    
,spirogyra1 and  ends with an outline of
 twenty lessons in the angiosperms4 ,the
 final  third of the book is devoted to 
ecology1 the study of plants in their   
natural surroundings and of their       
modifying factors--climate1 soil1       
topography1 etc4 ,the illustrations1    
which are above the average  throughout 
the work1 are in this division          
exceedingly good4 ,the  descriptive text
 of the same section is entertaining    
enough to be used  as a class reader1   

and would interest those unfamiliar with
 botany4  ,there are several slight     
errors to be corrected in a future      
edition4  ,in the table of measures a   
kilometre is made to equal one hundred  
instead of one thousand metres1 and the 
references to plates are  occasionally  
wrong4 ,on page #cde the reference      
should be #ddi1 and on  page #cdi should
 be #deh in place of #deg4 ,in          
describing pollination of  the skunk    
cabbage1 the words rub off are          
ambiguous4 ,the uninitiated  might      
suppose that the insect obtained pollen 
from the stigmas instead  of depositing 
it there4 ,the book is not intended for 
recitation1 but  for reference and as a 
guide in study4 ,it is supplied with an 
appendix  upon the collection and       
preservation of material1 and an index4 
,a notice of a book,h of this nature is 
justified in this column1  since it     
contains much that will be of interest  
to the student of  ethnology1 folklore1 
and cognate subjects4 ,it is interesting

 to get a  glimpse of matters pertaining
 to social customs1 ways of thinking1   
and  the occurrences which animated     
these ways among the ,japanese a        
thousand and more years ago4 ,the author
 says1 ,it is a remarkable and1  ,i     
believe1 an unexampled fact that a very 
large and important part of  the best   
literature which ,japan has produced was
 written by women4    ,the preparation  
of his ,elementary ,text-,book of       
,botany,i was  undertaken by ,mr4 ,vines
 to meet a demand which appeared to     
exist for  a less bulky and expensive   
volume than his ,students' ,text-,book4 
,a more  important feature than the     
diminution of the bulk is claimed in the
  simplification which the contents have
 undergone from the omission of  certain
 difficult and still debatable topics4  
,the usual divisions into  morphology1  
anatomy1 physiology1 and systematic     
botany are followed2  but the caution is
 appended that it must not be forgotten 
that these  are all parts of one        

subject1 different methods of studying  
one  object--the plant4 ,hence they must
 be pursued together4 ,for instance1    
the morphology of the leaf can not be   
profitably studied without a  knowledge 
of its structure and functions2 and it  
is also important to  know what is the  
systematic position of each of the      
various plants  whose leaves afford the 
material for study4 ,in a word1 the     
student  should not attempt to read the 
book straight through from the          
beginning as if it were a novel4 ,on the
 contrary1 he may begin with  any one of
 the four parts as his main subject2 but
 that part must be  studied in close    
relation with the other three parts2 and
 this method  of proceeding is          
facilitated by the insertion of a large 
number of  cross-references in the text4
    ,a satisfactory account is given by 
,c4 ,francis ,jenkins in  ,animated     
,pictures,j of the development and      
present state of  chronophotography1 or 
the art of conveying by persistence of  

vision a  counterfeit impression of     
objects in motion through the display in
  rapid succession of a series of       
related pictures4 ,the story shows  very
 clearly that this1 like most other     
inventions of consequence1 is  no sudden
 discovery1 but is the culmination of a 
very long series of  experiments4 ,the  
principle of it is embodied in the toy1 
the zoetrope1  the origin of which is   
not known1 though a citation from       
,lucretius  indicates that something of 
the kind existed in his time4 ,with the 
discovery of instantaneous photography1 
a new application of the  principle of  
the zoetrope was found4 ,muybridge and  
,marey were pioneers  in this           
development with their photographs of   
the motions of animals  valuable in     
sciences4 ,since their work was begun   
the photographic  processes and         
apparatus have been greatly improved4   
,mr4 ,jenkins  forecasts a brilliant and
 useful future for the art1 which he    
hopes  will be prosecuted along the line

 of other than its present most  popular
 uses4 ,the book is practical as well as
 historical and  prophetic1 and contains
 an account of ,mr4 ,jenkins's          
phantoscope as the  first successful    
moving picture projecting apparatus1 for
 which he  received the ,elliott        
,cresson medal from the ,franklin       
,institute4    ,the ,metric ,system of  
,weights and ,measures1 prepared by ,mr4
 ,a4 ,d4  ,risteen1 and published by the
 ,hartford ,steam-,boiler ,inspection   
,company1 ,hartford1 ,connecticut       
7price1 #a4be71 gives what has long     
been wanted--a neat volume1 convenient  
for the pocket and durably  bound1      
furnishing tables for instantly         
converting all the metrical  units up to
 one hundred of each into those of the  
,english weights and  measures1 and vice
 versa4 ,calculation1 being needed only 
for the  numbers above one hundred1 for 
which there are already short devices1  
is reduced to the lowest possible limit4
    ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 an         

international quarterly journal1 edited 
by  ,l4 ,a4 ,bauer and ,thomas ,french1 
,jr41 and published at the  ,university 
of ,cincinnati1 is the recognized organ 
of the ,international  ,conference on   
,terrestrial ,magnetism and ,atmospheric
 ,electricity4 ,the  ,september number1 
#ahih1 contains the proceedings of the  
conference1  which met in connection    
with the last ,bristol meeting of the   
,british  ,association4 ,it contains in 
full the welcoming address of ,prof4 ,w4
 ,e4  ,ayrton1 the opening address of   
,a4 ,w4 ,rcker1 president of the        
conference1 and ten of the papers read  
at the meeting4    ,the name of ,prof4  
,john ,trowbridge as author of such a   
book as  ,philip's ,experiments2 or1    
,physical ,science at ,home 7,d4        
,appleton and  ,company1 #a7 is a sure  
guarantee of its scientific value4 ,the 
author  has given a chapter             
substantially out of his own experience1
 for he  says his taste for science and 
for drawing were stimulated by his      

father in the manner here described4    
,his object in publishing it is  to show
 that a few moments devoted each day at 
home to simple  investigations can      
result in habits of self-reliance in the
  acquirement of a modern language and  
in the study of the art of  drawing4 ,he
 endeavors also to show how to cultivate
 a taste for  mathematics by studying   
practical problems in surveying and in  
sailing  a boat2 and how much a parent  
can accomplish in the formation of a    
son's tastes without special knowledge1 
and without the expenditure of  much    
time and money4 ,the account is in the  
form of letters from the  father to a   
friend1 describing his experiments with 
his son ,philip in  this method of      
teaching4 ,he has always cultivated     
fellowship with the  boy2 and1 finding  
him inclined to improve and add to the  
designs on  the wall-paper1 puts objects
 to be drawn and copied in his way1 and 
induces him to go out and draw from     
,nature4 ,so the boy learns to study    

forms and observe4 ,to teach language he
 gives him regularly the daily  ,german 
newspaper1 to pick out what he can from 
it1 and joins him in  the sport4 ,in a  
similar way he introduces ,philip to    
surveying and  physics1 and other       
branches of science4 ,the plan is a     
success2 ,philip  attracts attention by 
the ingenuity which his training has    
enabled him  to develop1 and going to   
college is graduated with credit and in 
possession of a live as well as a book  
knowledge of what he has  studied4      
,in ,the ,story of the ,english         
7,american ,book ,company7 the more     
prominent facts of ,english history from
 the beginning to the present  time are 
related by ,h4 ,a4 ,guerber in simple1  
brief narratives4 ,a  commendable       
feature of the book is the insistence in
 the preface of  the essential oneness  
of the ,english and ,american people--an
 idea that  can hardly be too sedulously
 cultivated4 ,the author's principal    
object  has been to render pupils so    

familiar with the prominent characters  
of  ,english history that they shall    
henceforth seem like old  acquaintances1
 and1 in addition1 to make the story    
attractive2 but it  is a fact to be     
regretted that he has regarded the      
growth of ,english  law and liberty and 
the changes in religion as too          
unintelligible and  uninteresting to be 
more than touched upon very briefly and 
in the  most simple way4 ,the growth of 
law and liberty are the very things     
that it is most important to fix the    
attention of children upon1 and  it is  
only because they have suffered         
comparative neglect in the  education of
 teachers in favor of stories of war and
 intrigue that  they are not the most   
intelligible and interesting branch of  
the  subject4    ,prof4 ,francis ,e4    
,nipher1 of ,washington ,university1    
having been  called upon to present a   
paper to an educational convention on   
the  ,greater ,efficiency of ,science   
,instruction1 undertook to show how such

  changes as were adapted to promote    
that end might be accomplished  without 
radical departures from present methods2
 and the ,introduction  to ,graphical   
,algebra 7,henry ,holt  ,co41 ,new      
,york1 #fj cents7 is the  result of that
 effort4 ,the author believes that the  
study of algebra  and geometry as       
distinct subjects having no relation to 
each other  gives the pupil a false idea
 of the intellectual situation of       
to-day2  that by injecting here and     
there into the ordinary instruction in  
algebra such material as is found in his
 book1 new meaning will be  given to the
 operations involved in the solution of 
equations1 and new  interest in the     
subject may be aroused2 and that as     
scientific  investigators are making    
much use of other methods than          
,euclid's1  while the study of his      
geometry should not be banished from our
  schools1 some of the time given to it 
might be usefully spent in  elementary  
analytical geometry or graphical        

algebra4 ,the treatise is  brief and    
convenient in size and composed in clear
 language4    ,the ,new ,man1 a         
,chronicle of the ,modern ,time         
7,philadelphia3 ,the  ,levytype         
,company71 is a story written by ,ellis 
,paxson ,oberholzer  with reference to  
that expansion of women's education and 
sphere of  action which is suggested by 
the phrase the new woman4 ,in it the    
new woman is developed to her logical   
conclusion1 and the new man as  he must 
needs become under the reaction of her  
influence1 and it  deals with men and   
women imbued with the modern university 
spirit1  whose emotional natures are    
developed under the scientific impulse  
of  our time1 and whose thoughts and    
actions reflect that impulse in the     
midst of all the varied realities of our
 modern life4    ,armageddon 7,rand1    
,mc,nally  ,co471 to the plot of which  
the author's  name of ,stanley ,waterloo
 seems curiously appropriate1 is        
possibly a  specimen of a class of      

literature to which we are likely to be 
treated  in abundance for a few years to
 come4 ,the spoliation of the ,spanish  
,egyptians by the ,americans having come
 to a halt with the gain of  ,puerto    
,rico and the ,philippines1 the great   
,anglo-,american alliance  enters upon  
the view and is made a fact1 though     
informally4 ,the two  nations together  
build the ,nicaragua ,canal1 and are    
about to celebrate  its completion1 when
 they are anticipated by the            
precipitation of the  war of the nations
 through the simultaneous occurrence of 
a number of  slight international       
quarrels in different parts of the      
world4  ,germany1 ,russia1 the          
,scandinavians1 and the ,latins are     
pitted on one  side1 and the ,british   
and ,americans1 assisted by the ,british
 colonies  and the ,japanese1 on the    
other2 and the battle of the combined   
fleets  occurs near the ,canaries4 ,the 
hero of the story has invented an air   
ship which carries terrible explosives  

to be dropped from a great  height into 
the midst of the enemy4 ,this engine    
does its work at the  decisive moment1  
and then follows the grab game of       
negotiations1 in  which might rules1 and
 ,germany joins the ,anglo-,saxon       
alliance against  the rest of the world4
 ,finally1 the air-ship engine of       
destruction has  rendered war henceforth
 forever impossible4    ,mr4 ,james     
,reid ,cole1 president of a classical   
and military school at  ,dallas1 ,texas1
 has published under the title of       
,miscellany what is  substantially a    
picture or transcript of his own life4  
,it contains a  variety of              
articles--literary essays1 school       
addresses1 and even  schoolboy          
compositions--the chief interest of     
which is to the author  and his close   
friends4 ,other papers1 such as ,a      
,bird's-eye ,view of  ,johnston's       
,surrender1 the sketches of the ,life of
 ,lieutenant ,c4 ,c4  ,cole1 the        
,looking ,backward over the course of   

the author's own life1  and political   
and legislative speeches may have a more
 general value  as partial reflections  
of the times to which they relate1 more 
intimate than are usually to be derived 
from ordinary sketches and  histories4  
,the publications of the ,new ,york     
,academy of ,sciences now consist of    
two series--the ,annals 7#hvo7 and the  
,memoirs 7#dto74 ,the  ,transactions1 in
 which the shorter papers and business  
reports have  hitherto appeared1 are    
abolished1 and the matter appears in the
  ,annals4 ,this publication1 which was 
begun in #ahbd1 contains the  scientific
 contributions and reports of           
researches1 together with the  reports  
of meetings4 ,the complete volumes will 
hereafter coincide with  the calendar   
year4 ,vol4 ,x1 ,nos4 #a to #ab1        
contains three papers by ,h4  ,s4 ,davis
 and one by ,frank ,schesinger based on 
the ,rutherfurd  photographs of the     
stars2 ,the ,nature and ,origin of      
,stipules1 by ,a4 ,a4  ,tyler1 and an   

examination of the ,ascidian            
,half-,embryo1 by ,h4 ,e4  ,crampton1   
,jr4 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,part ,,ii1 contains   
the annual address of  retiring         
,president ,j4 ,j4 ,stevenson1 ,february
 #bh1 #ahih1 on the ,debt of  the ,world
 to ,pure ,science1 and six articles on 
special subjects in  biology4    ,the   
,commissioner of ,labor was authorized  
by ,congress in #ahie to make  an       
investigation1 so far as it could be    
done within the limits of the  regular  
appropriations to his department1       
relative to the economic  aspects of the
 liquor traffic4 ,he interpreted such an
 investigation to  include the          
consideration of monetary conditions2 of
 the agricultural  and other products   
used in the production of liquors2 of   
the  manufacture of liquors as a        
distinct industry2 of transportation1   
consumption1 and the traffic in them2 of
 the revenue derived from them  and the 
laws regulating its collection2 and of  
the experience and  practice of         

employers in relation to the use of     
intoxicants4 ,in some  of these phases  
of the subject the facts were not       
separable from those  relating to other 
matters2 in others1 they were to be     
found in the  reports of other          
departments2 and original inquiry was   
necessary only  with reference to the   
last three items of the category4 ,the  
results of  this inquiry are given in   
the ,twelfth ,annual ,report of the     
,commissioner of ,labor1 #ahig1 under   
the heading of ,economic ,aspects  of   
the ,liquor ,problem4    ,a ,new ,story 
of the ,stars is an essay in which ,a4  
,w4 ,bickerton1  professor of chemistry 
and physics in ,christ ,church ,college1
 ,new  ,zealand1 sets forth a theory of 
the origin of universes or of parts of  
universes by impact4 ,nebul already     
existing--but how existing we are  not  
informed--careering through space1 are  
supposed to collide1  whereby heat and  
light are developed4 ,they may meet in  
face1 and would  then probably coalesce1

 but more likely the impact would be a  
grazing  one1 when three bodies would be
 produced2 a portion1 or slice1 as the  
author calls it1 of each of the         
colliding bodies would be sheared off1  
forming an intensely hot and bright new 
star1 while the original  masses would  
go on their course1 having the parts    
that had been in  contact heated and    
made brilliant1 so as to present in     
their  revolutions the aspect of        
variable stars4 ,the author's attention 
was  drawn to this subject by the       
appearance of a new star in ,cygnus in  
#ahgg4 ,a little while afterward ,nova  
,aurig appeared1 presenting  exactly the
 phenomena he had predicted4 ,professor 
,bickerton writes as  one who           
understands his subject2 there is       
nothing in his speculations1  so far as 
we have observed1 that grates harshly   
with known facts1 and  it can be read1  
as he reads it1 to account plausibly for
 some of the  facts--just as can several
 other theories of the formation of the 

universe which are still only           
speculations4 ,the problem is yet far   
from comprehension1 and is one of the   
legacies which the nineteenth  century  
is destined to bequeath to the          
twentieth4 7,published at ,christ       
,church1 ,new ,zealand47                
,,footnotes3    ,a ,the ,structure and  
,classification of ,birds4 ,by ,frank   
,e4 ,beddard4  ,london and ,new ,york3  
,longmans1 ,green  ,co4 ,pp4 #edh4    ,b
 ,bush ,fruits4 ,a ,horticultural       
,monograph of ,raspberries1             
,blackberries1 ,dewberries1 ,currants1  
,gooseberries1 and other ,shrublike     
,fruits4 ,by ,fred ,w4 ,card4 ,new      
,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4   
#ecg4  ,price1 #a4ej4    ,c ,the        
,history of the ,world1 from the        
,earliest ,historical ,time to the      
,year #ahih4 ,by ,edgar ,sanderson4     
,with ,maps4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton  
and  ,company4 #ahih4    ,d ,life1      
,death1 and ,immortality1 and ,kindred  
,essays4 ,by ,william ,m4  ,bryant4 ,new

 ,york3 ,the ,baker  ,taylor ,company4  
,e ,elements of ,sanitary ,engineering4 
,by ,mansfield ,merriman4 ,new ,york3   
,john ,wiley  ,sons4 ,london3 ,chapman  
,hall1 ,limited4 ,pp4 #baf4 #b4    ,f   
,an ,epitome of ,human ,histology4 ,by  
,arthur ,w4 ,weysse4 ,new ,york3        
,longmans1 ,green  ,co4 ,pp4 #ij4       
,price1 #a4ej4    ,g ,elementary        
,botany4 ,by ,george ,francis ,atkinson1
 ,ph4 ,d4 ,new ,york3  ,henry ,holt     
,co4 ,pp4 #ddd4 ,price1 #a4be4    ,h3 ,a
 ,history of ,japanese ,literature4 ,by 
,w4 ,g4 ,aston1 ,late ,japanese         
,secretary to ,h4 ,m4 ,legation1 ,tokyo4
 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4    ,i ,an  
,elementary ,text-,book of ,botany4 ,by 
,sydney ,h4 ,vines4 ,london3  ,swan1    
,sonnenschein  ,co4 ,new ,york3 ,the    
,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #faa4  ,price1
 #b4be4    ,j ,animated ,pictures4 ,an  
,exposition of the ,historical          
,development of  ,chronophotography1 its
 ,present ,scientific ,application and  
,future  ,possibilities1 and of the     

,methods and ,apparatus employed in the 
,entertainment of ,large ,audiences by  
,means of ,projecting ,lanterns to  give
 the ,appearance of ,objects in ,motion4
 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c43 ,c4  ,francis    
,jenkins4 ,pp4 #aah1 with plates4       
,,publications ,,received4              
,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4    
,bulletins and ,reports4 ,connecticut3  
,twenty-second ,annual ,report1 for     
#ahih1 ,part ,i1 ,fertilizers4 ,pp4     
#aja4--;,cornell ,university3 ,no4 #afc4
 ,three ,important ,fungous ,diseases of
  the ,sugar ,beet4 ,by ,b4 ,m4 ,duggar4
 ,pp4 #cj2 ,no4 #afd4 ,peach-,leaf      
,cure1  etc4 ,by ,b4 ,m4 ,duggar4 ,pp4  
#bj4--,massachusetts ,agricultural      
,college  7,hatch ,station73 ,no4 #eh4  
,manurial ,requirements of ,crops4 ,pp  
#af4--,new  ,jersey3 ,no4 #ace4         
,poisonous ,plants4 ,by ,byron ,d4      
,halsted4 ,pp4 #bh4--,north  ,dakota    
,weather and ,crop ,service1 ,fifth     
,annual ,report4 ,b4 ,h4 ,bronson1      
section director4 ,pp4 #gh2 ,monthly    

,reports for ,october and ,november1    
#ahih4 ,pp4 #h each4--,ohio3 ,no4 #if4  
,the ,army ,worm and ,other ,insects4   
,by  ,p4 ,m4 ,webster and ,c4 ,w4       
,mally4 ,pp4 #bf2 ,no4 #ig4 ,some       
,diseases of ,wheat  and ,oats4 ,by ,a4 
,d4 ,selby4 ,pp4 #cb2 ,no4 #ih4 ,small  
,fruits4 ,by ,w4 ,j4  ,green4 ,pp4      
#adf4--,west ,virginia3 ,no4 #ec4       
,commercial ,fertilizers4 ,by ,j4  ,h4  
,stewart and ,b4 ,h4 ,hite4 ,pp4 #cf4   
,american ,asiatic ,association1        
,journal of the4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #e4     
,john  ,foord1 editor4 ,pp4 #af4        
,ayer1 ,n4 ,w41 and ,son4 ,american     
,newspaper ,annual1 #ahii4              
,philadelphia4  ,pp4 #adjj4    ,berea   
,quarterly1 ,february1 #ahii4 ,berea    
,college1 ,kentucky4 ,pp4 #bh4 #cj      
cents4 #a a year4    ,berry1 ,arthur4 ,a
 ,short ,history of ,astronomy4 ,new    
,york3 ,charles  ,scribner's ,sons      
7,university ,series74 ,pp4 #ddj4 #a4ej4
    ,bradford1 ,gamaliel4 ,the ,lesson  
of ,popular ,government4 ,new ,york3    

,the  ,macmillan ,company4 #b vols4 ,pp4
 #ebj and #eij4 #d4    ,brown1 ,william 
,harvey4 ,on the ,south ,african        
,frontier4 ,new ,york3  ,charles        
,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #dcj1 with map4 
#c4    ,buckley1 ,arabella ,b4 ,the     
,fairy-,land of ,science4 ,new ,york3   
,d4 ,appleton  and ,company4            
,clayton1 ,c4 ,helm4 ,studies of        
,cyclonic and ,anti-,cyclonic ,phenomena
 with  ,kites4 ,blue ,hill              
7,massachusetts7 ,meteorological        
,observatory4 ,pp4 #ae1  with plates4   
,force1 ,general ,manning ,f4 ,general  
,sherman4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and 
,company 7,great ,commanders ,series74  
,pp4 #cec4    ,guignet1 ,e41 and        
,gamier1 ,edouard4 ,la ,cramique1       
,ancienne et ,modern  7,ceramics1       
,ancient and ,modern74 ,paris3 ,flix    
,alcan4 7,bibliothque  ,scientifique    
,internationale47 ,pp4 #caa4 #f francs4 
,gell1 ,le ,dr4 ,m4 ,e4 ,l',audition et 
ses ,organes 7,hearing and ,its         
,organs74 ,paris3 ,flix ,alcan4         

7,bibliothque ,scientifique             
,internationale47 ,pp4 #cbf4 #f francs4 
,hancock1 ,james ,denton4 ,the          
,louisiana ,purchase treated in its     
,relations  to the ,constitution of the 
,united ,states and the ,declaration of 
,independence4 ,pp4 #h4    ,herzberg1   
,henry4 ,true versus ,false ,education4 
,pp4 #bj4    ,hinsdale1 ,guy1 ,m4 ,d4   
,acromegaly4 ,detroit3 ,william ,m4     
,warren4 ,pp4 #hh4  #a4ej4              
,international ,correspondence ,school1 
,scranton1 ,pennsylvania4 ,short        
,courses in ,english ,branches1         
,bookkeeping1 ,stenography1 and         
,mechanical  and ,ornamental ,drawing4  
,pp4 #af4    ,jacobs1 ,joseph4 ,the     
,story of ,geographical ,discovery4 ,new
 ,york3 ,d4  ,appleton and ,company4    
7,library of ,useful ,stories47 ,pp4    
#bjj4 #dj cents4    ,kingsley1 ,mary ,h4
 ,west ,african ,studies4 ,new ,york3   
,the ,macmillan  ,company4 ,pp4 #fcc1   
with maps4 #e4    ,library ,notes1 ,vol4
 ,,iv1 ,no4 #af4 ,edited by ,melvil     

,dewey4 ,simplified  ,library ,school   
,rules4 ,pp4 #gb4 ,quarterly4 #ej cents4
 #a a year4    ,lille1 ,socit           
,photographique de4 ,le ,nord           
,photographie4 ,january1 #ahii4  7,sixth
 year47 ,lille1 ,france4 ,pp4 #bj4      
,mason1 ,william ,p4 ,examination of    
,water 7,chemical and ,bacteriological74
  ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley  ,sons4 ,pp4 
#ace4 #a4be4    ,macalaster1 ,the4      
,monthly4 ,february1 #ahii4 ,st4 ,paul1 
,minnesota1  ,macalaster ,college4 ,pp4 
#cb4 #ae cents4 #a a year4    ,parsons1 
,frances ,theodora4 ,how to ,know the   
,ferns4 ,new ,york3 ,charles            
,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #bae4 #a4ej4    
,rafinesque1 ,c4 ,s4 ,ichthyologia      
,ohioensis2 or1 ,natural ,history of the
  ,fishes inhabiting the ,river ,ohio   
and its ,tributary ,streams4 ,a reprint 
of the original1 with life1 etc4 ,by ,r4
 ,ellsworth ,call4 ,cleveland1  ,ohio3  
,the ,burrows ,brothers ,company4 ,pp4  
#age4 #d4    ,reprints4 ,ashmead1       
,albert ,s41 ,m4 ,d4 ,no ,evidence in   

,america of  ,pre-,columbian ,leprosy4  
,pp4 #aj4--;,grant1 ,sir ,james4 ,the   
,alimentary ,canal  and ,human ,decay   
,in ,relation to the ,neurons4 ,pp4     
#h4--;,hopkins1 ,thomas ,c4  ,clays and 
,clay ,industries of ,pennsylvania2 ,i1 
,clays of ,western  ,pennsylvania 7in   
part74 ,pp4 #ahc4--;,howard1 ,l4 ,o4    
,the ,economic ,status of  ,insects as a
 ,class4 ,pp4 #cc4--;,jackman1 ,wilbur  
,s4 ,constructive ,work in  the ,common 
,schools4 ,pp4 #ah4    ,russell1 ,frank4
 ,explorations in the ,far ,north4      
,university of ,iowa4 ,pp4  #bij4       
,schiavone1 ,mario4 ,il ,principio della
 dirigibilita orizzontalie degli        
aerostate ed ,binaerostato 7,the        
,principle of the ,horizontal           
,dirigibility of ,arostats and the      
,binarostat74 ,potenza1 ,italy4 ,pp4    
#dh4    ,schubert1 ,hermann4            
,mathematical ,essays and ,recreations4 
,translated by  ,t4 ,j4 ,mc,cormack4    
,chicago3 ,the ,open ,court ,publishing 
,company4 ,pp4 #adi4  #ge cents4        

,scrutten1 ,percy ,e4 ,electricity in   
,town and ,country ,houses4 ,second     
edition4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan    
,company4 ,pp4 #adh4 #a4    ,sloyd      
,bulletin ,no4 #b1 ,march1 #ahii4       
,boston3 ,sloyd ,training ,school4 ,pp4 
#ba4    ,smithsonian ,institution       
publications3 ,annual ,report of the    
,board of  ,regents to ,july1 #ahif4    
,pp4 #gbg2 do4 to ,july1 #ahig4 ,pp4    
#fhf4--;,bolton1  ,h4 ,c4 ,a ,select    
,bibliography of ,chemistry1 #adib to   
#ahig4 ,first  ,supplement4 ,pp4        
#dhi4--;,cook1 ,o4 ,f4 ,african         
,diplopoda of the ,genus  ,pachybolus4  
,pp4 #aj1 with plates4    ,society of   
,american ,authors4 ,monthly ,bulletin4 
,march1 #ahii4 ,pp4 #af4    ,united     
,states ,commissioner of ,education 7,w4
 ,t4 ,harris74 ,report for  #ahif-'ig1  
,vol4 ,,ii4 ,pp4 #abde4    ,veblen1     
,thorstein4 ,the ,theory of the ,leisure
 ,class4 ,new ,york3 ,the  ,macmillan   
,company4 ,pp4 #djj4 #b4    ,waddell1   
,john4 ,the ,arithmetic of ,chemistry4  

,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan  ,company4  
,pp4 #acg4 #ij cents4    ,wickersham1   
,james4 ,major ,powell's ,inquiry1      
,whence came the ,american  ,indians8   
,an ,answer4 ,tacoma1 ,washington3      
,allen and ,lamborn ,printing  ,company4
 ,pp4 #bh4    ,writt1 ,henry4 ,some     
,observations on the ,fundamental       
,principles of  ,nature4 ,chicago3 ,p4  
,o41 ,station ,n4 ,pp4 #cb4 #be cents4  
,fragments of ,science4      ,death of  
,professor ,marsh4--,othniel ,c4 ,marsh1
 professor of  paleontology in ,yale    
,university1 and curator of the         
geological  collection of that          
institution1 died of pneumonia at his   
home in ,new  ,haven1 ,connecticut1     
,march #ahth4 ,he had not been in good  
health for  several years1 and succumbed
 to the effects of a cold which he had  
caught before wholly recovering from a  
previous cold4 ,a sketch of his  life up
 to that time1 embracing the most active
 parts of his career as  a geological   
explorer1 in which he gained great      

renown1 was given1  with a portrait1 in 
the ,popular ,science ,monthly for      
,september1 #ahgh4  ,during the period  
that has intervened he made studies of  
the results  of his explorations and    
other geological work1 and published    
papers of  very high scientific value4  
,about a year ago he transferred his    
extensive and famous collections at the 
,peabody ,museum to the  university4    
,these collections were among the finest
 of their kind in  the world1 and were  
especially remarkable for their fossils 
of immense  animals exhumed from the    
,western plains4 ,they were greatly     
admired by  ,professor ,gaudry1 the     
eminent ,french geologist1 who spoke of 
them in  terms of high praise in the    
,revue des ,deux ,mondes of ,october    
#ae1  #ahih4 ,it was through his efforts
 that the funds were obtained from      
,george ,peabody1 his uncle1 for the    
construction of the ,peabody ,museum1  a
 part of which has been built4 ,his     
health having apparently improved  for a

 few months previous to his death1 he   
had been working with  renewed activity 
at the museum1 and had recently written 
articles on  paleontological subjects4  
,having considerable means of his own1  
he  served the university without       
salary1 and carried on his explorations 
mostly at his own cost1 paying large    
sums to assistants and for other  items 
in the work4 ,he left ten thousand      
dollars to the ,national  ,academy of   
,sciences1 of which he was one of the   
founders and was for  several years     
president1 and all of the rest of his   
estate1 estimated  to be worth nearly   
one hundred thousand dollars1 to ,yale  
,university4    ,popular ,co-operation  
in ,health ,work4--,in a review of ,a   
,quarter  ,century of ,public ,health   
,work in ,michigan1 ,mr4 ,theodore ,r4  
,mac,clure1  chief clerk of the ,state  
,board of ,health office1 says that     
experience  in the ,state has indicated 
that it is necessary to have the        
co-operation of the people if the       

dangerous communicable diseases are  to 
be restricted and prevented4 ,in order  
to accomplish this result1  the ,state  
,board of ,health has published leaflets
 relating to the modes  of spreading and
 the best methods for the restriction   
and prevention  of such diseases4 ,these
 leaflets have been printed by tens of  
thousands1 and whenever a dangerous     
disease is reported to the central      
office several copies of the leaflet    
relating to the disease in  question are
 usually sent to the local health       
officer4 ,he is requested  to place one 
of these instructive publications with  
the family where  the disease exists1   
and a copy with each neighbor of the    
infected  premises4 ,the instruction    
comes at a time when people are         
interested  to know about the disease in
 question1 and in this way their general
  co-operation is sought and secured4   
,citizens are thus educated and  become 
familiar with their duties in the       
premises1 are taught wherein  the       

dangers lie and how to avoid them1 and  
are prompted by the  strongest          
considerations to do their part in the  
matter4    ,death of ,prof4 ,oliver     
,marcy4--,dr4 ,oliver ,marcy1 professor 
of natural  science in ,northwestern    
,university1 who died ,february #aith1  
in the  eightieth year of his age1 was a
 native of ,coleraine1 ,massachusetts2  
was graduated from ,wesleyan ,university
 in #ahdf1 became teacher of            
mathematics in ,wilbraham ,academy1     
,massachusetts1 and later professor  of 
geology1 etc41 in that institution4 ,in 
#ahfb he was appointed  professor of    
geology in ,northwestern ,university1   
,evanston1 ,illinois1  but taught in    
addition1 at times1 other branches of   
science and even  some branches in other
 lines4 ,he was twice acting president  
of the  university4 ,in conjunction with
 ,prof4 ,alexander ,winchell1 he        
prepared  a monograph on ,fossils from  
the ,niagara ,limestone of ,chicago1    
which  was read to the ,boston ,society 

of ,natural ,history4 ,in #ahff he was  
naturalist to a ,government expedition  
to the ,bitter ,root ,mountains in      
,idaho and ,montana1 in which he        
collected scientific material1 and of   
which he published an account in #ahfg4 
,he wrote papers concerning the  geology
 of the shore of ,lake ,michigan and of 
the region about ,chicago2  brought two 
fossil trees found in the university    
grounds to scientific  notice2 and      
contributed considerably to geological  
publications4 ,he  was curator to the   
natural history collection of his       
university for  nearly thirty years4    
,two fossil species and a mountain in   
,montana have  been named after him4    
,which is the ,fittest to               
,survive8--,prof4 ,a4 ,w4 ,rcker spoke  
in his  opening address at the recent   
meeting of the ,international ,magnetic 
,conference in ,bristol1 ,england1 of   
what seems to be a law of ,nature1  that
 the products of an organism are fatal  
to itself2 in accordance  with which1 he

 said1 pure science is threatened by the
 very success of  its practical         
applications4 ,the smoke of our cities  
blots the stars  from the vision of the 
astronomer1 and now the science of      
terrestrial  magnetism is threatened by 
the artificial earth currents of the    
electric railway4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,e4        
,ayrton1 in his welcoming address1 took 
another view of the subject and answered
 the reference the electrical  engineers
 make to the principle of the survival  
of the fittest when  they are told of   
the ruin their wires are bringing upon  
magnetic  observatories--,so much the   
worse for the observatories--,can the   
system of electric traction that has    
already destroyed the two most          
important magnetic observatories in the 
,united ,states and ,british  ,north    
,america be the best and fittest to     
survive8 ,again1 do we take  such care  
and spend such vast sums in tending the 
weak and nursing the  sick because we   
are convinced that they are the fittest 

to survive8  ,may it not be perhaps     
because we have an inherent doubt about 
the  justice of the survival of the     
strongest1 or perhaps because even the  
strongest of us feels compelled modestly
 to confess his inability to  pick out  
the fittest1 that modern civilization   
encourages1 not the  destruction but the
 preservation of what has obvious       
weakness1 on the  chance that it may    
have unseen strength8 ,when the         
electrical engineer  feels himself full 
of pride at the greatness1 the          
importance1 and the  power of his       
industry1 and when he is inclined to    
think slightingly of  the deflection of 
a little magnet compared with the whirl 
of his  one-thousand-horse-power dynamo1
 let him go and visit a certain dark    
storeroom near the entrance hall of the 
,royal ,institution1 and while  he looks
 at some little coils there1 ponder on  
the blaze of light  that has been shed  
over the whole world from the dimly     
lighted  cupboard in which these coils  

now lie4 ,then he may realize that while
  the earth as a magnet has endured for 
all time1 the earth as a tramway        
conductor may at no distant date be     
relegated to the class of  temporary    
makeshifts1 and that the raids of the   
feudal baron into the  agricultural     
fields of his neighbors were not more   
barbarous than the  alarms and          
excursions of the tramway engineer into 
the magnetic fields  of his friends4    
,teaching the ,teachers4--,the following
 suggestive paragraph is taken  from the
 inaugural address of ,william ,henry   
,preece1 president of the  ,british     
,institution of ,civil ,engineers3 ,our 
educational methods have  begun at the  
wrong end4 ,we ought to teach the       
masters first and then  the men4        
,moreover1 we have to teach the teachers
 and those who have  control of the     
purse-strings4 ,the ,county ,councils of
 ,england are  scarcely qualified as yet
 to discharge the very serious duty of  
properly dealing with a question so few 

of them understand--though  many of them
 have tackled the matter manfully1      
especially the ,london  ,county         
,council1 through its ,technical        
,education ,board1 on which a  large    
proportion of co-opted experts have     
seats1 who1 by supporting  existing     
institutions1 have contributed toward   
the supply of teachers4  ,but how are we
 to approach the masters8 ,a fault once 
discovered is  halfway to repair4 ,it is
 difficult to remove the scales from the
 eyes  of the man who has been          
successful in business and knows not of 
his  blindness2 but the coming          
generation will be more enlightened1 and
 the  future masters better educated4   
,we are suffering from a lack of        
competent teachers4 ,a teacher who has  
had no training in the practical  world 
is worse than useless1 for he imparts   
ideas derived from his  inner           
consciousness or from the false teaching
 of his own abstract  professor1 which  
lead to mischief4 ,in my own experience 

,i have met  with very serious          
inconveniences from this cause4 ,the    
ideal professor  of pure abstract       
science is a very charming personage1   
but he is a  very arrogant and dogmatic 
individual1 and1 being a sort of little 
monarch in his own laboratory and       
lecture room1 surrounded by devoted     
subjects1 his word is law1 and he       
regards the world at large1  especially 
the practical world1 as outside his     
domain and beneath his  notice4 ,he is  
generally behind the age4 ,these are not
 the men for  technical institutes4     
,such teachers should possess the       
diploma of this  institution4    ,the   
,people of ,india and the               
,missionaries4--,in the light of three  
months' special observation1 ,j4 ,t4    
,sunderland has reviewed in the ,new    
,world ,magazine the prospects of the   
success of ,christian missions in       
,india4 ,there are several causes that  
hinder their progress1 among  which the 
author mentions as more important the   

number of ,christian  sects and         
denominations2 the character of the     
doctrines preached1 in  that in many    
aspects they do not appeal to ,hindu or 
,mohammedan faith  or modes of thought1 
and in some contradict them1 and as to  
those  points are a serious hindrance to
 the progress of ,christianity2 and  the
 vices of many ,europeans1 creating a   
prejudice against their  professed      
religion that is not wholly contradicted
 by the testimonies  and examples of the
 missionaries and men of nobler stamp4  
,to the last  objection the answer is   
easy1 though it may not always be       
convincing1  that these wicked men sin  
not because they are natural products of
  ,christianity1 but because they       
disobey it4 ,a strong factor in         
disarming prejudice against             
,christianity and winning favor for it  
is  the fact that through it1 directly  
or indirectly1 certain very  important  
kinds of good are coming to             
,india--education1 schools1  books1     

science1 invention4 ,the contact of     
,india with ,christian lands1           
civilization1 thought1 and life1 is     
steadily telling upon ,indian  thought4 
,further1 it is to be said to the honor 
of all the ,protestant  missions of     
,india1 at least1 of whatever name1 that
 they are helping1  instructing1 and    
lifting up the lower classes1 and       
offering them hopes  and prospects such 
as they could not have had under their  
old faiths4  ,this is much1 very much4  
,the very presence of the missionary in 
a  community is likely to be an         
enlightening influence4 ,he is a man of 
more than common education1 and has     
brought with him to ,india  something of
 the thought1 the culture1 the ideals of
 life1 the habits  and customs of the   
,western world4 ,he introduces higher   
standards of  living4 ,he gives his     
influence in favor of better public     
sanitation1  better homes for the       
people1 better streets and public       
buildings1  better public improvements  

generally4 ,his home and family life1 in
  which the wife receives the same      
consideration as her husband1 and the   
daughters are educated with the same    
care as the sons1 becomes a  valuable   
object lesson in the community where he 
dwells4 ,the missions  as a whole are   
regarded by the author as an important  
factor in a  great religious evolution4 
,the precise form and direction which   
this  evolution will take seem to be a  
matter yet to be determined4    ,weeds  
under ,cultivation4--,for several years 
past the botanical  department of       
,michigan ,agricultural ,college has    
maintained a weed  garden1 and has grown
 a hundred or more species of the most  
troublesome weeds in plots4 ,some       
curious results from the experiments    
are recorded by ,prof4 ,w4 ,j4 ,beal in 
a paper read at the meeting1 #ahig1  of 
the ,society for the ,promotion of      
,agricultural ,science4 ,the most       
vigorous and aggressive weeds seem to   
take on under cultivation the  weakness 

and capriciousness of delicate          
cultivated plants4 ,it is very          
instructive1 ,professor ,beal says1 to  
note how much better many of  these     
plants thrive when they get away from   
the spot where they have  been confined 
for from two to several years4          
,seedlings of ,jamestown  weed were     
larger in the plantain bed than in their
 own4 ,after three  years the plantain  
nearly ran out and ,amaranthus albus    
entirely  disappeared4 ,one species of  
pigweed grew finely for two years1 but  
afterward made a small display2 and     
another variety did not seem very       
persistent for a plant that ranked among
 the weeds1 but shied off from  its home
 ground 'as if searching for fresh      
fields4' ,barnyard grass  7,panicum     
crusgalli7 behaved like pigweed1 and    
'needed considerable  attention4' ,the  
little round-leaved mallow1 which roots 
deeply about  rubbish piles in mellow   
soil1 was grown of respectable          
proportions in  the garden with         

considerable difficulty1 and with no    
more ease in the  bottom lands of other 
parts of the botanic garden4            
,considerable pains  is required every  
year to keep on hand even fairly        
well-grown  specimens of mullein4       
,knotgrass1 which thrives with abuse and
 seems to  enjoy trampling by feet1 was 
grown with difficulty in the plots4     
',insects prey upon it2 rust causes it  
to dwindle and disappear4'  ',motherwort
 grows rank four feet high near the     
barnyard fence1 and the  flowers are    
covered with bees1 but when kept several
 years in the same  bed it goes off into
 the sulks as though neglected4'        
,shepherd's purse  is often disturbed by
 a parasitic fungus1 and it is difficult
 to grow  nice plants long in the same  
place4 ,cocklebur1 if found long in the 
same spot1 is troubled sadly with a     
mildew1 and more recently also  with a  
rust4    ,operations against            
,woodchucks4--,prof4 ,f4 ,h4 ,storer    
records in the  ,bulletin of the ,bussey

 ,institution1 ,harvard ,university1 the
 results of  his experiments in the     
destruction of woodchucks1 which1       
besides being  very injurious to lands  
he had under cultivation1 appeared to be
  increasing4 ,smothering by a volatile 
liquid driven into the burrow has  been 
suggested by ,professor ,hilgard1 who   
recommends bisulphide of  carbon4       
,professor ,bussey finds that liquid not
 wholly satisfactory and  liable to     
objections1 and prefers a preparation of
 naphtha or other  volatile liquid4 ,in 
any event1 some device seems to be      
needed for  forcing a considerable      
quantity of the vapor into the very end 
of the  burrow4 ,poisons are dangerous  
because of the probability that the     
animal would bring the food on which    
they are placed to the mouth of  the    
burrow for eating1 where children or    
useful animals might get it4  ,while    
experimenting with burning ,cayenne     
pepper or sulphur on touch  paper1 in   
order to smoke out the burrows1 the     

author became acquainted  with the      
woodchuck torches of ,mr4 ,b4 ,m4       
,wedger1 of ,roslindale1                
,massachusetts4 ,these consist of       
nitrate of soda1 sulphur1 mealed        
gunpowder1 and sulphide of antimony1 so 
packed into a tube like a  ,roman candle
 that on burning the fuse the vapors    
would be forced by  great pressure to   
the farthest recesses of the burrow4    
,they proved  effectual1 and it was     
indeed rare that any woodchuck to which 
they  were applied ever reported himself
 again4 ,professor ,storer also         
describes some experiments he made in   
burning sulphur in the burrows1  with   
special expedients for insuring more    
rapid and perfect combustion  of the    
sulphur2 these promised fairly well4    
,mr4 ,henry ,stewart has  described in  
the ,country ,gentleman an effectual    
method of destroying  woodchucks with   
blasting powder or dynamite4            
,evolution in ,lamps4--,the story of    
lamps from ,herodotus down to #ahcj1    

,mr4 ,henry ,c4 ,mercer says1 in an     
instructive study on ,light and ,light  
,making in the contributions of the     
,bucks ,county 7,pa47 ,historical       
,society1 is not one of development4 ,in
 principle and form they remain  the    
same1 whether as the tin cylindrical or 
boat-shaped cups on  candlestick        
pedestals and the round tin cups with   
hemispherical lids1  or the lidless cups
 resting on wooden stands such as were  
recently  rescued by the author from the
 garret rubbish of old ,bucks ,county4  
,and  before ,herodotus1 as we follow   
the lamp back into the tombs of the ,old
  ,world1 we find the boat-shaped form  
of earthenware preceding the            
boat-shaped form of iron and possibly   
even that of bronze4 ,the  chalk-cup    
lamp found by ,canon ,greenwell in the  
neolithic flint mines  at ,grimes       
,graves1 ,england1 perhaps the oldest   
wick-floating lamp in  the world1 is not
 essentially different from the oyster  
shell filled  with lard and provided    

with wicks that may be found among      
,virginia  negroes to-day4 ,the         
,egyptian1 ,grecian1 ,phoenician1 and   
,roman lamps1 as  they have been found  
in the tombs and as we see them in the  
museums1  are not unlike the lard lamps 
that were most in use early in the      
nineteenth century4 ,then crude grease  
gave way to sperm oil and lard  oil1    
with especial adaptations of the lamps  
that made them more  convenient and     
improved the light2 and burning fluids  
that were  convenient and clean and gave
 a brilliant light1 but were dangerous2 
and kerosene1 with other improvements in
 the lamps and refinements in  the oil  
that enabled it to give the most perfect
 artificial light yet  found and to keep
 up the fight for quality with gas and  
electricity--all these having come in   
within the life-time of men  still among
 us4 ,besides the old lamps1 our        
ancestors had candles1  molded when the 
price of tin1 the material for the      
molds1 did not  forbid the luxury1 and  

before them tallow dips2 a suspended    
wick was  dipped into a pot of hot      
tallow1 on a cold day1 and the operation
 was  repeated till layer after layer of
 grease hardened1 and the candle was    
thick enough4 ,these candles were1      
however1 troublesome in hot weather1  on
 account of their propensity to yield to
 the temperature and fall  over4 ,who   
shall say1 however1 that candle-dipping 
is older than  molding1 when we know 444
 that they molded candles in ,county    
,galway1  ,ireland1 in late years by    
punching holes in peat and pouring in   
tallow  on the down-hung wick of twisted
 flax fiber8 ,the ,irish had1 too1 as   
had the negroes1 the rush light1 a      
greased rush set in a hole in a  wooden 
block serving as a candlestick2 or      
rushes joined in a triple  twist which  
flies apart when lighted1 increasing the
 blaze4 ,from this  ,mr4 ,mercer passes 
to forms of candlesticks and torches and
 cressets  and methods of producing     
fire1 whither we can not follow him1 for

 the  multitude of details he notices1  
which will not bear abstracting4        
,inconsistent ,philozoists4--,in his    
address at the opening of the           
physiological and pathological          
laboratories at ,belfast1 ,ireland1     
,lord  ,lister took occasion to give    
some illustrations1 drawn from practice1
  of the value of pathological research4
 ,there are people1 he said1  who do not
 object to eating a mutton chop--people 
who do not even  object to shooting a   
pheasant with a considerable chance that
 it may  be only wounded and may have to
 die after lingering in pain1 unable to 
obtain its proper nutriment--and yet who
 consider it something  monstrous to    
introduce under the skin of a guinea-pig
 a little  inoculation of some microbe  
to ascertain its action4 ,these seem to 
me  to be most inconsistent views4 ,if  
these experiments upon the lower        
animals were made for the mere sport of 
the thing1 they would be  indeed to be  
deprecated and decried2 but if they are 

made with the  wholly noble object of   
not only increasing human knowledge1 but
 also  of diminishing human suffering1  
then ,i hold that such investigations   
are deserving of all praise4 ,those     
little know who lightly speak on  these 
matters how much self-denial is required
 in the prosecution of  such researches 
when they are conducted1 as indeed they 
always are1 as  far as ,i am aware1 with
 the object of establishing new truth4  
,the ,ruins of ,xkichmook1              
,yucatan4--,the group of ruins in       
,yucatan  called ,xkichmook was         
discovered by ,mr4 ,edward ,h4 ,thompson
 in #ahhh1  when he read a paper before 
the ,american ,antiquarian ,society     
embodying  his first impressions of it4 
,he has since made studies of it        
extending  over a period of seven years4
 ,the group is about one hundred and    
forty  miles south of ,merida and forty 
or fifty miles east of ,campeche1       
situated in a narrow valley between a   
series of rocky hills1 and has  to be   

approached by precipitous paths over the
 hillsides1 and thence  down the beds of
 dry arroyos whose yearly freshets wash 
away all  vegetation4 ,ten buildings1   
including one called the ,palace1 and   
two  mounds were explored1 and some     
miscellaneous excavations were          
made--all of which are described in the 
author's paper 7,field  ,columbian      
,museum71 with figures of the buildings 
and objects4 ,pottery  and flaked stone 
implements were plentiful1 but polished 
implements  and specimens of sculpture  
were exceedingly rare4 ,the flat under  
surfaces of the ceiling stones of the   
vaulted chambers seem to have  contained
 very elaborate designs2 in another     
chamber portions of a  painting were    
still partly preserved2 in another1     
curious drawings or  glyphs in strong   
black lines once existed2 in another was
 a painted  human figure1 of which only 
the flowing headdress1 a portion of the 
face1 and certain devices issuing from  
the mouth and probably  indicating      

speech1 now remain4 ,the mysterious red 
hand was found  painted in various      
places1 and in one a human hand in blue 
pigment was  found1 the impression of   
which was so fresh and perfect in places
 that  even the minute lines of the skin
 were visible4 ,in ten years of         
investigation among the ruins of        
,yucatan and ,campeche not as many      
specimens of worked obsidian were found 
as could be picked up in half  an hour  
among certain ,mexican ruins2 but traces
 of ancient fabrication  of flint       
implements were more plentiful than     
anywhere else4    ,the ,seventeen-,year 
and the ,thirteen-,year ,locusts4--,the 
periodical  cicada1 or seventeen-year   
locust1 as it is called1 is distinctly  
,american1 and has the longest life     
period of any known insect4 ,it is      
especially remarkable1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4     
,marlatt observes in his memoir upon    
it1 in its adolescent period1 the       
features of particular divergence  from 
other insects being its long            

subterranean life of thirteen or        
seventeen years1 and the perfect        
regularity with which at the end of     
these periods every generation1 though  
numbering millions of  individuals1     
attains maturity almost at the same     
moment4 ,at this  moment the brood issue
 from the ground1 leaving innumerable   
exit  holes1 and swarm over trees and   
shrubs1 filling the air with their      
strident calls1 and laying their eggs in
 slits which they cut in the  trees4    
,the larv1 when hatched1 fall to the    
ground1 and quickly burrow  out of      
sight1 each forming for itself a little 
subterranean chamber  over some rootlet1
 where it remains through winter and    
summer1 buried  from sun1 light1 and    
air1 and protected in a manner from cold
 and  frost4444 ,it lives thus alone in 
its moist earthen chamber1 rarely       
changing its position unless some       
accident to the nourishing rootlet  may 
necessitate its seeking another1 passing
 the thirteen or seventeen  years of its

 hypogeal existence in slow growth and  
preparation for a  few weeks only of    
winged life in the air and light4 ,other
 cicadas  appear every year1 usually in 
comparatively small numbers4 ,they are  
probably equally long in maturing1 but  
the periods of their lives have  from   
some cause or another been cast in off  
years4 ,the thirteen-year  broods are   
southern1 and the shortening of their   
periods of  development may possibly be 
accounted for by the longer season of   
warmth in the southern year giving them 
the number of hours or of  aggregate    
degrees of warmth in thirteen years that
 the more northern  broods can not      
receive in less than seventeen years4   
,this1 however1 is  only speculation1   
and there are difficulties in applying  
the  supposition to make it fit all the 
facts2 and many believe that the  two   
races are specifically different4 ,the  
late ,prof4 ,charles ,v4 ,riley         
distinguished twenty-two different      
broods of cicadas in the ,united        

,states1 seven of which appertain to the
 thirteen-year period 7,cicada          
tredecem74      ,,minor ,,paragraphs4   
,the ,bureau of ,nature ,study of       
,cornell ,university is making a        
praiseworthy effort to interest children
 in caring for birds1 or1 as  its       
circular has it1 treating them as summer
 boarders4 ,it publishes  a leaflet     
entitled ,the ,birds and ,i1 which it   
sends free to teachers  who ask for it  
and who will give it to their pupils4   
,it has pictures  of various styles of  
bird houses1 which may serve as patterns
 for the  construction of homes for the 
summer guests4 ,the kind of birds1 the  
interesting circular of the bureau says1
 that will set up  housekeeping in the  
homes that you provide will harm no one4
 ,they are  never cross1 never throw    
stones or rob us1 but are always happy  
and  have cheerful songs4 ,we are always
 kind to people having such             
dispositions1 and why should we not be  
so to birds as well8 ,the  bureau       

invites correspondence from boys and    
girls disposed to  entertain birds4     
,the ,national ,geographic ,society     
offers prizes of one hundred and fifty  
dollars and seventy-five dollars        
severally for the first and second  best
 essays relating to pre-,columbian      
discoveries and settlements of  the     
,norsemen on the mainland of ,north     
,america1 and the location of the  lands
 mentioned in the ,icelandic ,sagas1 the
 competition to close  ,december #ca1   
#ahii4 ,the essays sent in should be    
typewritten in the  ,english language1  
not exceeding six thousand words in     
length1 and may  be accompanied by maps 
and illustrations for explanation of the
 text1  but not for embellishment4 ,the 
committee of awards consists of ,mr4    
,henry ,gannett1 ,prof4 ,albert         
,bushnell ,hart1 ,mrs4 ,anita ,newcomb  
,mc,gee1  ,prof4 ,john ,bach ,mc,master1
 and ,coast ,survey ,superintendent     
,henry ,s4  ,pritchet4    ,experiments  
by a ,german naturalist1 ,herr ,albrecht

 ,bethe1 summarized in  the ,revue      
,scientifique1 upon recognition of one  
another by ants1  confirm the opinions  
of ,lubbock1 ,mc,cook1 ,forel1 and      
others that they  are guided by the     
sense of smell4 ,herr ,bethe found that 
an ant  whitewashed with liquid of ants 
of its own nest was well received by    
its fellows when it went among them2 but
 when the liquid of ants of a  different
 nest was applied it was attacked at    
once4 ,an ant washed with  alcohol1 next
 with water1 and then with the liquid of
 a strange  species was well received in
 a nest of that species1 although it was
  much smaller than any of the          
individuals composing it4 ,another ant  
washed with alcohol and water1 dried1   
and immediately returned to its  fellows
 of its own nest1 was attacked by them2 
but when kept for  twenty-four hours    
after drying1 or long enough to recruit 
itself1 was  received by them4    ,the  
following tables are taken from a paper 
by ,dr4 ,j4 ,richardson  ,armstrong in a

 recent ,lancet1 describing his         
experience with  diphtheria antitoxine  
in private practice in treating one     
hundred and  twenty-two cases of        
diphtheria3                             
----------------------------------------
--------                                
,recovered4  ,died4                     
----------------------------------------
--------              #a4               
,total number of cases                  
treated from ,june                      
#ba to ,dec4 #ag1 #ahig     #db      #cf
        #f    ,severe cases2 antitoxine 
injected                #bb      #bj    
#b    ,mild cases2 antitoxine           
not injected            #bj      #af    
#d                                      
#b4                                     
,total number of cases                  
treated1 ,january #a                    
to ,december #ca1                       
#ahih                    #hj      #gg   
#c    ,severe cases1 injected    #ee    
#ed        #a    ,mild cases1           

non-injected  #be      #bc        #b    
----------------------------------------
--------    ,in answer to the question1 
,should every case of diphtheria be     
treated  with antitoxine1 ,dr4          
,armstrong says3 ,some of the cases are 
sufficiently mild not to need it1 so ,i 
will not go so far as to say  that it is
 absolutely essential to inject in every
 case1 although ,i  would call it an    
excellent practice to do so1 and the    
patients would  make much more rapid    
recoveries4 ,i think that injection     
ought to be  insisted upon as early as  
possible in every case that is at all   
severe  or likely to prove so1 and ,i   
think that the medical man who does not 
employ antitoxine and who loses a large 
proportion of his cases is  incurring a 
responsibility which is almost criminal4
 ,the earlier a  patient is injected the
 greater is the chance of recovery1 and 
the  more rapid is the recovery4        
,among the leading principles of        
forestry1 as defined by the chief fire  

warden of ,minnesota1 are that the best 
agricultural land should not be  devoted
 to forest while wood and timber can be 
profitably grown on  soil that is unfit 
for farming purposes2 that the          
management should be  continuous1 and no
 more timber should be taken out of the 
forest in  one year1 or in a series of  
ten or twenty years1 than grows in the  
entire forest in the same period2 that  
the cutting of timber should be  in     
blocks or strips1 so as to facilitate   
reproduction on the clear  areas by     
seeds falling from the trees left       
standing2 and that the  forest1 when    
young1 must have in numbers vastly more 
trees than when  it is mature4 ,to make 
good timber1 the forest1 when young1    
must be  crowded so as to secure height 
growth4 ,mixed wood1 managed on forestry
  principles in the ,black ,forest of   
,germany1 has per acre1 at the age of   
twenty years1 #c1ifj trees2 at the age  
of one hundred years1 #bfb trees4    ,a 
new process for the production of a     

textile material is thus  described in  
,industries and ,iron3 ,it consists of  
'squirting1' in a  fashion similar to   
that of making electric incandescent    
carbons1 pure  gelatin in threads of    
about one thousandth part of an inch in 
diameter1 the thread being taken away on
 revolving tapes4 ,the threads  are     
wound upon reels and exposed to formalin
 vapor1 which exercises a  most         
remarkable effect on the gelatin1       
rendering it insoluble in any  medium   
yet applied to it4 ,the tensile         
qualities of the thread are also        
increased1 while1 in opposition to that 
produced under the ,lehner  process     
7which is simply forming nitrated       
cellulose into threads for  weaving71 it
 is capable of taking up any dye        
desired2 and it is1 of  course1         
impervious to any hygroscopic influence4
      ,,notes4    ,prof4 ,e4 ,c4        
,pickering1 of the ,harvard ,college    
,observatory1 announces  the discovery  
by ,mrs4 ,fleming of a new variable star

 in ,sagittarius4  ,it was found on     
eight of the photographs in her large   
collection4 ,on  ,march #h1 #ahih1 it   
was of the fifth magnitude1 and on      
,april #bi1 #ahih1  of the eighth       
magnitude4 ,a plate taken on ,march #i1 
#ahii1 shows it  still visible and of   
the tenth magnitude4 ,its spectrum      
resembles that  of other new stars4 ,the
 entire number of new stars discovered  
since  #ahhe is six1 of which five have 
been found by ,mrs4 ,fleming4           
,because of the great loss by fire which
 occurs every year in the  ,russian     
villages1 the government is making      
efforts to induce the  peasantry1 says  
the ,saturday ,review1 to employ some   
less dangerous  material than straw     
thatch for the roofing of their izbas4  
,there has  already been a large        
increase in the use of shingle1 and this
 has led  to a considerable importation 
from ,belgium and ,germany1 and also    
from  the ,united ,states1 of simple and
 inexpensive shingle making machines1   

for use in rural districts4 ,german     
manufacturers1 whose commercial         
intelligence department is remarkably   
well informed1 are now making  redoubled
 efforts to meet the immense demand     
anticipated4 ,an improved  and          
inexpensive hand fire engine is also    
being provided4 ,roofing felt  or paper 
is very generally used under the        
shingle1 and the demand for  this is    
also increasing4    ,a fourth specimen  
of the ,notornis ,mantelli1 a bird of   
,new ,zealand  supposed to have become  
extinct1 was captured in ,august last1  
and has  been prepared for the museum by
 ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,benham4 ,the first       
specimen  was obtained1 recently slain1 
by ,mr4 ,w4 ,mantell1 in #ahdi1 and is  
preserved in the ,british ,museum2 the  
second was killed by ,maoris in  #ahea1 
and is in the ,colonial ,collection2 and
 the third1 now in the  ,dresden        
,museum1 was taken in #ahgi4 ,all these 
birds were found in a  single denuded   
region of the country4 ,the present     

specimen was caught  by a dog in the    
bushes near ,lake ,te ,anan1 still in   
the same region1  and is a very fine    
young female4    ,a plant growing in the
 dense jungles of ,langsuam1 ,siam1 was 
described  by ,h4 ,warington ,smyth1 in 
an address to the ,royal ,geographical  
,society1 as having the property of     
setting up a great irritation in  the   
skin of any person coming in contact    
with it4 ,it has a large1  broad leaf1  
and the ,siamese declare that1 after    
being badly stung by  it1 the only      
remedy is the heat of a fire2 to bathe  
in a stream1 which  is the natural      
impulse1 is considered absolutely fatal4
 ,a spot on the  ,kra-,champawn trail is
 known as ,burmatai1 from the fact that 
a party  of ,burmese1 coming across to  
harry their neighbors in the old        
fighting  days1 are said to have got    
into a thick growth of this plant1 and  
to  have bathed in the stream to allay  
the agony1 with the result that  they   
all died there4 ,the ,siamese call the  

plant kalang-ton chang4    ,in the      
western part of ,belgium the dog has    
been employed as a beast of  burden from
 time immemorial4 ,the ,belgian dog     
7known only by this name7  is a large1  
compactly built animal1 measuring from  
twenty to thirty  inches in height2 the 
hair is smooth and short1 generally tan 
or dark  brown in color4 ,it is the     
custom to crop both ears and tail4 ,the 
dogs  are usually driven before carts   
weighing from one hundred to one        
hundred and twenty pounds1 in teams of  
from two to six abreast4 ,a  harness    
very similar in arrangement to that of  
the horse is used4 ,six  of these       
animals will draw from six to eight     
hundred pounds4 ,they are  put to work  
when about a year old4 ,they vary in    
price from twenty-five  to sixty        
shillings4 ,there are over two thousand 
dogs in ,ghent licensed  as draught     
animals4    ,a plant described by ,m4   
,henri ,chantrey as most probably       
answering to  the manna found by the    

,hebrews in the desert is the           
thallophyte  ,canona esculenta1 or      
edible lichen1 which grows in the       
deserts of  ,persia1 ,arabia1           
,mesopotamia1 and ,sahara4 ,it is a     
grayish cryptogam of  about the size of 
a pea1 bearing short bracteate          
appendages on its  top2 when cut1 it    
resembles a mass of dull white flour    
paste4 ,it is an  ephemeral substance1  
and must be collected the morning it    
appears1 as  it will soon dry up2 but   
when properly prepared it can be kept in
 a  close vessel4 ,it is highly         
appreciated by the wandering ,arabs1 who
  have often been saved by it from      
starvation1 and they lay up stores of   
it when opportunity offers4 ,it is      
easily collected1 for it never  adheres 
to any foreign body1 and1 so far as     
appearance goes1 seems as  if it might  
have been thrown on the ground4 ,there  
is but little  suggestion of the        
mushroom in its taste1 which is rather  
starchy1 with  a slight flavor of sugar4

 ,cattle are very fond of it4 ,the      
,arabs boil  it into a gelatinous paste1
 which they serve in various ways4 ,they
  preserve it by drying it in the shade 
and pack it in bladders or  skins4 ,it  
is not a complete first-class food1 but 
is very good for a  few days till       
something better can be got4    ,the    
,jernkontoret of ,sweden is an          
ironmasters' exchange at ,stockholm1    
which was founded in #agdg for the      
financial convenience of the            
subscribers1 and now possesses a reserve
 fund of about #a1ejj1jjj4 ,the         
functions of the society have been      
considerably enlarged since its         
institution4 ,it has organized a corps  
of mining engineers and  metallurgists1 
who receive salaries from it1 and       
further from  manufacturers whom they   
may serve4 ,they are often commissioned 
to go  abroad and obtain information and
 practical hints bearing upon their     
profession4 ,the institution is         
supported by a light assessment on the  

production of its constituency4 ,it has 
a fine building1 and publishes  an      
annual volume in ,jernkontorets         
,annalen1 containing original  memoirs  
and reports from technical agents1 which
 is sent gratuitously  to all the       
masters of forges in ,sweden1 and is    
sold abroad4    ,in a number of glass   
mirrors of the third and fourth         
centuries1  examined by ,m4 ,berthelot1 
the glass was coated with a metallic    
substance and with a layer of whitish   
material4 ,the metal proved to be  lead1
 with no trace of gold1 silver1 copper1 
tin1 antimony1 or  mercury1 and no sign 
of organic substance was present4 ,it   
was thus  shown that no extraneous      
material was used to cement the lead to 
the  glass4 ,the mirrors appeared to    
have been cut from hollow blown glass   
globes1 and it is possible that before  
the globe was cut the molten  lead had  
been poured into the interior1 and had  
adhered to the  previously warmed glass4
 ,the whitish layer consisted of lead   

carbonate  and lead oxide formed by the 
oxidation of the lead coating and       
calcium  carbonate1 which had been      
deposited from the water of the district
 in  which the mirrors were found4      
,the list of recent deaths among men    
known in connection with science  and   
its applications includes the names of  
,prof4 ,karl ,mller1  botanist1 one of  
the founders of the ,german scientific  
weekly1 ,die  ,natur1 ,february #ith1   
aged eighty-one years2 ,sir ,john       
,struthers1  emeritus professor of      
anatomy in the ,university of ,aberdeen1
 in his  sixty-seventh year2 ,john      
,kreusi1 mechanical engineer and        
inventor1 at  ,schenectady1 ,n4 ,y41    
,january #bb;d1 aged fifty-six years2   
,thomas ,cook1  teacher of anatomy and  
author of works on the subject1 in      
,london1  ,february #hth2 ,dr4 ,a4      
,veitmeyer1 civil engineer1 in ,berlin2 
,dr4 ,carl  ,schoenlein1 of the         
,zological ,station at ,naples1 aged    
forty years2  ,major-,general ,joseph   

,j4 ,reynolds1 of the ,united ,states   
,army1 formerly  professor of mechanics 
and engineering at ,washington          
,university1 ,st4  ,louis1 ,february    
#bfth1 aged seventy-seven years2 ,dr4   
,alexandre  ,laboulbne1 professor of the
 history of medicine in the ,university 
of  ,paris1 and author of a treatise on 
pathological anatomy and a book on      
,french entomological fauna1 aged       
seventy-three years2 ,dr4 ,philipp ,j4  
,j4 ,valentini1 ,americanist and student
 of ancient ,mexican and ,central       
,american monuments and codices1 in ,new
 ,york1 ,march #afth1 in his            
seventy-first year2 ,gustave ,wiedmann1 
professor of physics and  chemistry in  
the ,university of ,leipsic1 and writer 
on electricity and  magnetism2 and      
,major ,j4 ,evans1 professor of         
pathology in the ,calcutta  ,medical    
,college1 ,march #acth4                 
,transcriber's ,notes3      ,words      
surrounded by  are italicized4    ,words
 surrounded by  are bold4    ,obvious   

printer's errors have been repaired1    
other inconsistent  spellings have been 
kept1 including inconsistent use of     
hyphen 7e4g4  air ship and air-ship71   
diacritical marks 7e4g4 tat and  tat71  
and proper names 7e4g4 ,dostoievski and 
,dostoiewski74    ,captions added to    
captionless illustrations4    ,some     
illustrations were relocated to         
correspond to their references in  the  
text4