file which includes the numerous original illustrations4 ,see #ddhch-;h4htm or #ddhch-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#ddhch_/pg#ddhch-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#dd hch_/ddhch-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/timeitsm easureme#jj;arth ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,the notation n means that n is a subscript4 ,small capital text has been converted to all uppercase4 ,,time ,,and ,,its ,,measurement by ,,james ,,arthur ,reprinted from ,popular ,mechanics ,magazine ,copyright1 #aiji1 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,windsor ,chicago1 #aiji ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,historic ,,outline ,time as an abstraction4 -- ,ancient divisions of day and night4 -- ,night watches of the ,old ,testament4 -- ,quarter days and hours of the ,new ,testament4 -- ,shadow1 or sun time4 -- ,noon mark dials4 -- ,ancient dials of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 -- ,modern dials4 -- ,equation of time4 -- ,three historic methods of measuring time4 -- ,time-boy of ,india4 -- ,chinese clepsydra4 -- ,ancient weather and time stations4 -- ,tower of the winds1 ,athens1 ,greece ,page #ac ,,chapter ,,ii ,,japanese ,,clocks ,chinese and ,japanese divisions of the day4 -- ,hours of varying length4 -- ,setting clocks to length of daylight4 -- ,curved line dials4 -- ,numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for same4 -- ,daily names for sixty day period4 -- ,japanese clock movements practically ,dutch4 -- ,japanese astronomical clock4 -- ,decimal numbers very old ,chinese4 -- ,original vertical dials founded on bamboo stick of ,chinese clepsydra4 -- ,mathematics and superstition4 -- ,mysterious disappearance of hours #a1 #b1 #c4 -- ,eastern mental attitude towards time4 -- ,japanese methods of striking hours and half hours ,page #be ,,chapter ,,iii ,,modern ,,clocks ,de ,vick's clock of #acfd4 -- ,original verge escapement4 -- ,anchor and dead beat escapements4 -- ,remontoir clock4 -- ,the pendulum4 -- ,jeweling pallets4 -- ,antique clock with earliest application of pendulum4 -- ,turkish watches4 -- ,correct designs for public clock faces4 -- ,art work on old watches4 -- #bd-;hour watch4 -- ,syrian and ,hebrew hour numerals4 -- ,correct method of striking hours and quarters4 -- ,design for #bd-;hour dial and hands4 -- ,curious clocks4 -- ,inventions of the old clock-makers ,page #cg ,,chapter ,,iv ,,astronomical ,,foundation ,,of ,,time ,astronomical motions on which our time is founded4 -- ,reasons for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our #bd-;hour day4 -- ,year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year4 -- ,precession of the equinoxes4 -- ,earth's rotation most uniform motion known to us4 -- ,time stars and transits4 -- ,local time4 -- ,the date line4 -- ,standard time4 -- ,beginning and ending of a day4 -- ,proposed universal time4 -- ,clock dial for universal time and its application to business4 -- ,next great improvement in clocks and watches indicated4 -- ,automatic recording of the earth's rotation4 -- ,year of the seasons as a unit for astronomers4 -- ,general conclusions ,page #ec ,,illustrations ,page ,portrait of ,james ,arthur #h ,interpretation of ,chinese and ,japanese ,methods of ,time ,keeping #ae ,portable ,bronze ,sundial from the ,ruins of ,herculaneum #af ,noon-,mark ,sundials #ag ,modern ,horizontal ,sundial for ,latitude #dj-dc #ah ,the ,earth1 ,showing ,relation of ,dial ,styles to ,axis #ah ,modern ,sundial ,set ,up in ,garden #ah ,time-,boy of ,india #ai ,hon-woo-et-low1 or ,copper ,jars ,dropping ,water--,canton1 ,china #ai ,modern ,sand ,glass or ,hour ,glass #bj ,tower of the ,winds1 ,athens1 ,greece #bj ,key to ,japanese ,figures #be ,japanese ,dials ,set for ,long and ,short ,days #be ,japanese ,striking ,clock with ,weight and ,short ,pendulum #bf ,japanese ,striking ,clock with ,spring1 ,fusee and ,balance #bf ,japanese ,clock with ,vertical ,dial1 ,weight and ,balance #bg ,japanese ,clock with ,vertical ,dial ,having ,curved ,lines1 ,weight and ,balance #bg ,japanese ,vertical ,dials #bh ,japanese ,striking ,clock with ,two ,balances and ,two ,escapements #bi ,twelve ,horary ,branches and #aj ,celestial ,stems as ,used in ,clocks #cj ,key to #ab ,horary ,branches and #aj ,celestial ,stems #cj ,dial of ,japanese ,astronomical ,clock #ca ,use of ,yeng ,number and ,animal ,names of ,hours #cb ,public ,dial by ,james ,arthur #cg ,dial of ,philadelphia ,city ,hall ,clock #cg ,verge ,escapement #cg ,de ,vick's ,clock of #acfd #ch ,anchor ,escapement #ch ,american ,anchor ,escapement #ci ,dead ,beat ,escapement #ci ,remontoir ,clock by ,james ,arthur #dj ,remontoir ,clock ,movement #dj ,antique ,clock1 ,entirely ,hand-,made #da1 #db ,double-,case ,watch of ,repouss ,work #db ,triple-,case ,turkish ,watches #dc ,watch ,showing ,dutch ,art ,work #dc ,triple-,case ,turkish ,watch #dd ,watches ,showing ,art ,work #de ,antique ,watch ,cock #df ,chinese ,watch #df ,musical ,watch1 ,repeating ,hours and ,quarters #dg ,syrian ,dial #dg ,hebrew ,numerals #dh ,twenty-four ,hour ,watch #dh ,domestic ,dial by ,james ,arthur #di ,local ,time--,standard ,time--,beginning and ,ending of the ,day #eg ,universal ,time ,dial ,set for ,four ,places #fa ,illustration3 ,james ,arthur ,mr4 ,arthur is an enthusiastic scientist1 a successful inventor and extensive traveler1 who has for years been making a study of clocks1 watches1 and time-measuring devices4 ,he is not only a great authority on this subject1 but his collection of over #aejj timepieces gathered from all parts of the globe has been pronounced the finest collection in the world4 ,mr4 ,arthur is a pleasing exception to the average business man1 for he has found time to do a large amount of study and research along various scientific lines in addition to conducting an important manufacturing business in ,new ,york ,city1 of which he is president4 ,mr4 ,arthur is #fg years of age4--,h4 ,h4 ,windsor4 ,,chapter ,i ,,historic ,,outline ,time as an abstraction4 -- ,ancient divisions of day and night4 -- ,night watches of the ,old ,testament4 -- ,quarter days and hours of the ,new ,testament4 -- ,shadow or sun time4 -- ,noon mark dials4 -- ,ancient dials of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 -- ,modern ,dials4 -- ,equation of time4 -- ,three historic methods of measuring time4 -- ,time-boy of ,india4 -- ,chinese clepsydra4 -- ,ancient weather and time stations4 -- ,tower of the winds1 ,athens1 ,greece4 ,time1 as a separate entity1 has not yet been defined in language4 ,definitions will be found to be merely explanations of the sense in which we use the word in matters of practical life4 ,no human being can tell how long a minute is2 only that it is longer than a second and shorter than an hour4 ,in some sense we can think of a longer or shorter period of time1 but this is merely comparative4 ,the difference between #ej and #ge steps a minute in marching is clear to us1 but note that we introduce motion and space before we can get a conception of time as a succession of events1 but time1 in itself1 remains elusive4 ,in time measures we strive for a uniform motion of something and this implies equal spaces in equal times2 so we here assume just what we cannot explain1 for space is as difficult to define as time4 ,time cannot be squared or used as a multiplier or divisor4 ,only numbers can be so used2 so when we speak of the square of the time we mean some number which we have arbitrarily assumed to represent it4 ,this becomes plain when we state that in calculations relating to pendulums1 for example1 we may use seconds and inches--minutes and feet--or seconds and meters and the answer will come out right in the units which we have assumed4 ,still more1 numbers themselves have no meaning till they are applied to something1 and here we are applying them to time1 space and motion2 so we are trying to explain three abstractions by a fourth6 ,but1 happily1 the results of these assumptions and calculations are borne out in practical human life1 and we are not compelled to settle the deep question as to whether fundamental knowledge is possible to the human mind4 ,those desiring a few headaches on these questions can easily get them from ,kant and ,spencer--but that is all they will get on these four necessary assumptions4 ,evidently1 man began by considering the day as a unit and did not include the night in his time keeping for a long period4 ,and the evening and the morning were the first day ,gen4 #a1 #e2 ,evening and morning and at noonday1 ,ps4 ,,lv1 #ag1 divides the day 7sun up7 in two parts4 ,fourth part of a day1 ,neh4 ,,ix1 #c1 shows another advance4 ,then comes1 are there not twelve hours in a day1 ,john ,,xi1 #i4 ,the eleventh hour1 ,matt4 ,,xx1 #a to #ab1 shows clearly that sunset was #ab o'clock4 ,a most remarkable feature of this #ab-;hour day1 in the ,new ,testament1 is that the writers generally speak of the third1 sixth and ninth hours1 ,acts ,,ii1 #ae2 ,,iii1 #a2 ,x1 #i4 ,this is extremely interesting1 as it shows that the writers still thought in quarter days 7,neh4 ,,ix1 #c7 and had not yet acquired the #ab-;hour conception given to them by the ,romans4 ,they thought in quarter days even when using the #ab-;hour numerals6 ,note further that references are to hours2 so it is evident that in ,new ,testament times they did not need smaller subdivisions4 ,about the third hour1 shows the mental attitude4 ,that they had no conception of our minutes1 seconds and fifth seconds becomes quite plain when we notice that they jumped down from the hour to nowhere1 in such expressions as in an instant--in the twinkling of an eye4 ,before this1 the night had been divided into three watches1 ,judges ,,vii1 #ai4 ,poetry to this day uses the hours and the watches as symbols4 ,this #ab hours of daylight gave very variable hours in latitudes some distance from the equator1 being long in summer and short in winter4 ,the amount of human ingenuity expended on time measures so as to divide the time from sunrise to sunset into #ab equal parts is almost beyond belief4 ,in ,constantinople1 to-day1 this is used1 but in a rather imperfect manner1 for the clocks are modern and run #bd hours uniformly2 so the best they can do is to set them to mark twelve at sunset4 ,this necessitates setting to the varying length of the days1 so that the clocks appear to be sometimes more and sometimes less than six hours ahead of ours4 ,a clock on the tower at the ,sultan's private mosque gives the impression of being out of order and about six hours ahead1 but it is running correctly to their system4 ,hotels often show two clocks1 one of them to our twelve o'clock noon system4 ,evidently the ,jewish method of ending a day at sunset is the same and explains the command1 let not the sun go down upon thy wrath1 which we might read1 do not carry your anger over to another day4 ,i venture to say that we still need that advice4 ,this simple line of steps in dividing the day and night is taken principally from the ,bible because everyone can easily look up the passages quoted and many more1 while quotations from books not in general use would not be so clear4 ,further1 the neglect of the ,bible is such a common complaint in this country that if ,i induce a few to look into it a little some good may result1 quite apart from the matter of religious belief4 ,some ,chinese and ,japanese methods of dividing the day and night are indicated in ,fig4 #a4 ,the old ,japanese method divides the day into six hours and the night also into six1 each hour averaging twice as long as ours4 ,in some cases they did this by changing the rate of the clock1 and in others by letting the clock run uniformly and changing the hour marks on the dial1 but this will come later when we reach ,japanese clocks4 ,it is remarkable that at the present time in ,england the saving daylight agitation is virtually an attempt to go back to this discarded system4 ,john ,bull1 for a long period the time-keeper of the world with headquarters at ,greenwich1 and during that time the most pretentious clock-maker1 now proposes to move his clocks backward and forward several times a year so as to fool his workmen out of their beds in the mornings6 ,why not commence work a few minutes earlier each fortnight while days are lengthening and the reverse when they are shortening8 ,this reminds me of a habit which was common in ,scotland1--keeping the clock half an hour forward4 ,in those days work commenced at six o'clock1 so the husband left his house at six and after a good walk arrived at the factory at six6 ,don't you see that if his clock had been set right he would have found it necessary to leave at half past five8 ,but1 you say he was simply deceiving himself and acting in an unreasonable manner4 ,certainly1 but the average man is not a reasonable being1 and ,john ,bull knows this and is trying to fool the average ,englishman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a--;,interpretation of ,chinese and ,japanese ,methods of ,time ,keeping ,now1 as to the methods of measuring time1 we must use circumstantial evidence for the pre-historic period4 ,the rising and the going down of the sun--the lengthening shadows1 etc41 must come first1 and we are on safe ground here1 for savages still use primitive methods like setting up a stick and marking its shadow so that a party trailing behind can estimate the distance the leaders are ahead by the changed position of the shadow4 ,men notice their shortening and lengthening shadows to this day4 ,when the shadow of a man shortens more and more slowly till it appears to be fixed1 the observer knows it is noon1 and when it shows the least observable lengthening then it is just past noon4 ,now1 it is a remarkable fact that this crude method of determining noon is just the same as taking the sun to determine noon at sea4 ,noon is the time at which the sun reaches his highest point on any given day4 ,at sea this is determined generally by a sextant1 which simply measures the angle between the horizon and the sun4 ,the instrument is applied a little before noon and the observer sees the sun creeping upward slower and slower till a little tremor or hesitation appears indicating that the sun has reached his height1--noon4 ,oh6 you wish to know if the observer is likely to make a mistake8 ,yes1 and when accurate local time is important1 several officers on a large ship will take the meridian passage at the same time and average their readings1 so as to reduce the personal error4 ,all of which is merely a greater degree of accuracy than that of the man who observes his shadow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b--,portable ,bronze ,sundial from the ,ruins of ,herculaneum ,the gradual development of the primitive shadow methods culminated in the modern sundial4 ,the dial of ,ahas1 ,isa4 ,,xxxviii1 #h1 on which the sun went back #aj degrees is often referred to1 but in one of the revised editions of the unchangeable word the sun went back #aj steps4 ,this becomes extremely interesting when we find that in ,india there still remains an immense dial built with steps instead of hour lines4 ,figure #b shows a pocket1 or portable sundial taken from the ruins of ,herculaneum and now in the ,museo ,national1 ,naples4 ,it is bronze1 was silver plated and is in the form of a ham suspended from the hock joint4 ,from the tail1 evidently bent from its original position1 which forms the gnomon1 lines radiate and across these wavy lines are traced4 ,it is about #e in4 long and #c in4 wide4 ,being in the corner of a glass case ,i was unable to get small details1 but museum authorities state that names of months are engraved on it1 so it would be a good guess that these wavy lines had something to do with the long and short days4 ,in a restored flower garden1 within one of the large houses in the ruins of ,pompeii1 may be seen a sundial of the ,armillary type1 presumably in its original position4 ,i could not get close to it1 as the restored garden is railed in1 but it looks as if the plane of the equator and the position of the earth's axis must have been known to the maker4 ,both these dials were in use about the beginning of our era and were covered by the great eruption of ,vesuvius in #gi ,a4,d41 which destroyed ,pompeii and ,herculaneum4 ,modern sundials differ only in being more accurately made and a few curiosity dials added4 ,the necessity for time during the night1 as man's life became a little more complicated1 necessitated the invention of time machines4 ,the clepsydra1 or water clock1 was probably the first4 ,a ,french writer has dug up some old records putting it back to ,hoang-ti #bfgi ,b4,c41 but it appears to have been certainly in use in ,china in #aajj ,b4,c41 so we will be satisfied with that date4 ,in presenting a subject to the young student it is sometimes advisable to use round numbers to give a simple comprehension and then leave him to find the overlapping of dates and methods as he advances4 ,keeping this in mind1 the following table may be used to give an elementary hint of the three great steps in time measuring3 ,shadow time1 #bjjj to #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 ,dials and ,water ,clocks1 #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 to #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 ,clocks and watches1 #ajjj to #bjjj ,a4 ,d4 ,i have pushed the gear wheel clocks and watches forward to #bjjj ,a4,d41 as they may last to that time1 but ,i have no doubt we will supersede them4 ,at the present time science is just about ready to say that a time measurer consisting of wheels and pinions--a driving power and a regulator in the form of a pendulum or balance1 is a clumsy contrivance and that we ought to do better very soon2 but more on this hoped-for1 fourth method when we reach the consideration of the motion on which we base all our time keeping4 ,it is remarkable how few are aware that the simplest form of sundial is the best1 and that1 as a regulator of our present clocks1 it is good within one or two minutes4 ,no one need be without a noon-mark sundial2 that is1 every one may have the best of all dials4 ,take a post or any straight object standing plumb1 or best of all the corner of a building as in ,fig4 #c4 ,in the case of the post1 or tree trunk1 a stone 7shown in solid black7 may be set in the ground2 but for the building a line may often be cut across a flagstone of the footpath4 ,many methods may be employed to get this noon mark1 which is simply a north and south line4 ,viewing the pole star1 using a compass 7if the local variation is known7 or the old method of finding the time at which the shadow of a pole is shortest4 ,but the best practical way in this day is to use a watch set to local time and make the mark at #ab o'clock4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c--,noon-,mark ,sundials ,on four days of the year the sun is right and your mark may be set at #ab on these days1 but you may use an almanac and look in the column marked mean time at noon or sun on meridian4 ,for example1 suppose on the bright day when you are ready to place your noon mark you read in this column #aa3ej1 then when your watch shows #aa3ej make your noon mark to the shadow and it will be right for all time to come4 ,owing to the fact that there are not an even number of days in a year1 it follows that on any given yearly date at noon the earth is not at the same place in its elliptical orbit and the correction of this by the leap years causes the equation table to vary in periods of four years4 ,the centennial leap years cause another variation of #djj years1 etc41 but these variations are less than the error in reading a dial4 ,,sun ,,on ,,noon ,,mark1 #aiji ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,clock ,clock ,clock ,date ,time ,date ,time ,date ,time ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,jan4 #b #ab3jd ,may #a #aa3eg ,sep4 #cj #aa3ej #d #ab3je #ae #aa3ef ,oct4 #c #aa3di #g #ab3jf #bh #aa3eg #f #aa3dh #i #ab3jg ,june #d #aa3eh #aj #aa3dg #aa #ab3jh #aj #aa3ei #ad #aa3df #ad #ab3ji #ad #ab3jj #ai #aa3de #ag #ab3aj #ai #ab3ja #bf #aa3dd #bj #ab3aa #bd #ab3jb ,nov4 #ag #aa3de #bc #ab3ab #bi #ab3jc #bb #aa3df #bh #ab3ac ,july #d #ab3jd #be #aa3dg ,feb4 #c #ab3ad #aj #ab3je #bi #aa3dh #bf #ab3ac #ai #ab3jf ,dec4 #a #aa3di ,mar4 #c #ab3ab ,aug4 #aa #ab3je #d #aa3ej #h #ab3aa #af #ab3jd #f #aa3ea #aa #ab3aj #ba #ab3jc #i #aa3eb #ae #ab3ji #be #ab3jb #aa #aa3ec #ah #ab3jh #bh #ab3ja #ac #aa3ed #bb #ab3jg #ca #ab3jj #ae #aa3ee #be #ab3jf ,sep4 #d #aa3ei #ag #aa3ef #bh #ab3je #g #aa3eh #ai #aa3eg ,apr4 #a #ab3jd #aj #aa3eg #ba #aa3eh #d #ab3jc #ab #aa3ef #bc #aa3ei #g #ab3jb #ae #aa3ee #be #ab3jj #aa #ab3ja #ah #aa3ed #bg #ab3ja #ae #ab3jj #ba #aa3ec #bi #ab3jb #ai #aa3ei #bd #aa3eb #ca #ab3jc #bd #aa3eh #bg #aa3ea ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,the above table shows the variation of the sun from mean or clock time1 by even minutes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d--ab-;,inch ,modern ,horizontal ,sundial for ,latitude #dj-dc ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e--,the ,earth1 ,showing ,relation of ,dial ,styles to ,axis ,the reason that the table given here is convenient for setting clocks to mean time is that a minute is as close as a dial can be read1 but if you wish for greater accuracy1 then the almanac1 which gives the equation of time to a second for each day1 will be better4 ,the reason that these noon-mark dials are better than ordinary commercial dials is that they are larger1 and still further1 noon is the only time that any dial is accurate to sun time4 ,this is because the sun's rays are refracted in a variable manner by our atmosphere1 but at noon this refraction takes place on a north and south line1 and as that is our noon-mark line the dial reads correctly4 ,so1 for setting clocks1 the corner of your house is far ahead of the most pretentious and expensive dial4 ,in ,fig4 #d is shown a modern horizontal dial without the usual confusing ornamentation1 and in ,fig4 #e it is shown set up on the latitude of ,new ,york ,city for which it is calculated4 ,this shows clearly why the edge ,,fg of the style which casts the shadow must be parallel to the earth's axis and why a horizontal dial must be made for the latitude of the place where it is set up4 ,figure #f is the same dial only the lines are laid out on a square dial plate1 and it will give your young scientific readers a hint of how to set up a dial in the garden4 ,in setting up a horizontal dial1 consider only noon and set the style1 or #ab o'clock line1 north and south as described above for noon-mark dials4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f--,modern ,sundial ,set ,up in ,garden ,a whole issue of ,popular ,mechanics could be filled on the subject of dials and even then only give a general outline4 ,astronomy1 geography1 geometry1 mathematics1 mechanics1 as well as architecture and art1 come in to make dialing a most charming scientific and intellectual avocation4 ,during the night and also in cloudy weather the sundial was useless and we read that the priests of the temples and monks of more modern times went out to observe the stars to make a guess at the time of night4 ,the most prominent type after the shadow devices was the water clock or clepsydra1 but many other methods were used1 such as candles1 oil lamps and in comparatively late times1 the sand glass4 ,the fundamental principle of all water clocks is the escape of water from a vessel through a small hole4 ,it is evident that such a vessel would empty itself each time it is filled in very nearly the same time4 ,the reverse of this has been used as shown in ,fig4 #g1 which represents the time-boy of ,india4 ,he sits in front of a large vessel of water and floats a bronze cup having a small hole in its bottom in this large vessel1 and the leakage gradually lowers this cup till it sinks1 after which he fishes it up and strikes one or more blows on it as a gong4 ,this he continues and a rude division of time is obtained1--while he keeps awake6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g--,time-,boy of ,india ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h--;,hon-woo-et-low or ,copper ,jars ,dropping ,water--,canton1 ,china ,the most interesting of all water clocks is undoubtedly the copper jars dropping water1 in ,canton1 ,china1 where ,i saw it in #ahig4 ,referring to the simple line sketch1 which ,i make from memory1 ,fig4 #h1 and reading four ,chinese characters downwards the translation is ,canton ,city4 ,to the left and still downwards1--,hon-woo-et-low1 which is1--,copper jars dropping water4 ,educated ,chinamen inform me that it is over #c1jjj years old and had a weather vane4 ,as they speak of it as the clock of the street arch this would look quite probable2 since the little open building1 or tower in which it stands is higher than surrounding buildings4 ,it is1 therefore1 reasonably safe to state that the ,chinese had a weather and time station over #a1jjj years before our era4 ,it consists of four copper jars partially built in masonry forming a stair-like structure4 ,commencing at the top jar each one drops into the next downward till the water reaches the solid bottom jar4 ,in this lowest one a float1 the bamboo stick1 is placed and indicates the height of the water and thus in a rude way gives the time4 ,it is said to be set morning and evening by dipping the water from jar #d to jar #a1 so it runs #ab hours of our time4 ,what are the uses of jars #b and #c1 since the water simply enters them and drips out again8 ,no information could be obtained1 but ,i venture an explanation and hope the reader can do better1 as we are all of a family and there is no jealousy4 ,when the top jar is filled for a #ab-;hour run it would drip out too fast during the first six hours and too slow during the second six hours1 on account of the varying head of water4 ,now1 the spigot of jar #b could be set so that it would gain water during the first six hours1 and lose during the second six hours and thus equalize a little by splitting the error of jar #a in two parts4 ,similarly1 these two errors of jar #b could be again split by jar #c making four small variations in lowest jar1 instead of one large error in the flow of jar #a4 ,this could be extended to a greater number of jars1 another jar making eight smaller errors1 etc41 etc4 ,but ,i am inclined to credit our ancient ,chinese inventor with the sound reasoning that a human attendant1 being very fallible and limited in his capacity1 would have all he could properly do to adjust four jars1 and that his record would average better than it would with a greater number4 ,remember1 this man lived thousands of years before the modern mathematician who constructed a bell-shaped vessel with a small hole in the bottom1 and proportioned the varying diameter in such a manner that in emptying itself the surface of the water sank equal distances in equal times4 ,the sand glass1 ,fig4 #i1 poetically called the hour glass1 belongs to the water-clock class and the sand flows from one bulb into the other1 but it gives no subdivisions of its period1 so if you are using one running an hour it does not give you the half hour4 ,the sand glass is still in use by chairmen1 and when the oldest inhabitant gets on his feet1 ,i always advise setting a #bj-minute glass on him4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i--,modern ,sand ,glass or ,hour ,glass ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj--,tower of the ,winds--,athens1 ,greece ,in the ,tower of the ,winds at ,athens1 ,greece 7,fig4 #aj71 we have a later weather bureau station4 ,it is attributed to the astronomer ,andronicos1 and was built about #ej ,b4 ,c4 ,it is octagonal in plan and although #bg ft4 in diameter and #dd ft4 high1 it looks like a sentry box when seen from one of the hills of ,athens4 ,it had a bronze weather vane and in later times sundials on its eight sides1 but all these are gone and the tower itself is only a dilapidated ruin4 ,in making the drawing for this cut1 from a photograph of the tower1 ,i have sharpened the weathered and chipped corners of the stones so as to give a view nearly like the structure as originally built2 but nothing is added4 ,under the eaves it has eight allegorical sculptures1 representing wind and weather4 ,artists state that these sculptures are inferior as compared with ,grecian art of an older period4 ,but the most interesting part is inside1 and here we find curious passages cut in solid stone1 and sockets which look as if they had contained metal bearings for moving machinery4 ,circumstantial evidence is strong that it contained a complicated water clock which could have been kept running with tolerable accuracy by setting it daily to the dials on the outside4 ,probably during a few days of cloudy weather the clock would get off quite a little1 but business was not pressing in those days4 ,besides1 the timekeeper would swear by his little water wheel1 anyway1 and feel safe1 as there was no higher authority wearing an ,american watch4 ,some very interesting engravings of ,japanese clocks and a general explanation of them1 as well as a presentation of the ,japanese mental attitude towards hours and their strange method of numbering them may be expected in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,japanese ,,clocks ,chinese and ,japanese divisions of the day4 -- ,hours of varying length4 -- ,setting clocks to length of daylight4 -- ,curved line dials4 -- ,numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for same4 -- ,daily names for sixty day period4 -- ,japanese clock movements practically ,dutch4 -- ,japanese astronomical clock4 -- ,decimal numbers very old ,chinese4 -- ,original vertical dials founded on bamboo stick of ,chinese clepsydra4 -- ,mathematics and superstition4 -- ,mysterious disappearance of hours #a1 #b1 #c4 -- ,eastern mental attitude towards time4 -- ,japanese methods of striking hours and half hours4 ,the ancient methods of dividing day and night in ,china and ,japan become more hazy as we go backwards and the complications grow4 ,the three circles in ,fig4 #a 7,chapter ,i7 are all taken from ,japanese clocks1 but the interpretation has been obtained from ,chinese and ,japanese scholars4 ,the ,japanese obtained a great deal from the ,chinese1 in fact nearly everything relating to the ancient methods of time keeping and the compiling of calendars4 ,i have not been able to find any ,chinese clocks constructed of wheels and pinions1 but have a number of ,japanese4 ,these have a distinct resemblance to the earlier ,dutch movements1 and while made in ,japan1 they are practically ,dutch1 so far as the works are concerned1 but it is easy to see from the illustrations that they are very ,japanese in style and ornamentation4 ,the ,dutch were the leaders in opening ,japan to the ,european nations and introduced modern mathematics and clocks from about #aeij ,a4 ,d4 ,the ancient mathematics of ,japan came largely from ,china through ,corea4 ,in ,fig4 #aa are given the ,japanese figures beside ours1 for the reader's use as a key4 ,the complete day in ,japan was divided into twice six hours2 that is1 six for daylight and six for night1 and the clocks are set1 as the days vary in length1 so that six o'clock is sunrise and sunset4 ,the hour numerals on ,fig4 #ab are on little plates which are movable1 and are shown set for a long day and a short night4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac4 ,japanese ,dials ,set for ,long and ,short ,days ,in ,fig4 #ac they are set for short days and long nights4 ,the narrow plates shown in solid black are the half-hour marks4 ,in this type the hand is stationary and always points straight upward4 ,the dial rotates1 as per arrow1 once in a full day4 ,this style of dial is shown on complete clocks1 ,fig4 #ad being a weight clock and ,fig4 #ae a spring clock with chain and fusee4 ,the hours are #i to #d and the dials rotate to make them read backwards4 ,the six hours of daylight are #f1 #e1 #d1 #i1 #h1 #g1 #f and the same for night1 so these hours average twice as long as ours4 ,note that nine is mid-day and mid-night1 and as these do not change by long and short days they are stationary on the dial1 as you can easily see by comparing ,figs4 #ab and #ac1 which are the same dial set for different seasons4 ,between these extremes the dial hours are set as often as the owner wishes2 so if he happens to correspond with our time crank he will set them often and dispute with his neighbors about the time4 ,figure #af shows a clock with the hour numerals on a vertical series of movable plates and it is set for uniform hours when day and night are equal at the equinox4 ,the ornamental pointer is fastened to the weight through the vertical slit1 plainly visible in illustration1 and indicates the time as it descends4 ,this clock is wound up at sunset1 so the six on the top of the dial is sunset the same as the six on the bottom4 ,figure #ag shows how this type of dial is set for long and short days and explains itself1 but will become plainer as we proceed4 ,this dial is virtually a continuation of the old method of marking time by the downward motion of the water in the clepsydras and will be noticed later4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad--;,japanese ,striking ,clock with ,weight and ,short ,pendulum ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae--;,japanese ,striking ,clock with ,spring1 ,fusee and ,balance ,figure #ah represents a clock which is a work of art and shows great refinement of design in providing for the varying lengths of days4 ,the bar lying across the dial is fastened to the weight through the two slits running the whole length of the dial4 ,on this cross bar is a small pointer1 which is movable by the fingers1 and may be set to any one of the thirteen vertical lines4 ,the numerous characters on the top space of dial indicate the dates on which the pointer is to be set4 ,this clock is wound up at sunset1 and it is easy to see that as the little pointer is set towards the right1 the night hours at the top of the dial become shorter and the day hours longer on the lower part4 ,the left edge of the dial gives the hours1 reading downwards1 and as the pointer touches any one of the curved lines the hour is read at the left-hand end4 ,the curved lines formed of dots are the half-hours4 ,the right-hand edge of the dial has the twelve horary characters which will be explained later4 ,for dividing the varying days into six hours' sunshine it would be difficult to think of a more artistic and beautiful invention than this4 ,it is a fine example of great ingenuity and constant trouble to operate a system which is fundamentally wrong according to our method of uniform hours at all seasons4 ,clocks having these curved lines for the varying lengths of days--and we shall find them on circular dials as we go on--must be made for a certain latitude1 since the days vary more and more as you go farther from the equator4 ,this will become plain when you are reminded that a ,japanese clock at the equator would not need any adjustment of hour numerals1 because the days and nights are equal there all the year4 ,so after such infinite pains in forming these curved lines the clock is only good in the latitude for which it was made and must not be carried north or south6 ,our clocks are correct from pole to pole1 but all clocks must be set to local time if they are carried east or west4 ,as this is a rather fascinating phase of the subject it might be worth pointing out that if you go north till you have the sun up for a month in the middle of summer--and there are people living as far up as that--the ,japanese system would become absurd and break down2 so there is no danger of any of our polar expeditions carrying ,japanese clocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af--;,japanese ,clock with ,vertical ,dial1 ,weight and ,balance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag--;,japanese ,vertical ,dials ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah--;,japanese ,clock with ,vertical ,dial ,having ,curved ,lines1 ,weight and ,balance4 ,figure #ai shows a very fine clock in which the dial is stationary and the hand moves just as on our dials4 ,this hour hand corresponds to the single hand of the old ,dutch clocks4 ,when the ,japanese reached the point of considering the application of minute and second hands to their clocks they found that these refinements would not fit their old method and they were compelled to lay aside their clocks and take ours4 ,on this dial1 ,fig4 #ai1 nine is noon1 as usual1 and is on top side of dial4 ,hand points to three quarters past seven1 that is1 a quarter to six1 near sunset4 ,between the bell and the top of the clock body two horizontal balances1 having small weights hung on them1 are plainly shown1 and the clock has two verge escapements--one connected with each balance1 or foliot4 ,let us suppose a long day coming to a close at sunset1 just as the hand indicates4 ,the upper balance1 which is the slow one1 has been swinging backwards and forwards measuring the long hours of the day4 ,when the clock strikes six1 at sunset1 the top balance is thrown out of action and the lower one1 which is the fast one1 is thrown into action and measures the short night hours4 ,at sunrise this is thrown out and the top one in again to measure the next day's long hours4 ,as the days vary in length1 the balances1 or foliots1 can be made to swing faster or slower by moving the weights inwards or outwards a notch or two4 ,the balance with small weights for regulation is the oldest known and was used in connection with the verge escapement1 just as in this clock1 by the ,dutch about #acfd4 ,all the evidence ,i can find indicates that the ,japanese clocks are later than this date4 ,in design1 ornamentation and methods for marking varying days1 however1 the ,japanese have shown great artistic taste and inventiveness4 ,it is seen that this dial in addition to the usual six hours1 twice over1 has on the outside circle of dial1 the twelve horary branches called by the ,japanese the twelve honorary branches1 thus indicating the whole day of twelve ,japanese hours1 six of them for day and six for night4 ,by this means they avoided repeating the same hours for day and night4 ,when it is pointed out that these twelve horary branches are very old ,chinese1 we are not in a position to boast about our twenty-four hour system1 because these branches indicate positively whether any given hour is day or night4 ,when we print a time table in the twenty-four hour system so as to get rid of our clumsy ,a4 ,m4 and ,p4 ,m41 we are thousands of years behind the ,chinese4 ,more than that1 for they got the matter right without any such pressure as our close running trains have brought to bear on us4 ,these branches have one syllable names and the ten celestial stems have also one syllable names1 all as shown on ,fig4 #bj4 ,refer now to ,fig4 #ba where two disks are shown1 one having the twelve horary branches and the other the ten celestial stems4 ,these disks are usually put behind the dial so that one branch and one stem can be seen at the same time through two openings4 ,the clock moves these disks one step each night1 so that a new pair shows each day4 ,running in this manner1 step by step1 you will find that it takes sixty moves1 that is sixty days1 to bring the same pair around again4 ,each has a single syllable name1 as shown on ,fig4 #bj1 and we thus get sixty names of two syllables by reading them together to the left4 ,the two openings may be seen in the dials of ,figs4 #ae and #ai4 ,so the ,japanese know exactly what day it is in a period of sixty which they used in their old calendars4 ,these were used by the ,chinese over four thousand years ago as the names of a cycle of sixty years1 called the sexagenary4 ,the present ,chinese year #dfjf is ,,yu-,,ki which means the year #df of the #gfth sexagenary4 ,that is1 #gffjdf #d1fjf4 ,in ,fig4 #bj1 we read ,,tsu-,,kiah1 or the first year4 ,if you will make two disks like ,fig4 #ba and commence with ,,tsu-,,kiah and move the two together you will come to ,,yu-,,ki on the #dfth move4 ,but there is another way which you might like better1 thus3 ,write the twelve branches1 or syllables1 straight downwards1 continuously five times2 close to the right1 write the ten stems six times4 ,now you have sixty words of two syllables and the #dfth1 counting downwards1 will be ,,yu-,,ki4 ,besides1 this method gives you the whole sixty names of the sexagenary at one view4 ,always read left1 that is1 pronounce the stem syllable first4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai--;,japanese ,striking ,clock with ,two ,balances and ,two ,escapements2 ,dial ,stationary1 ,hand ,moves ,calendars constitute a most interesting and bewildering part of time measuring4 ,we feel that we have settled the matter by determining the length of the year to within a second of time1 and keeping the dates correctly to the nearest day by a leap year every fourth and every fourth century1 established by ,pope ,gregory ,,xiii in #aehb1 and known as the ,gregorian ,calendar4 ,in simple words1 our almanac is the ,gregorian4 ,we are in the habit of saying glibly that any year divisible by four is a leap year1 but this is far from correct4 ,any year leaving out the even hundreds1 which is divisible by four is a leap year4 ,even hundreds are leap when divisible by four4 ,this explains why #aijj was a common year1 because #ai hundreds is not divisible by four2 #bjjj will be a leap because #bj hundreds is divisible by four2 therefore #bajj1 #bbjj and #bcjj will be common years and #bdjj a leap1 etc41 to #djjj which must be made common1 to keep things straight1 in spite of the fact that it is divisible by four both in its hundreds and thousands4 ,but for practical purposes1 during more than two thousand years to come1 we may simplify the rule to3 ,years and even hundreds divisible by four are leaps4 ,but great confusion still exists as a result of several countries holding to their own old methods4 ,the present ,chinese year has #chd days1 #ac months and #ac full moons4 ,compared with our #aiji it begins on ,january #bast and will end on ,february #h1 #aiaj4 ,last year the ,china-,japan calendar had #ab months1 or moons1 but as that is too short they must put in an extra every thirtieth month4 ,we only allow the error to reach one day and correct it with our leap years1 but they are not so particular and let the error grow till they require another moon4 ,the ,old ,testament is full of moons1 and even with all our modernity our feasts and holy days are often variable on account of being mixed up with moons4 ,in ,japan the present year is the #dbnd of ,meiji1 that is1 the #dbnd of the present ,emperor's reign4 ,the present is the ,jewish #effi4 ,these and others of varying lengths overlap our year in different degrees1 so that in trade matters great confusion exists4 ,the ,chinese and ,japanese publish a trade almanac in parallel columns with ours to avoid this4 ,it is easy to say that we ought to have a uniform calendar all over the world1 but the same remark applies just as much to money1 weights1 measures1 and even to language itself4 ,finally1 the difficulty consists in the facts that there are not an even number of days in a year--or in a moon--or moons in a year4 ,these many moons is a survival in our daily speech of this old method of measuring by moons4 ,just a little hint as to the amount of superstition still connected with new moon will be enough to make clear the fact that we are not yet quite so enlightened as we say we are4 ,while our calendar1 or almanac1 may be considered as final1 we must remember that custom and religion are so mixed up with the matter in the older countries of the ,east that they will change very slowly4 ,strictly1 our era is arbitrary and ,christian2 so we must not expect nations which had some astronomical knowledge and a working calendar1 thousands of years before us1 to change suddenly to our upstart methods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj--,key to #ab ,horary ,branches and #aj ,celestial ,stems ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba--ab ,horary ,branches and #aj ,celestial ,stems as ,used in ,clocks ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb--;,dial of ,japanese ,astronomical ,clock ,in ,fig4 #bb we have the dial of a very complicated astronomical clock4 ,this old engraved brass dial did not photograph well1 so ,i made a copy by hand to get clean lines4 ,commencing at the centre1 there is a small disk1 ,b1 numbered from #a to #cj1 giving days of the moon's age4 ,the moon rises at ,a and sets at ,,aa1 later each day1 of course4 ,her age is shown by the number she touches on disk ,b1 as this disk advances on the moon one number each day4 ,her phases are shown by the motion of a black disk over her face2 so we have here three motions for the moon1 so differentiated as to show phase1 ascension and age4 ,still further1 as she is represented on the dial when below the horizon1 it can be seen when she will rise1 and moonlight parties may be planned4 ,just outside the moon's course is an annulus having ,japanese numbers #a to #ab1 indicating months4 ,note the recurring character dividing the months in halves1 which means middle1 and is much used4 ,if you will carefully read these numbers you will find a character where one would come2 this means beginning or primary and is often used instead of one4 ,the clock hand is the heavy arrow and sweeps the dial once in a whole day1 same direction as our clocks4 ,this circle of the months moves along with the hand1 but a little faster1 so as to gain one number in a month4 ,as shown on the figure it is about one week into the sixth month4 ,next outward is the broad band having twelve curved lines for the hours ending outwardly in a ring divided into #ajj parts1 marked off in tens by dots4 ,these curved lines are numbered with the ,japanese numerals for hours which you must now be able to read easily4 ,these hour lines1 and the dotted lines for half hours1 are really the same as the similar lines on ,fig4 #ah which you now understand4 ,as the hand sweeps the dial daily it automatically moves outward a little each day1 so it shortens the nights and lengthens the days1 just as previously explained for ,fig4 #ah4 ,but there is one difference1 for you will notice that the last night hour1 on which the arrow hand now stands1 is longer than the other night hours before it1 and that it is divided into three by the dotted lines4 ,the last day hour1 on the left of dial1 is also long and divided into three4 ,that is1 while all the dials previously described have equal hours for any given day1 or night1 this dial has a last long hour in each case1 divided into three instead of the usual half-hours4 ,this is a curious and interesting point having its origin long before clocks4 ,in the early days of the clepsydra in ,china1 a certain time was allowed to dip up the water from the lowest jar1 each morning and evening about five o'clock of our time1 see ,fig4 #h 7,chapter #a74 ,during this operation the clepsydra was not marking time1 and the oriental mind evidently considered it in some sense outside of the regular hours1 and like many other things was retained till it appeared absurdly on the earlier clocks4 ,this wonderful feat of putting an interval between two consecutive hours has always been impossible to modern science2 yet ,president ,roosevelt performed it easily in his constructive interregnum6 ,referring to the ,canton clepsydra1 ,fig4 #h1 we find that the float1 or bamboo stick1 was divided into #ajj parts4 ,at one season #fj parts for the day and #dj parts for the night1 gradually being changed to the opposite for short days4 ,the day hours were beaten on a drum and the night hours blown on a trumpet4 ,later the hour numerals were made movable on the bamboo stick4 ,this is virtually a vertical dial with movable hour plates1 so their idea of time measuring at that date1 was of something moving up or down4 ,this was put on the first clocks by the ,japanese2 so that the dial of ,fig4 #af is substantially the float of the ,chinese clepsydra4 ,further1 in this bamboo stick of #ajj parts1 we have our present system of decimal numbers1 so we can afford to be a little modest here too4 ,before leaving ,fig4 #bb note the band1 or annulus1 of stars which moves with the month circle4 ,i cannot make these stars match our twelve signs of the ,zodiac1 but as ,i have copied them carefully the reader can try and make order out of them4 ,the extreme outer edge of the dial is divided into #cfj parts1 the tens being emphasized1 as in our decimal scales4 ,as we are getting a little tired of these complicated descriptions1 let us branch off for a few remarks on some curiosities of ,eastern time keeping4 ,they evidently think of an hour as a period of time more specifically than we do4 ,when we say #f o'clock we mean a point of time marked by the striking of the clock4 ,we have no names for the hour periods4 ,we must say from #e to #f or between #e and #f for an hour period4 ,the twelfth hour of the ,new ,testament1 ,i understand to mean a whole hour ending at sunset2 so we are dealing with an oriental attitude of mind towards time4 ,i think we get that conception nearly correct when we read of the middle watch and understand it to mean during the middle third of the night4 ,secondly1 why do the ,japanese use no #a1 #b1 #c on their dials8 ,these numbers were sacred in the temples and must not be profaned by use on clocks1 and they mentally deducted these from the clock hours1 but ultimately became accustomed to #i1 #h1 #g1 #f1 #e1 #d4 ,thirdly1 why this reading of the hours backwards8 ,let us suppose a toiler commencing at sunrise1 or six4 ,when he toiled one hour he felt that there was one less to come and he called it five4 ,this looks quite logical1 for the diminishing numbers indicated to him how much of his day's toil was to come4 ,another explanation which is probably the foundation of secondly and thirdly above1 is the fact that mathematics and superstition were closely allied in the old days of ,japan4 ,if you take the numbers #a to #f1 ,fig4 #bc1 and multiply them each into the uncanny yeng number1 or nine1 you will find that the last digits1 reading downwards1 give #i1 #h1 #g1 #f1 #e1 #d4 ,stated in other words3 ,when #a to #f are multiplied into three times three the last figures are #i1 #h1 #g1 #f1 #e1 #d1 and #a1 #b1 #c1 have disappeared2 so the common people were filled with fear and awe4 ,some of the educated1 even now1 are mystified by the strange results produced by using three and nine as factors1 and scientific journals often give space to the matter4 ,we know that these results are produced by the simple fact that nine is one less than the radix of our decimal scale of numbers4 ,nine is sometimes called the indestructible number1 since adding the digits of any of its powers gives an even number of nines4 ,but in those days it was a mystery and the common people feared the mathematicians1 and ,i have no doubt the shrewd old fellows took full advantage of their power over the plebeians4 ,in ,japan1 mathematics was not cleared of this rubbish till about #gjj ,a4 ,d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc--,use of ,yeng ,number and ,animal ,names of ,hours ,on the right-hand side of ,fig4 #bc are given the animal names of the hours1 so the day and night hours could not be mistaken4 ,in selecting the rat for night and the horse for day they showed good taste4 ,their forenoon was before horse and their afternoon after horse4 ,japanese clocks are remarkable for variety4 ,it looks as if they were always made to order and that the makers1 probably urged by their patrons1 made extreme efforts to get in wonderful motions and symbols relating to astronomy and astrology4 ,anyone examining about fifty of them would be likely to conclude that it was almost hopeless to understand them all4 ,remember1 this is the old ,japanese method4 ,nearly all the clocks and watches ,i saw in ,japan were ,american4 ,it will now be necessary to close this chapter with a few points on the curious striking of ,japanese clocks4 ,in those like ,figs4 #ad1 #ae1 #ai1 the bell and hammer can be seen4 ,in the type of ,fig4 #af1 the whole striking mechanism is in the weight4 ,in fact1 the striking part of the clock is the weight4 ,on each of the plates1 having the hour numerals1 ,fig4 #af1 a pin projects inwards and as the weight containing the striking mechanism1 descends1 a little lever touches these and lets off the striking just when the pointer is on the hour numeral4 ,keeping this in mind1 it is easy to see that the clock will strike correctly when the hour is indicated by the pointer1 no matter how the hour plates are set for long or short days4 ,similar pins project inwards from movable plates on ,figs4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 so they strike correctly as each hour plate comes to the top just under the point of the fixed hand4 ,in ,fig4 #ai1 the striking is let off by a star wheel just as in old ,dutch clocks4 ,clocks like ,figs4 #ah-bb do not strike4 ,in all cases the hours are struck backwards1 but the half-hours add another strange feature4 ,the odd numbered hours1 #i1 #g1 #e1 are followed by one blow at the half hour2 and the even hours1 #h1 #f1 #d by two blows1 or stated altogether-- #ia #hb #ga #fb #ea #db4 ,here the large figures are the hours and the small ones the half-hours4 ,only one bell is used1 because there being no one and two among the hours1 the half-hours cannot be mistaken4 ,this is not all1 for you can tell what half hour it is within two hours4 ,for example1 suppose you know approximately that it is somewhere between #i and #g and you hear the clock strike #b1 then you know it is half past #h4 ,see the large and small figures above4 ,this is far superior to our method of one at each half-hour4 ,by our method the clock strikes one three times consecutively1 between #ab and #b o'clock and thus mixes up the half hours with one o'clock4 ,some interesting methods of striking will be explained in the third chapter when we deal with modern time keeping4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,modern ,,clocks ,de,vick's clock of #acfd4 -- ,original verge escapement4 -- ,anchor and dead beat escapements4 -- ,remontoir clock4 -- ,the pendulum4 -- ,jeweling pallets4 -- ,antique clock with earliest application of pendulum4 -- ,turkish watches4 -- ,correct designs for public clock faces4 -- ,art work on old watches4 -- ,twenty-four hour watch4 -- ,syrian and ,hebrew hour numerals4 -- ,correct method of striking hours and quarters4 -- ,design for twenty-four hour dial and hands4 -- ,curious clocks4 -- ,inventions of the old clockmakers4 ,illustration3 ,public ,dial by ,james ,arthur ,dial of ,philadelphia ,city ,hall ,clock ,fig4 #bd ,modern clocks commence with ,de ,vick's of #acfd which is the first unquestioned clock consisting of toothed wheels and containing the fundamental features of our present clocks4 ,references are often quoted back to about #ajjj ,a4 ,d41 but the words translated clocks were used for bells and dials at that date2 so we are forced to consider the ,de ,vick clock as the first till more evidence is obtained4 ,it has been pointed out1 however1 that this clock could hardly have been invented all at once2 and therefore it is probable that many inventions leading up to it have been lost to history4 ,the part of a clock which does the ticking is called the escapement and the oldest form known is the verge1 ,fig4 #be1 the date of which is unknown1 but safely #cjj years before ,de ,vick4 ,the foliot is on the vertical verge1 or spindle1 which has the pallets ,a ,b4 ,as the foliot swings horizontally1 from rest to rest1 we hear one tick1 but it requires two of these single swings1 or two ticks1 to liberate one tooth of the escape wheel2 so there are twice as many ticks in one turn of the escape wheel as it has teeth4 ,we thus see that an escapement is a device in which something moves back and forth and allows the teeth of an escape wheel to escape4 ,while this escapement is1 in some respects1 the simplest one1 it has always been difficult to make it plain in a drawing1 so ,i have made an effort to explain it by making the side of the wheel and its pallet ,b1 which is nearest the eye1 solid black1 and farther side and its pallet ,a1 shaded as in the figure4 ,the wheel moves in the direction of the arrow1 and tooth ,d is very near escaping from pallet ,b4 ,the tooth ,c on the farther side of wheel is moving left1 so it will fall on pallet ,a1 to be in its turn liberated as the pallets and foliot swing back and forth4 ,it is easy to see that each tooth of the wheel will give a little push to the pallet as it escapes1 and thus keep the balance swinging4 ,this escapement is a very poor time-keeper1 but it was one of the great inventions and held the field for about #fjj years1 that is1 from the days when it regulated bells up to the onion watches of our grandfathers4 ,scattered references in old writings make it reasonably certain that from about #a1jjj to #a1cjj bells were struck by machines regulated with this verge escapement1 thus showing that the striking part of a clock is older than the clock itself4 ,it seems strange to us to say that many of the earlier clocks were strikers1 only1 and had no dials or hands1 just as if you turned the face of your clock to the wall and depended on the striking for the time4 ,keeping this action of the verge escapement in mind we can easily understand its application1 as made by ,de ,vick1 in ,fig4 #bf1 where ,i have marked the same pallets ,a ,b4 ,a tooth is just escaping from pallet ,b and then one on the other side of the wheel will fall on pallet ,a4 ,foliot1 verge and pallets form one solid piece which is suspended by a cord1 so as to enable it to swing with little friction4 ,for the purpose of making the motions very plain ,i have left out the dial and framework from the drawing4 ,the wheel marked twelve hours1 and the pinion which drives it1 are both outside the frame1 just under the dial1 and are drawn in dash and dot4 ,the axle of this twelve-hour wheel goes through the dial and carries the hand1 which marks hours only4 ,the winding pinion and wheel1 in dotted lines1 are inside the frame4 ,now follow the great wheel--intermediate--escape wheel and the two pinions1 all in solid lines1 and you have the train which is the principal part of all clocks4 ,this clock has an escapement1 wheels1 pinions1 dial1 hand1 weight1 and winding square4 ,we have only added the pendulum1 a better escapement1 the minute and second hands in over #ejj years6 ,the anchor escapement1 ,fig4 #bg1 came about #afhj and is attributed to ,dr4 ,hooke1 an ,englishman4 ,it gets its name from the resemblance of the pallets to the flukes of an anchor4 ,this anchor is connected to the pendulum and as it swings right and left1 the teeth of the escape wheel are liberated1 one tooth for each two swings from rest to rest1 the little push on the pallets ,a ,b1 as the teeth escape1 keeping the pendulum going4 ,it is astonishing how many1 even among the educated1 think that the pendulum drives the clock6 ,the pendulum must always be driven by some power4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be--,verge ,escapement ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf--;,de ,vick's ,clock of #acfd ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg--;,anchor ,escapement ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh--;,american ,anchor ,escapement ,this escapement will be found in nearly all the grandfather clocks in connection with a seconds pendulum4 ,it is a good time-keeper1 runs well1 wears well1 stands some rough handling and will keep going even when pretty well covered with dust and cobwebs2 so it is used more than all the numerous types ever invented4 ,figure #bh gives the general ,american form of the anchor which is made by bending a strip of steel2 but it is not the best form1 as the acting surfaces of the pallets are straight4 ,it is1 therefore1 inferior to ,fig4 #bg where the acting surfaces are curved1 since these curves give an easier recoil4 ,this recoil is the slight motion backwards which the escape wheel makes at each tick4 ,the dead beat escapement is shown in ,fig4 #bi1 and is used in clocks of a high grade1 generally with a seconds pendulum4 ,it has no recoil as you can easily see that the surfaces ,o ,o on which the teeth fall1 are portions of a circle around the center ,p4 ,the beveled ends of these pallets are called the impulse surfaces1 and a tooth is just giving the little push on the right-hand pallet4 ,it is found in good railroad clocks1 watch-makers' regulators and in many astronomical clocks4 ,these terms are merely comparative1 a regulator being a good clock and an astronomical1 an extra good one4 ,figure #cj gives the movement of a remontoir clock in which the dead beat shown is used4 ,the upper one of the three dials indicates seconds1 and the lever which crosses its center carries the large wheel on the left4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi--;,dead ,beat ,escapement ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca--,remontoir ,clock by ,james ,arthur ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj--,remontoir ,clock ,movement ,this wheel makes the left end of the lever heavier than the right1 and in sinking it drives the clock for one minute1 but at the sixtieth second it remounts by the action of the clock weight2 hence the name1 remontoir4 ,note here that the big weight does not directly drive the clock2 it only rewinds it every minute4 ,the minutes are shown on the dial to the right and its hand jumps forward one minute at each sixtieth second as the lever remounts2 so if you wish to set your watch to this clock the proper way is to set it to the even minute on the jump4 ,the hour hand is on the dial to the left4 ,by this remounting1 or rewinding1 the clock receives the same amount of driving force each minute4 ,the complete clock is shown in ,fig4 #ca1 the large weight which does the rewinding each minute being plainly visible4 ,the pendulum is compensated with steel and aluminum1 so that the rate of the clock may not be influenced by hot and cold weather4 ,was built in #aija and is the only one ,i can find room for here4 ,it is fully described in ,machinery1 ,new ,york1 for ,nov41 #aija4 ,i have built a considerable number1 all for experimental purposes1 several of them much more complicated than this one1 but all differing from clocks for commercial purposes4 ,pallets like ,o ,o in ,fig4 #bi are often made of jewels2 in one clock ,i used agates and in another1 running thirteen months with one winding1 ,i used pallets jeweled with diamonds4 ,this is done to avoid friction and wear4 ,those interested in the improvement of clocks are constantly striving after light action and small driving weights4 ,conversely1 the inferior clock has a heavy weight and ticks loud4 ,the gravity escapement and others giving a free pendulum action would require too much space here1 so we must be satisfied with the few successful ones shown out of hundreds of inventions1 dozens of them patented4 ,the pendulum stands at the top as a time measurer and was known to the ancients for measuring short periods of time just as musicians now use the metronome to get regular beats4 ,galileo is credited with noticing its regular beats1 but did not apply it to clocks1 although his son made a partially successful attempt4 ,the first mathematical investigation of the pendulum was made by ,huyghens about #afgj1 and he is generally credited with applying it to clocks1 so there is a ,huyghens clock with a pendulum instead of the foliot of ,de ,vick's4 ,mathematically1 the longer and heavier the pendulum the better is the time-keeping1 but nature does not permit us to carry anything to the extreme2 so the difficulty of finding a tower high enough and steady enough1 the cumbersomeness of weight1 the elasticity of the rod1 and many other difficulties render very long and heavy pendulums impracticable beyond about #ac ft4 which beats once in two seconds4 ,big ,ben of ,westminster1 ,london1 has one of this length weighing #gjj lb4 and measuring1 over all1 #ae ft4 ,it runs with an error under one second a week4 ,this is surpassed only by some of the astronomical clocks which run sometimes two months within a second4 ,this wonderful timekeeping is done with seconds pendulums of about #ci in41 so the theoretical advantage of long pendulums is lost in the difficulties of constructing them4 ,fractions are left out of these lengths as they would only confuse the explanations4 ,at the ,naval observatory in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 the standard clocks have seconds pendulums1 the rods of which are nickel steel1 called ,invar1 which is little influenced by changes of temperature4 ,these clocks are kept in a special basement1 so they stand on the solid earth4 ,the clock room is kept at a nearly uniform temperature and each clock is in a glass cylinder exhausted to about half an atmosphere4 ,they are electric remontoirs1 so no winding is necessary and they can be kept sealed up tight in their glass cylinders4 ,nor is any adjustment of their pendulums necessary1 or setting of the hands1 as the correction of their small variations is effected by slight changes in the air pressure within the glass cylinders4 ,when a clock runs fast they let a little air into its cylinder to raise the resistance to the pendulum and slow it down1 and the reverse for slow4 ,don't forget that we are now considering variations of less than a second a week4 ,the clock room has double doors1 so the outer one can be shut before the inner one is opened1 to avoid air currents4 ,visitors are not permitted to see these clocks because the less the doors are opened the better2 but the ,commander will sometimes issue a special permit and detail a responsible assistant to show them1 so if you wish to see them you must prove to him that you have a head above your shoulders and are worthy of such a great favor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb--;,antique ,clock1 ,entirely ,hand-,made ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc--;,antique ,clock1 ,entirely ,hand-,made ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd--,triple-,case ,turkish ,watches ,the best thing the young student could do at this point would be to grasp the remarkable fact that the clock is not an old machine1 since it covers only the comparatively short period from #acfd to the present day4 ,compared with the period of man's history and inventions it is of yesterday4 ,strictly speaking1 as we use the word clock1 its age from ,de ,vick to the modern astronomical is only about #edj years4 ,if we take the year #affj1 we find that it represents the center of modern improvements in clocks1 a few years before and after that date includes the pendulum1 the anchor and dead beat escapements1 the minute and second hands1 the circular balance and the hair spring1 along with minor improvements4 ,since the end of that period1 which we may make #agjj1 no fundamental invention has been added to clocks and watches4 ,this becomes impressive when we remember that the last #bjj years have produced more inventions than all previous known history--but only minor improvements in clocks6 ,the application of electricity for winding1 driving1 or regulating clocks is not fundamental1 for the timekeeping is done by the master clock with its pendulum and wheels1 just as by any grandfather's clock #bjj years old4 ,this broad survey of time measuring does not permit us to go into minute mechanical details4 ,those wishing to follow up the subject would require a large horological library--and ,dr4 ,eliot's five-foot shelf would be altogether too short to hold the books4 ,a good idea of the old church clocks may be obtained from ,fig4 #cb which is one of my valued antiques4 ,tradition has followed it down as the ,english ,blacksmith's ,clock4 ,it has the very earliest application of the pendulum4 ,the pendulum1 which ,i have marked by a star to enable the reader to find it1 is less than #c in4 long and is hung on the verge1 or pallet axle1 and beats #bbb per minute4 ,this clock may be safely put at #bej years old1 and contains nothing invented since that date4 ,wheels are cast brass and all teeth laboriously filed out by hand4 ,pinions are solid with the axles1 or staffs1 and also filed out by hand4 ,it is put together1 generally by mortise1 tenon and cotter1 but it has four original screws all made by hand with the file4 ,how did he thread the holes for these screws8 ,probably made a tap by hand as he made the screws4 ,but the most remarkable feature is the fact that no lathe was used in forming any part--all staffs1 pinions and pivots being filed by hand4 ,this is simply extraordinary when it is pointed out that a little dead center lathe is the simplest machine in the world1 and he could have made one in less than a day and saved himself weeks of hard labor4 ,it is probable that he had great skill in hand work and that learning to use a lathe would have been a great and tedious effort for him4 ,so we have a complete striking clock made by a man so poor that he had only his anvil1 hammer and file4 ,the weights are hung on cords as thick as an ordinary lead pencil and pass over pulleys having spikes set around them to prevent the cords from slipping4 ,the weights descend #g ft4 in #ab hours1 so they must be pulled up--not wound up--twice a day4 ,the single hour hand is a work of art and is cut through like lace4 ,public clocks may still be seen in ,europe with only one hand4 ,many have been puzzled by finding that old1 rudely made clocks often have fine dials1 but this is not remarkable when we state that art and engraving had reached a high level before the days of clocks4 ,it is worthy of note that clocks in the early days were generally built in the form of a church tower with the bell under the dome and ,figs4 #cb1 #cc show a good example4 ,it is highly probable that the maker of this clock had access to some old church clock--a wonderful machine in those days--and that he laboriously copied it4 ,it strikes the hours1 only1 by the old count wheel or locking plate method4 ,between this and our modern clocks appeared a type showing quarter hours on a small dial under the hour dial4 ,no doubt this was at that time a great advance and looked like cutting time up pretty fine4 ,as the hand on the quarter dial made the circuit in an hour the next step was easy1 by simply dividing the circle of quarters into sixty minutes4 ,the old fellows who thought in hours must have given it up at this point1 so the seconds and fifths seconds came easily4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce--,triple-,case ,turkish ,watch ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf--;,double-,case ,watch of ,repouss ,work ,the first watches1 about #aejj1 had the foliot and verge escapement1 and in some early attempts to govern the foliot a hog's bristle was used as a spring4 ,by putting a ring around the ends of the foliot and adding the hair spring of ,dr4 ,hooke1 about #afdj1 we have the verge watches of our grandfathers4 ,this balance wheel and hair spring stand today1 but the lever escapement has taken the place of the verge4 ,it is a modification of the dead beat1 ,fig4 #bi1 by adding a lever to the anchor1 and this lever is acted on by the balance1 hence the name lever watch4 ,all this you can see by opening your watch1 so no detailed explanation is necessary4 ,figure #cd shows two triple-cased ,turkish watches with verge escapements1 the one to the left being shown partly opened in ,fig4 #ce4 ,the watch with its inner case1 including the glass1 is shown to the right4 ,this inner case is complete with two hinges and has a winding hole in the back4 ,the upper case1 of chased work1 goes on next1 and then the third1 or outer case1 covered with tortoise shell fastened with silver rivets1 goes on outside the other two4 ,when all three cases are opened and laid on the table1 they look like a heap of oyster shells1 but they go easily together1 forming the grand and dignified watch shown to the left in ,fig4 #cd4 ,oliver ,cromwell wore an immense triple-case watch of this kind1 and the poor plebeians who were permitted to examine such a magnificent instrument were favored6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg--,watches ,showing ,art ,work ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch--,watch ,showing ,dutch ,art ,work ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci--;,antique ,watch ,cock ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj--;,chinese ,watch ,our boys' watches costing one dollar keep much better time than this type of watch4 ,comparing the ,syrian dial1 ,fig4 #db1 with that on ,fig4 #ce1 it is evident that the strange hour numerals on both are a variation of the same characters4 ,these1 so-called1 ,turkish watches were made in ,europe for the ,eastern trade4 ,first-class samples of this triple-case type are getting scarce1 but ,i have found four1 two of them in ,constantinople4 ,figure #cf shows the double-case style1 called pair cases1 the outer case thin silver1 the figures and ornaments being hammered and punched up from the inside and called repouss4 ,before we leave the old watches1 the question of art work deserves notice1 for it looks as if ornamentation and time-keeping varied inversely in those days--the more art the worse the watch4 ,i presume1 as they could not make a good time-keeper at that date1 the watch-maker decided to give the buyer something of great size and style for his money4 ,in ,fig4 #cg four old movements are shown1 and there is no doubt about the art1 since the work is purely individual and no dies or templates used4 ,in examining a large number of these watches1 ,i have never found the art work on any two of them alike4 ,note the grotesque faces in these1 and in ,fig4 #ci which is a fine example of pierced1 engraved work4 ,figure #ch is a fine example of pierced work with animals and flowers carved in relief4 ,figure #dj is a ,chinese watch but made in ,europe for the ,chinese market4 ,in ,fig4 #da we have what remains of a quarter repeater with musical attachment4 ,each of the #bd straight gongs1 commencing with the longest one1 goes a little nearer the center of the large wheel1 so a circle of pins is set in the wheel for each gong1 or note1 and there is plenty of room for several tunes which the wearer can set off at pleasure4 ,figure #dc is a modern watch with ,hebrew hour numerals4 ,figure #dd is a modern #bd-;hour watch used on some railroads and steamship lines4 ,i have a pretty clean-cut recollection of one event in connection with the #bd-;hour system1 as ,i left ,messina between #ah and #ai o'clock on the night of the earthquake6 ,dials and hands constitute an important branch of the subject4 ,the general fault of hands is that they are too much alike2 in many instances they are the same1 excepting that the minute hand is a little longer than the hour4 ,the dial shown on the left of ,fig4 #bd was designed by me for a public clock and can be read twice as far away as the usual dial4 ,just why we should make the worst dials and hands for public clocks in the ,united ,states is more than ,i can find out1 for there is no possible excuse1 since the spade and pointer hands have been known for generations4 ,figure #de is offered as a properly designed dial for watches and domestic clocks1 having flat-faced ,gothic figures of moderate height1 leaving a clear center in the dial1 and the heavy spade hour hand reaching only to the inner edges of the figures4 ,for public clocks the ,arabic numerals are the worst1 for at a distance they look like twelve thumb marks on the dial2 while the flat-faced ,roman remain distinct as twelve clear marks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da--,musical ,watch1 ,repeating ,hours and ,quarters ,do you know that you do not read a public clock by the figures1 but by the position of the hands8 ,this was discovered long ago4 ,lord ,grimthorp had one with twelve solid marks on the dial and also speaks of one at the ,athenum ,club1 both before #ahfj4 ,the ,philadelphia ,city ,hall clock has dials of this kind as shown on right side of ,fig4 #bd4 ,it has also good hands and can be read at a great distance4 ,very few persons1 even in ,philadelphia1 know that it has no hour numerals on its dials4 ,still further1 there is no clock in the tower1 the great hands being moved every minute by air pressure which is regulated by a master clock set in a clock room down below where the walls are #aj ft4 thick4 ,call and see this clock and you will find that the ,city ,hall officials sustain the good name of ,philadelphia for politeness4 ,generally1 we give no attention to the hour numerals1 even of our watches1 as the following proves4 ,when you have taken out your watch and looked at the time1 for yourself1 and put it back in your pocket1 and when a friend asks the time you take it out again to find the time for him6 ,why8 ,because1 for yourself1 you did not read hours and minutes1 but only got a mental impression from the position of the hands2 so we only read hours and minutes when we are called on to proclaim the time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db--,syrian ,dial ,we must find a little space for striking clocks4 ,the simplest is one blow at each hour just to draw attention to the clock4 ,striking the hours and also one blow at each half hour as well as the quarter double blow1 called ting tong quarters1 are too well known to need description4 ,the next stage after this is chiming quarters with three or more musical gongs1 or bells4 ,one of the best strikers ,i have has three trains1 three weights and four bells4 ,it strikes the hour on a large bell and two minutes after the hour it strikes it again1 so as to give you another chance to count correctly4 ,at the first quarter it repeats the last hour followed by a musical chord of three bells1 which we will call one triple blow3 at the second quarter the hour again and two triple blows and at the third quarter1 the hour again and three triple blows4 ,suppose a sample hour's striking from four o'clock1 this is what you hear1 and there can be no mistake4 ,four and in two minutes four--four and one quarter--four and two quarters--four and three quarters1 and the same for all other hours4 ,this is definite1 for the clock proclaims the hour1 or the hour and so much past4 ,it can be set silent1 but that only stops it from striking automatically1 and whether so set or not1 it will repeat by pulling a cord4 ,you awake in the night and pull the cord1 and then in mellow musical tones1 almost as if the clock were speaking1 you hear--four and two quarters4 ,this ,i consider a perfect striking clock4 ,it is a large movement of fine workmanship and was made in the department of the ,jura1 ,france4 ,when a clock or watch only repeats1 ,i consider the old five-minute repeater the best4 ,i used this method in a clock which1 on pulling the cord1 strikes the hour on a large bell and if that is all it strikes1 then it is less than five minutes past4 ,if more than five minutes past it follows the hour by one blow on a small bell for every five minutes4 ,this gives the time within five minutes4 ,it is fully described and illustrated in ,machinery1 ,new ,york1 for ,march1 #aije4 ,just one more4 ,an old ,dutch clock which ,i restored strikes the hour on a large bell2 at the first quarter it strikes one blow on a small bell2 at the half hour it strikes the last hour over again on the small bell2 at the third quarter it strikes one blow on the large bell4 ,but this in spite of its great ingenuity1 only gives definite information at the hour and half hour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc--;,hebrew ,numerals ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd--bd-;,hour ,watch ,of curious clocks there is no end1 so ,i shall just refer to one invented by ,william ,congreve1 an ,englishman1 over one hundred years ago1 and often coming up since as something new4 ,a plate about #h in4 long and #d in4 wide has a long zigzag groove crosswise4 ,this plate is pivoted at its center so either end can be tipped up a little4 ,a ball smaller than a boy's marble will roll back and forth across this plate till it reaches the lower end1 at which point it strikes a click and the mainspring of the clock tips the plate the other way and the ball comes slowly back again till it strikes the disk at the other end of the plate1 etc4 ,every time the plate tips1 the hands are moved a little just like the remontoir clock already described4 ,clocks of this kind are often used for deceptive purposes and those ignorant of mechanics are deceived into the belief that they see perpetual motion4 ,the extent to which modern machine builders are indebted to the inventions of the ancient clock-maker1 ,i think1 has never been appreciated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de--;,domestic ,dial by ,james ,arthur ,in its earlier stages the clock was almost the only machine containing toothed gearing1 and the clock tooth is still necessary in our delicate machines4 ,it is entirely different from our standard gear tooth as used in heavy machines4 ,the clock-makers led for a long time in working steel for tools1 springs and wearing surfaces4 ,they also made investigations in friction1 bearings1 oils1 etc41 etc4 ,any one restoring old clocks for amusement and pleasure will be astonished at the high-class mechanics displayed in them--nearly always by unknown inventors4 ,here is an example3 ,the old clock-maker found that when he wished to drill a hole in a piece of thick wire so as to make a short tube of it1 he could only get the hole central and straight by rotating the piece and holding the drill stationary4 ,by this method the drill tends to follow the center line of rotation2 and our great guns as well as our small rifles are bored just that way to get bores which will shoot straight4 ,the fourth and last chapter will deal with the astronomical motions on which our time-keeping is founded1 our present hour zones of time1 and close with suggestions for a universal time system over the whole world4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,astronomical ,,foundation ,,of ,,time ,astronomical motions on which our time is founded4 -- ,reasons for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our #bd-;hour day4 -- ,year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year4 -- ,precession of the equinoxes4 -- ,earth's rotation most uniform motion known to us4 -- ,time ,stars and ,transits4 -- ,local time4 -- ,the date line4 -- ,standard time4 -- ,beginning and ending of a day4 -- ,proposed universal time4 -- ,clock dial for universal time and its application to business4 -- ,next great improvement in clocks and watches indicated4 -- ,automatic recording of the earth's rotation4 -- ,year of the seasons as a unit for astronomers4 -- ,general conclusions4 ,the mystery of time encloses all things in its folds1 and our grasp of its infinite bearings is measured by our limitations4 ,as there are no isolated facts in the ,universe1 we can never get to the end of our subject2 so we know only what we have capacity to absorb4 ,in considering the foundation on which all our time measuring is based1 we are led into the fringe of that ,elysian field of science--astronomy4 ,a science more poetical than poetry--more charming than the optimistic phantasies of youth4 ,that science which leaves our imagination helpless2 for its facts are more wonderful than our extremest mental flights4 ,the science of vastness and interminable distances which our puny figures fail to express4 ,the stars sang together for joy1 might almost be placed in the category of facts2 while the music of the spheres may now be considered a mathematical reality4 ,our time keeping is inevitably associated with these motions1 and we must select one which has periods not too long4 ,that is1 no continuous motion could be used1 unless it passed some species of milestones which we could observe4 ,consequently1 our clocks do not--in the strict sense--measure time2 but are adjusted to divide periods which they do not determine4 ,we are constantly correcting their errors and never entirely succeed in getting them to run accurately to periods of time which exist entirely outside of such little things as men and clocks4 ,so a clock is better as it approximates or bears a regular relation to some motion in nature4 ,the sidereal clock of the astronomer does run to a regular motion2 but our #bd-;hour clocks do not1 as we shall see later4 ,now consider the year1 or the sun's apparent motion in the ,zodiac1 from any given star around to the same one again4 ,this is altogether too long to be divided by clocks1 as we cannot make a clock which could be depended on for anywhere near a year4 ,the next shorter period is that of a moon4 ,this is also a little too long1 is not easily observed1 and requires all sorts of corrections4 ,observations of the moon at sea are so difficult and subject to error that mariners use them only as a last resort4 ,if a little freedom of language is permissible1 ,i would say that the moon has a bad character all around1 largely on account of her long association with superstition1 false theology and heathen feasts4 ,she has not purged herself even to this day6 ,the ancients were probably right when they called erratic and ill-balanced persons luny4 ,now we come to the day and find that it is about the right practical length--but what kind of a day8 ,as there are five kinds we ought to be able to select one good enough4 ,they are3-- #ast4 ,the solar day1 or noon to noon by the sun4 #bnd4 ,an imaginary sun moving uniformly in the ecliptic4 #crd4 ,a second imaginary sun moving uniformly parallel to the equator at all seasons of the year4 #dth4 ,one absolute rotation of the earth4 #eth4 ,one rotation of the earth measured from the node1 or point1 of the spring equinox4 ,the difference between #ast and #bnd is that part of the sun's error due to the elliptical orbit of the earth4 ,the other part of the sun's error--and the larger--between #bnd and #crd is that due to the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator4 ,the whole error between #ast and #crd is the equation of time as shown for even minutes in the first chapter under the heading1 ,sun on ,noon ,mark #aiji4 ,stated simply1 for our present purpose1 #ast is sundial time1 and #crd our #bd-;hour clock time4 ,this #bnd day is therefore a refinement of the astronomers to separate the two principal causes of the sun's error1 and ,i think we ought to handle it cautiously1 or my friend1 ,professor ,todd1 might rap us over the knuckles for being presumptuous4 ,this #eth day is the sidereal day of the astronomers and is the basis of our time1 so it is entitled to a little attention4 ,i shall confine sidereal day to this #eth to avoid confusion with #dth4 ,if you will extend the plane of the equator into the star sphere1 you have the celestial equator4 ,when the center of the sun passes through this plane on his journey north1 in the ,spring1 we say1 the sun has crossed the line4 ,this is a distant point in the ,zodiac which can be determined for any given year by reference to the fixed stars4 ,to avoid technicalities as much as possible we will call it the point of the ,spring equinox4 ,this is really the point which determines the common year1 or year of the seasons4 ,using popular language1 the seasons are marked by four points1--,spring equinox--longest day--2 ,autumnal equinox--shortest day4 ,this would be very simple if the equinoctial points would stay in the same places in the star sphere2 but we find that they creep westward each year to the extent of #ej seconds of arc in the great celestial circle of the ,zodiac4 ,this is called the precession of the equinoxes4 ,the year is measured from ,spring equinox to ,spring equinox again2 but each year it comes #ej seconds of arc less than a full revolution of the earth around the sun4 ,therefore if we measured our year by a full revolution we would displace the months with reference to the seasons till the hot weather would come in ,january and the cold weather in ,july in about #ac1jjj years2 or a complete revolution of the seasons back to where we are1 in #bf1jjj years4 ,leaving out fractions to make the illustration plain1 we have3-- 7#a7 #cfj degrees of ,zodiac --------------------- #bf1jjj years #ej seconds of arc 7#b7 #a day of time ------------- #bf1jjj years #c-a_/c seconds ,all ,approximate 7#c7 #a year of time -------------- #bf1jjj years #bj-a_/c minutes 7#d7 #c-a_/c seconds ------------- #a_/aaj of a second days in a year ,in 7#a7 we see that a precession of #ej seconds of arc will bring the ,spring equinox around in #bf1jjj years4 ,in 7#b7 we see1 as #ej seconds of arc represents the distance the earth will rotate in #c-a_/c seconds1 a difference of one day will result in #bf1jjj years4 ,that is since the clock regulated by the stars1 or absolute rotations of the earth1 would get behind #c-a_/c seconds per year1 it would be behind a day in #bf1jjj years1 as compared with a sidereal clock regulated by the ,spring equinoctial point4 ,in 7#c7 we see that as #ej seconds of arc is traversed by the earth1 in its annual revolution1 in #bj-a_/c minutes1 a complete circle of the ,zodiac will be made in #bf1jjj years4 ,in 7#d7 we see that as the difference between the year of the seasons and the ,zodiacal year is #c-a_/c seconds of the earth's rotation1 it follows that if this is divided by the number of days in a year we have the amount which a sidereal day is less than #dth1 or an absolute rotation of the earth4 ,that is1 any meridian passes the ,spring equinoctial point #a_/aaj of a second sooner than the time of one absolute rotation4 ,these four equations are all founded on the precession of the equinoxes1 and are simply different methods of stating it4 ,absolutely and finally1 our time is regulated by the earth's rotation2 but strange as it may appear1 we do not take one rotation as a unit4 ,as shown above1 we take a rotation to a movable point which creeps the #a_/aaj of a second daily4 ,but after all1 it is the uniform rotation which governs4 ,this is the one dependable motion which has not been found variable1 and is the most easily observed4 ,when we remember that the earth is not far from being as heavy as a ball of iron1 and that its surface velocity at the equator is about #ag miles per minute1 it is easy to form a conception of its uniform motion4 ,against this1 however1 we may place the friction of the tides1 forcing up of mountain ranges1 as well as mining and building skyscrapers--all tending to slow it4 ,mathematicians moving in the ethereal regions of astronomy lead us to conclude that it must become gradually slower1 and that it is slowing2 but the amount may be considered a vanishing quantity even compared with the smallest errors of our finest clocks2 so for uncounted generations past--and to come--we may consider the earth's rotation uniform4 ,having now found a uniform motion easily observed and of convenient period1 why not adopt it as our time unit8 ,the answer has been partially given above in the fact that we are compelled to use a year1 measured from the ,spring equinoctial point1 so as to keep our seasons in order2 and therefore as we must have some point where the sidereal clocks and the meantime clocks coincide1 we take the same point1 and that point is the ,spring equinox4 ,now we have three days3-- #ast4 ,a sidereal day #a_/aaj of a second less than one rotation of the earth4 #bnd4 ,one rotation of the earth in #bc hours1 #ef minutes and #d seconds1 nearly1 of clock time4 #crd4 ,one mean time clock day of #bd hours1 which has been explained previously4 ,now1 isn't it remarkable that our #bd-;hour day is purely artificial1 and that nothing in nature corresponds to it8 ,our real day of #bd hours is a theoretical day4 ,still more remarkable1 this theoretical day is the unit by which we express motions in the solar system4 ,a lunar month is days--hours--minutes--and seconds of this theoretical day1 and so for planetary motions4 ,and still more remarkable1 the earth's rotation which is itself the foundation is expressed in this imaginary time6 ,this looks like involution involved1 yet our #bd-;hour day is as real as reality2 and the man has not yet spoken who can tell whether a mathematical conception1 sustained in practical life1 is less real than a physical fact4 ,our legal day of practical life is therefore deduced from the day of a fraction less than one earth rotation4 ,in practice1 however1 the small difference between this and a rotation is often ignored1 because as the tenth of a second is about as near as observations can be made it is evident that for single observations #a_/aaj of a second does not count1 but for a whole year it does1 and amounts to #c-a_/c seconds4 ,now as to the setting of our clocks4 ,while the time measured by the point of the ,spring equinox is what we must find it is found by noting the transits of fixed stars1 because the relation of star time to equinoctial time is known and tabulated4 ,remember we cannot take a transit of the equinoctial point1 because there is nothing to see1 and that nothing is moving6 ,but it can be observed yearly and astronomers can tell where it is1 at any time of the year1 by calculation4 ,the stars which are preferred for observation are called time stars and are selected as near the celestial equator as possible4 ,the earth's axis has a little wabbling motion called nutation which influences the apparent motion of the stars near the pole2 but this motion almost disappears as they come near the equator1 because nutation gives the plane of the equator only a little swashplate motion4 ,the positions of a number of time stars with reference to the equinoctial point1 are known1 and these are observed and the observations averaged4 ,the distance of any time star from the equinoctial point1 in time1 is called its right ascension4 ,astronomers claim an accuracy to the twentieth part of a second when such transits are carefully taken1 but over a long period1 greater exactness is obtained4 ,really1 the time at which any given star passes the meridian is taken1 in practical life1 from astronomical tables in the ,nautical ,almanacs4 ,those tables are the result of the labors of generations of mathematicians1 are constantly subject to correction1 and cannot be made simple4 ,remember1 the ,earth's rotation is the only uniform motion1 all the others being subject to variations and even compound variations4 ,this very subject is the best example of the broad fact that science is a constant series of approximations2 therefore1 nothing is exact1 and nothing is permanent but change4 ,but you say that mathematics is an exact science4 ,yes1 but it is a logical abstraction1 and is therefore only the universal solvent in physical science4 ,with our imaginary--but real--time unit of #bd hours we are now ready to consider local time4 ,keeping the above explanation in mind1 we may use the usual language and speak of the earth rotating in #bd hours clock time2 and since motion is relative1 it is permissible to speak of the motion of the sun4 ,in the matter of the sun's apparent motion we are compelled to speak of his rising1 setting1 etc41 because language to express the motion in terms of the earth's rotation has not been invented yet4 ,for these reasons we will assume that in ,fig4 #dg the sun is moving as per large arrow and also that the annulus1 half black and half white1 giving the #bd hours1 is fastened to the sun by a rigid bar1 as shown1 and moves around the earth along with him4 ,in such illustrations the sun must always be made small in proportion1 but this rather tends to plainness4 ,for simplicity1 we assume that the illustration represents an equinox when the sun is on the celestial equator4 ,imagine your eye in the center of the sun's face at ,a1 and you would be looking on the meridian of ,greenwich at #ab noon2 then in one hour you would be looking on #ae west at #ab noon2 but this would bring #ac o'clock to ,greenwich4 ,continue till you look down on ,new ,york at #ab noon1 then it is #ag o'clock at ,greenwich 7leaving out fractions for simplicity7 etc4 ,if you will make a simple drawing like ,fig4 #dg and cut the earth separate1 just around the inside of the annulus1 and stick a pin at the ,north ,pole for a center1 you may rotate the earth as per small arrow and get the actual motion1 but the result will be just the same as if you went by the big arrow4 ,we thus see that every instant of the #bd hours is represented1 at some point1 on the earth4 ,that is1 the earth has an infinity of local times2 so it has every conceivable instant of the #bd hours at some place on the circle4 ,suppose we set up #a1daj clocks at uniform distances on the equator1 then they would be about #ag miles apart and differ by minutes4 ,now make it #hf1djj clocks1 they would be #a1ejj feet apart and differ by seconds4 ,with #hfd1jjj clocks they would be #aej feet apart and vary by tenths of seconds4 ,it is useless to extend this1 since you could always imagine more clocks in the circle2 thus establishing the fact that there are an infinity of times at an infinity of places always on the earth4 ,it is necessary to ask a little patience here as ,i shall use this local time and its failure later in our talk4 ,strictly1 local time has never been used1 because it has been found impracticable in the affairs of life4 ,this will be plain when we draw attention to the uniform time of ,london1 which is ,greenwich time2 yet the ,british ,museum is #cj seconds slow of ,greenwich1 and other places in ,london even more4 ,this is railroad time for ,great ,britain2 but it is #bj minutes too fast for the west of ,england4 ,this led to no end of confusion and clocks were often seen with two minute hands1 one to local and the other to railroad time4 ,this mixed up method was followed by standard time1 with which we are all pretty well acquainted4 ,simply1 standard time consists in a uniform time for each #ae of longitude1 but this is theoretical to the extreme1 and is not even approached in practice4 ,the first zone commences at ,greenwich and as that is near the eastern edge of the ,british ,islands1 their single zone time is fast at nearly all places1 especially the west coast of ,ireland4 ,when we follow these zones over to the ,united ,states we find an attempt to make the middle of each zone correct to local time1 so at the hour jumping points1 we pass from half an hour slow to half an hour fast1 or the reverse4 ,we thus see that towns about the middle of these four ,united ,states zones have sunrise and sunset and their local day correct1 but those at the eastern and western edges average half an hour wrong4 ,as a consequence of this disturbance of the working hours depending on the light of the day1 many places keep two sets of clocks and great confusion results4 ,even this is comprehensible2 but it is a mere fraction of the trouble and complication1 because the hour zones are not separated by meridians in practice1 but by zig-zag lines of great irregularity4 ,look at a time map of the ,united ,states and you will see the zones divided by lines of the wildest irregularity4 ,now question one of the brightest scientific chaps you can find in one of the great railroad offices whose lines touch1 or enter1 ,canada and ,mexico4 ,please do not tell me what he said to you6 ,so great is the confusion that no man understands it all4 ,the amount of wealth destroyed in printing time tables1 and failing to explain them1 is immense4 ,the amount of human life destroyed by premature death1 as a result of wear and tear of brain cells is too sad to contemplate4 ,and all by attempting the impossible2 for local time1 even if it was reduced to hourly periods is not compatible with any continental system of time and matters can only get worse while the attempt continues4 ,for the present1 banish this zone system from your mind and let us consider the beginning and ending of a day1 using strictly local time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg--,local ,time--,standard ,time--,beginning and ,ending of the ,day ,a civil1 or legal1 day ends at the instant of #bd o'clock1 midnight1 and the next day commences4 ,the time is continuous1 the last instant of a day touching the first instant of the next4 ,this is true for all parts of the earth2 but something in addition to this happens at a certain meridian called the date line4 ,refer again to ,fig4 #dg which is drawn with #bd meridians representing hours4 ,as we are taking ,greenwich for our time1 the meridians are numbered from #j1 on which the observatory of ,greenwich stands4 ,when you visit ,greenwich you can have the pleasure of putting your foot on the first meridian1 as it is cut plainly across the pavement4 ,degrees of longitude are numbered east and west1 meeting just opposite at #ahj1 which is the date line4 ,our day begins at this line1 so far as dates are concerned2 but the local day begins everywhere at midnight4 ,let us start to go around the world from the date line1 westward4 ,when we arrive at #ij we are one quarter around and it takes the sun #f hours longer to reach us4 ,at #j 7,greenwich7 we are half around and #ab hours ahead of the sun motion4 ,at #ij west1 three quarters1 or #ah hours1 and when back to #ahj we have added to the length of all days of our journey enough to make one day2 therefore our date must be one day behind4 ,try this example to change the wording3--,let us start from an island ,b1 just west of the date line4 ,these islanders have their #bd-;hour days1 commencing at midnight1 like all other places4 ,as we move westward our day commences later and later than theirs1 as shown above4 ,suppose we arrive at the eastern edge of the #ahj line on ,saturday at #ab o'clock1 but before we cross it we call over to the islanders1--what day is it8 ,we would get answer1 ,sunday2 because all our days have been longer1 totalling one day in the circuit of the globe4 ,so if we step over the line at #ab o clock ,saturday1 presto1 it is #ab o'clock ,sunday4 ,it looks like throwing out #bd hours1 but this is not so1 since we have lived exactly the same number of hours and seconds as the islanders4 ,in this supposition we have all the dates1 however1 but have jumped half of ,saturday and half of ,sunday1 which equals one day4 ,in practice this would not have been the method1 for if the ship was to call at the island1 the captain would have changed date on ,friday night and thrown ,saturday out1 all in one piece1 and would have arrived on their ,sunday2 so his log for that week would have contained only #f days4 ,it is not necessary to go over the same ground for a circuit of the globe eastward1 but if you do so you will find that you shorten your days and on arriving at the date line would have a day too much2 so in this case you would double a date and have #h days in that week4 ,in both cases this is caused by compounding your motion with that of the sun2 going with him westward and lengthening your days1 or eastward meeting him and shortening them4 ,figure #dg shows ,greenwich noon1 we will say on ,monday1 and at that instant1 ,monday only1 exists from #j to #bd o'clock on the earth2 but the next instant1 ,tuesday begins at #ahj ,b4 ,in one hour it is noon of ,monday at #ae ,west1 and midnight at #afe ,east2 so ,tuesday is one hour old and there is left #bc hours of ,monday4 ,monday steadily declines to #j as ,tuesday steadily grows to #bd hours2 so that1 except at the instant of ,greenwich noon1 there are always two days on the world at once4 ,if we said that there are always two days on the world at once1 we could not be contradicted2 since there is no conceivable time between ,monday and ,tuesday2 it is an instantaneous change4 ,as we cannot conceive of no time1 the statement that there is only one day on the earth at ,greenwich noon is not strictly permissible4 ,since there are always two days on the world at once let us suppose that these two are ,december #cast and ,january #ast2 then we have two years on the world at once for a period of #bd hours4 ,nine years ago we had the #aith and #bjth centuries on the world at once1 etc4 ,as a mental exercise1 you may carry this as far as you please4 ,suppose there was an impassable sea wall built on the #ahj meridian1 then there would be two days on the world1 just as explained above2 but1 practically1 there would be no date line1 since in sailing west to this wall we would lengthen our days1 and then shorten them the same amount coming around east to the other side of the wall1 but would never jump or double a date4 ,this explanation is founded1 as it ought to be1 on uniform local time1 and is the simplest ,i can give4 ,the date line is fundamentally simple1 but is difficult to explain4 ,when it is complicated by the standard time--or jumping hour system--and also with the fact that some islands count their dates from the wrong side of the line for their longitudes1 scientific paradoxes arise1 such as having three dates on the world at once1 etc42 but as these things are of no more value than wasting time solving ,chinese puzzles1 they are left out4 ,ships change date on the nearest night to the date line2 but if they are to call at some island port in the ,pacific1 they may change either sooner or later to correspond with its date4 ,here is a little ,irish date line wit printed for the first time1--,i was telling my bright friend about turning in on ,saturday night and getting up for breakfast on ,monday morning4 ,oh1 said he1 ,i have known gentlemen to do as good as that without leaving ,new ,york ,city6 ,as what is to follow relates to the growing difficulties of local time and a proposed method of overcoming them1 let us recapitulate3-- #ast4 ,local time has never been kept1 and the difficulties of using it have increased as man advanced1 reaching a climax of absurdity on the advent of the railroad2 so it broke down and became impractical4 #bnd4 ,to make the irregular disorder of local time an orderly confusion1 the standard time--jumping by hours--has helped a little1 but only because we can tell how much it is wrong at any given place4 ,this is its only advantage over the first method1 where we had no means of knowing what to expect on entering any new territory4 ,that is1 we have improved things by throwing out local time to the extent of an hour4 ,my proposal is to throw local time out totally and establish one1 invariable1 universal time4 ,greenwich time being most in use now1 and meridians numbered from it1 may be taken in preference to any other4 ,still another reason is that the most important timekeepers in modern life--ship's chronometers--are set to ,greenwich time4 ,universal time--no local time--only local day and night4 ,our #bd-;hour system is all right1 so do not disturb it1 as it gets rid of ,a4,m4 and ,p4,m4 and makes the day our unit of time4 ,our railroad time now throws out local time to the extent of one hour2 but ,i propose to throw it out entirely and never change the clock hands from ,greenwich time4 ,the chronometers do that now1 so let us conduct all business to that time4 ,now refer to ,fig4 #df1 in which ,greenwich is taken as universal time4 ,the annulus1 half white and half black1 indicates the average day and night1 and is a separate ring in the dial which can be set so that noon is on the meridian of the place1 as shown for four places in the illustration4 ,it is the same dial in all four cases set to local day and night4 ,strictly1 the local time conception is dropped and the local day left for regulating working and sleeping time4 ,all business would have the same time4 ,in traveling east we would not have the short hours2 or west1 the long hours4 ,all clocks and watches would show the same time as ship's chronometers do now4 ,the only change would be the names of the hours for the parts of the local day4 ,this is just the difficulty1 for we are so accustomed to associate a certain number1 as seven1 with the morning and breakfast time4 ,suppose breakfast time in ,london is #g o'clock1 then according to the local day it would be #ab o'clock breakfast time in ,new ,york2 but in both cases it would be the same time with reference to the local daylight4 ,let it be distinctly understood that our association of #ab o'clock with noon is not necessary4 ,the ,japanese called it horse and nine--the ancient ,romans1 the ,new ,testament writers1 and the ,turks called it the sixth hour--the astronomers now call it #bd o'clock1 and the ,chinese represent it by several characters2 but1 in all cases1 it is simply the middle of the day at any place4 ,by the proposed universal time1 morning1 noon1 and evening would be--at any given place--the same hours4 ,there would be no necessity of establishing legal noon with exactness to the meridian1 because that would only regulate labor1 meals1 etc41 and would not touch universal time4 ,this is an important part of the proposal and is worth elaborating a little4 ,sections in manufacturing districts could make their working hours correspond at pleasure and no confusion would result4 ,that is1 local working hours to convenience but by the same universal time4 ,note how perfectly this would work in traveling1--you arrive in ,chicago from the effete east and your watch corresponds all along with the railroad clocks4 ,as you leave the station you glance up at the clock and see that ,chicago noon is #ag4cj1 so you set the day and night ring of your watch to match the same ring on the clock1 but no disturbance of the hands4 ,as you register at the hotel you ask1--dinner8 and get answer1 #bd4cj--then breakfast1 #ab4cj4 ,these questions are necessary now1 so ,i do not add complication here4 ,when you arrive in a strange city you must ask about meals1 business hours1 theater hours1 doors open hours1 etc41 etc42 so all this remains the same4 ,let us put the matter forcibly1--while we count days1 or dates1 something must vary with east and west2 ,i propose the fixing of hours for business and sleep to suit each locality1 but an invariable time4 ,get rid of the idea that a certain number1 as #g o'clock1 represents the age of the day at all places4 ,see how this would wipe out the silly proposal to save daylight by setting the clock back and forward4 ,suppose workmen commenced at #ab4cj in ,new ,york2 for the long summer days make it #aa4cj1 but no change in universal time4 ,as this is the only difference from our present time system1 keep the central conception1 firmly1--universal time--local day and night4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df--,universal ,time ,dial ,set for ,four ,places ,suppose ,chicago decided that early to bed and early to rise was desirable2 then it could establish its legal noon as #ag4cj1 which would be about #bj minutes early for its meridian4 ,you could do business with ,chicago for a lifetime and not find this out1 unless you looked up the meridian of ,chicago and found that it was #ag4ej o'clock4 ,none of the railroads or steamship lines of the city would need to know this1 except as a matter of scientific curiosity1 for the time tables would all be printed in universal time4 ,for hiring labor1 receiving and delivering goods1 etc41 they would only need to know ,chicago business hours4 ,to state the matter in different words1--,chicago would only need to decide what portion of the universal #bd hours would suit it best for its day and which for its night1 and if it decided1 as supposed above1 to place its working day forward a little to give some daylight after labor1 nothing would be disturbed and only the scientific would ever know4 ,certainly1 save daylight1 but do not make a fool of the clock6 ,having shown the great liberty which localities could take without touching the working of the system1 the same remarks apply to ultra-scientific localities4 ,a city might establish its noon to the instant2 so it is possible--even if a little improbable--that the brilliant and scientific aldermen of ,new ,york might appoint a commission with proper campfollowers and instrument bearers to determine the longitude of the city to the ,nth of a second and tell us where we are at4 ,the glory of this achievement--and especially its total cost--would be all our own and incorruptible time would be untouched6 ,we thus see that great local freedom and great accuracy are alike possible4 ,with our present system1 accuracy in local time is impracticable and has never even been attempted1 and is confusion confused since we added the railroad hour jumps4 ,why did we nurse this confusion till it has become almost intolerable8 ,because man has always been a slave to mental associations1 and habits4 ,primitive man divided the local day into parts and gave them names and this mental attitude sticks to us after it has served its day4 ,the advantages of universal time could hardly be enumerated1 yet we can have them all by dropping our childish association of #g o'clock with breakfast time6 ,another example1--you visit a friend for a few days and on retiring the first night you ask what is your breakfast hour--#h o'clock4 ,you have to ask this question and recollect the answer4 ,now tell me what difference it would make if the answer had been #ac o'clock8 ,none whatever1 unless1 perhaps1 that is1 you do not like thirteen6 ,you ask1 how about ships8 ,ships now carry universal time and only change the clock on deck to please the simple minded passengers4 ,how about the date line8 ,no change whatever1 so long as we use dates which means numbering local days4 ,it is useless multiplying examples2 all difficulties disappear1 as if by magic1 the moment we can free our minds of local time and the association of the same hour with the same portion of the day at all places4 ,the great interest at present manifested in the attempts to reach the ,north ,pole calls for some consideration of universal time in the extreme north4 ,commencing at the equator1 it is easy to see that the day and night ring1 ,fig4 #df1 would represent the days and nights of #ab hours at all seasons4 ,as we go north1 however1 this ring represents the average day and night4 ,when we reach the ,polar ,circle1 still going north1 the daily rising and setting of the sun gradually ceases till we reach the great one-year day at the ,pole1 consisting of six months darkness and six months light4 ,let us now assume that an astronomical observatory is established here and the great equatorial placed precisely on the pole4 ,at this point1 local time1 day and night1 and the date line1 almost cease to have a meaning4 ,for this very reason universal time would be the only practical method2 therefore1 it more than stands the test of being carried to the extreme4 ,universal time would regulate working and sleeping here the same as at all other places4 ,strictly local time in this observatory would be an absurdity1 because in walking around the telescope 7pole7 you would be in all instants of the #bd hours within five seconds6 ,at the pole the day would commence at the same instant as at some assumed place1 and the day and night ring would represent working and sleeping as at that place4 ,suppose this observatory to be in telegraphic communication with ,new ,york1 then it would be best for the attendants to set their day and night to ,new ,york1 so as to correspond with its business hours4 ,many curious suppositions might be made about this polar observatory with its great night and equally great day4 ,it is evident that to keep count of itself it would be compelled to note dates and #bd-;hour days to keep in touch with us2 so it would be forced to adopt the local day of some place like ,new ,york4 ,this choice would be free1 because a polar observatory would stand on all the meridians of the earth at once4 ,we are now in a position to consider the next possible--and even probable--improvement in our clocks and watches4 ,to minimize the next step it might be well to see what we can do now4 ,clocks are often regulated by electric impulses over wires4 ,electricians inform me that they can do this by wireless2 but that owing to the rapid attenuation of the impulses it cannot be done commercially1 over great distances4 ,in the history of invention the first step was to do something and then find a way of doing it cheaply enough for general use4 ,so far as ,i know1 the watch in the wearer's pocket has not yet been regulated by wireless2 but ,i am willing to risk the statement that the editor of ,popular ,mechanics can name more than one electrician who can do this4 ,a watch to take these impulses might be larger than our present watches1 but it would not stay larger and would ultimately become much smaller4 ,you know what has happened since the days of the big onions described in the third chapter4 ,fig4 #cd2 so get your electric watch and make it smaller at your leisure4 ,we have made many things commercially practicable1 which looked more revolutionary than this4 ,now throw out the mainspring1 wheels1 pinions1 etc41 of our watches and reduce the machinery part to little more than dial and hands and do the driving by wireless1 say1 once every minute4 ,i feel certain that ,i am restraining the scientific imagination in saying that the man lives among us who can do this4 ,i repeat1 that we now possess the elementary knowledge--which if collated and applied--would produce such a watch4 ,now ,i have a big question to ask--the central note of interrogation in this little scientific conversation with you1--does the man live who can make the earth automatically record its rotation8 ,do not be alarmed1 for ,i am prepared to make a guess as to this possibility4 ,a direct mechanical record of the earth's rotation seems hopeless1 but let us see what can be done4 ,you are aware that some of the fixed stars have a distinct spectrum4 ,it is not unreasonable to suppose that an instrument could be made to record the passage of such a star over the meridian4 ,ah1 but you say1 there is no mechanical force in this4 ,do not hurry1 for we have long been acquainted with the fact that things which1 apparently1 have no force can be made to liberate something which manifests mechanical force4 ,we could now start or stop the greatest steam engine by a gleam of sunlight1 and some day we might be able to do as much by the lately discovered pressure of light4 ,that is1 we can now liberate the greatest forces by the most infinitesimal1 by steps2 the little force liberating one greater than itself1 and that one another still greater4 ,a good example is the stopping of an electric train1 from a distance1 by wireless4 ,the standard clock in ,philadelphia1 previously referred to1 is a delicate instrument and its most delicate part1 having the least force1 moves a little valve every minute1 and by several steps liberates the air pressure1 #bjj feet higher in the tower1 to move the four sets of great hands4 ,i am not traveling beyond the record when ,i say that the invisible actinic rays could be used to liberate a great force2 therefore what is there unreasonable in the supposition that the displacement of the sodium line in the spectrum of a star might be made to record the earth's rotation8 ,so ,i say to the electrician--the optician--the photographer--the chemist and the mechanic4--get together and produce this watch4 ,permit me1 with conventional and intentional modesty1 to name the new timepiece ,chroncosmic4 ,for pocket use1 it would be ,cosmic watch4 ,in the first chapter ,i allowed to the year #b1jjj for the production of this watch1 but it is likely we will not need to wait so long4 ,having stated my proposal for universal time as fully as space will permit and given my guess as to the coming cosmic watch1 let us in this closing paragraph indulge in a little mental exercise4 ,suppose we copy the old time lecturer on astronomy and allow our minds to penetrate into space4 ,blessed be his memory1 he was a doer of good4 ,how impressive as he repeatedly dropped his wooden pointer1 and lo6 ,it always moved straight to the floor2 thus triumphantly vindicating universal gravitation666 ,we can think of a time system which would discard months1 weeks and days4 ,what is the meaning of the financial almanac in which the days are numbered from #a to #cfe or #cff8 ,simply a step in the right direction1 away from the months and weeks1 so that the distance between any two dates may be seen at a glance4 ,we would really be better without months and weeks4 ,now let us consider the year of the seasons as a unit--long since proposed by the astronomers--and divide it into #c1jjj chrons4 ,clocks regulated by star transits1 as at present1 would divide this decimally1 the fourth place being near enough to make the new pendulums of convenient length4 ,this would throw out months1 weeks and days1 local time and the date line4 ,each of these chrons would represent the same time in the year1 permanently4 ,for example1 #dfd4fgca would mark to a dixmilliemechron 7a little more than one second7 the point reached in the year2 while the date does not1 as ,i have shown in the first chapter4 ,but you still object that this is a great number of figures to use in fixing a point in the year4 ,let us see what it takes to fix a point in the year now1 ,august #bdth1 #aa-af-cb ,p4 ,m41 ,new ,york standard time4 ,a pretty long story1 but it does not fix the point of the year even then2 for it would require the assistance of an astronomer to fix such a point in any given year1 say #aiji4 ,but #dfd4fgca would be eternally right in absolute time of the seasons1 and has only one meaning1 with no qualifications for any year whatever4 ,i believe the astronomers should use a method something like this4 ,ah1 but there is a difficulty in applying this to the affairs of daily life which looks insurmountable4 ,this is caused by the fact that the day and year are incommeasurable4 ,one of them cannot be exactly expressed in terms of the other4 ,they are like the diagonal and side of a square4 ,the day is now the unit and therefore the year has an interminable fraction2 conversely1 if we make the year the unit1 then the day becomes an endless fraction4 ,this brings us face to face with the local day which we ignored in our scientific year unit4 ,we must regulate our labors1 in this world1 to day and night and1 with the year unit1 the chrons would bear no fixed relation to day and night1 even for two days in succession4 ,so the year unit and absolute time must be left to the astronomers2 but the day unit and the uniform world day of universal time as explained in connection with ,fig4 #df ,i offer as a practical system4 ,i am satisfied that all attempts to measure the year and the day by the same time yard stick must fail and keep us in our present confusion4 ,therefore separate them once for all time4 ,brought down to its lowest terms my final proposal is3-- #ast4 ,an equinoctial year unit for the astronomers1 divided somewhat as suggested1 but no attempt to make the divisions even approximate to days and hours4 ,this would fix all astronomical events1 absolutely4 ,a variation in the length of the year would not disturb this system1 since the year itself would be the unit4 ,in translating this astronomical1 or year unit time1 into clock time1 no difficulties would be added1 as compared with our present translation of sidereal time into clock time4 ,deal with the year unit and day unit separately and convert them mutually when necessary4 #bnd4 ,a universal mean time day of #bd hours1 as now kept at ,greenwich1 all human business being regulated by this time4 ,dates and the date line as well as leap years all being retained as at present4 #crd4 ,weight and spring clocks and watches to be superseded by the cosmic clocks and watches regulated by wireless impulses from central time stations1 all impulses giving the same invariable time for all places4 #dth4 ,automatic recording of the earth's rotations to determine this time4 ,to avoid any possibility of misunderstanding1 ,i would advise never counting a unit till it is completed4 ,we do this correctly with our hours1 as we understand #bd o'clock to be the same as #j o'clock4 ,but we do not carry this out logically1 for we say #bd4cj4 ,how can this be so1 since there is nothing more than #bd o'clock8 ,it ought to be simply #cj minutes1 or #j hour #cj minutes4 ,how can there be any hour when a new day is only #cj minutes old8 ,this brings up the acrimonious controversy1 of some years ago1 as to whether there was any year one4 ,one side insisted that till one year was completed there could only be months and days4 ,the other side argued that the year one commenced at #j and that the month and date showed how much of it had passed4 ,test yourself1--is this the year #aiji1 of which only #h months have passed2 or is it #aiji and #h months more8 ,regarding the centuries there appears to be no difference of opinion that #aijj is completed1 and that we are in the #bjth century4 ,but can you tell whether we are #h years and #h months into the #bjth century or #i years and #h months8 ,it ought to be1 logically #aiji years complete and #h months of the next year1 which we must not count till it is completed4 ,take a carpenter's rule1 we say #a_/d in4--#a_/b in4--#c_/d in41 but do not count an inch till we complete it4 ,when the ancients are quoted1--about the middle of the third hour there is no mistake1 because that means #b-a_/b hours since sunrise4 ,if we said the #aijith year that would be definite too1 and mean some distance into that year4 ,popular language states that ,greenwich is on the first meridian2 strictly1 it is on the zero meridian1 or #j4 ,these matters are largely academic and ,i do not look on them as serious subjects of discussion2 but they are good thought producers4 ,bidding you good-bye1 for the present1 it might be permissible to state that this conversational article on ,time was intended to be readable and somewhat instructive2 but especially to indicate the infinity of the subject1 that thought and investigation might be encouraged4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,original spelling and grammar have mostly been retained4 ,however1 on page #ca1 clepsydral was changed to clepsydra4 ,figures were moved from within paragraphs to between paragraphs4 ,in addition1 some figures were originally out of numerical sequence2 they are now in sequence4