,,the ,,library ,,of ,,work ,,and ,,play ,,carpentry ,,and ,,woodwork ,by ,edwin ,w4 ,foster ,,electricity ,,and ,,its ,,everyday ,,uses ,by ,john ,f4 ,woodhull1 ,ph4,d4 ,,gardening ,,and ,,farming ,by ,ellen ,eddy ,shaw ,,home ,,decoration ,by ,charles ,franklin ,warner1 ,sc4,d4 ,,housekeeping ,by ,elizabeth ,hale ,gilman ,,mechanics1 ,,indoors ,,and ,,out ,by ,fred ,t4 ,hodgson ,,needlecraft ,by ,effie ,archer ,archer ,,outdoor ,,sports1 ,,and ,,games ,by ,claude ,h4 ,miller1 ,ph4,b4 ,,outdoor ,,work ,by ,mary ,rogers ,miller ,,working ,,in ,,metals ,by ,charles ,conrad ,sleffel ,illustration3 ,,hanging ,a ,,picture ,the wall space is a part of the framing of a picture ,,home ,,decoration ,,by ,,prof4 ,,charles ,f4 ,,warner1 ,sc4,d4 ,for eight years ,master of the ,rindge ,manual ,training ,school1 ,mass4 ,twelve years principal of the ,technical ,high ,school and ,director of the ,evening ,school of ,trades1 ,springfield1 ,mass4 ,illustration3 ,title ,page ,,garden ,,city ,,new ,,york ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,company #aiaf ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved1 ,,including ,,that ,,of ,,translation ,,into ,,foreign ,,languages1 ,,including ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,company ,,to ,,the ,,boys ,,and ,,girls ,,of ,,america ,,this ,,book ,,which ,,records ,,what ,,some ,,of ,,them ,,have ,,done ,,is ,,hopefully ,,dedicated ,some pure lovers of art discard the formula1 ,art for ,progress1 the ,beautiful ,useful1 fearing lest the useful should deform the beautiful4 ,they tremble to see the drudge's hand attached to the muse's arm4 ,they are solicitous for the sublime if it descends as far as to humanity4 ,ah6 they are in error4 ,the useful1 far from circumscribing the sublime1 enlarges it4444 ,is ,aurora less splendid1 clad less in purple and emerald--suffers she any diminution of majesty and of radiant grace1 because1 foreseeing an insect's thirst1 she carefully secretes in the flower the dewdrop needed by the bee8 ,victor ,hugo4 ,,acknowledgments ,this volume is the result of an effort to bring together in close relation with fundamental principles of design a variety of practical problems which are more or less closely connected with the general problem of home decoration and suited to the constructive ability of boys and girls from twelve to eighteen years of age4 ,while the book is mainly a record of the author's experience and observation in this department of educational work1 he has received many suggestions from co-workers in the same field4 ,it will be impossible to give credit to all who have directly or indirectly assisted in the preparation of this book3 but special acknowledgments are due to ,mr4 ,fred ,m4 ,watts1 who furnished the material for the chapter on ,pottery and several drawings for other parts of the book2 to ,miss ,grace ,l4 ,bell for the illustrations and descriptions embodied in the chapter on ,block ,printing2 to ,mr4 ,burton ,a4 ,adams for the problems in metal work2 to ,mr4 ,edwin ,a4 ,finch and ,mr4 ,lewis ,o4 ,richardson who contributed many of the specifications for the problems in furniture-making2 to ,miss ,elizabeth ,m4 ,morton for specific suggestions pertaining to the subject of dress as related to the principles of decoration2 and to ,mrs4 ,ruth ,b4 ,s4 ,flower1 of ,florence1 ,mass41 who supplied several of the photographs and much of the descriptive matter for the chapter on ,weaving4 ,springfield1 ,mass4 ,c4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,introductory--,the ,story of a ,house #c ,,ii4 ,decorations and ,furniture #cd ,,iii4 ,pictures #fd ,,iv4 ,the ,arrangement of ,flowers #ha ,v4 ,decorative ,fabrics #ie ,,vi4 ,dress and the ,principles of ,decoration #aba ,,vii4 ,furniture ,making #abi ,,viii4 ,finishing and ,re-finishing #bab ,,ix4 ,hand ,weaving #bdd ,x4 ,pottery #bhj ,,xi4 ,decorative ,work in ,leather1 ,copper1 and ,other ,materials #cba ,,xii4 ,concluding ,suggestions--,country ,homes #cff ,,illustrations ,hanging a ,picture ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,all the ,rough ,carpentry was ,assigned to the ,boys of the ,woodworking ,sections of the ,vocational ,school #bb ,the ,boys of the ,forging ,classes of the ,technical ,high ,school were not ,overlooked in the ,distribution of the ,work on the ,house #bd ,a ,table ,runner of ,russian ,crash and ,pillow ,cover with ,geometrical ,design #if ,window ,draperies with ,stencilled ,border #ajh ,crocheted ,panels1 a ,linen ,work ,bag with ,conventional ,landscape in ,darning ,stitch1 a ,crash ,table ,mat ,embroidered in ,darning and ,couching ,stitch #aah ,finishing a ,library ,table #bab ,weaving a ,rug #bdd ,hand ,made ,rugs1 ,hand ,made ,towels #beb ,an ,alcove with ,window ,draperies1 ,pillow ,covers1 ,window ,seat and ,moss ,green ,rug1 ,all ,hand ,woven #bfb ,hand ,woven ,window ,draperies1 ,couch ,cover1 ,slumber ,rug1 and ,pillow ,covers #bff ,girls at ,work on ,pottery #bhj ,bowls #bid ,vases and ,fern ,dishes #cab ,tiles #caf ,pottery3 ,designed and ,made by ,schoolgirls #cah ,decorative ,forgings #cfd ,,home ,,decoration ,illustration3 ,a model house3 ,designed by girls and built by boys ,i ,,introductory ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,house ,to design1 plan1 and build a house is a task that rarely falls to the lot of boys and girls4 ,in fact1 it is not the common experience of men and women to build houses without the aid of architects1 masons1 and carpenters4 ,such a task1 however1 was recently offered to certain classes in one of the public schools of a well-known ,new ,england city4 ,it was1 indeed1 a school problem1 and yet there was something about it that seemed to suggest larger and more interesting things than are ordinarily dealt with in the school-room4 ,it did not seem at all like some school work4 ,it was more like real life2 for all boys and girls must some day have homes of their own1 and here was a chance to learn how the house1 which is an important part of every home1 is planned and built4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that this work--or play1 if you like that word better--was undertaken with genuine enthusiasm4 ,it was a task crammed full of the pleasure of interest and of accomplishment--full of the joy of doing something worth while--from the beginning to the end4 ,the ,house a ,work of ,art4--,one of the first lessons learned by these young builders--perhaps the most important one of all--was that a great many things have to be thought of in planning a house1 if the thing is to be well done4 ,it is not simply a question of deciding how many rooms one will have1 arranging them in some conventional order1 and building the house around them with whatever external features style or fancy may dictate4 ,too many houses1 it is true1 are planned1 or at least put up1 in this thoughtless fashion2 and whatever goes into them in decoration or furniture is generally chosen either for necessary use or for display--not with any thought of the real comfort and satisfaction that come from artistic surroundings4 ,people who are satisfied with such dwellings seem to show less appreciation of art1 the highest product of civilization1 than those uncivilized tribes who decorated their caves or huts with beautiful rugs of their own weaving and who ornamented their pottery and their utensils and implements with wonderfully conceived and elaborately wrought designs4 ,modern cave dwellers in apartment houses with all the conveniences of their ready-made surroundings1 are in danger of missing that self-expression in their home belongings that encouraged and delighted even the savage4 ,the most extreme example of this form of degeneracy is found in the suggestion of a certain great inventor1 that the age of concrete construction1 now at hand1 means that we are to have concrete houses poured into a standard mould1 hardened in twenty-four hours1 and finished for occupancy in a day or two4 ,the boys and girls of this story would not have accepted a machine-made1 standardized house if one had been offered them1 ready for use4 ,there was a special purpose for which their house was to be planned and built1 as there generally is in the case of any real house4 ,no style ,a1 ,b1 or ,c1 chosen from any series of pattern-built or moulded houses1 could fulfil such a purpose2 and even if it could1 would they willingly give up all the fun of planning and building and furnishing8 ,would they forego the lessons of experience to be learned from all this work8 ,this is always a large part of the satisfaction which comes to any one who builds his own house4 ,in the present instance it was the chief motive1 since the boys and girls who were planning this house were not expecting to make their home there4 ,why the ,house ,was ,built4--,what1 then1 was the purpose for which this house was to be built2 and what were the specific problems involved in realizing this purpose8 ,it was to be a practice house for the girls of the household technology course4 ,this meant that it should be1 so far as possible1 a model house2 but it must of necessity be a simple one4 ,economy1 always a safe guide1 was a most important factor in determining the character of the design4 ,a limited appropriation--about #ajjj--;for building material was available4 ,economy of space as well as of expense was also important4 ,the only available land was a triangular lot in the corner of the school yard1 #ffe square feet in area4 ,this limited the dimensions of the floor plan to #bd by #ce feet4 ,it was decided to develop the design within these dimensions1 on a rectangular plan1 with one story and a hip roof1 because such a design would present comparatively easy problems in framing and insure a building of pleasing external proportions4 ,,the ,,general ,,design ,,and ,,the ,,plan ,in attacking the problem of design the method of approach was determined by the fact that school-girls and school-boys were to be the architects and builders4 ,house planning1 home decoration1 and household management were important subjects of study on the part of the girls and various forms of drawing and constructive work were required of all the boys of this school2 so they all felt that they had a right to contribute something out of their study and experience that might be of value in working out this problem4 ,the design must therefore be a composite of the best features of many studies4 ,a ,composite ,design4--,the rooms required for a house of this character were thought to be a hall1 a living room1 a dining-room1 a kitchen1 a pantry1 a bedroom with a closet1 a bath room1 and a linen closet4 ,nothing short of this outfit of rooms would satisfy the demands of a house to be used to give practical training in all the essentials of plain housekeeping and in the entertainment of guests4 ,with these requirements in mind and with full knowledge of all the limitations of the problem1 the girls of the junior and senior classes1 who were taking the course in household technology1 entered into a lively but friendly competition with each other to produce the most acceptable design and draw the best plan4 ,so many excellent plans resulted from this competition that it was difficult to select the best4 ,it was therefore decided to combine in a new and final plan the best features of several studies that seemed to meet the conditions of the problem with equal success4 ,two of these were selected as having the greatest number of good points4 ,from these the final floor plan was developed and the necessary modifications made in the original drawings to make the general design of the building fit the plan4 ,illustration3 ,floor plan of the model house ,the ,hall4--,it may be of interest to note how some of the details of the problem of design were worked out for the final plan4 ,beginning with the hall1 it was easily seen that economy of space required that the room should have small dimensions4 ,in fact1 it did not need to be a separate room at all4 ,it could easily be a space between the living room and the dining-room1 separated from both by means of portires and joined upon occasion with either room or with both1 thus making possible a reception room or a dining-room of good size1 or one large room4 ,of course1 the central idea of a hall must not be lost sight of in providing for a desirable extension of other rooms4 ,it should suggest a warm welcome to the guest2 and here is where the fireplace may fulfil the double function of giving the cheer of the hearth-stone at all times and the comfort of fire when warmth is needed4 ,the absence of a stairway1 since none was needed1 was a favourable circumstance4 ,appropriate decoration and furnishing in due time were to add a few distinguishing marks so that the house could retain1 without any appreciable sacrifice of space1 the dignity of an entrance hall4 ,the ,living ,room and the ,dining-room4--,the relative positions of the living room and the dining-room1 as already stated1 were determined by the location of the hall4 ,the purpose of each was distinct and self-evident1 and determined the features of design that lent themselves most readily to appropriate decoration4 ,in the living room the floor1 the wall spaces1 and the ceiling needed consideration with regard to their final treatment1 to give pleasing proportions and harmonious colouring4 ,the same was true of the dining-room1 though its different purpose suggested a different design4 ,an abundance of light was important for both rooms1 hence the large1 multiple windows4 ,such windows would also offer a good chance for pleasing drapery effects4 ,the ,kitchen and ,its ,appointments4--,no room demanded so much study as the kitchen4 ,in the first place it was necessary to make provision for a relatively larger kitchen than would ordinarily be needed in a house of this size1 because in this case it was designed to be used as a practice kitchen and must therefore be large enough to accommodate a considerable number of girls--at least eight--at one time4 ,this point assumed so much importance in the minds of the young designers that they were constantly tempted to rob other rooms of the space that was due them in order to get a nice1 big kitchen4 ,but by clever adjustments and combinations the necessary floor dimensions were secured without unduly cramping other features of the plan4 ,the range1 laundry tubs1 and sink were conveniently located near each other with the tubs at such a height that when not in use the cover was flush with the top of the range1 forming a shelf on which kettles and other kitchen utensils could be easily placed as they were moved back and forth from the range4 ,it was thought that it would be very desirable1 if not necessary1 to have this shelf covered with zinc or some kind of sheet metal4 ,it will be noted as a possible fault in the plan that the range is very near the door into the passageway leading to the bedroom1 the living room1 and the hall4 ,this point received due consideration2 but in view of the compensating advantages the arrangement was thought allowable1 inasmuch as the door into the passageway would be used only occasionally4 ,there seemed to be no more convenient location for the passageway1 which was designed to give privacy to bedroom and bath room and1 in cases of sickness or any emergency requiring it1 easy communication between the kitchen and the bedroom4 ,special ,features4--,the pantry was located between the kitchen and the dining-room for obvious reasons--to give easy communication in serving and to confine kitchen odours to their proper place4 ,in place of a kitchen closet a cabinet was provided for as being on the whole the more serviceable of the two4 ,it is always desirable to have an entry or lobby1 with a convenient part of it reserved for the refrigerator2 but the need of providing as much room as possible in the kitchen itself seemed to justify the omission of the lobby4 ,another unusual feature--this time not an omission--is to be found in the window of the bedroom closet4 ,such a window1 although not common1 was thought to be very desirable on sanitary grounds and as a possible protection against moths4 ,early ,plans for ,decorating and ,furnishing4--,these were by no means all the features of design that had to be considered4 ,as already suggested1 there was much study given to the question of interior decoration and furnishing1 even at this early stage4 ,this was simply necessary forethought2 for much of the attractiveness1 restfulness1 and homelike atmosphere of any house is created by the architect1 who1 in his arrangement of rooms1 door-ways1 and windows1 disposes his wall areas so that they may be divided symmetrically and lend themselves naturally to colour toning1 offering tempting spaces for a few choice pictures and opening up beautiful vistas4 ,such house-planning1 begun with clear vision and followed with taste and delicacy in every detail1 may often lead to a harmony of effects as pleasing to people of artistic temperament as a symphony is to those who enjoy a fine musical composition4 ,in fact1 the parallel between sympathetic gradations of form and colour and harmony of musical tones is a very close one1 and the appreciation of it is by no means rare4 ,any intelligent person1 on seeing a suite of rooms designed and arranged by a real artist1 though he may not understand why1 will be impressed by the rhythm of space divisions1 the harmony of colours1 the lack of any jarring or discordant notes in the decoration1 the simplicity1 fitness1 and real beauty1 not of any particular part1 perhaps1 but of the whole combination4 ,we often find ourselves using the same language whether we are describing the work of an artist-architect or the work of a musical composer4 ,,fundamental ,,principles ,,of ,,design ,adaptation to ,purpose4--,our young architects discovered that there are certain fundamental principles or laws that must be observed at the very beginning1 if a really good and true design is to be made4 ,the first of these laws is the law of adaptation to purpose4 ,the application of this law was illustrated in the location of the various rooms in the plan of the house1 in the dimensions agreed upon for each1 and in the details of arrangement1 especially in the kitchen and other rooms connecting with it4 ,but this law is universal in its application4 ,it determines not only the broad features of the plan but the details as well4 ,it does not permit anything useless or superfluous to exist1 for that would mean weakness4 ,it aims at efficiency and strength4 ,it dictates the details of construction all along the line1 from the framing of the building to its finish and its decoration4 ,it even determines the character of the furniture and the amount of it4 ,adaptation to purpose is a ruling principle4 ,simplicity4--,another great principle that revealed itself as the plans of the house developed may be called the law of simplicity4 ,this is one of the elementary laws of nature transferred to the realm of craftsmanship4 ,it is an axiom of geometry that the straight line is the shortest distance between two points4 ,not less evident is the fact that when ,nature undertakes to do anything she goes about it in the simplest and most direct way4 ,the natural tendency of all motion is along a straight line--so reads the first law of motion4 ,analyze the most complex forms and processes of nature and we shall find them due to the harmonious combination of the simplest elementary lines and movements4 ,but the same law of simplicity which invariably marks the works of nature gives strength and beauty also to the works of man4 ,thus1 in discussing the various problems that developed as the designing of the house progressed1 it was found--as of course it should have been--that the solution which met the test of simplicity1 while satisfying the law of adaptation to purpose1 was the true one4 ,correlation4--,a third great fundamental principle that found expression in these studies of the house plans was the principle of correlation4 ,not only must each part of the design be adapted to its use in the simplest possible manner1 but it must support all other parts and receive support in return4 ,it is like cooperation or team-work in play or in the practical affairs of life4 ,every room in a house bears some natural relation to every other room1 and even the objects in the same room or in adjoining rooms must assist each other1 whether their purpose be utility or decoration or a combination of both4 ,only by due attention to the mutual relations of the various elements that must enter into the composition1 can the designer produce those pleasing space effects1 those blendings of colour tones1 those manifest relations between the various objects1 useful or decorative1 that give order1 unity1 and sympathetic feeling to a complete design4 ,,the ,,colour ,,scheme ,the ,floor the ,foundation4--,almost unconsciously our young architects found themselves under the guidance of these three great fundamental principles of design4 ,when they came to the problem of specifying the finish for the floors and other wood work of the hall1 living room1 and dining-room1 they found that this problem was intimately associated with the larger question of the colour scheme as a whole4 ,the mutual dependence of all the elements concerned could not be overlooked4 ,it was evident that the floor1 which is the foundation of the room1 should be darker than the walls and ceiling and the general tone of the furnishings1 in order to give the suggestion of sufficient weight and firmness for the support of the entire room and all it might contain4 ,the effect of solidity could be produced by staining the floor boards or by providing a liberal supply of dark1 rich-toned rugs1 large ones as well as small ones4 ,there was no question of carpets4 ,these1 of course1 are not allowable in a model house4 ,a few rugs were already available1 and others could be procured by buying them or by making them4 ,a properly toned floor1 however1 is desirable1 even with a most generous covering of rugs4 ,it was therefore decided to give the floor a coat of stain when it was ready to be finished4 ,importance of ,colour ,schemes4--,but what was the colour to be8 ,the designers were thus brought face to face with that difficult but important problem which all who plan houses have to solve before they can hope to bring their work into harmonious adjustment with the various natural and human conditions that must be satisfied in the final product1 if it be made a good example of the designer's art4 ,the problem of the colour scheme is fundamental4 ,upon this depends not only the tone of the floors1 the walls1 and the ceilings1 but also1 to a certain extent1 as has already been suggested1 the kind of woods to be used in the interior finishing1 and whether they are to be painted1 stained1 or left in their natural colours4 ,it will determine the material and the colours of the portires1 curtains1 cushions1 lamp shades1 picture frames1 vases2 in fact1 it will largely settle the decorative character of every article placed in the rooms4 ,the consideration of movable objects1 however1 may be deferred till the more substantial and fixed elements are decided upon4 ,southern ,exposures and ,cool ,colours4--,in settling the all-important question of the colour scheme the first point to be considered was the location of the rooms with reference to light and to external surroundings4 ,rooms that have a southern exposure and nothing to interfere with their being flooded with sunlight need to be protected against the glare of too much light4 ,for such rooms dull tones of colour are the best--dull browns1 soft gray-greens1 certain blue tones1 and the medium grays--light1 cool colours that counteract the overbrilliancy of direct sunlight and give a positively tempered feeling to the atmosphere of a room4 ,incidentally1 too1 perhaps because they are the tints associated with distant views1 the cool colours make a room seem larger than it really is4 ,northern ,exposures and ,warm ,colours4--,northern rooms1 on the other hand1 do not generally suffer from excess of sunlight and heat4 ,warm colours are needed in such rooms4 ,deep reds1 rich yellows1 and golden browns will seem to bring sunlight into a sunless room4 ,our designers noted the fact that many of the rooms in the house they were planning must be comparatively dark4 ,the house was to face the high brick walls of the neighbouring school building1 not more than twenty-five feet distant1 and its principal rooms had a northern exposure4 ,a warm colour treatment1 therefore1 was unquestionably needed4 ,should red1 brown1 or yellow be the prevailing tone8 ,the deciding point was the location of the hall and its relations to the other rooms4 ,it was1 first of all1 the hall1 the place of welcome for the guest2 but it was dark4 ,its walls must have the sunniest of all colours--a rich golden yellow4 ,the same would serve the needs of the living room1 or perhaps a brown with yellow enough in it to be well in tune4 ,the dining-room could safely be darker and more luminous1 in pleasing contrast with the golden yellow of the hall2 but it must not be decidedly red4 ,the ceilings of these three rooms1 whether beamed or not1 since they must be lighter than the walls1 could have the same or nearly the same tint4 ,this might well be a light corn yellow4 ,the colouring of the walls of the bedroom1 bath room1 and kitchen was not so important a question as the decoration of the three front rooms4 ,utility and sanitary conditions were important things to be considered4 ,light tints were decided upon1 which in the bedroom might be relieved1 in the finishing touches1 by delicate stenciled figures in some warm tone4 ,interior ,woodwork4--,with the colour scheme settled it was a comparatively easy matter to decide what should be the general tone and character of the interior woodwork4 ,the floors of the three front rooms1 since they were to be closely associated1 required the same solid colour1 which could well be a walnut brown1 darker than any of the walls4 ,fumed oak trimmings were thought desirable for the dining-room and gum wood for the living room1 either of which could be extended to the hall2 but ivory white for the living room and the hall1 leaving the oak for the dining-room1 found much favour4 ,it was finally decided1 however1 to adopt for the three front rooms the combination of natural woods first suggested4 ,the bedroom and bath room1 where suggestions of cleanliness are peculiarly appropriate1 were specified to be finished in white4 ,yellow southern pine was decided upon for the kitchen and its accessory rooms4 ,,organizing ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,construction ,as soon as the chief features of design were decided upon1 preparations were made for carrying them out in the actual work of building2 for the house was not to be a castle in air4 ,the first step was to put these ideas on paper and work out the details of construction in clearly executed and accurately dimensioned drawings4 ,these included1 as the first to be used1 the working drawings for the framing and other rough woodwork1 blue print copies of which were to be put into the hands of the boys of the elementary vocational school1 who were to carry out this part of the building plans4 ,illustration3 ,front or north elevation of the model house ,the ,working ,drawings4--,a considerable number of detailed drawings had to be made before the work of construction could be wisely begun4 ,this furnished an interesting set of problems for the mechanical drawing groups of the technical high school4 ,the material for this work consisted of rough sketches in pencil1 but with the correct dimensions as determined in the plan accepted as the result of the competition in design4 ,these preliminary sketches required much study on the part of both boys and girls1 under proper guidance1 in order to find out what the elements of construction should be1 what dimensions were required1 and how the various parts should be put together4 ,it was an experience of great value to all1 but especially to those boys who were looking forward to architectural draughting as a possible vocation4 ,they got an inside view of the importance1 on the one hand1 of accurate working drawings as a basis for good construction and1 on the other hand1 a practical illustration of the necessity of a thorough knowledge of constructive principles1 in order to make correct working drawings4 ,they saw that the efficient architect must be a builder1 acquainted with all the detailed processes employed by the carpenter or mason1 informed upon all the conditions to be met1 and knowing the best ways of meeting them4 ,they gained impressions which should help them1 in studying the work of great architects1 to look beyond the exterior1 however pleasing it may be1 for those elements of strength and beauty that characterize all good workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,all the ,rough ,carpentry ,was ,assigned to ,boys of the ,woodworking ,section of the ,vocational ,school4 ,plate ,i ,how the ,work ,was ,distributed4--,it will be recalled that boys and girls were to be coworkers in the designing1 planning1 and building of the house4 ,the boys were to be held responsible for the drawings1 the decorating after designs made by the girls1 and the higher grades of woodwork1 including the finishing of the rooms and the making of the furniture4 ,they were to do the wiring for the electric lights1 the bells1 and the interior telephones2 and they were to install all the fixtures in connection with this wiring4 ,boys from the metal-working sections were to do the necessary piping for gas and water and some of the work of plumbing2 but1 since the laws regulating plumbing are strict and well enforced1 as they should be1 it was necessary to keep this most essential feature of the work under charge of licensed plumbers4 ,but this requirement did not remove even the plumbing of the building from the field of public school work2 for1 fortunately1 this city has a well-equipped plumbing school in the trades school department1 under the direction of licensed plumbers of high standing1 who were glad to have given them1 as an exercise for their classes1 a practical problem in house plumbing4 ,the boys in the forging classes were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house4 ,many of the fixtures needed for use or ornament were designed to be made in the school forge shop4 ,the girls designed and made rugs1 curtains1 portires1 and cushions as a part of their school work in weaving and stencilling2 and they contributed many decorative articles in clay1 copper1 leather1 and other materials4 ,thus every technical department of the school was brought into service2 for in the building of a house there is to be found something to enlist the interest of every boy and girl4 ,illustration3 ,the ,boys of the ,forging ,classes of the ,technical ,high ,school ,were ,not ,overlooked in the ,distribution of the ,work on the ,house4 ,plate ,,ii ,boy ,foremen in ,charge4--,to bring about the right distribution of the work and to marshal the working forces effectually required the oversight and management of an experienced instructor4 ,but much of the work of direction was delegated to competent boys4 ,the preliminary tool work in the school shops had revealed those who were especially observant and capable as leaders1 and those who worked best under specific directions4 ,thus the twenty boys of the vocational school who set the posts and framed the house worked sometimes in pairs--one being the chief foreman and the other the helper--sometimes in gangs of three or four under a foreman4 ,the plan was varied according to the nature of the work in hand4 ,when leaders of more technical knowledge and skill were needed1 as was the case in setting the window frames and directing the shingling1 capable boys from the technical high school were placed in charge of groups of younger boys from the vocational school4 ,in this way the work was advanced in several directions at the same time2 and the advantage was not all in the advancement of the house construction4 ,it was a delightful and profitable experience for all the boys1 not unlike that which some of them will doubtless repeat when school days are over and they take their place in the more serious affairs of life4 ,in after years they may look back upon the first house that they helped to build and recall the part they took1 their companions in the work1 and the good time they had withal4 ,,some ,,details ,,of ,,construction ,setting ,batter ,boards1 ,posts1 and ,sills4--,the first step in actual construction was to mark off the lot and set the batter boards4 ,these were made by driving three stakes to form a right angle about four feet from the point where each of the four main corners of the house was to be located4 ,two rough boards1 one for each side of each angle1 were nailed horizontally to each of the four sets of stakes1 with their upper edges all brought to the same level4 ,it is very important to set these batter boards with accuracy1 since their function is to carry the lines which mark the dimensions and level of the ground floor4 ,in the present instance their first use was to locate the concrete posts on which the sills of the house were to rest4 ,twenty-two of these posts1 which were #d feet long and #h inches square1 were put in position by first setting moulds or boxes1 the interior dimensions of which were those of the posts1 #c feet deep in the light soil and filling them with a mixture of concrete and crushed rock4 ,it was not thought necessary to remove the moulds after the hardening of the concrete4 ,in fact1 the sills were framed and placed in position resting on these boxes before sufficient time had been given for the concrete to harden4 ,the sides of the boxes1 however1 were scored with a saw cut so that they could be easily broken off just below the ground1 exposing the projecting ends of the concrete posts for about one foot4 ,the sills were of #f by #h-;inch first quality spruce4 ,they were set on the #f-;inch face1 the two long sills being spliced over posts1 using a long halved joint4 ,mortise and tenon joints1 draw-bored and pinned1 were used at the corners4 ,the floor timbers of #b by #h-;inch spruce were gained into the sills with the top faces flush with the top of the sill and crowning 7i4 e41 bending7 upward if at all4 ,the spacing of the floor timbers was taken off at the sill on a strip of furring--spruce1 #g_/h of an inch thick by #b inches wide--which was moved out to the centre near the line of bridging and lightly nailed1 bringing crooked timbers into line4 ,the bridging was then nailed in1 the outside last to prevent springing the sills4 ,illustration3 ,plan ,a4 ,framing details ,referring to the accompanying sketch 7,plan ,a7 it will be noticed that the corner posts and centres were not mortised into the sills1 but were simply butted on and heavily nailed or spiked4 ,there was a time when carpenters would have regarded such a method as altogether wrong2 but those were the days of great corner posts and heavy studding1 placed two or three times as far apart as is the practice now4 ,it was thought that placing the studs #af inches on centres1 which is the common practice in modern house framing1 removed the necessity of mortising into the sill4 ,mortising is still recognized1 however1 as a good thing to do and is sometimes practised by first-rate carpenters4 ,plan ,a also shows how the outside walls were trussed over openings2 and ,plan ,b shows how the corners of the building were tied by the lapping of the double plate1 and how the ceiling timbers and rafters were placed on the top of the plate4 ,illustration3 ,plan ,b4 ,details of cornice1 sill1 and roof ,a ,,shingles ,b ,,roof ,,boards ,c ,,rafter #b #f #bj ,o4,c4 ,d ,,plate #d #d ,e ,,rough ,,boarding ,f ,,stud ,g ,,frieze ,h ,,crown ,,mold ,i ,,bed ,,mold ,j ,,ceiling ,,joist #b #f ,k ,,ground ,l ,,lath ,,plaster ,m ,,base ,n ,,finished ,,floor ,o ,,lining ,,floor ,p ,,furring ,q ,,sill ,r ,,concrete ,,post #h #h ,s ,,corner ,,post ,t ,,hip ,,rafter #c #h ,u ,,floor ,,joist ,the window frame details are shown in a series of cuts 7,plan ,c7 which for the sake of completeness are drawn to show also the interior finish1 not usually represented in the framing drawings4 ,a detailed description of these features of construction is unnecessary1 since the dimensions and relations of the various elements and the technical terms by which they are known are all clearly indicated in the illustrations4 ,illustration3 ,plan ,c4 ,details of interior finish ,a ,,outside ,,casing ,i ,,header ,q ,,surbase ,b ,,back ,,band ,j ,,corner ,,block ,r ,,sill #a-c_/d ,,th',k ,c ,,head ,k ,,rough ,,boarding ,s ,,inside ,,casing ,d ,,stop #a_/b ,,thick ,l ,,shingles ,t ,,soffit ,e ,,sash #a-c_/h ditto ,m ,,weight ,u ,,bed ,,mold ,f ,,lath ,,plaster ,n ,,pulley ,,style ,v ,,finished ,,floor ,g ,,ground #c_/d ,,th',k ,o ,,parting ,,strip ,w ,,base ,h ,,stud #b #d ,p ,,stool ,,cap ,x ,,lining ,,floor ,in the same series of cuts a detail of the base is shown which includes the framing1 the base board1 and the lath and plaster4 ,it should be stated1 however1 that a substitute for lath and plaster was recommended to the student architects--a new product in paper board especially designed for walls and ceilings1 which it was decided to use4 ,the use of this material removed the necessity of the grounds shown in the drawings and always needed as a nailing base for the wood trim when the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered4 ,in the detail of the dado cap1 which will be found on the page of construction drawings1 the dotted lines show how the cap was to be expanded into a plate rail1 requiring the addition of brackets with a bed moulding between1 in the finishing of the walls of the dining-room4 ,among these drawings will also be found a detail showing a section of the beamed ceiling finish4 ,it will be readily understood that none of the finishing work called for in the detailed drawings was begun until the rough carpentry on the house was practically completed4 ,all the rough work1 which included framing1 boarding1 shingling1 laying of the lining floors1 and putting up partitions1 was assigned to boys of the woodworking sections of the vocational school4 ,this is an elementary industrial or trade school1 admitting from the grades below the high school boys who have attained the age of fourteen years and wish to learn some mechanical trade4 ,it represents a new and promising experiment in ,american education4 ,the building of this house furnished an excellent opportunity for the boys of this school to show the honesty of their purpose in enrolling themselves to learn the fundamentals of a trade and thus prove their right to have the chance4 ,so the house was built by the combined efforts of the boys and girls of the public schools of this ,new ,england city1 unassisted by professional architects or paid labourers4 ,how they carried out with their own hands the designs for decorating and furnishing the house is told in the succeeding chapters of this book1 which also suggests wider applications of the principles of household decoration as possible to be made in the homes of clever boys and girls throughout the country4 ,to carry out these suggestions will mean work--but work of a kind that gives pleasure to the worker and to many others4 ,it was work for the young designers and builders of whom this story tells1 but they said it was great fun1 and there really is no pleasure quite equal to that found in doing with one's own hands an exceptionally good thing4 ,the true craftsmen of all time have found it so4 ,one of these master workmen1 ,stradivarius1 the violin maker1 so ,george ,eliot tells us1 made his confession thus3 444 ,god be praised6 ,antonio ,stradivari has an eye ,that winces at false work and loves the true1 ,with hand and arm that play upon the tool1 ,as willingly as any singing bird ,sets him to sing his morning roundelay1 ,because he likes to sing and likes the song4 ,,ii ,,decorations ,,and ,,furniture ,have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful1 or believe to be beautiful--,william ,morris ,the decorating and furnishing of a house have their true beginning in good architectural design4 ,it is a mistake to proceed upon the theory that decoration necessarily implies something added for its own sake--something beautiful in itself but selected and applied without regard to the lines1 spaces1 and colours of the room in which it is to be placed and without considering the relation of this room to neighbouring rooms and to more remote surroundings4 ,the truth is1 a decorative object may or may not be intrinsically beautiful2 but however beautiful it may be in itself1 it finds its truest beauty in an appropriate setting4 ,and the decorator who is actuated by the true spirit looks to the architect for inspiration and finds his greatest successes in acknowledging that leadership4 ,to attempt to lead when one should follow is neither good art nor good sense4 ,there is danger1 perhaps1 that this truth may be taken too seriously4 ,it would also be a mistake to run to the other extreme and adopt at the outset a rigid plan of decoration and furnishing1 specified like contract work to be carried out and completed on a certain date soon after the house is built4 ,the problem is one of growing interest1 especially as regards furniture1 pictures1 and the smaller objects of use or beauty1 and for its best and happiest solution requires time and study4 ,only the broad and fundamental features can be settled in advance4 ,the important thing is to have the main lines1 dimensions1 space relations1 and colour schemes settled with due regard to utility and appropriateness and1 as the work of construction proceeds1 to keep all details in harmony with this general plan4 ,,the ,,floors1 ,,the ,,walls1 ,,and ,,the ,,ceilings ,colour ,harmony in the ,model ,house4--,it will be remembered that the colour scheme of the hall1 living room1 and dining-room of our model house was settled quite early in the development of the design4 ,standing near the centre of the living room and looking through the hall into the dining-room1 one may see at a glance how some of the details of decoration were worked out in keeping with the general treatment4 ,the walnut brown stain of the floors gives a good foundation of colour4 ,it flows easily into the lighter browns and yellows of all the lower wall spaces4 ,the suggestion of olive green in the frieze of the living room offers a pleasing contrast with the prevailing browns and harmonizes well with the woodwork of this room1 which1 it will be remembered1 was designed to be finished in gum wood4 ,this beautiful wood1 when properly treated1 presents a surface of satin-like texture and soft colour tone4 ,in the dining-room a corner of which is shown in the frontispiece1 the frieze lends a warmth of colour where it is needed and is in keeping with the fumed oak trim4 ,the wide openings into the hall from the rooms on each side of it1 together with the long1 unbroken lines of the beamed ceilings1 give the impression of generous width4 ,the plain wall spaces1 though varied in tone and relieved of monotonous spacings by the location of the necessary doors and windows1 are of great assistance in increasing the apparent size of the room4 ,plain walls are also the best of backgrounds for pictures4 ,redecorating ,old ,houses4--,it is1 of course1 true that the decorating and furnishing of a house or an apartment cannot always have a new and original architectural design as the basis for the solution of the problems involved4 ,as a matter of fact1 in the great majority of cases1 the houses in which homes are made are already built and have been previously occupied4 ,often they are very old houses1 presenting difficult and even impossible tasks for the decorator4 ,sometimes1 however1 such houses are all the more desirable if they bear the marks of age that suggest a past of dignity and charm4 ,but the spirit which inspires the artist in decorating and furnishing a house already built is the same as that which controls his thought when he can begin with the foundation of a new and original design4 ,his first thought is to discover how beauty may be enhanced and at the same time unity of purpose and harmony of treatment be preserved4 ,his constant care is to avoid incongruous elements1 however beautiful they may be in themselves or however appropriate in other houses4 ,his general aim is to use his art to develop the design as it is1 if there be any design at all1 and make the most of it4 ,decoration as a ,corrective4--,but this does not prevent him from attempting to counteract the blunders of faulty design and bad architecture4 ,such correction1 indeed1 forms a large part of the work of decorators and furnishers1 both professional and amateur4 ,if the lines and space divisions of a room be not good1 the decoration must be planned with a view to giving the needed harmony of proportions1 or at least the appearance of it4 ,if the ceiling be too high1 it may be made to look lower by carrying the ceiling paper or tinting one or two feet down the walls of the room to meet the picture moulding4 ,the effect of reduced height is accentuated by a high base board or by wainscoting4 ,if the ceiling be too low1 the depressing effect may be largely overcome by extending the picture moulding along the top of the wall spaces close to the ceiling4 ,this is a desirable thing to do in the living rooms of most modern houses4 ,striped wall papers of proper tones may be used in low rooms with good effect in increasing their apparent height4 ,bad wall spacing may also be corrected by enlarging door-ways1 substituting portires for the doors1 and by arranging the drapery over windows to give the effect either of increasing or of diminishing their height1 as the conditions may require4 ,wall ,papers4--,probably no element of decoration furnishes so many pitfalls to ensnare the unwary as wall papers do4 ,it is easy to fall a victim to a captivating design as it appears in the few square feet of wall paper displayed on the dealer's rack4 ,the same interesting figure1 spread out in endless repetition on the four walls of the living room1 may create an atmosphere of unrest and positive discomfort keenly felt by sensitive persons4 ,a wise choice cannot be made in the absence of all the conditions that should really determine it4 ,after all1 it is not the paper which is beautiful in the roll that should be selected1 but only that which will become beautiful when hung upon the walls of a certain room4 ,papers with large figures should be avoided unless there is a special reason for using them4 ,they always have the effect of reducing the apparent size of everything associated with them4 ,they make a small room appear dwarfish and a large one over decorated unless well relieved by plain spaces harmonizing in colour with the large-figured patterns4 ,strong contrasts in colour values should also be avoided1 not only between the designs and the ground colour of the wall paper itself1 but also between the paper and other objects of importance in the room4 ,the principle of gradation in colour values1 which does not as a general thing allow the placing together of light and dark shades or tints1 is almost as important as harmony of colour tones4 ,nature of ,decorative ,design4--,the one fact never to be lost sight of by the decorator is the real nature of true decorative design4 ,it is never a picture4 ,while it may suggest the natural forms of plants or animals1 it does not aim to represent them in a naturalistic way4 ,some of the best decorative designs do not even suggest natural forms2 but1 whether they do or not1 the central idea is the repetition of good combinations of line and form in closely related colours and values on a flat surface4 ,if natural forms are used1 they should be more or less highly conventionalized4 ,anything that destroys the idea of flat surfaces in the same plane is a false note in wall decoration4 ,in the nature of the case1 a wall can have but one plane4 ,clusters of flowers or patterns of any kind that seem to hang in front of this plane1 or back of it1 are out of place and therefore offend the sense of fitness4 ,such incongruities are sometimes so pronounced that they positively shock the sensibilities of refined people4 ,extreme examples have been known to give such pain to sensitive persons as to drive them from the room4 ,advantage of ,plain ,walls4--,decorative designs1 however1 are not essential in wall papers4 ,the main point in the treatment of walls is to secure and preserve a good background4 ,if one is in doubt as to the kind of figure or pattern to be used1 which is often a perplexing question1 it is well to leave them out altogether4 ,plain walls are always good if the colour tone is right2 for colour is the main thing in wall decoration4 ,the decorative effects of form may be brought out in the portires and window draperies1 which may easily carry more elaborate patterns when associated with plain walls than is desirable with figured wall decorations4 ,in fact1 with figured walls plain portires and curtains are much to be preferred4 ,in our model house1 as has been explained1 the wall decorations were designed to offer a plain background of colour4 ,the figured borders of the portires and curtains1 combined with the careful gradation in the colouring of the floors1 wall spaces1 and ceiling1 gave such a variety of tone to this background that nothing further was needed to avoid monotony4 ,trial ,needed in ,doubtful ,cases4--,it is1 indeed1 a good rule to omit whatever is unnecessary4 ,to observe this rule wisely is to escape much that is positively bad in decoration4 ,overwrought designs1 too great variety in decorative material1 too many decorative objects1 however great their individual beauty1 too many odd pieces of furniture1 too many interesting things in whatever direction one may turn1 create an oppressive and disquieting atmosphere and a feeling of unrest which it should always be the aim of home decoration to dispel4 ,and yet it may not always be best to set aside our treasures because they do not seem perfectly suited to the general scheme of decoration or are not apparently needed to complete it4 ,it is1 in fact1 often very difficult to determine where the line should be drawn between what is needed and what is not needed4 ,the fact that nothing seems to be lacking is not a final test if one has at hand useful or beautiful things that may be introduced into a scheme of decoration already well thought out and be given a trial4 ,such experimenting will often reveal unsuspected needs or add a new charm that at once proves its right to be retained4 ,to take a step like this1 somewhat out of line with accepted rules as strictly interpreted1 is entirely safe if this step is dictated by good taste and does not lead the young decorator too far afield4 ,exceptional treatment of any kind should show proper restraint1 and such restraint1 when it is plainly indicated in any work of art1 is in itself an attractive feature4 ,precise ,rules not ,always ,practicable4--,the truth is1 the rules of decoration1 though founded upon fundamental principles of art1 are not rules of precision like those founded upon mathematical principles4 ,in the nature of the case they must in their application yield more or less to circumstances4 ,it is1 for example1 a good general rule to determine the colour scheme and background first and accommodate other decorative features to these as a foundation2 and yet it is possible for a situation to be so exceptional as to justify a complete reversal of this rule4 ,here is a concrete case4 ,a young artist was the fortunate possessor of a considerable number of ,japanese and ,chinese embroideries and other ,oriental ornaments4 ,he wished to make these the main decorative materials for one of his rooms4 ,the embroidered figures were in yellow and white on a deep1 strong blue1 the general effect being quite dark4 ,there were in the collection several prints1 showing the typical dull reds1 dark blues1 and yellows of ,japanese art4 ,now the room itself happened to be one that1 under the general principle of colour schemes as determined by exposure and other fixed conditions1 would demand warm colours on its walls4 ,it would easily support a rich red frieze with appropriate combinations in floor1 dado1 and ceiling4 ,this would set off well the dark oak trim and the mahogany furniture1 but it would rule out the ,oriental decorations4 ,one or the other must give way2 and1 since the value of these decorative materials was beyond question1 it was decided to try them1 even at the cost of setting aside the general rule4 ,the whole matter resolved itself into selecting a proper background for these beautiful pictures and embroideries2 and for these the best colour was a gray blue--the coldest of colours4 ,but when the whole decorative scheme was carried out to completion and the cold background was fully employed in setting off the rich colours and exquisite workmanship of the ,oriental prints and draperies1 all the circumstances that ordinarily determine the choice of backgrounds were forgotten in the charm of originality4 ,no one thought of the exposure as requiring warm colours1 the dark oak trim was not noticed1 and the mahogany furniture was still in keeping4 ,the result was so absolutely satisfying that no one who saw it could question the good taste displayed in this very original plan of decoration4 ,but such exceptional cases should not shake our confidence in the fundamental principles of decoration4 ,it is true that these principles cannot be reduced to formulas to be applied invariably in all cases1 and it is unreasonable to assume that any form of treatment is the only one possible in any given case4 ,modifications in the application of these principles are always possible1 but the principles themselves are as unalterable as the ,mosaic law4 ,one is1 indeed1 tempted to summarize them thus as the ,,ten ,,commandments ,,of ,,decoration ,thou shalt have no household gods except those that be beautiful or those that be useful4 ,thou shalt not make unto thyself any likeness that is in the heaven above or in the earth beneath1 or in the waters under the earth1 that does not find an appropriate setting in thine house4 ,thou shalt not look in vain upon the creations of the great masters of decorative art4 ,remember the colour scheme and keep a good background4 ,honour the original design1 however old it may be1 and make the most of it4 ,thou shalt not hesitate to correct the blunders of faulty design and bad architecture4 ,thou shalt not kill thy neighbours or thy friends with over-decorated wall papers or oppressive decorations of any kind4 ,thou shalt not bring together incongruous articles nor permit insane arrangements of anything that is thine4 ,thou shalt not permit any false note to mar the harmony of thy decorations4 ,thou shalt not imitate thy neighbour's house or anything that is thy neighbour's1 for it is the glory of the good decorator to show originality but at the same time to acknowledge his dependence upon those who have preceded him4 ,,the ,,furniture ,relation of ,furniture to ,decoration4--,so much for the treatment of floors1 walls1 and ceilings4 ,we may now turn to the more special consideration of those objects of use or beauty that are to be associated with these backgrounds--furniture1 pictures1 lamp shades1 and small ornaments4 ,that these are closely related to decoration has been implied in all that has been said4 ,they are1 in fact1 in themselves elements in the decorative scheme and as such must obey the same laws4 ,their value1 however1 depends more or less upon their utility1 and for this reason they seem to require consideration somewhat apart from their merely decorative functions4 ,this is especially true of furniture1 which would have very little reason for being if it were not for its usefulness4 ,in designing the furniture for the model house the questions that constantly suggested themselves were3 ,what is this piece of furniture under consideration to be used for8 ,what form1 construction1 and finish will enable it to give the best service8 ,what features of design are needed to render it suited to its surroundings8 ,in considering the furniture for the model house it was most natural to apply these tests to the various rooms in order4 ,illustration3 ,a library desk in fumed oak ,hall of the ,model ,house4--,first1 there is the hall4 ,this is the room into which a visitor is first admitted1 and from its atmosphere he gets his first impressions4 ,but in this house it is a very small room and designed to serve not merely as a place for the formalities of welcome but also as an expansion of the rooms on either side4 ,its furniture must consist largely of the fireplace4 ,there is no room for a hall settle nor even for a chair4 ,a mirror1 simply but richly framed1 might hang on the wall near the front door1 balanced by a picture on the opposite wall behind the door4 ,an umbrella rack should stand outside on the porch4 ,illustration3 ,a hall chair ,illustration3 ,a hall settle--simplicity1 strength1 dignity ,hall ,furniture in ,general4--,the halls of modern houses vary greatly in their relative importance4 ,in some the traditions of the old ,english manor houses seem partially to survive4 ,in medival ,england the hall was the principal room1 if not the only one comfortably furnished4 ,when modern houses combine the living room and library or reception room with the hall1 there is need of something more than hall furniture of the formal kind4 ,the requirements of comfort must be met4 ,but1 generally speaking1 hall furniture is of little real use4 ,odd chairs1 attractive by reason of their oddity1 the richness of the materials used in their construction1 or some other assertive quality1 but not fit to sit in1 are suitable or at least excusable in the hall4 ,the hat and coat rack of our fathers has been declared insane and no longer appears in well-regulated houses4 ,in place of it is found the hall settle1 which is of real use4 ,it should be designed on simple lines and give the impression of strength and dignity4 ,if the hall is to be used as a waiting room for guests1 a few good chairs1 conveniently placed1 will be needed for their comfort and a choice picture or two on the walls will add greatly to their pleasure4 ,illustration3 ,two ,morris chairs that invite to solid comfort ,illustration3 ,a satisfactory writing desk ,living ,room ,furniture4--,in furnishing living rooms there is bound to be a wide range for the exercise of good taste because of the variety of needs to be met and the large facilities afforded in the markets for meeting these needs with due regard to artistic requirements4 ,it will be quite impossible to go into detail in discussing so large a topic4 ,the important thing is to keep in mind the central idea of a living room--the place of all places where the freedom1 comfort1 and protection of home life are to be enjoyed4 ,the very atmosphere of the room should suggest simplicity1 sincerity1 and good cheer4 ,every article of furniture should be there to serve a genuine need1 and it should be strong enough to do its full duty4 ,spider-legged1 top-heavy tables2 light1 weak chairs2 chairs on casters or rockers2 sofas with carved backs or couches with none at all1--these have no place in the living room4 ,the long1 straight lines of the craftsman or mission style of furniture are in the right direction2 but if these be used at all they must be made quite general1 since few other styles harmonize with them4 ,wicker or reed furniture is a notable exception4 ,when well designed it will fit in almost anywhere4 ,illustration3 ,an ample library table ,illustration3 ,a plain but useful magazine stand ,the frequent combination of the library with the living room requires a suitable adjustment of the furniture to this use4 ,a plain1 serviceable magazine rack1 which may be easily made1 will relieve the tables of an accumulation of weeklies and monthlies4 ,moderately low bookcases1 with or without doors1 are to be preferred to the more ordinary high ones because this form harmonizes better with the lines of a room1 which are generally longer horizontally than vertically4 ,if doors are used1 it is well to break up the glare of the glass by heavy sash1 the spacing of which may be arranged in a very pleasing manner4 ,good design in library tables calls for ample size4 ,firmness and convenience as well as satisfactory proportions should control the choice of a writing desk4 ,illustration3 ,a low bookcase with sash doors ,dining-room ,furniture4 ,only a few elements enter into the design for the furnishing of a dining-room2 but they are evident and should have a controlling influence4 ,the table and chairs are for a definite purpose and this should show itself in good design4 ,heavy construction is permissible since the chairs are to be moved but little and the table is practically stationary4 ,moreover1 weight and generous dimensions are suggestive of bounty and good service4 ,the rectangular extension table is most readily adjusted to varied demands1 but the round table is preferable for the family circle2 and for a company of twelve or fifteen a large1 round1 temporary table top1 placed on an ordinary extension table1 has been found very attractive4 ,illustration3 ,a round dining table ,illustration3 ,a sideboard of good proportions4 ,convenient and generous but not overdone ,as comfort is the chief result to be obtained in furnishing a living room1 so richness1 within one's means1 is an appropriate aim in furnishing a dining-room4 ,the history of sideboard design might be cited in proof of this statement1 if proof were needed4 ,probably no single article of furniture has been subjected to greater elaboration2 but the desirable suggestion of plenty with convenience may be secured without overdoing it4 ,the unique purpose of the sideboard makes it an interesting study for one who wishes to design and construct his own in conformity with the architecture of his dining-room4 ,the buffet or serving table furnishes an equally interesting1 though simpler1 problem4 ,illustration3 ,a buffet of simple but effective design ,for the care of the china1 the built-in cabinet as a feature of the architecture of the room is to be preferred to the movable cabinet designed for this purpose1 because of its richer decorative possibilities4 ,large1 glazed doors are desirable in either case1 not for the full display of china and glassware but to give a suggestive glimpse of it4 ,as this cabinet is for decoration and not for show1 it is well to avoid plain glass doors unbroken by sash4 ,leaded panes are frequently employed with good effect4 ,the decorative effect of old and odd pieces of china--not too many of them--is most appropriately employed by the use of the plate rail2 but it is better to leave the plate rail bare than to load it with commonplace crockery and inappropriate ornaments4 ,illustration3 ,a china cabinet4 ,a part of the finish of the room ,chamber ,furniture4--,the bedroom speaks for itself4 ,a dainty freshness in all its appointments is conducive to sleep and rest1 which it is the distinctive purpose of this room to provide4 ,the necessary articles of furniture are a bed1 a dressing table1 a bureau or chiffonier1 a few chairs1 and1 if there be no bath room attached1 a commode or wash stand4 ,a couch is an appropriate addition2 and here1 if anywhere1 rocking chairs are allowable4 ,when the bedroom must be used more or less as a living room or sewing room1 as it too often unfortunately is1 furniture to serve such uses must be provided4 ,in selecting or designing all this furniture1 lightness1 and simplicity of design1 combined with strength1 should be allowed a controlling influence4 ,the recognition of this idea has given great popularity to the brass or iron beds2 but it is possible to design and construct beds of oak1 maple1 or other woods that harmonize with the rest of the furniture1 carry out the idea of daintiness1 and have sufficient strength for service4 ,illustration3 ,leaded panes ,many of these suggestions on furniture design are being carried out in fitting up the model house described in our introductory chapter4 ,a small house like this1 limited to one story1 does not permit great variety in its furnishings4 ,certain standard conditions1 however1 were to be met here1 as everywhere else1 and the young designers found much pleasure and great profit in working out the furniture problems4 ,some of the construction details will be given in the later chapters4 ,illustration3 ,a ,duxbury chair ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,furniture ,arrangement ,follows ,selection4--,the problem of furnishing a home is not fully settled when the questions of design have been answered and the right selections made4 ,after selection comes arrangement1 or1 to speak more accurately1 after a certain amount of selection a certain amount of arrangement2 for1 as has already been suggested1 there is considerable dependence of one upon the other4 ,it is not wise to drop the arrangement till the selection is complete1 for the simple reason that the happiest choices are often the late ones1 determined by the disposition of the earlier ones4 ,and yet in the main the order as stated is the true one4 ,it should be noted1 too1 that in arrangement there is a larger field for the exercise of individuality and taste4 ,while artistic principles still hold sway1 they yield more readily to exceptional interpretation by the ruling spirit of the household1 to the demands of style1 and to the larger number of possibilities for pleasing effects when the question is one of the arrangement of things already well chosen for their usefulness and for their artistic value4 ,illustration3 ,a dainty bed in white maple ,utility the ,controlling ,principle4--,the problems of arrangement1 however1 are by no means vague and uncertain4 ,the natural law of adaptation to purpose is not difficult to follow4 ,in some rooms obedience to it has become a settled custom4 ,no one1 for example1 would think of placing the dining table in any other place than the centre of the dining-room or1 if the room be a long one1 in the centre of one end4 ,the sideboard1 serving table1 and china closet likewise fall into their natural places4 ,so also the bedroom and the hall1 though perhaps to a less degree1 present comparatively easy problems in furniture arrangement when due regard is paid to the purposes for which such rooms are designed4 ,importance of ,appropriateness4--,but it is in the library and the living room that we find the most difficult and at the same time the most interesting problems4 ,and this is due to the operation of the same law of adaptation to purpose4 ,it is the variety of uses and the diversity of useful objects that make the problem somewhat complex4 ,however refined and beautiful the different units may be1 there must be some arrangement of them into working groups4 ,the important elements should dominate and those of lesser importance should fall naturally into related but subordinate places4 ,the easy corner with its couch1 pillows1 and its low seats1 has a definite function to perform4 ,so also have the piano and the music rack1 the bookcases and library table1 the ,morris chairs and tabourettes1 the window seats and screens1 the writing desk and its proper lighting by window or lamp1 the fireplace and all the accessories of comfort that may belong to it4 ,the various centres of interest should be accentuated by grouping around them the most appropriate furnishings and the most suggestive decorative features4 ,it may be well to add one word of caution1 and that is that a proper balance should be maintained between the various centres of arrangement in order that no part of the room may seem neglected and bare4 ,the ,danger of ,overcrowding4--,finally1 the one great danger to be avoided in meeting the requirements of good arrangement is the temptation to overcrowding4 ,many otherwise excellently appointed living rooms suffer from an embarrassment of riches4 ,such overcrowded rooms are worse than an overloaded ship because they cannot topple over and sink as one might well wish them to4 ,to secure the right things and just enough of them1 arranged with a proper balance between utility and beauty1 is the true aim4 ,it is as true to-day as it ever was in the arrangement and beautifying of the home1 and1 for that matter1 in everything that concerns every-day life--just as true as it was in ancient times when men wrote those famous inscriptions over the doors of the temple at ,delphi3 over one1 ,,know ,,thyself1 and over the other1 ,,the ,,golden ,,mean ,,of ,,not ,,too ,,much4 ,,iii ,,pictures ,i now require this of all pictures1 that they domesticate me1 not that they dazzle me4 ,pictures must not be too picturesque4 ,nothing astonishes men so much as common sense and plain dealing4 ,all great actions have been simple1 and all great pictures are4--,ralph ,waldo ,emerson ,the decoration of a room is generally not complete without pictures4 ,there is1 of course1 great value in good pictures entirely aside from their decorative effect2 and too great care cannot be exercised in their selection4 ,but our present purpose is to consider them as decorative features2 for1 though a decoration is not a picture1 pictures themselves are properly regarded as important elements in the general scheme of decoration4 ,and this is especially true as regards matting and framing1 the distribution of pictures upon the wall spaces1 and the method of hanging them4 ,importance of ,space ,relations4--,a picture mat and frame are simply elements of finish1 and their function is to give the picture a certain individuality and yet connect it harmoniously with the space in which it hangs4 ,in fact1 the wall space is a part of the framing of the picture4 ,the importance of giving some study to the relations of all the spaces involved is evident4 ,the mat and the frame should not be of equal width4 ,here is a fine opportunity to secure variety in spacing4 ,no definite rules can be given2 sometimes the one1 sometimes the other should give way4 ,generally speaking1 tall wall spaces require vertical pictures1 and spaces longer horizontally demand horizontal pictures4 ,but variation from this rule is possible and even necessary through the grouping of several pictures4 ,in grouping1 however1 there is danger of being tempted to allow too many pictures4 ,in the houses of the well-to-do1 and even in the homes of those of moderate means1 too many pictures1 rather than too few1 are often found4 ,the example of one ,new ,england home1 known to the author1 may be mentioned4 ,the house is new1 of generous proportions1 and it is the home of an artist4 ,there are few pictures on the walls1 but they are distributed with rare artistic effect4 ,there are many good pictures stored in the attic because there is no suitable space in which to hang them4 ,the ,japanese ,way4--,the ,japanese have taught us many valuable lessons in art1 and in the matter of the number of pictures to be displayed they have a very interesting lesson to teach4 ,it is their practice to hang a single choice picture for a season in a space where it may be best enjoyed1 and then after a time to replace it with another picture1 and this1 perhaps1 by another if circumstances permit4 ,there are many conditions that determine the selection of the picture to be displayed4 ,it may be the preference of a guest1 or it may be the season of the year1 or1 in fact1 any occasion that may give a certain picture special significance4 ,there is1 in this singular custom1 a very definite service which the picture is made to perform1 and it is given an individuality which perhaps has no parallel in our own practice4 ,grouping of ,small1 ,simple ,pictures4--,if a considerable number of pictures are grouped together1 it is quite essential that all the pictures of the group should be of similar character and tone and similarly framed4 ,it is hardly possible for them to be all of the same size1 nor1 indeed1 is such agreement desirable except in so far as is required to give proper balance to the group4 ,small pictures in light frames are1 of course1 the most desirable for such grouping1 and if possible there should be an evident reason for the grouping4 ,a series of photographs of a certain locality1 for example1 might form a group of four or five or even more pictures so that they could be easily seen together and so more thoroughly enjoyed4 ,a collection of photographs in passe-partout bindings1 especially if they deal with subjects in any way related1 may form an attractive group4 ,but pictures of any considerable size or those having decided individuality are generally not suited to any plan of grouping4 ,they should appear by themselves1 in frames and other surroundings which accentuate their peculiar merits4 ,the ,kind of ,frame4--,the material of the frame1 its colour1 and the colour of the mat are determined by the tone of the picture4 ,oil paintings easily support gilt frames and should be hung in good light4 ,pictures of light values with white mats are well finished in narrow gilt frames4 ,carbon photographs and other pictures of dull tones1 are appropriately framed in wood of dark or medium colour1 and appear best when hung against a dark wall4 ,the truth of these statements will hardly be questioned by any one who has a good sense of colour harmony4 ,but there are many other elements that enter into a concrete problem of picture framing that cannot be brought under general rules or formulas4 ,it is generally best to depend largely upon the tests of trial4 ,in framing and hanging pictures1 as in many other things1 observation and experience are the best teachers4 ,some suggestions may be found in the following record of two actual framing problems that were satisfactorily solved4 ,,framing ,,an ,,old-,,time ,,interior1 ,,drawn ,,in ,,colours ,the conditions which had to be met in this problem are plainly shown in the framed picture as it hangs on the wall4 ,the picture itself is a small one1 #h inches wide and #ac inches long4 ,it is interesting because of its representation of a sewing room in one of the high-class homes of the colonial period4 ,the mistress and her two young daughters are engaged in sewing and embroidery4 ,patterns are displayed upon the wall2 the furniture is appropriate and evidently an example of the best of the period4 ,all these details are suggestive of the delightful home life of our grandmothers4 ,such a picture needs a mat to give it depth and to properly emphasize its details2 and it requires a simple1 narrow frame4 ,the mat was accordingly made #b-a_/b inches wide and the frame #a inch wide4 ,the tone of the mat selected was a light bluish gray1 forming a good connecting link between the bright colours of the picture and the gray of the wall against which it was to be placed4 ,since it was to hang directly over a fine old mahogany table1 it was thought fitting to give the frame a mahogany finish1 connecting the furniture shown in the picture with that of the room4 ,the frame was made with mitred corners of perfectly plain1 square-edged birch1 which readily takes a mahogany finish4 ,the stain was first applied with a brush1 rubbed in1 and allowed to dry4 ,a surfacing coat of shellac1 coloured to match the stain1 was next put on1 allowed to dry1 and then carefully sand-papered1 special care being taken to guard against rounding the edges and corners4 ,a coat of varnish was next applied1 which1 after hardening for one week1 was rubbed first with pumice stone and oil and finally with rotten stone and oil4 ,a final coat of thin finishing varnish was then put on1 which was lightly rubbed with rotten stone and water to give the half dull effect required to match the antique mahogany table4 ,,framing ,a ,,carbon ,,photograph ,,of ,a ,,masterpiece ,the picture is a copy in sepia tones of ,murillo's ,saint ,anthony1 #af inches in height by #bj inches horizontally4 ,the frame is made of quartered oak #c inches wide1 slightly convex but smooth2 and it is well joined with mitred corners4 ,a picture of this character needs no mat4 ,indeed1 it would have been the height of presumption to strive to accentuate a masterpiece of such highly idealistic meaning and treatment4 ,it must be left to itself as much as possible4 ,the dimensions of the frame are therefore determined by the size of the picture itself4 ,the picture hangs against a light gray wall in good light1 somewhat apart from other pictures4 ,it was a happy thought thus to recognize its dignity4 ,it was given further distinction by finishing the oak frame so that it should not associate itself with the other woodwork in the room4 ,since the room in which the picture was to hang has a light ash trim and most of the furniture a mahogany finish1 this requirement was easily met4 ,but there are many ways of finishing a frame to avoid too close association with the commonplace that would have been anything but appropriate to such a picture as this4 ,a gilt surface1 a silver-gray tone1 or a highly polished golden oak are possible blunders4 ,nothing should be done to call attention to the frame of any picture1 least of all to one of such spiritual feeling as this one4 ,the frame should seem to be a part of the picture1 repeating its prevailing tones with a richness in keeping with the composition of the picture itself4 ,the colour should be a rich1 dark brown1 but not so dark as to obscure the figure of the wood4 ,the finish should be dull1 but soft and smooth4 ,there are several brown stains which1 properly applied1 would give the desired effect4 ,for the colour it was thought best to rely upon ,van ,dyke brown1 which may be used either with alcohol or turpentine4 ,it is not desirable to use a water stain in a case like this because it would raise the grain1 necessitating sand-papering1 which should be avoided as much as possible on picture frames in order to keep the edges and corners intact4 ,ammonia fuming preserves the figure of the wood better than any other form of staining1 but it was thought that the oak might not take on a tone dark enough to meet the requirements4 ,it was decided1 however1 to try the fuming method and to tone up with a thin coat of stain if the effect proved to be not sufficiently dark4 ,the ammonia process resulted in a rich1 soft surface1 but in a colour too light4 ,a thin ,van ,dyke brown alcohol stain was therefore applied and when dry this was followed by a very thin coat of shellac--mostly alcohol--coloured to match the stain4 ,this was to fill partially the grain of the wood4 ,finally1 it was thoroughly coated with wax finish and well rubbed to restore the soft1 satin-like surface4 ,illustration3 ,a group of passe-partouts ,,passe-,,partouts ,framing pictures in passe-partout binding is one of the little arts of home decoration1 though it is by no means an unimportant one4 ,it is easy to learn and it involves small expense in time and money1 but it furnishes a means of preserving many pictures of real worth in themselves or of value to their owners because of pleasant associations2 and it is in itself a delightful occupation4 ,it offers the same chances for artistic effects in colour harmony and contrasts1 in spacing1 and in the arrangements for hanging that the more difficult methods of framing do1 with the added advantage that one need not be deterred by the question of expense from discarding an unsuccessful result and trying again4 ,varieties of ,binding4--,passe-partout binding is made in a great variety of colours4 ,it costs from ten to twenty cents per roll of twelve yards1 according to colour and quality1 and it may be purchased of dealers in artists' supplies4 ,for general use the ordinary width of binding--#g_/h of an inch--is required2 but extra narrow widths are supplied when it is desired to add a margin of a contrasting colour4 ,for these margins the gold and silver narrow bindings are1 with certain pictures1 very effective2 but white and other light colours are often used for this purpose4 ,artistic ,colour ,effects4--,the choice of the colour for the principal binding should be controlled mainly by the tone of the picture1 with which1 as a general thing1 it should blend4 ,if no mat be used1 more or less of a contrast in colour between the picture and the binding is permissible2 but the most artistic effects are obtained when mats are used4 ,these should1 of course1 be in harmony with the colour tones and general character of the picture4 ,it may be a harmony of agreement if there is a border of light tone between the picture and the mat1 as illustrated in the accompanying drawing4 ,without such a border it will be necessary to show a pleasing contrast of tone4 ,but in almost all cases when a mat is used the outer binding should repeat the predominant colour or some other prominent characteristic of the picture4 ,for example1 if it be a picture of an ,english hunting scene with mounted sportsmen in red coats1 the mat may be of a light greenish hue and the binding red4 ,if it be a landscape photograph in sepia tones1 a white or light coffee-coloured mat with a dark brown binding is a good combination4 ,a ,scotch scene is appropriately framed in a plaid binding4 ,in this case it is the subject of the picture rather than the colour that suggests the binding4 ,but in all cases opportunity is offered for carefully selecting the colour combinations1 planning the spacing1 and arranging the grouping of pictures of like character4 ,thus one of the simplest of decorative processes presents large artistic possibilities4 ,an ,actual ,problem4--,the various steps in the process of framing a picture in passe-partout binding may perhaps be best understood by giving an example of it4 ,the actual problem is to frame a silhouette--an original drawing in black ,india ink on light gray paper1 #h by #aj inches in size1 with the longer dimension vertical4 ,materials and ,tools4--,the materials and tools required are as follows3 ,a piece of glass the size of the picture 7#h by #aj inches71 since no border is needed2 two pieces of thin pasteboard1 which may be cut from an old box cover1 the same size as the glass2 a generous yard of black passe-partout binding2 two passe-partout rings1 which cost five cents per dozen2 a little photographers' paste2 a sharp knife or a pair of scissors2 and an awl or a pointed nail4 ,the ,process4--,with these materials in hand it will require scarcely more than twenty minutes to complete the work4 ,the first step is the setting of the rings4 ,this is accomplished by punching two small holes in one of the pieces of pasteboard two inches from the edge chosen for the top and about one inch from each side4 ,through these holes the points of the rings are pushed until the ring is close to the pasteboard4 ,bending the points over in opposite directions fastens the ring firmly4 ,this is a comparatively large picture4 ,had it been small--say #d by #e inches or smaller--only one ring in the centre1 fastened about #a-a_/b inches from the edge1 would have been needed4 ,the picture is now mounted on the second piece of pasteboard by fastening it at the upper corners with a little paste4 ,it is desirable to use as little paste as possible4 ,the two pieces of pasteboard are then brought together1 care being taken that the rings are on the outside1 and the glass laid over the picture4 ,these parts are now ready to be bound together4 ,the sides are bound first4 ,this is done by cutting two pieces of the binding #a_/d of an inch longer than the short edges of the picture1 wetting the gummed side and laying it along the edge of the glass so that it will lap #a_/d of an inch over the face of the glass4 ,each end of this binding will extend #a_/h of an inch beyond the glass4 ,the rest of the binding is now folded over upon the pasteboard back1 taking pains to draw it down close to the edge of the glass and pasteboard before it is permanently fastened4 ,the #a_/h of an inch that projects at each end is then folded over the corner and pressed down as close as possible to the edge of the glass and pasteboard4 ,the upper and lower edges are bound in the same way1 excepting that the pieces of binding are first cut the same length as the edges over which they are to be pasted1 and1 before they are pasted on1 the two corners on the side to be pasted to the glass are cut off #a_/d of an inch back at an angle of #de degrees1 and the other corners are also trimmed back to about #a_/h of an inch4 ,the accompanying drawing shows more clearly how these binding strips are trimmed4 ,the purpose of it is evident2 for when the strips are pasted over the top and bottom edges of the glass1 it is seen that they have been cut to give the appearance of mitred corners1 and that when folded over the edges upon the back of the pasteboard no rough edges of binding are left exposed at the corners4 ,illustration3 ,how the binding strips are trimmed ,one of the lessons of experience in this work is that it is well to take great pains in centring the binding strips accurately before pasting them on1 as they do not stick well if the attempt is made to correct a mistake by removing the binding and pasting it on again4 ,the more elaborate passe-partouts1 requiring mats1 borders1 and double bindings1 are scarcely more difficult than the simple example just described1 though they will require more time4 ,it is well to begin with the easier problems4 ,when borders and double bindings are used the narrow passe-partout strips are pasted on first1 with proper care to cut the mitres correctly and to centre the strips accurately before pasting them down upon the glass4 ,the edges are bound last4 ,this partly covers the brighter-coloured strips previously pasted along the edge of the glass1 and leaves a narrow line of colour exposed as a border just inside the binding4 ,,hanging ,,pictures ,illustration3 ,a correct method of hanging pictures ,how to ,hang ,pictures4--,if wire be used for hanging pictures1 it should be as small and inconspicuous as possible4 ,in place of the braided steel wire1 which may be needed for large pictures1 a single brass or copper wire is much to be preferred for those of lighter weight4 ,in all cases where the wire shows it should appear as two vertical lines against the wall and not as a single wire bent over a single hook in the form of an inverted ,v1 so commonly seen and so manifestly failing to conform with any lines of a room4 ,levelling the picture may be easily managed by using only one wire1 making it continuous through the screw eyes on the back of the picture4 ,these screw eyes should be placed near the top of the frame--about one sixth the whole vertical width of the picture from the top--so that the picture may hang nearly flat against the wall4 ,whenever possible1 however1 pictures should be hung without showing the wire at all4 ,this may be easily managed without seriously marring the finish of some rooms by driving two fine finishing nails in the part of the lower wall which is to come directly behind the top of the picture1 allowing them to project about #a_/b of an inch and bending them up a little with a pair of pliers so that the wires will not slip off4 ,choice1 small pictures may be hung in this way on fine upholstery tacks4 ,it is often possible1 when the wire must be exposed1 to stop it just below the dado cap and thus avoid showing the wire over the frieze4 ,whenever it is necessary1 as it often is1 to suspend wires by means of the so-called picture hooks from a picture moulding or cornice strip placed above the frieze1 some attention should be paid to the colour of these hooks4 ,bright metal hooks showing over a delicately coloured moulding are in bad taste4 ,some people prefer to use the inverted ,v suspension in order to reduce the number of these picture hooks4 ,but it is far better to retain the straight1 fine1 and nearly invisible wires and colour the hooks to make them less conspicuous4 ,in determining the height of pictures it is only necessary to remember that they are placed upon the walls to be enjoyed4 ,while monotony in height is to be avoided1 the average eye level should not be disregarded4 ,the frontispiece illustrates an effective placing of a picture in the dining-room of the model house4 ,,iv ,,the ,,arrangement ,,of ,,flowers ,i know not which ,i love the most1 ,nor which the comeliest shows2 ,the timid1 bashful violet1 ,or the royal-hearted rose2 ,the pansy in her purple dress1 ,the pink with cheek of red1 ,or the faint1 fair heliotrope who hangs1 ,like a bashful maid1 her head4 --,phoebe ,cary ,formerly when the furniture1 pictures1 and draperies had been arranged in our rooms1 with perhaps a few pieces of bric--brac1 we considered their decoration quite complete4 ,but we have learned how much cheerfulness a few simple flowers1 properly arranged1 impart to the same rooms2 and so flowers have come to be considered as almost essential to the complete decoration of the home4 ,a ,lesson ,from the ,japanese4--,if we have learned much from the ,japanese in regard to the arrangement and hanging of pictures1 from them we have learned more about the artistic arrangement of flowers4 ,they have taught us to value the stem and leaves of the flower as essential to an artistic arrangement1 that flowers of the same kind should be grouped together1 and that harmony and blending of colour are necessary to secure the most artistic effects4 ,flowers of a ,kind ,grouped ,together4--,we may have been in the habit of putting several different kinds of flowers together and of being satisfied with such a composition2 but the ,japanese would tell us that when several different kinds of flowers are combined in one grouping the full beauty of each is lost2 and after a few experiments we shall come to see the truth of this4 ,here is an illustration3 ,at a summer camp with which ,i am familiar it was the daily duty of one of the younger boys to go for the wild flowers we used for keeping the camp gay4 ,he often brought home snug little bunches of the flower of the wild convolvulus and the wild rose1 to be used together4 ,no pleasing arrangement could be made from such a handful1 so he was asked to bring long pieces of the vine of the convolvulus and gather branches of the rose1 especially those with the buds4 ,the convolvulus we arranged in a flat dish at one end of a gray stone mantel1 letting the vine hang over the mantel1 and he quickly saw that it looked prettier--more as though it were growing4 ,when a few of the stalks of the wild rose were arranged by themselves in a green glass vase he pronounced them much prettier than when mixed up with other flowers4 ,the ,way of the ,garden4--,in our gardens we plant the sunshiny daffodils by themselves1 the sweet peas grow in a mass together1 and we have beds of roses4 ,if we follow the same plan in the arrangement of our flowers indoors we shall realize their decorative qualities to the utmost4 ,so we may consider it a safe rule to follow in arranging flowers1--to use only one kind of flower1 with its stems and leaves1 arranging them loosely1 rather than to have many in a compact grouping4 ,one single1 long-stemmed rose1 with its beautiful foliage1 in a tall1 slender glass is more decorative and gives us more pleasure than a dozen roses stripped of their foliage and crowded into a small vase4 ,exceptions4--,while the above rule should be generally followed1 there are exceptional instances of the perfectly harmonious arrangement of flowers of two or more kinds together4 ,among these we may mention the combining of field daisies and buttercups1 or buttercups with the grasses among which they grow4 ,so1 too1 the lacy flower of the wild carrot may sometimes be effectively combined with some other flower4 ,the spikes of the cardinal flower1 for example1 are gorgeous in colour1 but very stiff and difficult to arrange2 so the addition of a few sprays of the wild carrot softens the effect and makes it more pleasing4 ,,colour ,,arrangement ,we have just considered the grouping of flowers by themselves4 ,there is another element to be considered before we can have artistic results1 and that is arrangement as to colour4 ,colour ,grouping4--,we may not all be sensitive to colour ourselves1 but in arranging flowers we should always keep in mind the pleasure that is to be given others1 and so we wish nothing in our colour grouping that will offend those whose colour sense is keen4 ,there are three colour schemes that can be followed with success and satisfaction to all4 ,in one we group together only flowers of the same colour1 as red roses1 pink sweet peas1 yellow iris1 not red1 pink1 and white roses1 nor all of the various colours of sweet pea4 ,another arrangement calls for shades and tints of the same colour4 ,with many flowers it is possible to get exquisite effects by following this scheme4 ,for instance1 pansies ranging from a pale lavender to deep purple are lovely arranged in a low basket of damp moss4 ,sweet peas have beautiful shades of pink that can be combined1 as well as shades of red and of lavender4 ,nasturtiums are never so effective as when the various shades of yellow1 orange and brown are used together4 ,the garden aster of to-day is another flower that affords much pleasure in colour arrangement2 for it has lavenders and purples1 a variety of pink tones1 beautiful reds1 and perfect white ones4 ,and the white ones6 ,what shall we do with these8 ,three or four pure white asters of the same variety may be used together2 or two or three white ones may be grouped with a few lavender ones1 or pink ones4 ,white may be combined with any colour with good results4 ,nature is a good teacher here for she gives us both the coloured and the white in almost every variety of flower4 ,for example there are crimson cosmos and white cosmos1 scarlet geraniums and white geraniums1 blue violets and white violets1 and so on through a great many varieties4 ,combination of ,complementary ,colours4--,another colour grouping that is sometimes desirable makes use of the complementary colours4 ,the salpiglossis1 a garden flower that ought to be better known than it is1 gives us examples of these1 with its blue and orange-yellow flowers that are so effective together4 ,the iris also has flowers of complementary colours1 yellow and violet blue being common among them4 ,,the ,,flower ,,holders ,a ,flower ,composition as a ,picture4--,having learned something about the artistic use of colour1 we come to the consideration of the arrangement of the flowers1 and this includes the vase or other receptacle used for holding them4 ,an artistic flower composition is a picture2 and as the mat and frame give finish to a picture hanging on the wall1 so the vessel holding flowers should give the required finish to the flower picture4 ,like the frame1 it should be simple in design1 have graceful lines1 and serve only as a medium to set off the flowers to the best advantage4 ,there should be as little decoration as possible1 and when jars or vases of colour are used they must blend or harmonize with the colour schemes of the flowers placed in them4 ,receptacles for ,flowers4--,it often is a problem to find the most fitting thing for holding flowers2 but in the reliable ,japanese shops one can always find some simple holders1 and there are very good designs in the clear and in the green glass that are inexpensive and appropriate4 ,as a rule the less expensive the article the better adapted it is as a suitable holder for flowers4 ,one need never mourn that she cannot afford cut glass vases for flowers1 as they and their cheap imitations are among the most unsuitable of holders4 ,four ,typical ,flower ,holders4--,let us suppose our equipment includes four simple receptacles1--a small1 clear glass fish globe such as may be had for twenty-five cents2 a clear glass vase1 about twelve inches in height1 cylindrical in shape though flaring a little at the top1 costing twenty-five cents2 a large cylindrical ,japanese jar of a pale green tint1 eighteen inches in height and costing about one dollar and a quarter2 and a deep green one1 about eight inches in height1 which may be bought for sixty or seventy cents4 ,the fish globe is very effective when nasturtiums and their leaves are loosely arranged in it4 ,the stems show through the water and glass and form a part of the composition4 ,short stemmed roses may be most artistically grouped in it4 ,i have seen a very charming combination of mignonette and bachelor's buttons in the same bowl1 as well as a harmonious picture in yellow1 composed of the various shades of ,california poppies and their foliage4 ,illustration3 ,a fish globe with daisies ,the tall glass sets off two or three long stemmed roses3 and a few yellow daffodils or the narcissus with their leaves look equally well in it4 ,poppies for a day1 in the same vase1 have given pleasure to the beholder4 ,at ,easter it has joyously borne a stalk of two perfect lilies1 and in the autumn tall spikes of salvia have been equally at home in it4 ,our tall ,japanese jar is suited to larger arrangements1 for we need to remember that in tall or vertical compositions the vase should be about one third the height of the whole combination2 so this is adapted to holding branches of apple blossoms or mountain laurel2 or1 if one is fortunate enough to find tall lilac bushes1 about three branches from these are effective in it4 ,tall-growing golden-rod looks equally well placed here4 ,it furnishes a modest setting for dahlias and chrysanthemums1 and one of its most decorative compositions has been two or three branches of pine bearing their brown cones4 ,the possibilities of the smaller green jar are numerous1 and only a few are given as suggestions4 ,a loose arrangement of jonquils and their leaves1 or of white narcissus1 is effective4 ,the shorter stemmed lilacs1 either the purple ones or the white ones1 may be placed in it4 ,an arrangement of white field daisies1 and one of yellow roses1 have been found equally successful4 ,one soon discovers the harmony and balance that exist between the flower and holder4 ,illustration3 ,a tall vase with narcissus ,,the ,,background ,space and ,harmonious ,surroundings4--,to obtain the largest decorative effect we must have not only artistic grouping and harmonious setting of flowers1 but space and background1 just as are needed for the hanging of pictures4 ,many a floral composition has lost all decorative effect from being placed in too small a space and surrounded by distracting objects4 ,a few days ago ,i stepped into a room on an errand and forgot my errand in the pleasure ,i derived from seeing some beautiful yellow chrysanthemums1 three or four1 ,i think1 in a yellowish brown jar on a large mahogany table1 having for a background the upturned leaf of the table4 ,it stood some little distance from anything else1 a shaft of sunlight lay across the whole1 and as ,i looked at it ,i thought3 ,here is all that constitutes a decorative arrangement of flowers4 ,it was the feature of the room that held one's attention4 ,illustration3 ,an arrangement for the tall ,japanese jar ,flowers for the ,dining ,table4--,if we can have flowers in but one room in the house1 it may be difficult to decide which one it shall be4 ,since it often happens that the dining-room is the only room where a busy family comes together for any length of time1 flowers should certainly be introduced here that all may share their beauty and cheer4 ,any arrangement for the home table should be moderately low2 and there are many simple flowers that can be used in this way to advantage4 ,for instance1 one can gather a quantity of the innocence or common bluet 7root and all71 to be found in any field in the spring1 and put them in a shallow glass dish4 ,simple and effective decoration for the table is the result4 ,flowers with any degree of fragrance should never be used in the dining-room4 ,the fragrance of some flowers is offensive to many people1 and when combined with the odour of food doubly so4 ,illustration3 ,an arrangement of roses in a small jar ,at a luncheon served by the girls in the model house the floral decoration for the table was a half dozen single1 yellow jonquils with their foliage1 placed in a creamy brown vase made by one of the girls4 ,their dishes being in white with a gold edge and the walls and furniture in browns1 nothing could have been more harmonious than these few simple flowers4 ,expensive ,flowers not ,necessary4--,it is evident that for floral decoration neither expensive nor lavish displays are necessary1 that simplicity is the thing to strive for1 and that a few sprays of wild flowers in their season are more truly artistic than many expensive hot-house flowers4 ,in this country we do not1 as the ,japanese do1 make a festival in honour of certain flowers2 but if we rightly appreciate and utilize the flowers of each season1 we may give a touch of festivity to the life of every day4 ,in the early spring nothing can be more appropriate than an arrangement of pussy willows or branches of the alder with its tassels1 while the red maple when in flower gives a touch of colour that will brighten any room4 ,a clump of blood root in a small jardiniere is as decorative as the expensive plants one may see in the home of some friend4 ,the flowers of the field and the garden offer so many possibilities for decorative results that no one's home need lack the cheery touch which they can give4 ,there is a personal element in flowers such as is not found in any other means of decoration1 not even in pictures1 with the single exception of good portraits4 ,they seem to speak to us4 ,we can almost believe that they feel an interest in all that we have said about them4 ,if they really could know1 would they not approve the principles that we have laid down8 ,we may fancy that they would approve and that1 if they could really speak and we would listen1 they would tell us so in some such language as the following3 ,,what ,,the ,,flowers ,,say ,,about ,,it ,don't mix us2 we are exclusive and prefer our own kind4 ,don't make a confusion of colour with us4 ,don't arrange us in snug1 solid masses4 ,don't neglect to use our stems and foliage as a part of the decoration4 ,don't tie us with ribbons1 nor put paper-lace frills around us4 ,don't crowd us in with an assortment of household goods2 we need space and a background4 ,don't arrange us in tall1 stiff forms for the dining table4 ,do love us and use us in the home as much as possible4 ,this is well for you4 ,by so doing not only will your love of us increase1 but your artistic perception of the fitness of things will constantly enlarge4 ,for truly has it been said1 ,the poorest woman in the world1 if she has faith in beauty1 will always be able to fill her home with light2 she can always place there some flowers4 ,v ,,decorative ,,fabrics ,,porti,,res1 ,,window ,,draperies1 ,,cushion ,,covers1 ,,table ,,mats ,the very need of ornament arises out of a certain innate discontent with plain1 smooth surface--,lewis ,f4 ,day ,no kind of decorative art offers greater possibilities for touching the right--or the wrong--chord than that which makes use of fabrics4 ,portires1 curtains1 cushion covers1 table runners and mats1 lamp shades1 and many other furnishings1 in which fabrics are involved1 present problems that quickly engage the interest of the amateur decorator who wishes to avoid the commonplace and1 when well worked out1 add greatly to the attractiveness of artistic surroundings4 ,and every house becomes a studio for problems peculiar to itself1 when the possibilities of development in this direction are realized4 ,here1 as everywhere else1 decorative art is secondary to architectural design and must never fail to acknowledge its dependence4 ,its glory is to follow4 ,to attempt to lead means miserable failure4 ,example of the ,model ,house4--,the wide doorways connecting the hall1 the living room1 and dining-room of our model house made doors undesirable and portieres necessary to assist in marking the division between the rooms and to soften the lines of the wood finish4 ,they were made to harmonize with the colour scheme but were darker and richer in tone4 ,the multiple windows1 with the absence of direct sunshine1 suggested the light style of drapery2 and the preference given to straight-lined1 substantial furniture1 made in the school shops1 led as a natural consequence to cushions and coverings of leather or coarse fabric1 in order to bear out the idea of simplicity1 directness1 and durability in craftsmanship4 ,velvets and satins would have been out of place4 ,utility to be ,regarded4--,the highly decorative function of such accessories makes it doubly necessary to exercise care in selecting materials1 designing the ornamental features1 and properly placing the completed article1 in order that the requirements of use be not subordinated to the demands of art4 ,it must never be forgotten that utility is the basis of all true decoration4 ,portieres were originally a substitute for doors--a means of closing an opening between rooms4 ,it must be possible always for them easily to serve this purpose4 ,hence loops or rings1 which slide easily over a pole1 should be used4 ,portires may properly be made of heavy cloth and they may have a lining harmonizing or in pleasing contrast with the tone of the principal fabric4 ,they should always be at least opaque4 ,window draperies1 on the other hand1 are not a substitute for shades or curtains4 ,they should not shut out the light but soften it4 ,they should1 therefore1 be made of light1 washable1 and durable material1 and be hung so that they can be easily taken down for cleaning4 ,the simplest style of hanging1 by means of a brass rod and plain brackets1 is the best4 ,since there is no need of frequently sliding them over the rod1 it is well to hang them by means of a hem1 stitched two or three inches from the top of the drapery1 through which the rod may be easily pushed4 ,cushion covers and table runners1 made of durable material and decorated with colours that are washable1 are manifestly more serviceable than those that look fresh only when new1 and hence are more in keeping with the idea of sincerity in household decoration4 ,there is necessity for honesty in decoration as well as in plumbing if it is to meet the tests with equal success4 ,illustration3 ,pillow ,cover ,with ,geometrical ,designs ,printed on ,dyed ,cotton ,cloth4 ,table ,runner of ,russian ,crash with ,block ,printed and ,embroidered ,end ,panels4 ,plate ,,iii ,how such decorative features are worked out from beginning to end1 is told in the following directions for a few practical problems which are known to be practical1 because they have been actually carried through from the design to the completed article4 ,this detailed and complete explanation1 with the accompanying illustrations1 will suggest many similar problems which every home offers4 ,,block ,,printing ,problem3 ,decorating a ,table ,runner4--,this problem is easily separated into four distinct parts--making the design1 cutting the block1 printing1 and finishing4 ,the materials needed are as follows3 7#a7 ,making the design ,ordinary drawing paper ,rice paper ,charcoal ,pencil ,japanese or sable brush1 medium size ,water-proof ,india ink 7#b7 ,cutting the block ,gum wood ,small penknife ,vise ,sand-paper1 fine 7#c7 ,printing the design ,printing board ,sheet of glass ,oil paints ,turpentine ,palette knife ,cotton batting ,cheese cloth 7#d7 ,finishing the runner ,embroidery silk or mercerized cotton ,illustration3 ,the peacock design ,the ,design4--,to carry out the problem as illustrated1 it is necessary1 first of all1 to make the design4 ,geometry1 nature1 and the imagination are satisfactory sources upon which to draw for the motif4 ,if the inventive faculty is quite undeveloped1 one should study for suggestions the figures in ,oriental rugs1 photographs of early ,eastern art1 and the fine old tapestries in museum collections4 ,some good geometrical designs1 like that used on the pillow cover illustrated on page #ajd1 were made by school-girls after drawing many figures found in rugs2 and interesting bird patterns1 after studying numerous reproductions of ,coptic designs4 ,in no case was the block pattern in the least like the designs studied4 ,they served only as ideas to start with and led to the production of truly original work4 ,it is essential to keep a few simple principles in mind in working out the design3 7#a7 ,both the dark and light shades in the patterns should be varied in size and form to avoid a monotonous result and should be as beautiful in proportion as possible4 7#b7 ,there should be a centre of interest1 one part of the design dominant--more attractive than any other4 7#c7 ,the design must be a unit--i4 e41 the parts must hold together4 ,all feeling of unity is lost if the parts of the design call attention to themselves to the exclusion of the whole4 ,illustration3 ,block used in printing the peacock design ,preliminary ,sketches and the ,drawing4--,it will be found desirable to make many preliminary sketches in charcoal or soft pencil1 rubbing in a part of each sketch with a tone in order to secure immediately the dark and light effect4 ,these should be compared1 keeping clearly in mind the principles stated above4 ,when one possessing the right qualifications has been found1 the next step is to draw on a fresh piece of paper an accurate #c-;inch square and copy upon it the satisfactory design in pencil outline4 ,this should be done very carefully1 that the spirit of the original charcoal sketch may not be lost4 ,when the drawing is completed it must be put into shape to be transferred to the block4 ,to do this we fasten a piece of rice-paper over the drawing and trace with very light pencil lines1 filling in the dark spaces with black ink1 using a brush4 ,this brush work may be done directly without the pencil line if the drawing underneath shows very plainly through the paper4 ,when the ink has thoroughly dried1 the design may be cut out on the edge of the #c-;inch square4 ,illustration3 ,bird pattern ,laying the ,pattern and ,cutting the ,block4--,a block #c #c #g_/h inches will now be required4 ,this should be procured and sand-papered4 ,one face of it should then be covered with a coating of library paste1 the pattern laid upon it1 and rubbed down smooth4 ,if the design is symmetrical it should be pasted on the block1 ink side up1 but otherwise with the ink side down1 or the design will be reversed upon the cloth4 ,when the paste gets quite dry one may then fasten the block in the vise and1 holding the blade of the knife at a slight angle and always away from the dark spots1 proceed to cut the design along the outlines4 ,these must be kept very smooth and sharp4 ,all of the white shapes should be cut out1 leaving the black ones in relief4 ,usually an eighth of an inch will be deep enough for the background1 but it will be found after practise in printing that the larger spaces should be cut deeper and that1 when the edges or corners of the block form a part of the background instead of the dark pattern1 they also need a deeper cut4 ,the paper that still adheres to the face of the block may now be removed by rubbing it upon a sheet of sand-paper laid upon something hard and smooth like glass in order that the block may have an absolutely level surface4 ,illustration3 ,a flower and leaf design ,illustration3 ,block used in printing this design ,the ,padded ,board4--,all block printing should be done upon a padded board4 ,a very convenient one can be made by laying upon a bread board three or four sheets of blotting paper1 and tacking over these several thicknesses of cheese cloth4 ,in place of these an ironing board may be used4 ,material ,required4--,it is essential to select for the runner a piece of crash of fine texture and even weave4 ,this is sold under the name of ,russian crash and is from #ae to #af inches wide but varies considerably in quality4 ,it is very difficult to print well upon the coarser grades4 ,illustration3 ,alternating animal and geometrical design ,illustration3 ,blocks used in printing this design ,trying the ,colours4--,after deciding upon a colour which will harmonize with the general colour scheme of the room in which the table runner is to be used1 it is in order to mix the paint and try the block upon a small piece of crash4 ,to prepare the paint1 squeeze a small quantity of the true colours chosen upon a sheet of glass and blend thoroughly with the palette knife1 thinning with turpentine to the consistency of cream4 ,it is seldom that a colour right from the tube will prove a pleasing one to use4 ,other colours mixed with it will change its hue and intensity2 black or white will alter the value4 ,tie a little cotton batting up in a small square of cheese cloth or old handkerchief linen1 being careful to remove from the raw edges all ravellings that might drop into the paint4 ,spread out quite thin upon the glass a small portion of the prepared paint and press the pad into it a number of times until it has absorbed all it will4 ,now charge the block by lightly pounding its surface with the pad4 ,press the block upon the cloth evenly4 ,only by repeated experiment will it be possible to determine just the right quantity of paint to mix1 its brilliancy of tone1 its consistency1 how heavily to charge the block1 etc4 ,a good print shows the texture of the cloth through it1 is even in tone1 and has clear-cut edges4 ,if the print looks like a painted spot1 or if1 when quite dry1 you find it has stiffened the cloth1 the paint used was too thick or else the block was too heavily charged4 ,different materials require different treatment4 ,for a thin silk the block should be very lightly charged and lightly though evenly pressed upon the material4 ,in printing upon crash it is necessary to press the block very firmly upon the material2 and frequently1 to insure getting a sufficiently strong impression1 it is advisable to tap the block lightly with a hammer or wooden mallet4 ,if one has a steady hand1 the block can easily be lifted at one side to determine just where the extra pressure is needed4 ,the block should be thoroughly rubbed with old cloth after each impression is made and occasionally sand-papered to remove any paint that may adhere to it4 ,the first print made after sand-papering the block is liable to be a little less distinct than the others and should therefore be made upon an extra piece of the material4 ,centring the ,work4--,a good way to plan the placing of the panel design is to run a basting thread across the crash between two of the woven threads4 ,mark the centre of the runner upon this thread1 and1 using these guides1 print the design1 beginning with one of the central units4 ,additional ,features4--,considerable charm can be added to the pattern by filling some of the spaces with a simple darning or running stitch in some bright colour4 ,the embroidery thread used should be rather fine4 ,it is well to finish the ends of the runner by button-holing with ravellings of the crash4 ,tiny dots of some colour used in the panel may be embroidered at intervals just above the button-holed edge4 ,colours4--,the following list of oil colours will be found practical3 ivory black1 flake white1 burnt sienna1 light red1 crimson lake1 chrome yellow1 chrome green1 permanent blue4 ,materials4--,linen1 cotton1 soisette1 all or part silk pongee1 crpe de chine1 cheese cloth1 and unbleached muslin are excellent materials for block printing4 ,beautiful background tones can be obtained by dyeing the two latter with easy dyes4 ,in place of the gum wood for the block1 basswood1 maple1 or holly may be used4 ,it is possible to get along without a vise by fastening the block between two cleats nailed to an old table or heavy board4 ,success is sometimes achieved in cutting blocks while simply held in the hand4 ,laundering4--,if the material used for the foundation is washable1 block printed articles can be satisfactorily and easily laundered in soapy1 lukewarm water4 ,the colours are not injured in the least4 ,a liquid called stencil mordant is sometimes used in place of turpentine1 insuring still greater permanency of colour4 ,other ,applications of ,block ,printing4--,other articles suitable for decoration by block printing are curtains1 pillow covers1 table covers1 cushion covers1 bureau scarfs1 ,portieres1 table mats1 bags of many sorts1 etc4 ,printing may also be used to ornament articles for personal use1 such as aprons and scarfs4 ,,stencilling ,problem3 ,window ,draperies4--,making the design1 cutting the stencil1 printing1 and finishing form the divisions of the problem to be worked out4 ,a list of necessary materials follows3 7#a7 ,making the design ,charcoal ,pencil ,reflector ,ordinary drawing paper ,tracing paper ,carbon paper ,stencil paper 7#b7 ,cutting the stencil ,sheet of glass ,sharp penknife 7#c7 ,printing ,large board ,blotting paper ,turpentine ,oil paints ,bristle brushes ,pins ,the ,design4--,suggestions as to the method of procedure in making a design have been already given in the section on block printing4 ,the principles of design to be considered are outlined there also4 ,in working out this problem1 however1 several new things come up for explanation3 7#a7 ,the difference between a design to be stenciled and one to be printed by means of a wood block2 7#b7 the method of joining units to form a border2 7#c7 the method of turning a corner in a border design4 ,illustration3 ,window ,draperies ,with ,stenciled ,border4 ,designed and ,executed by a ,school ,girl4 ,plate ,,iv ,the ,stencil ,bands4--,by studying the illustrations accompanying this section and by experimenting with the charcoal or soft pencil1 it will be seen that in a stencil design the dark spots which stand for the color in the finished work are completely separated from one another by bands of varying widths4 ,illustration3 ,a stencilled pattern--portion of pillow cover ,these bands1 or bridges1 as they are called1 serve to hold the stencil together and are connected throughout the design4 ,though they may be as wide as one desires1 it is seldom wise to make them much narrower than one eighth of an inch1 as they are easily broken2 and1 unless carefully pinned down when stencilling1 the paint is liable to run under them and ruin the work4 ,in a block print design no connection of the light or separation of the dark parts has to be considered4 ,in the illustration of the stencil observe that the dark and light are reversed as compared with the stencilled pattern--i4 e41 the dark represents the stencil paper1 the light the openings through which the paint is applied4 ,illustration3 ,the stencil for this pattern ,the ,complete ,unit4--,it will be readily understood that a border may be made up by repetition of one unit which is a complete thing in itself4 ,the unit in such a case may be made very long and narrow1 so that in repeating it along the vertical edge of a curtain it produces a narrow band1 while along the horizontal edge the band is broad4 ,a border worked out in this way1 with perfectly straight and practically continuous margins1 is very structural in character1 emphasizing1 as it does1 the vertical and horizontal edges of the drapery4 ,the effect is strong and dignified4 ,the corner in this kind of border presents no difficulty4 ,the ,subordinate ,unit4--,by studying the illustration in ,plate ,,iv it will be seen that the unit of the border in this case is not complete in itself1 but that the very conventional flower and stem composing it are joined to the next unit by what might be called a subordinate unit1 composed1 in this case1 of a leaf form4 ,the units are so closely spaced that a structural effect is fairly well obtained--i4 e41 the upper and lower edges of the border are nearly straight1 giving a feeling of restfulness to the design that never accompanies one with broken or wavy edges4 ,designing the ,corner4--,having planned a design for the straight running border of the curtains1 take a reflector and experiment with the corner4 ,the reflector can easily be made by cutting from an old discarded looking-glass a small rectangular piece1 #c-a_/b by #f inches being a convenient size4 ,the edges should be very straight and the corners square4 ,hold the reflector at various points along the border and always at an angle of #de degrees4 ,study these possible corners which will be reflected in the glass1 and when one sufficiently strong and interesting is found draw a light line along the edge of the reflector4 ,this line1 of course1 exactly bisects the corner of the border to be made4 ,avoid making a border of this kind too deep or1 when turned for the vertical edges1 it will form a very broad and heavy band4 ,the ,outline ,drawing4--,the dark and light design having thus been worked out in charcoal1 the next thing to do is to make a very careful pencil-outline drawing of the same4 ,it is well to draw the corner and one unit free-hand and trace the rest4 ,to do the tracing1 pin a piece of very thin paper over the finished part1 and trace with a well sharpened and fairly soft pencil4 ,turn the tracing paper upside down1 fitting a part of the tracing to the drawing underneath4 ,after tacking it down1 trace the remainder1 using a firm1 even pressure and being careful exactly to follow the line4 ,strengthen the part of the pattern thus transferred by going over it with a sharp1 hard point1 and continue as before until you have a border of which both the vertical and horizontal sections are from #i to #ab inches long4 ,transfer to ,stencil ,paper4--,now1 take a piece of stencil paper and square up one corner4 ,fasten the pencil drawing securely to the stencil paper along one edge1 slip a piece of carbon paper between the two1 and trace the design4 ,cutting the ,stencil4--,before cutting the stencil for the curtain a beginner should do a little practising upon an extra piece of the paper4 ,trace a portion of the design upon this piece1 lay it upon a sheet of glass or very hard wood1 and with a sharp penknife cut along the outline of the pattern4 ,the knife should be held at a slight angle and the cut made completely through the paper4 ,the pieces of stencil paper should never be pulled out but will fall out without aid when the cutting is completed4 ,after a little practice it will be found a simple matter to cut the design with perfectly smooth edges4 ,suitable ,materials for ,stencilling4--,for the curtains fine cheese cloth or batiste will be found excellent4 ,even unbleached muslin will make attractive curtains where expense must be carefully considered4 ,unless the woodwork of the room is white1 the pure white materials will be found less pleasing than those that are quite creamy in tone4 ,scrim in a charming1 grayish tan colour is obtainable1 and1 if of good1 soft quality1 makes most satisfactory curtains4 ,it is not advisable to hemstitch this material before stencilling as in case of accident or failure so much work is lost2 but the hems should be carefully planned and basted1 those along the inner edges of the curtains being narrower than the bottom hems4 ,the ,colours4--,the color scheme of the room should be carefully considered in deciding upon the colour or colours to be used in stencilling4 ,if two colours are chosen1 they should be of the same value--i4 e41 the two colours should form equally dark spots in order that the pattern of the border may appear in the same dark and light as the original charcoal sketch4 ,pinning the ,stencil4--,when ready for the actual process of stencilling1 lay a large sheet of blotting paper upon a board and over this place the corner of the curtain4 ,pin the stencil securely to the curtain so that the edge of the border when printed shall be about half an inch from the hem and the edges of both shall be absolutely parallel4 ,use as few pins as possible but enough to keep the stencil close to the cloth4 ,testing the ,paint4--,having mixed the oil paint with turpentine or stencil mordant1 using an old cup or glass for each colour1 practise stencilling upon a small piece of cloth4 ,put blotting-paper under the cloth and pin the stencil down with great care4 ,use short1 stiff bristle brushes for the stencilling1 one for each colour4 ,remove almost all the paint from the brush by pressing it upon blotting-paper4 ,when it leaves scarcely a mark1 proceed to stencil the pattern by pounding the brush upon the exposed portions of the cloth1 working close to the edge of each spot4 ,if1 upon removing the stencil1 the edges are blurred1 the paint was too thin or the stencil not carefully pinned down4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the coloured spots look thick and painty1 so that upon drying1 the cloth is found stiffened in these places1 you may be sure that the paint used was too thick or that the brush was too wet4 ,the secret of good stencilling is to use the paint as thin and the brush as dry as possible4 ,hold the stencilled sample up to the window and see whether1 when the light shines through it1 the colour appears right4 ,the ,real ,process4--,when confident that the process is understood and that the colour is satisfactory1 proceed to stencil the corner of the curtain4 ,always have at hand a bottle of turpentine and a clean piece of cloth to use in case of accident4 ,when removing the pins from the stencil wipe each one carefully4 ,clean the stencil1 too1 handling it with care that none of the slender bridges may be broken4 ,replace the stencil1 fitting a section of it to the finished work4 ,put the pins in the holes already made1 otherwise the paint will get into them and disfigure the work4 ,continue the stencilling1 a section at a time1 until the border is completed4 ,do not fold the curtains until the stencilling is thoroughly dry4 ,if the threads of the material can be easily pulled1 a hemstitched edge will make the best finish2 but careful hand hemming will look well upon material like fine batiste4 ,the ,valance4--,the curtains should hang in vertical folds from the top of the window to a point slightly below the window sill4 ,they should be drawn back at each side of the window and the space between at the top filled by a valance about a foot deep1 perhaps deeper if the window is very high4 ,this valance should have the border stencilled upon it and should be tacked just underneath the edge of the curtains4 ,sometimes1 as in the illustration in ,plate ,,iv1 a valance running across the entire width of the window is used4 ,in this case it is run upon an extra rod in front of the one from which the curtain hangs4 ,double rods for this purpose can be bought4 ,other ,possible ,problems4--,as stencilling can be employed in practically the same place and upon the same materials as block printing1 it is only necessary to refer to the lists given at the end of that section of this chapter for suggestions as to further possibilities in the way of home decoration by stencilling4 ,,embroidery ,problem3 ,table ,mat4--,as in the preceding problems1 the first thing to do is to plan the design roughly in charcoal or soft pencil in order to get the dark and light relations and the best proportions possible4 ,if convenient1 the mat should be made for use with some special lamp or vase4 ,by measuring the base of this object it is easy to determine the size of the plain central space1 which may be either circular or square in shape4 ,the forms in the decorated part may be made of various shapes1 but it is well to keep them very simple in outline4 ,straight lines alone may be employed1 as in the mats illustrated in ,plate ,v1 or a combination of straight and curved lines1 as in the one shown in ,plate ,,iii4 ,after working out the design very accurately with a hard pencil1 the next thing in order is to transfer it to a piece of coarse ,russian crash or heavy linen by means of carbon paper1 taking great care to get the straight edges of the design even with the threads of the crash4 ,desirable ,combinations of ,colour and ,stitches4--,the simple running or darning stitch should be employed in embroidering the pattern4 ,two or more colours may be used4 ,darning in dull green and outlining with black in the same stitch makes a very attractive mat4 ,other good combinations are green and white1 blue and white1 blue and green1 soft dull blue1 and pinkish orange4 ,this by no means exhausts the pleasing contrasts that may be found4 ,the brighter colour should always be employed in the smaller quantities4 ,the mat illustrated in ,plate ,v was embroidered in dull green and red mercerized cotton4 ,after the darning was completed it was found that the red used in the small circles alone was too conspicuous1 although it was very dull in tone4 ,this defect was completely remedied and a perfect unity given to the design by outlining the forms in a couching stitch1 using both colours4 ,this was done by laying a green thread along the edge of each spot and taking a stitch of red over it at equal intervals4 ,illustration3 ,,crocheted ,,panels ,a ,linen ,workbag ,with ,conventional ,landscape in ,darning ,stitch ,a ,crash ,table ,mat ,embroidered in ,darning and ,couching ,stitch ,designed and ,executed by ,school ,girls4 ,plate ,v ,after the embroidered pattern is done one may finish the mat with fine1 close hemstitching or by button-holing the edge with ravellings of the crash4 ,the latter method is usually more pleasing4 ,the simple darning stitch can also be used to make very attractive borders for table runners1 sofa pillows1 decorations for work bags1 as illustrated in ,plate ,v1 besides being used to enrich a great variety of block printed or stencilled articles4 ,the ,satin ,stitch4--,another effective and easy embroidery stitch to be used in decorating articles for the home is the over-and-over or satin stitch4 ,when planning to use this stitch upon coarse linen in which the threads can be easily counted1 transfer the design1 after having carefully drawn it in pencil outline1 to paper marked off into little squares4 ,this can be bought where kindergarten supplies are sold4 ,redraw the outline of the design1 following exactly the lines on the paper1 and at the same time keep as close as possible to the original form4 ,let a certain number of threads of linen represent a square of the design and copy the pattern in the satin stitch or even the cross stitch if preferred4 ,no transferring of the pattern to the cloth is necessary4 ,a pattern worked out on cross section paper in this way can also be crocheted1 as illustrated in ,plate ,v1 and set into linen or some of its many imitations to decorate numberless articles for home or personal adornment4 ,this crocheted work1 if evenly done in fine thread1 is quite suggestive of the ,italian filet lace4 ,,vi ,,dress ,,and ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,decoration ,a foolish little maiden had a foolish little bonnet ,with a feather and a ribbon and a bit of lace upon it2 ,and that the other maidens of the little town might know it1 ,she thought she'd go to meeting of a ,sunday just to show it4 ',hallelujah6 hallelujah6' sang the choir above her head4 ',hardly knew you6 hardly knew you6' were the words she thought they said4 ,in considering the dress of the person as related to home decoration one is not so far afield as one may seem to be at first thought4 ,it is true that dress has a variety of functions to perform that have no connection with the subject of decoration2 and yet there is much that is common to both4 ,well-dressed people of whatever age or sex1 in the design and general make-up of their costumes1 must observe the same laws that govern design wherever it is applied1 as an expression of the artistic sense in the affairs of every-day life4 ,beauty of line and proportion1 harmony of colour1 adaptation to use and to a great variety of special conditions1 simplicity1 symmetry1 restraint1 are all involved in personal attire1 as they are in the decoration of a room2 and in most cases success or failure in one field has its counterpart in the other4 ,have we not often remarked of a house or of a room that it looks just like her or perhaps just like him2 and do not attractive costumes give pleasure to others than those who wear them for the same reasons that properly decorated and well-arranged rooms afford similar enjoyment to those who live in them8 ,art and the ,fashions4--,in discussing the parallel between art in clothing and the more stable art of home decoration it must be admitted1 of course1 that style in dress introduces some embarrassing questions2 for the styles1 especially for women1 suffer wonderful changes with every season4 ,and yet people of artistic feeling and good taste1 succeed in maintaining a fair degree of harmony between the changing demands of fashion and the established principles of art as applied in dress4 ,how to ,be ,well ,dressed4--,the well-dressed woman knows how to select her clothes and how to wear them4 ,she must study her own figure and know her defects as well as her good points4 ,with this knowledge she can learn to subdue the one and bring out the other4 ,she should have a clear conception of the ideal figure and strive to adapt herself to it4 ,to acquire this training the principles of the art of decoration must be understood and applied4 ,she should never wear a garment of a certain style simply because it is the fashion1 but strive to make it conform to her individual type4 ,good ,lines4--,decorative design in dress must follow the construction lines of the figure and not destroy them4 ,these are the much discussed good lines of which we hear and read so much4 ,horizontal lines break the figure and increase the breadth1 while vertical lines give the appearance of height4 ,it is the simple lines1 conforming to and following the lines of the ideal figure1 which are the best4 ,the taste of most women leads them to desire simple clothes2 but through ignorance or inexperience many of these women fail to achieve that aim4 ,a stout woman with a round back is sometimes seen wearing a dress with lapels or ruffles over the shoulders4 ,this only serves to accentuate her defect4 ,unity and ,harmony4--,in all forms of decoration harmony is essential--i4 e41 all the parts that are to be combined must agree with one another and with their surroundings4 ,to secure this in dress is to give unity to the entire costume4 ,a dress hat with plumes should not be worn with a tailored suit in the morning2 and yet we often see such a combination4 ,here the lack of harmony is between the parts of the costume2 but the entire costume must be suited to the peculiarities of figure4 ,there are women who never look well in the straight lines of a tailored suit3 the severity is not becoming to them4 ,they must tone down the effects of the lines by ruchings1 ruffles1 a soft stock1 or some such softening elements of dress4 ,others do not look well in fluffy things4 ,each must know what is becoming and dress accordingly4 ,importance of ,colours4--,every season we hear that certain colours are to be worn4 ,many women will choose a colour because they like it without considering whether it is suitable for them to wear4 ,a little attention to a few well-known facts will help them to avoid failures of this kind4 ,it is generally recognized that light colours seem to increase the size4 ,striped materials should not be worn by the stout women unless the stripes are very indistinct4 ,dots are also very dangerous for her2 but she may choose a pattern with pin-point dots scattered over the surface at some distance from each other4 ,she is always safe in a plain1 dark colour4 ,colour and ,complexion4--,in deciding on a becoming colour one must take into account the colour of the hair and eyes and the tone of the complexion4 ,it has been thought that young girls can wear clear1 light shades and that older women should keep to dark1 quiet colours2 yet there are older women who wear pale gray1 mauve1 and lavender charmingly and many young girls who cannot wear blue or pink4 ,it is quite impossible to make accurate colour rules1 because it would be hard to find two complexions that require exactly the same colour setting4 ,it is well1 however1 to study combinations of different colours with the idea of finding the right colour1 to use in any costume1 the amount of each1 and the best arrangement to give a proper balance4 ,proportion4--,the importance of the principle of proportion is often overlooked1 but beauty of dress is never possible if it be neglected4 ,a well-dressed woman1 in selecting her hat1 must have given consideration to the relation of the size and shape of the head to the lines of the entire figure4 ,strictly speaking1 a hat is a covering for the head1 and it should seem to belong to the head1 to protect it1 and1 through harmony of colour and proportion of line and mass1 to improve the appearance of the whole costume4 ,the artist1 when drawing a figure1 uses the head as the unit of measure4 ,therefore in choosing a hat one should select a style that is in good proportion to the size of the head and to the height of the figure4 ,if the mass of the head is increased disproportionately by too large a hat1 the entire figure is apparently shortened and the natural proportions destroyed4 ,one often wonders why photographs of people with hats on look so old-fashioned and sometimes so ridiculous4 ,it is because the hat is not in good proportion4 ,the ,gainsborough and ,reynolds ladies with hats never look queer4 ,their hats bear the right relation to the head and the figure4 ,appropriateness4--,the general proportions of a hat or a gown may be good1 but the addition of the decoration may destroy all the good effect obtained by securing the right relation of line and mass4 ,the aim of all decoration should be to harmonize and strengthen the whole4 ,beauty of dress1 therefore1 depends upon simplicity and appropriateness of the material used as well as upon the form and arrangement of the material4 ,wherever ornament is used it must fulfil the condition of fitness to place2 otherwise it is not really decorative4 ,in trimming a hat1 the one who is to wear it should take her seat before a mirror1 and place the hat comfortably upon her head2 then with the aid of a hand glass she should try the trimming in different positions until the best effect is obtained4 ,the designs in trimming should be appropriate to the garment4 ,the size of the design and the kind of form used should be considered4 ,simple forms are the best for all decorative art work4 ,in fact1 there is great advantage in plain materials4 ,they always work to greater economy than stripes or plaids4 ,influence of ,occupation4--,the well-dressed woman should realize how great is the influence of occasion and occupation4 ,some gowns were intended only for afternoon wear in the house2 but we often see them worn on the street cars or for shopping4 ,i have always approved of the rule in many shops which requires the clerks to wear plain black gowns4 ,formerly it was the old finery which was used for every-day wear4 ,now the business woman to be successful has to exercise more thought upon her clothes than the woman at home4 ,her clothes have harder wear and must be appropriate for her work4 ,the dress of school-girls and children must not be overlooked4 ,it should be as simple as possible and above all else it should be comfortable4 ,it should never bind or pinch2 indeed1 the clothing should not interfere with any function of the body4 ,but we often see children dressed with much lace1 with many ruffles1 and even with jewellery2 and we have seen school girls wearing net waists1 plumed hats1 and high-heeled shoes4 ,what an infraction is this of the principle of appropriateness in dress6 ,,vii ,,furniture ,,making ,it is only by labour that thought can be made healthy1 and only by thought that labour can be made happy--,john ,ruskin ,the chief purpose of this chapter is to outline the most important general facts upon which good furniture making is based and to give specific directions for working out a number of typical problems1 following designs which have been proved in completed articles made1 for the most part1 by school-boys and tested by use4 ,no attempt is made to give this great subject complete and systematic treatment2 for this would involve many problems in constructive design and a corresponding number of working drawings1 with specifications for the selection and preparation of materials and for the work of construction--a subject so extensive that it would easily overrun the limits of a single chapter4 ,the aim is rather to select a few of the most suggestive lessons of experience in constructive work with special reference to our main subject of household decoration4 ,it is taken for granted that the interested reader is familiar with the use of the common hand tools for woodworking or that he can1 with some assistance1 perhaps1 easily command their use4 ,it is not thought necessary1 therefore1 to describe in detail the proper method of using tools1 but rather to offer practical suggestions on the selection1 preparation and constructive use of woodworking materials and1 in the series of problems which follow1 to give some helpful hints on the way woodworking tools should be used4 ,it is also assumed that in most cases the very great advantage of woodworking machinery may be utilized1 especially in preparing the materials and bringing them within easy reach of the hand-tool processes4 ,the true art-craft spirit1 which always honours handwork as the supreme method1 may not hesitate to command the services of machines so long as it does not become slavishly dependent upon them4 ,,selection ,,and ,,preparation ,,of ,,stock ,the first thing that should claim the attention of the artistic woodworker is the selection and preparation of his materials1 commonly known as the stock4 ,the sculptor selects his marbles with the greatest care4 ,so should the cabinet-maker make sure that his woods are taken from the right parts of selected timber and that they are properly sawed and well seasoned4 ,the importance of this cannot be overestimated4 ,hard wood boards1 cut from the sides of a tree1 will in drying1 invariably curve across their grain4 ,it is only those that are cut from the centre to the outside of the tree that may be depended upon to remain approximately true2 for1 after this cutting1 the grain runs directly through the thickness of the board1 or nearly so4 ,boards taken from timber in this way are said to be quarter sawed2 those cut by sawing through the logs from side to side1 as is always done with soft woods and often with hard woods1 are said to be plain sawed4 ,this is illustrated in the accompanying drawings4 ,quartered ,oak4--,in the case of oak1 the quarter sawing not only maintains a flat surface but greatly improves the appearance of the stock when finished4 ,the popularity of quartered oak for furniture may therefore be said to be well founded1 for it is the sincerest of woods4 ,it is as good as it looks4 ,illustration3 ,quarter sawed log ,quarter sawing1 however1 is very largely confined to oak because the appearance of the grain and the strength of most woods is far from being improved by this method of cutting4 ,thus ash and gum wood and all the softer woods sometimes used in furniture making are plain sawed4 ,we shall1 therefore1 generally find stock from these woods curved and twisted badly so that it will be necessary1 in selecting material for large surfaces such as table tops1 to pick out the straight parts for these surfaces and save the remainder to be cut into the smaller pieces which will always be needed4 ,these pieces can be easily planed without much loss of thickness4 ,illustration3 ,end of quarter sawed board ,illustration3 ,plain sawed log ,illustration3 ,end of plain sawed board ,kiln-dried ,lumber4--,this bending and twisting of the boards does not take place as soon as they are sawed out of the log1 but gradually during the process of seasoning2 and1 unless the lumber is kiln-dried1 the more gradual the seasoning the less the bending4 ,lumber is kiln-dried by stacking it1 with air spaces left between the boards1 in steam-heated closets or kilns1 where the process of drying is carried on evenly though rapidly4 ,kiln-dried lumber1 therefore1 retains its shape quite as well as that which is dried slowly in the lumber pile4 ,but whether kiln-dried or not1 it should be allowed to remain in a dry place as long as possible before using it so that it will have a chance to change all that it is likely to and so lessen the subsequent shrinking and warping4 ,a good cabinet-maker never undertakes to make furniture from stock that he does not know to be perfectly dry and well seasoned1 not only because unseasoned lumber is more likely to shrink1 warp1 and crack1 but also because it cannot be depended upon to hold the glue1 take varnish well1 or respond readily to other methods of finishing4 ,planing ,down to a ,flat ,surface4--,since boards are seldom perfectly flat1 even if one has taken the greatest pains to select well-seasoned stock1 it will almost invariably be necessary to work them down to a plane surface when they are glued up or joined together in any way4 ,to accomplish this result it is necessary to plan the arrangement of the pieces in such a way that the concave of the bend shall fall on the same side1 as shown in the illustration1 and thus provide for the final working down with the least possible removal of stock4 ,they can be arranged on a level bench top or floor with the convex side down so that they will lie as flat as possible4 ,the boards should then be taken out one by one and their edges should be carefully planed so that they will match together in the position in which they are laid4 ,it will be necessary to take each board from its place and return it several times in order that this matching may be made as perfect as possible4 ,the object of all this is to prevent the entire arrangement from springing--i4 e41 from acquiring any new bend or twist when the parts are glued up4 ,in joining boards to form large pieces of glued-up work1 like table tops1 it is customary to strengthen the joints by means of dowel pins4 ,small table tops and similar work may be safely glued up without dowelling4 ,illustration3 ,boards placed for planing to flat surfaces ,fastening ,glued-up ,work4 ,it will be readily understood upon a little reflection that all plain glued-up work should be allowed to move slightly upon the framework to which it is attached2 for even after it is well seasoned and well finished all woods will swell slightly in a damp atmosphere and shrink slightly when the air is dry1 the greatest movement being across the grain4 ,solid table tops1 therefore1 should never be fastened down firmly upon the framework with glue or with screws1 but should be secured by means of buttons screwed to the under side of the top which travel in grooves cut in the framework and thus allow for expansion and contraction4 ,a drawing is shown to illustrate the method of attaching the table-top buttons4 ,much of the warping and splitting of furniture is due to the failure of the designer or maker to observe this precaution4 ,illustration3 ,method of fastening table tops ,in planing up stock1 whether it be a single piece or several glued together as just described1 the cabinet-maker planes off one side first and then1 using this side as the working face1 gauges to the required thickness and planes off the other side if necessary4 ,if the work be upon glued-up stock1 it is well to plane off the projecting edges of the concave sides first1 as that is generally somewhat easier and may be all the planing that will be necessary4 ,if it be single pieces of stock that need to be planed up1 the natural twist or wind is first planed out to a flat working face on one side before putting the plane to the opposite side4 ,the ,surface ,plate4--,planing to a flat surface requires some device to guide the eye4 ,if the surface be very uneven at first1 a beginning may be made in the planing without much assistance2 but a point will finally be reached when neither the unaided eye nor the hand can determine whether or not a surface is flat4 ,to determine this a surface plate1 as it is called1 is needed4 ,this consists of a block of cast-iron1 thick enough to prevent it from being bent--i4 e41 an inch or more--and with a somewhat rough but perfectly flat surface on one side4 ,this surface is well chalked over4 ,when the wood surface which is being planed down is laid upon this chalked surface and slightly moved it is readily seen that the highest places on the wood will become marked with the chalk and so indicate to the cabinet-maker what parts are to be removed4 ,by making several tests of this kind he is able to plane to a good flat surface4 ,illustration3 ,winding sticks ,winding ,sticks4--,if the amateur's workshop is not provided with a surface plate1 a simple means of testing for a flat surface is by means of two narrow straight edges or winding sticks1 placing them on their narrow edges across each end of the piece1 as shown in the illustration1 and sighting across their upper edges4 ,the slight projections in the surfaces of the board can be determined in this way and planed off until the two top edges of the sticks are found to be level4 ,these winding sticks are simply wooden strips1 accurately made1 with opposite faces parallel4 ,their dimensions may be #a #b-a_/b #cj inches4 ,importance of ,true ,surfaces4--,it may be well to add that all this care to produce flat and parallel surfaces is not merely for the purpose of giving a good appearance to these surfaces4 ,true surfaces are necessary for the good of the work as a whole1 for they form the basis from which other surfaces are gauged and other parts trued up--i4 e41 made square or otherwise geometrically correct4 ,when the main surfaces of a piece of cabinet work are properly shaped1 all the framework and other parts may be brought into line without bending or twisting4 ,all such strains should be religiously avoided in good cabinet work4 ,the natural curves1 twists1 or projections of the stock used should be removed by the use of the proper tools and never be strained to force any of the parts into their proper places or shapes4 ,such efforts produce strains which are transmitted to other parts1 displacing them1 causing new defects or a general failure of the parts to support each other4 ,a ,systematic ,plan of ,work4--,when the cabinet-maker undertakes to make either a single piece of furniture or several pieces1 he goes about it in a very systematic way4 ,consulting his working drawing he makes an accurate list of the different pieces that will be required4 ,for example1 if he is to make a ,morris chair he notes the fact that he will need four legs or posts #b-a_/b inches square by #bb-c_/d inches long1 a front rail and a back rail each #g_/h #b-a_/d #bb inches1 two side rails #g_/h #b-a_/d #bd inches1 and so on until the list of necessary parts is completed4 ,with this list in hand he makes a careful selection of the lumber and prepares the pieces in the rough1 allowing economically for the necessary working waste4 ,economy of time and labour is also secured by keeping together all parts on which similar work is to be done4 ,thus1 if several parts are to be sawed to the same width or fashioned to the same curves1 it is generally the best plan to work these parts out together while the machines and tools are set for this purpose4 ,such a plan not only saves time but1 partially at least1 it obviates the danger of mistakes4 ,it is important also to follow a systematic order of work4 ,all sawing to rough dimensions should be done before the pieces are dressed to drawing dimensions1 and the latter operations should generally all be completed before laying out and cutting the joints4 ,as the work progresses toward completion great saving of time and much comfort will result from keeping the completed parts in good condition and so arranged that they can be easily assembled4 ,,gluing ,necessity of ,good ,joints4--,after the selection and preparation of the material for the stock1 the next important general process that demands attention is gluing2 for good cabinet work implies good glue and a knowledge of how to use it4 ,prepared glue1 such as is sold in bottles1 is unsatisfactory for work of any consequence4 ,a good woodworker always has his own glue pot and sees to it that it may be made ready for use on short notice4 ,the glue should be fresh1 thin1 and hot4 ,it should be applied quickly in a warm room and the parts to which it is applied clamped up quickly before the glue chills4 ,it is the glue which penetrates the wood that holds the parts together and not a layer of glue between the joined edges or surfaces4 ,it is therefore evident not only that joints and surfaces should be well smeared with glue1 hot and thin enough to be quickly absorbed1 but also that the parts should be clamped up quickly while the glue is still hot so as to prevent any surplus from remaining in the joint4 ,this is an additional reason for making close fits in all joints--in those which are to be glued up as well as in those which are not4 ,it is a common fault of beginners to be satisfied with loose mortise and tenon joints1 counting upon the glue to fill up the spaces4 ,much of the furniture found in the markets falls to pieces for the same reason4 ,such work should never be allowed to pass4 ,it is based upon an entirely mistaken notion of the true office of glue and is nothing more nor less than a falsehood in wood4 ,illustration3 ,method of holding framing parts square while glue is setting ,systematic ,methods ,required4--,as in the preparation of stock and working it up1 so in gluing1 system is all important4 ,the hand screws or clamps should be made ready and adjusted to the required width so that they may be quickly placed in position as soon as the glue is applied4 ,the whole process must be managed as quickly as possible because the joints must be tested before the glue has had time to set4 ,a carpenter's large square should be used for testing the right angles1 since it is more reliable than the small try squares4 ,it will frequently be found necessary to hold framing pieces square while the glue is hardening4 ,this can easily be done by nailing small strips of waste stock across the parts1 as shown in the drawing4 ,a beginner should be cautioned not to attempt to glue up too many joints at one time4 ,two opposite corners of a framing piece should be glued up separately and left to set before the attempt is made to glue the whole rectangle together4 ,the two remaining joints1 however1 should be glued and clamped together at the same time4 ,,picture ,,framing ,inexpensive ,framing ,stock4--,picture-frame stock can be easily obtained of dealers in artists' supplies and in furniture stores in a great variety of styles4 ,much of it is so well prepared and so nicely finished that it leaves little to be desired4 ,it is1 therefore1 often best to secure the stock for frames in this way4 ,it is1 however1 somewhat expensive1 so that1 when economy is important1 it behooves the young woodworker to prepare his own framing stock4 ,very satisfactory frames #b inches in width or less may be made from matched oak flooring1 a section of which is here illustrated1 by planing off the tongue and cutting away one side of the groove to furnish the inset for the glass4 ,wider flat frames of any thickness can1 of course1 be cut out from the ordinary stock4 ,a special tool for cutting the inset is desirable but not necessary4 ,a #a_/d-;inch saw cut may be made with a circular saw or even with a hand saw and the necessary removal of the wood accomplished by means of careful chiselling4 ,illustration3 ,picture framing stock made from oak flooring ,illustration3 ,the mitre joint ,mitres4--,frames may be joined at the corners in various ways4 ,a common way is by the mitre joint illustrated in the drawing4 ,to secure good joints of this kind it is necessary that the mitres be cut on an angle of exactly #de degrees and that the pieces for the corresponding sides of the frame be precisely of the same length4 ,hand sawing is generally not exact enough to produce angles of sufficient accuracy even when an ordinary mitre box is used4 ,hand-sawed mitres1 therefore1 will require a little truing with a small plane4 ,great care must be exercised also in fitting the corners together4 ,the common bench square is not large enough to prove the work4 ,a better way is to lay a carpenter's framing square on the bench and fit the two pieces of the frame against the sides of the square1 testing each corner in that way4 ,illustration3 ,clamping mitre joints ,gluing the ,joints4--,if the corners are unusually well fitted1 a good joint can be made by first sizing the ends with glue and then firmly pressing the pieces together upon a true surface1 leaving them undisturbed for four or five hours until the glue is hard4 ,by sizing the ends of the joints is meant thoroughly filling the end pores with glue1 rubbing it into the pores with another block4 ,generally speaking1 however1 it is necessary to make use of a mitre-clamping device4 ,if a special clamping device is not available1 one can be easily made by gluing small soft wood blocks to the parts of the frame near the corners1 as shown in the accompanying drawing4 ,in a half hour or so these blocks will become firmly set so that the mitre joints may be glued together1 clamping them up with a hand screw4 ,as already explained under the general directions on gluing1 it is good practice for a beginner to glue up opposite corners and not attempt to glue up the two remaining corners until the first two are well set4 ,when the first two corners are well set they should be nailed2 and before the two remaining corners are glued it is well to try the parts together to see if they do not require a little correcting before gluing4 ,these joints also should have light nailing after the glue has been set4 ,in nailing1 small holes should be made with a brad awl or drill in order to avoid splitting the corners1 and long finishing nails should be used4 ,the ,defect of ,shrinking4--,with proper tools the mitre joint is the easiest one to make1 but it has one unavoidable defect1 especially in wide frames4 ,it is very difficult to get stock well seasoned and almost impossible to get it perfectly seasoned1 so that wide frames1 however well finished1 must be expected to shrink a little after they are joined together4 ,as most of this shrinking is across the width of the stock it is evident that it will tend to open the mitre joints on the inside of the corners4 ,this is what happens almost invariably with joints made in this way from wide stock in picture framing4 ,the same defect is also frequently observed in the interior finishing around windows and doors4 ,there are three other methods of joining the corners of picture frames--viz41 the halved lap joint1 the mortise and tenon joint1 and the dowelled joint4 ,a drawing is shown to illustrate these three kinds of corner joints1 and it is hardly necessary to say that no one of them is open to the same objection that attaches to the mitre joint4 ,all these joints require accurate cutting and rather more of it than the mitre joint requires1 but they are more easily glued up4 ,the halved lap joint is easily clamped up with a common hand screw1 even when the frame is a very large one4 ,but the other two require long clamps in order to pull the joints up well4 ,illustration3 ,halved lap joint ,illustration3 ,mortise and tenon joint ,character of the ,frame4--,the kind of joint required depends upon the general character of the frame--whether it is to be heavy or light1 wide or narrow1 and whether made of picture frame moulding or of the plain framing stock with round or flat face2 and the character of the frame is a matter of design1 determined by the kind of picture1 by its setting1 and by other considerations discussed in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,how the plan for the construction of the frame for any given picture is influenced by such considerations may be seen in the example which follows3 ,illustration3 ,dowelled joint ,,making ,a ,,frame ,,for ,a ,,large ,,photographic ,,reproduction ,this photograph is #fj inches long by #af inches wide4 ,it is a copy in brown tones of a classic painting by ,otto ,kneille--,the ,education of ,athenian ,youth1 the original of which hangs in the ,royal ,gymnasium in ,berlin4 ,it represents a spacious hall or court showing three of the large marble columns and a massive seat in which an old man reclines while another old man is expounding some doctrine to him and to a group of younger men gathered around4 ,in the centre of the scene a boy lies flat upon the pavement reading a manuscript4 ,near him several youths under the direction of a master1 are contending in feats of strength4 ,the composition is one that suggests weight and power4 ,it may appropriately hang in the hall or in the library over a wide1 low bookcase4 ,a picture of this character needs no mat and must have a wide1 heavy frame4 ,the stock chosen was oak1 #d inches wide1 #a-a_/b inches thick1 and flat faced4 ,the size and weight of such a frame1 including the glass1 demand firmness of construction as the first consideration4 ,the stock is too wide for successful mitring because shrinking would naturally open and weaken such joints4 ,it was therefore framed together with mortise and tenon joints1 well glued4 ,a dowelled joint might have sufficed1 but it would not have the same strength4 ,the mortises were cut in the vertical ends and the tenons were left on the long horizontal pieces4 ,this was in conformity with the usual method of joining framework--for example1 door frames1 window frames1 panel frames1 and other interior woodwork2 for the greatest possible length is invariably given to the vertical parts4 ,the frame was given a dark brown finish1 repeating the darkest tones of the picture4 ,long screw eyes were fastened to the back #b inches from the top1 so that the picture might hang nearly flat against the wall4 ,a strong braided wire about #ge inches long was run through the eyes and securely looped at each end1 so that a little more than an inch of wire on each side passed through the eyes4 ,since the picture was to have a prominent place on a certain wall1 two nails #ff inches apart allowing for the two widths of the frame as well as for the length of the picture were driven into this wall1 and the heavy photograph was easily hung and balanced without exposing the wire to view4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,knock-,,down ,,bookcase ,illustration3 ,a knock-down bookcase ,the ,design4--,the problem of design was to plan a simple1 inexpensive bookcase which could be easily transported and set up in a student's room and which would hold approximately two hundred books4 ,the drawings show how these requirements were met in the design4 ,when in use it is held together by keyed shelves at the top and bottom4 ,the necessary stiffness is given to it by the base pieces which are fastened both to the sides and to the bottom shelf by screws4 ,additional stiffness is given by drawing up the three middle shelves to the sides by means of screws4 ,upon removing the screws and the keys the bookcase is easily taken apart so that it may be crated in compact form for transportation4 ,it is equally easy to set it up again4 ,it has no back and may therefore stand away from the wall as well as against it4 ,its contour is plain1 with few curves1 giving a simplicity which will harmonize with modest surroundings and yet not bar it from keeping company with more pretentious furnishings4 ,the original of this design was actually made up in white wood1 stained and finished to harmonize with black walnut furniture2 but it may be made up in oak1 ash1 cherry1 or any of the common woods used for furniture4 ,for one bookcase the stock required is as follows1 the sizes allowing for finishing to the dimensions as given in the drawing3 ,for the ends1 two pieces #g_/h inch #aj-a_/d inches #d feet #b-a_/b inches2 for the short shelves1 three pieces #g_/h inch #aj-a_/d inches #c feet #a inch2 for the long shelves1 two pieces1 #g_/h inch #aj-a_/d inches #c feet #e inches2 for the base pieces1 two pieces #g_/h inch #f-c_/d inches #c feet2 for the keys1 one piece #g_/h inch #g_/h inch #a foot4 ,in addition to this there should be two dozen ,no4 #aj round-headed blued screws1 and one half dozen #a-a_/b inch ,no4 #aj flat headed blued screws4 ,the tools needed are as follows3 ,rip saw1 cross cut saw1 back saw1 compass1 jack-plane1 smoothing plane1 block plane1 spokeshave1 try square1 steel square1 rule1 knife1 hammer1 mallet1 screw-driver1 #c_/d1 #a_/b1 and #c_/af inch bits and bitstock1 and #a_/b and #c_/d inch chisels1 gauges1 and sand-paper4 ,illustration3 ,details and dimensions for a knock-down bookcase ,construction4--,all the stock should be jointed1 planed to width1 and smoothed with sand-paper4 ,the two end pieces should be squared to length1 the top corners rounded1 and the curve at the bottom cut as shown in the drawing4 ,care should be exercised in sand-papering not to round the edges4 ,the correct spacing for the shelves should then be marked off on the end pieces and squared across1 care being taken to have both ends spaced alike4 ,to do this plane the ends together1 with their edges flush2 and1 beginning at the bottom1 measure off each of the spaces with correct allowance for the thickness of the shelf and mark these spaces across the edge4 ,then1 separate the end pieces and with the marks on the edges as a guide1 square across each of the end pieces on the inside and mark with a knife4 ,in allowing for the thickness of the shelves it should be remembered that the stock1 though originally #g_/h of an inch in thickness1 has been planed and sand-papered1 some of the shelves perhaps having been finished down more than others4 ,it will therefore be necessary to measure and allow for the thickness of each shelf separately4 ,illustration3 ,method of gaining-in the shelves ,the three middle shelves are gained in--i4 e41 set into grooves in the upright ends--#a_/d of an inch deep1 as shown in the sketch4 ,it will be better craftsmanship if the grooves are not carried across the full width of the end pieces but stopped1 say1 one inch from the edge1 the shelves being cut to fit1 as shown in the drawing4 ,if this be done1 the grooves should be cut out carefully with a chisel4 ,if the grooves be carried across the full width of the end1 they may be cut down with a back saw and then chiselled out4 ,to insure a good fit in either case care should be exercised not to cut outside the knife lines4 ,chisel the bottom of the grooves carefully so that they will be uniformly #a_/d of an inch deep4 ,the next step is to cut the mortises for the top and bottom shelves4 ,the dimensions for these should first be laid off on the stock by means of a gauge4 ,they should then be bored well inside the marks and carefully chiselled out4 ,before this chiselling is done1 however1 knife lines should be marked on the outside of the end pieces exactly opposite the gauge lines4 ,in mortising1 as in cutting the grooves1 the greatest care will need to be exercised that the chisel does not cut outside the knife lines4 ,in working for a close fit it is better to err on the side of removing too little stock at first1 if one must err at all1 since it is quite easy to remove a little more in the final fitting4 ,it is quite impossible to replace stock once removed4 ,in measuring for the length of the shelves it should not be overlooked that the top and bottom shelves are to carry the tenons to be keyed through the end pieces4 ,these tenons should be cut out accurately with a rip saw1 and the stock between them removed with a chisel after a deep knife line has been made4 ,after fitting these tenons to the mortises and finishing them1 the mortises for the keys should be cut1 using a small chisel4 ,it should not be overlooked that the outside face of each key mortise is cut on an angle1 as illustrated4 ,the three middle shelves are then cut to length1 the ends squared by means of a block plane1 and corners cut out to fit the grooves4 ,illustration3 ,details of the keys ,the parts are now ready to be put together temporarily and squared up in order to fit in the base pieces more perfectly than could be done by mere measurement4 ,it will add a pleasing detail to set back these base pieces #a_/d of an inch from the front and back faces4 ,after all the parts are carefully fitted they should be assembled and the key and screw fastenings inserted4 ,when this is accomplished the bookcase is ready for finishing4 ,as this is a distinct part of furniture making it is reserved for treatment in a later chapter4 ,a ,,hanging ,,book ,,rack ,illustration3 ,a hanging book rack ,the ,design4--,it is designed to plan a light but strong book rack1 to be fastened to the wall of a chamber4 ,since it is intended to occupy the space that might be given to pictures it is properly as simple in construction as a picture frame1 depending upon good proportions and symmetry to give a pleasing effect4 ,the straight lines of the design1 which is illustrated above1 meet these requirements and also harmonize with the general form and outline of books4 ,both shelves may be used for books1 if desired1 but the design permits them to be confined to the lower shelf1 reserving the upper one as a suitable place for a bit of pottery or two1 or some other choice bit of bric--brac4 ,the mortise and tenon joints give the essential stiffness and strength without requiring the use of heavy stock4 ,materials and ,tools4--,since strength with lightness is an essential feature to realize in the working out of this design1 soft woods should be avoided4 ,ash is probably the strongest of the light woods in common use4 ,oak is much stronger but heavy and hard to work4 ,white wood is comparatively light and very strong4 ,gum wood is classified with ash excepting that it is closer grained4 ,since this book rack is to be used in a chamber in which the wood trim is in enamelled white and most of the furniture of a mahogany finish1 it will be equally appropriate to make it of white wood1 to be finished in enamelled white1 or of bay wood as a basis for mahogany finish4 ,it was decided to adopt the latter course4 ,the stock requirements for carrying out this design are as follows3 #b back posts1 #a-a_/d inch #a-a_/d inch #bd inches2 #b front posts1 #a-a_/d inch #a-a_/d #ah inches2 #b centre uprights1 #e_/h #a #ah inches2 #a back rail1 #e_/h #a-a_/d #cg inches2 #a end rail1 #a #a-a_/d #dd inches2 and #b shelves1 #g_/h #g by #cg inches4 ,illustration3 ,construction details and dimensions for hanging book rack 7front7 ,the tools needed are much like those required in the previous problem--i4 e41 the same planes1 saws1 bitstock1 squares1 and the gauge2 but there will be needed a #c_/h-;inch bit1 #c_/h-;inch and #c_/d-;inch chisels1 a knife rule1 a rabbet plane1 a mitre box1 and a mallet4 ,construction4--,the details of construction required are as follows3 ,dressing the stock pieces1 cutting the posts to length1 cutting the points on the posts1 rabbeting the cross rails and cutting them to length1 cutting the mortise and tenons1 halving on the end rails1 cutting and fitting the shelves1 cutting1 fitting1 and fastening the back rail1 arranging the clamps and other appliances for gluing up1 and cleaning off the glue after hardening4 ,illustration3 ,construction details and dimensions for hanging book rack 7end7 ,illustration3 ,how the tenon is applied to the rail ,the stock pieces should be first dressed down to the drawing dimensions4 ,this means that they should be planed and sand-papered preparatory to laying out the cutting dimensions4 ,the front and back posts should be cut to length in the mitre box1 care being taken to allow an extra #a_/b inch for the pointed ends at the top and bottom4 ,these pointed ends are cut in the mitre box by raising one end of the post and sawing to lines squared around the post #a_/d inch from the other end4 ,the angle of the cut is made uniform by resting the raised end of the post on a block lightly nailed on the inside of the mitre box1 thus giving the same elevation for all the posts4 ,the #a-;inch by #a-a_/d-;inch piece for rails is rabbeted out1 using the plane designed for that purpose1 and afterward cut to length as called for4 ,the blind mortises should be made not more than #g_/h of an inch deep1 and the tenons #a_/af of an inch shorter in order not to strike the bottom of the mortise4 ,one of these rails should be accurately laid out with knife lines and the rest marked from this as a pattern4 ,the drawing shows the location of the tenon with reference to the part of the rail on which the shelf rests4 ,this is the most convenient position for cutting the tenon and it also gives greater strength4 ,the centre uprights should be halved on after the end rails are in position1 being cut for this purpose as illustrated in the drawing4 ,they may be allowed to stand out #a_/h of an inch beyond the face of the end rail1 and in making the joint an equal amount of stock is to be taken from the rail and from the upright4 ,the shelves are then easily cut to length and the ends fitted with the block plane and dropped into place1 being lightly glued and nailed with brads from the under side of the rabbet4 ,finally the top back rail should be halved in1 being left to the last in order that the more important fitting of the shelves may be more easily accomplished4 ,illustration3 ,how the centre uprights are halved on ,in gluing up the mortise and tenon joints care must be exercised to set clamps out ready for use before the glue is applied so that the parts may be promptly drawn up in position4 ,after gluing they should be allowed to remain about ten hours in order that the glue may properly harden before the clamps are taken off4 ,all the extra glue squeezed out of the joints in clamping must be scraped off with a chisel1 after the glue has hardened a little2 and any remaining spots of glue must be carefully removed with fine sand-paper so as not to leave anything to interfere with the filling and finishing4 ,,an ,,umbrella ,,stand ,the ,design4--,so far as the question of use is concerned1 no problem of design could be more definite than this one1 since an umbrella rack can have but one use4 ,the only elements of beauty possible are found in simplicity1 proportion1 and the general effectiveness of the construction for meeting the demands of use4 ,the drawing shows four square1 straight posts1 squared at the ends1 which are allowed to project a little above the top to avoid a box-like effect4 ,all the joints are mortised except the division bars at the top4 ,the cross pieces at the base are made wider not only to conceal the drip pan but to give a more stable appearance to the whole rack4 ,materials and ,tools4--,oak is selected as perhaps the most appropriate wood2 but other woods1 if the surroundings require it1 may be used to good advantage4 ,oak is one of the strongest and most durable of the woods used for furniture and takes well a great variety of finish4 ,it is also quite easily obtained4 ,illustration3 ,an umbrella stand ,the stock requirements are as follows3 ,four corner posts #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #bg-a_/b inches2 four top rails #a_/b #a-a_/d #i inches2 four base rails #g_/h #c #i inches2 two division bars #a_/d #a-a_/d #i-a_/d inches2 four cleats #a_/b #a_/b #i inches2 and one board #a_/b #g-a_/b #g-a_/b inches to support the pan4 ,the same tools in general will be required as in the previous exercises1 but it will be necessary to add a #a_/d-;inch bit1 a #a_/d inch chisel1 a steel scraper1 and two short clamps4 ,illustration3 ,details and dimensions for umbrella rack ,construction4--,all the stock should be planed to size1 scraped1 and sand-papered with the exception of the base board for the pan1 since that is hidden from view4 ,the scraper corrects all slight unevenness of surface and removes scratches and other blemishes4 ,care should be taken in sand-papering to rub always with the grain of the wood and to avoid rounding the corners4 ,the corner posts should first be cut to proper length and the tops and bottoms slightly chamfered4 ,mortises are then to be located1 bored1 and chiselled up4 ,the top and bottom rails should be laid off and the tenons gauged and cut1 care being taken not to have them too long4 ,the inside edges of the tenons have to be pared off slightly1 as illustrated in the drawing1 to allow room for each when they come together4 ,illustration3 ,top rail tenons ,illustration3 ,bottom rail tenons ,the next step is to assemble the parts1 clamp them up1 and test them for accuracy4 ,while these parts are in the clamps1 measurements should be taken for the cross pieces1 which may then be made1 allowing extra length of #a_/d of an inch in each end for the tenons to enter the top rails4 ,these cross pieces are to be halved together at the centre1 as shown in the drawing4 ,the base rails are designed to be thick enough to take up all the space on the inside of the posts so as to hide the corner1 as illustrated in the sketch showing the bottom construction4 ,the next step is to assemble the parts for gluing4 ,it is not necessary to explain this process in detail1 since it has already been thoroughly explained in the general section on gluing4 ,it is not necessary to glue on the cleats on which the pan rests2 they may be nailed in4 ,when the base is glued together measurements may be taken for the pan4 ,a ,,magazine ,,stand ,the ,design4--,this problem calls for an attractive article of furniture which should also be useful as a receptacle for magazines and current newspapers4 ,an enclosed portion between two of the shelves is desired to conceal from view and preserve for a time the more valuable papers1 parts of magazines1 or clippings1 as may be found convenient4 ,the perspective sketch on this same page shows how these simple requirements are met4 ,the overhanging top adds character and strength to what might otherwise seem too light for the load it is intended to carry4 ,illustration3 ,a magazine stand ,materials and ,tools4--,oak is selected as a suitable wood because of its strength and durability2 for this stand is likely to be in almost constant use4 ,a light wood1 delicately finished1 would soon show wear4 ,the stock list1 according to the drawing1 may be itemized as follows3 #d corner posts #a-c_/d #a-c_/d #cf inches2 #d upright slats #e_/h #a #cd inches2 four shelves #g_/h #aj-a_/b #ag inches2 one piece for the top #g_/h #ad #ba inches2 #b top rails #a #a-c_/d #ab inches2 #a piece for the door #g_/h #h #ae-a_/b inches for the ends and the back of the closet #a piece #e_/h #h #cf inches2 #a pair #a-a_/d-;inch brass butts with screws for the hinges1 and one brass knob or catch4 ,the tools needed are a jointer1 a block plane1 a smoothing plane1 steel square1 try square1 knife gauge1 fine cross cut saw1 #a_/b-;inch bit and bit stock1 key-hole saw1 #a_/b-;inch chisel1 mallet1 nail set1 hammer1 screw-driver1 and steel scraper4 ,the principal operations are as follows3 ,planing to size2 scraping and sand-papering stock2 squaring ends and smoothing them to the required length2 laying out gains at corner posts2 making mortises for top rails2 making the rails2 assembling the main parts2 fitting ends and sides of the closets2 hanging the door and putting on the fixtures4 ,illustration3 ,details and dimensions for magazine stand ,the ,construction4--,smoothing with the plane and scraping are very important and they should be completed before any sand-papering is done because particles of sand 7silica71 adhering to the wood1 will dull the steel tools4 ,all three operations are needed to remove the marks of the machine tools of the factory1 in order to give a good finish in the end4 ,the scraper follows the plane1 removing the unevenness which the latter leaves on board surfaces4 ,sand-papering gives the finishing touches4 ,illustration3 ,method of mortising ,after the stock is well smoothed1 the top and the shelves should be squared off1 cut to length1 and block planed4 ,the posts should then be cut and accurately trimmed to dimensions4 ,they may be marked with a knife line for the gains into which the corners of the shelves are to be fastened4 ,since the posts are perfectly square1 no attention will have to be given to their exact location in marking or cutting the gains2 but when the mortising for the rails is laid out1 care must be exercised to mark them so that the mortises will come on the proper faces for assembling4 ,in mortising for the top rail it is well not to work up to the end of the post but to cut back1 say #c_/d of an inch1 as shown in one of the details4 ,the rails may now be laid off and the tenons cut and fitted4 ,it is exactly #h-a_/b inches between the shoulders of the rails4 ,since the shelves are #aj-a_/b inches wide1 one inch is thus left on each side to be gained into the posts4 ,the parts are now ready for the first assembling4 ,to do this it is convenient to have a clear bench top on which the posts may be laid on one side1 face down4 ,the rails and shelves may then be slipped into place1 the other two posts placed on top1 and the whole clamped firmly together4 ,this is the preliminary assembling for the purpose of testing the accuracy of the work4 ,if it be found all right1 it should be taken apart again1 and1 after glue has been applied to the tenons and to the ends of the shelves1 the parts should be quickly re-assembled and clamped up as before1 with the angles kept true4 ,before the glue hardens the shelves should be nailed into the posts1 as indicated in the drawing4 ,in this case it is the nail that is the main stay4 ,the glue is accessory1 adding much to the stiffness of the construction4 ,illustration3 ,method of fastening shelf ,the top may now be set on and fastened by screws or by brads driven through into the posts and well set so that they may be concealed by putty1 coloured to match the stain used4 ,the end slats should be fastened on in the same way4 ,the back and ends of the closet are next cut to size and bradded in4 ,the door is then fitted and1 to break the surface a little1 an ornamental design is cut in the centre4 ,still further relief is given by setting in the door #a_/d of an inch from the edge of the shelf and ends of the closet4 ,the door is now hung on brass hinges1 the stop and catch added1 and the stand is ready for staining and finishing4 ,illustration3 ,method of fastening posts to the top ,a ,,light ,,library ,,table ,the ,design4--,this is to be a table designed on simple lines and of good proportions4 ,it is to have no drawer but as much shelf room as conveniently possible4 ,the under shelf is designed to be cut out to allow a chair to be drawn up on either side4 ,the end shelves may be regarded as designed to combine a bookcase with the table1 thus adding much to its usefulness4 ,materials and ,tools4--,for a table of this kind oak is very appropriate4 ,the following list gives the stock required for one table4 ,the widths and the thickness are as called for in the drawing1 but the lengths are given a little long to allow for cutting4 ,a board not less than #i inches wide and #aj feet long will be needed as stock for the top1 the dimensions of which are #g_/h #bf #ci inches4 ,a #aj-;inch board1 #d-a_/b feet in length1 will also be required for the shelves4 ,there will also be needed four legs #a-c_/d #a-c_/d #cj inches2 eight slats #a_/b #a-a_/b #ah inches2 two back pieces #a_/b #b #bj-a_/b inches2 two rails #g_/h #c #cb inches2 and two rails #g_/h #c #bj inches4 ,illustration3 ,a light library table ,the same tools will be required as in the foregoing problems excepting that a #a_/b-;inch bit and a #a_/b-;inch chisel will be required for mortising1 and two #c-;foot clamps4 ,construction4--,the first step in the construction is to dress the stock1 smoothing1 scraping1 and sand-papering it1 and working the various parts to size4 ,the lengths1 however1 of all parts excepting the legs are not cut accurately until1 in the process of construction1 these parts are needed4 ,the legs are at once cut to length and the mortises laid out1 bored1 and cut4 ,a gain should also be cut in each leg1 into which the bottom shelf is to be fitted1 glued1 and bradded from the under side4 ,the end and side rails may then be laid off for shoulders and tenons1 and cut4 ,in this case the tenons should be made #a_/b of an inch wide4 ,illustration3 ,construction details and dimensions 7a7 front2 7b7 end ,in gluing up1 the top should receive attention first1 in order to allow the longest possible time for testing the work under the inevitable changes due to continued seasoning4 ,great care must always be exercised in making the glued joints4 ,it is often necessary to make them over on account of the development of cracks4 ,proper care1 however1 will prevent this4 ,the general directions for gluing1 given at the beginning of this chapter1 will be of service4 ,as soon as the top has been glued the four short side pieces may be glued to the shelf1 taking pains to make good joints before applying the glue4 ,it should be noted that the inside ends of these short pieces are to be #ae inches apart1 and it is important that the ends on opposite sides should be exactly squared across1 as indicated in the drawings4 ,this may be accomplished by first locating the centre of the shelf1 at the intersection of lines1 marked c in the drawing1 and measuring #g-a_/b inches each way to the line of the back pieces1 which are to run across the whole bottom shelf4 ,as soon as the glue is hardened the ends should be squared and made true to set into the gains when the table is assembled4 ,finally1 the legs1 the rails1 and the shelf may be assembled1 glued1 squared up1 clamped1 and set aside to harden before the clamps are removed4 ,it is a good plan to brad the shelf in from the under side before the glue hardens4 ,after standing a few hours the table will be ready for the #a_/b-;inch strip which forms the back of the shelf4 ,this is to be fitted and bradded in4 ,then the slats may be cut to length4 ,they project slightly below the shelf1 and are fastened in position by screws4 ,the top may be cut to length and its ends smoothed1 after which it may be fastened on the frame by means of screws and buttons1 as already described in the early part of this chapter4 ,a ,,heavy ,,library ,,table ,the ,design4--,this table1 as the illustration shows1 is designed to be of simple style1 without a drawer or side shelves1 and with the bottom shelf keyed into the base rail4 ,heavy1 square legs1 and mortise and tenon joints are called for4 ,illustration3 ,a heavy library table ,materials and ,tools4--,the mission type of furniture1 to which this design belongs1 suggests oak as the fitting wood4 ,the stock for the top1 the dimensions of which are to be #g_/h #bh #dd inches1 may be cut in three pieces from a #aj-;inch board1 #ab feet long4 ,for the shelf a board #g_/h #ab #dc inches is required4 ,there are needed also four legs #b-c_/d #b-c_/d #cj inches2 two side rails #g_/h #d #cf inches2 two end top-rails #g_/h #d #bb inches2 two end bottom rails #a-a_/b #d #bb inches2 and for keys a strip #a #b #bh inches4 ,illustration3 ,construction details and dimensions 7front7 ,the same tools are required as were needed in the foregoing problem4 ,construction4--,since this table has a larger top than the light library table1 even greater pains must be taken than in the case of the smaller table to join the boards for gluing up4 ,all like parts should be laid off together and the necessary mortises and tenons cut and fitted1 as in the previous case4 ,the two end rails may be glued into the legs first and clamped1 leaving the side rails to be put in place last1 when the bottom shelf may also be fastened in without gluing by means of the tenons and keys4 ,the latter should be cut somewhat longer than is really needed so that they may appear to be as effective as they really are2 and they should be tapered at least #a_/b of an inch in order to drive up well4 ,a small brad may be driven in to keep them from getting loose when the work shrinks4 ,illustration3 ,construction details and dimensions 7end7 ,a ,,bookcase ,,with ,,glazed ,,doors ,the ,design4--,this is to be an upright bookcase1 with five shelves and an overhanging top4 ,some variety of surface is afforded by the arrangement of the sash1 as indicated in the drawing4 ,the shelves are made to be adjustable1 and not fixed as in other problems4 ,materials and ,tools4--,the stock required for one bookcase of this pattern is as follows3 two end pieces #g_/h #aa-a_/b #dh-a_/b inches2 for the top and bottom1 two pieces #g_/h #ab #dj inches2 four shelves #g_/h #aa #dj inches2 for the sides of the doors1 four pieces #g_/h #b #de inches2 for the top and bottom rails of the doors1 four pieces #g_/h #b-a_/b #ah inches2 for the middle rail1 one piece #g_/h #b #ah inches2 for the sash1 one piece #g_/h #a_/b inch #f feet2 for the back1 enough #a_/b inch stock to cover the space #ch #df inches4 ,in addition to this there will be required four hinges1 two catches1 a lock1 and glass for the sash as dimensioned in the drawing4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 to cut the small lights4 ,one large pane of glass may be set in the full width of the door so that the small sash divisions may be apparent rather than real4 ,illustration3 ,bookcase with glazed doors ,the tools for this problem are the same as those used in previous problems with the addition of a #a_/d-;inch bit and #a_/d-;inch chisel1 and a rabbet plane1 or a universal plane for cutting out the rabbet for the glass4 ,illustration3 ,details and dimensions for bookcase ,it is not necessary to give directions for the treatment of the stock1 since it is practically the same as that employed in preceding problems4 ,the details for cutting dimensions are given in the accompanying drawings4 ,it would be well for the young woodworker to study these carefully and make out a working plan of procedure similar to that which has been outlined in other problems4 ,construction4--,the first thing to do is to erect the bookcase--i4e41 to cut the sides1 the top1 the bottom1 and the back pieces to proper form and dimensions1 bring them into position1 and fasten them4 ,it will be noticed that the sides and top are rabbeted out1 as indicated in one of the small drawings1 so that the edge of the back will not show when it is nailed in position4 ,the bottom shelf is also made narrow enough to allow the back boards to be brought down over it and nailed to the edge4 ,illustration3 ,method of concealing ends of back boards ,after the case is erected the doors should be laid out according to the drawing for mortises and tenons1 and the inside edges rabbeted to give an inset for the glass4 ,if it is decided to use one large light at the top of the door instead of six small ones1 the sash effect for this light will have to be made of pieces thin enough to allow this arrangement4 ,when the doors are ready for setting the glass it may be held in place by small #a_/d round strips1 bradded in behind it4 ,great care should1 of course1 be exercised in gluing up the doors to avoid strains which might give them such a twist that they could not be fitted to the case4 ,careful fitting of all the mortises and tenons and the usual assembling of the parts of each door before gluing is attempted is a wise precaution4 ,it will also be wise to allow a little stock for trimming off1 both on the sides and on the ends1 when the doors are finally fitted in4 ,a ,,round ,,centre ,,table ,illustration3 ,details and dimensions for round centre table ,illustration3 ,detail of top mortise ,illustration3 ,details and dimensions for round centre table ,the ,design4--,this problem calls for a table of mission style with square legs set into the circumference of the table flush with the top and having tenons exposed on the face of the legs4 ,simplicity of form combined with strength characterizes the design4 ,materials and ,tools4--,quartered oak is recommended for a table of this design4 ,the stock required for one table is as follows3 four legs #b-c_/d #b-c_/d #bg inches2 two cross rails #a-a_/d #c #bi inches2 one piece of #c #ab #bj inches for the curved rails2 and stock enough to make a round top #a-a_/h inches thick and #bg inches in diameter4 ,the only tools desirable to provide1 in addition to those previously used1 are a trammel and spokeshave or a circle plane4 ,construction4--,the first step is to join up and glue the top so that it may have ample time to harden and dry while the other work is being accomplished4 ,the stock for the legs may then be dressed and the bottom mortises marked and cut through the posts4 ,care must be taken to transfer the marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may be accurately outlined on the face4 ,care must also be taken in cutting the mortises1 in order to make good1 clean joints4 ,a dimensioned detail of the top mortises1 which are to receive the tenons of the curved rail1 shown on page #ahj1 should be consulted before laying out this work4 ,it should be noticed that the legs project #a-a_/d inches above the top rail4 ,after the top mortises are cut the cross bottom rails should be halved together and the tenons laid off and cut4 ,it will be noticed that the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled off1 but this should not be done until the fitting is completed4 ,in laying out the plan of work for the construction of the curved rails the trammel comes into use4 ,with this1 mark off carefully the inside and outside curves on a thin piece of board and1 with a large steel square1 draw straight lines from the centre or pivot point1 making an exact quarter circle4 ,this is shown in one of the drawings on page #ahj4 ,then1 parallel with each straight line and on the inside1 mark off other lines one half the thickness of the leg4 ,this locates the shoulder of the tenon4 ,the pattern should then be carefully cut out of the thin board and used as a template for marking out on the stock the form of the curved rails4 ,after these rails are band sawed and smoothed1 the tenons may be cut4 ,when the framing parts of the table have all been cut and fitted they may be assembled and glued4 ,finally the top is placed face down on a bench top or on horses1 and the inverted frame laid over it and centred to give the correct position of the insets for the legs4 ,these should be laid off with great care1 the outline reproduced exactly on the opposite side1 and the stock cut out4 ,the top and frame should then be fastened together from the under side4 ,after a few finishing touches have been given to the projecting ends and exposed surfaces1 the table will be ready for the filling and varnishing4 ,a ,,library ,,desk ,this is the most ambitious of the special problems in furniture making here suggested4 ,details are given in the drawings on the opposite page4 ,if the young woodworker can give sufficient time to it and can command the services of a few machine tools it will not be an unreasonable task to undertake4 ,most of the operations required in its construction have already been carefully explained and need not be repeated as detailed directions4 ,there are1 however1 one or two principles of cabinet-making called for in this problem which were not required in the others4 ,they will therefore need explanation4 ,illustration3 ,a library desk ,panelling4--,to avoid the difficulties which would result from the swelling1 shrinking1 and warping of wide surfaces in furniture it is common practice to make use of the panel4 ,the design of the panel is easily understood4 ,it consists of a framework of ordinary thickness1 put together usually with mortise and tenon joints4 ,the inside edges of this framework are grooved1 and into the groove is fitted a piece of stock generally thinner than the frame which fills the space between the sides of the frame4 ,the panel board may be in one piece of wide stock or it may be glued up4 ,it may be of very thin stock inset on both sides of the panel1 or it may be of thicker stock inset only on one side1 and perhaps not inset on either side1 in which case only the edges of the board are made thin enough to run in the groove of the panel frame4 ,in this problem the panel board is to be made of #a_/b-;inch stock1 flat on the outside1 and inset #a_/d of an inch4 ,the back of the panel board is flush with the frame and is chamfered off to give the necessary tongue all around to run in the groove4 ,the narrow stock of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink appreciably and1 if well constructed1 cannot become warped or twisted4 ,the panel1 on account of its greater width1 may and generally does swell and shrink considerably2 but it should be fitted to move easily in the grooves so that its changes may not be noticeable4 ,should it be desired to finish the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to the rails1 not to the panel board4 ,danger in the ,power ,saw4--,the panel frame may be constructed by hand1 but if a circular saw be available it will be found of great service4 ,beginners1 however1 should employ the services of an expert sawyer and not assume the great risk involved in the use of a circular saw or even a band saw1 especially if these saws are without guards4 ,the necessary operations should be carefully laid out on the partially finished stock1 with a good square and gauge4 ,a combination plane is quite essential for cutting the grooves2 and this carries its own gauge4 ,care should be taken to make all measurements from the centre of the piece1 and gauge and square always from the face sides and from the face edges of the joints4 ,the cuts that it is necessary to make for the joints are indicated in the drawing4 ,in gluing up1 the directions already given in the section on gluing should be followed4 ,sand-papering4--,there is a legitimate use for sand-paper in the finishing stages of the work on this desk1 as there is1 in fact1 in almost every kind of fine woodwork4 ,its use has already been advised in the directions for furniture making4 ,in furniture manufactories sand-papering machines are among the most expensive machines to be found in the shops2 and their high cost is of course justified by their productive value4 ,it is quite impossible to work down large pieces to a good surface by the process of planing4 ,if a sand-papering machine is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker1 it will be very desirable for him to send all large pieces like the tops of tables and panel boards to the factory in order to have them run through the machine4 ,the expense is very slight4 ,in sand-papering by hand considerable pressure should be applied as evenly as possible and always along the grain4 ,any movements directly across the grain or at an angle are sure to show through the finish4 ,the process is facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper around a block of wood about #b #d inches in diameter or1 better still1 a block of cork of the same dimensions4 ,a ,,morris ,,chair ,history of the ,design4--,among furniture designs the ,morris chair has become a classic4 ,it takes its name for its originator1 ,william ,morris1 the great ,english designer and reformer1 to whom1 perhaps more than to any other person1 we are indebted for sane and honest work in furniture design and in all forms of household decoration1 not only in ,england but in other ,european countries and in ,america4 ,and probably no one of his creations has done more to teach the lesson of simplicity1 comfort1 and utility in furniture than the ,morris chair4 ,illustration3 ,a ,morris chair ,illustration3 ,details and dimensions of ,morris chair 7front7 ,illustration3 ,details and dimensions for ,morris chair 7side7 ,it may be well to add1 however1 that like many other famous works of art1 the original design of ,william ,morris has suffered much in countless imitations4 ,the furniture shops display carved and otherwise embellished monstrosities under the name of ,morris chairs which are nothing less than an insult to the great name they bear4 ,but the life of all imitations of original and really great ideas is bound to be short4 ,only the good and true1 which are the original1 survive4 ,the really valuable features of the original ,morris chair design1 combining beauty of material with simplicity of form and construction1 have taken a lasting hold upon the hearts of all people who have found solid comfort in these chairs4 ,the chairs contemplated in this problem are illustrated on page #ej1 chapter ,,ii4 ,both are in quartered oak4 ,the one on the right is stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the seat and a pillow cushion for the back1 in medium brown leather4 ,the one on the left is in light fumed oak with cushions of mahogany velour4 ,on account of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter in weight than the one on the right1 and the dimensions of the smaller one will be followed in this problem4 ,this chair is an exact copy of one in ash which1 with a centre table and stool1 were designed and made for a college girl's room2 and a large part of the work of constructing the three pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself4 ,by careful examination of the dimensioned drawing shown on the preceding page the young woodworker who undertakes this problem should select his stock according to the following list3 #d legs #b-a_/b #b-a_/b #bd inches2 two arms #c #e-a_/b #ch inches2 two bottom side rails #a-a_/h #f #bf inches2 two top side rails #e_/h #b-a_/d #bf inches2 two bottom rails 7front and back7 #a-a_/h #f #bd inches2 one top rail 7back7 #e_/h #b-a_/d #bd inches2 two back uprights #a-a_/h #a-g_/h #be inches2 three cross pieces for back 7lower7 #c_/d #b-e_/h #bj inches2 one cross piece for back 7top7 #c_/d #f #bj inches2 one bracket #a #c #ah inches2 four pins #d-a_/b #d-a_/d inches square4 ,illustration3 ,detail of ,morris chair arm ,illustration3 ,detail of pins ,in sawing up the stock1 allowance should be made of course1 for necessary waste in working down to the drawing dimensions4 ,the arms are drawn with a curve and may be fashioned by band sawing them out of #c-;inch stock4 ,there will be a considerable saving in material and labour1 of course1 if the arms are made flat2 but the effect of the curve is very pleasing4 ,the back slats may be sawed to a slight curve1 which is another attractive feature2 but flat slats are easier to make and just as serviceable4 ,the process of construction does not differ in general from that already described in some of the foregoing problems1 and need not be repeated here in detail4 ,the method of finishing this and all other furniture referred to in the problems will be explained in the following chapter4 ,since the ,morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture1 it will be necessary to provide casters for it4 ,the ,acme ,pin caster1 so-called1 was used in the chair referred to in this problem4 ,it makes use of a steel ball turning upon ball bearings1 and is set up into the legs so as to leave only about #a_/d of an inch of the ball exposed4 ,a ,,hall ,,clock ,illustration3 ,a hall clock ,,note4--,the original of the hall clock was designed and made by ,mr4 ,egbert ,e4 ,mac,nary4 ,design4--,this clock was designed and built to conform to the requirements of the space allotted to it4 ,the lines of the case are all straight2 there are no spires or gables or fantastic curves on the top4 ,a hall clock is indoors1 and the top should be horizontal2 for all the other lines such as tops of window casings1 picture moulding1 etc41 are horizontal4 ,if the clock stood out of doors under the stars1 then the top might be spired or pointed4 ,illustration3 ,construction detail of a hall clock ,the construction1 as indicated in the sketches1 is simple and substantial4 ,the long sides extend the entire height of the clock1 being firmly joined into the base and head4 ,the works are supported between these sides4 ,the wood is #c_/d-;inch quartered oak1 hand dressed1 and stained a warm brown4 ,the dial1 hinges1 catches1 pendulum1 and weight are of brass4 ,cutting ,glass with a ,wheel ,cutter4--,the long door has a panel of transparent leaded glass4 ,this leaded glass work is a most fascinating process4 ,the lead strips required for it were purchased of a dealer in lead specialties4 ,stained glass window concerns are usually willing to sell this lead4 ,a full-size drawing was made of the design for the glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the pattern4 ,a ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used4 ,one caution1 kept in mind1 will enable one to use a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it4 ,it should never be used twice in the same cut4 ,one stroke of a few inches over a cut previously made will ruin the wheel2 but if the wheel is not abused by tracing over a cut1 it will last a long time4 ,the glass should be laid on a level table and the cutter used with a firm hand1 making a continuous cut against a straight edge4 ,soldering4--,the long lines of the design are in one piece2 and there is a strip around the entire outside edge4 ,to solder the pieces together1 the glass and lead strips are laid in position on a board1 and brads 7about #a inch long7 are driven part way into the board close against the outside strips1 so as to hold the pieces in position4 ,a small bead of soldering paste is placed on each joint4 ,a small soldering iron 7which is really copper7 and wire solder are used4 ,the copper may be tinned by filing the point bright1 heating it1 dipping it in the soldering paste1 and then quickly touching it to the solder wire4 ,the point will become coated with the solder1 or1 as we say1 tinned4 ,the iron will need frequent heating4 ,a quick1 light touch of the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the best result4 ,illustration3 ,method of holding glass and lead strips for soldering ,the two rings in the brass dial were raised by driving the brass into a groove in a piece of oak with a hard wood wedge4 ,the piece of oak was revolved around the dial by means of a nail driven through the centre of the dial into the oak piece4 ,when a short arc of the ring had been raised1 the grooved piece was swung around about #a inch and the groove continued4 ,illustration3 ,method of raising the dial rings ,the length of the pendulum depends upon the number of teeth in the escape wheel4 ,it was necessary in the case of this clock to take out the escape wheel1 which had #cb teeth1 and substitute one of #bb teeth to accommodate the length of pendulum desired4 ,illustration3 ,dimensioned dial piece of clock before edges are turned ,,outdoor ,,furniture ,the greatest charm of home life in the summer season is rarely found within the house4 ,this is especially true in the village or in the country1 where nature is at her best2 but even in city homes that are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings a small yard1 a bit of garden1 or any means of connecting the home with ,god's great out-of-doors1 though it be but a sheltered balcony or a window garden1 the touch of nature is not lost4 ,it is possible1 however1 for art to assist nature2 and in many cases her assistance is very much needed4 ,it is certainly true that nature cannot be left wholly to herself in the neighbourhood of the village or city home4 ,if there be a garden1 as much forethought must be exercised in planning it and as much pains taken in developing and caring for it as is called for in working out any form of interior decoration4 ,there are problems of design and construction suggested by the need of suitable chairs and settles for the piazza1 comfortable hammocks and couches for the balcony1 awnings for the windows on the sunny side1 and the right furniture1 perhaps1 for an out-door dining-room4 ,the more decorative features are found in the rose arbours1 the trellises1 the garden screens1 the lawn tent1 the pergola1 and the garden gate2 and all these offer problems that easily come within the reach of enterprising and capable young craftsmen4 ,general ,types4--,in the designing of out-door furniture there are two suggestions from nature that may appropriately find expression4 ,on the one hand large masses1 as seen in the hills and rocks1 suggest solidity1 weight1 and permanence4 ,this idea is embodied in walls of masonry1 stone posts1 iron gates1 stone or concrete pedestals1 or in some other kind of heavy construction4 ,on the other hand1 there are the suggestions of lightness1 delicacy1 and growth1 seen in the growing vines1 shrubbery1 and small trees1 which are carried out in the so-called rustic furniture1 trellises1 arbours1 and garden screens4 ,an ,example of ,heavy ,furniture in ,wood4--,a settle designed for comparatively permanent use in some cool or retired corner of the garden may be made of native pine1 white wood1 or spruce1 well protected by several coats of paint4 ,a suggestion is here given for such a design1 laid out on substantial lines4 ,ordinary #d #d spruce1 planed1 may be used for the posts1 pine or white wood for the rest of the construction1 #b-;inch stock being used for the back pieces and arms1 and #g_/h-;inch boards for the rails and seat4 ,mortise and tenon joints should be used in the framing4 ,the illustration shows also a simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated in the two front posts4 ,it is a decorative feature which seems to counteract1 somewhat successfully1 the general severity of the lines on which the settle is designed to be built4 ,illustration3 ,a garden settle ,concrete ,furniture4--,still more substantial out-door furniture may be made of concrete cement4 ,this material has come into use for sidewalks and pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone masonry in retaining walls1 bridge abutments1 and in a great variety of heavy building construction4 ,concrete is1 in fact1 an artificial stone1 made by mixing ,portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in the right proportions1 thoroughly wetting the mixture with water1 and allowing it to harden4 ,it is so commonly associated with heavy1 crude work that it is not easy to believe that it may be also fashioned into anything of an artistic or decorative character2 and yet it is capable of a wide range of out-door decorative uses4 ,gate posts1 pedestals1 fountains1 window boxes1 urns1 and other forms of garden pottery in great variety1 tables1 and garden seats1 have been successfully moulded in this material4 ,its natural stone gray colour and surface are well suited to many of these uses2 but it may be given a variety of colour effects in bold design if occasion requires it4 ,in weight and durability it leaves nothing to be desired4 ,the ,wire ,form4--,concrete cement cannot be modelled like clay4 ,in its formative state it is too soft for such manipulation4 ,it must be supported in some way while it is being worked into the desired shape and until it has hardened4 ,in general there are two methods of giving the necessary support3 viz41 by employing an interior framework or skeleton1 generally of wire lath1 which is permanently encased in the cement2 or by using a plaster or wooden mould into which the material in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which it is removed when hardened4 ,the latter method has been elaborated quite extensively for commercial purposes1 because it readily yields an indefinite number of marketable results from the same moulds4 ,the simpler wooden moulds may be easily made by a clever boy2 and after a little experience he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly and mould a form successfully4 ,for single pieces of concrete work1 however1 the wire forms are to be preferred4 ,a suggestive illustration of this method is found in the following problem3 ,a ,,cylindrical ,,garden ,,vase ,the dimensions called for in this design are a diameter of #aj inches and a height of #h inches4 ,the wire form must therefore be made to approximate quite closely to these dimensions4 ,a good material for the form is galvanized wire lath of #a_/b-;inch mesh4 ,this problem will require a piece about #h inches wide and #cd inches long for the convex side1 and a piece about #aj inches square for the base4 ,from the square piece a circle #aj inches in diameter should be cut out4 ,a strong pair of tinners' shears will be needed for this purpose4 ,in bending the long piece into the cylindrical form it is well to proceed slowly in order to produce an evenly curved surface--i4 e41 one free from angular bends4 ,a good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece down on a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical wooden block4 ,if nothing better is available a rolling pin will serve this purpose4 ,when the bending is nearly complete1 the two ends of the piece should be brought together1 lapped over about an inch1 and bound together with free ends of the strands of wire4 ,a pair of pliers will be of great assistance4 ,if this part of the process has been carefully done1 there will result a cylindrical form #aj inches in diameter4 ,the circular piece should now be attached to one end of this form by means of the free ends of the strands found there1 bending the projecting wires over and clinching them at convenient points on the circumference of the circular piece where there are uncut meshes of the wire4 ,the form is now ready for covering with the cement4 ,illustration3 ,a garden vase ,the first step is the mixing of the cement for what is known as the scratch coat4 ,this is made by mixing ,portland cement with fine1 clean sand in the proportion of one part cement to two of sand4 ,these ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together in the dry state1 and then there should be added a small quantity of goats' hair1 well picked apart4 ,for the problem at hand about five pounds of cement will be needed and as much goats' hair as can be held in the hand4 ,the whole should be thoroughly wet down with just the right amount of water4 ,it is important that the mixture should not be made too soft4 ,a scratch coat should be given a consistency that will enable it to be easily spread over the wire form and1 at the same time1 to hang well together4 ,when a sufficient amount of the right mixture has been obtained1 it should be spread upon the wire form by means of a small mason's trowel or a large knife4 ,it is well to begin at the bottom of the convex side of the cylinder1 working upward1 taking no pains to make this first coat smooth1 since roughness is desirable1 and paying no attention whatever to the inside of the cylinder1 excepting to see that the cement is forced well through the meshes so that the whole mass will be held together firmly when dry4 ,the inside is given a smooth coat as a part of the later finishing process4 ,when the convex surface has been well covered1 the form should be turned bottom up and the cement spread upon the base of the cylinder in the same way4 ,after the wire has been completely covered1 the form1 which is likely to be somewhat distorted1 should be corrected by careful manipulation till a true cylinder has been obtained4 ,this is allowed to stand for about five hours until the cement has thoroughly hardened4 ,it is then ready for the finishing coat4 ,the next step in the process is to make the cement for the finishing coat4 ,considerable variety is possible here1 depending upon the colour and other surface effects that are desired4 ,in this design a light1 sparkling surface when finished is required4 ,to produce this effect a mixture of one part ,portland cement and two parts marble dust will be needed4 ,this should be mixed without hair to a consistency like that used for the scratch coat4 ,before applying the finishing coat the surfaces should be thoroughly moistened by means of a brush well filled with water4 ,there are various methods of applying this coat4 ,the simplest is carefully spreading it on with a trowel and smoothing it with the moistened hand4 ,when the surface has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible to improve the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper or a coarse file4 ,it is not possible to produce perfectly even surfaces in this way2 and yet the method has the characteristic freedom of handwork in general1 and yields very satisfactory results4 ,illustration3 ,a vase with blocked rim ,the ,decoration4--,a great variety of decorative effects may be obtained in concrete pottery and in other articles made of this material for out-door use4 ,in pottery these decorations may take the form of raised figures or ornaments1 of borders or designs cut in the surface1 and of inlays in colour4 ,whatever the form of design1 the necessary cutting for it is best made when the cement has become well set but not very hard--i4 e41 from #f to #aj hours after the finishing coat is applied4 ,a stout1 sharp1 pointed knife blade is all the tool that will be required4 ,a narrow chisel1 however1 may be found desirable for deepening the cuts4 ,the knife should be guided by means of a ruler1 which should be flexible if used on curved surfaces2 and the depth of the cut will depend somewhat upon the size of the piece4 ,in work similar to that described in the problem just given1 a depth of #c_/af or #a_/d of an inch is sufficient4 ,this cutting1 of course can be made after the cement has hardened1 by the use of hammer and chisel2 but it will be much more difficult4 ,illustration3 ,a square form ,the ,colours4--,colour cement for inlaid designs is made by using the best quality of white ,portland cement as a base1 colouring it with dry mineral pigments which are sold by dealers under the name of lime or cement-proof colours4 ,among the pigments suitable for this purpose are red oxide of iron1 which produces a red2 oxide of cobalt1 which gives a good blue2 chromate of lead1 which produces yellow2 carbonate of copper1 which gives a good dark green2 and burnt umber1 which yields a good brown4 ,these come as dry powders and should be mixed with the dry cement and marble dust1 making a mixture of uniform colour1 before the water is applied4 ,in order to determine the right colour it is well to experiment with a small quantity of the various ingredients until a satisfactory shade has been found4 ,then with this as a guide a sufficiently large quantity should be mixed1 in the same proportions1 to the consistency of a thick paste1 and applied to the design1 which has been previously cut in the surface to be decorated4 ,to insure thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete1 the cutting should be well moistened with a wet brush4 ,a number of suggestive designs are shown in the accompanying drawings4 ,rustic ,furniture4--,the lighter out-door furniture can be easily made up in a great variety of designs4 ,the form of rustic settles and chairs is determined largely by the material which is available4 ,very useful and ornamental effects are produced by using sticks cut from the tops or from branches of small trees4 ,birch saplings1 easily found in the second growth of some wood lots1 afford a good supply of material4 ,it is not necessary that the sticks be straight2 the natural crooks and notches are often very useful in bracing the framework4 ,chairs1 settles1 tables1 standards for flower boxes1 and other articles of furniture may be made out of this rough and unfinished material4 ,illustration3 ,a garden screen ,lattice ,work4--,trellises and garden screens have been made in an almost endless variety of forms4 ,among the most satisfactory is the plain lattice work in squares and rectangles4 ,its simplicity and evident durability are points in its favour4 ,experience proves also that vines and other plants needing support are readily adjusted to this form of trellis4 ,the size of the stock required in making the right-angled lattice work depends upon the uses to be made of it4 ,for a garden screen the uprights need to be of #b #b inch stock and of any convenient length4 ,end posts of #c #c inch stock will be required1 to give necessary stiffness2 and1 if the screen be a long one1 intermediate posts of the same size should be placed at intervals of ten or twelve feet4 ,the horizontal pieces may be strips of #g_/h-;inch stock1 #b inches wide1 set their full thickness into the uprights4 ,spruce furring1 which lumber dealers supply in #b-;inch widths1 is suitable for the small rails2 but if chestnut be used for the uprights it is well to use the same wood for the rest of the construction4 ,the top and bottom rails should be of heavier stock1 not less than #b by #c inches4 ,the best foundation is a line of concrete posts1 firmly set into the ground at intervals of #f feet1 to which the bottom rail or the uprights are fastened by means of irons set into the cement when the posts are formed4 ,two coats of dull green paint will protect the wood and properly subordinate the lattice work to the trailing branches which it supports4 ,,viii ,,finishing ,,and ,,re-,,finishing ',tis toil's reward that sweetens industry--,ebenezer ,elliot ,in the commercial production of furniture the cabinet-maker has nothing to do with the finishing of his work4 ,this essential part of furniture making is turned over to artisans who are finishers by trade4 ,in a separate part of the factory they attend to the cleaning and filling of the wood and to whatever finish is applied to the work of the joiner4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that the finishing of all kinds of woodwork is quite as important as any other feature in its production2 for1 however good the lines of design may be and however thoroughly the design may be carried out in the construction of any piece of furniture or other woodwork1 it may be and often is spoiled as a work of art in the finishing4 ,illustration3 ,finishing a ,library ,table4 ,plate ,,vi ,but the amateur cabinet-maker should be his own finisher4 ,he should familiarize himself with the various kinds of finish that may be applied to the different woods4 ,he should know the object of filling wood and how it is done4 ,he should understand the processes of fuming1 staining1 and varnishing so well that he can produce with certainty the results desired4 ,,cleaning1 ,,surfacing1 ,,and ,,filling ,first ,steps in ,finishing4--,the first step in finishing woodwork is to clean it up and prepare it for the filler4 ,too great care cannot be taken in examining all surfaces for slight oversights that have occurred in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been acquired in any part of the process of construction4 ,light planing1 chiselling1 or scraping1 and perhaps a little sand-papering1 always with the grain1 may be needed to remove these faults and blemishes4 ,the most serious of these generally result from gluing4 ,all surplus glue should be carefully removed1 even to the film that soaks into the surface of the wood4 ,the slightest spot of glue remaining will keep the filler out of the wood and show through any kind of finish4 ,importance of ,filling4--,as soon as the furniture is thoroughly cleaned1 if it is to be finished in the natural color1 the grain of the wood must be filled with a light1 transparent1 semi-liquid substance1 known as the filler1 which1 after standing from five to seven minutes1 should be thoroughly rubbed off with a piece of coarse cloth or a handful of shavings4 ,this process1 as its name indicates1 fills the pores of the wood and protects them against the absorption of moisture and the consequent swelling4 ,but this is by no means its chief purpose4 ,strictly speaking1 filling is the ground-work of all subsequent finishing processes and1 for that reason1 it may be said to be the most important operation connected with wood finishing4 ,if improperly done1 no amount of good work with the varnish brush will remove the fault4 ,in fact1 good work is impossible after a bad beginning4 ,good varnishing or good finishing of any kind requires that1 before the final finishing processes begin1 the surface should be made perfectly level and smooth1 free from all unevenness or roughness or minute openings of any kind that might allow the varnish or other finishing material to penetrate the wood4 ,if the filling has not been so thorough that no part of the subsequent finishing material can be absorbed by the wood1 a rough surface will be sure to follow4 ,this may1 of course1 be rubbed down and re-finished1 but never with that perfection of result which is assured by laying a good foundation in correct filling4 ,it may be set down as a fundamental principle of wood finishing that the best result is obtained when the filling or surfacing has been so thoroughly done that the thinnest of finishing coats1 few in number1 are required to produce the desired result4 ,liquid ,fillers or ,surfaces4--,there are many kinds of fillers in common use1 but they may all be considered as belonging to one or the other of two classes4 ,they are either liquid fillers or paste fillers4 ,woods differ greatly in the coarseness or fineness of their grain4 ,the coarse or open-grained woods require a filler with body enough to close up the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even surface necessary as a foundation for good finishing4 ,the close-grained woods1 on the other hand1 do not present the same filling problem4 ,they could not absorb a paste filler4 ,in fact1 it is hardly too much to say that the fine1 close-grained woods1 like maple1 gum wood1 and birch1 do not need a filler at all2 and there are some coarse-grained woods1 like southern or hard pine and cypress1 the pores of which are naturally filled with gummy or resinous substances and will not absorb an artificial filler4 ,but all such woods do need to be given a finishing surface which will prevent the finishing coats from soaking into the fibre of the wood4 ,this is the office of the so-called liquid fillers1 which are very properly called first coaters or surfacers4 ,how to ,make a ,liquid ,filler4--,a standard formula for the preparation of a liquid filler is as follows3 ,mix four parts by weight of carbonate of soda with six parts of china clay1 and grind this mixture in about eight parts of japan1 thinning the product with turpentine or benzine to the consistency of linseed oil4 ,laundry starch may be used in place of china clay1 giving a filler which is somewhat easier of application than the clay filler because it does not settle4 ,it lacks in durability1 however1 especially if it is not well covered4 ,the finest grained woods do not require the addition of any material to the filler to give body4 ,a great variety of liquids may be easily obtained which1 without being mixed with anything1 will give the necessary surface4 ,glue size1 water glass1 and the cheaper grades of varnish1 thinned if necessary with benzine or turpentine1 are often used for this purpose4 ,but these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and never should be used on the best grades of woodwork4 ,shellac is always preferred as a first coater for hard pine1 as it keeps the resinous sap in the pores of the wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain4 ,if oil is applied to hard pine without first applying this protecting coat of shellac1 the wood blackens with age4 ,shellac is an excellent first coater for other woods also4 ,it is commonly used in house finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims4 ,but it dries rapidly1 and generally with a rough surface4 ,the first coating of shellac1 therefore1 requires careful sand-papering before the varnish is put on4 ,time ,needed for a ,shellac ,coat to ,dry4--,it may be well to caution the amateur finisher as to the time required for the thorough drying of shellac4 ,while it may be truly said to dry very rapidly1 the first drying is necessarily upon the outer surface1 forming a hard coating which delays somewhat the drying throughout1 so that a shellac filling is not really dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after it has been applied1 though it may appear to be4 ,it is a good rule to allow at least twenty-four hours for thorough drying2 and it may be well to add that all methods of filling1 rubbing off1 etc41 require for the best results more time than energetic workers sometimes allow4 ,cost of ,surfacing4--,a practical question that the amateur finisher will ask is1 how can one know in advance how much filler is needed for given pieces of work1 and what will be its cost8 ,for a good quality of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint will cover eight square yards with one coat4 ,the cost varies greatly1 depending upon the quality of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained of a dealer4 ,a good commercial filler or surfacer can be bought for #a4ej per gallon1 making the cost per square yard of one-coat surfacing about #b-a_/b cents4 ,a small can costs #ae cents4 ,good work cannot be done with the cheaper grades of filler4 ,shellac1 which is1 all in all1 the best of surfacers1 can be bought for #a4he a gallon1 which would make the cost of surfacing somewhat under #c cents a square yard4 ,how to ,make a ,paste ,filler4--,a good paste filler1 such as is required for the open-grained woods like oak1 ash1 baywood1 and poplar or white wood1 may be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base1 thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil1 turpentine1 and japan in equal parts1 with enough silica added to the liquid mixture to form a good paste of a consistency somewhat thicker than paper-hangers' paste4 ,if the mixture should prove to be a little too thick1 it may easily be thinned with turpentine4 ,the final mixing of this filler requires grinding in a hand mill4 ,unless a considerable quantity of it is needed it is quite as well to purchase a can of the paste filler of a dealer in painters' or finishers' supplies1 though commercial fillers are not generally quite so good as a one made on this formula4 ,they often contain wax and whiting and other materials as a base which are not so satisfactory in the long run as the floated silica4 ,how a ,paste ,filler is ,applied4--,paste fillers should be spread on the surface to be filled very liberally with a wide1 stiff brush1 allowed to stand from five to seven minutes1 and then rubbed off with a piece of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior4 ,but it must not all be rubbed off or drawn out of the grain4 ,this is an easy mistake for an inexperienced worker to make4 ,the thing to do is to rub it in and at the same time leave the surfaces smooth4 ,the surfaces should then be allowed to dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving the final finishing coats4 ,,varnishing ,the importance of a good foundation surface--even1 smooth1 and free from unsealed pores that would absorb and thus undermine the first coat of varnish--has been explained in the section on filling and surfacing4 ,if this foundation has been well laid1 the amateur finisher may enter upon the varnishing stage of his work with confidence2 but he will soon learn that there is much call for skill in order to produce the desired results in this part of the finishing process4 ,the selection1 preparation1 and application of varnish is a special calling1 and great skill comes only as the result of experience2 but certain main facts and principles are easily learned4 ,how a ,good ,varnish is ,recognized4--,it is hardly necessary to say that a superior varnish must be clear1 transparent1 and brilliant4 ,these qualities are always associated with this kind of finish4 ,but durability is also a necessary quality4 ,an expert will1 with his eyes shut1 recognize a high-grade varnish by its peculiar odour1 which is to him an agreeable one4 ,he will at once detect inferior grades by the rank1 sharp odour of resin and benzine used in their manufacture4 ,the range of quality and cost in varnishes is probably greater and more varied than in any other finishing material4 ,for fine1 artistic work only the best varnish is allowable2 and this may be bought for #c4jj a gallon4 ,sag and ,how ,corrected4--,a good varnish flows easily from the brush1 spreads evenly1 and dries slowly1 thus allowing plenty of time for its proper distribution over the surface4 ,and time enough should be taken to apply an even coat which will not dry unequally and lead to cracking due to irregular contraction in the process of hardening4 ,it is of the utmost importance that each coat be spread evenly over the surface when first applied4 ,great care should be taken not to brush long in one place4 ,re-brushing after a brief interval leaves brush marks which are objectionable4 ,unequal spreading on broad surfaces often causes the varnish to run or sag4 ,a tendency to sag may be brushed out if attended to promptly4 ,but1 if it is not noticed until the varnish has begun to set1 the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb the thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly dried brush2 and this must not be attempted three or four minutes after the varnish has been put on4 ,by that time it will have become quite well set and a sag will be beyond repairing by any simple means4 ,time ,required ,between ,varnish ,coats4--,the best varnishes1 as has been stated1 dry quite slowly1 and they seem to dry and harden not1 as shellac does1 on the top first1 but from the under surface outward4 ,this peculiarity emphasizes the need of allowing sufficient time between coats4 ,and it should be added that mere drying is not all that is required4 ,each coat must harden2 and during the process of hardening slight movements take place throughout the mass of the coat until it becomes permanently set or hardened4 ,the time required for this permanent setting or seasoning1 as it may be called1 varies with the character of the under coat1 with the temperature of the room in which the finishing is done1 and with the thickness of the varnish coat itself4 ,five days is usually thought to be a short seasoning period4 ,as many weeks would not be too long for the best results4 ,it is folly to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing4 ,in the nature of the case it cannot be hurried without yielding disastrous results4 ,there is no other kind of work in which haste makes waste with the certainty that it does in varnishing4 ,great pains must be taken with each coat4 ,least of all should the under coats be slighted1 for solidity and depth in the appearance of the finished surfaces depend upon there being plenty of evenly laid and well hardened varnish before the final or finish coat is applied4 ,all this work should be done in a well-lighted room1 free from dust1 and with a good supply of fresh air1 kept at an even temperature1 of about #gj degrees--certainly not colder than this1 since a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading evenly4 ,number of ,coats ,needed4--,the number of coats of varnish required vary with the character of the work4 ,what is known as piano finish requires from three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing varnish1 each well hardened and rubbed down to give under surfaces more even than the best brushing can give4 ,in addition to these under coats a final finish coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre4 ,how to ,rub ,down ,varnish4--,rubbing down varnish is a unique and important part in the process of finishing4 ,the beginning of the operation consists of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized pumice stone mixed with oil or with water1 if the work is such that water would have no chance to soak into the pores of the wood4 ,whichever liquid is used1 a rubbing pad will be found necessary4 ,this is a block about #d inches square1 made of thick1 loose cloth like felt or hair cloth4 ,in use it is first moistened in the oil or water and then dipped into a box containing a quantity of powdered pumice4 ,with this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously1 giving a circular movement to the pad in rubbing down the broad surfaces4 ,as the smoothing progresses1 less and less of the pumice powder is used4 ,near the end of the process enough will be found on the surface or adhering to the rubbing pad4 ,what remains on the surface is finally all wiped off carefully with chamois skin1 when it will be found that the surface has been levelled down but that it is covered with fine scratches due to the grains of the pumice4 ,these are removed by a second rubbing in rotten stone and oil or water4 ,dull ,finish and ,flat ,varnish4--,for many purposes good finishing requires but one under coat rubbed down and covered with a finish coat2 and this finish coat is often not allowed to retain its natural lustre4 ,for furniture a dull finish is much to be preferred4 ,it is more durable1 it harmonizes better with its surroundings1 and it is more in keeping with the idea of simplicity and usefulness4 ,in working for a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth and evenness of surface as it is when a high lustre is required1 and therefore fewer coats are necessary4 ,in fact1 a dull finish may be given to furniture without any varnish at all4 ,two or three coats of shellac1 each well rubbed down1 give a very satisfactory result4 ,wax finish1 to be described later1 gives beautiful effects4 ,there are varnishes known as flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing4 ,they are made by dissolving beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of the solid to a pint of the liquid1 using moderate heat and mixing the wax solution while warm with four times the quantity of warm varnish4 ,what is known as the old ,dutch finish is obtained by using over the proper stain one coat of wax varnish4 ,but there is no kind of dull finish so durable as that given by several coats of high-grade varnish1 each well rubbed down4 ,,wax ,,finish ,how to ,prepare and ,apply ,finishing ,wax4--,the simplest and at the same time one of the most attractive methods of finishing woodwork is rubbing it with finishing wax4 ,this is one of the old processes which has of late years been revived by the arts and crafts societies and is becoming deservedly popular4 ,finishing wax may be purchased ready for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two parts wax and one of turpentine4 ,to do this the wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings1 placed in a dish1 and covered with the liquid4 ,the solution may be hastened by heating in a water bath2 but1 if a gas flame be used for heating the water1 care should be exercised to extinguish the flame before bringing the turpentine near1 on account of the inflammable character of turpentine vapor4 ,this mixture1 which is too thick to spread with a brush1 may be applied either hot or cold by means of a piece of soft cloth4 ,soft cloths1 like clean cheese cloth1 should be used also in rubbing4 ,the rubbing should be continued for a considerable time1 but it is by no means so tedious a process as the rubbing down of the several coats of varnish4 ,less rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot4 ,one of the greatest advantages of the wax finish is that it may be quickly applied and immediately rubbed down1 after which the furniture is ready for use4 ,filling and finishing are accomplished together4 ,it is also easy to apply a fresh coat of wax at any time4 ,in fact1 it is desirable to re-finish new pieces of furniture in this way several times during the first few months of their use1 and after that about once a year4 ,,staining ,object of ,staining4--,up to this point the processes of finishing considered have assumed that the wood treated is to retain its natural colour1 excepting that it may darken with age4 ,but it is often desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork--i4 e41 to dye or stain it4 ,this is done for a variety of purposes--to reduce to one tone the different shades of the natural colour often found in the same kind of wood1 to bring out the natural beauty of the grain and texture1 to give an entirely new colour to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation of the more expensive kinds1 and to produce tones that will harmonize with various colour schemes4 ,to accomplish this great variety of results1 scores of different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put upon the market in almost countless shades and tints1 but they are all easily classified under three heads4 ,they are oil stains1 water stains1 or alcohol stains4 ,a ,perfect ,stain4--,a perfect stain1 if it could be obtained1 would be a clear1 limpid liquid1 free from all solid particles or specks of colouring matter that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere with the absorption of the filler--so clear and transparent that it would in no way obscure the grain of the wood1 which in many varieties is the chief element of beauty--so limpid that it would easily soak deep into the pores of the wood1 carrying to a considerable depth below the surface an artificial colour which will not fade on exposure4 ,water1 ,alcohol1 and ,oil ,stains ,compared4--,the water and alcohol stains on the whole meet these requirements better than the oil stains do4 ,they are clear1 and without body1 and they have great penetration4 ,but they are not free from faults4 ,many of the water stains are made from aniline dyes which are not durable4 ,the alcohol stains1 however1 are generally permanent4 ,both the water stains and the alcohol stains raise the grain of the wood and are liable to show darker in corners and on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing4 ,the oil stains1 on the other hand1 are free from these faults4 ,they spread easily and evenly1 they do not raise the grain1 they do not double up or show laps or streaks1 and they do not fade2 but they have a few defects which overbalance these good qualities4 ,they have considerable body which prevents them from penetrating equally all parts of the surface1 so that they do not carry in the colouring as either the water or the alcohol stains do4 ,their oily nature causes them partly to close up the filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the subsequent process of filling4 ,this is so bad a defect that oil stains are not to be recommended for open-grained woods1 the fine finish of which depends so much on correct filling4 ,they are more successful with the close-grained woods1 which need only to be surfaced with shellac or the ordinary liquid filler4 ,how ,stain is ,applied4--,if furniture or any kind of woodwork is to be artificially coloured1 staining is the first of the finishing operations to be attended to4 ,the stain should be spread upon well-cleaned surfaces by means of a brush1 a cloth1 or a sponge1 and allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it may penetrate well into the wood4 ,the surfaces should then be carefully wiped off with clean1 soft cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may not have soaked into the wood1 and thus prevent a streaked or painted effect4 ,after the stained surface is thoroughly dry1 a filler1 coloured to match the stain1 should be applied and rubbed well into the pores1 as already explained in the section on natural finish4 ,the beginner will need to be cautioned again and again not to rub the filler all off or draw it out of the grain1 but to rub it in as much as possible4 ,he will also need to be on his guard against the presence of moisture or grease1 which will interfere with good results4 ,excellent prepared stains in great variety may be easily obtained of dealers in painters' supplies4 ,they will not always produce the effects claimed for them1 but with a little experimenting it is possible to find prepared stains that will give almost any desired result4 ,they are somewhat expensive1 however1 and the amateur finisher may prefer to develop his own stain4 ,following are some suggestions along this line3 ,asphaltum and ,golden ,oak ,stain4--,a good chocolate brown stain may be produced on almost any light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish made by colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying with a brush4 ,a considerable quantity of asphaltum should be used1 but not enough to make a sticky liquid4 ,this will need to be finished with shellac or finishing varnish4 ,when applied to quartered oak it produces the beautiful effect known as golden oak4 ,it may also be used on white wood to give an imitation of black walnut2 and ,georgia pine under this stain takes on a very attractive tone without obscuring the natural figure of the wood4 ,mahogany4--,a clever imitation of mahogany may be made by staining birch of the right grain with logwood stain4 ,the stain is made by boiling together equal parts of logwood chips and water for about three hours4 ,while the mixture is hot1 chloride of tin is added gradually until the right shade of colour is produced4 ,the stain should be allowed to cool before it is applied1 and then several coats may be needed to secure the right depth of shade4 ,the filler used should be coloured with burnt umber and sienna4 ,the finish may be a brilliant or a flat varnish1 or wax4 ,baywood as ,mahogany4--,mahogany stain is also applied to baywood1 resulting in what commonly passes for real mahogany4 ,the genuine article1 however1 is an imported wood coming from ,south ,america1 ,mexico1 and ,africa in several varieties2 and it is a much harder wood than the ,american baywood imitation4 ,both the birch and the baywood imitations of mahogany may be so well stained and finished that it is difficult to distinguish them from the imported varieties4 ,flemish ,oak4--,the various oak stains are worthy of special mention4 ,flemish oak finish is very dark1 almost black4 ,it is prepared by first applying a stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in water in the proportion of one half pound of bichromate to a gallon of water4 ,the solution should be strained and applied with a stiff brush4 ,after drying1 the surface is well sand-papered and a coat of thin black stain is applied1 made by dissolving japan drop-black in turpentine4 ,this is allowed to stand a few minutes1 then wiped off1 and when the surface is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac is applied4 ,after a thorough drying and hardening the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper and finished with wax4 ,mission ,oak4--,the so-called mission oak finish may be in several colours1 but as a rule it is of a dull gray with the flakes slightly reddish4 ,the stain is made from drop-black in oil1 tinged with a little rose pink1 and thinned with japan and turpentine4 ,the mixture should be strained through cheese cloth and applied with a staining brush4 ,wax finish is invariably used for mission oak4 ,forest ,green ,oak4--,forest green oak is among the best of the green effects in this wood4 ,the stain is made by mixing two parts of chrome green with one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material4 ,this is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine and one of raw linseed oil1 with a little white japan4 ,the resulting stain should be somewhat thinner than linseed oil4 ,after this has been applied to the oak surface1 rubbed in and dried1 it is given a coat of thin shellac coloured with tumeric and a very little green aniline4 ,this should have a wax finish4 ,gray ,oak4--,a gray stain may be given to oak by a solution of iron sulphate1 made by dissolving a small quantity of chemically pure crystals in water1 and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by adding a little sulphuric acid4 ,this solution is most conveniently used by placing it in a box tank large enough to contain the pieces of wood to be stained1 as they must soak in the solution until they are thoroughly saturated4 ,the pieces may be kept separate by stout cords tied around them1 and they may be held under the solution by means of weights4 ,when taken out they should be allowed to dry before they are rubbed down4 ,weathered ,oak4--,weathered oak stain is made by taking two ounces of copperas and the same quantity of dry tannin1 dissolving them separately in about a quart of water1 and when thoroughly dissolved mixing them together4 ,when applied to oak it gives it the natural weathered tone with a slight bluish cast4 ,it may then be oiled1 shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or wax4 ,fumed ,oak and ,chestnut4--,but the most satisfactory method of giving a brown tone to furniture or other woodwork1 is without question1 by fuming with ammonia1 though this process is limited to two woods1 viz41 white oak and chestnut4 ,all other woods1 including red oak1 are deficient in tannic acid1 the essential element to combine with the ammonia gas in the production of the stain4 ,this method requires a fuming box of sufficient dimensions to contain the article of furniture to be fumed4 ,it must be carefully constructed with all its joints made vapour proof by pasting over them strips of paper and covering them with shellac4 ,the top or one side of the box should be fastened with screws1 so that it may be vapour proof when the box is in use and yet easily removed4 ,the operation of fuming consists simply in placing the furniture in the box with one or more shallow pans filled with the strongest ammonia--not the household ammonia1 which is too weak--screwing the top or cover on1 and allowing the apparatus to stand from #ab to #bd hours1 according to the shade desired4 ,if the fuming box be provided with small glass windows in its adjacent corners1 a good light will be thrown across the furniture so that the development of colour may be observed without opening the box4 ,when the desired shade has been obtained and the furniture removed1 it is best to give it a good wax finish which will develop a beautiful velvety texture4 ,peculiarities of ,fumed ,finish4--,it will be observed that the toning of quartered oak by the fuming process develops the beauty of the grain far better than any other process of staining2 and there should also be noted the still more remarkable fact that the contrasts of tone are the reverse of those given by staining2 i4 e41 the parts that appear lighter in the one case are the darker parts in the other4 ,this gives a certain distinction to the fumed finish and furnishes a means of detecting that which is not genuine4 ,,white ,,enamel ,a vivid and very effective finish for furniture as well as for the trim of some rooms is white enamel4 ,it is used on new work and also in re-finishing old furniture and other woodwork4 ,in the latter case the old finish1 whatever it may be1 must be removed and the surfaces thoroughly sand-papered4 ,but whether the wood be old or not1 a satisfactory enamel finish cannot be produced by using the white varnish alone1 since1 like all other varnishes1 it is somewhat transparent4 ,it is necessary1 first1 to coat the wood with flat white--a paint made of white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening and thinned with turpentine4 ,oil should not be used in any part of the process4 ,three coats of this paint will generally be needed to produce the right surface for the final finish4 ,each of these coats should be allowed to dry and become well hardened4 ,two or three days1 better still a week1 should be allowed for hardening between coats1 since insufficient hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats and develops a tendency to chip off4 ,when a surface is ready for the enamel1 only one coat of it should be applied1 and that should be given not less than one week to harden before it is exposed to wear4 ,enamel is simply a good varnish coloured with zinc oxide ground in varnish4 ,it may be thinned1 if necessary1 with turpentine1 and it is applied with a brush like any other varnish4 ,,problems ,problems in filling and finishing were developed in the series of furniture making problems in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,it is only necessary to bring forward the unfinished work there described and apply to it the finishing methods outlined in this chapter4 ,our problems are1 therefore1 the following3 ,the ,knock-down ,bookcase4--,if made up in white wood it may1 like its original1 be stained in imitation of black walnut and waxed4 ,it may1 however1 be of oak1 ash1 or cherry1 and finished to harmonize with the furniture with which it is to be used4 ,the ,hanging ,book ,rack4--,in the design for this rack it was suggested that it might be made of white wood and given a white enamel finish1 or of baywood with a mahogany stain and varnish4 ,the ,umbrella ,stand4--,oak was advised for this piece of furniture4 ,it needs to be treated with a paste filler and given two coats of varnish1 well rubbed down4 ,the ,magazine ,stand4--,oak was suggested for this stand4 ,the color will depend upon the surroundings4 ,filling and varnishing will be required if it be given a liquid stain1 and wax finish if it be fumed4 ,the ,light ,library ,table4--,oak was mentioned as a very appropriate wood for this table1 but some lighter wood like ash may be used4 ,it will be remembered that all open-grained woods require treatment with a paste filler before they are finished4 ,the ,heavy ,library ,table4--,as this was designed in the mission style1 oak was chosen as the most suitable wood4 ,it may be given the so-called mission oak stain and a wax finish4 ,the ,round ,centre ,table4--,this may be made in any of the woods commonly used for furniture1 but quartered oak was mentioned4 ,a golden oak finish will be found very satisfactory4 ,the ,bookcase with ,glazed ,doors4--,this may be made up in ash1 in quartered oak1 or in gum wood4 ,the finish will depend upon the kind of wood used and the furniture with which it is to be associated4 ,the ,library ,desk and the ,morris ,chair4--,the originals were made in quartered oak1 fumed1 and waxed4 ,the ,hall ,clock4--,this may be made in quartered oak and given a weathered oak stain and wax finish4 ,,re-,,finishing ,,old ,,furniture ,there is nothing that affords more satisfaction to one looking for pleasing effects in household fittings than the occasional piece of genuine old furniture repaired and re-finished4 ,some of the rare old colonial designs are of exceptional merit4 ,this is proved by the high prices which they often command4 ,these designs originated in the days of the genuine hand crafts1 before the invention of machine-made1 cheap furniture4 ,the work of the older designers was characterized by a certain individuality which gave it artistic value2 and the craftsmen who worked out these designs did their work with such care and thoroughness that what they produced has had a lasting quality4 ,it is for these reasons that we find it still in existence and so much desired4 ,caution as to ,repairs4--,in the work of renovating old furniture1 problems are met which are very different from those which have to be considered in the production of new work4 ,all questions of design are settled4 ,there is generally enough of the original article to show what the design was4 ,the problem is one of restoration2 we must supply the missing parts and re-finish the whole4 ,the first thing to do1 therefore1 with any piece of genuine antique furniture is to look it over carefully from the point of view of the cabinet-maker1 note its defects1 supply the missing or loosened parts1 and mend the breaks4 ,it will be found that the wood is generally exceedingly dry and brittle on account of its age1 and that it will therefore need to be handled more carefully than new wood2 and1 in matching up1 it will often be found desirable to make use of parts of other old pieces rather than to add new wood to the old4 ,this is especially true of veneering1 which cannot be well matched in any other way4 ,old bits of veneer1 on the other hand1 may be so deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent finishing4 ,scraping4--,after the necessary repairs have been made1 the next thing to be done is to remove the old finish4 ,if the varnish is dry and brittle and somewhat cracked1 it may be removed by means of a well-sharpened scraper1 great care being taken1 however1 not to injure the wood surface1 especially at the corners and edges4 ,if the scraper does not take off the varnish well at certain points1 fine sand-papering may be resorted to4 ,it is generally wise1 also1 to give the entire surface a light sand-papering before it is cleaned up for finishing4 ,the ,varnish ,remover4--,it often happens1 however1 that the scraper will not accomplish the desired result4 ,in that case the liquid varnish remover is necessary4 ,this may be found at the paint stores4 ,the best formulas for producing these varnish and paint removers are known only to the manufacturers4 ,it is therefore not wise for the young finisher to attempt to make his own remover4 ,he should provide himself with a can of it and a bristle brush with which to apply it to the furniture4 ,after putting on a good coat he should let it remain a few minutes and then try to scrape off the softened finish with a putty knife4 ,if it doesn't come off readily1 it should stand a little longer4 ,the amount of time required depends entirely upon the hardness of the old finish4 ,but in due time it will become soft and can be very quickly and effectually removed4 ,a putty knife1 however1 will not remove it all4 ,after scraping off as much as possible from the plain surfaces and from the corners1 a careful washing with turpentine or benzine will clean off what remains4 ,it is of the greatest importance that none of the old varnish nor any of the varnish remover should be permitted to remain4 ,either of them will show through the finish as stains on the broad surfaces and collect in the corners when the new finish is put on4 ,re-finishing4--,the re-finishing process is much like that described for new work1 the chief exception being that there is generally no need of filling unless it has been found necessary to add new wood in making the repairs4 ,generally speaking1 the re-finishing begins with the surfacing1 which may be done with thin shellac coloured to match the stain of the furniture4 ,this is sand-papered lightly before receiving the one or more coats of finishing varnish necessary to produce the desired effect4 ,very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down wax finish4 ,,problem3 ,,re-,,finishing ,,an ,,antique ,,mahogany ,,table ,the table with which this problem deals was found in an old furniture shop among a large number of pieces probably of equal antiquity but of poor design2 for all old furniture was not conceived on beautiful lines4 ,much of it was quite as ugly as some of the modern furniture4 ,this table1 however1 when separated from the rubbish which almost concealed it1 was found to have good proportions1 with simple but graceful elements designed to make it useful as well as attractive4 ,it was a drop-leaf table1 the leaves being cut in with a double curve at each of the four corners4 ,the legs were of turned stock and fluted1 terminating in brass thimbles with casters4 ,one leg was broken off1 one of the leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges and the other was partly broken1 the table top had received some hard knocks1 and the entire surface was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of which the table was made4 ,it took some imagination to conceive the possibilities which lay in this much abused and dilapidated old relic4 ,the first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and dirt as well as possible with a damp sponge4 ,the part of the top that remained on the frame was then removed so that the repairs could be easily made4 ,the broken leg was replaced by boring each of the broken parts and setting them together with a #c_/d-;inch dowel1 glued in4 ,the brass tips and casters were removed and set aside to be burnished4 ,the missing parts of the top were replaced by new pieces of baywood1 fitted in1 glued1 and stained to match the original wood4 ,after the necessary repairs had been made the entire table was treated with varnish remover and the old finish scraped off with a putty knife4 ,this part of the process was completed by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with turpentine1 carefully picking out with a pointed knife from corners1 cracks1 and openings of any kind1 all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish remover4 ,after carefully wiping off the results of this treatment with clean cheese cloth all the broad surfaces were then smoothed off with fine sand-paper4 ,it was found that the wood was well filled1 so that all it now needed was a final finishing with wax4 ,the transformation from the begrimed old table found in the shop to a graceful and beautiful article of antique furniture was complete4 ,,ix ,,hand ,,weaving ,and ,aphrodite came to comfort them ,with incense1 luscious honey1 and fragrant wine2 ,and ,her gave them beauty of face and soul ,beyond all women2 purest ,artemis ,endowed them with her stature and white grace2 ,and ,pallas taught their hands to flash along ,her famous looms4 ,the ,daughters of ,pandarus 7from the ,odyssey1 ,lib4 ,,xx74 ,translation by ,mrs4 ,browning4 ,among the home industries which the arts and crafts societies have lately revived1 perhaps none invite more interest or deserve greater honour than weaving with the hand loom4 ,weaving is an ancient art4 ,if we were to seek its origin we should have to go back to the time when men adopted homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made from the skins of animals4 ,that was a great change1 for it meant the beginning not only of the textile industries but of civilization itself4 ,it is no wonder that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured in ancient mythologies4 ,not less honour is due the spinning wheels and looms of our grandmothers1 which played an important part in the early beginnings of our own history4 ,the ,new ,england colonists spoke with pride of communities which showed progress in the weaving of cloth2 and this was then largely a home industry in the hands of honourable women4 ,it was a work of necessity1 but not without love and devotion4 ,many evidences remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads1 in towels of homespun flax1 in durable linen sheets and table-cloths--examples of unfailing patience1 great ingenuity1 and marvellous skill--handed down from generation to generation to their present fortunate and proud possessors4 ,illustration3 ,weaving a ,rug4 ,plate ,,vii ,the ,primitive ,loom4--,in the ,orient1 where our choicest rugs are made1 two trees growing near each other1 some strings and pieces of bamboo1 and a few simple accessories1 are all the worker requires4 ,this is a primitive loom4 ,the modern hand loom is the same in principle2 and the looms of our factories do not differ from it essentially4 ,while it is true that their productive power has been enormously multiplied1 this great improvement1 which was actually one of the chief causes of a great industrial revolution1 was due mainly to the inventive genius of two men who harnessed the motive powers of nature to the ,english hand looms4 ,illustration3 ,shuttle and bobbin ,warp and ,woof4--,the fundamental process in all weaving is essentially the same2 and it is exceedingly simple4 ,it consists in passing one set of threads between two other sets of threads which cross each other alternately and are moved first up and then down to allow the passage of the shuttle with its bobbin and thread4 ,the set of threads which cross each other and which1 by being moved up and down1 interlock the thread which is passed between them1 is known as the warp4 ,the thread which the shuttle carries across and between the warp threads is called the woof4 ,by careful selection of materials1 by skilful design in the dyeing and arrangement of these materials1 and by proper management of the warp and woof to express the design1 the most beautiful ,oriental rugs are fashioned2 and1 though we may not be able to reproduce these in our homes1 very beautiful and very useful things may be made upon the hand loom by those who have the necessary enthusiasm and patience4 ,illustration3 ,the hand loom ,illustration3 ,the reed ,what the ,hand ,loom is4--,the hand loom consists of four uprights or posts1 joined on two sides at the top and bottom by cross pieces4 ,attached to the lower cross piece are two other uprights1 one on each side of the loom1 bolted in such a manner as to give free play back and forth4 ,this is the beater4 ,these cross pieces are grooved on their inner edges1 and into this groove is slipped the reed1 which is a frame divided into sections by short1 stiff wires1 making from #aj to #be or more sections to the inch4 ,it is called a reed because it was formerly made from reeds4 ,the sections of the reed are called dents1 and through each one is to be threaded a single strand of the warp4 ,from the upper cross pieces extend two other uprights1 one on each side1 to a height of about two feet above the general framework4 ,they are united at the top by a round piece called the roll1 over which1 near each end1 are passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn carry other cords fastened by means of screw eyes to inch-wide sticks extending across the width of the loom4 ,these sticks are in pairs and carry cords or wires of uniform length through the centre of each of which a thread of the warp is passed by means of an eye in each wire1 as through the dent of the reed4 ,this is called the harness4 ,there must be at least two of them1 and there may be more4 ,two are necessary for the simplest weaving of a plain surface1 and more than two if the work is to be more complex1 as is required for scarfs with fancy borders1 cushions1 or any figured products of the loom4 ,near each end of the loom are two rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads are attached when the loom is set up for weaving4 ,these rollers are called beams4 ,over one of them the woven product passes as the loom is operated1 while the other holds the unwoven warp4 ,at the back of the loom is still another cross piece1 underneath which pedals are fastened4 ,these pedals connect by chains with the harnesses in such a manner that when the foot is placed on one of them the cords attached to it play over the pulleys1 throwing the harness and the warp threads which it carries below the level of the other set or sets of warp threads4 ,an ingenious device of cogs at the side of the loom holds the work taut and enables the worker to let out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work4 ,,the ,,process ,preparing the ,warp4--,when the essential parts of the hand loom and their uses are understood1 the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready the warp and attach it to the machine4 ,the thread or warp is taken from spools or cones1 four threads at one time1 which constitute what is called a bout4 ,after determining how many threads will be required1 allowing so many threads to form one inch of the woven cloth1 the operator must decide how wide her warp is to be and how long4 ,with the width1 the length1 and the number of threads to the inch in mind1 she proceeds to wind upon her warping bars or frame the requisite amount until she has it all in one great skein4 ,in putting this upon the bars or frames she should be very careful to cross each bout--i4 e41 each four threads--so that one bout shall go above and one below1 in order to allow the introduction of a pair of sticks1 called lease-sticks or leash-sticks4 ,these attachments keep the order of the threads so that they may be drawn into the harness in the same order in which they are wound on the beam4 ,warping the ,loom4--,to warp the loom the operator loosens one end of the skein and1 passing it from the warping bars to the loom1 attaches it to the roller or beam at the back of the loom1 after carefully dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed4 ,at this point an attachment called a rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and a certain number of threads placed in each division4 ,by the aid of the lease-sticks1 which are inserted1 and with the assistance of a second person to hold the skein firm1 the threads are wound upon the beam4 ,the rake is now removed and the worker proceeds to set up the piece4 ,illustration3 ,warping hook ,drawing in the ,warp4--,as has already been explained1 two harnesses only will need to be used for simple weaving4 ,taking the first bout of four threads1 the weaver draws the first thread through the centre of the first loop in the first harness1 or the one to which the right-hand pedal is attached4 ,the next thread is put through the centre of the first loop of the second harness1 or the one attached to the left-hand pedal4 ,the third is drawn through the second loop of the harness connected with the right-hand pedal1 and the fourth1 in turn1 through the second loop of the harness attached to the left-hand pedal4 ,great care must be exercised that no mistakes are made2 for a single misplaced thread means that the work of drawing in must be all done over again4 ,a special kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the warp4 ,when the drawing in is completed properly1 the operator begins at the right-hand side of the loom and1 measuring the reed1 allows one half the width of web from the centre of the reed and draws each thread through each dent in regular order4 ,when this is done it is only necessary to connect the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by means of heavier threads which hold the warp out in the loom1 test the work1 and proceed joyously with the weaving4 ,beating ,up the ,woof4--,the weaver presses the right-hand pedal1 and every alternate thread separates from the other1 leaving a space between the two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown from right to left1 carrying the woof threads through4 ,the operator then draws this thread up at the side to make a good selvedge and brings home the beater1 thus pressing the woof into the warp4 ,a sheer fabric requires a light stroke of the beater1 while firm cloth requires more force4 ,releasing the right pedal1 the operator presses the left1 which causes the warp threads to cross1 holding more firmly the woof threads just thrown4 ,the shuttle now passes from left to right1 carrying through another woof thread which1 in turn1 is beaten up as before4 ,so the work goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating from right to left and from left to right1 interspersed with the strokes of the beater4 ,illustration3 ,hand-,made ,towels4 ,plate ,,viii ,,problem3 ,,making ,a ,,rug ,the ,design4--,this problem1 like all others in house decoration1 involves in its initial stages questions of design4 ,before planning the rug it is necessary to know what use the rug is to have--whether it is to be for a hall1 a living room1 a dining-room1 or a chamber1 and whether it is to be used upon hard wood floors or with a carpet4 ,this is a question of colours1 and of materials2 for the designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour1 not only in the rug itself but in its relation to the other colours with which it should harmonize1 and the materials used must not display glaring inconsistencies of texture4 ,unless the beginner has special talent as a colourist it is not wise to attempt the introduction of too many colours in one piece of work4 ,if the warp is dark it is usually better to use light or medium woof4 ,if several shades are used in the body of the rug1 better results are obtained by using for the border or end decoration one or more plain colours which match or readily blend with the principal colours of the body of the rug4 ,illustration3 ,hand-,made ,rugs4 ,plate ,,ix ,materials3 ,denim4--,there are many materials suitable for rug making4 ,denim in moss or forest green makes a rug fit for a queen4 ,this should be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet size4 ,in preparing the woof it will be necessary to cut the denim on a true bias into strips from #a_/b to #c_/d of an inch wide4 ,the latter width is better4 ,in cutting1 the best method is to fold back one corner of a square cut end along the selvedge1 forming a fold across the cloth at an angle of #de degrees4 ,crease this fold carefully and make the first cut along the fold4 ,with a yardstick or a straight edge of some kind rule off lightly with a piece of chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width for the succeeding cuts1 taking great pains to maintain a true bias4 ,when a sufficient amount has been cut1 the pieces should be ravelled or fringed on each edge by drawing them quickly through a button hook4 ,there is a certain knack in this1 but it is soon acquired4 ,the fringed strips should then be fastened together at the ends by means of overhand stitching1 trimming off neatly all projecting corners4 ,the moss-like effect when woven is improved if the woof1 as soon as it is prepared1 is not rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for filling the shuttle4 ,a special form of shuttle without a bobbin or spool is used for carrying the woof cloth for rug weaving4 ,its simple construction is shown in the illustration4 ,the woof is wound endwise and unwound in weaving by turning the shuttle4 ,illustration3 ,shuttle for woof cloth ,another good material for rug making is found in various kinds of woollen cloth4 ,warm1 durable1 and handsome effects may be obtained by using a gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade of red as the end decoration1 with set figures for the body of the rug4 ,geometric designs1 arrows1 swastika1 the pine tree1 and many other forms are possible4 ,very dainty colours also may be combined in rugs for chamber use4 ,materials for these may be obtained from worn lawn dresses1 discarded silkaleen and mull1 which work up beautifully with one or two plain colours reserved for use in the borders4 ,combination of ,blue and ,white4--,blue and white is always a happy combination2 and exceedingly dainty creations may be woven1 to be placed perhaps in the guest chamber1 by using a woof of old blue with a white warp1 combined with white borders and a white knotted fringe4 ,a vine-like effect may be obtained in the border by twisting blue and white together in opposite ways and weaving in a plain thread of white or blue between the two4 ,another happy combination of blue and white results from weaving on a blue warp a woof of white outing flannel1 cut and fringed as described for the moss rug of denim1 with a border of old blue and figures of the same colour4 ,for a chamber or for a bath room in white such a rug as this will leave nothing to be desired4 ,a ,weaving ,design4--,it has just been said that design in rug making is a question of colours and of materials4 ,it is already apparent that it is more than that4 ,it is largely a question of procedure in the process of weaving4 ,that this is so may be shown in the following account of the making of a blue and white rug4 ,the thought was to produce a rug with five stripes of blue running lengthwise1 with white figures at regular intervals through the middle of the rug4 ,to accomplish this result two threads of white warp were removed from the reed and harness every two inches for a space of ten inches on each side1 thus making what may be called a weaving design2 for the blue stripes1 it will be easily seen1 had to appear to the number of five on each side when the rug was woven4 ,the white figures were formed by first throwing the blue cloth or woof through the warp by the usual throw of the shuttle and1 before beating it up1 threading into the warp white cloth in the desired pattern1 after which the woof and pattern were beaten up together4 ,for the pattern five threads or pieces of white cloth were used1 two of which were #f inches in length and three #b inches1 the two longer ones being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated4 ,a space of #g inches was left between the white figures1 the location of which was carefully determined by counting the threads1 both of warp and of woof1 so that in weaving the figures should appear at the right place4 ,the result of this weaving design was a very beautiful rug4 ,illustration3 ,white figure in blue rug ,another ,example of ,weaving ,design4--,this feature of rug designing is capable of indefinite expansion4 ,perhaps one more example may be given4 ,the object was to produce a rug of medium dark centre with an #h-;inch border all around of a darker colour4 ,this effect was produced by first weaving #h inches of the dark end border1 which was of mixed goods showing several dark colours contrasting happily4 ,having reached the place where the medium centre was to begin1 a woof thread of this medium colour and of the right length was joined each time to short pieces of woof of the border colour so that1 as the weaving progressed along the length of the centre1 not only the centre colour appeared in its proper place but #h inches of border on each side4 ,when the proper length of the centre had been woven1 the rug was finished by weaving another #h inches of the border colour4 ,the result was a rug of individuality and charm4 ,great ,variety of ,material4--,endless combinations will occur to any one who becomes interested in this captivating art4 ,the field for colour design is almost without limit4 ,no material is so old and useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker4 ,old bed ticking with its blue and white stripes cut on the bias makes a very desirable combination when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border4 ,a charming mottled effect in one instance was produced by a yarn which was ravelled from an old raw silk portire of a mahogany shade and wound into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth1 the balls being rewound several times4 ,this was used as the woof for the centre of the rug4 ,the border was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled mahogany yarn1 doubled several times to give thread of a size equal to that of the tan cloth4 ,discarded clothing in which the prevailing colours are red1 when made up into woof threads and woven on a white warp1 gives a charming effect which may be strengthened or toned down by a border combination as desired4 ,dyes may1 of course1 be used if the colours of the weaving threads made up from old cloths and discarded clothing are not suited to the design that is to be worked out4 ,weaving the ,rug4--,when the design for the rug has been thoroughly worked out1 determining the colours1 materials to be used1 and the method of procedure1 the warp and the woof threads should be prepared and the warp attached to the loom1 as already explained in the discussion of the general process of weaving4 ,further details of procedure are not needed here4 ,the thing to do is to weave a rug as designed4 ,the next thing to do is to design and weave another rug1 and then another and so on4 ,as in most crafts so in weaving1 experience is the great teacher--a teacher who demands faithful work1 who finds lessons of value in every failure and abundant satisfaction in every success4 ,some of these successes were found in the rugs illustrated opposite page #beb4 ,rug weaving is probably the simplest of all weaving and therefore a good problem with which to begin4 ,after serving a satisfactory apprenticeship in this field the amateur will have acquired sufficient knowledge of design and sufficient skill in the art to pass to more difficult problems4 ,this will take her out into a large field of opportunity4 ,portires1 window draperies1 table scarfs1 bedspreads1 and covers for pillows and cushions in endless variety will suggest themselves to the ambitious worker4 ,in all these1 as has been seen in the case of rug making1 design is all important4 ,the management of the loom is much the same in all plain weaving4 ,what differences there are will be found1 for the most part1 in the weaving designs4 ,in the following problems are described some of the special features involved in the other forms of weaving4 ,,problem3 ,,porti,,res ,,and ,,couch ,,covers ,suggestions for the ,design4--,if the loom is wide enough these may be woven in one piece2 but usually it is necessary to weave them in sections or breadths4 ,in this case1 of course1 they must be afterward neatly joined4 ,the possibilities in colour design are naturally varied4 ,they may be woven with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the colour of the warp1 in stripes1 or with plain centres with striped ends4 ,harmony of colour effects is always to be sought4 ,depth and richness may sometimes be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a generous use of black4 ,materials may be yarns1 bits of silk or velvet1 or pieces of fine1 soft woollen goods4 ,the warp may be silk or linen or mercerized cotton4 ,beautiful portires have been woven by leaving out two threads of warp at regular intervals1 giving a loose and fluffy effect4 ,silk and wool pieces may be used in the woof1 alternating with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired shade2 and1 if of the same colour as the warp used1 they will impart a very decided tone to the whole product4 ,in portires1 the general appearance is much improved if the woof is not beaten up hard into the warp4 ,the soft beating gives a resulting texture that is more pliable and more suitable for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in portires4 ,couch covers1 however1 which will have to resist more wear and tear1 should be beaten up harder4 ,in preparing the silk and wool pieces the cloth should be cut into very fine strips1 joined by carefully lapping the ends1 and1 by cutting away a part of the cloth1 making the joint uniform in size4 ,if the material is cloth of ordinary thickness #a_/b an inch is quite wide enough for strips4 ,the length of the pieces used may vary greatly1 though they may be somewhat different in colour4 ,they may vary all the way from a few inches to a length long enough to weave an inch in the portire or cover4 ,this makes it very easy to secure a source of supply for the material in saving old garments and short pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making up the woof threads for these products of the loom4 ,almost any household will be able to save enough in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful pair of portires or a couch cover which will be durable in quality1 easy to clean1 attractive in colour1 and satisfactory from every point of view4 ,,problem3 ,,window ,,draperies ,,and ,,curtains ,the ,design4--,curtains of one colour or of several are woven on the simple loom with two harnesses4 ,they may be of the soft cream tint1 the material for which is easily obtained and the effect of which1 in softening the light passing through them1 leaves little to be desired4 ,but if a little colour be required1 the weaving design may be easily changed to secure this result4 ,one may1 for example1 weave at first #g inches of the plain cream4 ,this will give woven material enough for a #b-;inch hem at the bottom of the curtain and #e inches before the beginning of a coloured border4 ,the border may consist of two threads of colour alternating with two threads of the cream1 thus making a stripe of about #g inches in width4 ,following this may come #h to #aj inches of the plain cream1 followed in turn by a narrow stripe of the same colour as the border1 #c inches wide1 in turn followed by another #aj inches of the plain cream and another narrow stripe1 and so on1 alternately1 until the required length of the curtain has been woven4 ,if desired1 a top border may be woven in1 though it is well to make it somewhat narrower than the one at the bottom--say about #e inches--and it must be added so that it will show below the hem4 ,in any case the top of the curtain should be woven plain1 allowing for hemming1 and also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted for hanging the curtain4 ,vertical stripes are often desirable in curtains1 especially if the room is so low studded as to invite the employment of every possible means for making it seem higher4 ,such stripes may be made by using two colours for the warp--as1 for example1 blue and white or green and white--with one of these colours as woof4 ,illustration3 ,an ,alcove ,with ,window ,draperies1 ,pillow ,covers1 ,window ,seat ,cover1 ,chair ,seat and ,moss ,green ,rug4 ,all ,hand ,woven ,importance of ,selecting ,good ,warp4--,the successful working out of this problem depends very largely upon the proper selection of materials4 ,while many things may be used for warp with a certain degree of success1 there are fine points to be observed in weaving as in all the art-crafts1 and the real beauty of the result depends upon giving due attention to these points4 ,it is always well to remember that in all weaving the warp plays a most important part4 ,mercerized cotton warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof or with a combination of both1 and retains its beauty after being laundered many times4 ,in the soft cream shade it has almost the appearance of silk1 at a much less cost4 ,but silk may often be obtained at a low price if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a silk mill4 ,bargains in small lots of unsalable colours may be secured with which the weaver may do wonders2 and if the colours are not good the silk may be dyed at small expense4 ,our grandmothers saved their tea grounds for a week or more1 boiled them1 and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp4 ,they were1 in fact1 very particular about their warping threads4 ,not everything would suit them4 ,they learned from experience that the wearing quality of goods is improved by having the warp stronger and harder twisted than the filling4 ,it was common for them to spin a certain thread for this purpose4 ,exquisite results follow the use of a fine linen warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk for filling4 ,striking and beautiful also1 in its way1 is the very coarse linen warp4 ,variety in ,woof ,threads4--,a very pleasing effect in sash curtains or in full length window draperies is produced by weaving heavy threads alternately with fine threads1 using two shuttles or bobbins1 one holding the heavy thread and the other the fine one4 ,two or more threads may be alternated in this way as the fancy of the designer prompts2 and this style of weaving may be confined to borders1 leaving the body of the fabric plain1 or the borders may be woven of the solid1 heavy threads and the body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the alternate coarse and fine threads4 ,such curtains are very beautiful in cream white2 but colour may be used if the colours are fast so that the curtains may be successfully laundered4 ,,pattern ,,weaving ,before undertaking more difficult problems in weaving it will be necessary to explain in general two important processes4 ,the first one is the process of pattern weaving2 the second1 dyeing4 ,among the heirlooms treasured by many families are the beautiful blue and white coverlets or bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and towels4 ,no one with strong domestic tastes who has been fortunate enough to see these products of home industry can have failed to be charmed with the wonderfully wrought designs and with the quaint names by which they were once well known2 for our grandmothers designated these designs by such names as ,spring ,flowers1 ,governor's ,garden1 the ,path of the ,roses1 ,flowers of ,lebanon1 ,ladies' ,delight1 ,fairies ,ring1 and doubtless by many more names which have been lost4 ,this work in pattern design is wrought by the use not of two pedals and harnesses1 right and left1 as used in the first three problems1 but by the use of several additional harnesses4 ,to ,be ,learned by ,experimenting4--,if the beginner in weaving has mastered the use of the simple loom with two harnesses it is possible to extend her knowledge and skill to the successful operation of a pattern weaving loom4 ,but the procedure is too technical and too varied to be described in detail as directions for a practical problem for amateurs4 ,it is far better to experiment with a loom of this kind under the guidance of some person competent to point out the way step by step4 ,nor will it be possible1 in a brief description of this somewhat intricate subject1 to suggest ideas for original weaving designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take up pattern weaving4 ,copies of the traditional designs may be obtained as material for study and practice4 ,after a little it will be possible to make variations and so lead to the delight of originating simple and perhaps more elaborate new patterns4 ,illustration3 ,hand ,woven ,window ,draperies1 ,couch ,cover1 ,slumber ,robe and ,pillow ,covers4 ,plate ,x ,illustration3 ,a written pattern with a variety of figures woven from it ,how ,patterns ,are ,written4--,complete working directions for pattern weaving will therefore not be attempted in this chapter2 but it may be possible to point out a few leading facts and principles which will be of assistance to the experimenter who ventures to take up by herself this interesting application of the art of weaving4 ,patterns for this work are plainly written out from right to left on cross section paper1 as shown in the upper part of the accompanying illustration1 each horizontal section of which corresponds to one of the harnesses of the loom and the pedal attached to it4 ,if we have a four-harness loom1 as would be required for working the pattern and weaving the figures illustrated1 the right-hand pedal and the harness connected with it1 which is the one farthest from the operator1 are designated by the number #a1 and correspond to that harness number in the pattern4 ,following in order1 the next three pedals and connected harnesses are numbered #b1 #c1 and #d to correspond with the same numbers in the pattern4 ,turning now to the vertical sections of the pattern1 we shall find that each one corresponds to a certain warp thread1 so that when the pattern is drawn in--i4 e41 when the warp for weaving the pattern is attached to the loom--we shall find the thread of the warp which is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated by a mark on the section of the pattern corresponding to that warp thread and to the number of the harness through which it is drawn4 ,thus1 according to the pattern shown in the illustration1 the first thread is to be drawn into the #c;d harness1 the #b;d thread into the #dth harness1 and #c;d thread into the #c;d harness1 and so on alternately until we reach the #hth thread1 which is drawn into the #b;d harness2 the #hth1 #ith1 #ajth1 #aath1 and #abth threads are drawn alternately into the #b;d and #c;d harnesses1 and the #acth1 #adth1 #aeth1 #afth1 and #agth are drawn alternately into the #ast and #b;d harnesses4 ,this process is now continued1 as will be clearly understood by reference to the pattern1 up to and including the #db;d thread1 when one drawing in of the pattern will have been completed4 ,a further study of the pattern shows that the marks on lines #c and #d form a continuously alternating series2 and similarly that those on #b and #c1 #a and #b1 and #a and #d form also a continuously alternating series4 ,but these numbers1 however paired1 correspond to the harnesses into which the warp threads1 indicated by the numbers #a to #db1 are drawn4 ,it thus appears that after we have drawn in as many warp threads as the pattern calls for once around in the order indicated in the pattern1 we have prepared the loom for weaving one of these patterns4 ,we must therefore draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same order as those already drawn in1 thus repeating the drawing in of the pattern as many times as required for the width of the piece to be woven4 ,the illustration shows two repeats of the pattern4 ,operation of the ,harnesses4--,having explained the method of drawing in the pattern1 we may now study the movement of the harnesses necessary to guide the warp properly for the weaving of the pattern4 ,it has been noted that1 with the pattern under consideration1 harnesses #a and #c hold a continuous line of alternating warp threads1 leaving harnesses #b and #d to take up all the intervening warp threads4 ,if then the operator should throw down pedals #a and #c together1 and alternately #b and #d also together1 the warp threads would be crossed exactly as in plain weaving4 ,bringing out a pattern in weaving must1 of course1 require a variation of the pedal movement from that used in plain weaving4 ,now1 upon reference to the illustration it will also be noted that in writing the pattern1 or in drawing it in1 no two threads have ever come together on the same harness4 ,if the #ast thread has been drawn into the #c;d harness1 and the #b;d thread into the #dth harness1 as shown in the pattern illustrated1 the operator begins the weaving of the pattern by throwing down the #c;d and #dth pedals together and throwing the shuttle which carries the pattern thread4 ,this operation is what weavers call a pick4 ,each pick of the pattern thread is represented in the diagram 7page #bfh7 by a broken black line running across the pattern4 ,thus the diagram of the first design shown indicates that there are #f throws of the shuttle alternately over and back1 or #f picks of the pattern thread1 for each corresponding section of this design4 ,but between every two picks of the pattern thread there must be a pick of the plain weave1 requiring1 as has already been explained1 the pressing down of either the #ast and #c;d pair of pedals together when the shuttle is thrown from the right side1 or of the #b;d and #dth if thrown from the left side4 ,it is evident1 then1 that there must be two shuttles prepared for carrying the woof threads4 ,one of these is to be used for the plain weave and the other for the pattern weave4 ,the shuttle used for the plain weave is usually threaded with a fine thread of linen1 though this1 of course1 is subject to variation according to the design of the weaver4 ,the pattern weaving shuttle should carry a coarser thread1 which may be of silk1 linen1 wool1 or mercerized cotton4 ,variations in ,pattern4--,from the fact that a carefully written pattern is necessary in preparing a four-harness loom for pattern weaving1 one would naturally infer that the pattern must be closely followed in the weaving process4 ,and so it must if the pattern be woven as written2 but1 after the drawing in1 it is by no means necessary to follow the written pattern4 ,as the weaving progresses it is easy to see many variations in pattern which may be woven upon one drawing in--patterns so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to each other4 ,in fact1 one of the delights of weaving with a pattern loom is to devise ways of modifying simple patterns1 elaborating them into new weaving designs1 producing unique and sometimes very interesting original figures4 ,we have only to remember that patterns are made by the order and number of the overshots--i4 e41 the throws of the shuttle carrying the pattern threads--and that the overshots in the same horizontal and vertical lines are produced by the same pair4 ,in the pattern illustrated the overshots are made by #b and #c1 by #a and #b1 by #a and #d1 or by #c and #d1 not counting #a and #c and #b and #d1 which are the pairs for plain weaves4 ,we should also remember that the last end in one overshot is usually the first one in the next4 ,examples of two variations in design that may be woven from the original written pattern1 to which we have already referred1 are illustrated in the diagram and probably at least a dozen more variations are possible4 ,,problem3 ,a ,,bordered ,,table ,,scarf ,this problem will require the use of the four-harness loom4 ,the first thing to do is to procure the written pattern for the border and draw it in4 ,when the drawing in is completed and the weaving is begun1 the first step in the process is to weave a few inches of the plain cloth4 ,in doing this1 however1 we shall1 of course1 find that the pressing of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple weaving will not accomplish the desired result2 for it has already been explained that the pedals of a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs to produce a plain weave4 ,it will be remembered that to do plain weaving with the warp drawn in as required by the pattern illustrated on page #bfh1 it is necessary to press pedals #a and #c together alternately with #b and #d--;i4 e41 both pedals of each pair must be pressed at the same time to produce the same effect as that produced by the alternate movements of the right and left pedals in simple weaving4 ,when a sufficient length of plain cloth has been woven1 the written pattern for the weaving of the border design must be faithfully consulted and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper order for the weaving of the pattern4 ,the second or weaving shuttle carries the bobbin1 which is filled with the colour required in the pattern4 ,any changes of colour required by the design are easily produced by inserting a new bobbin filled with the desired colour4 ,the ,design4--,a great variety of design is possible in table scarfs4 ,it is common to weave in a narrow beading of whatever colour may have been chosen1 following this by a few threads of white1 and this in turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border with some slight suggestion of the pattern1 then more of the plain white and finally the full pattern of the border4 ,the centre of the table scarf is simply a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in some solid colour1 while the other end of the scarf must be woven with the same border and bands as were woven at first1 but in the reverse order4 ,variations in ,design4--,one pleasing style of decoration is found in repeating the border several times with inch-wide spaces between4 ,another variety requires a heavy border at the ends1 with narrow ones at short intervals throughout the length4 ,shadow borders1 so-called1 are also common1 and may alternate with borders of colour or may constitute the entire decoration4 ,shadow borders are heavy borders woven in the cream or body colour of the scarf instead of being in a contrasting shade4 ,in order to make them stand out well it is necessary to use a coarser thread than is required for the colour borders4 ,a gray linen plain weave is often embellished in white with delicate effect4 ,there is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf borders4 ,it is obtainable in dainty colours1 and the heavy thread seems to bring out the patterns in greater perfection4 ,darning silks in fast colours are also employed1 but these should be woven double in order to obtain the best effect4 ,they are found in the market in short lengths and in such attractive colours as ,delft blue1 reseda green1 pink1 and catawba4 ,the last two colours1 used with linen in the natural shade1 make a happy combination4 ,scarfs should be woven from #bj to #bd inches wide and about #a-a_/b yards long1 unless some special use requires that they should be of different length4 ,not only do they make pleasing table covers1 but they are useful as tray cloths1 and from them charming sewing or embroidery aprons may be fashioned by folding one end over1 tying it with ribbons1 and arranging pockets to hold the work4 ,one scarf will make two aprons4 ,fancy bags are also woven on the same general lines as scarfs1 but the width needs to be only #h or #aj inches4 ,these may be woven of the pattern throughout1 or they may be striped with bands or borders4 ,lined with silk and finished with ribbons or cords1 they are very much admired for embroidery and other fancy work4 ,,dyeing ,in the discussion of the problem of hand weaving1 frequent reference has been made to the use of coloured materials4 ,while it is possible to obtain many good colours in the market1 it is much more satisfactory to make these colours at home by the use of the dye pot4 ,in former times1 when hand weaving was general1 there was no other way2 and1 in fact1 dyeing and weaving may well be considered now1 as they were then1 sister arts4 ,when the wool was washed1 carded into rolls1 spun into yarn1 and again doubled and twisted1 it was1 generally speaking1 still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent dye before weaving it into cloth4 ,one notable exception was found in the natural gray homespun1 which was of yarn spun from the wool of both the black and the white sheep carded together4 ,the modern worker with the hand loom will find almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did for a knowledge of the art of dyeing4 ,seldom will she find at hand just the shade or colour required by the design of the piece to be woven4 ,much of the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs1 for example1 will be found to be so faded or spotted that it would poorly repay one for the labour of weaving it up in that condition4 ,and even the new material1 which it is often necessary to procure for plain weaving1 for pattern weaving1 and for use in borders1 will often need a bath in the dye pot in order to furnish the tone of colour needed4 ,some ,good ,points in ,dyeing4--,good results in dyeing are obtained by using the prepared dyes of the markets1 mixing together more than one colour often1 after some experimenting1 in order to produce the desired shade4 ,instead of mixing the dye one may1 if she chooses1 dye first in one colour and top off with another4 ,a fine permanent green is obtained by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping with a blue bath4 ,green and blue dye used together give neither green nor blue but a blending of both colours1 which is exceedingly pleasing4 ,in all cases it is better to make the dye bath weak1 leaving the article to be dyed in the bath a long time rather than to keep it a shorter time in a stronger dye4 ,the advantage is not only greater permanency of colour but also greater certainty in the result2 for one can watch the process of dyeing more easily and guard against the colours becoming too dark4 ,the material which remains in the dye bath until it takes practically all the colour from it may generally be depended upon neither to fade nor crock4 ,some ,common ,dyes4--,the dull1 soft colours1 made generations ago from barks and teas with alum as a mordant1 had artistic qualities and were generally permanent4 ,it is well worth while to experiment in this direction4 ,straw colour may be made from the old-fashioned herb saffron2 orange comes from madder and fustic2 yellow is obtained from powdered dock root2 rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit of copperas give a good black dye1 useful also in freshening black yarns that have acquired a dull or faded colour4 ,white maple bark boiled in water makes a fine medium brown which may be made fast by first treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed in it with a solution of alum4 ,a permanent and fine nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with a piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in it4 ,in fact1 nearly everything which possesses colour may be considered a dye4 ,vegetable substances are generally in themselves more permanent1 but most dyes need to be fixed or set by the use of some mordant4 ,all this will mean much experimenting1 of course1 unless one is fortunate enough to possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions to mordants1 kettles of brass1 and vessels of pewter4 ,the use of the prepared dyes1 which may be easily obtained with explicit directions1 is generally satisfactory and of course somewhat easier2 and yet the interest which inspires one to cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire to master all of the arts intimately associated with this ancient and fascinating home industry4 ,x ,,pottery ,to watch a potter thumping his wet clay--,rubaiyat of ,omar ,khayyam ,the boy who makes his mud pie1 baking it in the sun1 and the ,indian who1 ages ago1 coiled clay in a basket which he burned away1 are but two widely separated links in a continuous chain2 for men of all time have found a fascination in the wet clay that is so easily moulded and fashioned into all manner of things of beauty and of use4 ,and1 beside the joy of exercising the creative faculty1 there has also been the spur of a common need to inspire men of different races1 independently of each other1 to develop the primitive household arts1 like pottery and rug making1 by the use of methods no less remarkable for their similarity than for their cleverness4 ,the impressions that the primitive man received from his natural surroundings were easily expressed in the plastic mud1 and it was probably not long before he discovered that fire made them permanent and practically indestructible4 ,improvement was bound to come in due time4 ,by washing the grosser impurities from the clay mud through a process in which the heavier particles settled1 leaving the silt or finer clay to be poured off1 some artist of a very early time found a material that became one of his most valuable helps in adding to the furnishings of his tribal household4 ,first it was simply burned clay2 but in due time enamel or glazed work found its use in tiles for building purposes1 in grain jars1 in wine jugs1 in many kinds of table ware2 for the uses of ancient terra cotta and porcelain were numerous4 ,illustration3 ,girls at ,work on ,pottery4 ,plate ,,xi ,the primitive arts1 however1 were not confined to objects of necessary use4 ,we find1 buried with the ruins of ancient cities1 many evidences of the potter's craft1 and among them articles for decorating the home1 for personal adornment1 and for religious use1 like the rings and scarabs of ,egypt4 ,and in modern decorative art1 as applied in the household1 the one final touch which gives that indescribable charm1 which it is the aim of all art to give1 is perhaps to be found in a few--a very few--choice bits of pottery4 ,all of this use of clay1 from the rude art of prehistoric times to the finest product of modern skill1 is based on a plain scientific fact1 viz41 that a small quantity of water in the clay1 not removable by any ordinary means of drying1 can be driven out by intense heat so as to cause a permanent change in the character of the clay4 ,this water is called the water of combination4 ,if the clay is not heated more than enough to dry it1 a later mixing with water restores it to its former plastic state2 but clay once burned has lost its water of combination and never can return to its original condition4 ,most beginners in clay modelling will expect1 perhaps in the early stages of their work1 to be made acquainted with the potter's wheel2 for who has not heard of this interesting device8 ,it is of interest chiefly because of its practical utility in the manufacture of pottery2 and yet no one can forget the potter's song with which ,longfellow begins his beautiful poem ,keramos1 making it a text for a sermon on the philosophy of life3 ,turn1 turn1 my wheel6 ,turn round and round ,without a pause1 without a sound2 ,so spins the flying world away6 ,this clay1 well mixed with marl and sand1 ,follows the motion of my hand2 ,for some must follow1 and some command1 ,though all are made of clay6 ,potter's ,wheel ,unnecessary4--,the potter's wheel was used in comparatively early times and has been intimately associated with the art ever since4 ,but it requires much physical strength and considerable skill to use it effectively2 and its use has been by no means universal4 ,we find the ,indians of our own time and people of other races1 expert in building pottery by hand1 using the method of coiling4 ,it seems best1 therefore1 to advise beginners to adopt the simpler method and to forego the use of the potter's wheel4 ,the comparative inexpensiveness of the hand method of building is another point in its favour4 ,the tools required are few and simple4 ,inexpensive and easy methods are favourable to the experimental stage2 and it is well for the amateur to have every encouragement to experiment freely both with methods for building and with designs for his ware1 keeping in mind always that the beautiful is generally the simple and strong1 not the fantastic and complicated4 ,the ,method of ,coiling4--,it will be understood1 therefore1 that in general the process to be followed consists in building up the bowl or jar or whatever the design may be by using coils of clay of the right consistency1 welding and shaping them together1 and scraping them down1 if necessary1 until they are ready to receive the first firing4 ,after this they may receive a coating of glaze and be fired again4 ,at first the beginner will find his chief interest simply in experimenting with the building up process4 ,,materials ,,and ,,tools ,the materials and tools needed are as follows3 ,clay2 oil-cloth1 #ah inches square2 cotton cloth or flannelette1 #ah inches square2 a few simple modelling tools2 a soft pencil2 drawing paper2 card-board1 #f ply2 a plaster of paris bat1 or a piece of slate4 ,clays4--,it will be necessary to add a word of explanation in order that these materials and tools may be well selected4 ,there is a great variety in clays1 ranging from a very coarse red clay used for flower pots to the finest white clay used for porcelain4 ,the latter is called kaolin and is very pure4 ,a good modelling clay may be obtained from dealers in school supplies or from potteries4 ,in some localities1 especially in the neighbourhood of brick-yards or other clay industries1 a satisfactory clay may be easily found4 ,but1 however obtained1 some experimenting will be necessary to test its suitability4 ,the modelling clay is probably the least liable to yield disappointing results4 ,the cotton cloth or flannelette is to be moistened and used to wrap up the clay in order to keep it from drying too rapidly during the intervals when it is set aside4 ,this will not be necessary during the early part of the process1 for then it is desirable for the clay to stiffen as rapidly as possible by natural means4 ,illustration3 ,simple tools used in pottery ,of the modelling tools needed some can be whittled from hard wood4 ,they are not expensive1 however1 and the beginner will perhaps find it well to obtain most of them from a dealer in artists' materials4 ,the accompanying illustration shows some of these1 among them a very useful tool 7,f7 with brass wire loops which are in turn wound with finer wire4 ,f and ,c are especially useful for scraping clay too soft to be easily managed with smooth edges4 ,the thumb-like tool ,a is perhaps the most generally useful of those shown here4 ,in this connection it is well to emphasize the fact that the greatest of all tools is the human thumb4 ,cultivate its use4 ,most modelling and building can be managed with the thumb1 assisted by the fingers4 ,the ,bat and ,how ,made4--,a plaster of paris bat will be found exceedingly useful4 ,a sheet of thin1 unsized paper serves well1 however1 for a surface on which to build2 but the dry plaster of the bat absorbs the moisture of the clay at the bottom and hastens the stiffening process4 ,this bat can be easily made4 ,take a small quantity of water 7a half pint or more according to the size of the bat required71 sift into this from the hand an equal amount of plaster of paris1 and stir it in until a little dry plaster appears at the surface4 ,after a little more vigorous stirring let it rest a few minutes and then pour it into tin pans which are #d or #e inches in diameter by #a inch deep4 ,the pans should be previously coated on the inside with a thick soap solution1 made by dissolving soap in hot water to the consistency of a thick cream4 ,the bats will harden in #aj or #ae minutes and may be easily removed from the pan1 ready for use4 ,,problem3 ,a ,,bowl ,,for ,,flowers ,this problem naturally divides itself into six important steps1 as follows3 ,the design or profile2 building and shaping2 decoration1 if any2 firing 7bisque72 glazing2 and firing the glaze4 ,illustration3 ,variety in dimensions ,the ,design or ,profile4--,as in all problems of decoration the first step is found in design4 ,for present purposes we may consider a bowl as having a diameter as great as or greater than the height4 ,the bowl will be more interesting from the standpoint of variety if there is a difference between its height and its greatest diameter1 and also between its diameters at the top and at the bottom4 ,the accompanying drawing shows such differences4 ,illustration3 ,suggestive profiles ,another example of the value of variety is to be found in the curve of the profile4 ,a line that is simple but constantly changing in its degree of curvature--as1 for example1 an elliptical curve--is more pleasing than an arc of a circle1 which is sometimes called the curve of limitation4 ,it should be noted that a curved form1 in order to be forceful1 should have some dominant curve in combination with others which are subordinate4 ,the profiles illustrated in the following drawings have this dominant element and are in no case composed of arcs of circles4 ,these varied1 interesting1 yet simple lines--live lines as they are sometimes called--consisting in each case of only two or three elements1 are given here merely as suggestive material4 ,a little experimenting will show unsuspected possibilities in strong1 forceful curves1 and the young student is advised to make many experiments in the effort to discover such possibilities4 ,an example of profiles to be avoided is given in ,problem ,,ii1 on page #cji4 ,that these are vase forms and not bowl contours is immaterial4 ,a is commonplace because the two parts of the curve are too much alike4 ,b is unrestful in its three curves of nearly equal size4 ,if the suggestive profiles illustrated in the foregoing drawing be turned upside down it will be noted that very few of them seem as pleasing as before4 ,it will be found also that a different ratio of height to diameter will give very different effects with the same profile4 ,a bowl having top and bottom alike may1 so far as design is concerned1 be classed with the pill box4 ,we don't know which is the top until we have spilled the pills4 ,if attractive pieces of pottery are found with the top and bottom of equal diameter and with curves in themselves objectionable1 it will invariably be found that the attractiveness consists in some beauty of glaze1 colour1 or decoration which is prominent enough to conceal the defects of form4 ,natural ,forms4--,it may be well to add a word here in regard to the imitation of natural forms in designing the general shape of any piece of pottery2 and that word is a very brief one4 ,avoid them4 ,nature is a great teacher in all branches of art2 but in pottery her suggestions are to be used as decorative elements rather than for fundamental shapes4 ,a fish with a flower in its mouth does not seem appropriate2 but a bowl for water-lilies1 while it may not take the form of a fish1 might reasonably have a fish as an element of its decoration4 ,testing ,profiles4--,a good way to study the effect of the profile of both sides of the bowl is to fold the paper on which the profile is drawn vertically through the centre and transfer the line reversed by rubbing the back of the paper1 thus giving the other half of the drawing in exact symmetry4 ,when the general shape of the profile has been tested in this way one side should be redrawn carefully2 then1 with the paper folded along the centre line1 so that the pencil line falls outside1 the whole form may be cut out2 and then it may be unfolded4 ,the next step is to begin to build up the design in clay4 ,the ,building4--,roll out a coil of clay a little thicker than the bottom of the bowl is to be2 perhaps #c_/h or #a_/b of an inch will serve1 since the bottom is to be hollowed slightly by scraping4 ,the roll should be uniform in diameter and rolled as little as possible1 in order that it may not become too dry4 ,upon the piece of paper or the plaster bat start to coil the roll from the centre until the desired size is reached1 then smear the rolls together1 working toward the centre4 ,turn the coil over and work the other side together1 truing up the circle and making the bottom of uniform thickness4 ,avoid the use of water in smoothing the coils together4 ,it may seem to make the work easier1 but it softens the clay and invites careless work4 ,illustration3 ,manipulating the coil ,with another coil begin to build up the sides1 making a complete circle1 and1 having pinched off the ends where they meet1 join them carefully4 ,lay two or three coils in this fashion1 pressing each coil firmly into place as it is laid1 and smooth them together as in the base4 ,the process is illustrated in the drawing4 ,if the clay is very soft1 the work may be set aside to harden a little1 while a beginning is made upon other pieces4 ,it is well to have two or three pieces in the process of construction at the same time4 ,testing the ,work4--,a template or gauge will be needed to test the work as it progresses from the first rough stages to the finish4 ,this is made of card-board by cutting out an exact copy of the profile1 leaving at the bottom sufficient width to insure rigidity when the template is held upright on the table or bat4 ,illustration3 ,a template ,as the work goes on1 if the design requires that the form should be brought in toward the top1 the coil must be laid a little inside of the profile desired1 as the smoothing tends to increase the diameter slightly4 ,in all the building1 allowance should be made for this enlargement4 ,when the coil is high enough and of the shape desired1 it should be allowed to stiffen until it is rigid enough to handle4 ,with the various modelling tools the surface should then be scraped wherever it is necessary to remove the hardened clay in order to give a symmetrical shape to the desired profile4 ,illustration3 ,scraping a square form ,a drawing is shown to illustrate the process of scraping4 ,the surface should be left smooth and even2 and this may be accomplished without water or sponge4 ,the flat sides of the scraping tool may be used to polish the clay as soon as it becomes leather hard--i4 e41 hard and stiff1 but before it begins to whiten and dry4 ,the lip or top of the bowl will require special attention4 ,it will probably need to be thinned down and have all sharp edges removed4 ,then the bowl should be turned upside down and the bottom hollowed out to a depth of #a_/af to #a_/h of an inch1 leaving a foot or rim around the outside of the circle to give it steadiness4 ,the ,decoration4--,after the bowl is complete as to its general form1 the problem of its decoration1 if there is to be any1 must be solved4 ,this may be studied during the intervals when it is necessary to set the bowl aside to harden4 ,if the form and colour are good1 the bowl may possess a charm that will not be improved by decoration4 ,on the whole1 less decoration1 rather than more1 should be the aim4 ,the three vases illustrated at the top of a following page are examples of pottery without decoration4 7,see page #cjh47 ,illustration3 ,bowls4 ,plate ,,xii ,generally speaking1 bowls like the one we are building may be decorated by one of three methods3 ,by sinking lines or channels in its surface by means of a sharpened1 chisel-like stick 7,d1 page #bhe72 by modelling or carving the surface2 or by painting the surface with coloured slip or with coloured glaze4 ,it should be explained that slip is a mixture of clay and water of the consistency of cream2 it may be coloured or uncoloured4 ,a combination of two or more of these methods is1 of course1 possible4 ,examples of the first two methods are shown in the illustrations of bowls1 vases1 and tiles4 ,a combination of the first and third methods was used in decorating the tiles of the middle row shown in ,plate ,,xiv opposite page #caf4 ,illustration3 ,spacing in decoration ,classes of ,decoration4--,the form of the decoration is simply a matter of space division1 as illustrated by two examples shown below4 ,it is evident1 too1 that decoration1 so far as form is concerned1 divides itself naturally into three general classes3 7a7 ,the horizontal band2 7b7 the vertical division2 7c7 a combination of these two4 ,the last will prove to be the most common of the three4 ,it should be noted that an all-over pattern1 which has been left out of consideration as tending to monotony1 would commonly be a combination of both horizontal and vertical methods of division4 ,it should be noted also that the presence of other than vertical and horizontal lines in pottery decoration does not affect the main classification4 ,typical examples of these divisions are illustrated in both bowls and vases1 as well as in the cuts ,a and ,b4 ,it will be seen in each case that one scheme or the other predominates and that there are possibilities for great variation in treatment4 ,analyzing the patterns shown in all these illustrations1 we find that the band or horizontal scheme offers a succession of large and small spaces1 giving variety and rhythm4 ,in many of those patterns showing the combination type there is a concentration or knotting of the line at regular intervals1 frequently at the intersection of both horizontal and vertical elements4 ,this is well illustrated by the left-hand bowl of the middle row shown in this plate opposite page #bid4 ,when the method of painted decoration is employed the concentration point is composed of mass instead of line4 ,all this serves to give emphasis and rhythm4 ,for subject matter in decoration natural forms may be used as shown in the vase at the left of the top row illustrated in ,plate ,,xiii1 opposite page #cab4 ,or an abstract arrangement of lines may be employed1 as shown in its nearest neighbour1 which may or may not have had its origin in a very much conventionalized natural motif4 ,the essential thing to remember is that the divisions of spaces must be varied and rhythmic and the decoration suited to the method of application4 ,how the ,design is ,applied to the ,clay4--,after the design has been studied as much as possible on paper it should be planned out on the bowl with a soft pencil1 allowing sufficient space for the incised line or channel to be made4 ,the clay should be leather-hard--i4 e41 stiff but not dry4 ,the spacing around the circumference should be made exact1 deviating somewhat1 if necessary1 from the spacing of the paper drawing4 ,a good way to manage this important step in the process is to measure the circumference at the point of greatest width with a narrow strip of paper and then to divide this circumference by folding the paper evenly into the number of units desired4 ,by wrapping the paper around the bowl again the points of division may be transferred to the clay and then projected upward or downward vertically to the belt that it is desired to meet4 ,it is necessary to make sure that the vertical lines are true meridians and do not swerve to the right or the left4 ,in order to test the horizontal lines1 measurements may be made from top or bottom4 ,all of this work is best done free-hand2 for1 aside from the value of the eye training derived1 hand-built pottery is seldom exact enough to permit of a more mechanical method of planning its decoration4 ,the drawing on the clay having been completed1 the next point is to choose the tool best fitted for the work and carefully make the cuts1 deepening them from time to time as the work progresses4 ,if the design is to be worked out in line1 a chisel1 like that illustrated in ,d 7page #bhe71 may be whittled from a pine stick4 ,it is held nearly upright and used as a scraper to cut out at first a shallow channel4 ,reserve should be exercised in cutting1 because1 generally speaking1 there is danger of making the design too insistent4 ,some of the best designs are very subtle and quiet4 ,care should be taken1 however1 to allow for a slight filling in of the hollow by the glaze when it is applied4 ,modelling a ,decoration4--,if the decoration is to be modelled it would seem wise to do it1 in whole or in part1 as the work is built up2 but in this case great care will be needed to keep a firm hold on the relief and unity of the decoration4 ,it will be easy to over-model the work4 ,how ,under-glaze is ,applied4--,for decoration with under glaze the colours given under the head of glazing 7page #cjd7 are mixed in different proportions with dry powdered clay and water to form a colour paste4 ,this is painted on the green or moist clay1 forming a smooth and even surface4 ,experience will teach the proportions of colour to be mixed with the clay4 ,these proportions vary greatly with different colours4 ,a very strong colour like cobalt will give a deep blue if mixed in the ratio of one part by weight of cobalt to ten parts of clay4 ,colours like the oxides of iron and copper are of medium strength1 and antimony is quite weak4 ,before the work is left to dry it would be well to make sure that all corners and rough edges are smoothed off as they will show light and rough through the glaze4 ,the use of sand-paper1 however1 is not advised1 though it may occasionally be used in the emergency of an accidental roughness remaining after the piece is dry4 ,the aim should be to have all clay work show something of the plastic nature of the material out of which it is made4 ,firing4--,pottery must be bone dry before it is fired4 ,a very satisfactory portable kiln for firing may be purchased for from #cd to #age1 according to the size4 ,the smallest size1 which is illustrated in the next drawing1 will be ample for the needs of one or two persons4 ,if1 however1 the amateur does not care to go to the expense of purchasing a kiln1 it is generally possible to find a pottery factory in the vicinity that will undertake the firing and perhaps the glazing4 ,illustration3 ,a portable kiln ,temperature ,required4--,pottery is fired at a temperature varying1 according to the clay and the glaze used1 from approximately #ahjj to #bjjj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,modelling clay fires at #aieh degrees ,fahrenheit1 or what is called cone #jd4 ,this term comes from the fact that the heat is gauged by pyrometric cones1 which can be seen through a spy hole attached to the kiln4 ,these cones are graded compositions of various materials and possess different degrees of resistance to heat4 ,they are usually set up in clay in groups of three or more4 ,when one of them melts it bends over1 as illustrated in the accompanying drawing1 which shows cone #je--the most fusible one--completely down1 and #jd at a point indicating that it is time to shut off the heat from the kiln4 ,this must be done gradually and the kiln must be allowed to cool completely before it is opened4 ,this is especially necessary when firing the glazes described in the following section1 which require the same temperature as modelling clay4 ,further details about firing and caring for the kiln may1 of course1 be learned from descriptions accompanying the apparatus4 ,pottery comes out of the first firing in the kiln a dull porous ware and in colour either cream1 buff1 or red1 according to the amount of iron in the clay4 ,in this state it is called bisque or biscuit4 ,illustration3 ,pyrometric cones ,glazing4--,it is necessary to bring the pottery up to the condition of bisque before it can be glazed2 or1 to speak more accurately1 before it can be over-glazed2 for it has already been shown how the so-called under-glaze is put on before the first firing4 ,the subject is somewhat technical1 and it will not be possible in a single chapter to take up the details extensively4 ,briefly speaking1 the glazes most used for this class of work are the lead glazes--combinations of white lead or carbonate of lead as a flux with kaolin1 flint1 whiting1 feldspar1 and other ingredients4 ,these are supplied in powdered form and are ground together in water by means of a mill or a large mortar and pestle2 a mortar #h inches in diameter will serve4 ,grinding the ,glaze4--,the grinding should continue about an hour4 ,it should be said1 however1 that there is such a thing as grinding too fine4 ,after the glaze has been properly ground a small quantity of gum tragacanth1 dissolved in water1 is to be added as a binder to prevent flaking and rubbing off in handling4 ,it is also a good plan1 though not always necessary1 to strain the glaze1 as soon as it is ground1 through fine muslin4 ,the tools and materials needed for this work may be itemized as follows3 ,lead carbonate1 whiting1 ,canadian feldspar1 ,florida kaolin1 ,french flint1 white oxide of zinc1 and various other oxides and colours noted in the text2 earthenware bowls1 #aj or #ab inches in diameter1 for holding the glaze2 large spoons1 preferably aluminum2 agate mortar and pestle1 #h inches in diameter4 ,example of ,matt ,glaze and ,bright ,glaze ,mixes4--,two mixes are given below calculated to fuse at cone #jd4 ,one has a matt or dull velvety surface1 and the other has a bright or shiny surface4 ,the matt will be found more desirable for general work because it harmonizes better with flowers and foliage4 ,the figures given below refer to units of weight4 ,metric weights 7grams7 are most convenient to use1 but any units will serve so long as the same one is used throughout4 ,the matt glaze should be of the consistency of thick cream1 the bright glaze somewhat thinner4 ,,matt ,,base ,lead carbonate #aed ,whiting #be ,canadian feldspar #hc ,florida kaolin #ea ,,bright ,,base ,lead carbonate #adb ,whiting #bj ,canadian feldspar #hd ,florida kaolin #h ,white oxide of zinc #h ,french flint #dd ,the bases itemized above are colourless and there must be added to them from #c to #f per cent4 of colouring material that will stand heat4 ,a list of materials with their colours when fired is given on page #cjd1 together with a few typical combinations of colours in quantity suitable to be added to the glaze bases given above4 ,the following lists are by no means complete1 and it is expected that the young decorator will make use of these colour mixtures simply as an introduction to quite extensive experimenting3 ,,colour ,,materials ,black oxide of cobalt ,blue ,black oxide of copper ,blue green ,green oxide of chromium ,yellow green ,white oxide of antimony ,lemon yellow ,red oxide of iron ,yellowish brown ,green oxide of nickel ,dirty gray 7for neutralizing7 ,white oxide of tin ,makes glaze opaque ,black oxide of manganese ,purplish brown ,yellow ochre ,yellow ,burnt umber ,brown ,,colour ,,combinations ,olive green ,iron oxide #e ,cobalt oxide 4#e ,dark brown ,iron oxide #c ,nickel oxide #b ,manganese oxide #e ,light gray-blue ,tin oxide #e ,cobalt oxide 4#e ,copper oxide #a4g ,blue-green ,cobalt oxide #a ,copper oxide #g ,yellow ochre #d ,dark gray-blue ,nickel oxide #e ,yellow ochre #c ,cobalt oxide #b ,copper oxide #a ,applying the ,glaze4--,before applying the glaze to the piece of pottery or bisque1 the latter should be soaked in clear water for about five minutes or until the air is expelled from the pores4 ,when this has been accomplished it should be removed from the water and all moisture should be wiped from its surface4 ,the piece is then ready to be dipped into the glaze1 or to have the glaze poured over it1 if the size and shape of the piece make it more convenient to apply the glaze in this way4 ,it is usually best to glaze the inside first1 shaking out all the superfluous glaze before applying the glaze to the outside4 ,during this process the piece must be held firmly but by as few points of contact as possible4 ,these points of contact will generally need to be touched up before it is ready for firing4 ,it is sometimes necessary to glaze large pieces with a brush1 putting on several coats in order to cover the surface with an even thickness4 ,the matt glaze requires a greater thickness than the bright glaze in order to develop its characteristic velvety texture4 ,the greater thickness may be easily secured1 because it flows more slowly than the thinner bright glaze and is less likely to drip from the sides of the piece to which it is being applied2 but1 on the other hand1 it is at a disadvantage in that it does not1 in flowing slowly1 correct inequalities of thickness so readily as the more mobile bright glaze does4 ,a certain thickness1 however1 is essential2 and if1 after firing1 it is found that the glaze was put on too thin1 a second coat may be applied and the article again fired4 ,firing the ,glaze4--,before the glazed piece is fired the glaze should be dried and what runs down and collects about the bottom or foot should be scraped off4 ,it should then be set in the kiln on a kind of pointed tripod of hard burned clay1 called the stilt1 which prevents the glaze from sticking to the floor or shelves of the kiln4 ,all glazed ware should be placed in the kiln with at least #a_/b an inch of space between the pieces to prevent them from sticking together during the fusing state of the glaze1 when it is apt to bubble or boil4 ,the firing of glaze is a process very similar to that employed in the production of bisque1 already described4 ,greater care1 however1 must be taken in controlling the increase in temperature so that it shall be even and steady--free from all sudden flashes of heat4 ,the cooling also should be very gradual and1 as in bisque firing1 the kiln should be allowed to get cool before it is opened4 ,with this second firing the pottery is finished unless it should happen that a second coat of glaze is found to be necessary4 ,if only a few spots need attention1 this second coat is best applied with a brush4 ,,problem3 ,a ,,vase ,,for ,,long ,,stemmed ,,flowers ,the tools required for making this vase are the same as those used for the bowl1 and the process of building is much the same4 ,the chief difference is that it is more difficult to preserve the profile in building because the added height and the greater weight tend to bulge the lower part4 ,to meet this difficulty it will be necessary to set the work aside quite often in order to let the lower part harden sufficiently to support the upper part4 ,the ,profile4--,in preparing the profile the same rules hold as were applied in working up the problem of the bowl4 ,it will be well to remember1 however1 that the curves of a vase must be treated with greater reserve as to their lateral projection than was necessary in the case of the bowl--i4 e41 the curve of a vase should be enclosed within a rectangle narrower in comparison with its height than is the case with the curve of a bowl4 ,the reason for this1 of course1 is found in the greater height of a vase in comparison with its diameter4 ,the following figure shows three typical vase forms4 ,if these curves be compared with those shown on page #bhh1 illustrating bowl contours1 it will be observed how the height of the vase is emphasised in the greater restraint and subtlety of its curves4 ,in the next illustration we have two horrible examples to which attention has already been called in the suggestions for the design of bowls4 ,the dotted lines in the illustration show how these curves may be improved if1 in either ,a or ,b1 one element of the compound curve be made dominant at the expense of the other4 ,if at the same time the diameter be made smaller in comparison with its height the attractiveness of the contours will be still more improved4 ,indeed1 it will be a transformation from a profile that is positively bad to one that is very good4 ,illustration3 ,typical vase forms ,illustration3 ,profile to be avoided ,decoration4--,the problem of decoration is not very different from that of the bowl4 ,here again1 however1 the added height seems to call for greater accent by means of vertical or panel divisions4 ,unless this be understood there is some danger that the larger vertical spaces will seem to offer simply more room for horizontal bands1 resulting in a barber pole effect4 ,handles4--,if handles or buttresses are desired1 care should be taken that they are designed as an integral part of the vase--i4 e41 that they continue or reinforce its lines4 ,two suggestions for the treatment of the problem of handles are given in the accompanying drawing4 ,it will be noted how sympathetically these handles conform to the lines of the vases to which they are attached4 ,handles that give the impression of being made for another vase should be avoided4 ,illustration3 ,suggestions for handles ,,problem3 ,,the ,,fern ,,dish ,the process of building the fern dish is not essentially different from that employed in making the bowl described in the first problem4 ,if the fern dish is to be round1 the coiling method may be used2 but if the dish is to be square or rectangular it is not necessary to use this method4 ,in place of it the process of piecing on may be employed--i4 e41 one piece of soft clay may be added to another and the different pieces welded together as the work proceeds4 ,illustration3 ,development of the fern dish ,the ,lining4--,the fern dish requires a separate inner dish or lining with a hole in the bottom of it like that in the ordinary flower pot4 ,this feature forms the unique part of the problem4 ,generally speaking1 the presence of this lining seems to call for a little closer approach to the vertical in the sides of the outer bowl2 and yet some latitude is allowable1 as is shown in the right hand dish illustrated in ,plate ,,xiii following1 which is somewhat similar in profile to that illustrated in the accompanying drawing4 ,this drawing shows the development of the problem as applied to a round fern dish4 ,much freedom1 however1 may be used in the plan as either the round or the rectangular fern dish seems to give satisfaction4 ,the half section in the drawing shows a very narrow space between the inner and outer bowls at the top edges4 ,this adds greatly to the good appearance of the completed fern dish4 ,the sides of the inner dish are made vertical1 since it is necessary for it to be easily removed4 ,decoration4--,the problem of decoration differs very little from that discussed under the problem of the bowl4 ,either the fern itself or its woodland neighbours may easily furnish the motif4 ,sometimes there is occasion for designing similar dishes not for ferns but for other plants4 ,thus the smaller square dish1 illustrated in ,plate ,,xiii opposite1 was designed and made for the familiar bluets1 and the subject matter for its design was found in that flower4 ,glazing4--,the rules already given for glazing apply in this case1 but it will be necessary to glaze the outside fern dish only4 ,it is well1 however1 to glaze a narrow strip along the upper edge of the inner dish2 but the rest of it should be left unglazed4 ,it hardly needs to be added that in firing it is necessary to keep the inner and outer dishes separate4 ,illustration3 ,vases and ,fern ,dishes4 ,plate ,,xiii ,,problem3 ,,the ,,candlestick ,the ,design4--,this problem introduces several points in design that need to be especially emphasized4 ,the candlestick should be of such size that it will easily support the average candle without putting the user to great inconvenience in fitting it by paring it off or melting it down4 ,it is necessary to provide a lip to catch the stray drops of wax that will run down the sides of the candle2 and it will be a convenience to have this supplemented by a slight dishing of the base if the candlestick is to be carried about4 ,if a handle is to be added it should seem to be a natural outgrowth of the candlestick itself1 as was explained in the discussion of handles for vases2 and it should1 at the same time1 offer a place for a firm and comfortable grasp4 ,the accompanying drawing shows how handles may be designed really to form a part of the candlestick and at the same time1 by means of a sharp bend or elbow at the top1 to provide a natural place for the thumb to assist in grasping the handle4 ,whether the candlestick is to be high or low depends entirely upon the use intended for it or upon the preference of the user4 ,generally speaking1 a low candlestick is better for carrying about and a high one more desirable for standing in a cabinet or on shelf or table4 ,it is well for some definite idea of utility to manifest itself in the form chosen4 ,merely planning a tube and a handle upon a base1 without carefully relating these three different elements according to the requirements of use1 can hardly be called designing a candlestick4 ,illustration3 ,suggestive designs for candlesticks ,the building of the candlestick is started1 like the bowl in the first problem1 by coiling from the centre1 and the rim may be added in the same way4 ,care should be taken1 however1 to attach the central tube firmly4 ,this may be coiled or simply modelled from a single lump of clay4 ,if there is to be a handle it is well to build it at the time the central tube is built1 as it is then easier to make a firm attachment4 ,,problem3 ,,tiles ,the varied and extensive uses of tiles make it difficult to limit the scope of this problem4 ,tiles are used for paving1 wall facings1 ceilings1 coverings for stoves1 linings and facings for fireplaces1 rests for flower pots and teapots1 and for various other purposes4 ,tiles figure very prominently in the history of art4 ,they are objects of interest and study in many public buildings and museums throughout the civilized world4 ,but this problem will confine itself to two of the many varieties of tiles1 viz41 tiles designed for bowls or teapots and tiles used for the facing of fireplaces4 ,illustration3 ,a tile frame ,the ,tile ,frame4--,in building tiles a frame is used measuring about #f inches square by #e_/h of an inch thick4 ,the strips forming the frame may be #a inch wide1 lightly nailed together at the corners so that1 if necessary1 the frame can be easily taken apart while the clay is moist4 ,this frame is placed on a plaster bat or piece of paper and the clay forced firmly into its corners and sides1 working toward the centre1 until the frame is completely filled4 ,it is then turned over in order to make sure that the under side of the clay is thoroughly welded together4 ,care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame1 scraping off the surplus clay with a straight edge4 ,while the clay is moist1 one side is chosen for the back1 and this is hollowed out to prevent warping4 ,the hollowing may take the form shown in the right-hand tile at the top of ,plate ,,xiv1 or it may be in the shape of channels #c_/d of an inch or more in width1 separated by ridges #a_/b of an inch wide running across the back of the tile4 ,whichever method is used1 the depth should be about #c_/af of an inch and not over #a_/d of an inch4 ,even when the utmost precaution is taken1 the tile is very liable to warp4 ,it should therefore be dried slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of exposure on both sides4 ,the greatest help of all is found in the use of the so-called grog4 ,this is made by grinding to a powder clay that has been fired once and shrunk1 but not glazed4 ,it is used by mixing it with the clay before it is moulded1 in the proportion of one part grog to three of the clay4 ,it may be added here that grog will be found of great assistance not only in making tiles but in making other ware4 ,it will not be necessary1 however1 to burn clay for the express purpose of making grog4 ,the occasional failures which develop at the first firing of every batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply4 ,illustration3 ,tiles4 ,plate ,,xiv ,decoration4--,when the tile is dried and shrunk a little it may be easily taken from the frame1 but it should be allowed to get quite stiff before decoration is applied4 ,while the hardening process is going on the decoration may be studied4 ,the three general methods of decoration considered under the flower bowl--viz41 the sunken line1 the modelled surface1 and the painting with under-glaze or over-glaze--are all available for use with the tile4 ,if it is to be a tea tile the modelled surface must be treated with considerable caution1 otherwise there may result an uneven surface for the teapot to rest upon4 ,firing4--,in giving the tile its first firing it is safer to stand it on one edge in the kiln1 but not on the floor of the kiln1 as the intense heat of the floor would be liable to shrink that side more than the others4 ,it may be supported on two stilts or it may be placed on one of the shelves4 ,for the glaze firing the tile should be placed flat on the stilt4 ,tea ,tiles4--,the tiles illustrated at the top and bottom of ,plate ,,xiv were designed and made to serve as rests for a teapot1 a bowl1 or a vase4 ,it will be noticed that the centre is left free with one exception1 which is given as an interesting variation from the general rule4 ,the free space is an advantage in giving relief to the design and in furnishing an even surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon4 ,in the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general principles as to variety of measure or shape in space divisions hold true4 ,emphasis should be concentrated at the corners in order to strengthen the design4 ,fireplace ,tiles4--,some of the tiles illustrated in ,plate ,,xiv would be entirely appropriate for facing a border around the opening of a fireplace4 ,this is especially true of the middle design shown at the top of the plate1 on account of the lines which project through the corner design nearly to the edges of the tile4 ,this makes it especially adapted to repetition in a facing or border4 ,illustration3 ,pottery1 ,designed and ,made by ,schoolgirls4 ,plate ,,xv ,decoration of ,tiles4--,it is in the field of painted decoration1 however1 that the most attractive possibilities in fireplace tile designs are found4 ,the framed tile illustrated in ,plate ,,xv opposite--an example of over-glaze painting--is intended for use as a colour accent for the wall4 ,this tile is painted in matt glaze between raised outlines4 ,three similar tiles are illustrated in the middle row in ,plate ,,xiv4 ,the right-hand one1 like the framed tile of ,plate ,,xv1 is a matt over-glaze1 but the outline instead of being raised was slightly depressed4 ,the other two are examples of under-glaze painting4 ,they were painted on moist clay1 as described in the problem of the bowl1 and afterwards covered with a bright glaze4 ,in this case the glaze was itself coloured1 thus adding richness to the colour scheme4 ,the repetition in a tile facing of landscapes1 designed to be complete or nearly so1 would be tiresome4 ,it is better so to design the entire facing that it will be made up of a series of very simple landscape motifs1 each fairly complete in itself1 but all so related to each other as to form1 when joined1 a larger1 somewhat conventionalized1 landscape4 ,a treatment of this kind lends itself to many other decorative schemes4 ,the fireplace offers a great opportunity for design1 not only in itself1 but as related to the decorative scheme of the room in which it is placed4 ,it should not be forgotten that it is1 in a sense1 the focal centre of the room4 ,this fact1 together with its comparatively small size1 makes it possible to give it a strong and rich note of colour1 accenting the prevailing colour scheme of the room4 ,tiles1 properly designed and applied1 offer a rich and varied field for charming effects in colour and texture4 ,,xi ,,decorative ,,work ,,in ,,leather1 ,,copper1 ,,and ,,other ,,materials ,to become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not a matter of choice or privilege2 it is a moral necessity2 for a man's heart must be in his skill and a man's soul in his craftsmanship--,hamilton ,wright ,mabie ,,leather ,,work ,leather work1 like weaving and pottery1 is of very ancient origin4 ,the ,new ,testament text concerning new wine in old bottles referred to bottles of leather1 or wine skins4 ,we read of leather as having been used in still earlier times for shields1 saddles1 harnesses1 parts of chariots1 and as an accessory to clothing4 ,in the middle ages the gentle craft of leather was not confined to the shoemakers' useful productions but included much ornamental work4 ,there were wall coverings of leather with designs carved1 or modelled1 or stamped with hot tools2 seats were upholstered and books were covered with tooled leather4 ,some of this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt figures like the celebrated ,spanish leather4 ,why ,leather is ,suited to ,decoration4--,leather seems1 therefore1 to have won the right to a high place among the materials suited to decoration4 ,its beautiful texture1 the rich brown tones of its natural colour1 the ease with which it takes dyes1 and the readiness with which under proper treatment1 it receives and retains the marks of the modelling tool1 qualify it to minister to the artistic sense no less than its durability enables it to serve the more common uses4 ,limited ,decoration ,desirable4--,the tooling of leather is based upon the fact that1 when wet1 the fibre yields readily to compression and receives impressions that are retained after the leather is dry4 ,but the beauty of design depends upon the colour and texture of the surface quite as much as upon the figured impressions upon it4 ,it is therefore a good point in design not to cover the surface so completely that the peculiar beauty of the material itself be lost4 ,the decorations should be bold and rich1 but the tooling should be confined to a small part of the surface4 ,calf skin and cowhide are well suited to tooling4 ,they are supplied in two general forms1 viz41 the smooth1 generally as ,russia calf1 and the rough or split cowhides1 known as ooze4 ,leather may be stained a variety of colours by aniline dyes2 but since the natural colour of leather is brown1 brownish tones are more satisfactory than the blues1 greens1 violets1 grays1 etc41 because they seem more sincere4 ,illustration3 ,leather-working tools ,tools4--,the simple tools required for tooling leather may be purchased at small cost1 or they may be made from cheap nut picks by filing these to shape1 polishing them1 and buffing them4 ,the illustrations show two different tools1 each double pointed4 ,a and ,b are different views of the first tool2 ,c is the second tool4 ,the narrow pointed end of the first tool is for outlining and working into corners4 ,the broad1 flat end is for smoothing down and for general use2 the broad tool should be used whenever possible4 ,the round point on the left end of ,c is used for outlining and transfering the design to leather4 ,the right hand end of ,c is known as the background tool4 ,it is cupped out like a nail set1 as indicated by the lengthwise section just above and by the end view at the extreme right2 in fact1 a nail set may be used for the same purpose4 ,the background tool1 however1 is to be used sparingly4 ,if used to excess1 especially on large surfaces1 the result is likely to have a mechanical and shoppy appearance4 ,,problems ,,to ,,design ,,and ,,tool ,a ,,belt ,the sizes given in the illustration on page #cbe are typical1 but it is expected that in this and other problems1 dimensions will be varied to suit conditions4 ,when the size has been determined the leather should be cut a little longer and wider than the final dimensions are to be1 to allow for attaching the belt pin or buckle4 ,the strip of leather should be thoroughly soaked in cold water and then rolled in dry cloth until the leather is dry enough for tooling4 ,it is essential that there should be absolute uniformity of moisture4 ,if on applying the tool1 water follows pressure1 the leather is still too wet4 ,if it should get too dry to retain the mark of the tool it may be sponged on the back4 ,there is danger of water stains1 however1 if the entire back is not wet4 ,illustration3 ,two belt designs ,the ,design4--,the illustration shows two treatments4 ,an interlaced pattern is shown in ,a which concentrates the interest at the ends and in the middle of the back4 ,the pattern shown is tooled solid and the background is left untooled4 ,if the pattern be tooled in outline it is well to shade these outlines out into the background in order to give relief to the interlaced bands4 ,modelled natural forms are shown in ,b4 ,in this the background is tooled down1 but is heaviest at the ends or in the spaces against the raised forms4 ,this gives the background a richer appearance than it has when tooled absolutely flat4 ,both patterns here shown are straight with parallel sides4 ,other shapes are possible--for example1 those wider in the middle and tapering toward the ends4 ,when a satisfactory design has been worked out and drawn it is transferred to thin bond paper4 ,the greatest care should be taken not to have any pencil marks on the back of this paper1 for they leave a dirty gray stain on the leather which is difficult to remove4 ,it may be added here that whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any purpose a tool should be used1 not a pencil4 ,the ,process4--,as soon as the leather has dried just enough to retain the marks1 the pattern should be placed upon it1 pencilled side up1 allowance being made for trimming to the desired width4 ,the paper may be held in position by thumb tacks1 which must not1 however1 pass through the leather inside the part that is to be cut off4 ,the pattern may now be traced through the paper1 over the lines of the drawing1 with the round pointed tool4 ,care will have to be exercised to make sure that the pattern is completely transferred to the leather4 ,when this is accomplished the pattern should be removed and the lines1 which will be found somewhat dimly traced on the leather1 should be immediately deepened by going over them with the same tool4 ,illustration3 ,method of using the broad tool ,the next step is to tool down the design2 and in doing this the work should be turned under the tool rather than the tool itself on the work1 in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied at the edge of the pattern farthest from the hand4 ,this not only insures a correct and convenient position of the tool1 but allows a perfect view of the work4 ,in this part of the process the broad tool should be used1 moved sidewise1 as shown by the direction of the arrow in the accompanying cut4 ,in working up into corners the narrow tool may be used if necessary4 ,the movement may be described as ironing the leather down4 ,the surface should not be roughed up or cut up into shoulders4 ,it is a process requiring time4 ,one should not try to get the full depth with the first pressure of the tool4 ,one should coax the surface and add pressure with each succeeding stroke1 taking care that the tool does not scrape4 ,it should glide2 and yet1 on the other hand1 beginners will perhaps need to be cautioned not to wear out the surface by feeble scratching and patting4 ,a firm1 even gliding pressure does the work4 ,as the leather dries it will be seen that the tooling has given it a dark1 glossy surface4 ,when the process is completed the belt may be trimmed down with a firm1 sure cut of the knife1 using a straight edge wherever straight lines are desired4 ,,to ,,design ,,and ,,tool ,a ,,mat ,illustration3 ,supported and unsupported circles ,the ,design and the ,process4--,the purpose for which a mat is used requires as one condition of design that there should be a plain surface in the middle4 ,if the general form be square the design at the corners should be strengthened4 ,if circular1 the design should be so arranged that it will lend support to the perfect curves of the circle rather than weaken them4 ,in the three outlines given below1 ,c shows a form supporting the circle2 ,d and ,e show forms tending to weaken the circle4 ,conditions determining size are more variable in this problem than in others1 because of the great variety of uses which a mat may serve4 ,in a design like that shown in ,a of the accompanying illustration1 the portions left untooled--i4 e41 the leaves and fruit--may be raised still more by pressing out the leather from the back by means of a tool4 ,to do this the leather should be placed face down in the palm of the hand or on modelling wax1 which has been covered with a piece of chamois or sheepskin4 ,then by gently forcing the leather down with a round1 blunt tool such as the blunt end of a nut pick the desired relief in the figure may be obtained4 ,after this is done it will probably be necessary to turn the mat over and correct the modelling4 ,in order to preserve the higher relief it is well to back it up with cotton batting1 soaked in paste1 and finally to cover the entire back with a lining of silk or leather4 ,illustration3 ,two mat designs ,,to ,,design ,,and ,,tool ,a ,,pen ,,wiper ,a pen wiper consists of a cover1 which in this case must be made of leather suitable for tooling1 and several leaves of soft material like sheepskin or chamois1 which should match the cover in colour4 ,the process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ essentially from that already employed in the foregoing problems4 ,it should1 of course1 be carried through to completion before the book is made up4 ,these parts are to be tied together with knots of sheepskin thongs of the same colour4 ,illustration3 ,steps in tying a knot ,the series of cuts given below show the progressive steps in forming the knot1 which should finally take the shape of ,figure #e4 ,after it has been formed the thongs are passed through holes punched in the cover and leaves of the pen wiper1 and secured by a second knot formed on the back1 resembling ,figure #d with the ends cut as close as will leave them securely tied4 ,illustration3 ,two designs for pen wipers ,another illustration gives two suggestions for the design3 ,a1 a rectangular pen wiper tied with two knots at the end2 ,b1 a circular pen wiper tied with one knot in the middle4 ,in these designs1 and indeed in all others1 decoration should recognize 7not antagonize67 the outer form of the article to which it is applied4 ,this point is made in the illustration4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,slip ,,cover ,,for ,a ,,note-,,book ,,filler ,illustration3 ,design for slip cover ,planning the ,cover4--,the object in this problem is to make a permanent protection for fillers4 ,it is well known that the fillers themselves may be purchased for a trifling sum and that they are provided with a backing of stiff paper which is designed to be slipped into a pocket in the back of a leather cover and thus form a neat pocket note-book4 ,it is evident that the dimensions of the filler determine the size of the cover2 but1 in planning the cover1 care should be exercised to allow sufficient play for width1 length1 and thickness after all the cutting and sewing are done4 ,this means that the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a little larger than called for in the final size4 ,the design illustrated shows both the outside 7,a7 and the inside 7,b7 of the cover4 ,as it is planned the cover is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing colour2 but this may be left out if desired1 though it1 of course1 gives a much better finish to put it in4 ,assembling the ,parts4--,the first step after cutting out the leather for the cover is to prepare the leather and tool it1 if it is to have any decoration4 ,a piece of leather should be cut for the pocket1 and the edge 7,c7 shaped4 ,the edges of the lining and the pocket should next be lightly pasted and pressed on the cover4 ,a line is then to be ruled with a leather tool 7not with pencil7 on the outside to serve as a guide for stitching4 ,a machine stitch may be employed or it may be done by hand4 ,if by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce the leather at equal distances along the tooled line4 ,hand stitches may safely be a little longer than the machine stitches4 ,illustration3 ,stitching with two needles ,stitching4--,a good way to secure equally spaced stitches by hand sewing is to make use of bow springs or spacing dividers set to the required distance4 ,a more rapid way to accomplish the same thing is possible by making use of a tracing wheel1 if one is available of suitable size and of the right spacing between the teeth4 ,the hand stitching may be done either with one needle or with two4 ,if with one it is best to sew a running stitch once around the seam and then return1 covering the alternate spaces left on the first round4 ,it is better1 however1 to use two needles1 one on each end of one thread1 selected long enough to finish the sewing without piecing it1 and to proceed as illustrated in ,a and ,b1 i4 e41 to draw one needle with its thread through to the middle of the thread1 as shown in ,a1 and then the other through the next hole1 and so on alternately from opposite directions1 producing a stitch like that illustrated in ,b4 ,it will1 of course1 be understood that1 in the illustration1 the length of the stitch is exaggerated in order to show the process plainly4 ,trimming and ,finishing4--,when the sewing is finished the thread is fastened by doubling over one or two of the stitches and drawing the ends inside between the cover and lining4 ,then a line should be tooled on the cover about #a_/af of an inch outside of the stitching1 and on this line the cover1 lining and pocket are trimmed together4 ,the raw edges may be treated with water colour to give them a finish4 ,finally the cover is moistened a little and folded back with firm pressure in order to establish an even and permanent bend in the leather4 ,,to ,,design ,,and ,,make ,a ,,desk ,,pad ,the ,design4--,the problem of design in this case is1 first of all1 to determine the dimensions of the pad1 which depend1 of course1 upon the use to be made of it4 ,then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn in outline1 including the spacing for the corners as illustrated in the drawing 7,a74 ,the only detail that will need elaboration is the corner4 ,the shape and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully laid out on thin paper1 from which in due time it may be transferred to the leather and tooled as in other problems4 ,illustration3 ,detail of the leather corner ,illustration3 ,outline of desk pad ,material and the ,process4--,for making the pad it will be necessary to secure a piece of binders' board--i4 e41 heavy pulp or straw board--of the required size4 ,the medium weight is the best1 and it may generally be obtained at the bookbinder's4 ,if this cannot be obtained1 two sheets of #aj-ply card-board may be used instead4 ,the size given in the drawing will carry a half sheet of commercial blotting paper4 ,the edges of the paper board should be bound with passe-partout binding of a colour to harmonize with the leather that is to be used2 the strips of binding should be long enough to extend under the leather corners but they need not reach up to the corners of the board4 ,after the binding has been put on1 the top of the board should be covered with paper also harmonizing in colour with the leather1 and the paper should be cut of such size as to lap over the edge of the binding and yet leave a suitable width of the binding4 ,the so-called cover papers will be found satisfactory4 ,making the ,corners4--,the next step in the process is to lay out and cut the leather corners according to the original design4 ,the form in which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions are shown in the illustration ,b4 ,the little flap at x should be noted4 ,it is designed to tuck under and close the corner4 ,the edges of leather at x should be skived or thinned down so as to add to the neat appearance of the work4 ,further improvement will result from skiving down the edges ,s ,r ,s and ,t ,v ,t of the large flaps1 which are to be folded over underneath and pasted down to the back of the board4 ,the ordinary photographers' paste is satisfactory for this work4 ,when the leather corners are placed in position for pasting1 two or three thicknesses of blotting paper should be used at each corner1 in order to secure the necessary space for the reception of the blotters when the board is in use4 ,after the corners are pasted on1 the back of the board should be covered with paper in the same way as the front1 care being taken to leave a portion of the binding and leather exposed4 ,finally a number of blotters of full size should be inserted in position under the corners to keep them in shape and the whole placed under light pressure until dry4 ,,to ,,design ,,and ,,make ,a ,,card-,,case ,the ,design4--,in the illustration 7,a71 showing a card-case unfolded1 the dimensions give the finished size4 ,the same card-case is illustrated in ,b somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps turned in4 ,the design on ,a is a rectangle broken at the corners4 ,in this case1 as it may be with all similar forms1 the design is treated as a sort of binding1 extending across the middle fold4 ,c shows an alternative design which is treated as a panel and may be placed on one or on both sides of the card-case4 ,the question of which is the top and bottom in such a design as that in ,c can be determined only by the owner's habit of holding a case4 ,sometimes a monogram is placed in one of the inner flaps1 as illustrated in ,a1 or on one of the outer surfaces4 ,illustration3 ,design for a card-case ,the ,process4--,in cutting the leather for a card-case it is necessary to provide a piece a little larger than the finished dimensions in order to allow for trimming4 ,the design should be transferred1 the line of stitching determined1 and the tooling done1 according to the description already given for the other problems4 ,the ,lining4--,a card-case may be lined either with silk or with sheepskin1 in a colour to harmonize with the outside4 ,if lined with silk it must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling1 great care being exercised to have the sides parallel and the corners true and square4 ,then the silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly pasted along the edges to a width of #a_/h of an inch1 care being taken1 however1 not to paste those portions of the edges that will be visible when the flaps of the cover are turned in1 i4 e41 the middle of the fold ,b4 ,this precaution should be taken because the paste may strike through and spot the lining4 ,the flaps should then be moistened a little and folded down with firm pressure2 but before stitching they should be fastened down with a little paste to form pockets4 ,this takes the place of basting and is followed by stitching as described in the problem of the note-book4 ,if lined with sheepskin1 the ooze side showing1 the cover need not be trimmed down until after the stitching2 then both may be trimmed at once4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,leather ,,purse ,the ,design4--,the details of design and construction are shown in the accompanying illustrations4 ,in ,a the outer flap is shown tooled4 ,it will be noticed that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the central point in design4 ,the tooling is done as directed in the other examples of this class of work4 ,illustration3 ,design for a purse ,the purse is lined throughout with leather4 ,it has bellows ends1 as shown in the perspective at ,c and in the end view at ,b4 ,the pattern of the bellows end shown in ,d is intended to fold in the middle1 bringing both ends of the leather together and thus giving an end of double thickness4 ,with thin leather1 such as is used in the present instance1 this pattern is practicable4 ,if thicker leather be used the bellows must be made of single thickness4 ,in this case the pattern would simply be like that shown in the lower half of ,d4 ,the ,process4--,after the lining is pasted to the cover a snap fastener should be attached4 ,proper care1 of course1 should be taken to see that the fastener comes in the right place so that the purse will fold properly4 ,the cover and lining should then be trimmed and the leather surface ruled for stitching4 ,it is well to fold the inner flap of the purse while it is moist from pasting4 ,finally a little paste is applied along the edges of the bellows ends and they are placed in position4 ,stitching is started at the point ,e shown in the perspective4 ,hand stitching is the most practicable4 ,the direction is down one side1 up the other1 and around the outside flap to the other bellows end1 stopping at the point ,f4 ,when the stitching is completed the inside flap should be folded down4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,limp ,,leather ,,book ,,cover ,the ,design4--,the first step is to choose the book to be bound4 ,for the sake of simplicity1 as perhaps the first piece of bookbinding undertaken1 it should be a folio or section4 ,and it should be worth binding in leather4 ,the subject1 the paper1 and the typography should be worthy of the distinction4 ,illustration3 ,typical arrangements suitable for tooled leather covers of books4 ,details of tooling1 relief1 etc41 worked out as in other problems4 ,the ,process4--,if the book selected is already bound or cased it is necessary first to remove the binding or casing4 ,then at least three fly leaves should be added1 made up to match the other leaves of the folio4 ,a piece of bookbinders' linen or buckram is now cut to the size of the open folio1 placed upon it like a cover1 and1 with the fly leaves and the folio itself1 stitched through the back with silk of a colour to harmonize with the leather4 ,the next step is to prepare the leather cover4 ,to do this1 first place the leather in position on the closed folio and1 allowing #a_/d of an inch at the top and bottom and #c_/h of an inch at the fore edge1 mark and cut out the stock for the cover4 ,the decoration1 if there is to be any1 may now be tooled on4 ,if the design is heavy enough in relief to need a backing1 it may be at once filled with cotton batting1 pasted in as directed in the problem of the mat1 and covered with thin paper4 ,stock for the end papers is now selected4 ,they may be of cover paper1 or of silk1 and they should harmonize in colour with the leather4 ,they are formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen1 by folding it over to fit into the part between the linen and the first fly leaf4 ,if of paper they are to be cut to the length of the folio leaves1 but the width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment after the linen is pasted in4 ,if the end leaves are to be of silk1 an allowance of #a_/d of an inch must be left for turning in at the top1 the bottom and the fore edge4 ,we are now ready to paste the linen to the leather4 ,strong paste1 with perhaps a little thin glue added1 is needed for this part of the process4 ,now paste the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside of the cover2 and1 if silk has been used for these leaves1 paste the other two to the outer fly leaves4 ,finally1 the book should be placed under very gentle pressure and kept in this condition until dry4 ,care should be exercised to adjust this pressure to the character of the tooling1 if there is any1 so as not to crush it4 ,,copper ,,work ,there is a limited field for metal work in home decoration2 but there are some things of metal that combine beauty and utility to a remarkable degree and1 in their making1 introduce us to most interesting operations4 ,beginning with the gate1 which may be of wrought iron1 or with the door knocker1 which may be of antique brass1 we may find in every home problems of design involving work in metals4 ,ornamental hinges1 key escutcheons1 fastenings of various kinds1 andirons1 and other accessories of the hearth1 lamp holders1 card trays1 crumb trays1 bon bon dishes1 and many other useful things that may be made in attractive forms readily suggest themselves4 ,how some of these may be made is suggested in the following simple problems3 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,letter ,,rack ,this is an easy problem4 ,only four constructive operations are required1 viz41 cutting out the stock1 sawing the design1 bending1 and finishing4 ,the illustration shows the form and the dimensions and suggests a simple design4 ,the material required is #ah-;gauge soft copper4 ,illustration3 ,design for a letter rack ,the first step in the process is to cut out a strip of copper #h inches long and #d inches wide4 ,if necessary the edges may be trimmed even and then the round corners should be cut4 ,the design is traced on strong1 thin paper and securely pasted on the copper in the proper position by using cold liquid glue4 ,a hole is drilled through each unit of the design by means of a hand drill1 a jewellers' saw inserted1 and the design cut4 ,time and patience will be required for this operation4 ,saws are easily broken1 and new ones must be attached to the saw frame and again applied to the work4 ,after sawing the design it is necessary to give the edges a smooth finish4 ,this is done with a file4 ,the surface which is to form the inside of the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and polished with water and pumice4 ,the copper is now ready to be bent to the required shape4 ,to do this prepare a block of hard wood #h inches long and #b inches wide1 grip it in a bench vise1 and clamp the strip of copper squarely across the block in such a position that the sides may be bent over the edges of the block4 ,when this has been done it only remains to clean the outside surface and finish it on the felt buffing wheel4 ,if a fine polish is desired1 the buffing should be preceded by careful grinding with a ,scotch water stone and water4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,letter ,,opener ,this requires the same kind of material as the letter rack and the same operations1 with the addition of riveting4 ,after the stock is cut out1 trimmed and trued up at the edges1 an outline of the design is pasted on1 as in the previous problem1 and the design cut out4 ,the top is then bent over and riveted with a copper tack1 having shaped the head of the tack in the vise before inserting it4 ,while the tack is being riveted the finished head should be protected by placing it on a lead block4 ,finally the edge should be filed to the shape shown in the cross section1 and the whole cleaned and polished4 ,illustration3 ,design for a letter opener ,,to ,,make ,a ,,hat ,,pin ,for this problem #ab-;gauge copper will be needed4 ,the operations required are cutting out1 sawing1 and soft soldering4 ,after the necessary stock has been cut to the required shape and the edges filed1 the design is outlined1 pasted on1 sawed1 and finished as before4 ,it is desirable to grind with the ,scotch stone and water to a good polish4 ,the head will then be ready to be attached to the pin4 ,illustration3 ,the hat pin ,carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the surface where the pin is to be attached 7shown in the drawing71 select a steel pin of desired length1 scrape the surface of the little disk attached to one end of it1 apply to this disk a little soldering paste by means of a small stick1 and then1 with a gas 7or alcohol7 blowpipe1 melt on a bit of soft solder1 which should cover the whole disk4 ,now place the copper1 outside face down1 on an asbestos pad1 applying the soldering paste to the central portion1 place the disk with its bit of solder on this portion of the copper1 and fuse as before4 ,when the copper has cooled1 clean off the oxide1 which will have formed1 by dipping in diluted sulphuric acid1 and polish on the buffing wheel4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,belt ,,pin ,illustration3 ,the belt pin ,eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem4 ,the operations are like those for the hat pin except that hard soldering is necessary4 ,the slight bending of the copper1 required in this case1 is done by means of a horn mallet and a sand pad4 ,for hard soldering1 the surface must be scraped as before and covered with a little borax ground in water and applied with a small brush4 ,the belt plate should then be placed on the asbestos pad1 with its convex face down1 and blocked up so that the end where the soldering is to be done is horizontal4 ,the catch should then be placed in position with a small piece of silver solder at the base4 ,the solder should be melted as before by means of a mouth blowpipe and gas or alcohol flame4 ,the hinge is soldered on in the same way1 and finally the pin is cleaned and polished for use4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,set ,,of ,,book ,,ends ,this problem is much like the first one described under metal work4 ,sixteen-gauge copper is required4 ,it may be bent by placing it between two hard wood blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide mallet4 ,illustration3 ,design for book ends ,,to ,,make ,a ,,teapot ,,stand ,illustration3 ,design for a teapot stand ,twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem4 ,the operations are similar to those already described2 but the cutting and bending are much more difficult4 ,after determining the design it will be necessary to make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces1 as illustrated in the detail of the corner4 ,the four corners must be marked and cut exactly as shown in the drawing4 ,a piece of hard wood is then cut to the size of the top1 #e inches square in this case1 to be used as a form on which to bend down the sides and turn the flanges4 ,if the corners are correctly cut the parts will fall naturally into place1 to be bored and riveted1 as the drawing plainly shows4 ,in order to protect the tablecloth1 the under side of the rivet holes should be countersunk so that the ends of the rivets may be finished smooth and flush with the under surface4 ,as an additional protection1 a felt mat may be glued on the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,detail of a corner ,,to ,,make ,a ,,watch ,,fob ,this problem introduces engraving and enamelling1 two interesting but somewhat difficult operations4 ,the process to be carried out is as follows3 ,using #ab-;gauge copper1 saw the outline1 and apply the design for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching it with a pencil or transferring it by means of carbon paper4 ,then strengthen the pencil or carbon lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl4 ,imbed this fob in pitch1 either in a pitch bowl or in a small quantity of pitch placed on a piece of board clamped to the bench or table4 ,using an engraving tool1 remove the copper from the spot to be enamelled to the depth of #a_/cb of an inch4 ,it is well to have the bottom of the spot reasonably level but not necessarily smooth and the sides slightly undercut4 ,before applying the flux1 clean1 by pouring a small quantity of concentrated nitric acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off under the water tap4 ,flux should be kept in a closed jar under water after grinding1 and taken out as needed on the tip of a small strip of copper previously cleaned with acid4 ,enough flux should be applied to cover the bottom of the spot to be enamelled2 but the depth of the spot must not be filled up4 ,illustration3 ,design for a watch fob ,now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on an iron tripod1 and apply the flame of the blowpipe to the under side4 ,heat very slowly until all the water is driven off1 then force the heat until the flux is fused4 ,allow it to cool slowly1 then remove any flux that may have adhered to the surface of the fob by grinding with ,scotch stone4 ,clean with acid as before1 fill the spot with enamel in the same manner as the flux was applied1 and fuse again4 ,after fusing1 the surface should be stoned again to remove inequalities and again fused1 cleaned with water and buffed on the wheel4 ,if it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver the flux may be omitted and the enamel applied directly1 but the silver should be cleaned with sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid1 and great care should be used in heating as the fusing point of silver is but little above that of enamel4 ,the depth of the engraving on the silver need not be as great as on the copper4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,card ,,tray ,eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem1 and two new operations1 viz41 raising and chasing1 are introduced4 ,after cutting out a circular piece of copper to the diameter indicated1 allowing one half an inch extra for raising1 it is annealed by heating it to red heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling by dipping in a sulphuric acid pickle bath4 ,a circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is lightly scratched1 and a hard wood block is cut on the end grain to the shape indicated in the sketch1 and placed in a vise4 ,now holding the copper on the block1 it is raised to shape with the round end of the roughing hammer4 ,it is well to anneal frequently4 ,illustration3 ,design for a card tray ,after shaping1 the design may be applied by means of transfer paper and the lines lightly scratched on the surface4 ,then imbed the tray in pitch and outline the design by following the lines with a narrow chasing tool4 ,reverse the tray on the pitch and1 with a chasing tool of suitable shape1 raise the body of the design to the height desired4 ,reverse on the pitch again and with a flat tool true the outlines and smooth the background4 ,remove from the pitch1 trim the edge of the tray if it is forced out of line1 clean with pumice stone and buff4 ,illustration3 ,method of shaping with the hammer ,all the foregoing articles may be agreeably coloured by painting them with1 or immersing them in1 a weak solution 7boiling7 of liver of sulphur4 ,if soft solder has not been used1 another pleasing finish may be secured by applying a thin coat of lubricating oil and heating gently until the oil is volatilized4 ,an antique green or verdigris finish may be obtained by painting with a mixture of acetic acid and copper carbonate4 ,several coats may be necessary2 and it is desirable to lacquer the surface to ensure permanency4 ,,work ,,in ,,other ,,materials ,a ,,candle ,,shade ,the materials and tools for this problem are six ply card-board in dull shades of gray1 brown or green1 and with mat surface2 ,japanese paper of average thickness2 passe-partout binding a little darker than the card-board and of harmonizing colour2 paste2 a penknife with a thin blade2 and a water colour outfit4 ,of the drawings included in the group on the opposite page one shows a development of the surface of the candle shade which is the subject of this problem4 ,referring to the elevation it will be seen that if the edges ,,ae and ,,dh be continued until they meet at ,o1 ,,oe and ,,oh are really equal to the radii of the outer arc of the development shown in the upper part of the group1 and ,,oa and ,,od1 to the radii of the inner arc4 ,this upper developed surface really forms the pattern of the candle shade4 ,illustration3 ,details of candle shade ,the decoration consists of openings cut through the card-board segments4 ,these are covered with ,japanese paper1 thus allowing light to pass through1 but adding the effect of colour4 ,a margin of #c_/h of an inch is allowed along the openings1 the remaining spaces being divided by partitions of card-board1 as shown in the different typical designs at the right of the illustration4 ,it will be noticed that the group of openings forming the decoration of one side conforms in the main to the shape of that side4 ,it will also be noticed that there is a variety of size and shape in the openings1 but that they all show a certain unity and harmony of space division4 ,the openings are cut with a penknife1 care being taken to make as clean a cut as possible4 ,japanese paper1 of pale green1 orange1 or some suitable light colour1 is pasted under the openings4 ,the process of pasting is one that requires some care4 ,it is well to paste only a portion of the pasteboard at a time taking care not to use more paste than necessary and not to let any get over the edges of the openings4 ,the paper should be pressed on while the paste is still moist1 and the paper itself should1 of course1 not be pasted at all4 ,it should be placed with colour side next to the openings4 ,when the paste is dry the card-board should be lightly scored on the lines ,,ae1 ,,bf1 etc41 and bent on these lines1 bringing the sectors together into the form of the shade and fastening them at the top and bottom temporarily with a bit of passe-partout binding4 ,if the binding is of the ordinary width 7#g_/h of an inch71 it should be cut lengthwise into two strips of equal width1 to be used for mounting the edges4 ,no attempt should be made to run the binding along more than one edge4 ,the separated strips should then be cut the exact length for each top and bottom edge and applied one at a time4 ,then the side edges are bound1 with the apex of the angle at the middle of the binding4 ,when the binding is firmly fastened it is carefully trimmed off at the top and bottom4 ,,electric ,,light ,,pendants ,illustration3 ,a seven-light fixture ,two designs for such pendants are illustrated in the accompanying drawings4 ,they were derived from suggestions in the ,craftsman1 and were successfully worked out in remodelling a house4 ,the seven-light fixture consists of a circular pendant-board about #cj inches in diameter1 made from #b-;inch plain oak stock1 cut into #fj-;degree segments and1 with splined joints1 glued up to form a circular piece which was turned up on a large lathe4 ,an open space #g inches in diameter was left in the larger circle1 which was covered by a cup-shaped cap turned from plain oak stock and attached to the larger circle by screws4 ,the considerable opening covered by this cap contained the cut out and the wiring necessary for connecting with each of the seven lights4 ,seven medium-sized hooks of composition metal were procured which had large1 coarse threaded screws4 ,a #c_/af-;inch hole was drilled lengthwise through the shanks of these hooks4 ,holes were bored near the centre of the arc of each segment in the board circle to receive these hooks4 ,when the fixture was assembled the wires for each light were carried from the cut out across a channel made for that purpose on the upper surface of the board1 passed down through the hole in the shank of the hook1 woven into the links of the chain pendant and connected with the corresponding bulb socket after passing through another hook1 like those described above1 which linked the socket to the chain4 ,as a finish around the hooks shallow cups of beaten copper were fashioned over a wooden form1 turned for the purpose1 and oxidized to a tone somewhat darker than the brown of the oak board4 ,copper cups in a conventional petal design were made to place over each of the bulbs4 ,the chains were also oxidized to conform with the other metal work4 ,the entire combination was satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,a five-light fixture ,another design for the dining-room of the same house and much easier to construct is also illustrated4 ,it will be observed that the square form instead of the circle is carried out consistently in the woodwork and metal caps4 ,these caps and the chains are in natural brass of a dull finish4 ,the shades are of ground glass1 decorated with a flower design in heavy black lines4 ,the central light has a larger shade than the others1 wholly enclosed4 ,in this one is placed a red incandescent bulb for use whenever such decorative effect is desired4 ,,decorative ,,forgings ,in the story of the designing and building of the model house reference was made to contributions from the forge shop4 ,among these were the andirons1 door knocker1 lantern bracket1 and other articles shown in the accompanying illustrations4 ,it should be understood that all wrought iron work that has any reality in it requires an equipment especially adapted to its production4 ,there must be a good forge and fire1 an anvil1 and proper tools1 all in the hands of a workman of some experience and skill4 ,successful forge work can hardly be considered among the handicrafts easily adapted to the needs of the amateur working without instruction and with poor equipment4 ,but with good tools1 proper equipment1 and a little experience any clever boy will be able to design and fashion many useful articles for the home which have real artistic merit4 ,illustration3 ,decorative ,forgings4 ,plate ,,xvi ,for the fireplace1 in addition to andirons1 there may be made the shovel1 poker1 and tongs1 and possibly the old-fashioned crane and pot hooks4 ,other fixtures that may be made are ceiling hooks1 lantern brackets for the wall or for lantern posts1 standards for the newel post1 the hall lantern or the porch lantern1 the latch and the knocker for the door1 and1 if the architectural design permits1 hinges1 plates1 and bolts for the door4 ,this list by no means exhausts the uses of wrought iron in house decoration4 ,it may be extended to include draw pulls1 key escutcheons1 furniture handles and hinges of great variety1 nails with ornamental heads for use with heavy construction1 and many small articles such as trivets for steam kettles1 toasting forks1 candle holders1 and many other useful articles which have also decorative value4 ,,xii ,,concluding ,,suggestions ,,country ,,homes ,to know what you prefer1 instead of humbly saying amen to what the world tells you you ought to prefer1 is to have kept your soul alive4--,robert ,louis ,stevenson ,keen observers of ,american customs1 who have studied the development of our taste in house designing and furnishing1 tell us that the best expression of our art in architecture and home decoration is to be found in our country homes4 ,they do not overlook1 of course1 a beautiful public building in this city or that1 perhaps ten altogether1 or an occasional private residence on ,millionaire ,avenue1 which are monuments to the genius of the men who created them and of which any country may be proud4 ,what they mean is that as a people we seek and secure the right combination of utility and beauty in our homes more frequently in the country than in the city4 ,at first thought such a criticism may seem to be an exaggeration4 ,is it reasonable1 we ask1 that people of good sense1 such as most ,americans are1 really succeed better in planning1 building1 and decorating the houses which they are to occupy but a few weeks in the summer than they do in developing their city homes8 ,we are told that it is true and that there are good reasons for it4 ,simplicity of ,country ,life4--,it is the life in the country and at the seashore that is the simple life1 the natural life1 the life that sets us free from the accumulated burden of mere things4 ,here we come to forget for a time the many and find pleasure in the few4 ,here we are to feel the joy of living4 ,nature is all about us1 and she gives of her bounty freely4 ,our wants are few because we are so well satisfied with the free gifts4 ,what wants we have keep step with our needs here as they do nowhere else4 ,we care less for what others have2 we are more individual1 more rational4 ,here we generally demand what we really need and we more frequently obtain it4 ,and this is true whether it be something that appeals to the sthetic side of our natures or whether it be that which ministers to our material needs4 ,in seeking the beautiful for the simple home in the country we do not so often forget the useful2 for here1 away from the world of museums and studios and collections1 we learn that art is possible without paintings and statuary4 ,in the exterior form and colouring of the shingled cottage1 set like a gem on the hillside or by the sea1 in the harmonious arrangement of its interiors1 with every article of furniture chosen only for use and comfort and placed where needed1 and with decorations1 cheerful but restrained and subordinate1 suggestive of more glorious colours and more interesting things in the world without--in such surroundings we have beauty and utility combined4 ,here we have the time and the opportunity to realize the truth that all art is one and that it may find in the problems of decoration in the country home1 if not its highest mission1 its most open field for giving to appreciative people the pleasure of seeing and enjoying the beautiful4 ,opportunities for ,constructive ,art4--,if it be true that there is a more universal recognition of the true principles of art in the better class of our country homes than in our city homes1 it is proof1 if proof be needed1 that the elements of art expression are found in the simple1 natural materials of every-day life4 ,it may be that in the development of art amid simple surroundings necessity is the mother of invention1 and that1 more or less naturally1 simplicity is thrust upon us4 ,the general habit of our time is to extend the vacation period in the country or at the seashore to the point of making a home there for every summer season4 ,but only a few can carry wealth and elegance with them4 ,a great majority must be satisfied with simple and inexpensive homes4 ,at first we accept them as the only thing possible1 and then we discover that in their very simplicity they offer the best of opportunities for true sthetic expression4 ,and this opportunity is largely for the younger members of the family--for the boys and girls whose vacation period is more extended1 whose interest in the summer home is perhaps the more vital and whose imagination is the more susceptible to the art suggestions of nature4 ,we have seen that it is possible for boys and girls to build and furnish a house under the exacting requirements of city life4 ,how much easier it must be to build a cottage for the summer season1 decorating and furnishing it in harmony with the simple needs of a vacation home4 ,if such a suggestion meet with acceptance1 those who undertake the work will find much practical help in the problems outlined in the foregoing chapters4 ,it is not expected1 of course1 that the directions there given will always be exactly followed4 ,in the furniture problems1 for example1 soft woods like pine and spruce may be substituted for the harder woods specified4 ,very attractive as well as very useful simple furniture has been made in this way at a merely nominal expense4 ,staining and finishing may easily bring it into harmony with colour schemes2 but the bright1 fresh colour of new pine and spruce is in itself by no means unattractive4 ,the smooth1 exposed beams of the ceilings and walls1 if of well chosen stock1 may be stained a beautiful gray green or a soft brown4 ,a good colour suggestion may be found in the weathered gray of the hewn timbers of very old buildings4 ,the effect of a ceiled-up wall or of a dado may be easily obtained by stretching burlap or denim over the studding or over a backing of inexpensive sheathing4 ,these materials are very durable and inexpensive1 and they may be found in a great variety of beautiful shades4 ,they make excellent portires4 ,a lighter1 thinner material like scrim is better for window draperies4 ,all these fabrics afford good surfaces for decoration by stencilling4 ,stained or painted soft wood floors1 covered with grass cloth rugs or the more dainty hand woven rugs like those described in the chapter on weaving1 with simple1 useful furniture1 a picture or two1 and a few choice pieces of pottery1 complete the equipment for a charming living room4 ,if it all be the product of home industry1 the cash outlay for the material need not be over forty dollars1 though an outlay of ten times that amount for better materials would not in the least interfere with such a room being decorated and furnished by the unaided labours of the amateur artists and craftsmen of the family4 ,illustration3 ,a fireplace in field rock ,the chief expense would naturally be for the living room1 dining-room1 and kitchen4 ,the dining-room1 however1 may well be simply a corner or alcove of a large living room4 ,such an arrangement greatly increases the value of a single fireplace1 which will be required to give the summer home the sense of perfect comfort4 ,this may be of rough field rock and should be large enough to take one-cut fireplace wood4 ,the chamber furnishings may be very simple indeed4 ,furniture dealers make a point of supplying beds1 bureaus1 chairs1 and cabinets of simple design1 unfinished1 so that the purchaser may stain them to harmonize with any desired colour scheme4 ,but such furniture1 or good substitutes for it1 can be made very inexpensively4 ,for example1 the stock for a good bed will not cost over seventy-five cents4 ,cases provided with shelves and curtains in place of drawers1 made at a cash outlay possibly of one dollar1 will serve for bureaus4 ,the cost of materials for building an eight-room cottage in every way satisfactory need not exceed five hundred dollars2 and such a cottage could be beautifully furnished by clever boys and girls at an expense for materials of one hundred and fifty or perhaps two hundred dollars4 ,illustration3 ,an inexpensive bed ,in the exterior finishing of summer cottages nature generally needs very little assistance4 ,no colours harmonize so well with the gray rocks1 sere fields and marshes1 and the evergreen trees by the seashore1 as the weathered grays of the shingled cottage4 ,the window frames1 door frames and facings1 painted to preserve them1 may be of the same colour or in dull green or brown1 plainly marking the outlines of the house but without unpleasant contrasts4 ,a stained roof in slate gray or creosote brown is also in keeping4 ,the underpinning and outside chimneys in the field rock of the locality are eminently fitting4 ,the house among the hills will stand more colour because the colours of nature are richer1 especially in the autumn season4 ,but wherever the house may be1 it should repeat in its larger surfaces the prevailing colour tones of its natural setting4 ,it should seem to fit into its surroundings as if it belonged there and would always remain there1 a part of the simple1 natural beauty all around it4 ,illustration3 ,a country house ,,the ,,country ,,life ,,press1 ,,garden ,,city1 ,n4 ,y4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,spelling is the same mix of ,,us_/,,uk as others in series 7eg color_/colour7 ,corrected obvious typos3 tell - tells arrrangement - arrangement ,,croheted - ,,crocheted ,,stenciling - ,,stencilling on account - on account of will be be - will be retain - and retains expecially - especially ,portires_/,portieres found with and w_/o accent in equal parts 7left as in text in each case7 ,hyphenation made consistent3 wood-work - woodwork outdoor - out-door