,transcriber's ,notes3 ,words in italics
 in the original are surrounded by      
underscores4 ,depending on the font1    
there is one character that may  not be 
visible4 ,it is a superscripted #e4     
,other notes follow the text4           
,barr's ,buffon4           ,buffon's    
,natural ,history4         ,,containing 
,a ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,earth1         
,a ,,general         ,,history ,,of     
,,man1         ,,of ,,the ,,brute       
,,creation1 ,,and ,,of                  
,,vegetables1 ,,minerals1       c4 c4   
,,from ,,the ,,french4         ,,with   
,,notes ,,by ,,the ,,translator4        
,,in ,,ten ,,volumes4         ,,vol4 ,i4
           ,london3       ,,printed     
,,for ,,the ,,proprietor1       ,,and   
,,sold ,,by ,h4 ,d4 ,,symonds1          
,,paternoster-,,row4         #agig4     
,,contents    ,,of    ,,the ,,first     
,,volume4                               
,page       ,,the ,theory of the ,earth 
#a         ,proof of the ,theory of the 
,earth4         ,article ,i4    ,on the 

,formation of the ,planets              
#fi         ,article ,,ii4   ,from the  
,system of ,whiston                     
#aae         ,article ,,iii4  ,from the 
,system of ,burnet                      
#abh         ,article ,,iv4   ,from the 
,system of ,woodward                    
#aca         ,article ,v4    ,exposition
 of some other ,systems                 
#acg         ,article ,,vi4   ,geography
                                        
#aee         ,article ,,vii4  ,on the   
,production of the ,strata1 or ,beds of 
the ,earth                              
#ahc         ,article ,,viii4 ,on       
,shells and other ,marine ,productions  
found                        in the     
interior ,parts of the ,earth           
#bai         ,article ,,ix4   ,on the   
,inequalities of the ,surface           
of the ,earth                           
#bfb         ,article ,x4    ,of ,rivers
                                        
#bih          ,,preface4      ,we should
 certainly be guilty of a gross         

absurdity if1 in an age like  the       
present1 we were to enter into an       
elaborate discussion on the  advantages 
to be derived from the study of         
,,natural ,,history2 the ancients       
recommended it as useful1 instructive1  
and entertaining2 and the moderns  have 
so far pursued and cultivated this first
 of sciences1 that it is  now admitted  
to be the source of universal           
instruction and knowledge2  where every 
active mind may find subjects to amuse  
and delight1 and the  artist a never    
failing field to enrich his glowing     
imagination4    ,it would have been     
singular if1 on such a subject1 a number
 of authors  had not submitted the      
produce of their observations and       
labour2 many  have written upon ,natural
 ,philosophy1 but the ,comte de ,,buffon
 stands  eminently distinguished among  
them2 he has entered into a minute      
investigation1 and drawn numberless     
facts from unwearied observations  far  
beyond any other1 and this he has       

accomplished in a style fully  accordant
 with the importance of his subject4    
,ray1 ,linnus1 ,rheaumur1  and other of 
his cotemporaries1 deserve much credit  
for their classing  of animals1         
vegetables1 c4 but it was ,,buffon alone
 who entered into a  description of     
their nature1 habits1 uses1 and         
properties4 ,in his ,theory  of the     
,earth he has displayed a wonderful     
ingenuity1 and shewn the  general order 
of ,nature with a masterly hand1        
although he may be subject  to some     
objections for preferring physical      
reasonings on general  causes1 rather   
than allowing aught to have arisen from 
supernatural  agency1 or the will of the
 ,almighty4 ,in this he has followed the
 example  of all great philosophers1 who
 seem unwilling to admit that the       
formation of any part of the ,universe  
is beyond their comprehension4    ,as   
the works of this ,author will best     
speak for themselves1 we shall  avoid   
unnecessary panegyric1 hoping they will 

have received no material  injury in the
 following translation2 we shall        
therefore content  ourselves with       
observing1 that in our plan we have     
followed that adopted  by the ,comte    
himself in a latter edition1 from which 
he exploded his  long and minute        
treatises on anatomy and mensuration2   
though elegant and  highly finished in  
themselves1 they appeared to us of too  
abstruse and  confined a nature for     
general estimation1 and which we could  
not have  gone into without almost      
doubling the expence2 a circumstance we 
had to  guard against1 for the advantage
 of those of our readers to whom that   
part would have been totally            
uninteresting4    ,as to this edition1  
we presume it is no vain boast1 that    
every exertion  has been made to do     
justice to a work of such acknowledged  
merit4 ,in the  literary part1 it has   
been the ,proprietor's chief endeavour  
to preserve  the spirit and accuracy of 
the ,author1 as far as could be done in 

translating from one language into      
another2 and it is with gratitude he    
acknowledges1 that those endeavours have
 been amply supported by the  engraver2 
for the decorative executions of        
,,milton will remain a lasting  monument
 of his abilities1 as long as delicacy  
in the arts is held in  estimation4     
,,buffon's    ,,natural ,,history4      
,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,earth4      
,neither the figure of the earth1 its   
motion1 nor its external  connections   
with the rest of the universe1 pertain  
to our present  investigation4 ,it is   
the internal structure of the globe1 its
  composition1 form1 and manner of      
existence which we purpose to examine4  
,the general history of the earth should
 doubtless precede that of its          
productions1 as a necessary study for   
those who wish to be acquainted  with   
,nature in her variety of shapes1 and   
the detail of facts relative  to the    
life and manners of animals1 or to the  
culture and vegetation of  plants1      

belong not1 perhaps1 so much to ,natural
 ,history1 as to the  general deductions
 drawn from the observations that have  
been made upon  the different materials 
which compose the terrestrial globe3 as 
the  heights1 depths1 and inequalities  
of its form2 the motion of the sea1  the
 direction of mountains1 the situation  
of rocks and quarries1 the  rapidity and
 effects of currents in the ocean1 c4   
,this is the history  of nature in its  
most ample extent1 and these are the    
operations by  which every other effect 
is influenced and produced4 ,the theory 
of these  effects constitutes what may  
be termed a primary science1 upon which 
the  exact knowledge of particular      
appearances as well as terrestrial      
substances entirely depends4 ,this      
description of science may fairly be    
considered as appertaining to physics2  
but does not all physical  knowledge1 in
 which no system is admitted1 form part 
of the ,history of  ,nature8    ,in a   
subject of great magnitude1 whose       

relative connections are  difficult to  
trace1 and where some facts are but     
partially known1 and  others uncertain  
and obscure1 it is more easy to form a  
visionary  system1 than to establish a  
rational theory2 thus it is that the    
,theory  of the ,earth has only hitherto
 been treated in a vague and            
hypothetical  manner2 ,i shall therefore
 but slightly mention the singular      
notions of  some authors who have       
written upon the subject4    ,the first 
hypothesis ,i shall allude to1 deserves 
to be mentioned more  for its ingenuity 
than its reasonable solidity2 it is that
 of an ,english  astronomer1 7,,whiston7
 versed in the system of ,,newton1 and  
an  enthusiastic admirer of his         
philosophy2 convinced that every event  
which  happens on the terrestrial globe1
 depends upon the motions of the stars1 
he endeavours to prove1 by the          
assistance of mathematical calculations1
  that the tail of a comet has produced 
every alteration the earth has  ever    

undergone4    ,the next is the formation
 of an heterodox theologician1          
7,,burnet7 whose  brain was so heated   
with poetical visions1 that he imagined 
he had seen  the creation of the        
universe4 ,after explaining what the    
earth was in its  primary state1 when it
 sprung from nothing2 what changes were 
occasioned  by the deluge2 what it has  
been and what it is1 he then assumes a  
prophetic style1 and predicts what will 
be its state after the  destruction of  
the human race4    ,the third comes from
 a writer 7,,woodward7 certainly a      
better and more  extensive observer of  
nature than the two former1 though      
little less  irregular and confused in  
his ideas2 he explains the principal    
appearances of the globe1 by an immense 
abyss in the bowels of the  earth1 which
 in his opinion is nothing more than a  
thin crust that  serves as a covering to
 the fluid it incloses4    ,the whole of
 these hypotheses are raised on unstable
 foundations2 have  given no light upon 

the subject1 the ideas being            
unconnected1 the facts  confused1 and   
the whole confounded with a mixture of  
physic and fable2  and consequently have
 been adopted only by those who         
implicitly believe  opinions without    
investigation1 and who1 incapable of    
distinguishing  probability1 are more   
impressed with the wonders of the       
marvellous than  the relation of truth4 
,what we shall say on this subject will 
doubtless be less extraordinary1  and   
appear unimportant1 if put in comparison
 with the grand systems just  mentioned1
 but it should be remembered that it is 
an historian's  business to describe1   
not invent2 that no suppositions should 
be  admitted upon subjects that depend  
upon facts and observation2 that his    
imagination ought only to be exercised  
for the purpose of combining            
observations1 rendering facts more      
general1 and forming one connected      
whole1 so as to present to the mind a   
distinct arrangement of clear  ideas and

 probable conjectures2 ,i say probable1 
because we must not  expect to give     
exact demonstration on this subject1    
that being confined  to mathematical    
sciences1 while our knowledge in physics
 and natural  history depends solely    
upon experience1 and is confined to     
reasoning  upon inductions4    ,in the  
history of the ,earth1 we shall         
therefore begin with those facts  that  
have been obtained from the experience  
of time1 together with what  we have    
collected by our own observations4      
,this immense globe exhibits upon its   
surface heights1 depths1 plains1  seas1 
lakes1 marshes1 rivers1 caverns1 gulphs1
 and volcanos2 and upon  the first view 
of these objects we cannot discover in  
their dispositions  either order or     
regularity4 ,if we penetrate into its   
internal part1 we  shall there find     
metals1 minerals1 stones1 bitumens1     
sands1 earths1  waters1 and matters of  
every kind1 placed as it were by chance1
 and  without the smallest apparent     

design4 ,examining with a more strict   
attention1 we discover sunk mountains1  
caverns filled1 rocks split and  broken1
 countries swallowed up1 and new islands
 rising from the ocean2  we shall also  
perceive heavy substances placed above  
light ones1 hard  bodies surrounded with
 soft2 in short1 we shall there find    
matter in  every form1 wet and dry1 hot 
and cold1 solid and brittle1 mixed in   
such  a sort of confusion as to leave   
room to compare them only to a mass of  
rubbish and the ruins of a wrecked      
world4    ,we inhabit these ruins       
however with a perfect security4 ,the   
various  generations of men1 animals1   
and plants1 succeed each other without  
interruption2 the earth produces fully  
sufficient for their subsistence2  the  
sea has its limits2 its motions and the 
currents of air are  regulated by fixed 
laws3 the returns of the seasons are    
certain and  regular2 the severity of   
the winter being constantly succeeded by
 the  beauties of the spring3 every     

thing appears in order1 and the earth1  
formerly a ,,chaos1 is now a tranquil   
and delightful abode1 where all is      
animated1 and regulated by such an      
amazing display of power and            
intelligence as fills us with           
admiration1 and elevates our minds with 
the most sublime ideas of an all-potent 
and wonderful ,creator4    ,let us not  
then draw any hasty conclusions upon the
 irregularities of  the surface of the  
earth1 nor the apparent disorders in the
 interior  parts1 for we shall soon     
discover the utility1 and even the      
necessity of  them2 and1 by considering 
them with a little attention1 we shall1 
perhaps1 find an order of which we had  
no conception1 and a general  connection
 that we could neither perceive nor     
comprehend1 by a slight  examination3   
but in fact1 our knowledge on this      
subject must always be  confined4 ,there
 are many parts of the surface of the   
globe with which we  are entirely       
unacquainted1 and have but partial ideas

 of the bottom of  the sea1 which in    
many places we have not been able to    
fathom4 ,we can  only penetrate into the
 coat of the earth2 the greatest caverns
 and the  deepest mines do not descend  
above the eight thousandth part of its  
diameter1 we can therefore judge only of
 the external and mere  superficial     
part2 we know1 indeed1 that bulk for    
bulk the earth weighs  four times       
heavier than the sun1 and we also know  
the proportion its  weight bears with   
other planets2 but this is merely a     
relative  estimation2 we have no certain
 standard nor proportion2 we are so     
entirely ignorant of the real weight of 
the materials1 that the internal  part  
of the globe may be a void space1 or    
composed of matter a thousand  times    
heavier than gold2 nor is there any     
method to make further  discoveries on  
this subject2 and it is with the        
greatest difficulty any  rational       
conjectures can be formed thereon4      
,we must therefore confine ourselves to 

a correct examination and  description  
of the surface of the earth1 and to     
those trifling depths to  which we have 
been enabled to penetrate4 ,the first   
object which presents  itself is that   
immense quantity of water which covers  
the greatest part  of the globe2 this   
water always occupies the lowest ground1
 its surface  always level1 and         
constantly tending to equilibrium and   
rest2  nevertheless it is kept in       
perpetual agitation by a powerful agent1
  which opposing its natural            
tranquillity1 impresses it with a       
regular  periodical motion1 alternately 
raising and depressing its waves1       
producing a vibration in the total mass1
 by disturbing the whole body to  the   
greatest depths4 ,this motion we know   
has existed from the  commencement of   
time1 and will continue as long as the  
sun and moon1  which are the causes of  
it4    ,by an examination of the bottom 
of the sea1 we discover that to be fully
  as irregular as the surface of the    

earth2 we there find hills and  vallies1
 plains and cavities1 rocks and soils of
 every kind3 we there  perceive that    
islands are only the summits of vast    
mountains1 whose  foundations are at the
 bottom of the ,ocean2 we also find     
other mountains  whose tops are nearly  
on a level with the surface of the      
water1 and  rapid currents which run    
contrary to the general movement3 they  
sometimes run in the same direction1 at 
others1 their motions are  retrograde1  
but never exceeding their bounds1 which 
appear to be as  fixed and invariable as
 those which confine the rivers of the  
earth4 ,in  one part we meet with       
tempestuous regions1 where the winds    
blow with  irresistible fury1 where the 
sea and the heavens equally agitated1   
join  in contact with each other1 are   
mixed and confounded in the general     
shock3 in others1 violent intestine     
motions1 tumultuous swellings1          
water-spouts1 and extraordinary         
agitations1 caused by volcanos1 whose   

mouths though a considerable depth under
 water1 yet vomit fire from the  midst  
of the waves1 and send up to the clouds 
a thick vapour1 composed  of water1     
sulphur1 and bitumen4 ,further we       
perceive dreadful gulphs or  whirlpools1
 which seem to attract vessels1 merely  
to swallow them up4 ,on  the other hand1
 we discover immense regions1 totally   
opposite in their  natures1 always calm 
and tranquil1 yet equally dangerous2    
where the  winds never exert their      
power1 where the art of the mariner     
becomes  useless1 and where the becalmed
 voyager must remain until death        
relieves  him from the horrors of       
despair4 ,in conclusion1 if we turn our 
eyes  towards the northern or southern  
extremities of the globe1 we there      
perceive enormous flakes of ice         
separating themselves from the polar    
regions1 advancing like huge mountains  
into the more temperate climes1  where  
they dissolve and are lost to the sight4
    ,exclusive of these principal       

objects the vast empire of the sea      
abounds  with animated beings1 almost   
innumerable in numbers and variety4     
,some of  them1 covered with light      
scales1 move with astonishing celerity2 
others1  loaded with thick shells1 drag 
heavily along1 leaving their track in   
the  sand2 on others ,nature has        
bestowed fins1 resembling wings1 with   
which  they raise and support themselves
 in the air1 and fly to considerable    
distances2 while there are those to whom
 all motion has been denied1 who  live  
and die immoveably fixed to the same    
rock3 every species1 however1  find     
abundance of food in this their native  
element4 ,the bottom of the  sea1 and   
the shelving sides of the various rocks1
 produce great  abundance of plants and 
mosses of different kinds2 its soil is  
composed  of sand1 gravel1 rocks1 and   
shells2 in some parts a fine clay1 in   
others  a solid earth1 and in general it
 has a complete resemblance to the land 
which we inhabit4    ,let us now take a 

view of the earth4 ,what prodigious     
differences do we  find in different    
climates8 ,what a variety of soils8     
,what inequalities  in the surface8 but 
upon a minute and attentive observation 
we shall  find the greatest chain of    
mountains are nearer the equator than   
the  poles2 that in the ,old ,continent 
their direction is more from the east   
to west than from the north to south2   
and that1 on the contrary1 in the  ,new 
,world they extend more from north to   
south than from east to west2  but what 
is still more remarkable1 the form and  
direction of those  mountains1 whose    
appearance is so very irregular1        
correspond so  precisely1 that the      
prominent angles of one mountain are    
always  opposite to the concave angles  
of the neighbouring mountain1 and are of
  equal dimensions1 whether they are    
separated by a small valley or an       
extensive plain4 ,i have also observed  
that opposite hills are nearly of  the  
same height1 and that1 in general1      

mountains occupy the middle of          
continents1 islands1 and promontories1  
which they divide by the greatest       
lengths4    ,in following the courses of
 the principal rivers1 ,i have likewise 
found  that they are almost always      
perpendicular with those of the sea into
  which they empty themselves2 and that 
in the greatest part of their  courses  
they proceed nearly in the direction of 
the mountains from which  they derive   
their source4    ,the sea shores are    
generally bounded with rocks1 marble1   
and other hard  stones1 or by earth and 
sand which has accumulated by the waters
 from  the sea1 or been brought down by 
the rivers2 and ,i observe that opposite
  coasts1 separated only by an arm of   
the sea1 are composed of similar        
materials1 and the beds of the earth are
 exactly the same4 ,volcanos ,i  find   
exist only in the highest mountains2    
that many of them are entirely  extinct2
 that some are connected with others by 
subterraneous passages1  and that their 

explosions frequently happen at one and 
the same time4  ,there are similar      
correspondences between certain lakes   
and neighbouring  seas2 some rivers     
suddenly disappear1 and seem to         
precipitate themselves  into the earth4 
,we also find internal1 or mediterranean
 seas1 constantly  receiving an enormous
 quantity of water from a number of     
rivers without  ever extending their    
bounds1 most probably discharging by    
subterraneous  passages all their       
superfluous supplies4 ,lands which have 
been long  inhabited are easily         
distinguished from those new countries  
where the  soil appears in a rude state1
 where the rivers are full of cataracts1
  where the earth is either overflowed  
with water1 or parched up with  drought1
 and where every spot upon which a tree 
will grow is covered  with uncultivated 
woods4    ,pursuing our examination in a
 more extensive view1 we find that the  
upper strata that surrounds the globe1  
is universally the same4 ,that  this    

substance which serves for the growth   
and nourishment of animals  and         
vegetables1 is nothing but a composition
 of decayed animal and  vegetable bodies
 reduced into such small particles1 that
 their former  organization is not      
distinguishable2 or penetrating a little
 further1  we find the real earth1 beds 
of sand1 lime-stone1 argol1 shells1     
marble1  gravel1 chalk1 c4 ,these beds  
are always parallel to each other and of
  the same thickness throughout their   
whole extent4 ,in neighbouring hills    
beds of the same materials are          
invariably found upon the same levels1  
though the hills are separated by deep  
and extensive intervals4 ,all beds  of  
earth1 even the most solid strata1 as   
rocks1 quarries of marble1 c4  are      
uniformly divided by perpendicular      
fissures2 it is the same in the  largest
 as well as smallest depths1 and appears
 a rule which nature  invariably        
pursues4    ,in the very bowels of the  
earth1 on the tops of mountains1 and    

even the  most remote parts from the    
sea1 shells1 skeletons of fish1 marine  
plants1 c4 are frequently found1 and    
these shells1 fish1 and plants1  are    
exactly similar to those which exist in 
the ,ocean4 ,there are a  prodigious    
quantity of petrified shells to be met  
with in an infinity of  places1 not only
 inclosed in rocks1 masses of marble1   
lime-stone1 as  well as in earth and    
clays1 but are actually incorporated and
 filled  with the very substance which  
surrounds them4 ,in short1 ,i find      
myself  convinced1 by repeated          
observations1 that marbles1 stones1     
chalks1  marls1 clay1 sand1 and almost  
all terrestrial substances1 wherever    
they  may be placed1 are filled with    
shells and other substances1 the        
productions of the sea4    ,these facts 
being enumerated1 let us now see what   
reasonable conclusions  are to be drawn 
from them4    ,the changes and          
alterations which have happened to the  
earth1 in the  space of the last two or 

three thousand years1 are very          
inconsiderable  indeed1 when compared   
with those important revolutions which  
must have  taken place in those ages    
which immediately followed the creation2
 for  as all terrestrial substances     
could only acquire solidity by the      
continued action of gravity1 it would be
 easy to demonstrate that the  surface  
of the earth was much softer at first   
than it is at present1 and  consequently
 the same causes which now produce but  
slight and almost  imperceptible changes
 during many ages1 would then effect    
great  revolutions in a very short      
space4 ,it appears to be a certain fact1
 that  the earth which we now inhabit1  
and even the tops of the highest        
mountains1 were formerly covered with   
the sea1 for shells and other  marine   
productions are frequently found in     
almost every part2 it appears  also that
 the water remained a considerable time 
on the surface of the  earth1 since in  
many places there have been discovered  

such prodigious  banks of shells1 that  
it is impossible so great a multitude of
 animals  could exist at the same time3 
this fact seems likewise to prove1 that 
although the materials which composed   
the surface of the earth were then  in a
 state of softness1 that rendered them  
easy to be disunited1 moved  and        
transported by the waters1 yet that     
these removals were not made at  once2  
they must indeed have been successive1  
gradual1 and by degrees1  because these 
kind of sea productions are frequently  
met with more than  a thousand feet     
below the surface1 and such a           
considerable thickness of  earth and    
stone could not have accumulated but by 
the length of time4 ,if  we were to     
suppose that at the ,deluge all the     
shell-fish were raised  from the bottom 
of the sea1 and transported over all the
 earth2 besides  the difficulty of      
establishing this supposition1 it is    
evident1 that as  we find shells        
incorporated in marble and in the rocks 

of the highest  mountains1 we must      
likewise suppose that all these marbles 
and rocks  were formed at the same time1
 and that too at the very instant of the
  ,deluge2 and besides1 that previous to
 this great revolution there were       
neither mountains1 marble1 nor rocks1   
nor clays1 nor matters of any kind      
similar to those we are at present      
acquainted with1 as they almost all     
contain shells and other productions of 
the sea4 ,besides1 at the time of  the  
,deluge1 the earth must have acquired a 
considerable degree of  solidity1 from  
the action of gravity for more than     
sixteen centuries1  and consequently it 
does not appear possible that the       
waters1 during the  short time the      
,deluge lasted1 should have overturned  
and dissolved its  surface to the       
greatest depths we have since been      
enabled to penetrate4    ,but without   
dwelling longer on this point1 which    
shall hereafter be more  amply          
discussed1 ,i shall confine myself to   

well-known observations and  established
 facts4 ,there is no doubt but that the 
waters of the sea at  some period       
covered and remained for ages upon that 
part of the globe  which is now known to
 be dry land2 and consequently the whole
 continents  of ,asia1 ,europe1 ,africa1
 and ,america1 were then the bottom of  
an ocean  abounding with similar        
productions to those which the sea at   
present  contains3 it is equally certain
 that the different strata which compose
  the earth are parallel and horizontal1
 and it is evident their being in  this 
situation is the operation of the waters
 which have collected and  accumulated  
by degrees the different materials1 and 
given them the same  position as the    
water itself always assumes4 ,we observe
 that the  position of strata is almost 
universally horizontal3 in plains it is 
exactly so1 and it is only in the       
mountains that they are inclined to  the
 horizon1 from their having been        
originally formed by a sediment         

deposited upon an inclined base4 ,now ,i
 insist that these strata must  have    
been formed by degrees1 and not all at  
once1 by any revolution  whatever1      
because strata1 composed of heavy       
materials1 are very  frequently found   
placed above light ones1 which could not
 be1 if1 as  some authors assert1 the   
whole had been mixed with the waters at 
the  time of the ,deluge1 and afterwards
 precipitated2 in that case every  thing
 must have had a very different         
appearance to that which now  exists4   
,the heaviest bodies would have         
descended first1 and each  particular   
stratum would have been arranged        
according to its weight and  specific   
gravity1 and we should not see solid    
rocks or metals placed  above light sand
 any more than clay under coal4    ,we  
should also pay attention to another    
circumstance2 it confirms what  we have 
said on the formation of the strata2 no 
other cause than the  motions and       
sediments of water could possibly       

produce so regular a  position of it1   
for the highest mountains are composed  
of parallel  strata as well as the      
lowest plains1 and therefore we cannot  
attribute  the origin and formation of  
mountains to the shocks of earthquakes1 
or  eruptions of volcanos4 ,the small   
eminences which are sometimes raised by 
volcanos1 or convulsive motions of the  
earth1 are not by any means  composed of
 parallel strata1 they are a mere       
disordered heap of matters  thrown      
confusedly together2 but the horizontal 
and parallel position of  the strata    
must necessarily proceed from the       
operations of a constant  cause and     
motion1 always regulated and directed in
 the same uniform  manner4    ,from     
repeated observations1 and these        
incontrovertible facts1 we are          
convinced that the dry part of the      
globe1 which is now habitable1 has      
remained for a long time under the      
waters of the sea1 and consequently     
this earth underwent the same           

fluctuations and changes which the      
bottom  of the ocean is at present      
actually undergoing4 ,to discover       
therefore  what formerly passed on the  
earth1 let us examine what now passes at
  the bottom of the sea1 and from thence
 we shall soon be enabled to draw       
rational conclusions with regard to the 
external form and internal  composition 
of that which we inhabit4    ,from the  
,creation the sea has constantly been   
subject to a regular flux  and reflux3  
this motion1 which raises and falls the 
waters twice in  every twenty-four      
hours1 is principally occasioned by the 
action of the  moon1 and is much greater
 under the equator than in any other    
climates4  ,the earth performs a rapid  
motion on its axis1 and consequently has
 a  centrifugal force1 which is also the
 greatest at the equator2 this  latter1 
independent of actual observation1      
proves that the earth is not  perfectly 
spherical1 but that it must be more     
elevated under the equator  then at the 

poles4    ,from these combined causes1  
the ebbing and flowing of the tides1 and
 the  motion of the earth1 we may fairly
 conclude1 that although the earth was  
a perfect sphere in its original form1  
yet its diurnal motion1 together  with  
the constant flux and reflux of the sea1
 must1 by degrees1 in the  course of    
time1 have raised the equatorial parts1 
by carrying mud1  earth1 sand1 shells1  
c4 from other climes1 and there         
depositing of  them4 ,agreeable to this 
idea the greatest irregularities must be
 found1  and1 in fact1 are found near   
the equator4 ,besides1 as this motion of
 the  tides is made by diurnal          
alternatives1 and been repeated1 without
  interruption1 from the commencement of
 time1 is it not natural to  imagine1   
that each time the tide flows the water 
carries a small  quantity of matter from
 one place to another1 which may fall to
 the  bottom like a sediment1 and form  
those parallel and horizontal strata    
which are every where to be met with8   

for the whole motion of the water1  in  
the flux and reflux1 being horizontal1  
the matters carried away with  them will
 naturally be deposited in the same     
parallel direction4    ,but to this it  
may be said1 that as the flux and reflux
 of the waters  are equal and regularly 
succeed1 two motions would counterpoise 
each  other1 and the matters brought by 
the flux would be returned by the       
reflux1 and of course this cause for the
 formation of the strata must be        
chimerical2 that the bottom of the sea  
could not experience any material       
alteration by two uniform motions1      
wherein the effects of the one would  be
 regularly destroyed by the other2 much 
less could they change the  original    
form by the production of heights and   
inequalities4    ,to which it may be    
answered1 that the alternate motions of 
the waters  are not equal1 the sea      
having a constant motion from the east  
to the  west1 besides1 the agitation1   
caused by the winds1 opposes and        

prevents  the equality of the tides4 ,it
 will also be admitted1 that by every   
motion of which the sea is susceptible1 
particles of earth and other  matters   
will be carried from one place and      
deposited in another2 and  these        
collections will necessarily assume the 
form of horizontal and  parallel strata1
 from the various combinations of the   
motions of the sea  always tending to   
move the earth1 and to level these      
materials wherever  they fall1 in the   
form of a sediment4 ,but this objection 
is easily  obviated by the well-known   
fact1 that upon all coasts1 bordering   
the  sea1 where the ebbing and flowing  
of the tide is observed1 the flux       
constantly brings in a number of things 
which the reflux does not carry  back4  
,there are many places upon which the   
sea insensibly gains and  gradually     
covers over1 while there are others from
 which it recedes1  narrowing as it were
 its limits1 by depositing earth1 sands1
 shells1  c4 which naturally take an    

horizontal position2 these matters      
accumulate by degrees in the course of  
time1 and being raised to a  certain    
point gradually exclude the water1 and  
so become part of the dry  land for ever
 after4    ,but not to leave any doubt  
upon this important point1 let us       
strictly  examine into the possibility  
of a mountain's being formed at the     
bottom  of the sea by the motions and   
sediments of the waters4 ,it is certain 
that on a coast which the sea beats with
 violence during the agitation  of its  
flow1 that every wave must carry off    
some part of the earth2 for  wherever   
the sea is bounded by rocks1 it is a    
plain fact that the water  by degrees   
wears away those rocks1 and consequently
 carries away small  particles every    
time the waves retire2 these particles  
of earth and  stone will necessarily be 
transported to some distance1 and being 
arrived where the agitation of the water
 is abated1 and left to their  own      
weight1 they precipitate to the bottom  

in form of a sediment1 and  there form a
 first stratum1 either horizontal or    
inclined1 according to  the position of 
the surface upon which they fall2 this  
will shortly be  covered by a similar   
stratum produced by the same cause1 and 
thus will a  considerable quantity of   
matter be almost insensibly collected   
together1 and the strata of which will  
be placed1 parallel to each  other4     
,this mass will continue to increase by 
new sediments1 and by gradually         
accumulating1 in the course of time     
become a mountain at the bottom of  the 
sea1 exactly similar to those we see on 
dry land1 both as to outward  form and  
internal composition4 ,if there happen  
to be shells in this part  of the sea1  
where we have supposed this deposit to  
be made1 they will be  filled and       
covered with the sediment1 and          
incorporated in the deposited  matter1  
making a part of the whole mass1 and    
they will be found situated  in the     
parts of the mountain according to the  

time they had been there  deposited2    
those that lay at the bottom1 previous  
to the formation of  the first stratum1 
will be found in the lowest1 and so     
according to the  time of their being   
deposited1 the latest in the most       
elevated parts4    ,so likewise1 when   
the bottom of the sea1 at particular    
places1 is  troubled by the agitation of
 the water1 there will necessarily      
ensue1 in  the same manner1 a removal of
 earth1 shells1 and other matters1 from 
the  troubled to other parts2 for we are
 assumed by all divers1 that at the     
greatest depths they descend1 i4 e4     
twenty fathoms1 the bottom of the  sea  
is so troubled by the agitation of the  
waters1 that the mud and  shells are    
carried to considerable distances1      
consequently  transportations of this   
kind are made in every part of the sea1 
and this  matter falling must form      
eminences1 composed like our mountains1 
and in  every respect similar2 therefore
 the flux and reflux1 by the winds1 the 

currents1 and all the motions of the    
water1 must inevitably create           
inequalities at the bottom of the sea4  
,nor must we imagine that these matters 
cannot be transported to great          
distances1 because we daily see grain1  
and other productions of the ,east  and 
,west ,indies1 arriving on our own      
coasts4#be3;,a ,it is true these  bodies
 are specifically lighter than water1   
whereas the substances of  which we have
 been speaking are specifically heavier2
 but1 however1  being reduced to an     
impalpable powder1 they may be sustained
 a long time  in the water so as to be  
conveyed to considerable distances4     
,it has been supposed that the sea is   
not troubled at the bottom1  especially 
if it is very deep1 by the agitations   
produced by the winds  and tides2 but it
 should be recollected that the whole   
mass1 however  deep1 is put in motion by
 the tides1 and that in a liquid globe  
this  motion would be communicated to   
the very centre2 that the power which   

produces the flux and reflux is a       
penetrating force1 which acts           
proportionably upon every particle of   
its mass1 so that we can determine  by  
calculation the quantity of its force at
 different depths2 but1 in  short1 this 
point is so certain1 that it cannot be  
contested but by  refusing the evidence 
of reason4    ,therefore1 we cannot     
possibly have the least doubt that the  
tides1 the  winds1 and every other cause
 which agitates the sea1 must produce   
eminences and inequalities at the       
bottom1 and those heights must ever be  
composed of horizontal or equally       
inclined strata4 ,these eminences will  
gradually encrease until they become    
hills1 which will rise in  situations   
similar to the waves that produce them2 
and if there is a  long extent of soil1 
they will continue to augment by        
degrees2 so that  in course of time they
 will form a vast chain of mountains4   
,being formed  into mountains1 they     
become an obstacle to and interrupt the 

common  motion of the sea1 producing at 
the same time other motions1 which are  
generally called currents4 ,between two 
neighbouring heights at the  bottom of  
the sea a current will necessarily be   
formed1 which will  follow their common 
direction1 and1 like a river1 form a    
channel1 whose  angles will be          
alternately opposite during the whole   
extent of its  course4 ,these heights   
will be continually increasing1 being   
subject only  to the motion of the flux1
 for the waters during the flow will    
leave the  common sediment upon their   
ridges2 and those waters which are      
impelled  by the current will force     
along with them1 to great distances1    
those  matters which would be deposited 
between both1 at the same time          
hollowing out a valley with             
corresponding angles at their           
foundation4 ,by  the effects of these   
motions and sediments the bottom of the 
sea1  although originally smooth1 must  
become unequal1 and abounding with      

hills and chains of mountains1 as we    
find it at present4 ,the soft  materials
 of which the eminences are originally  
composed will harden by  degrees with   
their own weight2 some forming parts1   
purely angular1  produce hills of clay2 
others1 consisting of sandy and         
crystalline  particles1 compose those   
enormous masses of rock and flint from  
whence  crystal and other precious      
stones are extracted2 those formed with 
stony  particles1 mixed with shells1    
form those of lime-stone and marble1    
wherein we daily meet with shells       
incorporated2 and others1 compounded  of
 matter more shelly1 united with pure   
earth1 compose all our beds of  marle   
and chalk4 ,all these substances are    
placed in regular beds1 and  all contain
 heterogeneous matter2 marine           
productions are found among  them in    
abundance1 and nearly according to the  
relation of their  specific weights2 the
 lightest shells in chalk1 and the      
heaviest in clay  and lime-stone2 these 

shells are invariably filled with the   
matter in  which they have been         
inclosed1 whether stones or earth2 an   
incontestible  proof that they have been
 transported with the matter that fills 
and  surrounds them1 and that this      
matter was at that time in an impalpable
  powder4 ,in short1 all those          
substances whose horizontal situations  
have  been established by the level of  
the waters of the sea1 will constantly  
preserve their original position4       
,but here it may be observed1 that most 
hills1 whose summits consist of  solid  
rocks1 stone1 or marble1 are formed upon
 small eminences of much  lighter       
materials1 such for instance as clay1 or
 strata of sand1 which  we commonly find
 extended over the neighbouring plains1 
upon which it  may be asked1 how1 if the
 foregoing theory be just1 this         
seemingly  contradictory arrangement    
happens8 ,to me this phenomenon appears 
to be  very easy and naturally          
explained4 ,the water at first acts upon

 the  upper stratum of coasts1 or bottom
 of the sea1 which commonly consists  of
 clay or sand1 and having transported   
this1 and deposited the  sediment1 it of
 course composes small eminences1 which 
form a base for  the more heavy         
particles to rest upon4 ,having removed 
the lighter  substances1 it operates    
upon the more heavy1 and by constant    
attrition  reduces them to an impalpable
 powder2 which it conveys to the same   
spot1  and where1 being deposited1 these
 stony particles1 in the course of      
time1 form those solid rocks and        
quarries which we now find upon the     
tops of hills and mountains4 ,it is not 
unlikely that as these particles  are   
much heavier than sand or clay1 that    
they were formerly a  considerable depth
 under a strata of that kind1 and now   
owe their high  situations to having    
been last raised up and transported by  
the motion  of the water4    ,to confirm
 what we here assert1 let us more       
closely investigate the  situation of   

those materials which compose the       
superficial outer part of  the globe1   
indeed the only part with which we have 
any knowledge4 ,the  different beds of  
strata in stone quarries are almost all 
horizontal1 or  regularly inclined2     
those whose foundations are on clays or 
other solid  matters are clearly        
horizontal1 especially in plains4 ,the  
quarries  wherein we find flint1 or     
brownish grey free-stone1 in detached   
portions1 have a less regular position1 
but even in those the uniformity  of    
nature plainly appears1 for the         
horizontal or regularly inclined  strata
 are apparent in quarries where these   
stones are found in great  masses4 ,this
 position is universal1 except in       
quarries where flint and  brown         
free-stone are found in small detached  
portions1 the formation of  which we    
shall prove to have been posterior to   
those we have just been  treating of2   
for granite1 vitrifiable sand1 argol1   
marble1 calcareous  stone1 chalk1 and   

marles1 are always deposited in parallel
 strata1  horizontally or equally       
inclined2 the original formation of     
these are  easily discovered1 for the   
strata are exactly horizontal and very  
thin1  and are arranged above each other
 like the leaves of a book4 ,beds of    
sand1 soft and hard clay1 chalk1 and    
shells1 are also either horizontal  or  
regularly inclined4 ,strata of every    
kind preserves the same thickness       
throughout its whole extent1 which often
 occupies the space of many  miles1 and 
may be traced still farther by close and
 exact observations4  ,in a word1 the   
materials of the globe1 as far as       
mankind have been  enabled to penetrate1
 are arranged in an uniform position1   
and are  exactly similar4    ,the strata
 of sand and gravel which have been     
washed down from mountains  must in some
 measure be excepted2 in vallies they   
are sometimes of a  considerable extent1
 and are generally placed under the     
first strata of  the earth2 in plains1  

they are as even as the most ancient and
 interior  strata1 but near the bottom  
and upon the ridges of hills they are   
inclined1 and follow the inclination of 
the ground upon which they have  flowed4
 ,these being formed by rivers and      
rivulets1 which are constantly  in      
vallies changing their beds1 and        
dragging these sands and gravel with    
them1 they are of course very numerous4 
,a small rivulet flowing from the       
neighbouring heights1 in the course of  
time will be sufficient to cover  a very
 spacious valley with a strata of sand  
and gravel1 and ,i have  often observed 
in hilly countries1 whose base1 as well 
as the upper  stratum1 was hard clay1   
that above the source of the rivulet the
 clay is  found immediately under the   
vegetable soil1 and below it there is   
the  thickness of a foot of sand upon   
the clay1 and which extends itself to a 
considerable distance4 ,these strata    
formed by rivers are not very  ancient1 
and are easily discovered by the        

inequality of their thickness1  which is
 constantly varying1 while the ancient  
strata preserves the same  dimensions   
throughout2 they are also to be known by
 the matter itself1  which bears evident
 marks of having been smoothed and      
rounded by the  motions of the water4   
,the same may be said of the turf and   
perished  vegetables which are found    
below the first stratum of earth in     
marshy  grounds2 they cannot be         
considered as ancient1 but entirely     
produced by  successive heaps of decayed
 trees and other plants4 ,nor are the   
strata  of slime and mud1 which are     
found in many countries1 to be          
considered as  ancient productions1     
having been formed by stagnated waters  
or  inundations of rivers1 and are      
neither so horizontal1 nor equally      
inclined1 as the strata anciently       
produced by the regular motions of the  
sea4 ,in the strata formed by rivers we 
constantly meet with river1 but         
scarcely ever sea shells1 and the few   

that are found are broken and           
irregularly placed2 whereas in the      
ancient strata there are no river       
shells2 the sea shells are in great     
quantities1 well preserved1 and all     
placed in the same manner1 having been  
transported at the same time and  by the
 same cause4 ,how are we to account for 
this astonishing  regularity8 ,instead  
of regular strata1 why do we not meet   
with the  matters that compose the earth
 jumbled together1 without any kind of  
order8 ,why are not rocks1 marbles1     
clays1 marles1 c4 variously  dispersed1 
or joined by irregular or vertical      
strata8 ,why are not the  heaviest      
bodies uniformly found placed beneath   
the lightest8 ,it is easy  to perceive  
that this uniformity of nature1 this    
organization of earth1  this connection 
of different materials1 by parallel     
strata1 without  respect to their       
weights1 could only be produced by a    
cause as powerful  and constant as the  
motion of the sea1 whether occasioned by

 the regular  winds or by that of the   
flux and reflux1 c4    ,these causes act
 with greater force under the equator   
than in other  climates1 for there the  
winds are more regular and the tides run
  higher2 the most extensive chains of  
mountains are also near the  equator4   
,the mountains of ,africa and ,peru are 
the highest known1 they  frequently     
extend themselves through whole         
provinces1 and stretch1 to  considerable
 distances under the ocean4 ,the        
mountains of ,europe and  ,asia1 which  
extend from ,spain to ,china1 are not so
 high as those of  ,south ,america and  
,africa4 ,the mountains of the ,north1  
according to the  relation of           
travellers1 are only hills in comparison
 with those of the  ,southern countries4
 ,besides1 there are very few islands in
 the ,northern  ,seas1 whereas in the   
torrid zone they are almost innumerable1
 and as  islands are only the summits of
 mountains1 it is evident that the      
surface of the earth has many more      

inequalities towards the equator than   
in the northerly climes4    ,it is      
therefore evident that the prodigious   
chain of mountains which run  from the  
,west to the ,east in the old continent1
 and from the ,north to  the ,south in  
the new1 must have been produced by the 
general motion of  the tides2 but the   
origin of all the inferior mountains    
must be  attributed to the particular   
motions of currents1 occasioned by the  
winds and other irregular agitations of 
the sea3 they may probably have  been   
produced by a combination of all those  
motions1 which must be  capable of      
infinite variations1 since the winds and
 different positions  of islands and    
coasts change the regular course of the 
tides1 and compel  them to flow in every
 possible direction3 it is1 therefore1  
not in the  least astonishing that we   
should see considerable eminences1 whose
  courses have no determined direction4 
,but it is sufficient for our  present  
purpose to have demonstrated that       

mountains are not the produce  of       
earthquakes1 or other accidental causes1
 but that they are the  effects         
resulting from the general order of     
nature1 both as to their  organization  
and the position of the materials of    
which they are  composed4    ,but how   
has it happened that this earth which we
 and our ancestors have  inhabited for  
ages1 which1 from time immemorial1 has  
been an immense  continent1 dry and     
removed from the reach of the waters1   
should1 if  formerly the bottom of the  
ocean1 be actually larger than all the  
waters1 and raised to such a height as  
to be distinctly separated from  them8  
,having remained so long on the earth1  
why have the waters now  abandoned it8  
,what accident1 what cause could produce
 so great a  change8 ,is it possible to 
conceive one possessed of sufficient    
power to  produce such an amazing       
effect8    ,these questions are         
difficult to be resolved1 but as the    
facts are  certain and incontrovertible1

 the exact manner in which they happened
  may remain unknown1 without           
prejudicing the conclusions that may be 
drawn from them2 nevertheless1 by a     
little reflection1 we shall find at     
least plausible reasons for these       
changes4 ,we daily observe the sea      
gaining ground on some coasts and losing
 it on others2 we know that the  ocean  
has a continued regular motion from     
,east to ,west2 that it makes  loud and 
violent efforts against the low lands   
and rocks which confine  it2 that there 
are whole provinces which human industry
 can hardly  secure from the rage of the
 sea2 that there are instances of       
islands  rising above1 and others being 
sunk under the waters4 ,history speaks  
of  much greater deluges and            
inundations4 ,ought not this to incline 
us to  believe that the surface of the  
earth has undergone great revolutions1  
and that the sea may have quitted the   
greatest part of the earth which  it    
formerly covered8 ,let us but suppose   

that the old and new worlds were        
formerly but one continent1 and that the
 ,atlantis of ,plato was sunk by  a     
violent earthquake2 the natural         
consequence would be1 that the sea      
would necessarily have flowed in from   
all sides1 and formed what is now       
called the ,atlantic ,ocean1 leaving    
vast continents dry1 and possibly  those
 which we now inhabit4 ,this revolution1
 therefore1 might be made of  a sudden  
by the opening of some vast cavern in   
the interior part of the  globe1 which  
an universal deluge must inevitably     
succeed2 or possibly  this change was   
not effected at once1 but required a    
length of time1  which ,i am rather     
inclined to think2 however these        
conjectures may be1  it is certain the  
revolution has occurred1 and in my      
opinion very  naturally2 for to judge of
 the future1 as well as the past1 we    
must  carefully attend to what daily    
happens before our eyes4 ,it is a fact  
clearly established by repeated         

observations of travellers1 that the    
ocean has a constant motion from the    
,east to ,west2 this motion1 like the   
trade winds1 is not only felt between   
the tropics1 but also throughout  the   
temperate climates1 and as near the     
poles as navigators have gone2  of      
course the ,pacific ,ocean makes a      
continual effort against the coasts  of 
,tartary1 ,china1 and ,india2 the       
,indian ,ocean acts against the east    
coast of ,africa2 and the ,atlantic in  
like manner against all the eastern     
coasts of ,america2 therefore the sea   
must have always and still  continues to
 gain land on the east and lose it on   
the west2 and this  alone is sufficient 
to prove the possibility of the change  
,of earth into  sea1 and sea into land4 
,if1 in fact1 such are the effects of   
the sea's  motion from east to west1 may
 we not very reasonably suppose that    
,asia  and the eastern continent is the 
oldest country in the world1 and that   
,europe and part of ,africa1 especially 

the western coasts of these  continents1
 as ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,spain1   
,muratania1 c4 are of a  more modern    
date8 ,both history and physics agree in
 confirming this  conjecture4    ,there 
are1 however1 many other causes which   
concur with the continual  motion of the
 sea from east to west1 in producing    
these effects4    ,in many places there 
are lands lower than the level of the   
sea1 and  which are only defended from  
it by an isthmus of rocks1 or by banks  
and  dykes of still weaker materials2   
these barriers must gradually be        
destroyed by the constant action of the 
sea1 when the lands will be  overflowed1
 and constantly make part of the ocean4 
,besides1 are not  mountains daily      
decreasing by the rains1 which loosen   
the earth1 and  carry it down into the  
vallies8 ,it is also well known that    
floods wash  the earth from the plains  
and high grounds into the small brooks  
and  rivers1 which in their turn convey 
it into the sea4 ,by these means the    

bottom of the sea is filling up by      
degrees1 the surface of the earth       
lowering to a level1 and nothing but    
time is necessary for the sea's         
successively changing places with the   
earth4    ,i speak not here of those    
remote causes which stand above our     
comprehension2 of those convulsions of  
nature1 whose least effects would  be   
fatal to the world2 the near approach of
 a comet1 the absence of the  moon1 the 
introduction of a new planet1 c4 are    
suppositions on which it  is easy to    
give scope to the imagination4 ,such    
causes would produce any  effects we    
chose1 and from a single hypothesis of  
this nature1 a  thousand physical       
romances might be drawn1 and which the  
authors might  term1 ,,the ,,theory ,,of
 ,,the ,,earth4 ,as historians we reject
 these vain  speculations2 they are mere
 possibilities which suppose the        
destruction  of the universe1 in which  
our globe1 like a particle of forsaken  
matter1  escapes our observation1 and is

 no longer an object worthy regard2 but 
to preserve consistency1 we must take   
the earth as it is1 closely  observing  
every part1 and by inductions judge of  
the future from what  exists at present2
 in other respects we ought not to be   
affected by  causes which seldom happen1
 and whose effects are always sudden and
  violent2 they do not occur in the     
common course of nature2 but effects    
which are daily repeated1 motions which 
succeed each other without              
interruption1 and operations that are   
constant1 ought alone to be the  ground 
of our reasoning4    ,we will add some  
examples thereto2 we will combine       
particular effects  with general causes1
 and give a detail of facts which will  
render  apparent1 and explain the       
different changes that the earth has    
undergone1 whether by the eruption of   
the sea upon the land1 or by  retiring  
from that which it had formerly covered4
    ,the greatest eruption was certainly
 that which gave rise to the            

,mediterranean sea4 ,the ocean flows    
through a narrow channel between two    
promontories with great rapidity1 and   
then forms a vast sea1 which1  without  
including the ,black sea1 is about seven
 times larger than the  kingdom of      
,france4 ,its motion through the straits
 of ,gibraltar is  contrary to all other
 straits1 for the general motion of the 
sea is from  east to west1 but in that  
alone it is from the west to the east1  
which  proves that the ,mediterranean   
sea is not an ancient gulph1 but that it
  has been formed by an eruption1       
produced by some accidental cause2 as an
  earthquake which might swallow up the 
earth in the strait1 or by a  violent   
effort of the ocean1 caused by the wind1
 which might have forced  its way       
through the banks between the           
promontories of ,gibraltar and  ,ceuta4 
,this opinion is authorised by the      
testimony of the ancients1 who  declare 
in their writings1 that the             
,mediterranean sea did not formerly     

exist2 and confirmed by natural history 
and observations made on the  opposite  
coasts of ,spain1 where similar beds of 
stones and earth are  found upon the    
same levels1 in like manner as they are 
in two mountains1  separated by a small 
valley4    ,the ocean having forced this
 passage1 it ran at first through the   
straits with much greater rapidity than 
at present1 and overflowed the          
continent that joined ,europe to        
,africa4 ,the waters covered all the low
  countries1 of which we can only now   
perceive the tops of some of the        
considerable mountains1 such as parts of
 ,italy1 the islands of ,sicily1        
,malta1 ,corsica1 ,sardinia1 ,cyprus1   
,rhodes1 and those of the ,archipelago4 
,in this eruption ,i have not included  
the ,black sea1 because the quantity  of
 water it receives from the ,danube1    
,nieper1 ,don1 and various other        
rivers1 is fully sufficient to form and 
support it2 and besides1 it  flows with 
great rapidity through the ,bosphorus   

into the ,mediterranean4  ,it might also
 be presumed that the ,black and        
,caspian seas were formerly  only two   
large lakes1 joined by a narrow         
communication1 or by a morass1  or small
 lake1 which united the ,don and the    
,wolga near ,tria1 where these  two     
rivers flow near each other2 nor is it  
improbable that these two  seas or lakes
 were then of much greater extent1 for  
the immense rivers  which fall into the 
,black and ,caspian seas may have       
brought down a  sufficient quantity of  
earth to shut up the communication1 and 
form that  neck of land by which they   
are now separated2 for we know great    
rivers1  in the course of time1 fill up 
seas and form new land1 as the province 
at the mouth of the ,yellow river in    
,china2 ,louisania at the mouth of the  
,mississippi1 and the northern part of  
,egypt1 which owes its existence to  the
 inundations of the ,nile2 the rapidity 
of which brings down such  quantities of
 earth from the internal parts of       

,africa1 as to deposit on  the shores1  
during the inundations1 a body of slime 
and mud of more than  fifty feet in     
depth4 ,the province of the ,yellow     
river and ,louisania  have1 in like     
manner1 been formed by the soil from the
 rivers4    ,the ,caspian sea is        
actually a real lake2 having no         
communication with  other seas1 not even
 with the lake ,aral1 which seems to    
have been a part  of it1 being only     
separated from it by a large track of   
sand1 in which  neither rivers nor      
canals for communication the waters have
 as yet been  found4 ,this sea1         
therefore1 has no external communication
 with any  other2 and ,i do not know    
that we are authorised to suspect that  
it has  an internal one with the ,black 
sea1 or with the ,gulph of ,persia4 ,it 
is  true the ,caspian sea receives the  
,wolga and many other rivers1 which     
seem to furnish it with more water than 
is lost by evaporation2 but  independent
 of the difficulty of such calculation1 

if it had a  communication with any     
other sea1 a constant and rapid current 
towards  the opening would have marked  
its course1 and ,i never heard of any   
such  discovery being made2 travellers  
of the best credit affirm to the        
contrary1 and consequently the ,caspian 
sea must lose by evaporation just  as   
much water as it receives from the      
,wolga and other rivers4    ,nor is it  
any improbable conjecture that the      
,black sea will at some  period be      
separated from the ,mediterranean2 and  
that the ,bosphorus will  be shut up1   
whenever the great rivers shall have    
accumulated a  sufficient quantity of   
earth to answer that effect2 this may be
 the case  in the course of time by the 
successive diminution of waters in      
rivers1  in proportion as the mountains 
from whence they draw their sources are 
lowered by the rains1 and those other   
causes we have just alluded to4    ,the 
,caspian and ,black seas must therefore 
be looked upon rather as lakes  than    

gulphs of the ocean1 for they resemble  
other lakes which receive a  number of  
rivers without any apparent outlet1 such
 as the ,dead sea1  many lakes in       
,africa and other places4 ,these two    
seas are not near so  salt as the       
,mediterranean or the ocean2 and all    
voyagers affirm that the  navigation in 
the ,black and ,caspian seas1 upon      
account of its  shallowness and quantity
 of rocks and quicksands1 is so         
extremely  dangerous1 that only small   
vessels can be used with safety which   
farther  proves they must not be looked 
upon as gulphs of the ocean1 but as     
immense bodies of water collected from  
great rivers4    ,a considerable        
eruption of the sea would doubtless take
 place upon the  earth1 if the isthmus  
which separates ,africa from ,asia was  
divided1 as  the ,kings of ,egypt1 and  
afterwards the ,caliphs projected2 and  
,i do not  know that the communication  
between the ,red sea and ,mediterranean 
is  sufficiently established1 as the    

former must be higher than the latter4  
,the ,red sea is a narrow branch of the 
ocean1 and does not receive into  it a  
single river on the side of ,egypt1 and 
very few on the opposite  coast2 it will
 not therefore be subject to diminution1
 like those seas  and lakes which are   
constantly receiving slime and sand from
 those  rivers that flow into them4 ,the
 ocean supplies the ,red sea with all   
its  water1 and the motion of the tides 
is very evident in it1 of course it     
must be affected by every movement of   
the ocean4 ,but the ,mediterranean  must
 be lower than the ocean1 because the   
current passes with great  rapidity     
through the straits2 besides1 it        
receives the ,nile1 which flows         
parallel to the west coast of the ,red  
sea1 and which divides ,egypt1 a  very  
low country2 from all which it appears  
probable1 that the ,red sea  is higher  
than the ,mediterranean1 and that if the
 isthmus of ,suez was  cut through1     
there ,would be a great inundation1 and 

a considerable  augmentation of the     
,mediterranean would ensue2 at least if 
the waters  were not restrained by dykes
 and sluices placed at proper distances1
 and  which was most likely the case if 
the ancient canal of communication  ever
 had existence4    ,without dwelling    
longer upon conjectures1 which1 although
 well founded1  may appear hazardous and
 rash1 we shall give some recent and    
certain  examples of the change of the  
sea into land1 and the land into sea4   
,at  ,venice the bottom of the ,adriatic
 is daily rising1 and if great care had 
not been taken to clean and empty the   
canals1 the whole would long  since have
 formed part of the continent2 the same 
may be said of most  ports1 bays1 and   
mouths of rivers4 ,in ,holland the      
bottom of the sea has  risen in many    
places2 the gulph of ,zuyderzee and the 
strait of the ,texel  cannot receive    
such large vessels as formerly4 ,at the 
mouth of all  rivers we find small      
islands1 and banks of sand and earth    

brought down  by the waters1 and it is  
certain the sea will be filled up in    
every part  where great rivers empty    
themselves4 ,the ,rhine is lost in the  
sands  which itself accumulated4 ,the   
,danube and the ,nile1 and all great    
rivers1  after bringing down much sand  
and earth1 no longer come to the sea by 
a  single channel2 they divide into     
different branches1 and the intervals   
are filled up by the materials they have
 themselves brought thither4  ,morasses 
daily dry up2 lands forsaken by the sea 
are cultivated2 we  navigate countries  
now covered by waters2 in short1 we see 
so many  instances of land changing into
 water1 and water into land1 that we    
must  be convinced of these alterations 
having1 and will continue to take       
place2 so that in time gulphs will      
become continents2 isthmusses1  straits2
 morasses1 dry lands2 and the tops of   
our mountains1 the shoals  of the sea4  
,since then the waters have covered1 and
 may successively cover1 every  part of 

the present dry land1 our surprise must 
cease at finding every  where marine    
productions and compositions1 which     
could only be the works  of the waters4 
,we have already explained how the      
horizontal strata of  the earth were    
formed1 but the perpendicular divisions 
that are commonly  found in rocks1      
clays1 and all matters of which the     
globe is composed1  still remain to be  
considered4 ,these perpendicular stratas
 are1 in fact1  placed much farther from
 each other than the horizontal1 and the
 softer  the matter the greater the     
distance2 in marble and hard earths they
 are  frequently found only a few feet2 
but if the mass of rock be very         
extensive1 then these fissures are at   
some fathoms distant2 sometimes  they   
descend from the top of the rock to the 
bottom1 and sometimes  terminate at an  
horizontal fissure4 ,they are always    
perpendicular in the  strata of         
calcinable matters1 as chalk1 marle1    
marble1 c4 but are more  oblique and    

irregularly placed in vitrifiable       
substances1 brown  freestone1 and rocks 
of flint1 where they are frequently     
adorned with  chrystals1 and other      
minerals4 ,in quarries of marble or     
calcinable  stone1 the divisions are    
filled with spar1 gypsum1 gravel1 and an
 earthy  sand1 which contains a great   
quantity of chalk4 ,in clay1 marls1 and 
every other kind of earth1 excepting    
turf1 these perpendicular divisions  are
 either empty or filled with such       
matters as the water has  transported   
thither4    ,we need seek very little   
farther for the cause and origin of     
those  perpendicular cracks4 ,the       
materials by which the different strata 
are  composed being carried by the      
water1 and deposited as a kind of       
sediment1 must necessarily1 at first1   
contain a considerable share of  water1 
the which1 as they began to harden1 they
 would part with by  degrees1 and1 as   
they must necessarily lessen in the     
course of drying1  that decrease would  

occasion them to split at irregular     
distances4 ,they  naturally split in a  
perpendicular direction1 because in that
 direction  the action of gravity of one
 particle upon another has no actual    
effect1  while1 on the contrary1 it is  
directly opposite in a horizontal       
situation2 the diminution of bulk       
therefore could have no sensible  effect
 but in a vertical line4 ,i say it is   
the diminution of drying1 and  not the  
contained water forcing a place to      
issue1 is the cause of these            
perpendicular fissures1 for ,i have     
often observed that the two sides of    
those fissures answer throughout their  
whole height1 as exactly as two  sides  
of a split piece of wood2 their insides 
are rough and irregular1  whereas if    
they had been made by the motion of the 
water1 they would  have been smooth and 
polished2 therefore these cracks must be
 produced  suddenly and at once or by   
degrees in drying1 like the flaws in    
wood1  and the greatest part of the     

water they contained evaporated through 
the  pores4 ,the divisions of these     
perpendicular cracks vary greatly as to 
the extent of their openings2 some of   
them being not more than half an  inch1 
others increasing to one or two feet2   
there are some many fathoms1  and which 
form those precipices so often met with 
in the ,alps and other  high mountains4 
,the small ones are produced by drying  
alone1 but those  which extend to       
several feet are the effects of other   
causes2 for  instance1 the sinking of   
the foundation on one side while the    
other  remains unmoved2 if the base     
sinks but a line or two1 it is          
sufficient  to produce openings of many 
feet in a rock of considerable height4  
,sometimes rocks1 which are founded on  
clay or sand1 incline to one  side1 by  
which motion the perpendicular cracks   
become extended4    ,i have not yet     
mentioned those large openings which are
 found in rocks  and mountains2 they    
must have been produced by great        

sinkings1 as of  immense caverns1 unable
 longer to support the weight with which
 they  were encumbered1 but these       
intervals are very different from       
perpendicular fissures2 they appear to  
be vacancies opened by the hand  of     
,nature for the communication of        
nations4 ,in this manner all vacancies  
in large mountains and divisions1 by    
straits in the sea1 seem to present     
themselves2 such as the straits of      
,thermopyl1 the ports of ,caucasus1  the
 ,cordeliers1 the extremity of the      
straits of ,gibraltar1 the entrance  of 
the ,hellespont1 c4 ,these could not    
have been occasioned by the  simple     
separation by drying of matter1 but by  
considerable parts of the  lands        
themselves being sunk1 swallowed up1 or 
overturned4    ,these great sinkings1   
though produced by accidental causes1   
hold a first  place in the principal    
circumstances in the ,history of the    
,earth1 and  not a little contributed to
 change the face of the ,globe2 the     

greatest  part of them have been        
produced by subterraneous fires1 whose  
explosions cause earthquakes and        
volcanos2 the force of these inflamed   
and confined matters in the bowels of   
the earth is beyond compare2 by it      
cities have been swallowed up1 provinces
 overturned1 and mountains  overthrown4 
,but however great this force may be1   
and prodigious as the  effects appear1  
we cannot assent to the opinion of those
 authors who  suppose these             
subterraneous fires proceed from an     
immense abyss of flame  in the centre of
 the earth1 neither give we credit to   
the common notion  that they proceed    
from a great depth below the surface of 
the earth1 air  being absolutely        
necessary for the support of            
inflammation4 ,in examining  the        
materials which issue from volcanos1    
even in the most violent  eruptions1 it 
appears very plain1 that the furnace of 
the inflamed  matters is not at any     
great depth1 as they are similar to     

those found in  mountains1 disfigured   
only by the calcination1 and the melting
 of the  metallic parts which they      
contain2 and to be convinced that the   
matters  cast out by volcanos do not    
come from any great depth1 we have only 
to  consider of the height of the       
mountain1 and judge of the immense force
  that would be necessary to cast up    
stones and minerals to the height of    
half a league2 for tna1 ,hecla1 and many
 other volcanos have at least  that     
elevation from the plains4 ,now it is   
perfectly well known that the  action of
 fire is equal in every direction2 it   
cannot therefore act  upwards1 with a   
force capable of throwing large stones  
half a league  high1 without an equal   
re-action downwards1 and on the sides1  
and which  re-action must very soon     
pierce and destroy the mountain on every
 side1  because the materials which     
compose it are not more dense and firm  
than  those thrown out2 how then can it 
be imagined that the cavity1 which  must

 be considered as the type or cannon1   
could resist so great a force  as would 
be necessary to raise those bodies to   
the mouth of the volcano8  ,besides1 if 
this cavity was deeper1 as the external 
orifice is not  great1 it would be      
impossible for so large a quantity of   
inflamed and  liquid matter to issue out
 at once1 without clashing against each 
other1  and against the sides of the    
tube1 and by passing through so long a  
space they would run the chance of being
 extinguished and hardened4 ,we  often  
see rivers of bitumen and melted        
sulphur1 thrown out of the  volcanos    
with stones and minerals1 flow from the 
tops of the mountains  into the plains2 
is it natural to imagine that matters so
 fluid1 and so  little able to resist   
violent action1 should be elevated from 
any great  depth8 ,all the observations 
that can be made on this subject will   
prove  that the fire of the volcano is  
not far from the summit of the mountain1
  and that it never descends to the     

level of the plain4    ,this idea of    
volcanos does not1 however1 render it   
inconsistent that  they are the cause of
 earthquakes1 and that their shocks may 
be felt on  the plains to very          
considerable distances2 nor that one    
volcano may not  communicate with       
another by means of subterraneous       
passages2 but it is  of the depth of the
 fire's confinement that we now speak1  
and which can  only be at a small       
distance from the mouth of the volcano4 
,it is not  necessary to produce an     
earthquake on a plain1 that the bottom  
of the  volcano should be below the     
level of that plain2 nor that there     
should  be internal cavities filled with
 the same combustible matter1 for a     
violent explosion1 such as generally    
attends an eruption1 may1 like that  of 
a powder magazine give so great a shock 
by its re-action1 as to  produce an     
earthquake that might be felt at a      
considerable distance4    ,i do not mean
 to say that there are no earthquakes   

produced by  subterraneous fires1 but   
merely that there are some which proceed
 only  from the explosion of volcanos4  
,in confirmation of what has been       
advanced on this subject1 it is certain 
that volcanos are seldom met  with on   
plains2 on the contrary1 they are       
constantly found in the  highest        
mountains1 and their mouths at the very 
summit of them4 ,if the  internal fires 
of the volcanos extended below the      
plains1 would not  passages be opened in
 them during violent eruptions8 ,in the 
first  eruption would not these fires   
rather have pierced the plains1 where1  
by  comparison1 the resistance must be  
infinitely weaker1 than force their  way
 through a mountain more than half a    
league in height4    ,the reason why    
volcanos appear alone in mountains1 is1 
because much  greater quantities of     
minerals1 sulphur1 and pyrites1 are     
contained in  mountains1 and more       
exposed than in the plains2 besides     
which1 those  high places are more      

subject to the impressions of air1 and  
receive  greater quantities of rain and 
damps1 by which mineral substances are  
capable of being heated and fermented   
into an absolute state of  inflammation4
    ,in short1 it has often been        
observed1 that1 after violent eruptions1
 the  mountains have shrunk and         
diminished in proportion to the quantity
 of  matter which has been thrown out2  
another proof that the volcanos are  not
 situated at the bottom of the mountain1
 but rather at no great  distance from  
the summit itself4    ,in many places   
earthquakes have formed considerable    
hollows1 and even  separations in       
mountains2 all other inequalities have  
been produced at  the same time with the
 mountains themselves by the currents of
 the sea1  for in every place where     
there has not been a violent convulsion1
 the  strata of the mountains are       
parallel1 and their angles exactly      
correspond4 ,those subterraneous caverns
 which have been produced by  volcanos  

are easily to be distinguished from     
those formed by water2 for  the water1  
having washed away the sand and clay    
with which they are  filled1 leaves only
 the stones and rocks1 and this is the  
origin of  caverns upon hills2 while    
those found upon the plains are commonly
  nothing but ancient pits and quarries1
 such as the salt quarries of           
,maestricht1 the mines of ,poland1 c4   
,but natural caverns belong to          
mountains3 they receive the water from  
the summit and its environs1 from       
whence it issues over the surface       
wherever it can obtain a passage2 and   
these are the sources of springs and    
rivers1 and whenever a cavern is  filled
 by any part falling in1 an inundation  
generally ensues4    ,from what we have 
related1 it is easy to be seen how much 
subterraneous  fires contribute to      
change the surface and internal part of 
the globe4  ,this cause is sufficiently 
powerful to produce very great effects3 
but  it is difficult to conceive how the

 winds should occasion any sensible     
alterations upon the earth4 ,the sea    
appears to be their empire1 and  indeed1
 excepting the tides1 nothing has so    
powerful an influence upon  the ocean2  
even the flux and reflux move in an     
uniform manner1 and their  effects are  
regularly the same2 but the action of   
the winds is  capricious and violent2   
they sometimes rush on with such        
impetuosity1  and agitate the sea with  
such violence1 that from a calm1 smooth1
 and  tranquil plain1 it becomes        
furrowed with waves rolling mountains   
high1  and dashing themselves to pieces 
against the rocks and shores4 ,the winds
  cause constant alterations on the     
surface of the sea1 but the surface of  
the land1 which has so solid an         
appearance1 we should suppose would not 
be subject to similar effects2 by       
experience1 however1 it is known that   
the winds raise mountains of sand in    
,arabia and ,africa2 and that they      
cover plains with it2 they frequently   

transport sand to great distances1  and 
many miles into the sea1 where they     
accumulate in such quantities as  to    
form banks1 downs1 and even islands4 ,it
 is also known that hurricanes  are the 
scourge of the ,antilles1 ,madagascar1  
and other countries1 where  they act    
with such fury1 as to sweep away trees1 
plants1 and animals1  together with the 
soil which gave them subsistence3 they  
cause rivers to  ascend and descend1 and
 produce new ones2 they overthrow rocks 
and  mountains2 they make holes and     
gulphs on the earth1 and entirely change
  the face of those unfortunate         
countries where they exist4 ,happily    
there  are but few climates exposed to  
the impetuosity of those dreadful       
agitations of the air4    ,but the      
greatest and most general changes in the
 surface of the earth  are produced by  
rains1 floods1 and torrents from the    
high lands4 ,their  origins proceed from
 the vapours which the sun raises above 
the surface  of the ocean1 and which the

 wind transports through every climate4 
,these  vapours1 which are sustained in 
the air1 and conveyed at the will of the
  winds1 are stopped in their progress  
by the tops of the hills which they     
encounter1 where they accumulate until  
they become clouds and fall in  the form
 of rain1 dew1 or snow4 ,these waters at
 first descend upon the  plains without 
any fixed course1 but by degrees hollow 
out a bed for  themselves2 by their     
natural bent they run to the bottom of  
mountains1  and penetrating or          
dissolving the land easiest to divide1  
they carry  earth and sand away with    
them1 cut deep channels in the plains1  
form  themselves into rivers1 and open a
 passage into the sea1 which  constantly
 receives as much water from the land   
rivers as it loses by  evaporation4 ,the
 windings in the channels of rivers have
 sinuosities1  whose angles are         
correspondent to each other1 so that    
where the waves  form a saliant angle on
 one side1 the other has an exactly     

opposite one2  and as hills and         
mountains1 which may be considered as   
the banks of the  vallies which separate
 them1 have also sinuosities in         
corresponding  angles1 it seems to      
demonstrate that the vallies have been  
formed1 by  degrees1 by the currents of 
the sea1 in the same manner as the      
rivers  have hollowed out their beds on 
the earth4    ,the waters which run on  
the surface of the earth1 and support   
its  verdure and fertility1 are not     
perhaps one half of those which the     
vapours produce2 for there are many     
veins of water which sink to great      
depths in the internal part of the      
earth4 ,in some places we are certain   
to meet with water by digging2 in       
others1 not any can be found4 ,in       
almost all vallies and low grounds water
 is certain to be met with at  moderate 
depths2 but1 on the contrary1 in all    
high places it cannot be  extracted from
 the bowels of the earth1 but must be   
collected from the  heavens4 ,there are 

countries of great extent where a spring
 cannot be  found1 and where all the    
water which supplies the inhabitants and
  animals with drink is contained in    
pools and cisterns4 ,in the east1       
especially in ,arabia1 ,egypt1 and      
,persia1 wells are extremely scarce1 and
  the people have been obliged to make  
reservoirs of a considerable extent  to 
collect the waters as it falls from the 
heavens4 ,these works1  projected and   
executed from public necessity1 are the 
most beautiful and  magnificent         
monuments of the eastern nations2 some  
of the reservoirs  occupy a space of two
 square miles1 and serve to fertilize   
whole  provinces1 by means of baths and 
small rivulets that let it out on every 
side4 ,but in low countries1 where the  
greatest rivers flow1 we cannot  dig far
 from the surface1 without meeting with 
water1 and in fields  situate in the    
environs of rivers it is often obtained 
by a few strokes  with a pick-axe4      
,the water1 found in such quantities in 

low grounds1 comes principally  from the
 neighbouring hills and eminences2 at   
the time of great rains or  sudden      
melting of snow1 a part of the water    
flows on the surface1 but  most of it   
penetrates through the small cracks and 
crevices it finds in  the earth and     
rocks4 ,this water springs up again to  
the surface wherever  it can find vent2 
but it often filters through the sand   
until it comes  to a bottom of clay or  
solid earth1 where it forms             
subterraneous lakes1  rivulets1 and     
perhaps rivers1 whose courses are       
entirely unknown2 they  must1 however1  
follow the general laws of nature1 and  
constantly flow  from the higher grounds
 to the lower1 and consequently these   
subterraneous waters must1 in the end1  
fall into the sea1 or collect in  some  
low place1 either on the surface or in  
the interior part of the  earth2 for    
there are several lakes into which no   
rivers enter1 nor from  which there are 
not any issue2 and a much greater       

number1 which do not  receive any       
considerable river1 that are the sources
 of the greatest  rivers on earth2 such 
as the lake of ,st4 ,laurence2 the lake 
,chiam1  from whence spring two great   
rivers that water the kingdoms of ,asam 
and  ,pegu2 the lake of ,assiniboil in  
,america2 those of ,ozera in ,muscovy1  
that  give rise to the river ,irtis1 and
 a great number of others4 ,these lakes1
  it is evident1 must be produced by the
 waters from the high lands  passing    
through subterraneous passages1 and     
collecting in the lowest  places4 ,some 
indeed have asserted that lakes are to  
be found on the  summit of the highest  
mountains2 but to this no credit can be 
given1 for  those found on the ,alps1   
and other elevated places1 are all      
surrounded  by much more lofty          
mountains1 and derive their origin from 
the waters  which run down the sides1 or
 are filtered through those eminences in
 the  same manner as the lakes in the   
plains obtain their sources from the    

neighbouring hills which overtop them4  
,it is apparent1 therefore1 that lakes  
have existence in the bowels of  the    
earth1 especially under large plains and
 extensive vallies4  ,mountains1 hills1 
and all eminences have either a         
perpendicular or  inclined situation1   
and are exposed on all sides2 the waters
 which fall  on their summits1 after    
having penetrated into the earth1 cannot
 fail1  from the declivity of the       
ground1 of finding issue in many places1
 and  breaking in forms out of springs  
and fountains1 and consequently there   
will be little1 if any water1 remain in 
the mountains4 ,on the contrary1  in    
plains1 as the water which filters      
through the earth can find no  vent1 it 
must collect in subterraneous caverns1  
or be dispersed and  divided among sand 
and gravel4 ,it is these waters which   
are so  universally diffused through low
 grounds4 ,the bottom of a pit or well  
is  nothing else but a kind of bason    
into which the waters that issue from   

the adjoining lands insinuate           
themselves1 at first falling drop by    
drop1  but afterwards1 as the passages  
are opened1 it receives supplies from   
greater distances1 and then continually 
runs in little streams or rills2  from  
which circumstance1 although we can find
 water in any part of a  plain1 yet we  
can obtain a supply but for a certain   
number of wells1  proportionate to the  
quantity of water dispersed1 or rather  
to the  extent of the higher lands from 
whence they come4    ,it is unnecessary 
to dig below the level of the river to  
find water2 it  is generally met with at
 much less depths1 and there is no      
appearance  that waters of rivers filter
 far through the earth4 ,the origin of  
waters  found in the earth below the    
level of rivers is not to be attributed 
to  them2 for in rivers or torrents     
which are dried up1 or whose courses    
have been turned1 we find no greater    
quantity of water by digging in  their  
beds than in the neighbouring lands at  

an equal depth4    ,a piece of land of  
five or six feet in thickness is        
sufficient to  contain water1 and       
prevent it from escaping2 and ,i have   
often observed  that the banks of brooks
 and pools are not sensibly wet at six  
inches  distance from the water4    ,it 
is true that the extent of the          
filtration is in proportion as the  soil
 is more or less penetrable2 but if we  
examine the standing pools  with sandy  
bottoms1 we shall perceive the water    
confined in the small  compass it had   
hollowed itself1 and the moisture spread
 but a very few  inches2 even in        
vegetable earth it has no great extent1 
which must be  more porous than sand or 
hard soil4 ,it is a certain fact1 that  
in a  garden we may almost inundate one 
bed without those nearly adjoining      
feeling any moisture from it#fe3;,a4 ,i 
have examined pieces of garden  ground1 
eight or ten feet thick1 which had not  
been stirred for many  years1 and whose 
surface was nearly level1 and found that

 the rain water  never penetrated deeper
 than three or four feet2 and on turning
 it up in  the spring1 after a wet      
winter1 ,i found it as dry as when first
 heaped  together4    ,i made the same  
observation on earth which had laid in  
ridges two  hundred years2 below three  
or four feet it was as dry as dust2 from
  which it is plain that water does not 
extend so far by filtration as has  been
 generally imagined4    ,by this means1 
therefore1 the internal part of the     
earth can be supplied  with a very small
 part2 but water by its own weight      
descends from the  surface to the       
greatest depths2 it sinks through       
natural conduits1 or  penetrates small  
passages for itself2 it follows the     
roots of trees1 the  cracks in rocks1   
the interstices in the earth1 and       
divides and extends  on all sides into  
an infinity of small branches and rills1
 always  descending until its passage is
 opposed by clay or some solid body1    
where it continues collecting1 and at   

length breaks out in form of  springs   
upon the surface4    ,it would be very  
difficult to make an exact calculation  
of the quantity  of subterraneous waters
 which have no apparent vent4 ,many have
 pretended  that it greatly surpasses   
all the waters that are on the surface  
of the  earth4    ,without mentioning   
those who have advanced that the        
interior part of the  globe is entirely 
filled with water1 there are some who   
believe there  are an infinity of       
floods1 rivulets1 and lakes in the      
bowels of the  earth4 ,but this opinion 
does not seem to be properly founded1   
and it is  more probable that the       
quantity of subterraneous water1 which  
never  appears on the surface1 is not   
very considerable2 for if these         
subterraneous rivers are so very        
numerous1 why do we never see any of    
their mouths forcing their way through  
the surface8 ,besides1 rivers1 and  all 
running waters1 produce great           
alterations on the surface of the       

earth2 they transport the soil1 wear    
away the most solid rocks1 and  displace
 all matters which oppose their passage4
 ,it would certainly be  the same in    
subterraneous rivers2 the same effects  
would be produced2  but no such         
alterations have ever as yet been       
observed2 the different  strata remains 
parallel1 and every where preserves its 
original  position2 and it is but in a  
very few places that any considerable   
subterraneous veins of water have been  
discovered4 ,thus water in the  internal
 part of the earth1 though great1 acts  
but in a small degree1 as  it is divided
 in an infinity of little streams1 and  
retained by a number  of obstacles2 and 
being so generally dispersed1 it gives  
rise to many  substances totally        
different from primitive matters1 both  
in form and  organization4    ,from all 
these observations we may fairly        
conclude1 that it is the  continual     
motion of the flux and reflux of the sea
 which has produced  mountains1 vallies1

 and other inequalities on the surface  
of the earth2  that it is the currents  
of the ocean which have hollowed        
vallies1 raised  hills1 and given them  
corresponding directions2 that it is    
those waters  of the sea which1 by      
transporting earth1 c4 and depositing   
them in  horizontal layers1 have formed 
the parallel strata2 that it is the     
waters from heaven1 which by degrees    
destroy the effects of the sea1 by      
continually lowering the summit of      
mountains1 filling up vallies1 and      
stopping the mouths of gulphs and       
rivers1 and which1 by bringing all to  a
 level1 will1 in the course of time1    
return this earth to the sea1  which1 by
 its natural operations1 will again form
 new continents1  containing vallies and
 mountains exactly similar to those     
which we at  present inhabit4           
,,footnotes3    #be3;,a ,particularly   
,scotland and ,ireland4    #fe3;,a      
,these facts are so easily demonstrated1
 that the smallest  observation will    

prove their veracity4          ,,proof  
,,of    ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,the       
,,earth4          ,,article ,i4    ,,on 
,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,planets4 
,our subject being ,natural ,history1 we
 would willingly dispense with          
astronomical observations2 but as the   
nature of the earth is so closely       
connected with the heavenly bodies1 and 
such observations being  calculated to  
illustrate more fully what has been     
said1 it is necessary  to give some     
general ideas of the formation1 motion1 
figure of the earth  and other planets4 
,the earth is a globe of about three    
thousand leagues diameter2 it is        
situate one thousand millions of leagues
 from the sun1 around which it  makes   
its revolution in three hundred and     
sixty-five days4 ,this  revolution is   
the result of two forces2 the one may be
 considered as an  impulse from right to
 left1 or from left to right1 and the   
other an  attraction from above         
downwards1 or beneath upwards1 to a     

common centre4  ,the direction of these 
two forces1 and their quantities1 are so
 nicely  combined and proportioned1 that
 they produce an almost uniform motion  
in  an ellipse1 very near to a circle4  
,like the other planets the earth is    
opaque1 it throws out a shadow2 it      
receives and reflects the light of  the 
sun1 round which it revolves in a space 
of time proportioned to its  relative   
distance and density4 ,it also turns    
round its own axis once in  twenty-four 
hours1 and its axis is inclined #ff-a_/d
 degrees on the plane  of the orbit4    
,its figure is spheroidical1 the two    
axes of which differ  about #afjth part 
from each other1 and the smallest axis  
is that round  which the revolution is  
made4    ,these are the principal       
phenomena of the earth1 the result of   
discoveries made by means of geometry1  
astronomy1 and navigation4 ,we  shall   
not here enter into the detail of the   
proofs and observations by  which those 
facts have been ascertained1 but only   

make a few remarks to  clear up what is 
still doubtful1 and at the same time    
give our ideas  respecting the formation
 of the planets1 and the different      
changes thro'  which it is possible they
 have passed before they arrived at the 
state  we at present see them4    ,there
 have been so many systems and          
hypotheses framed upon the formation  of
 the terrestrial globe1 and the changes 
which it has undergone1 that  we may    
presume to add our conjectures to those 
who have written upon the  subject1     
especially as we mean to support them   
with a greater degree of  probability   
than has hitherto been done3 and we are 
the more inclined to  deliver our       
opinion upon this subject1 from the hope
 that we shall  enable the reader to    
pronounce on the difference between an  
hypothesis  drawn from possibilities1   
and a theory founded in facts2 between a
  system1 such as we are here about to  
present1 on the formation and  original 
state of the earth1 and a physical      

history of its real  condition1 which   
has been given in the preceding         
discourse4    ,galileo having found the 
laws of falling bodies1 and ,kepler     
having  observed that the area described
 by the principal planets in moving     
round the sun1 and those of the         
satellites round the planets to which   
they belong1 are proportionable to the  
time of their revolutions1 and  that    
such periods were also in proportion to 
the square roots of the  cubes of their 
distances from the sun1 or principal    
planets4 ,newton  found that the force  
which caused heavy bodies to fall on the
 surface of  the earth1 extended to the 
moon1 and retained it in its orbit2 that
 this  force diminished in the same     
proportion as the square of the distance
  increased1 and consequently that the  
moon is attracted by the earth2  that   
the earth and planets are attracted by  
the sun2 and that in general  all bodies
 which revolve round a centre1 and      
describe areas proportioned  to the     

times of their revolution1 are attracted
 towards that point4 ,this  power1 known
 by the name of ,,gravity1 is therefore 
diffused throughout  all matter2        
planets1 comets1 the sun1 the earth1 and
 all nature1 is  subject to its laws1   
and it serves as a basis to the general 
harmony  which reigns in the universe4  
,nothing is better proved in physics    
than  the actual existence of this power
 in every material substance4           
,observation has confirmed the effects  
of this power1 and geometrical          
calculations have determined the        
quantity and relations of it4    ,this  
general cause being known1 the effects  
would easily be deduced from  it1 if the
 action of the powers which produce it  
were not too  complicated4 ,a single    
moment's reflection upon the solar      
system will  fully demonstrate the      
difficulties that have attended this    
subject2 the  principal planets are     
attracted by the sun1 and the sun by the
 planets2  the satellites are also      

attracted by their principal planets1   
and each  planet attracts all the rest1 
and is attracted by them4 ,all these    
actions and reactions vary according to 
the quantities of matter and the        
distances1 and produce great            
inequalities and irregularities4 ,how is
 so  great a number of connections to be
 combined and estimated8 ,it appears    
almost impossible in such a crowd of    
objects to follow any particular  one2  
nevertheless those difficulties have    
been surmounted1 and  calculation has   
confirmed the suppositions of them1 each
 observation is  become a new           
demonstration1 and the systematic order 
of the universe is  laid open to the    
eyes of all those who can distinguish   
truth from error4    ,we feel some      
little stop1 by the force of impulsion  
remaining unknown2  but this1 however1  
does not by any means affect the general
 theory4 ,we  evidently see the force of
 attraction always draws the planets    
towards  the sun1 they would fall in a  

perpendicular line1 on that planet1 if  
they were not repelled by some other    
power that obliges them to move in  a   
straight line1 and which impulsive force
 would compel them to fly off  the      
tangents of their respective orbits1 if 
the force of attraction  ceased one     
moment4 ,the force of impulsion was     
certainly communicated to  the planets  
by the hand of the ,almighty1 when he   
gave motion to the  universe2 but we    
ought as much as possible to abstain in 
physics from  having recourse to        
supernatural causes2 and it appears that
 a probable  reason may be given for    
this impulsive force1 perfectly         
accordant with  the law of mechanics1   
and not by any means more astonishing   
than the  changes and revolutions which 
may and must happen in the universe4    
,the sphere of the sun's attraction does
 not confine itself to the orbs  of the 
planets1 but extends to a remote        
distance1 always decreasing in  the same
 ratio as the square of the distance    

increases2 it is  demonstrated that the 
comets which are lost to our sight1 in  
the regions  of the sky1 obey this      
power1 and by it their motions1 like    
that of the  planets1 are regulated4    
,all these stars1 whose tracts are so   
different1  move round the sun1 and     
describe areas proportioned to the time2
 the  planets in ellipses more or less  
approaching a circle1 and the comets in 
narrow ellipses of a great extent4      
,comets and planets move1 therefore1  by
 virtue of the force of attraction and  
impulsion1 which continually  acting at 
one time obliges them to describe these 
courses2 but it must  be remarked that  
comets pass over the solar system in all
 directions1  and that the inclinations 
of their orbits are very different1     
insomuch  that1 although subject like   
the planets to the force of attraction1 
they  have nothing in common with       
respect to their progressive or         
impulsive  motions1 but appear in this  
respect independent of each other3 the  

planets1 on the contrary1 move round the
 sun in the same direction1 and  almost 
in the same plane1 never exceeding      
#g-a_/b degrees of inclination  in their
 planes1 the most distant from their    
orbits4 ,this conformity of  position   
and direction in the motion of the      
planets1 necessarily implies  that their
 impulsive force has been communicated  
to them by one and the  same cause4     
,may it not be imagined1 with some      
degree of probability1 that a comet     
falling into the body of the sun1 will  
displace and separate some parts  from  
the surface1 and communicate to them a  
motion of impulsion1  insomuch that the 
planets may formerly have belonged to   
the body of the  sun1 and been detached 
therefrom by an impulsive force1 and    
which they  still preserve4    ,this    
supposition appears to be at least as   
well founded as the opinion  of         
,leibnitz1 who supposes that the earth  
and planets had formerly been  suns2 and
 his system1 of which an account will be

 given in the fifth  article1 would have
 been more comprehensive and more       
agreeable to  probability1 if he had    
raised himself to this idea4 ,we agree  
with him in  thinking that this effect  
was produced at the time when ,moses    
said that  ,god divided light from      
darkness2 for1 according to ,leibnitz1  
light was  divided from darkness when   
the planets were extinguished2 but in   
our  supposition there was a real       
physical separation1 since the opaque   
bodies of the planets were divided from 
the luminous matter which  composes the 
sun4    ,this idea of the cause of the  
impulsive force of the planets will be  
found much less objectionable1 when an  
estimation is made of the  analogies and
 degrees of probability1 by which it may
 be supported4 ,in  the first place1 the
 motion of the planets are in the same  
direction1  from ,west to ,east1 and    
therefore1 according to calculation1 it 
is  sixty-four to one that such would   
not have been the case1 if they had  not

 been indebted to the same cause for    
their impulsive forces4    ,this1       
probably1 will be considerably augmented
 by the second analogy1  viz4 that the  
inclination of the planes of the orbits 
do not exceed  #g-a_/b degrees2 for1 by 
comparing the spaces1 we shall find     
there is  twenty-four to one1 that two  
planets are found in their most distant 
places at the same time1 and            
consequently 1 or #g1fib1fbd to one1    
that all six would by chance be thus    
placed2 or1 what amounts to the  same1  
there is a great degree of probability  
that the planets have been  impressed   
with one common moving force1 and which 
has given them this  position4 ,but what
 can have bestowed this common impulsive
 motion1 but  the force and direction of
 the bodies by which it was originally  
communicated8 ,it may therefore be      
concluded1 with great probability1  that
 the planets received their impulsive   
motion by one single stroke4  ,this     
likelihood1 which is almost equivalent  

to a certainty1 being  established1 ,i  
seek to know what moving bodies could   
produce this  effect1 and ,i find       
nothing but comets capable of           
communicating a motion  to such vast    
bodies4    ,by examining the course of  
comets1 we shall be easily persuaded1   
that it  is almost necessary for some of
 them occasionally to fall into the sun4
  ,that of #afhj approached so near1    
that at its perihelium it was not more  
distant from the sun than a sixteenth   
part of its diameter1 and if it         
returns1 as there is every appearance it
 will1 in #bbee1 it may then  possibly  
fall into the sun2 that must depend on  
the rencounters it will  meet with in   
its road1 and of the retardment it      
suffers in passing  through the         
atmosphere of the sun#gh3;,a4    ,we    
may1 therefore1 presume with the great  
,newton1 that comets sometimes  fall    
into the sun2 but this fall may be made 
in different directions4 ,if  they fall 
perpendicular1 or in a direction not    

very oblique1 they will  remain in the  
sun1 and serve for food to the fire     
which that luminary  consumes1 and the  
motion of impulsion which they will have
 communicated  to the sun1 will produce 
no other effect than that of removing it
 more  or less1 according as the mass of
 the comet will be more or less         
considerable2 but if the fall of the    
comet is in a very oblique  direction1  
which will most frequently happen1 then 
the comet will only  graze the surface  
of the sun1 or slightly furrow it2 and  
in this case it  may drive out some     
parts of matter to which it will        
communicate a common  motion of         
impulsion1 and these parts so forced out
 of the body of the  sun1 and even the  
comet itself1 may then become planets1  
and turn round  this luminary in the    
same direction1 and in almost the same  
plane4 ,we  might perhaps calculate what
 quantity of matter1 velocity1 and      
direction  a comet should have1 to impel
 from the sun an equal quantity of      

matter  to that which the six planets   
and their satellites contain2 but it    
will  be sufficient to observe here1    
that all the planets1 with their        
satellites1 do not make the #fejth part 
of the mass of the sun1#gi3;,a  because 
the density of the large planets1       
,saturn and ,jupiter1 is less  than that
 of the sun2 and although the earth be  
four times1 and the moon  near five     
times more dense than the sun1 they are 
nevertheless but as  atoms in comparison
 with his extensive body4    ,however   
inconsiderable the #fejth part may be1  
yet it certainly at first  appears to   
require a very powerful comet to        
separate even that much  from the body  
of the sun2 but if we reflect on the    
prodigious velocity  of comets in their 
perihelion1 a velocity so much the      
greater as they  approach nearer the    
sun2 if1 besides1 we pay attention to   
the density  and solidity of the matter 
of which they must be composed1 to      
suffer1  without being destroyed1 the   

inconceivable heat they endure2 and     
consider the bright and solid light     
which shines through their dark and     
immense atmospheres1 which surround1 and
 must obscure them1 it cannot be        
doubted that the comets are composed of 
extremely solid and dense  matters1 and 
that they contain a greater quantity of 
matter in a small  compass2 that        
consequently a comet of no extraordinary
 bulk may have  sufficient weight and   
velocity to displace the sun1 and give a
  projectile motion to a quantity of    
matter1 equal to the #fejth part of  the
 mass of this luminary4 ,this perfectly 
agrees with what is known  concerning   
the density of planets1 which always    
decreases as their  distance from the   
sun is increased1 they having less heat 
to support2 so  that ,saturn is less    
dense than ,jupiter1 and ,jupiter much  
less than the  earth2 therefore if the  
density of the planets be1 as ,newton   
asserts1  proportionable to the quantity
 of heat which they have to support1    

,mercury will be seven times more dense 
than the earth1 and twenty-eight  times 
denser than the sun2 and the comet of   
#afhj would be #bh1jjj times  denser    
than the earth1 or #aab1jjj times denser
 than the sun1 and by  supposing it as  
large as the earth1 it would contain    
nearly an equal  quantity of matter to  
the ninth part of the sun1 or by giving 
it only  the #ajjth part of the size of 
the earth1 its mass would still be equal
  to the #ijjth part of the sun4 ,from  
whence it is easy to conclude1 that     
such a body1 though it would be but a   
small comet1 might separate and  drive  
off from the sun a #ijjth or a #fejth   
part1 particularly if we  attend to the 
immense velocity with which comets move 
when they pass in  the vicinity of the  
sun4    ,besides this1 the conformity   
between the density of the matter of the
  planets1 that of the sun deserves some
 attention4 ,it is well known1  that1   
both on and near the surface of the     
earth1 there are some matters  #ad or   

#aejj times denser than others4 ,the    
densities of gold and air are  nearly in
 this relation4 ,but the internal parts 
of the earth and planets  are composed  
of a more uniform matter1 whose         
comparative density varies  much less2  
and the conformity in the density of the
 planets and that of  the sun is such1  
that of #fej parts which compose the    
whole of the matter  of the planets1    
there are more than #fdj of the same    
density as the  matter of the sun1 and  
only ten parts out of these #fej which  
are of a  greater density1 for ,saturn  
and ,jupiter are nearly of the same     
density  as the sun1 and the quantity of
 matter which these planets contain1 is 
at least #fd times greater than that of 
the four inferior planets1 ,mars1  the  
,earth1 ,venus1 and ,mercury4 ,we must  
therefore admit1 that the matter  of    
which the planets are generally composed
 is nearly the same as that  of the sun1
 and that consequently the one may have 
been separated from  the other4    ,but 

it may be said1 if the comet1 by falling
 obliquely on the sun1 drove  off the   
matter which compose the planets1 they1 
instead of describing  circles of which 
the sun is the centre1 would1 on the    
contrary1 at each  revolution1 have     
returned to the same point from whence  
they departed1  as every projectile     
would which might be thrown off with    
sufficient  force from the surface of   
the earth1 to oblige it to turn         
perpetually3  for it is easy to         
demonstrate that such1 in that instance1
 would be the  case1 and therefore that 
the projection of the planets from the  
sun  cannot be attributed to the        
impulsion of a comet4    ,to this ,i    
reply1 that the matter which composes   
the planets did not come  from the sun1 
in ready formed globes1 but in the form 
of torrents1 the  motion of the anterior
 parts of which were accelerated by that
 of the  posterior2 and that the        
attraction of the anterior parts also   
accelerated the motion of the posterior1

 and that this acceleration  produced by
 one or other of these causes1 or       
perhaps by both1 might be  so great as  
to change the original direction of the 
motion occasioned by  the impulse of the
 comet1 from which cause a motion has   
resulted1 such  as we at present observe
 in the planets2 especially when it is  
considered the sun is displaced from its
 station by the shock of the  comet4 ,an
 example will render this more          
reasonable2 let us suppose1 that  from  
the top of a mountain a musket ball is  
discharged1 and that the  strength of   
the powder was sufficient to send it    
beyond the  semi-diameter of the earth1 
it is certain that this ball would pass 
round the earth1 and at each revolution 
return to the spot from whence  it had  
been discharged3 but1 if instead of a   
musket-ball1 we suppose a  rocket had   
been discharged1 wherein the action of  
the fire being  durable1 would greatly  
accelerate the motion of impulsion2 this
 rocket1  or rather the cartouch which  

contained it1 would not return to the   
same  place like the musket-ball1 but   
would describe an orbit1 whose perigee  
would be much farther distant from the  
earth1 as the force of  acceleration    
would be greater1 and have changed the  
first direction4    ,thus1 provided     
there had been any acceleration in the  
motion of  impulsion communicated to the
 torrent of matter by the fall of the   
comet1 it is probable that the planets  
formed in this torrent1 acquired  the   
motion which we know they have in the   
circles and ellipsis of which  the sun  
is the centre and focus4    ,the manner 
in which the great eruptions of volcanos
 are made1 may afford  us an idea of    
this acceleration of motion4 ,it has    
been remarked that  when ,vesuvius      
begins to roar and eject the inflamed   
matter it contains1  the first cloud has
 but a small degree of velocity1 but    
which is soon  accelerated by the       
impulse of the second2 the second by the
 action of a  third1 and so on1 until   

the heavy mass of bitumen1 sulphur1     
cinders1  melted metal1 and huge stones1
 appear like massive clouds1 and        
although  they succeed each other nearly
 in the same directions1 yet they       
greatly  change that of the first1 and  
drive it far beyond what it would have  
reached of itself4    ,in answer to this
 objection1 it may be further observed1 
that the sun  having been struck by the 
comet1 received a degree of motion by   
the  impulse1 which displaced it from   
its former situation2 and that although 
this motion of the sun is at present too
 little sensible for the notice  of     
astronomers1 nevertheless it may still  
exist1 and the sun describe a  curve    
round the centre of gravity of the whole
 system and if this is so1  as ,i       
presume it is1 we see perfectly that the
 planets1 instead of  returning near the
 sun at each revolution1 will1 on the   
contrary1 have  described orbits1 the   
points of the perihelion of which will  
be as far  distant from the sun1 as it  

is itself from the place it originally  
occupied4    ,it may also be said1 that 
if this acceleration of motion is made  
in the  same direction1 no change in the
 perihelion will be produced3 but can it
  be thought that in a torrent1 the     
particles of which succeed each other1  
there has been no change of direction2  
it is1 on the contrary1 very  probable  
that a considerable change did take     
place1 sufficient to cause  the planets 
to move in the course they at present   
occupy4    ,it may be further urged1    
that if the sun had been displaced by   
the shock  of a comet1 it would move    
uniformly1 and that hence this motion   
being  common to the whole system1 no   
alteration was necessary2 but might not 
the sun before the shock have had a     
motion round the centre of the  cometry 
system1 to which primitive motion the   
stroke of the comet may  have added or  
diminished8 and would not that fully    
account for the  actual motion of the   
planets8    ,if these suppositions are  

not admitted1 may it not be presumed1   
that in  the stroke of the comet against
 the sun1 there was an elastic force    
which raised the torrent above the      
surface of the sun1 instead of  directly
 impelling it8 which alone would be     
sufficient to remove the  perihelion1   
and give the planets the motion they    
have retained4 ,this  supposition is not
 without probability1 for the matter of 
the sun may  possibly be very elastic1  
since light1 the only part of it we are 
acquainted with1 seems1 by its effects1 
to be perfectly so4 ,i own that  ,i     
cannot say whether it is by the one or  
the other of these reasons1  that the   
direction of the first motion of the    
impulse of the planets has  changed1 but
 they suffice to shew that such an      
alteration is not only  possible but    
even probable1 and that is sufficient   
for my purpose4    ,but1 without        
dwelling any longer on the objections   
which might be made1  ,i shall pursue   
the subject1 and draw the fair          

conclusions on the proofs  which        
analogies might furnish in favour of my 
hypothesis3 let us1  therefore1 first   
see what might happen when these        
planets1 and  particularly the earth1   
received their impulsive motion1 and in 
what  state they were after having been 
separated from the sun4 ,the comet      
having1 by a single stroke1 communicated
 a projectile motion to a  quantity of  
matter equal to the #fejth part of the  
sun's mass1 the light  particles would  
of course separate from the dense1 and  
form1 by their  mutual attraction1      
globes of different densities3 ,saturn  
being composed  of the most gross and   
light parts1 would be the most remote   
from the  sun3 ,jupiter being more dense
 than ,saturn1 would be less distant1   
and so  on4 ,the larger and least solid 
planets are the most remote1 because    
they received an impulsive motion       
stronger than the smallest1 and more    
dense3 for1 the force of impulsion      
communicating itself according to the   

surface1 the same stroke would have     
moved the grosser and lighter parts  of 
the matter of the sun with more velocity
 than the smallest and more  weighty2 a 
separation therefore will be made of the
 dense parts of  different degrees1 so  
that the density of the sun being equal 
to #ajj1  that of ,saturn will be equal 
to #fg1 that of ,jupiter to #id-a_/b1   
that of  ,mars to #bjj1 that of the     
,earth to #djj1 that of ,venus to #hjj1 
and that of  ,mercury to #bhjj4 ,but the
 force of attraction not communicating  
like that  of impulsion1 according to   
the surface1 but acting on the contrary 
on  all parts of the mass1 it will have 
checked the densest portions of  matter2
 and it is for this reason that the     
densest planets are the  nighest the    
sun1 and turn round that planet with    
greater rapidity than  the less dense   
planets1 which are also the most remote4
    ,jupiter and ,saturn1 which are the 
largest and principal planets of the    
solar system1 have retained the relation

 between their density and  impulsive   
motions1 in the most exact proportions2 
the density of ,saturn  is to that of   
,jupiter as #fg to #id-a_/b and their   
velocities are nearly  as #hh-b_/c to   
#abj-a_/gb1 or as #fg to #ij-aa_/af2 it 
is seldom that pure  conjectures can    
draw such exact relations4 ,it is true1 
that by following  this relation between
 the velocity and density of planets1   
the density  of the earth ought to be   
only as #bjf-g_/ah1 and not #djj1 which 
is its  real density2 from hence it may 
be conceived1 that our globe was        
formerly less dense than it is at       
present4 ,with respect to the other     
planets1 ,mars1 ,venus1 and ,mercury1 as
 their densities are known only by      
conjecture1 we cannot be certain whether
 this circumstance will destroy  or     
confirm our hypothesis4 ,the opinion of 
,newton is1 that density is so  much the
 greater1 as the heat to which the      
planet is exposed is the  stronger2 and 
it is on this idea that we have just    

said that ,mars is one  time less dense 
than the ,earth1 ,venus one time1       
,mercury seven times1 and  the comet in 
#afhj1 #bh1jjj times denser than the    
earth3 but this  proportion between the 
density of the planets and the heat     
which they  sustain1 seems not well     
founded1 when we consider ,saturn and   
,jupiter1  which are the principal      
objects2 for1 according to this relation
 between  the density and heat1 the     
density of ,saturn would be about       
#d-g_/ah1 and  that of ,jupiter as      
#ad-ag_/bb1 instead of #fg and #id-a_/b1
 a difference too  great to be admitted1
 and must destroy the principles upon   
which it was  founded4 ,thus1           
notwithstanding the confidence which the
 conjectures of  ,newton merit1 ,i can  
but think that the density of the       
planets has more  relation with their   
velocity than with the degree of heat to
 which they  are exposed4 ,this is only 
a final cause1 and the other a physical 
relation1 the preciseness of which is   

remarkable in ,jupiter and ,saturn3  it 
is nevertheless true1 that the density  
of the earth1 instead of being          
#bjf-g_/h1 is found to be #djj1 and that
 consequently the terrestrial globe     
must be condensed in this ratio of      
#bjf-g_/h to #djj4    ,but have not the 
condensations of the planets some       
relation with the  quantity of the heat 
of the sun which they sustain8 ,if so1  
,saturn1 which  is the most distant from
 that luminary1 will have suffered      
little or no  condensation2 and ,jupiter
 will be condensed from #ij-aa_/af to   
#id-a_/b4 ,now  the heat of the sun in  
,jupiter being to that of the sun upon  
the earth  as #ad-ag_/bb are to #djj1   
the condensations ought to be in the    
same  proportion4 ,for instance1 if     
,jupiter be condensed1 as #ij-aa_/af to 
#id-a_/b1 and the earth had been placed 
in his orbit1 it would have been        
condensed from #bjf-g_/h to             
#bae-iij_/adea1 but the earth being     
nearer the  sun1 and receiving a heat1  

whose relation to that which ,jupiter   
receives  is from #djj to #ad-ag_/bb1   
the quantity of condensation it would   
have  experienced on the orbit of       
,jupiter by the proportion of #djj to   
#ad-ag_/bb1 which gives nearly #bcd-a_/c
 for the quantity which the earth  would
 be condensed4 ,its density was         
#bjf-g_/h1 by adding the quantity of    
its acquired condensation1 we find      
#djj-g_/h for its actual density1 which 
nearly approaches the real density #djj1
 determined to be so by the  parallax of
 the moon4 ,as to other planets1 ,i do  
not here pretend to give  exact         
proportions1 but only approximations1 to
 point out that their  densities have a 
strong relation to their velocity in    
their respective  orbits4    ,the comet1
 therefore1 by its oblique fall upon the
 surface of the sun1  having driven     
therefrom a quantity of matter equal to 
the #fejth part of  its whole mass2 this
 matter1 which must be considered in a  
liquid state1  will at first have formed

 a torrent1 the grosser and less dense  
parts of  which will have been driven   
the farthest1 and the smaller and more  
dense1 having received only the like    
impulsion1 will remain nearest its      
source2 the force of the sun's          
attraction would inevitably act upon all
  the parts detached from him1 and      
constrain them to circulate around his  
body1 and at the same time the mutual   
attraction of the particles of  matter  
would form themselves into globes at    
different distances from the  sun1 the  
nearest of which necessarily moving with
 greater rapidity in  their orbits than 
those at a distance4    ,but another    
objection may be started1 and it may be 
said1 if the matter  which composes the 
planets had been separated from the sun1
 they1 like  him1 would have been       
burning and luminous bodies1 not cold   
and opaque1  for nothing resembles a    
globe of fire less than a globe of earth
 and  water2 and by comparison1 the     
matter of the earth and planets is      

perfectly different from that of the    
sun8    ,to this it may be answered1    
that in the separation the matter       
changed  its form1 and the light or fire
 was extinguished by the stroke which   
caused this motion of impulsion4        
,besides1 may it not be supposed that if
  the sun1 or a burning star1 moved with
 such velocity as the planet1 that  the 
fire would soon be extinguished2 and    
that is the reason why all  luminous    
stars are fixed1 and that those stars   
which are called new1 and  which have   
probably changed places1 are frequently 
extinguished and  lost8 ,this remark is 
somewhat confirmed by what has been     
observed in  comets2 they must burn to  
the centre when they pass to their      
perihelium3  nevertheless they do not   
become luminous themselves1 they only   
exhale  burning vapours1 of which they  
leave a considerable part behind them in
  their course4    ,i own1 that in a    
medium where there is very little or no 
resistance1  fire may subsist and suffer

 a very great motion without being      
extinguished3 ,i also own1 that what ,i 
have just said extends only to the      
stars which totally disappear1 and not  
to those which have periodical  returns1
 and appear and disappear alternately   
without changing place in  the heavens4 
,the phenomena of these stars has been  
explained in a very  satisfactory manner
 by ,m4 de ,maupertuis1 in his discourse
 on the figures  of the planets4 ,but   
the stars which appear and afterwards   
disappear  entirely1 must certainly have
 been extinguished1 either by the       
velocity  of their motion1 or some other
 cause4 ,we have not a single example of
  one luminous star revolving round     
another2 and among the number of        
planets which compose our system1 and   
which move round the sun with  more or  
less rapidity1 there is not one luminous
 of itself4    ,it may also be added1   
that fire cannot subsist so long in the 
small as  in large masses1 and that the 
planets must have burnt for some time   

after they were separated from the sun1 
but were at length extinguished  for    
want of combustible matter1 as probably 
would be the sun itself1 and  for the   
same reason2 but in a length of time as 
far beyond that which  extinguished the 
planets1 as it exceeds in quantity of   
matter4 ,be this  as it may1 the matter 
of which the planets are formed being   
separated  from the sun1 by the stroke  
of a comet1 that appears a sufficient   
reason  for the extinction of their     
fires4    ,the earth and planets at the 
time of their quitting the sun1 were in 
a  state of total liquid fire2 in this  
state they remained only as long as  the
 violence of the heat which had produced
 it2 and which heat  necessarily        
underwent a gradual decay3 it was in    
this state of fluidity  that they took  
their circular forms1 and that their    
regular motions  raised the parts of    
their equators1 and lowered their poles4
 ,this  figure1 which agrees so         
perfectly with the laws of hydrostatics1

 ,i am of  opinion with ,leibnitz1      
necessarily supposes that the earth and 
planets  have been in a state of        
fluidity1 caused by fire1 and that the  
internal  part of the earth must be a   
vitrifiable matter1 of which sand1      
granite1  c4 are the fragments and      
scoria4    ,it may1 therefore1 with some
 probability1 be thought that the       
planets  appertained to the sun1 that   
they were separated by a single stroke1 
which gave to them a motion of          
impulsion1 and that their position at   
different distances from the sun        
proceeds only from their different      
densities4 ,it now only remains1 to     
complete this theory1 to explain the    
diurnal motion of the planets1 and the  
formation or the satellites2 but  this1 
far from adding difficulties to my      
hypothesis1 seems1 on the  contrary1 to 
confirm it4    ,for the diurnal motion1 
or rotation1 depends solely on the      
obliquity of  the stroke1 an oblique    
impulse therefore on the surface of a   

body will  necessarily give it a        
rotative motion2 this motion will be    
equal and  always the same1 if the body 
which receives it is homogeneous1 and it
  will be unequal if the body is        
composed of heterogeneous parts1 or of  
different densities2 hence we may       
conclude that in all the planets the    
matter is homogeneous1 since their      
diurnal motions are equal1 and          
regularly performed in the same period  
of time4 ,another proof that the        
separation of the dense or less dense   
parts were originally from the  sun4    
,but the obliquity of the stroke might  
be such1 as to separate from the  body  
of the principal planet a small part of 
matter1 which would of  course continue 
to move in the same direction2 these    
parts would be  united1 according to    
their densities1 at different distances 
from the  planet1 by the force of their 
mutual attraction1 and at the same time 
follow its course round the sun1 by     
revolving about the body of the  planet1

 nearly in the plane of its orbit4 ,it  
is plain1 that those small  parts so    
separated are the satellites3 thus the  
formation1 position1 and  direction of  
the motions of the satellites perfectly 
agree with our  theory2 for they have   
all the same motion in concentrical     
circles round  their principal planet2  
their motion is in the same direction1  
and that  nearly in the plane of their  
orbits4 ,all these effects1 which are   
common  to them1 and which depend on an 
impulsive force1 can proceed only from  
one common cause1 which is1 impulsive   
motion1 communicated to them by  one and
 the same oblique stroke4    ,what we   
have just said on the cause of the      
motion and formation of the  satellites1
 will acquire more probability1 if we   
consider all the  circumstances of the  
phenomena4 ,the planets which turn the  
swiftest on  their axis1 are those which
 have satellites4 ,the earth turns      
quicker  than ,mars in the relation of  
about #bd to #ae2 the earth has a       

satellite1  but ,mars has none4         
,jupiter1 whose rapidity round its axis 
is five to six  hundred times greater   
than that of the earth1 has four        
satellites1 and  there is a great       
appearance that ,saturn1 which has five1
 and a ring1  turns still more quickly  
than ,jupiter4    ,it may even be       
conjectured with some foundation1 that  
the ring of ,saturn  is parallel to the 
equator of the planet1 so that the plane
 of the  equator of the ring1 and that  
of ,saturn1 are nearly the same2 for by 
supposing1 according to the preceding   
theory1 that the obliquity of the       
stroke by which ,saturn has been set in 
motion was very great1 the  velocity    
around the axis will1 at first1 have    
been in proportion as the  centrifugal  
force exceeds that of gravity1 and there
 will be detached  from its equator and 
neighbouring parts1 a considerable      
quantity of  matter1 which will         
necessarily have taken the figure of a  
ring1 whose  plane must be nearly the   

same as that of the equator of the      
planet2 and  this quantity of matter    
having been detached from the vicinity  
of the  equator of ,saturn1 must have   
lowered the equator of that planet1     
which  causes that1 notwithstanding its 
rapidity1 the diameters of ,saturn      
cannot be so unequal as those of        
,jupiter1 which differ from each other  
more than an eleventh part4    ,however 
great the probability of what ,i have   
advanced on the formation  of the       
planets and their satellites may appear 
to me1 yet1 every man has  his          
particular measurement1 to estimate     
probabilities of this nature2  and as   
this measurement depends on the strength
 of the understanding to  combine more  
or less distant relations1 ,i do not    
pretend to convince the  incredulous4 ,i
 have not only thought it my duty to    
offer these ideas1  because they appear 
to me reasonable1 and calculated to     
clear up a  subject1 on which1 however  
important1 nothing has hitherto been    

written1  but because the impulsive     
motion in the planets enter at least as 
one  half of the composition of the     
universe1 which gravity alone cannot    
unfold4 ,i shall only add the following 
questions to those who are  inclined to 
deny the possibility of my system4      
#a4 ,is it not natural to imagine1 that 
a body in motion has received that      
motion by the stroke of another body8   
#b4 ,is it not very probable1 that when 
many bodies move in the same  direction1
 that they have received this direction 
by one single stroke1  or by many       
strokes directed in the same manner8    
#c4 ,is it not more probable that when  
many bodies have the same direction  in 
their motion1 and are placed in the same
 plane1 that they received  this        
direction and this position by one and  
the same stroke1 rather than  by a      
number8    #d4 ,at the time a body is   
put in motion by the force of impulsion1
 is it  not probable that it receives it
 obliquely1 and1 consequently1 is       

obliged to turn on its axis so much the 
quicker1 as the obliquity of the  stroke
 will have been greater8 ,if these      
questions should not appear             
unreasonable1 the theory1 of which we   
have presented the outlines1 will  cease
 to appear an absurdity4    ,let us now 
pass on to something which more nearly  
concerns us1 and  examine the figure of 
the earth1 on which so many researches  
and such  great observations have been  
made4 ,the earth being1 as it appears by
 the  equality of its diurnal motion and
 the constancy of the inclination of    
its axis1 composed of homogeneous parts1
 which attract each other in  proportion
 to their quantity of matter1 it would  
necessarily have taken  the figure of a 
globe perfectly spherical1 if the motion
 of impulsation  had been given it in a 
perpendicular direction to the surface2 
but this  stroke having been obliquely  
given1 the earth turned on its axis at  
the  moment it took its form2 and from  
the combination of this impulsive       

force1 the attraction of the parts1     
there has resulted a spheroid  figure1  
more elevated under the great circle of 
rotation1 and lower at  the two         
extremities of the axis1 and this       
because the action of the  centrifugal  
force proceeding from the diurnal       
rotation must diminish the  action of   
gravity4 ,thus1 the earth being         
homogeneous1 and having  received a     
rotative motion1 necessarily took a     
spheroidical figure1 the  two axes of   
which differ a #bcjth part from each    
other4 ,this may be  clearly            
demonstrated1 and does not depend on any
 hypothesis whatever4  ,the laws of     
gravity are perfectly known1 and we     
cannot doubt that  bodies attract each  
other in a direct ratio of their masses1
 and in an  inverted ratio1 at the      
squares of their distances2 so likewise 
we cannot  doubt1 that the general      
action of any body is not composed of   
all the  particular actions of its      
parts4 ,thus each part of matter        

mutually  attracts in a direct ratio of 
its mass and an inverted ratio of its   
distance1 and from all these attractions
 there results a sphere when  there is  
no rotatory motion1 and a spheroid when 
there is one4 ,this  spheroid is longer 
or shorter at the two extremities of the
 axis of  rotation1 in proportion to the
 velocity of its diurnal motion1 and the
  earth has then1 by virtue of its      
rotative velocity1 and of the mutual    
attraction of all its parts1 the figure 
of a spheroid1 the two axes of  which   
are as #bbi to #bcj to one another4     
,thus1 by its original constituent1 by  
its homogeneousness1 and  independent of
 every hypothesis from the direction of 
gravity1 the earth  has taken this      
figure of a spheroid at its formation1  
and agreeable to  mechanical laws3 its  
equatorial diameter was raised about    
#f-a_/b leagues  higher than under the  
poles4    ,i shall dwell on this        
article1 because there are still        
geometricians who  think that the figure

 of the earth depends upon theory1 and  
this from a  system of philosophy they  
have embraced1 and from a supposed      
direction  of gravity4 ,the first thing 
we have to demonstrate is1 the mutual   
attraction of every part of matter1 and 
the second the homogeneousness  of the  
terrestrial globe2 if we clearly prove1 
that these two  circumstances are really
 so1 there will no longer be any        
hypothesis to  be made on the direction 
of gravity3 the earth will necessarily  
have the  figure ,newton decided in     
favour of1 and every other figure given 
to it  by virtue of vortexes or other   
hypotheses1 will not be able to subsist4
    ,it cannot be doubted1 that it is   
the force of gravity which retains the  
planets in their orbits2 the satellites 
of ,saturn gravitate towards  ,saturn1  
those of ,jupiter towards ,jupiter1 the 
,moon gravitates towards  the ,earth3   
and ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 the       
,earth1 ,venus1 and ,mercury1  gravitate
 towards the ,sun3 so likewise ,saturn  

and ,jupiter gravitate  towards their   
satellites1 the ,earth gravitates       
towards the ,moon1 and the  ,sun towards
 the whole of the planets4 ,gravitation 
is therefore general  and mutual in all 
the planetary system1 for action cannot 
be exercised  without a re-action2 all  
the planets1 therefore1 act mutually one
 on the  other4 ,this mutual attraction 
serves as a foundation to the laws of   
their motion1 and is demonstrated to    
exist by its effects4 ,when ,saturn  and
 ,jupiter are in conjunction1 they act  
one on the other1 and this  attraction  
produces an irregularity in their motion
 round the ,sun4 ,it is  the same with  
the ,earth and the ,moon1 they also     
mutually attract each  other2 but the   
irregularities of the motion of the     
,moon1 proceeds from  the attraction of 
the ,sun1 so that the ,earth1 the ,sun1 
and the ,moon1  mutually act one on the 
other4 ,now this mutual attraction of   
the  planets1 when the distances are    
equal1 is proportional to their quantity

  of matter1 and the same force of      
gravity which causes heavy matter to    
fall on the surface of the ,earth1 and  
which extends to the ,moon1 is also     
proportional to the quantity of matter2 
therefore the total gravity of a  planet
 is composed of the gravity of each of  
its parts2 from whence all  the parts of
 the matter1 either in the ,earth or in 
the planets1 mutually  attract each     
other and the ,earth1 by its rotation   
round its own axis1  has necessarily    
taken the figure of a spheroid1 the axes
 of which are as  #bbi to #bcj4 ,the    
direction of the weight must be         
perpendicular to the  ,earth's surface2 
consequently no hypothesis1 drawn from  
the direction of  gravity1 can be       
sustained1 unless the general attraction
 of the parts of  matter be denied2 but 
the existence of this mutual attraction 
is  demonstrated by observations1 and   
the experiment of pendulums prove1  that
 its extension is general2 therefore we 
cannot support an hypothesis  on the    

direction of gravity without going      
against experience and reason4    ,let  
us now proceed to examine whether the   
matter of which the  terrestrial globe  
is composed be homogeneous4 ,i admit1   
that if it is  supposed the globe is    
more dense in some parts than in others1
 the  direction of gravity must be      
different from what we have just        
assigned1  and that the figure of the   
,earth would also differ agreeable to   
those  suppositions4 ,but what reason   
have we to make these suppositions8     
,why1  for example1 should we suppose   
that the parts near the centre are      
denser  than those which are more       
remote8 ,are not all the particles which
  compose the globe collected together  
by their mutual attraction8 hence1  each
 particle is a centre1 and there is no  
reason to believe1 that the  parts which
 surround the centre are denser than    
those which are about  any other point4 
,besides1 if one considerable part of   
the globe was  denser than another1 the 

axis of rotation would be found near the
 dense  parts1 and an inequality would  
ensue in the diurnal revolution2 we     
should remark an inequality in the      
apparent motion of the fixed stars2     
they would appear to move more quick or 
slow in the zenith1 or horizon1         
according as we should be placed on the 
denser or lighter parts of the  earth2  
and the axis of the globe no longer     
passing through the centre of  gravity1 
would also very sensibly change its     
position3 but nothing like  this ever   
happens2 on the contrary1 the diurnal   
motion of the earth is  equal and       
uniform4 ,at all parts of the ,earth's  
surface1 the stars appear  to move with 
the same velocity at all heights1 and if
 there be any  rotation in its axis1 it 
is so trifling as to have escaped       
observation3  it must therefore be      
concluded1 that the globe is            
homogeneous1 or nearly  so in all its   
parts4    ,if the earth was a hollow and
 void globe1 and the crust of which1 for

  example1 not more than two or three   
miles thick2 it would produce these     
effects4 #a4 ,the mountains would be    
such considerable parts of the whole    
thickness of the crust1 that great      
irregularities in the motions of the    
,earth would be occasioned by the       
attraction of the ,moon and ,sun3 for   
when the highest parts of the globe1 as 
the ,cordeliers1 should have the  ,moon 
at noon1 the attraction would be much   
stronger on the whole globe  than when  
she was in the meridian of the lowest   
parts4 #b4 ,the attraction  of mountains
 would be much more considerable than it
 is in comparison  with the attraction  
of the whole globe1 and experiments made
 at the  mountain of ,chimboraco1 in    
,peru1 would in this case give more     
degrees  than they have given seconds   
for the deviation of the plumb line4 #c4
 ,the  weight of bodies would be greater
 on the tops of high mountains than on  
the planes2 so that we should feel      
ourselves considerably heavier1 and     

should walk with more difficulty in high
 than in low places4 ,these             
observations1 with many others that     
might be added1 must convince us1  that 
the inner parts of the globe is not     
void1 but filled with a dense  matter4  
,on the other hand1 if below the depth  
of two or three miles1 the earth  was   
filled with a matter much more dense    
than any known1 it would  necessarily   
occur1 that every time we descended to  
moderate depths1 we  should weigh much  
more1 and the motion of pendulums would 
be more  accelerated than in fact they  
are when carried from an eminence into a
  plain3 thus1 we may presume that the  
internal part of the ,earth is  filled  
with a matter nearly similar to that    
which composes its surface4  ,what may  
complete our determination in favour of 
this opinion is1 that  in the first     
formation of the globe1 when it took its
 present  spheroidical figure1 the      
matter which composed it was in fusion1 
and1  consequently1 all its parts were  

homogeneous1 and nearly equally dense4  
,from that time the matter on the       
surface1 although originally the same   
with the interior1 has undergone a      
variety of changes by external  causes1 
which has produced materials of such    
different densities2 but it  must be    
remarked1 that the densest matters1 as  
gold and metals1 are also  those the    
most seldom to be met with1 and         
consequently the greatest part  of the  
matter at the surface of the globe has  
not undergone any very  great changes   
with relation to its density2 the most  
common materials1  as sand and clay1    
differ very little1 insomuch1 that we   
may conjecture1  with great probability1
 that the internal part of the earth is 
composed  of a vitrified matter1 the    
density of which is nearly the same as  
that  of sand1 and that consequently the
 terrestrial globe in general may be    
regarded as homogeneous4                
,notwithstanding this1 it may be urged1 
that although the globe was  composed of

 concentrical strata of different       
densities1 the diurnal  motion might be 
equally certain1 and the uniform        
inclination of the axis  as constant and
 undisturbed as it could be1 on the     
supposition of its  being composed of   
homogeneous matter4 ,i acknowledge it1  
but ,i ask at the  same time1 if there  
is any reason to believe that strata of 
different  densities do exist8 ,if these
 conclusions be not rather a desire to  
adjust the works of ,nature to our own  
ideas8 ,and whether in physics we  ought
 to admit suppositions which are not    
founded on observations or  analogy8    
,it appears1 therefore1 that the earth1 
by virtue of the mutual  attraction of  
its parts and its diurnal motion1       
assumed the figure of a  spheroid2 that 
it necessarily took that form from being
 in a state of  fluidity2 that1         
agreeable to the laws of gravity and of 
a centrifugal  force1 it could have no  
other figure3 that in the moment of its 
formation as at present1 there was a    

difference between the two  diameters   
equal to a #bcjth part1 and that1       
consequently1 every  hypothesis in which
 we find greater or less difference are 
fictions  which merit no attention4     
,but it may be said1 if this theory is  
true1 and if #bbi to #bcj is the  just  
relation of the axis1 why did the       
mathematicians1 sent to ,lapland  and   
,peru1 agree to the relation of #agd to 
#age8 ,from whence does this  difference
 arise between theory and practice8 ,and
 is it not more  reasonable to give the 
preference to practice and measures1    
especially  when we have been taken by  
the most able mathematicians of         
,europe#aji3;,a1 and with all necessary 
apparatus to establish the result4      
,to this ,i answer1 that ,i have paid   
attention to the observations made at   
the equator and near the polar circle2  
that ,i have no doubt of their  being   
exact1 and that the earth may possibly  
be elevated an #ageth part  more at the 
equator than at the poles4 ,but1 at the 

same time1 ,i maintain  my theory1 and  
,i see clearly how the two conclusions  
may be reconciled4  ,this difference is 
about four leagues in the two axes1 so  
that the parts  at the equator are      
raised two leagues more than they ought 
to be1  according to my theory2 this    
height answers exactly to the greatest  
inequalities on the surface of the      
globe1 produced by the motion of the    
sea1 and the action of the fluids4 ,i   
will explain2 it appears that when  the 
earth was formed1 it must necessarily   
have taken1 by virtue of the  mutual    
attraction of its parts1 and the action 
of the centrifugal force1  a            
spheroidical figure1 the axes of which  
differ a #bcjth part3 the  original     
earth must have had this figure1 which  
it took when it was  fluid1 or rather   
liquified by the fire2 but after its    
formation the  vapours which were       
extended and rarefied1 as in the        
atmosphere and tail  of a comet1 became 
condensed1 and fell on the surface in   

form of air and  water3 and when these  
waters became agitated by the flux and  
reflux1 the  matters were1 by degrees1  
carried from the poles towards the      
equatorial  parts2 so that the poles    
were lowered about a league1 and those  
of the  equator raised in the same      
proportion2 this was not suddenly done1 
but  by degrees in succession of time2  
the earth being also exposed to the     
action of the winds1 air1 and sun2 all  
these irregular causes concurred  with  
the flux and reflux to furrow its       
surface1 hollow it into valleys1  and   
raise it into mountains2 and producing  
other inequalities and  irregularities1 
of which1 nevertheless1 the greatest    
thickness does not  exceed one league at
 the equator2 this inequality of two    
leagues1 is1  perhaps1 the greatest     
which can be on the surface of the      
earth1 for the  highest mountains are   
scarce above one league in height1 and  
there is  much probability of the sea's 
not being more at its greatest depth4   

,the  theory is therefore true1 and     
practice may be so likewise2 the earth  
at  first could not be raised above     
#f-a_/b leagues more at the equator than
  the poles1 but the changes which have 
happened to its surface might           
afterwards raise it still more4 ,natural
 ,history wonderfully confirms  this    
opinion1 for we have proved in the      
preceding discourse that the  flux and  
reflux1 and other motions of the water1 
have produced mountains  and all the    
inequalities on the surface of the      
globe1 that this surface  has undergone 
considerable changes1 and that at the   
greatest depths1 as  well as on the     
greatest heights1 bones1 shells and     
other wrecks of  animals1 which inhabit 
the sea and earth1 are met with4    ,it 
may be conjectured1 from what has been  
said1 that to find ancient  earth1 and  
matters which have never been removed   
from the spot in which  they were first 
placed1 we must dig near the poles1     
where the bed of the  earth must be     

thinner than in the ,southern climates4 
,on the whole1 if we strictly examine   
the measures by which the figure of  the
 earth is determined1 we shall perceive 
this hypothesis enters into  such       
determination2 for it supposes the earth
 to have the figure of a  regular curve1
 whereas from the constant changes the  
earth is  continually undergoing from a 
variety and combination of causes1 it is
  almost impossible that it should have 
retained any regular figure1 and  hence 
the poles might1 originally1 only be    
flattened a #bcjth part1 as  ,newton    
says1 and as my theory requires4        
,besides1 although we had exactly  the  
length of the degree at the polar circle
 and equator1 have we not  also the     
length of the degree as exactly in      
,france8 ,and the measure of  ,m4       
,picard1 has it not been verified8 ,add 
to this that the augmentation  and      
diminution in the motion of the         
pendulum1 do not agree with the  result 
drawn from measurement1 and that1 on the

 contrary1 they differ  very little from
 the theory of ,newton4 ,this is surely 
more than is  requisite to convince us  
that the poles are not flattened more   
than a  #bcjth part1 and that if there  
is any difference1 it can proceed only  
from the inequalities1 which the water  
and other external causes have  produced
 on its surface2 but these inequalities 
being more irregular  than regular1 we  
must not form any hypothesis thereon1   
nor suppose1 that  the meridians are    
ellipses1 or any other regular curves4  
,from whence we  perceive1 that if we   
should successively measure many degrees
 of the  earth in all directions1 we    
still should not be certain by that     
alone1  of the exact situation of the   
poles1 nor whether they were depressed  
more or less than the #bcjth part4      
,may it not also be conjectured1 that if
 the inclination of the axis of  the    
earth has changed1 it can only be       
produced by the changes which have      
happened to the surface1 since all the  

rest of the globe is homogeneous2  that 
consequently this variation is too      
little sensible to be perceived  by     
astronomers1 and that if the earth is   
not encountered with a comet1  or       
deranged1 by any other external cause1  
its axis will remain  perpetually       
inclined as it is at present1 and as it 
has always been8    ,in order not to    
omit any conjecture which appears       
reasonable1 may it not  be said1 that as
 the mountains and inequalities which   
are on the  surface of the earth have   
been formed by the flux and reflux of   
the sea1  the mountains and inequalities
 which we remark on the surface of the  
moon1 have been produced by a similar   
cause8 they certainly are much  higher  
than those of the earth1 but then her   
tides are also much  stronger1          
occasioned by the earth's being         
considerably larger than the  moon1 and 
consequently producing her tides with a 
superior force2 and  this effect would  
be much greater if the moon had1 like   

the earth1 a  rapid rotation2 but as the
 moon presents always the same surface  
to the  earth1 the tides cannot operate 
but in proportion to the motion arising 
from her libration1 by which it         
alternatively discovers to us a segment 
of its other hemisphere2 this1 however1 
must produce a kind of flux and  reflux1
 quite different from that of our sea1  
and the effects of which  will be much  
less considerable than if the moon had  
from its course a  revolution round its 
axis1 as quick as the rotation of the   
terrestrial  globe4    ,i should furnish
 a volume as large as that of ,burnet or
 ,whiston's1 if ,i  were to enlarge on  
the ideas which arise in support of the 
above2 by  giving them a geometrical    
air1 in imitation of the last author1 ,i
 might  add considerably to their       
weight2 but1 in my opinion1 hypothesis1 
however probable1 ought not to be       
treated with such pomposity2 it being  a
 dress which borders so much on         
quackery4      ,,footnotes3    #gh3;,a  

,vide ,newton1 #b;d edit4 page #ebe4    
#gi3;,a ,vid4 ,newton1 page #dje4       
#aji3;,a ,m4 de ,maupertuis' ,figure of 
the ,earth4          ,,article ,,ii4    
,,from ,,the ,,system ,,of              
,,whiston#aae3;,a4      ,this ,author   
commences his treatise by a dissertation
 on the creation of  the world2 he says 
that the account of it given by ,moses  
in the text of  ,genesis has not been   
rightly understood2 that the translators
 have  confined themselves too much to  
the letter and superficial views1       
without attending to nature1 reason1 and
 philosophy4 ,the common notion  of the 
world being made in six days1 he says is
 absolutely false1 and  that the        
description given by ,moses1 is not an  
exact and philosophical  narration of   
the creation and origin of the universe1
 but only an  historical representation 
of the terrestrial globe4 ,the earth1   
according to him1 existed in the chaos2 
and1 at the time mentioned by  ,moses1  
received the form1 situation and        

consistency necessary to be  inhabited  
by the human race4 ,i shall not enter   
into a detail of his  proofs1 nor       
undertake their refutation4 ,the        
exposition we have just  made1 is       
sufficient to demonstrate the difference
 of his opinion with  public facts1 its 
contrariety with scripture1 and         
consequently the  insufficiency of his  
proofs4 ,on the whole1 he treats this   
matter as a  theological controvertist1 
rather than as an enlightened           
philosopher4    ,leaving these erroneous
 principles1 he flies to ingenious      
suppositions1  which1 although          
extraordinary1 yet have a degree of     
probability to those  who1 like him1    
incline to the enthusiasm of system4 ,he
 says1 that the  ancient chaos1 the     
origin of our earth1 was the atmosphere 
of a comet3  that the annual motion of  
the earth began at the time it took its 
new  form1 but that its diurnal motion  
began only when the first man fell4     
,that the ecliptic cut the tropic of    

cancer1 opposite to the terrestrial     
paradise1 which was situated on the     
north-west side of the frontiers of     
,assyria3 that before the deluge1 the   
year began at the autumnal  equinox3    
that the orbits of the planets1 and the 
earth were then  perfect circles4 ,that 
the deluge began the #ahth of ,november1
 #bcfe of the  ,julian period1 or #bcdi 
years before ,christ4 ,that the solar   
and lunar  year were then the same1 and 
that they exactly contained #cfj days4  
,that  a comet descending in the plane  
of the ecliptic towards its perihelion1 
passed near the globe of the earth the  
same day as the deluge began3  that     
there is a great heat in the internal   
part of the terrestrial  globe1 which   
constantly diffuses itself from the     
centre to the  circumference2 that the  
form of the earth is like that of an    
egg1 the  ancient emblem of the globe2  
that mountains are the lightest part of 
the  earth1 c4 ,he afterwards attributes
 all the alterations and changes  which 

have happened to the earth1 to the      
universal deluge2 then blindly  adopts  
the theory of ,woodward1 and            
indiscriminately makes use of all the   
observations of that author on the      
present state of the globe2 but  assumes
 originality when he speaks of its      
future state3 according to him  it will 
be consumed by fire1 and its destruction
 will be preceded by  terrible          
earthquakes1 thunder1 and frightful     
meteors2 the ,sun and ,moon  will have  
an hideous aspect1 the heavens will     
appear to fall1 and the  flames will be 
general over all the earth2 but when the
 fire shall have  devoured all the      
impurities it contains2 when it shall be
 vitrified and  rendered transparent as 
crystal1 the saints and the blessed     
spirits will  return and take possession
 of it1 and there remain till the day of
  judgment4    ,these hypotheses1 at the
 first glance1 appear to be rash and    
extravagant  assertions2 nevertheless   
the author has managed them with such   

address1  and treated them with such    
strength1 that they cease to appear     
absolutely chimerical4 ,he supports his 
subjects with much science1 and  it is  
surprising that1 from a mixture of ideas
 so very absurd1 a system  could be     
formed with an air of probability4 ,it  
has not affected vulgar  minds so much  
as it has dazzled the eyes of the       
learned1 because they  are more easily  
deceived by the glare of erudition1 and 
the power of  novel ideas4 ,mr4 ,whiston
 was a celebrated astronomer1 in the    
constant  habit of considering the      
heavens1 observing the stars1 and       
contemplating  the wonderful course of  
nature2 he could never persuade himself 
that  this small grain of sand1 this    
,earth which we inhabit1 occupied more  
the  attention of the ,creator than the 
universe1 the vast extent of which      
contains millions of other ,suns and    
,earths4 ,he pretends1 that ,moses has  
not given us the history of the first   
creation of this globe1 but only a      

detail of the new form that it took when
 the ,almighty turned it from the  mass 
of a comet into a planet1 and formed it 
into a proper habitation  for men4      
,comets are1 in fact1 subjected to      
terrible vicissitudes by  reason of the 
eccentricity of their orbits4           
,sometimes1 like that in  #afhj1 it is a
 thousand times hotter there than       
red-hot iron2 and  sometimes a thousand 
times colder than ice2 if they are1     
therefore1  inhabited it must be by     
strange creatures1 of which we can have 
no  conception4    ,the planets1 on the 
contrary1 are places of rest1 where the 
distance of  the sun not varying much1  
the temperature remains nearly the same1
 and  permits different kinds of plants 
and animals to grow and multiply4    ,in
 the beginning ,god created the world2  
but1 observes our author1 the  earth was
 then an uninhabitable comet1 suffering 
alternatively the  excess of heat and   
cold1 its liquifying and freezing by    
turns formed a  chaos1 or an abyss1     

surrounded with thick darkness3 and     
darkness  covered the face of the deep1 
tenebr erant superfaciam abissi4  ,this 
chaos was the atmosphere of the comet1 a
 body composed of  heterogeneous        
matters1 the centre occupied by         
spherical1 solid1 and hot  substances1  
of about two thousand leagues in        
diameter1 round which a  very great     
surface of a thick fluid extended1 mixed
 with an unshapen and  confused matter1 
like the chaos of the ancient rudis     
indigestaque  moles4    ,this vast      
atmosphere contained but very few dry1  
solid1 or terrestrial  particles1 still 
less aqueous or aerial1 but a great     
quantity of fluid1  dense and heavy     
matters1 mixed1 agitated and jumbled    
together in the  greatest disorder and  
confusion4 ,such was the earth before   
the six days1  but on the first day of  
the creation1 when the eccentrical orbit
 of the  comet had been changed1 every  
thing took its place1 and bodies        
arranged  themselves according to the   

law of gravity1 the heavy fluid         
descended to  the lowest places1 and    
left the upper regions to the           
terrestrial1  aqueous and aerial parts2 
those likewise descended according to   
their  order of gravity2 first the      
earth1 then the water1 and last of all  
the  air4 ,the immense volume of chaos  
was thus reduced to a globe of a        
moderate size1 in the centre of which is
 the solid body that still  retains the 
heat which the sun formerly communicated
 to it1 when it  belonged to a comet4   
,this heat may possibly endure six      
thousand years1  since the comet of     
#afhj required fifty thousand years to  
cool4 ,around  this solid and burning   
matter1 which occupies the centre of the
 earth1  the dense and heavy fluid which
 descended the first is to be found1 and
  this is the fluid which forms the     
great abyss on which the earth is       
borne1 like cork on quicksilver2 but as 
the terrestrial parts were  originally  
mixed with a large quantity of water1 in

 descending they have  dragged with them
 a part of this water1 which1 not being 
able to  re-ascend after the earth was  
consolidated1 formed a concentrical bed 
with the heavy fluid which surrounds    
this hot substance1 insomuch that  the  
great abyss is composed of two          
concentrical orbs1 the most internal  of
 which is a heavy fluid1 and the other  
water2 the last of which serves  for a  
foundation to the earth4 ,it is from    
this admirable arrangement1  produced by
 the atmosphere of a comet1 that the    
,theory of the ,earth1 and  the         
explanation of all its phenomena are to 
depend4    ,when the atmosphere of the  
comet was once disembarrassed from all  
the  solid and terrestrial matters1     
there remained only the lighter air1    
through which the rays of the sun freely
 passed and instantly produced  light3  
,let there be light1 and there was      
light4 ,the columns which  composed the 
orb of the ,earth being formed with such
 great precipitation  is the cause of   

their different densities3 consequently 
the heaviest  sunk deeper into this     
subterraneous fluid than the lightest2  
and it is  this which has produced the  
vallies and mountains on the surface of 
the  earth4 ,these inequalities were1   
before the deluge1 dispersed and        
situated otherwise than they are at     
present4 ,instead of the vast valley1   
which contains the ocean1 there were    
many small divided cavities on the      
surface of the globe1 each of which     
contained a part of this water2 the     
mountains were also more divided1 and   
did not form chains as at present3      
nevertheless1 the earth contained a     
thousand times more people1 and was  a  
thousand times more fertile2 and the    
life of man and other animals  were ten 
times longer1 all which was affected by 
the internal heat of  the earth that    
proceeded from the centre1 and gave     
birth to a great  number of plants and  
animals1 bestowing on them a degree of  
vigour  necessary for them to subsist a 

long time1 and multiply in great        
abundance4 ,but this heat1 by increasing
 the strength of bodies1  unfortunately 
extended to the heads of men and        
animals2 it augmented  their passions2  
it deprived man of his innocence1 and   
the brute creation  of part of their    
intelligence2 all creatures1 excepting  
fish1 who  inhabited a colder element1  
felt the effects of this heat1 became   
criminal and merited death4 ,it         
therefore came1 and this universal death
  happened on ,wednesday the #bhth of   
,november1 by a terrible deluge of      
forty days and forty nights1 and was    
caused by the tail of another comet     
which encountered the earth in returning
 from its perihelion4    ,the tail of a 
comet is the lightest part of its       
atmosphere2 it is a  transparent mist1 a
 subtile vapour1 which the heat of the  
sun exhales  from the body of the comet3
 this vapour composed of extremely      
rarefied  aqueous and aerial particles1 
follows the comet when it descends to   

its  perihelion1 and precedes when it   
re-ascends1 so that it is always        
situate opposite to the sun1 as if it   
sought to be in the shade1 and  avoid   
the too great heat of that luminary4    
,the column which this vapour  forms is 
often of an immense length1 and the more
 a comet approaches the  sun1 the longer
 and more extended is its tail1 and as  
many comets  descend below the annual   
orb of the earth1 it is not surprising  
that  the earth is sometimes found      
surrounded with the vapour of this tail2
  this is precisely what happened at the
 time of the deluge4 ,in two hours  the 
tail of a comet will evacuate a quantity
 of water equal to what is  contained in
 the whole ocean4 ,in short1 this tail  
was what ,moses calls  the cataracts of 
,heaven1 and the cataracts of ,heaven   
were opened4 ,the  terrestrial globe    
meeting with the tail of a comet1 must1 
in going its  course through this       
vapour1 appropriate to itself a part of 
the matter  which it contains2 all      

which1 coming within the sphere of the  
earth's  attraction1 must fall on it1   
and fall in the form of rain1 since this
  tail is partly composed of aqueous    
vapours4 ,thus rain may come down in    
such abundance as to produce an         
universal deluge the waters of which    
might easily surmount the tops of the   
highest mountains4 ,nevertheless1  our  
author1 cautious of not going directly  
against the letter of holy  writ1 does  
not say that this rain was the sole     
cause of the universal  deluge1 but     
takes the water from every place he can 
find it4 ,the great  abyss as we see    
contains a considerable quantity4 ,the  
earth1 at the  approach of the comet1   
would prove the force of its attraction2
 and the  waters contained in the great 
abyss would be agitated by so violent a 
kind of flux and reflux1 that the       
superficial crust would not resist1  but
 split in several places1 and the       
internal waters be dispersed over  the  
surface1 ,and the fountains of the abyss

 were opened4    ,but what became of    
these waters1 which the tail of the     
comet and great  abyss furnished so     
liberally8 our author is not the least  
embarrassed  thereon4 ,as soon as the   
earth1 continuing its course1 removed   
from the  comet1 the effects of its     
attraction1 the flux and reflux in the  
great  abyss ceased of course1 and      
immediately the upper waters            
precipitated  back with violence by the 
same roads as they had been forced upon 
the  surface4 ,the great abyss absorbed 
all the superfluous waters1 and was of  
a sufficient capacity not only to       
receive its own waters1 but also all    
those which the tail of the comet had   
left1 because during its  agitation1 and
 the rupture of its crust1 it had       
enlarged the space by  driving out on   
all sides the earth that surrounded it4 
,it was at this  time also the figure of
 the earth1 which till then was         
spherical1 became  elliptic4 ,this      
effect was occasioned by the centrifugal

 force caused by  its diurnal motion1   
and by the attraction of the comet1 for 
the earth1  in passing through the tail 
of the comet1 found itself so placed    
that it  presented the parts of the     
equator to that planet2 and the power of
 the  attraction of the comet1          
concurring with the centrifugal force of
 the  earth1 caused the parts of the    
equator to be elevated1 and that with   
the  more facility as the crust was     
broken and divided in an infinity of    
places1 and because the flux and reflux 
of the abyss drove against the  equator 
more violently than elsewhere4    ,here 
then is ,mr4 ,whiston's history of the  
creation2 the causes of the  universal  
deluge2 the length of the life of the   
first men2 and the  figure of the       
,earth2 all which seem to have cost our 
author little or no  labour2 but ,noah's
 ark appears to have greatly disquieted 
him4 ,in the  midst of so terrible a    
disorder occasioned by the conjunction  
of the  tail of a comet with the waters 

of the great abyss1 in the terrible     
moments wherein not only the elements of
 the earth were confused1 but  when new 
elements still concurred to augment the 
chaos1 how can it be  imagined that the 
ark floated quietly with its numerous   
cargo on the top  of the waves8 ,here   
our author makes great efforts to arrive
 at and give  a physical reason for the 
preservation of the ark1 but which has  
always  appeared to me insufficient1    
poorly imagined1 and but little         
orthodoxical3 ,i will not here relate   
it1 but only observe how hard it is  for
 a man who has explained objects so     
great and wonderful1 without  having    
recourse to a supernatural power1 to be 
stopt by one particular  circumstance2  
our author1 however1 chose rather to    
risk drowning with  the ark1 than to    
attribute to the immediate bounty of the
 ,almighty the  preservation of this    
precious vessel4    ,i shall only make  
one remark on this system1 of which ,i  
have made a  faithful abridgement3 which

 is1 whenever we are rash enough to     
attempt  to explain theological truths  
by physical reasons1 or interpret purely
  by human views1 the divine text of    
holy writ1 or that we endeavour to      
reason on the will of the ,most ,high1  
and on the execution of his  decrees1 we
 consequently shall involve ourselves in
 the darkness and  chaos of obscurity   
and confusion1 like the author of this  
system1 which1  in defiance of its      
absurdities1 has been received with     
great applause4  ,he neither doubts the 
truth of the deluge1 nor the            
authenticity of the  sacred writ2 but as
 he was less employed with it than with 
physic and  astronomy1 he has taken     
passages of the scripture for physical  
facts1  and the results of astronomical 
observations2 and has so strangely      
blended the divine knowledge with human 
science as to give birth to the  most   
extraordinary system that possibly ever 
was or will be conceived4               
,,footnotes3    #aae3;,a ,a ,new ,theory

 of the ,earth by ,william ,whiston1    
#agjh4          ,,article ,,iii4        
,,from ,,the ,,system ,,of              
,,burnet4#abh3;,a      ,this author is  
the first who has treated this subject  
generally and in a  systematical matter4
 ,he was possessed of much              
understanding1 and was a  person well   
acquainted with the belles lettres4 ,his
 work acquired  great reputation1 and   
was criticised by many of the learned1  
among the  rest by ,mr4 ,keil1 who has  
geometrically demonstrated the errors of
 ,mr4  ,burnet1 in a treatise called    
,examination of the ,theory of the      
,earth4  ,mr4 ,keil also refuted        
,whiston's system2 but he treats the    
last author  very different from the    
first1 and seems even to be of his      
opinion in  several cases1 and looks    
upon the tail of a comet to be a very   
probable  cause for the deluge4 ,but1 to
 return to ,burnet1 his book is         
elegantly  written2 he knew how to paint
 noble images and magnificent scenes4   

,his  plan is great1 but the execution  
is deficient for want of proper         
materials3 his reasoning is good1 but   
his proofs are weak2 yet his  confidence
 in his writings is so great1 that he   
frequently causes his  readers to pass  
over his errors4    ,he begins by       
telling us1 that before the deluge the  
earth had a very  different form from   
that which it has at present2 it was at 
first1 he  says1 a fluid mass1          
compounded of matters of all kinds1 and 
all sorts of  figures1 the heaviest     
descended towards the centre1 and formed
 a hard  and solid body2 round which the
 waters collected1 and the air1 and all 
the liquors lighter than water1         
surmounted them4 ,between the orb of air
  and that of water1 was an orb of oily 
matter1 but as the air was still  very  
impure1 and contained a great quantity  
of small particles of  terrestrial      
matter1 they by degrees descended on the
 coat of oil1 and  formed a terrestrial 
orb blended with earth and oil2 and this

 was the  first habitable earth1 and the
 first abode of man4 ,this was an       
excellent  soil1 light1 and calculated  
to yield to the tenderness of the first 
germs4 ,the surface of the terrestrial  
globe was at first equal1 uniform1      
without mountains1 without seas1 and    
without inequalities2 but it  remained  
only about sixteen centuries in this    
state1 for the heat of the  sun by      
degrees drying the crust1 split it at   
first on the surface1 soon  after these 
cracks penetrated farther and increased 
so considerably by  time1 that at length
 they entirely opened the crust2 in an  
instant the  whole earth fell into      
pieces in the abyss of water it         
surrounded2 and  this was the cause of  
the deluge4    ,but all these masses of 
earth1 by falling into the abyss1       
dragged along  with them a great        
quantity of air2 these struck against   
each other1  divided1 and accumulated so
 irregularly1 that great cavities filled
 with  air were left between them4 ,the 

waters by degrees opened these cavities1
  and in proportion as they filled them1
 the surface of the earth  discovered   
itself in the highest parts2 at length  
water alone remained  in the lowest     
parts2 that is to say1 the vast vallies 
which contain the  sea4 ,thus our ocean 
is a part of the ancient abyss1 the rest
 is entered  into the internal cavities 
with which the ocean communicates4 ,the 
islands and sea rocks are the small     
fragments1 and continents are the  great
 masses of the old crust4 ,as the       
rupture and the fall of this crust  are 
made of a sudden1 and with confusion1 it
 was not surprising to find  eminences1 
depths1 plains1 and inequalities of all 
kinds on the surface  of the earth4     
,,footnotes3    #abh3;,a ,thomas        
,burnet4 ,telluris theoria sacra1 orbis 
nostri originem   mutationes generales1 
quas aut jam subut1 aut olim ,subiturus 
est  complectens4 ,londina1 #afha4      
,,article ,,iv4    ,,from ,,the ,,system
 ,,of ,,woodward4      ,it may be said  

of this author1 that he attempted to    
raise an immense  monument on a less    
solid base than the moving sand1 and to 
construct a  world with dust2 for he    
pretends1 that at the time of the deluge
 a total  dissolution of the earth was  
made4 ,the first idea which presents1   
after  having gone through his          
book1#acb3;,a is1 that this dissolution 
was made  by the waters of the great    
abyss4 ,he asserts1 that the abyss where
 the  water was included opened all at  
once at the command of ,god1 and        
dispersed over the surface an enormous  
quantity of water necessary to  cover   
the tops of the highest mountains1 and  
that ,god suspended the  cause of       
cohesion which reduced all solid bodies 
into dust1 c4 ,he did  not consider that
 by these suppositions he added other   
miracles to that  of the universal      
deluge1 or at least physical            
impossibilities1 which  agree neither   
with the letter of the holy writ1 nor   
with the  mathematical principles of    

natural philosophy4 ,but as this author 
has  the merit of having collected many 
important observations1 and as he was   
better acquainted with the materials of 
which the globe is composed than  those 
who preceded him1 his system1 although  
badly conceived1 and worse  digested1   
has nevertheless dazzled many people1   
who1 seduced by the  truth of some      
particular circumstances1 put confidence
 in his general  conclusions2 we shall1 
therefore1 give a short view of his     
theory1 in  which1 by doing justice to  
the author's merit1 and the exactness of
 his  observations1 we shall put the    
reader in a state of judging of the     
insufficiency of his system1 and of the 
falsity of some of his remarks4  ,mr4   
,woodward speaks of having discovered by
 his sight that all matters  which      
compose the ,english earth1 from the    
surface to the deepest places  which had
 been dug1 were disposed by beds of     
strata1 and that in a great  number of  
these there were shells and other marine

 productions2 he  afterwards adds1 that 
by his correspondents and friends he was
 assured1  that in other countries the  
earth is composed of the same materials1
 and  that shells are found there1 not  
only in the plains but on the highest   
mountains1 in the deepest quarries1 and 
in an infinity of different  places4 ,he
 perceived their strata to be horizontal
 and disposed one over  the other1 as   
matters are which are transported by the
 waters1 and  deposited in form of      
sediment4 ,these general remarks1 which 
are true1  are followed by particular   
observations1 by which he evidently     
shews1  that fossils found incorporated 
in the strata are real shells and marine
  productions1 not minerals and singular
 bodies1 the sport of nature1 c4    ,to 
these observations1 though partly made  
before him1 which he has  collected and 
proved1 he adds others less exact4 ,he  
asserts1 that all  matters of different 
strata are placed one on the other in   
the order of  their specific gravity4   

,this general assertion is not true1 for
 we daily see rocks placed above  clay1 
sand1 coal1 and bitumen1 and which      
certainly are specifically  heavier than
 either of these latter materials4 ,if1 
in fact1 we found  throughout the earth 
that the first strata was bitumen1 then 
chalk1 then  marl1 clay1 sand1 stone1   
marble1 and at last metals1 so that the 
composition of the earth exactly        
followed the law of gravity1 there      
would be an appearance that they might  
have been precipitated at the  same     
time1 which our author asserts with     
confidence1 in spite of the  evidence to
 the contrary2 for1 without being a     
naturalist1 we need only  have our      
eye-sight to be convinced that heavy    
strata are often found  above lighter1  
and that consequently these sediments   
were not  precipitated all at one time1 
but have been brought and deposited     
successively by the water4 ,as this is  
the foundation of his system1 and  is   
manifestly false1 we shall follow it no 

farther than to show how far  an        
erroneous principle may produce false   
combinations and erroneous  conclusions4
    ,all the matters1 says our author1  
which compose the earth1 from the       
summits of the highest mountains1 to the
 greatest depths of mines1 are  disposed
 by strata1 according to their specific 
weights2 therefore he  concludes the    
whole has been dissolved and            
precipitated at one time4 ,but  in what 
manner1 and at what time was it         
dissolved8 ,in water1 replies he1  and  
at the time of the deluge4 ,but there is
 not a sufficient quantity of  water on 
the globe for this to be effected1 since
 there is more land  than water1 and the
 bottom of the sea itself is earth4     
,this he admits1  but says1 there is    
more water than is requisite at the     
centre of the  earth1 that it was only  
necessary for it to ascend1 and possess 
a power  of dissolving every substance  
but shells1 afterwards to find the means
  for this water to re-enter the abyss1 

and to make all this agree with  the    
history of the deluge4 ,this then is the
 system1 of which the author  does not  
entertain the least doubt2 for when it  
is opposed to him that  water cannot    
dissolve marble1 stone1 and metals1     
especially in forty  days1 the duration 
of the deluge1 he answers simply1 that  
nevertheless  it did happen so4 ,when he
 is asked1 what the virtue of this water
 of  the abyss was1 to dissolve all the 
earth1 and at the same time preserve    
the shells8 he says1 that he never      
pretended that this water was a         
dissolvent2 but that it is clear1 by    
facts1 that the earth has been          
dissolved and the shells preserved4     
,when he was evidently shown that if  he
 had no reason to give1 or facts to     
support1 for these phenomena1 his       
system was useless1 he said1 we have    
only to imagine that1 during the        
deluge1 the force of gravity and the    
coherency of matter ceased on a  sudden1
 and by this supposition the dissolution

 of the old world would  be explained in
 a very easy and satisfactory manner4   
,but1 it was said to  him1 if the power 
which holds the parts of matter united  
was suspended1  why were not the shells 
dissolved as well as all the rest8 ,here
 he makes  a discourse on the           
organization of shells and bones of     
animals1 by which  he pretends to prove 
that their texture being fibrous1 and   
different  from that of minerals1 their 
power of cohesion was different also2   
after  all1 we have1 says he1 only to   
suppose that the power of gravity and   
cohesion did not entirely cease1 but    
that it was only diminished  sufficient 
to disunite all the parts of minerals1  
and not those of  animals4 ,to all this 
we cannot be prevented from discovering1
 that our  author's philosophy was not  
equal to his talents for observation2   
and ,i  do not think it necessary       
seriously to refute opinions which have 
no  foundation1 especially when they    
have been imagined against the rules of 

probability1 and drawn from consequences
 contrary to mechanical laws4           
,,footnotes3    #acb3;,a ,an ,essay     
towards the ,natural ,history of the    
,earth1 c4 by ,john  ,woodward4         
,,article ,v4    ,,exposition ,,of      
,,some ,,other ,,systems4      ,it is   
plain that the three forementioned      
hypotheses have much in common  with    
each other4 ,they all agree in this     
point1 that during the deluge  the earth
 changed its form1 as well externally as
 internally2 but these  speculators have
 not considered that the earth before   
the deluge was  inhabited by the same   
species of men and animals1 and must    
necessarily  have been nearly such as it
 is at present4 ,the sacred writings    
teach us1  that before the deluge there 
were rivers1 seas1 mountains1 and       
forests4  ,that these rivers and        
mountains were1 for the most part1      
retained in the  same situations2 the   
,tigris and ,euphrates were the rivers  
of the ancient  paradise2 that the      

mountain of ,armenia1 on which the ark  
rested1 was one  of the highest         
mountains in the world at the deluge1 as
 it is at  present3 that the same plants
 and animals which exist now1 existed   
then2  for we read of the serpent1 of   
the raven1 of the crow1 and of the dove1
  which brought the olive branch into   
the ark4 ,although ,tournefort asserts  
there are no olive trees for more than  
#djj miles from ,mount ,ararat1 and     
passes some absurd jokes                
thereon#ach3;,a1 it is nevertheless     
certain  there were olives in this      
neighbourhood at the time of the deluge1
 since  holy writ assures us of it in   
the most express terms2 but it is by no 
means astonishing that in the space of  
#djjj years the olive trees should  have
 been destroyed in those quarters1 and  
multiplied in others2 it is  therefore  
contrary to scripture and reason1 that  
those authors have  supposed the earth  
was quite different from its present    
state before the  deluge2 and this      

contradiction between their hypothesis  
and the sacred  text1 as well as        
physical truths1 must cause their       
systems to be  rejected1 if even they   
should agree with some phenomena4       
,burnet gives  neither observations1 nor
 any real facts1 for the support of his 
system4  ,woodward has only given us an 
essay1 in which he promised much more   
than  he could perform3 his book is a   
project1 the execution of which has not 
been seen4 ,he has made use of two      
general observations2 the first1 that   
the earth is every where composed of    
matters which formerly were in a  state 
of fluidity1 transported by the waters1 
and deposited in  horizontal strata4    
,the second1 that there are abundance of
 marine  productions in most parts of   
the bowels of the earth4 ,to give a     
reason  for these facts1 he has recourse
 to the universal deluge1 or rather it  
appears that he gives them as proofs of 
the deluge2 but1 like ,burnet1 he  falls
 into evident contradictions1 for it is 

not to be supposed with  them that there
 were no mountains prior to the deluge1 
since it is  expressly stated1 that the 
waters rose fifteen cubits above the    
tops of  the highest mountains4 ,on the 
other hand1 it is not said that these   
waters destroyed or dissolved these     
mountains2 but1 on the contrary1  these 
mountains remained in their places1 and 
the ark rested on that  which the water 
first deserted4 ,besides how can it be  
imagined that1  during the short        
duration of the deluge1 the waters were 
able to  dissolve the mountains and the 
whole body of the earth8 ,is it not an  
absurdity to suppose that in forty days 
all marble1 rocks1 stones1 and          
minerals1 were dissolved by water8 ,is  
it not a manifest contradiction to      
admit this total dissolution1 and at the
 same time maintain that shells1  bones1
 and marine productions were preserved  
entire1 and resisted that  which had    
dissolved the most solid substances8 ,i 
shall not therefore  hesitate to say1   

that ,woodward1 with excellent facts and
 observations1  has formed but a poor   
and inconsistent system4    ,whiston1   
who came last1 greatly enriched the     
other two1 and  notwithstanding he gave 
a vast scope to his imagination has not 
fallen  into contradiction2 he speaks of
 matters not very credible1 but they are
  neither absolutely nor evidently      
impossible4 ,as we are ignorant of the  
centre of the earth1 he thought he might
 suppose it was a solid matter1         
surrounded with a ring of heavy fluid1  
and afterwards with a ring of  water1 on
 which the external crust was sustained2
 in the latter the  different parts of  
this crust were more or less sunk1 in   
proportion to  their relative weights1  
which produced mountains and            
inequalities on the  surface of the     
earth4 ,here1 however1 this astronomer  
has committed a  mechanical blunder2 he 
did not recollect that the earth1       
according to  this hypothesis1 must be  
an uniform arch1 and that consequently  

it could  not be borne on the water it  
contains1 and much less sunk therein4 ,i
 do  not know that there are any other  
physical errors2 but he has made a      
great number of errors1 both in         
metaphysics and theology4 ,on the whole 
it cannot be denied absolutely that the 
earth meeting with the tail of a  comet 
might not be inundated1 especially      
allowing the author that the  tail of a 
comet may contain aqueous vapours2 nor  
can it be denied as an  absolute        
impossibility that the tail of a comet1 
in returning from its  perihelium1 might
 not burn the earth1 if we suppose1 with
 ,mr4 ,whiston1  that the comet passed  
very near the sun2 it is the same with  
the rest of  the system4 ,but though his
 ideas are not absolutely               
impossibilities1  there is so little    
probability to each thing1 when taken   
separately1  that the result upon the   
whole taken together puts it beyond     
credibility4    ,the three systems we   
have spoken of are not the only works   

which have  been composed on the theory 
of the earth2 a ,memoir of ,m4 ,bourguet
  appeared in #agbi1 printed at         
,amsterdam1 with his ,philosophical     
,letters  on the ,formation of ,salts1  
c4 in which he gives a specimen of the  
system he meditated1 but which was      
prevented completion by the death of    
the author4 ,it is but justice to admit1
 that no person was more  industrious in
 making observations or collecting      
facts4 ,to him we owe  that great and   
beautiful observation1 the              
correspondence between the  angles of   
mountains4 ,he presents every thing     
which he had collected in  great order2 
but with all those advantages1 it       
appears that he has  succeeded no better
 than the rest in making a physical and 
reasonable  history of the changes which
 had happened to the globe1 and that he 
was  very wide from having found the    
real cause of those effects which he    
relates4 ,to be convinced of this we    
need only cast our eyes on the          

propositions which he deduces from the  
phenomena1 and which ought to  serve for
 the basis of his theory4 ,he says1 that
 the whole globe took  its form at one  
time1 and not successively2 that its    
form and  disposition prove that it has 
been in a state of fluidity2 that the   
present state of the earth is very      
different from that in which it was  for
 many ages after its first formation2   
that the matter of the globe  was at the
 beginning less dense than since it     
altered its appearance2  that the       
condensation of its solid parts         
diminished by degrees with its          
velocity1 so that after having made a   
number of revolutions on its axis1  and 
round the sun1 it found itself on a     
sudden in a state of  dissolution1 which
 destroyed its first structure4 ,this   
happened about  the vernal equinox4     
,that the sea-shells introduced         
themselves into the  dissolved matters2 
that after this dissolution the earth   
took the form  it now has1 and that the 

fire which directly infused itself      
therein  consumed it by degrees1 and it 
will be one day destroyed by a terrible 
explosion1 accompanied with a general   
conflagration1 which will augment  the  
atmosphere of the globe1 and diminish   
its diameter1 and that then  the earth1 
instead of beds of sand or earth1 will  
have only strata of  calcined metal and 
mountains composed of amalgamas of      
different metals4    ,this is sufficient
 to shew the system ,m4 ,bourguet       
meditated2 to divine  in this manner the
 past1 and predict the future1 nearly as
 others have  predicted1 does not appear
 to me to be an effort of judgment3 this
  author had more erudition than sound  
and general views3 he appears to be     
deficient in that capaciousness of ideas
 necessary to follow the extent  of the 
subject1 and enable him to comprehend   
the chain of causes and  effects4    ,in
 the acts of ,leipsic1 the famous       
,leibnitz published a scheme of quite  a
 different system1 under the title of   

,protogaea4 ,the earth1 according  to   
,bourguet and others1 must end by fire2 
according to ,leibnitz it began  by it1 
and has suffered many more changes and  
revolutions than is  imagined4 ,the     
greatest part of the terrestrial matter 
was surrounded by  violent flames at the
 time when ,moses says light was divided
 from  darkness4 ,the planets1 as well  
as the earth1 were fixed stars1 luminous
  of themselves4 ,after having burnt a  
long time1 he pretends that they  were  
extinguished for want of combustible    
matter1 and are become opaque  bodies4  
,the fire1 by melting the matter1       
produced a vitrified crust1  and the    
basis of all the matter which composes  
the globe is glass1 of  which sand and  
gravel are only fragments4 ,the other   
kinds of earth are  formed from a       
mixture of this sand1 with fixed salts  
and water1 and when  the crust cooled1  
the humid particles1 which were raised  
in form of  vapours1 refel1 and formed  
the sea4 ,they at first covered the     

whole  surface1 and even surmounted the 
highest mountains4 ,according to this   
author1 the shells1 and other wrecks of 
the sea1 which are every where  to be   
found1 positively prove that the sea has
 covered the whole earth2  and the great
 quantity of fixed salts1 sand1 and     
other melted and  calcined matters1     
which are included in the bowels of the 
earth1 prove  that the conflagration had
 been general1 and that it preceded the 
existence of the sea4 ,although these   
thoughts are void of proofs1 they  are  
capital4 ,the ideas have connection1 the
 hypotheses are not  impossible1 and the
 consequences that may be drawn         
therefrom are not  contradictory3 but   
the grand defect of this theory is1 that
 it is not  applicable to the present   
state of the earth2 it is the past which
 it  explains1 and this past is so far  
back1 and has left us so few remains1   
that we may say what we please of it1   
and the probability will be in          
proportion as a man has talents to      

elucidate what he asserts4 ,to affirm   
as ,whiston has done1 that the earth was
 originally a comet1 or1 with           
,leibnitz1 that it has been a sun1 is   
saying things equally possible or       
impossible1 and to which it would be    
ridiculous to apply the rules of        
probability4 ,to say that the sea       
formerly covered all the earth1 that it 
surrounded the whole globe1 and that it 
is for this reason shells are  every    
where found1 is not paying attention to 
a very essential point1  the unity of   
the time of the creation2 for if that   
was so1 it must  necessarily be         
admitted1 that shell-fish1 and other    
inhabitants of the  sea1 of which we    
find the remains in the internal part of
 the earth1  existed long before man1   
and all terrestrial animals4 ,now1      
independent  of the testimony of holy   
writ1 is it not reasonable to think1    
that all  animals and vegetables are    
nearly as ancient as each other8    ,m4 
,scheutzer1 in a ,dissertation1         

addressed to the ,academy of ,sciences  
in  #agbh1 attributes1 like ,woodward1  
the change1 or rather the second        
formation of the globe1 to the universal
 deluge2 to explain that of  mountains1 
he says1 that after the deluge1 ,god    
chusing to return the  waters into      
subterraneous reservoirs1 broke and     
displaced with his  all-powerful hand a 
number of beds1 before horizontal1 and  
raised them  above the surface of the   
globe1 which was originally level4 ,the 
whole  ,dissertation is composed to     
imply this opinion4 ,as it was requisite
  these eminences should be of a solid  
consistence1 ,m4 ,scheutzer remarks1    
that ,god only drew them from places    
where there were many stones2 from      
hence1 says he1 it proceeds that those  
countries1 like ,switzerland1  which are
 very stony1 are also mountainous2 and  
on the contrary1 those1  as ,holland1   
,flanders1 ,hungary and ,poland1 have   
only sand or clay1 even  to a very great
 depth1 and are almost entirely without 

mountains4#adg3;,a    ,this author1 more
 than any other1 is desirous of blending
 ,physic with  ,theology1 and though he 
has given some good observations1 the   
systematical part of his works is still 
weaker than those who preceded  him4 ,on
 this subject he has even made          
declamations and ridiculous  witticisms1
 as may be seen in his ,visciam qurel1  
c4 without  speaking of his large work  
in many folio volumes1 ,physica ,sacra1 
a  puerile work1 which appears to be    
composed less for the instruction of    
men than for the amusement of children4 
,steno1 and some others1 have attributed
 the cause of the inequalities of  the  
earth to particular inundations1        
earthquakes1 c4 but the effects of      
these secondary causes have been only   
able to produce some slight  changes4   
,we admit of these causes after the     
first cause1 the motion of  the flux and
 reflux1 and of the sea from east to    
west4 ,neither ,steno1  nor the rest1   
have given theory1 nor even any general 

facts on this  matter4#adh3;,a    ,ray  
pretends that all mountains have been   
produced by earthquakes1 and  he has    
composed a treatise to prove it2 we     
shall shew under the article  of        
,volcanos what little foundation his    
opinion is built upon4    ,we cannot    
dispense with observing that ,burnet1   
,woodward1 ,whiston1 and  most of these 
other authors1 have committed an error  
which deserves to  be cleared up2 which 
is1 to have looked upon the deluge as   
possible by  the action of natural      
causes1 whereas scripture presents it to
 us as  produced by the immediate will  
of ,god2 there is no natural cause which
  can produce on the whole surface of   
the earth1 the quantity of water        
required to cover the highest mountains2
 and if even we could imagine a  cause  
proportionate to this effect1 it would  
still be impossible to find  another    
cause capable of causing the water to   
disappear3 allowing  ,whiston1 that     
these waters proceeded from the tail of 

a comet1 we deny  that any could proceed
 from the great abyss1 or that they all 
returned  into it1 since the great      
abyss1 according to him1 being          
surrounded on  every side by the crust1 
or terrestrial orb1 it is impossible    
that the  attraction of the comet could 
cause any motion to the fluids it       
contained2 much less1 as he says1 a     
violent flux and reflux2 hence there    
could not be issued from1 nor entered   
into1 the great abyss1 a single  drop of
 water2 and unless it is supposed that  
the waters which fell from  the comet   
have been destroyed by a miracle1 they  
would still be on the  surface of the   
earth1 covering the summits of the      
highest mountains4  ,nothing better     
characterises a miracle1 than the       
impossibility of  explaining the effect 
of it by natural causes4 ,our authors   
have made  vain efforts to give a reason
 for the deluge2 their physical efforts1
  and the secondary causes1 which they  
made use of1 prove the truth of the     

fact as reported in the scriptures1 and 
demonstrate that it could only  have    
been performed by the first cause1 the  
will of the ,almighty4    ,besides1 it  
is certain that it was neither at one   
time1 nor by the  effect of the deluge1 
that the sea left dry these continents  
we inhabit3  for it is certain by the   
testimony of holy writ1 that the        
terrestrial  paradise was in ,asia1 and 
that ,asia was inhabited before the     
deluge2  consequently the sea1 at that  
time1 did not cover this considerable   
part  of the globe4 ,the earth1 before  
the deluge1 was nearly as it is at      
present1 and this enormous quantity of  
water1 which divine justice  caused to  
fall on the earth to punish guilty men1 
in fact1 brought death  on every        
creature2 but it produced no change on  
the surface of the  earth1 it did not   
even destroy plants which grew upon it1 
since the dove  brought an olive branch 
to the ark in her beak4    ,why1        
therefore1 imagine1 as many of our      

naturalists have done1 that this  water 
totally changed the surface of the globe
 even to a depth of two  thousand feet8 
,why do they desire it to be the deluge 
which has brought  the shells on the    
earth which we meet with at #g or #hjj  
feet depth in  rocks and marble8 ,why   
say1 that the hills and mountains were  
formed at  that time8 ,and how can we   
figure to ourselves1 that it is possible
 for  these waters to have brought      
masses and banks of shells #ajj miles   
long8  ,i see not how they can persist  
in this opinion1 at least1 without      
admitting a double miracle in the       
deluge2 the first1 for the  augmentation
 of the waters2 and the second1 for the 
transportation of  the shells2 but as   
there is only the first which is related
 in the  ,bible1 ,i do not see it       
necessary to make the second an article 
of our  creed4    ,on the other hand1 if
 the waters of the deluge had retired   
all at once1  they would have carried so
 great a quantity of mud and other      

impurities1  that the ,earth would not  
have been capable of culture till many  
ages  after this inundation2 as is      
known1 by the deluge which happened in  
,greece1 where the overflowed country   
was totally forsaken1 and could not     
receive any cultivation for more than   
three centuries4#aea3;,a ,we ought  also
 to look on the universal deluge as a   
supernatural means of which  the        
,almighty made use for the chastisement 
of mankind1 and not as an  effect of a  
natural cause4 ,the universal deluge is 
a miracle both in its  cause and        
effects2 we see clearly by the scripture
 that it was designed  for the          
destruction of men and animals1 and that
 it did not in any mode  change the     
earth1 since after the retreat of the   
waters1 the mountains1  and even the    
trees1 were in their places1 and the    
surface of the earth  was proper to     
receive culture and produce vines and   
fruits4 ,how could  all the race of     
fish1 which did not enter the ark1 be   

preserved1 if the  earth had been       
dissolved in the water1 or only if the  
waters had been  sufficiently agitated  
to transport shells from ,india to      
,europe1 c48    ,nevertheless1 this     
supposition1 that it was the deluge     
which transported  the shells of the sea
 into every climate1 is the opinion1 or 
rather the  superstition1 of            
naturalists4 ,woodward1 ,scheutzer1 and 
some more1 call  these petrified shells 
the remains of the deluge2 they look on 
them as  the medals and monuments which 
,god has left us of this terrible event1
  in order that it never should be      
effaced from the human race4 ,in short1 
they have adopted this hypothesis with  
so much enthusiasm1 that they  appear   
only desirous to reconcile holy         
scripture with their opinion2 and       
instead of making use of their          
observations1 and deriving light        
therefrom1 they envelope themselves in  
the clouds of a physical  theology1 the 
obscurity of which is derogatory to the 

simplicity and  dignity of religion1 and
 only leaves the absurd to perceive a   
ridiculous  mixture of human ideas and  
divine truths4 ,to pretend to explain   
the  universal ,deluge1 and its physical
 causes2 to attempt to teach what       
passed in the time of that great        
revolution2 to divine what were the     
effects of it2 to add facts to those of 
,holy ,writ1 to draw consequences  from 
such facts1 is only a presumptuous      
attempt to measure the power of  the    
,most ,high4 ,the natural wonders which 
his benevolent hand performs in  an     
uniform and regular manner1 are         
incomprehensible2 and by the  strongest 
reason1 these wonderful operations and  
miracles ought to hold  us in awful     
wonder1 and in silent adoration4    ,but
 they will say1 the universal ,deluge   
being a certain fact1 is it not         
permitted to reason on its consequences8
 ,it may be so2 but it is  requisite    
that you should begin by allowing that  
the ,deluge could not be  performed by  

physical causes2 you ought to consider  
it is an immediate  effect of the will  
of the ,almighty2 you ought to confine  
yourselves to  know only what the ,holy 
,writ teaches1 and particularly not to  
blend bad  philosophy with the purity of
 divine truth4 ,these precautions1 which
 the  respect we owe to the ,almighty   
exacts1 being taken1 what remains for   
examination on the subject of the       
,deluge8 ,does the ,scripture say       
mountains were formed by the ,deluge8   
,no1 it says the contrary4 ,is it  said 
that the agitation of the waters was so 
great as to raise up shells  from the   
bottom of the sea1 and transport them   
all over the earth8 ,no2  the ark       
floated quietly on the surface of the   
waters4 ,is it said1 that  the earth    
suffered a total dissolution8 ,none at  
all3 the recital of the  sacred         
historian is simple and true1 that of   
these naturalists complex  and fabulous4
      ,,footnotes3    #ach3;,a ,voyage  
du ,levant1 vol4 #b1 page #ccf4         

#adg3;,a ,see the ,hist4 of the ,acad4  
#agjh1 page #cb4    #adh3;,a ,see the   
,diss4 de ,solido intra ,solidum1 c4    
#aea3;,a ,see ,acta erudit1 ,lepiss1    
,ann4 #afia1 page #ajj4                 
,,article ,,vi4    ,,geography4         
,the surface of the ,earth1 like that of
 ,jupiter1 is not divided by bands      
alternative and parallel to the equator2
 on the contrary1 it is divided  from   
one pole to the other1 by two bands of  
earth1 and two of sea2 the  first and   
principal is the ancient continent1 the 
greatest length of  which is found to be
 in a line1 beginning on the east point 
of the  northern part of ,tartary1 and  
extending from thence to the land which 
borders on the gulph of ,linchidolkin1  
where the ,muscovites fish for  whales2 
from thence to ,tobolski1 from ,tobolski
 to the ,caspian sea1 from  the ,caspian
 sea to ,mecca1 and from ,mecca to the  
western part of the  country inhabited  
by the ,galli1 in ,africa2 afterwards to
 ,monoemuci or  ,monomotapa1 and at last

 to the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 this line1
 which is  the greatest length of the   
old continent1 is about #cfjj leagues1  
,paris  measure2 it is only interrupted 
by the ,caspian and ,red seas1 the      
breadths of which are not very          
considerable1 and we must not pay any   
regard to these interruptions1 when it  
is considered1 the surface of the  globe
 is divided only in four parts4    ,this
 greatest length is found by measuring  
the old continent diagonally2  for if   
measured according to the meridians1 we 
shall find that there are  only #bejj   
leagues from the northernmost ,cape of  
,lapland to the ,cape of  ,good ,hope2  
and that the ,baltic and ,mediterranean 
cause a much greater  interruption than 
is met with in the other way4 ,with     
respect to all the  other distances that
 might be measured in the old continent 
under the  same meridian1 we shall find 
them to be much smaller than this2      
having1  for example1 only #ahjj leagues
 from the most southern point of the    

island of ,ceylon to the northernmost   
coast of ,nova ,zembla4 ,likewise1 if   
we measure the continent parallel to the
 equator1 we find that the  greatest    
uninterrupted length is found from      
,trefna1 on the western coast  of       
,africa1 to ,ninpo1 on the eastern coast
 of ,china1 and that it is about  #bhjj 
leagues4 ,another course may be measured
 from the point of ,brittany  near      
,brest1 extending to the ,chinese       
,tartary2 about #bcjj leagues4 ,from    
,bergen1 in ,norway1 to the coast of    
,kamschatka1 is no more than #ahjj      
leagues4 ,all these lines have much less
 length than the first1 therefore  the  
greatest extent of the old continent1   
is1 in fact1 from the eastern  point of 
,tartary to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1   
that is about #cfjj leagues4    ,there  
is so great an equality of surface on   
each side of this line1  which is also  
the longest1 that there is every        
probability to suppose it  really       
divides the contents of the ancient     

continent2 for in measuring  on one side
 is found #b1dga1jib-c_/d square        
leagues1 and on the other  #b1dfi1fhg4  
,agreeable to this1 the old continent   
consists of about #d1idj1ghj square     
leagues1 which is nearly one-fifth of   
the whole surface of the globe1  and has
 an inclination towards the equator of  
about #cj degrees4    ,the greatest     
length of the new continent may be taken
 in a line from the  mouth of the river 
,plata to the lake of ,assiniboils4     
,from the former it  passes to the lake 
,caracara2 from thence to ,mataguais1   
,pocona1 ,zongo1  ,mariana1 ,morua1 ,st4
 ,fe1 and ,carthagena2 it then proceeds 
through the  gulph of ,mexico1 ,jamaica1
 and ,cuba1 passes along the peninsula  
of  ,florida1 through ,apolache1        
,chicachas1 and from thence to ,st4     
,louis1 ,fort  le ,suer1 and ends on the
 borders of lake ,assiniboils2 the whole
 extent  of which is still unknown4     
,this line1 which is interrupted only by
 the ,mexican gulph 7which must be      

looked upon as a mediterranean sea7 may 
be about #bejj leagues long1 and        
divides the new continent into nearly   
two equal parts1 the left of which      
contains about #a1jfi1bhf-e_/f leagues  
square1 and that on the right about     
#a1jgj1ibf-a_/ab2 this line1 which forms
 the middle of the band of the new      
continent1 is inclined to the equator   
about #cj degrees1 but in an  opposite  
direction1 for that of the old continent
 extends from the  north-east to the    
south-west1 and that of the new         
continent from the  north-west to the   
south-east4 ,all those lands together of
 the old and  new continent1 make about 
#g1jhj1iic leagues square1 which is not 
near  the third of the whole surface1   
which contains #be millions of square   
leagues4    ,it must be remarked1 that  
these two lines1 which divide the       
continents  into two equal parts1 both  
terminate at the same degree of southern
 and  northern latitude1 and that the   
two continents make opposite            

projections1 which exactly face each    
other2 to wit1 the coasts of  ,africa1  
from the ,canary islands to the coasts  
of ,guinea1 and those of  ,america from 
,guiana to the mouth of ,rio ,janeiro4  
,it appears1 therefore1 that the most   
ancient land of the globe1 is on  the   
two sides of these lines1 at the        
distance of from #b to #bej leagues  on 
each side4 ,by following this idea1     
which is founded on the  observations   
before related1 we shall find in the old
 continent that the  most ancient lands 
of ,africa are those which extend from  
the ,cape of  ,good ,hope to the ,red   
,sea1 as far as ,egypt1 about #ejj      
leagues broad1 and  that1 consequently1 
all the western coasts of ,africa1 from 
,guinea to the  straits of ,gibraltar1  
are the newest lands4 ,so likewise we   
shall  discover that in ,asia1 if we    
follow the line on the same breadth1 the
  most ancient lands are ,arabia ,felix 
and ,deserta1 ,persia1 ,georgia1        
,turcomania1 part of ,tartary1          

,circassia1 part of ,muscovy1 c4 that   
consequently ,europe1 and perhaps also  
,china1 and the eastern part of         
,tartary1 are more modern4 ,in the new  
continent we shall find the ,terra      
,magellanica1 the eastern part of       
,brasil1 the country of the ,amazons1   
,guiana1 and ,canada1 to be the new     
lands1 in comparison with ,peru1 ,terra 
,firma1 the islands in the gulph of     
,mexico1 ,florida1 the ,mississippi1 and
  ,mexico4    ,to these observations we 
may add two very remarkable facts1 the  
old and  new continent are almost       
opposite each other2 the old is more    
extensive  to the north of the equator  
than the south2 the new is more to the  
south  than the north4 ,the centre of   
the old continent is in the #afth or    
#ahth  degree of north latitude1 and the
 centre of the new is in the #afth or   
#ahth degree south latitude1 so that    
they seem to be made to  counterbalance 
each other4 ,there is also a singular   
connexion between  the two continents1  

although it appears to be more          
accidental than those  which ,i have    
spoken of1 which is1 that if the two    
continents were  divided into two parts1
 all four would be surrounded by the    
sea1 if it  were not for the two small  
isthmuses1 ,suez and ,panama4    ,this  
is the most general idea which an       
attentive inspection of the globe       
furnishes us with1 on the division of   
the earth4 ,we shall abstain from       
forming hypotheses thereon1 and         
hazarding reasonings which might lead   
into false conclusions2 but no one as   
yet having considered the  division of  
the globe under this point of view1 ,i  
shall submit a few  remarks4 ,it is very
 singular that the line which forms the 
greatest  length of the terrestrial     
continents divides them also into two   
equal  parts2 it is no less so that     
these two lines commence and end at the 
same degrees of latitude1 and are both  
alike inclined to the equator4  ,these  
relations may belong to some general    

conclusions1 but of which we  are       
ignorant4 ,the inequalities in the      
figure of the two continents we  shall  
hereafter examine more fully3 it is     
sufficient here to observe1  that the   
most ancient countries are the nearest  
to these lines1 and are  the highest2   
that the more modern lands are the      
farthest1 and also the  lowest4 ,thus in
 ,america1 the country of the ,amazons1 
,guiana and ,canada  will be the most   
modern parts2 by casting our eyes on the
 map of this  country we see the waters 
on every side1 and that they are divided
 by  numberless lakes and rivers1 which 
also indicates that these lands are  of 
a late formation2 while on the other    
hand ,peru and ,mexico are high         
mountains1 and situate at no great      
distance from the line that divides  the
 continent1 which are circumstances that
 seem to prove their  antiquity4 ,africa
 is very mountainous1 and that part of  
the world is  also very ancient4 ,there 
are only ,egypt1 ,barbary1 and the      

western coasts  of ,africa1 as far as   
,senegal1 in this part of the globe1    
which can be  looked upon as modern     
countries4 ,asia is an old land1 and    
perhaps the  most ancient of all1       
particularly ,arabia1 ,persia1 and      
,tartary2 but the  inequalities of this 
vast part of the globe1 as well as those
 of ,europe1  we will consider in a     
separate article4 ,it might be said in  
general1  that ,europe is a new country1
 and such position would be supported   
both  by the universal traditions       
relative to the emigrations of different
  people1 and the origin of arts and    
sciences4 ,it is not long since it was  
filled with morasses1 and covered with  
forests1 whereas in the land  anciently 
inhabited1 there are but few woods1     
little water1 no morasses1  much land1  
and a number of mountains1 whose summits
 are dry and barren2  for men destroy   
the woods1 drain the waters1 confine    
rivers1 dry up  morasses1 and in time   
give a different appearance to the face 

of the  earth1 from that1 of uninhabited
 or newly-peopled countries4    ,the    
ancients were acquainted with but a     
small part of the globe4 ,all  ,america1
 the ,magellanic1 and a great part of   
the interior of ,africa1  was entirely  
unknown to them4 ,they knew not that the
 torrid zone was  inhabited1 although   
they had navigated around ,africa1 for  
it is #bbjj  years since ,neco1 king of 
,egypt1 gave vessels to the ,phenicians1
 who  sailed along the ,red ,sea1       
coasted round ,africa1 doubled the ,cape
 of ,good  ,hope1 and having employed   
two years in this voyage1 the third year
 they  entered the straits of           
,gibraltar4#afc3;,a ,the ancients were  
unacquainted  with the property of the  
loadstone1 if turned towards the poles1 
although they knew that it attracted    
iron4 ,they were ignorant of the        
general cause of the flux and reflux of 
the sea1 nor were they certain  the     
ocean surrounded the globe2 some indeed 
suspected it might be so1  but with so  

little foundation1 that no one dared to 
say1 or even  conjecture1 it was        
possible to make a voyage round the     
world4 ,magellan  was the first who     
attempted it in the year #aeai1 and     
accomplished the  great voyage in #aabd 
days4 ,sir ,francis ,drake was the      
second in #aegg1 and  he performed it in
 #ajef days2 afterwards ,thomas         
,cavendish made this  great voyage in   
#ggg days1 in the year #aehf4 ,these    
celebrated navigators  were the first   
who demonstrated physically the         
sphericity and the  extent of the       
earth's circumference2 for the ancients 
had no conception  of the extent of this
 circumference1 although they had       
travelled a great  deal4 ,the trade     
winds1 so useful in long voyages1 were  
also unknown to  them2 therefore we must
 not be surprised at the little progress
 they  made in geography4               
,notwithstanding the knowledge we have  
acquired by the  aid of mathematical    
sciences1 and the discovery of          

navigators1 many  things remain still   
unsettled1 and vast countries           
undiscovered4 ,almost  all the land on  
the side of the ,atlantic pole is       
unknown to us2 we only  know that there 
is some1 and that it is separated from  
all the other  continents by the ocean4 
,much land also remains to be discovered
 on the  side of the ,arctic pole1 and  
it is to be regretted that for more than
 a  century the ardour of discovering   
new countries is extremely abated4      
,european governments seem to prefer1   
and possibly with reason1  increasing   
the value of those countries we are     
acquainted with to the  glory of        
conquering new ones4    ,nevertheless1  
the discovery of the southern continent 
would be a great  object of curiosity1  
and might be useful4 ,we have discovered
 only some  few of its coasts2 those    
navigators who have attempted this      
discovery1  have always been stopt by   
the ice4 ,the thick fogs1 which are in  
those  latitudes1 is another obstacle2  

yet1 in defiance of these               
inconveniencies1 it is probable that by 
sailing from the ,cape of ,good  ,hope  
at different seasons1 we might at last  
discover a part of these  lands1 which  
hitherto make a separate world4         
,there is another method1 which possibly
 might succeed better4 ,the ice  and    
fogs having hitherto prevented the      
discovery1 might it not be  attempted by
 the ,pacific ,sea2 sailing from        
,baldivia1 or any other port  on the    
coast of ,chili1 and traversing this sea
 under the #ejth degree  south latitude8
 ,there is not the least appearance that
 this navigation  is perilous1 and it is
 probable would be attended with the    
discovery of  new countries2 for what   
remains for us to know on the coast of  
the  southern pole1 is so considerable1 
that we may estimate it at a fourth     
part of the globe1 and of course may    
contain a continent1 as large as        
,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 all        
together4    ,as we are not at all      

acquainted with this part of the globe1 
we cannot  justly know the proportion   
between the surface of the earth and    
that of  the sea2 only as much as may be
 judged by inspection of what is known1 
there is more sea than land4    ,if we  
would have an idea of the enormous      
quantity of water which the sea         
contains1 we must suppose a medium      
depth1 and by computing it only at  #bjj
 fathom1 or the sixth part of a league1 
we shall find that there is  sufficient 
to cover the whole globe to the height  
of #fjj feet of water1  and if we would 
reduce this water into one mass1 it     
would form a globe  of more than #fj    
miles diameter4    ,navigators pretend1 
that the latitudes near the south pole  
are much  colder than those of the      
north1 but there is no appearance that  
this  opinion is founded on truth1 and  
probably has been adopted1 because ice  
is found in latitudes where it is       
scarcely ever seen in the southern      
seas2 but that may proceed from some    

particular cause4 ,we find no ice in    
,april on this side #fg and #fh degrees 
northern latitude3 and the savages  of  
,arcadia and ,canada say1 when it is not
 all melted in that month1 it  is a sign
 the rest of the year will be cold and  
rainy4 ,in #agbe there may  be said to  
have been no summer1 it rained almost   
continually2 and the  ice of the        
northern sea was not only not melted in 
,april in the #fgth  degree1 but even it
 was found the #aeth of ,june towards   
the #dast and #db;d  degree#afg3;,a4    
,a great quantity of floating ice       
appears in the northern sea1 especially 
at some distance from land4 ,it comes   
from the ,tartarian sea into that of    
,nova ,zembla1 and other parts of the   
,frozen ,ocean4 ,i have been assured by 
people of credit1 that an ,english      
,captain1 named ,monson1 instead of     
seeking a passage between the northern  
land to go to ,china1 directed his      
course strait to the pole1 and had      
approached it within two degrees2  that 

in this course he had found an open sea1
 without any ice1 which  proves that the
 ice is formed near land1 and never in  
open sea2 for if  we should suppose1    
against all probability1 that it might  
be cold enough  at the pole to freeze   
over the surface of the sea1 it is still
 not  conceivable how these enormous    
floating mountains of ice could be      
formed1 if they did not find a fixed    
point against land1 from whence         
afterwards they were loosened by the    
heat of the sun4 ,the two vessels  which
 the ,east ,india ,company sent1 in     
#agci1 to discover land in the  ,south  
,seas1 found ice in the latitude of #dg 
and #dh degrees1 but this  ice was not  
far from shore1 that being in sight     
although they were  unable to land4     
,this must have been separated from the 
adjoining lands  of the south pole1 and 
it may be conjectured that they follow  
the course  of some great rivers1 which 
water the unknown land1 the same as the 
,oby1  ,jenisca1 and other great floods1

 which fall into the ,north ,seas1 carry
  with them the ice1 which1 during the  
greatest part of the year1 stops up  the
 straits of ,waigat1 and renders the    
,tartarian sea unnavigable by this      
course2 whereas beyond ,nova ,zembla1   
and nearer the poles1 where there  are  
few rivers1 and but little land1 ice is 
not so frequently met with1  and the sea
 is more navigable2 so that if they     
would still attempt the  voyage to      
,china and ,japan by the ,north ,seas1  
we should possibly1 to keep  clear from 
the land and ice1 shape our course to   
the pole1 and seek the  open seas1 where
 certainly there is but little or no    
ice2 for it is  known that salt water   
can1 without freezing1 become colder    
than fresh  water when frozen1 and      
consequently the excessive cold of the  
pole may  possibly render the sea colder
 than the ice1 without the surface being
  frozen3 so much the more as at #hj or 
#hb degrees1 the surface of the  sea1   
although mixed with much snow and fresh 

water1 is only frozen near  the shore4  
,by collecting the testimonies of       
travellers1 on the passage  from ,europe
 to ,china1 it appears that one does    
exist by the north sea2  and the reason 
it has been so often attempted in vain  
is1 because they  have always feared to 
go sufficiently far from land1 and      
approach the  pole4    ,captain ,william
 ,barents1 who1 as well as others1 run  
aground in his  voyage1 yet did not     
doubt but there was a passage1 and that 
if he had  gone farther from shore1 he  
should have found an open sea free from 
ice4  ,the ,russian navigators1 sent by 
the ,czar to survey the north seas1     
relate that ,nova ,zembla is not an     
island1 but belonging to the continent  
of ,tartary1 and that to the north of it
 is a free and open sea4 ,a ,dutch      
navigator asserts1 that the sea throws  
up whales on the coasts of ,corea  and  
,japan1 which have ,english and ,dutch  
harpoons on their backs4 ,another       
,dutchman has pretended to have been at 

the pole1 and asserts it is as  warm    
there as it is at ,amsterdam in the     
middle of the summer4 ,an  ,englishman1 
named ,golding1 who made more than      
thirty voyages to  ,greenland1 related  
to ,king ,charles ,,ii4 that two ,dutch 
vessels with which  he had sailed1      
having found no whales on the coast of  
the island of  ,edges1 resolved to      
proceed farther north1 and that upon    
their return at  the expiration of      
fifteen days1 they told him that they   
had been as far  as #hi degrees latitude
 7within one degree of the pole71 and   
that they  found no ice there1 but an   
open deep sea like that of the ,bay of  
,biscay1  and that they shewed him the  
journals of the two vessels1 as a proof 
of  what they affirmed4 ,in short1 it is
 related in the ,philosophical          
,transactions that two navigators1 who  
had undertaken the discovery of  this   
passage1 shaped a course #cjj leagues to
 the east of ,nova ,zembla1  but that   
the ,east ,india ,company1 who thought  

it their interest this  passage should  
not be discovered1 hindered them from   
returning#agj3;,a4  ,but the ,dutch     
,east ,india ,company thought1 on the   
contrary1 that it was  their interest to
 find this passage2 having attempted it 
in vain on the  side of ,europe1 they   
sought it by that of ,japan1 and they   
would probably  have succeeded1 if the  
,emperor of ,japan had not forbidden all
 strangers  from navigating on the side 
of the land of ,jesso4 ,this passage1   
therefore1 cannot be found but by       
sailing to the pole1 beyond             
,spitzbergen1 or by keeping the open sea
 between ,nova ,zembla and  ,spitzbergen
 under the #gith degree of latitude4 ,we
 need not fear to find  it frozen even  
under the pole itself1 for reasons we   
have alledged2 in  fact1 there is no    
example of the sea being frozen at a    
considerable  distance from the shore2  
the only example of a sea being frozen  
entirely  over1 is that of the ,black   
,sea1 which is narrow1 contains but     

little  salt1 and receives a number of  
rivers from the northern countries1 and 
which bring ice with them3 and if we may
 credit historians1 it was  frozen in   
the time of the ,emperor ,copronymus1   
thirty cubits deep1  without reckoning  
twenty cubits of snow above the ice4    
,this appears to  be exaggerated1 but it
 is certain that it freezes almost every
 winter2  whereas the open seas1 a      
thousand leagues nearer the pole1 do not
 freeze  at all3 this can only proceed  
from the saltness1 and the little ice   
which they receive1 in comparison with  
that transported into the ,black  ,sea4 
,this ice1 which is looked upon as a    
barrier that opposes the navigation     
near the poles1 and the discovery of the
 southern continent1 proves only  that  
there are large rivers adjacent to the  
places where it is met  with2 and       
indicates also there are vast continents
 from whence these  rivers flow2 nor    
ought we to be discouraged at the sight 
of these  obstacles2 for if we consider1

 we shall easily perceive1 this ice must
  be confined to some particular places2
 that it is almost impossible that  it  
should occupy the whole circle which    
encompasses1 as we suppose1 the         
southern continent1 and therefore we    
should probably succeed if we were  to  
direct our course towards some other    
point of this circle4 ,the  description 
which ,dampier and some others have     
given of ,new ,holland1  leads us to    
suspect that this part of the globe is  
perhaps a part of the  southern lands1  
and is a country less ancient than the  
rest of this  unknown continent4 ,new   
,holland is a low country1 without water
 or  mountains1 but thinly inhabited1   
and the natives without industry2 all   
this concurs to make us think that they 
are in this continent nearly  what the  
savages of ,amaconia or ,paraguais are  
in ,america4 ,we have found  polished   
men1 empires1 and kings1 at ,peru and   
,mexico1 which are the  highest1 and    
consequently the most ancient countries 

of ,america4  ,savages1 on the contrary1
 are found in the lowest and most modern
  countries2 therefore we may presume   
that we should also find men united  by 
the bands of society in the upper       
countries1 from whence these great      
rivers1 which bring this prodigious ice 
to the sea1 derive their  sources4      
,the interior parts of ,africa are      
unknown to us1 almost as much as they   
were to the ancients3 they had1 like us1
 made the tour of that vast  peninsula1 
but they have left us neither charts1   
nor descriptions of the  coasts4 ,pliny 
informs us1 that the tour of ,africa was
 made in the time  of ,alexander the    
,great1 that the wrecks of some ,spanish
 vessels had been  discovered in the    
,arabian sea1 and that ,hanno1 a        
,carthaginian general1  had made a      
voyage from ,gades to the ,arabian sea1 
and that he had written  a relation of  
it4 ,besides that1 he says ,cornelius   
,nepos tells us that in  his time one   
,eudoxus1 persecuted by the king        

,lathurus1 was obliged to  fly from his 
country2 that departing from the        
,arabian gulph1 he arrived  at ,gades1  
and that before this time they traded   
from ,spain to ,ethiopia  by            
sea#agc3;,a4 ,notwithstanding these     
testimonies of the ancients1 we are     
persuaded that they never doubled the   
,cape of ,good ,hope1 and the course    
which the ,portuguese took the first to 
go to the ,east-,indies1 was  looked    
upon as a new discovery2 it will not    
perhaps1 therefore1 be  deemed amiss to 
give the belief of the #ith century on  
this subject4    ,in our time an entire 
new discovery has been made1 which was  
wholly  unknown to those who lived      
before us4 ,no one thought1 or even     
suspected1  that the sea1 which extends 
from ,india to ,china1 had a            
communication  with the ,syrian sea4 ,we
 have found1 according to what ,i have  
learnt1 in  the sea ,roum1 or           
,mediterranean1 the wreck of an ,arabian
 vessel1  shattered to pieces by the    

tempest1 some of which were carried by  
the  wind and waves to the ,cozar sea1  
and from thence to the ,mediterranean1  
and was at length thrown on the coast of
 ,syria4 ,this proves that the sea      
surrounds ,china and ,cila1 the         
extremity of ,turqueston and the country
 of  the ,cozars2 that it afterwards    
flows by the strait till it has washed  
the coast of ,syria4 ,the proof is drawn
 from the construction of the  vessel2  
for no other vessels but those of ,siraf
 are built without nails1  which1 as was
 the wreck we speak of1 are joined      
together in a particular  manner1 as if 
they were sewed4 ,those1 of all the     
vessels of the  ,mediterranean and of   
the coast of ,syria1 are nailed and not 
joined in  this manner#age3;,a4    ,to  
this the translator of this ancient     
relation adds4--    ,abuziel remarks1 as
 a new and very extraordinary thing1    
that a vessel  was carried from the     
,indian sea1 and cast on the coasts of  
,syria4 ,to  find a passage into the    

,mediterranean1 he supposes there is a  
great  extent above ,china1 which has a 
communication with the ,cozar sea1 that 
is1 with ,muscovia4 ,the sea which is   
below ,cape ,current1 was entirely      
unknown to the ,arabs1 by reason of the 
extreme danger of the navigation1  and  
from the continent being inhabited by   
such a barbarous people1 that  it was   
not easy to subject them1 nor even to   
civilize them by commerce4  ,from the   
,cape of ,good ,hope to ,soffala1 the   
,portuguese found no  established       
settlement of ,moors1 like those in all 
the maritime towns as  far as ,china1   
which was the farthest place known to   
geographers2 but  they could not tell   
whether the ,chinese sea1 by the        
extremity of ,africa1  had a            
communication with the sea of ,barbary1 
and they contented  themselves with     
describing it as far as the coast of    
,zing1 or  ,caffraria4 ,this is the     
reason why we cannot doubt but that the 
first  discovery of the passage of this 

sea1 by the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 was   
made  by the ,europeans1 under the      
conduct of ,vasco de ,gama1 or at least 
some  years before he doubled the ,cape1
 if it is true there are marine charts  
of an older date1 where the ,cape is    
called by the name of ,frontiera du     
,africa4 ,antonio ,galvin testifies1    
from the relation of ,francisco de      
,sousa ,tavares1 that1 in #aebh1 the    
,infant ,don ,ferdinand shewed him such 
a  chart1 which he found in the         
monastery of ,acoboca1 dated #abj years 
before1 copied perhaps from that said to
 be in the treasury of ,st4 ,mark1  at  
,venice1 which also marks the point of  
,africa1 according to the  testimony of 
,ramusio1 c4    ,the ignorance of those 
ages1 on the subject of the navigation  
around  ,africa1 will appear perhaps    
less singular than the silence of the   
editor  of this ancient relation on the 
subject of the passages of ,herodotus1  
,pliny1 c4 which we have quoted1 and    
which proves the ancients had made  the 

tour of ,africa4    ,be it as it may1   
the ,african coasts are now well known2 
but whatever  attempts have been made to
 penetrate into the inner parts of the  
country1 we have not been able to attain
 sufficient knowledge of it to  give    
exact relations#agg3;,a4 ,it might1     
nevertheless1 be of great  advantage1 if
 we were1 by ,senegal1 or some other    
river1 to get farther  up the country   
and establish settlements1 as we should 
find1 according  to all appearances1 a  
country as rich in precious mines as    
,peru or the  ,brazils4 ,it is perfectly
 known that the ,african rivers abound  
with gold1  and as this country is very 
mountainous1 and situated under the     
equator1  it is not to be doubted but it
 contains1 as well as ,america1 mines of
  heavy metals1 and of the most compact 
and hard stones4    ,the vast extent of 
north and east ,tartary has only been   
discovered in  these latter times4 ,if  
the ,muscovite maps are just1 we are at 
present  acquainted with the coasts of  

all this part of ,asia2 and it appears  
that  from the point of eastern ,tartary
 to ,north ,america1 it is not more than
  four or five hundred leagues3 it has  
even been pretended that this tract  was
 much shorter1 for in the ,amsterdam    
,gazette1 of the #bdth of ,january1     
#agdg1 it is said1 under the article of 
,petersburgh1 that ,mr4  ,stalleravoit  
had discovered one of these ,american   
islands beyond  ,kamschatca1 and        
demonstrated that we might go thither   
from ,russia by a  shorter tract4 ,the  
,jesuits1 and other missionaries1 have  
also pretended  to have discovered      
savages in ,tartary1 whom they had      
catechised in  ,america1 which should in
 fact suppose that passage to be still  
shorter#agh3;,a4 ,this author even      
pretends1 that the two continents of    
the old and new world join by the north1
 and says1 that the last  navigations of
 the ,japanese afford room to judge1    
that the tract of  which we have spoken 
is only a bay1 above which we may pass  

by land from  ,asia to ,america4 ,but   
this requires confirmation1 for hitherto
 it has  been thought that the continent
 of the north pole is separated from the
  other continents1 as well as that of  
the south pole4    ,astronomy and       
,navigation are carried to so high a    
pitch of perfection1  that it may       
reasonably be expected we shall soon    
have an exact  knowledge of the whole   
surface of the globe4 ,the ancients knew
 only a  small part of it1 because they 
had not the mariner's compass4 ,some    
people have pretended that the ,arabs   
invented the compass1 and used it a     
long time before we did1 to trade on the
 ,indian sea1 as far as ,china2  but    
this opinion has always appeared        
destitute of all probability2 for  there
 is no word in the ,arab1 ,turkish1 or  
,persian languages1 which  signifies the
 compass2 they make use of the ,italian 
word ,bossola2 they  do not even at     
present know how to make a compass1 nor 
give the  magnetical quality to the     

needle1 but purchase them from the      
,europeans4  ,father ,maritini says1    
that the ,chinese have been acquainted  
with the  compass for upwards of #cjjj  
years2 but if that was the case1 how    
comes  it that they have made so little 
use of it8 ,why did they1 in their      
voyages to ,cochinchina1 take a course  
much longer than was necessary8  ,and   
why did they always confine themselves  
to the same voyages1 the  greatest of   
which were to ,java and ,sumatra8 ,and  
why did not they  discover1 before the  
,europeans1 an infinity of fertile      
islands1  bordering on their own        
country1 if they had possessed the art  
of  navigating in the open seas8 ,for a 
few years after the discovery of  this  
wonderful property of the loadstone1 the
 ,portuguese doubled the  ,cape of ,good
 ,hope1 traversed the ,african and      
,indian seas1 and  ,christopher         
,columbus made his voyage to ,america4  
,by a little consideration1 it was easy 
to divine there were immense  spaces    

towards the west2 for1 by comparing the 
known part of the globe1  as for        
example1 the distance of ,spain to      
,china1 and attending to the  revolution
 of the ,earth and ,heavens1 it was easy
 to see that there  remained a much     
greater extent towards the west to be   
discovered1 than  what they were        
acquainted with towards the east4 ,it1  
therefore1 was not  from the defect of  
astronomical knowledge that the ancients
 did not find  the new world1 but only  
for want of the compass4 ,the passages  
of ,plato  and ,aristotle1 where they   
speak of countries far distant from the 
,pillars of ,hercules1 seem to indicate 
that some navigators had been  driven by
 tempest as far as ,america1 from whence
 they returned with much  difficulty2   
and it may be conjectured1 that if even 
the ancients had  been persuaded of the 
existence of this continent1 they would 
not have  even thought it possible to   
strike out the road1 having no guide nor
  any knowledge of the compass4    ,i   

own1 that it is not impossible to       
traverse the high seas without a        
compass1 and that very resolute people  
might have undertaken to seek  after the
 new world by conducting themselves     
simply by the stars4 ,the  ,astrolabe   
being known to the ancients1 it might   
strike them they could  leave ,france or
 ,spain1 and sail to the west1 by       
keeping the polar star  always to the   
right1 and by frequent soundings might  
have kept nearly in  the same latitude2 
without doubt the ,carthaginians1 of    
whom ,aristotle  makes mention1 found   
the means of returning from these remote
 countries  by keeping the polar star to
 the left2 but it must be allowed that a
  like voyage would be looked upon as a 
rash enterprize1 and that  consequently 
we must not be astonished that the      
ancients had not even  conceived the    
project4    ,previous to ,christopher   
,columbus's expedition1 the ,azores1 the
 ,canaries1  and ,madeira were          
discovered4 ,it was remarked1 that when 

the west winds  lasted a long time1 the 
sea brought pieces of foreign wood on   
the coast  of these islands1 canes of   
unknown species1 and even dead bodies1  
which  by many marks were discovered to 
be neither ,european nor ,african4      
,columbus himself remarked1 that on the 
side of the west certain winds  blew    
only a few days1 and which he was       
persuaded were land winds2 but  although
 he had all these advantages over the   
ancients1 and the  knowledge of the     
compass1 the difficulties still to      
conquer were so  great1 that there was  
only the success he met with which could
 justify  the enterprise4 ,suppose1 for 
a moment1 that the continent of the new 
world had been #ajjj or #aejj miles     
farther than it in fact is1 a thing     
with ,columbus could neither know nor   
foresee1 he would not have arrived      
there1 and perhaps this great country   
might still have remained unknown4      
,this conjecture is so much the better  
founded1 as ,columbus1 although the     

most able navigator of his time1 was    
seized with fear and astonishment  in   
his second voyage to the new world2 for 
as in his first1 he only  found some    
islands1 he directed his course more to 
the south to discover  a continent1 and 
was stopt by currents1 the considerable 
extent and  direction of which always   
opposed his course1 and obliged him to  
direct  his search to the west2 he      
imagined that what had hindered him from
  advancing on the southern side was not
 currents1 but that the sea flowed  by  
raising itself towards the heavens1 and 
that perhaps both one and the  other    
touched on the southern side4 ,true it  
is1 that in great  enterprises the least
 unfortunate circumstance may turn a    
man's brain1  and abate his courage4    
,,footnotes3    #afc3;,a ,vide          
,herodotus1 lib4 iv4    #afg3;,a ,see   
the ,hist4 of the ,acad4 ,ann4 #agbe4   
#agj3;,a ,see the collection of         
,northern ,voyages1 page #bjj4          
#agc3;,a ,vide ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4     

,vol4 ,i4 lib4 #b4    #age3;,a ,see the 
ancient relations of travels by land to 
,china1 page #ec  and #ed4    #agg3;,a  
,since this time1 however1 great        
discoveries1 have been made2  ,mons4    
,vaillant has given a particular        
description of the country from  the    
,cape to the borders of ,caffraria2 and 
much information has also been  acquired
 by the ,society for ,asiatic           
,researches4    #agh3;,a ,see the ,hist4
 of ,new ,france1 by the ,pere          
,charlevoix4 ,vol4 ,,iii4  page #cj and 
#ca4          ,,article ,,vii4    ,,on  
,,the ,,production ,,of ,,the ,,strata1 
,,or ,,beds ,,of ,,earth4      ,we have 
shewn1 in the first article1 that by    
virtue of the mutual  attraction between
 the parts of matter1 and of the        
centrifugal force1  which results from  
its diurnal rotation1 the earth has     
necessarily taken  the form of a        
spheroid1 the diameters of which differ 
about a #bcjth  part1 and that it could 
only proceed from the changes on the    

surface1  caused by the motion of the   
air and water1 that this difference     
could  become greater1 as is pretended  
to be the case from the measures taken  
under the equator1 and within the polar 
circle4 ,this figure of the  earth1     
which so well agrees with hydrostatical 
laws1 and with our  theory1 supposes the
 globe to have been in a state of       
liquefaction when  it assumed its form1 
and we have proved that the motions of  
projection  and rotation were imprinted 
at the same time by a like impulsion4   
,we  shall the more easily believe that 
the earth has been in a state of        
liquefaction produced by fire1 when we  
consider the nature of the  matters     
which the globe incloses1 the greatest  
part of which are  vitrified or         
vitrifiable2 especially when we reflect 
on the  impossibility there is that the 
earth should ever have been in a state  
of fluidity1 produced by the waters2    
since there is infinitely more  earth   
than water1 and that water has not the  

power of dissolving stone1  sand1 and   
other matters of which the earth is     
composed4    ,it is plain then that the 
earth took its figure at the time when  
it was  liquefied by fire3 by pursuing  
our hypothesis it appears1 that when the
  sun quitted it1 the earth had no other
 form than that of a torrent of  melted 
and inflamed vapour matter2 that this   
torrent collected itself by  the mutual 
attraction of its parts1 and became a   
globe1 to which the  rotative motion    
gave the figure of a spheroid2 and when 
the earth was  cooled1 the vapours1     
which were first extended like the tails
 of comets1  by degrees condensed and   
fell upon the surface1 depositing1 at   
the same  time1 a slimy substance mixed 
with sulphurous and saline matters1 a   
part  of which1 by the motion of the    
waters1 was swept into the perpendicular
  cracks1 where it produced metals1     
while the rest remained on the  surface1
 and produced that reddish earth which  
forms the first strata2  and which1     

according to different places1 is more  
or less blended with  animal and        
vegetable particles1 so reduced that the
 organization is no  longer perceptible4
    ,therefore1 in the first state of   
the earth1 the globe was internally     
composed of vitrified matter1 as ,i     
believe it is at present1 above which   
were placed those bodies the fire had   
most divided1 as sand1 which are  only  
fragments of glass2 and above these1    
pumice stones and the scoria  of the    
vitrified matter1 which formed the      
various clays2 the whole was  covered   
with water #e or #fjj feet deep1        
produced by the condensation of  the    
vapours1 when the globe began to cool4  
,this water every where  deposited a    
muddy bed1 mixed with waters which      
sublime and exhale by the  fire2 and the
 air was formed of the most subtile     
vapours1 which1 by  their lightness1    
disengaged themselves from the waters1  
and surmounted  them4    ,such was the  
state of the globe when the action of   

the tides1 the winds1  and the heat of  
the sun1 began to change the surface of 
the earth4 ,the  diurnal motion1 and the
 flux and reflux1 at first raised the   
waters  under the southern climate1     
which carried with them mud1 clay1 and  
sand1  and by raising the parts of the  
equator1 they by degrees perhaps lowered
  those of the poles about two leagues1 
as we before mentioned2 for the  waters 
soon reduced into powder the pumice     
stones and other spongeous  parts of the
 vitrified matter that were at the      
surface1 they hollowed  some places1 and
 raised others1 which in course of time 
became  continents1 and produced all the
 inequalities1 and which are more       
considerable towards the equator than   
the poles2 for the highest  mountains   
are between the tropics and the middle  
of the temperate zones1  and the lowest 
are from the polar circle to the poles2 
between the  tropics are the            
,cordeliers1 and almost all the         
mountains of ,mexico and  ,brazil1 the  

great and little ,atlas1 the ,moon1 c4  
,beside the land which  is between the  
tropics1 from the superior number of    
islands found in  those parts1 is the   
most unequal of all the globe1 as       
evidently is the  sea4    ,however      
independent my theory may be of that    
hypothesis of what passed  at the time  
of the first state of the globe1 ,i     
refer to it in this  article1 in order  
to shew the connection and possibility  
of the system  which ,i endeavoured to  
maintain in the first article4 ,it must 
only be  remarked1 that my theory does  
not stray far from it1 as ,i take the   
earth  in a state nearly similar to what
 it appears at present1 and as ,i do not
  make use of any of the suppositions   
which are used on reasoning on the  past
 state of the terrestrial globe4 ,but as
 ,i here present a new idea on  the     
subject of the sediment deposited by the
 water1 which1 in my  opinion1 has      
perforated the upper bed of earth1 it   
appears to me also  necessary to give   

the reason on which ,i found this       
opinion4    ,the vapours which rise in  
the air produce rain1 dew1 aerial fires1
  thunder1 and other meteors4 ,these    
vapours are therefore blended with      
aqueous1 aerial1 sulphurous and         
terrestrial particles1 c4 and it is the 
solid and earthy particles which form   
the mud or slime we are now  speaking   
of4 ,when rain water is suffered to     
rest1 a sediment is formed  at bottom2  
and having collected a quantity1 if it  
is suffered to stand  and corrupt1 it   
produces a kind of mud which falls to   
the bottom of the  vessel4 ,dew produces
 much more of this mud than rain water1 
which is  greasy1 unctuous1 and of a    
reddish colour4    ,the first strata of 
the earth is composed of this mud1 mixed
 with  perished vegetable or animal     
parts1 or rather stony and sandy        
particles4  ,we may remark that almost  
all land proper for cultivation is      
reddish1  and more or less mixed with   
these different matters2 the particles  

of  sand or stone found there are of two
 kinds1 the one coarse and heavy1  the  
other fine and sometimes impalpable4    
,the largest comes from the  lower      
strata loosened in cultivating the      
earth1 or rather the upper  mould1 by   
penetrating into the lower1 which is of 
sand and other divided  matters1 and    
forms those earths we call fat and      
fertile4 ,the finer sort  proceeds from 
the air1 and falls with dew and rain1   
and mixes intimately  with the soil4    
,this is properly the residue of the    
powder1 which the  wind continually     
raises from the surface of the earth1   
and which falls  again after having     
imbibed the humidity of the air4 ,when  
the earth  predominates1 and the stony  
and sandy parts are but few1 the earth  
is  then reddish and fertile3 if it is  
mixed with a considerable quantity of   
perished animal or vegetable substances1
 it is blackish1 and often more  fertile
 than the first2 but if the mould is    
only in a small quantity1 as  well as   

the animal or vegetable parts1 the earth
 is white and sterile1  and when the    
sandy1 stony1 or cretaceous parts which 
compose these  sterile lands1 are mixed 
with a sufficient quantity of perished  
animal  or vegetable substances1 they   
form the black and lighter earths1 but  
have little fertility2 so that according
 to the different combinations  of these
 three different matters1 the land is   
more or less fecund and  differently    
coloured4    ,to fix some ideas relative
 to these stratas2 let us take1 for     
example1  the earth of ,marly-la-ville1 
where the pits are very deep3 it is a   
high  country1 but flat and fertile1 and
 its strata lie arranged horizontally4  
,i had samples brought me of all these  
strata which ,m4 ,dalibard1 an able     
botanist1 versed in different sciences1 
had dug under his inspection2  and after
 having proved the matters of which they
 consisted in  aquafortis1 ,i formed the
 following table of them4           ,the
 state of the different beds of earth1  

found at ,marly-la-ville1       to the  
depth of #ajj feet4                     
,feet4  ,in4         #a4 ,a free reddish
 earth1 mixed with       much mud1 a    
very small quantity of       vitrifiable
 sand1 and somewhat more of             
calcinable sand                         
#ac    #j         #b4 ,a free earth     
mixed with gravel1       and a little   
more vitrifiable sand          #b    #f 
#c4 ,mud mixed with vitrifiable sand    
in a great quantity1 and which made     
but very little effervescence with      
aquafortis                              
#c    #j         #d4 ,hard marl1 which  
made a very       great effervescence   
with aquafortis         #b    #j        
#e4 ,pretty hard marl stone             
#d    #j         #f4 ,marl in powder1   
mixed with vitrifiable       sand       
#e    #j         #g4 ,very fine         
vitrified sand                 #a    #f 
#h4 ,marl very like earth mixed with    
a very little vitrifiable sand          
#c    #f         #i4 ,hard marl1 in     

which was real flint       #c    #f     
#aj4 ,gravel1 or powdered marl          
#a    #j         #aa4 ,eglantine1 a     
stone of the grain       and hardness of
 marble1 and sonorous        #a    #f   
#ab4 ,marly gravel                      
#a    #f         #ac4 ,marl in hard     
stone1 whose grain       was very fine  
#a    #f         #ad4 ,marl in stone1   
whose grain was       not so fine       
#a    #f         #ae4 ,more grained and 
thicker marl           #b    #f         
#af4 ,very fine vitrifiable sand1 mixed 
with fossil sea-shells1 which had no    
adherence with the sand1 and whose      
colours were perfect                    
#a    #f         #ag4 ,very small       
gravel1 or fine marl       powder       
#b    #j         #ah4 ,marl in hard     
stone                      #c    #f     
#ai4 ,very coarse powdered marl         
#a    #f         #bj4 ,hard and         
calcinable stone1 like       marble     
#a    #j         #ba4 ,grey vitrifiable 
sand mixed with       fossil shells1    

particularly oysters and       muscles  
which have no adherence       with the  
sand1 and which were not       petrified
                                   #c   
#j         #bb4 ,white vitrifiable sand 
mixed with       similar shells         
#b    #j         #bc4 ,sand streaked red
 and white1       vitrifiable and mixed 
with the like       shells              
#a    #j         #bd4 ,larger sand1 but 
still vitrifiable       and mixed with  
the like shells              #a    #j   
#be4 ,fine and vitrifiable grey sand    
mixed with the like shells              
#h    #f         #bf4 ,very fine fat    
sand1 with only a       few shells      
#c    #j         #bg4 ,brown free stone 
#c    #j         #bh4 ,vitrifiable sand1
 streaked red and       white           
#d    #j         #bi4 ,white vitrifiable
 sand                  #c    #f         
#cj4 ,reddish vitrifiable sand          
#ae    #j                               
--------                ,total depth    
#aja    #j                              

--------    ,i have before said that ,i 
tried all these matters in aquafortis1  
because  where the inspection and       
comparison of matters with others that  
we are  acquainted with is not          
sufficient to permit us to denominate   
and range  them in the class which they 
belong1 there is no means more ready1   
nor  perhaps more sure1 than to try by  
aquafortis the terrestrial or  lapidific
 matter3 those which acid spirits       
dissolve immediately with  heat and     
ebullition1 are generally calcinable1   
and those on which they  make no        
impression are vitrifiable4    ,by this 
enumeration we perceive1 that the soil  
of ,marly-la-ville was  formerly the    
bottom of the sea1 which has been raised
 above #ge feet1  since we find shells  
at that depth below the surface4 ,those 
shells have  been transported by the    
motion of the water1 at the same time as
 the  sand in which they are met with1  
and the whole of the upper strata1 even 
to the first1 have been transported     

after the same manner by the motion  of 
the water1 and deposited in form of a   
sediment2 which we cannot  doubt1 as    
well by reason of their horizontal      
position1 as of the  different beds of  
sand mixed with shells and marl1 the    
last of which are  only the fragments of
 the shells4 ,the last stratum itself   
has been  formed almost entirely by the 
mould we have spoken of1 mixed with a   
small part of the marl which was at the 
surface4    ,i have chosen this example1
 as the most disadvantageous to my      
theory1  because it at first appears    
very difficult to conceive that the dust
 of  the air1 rain and dew1 could       
produce strata of free earth thirteen   
feet  thick2 but it ought to be         
observed1 that it is very rare to find1 
especially in high lands1 so            
considerable a thickness of             
cultivateable  earth2 it is generally   
about three or four feet1 and often not 
more than  one4 ,in plains surrounded   
with hills1 this thickness of good earth

 is  the greatest1 because the rain     
loosens the earth of the hills1 and     
carries it into the vallies2 but without
 supposing any thing of that  kind1 ,i  
find that the last strata formed by the 
waters are thick beds of  marl4 ,it is  
natural to imagine that the upper       
stratum had1 at the  beginning1 a still 
greater thickness1 besides the thirteen 
feet of marl1  when the sea quitted the 
land and left it naked4 ,this marl1     
exposed to  the air1 melted with the    
rain2 the action of the air and heat of 
the sun  produced flaws1 and reduced it 
into powder on the surface2 the sea     
would  not quit this land precipitately1
 but sometimes cover it1 either by the  
alternative motion of the tides1 or by  
the extraordinary elevation of  the     
waters in foul weather1 when it mixed   
with this bed of marl1 mud1  clay1 and  
other matters4 ,when the land was raised
 above the waters1  plants would begin  
to grow1 and it was then that the dust  
in the rain or  dew by degrees added to 

its substance and gave it a reddish     
colour2 this  thickness and fertility   
was soon augmented by culture2 by       
digging and  dividing its surface1 and  
thus giving to the dust1 in the dew or  
rain1  the facility of more deeply      
penetrating it1 which at last produced  
that  bed of free earth thirteen feet   
thick4    ,i shall not here examine     
whether the reddish colour of vegetable 
earth  proceeds from the iron which is  
contained in the earths that are        
deposited by the rains and dews1 but    
being of importance1 shall take  notice 
of it when we come to treat of minerals2
 it is sufficient to have  explained our
 conception of the formation of the     
superficial strata of  the earth1 and by
 other examples we shall prove1 that the
 formation of  the interior strata1 can 
only be the work of the waters4    ,the 
surface of the globe1 says ,woodward1   
this external stratum on which  men and 
animals walk1 which serves as a magazine
 for the formation of  vegetables and   

animals1 is1 for the greatest part1     
composed of vegetable  or animal matter1
 and is in continual motion and         
variation4 ,all animals  and vegetables 
which have existed from the creation of 
the world1 have  successively extracted 
from this stratum the matter which      
composes it1  and have1 after their     
deaths1 restored to it this borrowed    
matter3 it  remains there always ready  
to be retaken1 and to serve for the     
formation  of other bodies of the same  
species successively1 for the matter    
which  composes one body is proper and  
natural to form another body of the same
  kind4 ,in uninhabited countries1 where
 the woods are never cut1 where  animals
 do not brouze on the plants1 this      
stratum of vegetable earth  increases   
considerably4 ,in all woods1 even in    
those which are sometimes  cut1 there is
 a bed of mould1 of six or eight inches 
thick1 formed  entirely by the leaves1  
small branches1 and barks which have    
perished4 ,i  have often observed on the

 ancient ,roman way1 which crosses      
,burgundy in  a long extent of soil1    
that there is formed a bed of black     
earth more  than a foot thick upon the  
stones1 which nourishes very high trees2
 and  this stratum could be composed    
only of a black mould formed by the     
leaves1 bark1 and perished wood4 ,as    
vegetables inhale for their  nutriment  
much more from the air and water than   
the earth1 it happens  that when they   
perish1 they return to the earth more   
than they have  taken from it4 ,besides1
 forests collect the rain water1 and by 
stopping  the vapours increase their    
moisture2 so in a wood which is         
preserved a  long time1 the stratum of  
earth which serves for vegetation       
increases  considerably4 ,but animals   
restoring less to the earth than they   
take  from it1 and men making enormous  
consumption of wood and plants for      
fire1 and other uses1 it follows that   
the vegetable soil of inhabited         
countries must diminish1 and become1 in 

time1 like the soil of ,arabia  ,petrea1
 and other eastern provinces1 which1 in 
fact1 are the most  ancient inhabited   
countries1 where only sand and salt are 
now to be met  with2 for the fixed salts
 of plants and animals remain1 whereas  
all the  other parts volatilise1 and are
 transported by the air4    ,let us now 
examine the position and formation of   
the interior strata3  the earth1 says   
,woodward1 appears in places that have  
been dug1 composed  of strata placed one
 on the other1 as so many sediments     
which  necessarily fell to the bottom of
 the water2 the deepest strata are      
generally the thickest1 and those above 
the thinnest1 and so gradually          
lessening to the surface4 ,we find sea  
shells1 teeth1 and bones of fish  in    
these different beds1 and not only in   
those that are soft1 as chalk  and clay1
 but even in those of hard stone1       
marble1 c4 ,these marine  productions   
are incorporated with the stone1 and    
when separated from  them1 leave the    

impressions of the shells with the      
greatest exactness4  ,i have been most  
clearly and positively assured1 says    
this author1  that in ,france1          
,flanders1 ,holland1 ,spain1 ,italy1    
,germany1 ,denmark1  ,norway1 and       
,sweden1 stone1 and other terrestrial   
substances are disposed  in strata1     
precisely the same as they are in       
,england2 that these strata  are divided
 by parallel fissures2 that there are   
inclosed within stones  and other       
terrestrial and compact substances1 a   
great quantity of shells  and other     
productions of the sea1 disposed in the 
same manner as in this  island4 ,i am   
also informed that these strata are     
found the same in  ,barbary1 ,egypt1    
,guinea1 and in other parts of ,africa2 
in ,arabia1 ,syria1  ,persia1 ,malabar1 
,china1 and the rest of the provinces of
 ,asia2 in  ,jamaica1 ,barbadoes1       
,virginia1 ,new-,england1 ,brazil1 and  
other parts of  ,america#aih3;,a4       
,this author does not say how he learnt1

 or by whom he was told1 that the       
strata of ,peru contained shells2 yet as
 in general his observations are  exact1
 ,i do not doubt but he was well        
informed2 and am persuaded that  shells 
may be found in the earth of ,peru1 as  
well as elsewhere4 ,this  remark is made
 from a doubt having been formed some   
time since on the  subject1 and which ,i
 shall hereafter consider4    ,in a     
trench made at ,amsterdam1 to the depth 
of #bcj feet1 the strata were  found as 
follows3 #g feet of vegetable earth1 #i 
of turf1 #i of soft clay1  #h of sand1  
#d of earth1 #aj of clay1 #d of earth1  
#aj of sand1 then #b feet  of clay1 #d  
of white sand1 #e of dry earth1 #a of   
soft earth1 #ad of sand1 #h  of argil1  
mixed with earth2 #d of sand1 mixed with
 shells2 then clay #ajb  feet thick1 and
 at last #ca feet of sand1 at which     
depth they ceased  digging#aii3;,a4     
,it is very singular to dig so deep     
without meeting with water3 and this    
circumstance is remarkable in many      

particulars4 #a4 ,it shews1 that the    
water of the sea does not communicate   
with the interior part of the  earth1 by
 means of filtration4 #b4 ,that shells  
are found at the depth of  #ajj feet    
below the surface1 and that consequently
 the soil of ,holland  has been raised  
#ajj feet by the sediment of the sea4   
#c4 ,we may draw an  induction1 that    
this strata of thick clay of #ajb feet1 
and the bed of  sand below it1 in which 
they dug to #ca feet1 and whose entire  
thickness  is unknown1 are perhaps not  
very far distant from the first strata  
of  the original earth1 such as it was  
before the motion of the water had      
changed its surface4 ,we have said in   
the first article1 that if we  desired  
to find the ancient earth1 we should dig
 in the northern  countries1 rather than
 towards the south2 in plains rather    
than in  mountainous regions4 ,the      
circumstances in this instance1 appear  
to be  nearly so1 only it is to be      
wished they had continued the digging to

 a  greater depth1 and that the author  
had informed us1 whether there were  not
 shells and other marine productions1 in
 the last bed of clay1 and in  that of  
sand below it4 ,the experiment confirms 
what we have already  said2 and the more
 we dig1 the greater thickness we shall 
find the  strata4    ,the earth is      
composed of parallel and horizontal     
beds1 not only in  plains1 but hills and
 mountains are in general composed after
 the same  manner3 it may be said1 that 
the strata in hills and mountains are   
more  apparent there than in the plains1
 because the plains are generally       
covered with a very considerable        
quantity of sand and earth1 which the   
water has brought from the higher       
grounds1 and therefore1 to find the     
ancient strata1 must dig deeper in the  
plains than in the mountains4    ,i have
 often observed1 that when a mountain is
 level at its summit1 the  strata which 
compose it are also level2 but if the   
summit is not placed  horizontally1 the 

strata inclines also in the same        
direction4 ,i have  heard that1 in      
general1 the beds of quarries inclined a
 little to the  east2 but having myself 
observed all the chains of rocks which  
offered1  ,i discovered this opinion to 
be erroneous1 and that the strata       
inclines  to the same side as the hill1 
whether it be east1 west1 north1 or     
south4  ,when we dig stone and marble   
from the quarry1 we take great care to  
separate them according to their natural
 position1 and we cannot even  get them 
of a large size1 if we cut them in any  
other direction4 ,where  they are made  
use of for good masonry1 the workmen are
 particular in  placing them as they    
stood in the quarry1 for if they were   
placed in any  other direction1 they    
would split1 and would not resist the   
weight with  which they are loaded4     
,this perfectly confirms that stones1   
are found  in parallel and horizontal   
strata1 which have been successively    
heaped  one on the other1 and that these

 strata composed masses where resistance
  is greater in that direction than in  
any other4    ,every strata1 whether    
horizontal or inclined1 has an equal    
thickness  throughout its whole extent4 
,in the quarries about ,paris the bed of
 good  stone is not thick1 scarcely more
 than #ah or #bj feet3 in those of      
,burgundy the stone is much thicker4 ,it
 is the same with marble2 the  black and
 white marble have a thicker bed than   
the coloured2 and ,i know  beds of very 
hard stone1 which the farmers in        
,burgundy make use of to  cover their   
houses1 that are not above an inch      
thick4 ,the different  strata vary much 
in thickness1 but each bed preserves the
 same thickness  throughout its extent4 
,the thickness of strata is so greatly  
varied1  that it is found from less than
 a line to #a1 #aj1 #bj1 #cj1 or #ajj   
feet  thick4 ,the ancient and modern    
quarries1 which are horizontally dug1   
the  perpendicular and other divisions  
of mines1 prove that there are          

extensive strata in all directions4 ,it 
is thoroughly proved1 says the          
historian of the academy1 that all      
stones have formerly been a soft  paste1
 and as there are quarries almost in    
every part1 the surface of  the earth   
has therefore consisted1 in all these   
places1 of mud and  slime1 at least to  
certain depths4 ,the shells found in    
most quarries  prove that this mud was  
an earth diluted by the water of the    
sea1 and  consequently that the sea     
covered all these places2 and it could  
not  cover them without also covering   
all that was level with or lower than   
it3 and it is plain that it could not   
cover every place where there were      
quarries1 without covering the whole    
face of the terrestrial globe4 ,we  do  
not here consider the mountains which   
the sea must also at one time  have     
covered1 since quarries and shells are  
often found in them4    ,the sea1       
continues he1 therefore1 covered the    
whole earth1 and from  thence it        

proceeds that all the beds of stone in  
the plains are  horizontal and parallel2
 fish must have also been the most      
ancient  inhabitants of the globe1 as   
there was no sustenance for either birds
 or  terrestrial animals4 ,but how did  
the sea retire into these vast basins   
which it at present occupies8 ,what     
presents itself the most natural to  the
 mind is1 that the earth1 at least at a 
certain depth1 was not  entirely solid1 
but intermixed with some great vacuums1 
whose vaults  were supported for a time1
 but at length1 sunk in suddenly3 then  
the  waters must have fallen into these 
vacancies1 filled them1 and left  naked 
a part of the earth's surface1 which    
became an agreeable abode to            
terrestrial animals and birds4 ,the     
shells found in quarries perfectly      
agree with this idea1 for only the bony 
parts of fish could be preserved  till  
now4 ,in general1 shells are heaped up  
in great abundance in certain  parts of 
the sea1 where they are immovable1 and  

form a kind of rock1 and  could not     
follow the water1 which suddenly forsook
 them3 this is the  reason that we find 
more shells than bones of the fish1 and 
this even  proves a sudden fall of the  
sea into its present basins4 ,at the    
same  time as our supposed vaults gave  
way1 it is very possible that other     
parts of the globe were raised by the   
same cause1 and that mountains  were    
placed on this surface with quarries    
already formed1 but the beds  of these  
quarries could not preserve the         
horizontal direction they  before had1  
unless the mountains were raised        
precisely perpendicular to  the surface 
of the earth1 which could happen but    
very seldom3 so also1  as we have       
already observed1 in #agje1 the beds of 
stone in mountains are  always inclined 
to the horizon1 though parallel with    
each other2 for  they have not changed  
their position with respect to each     
other1 but  only with respect to the    
surface of the earth#bje3;,a4    ,these 

parallel strata1 these beds of earth and
 stone1 which have been  formed by the  
sediment of the sea1 often extend to    
considerable  distances1 and we often   
find in hills1 separated by a valley1   
the same  beds and the same matters at  
the same level4 ,this observation agrees
  perfectly with that of the height of  
the opposite hills4 ,we may easily  be  
assured of the truth of these facts1 for
 in all narrow vallies1 where  rocks are
 discovered1 we shall find the same beds
 of stone and marble on  both sides at  
the same height4 ,in a country where ,i 
frequently reside1 ,i  found a quarry of
 marble which extended more than #ab    
leagues in length1  and whose breadth   
was very considerable1 although ,i have 
never been able  precisely to determine 
it4 ,i have often observed that this bed
 of marble  is throughout of the same   
thickness1 and in hills divided from    
this  quarry by a valley of #ajj feet   
depth1 and a quarter of a mile in       
breadth1 ,i found the same bed of marble

 at the same height4 ,i am  persuaded it
 is the same in every stone and marble  
quarry where shells  are found2 but this
 observation does not hold good in      
quarries of  freestone4 ,in the course  
of this work1 we shall give reasons for 
this  difference1 and describe why      
freestone is not dispersed1 like other  
matters1 in horizontal beds1 and why it 
is in irregular blocks1 both in  form   
and position4    ,we have likewise      
observed that the strata are the same on
 both sides the  straits of the sea4    
,this observation1 which is important1  
may lead us to  discover the lands and  
islands which have been separated from  
the  continent2 it proves1 for example1 
that ,england has been divided from     
,france2 ,spain from ,africa2 ,sicily   
from ,italy2 and it is to be wished     
that the same observation had been made 
in all the straits4 ,i am  persuaded    
that we should find it almost every     
where true4 ,we do not know  whether the
 same beds of stone are found at the    

same height on both  sides the straits  
of ,magellan1 which is the longest2 but 
we see1 by the  particular maps and     
exact charts1 that the two high coasts  
which confine  it1 form nearly1 like the
 mountains of the earth1 correspondent  
angles1  which also proves that the     
,terra del ,fuega1 must be regarded as  
part of  the continent of ,america2 it  
is the same with ,forbisher's ,strait   
and  the island of ,friesland1 which    
appear to have been divided from the    
continent of ,greenland4    ,the        
,maldivian islands are only separated by
 small tracts of the sea1 on  each side 
of which banks and rocks are found      
composed of the same  materials2 and    
these islands1 which1 taken together1   
are near #bjj miles  long1 formed       
anciently only one land2 they are now   
divided into #ac  provinces1 called     
,clusters4 ,each cluster contains a     
great number of  small islands1 most of 
which are sometimes overflowed and      
sometimes dry2  but what is remarkable1 

these thirteen clusters are each        
surrounded with  a chain of rocks of the
 same stone1 and there are only three or
 four  dangerous inlets by which they   
can be entered4 ,they are all placed one
  after the other1 and it evidently     
appears that these islands were         
formerly a long mountain capped with    
rocks#baf3;,a4    ,many authors1 as     
,verstegan1 ,twine1 ,somner1 and        
especially ,campbell1 in  his           
,description of ,england1 in the chapter
 of ,kent1 gives very strong  reasons1  
to prove that ,england was formerly     
joined to ,france1 and has  been        
separated from it by an effort of the   
sea1 which carried away the  neck of    
land that joined them1 opened the       
channel1 and left naked a  great        
quantity of low and marshy ground along 
the southern coasts of  ,england4 ,dr4  
,wallis1 as a corroboration of this     
supposition1 shews the  conformity of   
the ancient ,gallic and ,british        
tongues1 and adds many  observations1   

which we shall relate in the following  
articles4    ,if we consider the form of
 lands1 the position of mountains1 and  
the  windings of rivers1 we shall       
perceive that generally opposite hills  
are  not only composed of the same      
matters on the same level1 but are      
nearly  of an equal height4 ,this       
equality ,i have observed in my travels1
 and  have mostly found them the same on
 the two sides1 especially in vallies   
that were not more than a quarter or a  
third of a league broad1 for in  vallies
 which are very broad1 it is difficult  
to judge of the height and  equality of 
hills1 because1 by looking over a level 
plain of any great  extent1 it appears  
to rise1 and hills at a distance appear 
to lower2 but  this is not the place to 
give a mathematical reason for this     
difference4  ,it is also very difficult 
to judge by the naked sight of the      
middle of a  great valley1 at least if  
there is no river in it2 whereas in     
confined  vallies our sight is less     

equivocal and our judgment more certain4
 ,that  part of ,burgundy comprehended  
between ,auxerre1 ,dijon1 ,autun1 and   
,bar-sur-seine1 a considerable extent of
 which is called la ,bailliage de  la   
,montagne1 is one of the highest parts  
of ,france2 from one side of  most of   
these mountains1 which are only of the  
second class1 the water  flows towards  
the ,ocean1 and on the other side       
towards the  ,mediterranean4 ,this high 
country is divided with many small      
vallies1  very confined1 and almost all 
watered with rivulets4 ,i have a        
thousand  times observed the            
correspondence of the angles of these   
hills and their  equality of height1 and
 ,i am certain that ,i have every where 
found the  saliant angles opposite to   
the returning angles1 and the heights   
nearly  equal on both sides4 ,the       
farther we advance into the higher      
country1  where the points of division  
are1 the higher are the mountains2 but  
this  height is always the same on both 

sides of the vallies1 and the hills  are
 raised or lowered alike4 ,i have       
frequently made the like  observations  
in many other parts of ,france4 ,it is  
this equality in the  height of the     
hills which forms the plains in the     
mountains1 and these  plains form lands 
higher than others4 ,but high mountains 
do not appear  so equal in height1 most 
of them terminate in points and         
irregular  peaks2 and ,i have seen1 in  
crossing the ,alps1 and the ,apennine   
mountains1 that the angles are1 in fact1
 correspondent2 but it is almost        
impossible to judge by the eye of the   
equality or inequality in the  height of
 opposite mountains1 because their      
summits are lost in mists  and clouds4  
,the different strata of which the earth
 is composed are not disposed  according
 to their specific weight1 for we often 
find strata of heavy  matters placed on 
those of lighter4 ,to be assured of     
this1 we have only  to examine the earth
 on which rocks are placed1 and we shall

 find that  it is generally clay or     
sand1 which is specifically lighter4 ,in
 hills1  and other small elevations1 we 
easily discover this to be the case2 but
  it is not so with large mountains1 for
 not only their summits are rocks1  but 
those rocks are placed on others2 there 
mountains are placed upon  mountains1   
and rocks upon rocks1 to such a         
considerable height1 and  through so    
great an extent of country1 that we can 
scarcely be certain  whether there is   
earth at bottom1 or of what nature it   
is4 ,i have seen  cavities made in rocks
 to some hundred feet deep1 without     
being able to  form an idea where they  
ended1 for these rocks were supported by
  others2 nevertheless1 may we not      
compare great with small8 and since  the
 rocks of little mountains1 whose bases 
are to be seen1 rest on the  earth less 
heavy and solid than stone1 may we not  
suppose that earth is  also the base of 
high mountains8 ,all that ,i have here  
to prove by these  arguments is1 that1  

by the motion of the waters1 it may     
naturally happen  that the more         
ponderous matters accumulated on the    
lighter2 and that1 if  this in fact is  
found to be so in most hills1 it is     
probable that it  happened as explained 
by my theory2 but should it be objected 
that ,i am  not grounded in supposing1  
that before the formation of mountains  
the  heaviest matters were below the    
lighter2 ,i answer1 that ,i assert      
nothing  general in this respect1       
because this effect may have been       
produced in  many manners1 whether the  
heaviest matters were uppermost or      
undermost1  or placed indiscriminately4 
,to conceive how the sea at first formed
 a  mountain of clay1 and afterwards    
capt it with rocks1 it is sufficient to 
consider the sediments may successively 
come from different parts1 and  that    
they might be of different materials4   
,in some parts1 the sea may at  first   
have deposited sediments of clay1 and   
the waters afterwards  brought sediment 

of strong matter1 either because they   
had transported  all the clay from the  
bottom and sides1 and then the waves    
attacked the  rocks1 possibly because   
the first sediment came from one part1  
and the  second from another4 ,this     
perfectly agrees with observation1 by   
which we  perceive that beds of earth1  
stone1 gravel1 sand1 c4 followed no rule
  in their arrangement1 but are placed  
indifferently one on the other as  it   
were by chance4    ,but this chance must
 have some rules1 which can be known    
only by  estimating the value of        
probabilities1 and the truth of         
conjectures4  ,according to our         
hypothesis1 on the formation of the     
globe1 we have seen  that the interior  
part of the globe must have been a      
vitrified matter1  similar to vitrified 
sand1 which is only the fragments of    
glass1 and of  which the clays are      
perhaps the scoria2 by this supposition1
 the centre  of the earth1 and almost as
 far as the external circumference1 must

 be  glass1 or a vitrified matter2 and  
above this we shall find sand1 clay1    
and other scoria4 ,thus the earth1 in   
its first state1 was a nucleus of       
glass1 or vitrified matter2 either      
massive like glass1 or divided like     
sand1 because that depends on the degree
 of heat it has undergone4 ,above  this 
matter was sand1 and lastly clay4 ,the  
soil of the waters and air  produced the
 external crust1 which is thicker or    
thinner1 according to  the situation of 
the ground2 more or less coloured1      
according to the  different mixtures of 
mud1 sand1 clay1 and the decayed parts  
of animals  and vegetables2 and more or 
less fertile1 according to the abundance
 or  want of these parts4 ,to shew that 
this supposition on the formation of    
sand and clay is not chimerical1 ,i     
shall add some particular remarks4    ,i
 conceive1 that the earth1 in its first 
state1 was a globe1 or rather a         
spheroid of compact glass1 covered with 
a light crust of pumice stone  and other

 scoria of the matter in fusion4 ,the   
motion and agitation of  the waters and 
air soon reduced this crust into powder 
or sand1 which1  by uniting afterwards1 
produced flints1 and owe their hardness1
 colour1  or transparency and variety1  
to the different degrees of purity of   
the  sand which entered into their      
composition4    ,these sands1 whose     
constituting parts unite by fire1       
assimilate1 and  become very dense1     
compact1 and the more transparent as the
 sand is more  pure2 on the contrary1   
being exposed a long time to the air1   
they  disunite and exfoliate1 descend in
 the form of earth1 and it is  probable 
the different clays are thus produced4  
,this dust1 sometimes of  a brightish   
yellow1 and sometimes like silver1 is   
nothing else but a  very pure sand      
somewhat perished1 and almost reduced to
 an elementary  state4 ,by time1        
particles will be so far attenuated and 
divided1 that  they will no longer have 
power to reflect the light1 and acquire 

all the  properties of clay4    ,this   
theory is conformable to what every day 
is seen2 let us immediately  wash sand  
upon its being dug1 and the water will  
be loaded with a black  ductile and fat 
earth1 which is genuine clay4 ,in       
streets paved with  freestone1 the dirt 
is always black and greasy1 and when    
dried appears  to be an earth of the    
same nature as clay4 ,let us wash the   
earth taken  from a spot where there are
 neither freestone nor flints1 and there
 will  always precipitate a great       
quantity of vitrifiable sand4    ,but   
what perfectly proves that sand1 and    
even flint and glass1 exist in  clay1   
is1 that the action of fire1 by uniting 
the parts1 restores it to  its original 
form4 ,clay1 if heated to the degree of 
calcination1 will  cover itself with a  
very hard enamel2 if it is not vitrified
 internally1  it nevertheless will have 
acquired a very great hardness1 so as to
  resist the file2 it will emit fire    
under the hammer1 and it has all the    

properties of flint2 a greater degree of
 heat causes it to flow1 and  converts  
it into real glass4    ,clay and sand   
are therefore matters perfectly         
analogous1 and of the same  class2 if   
clay1 by condensing1 may become flint   
and glass1 why may not  sand1 by        
dissolution1 become clay8 ,glass appears
 to be true elementary  earth1 and all  
mixed substances disguised glass4       
,metals1 minerals1  salts1 c4 are only  
vitrifiable earth2 common stone and     
other matters  analogous to it1 and     
testaceous and crustaceous shells1 c4   
are the only  substances which cannot be
 vitrified1 and which seem to form a    
separate  class4 ,fire1 by uniting the  
divided parts of the first1 forms an    
homogeneous matter1 hard and            
transparent1 without any diminution of  
weight1 and to which it is not possible 
to cause any alteration2 those1  on the 
contrary1 in which a greater quantity of
 active and volatile  principles enter1 
and which calcine1 lose more than       

one-third of their  weight in the fire1 
and retake the form of simple earth1    
without any  other alteration than a    
disunion of their different parts3 these
 bodies  excepted1 which are no great   
number1 and whose combinations produce  
no  great varieties in nature1 every    
other substance1 and particularly  clay1
 may be converted into glass1 and are   
consequently only decomposed  glass4 ,if
 the fire suddenly causes the form of   
these substances to  change1 by         
vitrifying them1 glass itself1 whether  
pure1 or in the form  of sand or flint1 
naturally1 but by a slow and insensible 
progress1  changes into clay4    ,where 
flint is the predominant stone1 the     
country is generally strewed  with parts
 of it1 and if the place is             
uncultivated1 and these stones  have    
been long exposed to the air1 without   
having been stirred1 their  upper       
superficies is always white1 whereas the
 opposite side1 which  touches the      
earth1 is very brown1 and preserves its 

natural colour4 ,if  these flints are   
broken1 we shall perceive that the      
whiteness is not  only external1 but    
penetrates internally1 and there forms a
 kind of  band1 not very deep in some1  
but which in others occupies almost the 
whole flint4 ,this white part is        
somewhat grainy1 entirely opaque1 as    
soft as freestone1 and adheres to the   
tongue like the boles2 whereas the      
other part is smooth1 has neither thread
 nor grain1 and preserves its  natural  
colour1 transparency1 and hardness4 ,if 
this flint is put into a  furnace1 its  
white part becomes of a brick colour1   
and its brown part  of a very fine      
white4 ,let us not say with one of our  
most celebrated  naturalists1 that these
 stones are imperfect flints of         
different ages1  which have not acquired
 their perfection2 for why should they  
be all  imperfect8 ,why should they be  
imperfect only on the side exposed to   
the  weather8 ,it1 on the contrary1     
appears to me more reasonable that they 

are flints changed from their original  
state1 gradually decomposed1 and        
assuming the form and property of clay  
or bole4 ,if this is thought to be  only
 conjecture1 let the hardest and        
blackest flint be exposed to the        
weather1 in less than a year its surface
 will change colour2 and if we  have    
patience to pursue this experiment1 we  
shall see it by degrees lose  its       
hardness1 transparency1 and other       
specific characters1 and approach  every
 day nearer and nearer the nature of    
clay4    ,what happens to flint happens 
to sand2 each grain of sand may possibly
  be considered as a small flint1 and   
each flint as a mass of extremely  fine 
grains of sand4 ,the first example of   
the decomposition of sand is  found in  
the brilliant opaque powder called      
,mica1 in which clay and  slate are     
always diffused4 ,the entirely          
transparent flints1 the ,quartz1        
produce1 by decomposition1 fat and soft 
talks1 such as those of ,venice  and    

,russia1 which are as ductile and       
vitrifiable as clay3 and it appears  to 
me1 that talk is a mediate between      
glass1 or transparent flint1 and  clay2 
whereas coarse and impure flint1 by     
decomposing1 passes to clay  without any
 intermedium4    ,our factitious glass  
undergoes the same alterations3 it      
decomposes and  perishes1 as it were1 in
 the air4 ,at first1 it assumes a       
variety of  colours1 then exfoliates1   
and by working it1 we perceive brilliant
  scales fall off2 but when its         
decomposition is more advanced1 it      
crumbles between the fingers1 and is    
reduced into a very white fine  talky   
powder4 ,art has even imitated nature in
 the decomposition of glass  and flint4 
,est etiam certa methodus solius aqu    
communis ope1 silices   arenam in       
liquorem viscosum1 eumdemque in sal     
viride convertendi1  hoc  in aleum      
rubicundum1 c4 ,solius ignis  aqua ope1 
speciali experimento1  durissimos       
quosque lapides in mucorem resolvo1 qui 

distillan subtilem  spiritum exhibet    
oleum nullus laudibus                   
prdicabile#bah3;,a4    ,these matters   
more particularly belong to metals1 and 
when we come to  them1 shall be fully   
treated on1 therefore we shall content  
ourselves  here with adding1 that the   
different strata which cover the        
terrestrial  globe1 being materials to  
be considered as actual vitrifications  
or  analogous to glass1 and possessing  
its most essential qualities2 and as  it
 is evident1 that from the decomposition
 of glass and flint1 which is  every day
 made before our eyes1 a genuine clay   
remains1 it is not a  precarious        
supposition to advance1 that clays and  
sands have been formed  by scoria1 and  
vitrified drops of the terrestrial      
globe1 especially when  we join the     
proofs a priori1 which we have given to 
evince the earth  has been in a state of
 liquefaction caused by fire4           
,,footnotes3    #aih3;,a ,essay on the  
,natural ,history of the ,earth1 pages  

#dj1 #da1 #db1 c4    #aii3;,a ,see      
,varennii1 ,geograph4 ,general1 page    
#df4    #bje3;,a ,see the ,mem4 of the  
,acad4 #agaf1 page #ad4    #baf3;,a ,see
 the ,voyages of ,francis ,piriard1 vol4
 #a1 page #ajh4    #bah3;,a ,see        
,becher4 ,phys4 subter4                 
,,article ,,viii4    ,,on ,,shells1     
,,and ,,other ,,marine ,,productions    
,,found ,,in ,,the ,,interior ,,parts   
,,of  ,,the ,,earth4      ,i have often 
examined quarries1 the banks of which   
were filled with  shells2 ,i have seen  
entire hills composed of them1 and      
chains of rocks  which contained them   
throughout their whole extent4 ,the     
quantity of  these marine productions is
 astonishing1 and the number in many    
places  so prodigious1 that it appears  
scarcely possible that any should now   
remain in the sea2 it is by considering 
this innumerable multitude of  shells1  
that no doubt is left of our earth      
having been a long time under  the water
 of the ocean4 ,the quantity found in a 

fossil1 or petrified  state1 is beyond  
conception1 and it is only from the     
number of those  that have been         
discovered that we could possibly have  
formed an idea of  their multiplicity4  
,we must imagine1 like those who reason 
on matters  they never saw1 that shells 
are only found at random1 dispersed here
 and  there1 or in small heaps1 as      
oyster shells thrown before our doors2  
on  the contrary1 they form mountains1  
are met with in shoals of #ajj or #bjj  
miles length1 nay1 they may sometimes be
 traced through whole provinces  in     
masses of #ej or #fj feet thick4 ,it is 
from these circumstances alone  that we 
can reason on the subject4    ,we cannot
 give a more striking example on this   
subject than the shells  of ,touraine4  
,the following is the description given 
of them by the  historian of the        
,academy#bbj3;,a4    ,the number of     
figured stones and fossil shells found  
in the bowels of  the earth were        
remarked in all ages and nations1 but   

they were  considered merely as the     
sports of nature1 and even by           
philosophers  themselves1 as the        
productions of chance or accident2 they 
regarded them  with a degree of         
surprise1 but passed them over with a   
slight attention1  and all this         
phenomena perished without any fruit for
 the progress of  knowledge4 ,a potter  
in ,paris1 who knew neither ,latin nor  
,greek1 towards  the end of the #afth   
century1 was the first man who dared    
affirm1 in  opposition to the learned1  
that the fossil shells were real shells 
formerly deposited by the sea in those  
places where they were found2  that     
animals1 and particularly fish1 had     
given to stones all these  different    
figures1 c4 and he desired the whole    
school of ,aristotle to  contradict his 
proofs4 ,this was ,bernard ,palissy1 as 
great a natural  genius as nature could 
form3 his system slept near #ajj years1 
and even  his name was almost forgot4   
,at length the ideas of ,palissy were   

revived  in the mind of several         
philosophers2 and science has profited  
by all the  shells and figured stones   
the earth furnishes us with2 perhaps    
they are  at present become only too    
common1 and the consequences drawn from 
them  too incontestable4                
,notwithstanding this1 the observations 
presented by ,m4 ,reaumer must  appear  
wonderful4 ,he discovered a mass of #acj
 million1 #fhj thousand  cubical fathoms
 of shells1 either whole or in          
fragments1 without any  mixture of      
stone1 earth1 sand1 or other extraneous 
matter3 hitherto  fossil shells have    
never appeared in such an enormous      
quantity1 nor  without mixture4 ,it is  
in ,touraine this prodigious mass is    
found1 more  than #cf leagues from the  
sea2 this is perfectly known there1 as  
the  farmers of that province make use  
of these shells1 which they dig up1 as  
manure for their lands1 to fertilize    
their plains1 which otherwise would  be 
absolutely sterile4    ,what is dug from

 the earth1 and which generally is no   
more than eight  or nine feet deep1 are 
only small fragments of shells1 very    
distinguishable as fragments1 for they  
retain their original channels  and     
hollows1 having only lost their gloss   
and colour1 as almost all  shells do    
which we find in the earth4 ,the        
smallest pieces1 which are  only dust1  
are still distinguishable because they  
are perfectly of the  same matter as the
 rest1 as well as of the whole shells   
which are  sometimes found4 ,we discover
 the species as well in the whole shells
 as  in the larger fragments4 ,some of  
these species are known at ,poictou1    
others belong to more remote coasts4    
,there are even fragments of            
madrepores1 coral1 and other productions
 of the sea2 all this matter in  the    
country is termed ,fallun1 and is found 
wherever the ground is dug  in that     
province for the space of nine leagues  
square4 ,the peasants do  not dig above 
twenty feet deep1 because they think it 

would not repay  them for their trouble1
 but they are certainly deeper4 ,the    
calculation  of the quantity is however 
taken upon the supposition of only #ah  
feet  and #bbjj fathoms to the league4  
,this mass of shells of course exceeds  
the calculation1 and possibly contains  
double the quantity4    ,in physical    
points the smallest circumstances1 which
 most people do not  think worthy of    
remarking1 sometimes lead to            
consequences and afford  great lights4  
,m4 de ,reaumer observed1 that all these
 fragments of shells  lie horizontally1 
and hence he has concluded that this    
infinity of  fragments does not proceed 
from the heap being formed at one time1 
or of  whole shells1 for the uppermost1 
by their weight1 would have crushed  the
 others1 and of course their fallings   
would have given an infinity of         
different positions4 ,they must1        
therefore1 have been brought there by   
the sea1 either whole or broken1 and    
necessarily placed horizontal2 and      

although the extreme length of time was 
of itself sufficient to break1  and     
almost calcine the greatest part1 it    
could not change their  position4    ,by
 this it appears1 that they must have   
been brought gradually1 and1 in  fact1  
how was it possible that the sea could  
convey at once such an  immense quantity
 of shells1 and at the same time        
preserve a position  perfectly          
horizontal8 they must have collected in 
one spot1 and  consequently this spot   
must have been the bottom of a gulph or 
basin4    ,all this proves1 that        
although there must remain upon the     
earth many  vestiges of the universal   
deluge1 as recorded in scripture1 the   
mass of  shells at ,touraine was not    
produced by that deluge2 there is       
perhaps not  so great a mass in any part
 of the sea2 but even had the deluge    
forced  them away1 it would have been   
with an impetuosity and violence that   
would not have permitted them to retain 
one uniform position4 ,they must  have  

been brought and deposited gently and   
slowly1 and consequently  their         
accumulation required a space of time   
much longer than a year4    ,the surface
 of the earth1 it is evident1 must have 
been before or after  the deluge very   
differently disposed to what it is at   
present1 that the  sea and continent had
 another arrangement1 and formerly there
 was a  great gulph in the middle of    
,touraine4 ,the changes which are known 
from  history1 or even ancient fable1   
are inconsiderable1 but they give us    
room to imagine those which a longer    
time might bring about4 ,m4 de  ,reaumur
 supposes that ,touraine was a gulph of 
the sea which communicated  with the    
ocean1 and that the shells were carried 
there by a current2 but  this is a      
simple conjecture laid down in room of  
the real unknown fact4  ,to speak with  
certainty on this matter1 we should have
 geographical maps  of all the places   
where shells have been dug from the     
earth1 to obtain  which would require   

almost an infinity of time and          
observation1 yet it  is possible that   
hereafter science may accomplish it4    
,this quantity of shells1 considerable  
as it is1 will astonish us less if  we  
consider the following circumstances3   
first1 shell fish multiply              
prodigiously1 and are full grown in a   
very short time2 the abundance of       
individuals in each kind proves to us   
their fertility4 ,we have a strong      
example of this increase in oysters1 a  
mass of many fathoms of which are       
frequently raised in a single day4 ,in a
 very short time the rocks to  which    
they are attached are considerably      
diminished1 and some banks  quite       
exhausted1 nevertheless the ensuing year
 we find them as plentiful  as before1  
nor do they appear to be in the least   
diminished2 indeed ,i  know not whether 
a natural bed of oysters was ever       
entirely exhausted4  ,secondly1 the     
substance of shells is analogous to     
stone2 they are a long  time preserved  

in soft matters1 and petrify readily in 
hard2 these  shells and marine          
productions therefore found on the      
earth1 being the  wrecks of many ages1  
must of course have formed very         
considerable  masses4    ,there are a   
prodigious quantity of shells in marble1
 lime1 stone1 chalk1  marl1 c4 we find  
them1 as before observed1 in hills and  
mountains1 and  they often make more    
than one half of the bodies which       
contain them2 for  the most part they   
appear well preserved1 others are in    
fragments1 but  large enough to         
distinguish to what kind of shells they 
belong4 ,here our  knowledge on this    
subject1 from observation1 finds its    
limits2 but ,i  shall go further and    
assert that shells are the intermedium  
which ,nature  adopts for the formation 
of most kind of stones2 that chalks1    
marls1 and  lime-stone are composed only
 of the powder and pieces of shells2    
that  consequently the quantities of    
shells destroyed are infinitely more    

considerable than those preserved4 ,i   
shall here content myself with          
indicating the point of view in which we
 ought to consider the strata of  which 
the globe is composed4 ,the first       
stratum is composed of the dust  of the 
air1 the sediment of the rain1 dew1 and 
vegetable or animal  parts1 reduced to  
particles2 the strata of chalk1 marl1   
lime1 stone1 and  marble1 are composed  
of the ruins of shells1 and other marine
  productions1 mixed with fragments or  
whole shells2 but the vitrifiable  sand 
or clay are the matters of which the    
internal parts of the globe  are        
composed4 ,they were vitrified when the 
globe received its form1  which         
necessarily supposes that the matter was
 in fusion4 ,the granate1  rock1 flint1 
c4 owe their origin to sand and clay1   
and are likewise  disposed by strata2   
but tuffa#bbg3;,a1 free-stone1 and      
flints 7not in  great masses71 crystals1
 metals1 pyrites1 most minerals1        
sulphurs1 c4  are matters whose         

formation is novel1 in comparison with  
marbles1  calcinable stones1 chalk1     
marl1 and all other materials disposed  
in  horizontal strata1 and which contain
 shells and other productions of the    
sea4    ,as the denominations ,i make   
use of may appear obscure or equivocal1 
it  is necessary to explain them4 ,by   
the term clay1 ,i mean not only the     
white and yellow1 but also blue1 soft1  
hard1 foliated1 and other clays1  which 
,i look on as the scoria of glass1 or as
 decomposed glass4 ,by the  word sand ,i
 always understand vitrifiable sand2 and
 not only  comprehend under this        
denomination the fine sand which        
produces  freestone1 and which ,i look  
upon as powdered glass1 or rather pumice
  stone1 but also the sand which        
proceeds from the freestone destroyed by
  friction1 and also the larger sand1 as
 small gravel1 which proceeds from  the 
granate and rock-stone1 and is sharp1   
angular1 red1 and commonly  found in the
 bed of rivers or rivulets that derive  

their waters  immediately from the      
higher mountains1 or hills composed of  
stone or  granate4 ,the river ,armanson 
conveys a great quantity of this sand2  
it is  large and brittle1 and in fact is
 only fragments of rock-stone1 as       
calcinable gravel is of freestone4      
,rock-stone and granate are one  and the
 same substance1 but ,i have used both  
denominations1 because  there are many  
persons who make two different species  
of them4 ,it is the  same with respect  
to flints and free-stone in large       
pieces2 ,i look on  them as kinds of    
granate1 and ,i call them large flints1 
because they  are disposed like         
calcinable stone in strata1 and to      
distinguish them  from the flints and   
free-stone in small masses1 and the     
round flints  which have no regular     
quarries1 and whose beds have a certain 
extent2  these are of a modern          
formation1 and have not the same origin 
as the  flints and free-stone in large  
lumps1 which are disposed in regular    

strata4    ,i understand by the term    
slate1 not only the blue1 which all the 
world  knows1 but white1 grey1 and red  
slate3 these bodies are generally met   
with below laminated clay1 and have     
every appearance of being nothing  more 
than clay hardened in this strata4 ,pit 
coal and jet are matters  which also    
belong to clay1 and are commonly under  
slate4 ,by the word  tuffa1 ,i          
understood not only the common pumice   
which appears full of  holes1 and1 as ,i
 may say1 organized1 but all the beds of
 stone made by  the sediment of running 
waters1 all the stalactites1            
incrustations1 and  all kinds of stone  
that dissolve by fire4 ,it is no ways   
doubtful that  these matters are not    
modern1 and that they every day grow4   
,tuffa is  only a mass of lapidific     
matter in which we perceive no distinct 
strata3  this matter is disposed        
generally in small hollow cylinders1    
irregularly  grouped and formed by      
waters dropt at the foot of mountains1  

or on the  slope of hills1 which contain
 beds of marl or soft and calcareous    
earth2  these cylinders1 which make one 
of the specific characters of this kind 
of tuffa1 is either oblique or vertical 
according to the direction of  the      
streams or water which form them4 ,these
 sort of spurious quarries  have no     
continuation2 their extent is very      
confined1 and proportionate  to the     
height of the mountains which furnish   
them with the matter of  their growth4  
,the tuffa every day receiving lapidific
 juices1 those  small cylindrical       
columns1 between which intervals are    
left1 close at  last1 and the whole     
becomes one compact body1 but never     
acquires the  hardness of stone1 and is 
what ,agricola terms ,marga tofocea     
fistulosa4  ,in this tuffa are generally
 found impressions of leaves1 trees1 and
  plants1 like those which grow in the  
environs3 terrestrial shells also  are  
often met with1 but never any of the    
marine kind4 ,the tuffa is  certainly   

therefore a new matter1 which must be   
ranked with stalactites1  incrustations1
 c4 all these new matters are kinds of  
spurious stones1  formed at the expence 
of the rest1 but which never arrive at  
true  petrification4    ,crystal1       
precious stones1 and all those which    
have a regular figure1  even small      
flints formed by concentrical beds1     
whether found in  perpendicular cavities
 of rocks1 or elsewhere1 are only       
exudations of  large flints1 or concrete
 juices of the like matters1 and are    
therefore  spurious stones1 and real    
stalactites of flint or rock4    ,shells
 are never found either in rock1        
granate1 or free-stone1 although  they  
are often met with in vitrifiable sand1 
from which these matters  derive their  
origin2 this seems to prove that sand   
cannot unite to form  free-stone or rock
 but when it is pure1 and that if it is 
mixed with  shells or substances of     
other kinds1 which are heterogeneous to 
it1 its  union is prevented4 ,i have    

observed the little pebbles which are   
often  found in beds of sand mixed with 
shells1 but never found any shell       
therein3 these pebbles are real         
concretions of free-stone formed in the 
sand in the places where it is not mixed
 with heterogeneous matters  which      
oppose the formation of larger masses4  
,we have before observed1 that at       
,amsterdam1 which is a very low country1
  sea shells were found at #ajj feet    
below the earth1 and at                 
,marly-la-,ville1 six miles from ,paris1
 at #ge feet2 we likewise meet with  the
 same at the bottom of mines1 and in    
banks of rocks1 beneath a height  of    
stone #ej1 #ajj1 #bjj1 and #ajjj feet   
thick1 as is apparent in the ,alps  and 
,pyrennees1 where1 in the lower beds1   
shells and other marine  productions are
 constantly found4 ,but to proceed in   
order1 we find  shells on the mountains 
of ,spain1 ,france1 and ,england2 in all
 the marble  quarries of ,flanders1 in  
the mountains of ,gueldres1 in all hills

 around  ,paris1 ,burgundy1 and         
,champagne2 in one word1 in every place 
where the  basis of the soil is not     
free-stone or tuffa2 and in most of     
these  places there are more shells than
 other matters in the substance of the  
stones4 ,by shells1 ,i mean not only the
 wrecks of shell-fish1 but those  of    
crustaceous animals1 the bristles of sea
 hedge-hogs1 and all  productions of the
 sea insects1 as coral1 madrepores1     
astroites1 c4 ,we  may easily be        
convinced by inspection1 that in most   
calculable stones  and marble1 there is 
so great a quantity of these marine     
productions  that they appear to surpass
 the matter which unites them4    ,but  
let us proceed2 we meet with these      
marine productions even on the  tops of 
the highest mountains2 for example1 on  
,mount ,cenis1 in the  mountains of     
,genes1 in the ,apennines1 and in most  
of the stone and  marble quarries in    
,italy2 also in the stones of the most  
ancient  edifices of the ,romans2 in the

 mountains of ,tirol2 in the centre of  
,italy1 on the summits of ,mount        
,paterne1 near ,bologna2 in the hills of
  ,calabria2 in many parts of ,germany  
and ,hungary1 and generally in all the  
high parts of ,europe#bcc3;,a4    ,in   
,asia and ,africa1 travellers have      
remarked them in several parts2 for     
example1 on the mountains of ,castravan1
 above ,barut1 there is a bed of  white 
stone as thin as slate1 each leaf of    
which contains a great number  and      
diversity of fishes2 they lie for the   
most part very flat and  compressed1 as 
does the fossil fearn-plants1 but they  
are  notwithstanding so well preserved1 
that the smallest traces of the fins1   
scales1 and all the parts which         
distinguish each kind of fish1 are      
perfectly visible4 ,so likewise we find 
many sea muscles1 and petrified  shells 
between ,suez and ,cairo1 and on all the
 hills and eminences of  ,barbary2 the  
greatest part are conformable to the    
kinds at present  caught in the ,red    

,sea#bcd3;,a4 ,in ,europe1 we meet with 
petrified fish in  ,sweden and ,germany1
 and in the quarry of ,oningen1 c4      
,the long chain of mountains1 says      
,bourguet1 which extends from ,portugal 
to the most eastern parts of ,china1 the
 mountains of ,africa and ,america1  and
 the vallies of ,europe1 all inclose    
stones filled with shell-fish1  and from
 hence1 he says1 we may conclude the    
same of all the other parts  of the     
world unknown to us4    ,the islands in 
,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 where men 
have had occasion to  dig1 whether in   
mountains or plains1 furnish examples of
 fossil shells1  which evince that they 
have that in common with the bordering  
continents4    ,here then is sufficient 
facts to prove that sea shells1         
petrified fish1  and other marine       
productions are to be found in almost   
every place we  are disposed to seek    
them4    ,it is certain1 says an        
,english author 7,tancred ,robinson71   
that there  have been sea-shells        

dispersed on the earth by armies1 and   
the  inhabitants of towns and villages1 
and that ,loubere relates in his        
,voyage to ,siam1 that the monkies of   
the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 continually   
amuse themselves with carrying shells   
from the sea shores to the tops of  the 
mountains2 but that cannot resolve the  
question1 why these shells  are         
dispersed over all the earth1 and even  
in the interior parts of  mountains1    
where they are deposited in beds like   
those in the bottom of  the sea4    ,on 
reading an ,italian letter on the       
changes happened to the terrestrial     
globe1 printed at ,paris in the year    
#agdf1 ,i was surprised to find these   
sentiments of ,loubere exactly          
corresponded4 ,petrified fish1 according
 to  this writer1 are only fish rejected
 from the ,roman tables1 because they   
were not esteemed wholesome2 and with   
respect to fossil-shells1 he says  the  
pilgrims of ,syria brought1 during the  
times of the ,crusades1 those  of the   

,levant ,sea1 into ,france1 ,italy1 and 
other ,christian states2 why  has he not
 added that it was the monkies who      
transported the shells to  the tops of  
these mountains1 which were never       
inhabited by men8 ,this  would not have 
spoiled but rendered his explanation    
still more  probable4    ,how comes it  
that enlightened persons1 who pique     
themselves on  philosophy1 have such    
various ideas on this subject8 ,but     
doing so1 we  shall not content         
ourselves with having said that         
petrified shells are  found in almost   
every part of the earth which has been  
dug1 nor with  having related the       
testimonies of authors of natural       
history2 as it  might be suspected1 that
 with a view of some system1 they       
perceived  shells where there were none2
 but quote the authority of some        
authors1  who merely remarked them      
accidentally1 and whose observations    
went no  farther than recognising those 
that were whole and in the best         

preservation4 ,their testimony will     
perhaps be of a still greater  authority
 with people who have it not in their   
power to be assured of  the truth of    
these facts1 and who know not the       
difference between shells  and          
petrifications4    ,all the world may   
see the banks of shells in the hills in 
the environs  of ,pans1 especially in   
the quarries of stone1 as at ,chausse1  
near ,sve1  at ,issy1 ,passy1 and       
elsewhere4 ,we find a great quantity of 
lenticular  stones at                   
,villers-,cotterets2 these rocks are    
entirely formed thereof1  and they are  
blended without any order with a kind of
 stony mortar1  which binds them        
together4 ,at ,chaumont so great a      
quantity of petrified  shells are found 
that the hills appear to be composed of 
nothing else4  ,it is the same at       
,courtagnon1 near ,rheims1 where there  
is a bank of  shells near four leagues  
broad1 and whose length is considerably 
more4 ,i  mention these places as being 

famous and striking the eye of every    
beholder4    ,with respect to foreign   
countries1 here follows the observations
 of some  travellers3    ,in ,syria and 
,phnicia1 the rocks1 particularly in the
 neighbourhood  of ,latikea1 are a kind 
of chalky substance1 and it is perhaps  
from  thence that the city has taken the
 name of the white promontory4          
,nakoura1 anciently termed ,scala       
,tyriorum1 or the ,tyrians ,ladder1 is  
nearly of the same nature1 and we still 
find there1 by digging1  quantities of  
all sorts of shells1 corals1 and other  
remains of the  deluge#bcg3;,a4    ,on  
mount ,sinai1 we find only a few fossil 
shells1 and other marks of the  deluge1 
at least if we do not rank the fossil   
,tarmarin of the  neighbouring mountains
 of ,siam among this number1 perhaps the
 first  matter of which their marble is 
formed1 had a corrosive virtue not      
proper to preserve them4 ,but at        
,corondel1 where the rocks approach     
nearer our free-stone1 ,i found many    

shells1 as also a very singular sea     
muscle1 of the descoid kind1 but closer 
and rounder4 ,the ruins of the  little  
village ,ain le ,mousa1 and many canals 
which conduct the water  thereto1       
furnish numbers of fossil shells4 ,the  
ancient walls of ,suez1  and what yet   
remains of its harbour1 have been       
constructed of the same  materials1     
which seem to have been taken from the  
same quarry4 ,between1  as well as on   
all the mountains1 eminences and hills  
of ,lybia1 near  ,egypt1 we meet with a 
great quantity of sea weed1 as well as  
vivalvous  shells1 and of these which   
terminate in a point1 most of which are 
exactly conformable to the kinds at     
present caught in the ,red ,sea4    ,the
 moving sand in the neighbourhood of    
,ras ,sem1 in the kingdom of  ,barca1   
covers many palm trees with             
petrifications4 ,ras ,sem signifies the 
head of a fish1 and is what we term the 
petrified village1 where it is  said    
men1 women1 and children are found1 who 

with their cattle1  furniture1 c4 have  
been converted into stone2 but these1   
says ,shaw1 are  vain tales and fables1 
as ,i have not only learnt from ,m4 le  
,maire1 who  at the time he was ,consul 
at ,tripoly1 sent several persons       
thither to  take cognizance of it1 but  
also from very respectable persons who  
had  been at those places4    ,near the 
pyramids certain pieces of stone worked 
by the sculptor1 were  found by ,mr4    
,shaw1 and among these stones many rude 
ones of the figure  and size of lentils2
 some even resemble barley half-peeled2 
these1 he  says1 were reported to be the
 remains of what the workmen ate1 but   
which  does not appear probable1 c4     
,these lentils and barley are nothing   
but  petrified shells called by         
naturalists lentil stones4    ,according
 to ,misson1 several sorts of these     
shell-fish are found in the  environs of
 ,maestricht1 especially towards the    
village of ,zicken1 or  ,tichen1 and at 
the little mountain called ,huns4 ,in   

the environs of  ,sienna1 near ,ceraldo1
 are many mountains of sand crammed with
 divers  sorts of shells4 ,montemario1 a
 mile from ,rome1 is entirely filled    
with  them2 ,i have seen them in the    
,alps1 ,france1 and elsewhere4          
,olearius1  ,steno1 ,cambden1 ,speed1   
and a number of other authors1 as well  
ancient as  modern1 relate the same     
phenomena4    ,the island of ,cerigo1   
says ,thevenot1 was anciently called    
,porphyris1  from the quantity of       
,porphyry which was taken out of        
it#bdj3;,a4    ,opposite the village of 
,inchene1 and on the eastern shore of   
the ,nile1  ,i found petrified plants1  
which grow naturally in a space about   
two  leagues long1 by a very moderate   
breadth2 this is one of the most        
singular productions of nature4 ,these  
plants resemble the white coral  found  
in the ,red ,sea#bdj3;,b4    ,there are 
petrifications of divers kinds on ,mount
 ,libanus1 and among  others flat       
stones1 where the skeletons of fish are 

found well preserved  and entire2 red   
chesnuts and small branches of coral1   
the same as grow  in the ,red ,sea1 are 
also found on this mountain4    ,on     
,mount ,carmel we find a great quantity 
of hollow stones1 which have  something 
of the figure of melons1 peaches1 and   
other fruits1 which are  said to be so  
petrified3 they are commonly sold to    
pilgrims1 not only as  mere curiosities1
 but also as remedies against many      
disorders4 ,the  olives which are the   
lapides jadaici1 are to be met with at  
the  druggists1 and have always been    
looked upon1 when dissolved in the      
juice of lemon1 as a specific for the   
stone and gravel4    ,m4 la ,roche1 a   
physician1 gave me some of these        
petrified olives1 which  grew in great  
plenty in these mountains1 where ,i am  
told are found other  stones1 the inside
 of which perfectly resemble the natural
 parts of men  and women4 ,these are    
,hysterolithes4    ,in going from       
,smyrna to ,tauris1 when we were at     

,tocat1 says ,tavernier1  the heat was  
so great1 as obliged us to quit the     
common road1 and go by  the mountains1  
where there is constantly shade and     
refreshing air4 ,in  many places we     
found snow and a quantity of very fine  
sorrel1 and on the  top of some of those
 mountains we found shells like those   
upon the sea  shores1 which was very    
extraordinary4    ,here follows what    
,olearius says on the subject of        
petrified shells1  which he remarked in 
,persia1 and in the rocks where the     
sepulchres are  cut out1 near to the    
village of ,pyrmaraus3    ,we were three
 in company that ascended to the top of 
the rock by the  most frightful         
precipices1 mutually assisting each     
other2 having gained  the summit1 we    
found four large chambers1 and within   
many niches cut in  the rocks to serve  
for beds3 but what the most surprised us
 was to find  in this vault1 on the top 
of the mountain1 muscle shells2 and in  
some  places they were in such great    

quantities1 that the whole rock appeared
  to be composed only of sand and       
shells4 ,returning to ,persia1 we       
perceived many of these shelly mountains
 along the coast of the ,caspian  sea4  
,to these ,i could subjoin many other   
authorities which ,i suppress1 not      
willing to tire those who have no need  
of superabundant proofs1 and who  are   
convinced by their sight1 as ,i have    
been1 of the existence of shells        
wherever we chuse to seek for them4     
,in ,france1 we not only find the shells
 of the ,french coast1 but also  such as
 have never been seen in those seas4    
,some philosophers assert1  that the    
quantity of these foreign petrified     
shells is much greater than  those of   
our climate2 but ,i think this opinion  
unfounded2 for1  independent of the     
shell-fish which inhabit the bottom of  
the sea1 and  are seldom brought up by  
the fishermen1 and which consequently   
may be  looked on as foreigners1        
although they exist in our seas1 ,i see1

 by  comparing the petrifactions with   
the living analagous animals1 there  are
 more of those of our coasts than of    
others3 for example1 most of the        
cockles1 muscles1 oysters1 ear-shells1  
limpets1 nautili1 stars1  tubulites1    
corals1 madrepores1 c4 found in so many 
places1 are  certainly the productions  
of our seas2 and though a great number  
appear  which are foreign or unknown1   
the cornu ammonis1 the lapides juduica1 
c4 yet ,i am convinced1 from repeated   
observations1 that the number of  these 
kinds is small in comparison with the   
shells of our own coasts3  besides1 what
 composes the bottom of almost all our  
marble and  lime-stone but madrepores1  
astroites1 and all those other          
productions  which are formed by sea    
insects1 and formerly called marine     
plants8  ,shells1 however abundant1 form
 only a small part of these productions1
  many of which originate in our seas1  
and particularly in the  ,mediterranean4
    ,the ,red sea produces corals1      

madrepores1 and marine plants in the    
greatest abundance3 no part furnishes a 
greater variety than the port of  ,tor2 
in calm weather so great a quantity     
present themselves1 that the  bottom of 
the sea resembles a forest2 some of the 
branched madrepores  are eight or ten   
feet high4 ,in the ,mediterranean sea1  
at ,marseilles1  near the coasts of     
,italy and ,sicily2 in most of the      
gulphs of the  ocean1 around islands1 on
 banks1 and in all temperate climates1  
where  the sea is but of a moderate     
depth1 they are very common4    ,m4     
,peyssonel was the first who discovered 
that corals1 madrepores1 c4  owed their 
origin to animals1 and were not plants  
as had been supposed4  ,the observation 
of ,m4 ,peyssonel was a long time       
doubted2 some  naturalists1 at first1   
rejected it with a kind of disdain1     
nevertheless  they have been obliged    
since to acknowledge its truth1 and the 
whole  world is at length satisfied that
 these formerly supposed marine plants1 

are nothing but hives or cells formed by
 insects1 in which they live as  fish do
 in their shells4 ,these bodies were1 at
 first1 placed in the  class of         
minerals1 then passed into that of      
vegetables1 and now remain  fixed in    
that of animals1 the genuine operations 
of which they must ever  be considered4 
,there are shell-fish which live at the 
bottom of the sea1 and which are  never 
cast on the shore2 authors call them    
,pelogi1 to distinguish them  from the  
others which they call ,litterales4 ,it 
is to be supposed the  cornu ammonis1   
and some other kinds that are only found
 in a petrified  state1 belong to the   
former1 and that they were filled with  
the stony  sediment in the very places  
they are found4 ,there might also have  
been  certain animals1 whose species are
 perished1 and of which number this     
shell-fish might be ranked4 ,the        
extraordinary fossil bones found in     
,siberia1 ,canada1 ,ireland1 and many   
other places1 seem to confirm this      

conjecture1 for no animal has hitherto  
been discovered to whom such  bones     
could belong1 as they are1 for the most 
part1 of an enormous size4    ,these    
shells1 according to ,woodward1 are met 
with from the top to the  bottom of     
quarries1 pits1 and at the bottom of the
 deepest mines of  ,hungary4 ,and ,mr4  
,ray assures us1 they are found a       
thousand feet deep in  the rocks which  
border the isle of ,calda1 and in       
,pembrokeshire in  ,england4    ,shells 
are not only found in a petrified state1
 at great depths1 and at  the tops of   
the highest mountains1 but there are    
some met with in their  natural         
condition1 and which have the gloss1    
colours1 and lightness of  sea-shells2  
and to convince ourselves entirely of   
this matter1 we have  only to compare   
them with those found on the sea shores4
 ,a slight  examination will prove that 
these fossil and petrified shells are   
the  same as those of the sea2 they are 
marked with the same articulations  and 

in the glossopetri1 and other teeth of  
fishes1 which are sometimes  found      
adhering to the jaw-bone1 the teeth of  
the fish are remarked to be  smooth and 
worn at the extremities1 and that they  
have been made use of  when the animals 
were alive4    ,almost every where on   
land we meet with fossil-shells1 and of 
those of  the same kind1 some are small1
 others large1 some young1 others old2  
some imperfect1 others extremely perfect
 and we likewise sometimes see  the     
young ones adhering to the old4    ,the 
shell-fish called purpura has a long    
tongue1 the extremity of  which is bony1
 and so sharp1 that it pierces the      
shells of other fish2  by which means it
 draws nutriment from them4 ,shells     
pierced in this  manner are frequently  
found in the earth1 which is an         
incontestible  proof that they formerly 
inclosed living fish1 and existed in    
those  parts where there were the       
,purpura4    ,the obelisks of ,st4      
,peter's at ,rome1 according to ,john of

 ,latran1 were  said to come from the   
pyramids of ,egypt2 they are of red     
granite1 which  is a kind of rock-stone1
 and1 as we have observed1 contains no  
shells2  but the ,african and ,egyptian 
marble1 and the porphyry said to have   
been  cut from the temple of ,solomon1  
and the palaces of the kings of ,egypt1 
and used at ,rome in different          
buildings1 are filled with shells4 ,red 
porphyry is composed of an infinite     
number of prickles of the species of    
echinus1 or sea chesnut2 they are placed
 pretty near each other1 and  form all  
the small white spots which are in the  
porphyry4 ,each of these  white spots   
has a black one in its centre1 which is 
the section of the  longitudinal tube of
 the prickles of the echinus4 ,at       
,fichen1 three  leagues from ,dijon1 in 
,burgundy1 is a red stone perfectly     
similar in its  composition to porphyry1
 and which differs from it only in      
hardness1 not  being more so than       
marble2 it appears almost formed of     

prickles of the  echini1 and its beds   
are of a very great extent4 ,many       
beautiful pieces  of workmanship have   
been made of it in this province1 and   
particularly  the steps of the pedestal 
of the equestrian statue of ,louis le   
,grand1 at  ,dijon4    ,this species of 
stone is also found at ,montbard1 in    
,burgundy1 where  there is an extensive 
quarry2 it is not so hard as marble1    
contains more  of the echini1 and less  
of the red matter4 ,from this it appears
 that  the ancient porphyry of ,egypt   
differs only from that of ,burgundy in  
the  degree of hardness1 and the number 
of the points of the echini4    ,with   
respect to what the curious call green  
porphyry1 ,i rather suppose  it to be a 
granite than a porphyry2 it is not      
composed of spots like the  red         
porphyry1 and its substance appears to  
be similar to that of a  common granite4
 ,in ,tuscany1 in the stone with which  
the ancient walls of  ,volatera were    
built1 there are a great quantity of    

shells1 and this wall  was built #bejj  
years ago4 ,most marbles1 porphyries1   
and other stones of  the most ancient   
buildings1 contain shells and other     
wrecks of marine  productions1 as well  
as the marble we at present take from   
the quarry2  therefore it cannot be     
doubted1 independent even of the sacred 
testimony  of holy writ1 that before the
 deluge the earth was composed of the   
same  materials at it is at present4    
,from all these facts it is plain that  
petrified shells are found in  ,europe1 
,asia1 ,africa1 and in every place where
 the observations have  been made2 they 
are also found in ,america1 in the      
,brasils2 for example1  in ,tucumama1 in
 ,terra ,magellinica1 and in such a     
great quantity in the  ,antilles1 that  
directly below the cultivable land1 the 
bottom of which  the inhabitants call   
lime1 is nothing but a composition of   
shells1  madrepores1 astroites1 and     
other productions of the sea4 ,these    
facts  would have made me think that    

shells and other petrified marine       
productions were to be found in the     
greatest part of the continent of       
,america1 and especially in the         
mountains1 as ,woodward asserts2 but ,m4
  ,condamine1 who lived several years at
 ,peru1 has assured me he could not     
discover any in the ,cordeliers1        
although he had carefully sought for    
them4 ,this exception would be singular1
 and the consequences that might  be    
drawn from it would be still more so2   
but ,i own that1 in spite of the        
testimony of this celebrated naturalist1
 ,i am much inclined to suppose1  that  
in the mountains of ,peru1 as well as   
elsewhere1 there are shells  and other  
marine petrifications1 although they    
have not been discovered4  ,it is well  
known1 that in matter of testimonies1   
two positive witnesses1  who assert to  
have seen a thing1 is sufficient to make
 a complete proof2  whereas ten thousand
 negative witnesses1 and who can only   
assert not to  have seen a thing1 can   

only raise a slight doubt4 ,this reason1
 united  with the strength of analogy1  
induces me to persist in thinking the   
shells will be found on the mountains of
 ,peru1 especially if we search  for    
them on the rise of the mountain1 and   
not at the summit4    ,the tops of the  
highest mountains are generally composed
 of rock1 stone  granite1 and other     
vitrifiable matters1 which contain no   
shells4    ,all these matters were      
formed out of the beds of the sand of   
the sea1  which covered the tops of     
these mountains4 ,when the sea left     
them1 the  sand and other light bodies  
were carried by the waters into the     
plains1  so that there remained only    
rocks on the tops of the mountains1     
which  had been formed under those beds 
of sand4 ,at two1 three1 or four hundred
  fathoms below the tops of these       
mountains1 are often found marble and   
other calcinable matter1 which are      
disposed in parallel strata1 and        
contain shells and other marine         

productions2 therefore it is not        
surprising that ,m4 de la ,condamine did
 not find any shells on these           
mountains1 especially if he sought for  
them in the elevated parts of  those    
mountains which are composed of rock1   
free-stone1 or vitrifiable  sand2 but   
had he examined the lower parts of the  
,cordeliers1 he would  undoubtedly have 
found strata of stone1 marble1 earth1 c4
 mixed with  shells2 for in every       
country where observations have been    
made1 such  beds have always been met   
with4    ,but suppose that in fact there
 are no marine productions in the       
mountains of ,peru1 all that may be     
concluded from it will no ways affect   
our theory2 and it might be possible1   
that there are some parts of the  globe 
which never were covered with water1    
especially of such elevation  as the    
,cordeliers4 ,but in this case there    
might be some curious  observations made
 on those mountains1 for they would not 
be composed of  parallel strata1 the    

materials also would be very different  
from those  we are acquainted with2 they
 would not have perpendicular cracks2   
the  composition of the rocks and stones
 would not at all resemble those of     
other countries2 and lastly1 in these   
mountains we should find the  ancient   
structure of the earth such as it       
originally was before it was  changed by
 the motion of the waters2 we should see
 the first state of  the globe1 the old 
matters of which it was composed1 its   
form1 and the  natural arrangement of   
its parts2 but this is too much to      
expect1 and on  too slight foundations2 
and it is more conformable to reason to 
conclude  that fossil-shells are to be  
found in those mountains1 as well as in 
every other place4    ,with respect to  
the manner in which shells are placed in
 the strata of  earth or sand1 ,woodward
 says1 ,all shells that are met with in 
an  infinity of strata of earth1 and    
banks of rocks1 in the highest          
mountains1 and in the deepest quarries  

and mines1 in flints1 c4 c4 in  masses  
of sulphur1 marcasites1 and other       
metallic and mineral bodies1  are filled
 with similar substances to that which  
includes them1 and  never any           
heterogeneous matter1 c4    ,in the sand
 stones of all countries 7the specific  
weight of the  different kinds of which 
vary but little1 being generally with   
respect  to water as #b-a_/b or #i_/af  
to #a71 we find only the conchae1 and   
other  shells which are nearly of the   
same weight1 but they are usually found 
in very great numbers1 whereas it is    
very rare to meet with  oyster-shells   
7whose specific weight is but as #b-a_/c
 to #a71 or sea  cockles 7whose weight  
is but as #b or #b-a_/h to #a71 or other
 sorts of  lighter shells2 but on the   
contrary in chalk1 7which is lighter    
than  stone1 being to water but as      
#b-a_/aj to #a71 we find only cockles   
and  other kinds of lighter shells1 page
 #cb1 #cc4    ,it must be remarked1 that
 what ,woodward says in this place with 

respect  to specific gravity1 must not  
be looked upon as a general rule1 for we
  find lighter and heavier shells in the
 same matters2 for example1 shells  of  
cockles1 of oysters1 of echini1 c4 are  
found in the same stones and  earth2 and
 even in the royal cabinet may be seen a
 petrified cockle in a  cornelian1 and  
echini petrified in an agate1 c4        
therefore the specific  weight of the   
shells has not influenced so much as    
,woodward supposes  their position in   
the earth4 ,the reason why such light   
shells are found  more abundantly in    
chalk is1 that chalk is only the        
ruinated part of  shells1 and that those
 of the echini being lighter and thinner
 than  others1 would have been most     
easily reduced into powder or chalk1 so 
that the strata of chalk are only met   
with in the places where formerly  a    
great abundance of these light shells   
were collected1 the destruction  of     
which formed that chalk1 in which we    
find those shells1 which having         

resisted the frictions1 are preserved   
entire1 or at least in parts large      
enough to discover their species4       
,but this subject is treated more fully 
in our discourse on minerals2 we  shall 
here content ourselves with saying1 that
 a modification must be  given to       
,woodward's expressions3 he seems to    
say1 that shells are found  in flints1  
cornelians1 in ores1 and sulphur1 as    
often1 and in as great  a number as in  
other matters2 whereas the truth is1    
that they are very  rare in all         
vitrifiable or purely inflammable       
substances2 and1 on the  contrary1 are  
in prodigious abundance in chalk1 marl1 
and marbles1  insomuch that we cannot   
absolutely pretend to say1 that the     
lightest and  heaviest shells are found 
in corresponding strata1 but only that  
in  general they are oftener found so   
than otherwise4 ,they are all filled    
with the substance which surrounds them1
 whether found in horizontal  strata or 
in perpendicular fissures1 because both 

have been formed by  the waters1        
although at different times and in      
different manners4 ,those  found in     
horizontal strata of stone1 marble1 c4  
have been deposited by  the motion of   
the waves of the sea1 and those in      
flints1 cornelians1 and  all matters    
which are in the perpendicular fissures1
 have been produced  by the particular  
motion of a small quantity of water1    
loaded with  lapidific or metallic      
substances4 ,in both cases these matters
 were  reduced into a fine and          
impalpable powder1 which has filled the 
shells  so fully and absolutely1 as not 
to have left the least vacuum4    ,there
 is therefore in stone1 marble1 c4 a    
great multitude of shells  which are    
whole1 beautiful1 and so little changed1
 that they may be  easily compared with 
the shells preserved in cabinets1 or    
found on the  sea shores4    ,woodward1 
in pages #bc and #bd1 proceeds1 ,there  
are1 besides these1 great  multitudes of
 shells contained in stones1 c4 which   

are entire and  absolutely free from any
 such mineral mixture2 which may be     
compared  with those at this time seen  
on our shores1 and which will be found  
not  to have any difference1 being      
precisely of the same figure and size2  
of  the same substance and texture as   
the peculiar matter which composes  them
 is the same1 and is disposed and       
arranged in the same manner2 the        
direction of their fibres and spiral    
lines are the same1 the composition  of 
the small lama formed by their fibres is
 the same in the one as the  other2 we  
see in the same part vestigia of        
tendons1 by means of which  the animal  
was fastened and joined to its shell2 we
 see the same  tubercles1 stria and     
pipes2 in short1 the whole is alike1    
whether within  or without the shell1 in
 its cavity or on its convexity1 in its 
substance or on its superficies4 ,in    
other respects these fossil  shell-fish 
are subject to the same common accidents
 as those of the sea2  for example1 they

 sometimes grow to one another1 the     
least are adherent  to the large2 they  
have vermicular conduits2 pearls are    
found therein1  and other similar       
matters which have been produced by the 
animal when it  inhabited its shell2 and
 what is very considerable1 their       
specific  gravity is exactly the same as
 that of their kind found actually in   
the  sea2 in all chymical experiments   
they answer exactly with sea-shells2    
when dissolved they have the same       
appearance1 smell and taste2 in a  word1
 their resemblance is perfectly exact4  
,i have often observed with             
astonishment1 as ,i have already said1  
whole  mountains1 chains of rocks1      
enormous banks of quarries1 so full of  
shells and other wrecks of marine       
productions1 that their bulk surpassed  
that of the matter in which they were   
deposited4    ,i have seen cultivated   
fields so full of petrified cockles that
 a man  might pick them up with his eyes
 shut1 others covered with cornu        

ammonis1 and some with cardites2 and the
 more we examine the earth1 the  more we
 shall be convinced that the number of  
these petrifications is  infinite1 and  
conclude1 that it is impossible that all
 the animals which  inhabited these     
shells existed at one time4    ,i have  
made an observation1 that in all        
countries where we find a very  great   
number of petrified shells in the       
cultivated lands which are  whole1 well 
preserved1 and totally apart1 have been 
divided by the  action of the frost1    
which destroys the stone and suffers the
 petrified  shells to subsist a longer  
time4    ,this immense quantity of      
marine fossils found in so many places1 
proves  that they could not have been   
transported thither by the deluge2 for  
if  these shells had been brought on the
 earth by a deluge1 the greatest  part  
would have remained on the surface of   
the earth1 or at least would  not have  
entered to the depth of seven or eight  
hundred feet in the most  solid marble4 

,in all quarries these shells form a    
share of the internal part of the       
stone1 sometimes externally covered with
 stalactites1 which is much less        
ancient matter than stone1 which        
contains shells4 ,another proof this    
happened not by a deluge is1 that bones1
 horns1 claws1 c4 of land  animals1 are 
found but very rarely1 and not at all in
 marble and other  hard stone whereas if
 it was the effect of a deluge1 where   
all must have  perished1 we should meet 
with the remains of land animals as well
 as  those of the sea4    ,it is a vain 
supposition to pretend that all the     
earth was dissolved at  the deluge1 nor 
can we give any foundation to such idea1
 but by  supposing a second miracle1 to 
give the water the property of a        
universal dissolvent4 ,besides1 what    
annihilates the supposition1 and        
renders it even contradictory1 is1 that 
if all matters were dissolved by  that  
water1 yet shells have not been so1     
since we find them entire and  well     

preserved in all the masses which are   
said to have been dissolved2  this      
evidently proves that there never was   
such dissolution1 and that  the         
arrangement of the parallel strata was  
not made in an instant1 but  by         
successive sediments3 for it is evident 
to all who will take the  trouble of    
observing1 that the arrangement of all  
the materials which  compose the globe1 
is the work of the waters4 ,the question
 therefore is  only whether this        
arrangement was made at once1 or in a   
length of time3  now we have shewn it   
could not be done all at once1 because  
the  materials have not kept the order  
of specific weight1 and there has not   
been a general dissolution2 therefore   
this arrangement must have been         
produced by sediments deposited in      
succession of time2 any other           
revolution1 motion1 or cause1 would have
 produced a very different  arrangement4
 ,besides1 particular revolutions1 or   
accidental causes1  could not have      

produced a similar effect on the whole  
globe4    ,let us see what the historian
 of the ,academy says on this subject   
anno  #agah1 p4 #c4 ,the numerous       
remains of extensive inundations1 and   
the  manner in which we must conceive   
mountains to have been formed1          
sufficiently proves that great          
revolutions have happened to the surface
  of the earth4 ,as far as we have been 
able to penetrate we find little  else  
but ruins1 wrecks1 and vast bodies      
heaped up together and  incorporated    
into one mass1 without the smallest     
appearance of order or  design4 ,if     
there is some kind of regular           
organization in the terrestrial  globe  
it is deeper than we have been able to  
examine1 and all our  researches must   
terminate in digging among the ruins of 
the external  coat1 but which will still
 find sufficient employment for our     
philosophers4    ,m4 de ,jussieu found  
in the environs of ,st4 ,chaumont a     
great quantity of  slaty or foliated    

stones1 every foliage of which was      
marked with the  impression of a branch1
 a leaf1 or the fragment of a leaf of   
some plant3  the representations of     
leaves were exactly extended1 as if they
 had been  carefully spread on the stone
 by the hand2 this proves they had been 
brought thither by the water1 which     
always keeps leaves in that state3  they
 were in different situations1 sometimes
 two or three together4 ,it  may easily 
be supposed that a leaf deposited by    
water upon soft mud1 and  afterwards    
covered with another layer of mud1      
imprints on the upper the  image of one 
of its two surfaces1 and on the under   
the image of the  other2 and on being   
hardened and petrified would appear to  
have taken  different impressions2 but1 
however natural this supposition may be1
 the  fact is not so1 for the two lamin 
of stone bear impressions of the same   
side of the leaf1 the one in alto1 the  
other in bas releaf4 ,it was ,m4        
,jussieu who made these observations on 

the figured stones of ,st4  ,chaumont2  
to him we shall leave the explication1  
and pass to objects  which are more     
general and interesting4    ,all the    
impressions on the stones of ,st4       
,chaumont are of foreign  plants2 they  
are not to be found in any part of      
,france1 but only in the  ,east ,indies 
or the hot climates of ,america2 they   
are for the most part  capillary plants1
 generally of the species of fern1 whose
 hard and  compact coat renders them    
more able to imprint and preserve       
themselves4  ,some leaves of ,indian    
plants imprinted on the stones of       
,germany appeared  astonishing to ,m4   
,leibnitz1 but here we find the same    
wonderful affair  infinitely multiplied4
 ,there even seems in this respect to be
 an  unaccountable destination of       
nature1 for in all the stones of ,st4   
,chaumont not a single plant of the     
country has been found4    ,it is       
certain1 by the number of fossil-shells 
in the quarries and  mountains1 that    

this country1 as well as many others1   
must have formerly  been covered with   
the sea4 ,but how has the ,american or  
,indian sea  reached thither8 ,to       
explain this1 and many other wonderful  
phenomena1 it  may be supposed1 with    
much probability1 that the sea          
originally covered  the whole           
terrestrial globe3 but this supposition 
will not hold good1  because how were   
terrestrial plants to exist8 ,it        
evidently1 therefore1  must have been   
great inundations which have conveyed   
the plants of one  country into the     
others4    ,m4 de ,jussieu thinks1 that 
as the bed of the sea is continually    
rising1  in consequence of the mud and  
sand which the rivers incessantly convey
  there1 the sea1 at first confined     
between natural dykes1 surmounted  them1
 and was dispersed over the land1 and   
that the dykes were  themselves         
undermined by the waters and overthrown 
therein4 ,in the  earliest time of the  
formation of the earth1 when no one     

thing had taken  a regular form1        
prodigious and sudden revolutions might 
then have been  made1 of which we no    
longer have examples1 because the whole 
is now in  such a permanent state1 that 
the changes must be inconsiderable and  
by  degrees4    ,by some of these great 
revolutions the ,east and ,west ,indian 
seas may  have been driven to ,europe1  
and carried with them foreign plants    
floating on its waters1 which they tore 
up in their road1 and deposited  gently 
in places where the water was but       
shallow and would soon  evaporate4      
,,footnotes3    #bbj3;,a ,anno #agbj2   
page #e4    #bbg3;,a ,a kind of soft    
gravelly stone4    #bcc3;,a ,on this    
subject see ,stenon1 ,ray1 ,woodward1   
and others4    #bcd3;,a ,see ,shaw's    
,voyages1 ,vol4 ii1 pages #dj and #da4  
#bcg3;,a ,see ,shaw's ,travels4         
#bdj3;,a ,thevenot1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #be4 
#bdj3;,b ,voyage of ,paul ,lucus1 ,vol4 
,,ii1 page #chj4          ,,article     
,,ix4    ,,on ,,the ,,inequalities ,,of 

,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,earth4     
,the inequalities which are on the      
surface of the earth1 and which might   
be regarded as an imperfection to its   
figure1 are necessary to preserve       
vegetation and life on the terrestrial  
globe4 ,to be assured of this1 it  is   
only requisite to conceive what the     
earth would be if it was even and       
regular4 ,instead of agreeable hills1   
from whence pure streams of waters      
flow1 to support the verdure of the     
earth2 instead of those rich and        
flourishing meadows1 where plants and   
animals find agreeable  subsistence2 a  
dismal sea would cover the whole globe1 
and the earth1  deprived of all its     
valuable qualities1 would only remain an
 obscure and  forsaken planet1 at best  
only destined for the abode of fishes4  
,but independent of moral               
considerations1 which seldom form a     
proof in  philosophy1 there is a        
physical necessity why the earth must be
  irregular on its surface2 for         

supposing it was perfectly regular in   
its  origin1 the motion of the waters1  
the subterraneous fires1 the wind1 and  
other external causes1 would1 in course 
of time1 have necessarily  produced     
irregularities similar to those now     
seen4    ,the greatest inequalities next
 to the elevations of mountains1 are the
  depths of the ocean2 this depth is    
very different even at great  distances 
from land2 it is said there are parts   
above a league deep1 but  those are few1
 and the most general depths are from   
#fj to #aej fathoms4  ,the gulphs       
bordering on the coasts are much less   
deep1 and the straits  are generally the
 most shallow4    ,to sound the depths  
of the sea1 a piece of lead of #cj or   
#djlb4 is made  use of1 fastened to a   
small cord2 this is a good method for   
common  depths1 but is not to be        
depended upon when the depth is         
considerable2  because the cord being   
specifically lighter than the water1    
after it has  descended to a certain    

degree1 the weight of the lead and that 
of the  cord is no more than a like     
volume of water2 then the lead descends 
no  longer1 but moves in an oblique     
line1 and floats at the same depth3 to  
sound great depths1 therefore1 an iron  
chain is requisite1 or some  substance  
heavier than water4 ,it is very probable
 that for want of  considering this     
circumstance1 navigators tell us that   
the sea in many  places has no bottom4  
,in general1 the profundities in open   
seas increase or diminish in a  pretty  
uniform manner1 and commonly the farther
 from shore the greater  the depth2 yet 
this is not without exception1 there are
 places in the  midst of the sea where  
shoals are found1 as at ,abrolhos in the
 ,atlantic2  and others where there are 
banks of a very considerable extent1 as 
are  daily experienced by the navigators
 to the ,east ,indies4    ,so likewise  
along shore the depths are very unequal1
 nevertheless we may  lay it down as a  
certain rule1 that the depth there is   

always  proportionate to the height of  
that shore4 ,it is the same in great    
rivers1 where the high shores always    
announce a great depth4    ,it is more  
easy to measure the heights of          
mountains1 whether by means of          
practical geometry1 or by the barometer4
 ,this instrument gives the  height of a
 mountain very exactly1 especially in a 
country where its  variation is not     
considerable1 as at ,peru1 and under the
 other parts of  the equator4 ,by one or
 other of these methods1 the height of  
most  eminences has been measured2 for  
example1 it has been found that the     
highest mountains of ,switzerland are   
about #afjj fathoms higher than         
,canigau1 which is one of the most      
elevated of the ,pyrennees2 those       
mountains appear to be the highest in   
,europe1 since a great quantity of      
rivers flow from them1 which carry their
 water into very remote and  different  
seas1 as the ,po1 which flows into the  
,adriatic2 the ,rhine1  which loses     

itself in the sands in ,holland2 the    
,rhone1 which falls into  the           
,mediterranean2 and the ,danube1 which  
goes to the ,black ,sea4 ,these  four   
rivers1 whose mouths are so remote from 
each other1 all derive a  part of their 
waters from ,mount ,saint ,godard and   
the neighbouring  mountain1 which proves
 that this place is the highest in all  
,europe4  ,the highest mountains in     
,asia are ,mount ,taurus1 ,mount ,imaus1
 ,caucasus1  and the mountains of       
,japan1 all which are loftier than those
 of ,europe2  the mountains in ,africa1 
as the ,great ,atlas1 and the mountains 
of the  ,moon1 are at least as high as  
those in ,asia1 and the highest of all  
are  in ,south ,america1 particularly   
those of ,peru1 which are more than     
#cjjj  fathoms above the level of the   
sea4 ,in general the mountains between  
the  tropics are loftier than those of  
the temperate zones1 and these more     
than the frigid zones1 so that the      
nearer we approach the equator1 the     

greater are the inequalities of the     
earth4 ,these inequalities1 although    
very considerable with respect to us1   
are scarcely any thing when  considered 
with respect to the whole globe4 ,three 
thousand fathom  difference to #cjjj    
leagues diameter1 is but one fathom to a
 league1 or  one foot to #bbjj feet1    
which on a globe of #b-a_/b feet        
diameter1 does not  make the #afth part 
of a ,french line4 ,thus the earth1     
which appears to us  crossed and        
intersected by the enormous height of   
mountains1 and by a  frightful depth of 
sea1 is nevertheless1 relative to its   
size1 but  slightly furrowed with       
irregularities1 so very trifling1 that  
they can  cause no difference to the    
general figure of the globe4 ,in        
continents  the mountains are continued 
and form chains4 ,in islands1 they are  
more  interrupted1 and generally raised 
above the sea1 in the forms of cones  or
 pyramids1 and are called peaks4 ,the   
peak of ,teneriffe1 in the island  of   

,fer1 is one of the highest mountains on
 the earth2 it is near a  league and a  
half perpendicular above the level of   
the sea2 the peak of  ,st4 ,george1 in  
one of the ,azores1 and the peak of     
,adam1 in the island of  ,ceylon1 are   
also very lofty4 ,these peaks are       
composed of rocks1 heaped  one upon the 
other1 and they vomit from their summits
 fire1 cinders1  bitumen1 minerals1 and 
stones4 ,there are islands which are    
only tops of  mountains1 as of ,st4     
,helena1 ,ascension1 most of the        
,azores1 and  ,canaries4 ,we must       
remark1 that in most of the islands1    
promontories1 and  other projecting     
lands in the sea1 the middle is always  
the highest2 and  they are generally    
separated by chains of mountains1 which 
divide them  in their greatest length1  
as 7,gransbain7 the ,grampian mountains 
in  ,scotland1 which extend from east to
 west1 and divide ,great ,britain into  
two parts4 ,it is the same with the     
islands of ,sumatra1 ,lucca1 ,borneo1   

,celebes1 ,cuba1 ,st4 ,domingo1 and the 
peninsula of ,malaya1 c4 and also       
,italy1 which is traversed through its  
whole length by the ,apennine           
mountains4    ,mountains1 as we find1   
differ greatly in height2 the hills are 
lowest1  after them come the mountains  
of a moderate height1 which are followed
  by a third rank still higher1 which1  
like the preceding1 are generally       
loaded with trees and plants1 but which 
furnish no springs except at  their     
bottoms4 ,in the highest mountains we   
find only sand1 stones1  flints1 and    
rocks1 whose summits often rise above   
the clouds4 ,exactly at  the foot of    
these rocks there are small spaces1     
plains1 hollows1 and  kinds of vallies1 
where the rain1 snow1 and ice remain1   
and form ponds1  morasses1 and springs1 
from whence rivers derive their origin4 
,the form of mountains is also very     
different3 some form chains whose       
height is nearly equal in a long extent 
of soil1 others are divided by  deep    

vallies2 some are regular1 and others as
 irregular as possible2 and  sometimes  
in the middle of a valley or plain1 we  
find a little mountain4  ,there are also
 two sorts of plains1 the one in the low
 lands1 the other  in mountains4 ,the   
first are generally divided by some     
large river3 the  others1 though of a   
very considerable extent1 are dry1 and  
at farthest  have only a small rivulet4 
,these plains on mountains are often    
very  high1 and difficult of access2    
they form countries above other         
countries1 as in ,auvergne1 ,savoy1 and 
many other high places3 the soil  is    
firm1 and produces much grass1 and      
odoriferous plants1 which render  these 
plains the best pasture in the world4   
,the summits of high mountains are      
composed of rocks of different  heights1
 which resemble from a distance the     
waves of the sea4 ,it is not  on this   
observation alone we can rely that the  
mountains have been  formed by the      
waves1 ,i only relate it because it     

accords with the rest3  but that which  
evidently proves that the sea once      
covered and formed  mountains1 are the  
shells and other marine productions     
found throughout  in such great         
quantities1 that it is not possible for 
them to have been  transported by the   
sea into such remote continents1 and    
deposited to  such considerable depths2 
to this may be added1 the horizontal and
  parallel strata every where met with1 
and which can only have been  formed by 
the waters4 ,the composition even of the
 hardest matters1 as  stone and marble1 
prove they had been reduced into fine   
powder before  their formation1 and     
precipitated to the bottom of the water 
in form of  a sediment3 it is also      
proved by the exactness with which      
fossil-shells  are moulded in those     
matters in which they are found2 the    
inside of  these shells are absolutely  
filled with the same matters as that in 
which they are enclosed2 the            
corresponding angles of mountains and   

hills1 which no other cause than the    
currents of the sea could have been     
able to form2 the equality in the height
 of opposite hills1 and beds of         
different matters1 formed at the same   
levels1 and1 in short1 the  direction of
 mountains1 whose chains extend in      
length in the same  direction as the    
waves of the sea extend1 incontestibly  
demonstrate the  fact4    ,with respect 
to the depths on the surface of the     
earth1 the greatest1  without           
contradiction1 are the depths of the    
sea2 but as they do not  present        
themselves to our sight1 and as we can  
only judge of them by the  plumb line1  
we shall only speak of those which      
appear on dry land1 such  as the deep   
vallies between mountains1 the          
precipices between rocks1 the  abysses  
perceived from the tops of mountains1 as
 the abyss of ,mount  ,ararat1 the      
precipices of the ,alps1 the vallies of 
the ,pyrennees1 c4  ,these depths are a 
natural consequence of the elevation of 

mountains2  they receive the waters and 
the earth which flow from the mountains1
 and  the soil is generally very        
fertile1 and are fully inhabited4       
,the precipices which are between rocks 
are frequently formed by the  sinking of
 one side1 the base of which sometimes  
gives way more on one  side than the    
other1 by the action of the air and     
frost1 which splits  and divides them1  
or by the impetuous violence of         
torrents4 ,but these  abysses1 or vast  
and enormous precipices1 found at the   
summits of  mountains1 and to the bottom
 of which it is not possible sometimes  
to  descend1 although they are above a  
mile1 or a mile and a half round1  have 
been formed by the fire4 ,these were    
formerly the funnels of  volcanos1 and  
all the matter which is there deficient 
has been ejected  by the action and     
explosion of these fires1 which are     
since extinguished  through a defect of 
combustible matter4 ,the abyss of ,mount
 ,ararat1 of  which ,m4 ,tournefort     

gives a description in his voyage to the
 ,levant1 is  surrounded with black and 
burnt rocks1 as one day the abysses of  
,etna1  ,vesuvius1 and other volcanos1  
will be1 when they have consumed all the
  combustible matters they include4     
,in ,plots' ,natural ,history of        
,staffordshire1 in ,england1 a kind of  
gulph  is spoken of which has been      
sounded to the depth of #bfjj           
perpendicular  feet without meeting with
 any water1 or the bottom being found1  
as the  rope was not of sufficient      
length to reach it4    ,greatest        
cavities and deepest mines are generally
 in mountains1 and they  never descend  
to a level with the plains1 therefore by
 these cavities we  are only acquainted 
with the inside of a mountain1 and not  
with the  internal part of the globe    
itself4    ,besides1 these depths are   
not very considerable4 ,ray asserts that
 the  deepest mines are not above half a
 mile deep4 ,the mine of ,cotteberg1    
which in the time of ,agricola passed   

for the deepest of all known mines1  was
 only #bejj feet perpendicular4 ,it is  
evident there are holes in  certain     
places1 as that in ,staffordshire1 or   
,pool's ,hole1 in ,derbyshire1  the     
depth of which is perhaps greater2 but  
all this is nothing in  comparison with 
the thickness of the globe4    ,if the  
kings of ,egypt1 instead of having      
erected pyramids1 and raised  such      
sumptuous monuments of their riches and 
vanity1 had been at the  same expence to
 sound the earth1 and make a deep       
excavation to the depth  of a league1   
they1 perhaps1 might have found         
substances which would have  amply      
recompensed the trouble1 labour1 and    
expence1 or at least we  should have    
received information on the matters of  
which the internal  part of the globe is
 composed1 which might have been very   
useful1 and  which we at present have   
not4    ,but let us return to the       
mountains2 the highest are in the       
southern  countries1 and the nearer we  

approach the equator1 the more          
inequalities  we find on the surface of 
the globe4 ,this is easy to prove1 by a 
short  enumeration of the mountains and 
islands4    ,in ,america1 the chain of  
the ,cordeliers1 the highest mountains  
of the  earth1 is exactly under the     
equator1 and extends on the two sides   
far  beyond the tropic circles4    ,in  
,africa1 the highest mountains of the   
,moon1 and ,monomotapa1 the great  and  
the little ,atlas1 are under the        
equator1 or not far from it4    ,in     
,asia1 ,mount ,caucasus1 the chain of   
which extends under different  names as 
far as the mountains of ,china1 is      
nearer the equator than the  poles4     
,in ,europe1 the ,pyrennees1 the ,alps1 
and mountains of ,greece1 which are     
only the same chain1 are still less     
distant from the equator than the       
poles4    ,now these mountains which we 
have enumerated1 are all higher1 more   
considerable and extended in length and 
breadth than the mountains of  the      

northern countries4    ,with respect to 
their direction1 the ,alps form a chain 
which crosses the  whole continent from 
,spain to ,china4 ,these mountains begin
 at the sea  coast of ,galicia1 reach to
 the ,pyrennees1 cross ,france1 by      
,vivares1 and  ,auvergne1 pass through  
,italy and extend into ,germany1 beyond 
,dalmatia1  as far as ,macedonia2 from  
thence they join with the mountains of  
,armenia1 ,caucasus1 ,taurus1 ,imaus1   
and extend as far as the ,tartarian     
sea4 ,so likewise ,mount ,atlas         
traverses the whole continent of        
,africa1  from west to east1 from the   
kingdom of ,fez to the ,straits of the  
,red  ,sea2 and the mountains of the    
,moon have the same direction4    ,but  
in ,america1 the direction is quite     
contrary1 and the chains of the         
,cordeliers and other mountains extend  
from south to north more than from  east
 to west4    ,what we have now said on  
the great eminences of the earth1 may   
also be  observed on the greatest depths

 of the sea4 ,the vast and highest seas 
are nearer the equator than the poles2  
and there results from this             
observation1 that the greatest          
inequalities of the globe are in the    
southern climate4 ,these irregularities 
on the surface of the earth1 are  the   
causes of an infinity of extraordinary  
effects3 for example1 between  the      
,indus and the ,ganges1 there is a large
 peninsula1 which is divided  through   
its middle1 by a chain of high mountains
 called the ,gate1 and  which extends   
from north to south1 from the           
extremities of ,mount  ,caucasus to     
,cape ,comorin2 on one is the coast of  
,malabar1 and the other  ,coromandel2 on
 the side of ,malabar1 between this     
chain of mountains and  the sea1 the    
summer season lasts from ,september to  
,april1 during which  the sky is serene 
and dry2 on the other side the          
,coromandel the above  period is their  
winter1 and it rains every day          
plentifully and from the  month of      

,april to the month of ,september is    
their summer1 whereas it is  winter in  
,malabar2 insomuch1 that in many places1
 which are scarcely #bj  miles distant1 
we may1 by crossing the mountains1      
change seasons4 ,it is  said that the   
same thing takes place at ,razalgat in  
,arabia1 and at  ,jamaica1 which is     
divided through its middle by a chain of
 mountains1  whose direction is from    
east to west1 and that the plantations  
to the  south of these mountains feel   
the summer heat1 at the time those to   
the  north endure the rigor of winter4  
,peru1 which is situated under the line1
 and extends about a thousand  leagues  
to the south1 is divided into three long
 and narrow parts2 these  the natives   
call ,lanos1 ,sierras1 and ,andes4 ,the 
,lanos1 which comprehends  the plains1  
extends along the coast of the ,south   
,sea3 the ,sierras are  hills with some 
vallies1 and the ,andes are the famous  
,cordeliers1 the  highest mountains that
 are known4 ,the ,lanos is about ten    

leagues in  breadth2 in many places the 
,sierras are twenty leagues broad1 and  
the  ,andes in some places more and in  
some less4 ,the breadth is from east to 
west1 and the length from north to      
south4 ,this part of the world is       
remarkable for the following            
particulars3 first1 in the ,lanos the   
wind  almost constantly blows from the  
south-west1 which is contrary to what   
happens in the torrid zone3 secondly1 it
 never rains nor thunders in the        
,lanos1 although there is plenty of dew3
 thirdly1 it almost continually  rains  
in the ,andes3 fourthly1 in the         
,sierras1 between the ,lanos and the    
,andes1 it rains from ,september to     
,april4    ,it was for a long time      
supposed1 that the chains of the high   
mountains  run from west to east1 till  
the contrary was found in ,america4 ,but
 no  person before ,m4 ,bourguet        
discovered the surprising regularity of 
the  structure of those great masses3 he
 found 7after having crossed the ,alps  

thirty times in fourteen different parts
 of it1 twice over the ,apennine        
mountains1 and made divers tours in the 
environs of these mountains1 and  of    
,mount ,jura7 that all mountains are    
formed nearly after the manner of  works
 of a fortification4 ,when the body of  
the mountain runs from east  to west1 it
 forms prominences1 which face the north
 and south2 this  wonderful regularity  
is so striking in vallies1 that we seem 
to walk in  a very regular covered way2 
if1 for example1 we travel in a valley  
from  north to south1 we perceive that  
the mountain on the right forms         
projections which front the east1 and   
those of the mountain on the left  front
 the west1 so that the saliant angles of
 one side reciprocally  answer the      
returning angles of the other1 which are
 always alternatively  opposed to them4 
,the angles which mountains form in     
great vallies are  less acute1 because  
the direction is less steep1 and they   
are farther  distant from each other4   

,in plains they are not so perceptible1 
except  by the banks of rivers1 which   
are generally in the middle of them1 and
  whose natural windings answer the most
 advanced angles or striking            
projections of the mountains4 ,it is    
astonishing so visible a thing was  so  
long unobserved1 for when in a valley   
the inclination of one of the  mountains
 which border it is less steep than that
 of the other1 the  river takes its     
course much nearer the steepest         
mountain1 and does not  flow through its
 middle4    ,to these observations we   
may join other particular ones1 which   
confirm  them2 for example1 the         
mountains of ,switzerland are much more 
steep1 and  their direction much greater
 on the south side than on the north1   
and on  the west side than on the east4 
,this may be perceived in the mountains 
of ,gemmi1 ,brisa1 and almost every     
other mountain in this country4 ,the    
highest are those which separate        
,valesia and the ,grisons from ,savoy1  

,piedmont1 and ,tirol4 ,these countries 
are only a continuation of these        
mountains1 the chain of which extends to
 the ,mediterranean1 and  continues even
 pretty far under the sea4 ,the         
,pyrennees are also only a  continuation
 of that vast mountain which begins in  
,upper ,valesia1 and  whose branches    
extend very far to the west and south1  
preserving  throughout the same great   
height2 whereas on the side of the north
 and  of the east these mountains grow  
lower by degrees1 till they become      
plains2 as we see by the large tract    
which the ,rhine and ,danube water      
before they reach their mouths1 whereas 
the ,rhone descends with rapidity       
towards the south into the              
,mediterranean4 ,the same observation is
 found  to hold good in the mountains of
 ,england and ,norway2 but the part of  
the  world where this is most evidently 
seen is at ,peru and ,chili2 the        
,cordeliers are cut very sharply on the 
western side1 the length of the         

,pacific ,ocean1 whereas on the eastern 
side they lower by degrees into  large  
plains1 watered by the greatest rivers  
of the world4#bgi3;,a    ,m4 ,bourguet1 
to whom we owe this great discovery of  
the correspondence  of the angles of    
mountains1 terms it ,the ,key of the    
,theory of the  ,earth2 nevertheless1 it
 appears to me1 that if he had conceived
 all  the importance of it1 he would    
more successfully have made use of it1  
by connecting it with suitable facts1   
and would have given a more  probable   
theory of the earth2 whereas in his     
treatise he presents only  the skeleton 
of an hypothetical system1 most of the  
conclusions of which  are false or      
precarious4 ,the theory we have given   
turns on four  principal facts1 which   
cannot be doubted1 after the proofs have
 been  examined on which they are       
founded4 ,the first is1 that the earth  
is  every where1 and to considerable    
depths1 composed of parallel strata1    
and matters which have formerly been in 

a state of softness3 the second1  that  
the sea has for ages covered the earth  
which we now inhabit2 the  third1 that  
the tides and other motions of the      
waters produce  inequalities at the     
bottom of the sea2 and the fourth1 that 
the  mountains have taken their form and
 the correspondent direction from the   
currents of the sea4    ,after having   
read the proofs which the following     
articles contain1 it  may be determined1
 whether ,i was wrong to assert1 that   
these  circumstances solidly established
 also ascertains the truth of the       
theory of the earth4 ,what ,i have said 
on the formation of mountains has  no   
need of a more ample explanation2 but as
 it might be objected that ,i  do not   
assign a reason for the formation of the
 peaks or points of  mountains1 no more 
than for some other particular          
circumstances1 shall  add the           
observations and reflections which ,i   
have made on this subject4    ,i have   
endeavoured to form a clear and general 

idea of the manner in  which the        
different matters that compose the earth
 are arranged1 and it  appears to me    
they may be reduced into two general    
classes2 the first  includes all the    
matters we find placed in strata1 or    
beds horizontally  or regularly         
inclined2 and the second comprehends all
 matters formed in  masses1 or in veins1
 either perpendicular or irregularly    
inclined4 ,in  the first class are      
included sands1 clays1 granite1 flints1 
free-stone1  coals1 slates1 marls1      
chalks1 calcinable stones1 marbles1 c4  
,in the  second ,i rank metals1         
minerals1 crystals1 precious stones and 
small  flints3 these two classes        
generally comprehend all the known      
materials  of the earth4 ,the first owe 
their origin to the sediments carried   
away  and deposited by the sea1 and     
should be distinguished into those which
  being assayed in the fire1 calcine and
 are reduced into lime1 and those  which
 fuse and are convertible into glass4   

,the materials of the second  class are 
all vitrifiable excepting those which   
the fire entirely  consumes by          
inflammation4    ,in the first class we 
distinguish two kinds of sands2 the one1
 which is  more abundant than any other 
matter of the globe1 is vitrifiable1 or 
rather is only fragments of actual      
glass2 the other1 whose quantity is     
much less1 is calcinable1 and must be   
looked upon as the powder of  stone1 and
 which differs only from gravel by the  
size of the grains4 ,the  vitrifiable   
sand is1 in general1 deposited in beds1 
which are often  interrupted by masses  
of free-stone1 granite1 and flint2 and  
sometimes  these matters are also in    
banks of great extent4    ,by examining 
these vitrifiable matters1 we find only 
a few sea shells  there1 and those not  
placed in beds1 but dispersed about as  
if thrown  there by chance4 ,for        
example1 ,i have never seen them in     
free-stone2 that  stone which is very   
plenty in certain places1 is only       

composed of sandy  parts1 which are     
re-united1 and are only met with in     
sandy soils2 and  the quarries of it are
 generally in peaked hills and in       
divided  eminences4 ,we may work these  
quarries in all directions1 and if they 
are  in large beds1 they are much       
farther from each other than in quarries
 of  calcinable stone or marble4 ,blocks
 of free-stone may be cut of all        
dimensions and in all directions1       
although it is difficult to work1 it    
nevertheless has but a degree of        
hardness sufficient to resist powerful  
strokes without splitting2 for friction 
easily reduces it into sand1  excepting 
certain black pieces found therein1 and 
which are so very  hard1 that the best  
files cannot touch them4 ,rock is       
vitrifiable as  free-stone1 and of the  
same nature1 only it is harder and the  
parts more  connected4 ,this also       
contains many hard pieces1 as may easily
 be  remarked on the summits of high    
mountains1 which cut and tear the shoes 

of travellers4 ,this rocky stone1 which 
is found at the top of high  mountains1 
and which ,i look upon as a kind of     
granite1 contains a great  quantity of  
talky leaves1 and is so hard as not to  
be worked but by an  infinite deal of   
labour4    ,i have narrowly examined    
these sharp pieces which are found in   
free-stone and rock1 and have discovered
 it to be a metallic matter1  melted and
 calcined by a very violent fire1 and   
which perfectly  resembles certain      
substances thrown out by the volcanos1  
of which ,i saw  a great quantity when  
,i was in ,italy1 where the people      
called them  ,schiarri4 ,they are very  
heavy black masses1 on which neither    
water nor  the file can make any        
impression1 and the matter of which is  
different  from that of the lava2 for   
this is a kind of glass1 whereas the    
other  appears to be more metallic than 
vitreous4 ,the sharp pieces in          
free-stone1 and rock1 resemble greatly  
the first matter1 which seems  still to 

prove that all these matters have been  
formerly liquified by  fire4    ,we     
sometimes see on the upper parts of     
mountains1 a prodigious quantity  of    
blocks of this mixed rock2 their        
position is so irregular that they      
appear to have been thrown there by     
chance1 and it might be thought they    
had fallen from some neighbouring       
height1 if the places where they are    
found were not raised above the other   
parts4 ,but their vitrifiable  nature1  
and their angular and square figures1   
like those of free-stone1  discover them
 to be of one common origin4 ,thus in   
the great beds of  vitrifiable sand1    
blocks of free-stone and rock are       
formed1 whose  figures and situations do
 not exactly follow the horizontal      
position of  these strata4 ,the rain1 by
 degrees1 carried away from the summits 
of the  hills and mountains the sand    
which at first covered them1 and then   
began  to furrow and cut those hills    
into the spaces which are found between 

the nucleus in free-stone1 as the hills 
of ,fontainbleau are intersected4  ,each
 hilly point answers to a nucleus in a  
quarry of free-stone1 and  each interval
 has been excavated and loosened by the 
rain1 which has  caused the sand1 they  
at first contained1 to flow into the    
vallies2 so  likewise the highest       
mountains1 whose summits are composed of
 rocks1 and  terminated by these angular
 blocks of granite1 have formerly been  
covered with vitrifiable sand1 and the  
rain having carried away the sand  which
 covered them1 they remained on the tops
 of the mountains in the  position they 
were formed4 ,these blocks generally    
present points2 they  increase in size  
in proportion as they descend2 one block
 often rests  upon another1 the second  
upon a third1 and so on1 leaving        
irregular  intervals between them3 and  
as in time the rain washed away all the 
sand  which covered these different     
parts on the top of the high mountains1 
they would remain naked1 forming larger 

or lesser points2 and this is  the      
origin of the peaks or horns of         
mountains4    ,for supposing1 as it is  
easy to prove by the marine productions 
we find  there1 that the chain of the   
,alps was formerly covered by the sea1  
and  that above this chain there was a  
great thickness of vitrifiable sand1    
which rendered the whole mountains a    
flat and level country4 ,in this  depth 
of sand1 there would necessarily be     
formed granite1 free-stone1  flint1 and 
all matters which take their origin and 
figure in sand1  nearly in a similar    
manner to that of the crystallisation of
 salts4  ,these blocks once formed would
 support their original positions1 after
  the rains and torrents had carried    
away the sand which surrounded them1    
and being left bare formed all those    
peaks or pointed eminences we see  in so
 many places4 ,this is also the origin  
of those high and detached  rocks found 
in ,china and other countries1 as in    
,ireland1 where they are  called the    

,devil's stones1 and whose formation as 
well as that of the  peaks of mountains1
 had hitherto appeared so difficult to  
explain2  nevertheless the explanation  
which ,i have given is so natural1 that 
it  directly presents itself to the mind
 of those who examine these objects1    
and ,i must here quote what ,father     
,tatre says1 ,from ,yanchu-in-yen1 we   
came to ,hoytcheou1 and on the road met 
with something particular1 rocks  of an 
extraordinary height1 of the shape of a 
large square tower1 and  situate in the 
midst of vast plains3 ,i cannot account 
for it1 unless by  supposing they were  
formerly mountains1 from which the rain 
having  washed away the earth that      
surrounded them1 thus left the rocks    
entirely  bare4 ,what strengthens this  
conjecture is1 that we saw some which1  
towards the base1 are still covered with
 earth to a considerable  height4       
,the summits of the highest mountains   
are composed of rocks1 of granite1      
free-stone1 and other hard and          

vitrifiable matters1 and this often as  
deep as two or three hundred fathoms2   
below which we often meet with  quarries
 of marble1 or hard stone1 filled with  
fossil-shells1 and whose  matter is     
calcinable2 as may be remarked at ,great
 ,chartreuse1 in  ,dauphiny1 and on     
,mount ,cenis1 where the stone and      
marble1 which contains  shells1 are some
 hundred fathoms below the summits1     
points and peaks of  high mountains2    
although these stones are more than a   
thousand fathom  above the level of the 
sea4 ,thus mountains1 whereon we see    
points or  peaks1 are generally         
vitrifiable rock1 and those whose       
summits are flat1  mostly contain marble
 and hard stones filled with marine     
productions4 ,it  is the same with      
respect to hills1 for those containing  
granite1 or  free-stone1 are mostly     
intersected with points1 eminences1     
cavities1  depths1 and small            
intermediate valleys2 on the contrary1  
those which  are composed of calcinable 

stone are nearly equal in height1 and   
are  only interrupted by greater and    
more regular vallies1 whose angles are  
correspondent2 and they are crowned with
 rocks whose position is regular  and   
level4    ,whatever difference may      
appear at first between these two       
species of  mountains1 their forms      
proceed from the same cause1 as we have 
already  observed2 only it may be       
remarked1 that the calcinable stones    
have not  undergone any alteration nor  
change since the formation of the       
horizontal strata2 whereas those of     
vitrifiable sand have been changed  and 
interrupted by the posterior production 
of rocks and angular blocks  formed     
within this sand4 ,these two kinds of   
mountains have cracks which  are almost 
always perpendicular in those of        
calcinable stones2 but those  of granite
 and free-stone appear to be a little   
more irregular in their  direction4 ,it 
is in these cracks metal1 minerals1     
crystals1 sulphurs1  and all matters of 

the second class are found1 and it is   
below these  cracks that the water      
collects to penetrate the earth1 and    
form those  veins of water which are    
every where found below the surface4    
,,footnotes3    #bgi3;,a ,see ,phil4    
,trans4 ,abr4 ,vol4 ,,vi4 part ii4 p4   
#aec4          ,,article ,x4    ,,of    
,,rivers4      ,we have before said     
that1 generally speaking1 the greatest  
mountains are  in islands and in the    
projections in the sea4 ,that in the old
 continent  the greatest chains of      
mountains are directed from west to     
east1 and  that those which incline     
towards the north or south are only     
branches of  these principal chains2 we 
shall likewise find that the greatest   
rivers  are directed as the greatest    
mountains1 and that there are but few   
which  follow the course of the branches
 of those mountains4 ,to be assured of  
this1 we have only to look on a common  
globe1 and trace the old  continent from
 ,spain to ,china4 ,we shall find1 by   

beginning at ,spain1  that the ,vigo1   
,douro1 ,tagos1 and ,guadiana run from  
east to west1 and the  ,ebro from west  
to east1 and that there is not one      
remarkable river whose  course is       
directed from south to north1 or from   
north to south1 although  ,spain is     
entirely surrounded by the sea on the   
west side1 and almost so  on the north4 
,this observation on the directions of  
rivers in ,spain not  only proves that  
the mountains in this country are       
directed from west to  east1 but also   
that the southern lands1 which border on
 the straits1 are  higher than the      
coasts of ,portugal2 and on the northern
 coast1 that the  mountains of ,galicia1
 the ,asturias1 c4 are only a           
continuation of the  ,pyrennees1 and    
that it is this elevation of the        
country1 as well north  as south1 which 
does not permit the rivers to run into  
the sea that way4    ,it will also be   
seen1 by looking on the map of ,france1 
that there is  only the ,rhone which    

runs from north to south1 and nearly    
half its  course1 from the mountains to 
,lyons1 is directed from the east       
towards  the west2 but that on the      
contrary all the other great rivers1 as 
the  ,loir1 the ,charantee1 the         
,garonne1 and even the ,seine1 have a   
direction  from east to west4    ,it    
will be likewise perceived1 that in     
,germany there is only the ,rhine1      
which like the ,rhone shapes the        
greatest part of its course from north  
to south1 but that the others1 as the   
,danube1 the ,drave1 and all the  great 
rivers which fall into them1 flow from  
the west to east into the  ,black ,sea4 
,it will be perceived that this ,black  
,sea1 which should rather be  considered
 as a great lake1 has almost three times
 more extent from east  to west than    
from north to south1 and consequently   
its direction is  similar to the rivers 
in general4 ,it is the same with the    
,mediterranean1  whose length from east 
to west is about six times greater than 

from  north to south4    ,the ,caspian  
,sea1 according to the chart drawn by   
the order of ,czar ,peter  ,i4 has more 
extent from the south to the north than 
from east to west2  whereas in the      
ancient charts it appears almost round1 
or rather more  broad from east to west 
than from south to north2 but if we     
consider the  lake ,aral as a part of   
the ,caspian ,sea1 from which it is     
separated only  by plains of sand1 we   
shall find the length is from the       
western coast of  the ,caspian ,sea as  
far as the greatest border of ,lake     
,aral4    ,so likewise the ,euphrates1  
the ,persian gulph1 and almost all the  
rivers  in ,china run from west to east2
 all the rivers in ,africa beyond       
,barbary  flow from east to west1 or    
from west to east1 and there are only   
the  rivers of ,barbary and the ,nile   
which flow from south to north4 ,there  
are1 in fact1 great rivers in ,asia     
which partly run from north to  south1  
as the ,wolga1 the ,don1 c4 but by      

taking the whole length of  their       
course1 we find1 that they only turn    
from the south to run into  the ,black  
and ,caspian seas1 which are only inland
 lakes4    ,it may therefore in general 
be said1 that in ,europe1 ,asia1 and    
,africa1  the rivers1 and other         
mediterranean waters1 extend more from  
east to  west than from north to south1 
which proceeds from the chains of       
mountains being for the most part so    
directed1 and that the whole  continent 
of ,europe and ,asia is broader in this 
direction than the  other2 for there are
 two modes of considering the direction 
of  mountains4 ,in a long and narrow    
continent like ,south ,america1 in which
  there is only one principal chain of  
mountains which stretches from  south to
 north1 the river not being confined by 
any parallel range1  necessarily runs   
perpendicular to the course of the      
mountains1 that is  from east to west1  
or from west to east2 in fact1 it is in 
this  direction all the rivers of       

,america flow4 ,in the old as well as   
the new  continent most of the waters   
have their greatest extent from west to 
east1 and most of the rivers flow in    
this direction2 but yet this  similar   
direction is produced by different      
causes2 for instance1 those  in the old 
continent flow from east to west1       
because they are bounded  by mountains  
whose direction is from west to east2   
whereas those in  ,america preserve the 
same course from there being only one   
chain of  mountains that extends from   
north to south4    ,in general1 rivers  
run through the centre of vallies1 or   
rather the  lowest ground betwixt two   
opposite hills or mountains2 if the two 
hills  have nearly an equal inclination1
 the river will be nearly in the middle 
of the intermediate valley1 let the     
valley be broad or narrow4 ,on the      
contrary1 if one of the hills has a more
 steep inclination than the  other1 the 
river will not be in the middle of the  
valley1 but much  nearer the hill whose 

inclination is greatest1 and that too in
  proportion to the superiority of its  
declivity3 in this case1 the lowest     
ground is not in the middle of the      
valley1 but inclines towards the        
highest hill1 and which the river must  
necessarily occupy4 ,in all places      
where there is any considerable         
difference in the height of the         
mountains1 the rivers flow at the foot  
of the steepest hills1 and follow  them 
throughout all their directions1 never  
quitting their course while  they       
maintain the superiority of height4 ,in 
the length of time1 however1  the       
steepest hills are diminished by the    
rain acting upon them with a  greater   
degree of force1 proportionate to their 
height1 and consequently  carry away the
 sand and gravel in more considerable   
quantities1 and with  greater violence2 
the river is then constrained to change 
its bed1 and  seek the lowest part of   
the valley3 to this may be added1 that  
as all  rivers overflow at times1 they  

transport and deposit mud and sand in   
different places1 and that sands often  
accumulate in their own beds1 and  cause
 a swell of the water1 which changes the
 direction of its course4  ,it is very  
common to meet in vallies with a great  
number of old channels  of the river1   
particularly if it is subject to        
frequent inundations1 and  carries off  
much sand and mud4    ,in plains and    
large vallies1 where there are great    
rivers1 the beds are  generally the     
lowest part of the valley1 but the      
surface of the water is  very often     
higher than the ground adjacent4 ,for   
example1 when a river  begins to        
overflow1 the plain will presently be   
inundated to a  considerable breadth1   
and it will be observed that the borders
 of the  river will be covered the last2
 which proves that they are higher than 
the rest of the ground1 and that from   
the banks to a certain part of  the     
plain1 there is an insensible           
inclination1 so that the surface of  the

 water must be higher than the plain    
when the river is full4 ,this  elevation
 on the banks of rivers proceeds from   
the deposit of the mud  and sand at the 
time of inundations4 ,the water is      
commonly very muddy in  the great       
swellings of rivers2 when it begins to  
overflow1 it runs very  gently over the 
banks1 and by depositing the mud and    
sand purifies  itself as it advances    
into the plain2 so that all the soil    
which the  currents of the river does   
not carry along1 is deposited on the    
banks1  which raises them by degrees    
above the rest of the plain4    ,rivers 
are always broadest at their mouths2 in 
proportion as we advance  in the        
country1 and are more remote from the   
sea1 their breadth  diminishes2 but what
 is more remarkable1 in the inland parts
 they flow  in a direct line1 and in    
proportion as they approach their mouths
 the  windings of their course increase4
 ,i have been informed by ,m4 ,fabry1 a 
sensible traveller1 who went several    

times by land into the western part  of 
,north ,america1 that travellers1 and   
even the savages1 are seldom  deceived  
in the distance they are from the sea if
 they follow the bank  of a large river2
 when the direction of the river is     
straight for #ae or  #bj leagues1 they  
know themselves to be a great distance  
from the coast2  but1 on the contrary1  
if the river winds1 and often changes   
its  direction1 they are certain of not 
being far from the sea4 ,m4 ,fabry      
himself verified this remark in his     
travels over that unknown and almost    
uninhabited country4 ,in large rivers   
there is a considerable eddy along  the 
banks1 which is so much the more        
considerable as the river is less       
remote from the sea1 which may also     
serve as a guide to judge whether we    
are at a great or short distance from   
the mouth2 and as the windings of       
rivers increase in proportion as they   
approach the sea1 it is not  surprising 
that some of them should give way to the

 water1 and be one  reason why great    
rivers generally divide into many arms  
before they gain  the sea4    ,the      
motion of the waters in rivers is quite 
different from that supposed  by authors
 who attempt to give mathematical       
theories on this subject2  the surface  
of a river in motion is not level when  
taken from one bank  to the other1 but  
according to circumstances the current  
in the middle  is considerably higher or
 lower than the water close to the      
banks2 when  a river swells by a sudden 
melting of snow1 or when by some other  
cause  its rapidity is augmented1 if the
 direction of the river is straight1    
the middle of the water where the       
current is rises1 and the river forms  a
 convex curve1 of a very sensible       
elevation4 ,this elevation is  sometimes
 very considerable2 ,m4 ,hupeau1 an able
 engineer of bridges1  once measured the
 river ,avieron1 and found the middle   
was three feet  higher than near the    
bank4 ,this1 in fact1 must happen every 

time the  water has a very great        
rapidity2 the velocity with which it is 
carried1  diminishing the action of its 
weight in the middle of the current1 so 
that it has not time to sink to a level 
with that near shore1 and  therefore    
remains higher4 ,on the other hand1 near
 the mouths1 it often  happens that the 
water which is near the banks is higher 
than that of  the middle1 although the  
current be ever so rapid4 ,this happens 
wherever  the action of the tides is    
felt in a river1 which in great ones    
often  sensibly extends as far as one or
 two hundred leagues from the sea2 it   
is also a well known fact that the      
current of a river preserves its  motion
 in the sea to a considerable distance2 
there is1 in this case1  therefore1 two 
contrary motions in a river2 the middle1
 which forms the  current1 precipitates 
itself towards the sea1 and the action  
of the  tide forms a counter-current1   
which causes the water near the banks to
  ascend1 while that in the middle      

descends1 and as then all the water     
must be carried down by the current in  
the middle1 that of the banks           
continually descends thereto1 and       
descends so much the more as it is      
higher1 and counteracted with more force
 by the tide4    ,there are two kinds of
 ebbings in rivers2 the first           
above-mentioned is a  strong power      
occasioned by the tide1 which not only  
opposes the natural  motion of the      
river1 but even forces a contrary and   
opposite current4  ,the other arises    
from an inactive cause1 such as a       
projection of land1  an island1 c4 ,this
 does not commonly occasion a very      
sensible  counter-current1 yet it is    
sufficient to impede the progress of    
boats  and craft1 and necessarily       
produces what is called a dead water1   
which  does not flow like the rest of   
the river1 but whirls about in such a   
manner that when boats are drawn therein
 they require great strength to  get    
them out4 ,these dead waters are very   

perceptible at the arches of  bridges in
 rapid rivers4 ,the velocity of the     
water increases in  proportion as the   
diameter of the channel through which it
 passes  diminishes1 the impelling force
 being the same2 the velocity of a      
river1 therefore1 increases at the      
passage of a bridge1 in an inverse      
proportion of the breadth of the arches 
to the whole breadth of the  river2 the 
rapidity being very considerable in     
coming through the arch1  it forces the 
water against the banks1 from whence it 
is reflected with  such violence as to  
form dangerous eddies and whirlpools4   
,in going  through the bridge ,st4      
,esprit1 the men are forced to be       
careful not to  lose the stream1 even   
after they are past the bridge1 for if  
they suffer  the boat to go either to   
the right or left1 it might be driven   
against  the shore1 or forced into the  
whirling waters1 which would be attended
  with great danger4 ,when this eddy is 
very considerable1 it forms a kind  of  

small gulph1 the middle of which appears
 hollow and to form a kind of           
cylindrical cavity1 around which the    
water whirls with rapidity3 this        
appearance of a cylindrical cavity is   
produced by the centrifugal force1      
which causes the water to endeavour to  
remove itself from the centre of  the   
whirlpool4 ,when a great swell of water 
happens1 the watermen know it  by a     
particular motion2 they then say the    
water at the bottom flows  quicker than 
common3 this augmentation of rapidity at
 the bottom1  according to them1 always 
announces a sudden rise of the water4   
,the  motion and weight of the upper    
water communicates this motion to them2 
for in certain respects we must consider
 a river as a pillar of water  contained
 in a tube1 and the whole channel as a  
very long canal where  every motion must
 be communicated from one end to the    
other4 ,now1  independent of the motion 
of the upper waters1 their weight alone 
might  cause the rapidity of the river  

to increase1 and perhaps move it at     
bottom2 for it is known1 that by putting
 many boats at one time into the  water1
 at that instant we increase the        
rapidity of the under part of the       
river1 as well as retard that of the    
upper4    ,the rapidity of running      
waters does not exactly1 nor even       
nearly1 follow  the proportion of the   
declivity of their channels4 ,one river 
whose  inclination is uniform and double
 that of another1 ought1 according to   
appearance1 to flow only as rapid again1
 but in fact it flows much  faster4 ,its
 rapidity1 instead of being doubled1 is 
sometimes triple1  quadruple1 c4 ,this  
rapidity depends much more on the       
quantity of water  and the weight of the
 upper waters than on the declivity4    
,when we are  desirous to hollow the bed
 of a river1 we need not equally        
distribute  the inclination throughout  
its whole length1 in order to give a    
greater  rapidity1 as it is more easily 
effected by making the descent much     

greater at the beginning1 than at the   
mouth1 where it may almost be           
insensible1 as we see it in natural     
rivers1 and yet they preserve a         
rapidity so much the greater as the     
river is fuller of water2 in great      
rivers1 where the ground is level1 the  
water does not cease flowing1 and  even 
rapidly1 not only with its original     
velocity1 but also with the  addition of
 that which it has acquired by the      
action and weight of the  upper waters4 
,to render this fact more conceivable1  
let us suppose the  ,seine between the  
,pont-neuf and ,pont-royal to be        
perfectly level1 and  ten feet deep     
throughout3 let us then suppose that the
 bed of the river  below ,pont-royal and
 above ,pont-neuf were left entirely    
dry1 the water  would instantly run up  
and down the channel1 and continue to do
 so until  it had recovered an          
equilibrium2 for the weight of the water
 would keep  it in motion1 nor would it 
cease flowing until its particles became

  equally pressed and have sunk to a    
perfect level4 ,the weight of water     
therefore greatly contributes to its    
velocity1 and this is the reason  that  
the greatest rapidity of the current is 
neither of the surface nor  at the      
bottom of the water1 but nearly in the  
middle of its depth1 being  pressed by  
the action of its weight at its surface1
 and by the re-action  from the bottom4 
,still more1 if a river has acquired a  
great rapidity1  it will not only       
preserve it in passing a level country1 
but even  surmount an eminence without  
spreading much on either side1 or at    
least  without causing any great        
inundation4    ,we might be inclined to 
think that bridges1 locks1 and other    
obstacles  raised on rivers1            
considerably diminishes the celerity of 
the water's  course2 nevertheless that  
occasions but little difference4 ,water 
rises  on meeting with any obstacle1 and
 having surmounted it1 the elevation    
causes it to act with more rapidity in  

its fall1 so that in fact it  suffers   
little or no diminution in its celerity1
 by these seeming  retardments4         
,sinuosities1 projections1 and islands1 
also but very little  diminish the      
velocity of the course of rivers4 ,a    
considerable diminution  is produced by 
the sinking of the water1 and1 on the   
contrary1 its  augmentation increases   
its velocity2 thus if a river is shallow
 the  stream passes slowly along1 and if
 deep with a proportionate rapidity4    
,if rivers were always nearly of an     
equal fulness1 the best means of        
diminishing their rapidity1 and         
confining them within their banks1 would
  be to enlarge their channel2 but as   
almost all rivers are subject to        
increase and diminish1 to confine them  
we must retrench the channel1  because  
in shallow waters1 if the channel is    
very broad1 the water which  passes in  
the middle hollows a winding bed1 and   
when it begins to swell  follows the    
direction it took in this particular    

bed1 and striking  forcibly against the 
banks of the channel destroys them and  
does great  injuries4 ,these effects of 
the water's fury might be prevented by  
making1 at particular distances1 small  
gulphs in the earth2 that is1 by        
cutting through one of these banks to a 
certain distance in the land4 ,in  order
 that these gulphs might be             
advantageously placed1 they should be   
made in the obtuse angle of the river1  
for then the current of the water  in   
turning would run into them1 and of     
course its velocity would be            
diminished4 ,this mode might be proper  
to prevent the fall of bridges in       
places where it is not possible to make 
bars near the bridge which  sustain the 
action of the weight of the water4      
,the manner in which inundations are    
occasioned merits peculiar  attention4  
,when a river swells1 the rapidity of   
the water always  increases till it     
begins to overflow the banks2 at that   
instant the  velocity diminishes1 which 

causes inundations to continue for      
several  days2 for when even a less     
quantity of water comes after the       
overflowing  than before1 the inundation
 will still be made1 because it depends 
much  more on the velocity of the water 
than on the quantity2 if it was not so  
rivers would overflow for an hour or two
 and then return to their beds1  which  
never occurs2 the inundations always    
remaining for several days2  whether the
 rain ceases1 or a less quantity of     
water is brought1 because  the          
overflowing has diminished the velocity1
 and consequently1 although  the like   
quantity of water is no longer carried  
in the same time as  before1 yet the    
effects are the same as if the greater  
quantity had come  there4 ,it might be  
remarked on the occasion of this        
diminution1 that if  a constant wind    
blows against the current of the river1 
the inundation  will be much greater    
than it would have been without this    
accidental  cause1 which diminishes the 

celerity of the water2 on the contrary1 
if  the wind blows in the same          
directions with the current1 the        
inundation  will be much less1 and will 
more speedily decline4    ,the swelling 
of the ,nile1 says ,m4 ,granger1 and its
 inundations1 has a  long time employed 
the learned2 most of them have looked   
upon it as  marvellous1 although nothing
 can be more natural1 and is every day  
to be  seen in every country throughout 
the world4 ,it is the rains which fall  
in ,abyssinia and ,ethiopia which cause 
the swelling and inundation of  that    
river1 though the north wind must be    
regarded as the principal  cause4 #a4   
,because the north wind drives the      
clouds which contain this  rain into    
,abyssinia4 #b4 ,because1 blowing       
against the mouths of the ,nile1  it    
causes the waters to return against the 
stream1 and thus prevents  them from    
running out in any great quantity3 this 
circumstance may be  every season       
observed1 for when the wind1 being at   

the north1 suddenly  veers to the south1
 the ,nile loses in one day more than it
 gathers in  four4    ,inundations are  
generally greatest in the upper part of 
rivers1 because  the velocity of a river
 continues always increasing until it   
arrives at  the sea1 for the reasons we 
have related4 ,father ,costelli1 who has
  written very sensibly on this subject1
 remarks1 that the height of the  banks 
made to confine the ,po from overflowing
 diminishes as they advance  towards the
 sea2 so that at ,ferrara1 which is #ej 
or #fj miles from the  sea1 they are    
near #bj feet high above the common     
surface of the ,po1 but  that at #aj or 
#ab miles from it they are not above #ab
 feet1 although the  channel of the     
river is as narrow there as at          
,ferrara#cjf3;,a4    ,on the whole1 the 
theory of the motion of running waters  
is still  subject to many difficulties1 
nor is it easy to lay down rules which  
might be applied to every particular    
case4 ,experience is here more  useful  

than speculation4 ,we must not only know
 the general effects of  rivers1 but we 
must also know in particular the river  
we have to do  with1 if we would reason 
justly1 make useful observations1 and   
draw  stable conclusions4 ,the remarks  
,i have above given are mostly new2 it  
is  to be wished that others may be     
collected1 and then1 possibly1 in time1 
we may obtain a sufficient knowledge of 
the subject to lay down certain  rules  
to confine and direct rivers1 and       
prevent the ruin of bridges1  banks1 and
 other damages which the violent        
impetuosity of the water  occasions4    
,the greatest rivers in ,europe are the 
,wolga1 which is about #fej leagues  in 
its course from ,reschow to ,astracan1  
on the ,caspian ,sea2 the ,danube1      
whose course is about #dej leagues from 
the mountains of ,switzerland to  the   
,black ,sea2 the ,don1 which is #djj    
leagues in its course from the  source  
of the ,sosnia1 which it receives1 to   
its mouth in the ,black ,sea2  the      

,dnieper1 whose course is about #cej    
leagues1 and which also runs into  the  
,black ,sea2 the ,duine is about #djj   
leagues in its course1 and empties      
itself into the ,white ,sea1 c4    ,the 
greatest rivers in ,asia are the ,hoanho
 of ,china1 whose course is #hej        
leagues1 taking its source at           
,raja-,ribron1 and falls into the sea of
  ,china1 in the middle of the gulph    
,changi3 the ,jenisca of ,tartary1 which
  is about #hjj leagues in extent1 from 
the lake ,seligna to the northern  sea  
of ,tartary2 the river ,oby1 which is   
about #fjj leagues from ,lake  ,kila1 to
 the ,northern ,sea1 beyond the ,strait 
of ,waigats4 ,the river  ,amour1 of     
eastern ,tartary1 which is about #ege   
leagues in its course1  reckoning it    
from the source of the river ,kerlon1 to
 the sea of  ,kamschatka4 ,the river    
,menan1 whose mouth is at ,poulo        
,condor1 may be  measured from the      
surface of the ,longmu which falls into 
it2 the ,kian1  whose course is about   

#eej leagues from the source of the     
river ,kinxa1  which it receives1 to its
 mouth in the ,china ,sea2 the ,ganges  
is also  about #eej leagues1 and the    
,euphrates #ejj1 taking it from the     
source of  ,irma1 which it receives4    
,the ,indus about #djj leagues1 and     
which falls  into the ,arabian ,sea1 on 
the east of ,guzarat4 ,the ,sirderious1 
which is  about #djj leagues long1 and  
falls into ,lake ,aral4    ,the greatest
 rivers in ,africa are ,senegal1 which  
is #aabe leagues long1  comprehending   
the ,niger1 which in fact is a          
continuation of it1 and the  source of  
,gombarou1 which falls into the ,niger4 
,the ,nile #igj leagues  long1 and which
 derives its source in ,upper ,ethiopia1
 where it makes  many windings4 ,there  
are also the ,zaira1 the ,coanza1 and   
the ,couma1  which are known as far as  
#djj leagues1 but extend much farther2  
the  ,quilmanci1 whose course is #djj   
leagues1 and which derives its source in
  the kingdom of ,gingiro4    ,the      

greatest rivers of ,america1 and which  
are also the greatest in the  world1 are
 the river ,amazons1 whose course is    
#abjj leagues1 if we go up  as far as   
the ,lake near ,guanuco1 #cj leagues    
from ,lima1 where the  ,maragnon takes  
its source2 and even reckoning from the 
source of the  river ,napo1 some        
distance from ,quito1 the course of the 
river ,amazons is  more than a thousand 
leagues4    ,it might be said that the  
course of the river ,st4 ,lawrence1 in  
,canada1  is more than #ijj leagues from
 its mouth to the lake ,ontaro1 from    
thence  to lake ,huron1 afterwards to   
the lake ,alemipigo1 and to the lake    
,assiniboils2 the waters of these lakes 
falling one into another1 and at  last  
into ,st4 ,lawrence4    ,the river      
,mississippi more than #gjj leagues long
 from its mouth to any  of its sources1 
which are not remote from the lake of   
the ,assiniboils4    ,the river de la   
,plata is more than #hjj leagues long1  
from the source of  the river ,parana1  

which it receives4    ,the river        
,oroonoko runs more than #ege leagues1  
reckoning from the source  of the river 
,caketa1 near ,pasto1 part of which     
falls into the ,oroonoko1  and part     
flows also towards the river ,amazons4  
,the river ,madera1 which falls into the
 ,amazons1 is more than #ffj  leagues4  
,to know nearly the quantity of water   
the sea receives by all the rivers      
which fall into it1 let us suppose that 
one half of the globe is covered  by the
 sea1 and that the other half is land1  
which is nearly the fact2  let us       
suppose also1 that the mediate depth of 
the sea is #bcj fathom4  ,the surface of
 all the earth being #agj1iha1jab square
 miles2 and that of  the sea #he1dij1ejf
 square miles1 which being multiplied by
 #a_/d1 the  depth of the sea gives     
#ba1cgb1fbf1 cubical miles for the      
quantity of  water contained in the     
ocean4 ,now1 to calculate the quantity  
of water  which the ocean receives from 
the rivers1 let us take some great      

river1  whose rapidity and quantity of  
waters are known2 for example1 the ,po1 
which runs through ,lombardy1 and waters
 a tract of land #chj miles long2       
according to ,riccioli1 its breadth1    
before it divides into many  trenches1  
is #ajj perches of ,boulogne1 or #ajjj  
feet1 its depth #aj feet1  and it runs  
four miles an hour2 therefore the ,po   
supplies the sea with  #bjj1jjj cubical 
perches of water in an hour1 or #d      
millions #hjj thousand  in a day2 but a 
cubical mile contains #abe millions     
cubical perches2  therefore #bf days is 
required to convey a cubical mile of    
water to the  sea3 it remains therefore 
only to determine the proportion between
 the  river ,po and all the rivers of   
the earth taken together1 which is      
impossible to do precisely4 ,but to know
 it pretty exactly1 let us  suppose that
 the quantity of water which the sea    
receives by the large  rivers in all    
countries is proportional to the extent 
and surface of  these countries1 and    

that consequently the country watered by
 the ,po1  and other rivers which fall  
therein1 is in the same proportion on   
the  surface of the whole earth1 as the 
,po is to all the rivers of the earth4  
,now by the most correct charts1 the    
,po1 from its source to its mouth1      
traverses a tract #chj miles long1 and  
the rivers which fall therein1 on  each 
side1 proceed from the springs and      
rivers #fj miles distant from the  ,po2 
therefore this great river1 and the     
others it receives1 waters a  tract #chj
 miles long1 and #abj miles broad1 which
 makes #dej1fjj square  miles1 but the  
surface of all the dry land is          
#he1dij1ejf square miles2  consequently 
all the water which the rivers carry to 
the sea1 will be  #aigd times greater   
than the quantity which the ,po         
furnishes2 but as #bf  rivers equal to  
the ,po furnish a cubical mile of water 
to the sea in a  day1 of course #ahgd   
rivers like the ,po would supply the sea
 with #bf1cjh  cubical miles of water in

 a year1 and that in the space of #hab  
years all  the rivers would supply the  
sea with #ba1cgb1fbf cubical miles of   
water2  that is to say1 as much as there
 is in the ocean1 and therefore #hab    
years is only required to fill          
it4#cab3;,a    ,the result of this      
calculation is1 that the quantity of    
water evaporated  from the sea1 and     
which the winds convey on the earth1 is 
about #bde  lines1 or from #bj to #ba   
inches a year1 or about two thirds of a 
line  each day3 this is a very trifling 
evaporation even when trebled1 in  order
 to estimate the water which refalls in 
the sea1 and which is not  conveyed over
 the earth4 ,mr4 ,halley1 in the ,phil4 
,transactions1 page  #aib1 evidently    
shews1 that the vapours which rise above
 the sea1 and  which the winds convey   
over all the earth1 are sufficient to   
supply all  the rivers in the world4    
,next to the ,nile the river ,jordan is 
the most considerable in the  ,levant1  
or even in ,barbary2 it supplies the    

,dead ,sea with about six  million tons 
of water every day2 all this water1 and 
more1 is raised by  evaporation2 for1   
according to ,halley's calculation of   
#fiad tons  evaporated from each mile1  
the ,dead ,sea1 which is #gb miles in   
length by  #ah broad1 must every day    
lose near nine million tons of water1   
that is1  not only all the water it     
receives from the river ,jordan1 but    
also that  of the small rivers which    
come into it from the mountains of ,moab
 and  elsewhere2 consequently there is  
no necessity for its communicating with 
any other sea by subterraneous          
canals4#cac3;,a    ,the most rapid      
rivers are the ,tigris1 the ,indus1 the 
,danube1 the ,yrtis1  in ,siberia1 the  
,malmistra1 in ,silesia1 c4 but1 as we  
have already  observed1 the proportion  
of the rapidity of rivers depends upon  
the  declivity and upon the weight and  
quantity of water2 by examining the     
globe1 we shall find that the ,danube is
 much less inclined than the ,po1  the  

,rhine1 or the ,rhone1 for the ,danube  
has a much longer course than  any of   
these other rivers1 and falls into the  
,black ,sea1 which is higher  than the  
,mediterranean1 and perhaps more so than
 the ocean4    ,all large rivers receive
 many others in the extent of their     
course2 for  example1 the ,danube       
receives more than #bjj rivulets and    
rivers2 but by  reckoning only such as  
are considerable rivers1 we shall find  
that the  ,danube receives #ca1 the     
,wolga #cb1 the ,don #e or #f1 the      
,nieper #ai or #bj1  the ,duine #aa or  
#ab2 so likewise in ,asia the ,hoanho   
receives #cd or #ce1  the ,jenisca #fj1 
the ,oby as many1 the ,amour about #dj1 
the ,kian1 or river  ,nankin about #cj1 
the ,ganges upwards of #bj1 the         
,euphrates #aj or #aa1 c4  ,in ,africa1 
the river ,senegal receives upwards of  
#bj rivers3 the ,nile  does not receive 
any rivers for upwards of #ejj miles    
from its mouth2 the  last which falls   
therein is the ,moraba1 and from this   

place to its  source it receives about  
#ab or #ac rivers4 ,in ,america1 the    
river ,amazons  receives more than #fj1 
all of which are very considerable2 the 
river ,st4  ,lawrence about #dj1 by     
reckoning those which fall into the     
lakes2 the  ,mississippi more than #dj1 
the ,plata more than #ej1 c4    ,there  
are high countries on the earth1 which  
seem to be points of  division marked by
 nature for the distribution of the     
waters4 ,in  ,europe1 the environs of   
,mount ,st4 ,goddard are one of these   
points2  another is situate between the 
provinces of ,belozera and ,wologda1 in 
,muscovy1 from whence many rivers       
descend1 some of which go to the ,white 
,sea1 others to the ,black1 and some to 
the ,caspian4 ,in ,asia there are       
several1 in the country of ,mogul       
,tartary1 from whence rivers flow into  
,nova ,zembla1 others to the ,gulph     
,linchidolin1 others to the sea of      
,corea1 others to that of ,china3 and so
 likewise the ,little ,thibet1 whose    

waters flow towards the sea of ,china2  
the ,gulph of ,bengal1 the ,gulph of    
,cambay1 and the ,lake ,aral2 in        
,america1 the province of ,quito2 whose 
rivers run into the ,north and ,south   
,seas1 and the ,gulph of ,mexico4    ,in
 the old continent there are about #dcj 
rivers1 which fall directly  into the   
ocean1 or into the ,mediterranean and   
,black ,seas2 but in the new  continent 
not more than #ade rivers are known1    
which fall directly into  the sea3 in   
this number ,i have comprehended only   
the great rivers1 like  the ,somme in   
,picardy4    ,all these rivers carry to 
the sea a great quantity of mineral and 
saline  particles1 which they have      
washed from the different soils through 
which they have passed4 ,the particles  
of salt1 which are easily  dissolved1   
are conveyed to the sea by the water4   
,some philosophers1 and  among the rest 
,halley1 have pretended that the        
saltness of the sea  proceeded only from
 the salts of the earth1 which the      

rivers transport  therein4 ,others      
assert1 that the saltness of the sea is 
as ancient as  the sea itself1 and that 
this salt was created that the waters   
might not  corrupt2 but we may justly   
suppose that the sea is preserved from  
corruption by the agitations produced by
 the winds and tides1 as much as  by the
 salt it contains2 for when put in a    
barrel it corrupts in a few  days2 and  
,boyle relates1 that a mariner1 who was 
becalmed for #ac days1  found1 at the   
end of that time1 the water so infected1
 that if the calm  had not ceased1 the  
greatest part of his people would have  
perished4 ,the  water of the sea is also
 mixed with a bituminous oil1 which     
gives it a  disagreeable taste1 and     
renders it very unhealthful4 ,the       
quantity of  salt contained in sea water
 is about a fortieth part1 and is nearly
  equally saline throughout1 at top as  
well as bottom1 under the line1 and  at 
the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 although there
 are several places1 as off the         

,mosambique ,coast1 where it is salter  
than elsewhere4#cag3;,a ,it is also     
asserted not to be so saline under the  
,arctic ,circle1 which may proceed  from
 the amazing quantities of snow1 and the
 great rivers which fall  into those    
seas1 and because the heat of the sun   
produces but little  evaporation in hot 
climates4    ,be this as it may1 ,i     
conceive that the saltness of the sea is
 not only  caused by the banks of salt  
at the bottom of the sea1 and along the 
coasts1 but also by the salts of the    
earth1 which the rivers continually     
convey therein2 and that ,halley had    
some reason to presume that in the      
beginning of the world the sea had but  
little or no saltness2 that it is       
become so by degrees1 and in proportion 
as the rivers have brought salts        
therein2 that this saltness is every day
 increasing1 and that  consequently1 by 
computing the whole quantity of salt    
brought by all the  rivers1 we might    
attain the knowledge of the age of the  

world by the  degrees of the saltness of
 the sea4    ,divers and pearl fishers  
assert1 according to ,boyle1 that the   
deeper  they descend into the sea1 the  
colder is the water2 and that the cold  
is  so intense at considerable depths1  
that they cannot remain there so long   
under water1 but are obliged to come up 
again much sooner than when  they       
descended to only a moderate one4 ,it   
appeared to me that the weight  of the  
water might be as much the cause of     
compelling them to shorten  their usual 
time as the intenseness of the cold1    
when they descend to a  depth of #c or  
#djj fathoms2 but1 in fact1 divers      
scarcely ever descend  above an hundred 
feet4 ,the same author relates1 that in 
a voyage to the  ,east-,indies1 beyond  
the line1 at about #ce degrees south    
latitude1 a  sounding lead of #cj or    
#celb weight was sunk to the depth of   
#djj fathoms1  and that being pulled up 
again1 it had become as cold as ice4 ,it
 is also  a frequent practice with      

mariners to cool their wine at sea by   
sinking  their bottles to the depth of  
several fathoms1 and they affirm the    
deeper the bottles are sunk1 the cooler 
is the wine4    ,these circumstances    
might induce us to presume that the sea 
is salter at  the bottom than at the    
surface2 but we have testimonies which  
prove the  contrary1 founded on         
experiments made to fill vessels with   
sea water1  which were not opened till  
they were sunk to a certain depth1 and  
the  water was found to be no salter    
than at the surface4 ,there are even    
some  places where the water at the     
surface is salt1 and that at the bottom 
fresh2 and this must always be the case 
where there are springs at the  bottom  
of the sea1 as near ,goo1 ,ormus1 and   
even in the sea of ,naples1  where there
 are hot springs at the bottom4         
,there are other places where sulphurous
 springs and beds of bitumen have  been 
discovered at the bottom of the sea1 and
 on land there are many of  these       

springs of bitumen which run into it4   
,at ,barbadoes there is a pure bitumen  
spring1 which flows from the rocks  into
 the sea3 salt and bitumen1 therefore1  
are predominant matters in  the sea     
water3 but it is also mixed with many   
other matters2 for the  taste of water  
is not the same in every part of the    
sea2 besides1 the  agitation and the    
heat of the sun alters the natural taste
 which the sea  should have2 and the    
different colour of different seas1 at  
different  times1 prove that the waters 
of the sea contain several kinds of     
matters1 either which it loosens from   
its own bottom1 or are brought  thither 
by rivers4    ,almost all countries     
watered by great rivers are subject to  
periodical  inundations1 those which are
 low1 and derive their sources from a   
great  distance1 overflow the most      
regularly4 ,every person almost has     
heard of  the inundations of the ,nile1 
which preserves the sweetness and       
whiteness  of its waters1 though        

extended over a vast tract of country1  
and into  the sea4 ,strabo and other    
ancient authors have written that it had
 seven  mouths1 but there now remain    
only two which are navigable2 there is a
  third canal which descends to         
,alexandria1 and fills the cisterns     
there1  and a fourth which is still     
smaller2 but as they have for a long    
time  neglected to clean their canals1  
they are nearly choaked up4 ,the        
ancients employed a great number of     
workmen and soldiers1 and every  year1  
after the inundation1 they carried away 
the mud and sand which was  in these    
canals4 ,the cause of the overflowing of
 the ,nile proceeds from  the rains     
which fall in ,ethiopia4 ,they begin in 
,april and do not cease  till           
,september2 during the first three      
months1 the days are serene and  fair1  
but as soon as the sun goes down the    
rains begin1 nor stop till it  rises    
again1 and are generally accompanied    
with thunder and lightning4  ,the       

inundation begins in ,egypt about the   
#agth of ,june2 it generally  increases 
during #dj days1 and diminishes in about
 the same time2 all the  flat country of
 ,egypt is overflowed2 but this         
inundation is much less  now than it was
 formerly1 for ,herodotus tells us1 that
 the ,nile was #ajj  days in swelling1  
and as many in abating3 if this is true1
 we can only  attribute the cause       
thereof to the elevation of the land1   
which the mud  of the waters has        
heightened by degrees1 and to the       
diminution of the  mountains in ,africa1
 from whence it derives its source4 ,it 
is very  natural to believe that these  
mountains have diminished1 because the  
abundant rains which fall in these      
climates during half the year sweep     
away great quantities of sand and earth 
from the mountains into the  valleys1   
from whence the torrents wash them into 
the ,nile1 which carries  great part    
into ,egypt1 where it deposits them in  
its overflowings4    ,the ,nile is not  

the only river whose inundations are    
regular2 the river  ,pegu is called the 
,indian ,nile1 because it overflows     
regularly every  year2 it inundates the 
country for more than #cj leagues from  
its banks2  and1 like the ,nile1 leaves 
an abundance of mud1 which so greatly   
fertilizes the earth1 that the pasturage
 is excellent for cattle1 and  rice     
grows in such great abundance1 that     
every year a number of vessels  are     
laden with it1 without leaving a        
scarcity in the country4#cba3;,a ,the   
,niger1 or what amounts to the same1 the
 upper part of the ,senegal1  likewise  
overflows and covers all the flat       
country of ,nigritia2 it  begins nearly 
at the same time as the ,nile1 and      
increases also for #dj  days3 the river 
de la ,plata1 in ,brasil1 also overflows
 every year1 and  at the same time as   
the ,nile4 ,the ,ganges1 the ,indus1 the
 ,euphrates1 and  some others1 overflow 
annually2 but all rivers have not       
periodical  overflowings1 and when      

inundations happen it is the effect of  
many  causes1 which combine to supply a 
greater quantity of water than common1  
and1 at the same time1 to retard its    
velocity4 ,we have before observed1     
that in almost all rivers the           
inclination of their beds diminishes    
towards their mouths in an almost       
insensible manner2 but there are some   
whose declivity is very sudden in some  
places1 and forms what is termed  a     
cataract1 which is nothing more than a  
fall of water1 quicker than  the common 
current of the river4 ,the ,rhine1 for  
example1 has two  cataracts1 the one at 
,bilefield1 and the other near          
,schafhouse3 the ,nile  has many1 and   
among the rest two which are very       
violent1 and fall from a  great height  
between two mountains2 the river        
,wologda1 in ,muscovy1 has  also two    
near ,ladoga2 the ,zaire1 a river of    
,congo1 begins by a very  large         
cataract1 which falls from the top of a 
mountain2 but the most  famous is that  

of ,niagara1 in ,canada1 that falls from
 a perpendicular  height of #aef feet1  
like a prodigious torrent1 and is more  
than a  quarter of a mile broad3 the    
fog1 or mist1 which the water makes in  
falling1 is perceived at five miles     
distance1 and rises as high as the      
clouds1 forming a very beautiful rainbow
 when the sun shines thereon4  ,below   
this cataract there are such terrible   
whirlpools1 that nothing can  be        
navigated thereon for six miles         
distance1 and above the cataract the    
river is much narrower than it is in the
 upper lands#cbc3;,a4 ,the  description 
given of it by ,father ,charlevoix is as
 follows3    ,my first care1 when ,i    
arrived1 was to visit the most beautiful
 cascade  that is1 perhaps1 in nature2  
but ,i immediately discovered that      
,baron la  ,hontain was deceived so     
greatly1 both in its height and figure1 
that one  might reasonably imagine he   
had never seen it4    ,it is true1 that 
if we measure its height by the three   

mountains you  are obliged to ascend in 
going to it1 there is not much abatement
 to be  made of the #fjj feet1 which the
 map of ,m4 ,delisse gives it1 who      
doubtless advanced this paradox only on 
the credit of the ,baron la  ,hontain1  
and ,father ,honnepin2 but after ,i     
arrived at the top of the  third        
mountain1 ,i observed that in the space 
of three leagues1 which ,i  afterwards  
had to go to this fall of water1        
although you are forced  sometimes to   
ascend1 you must nevertheless descend   
still more1 and this  is what travellers
 do not appear to have paid proper      
attention to4 ,as we  can only approach 
the cascade on one side1 nor see it but 
in the  profile1 it is not easy to      
measure its height by instruments3      
experiments have been made to do it by a
 long cord1 tied to a pole1 and  after  
having often attempted this manner1 it  
was found to be only #aae or  #abj feet 
high2 but it is impossible to ascertain 
whether the pole was  not stopped by    

some projection of the rock2 for        
although when drawn up  again the end of
 the cord was always wet1 yet that is no
 proof1 since  the water which          
precipitates from the mountain1 flies up
 again in foam  to a very great height3 
for my own part1 after having considered
 it on  every side that ,i could examine
 it to advantage1 ,i think that we      
cannot  allow it to be less than #adj or
 #aej feet4    ,its figure is that of a 
horse-shoe1 and its circumference is    
about #djj  paces2 but exactly in its   
middle1 it is divided by a very narrow  
island1 about half a quarter of a league
 long4 ,it is true these two  parts join
 again2 that which was on my side1 and  
of which ,i could only  have a side     
view1 has several projecting points1 but
 that which ,i beheld  in front1        
appeared to be perfectly even4 ,the     
,baron has also mentioned a  torrent1   
which1 if not the offspring of his own  
invention1 must fall  into some channel 
upon the melting of the snow4    ,there 

is another cataract three miles from    
,albany1 in the province of  ,new-,york1
 whose height is #ej feet perpendicular1
 and from which there  arises a mist    
that occasions a faint rainbow4#cbe3;,a 
,in all countries where mankind are not 
sufficiently numerous to form  polished 
societies1 the ground is more irregular1
 and the beds of rivers  more extended1 
less equal1 and often abound with       
cataracts4 ,many ages  were required to 
render the ,rhone and the ,loire        
navigable4 ,it is by  confining waters1 
by directing their course1 and by       
cleansing the bottom  of rivers1 that   
they obtain a fixed and regular course2 
in all countries  thinly inhabited      
,nature is rude1 and often deformed4    
,there are rivers which lose themselves 
in the sands1 and others which  seem to 
precipitate into the bowels of the      
earth3 the ,guadalquiver in  ,spain1 the
 river ,gottenburg in ,sweden1 and the  
,rhine itself1 lose  themselves in the  
earth4 ,it is asserted1 that in the west

 part of the  island of ,st4 ,domingo   
there is a mountain of a considerable   
height1 at  the foot of which are many  
caverns1 into which the rivers and      
rivulets  fall with so much noise1 as to
 be heard at the distance of seven or   
eight leagues4#cbf3;,a    ,the number of
 rivers which lose themselves in the    
earth is very few1 and  there is no     
appearance that they descend very low2  
it is more probable  that they lose     
themselves1 like the ,rhine1 by dividing
 among the  quantity of sand2 this is   
very common to small rivers that run    
through  dry and sandy soils1 of which  
we have several examples in ,africa1    
,persia1 ,arabia1 c4    ,the rivers of  
the north transport into the sea        
prodigious quantities of  ice1 which    
accumulating1 form those enormous masses
 so destructive to  mariners4 ,these    
masses are the most abundant in the     
,strait of ,waigat1  which is entirely  
frozen over the greatest part of the    
year1 and are  formed by the great      

flakes which the river ,oby almost      
continually brings  there2 they attach  
themselves along the coasts1 and heap up
 to a  considerable height on both      
sides1 but the middle of the strait is  
the  last part which freezes1 and where 
the ice is the lowest4 ,when the wind   
ceases to blow from the ,north1 and     
comes in the direction of the ,strait1  
the ice begins to thaw and break in the 
middle2 afterwards it loosens  from the 
sides in great masses1 which are carried
 into the high sea4 ,the  wind1 which   
all winter blows from the north over the
 frozen countries of  ,nova ,zembla1    
renders the country watered by the ,oby1
 and all ,siberia1 so  cold1 that even  
at ,tobolski1 which is in the #egth     
degree1 there are no  fruit trees1 while
 at ,sweden1 ,stockholm1 and even in    
higher latitudes1  there are both fruit 
trees and pulse4 ,this difference does  
not proceed1  as it has been thought1   
from the sea of ,lapland being warmer   
than the  ,straits2 nor from the land of

 ,nova ,zembla being colder than        
,lapland2 but  solely from the ,baltic1 
and the ,gulph of ,bothnia1 tempering   
the rigour  of the north winds1 whereas 
in ,siberia there is nothing that can   
temperate the cold4 ,it is a fact       
founded on experience1 that it is never 
so cold on the sea coasts as in the     
inland parts of a country4 ,there  are  
plants which stand the winter in ,london
 exposed to the open air1  that cannot  
be preserved at ,paris2 and ,siberia1   
which is a vast  continent1 is for this 
reason colder than ,sweden1 which is    
surrounded on  all sides by the sea4    
,the coldest country in the world is    
,spitzbergen3 it lies in the #ghth      
degree of north latitude1 and is        
entirely formed of small peaked         
mountains2 these mountains are composed 
of gravel1 and flat stones  somewhat    
like slate1 heaped one on the other2    
which1 it is affirmed by  navigators1   
are raised by the wind1 and increase so 
quick1 that new ones  are discovered    

every year4 ,the rein-deer is the only  
animal seen here1  which feeds on a     
short grass and moss4 ,on the top of    
these little  mountains1 and at more    
than a mile from the sea1 the mast of a 
ship was  found with a pully fastened to
 one of its ends1 which gives room to   
suppose that the sea once covered the   
tops of these mountains1 and that  this 
country is but of modern date2 it is    
uninhabited1 and  uninhabitable2 the    
soil of these small mountains has no    
consistence1 but  is loose1 and so cold 
and penetrating a vapour strikes from   
it1 that it  is impossible to remain any
 length of time thereon4    ,the vessels
 which go to ,spitzbergen for the whale 
fishery1 arrive there  early in the     
month of ,july1 and take their departure
 from it about the  #aeth of ,august1   
the ice preventing them from entering   
the sea earlier1  or quiting it after4  
,prodigious pieces of ice1 #fj1 #gj1 and
 #hj fathoms  thick are seen there1 and 
there are some parts of it where the sea

  appears frozen to the very            
bottom#cbi3;,a3 this ice1 which is so   
high  above the level of the sea1 is as 
clear and transparent as glass4         
,there is also much ice in the seas of  
,north ,america1 as in ,ascension  ,bay1
 in the ,straits of ,hudson1            
,cumberland1 ,davis1 ,forbishers1 c4    
,robert  ,lade asserts that the         
mountains of ,friezeland are entirely   
covered with  snow1 and its coasts with 
ice1 like a bulwark1 which prevents any 
approaching them4 ,it is1 says he1 very 
remarkable1 that in this sea we  meet   
with islands of ice more than half a    
mile round1 extremely high1  and #gj or 
#hj fathoms deep2 this ice1 which is    
sweet1 is perhaps formed  in the rivers 
or straits of the neighbouring lands1 c4
 ,these islands  or mountains of ice are
 so moveable1 that in stormy weather    
they follow  the track of a ship1 as if 
they were drawn along in the same furrow
 by a  rope4 ,there are some of them    
tower so high above the water1 as to    

surpass the tops of the masts of the    
largest vessels4#ccj3;,a    ,in the     
collection of voyages made for the      
service of the ,dutch ,east  ,india     
,company1 we meet with the following    
account of the ice at ,nova             
,zembla3--,at ,cape ,troost the weather 
was so foggy as to oblige us to  moor   
the vessel to a mountain of ice1 which  
was #cf fathoms deep in the  water1 and 
about #af fathoms out of it4    ,on the 
#ajth of ,august the ice dividing1 it   
began to float1 and then we  observed   
that the large piece of ice1 to which   
the ship had been moored1  touched the  
bottom1 as all the others passing by    
struck against without  moving it4 ,we  
then began to fear being inclosed       
between the ice1 that we  should either 
be frozen in or crushed to pieces1 and  
therefore  endeavoured to avoid the     
danger by attempting to get into another
  latitude1 in doing of which the vessel
 was forced through the floating  ice1  
which made a tremendous noise1 and      

seemingly to a great distance2  at      
length we moored to another mountain1   
for the purpose of remaining  there that
 night4    ,during the first watch the  
ice began to split with an inexpressible
  noise1 and the ship keeping to the    
current1 in which the ice was now       
floating1 we were obliged to cut the    
cable to avoid it2 we reckoned more     
than #djj large mountains of ice1 which 
were #aj fathoms under and  appeared    
more than #b fathoms above water4    ,we
 afterwards moored the vessel to another
 mountain of ice1 which  reached above  
#f fathoms under water4 ,as soon as we  
were fixed we  perceived another piece  
beyond us1 which terminated in a point1 
and went  to the bottom of the sea2 we  
advanced towards it1 and found it #bj   
fathoms under water1 and #ab above the  
surface4    ,the #aath we reached       
another large shelve of ice1 #ah fathoms
 under  water1 and #aj above it4    ,the
 #bast the ,dutch got pretty far in     
among the ice1 and remained there  the  

whole night2 the next morning they      
moored their vessel to a large  bank of 
ice1 which they ascended1 and considered
 as a very singular  phenomenon1 that   
its top was covered with earth1 and they
 found near #dj  eggs thereon4 ,the     
colour was not the common colour of ice1
 but a fine  sky blue4 ,those who were  
on it had various conjectures from this 
circumstance1 some contending it was an 
effect of the ice1 while others         
maintained it to be a mass of frozen    
earth4 ,it was about eighteen  fathoms  
under water1 and ten above4#ccb3;,a     
,wafer relates1 that near ,terra del    
,fuega he met with many high floating   
pieces of ice1 which he at first mistook
 for islands4 ,some appeared a  mile or 
two in length1 and the largest not less 
than #d or #ejj feet above  the water4  
,all this ice1 as ,i have observed in   
the sixth article1 was brought  thither 
by the rivers2 the ice in the sea of    
,nova ,zembla1 and the  ,straits of     
,waigat come from the ,oby1 and perhaps 

from ,jenisca1 and other  great rivers  
of ,siberia and ,tartary2 that in       
,hudson's ,straits1 from  ,ascension    
,bay1 into which many of the ,north     
,american rivers fall2 that  of ,terra  
del ,fuega1 from the southern continent4
 ,if there are less on  the ,north      
coasts of ,lapland1 than on those of    
,siberia1 and the ,straits  of ,waigat1 
it is because all the rivers of ,lapland
 fall into the ,gulph  of ,bothnia1 and 
none go into the northern sea4 ,the ice 
may also be  formed in the straits1     
where the tides swell much higher than  
in the  open sea1 and where1            
consequently1 the ice that is at the    
surface may  heap up and form those     
mountains1 which are several fathoms    
high2 but  with respect to those which  
are #d or #ejj feet high1 they appear to
 be  formed on high coasts2 and ,i      
imagine that when the snow which covers 
the  tops of these coasts melts1 the    
water flows on the flakes of ice1 and   
being frozen thereon1 thus increases the

 size of the first until it  comes to   
that amazing height4 ,that afterwards1  
in a warm summer1 these  hills of ice   
loosen from the coasts by the action of 
the wind and motion  of the sea1 or     
perhaps even by their own weight1 and   
are driven as the  wind directs1 so that
 they at length may arrive into         
temperate climates  before they are     
entirely melted4      ,,footnotes3      
#cjf3;,a ,see ,racolta d'autori che     
trattano del motto dell' acque1 vol4 #a1
  page #abc4    #cab3;,a ,see ,keil's   
,examination of ,burnet's ,theory1 page 
#abf4    #cac3;,a ,see ,shaw's ,travels1
 vol4 ii1 page #ga4    #cag3;,a ,see    
,boyle1 vol4 iii4 page #bag4    #cba3;,a
 ,see ,ovington's ,travels1 vol4 ii4    
page #bij4    #cbc3;,a ,see ,phil4      
,trans4 ,abr4 vol4 vi4 part ii4 page    
#aai4    #cbe3;,a ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4   
vi4 part ii4 page #ai4    #cbf3;,a ,see 
,varenii ,geograph4 gen4 page #dh4      
#cbi3;,a ,in contradiction to this idea 
it is now a generally received  opinion1

 that the mountains of ice in the ,north
 and ,south ,seas are  exactly the same 
depth under as they are height above the
 surface of the  water4    #ccj3;,a ,see
 the ,voyages of ,lade1 vol4 ii1 page   
#cje1 4    #ccb3;,a ,voyage of the      
,dutch to the ,north1 vol4 #a1 #c4 ,page
 #di4      ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,first     
,,volume4          ,,transcriber',s     
,,notes      ,variations in spelling and
 hyphenation have been left as in the   
original4    ,the following changes have
 been made to the original text3        
,page vi3 ,it would have been           
singularoriginal has singuar            
,page #i3 moon1 which are the causes    
ofof missing in       original it       
,page #bc3 these particlesoriginal has  
particels of earth       and stone      
,page #ca3 ,in a word1 the              
materialsoriginal has mateterials       
of the globe         ,page #cg3 has     
occurred1 and in my opinionoriginal has 
oppinion very naturally         ,page   
#ea3 ,theseoriginal has these could not 

have been       occasioned         ,page
 #gd3 in the regions of the sky original
 has fky         ,page #id3 that fire   
cannotoriginal has connot subsist       
,page #id3 planets atoriginal has as the
 time of their       quitting the sun   
,page #ig3 there will be                
detachedoriginal has detatched from     
its equator         ,page #ajd3 which   
are as #bbi to #bcj4period missing in   
original         ,page #aee3 ,,article  
,,vi4original has ,,vii4         ,page  
#ahb3 conjecture is so much the         
betteroriginal has       bettter founded
         ,page #ahi3 where the pits are 
very deeporiginal has deeep             
,page #aib3 #bc4 ,sand streaked         
redoriginal has read and white          
,page #aid3 ,in plains                  
surroundedoriginal has surounded with   
hills         ,page #aih3 in ,france1   
,flanders1 ,holland1 ,spain1comma       
missing       in original ,italy        
,page #aii3 #aj of sand1 then #b feet   
ofof missing in original       clay     

,page #bjc3 either birds or terrestrial 
animals4quotation mark       missing in 
original         ,page #baj3 the ,alps1 
and the ,apennineoriginal has ,appenine 
mountains         ,page #bbe3 time much 
longer than a year4quotation mark       
missing in original         ,page #bbh3 
formation is novel1 inoriginal has n    
comparison         ,page #bef3          
resemblance is perfectly exact4quotation
 mark       missing in original         
#gh3;,a ,vide ,newton1 #b;d edit4 page  
#ebe4period missing in       original   
#agg3;,a ,footnote letter missing in    
original4         #agh3;,a ,see the     
,hist4 of ,new ,france1 by the ,pere    
,charlevoix4       letter and period    
missing in original4         #bcd3;,a   
,see ,shaw's ,voyages1 ,vol4 iioriginal 
has #aa1 pages       #dj and #da4       
#bdj3;,b ,voyage of ,paul ,lucus1 ,vol4 
,,iioriginal has #aa1 page       #chj4  
#cbi3;,a above the surface of the       
water4original has a comma              
#ccj3;,a ,see the ,voyages of ,lade1    

vol4 ii4original has #aa       page     
#cje1 4         #ccb3;,a ,voyage of the 
,dutch to the ,north1 vol4 #a1          
#c4original       has a comma ,page #di4