,,superstition    ,,in ,,medicine       
,,superstition    ,,in ,,medicine       
,,by    ,,prof4 ,,dr4 ,,hugo ,,magnus   
,,authorized ,,translation ,,from       
,,the ,,german1 ,,edited ,,by    ,,dr4  
,,julius ,l4 ,,salinger      ,late      
,assistant ,professor of ,clinical      
,medicine1 ,jefferson ,medical          
,college2 ,physician to the             
,philadelphia ,general ,hospital1 etc4  
,illustration      ,,funk  ,,wagnalls   
,,company    ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london
    #aijh            ,,copyright1 #aije1
 ,,by    ,,funk  ,,wagnalls ,,company   
,printed in the ,united ,states of      
,america    ,published1 ,april1 #aije   
,,preface      ,the history of medicine 
is closely interlinked with the         
development  of theology4 ,the errors of
 one are for the most part reflected in 
the mistakes of the other4 ,no matter   
how obscure and dark the origin  of     
either1 whether derived from ignorance  
and superstition or not1  the ultimate  
achievement alone must be taken into    

consideration4 ,we  do not reject       
chemistry because it originated in      
alchemy1 we do not  disregard astronomy 
because its roots are entwined with the 
teachings  of astrology1 and so in      
theology and medicine we look to the    
final  issue4 ,the statements set forth 
in this book should not be construed  as
 reflecting the development of theology 
or medicine at the time1 but  as the    
belief of the people existing in these  
periods4 ,philosophy may  have been     
pure1 but if the mind of man was faulty 
the responsibility  must not be laid at 
the door of science4 ,it is the function
 of the  historian truthfully to depict 
the thought and spirit of the time of   
which he writes4 ,this has been         
attempted in the present work4 ,it is   
not  a criticism of a system1 but a     
criticism of man4 ,there can be no doubt
  that absurd superstitions are still   
existent for which the twentieth        
century will be severely criticized in  
time to come4 ,thus the words of  our   

martyred ,president may well be used as 
a motto for this book3 8,with  malice   
towards none1 with charity for all40    
,the last chapter of this book has been 
added by the translator1 as it  seemed  
necessary for the full discussion of the
 subject4        ,,julius ,l4           
,,salinger4      ,,philadelphia1 ,pa4   
,,contents                              
,,page      ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,medical   
,,superstition8                         
#a       ,,ii4 ,,theism ,,in ,,its      
,,relation ,,to ,,medicine ,,and ,,in   
,,its         ,,struggle ,,with ,,the   
,,physico-,,mechanical ,,theory ,,of    
,,life    #g      ,,iii4 ,,religion     
,,the ,,support ,,of ,,medical          
,,superstition          #bc       ,,iv4 
,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,philosophy     
,,upon ,,the ,,form ,,and               
,,origin ,,of ,,medical ,,superstition  
#hi        ,v4 ,,the ,,relations ,,of   
,,natural ,,science ,,to ,,medical      
,,superstition                          
#abh       ,,vi4 ,,influence ,,exerted  

,,upon ,,the ,,development ,,of         
,,superstition ,,by ,,medicine ,,itself 
#ahe      ,,vii4 ,,medical              
,,superstition ,,and ,,insanity         
#aia           ,,bibliography           
#bja          ,,illustrations           
,,page    ,,circle ,,of ,,petosiris     
#ada      ,,circle ,,of ,,petosiris     
#adc      ,,the ,,table ,,of            
,,democritus                            
#ade      ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the   
,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,body ,,to  
,,the ,,signs    ,,of ,,the ,,zodiac    
#aei      ,,venesection ,,in ,,its      
,,astronomical ,,connection             
#age          ,i    ,,what ,,is         
,,medical ,,superstition8      ,faith   
and superstition are twin brothers4     
,altho the former leads  humanity to its
 sublimest ideals and the latter only   
presents us with  a caricature of human 
knowledge1 both are children of the same
 family4  ,both originate in a sense of 
the inadequacy of human science in      
regard  to natural phenomena4 ,the fact 

that the most important processes of    
organic life can not be traced to their 
ultimate origin1 but that their         
investigation will soon lead to a point 
of irresistible opposition to  further  
analysis1 has always called forth a     
feeling of impotency and  dependence in 
the human mind4 ,this consciousness of  
being dependent  upon factors which are 
entirely beyond human understanding has 
thus  given rise to the metaphysical    
need of reflecting upon these mysterious
  factors1 and bringing them within     
reach of human comprehension4           
,humanity1 in attempting to satisfy such
 a metaphysical requirement  from an    
ethical standpoint1 created faith1 which
 subsequently found  expression in the  
various forms of religion4 ,it is not   
within the  scope of this essay to      
consider how far ,divine revelations    
have  been vouchsafed on this subject4  
,superstition undoubtedly entered  the  
scene when1 simultaneously with these1  
endeavors were made to  consider and to 

explain physical processes from the     
standpoint of  such metaphysical        
requirements4 ,it is true that this did 
not1 at  first1 lead to a marked        
contrast between faith and superstition2
  for a period existed in which faith   
and superstition--i4e41 the             
metaphysical consideration of ethical   
values and the metaphysical             
consideration of the entire phenomena of
 life--were not only equivalent1  but   
even merged into one conception4 ,this  
occurred in an age in which  mankind    
considered all terrestrial processes1   
whether they were of  a psychical or of 
a material nature1 as immediately caused
 by the  steady interference of         
supernatural powers--a period during    
which the  deity was held responsible   
for all terrestrial phenomena4 ,during  
this period faith became superstition1  
and superstition1 faith4 ,a  separation 
did not take place until some especially
 enlightened minds  began to evolve the 
idea that it would be more reasonable to

 explain  natural phenomena--temporal   
becoming1 being1 and passing away--by   
natural rather than by supernatural     
causes4 ,the reaction against  this     
better interpretation1 the tenacious    
adherence to the original  association  
of terrestrial manifestations with      
metaphysical factors1  created the      
superstition of the natural sciences4   
,the birth of  superstition in the      
,greek world must be placed about the   
seventh  century1 ,b4,c41 the period    
during which ,thales of ,miletus came   
forward  with his endeavor to explain   
natural processes in a natural manner4  
,this attempt of the ,milesian is the   
initiation of a rational scientific     
conception of natural manifestations1   
and the ancient theistic  consideration 
of nature became superstition only in   
opposition to  such a view4 ,it follows1
 then1 that what holds good with regard 
to  the interpretation of natural       
manifestations in general holds good in 
medicine especially4 ,here1 also1       

superstition came into question only    
when1 besides the original theistic     
conception of the functions of the  body
 and besides the metaphysical treatment 
of the sick1 a valuation  of the normal 
as well as of the morbid phenomena of   
the human organism  came into vogue     
which took into account terrestrial     
causes4 ,not until  this stage was      
reached did theism and theurgy lose     
their title and  become superstition2   
until then they could claim fullest     
acceptance in  medicine as thoroughly   
logical consequences of the prevailing  
theory  of life4 ,this took place1 so   
far as ,greek medicine was concerned1   
at about the end of the sixth century1  
,b4,c4 ,the ,corpus ,hippocraticum      
already shows us ,greek medicine as     
being purified from all theistic        
sophistications and only reckoning with 
natural causes4 ,when this  separation  
must have taken place for pre-,greek1   
,indian1 ,assyrian1 and  ,egyptian      
culture can not be at present determined

 with certainty4 ,for  the ,egyptian and
 ,babylonico-,assyrian manuscripts1 so  
far known1 show  an intimate admixture  
of true observation of nature with      
theistic  speculations--i4e41 a         
treatment of medicine which1 altho it   
took  account of physico-natural        
manifestations1 was still deeply        
tinctured  with superstition4           
,according to what we have stated1      
medical superstition might be defined   
as follows3 8,belief that the normal as 
well as the pathological  manifestations
 of organic life may be explained and   
eventually  treated1 without            
consideration of their physical nature1 
by means of  supernatural agencies40    
,medical superstition varies according  
to the kind and the origin of  these    
supernatural causes1 and therefore      
appears in the greatest  variety of     
forms4 ,if these causes were looked for 
in celestial regions1  medical          
superstition became vested with the     
religious garb1 and its  source was in  

the religious cult2 but if the belief   
prevailed that  ,god shared the         
domination of the world with other      
mysterious elements1  such as were      
embodied in different forms in          
accordance with the various             
philosophical systems1 medical          
superstition bore a philosophical and   
mystical stamp whose origin is revealed 
in the history of philosophy4  ,but if  
certain mysterious powers hidden in the 
womb of nature or active  above the     
earth were considered to influence human
 life1 medical  superstition assumed a  
physical character4 ,however1 it        
frequently  followed that the above     
three factors acted simultaneously or in
  varying combinations1 or certain other
 elements which were inherent  in human 
nature cooperated4 ,for this reason it  
is sometimes not quite  easy to decide  
as to the source from which this or that
 form of  medical superstition          
principally derived its persistent      
currency4 ,but1  nevertheless1 it is our

 intention to divide our subject in     
accordance  with the sources from which 
the several forms of medical            
superstition  spring1 as it is          
absolutely impossible to obtain a       
satisfactory view  of the extensive     
material without first attempting a     
systematic  arrangement of the data at  
hand4    ,but before attempting to      
inquire why the purest and most valuable
  fountains of all human                
knowledge--religion1 philosophy1 and    
natural  science--have at the same time 
become sources of medical superstition1 
it will be advisable to explain the     
character which medical science had     
assumed under the exclusive domination  
of theism1 and how conditions  shaped   
themselves when physico-mechanical      
philosophy appeared and began  to do    
battle with the theistic conception of  
life4 ,these conditions  played such a  
special part in the development of      
medico-physical  superstition that it   
becomes necessary first to examine their

 power and  tendency before attempting  
to contemplate medical superstition     
proper4          ,,ii      ,,theism ,,in
 ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,medicine ,,and 
,,in ,,its ,,struggle ,,with      ,,the 
,,physico-,,mechanical ,,theory ,,of    
,,life      ,as we explained in ,chapter
 ,i41 the development of all peoples has
  passed through a period during which  
medico-physical knowledge found         
expression exclusively in the teachings 
of religion4 ,by theism we  mean the    
system which endeavors to explain       
natural phenomena by  supernatural      
causes4 ,however1 this view of nature1  
with its tinge  of religion1 did not as 
yet show any trace of superstition4 ,it 
was  rather the only justifiable        
conception of nature and thoroughly in  
keeping with the power of comprehension 
of man1 until it began to  dawn upon the
 mind that natural phenomena might be   
due to natural  causes4 ,this was the   
period of which we stated1 in the       
beginning of  this investigation1 that  

faith became superstition and           
superstition  became faith4 ,it was     
during this time that the powers above  
were held  accountable for all bodily   
ailments of mankind4 ,it was their task 
most  carefully to observe the          
functional processes of the human body  
in  all its phases1 and to protect their
 undisturbed continuance4 ,but as  the  
inhabitants of heaven1 like the         
inhabitants of the earth1 were  subject 
to whims1 it happened very often1       
unfortunately1 that they  attended to   
their task of protecting the undisturbed
 development of  the vegetative as well 
as the animal functions of the body in a
 very  unsatisfactory manner1 sometimes1
 in fact1 even purposely neglecting  it4
 ,thus disturbances occurred in the     
regular course of organic life1  and    
this brought diseases into the world4   
,if1 therefore1 the gods were  directly 
responsible for the appearance of       
disease1 it was palpably  their duty to 
effect its elimination4 ,thus it came   

about that pathology  and therapy were  
exclusively attended to by the gods4    
,but in what light  they regarded these 
medical duties of theirs1 and how they  
performed  them1 were matters subject to
 very varying considerations1 as        
expounded  by the different religions of
 antiquity4 ,the ,babylonian considered 
the  great god ,marduk the expeller of  
all maladies1 whereas ,urugal1 ,namtor1 
and ,nergal were recognized gods of     
pestilence4    ,similar ideas prevailed 
among the ,egyptians4 ,the cat-headed   
goddess  ,bubastis was believed to deal 
out to mothers the blessings of         
fertility4 ,ibis showed an especial     
interest in those human beings who  were
 troubled with disturbances of          
digestion1 and this interest found      
benevolent expression in the invention  
of the clyster4    ,with the ,greeks    
also the gods rendered services to      
diseased humanity4  ,thus ,apollo       
invented the art of healing1 and if his 
time permitted he  occasionally lent a  

hand when difficulties beset the        
entrance into this  world of a young    
mortal4 ,but1 as a rule1 it was the duty
 of ,aphrodite  to attend to such cases1
 just as1 in fact1 she was responsible  
for  everything that referred to love1  
no matter whether it was a question  of 
the esthetic or the pathological part of
 that passion4 ,athene was  the         
specialist in ophthalmology1 and it     
seems that she did not fare  badly with 
this occupation4 ,a temple was dedicated
 to her by ,lycurgus1  whom1 as it      
appears1 she healed of a sympathetic    
affection of the  eyes2 and1 besides1   
she won by her ophthalmological activity
 various  ornamental epithets1 such1 for
 instance1 as 1 etc4    ,it was quite   
natural1 in view of the exclusively     
theistic conception  which in those     
times preoccupied the human mind1 that  
the priests were  the sole possessors of
 physico-medical knowledge2 and         
naturally so4  ,for when we consider the
 theory of life that prevailed at that  

period1  who could have been better     
qualified to give information to men    
regarding their own body as well as     
regarding nature in general1 than  the  
priest1 the mortal representative of    
immortal gods8 ,and who better          
qualified than the priest to invoke the 
aid of the heavenly powers  in all      
bodily ailments8 ,thus it was the       
unavoidable consequence of  the theistic
 theory of life that the priest was the 
physician as well  as the representative
 of physical knowledge and also the     
helper and  adviser in all mundane      
exigencies4 ,whether bodily or psychic  
troubles  afflicted individuals1 whether
 an entire population groaned under     
heavy chastisements like pestilence1 aid
 and deliverance were always  sought in 
the sanctuary of the gods1 from the     
infallible priest4 ,and  the priests    
were always equal to the occasion2 they 
have always1 in a  masterly manner1     
known the art of satisfying the         
medico-physical needs  of their         

suppliants4 ,for the religions of all   
civilized peoples--and  ,christianity by
 no means occupies an exceptional       
position in this  respect--have always  
endeavored most strenuously to keep     
physical as  well as medical thought in 
strictest dependence upon their         
doctrines  and dogmas4 ,to attain this  
end various ceremonies1 customs1 and    
dogmas  were relied upon to keep the    
priests in a position to secure the     
assistance of the gods for humanity     
harassed by pain and affliction4  ,these
 sacred observances were strange1 and   
varied with the various  religious      
systems4 ,according to the primeval cult
 of ,zoroaster1 all  evils1 consequently
 also all diseases1 were derived from   
the principle  of darkness which was    
embodied in the person of ,ahriman1 and 
only the  sacerdotal caste of the       
magicians who sprung from a special     
,median  tribe was able to heal them4   
,but it was by no means easy to become a
  member of this caste and to acquire   

the magic powers pertaining to  it      
alone4 ,it was necessary before gaining 
mastery over the powers  of nature to   
become initiated into the mysteries of  
,mitra4 ,however1  after priestly       
consecration had once been bestowed1 the
 individual  thus honored bore the proud
 title 8,conqueror of ,evil10 and was   
able to  practise medicine4 ,as the most
 essential constituent of every medical 
treatment1 the divine word was applied  
in the form of mysterious  exorcisms1   
sacred hymns1 and certain words which   
were considered  specially curative in  
effect1 particularly the word 8,ormuzd10
 the name  of the highest god1 in whose 
all-embracing power of healing great    
confidence was placed4    ,the          
,sumerians1 the precursors of           
,babylonico-,assyrian culture1 ascribed 
a considerable and important rle to     
dreams4 ,they were considered to  bring 
direct medical advice from the gods1 and
 it became the office  of the sacerdotal
 physician to interpret the dream in    

such a way as to  alleviate the         
sufferings of the dreamer4    ,the      
ancient ,greek culture also conceded a  
conspicuous medical  significance to    
dreams1 and even arranged a system of   
its own1 that of  the temple sleep1 in  
order always to obtain prophesying      
dreams from  the gods4 ,the patient1    
after the obligatory offering1 was      
required to  remain a night in the      
temple1 and his dream during this night 
was the  medical advice of the divinity 
in its most direct form4 ,but only the  
priest was able to interpret a dream    
obtained in such a manner1 and to       
extract medical efficacy from it4 ,but  
as it occasionally happened that  a too 
prosaic and phlegmatic patient did not  
dream at all1 the priest  was benevolent
 enough to intercede4 ,he was always    
promptly favored by  the gods with a    
suggestive dream4    ,the medical       
function of the priests had reached a   
peculiar development  during the first  
centuries of ,rome4 ,this was manifest  

especially in  the time of public       
calamities1 such as pestilence1 war1    
etc4 ,when  such events reached         
dimensions which threatened the         
existence of the  republic1 attempts    
were made to gain the favor of the gods 
by most  curious ceremonies4 ,the       
celestials were simply invited to take  
part  in an opulent banquet4 ,the first 
divine feast of such a character  was   
celebrated in ,rome in the sixth        
century1 ,b4,c41 on account of a  great 
epidemic4 ,apollo1 ,latona1 ,diana1     
,hercules1 ,mercury1 and ,neptune  were 
most ceremoniously invited to take part 
in a religious banquet  which lasted for
 eight days4 ,the images of the gods    
were placed upon  magnificently         
cushioned couches1 and the tables were  
loaded with  dainties4 ,not only the    
gods1 but the entire population1 were   
invited2  every one kept open house1 and
 whoever wished to do so could feast  at
 the richly prepared boards of the      
wealthy4 ,even the pronounced  enemies  

of the house were allowed to enter and  
to enjoy the dainties  without fear of  
hostile remarks2 indeed1 it was deemed  
advisable in the  interests of public   
hygiene to unchain the prisoners and to 
liberate  them4 ,but if the gods1 in    
spite of the most opulent               
entertainments1  did not have any       
consideration1 and if pestilence1       
military disaster1  failure of crops1 or
 whatever was the immediate cause of    
popular  anxiety1 continued to persist  
with unabated fury1 endeavors were made 
by theatrical performances to provide as
 much as possible for the  amusement of 
the gods4 ,such plays1 at first1        
consisted only in graceful  dances1 with
 flute accompaniments1 and from these   
simple beginnings1  according to ,livy1 
,book #g1 ,chapter ,,ii41 the drama is  
said to have  developed all those       
variations which characterized the      
scenic art of  antiquity4 ,there can be 
no doubt that even the stage of modern  
times is  of religio-sanitary origin--a 

peculiar fact which modern patrons of   
the  theater scarcely ever dream of4    
,an attempt was eventually made to      
increase the delight of the gods in     
such amusements by a number of novel    
devices4 ,for instance1 it was          
stipulated that the performances        
instituted to ward off the invasion of  
,hannibal were to cost #ccc1ccc copper  
asses4 ,but if1 nevertheless1  the gods 
were not sufficiently propitiated by    
banquets1 dances1 and  playing of the   
flute1 and if they could not be         
prevailed upon by such  pastimes to     
remove the pestilence or other calamity1
 a dictator was  named who1 if possible1
 on ,september #acth1 drove a nail into 
the temple  of ,jupiter to appease      
divine indignation4 ,it appears that    
this was  a primeval custom of the      
,etruscans2 at least1 it is reported by 
the  ,roman author1 ,cincius1 that such 
nails could be seen in the temple of    
the ,etruscan goddess ,nortia4 ,this    
nail therapy was resorted to by the     

,romans1 for instance1 during the       
terrible plague which raged in the      
fifth century1 ,b4,c41 and of which the 
celebrated ,furius ,camillus died4      
,wonderful as all the described         
procedures seem to us1 and closely  as  
they may conform to the modern          
conception of superstition1 at the  time
 they originated they were considered as
 quite removed from that  superstition  
with which we so closely identify them  
to-day4 ,for the  period which saw the  
above events was an era of exclusive    
theism1 and  for that reason divine     
sleep1 divine feasts1 the sacred        
performances1  and all the other        
peculiar means which were employed to   
secure medical  aid of the gods1 were   
well-established features of religious  
worship4  ,the stigma of superstition   
was not set upon them as yet4 ,and this 
state  of things naturally persisted so 
long as the theistic theory of life     
stood unchallenged4    ,this absolute   
reign of theistic theory dominating     

human life through  the above-described 
therapeutic ideas was followed by an    
epoch in which  theism was forced to    
divide its authority with a powerful    
rival--namely1  the physico-mechanical  
theory of life4 ,the struggle between   
both these  systems was ushered in1 for 
the ,hellenic as well as for the        
,occidental  world of civilization1 by  
the appearance of ,ionian philosophy4   
,even in  our own day this struggle is  
still going on in many minds4 ,this     
much1  at least1 is certain3 that       
superstition has always been especially 
active in medicine in areas of          
civilization where the theistic idea    
has gained the ascendency4    ,the      
deadly struggle between theistic and    
physico-mechanical theories of  life in 
the realm of medicine has found no place
 in the experience of  ,hellenic and    
,roman antiquity4 ,the change in opinion
 was rather wrought  by a gradual       
recession from the idea that the gods   
interfered with the  proper course of   

man's bodily functions4 ,this conviction
 resulted from  a progressive growth of 
his physico-mechanical knowledge1 and   
became  established at least as far as  
the thoughts and the opinions of the    
physicians were concerned4 ,that the    
other classes1 in particular the        
representatives of religion1 did not so 
peaceably acquiesce in this  mechanical 
conception of life we shall soon explain
 in ,chapter ,,iii4  ,it was different1 
however1 with the art of healing itself4
 ,even the  ,corpus ,hippocraticum      
reveals to us a medicine which had been 
purified  from all theistic admixtures1 
and from the publication of this work   
7i4e41 from about the fifth century1    
,b4,c41 up to the overthrow of the      
ancient period--i4e41 until about the   
fifth or sixth century1 ,a4,d47  no     
further attempt to refer the cause of   
disease and the treatment of  disease to
 the gods of the ancient heavens is     
noticed in medical works4  ,on the      
contrary1 that great efforts were made  

to look for the nature  of disease in   
the mechanical conditions of the body is
 proven by a  number of the most various
 medical doctrines4 ,the extensive work 
of  ,galen1 that antique canon of       
medicine1 which dates back to the second
  century1 ,a4,d41 disavows all theism  
and all theurgy1 and relies solely  upon
 physico-mechanical methods3            
observation1 experiment1 dissection4    
,antique religion and antique medicine  
had effected a reconciliation--a        
reconciliation1 however1 in which       
neither party was to acknowledge  a     
complete defeat2 but the result was an  
amicable settlement1 in  which their    
just dues were given both to the        
theistic and to the  physico-mechanical 
theories of life4 ,the point of         
agreement upon which  this settlement1  
or1 to express it better1 compromise1   
was made was  teleology4    ,by         
teleology we understand the conception  
that all earthly existence  is created  
by a supreme power in accordance with a 

preconceived plan1  and that1           
accordingly1 all organic life1 in form  
and action1 is most  perfectly adapted  
to the task prescribed for it by this   
power4 ,this  conception was absolutely 
indispensable to antique medicine2 for  
it  allowed the adherents of the        
theistic theory without hesitation to   
consider man as a product of the        
creator1 which was distinguished in  all
 directions and which bore witness of   
the wisdom of ,god1 a position  which   
precluded the assumption1 which was     
impossible according to the  antecedent 
medical observations1 that disease came 
from ,god4 ,for it  seemed quite        
plausible1 according to the             
physico-mechanical theory of  life1 that
 disease might be a product of a number 
of adverse1 purely  earthly conditions1 
an assumption not involving the         
slightest doubt of  the wisdom and      
creative power of the gods4 ,this       
teleological doctrine1  which runs like 
a red thread through all ancient        

philosophy1 becomes  conspicuously      
prominent in ,galen4 ,every section of  
the powerful work  of ,galen--anatomy1  
as well as physiology1 pathology1 and   
therapy--bear  witness to the most      
confident teleological conception1 a    
conception  which in the end culminates 
in the verdict 78,use of the ,parts10   
,book  #aa1 ,chapter ,,xiv473 8,the     
creator of nature has disclosed his     
benevolence  by wise care for all his   
creatures1 in that he has bestowed upon 
each  one what is truly of service to   
it40    ,this teleological idea of all  
earthly becoming1 being1 and passing    
away  was henceforth destined to be a   
permanent factor in human speculation4  
,christianity received it as a          
possession from antique civilization1   
and  only the philosophy and natural    
science of modern times have been able  
to threaten its permanence4 ,biology1 as
 of modern creation1 teaches  us that   
all natural phenomena owe their         
existence to natural causes1  that the  

natural world is subject to natural     
laws4 ,and1 accordingly1  teleology1 as 
we encounter it in the works of the     
heathen ,galen and  in the writings of  
the ,christian ,church ,fathers1 has    
turned out to  be superstition1 which1  
however1 must by no means be classed    
with  the vagaries of mere              
medico-physical superstition4 ,in coming
 to this  decision1 however1 we must    
beware of rash generalization4 ,in this 
connection we refer only to that kind of
 teleology which dominated the  world   
previous to the teachings of ,descartes 
and ,spinoza1 and previous  to the      
advent of modern natural science1 with  
its biological methods4  ,whether1 after
 all1 a theory of life might be possible
 which1 while  avoiding the reproach of 
superstition1 might be traced to        
teleological  prepossessions1 is a      
question we can not here discuss4 ,it is
 admittedly  true that the deeper we    
penetrate into the secrets of nature the
 more  energetically the existence of a 

marvelous1 intelligent will manifests   
itself as permeating all domains of     
nature4 ,however1 if this fact is  not  
denied on principle1 as modern          
materialism denies it1 and proper       
allowance is made for it1 a             
rehabilitation of teleology as a        
necessary  factor of our theory of life 
would be the logical consequence4 ,of   
course1 this teleology would bear a     
stamp entirely different from  that of  
antiquity and of the middle ages1 which 
is recognized to be  superstition4 ,it  
should not pretend to include the       
consideration of the  entire organic    
world1 but confine its conclusions to   
the last links  in the chain of         
experience and argument which science   
has forged from  natural phenomena4 ,now
 this could be accomplished1 in our     
opinion1 even  without apprehension of  
interfering with the indispensable      
requirements  of modern naturalists3    
8,the terrestrial world in its forms and
  processes is governed solely by       

terrestrial laws40 ,what the appearance 
of such a teleology should be is        
expressed by ,william ,hartpole ,lecky  
in  the following3    8,this conception1
 which exhibits the universe rather as  
an organism  than a mechanism1 and      
regards the complexities and adaptations
 it  displays rather as the results of  
gradual development from within  than of
 an interference from without1 is so    
novel1 and at first sight  so startling1
 that many are now shrinking from it in 
alarm1 under  the impression that it    
destroys the argument from design1 and  
almost  amounts to the negation of a    
,supreme ,intelligence4 ,but there can1 
,i think1 be little doubt that such     
fears are1 for the most part1           
unfounded4 ,that matter is governed by  
mind1 that the contrivances  and        
elaborations of the universe are the    
products of intelligence1  are          
propositions which are quite unshaken1  
whether we regard these  contrivances as
 the result of a single momentary       

exercise of will1  or of a slow1        
consistent1 and regulated evolution4    
,the proofs of a  pervading and         
developing intelligence1 and the proofs 
of a coordinating  and combining        
intelligence1 are both untouched1 nor   
can any conceivable  progress of science
 in this direction destroy them4 ,if the
 famous  suggestion1 that all animal and
 vegetable life results from a single   
vital germ1 and that all the different  
animals and plants now existent  were   
developed by a natural process of       
evolution from that germ1 were  a       
demonstrated truth1 we should still be  
able to point to the evidence  of       
intelligence displayed in the measured  
and progressive development1  in those  
exquisite forms so different from what  
blind chance could  produce1 and in the 
manifest adaptation of surrounding      
circumstances  to the living creature1  
and of the living creature to           
surrounding  circumstances4 ,the        
argument from design would indeed be    

changed2 it  would require to be stated 
in a new form1 but it would be fully as 
cogent as before4 ,indeed1 it is1       
perhaps1 not too much to say that the   
more fully this conception of universal 
evolution is grasped1 the more  firmly a
 scientific doctrine of ,providence will
 be established1 and the  stronger will 
be the presumption of a future          
progress40#a          #a 8,history of   
the ,rise and ,influence of the ,spirit 
of        ,rationalism in ,europe10     
,vol4 ,i41 ,chapter ,,iii41 pages       
#bid-bie4        ,compare also ,magnus1 
8,medicine and ,religion10 page #bd1    
sqq4    ,in such a manner1 despite the  
fact that in teleology the point of     
agreement between theistic and          
physico-mechanical medical thought has  
been now found1 theism1 in the course of
 the history of our science1            
continually attempted new attacks upon  
the physical tendency in  medicine2 and 
with each assault superstition in       
medicine1 as well as in  the natural    

sciences1 was most palpably exposed4    
,after having satisfied ourselves in    
this second chapter regarding  theism   
and its attitude with reference to the  
physico-mechanical theory  of life1 we  
shall now enter upon the consideration  
of the various  forms of medical        
superstition1 and it is our intention1  
as stated in  the first chapter1 so to  
arrange the enormous material at hand as
 to  discuss medical superstition       
according to the sources from which it  
has  sprung4 ,we shall begin by pointing
 out the intimate relations which  have 
prevailed between the teachings of      
religion and superstition4              
,,iii    ,,religion ,,the ,,support ,,of
 ,,medical ,,superstition      ,religion
 undoubtedly plays the most conspicuous 
part in the history  of medical         
superstition4 ,religious teaching1 of   
whatever character1  has fostered       
medical superstition more than any other
 factor of  civilization4 ,not only has 
religion called forth and nourished     

medical  superstition1 but it has also  
defended it with all the influence at   
its  disposal4 ,indeed1 it has not      
infrequently happened that those who    
were  reluctant to believe in the       
blessings of a medical theory           
ridiculously  perverted by religion were
 exposed to persecution by fire and     
sword4  ,and this not only from one or  
other religious denomination1 for all   
religious believers1 without exception1 
had proved to be the most  assiduous    
promotors of medical superstition2 so   
that we are probably  not wrong in      
designating priesthoods in general1     
whatever their creed1  as the most      
prominent embodiment of medical         
superstition during certain  periods of 
the world's history4 ,but the details   
will be learned from  the following     
paragraphs3     #a4 ,priesthood the     
,support of ,medical                    
,superstition4--,the principal  reason  
for a not quite reputable activity in   
the chosen representative  of a deity is

 probably the fact that1 with the       
appearance of a  physico-mechanical     
contemplation of the world1 the theistic
 theory of  life1 which until then had  
exclusive sway1 was forced into a       
pitched  battle with a newly formulated 
definition of nature4 ,this struggle was
  carried on principally by the         
priesthood1 who1 as a matter of fact1   
had most to lose from the ascendency of 
a new theory of life which  only        
reckoned with natural factors4 ,they    
indeed had been the means1  until then1 
of procuring for the people the         
assistance of the gods  in all bodily   
ailments1 as they had been the exclusive
 depositories  of physical knowledge4   
,and it could scarcely be expected that 
the  priesthood would at once willingly 
relinquish the extensive supremacy      
hitherto exercised by it as the oracle  
of divine guidance in all               
medico-physical questions2 for humanity 
has always considered the  possession of
 authority much more delightful than    

submission1 and the  ruler has always   
objected most energetically to any      
attempt which  disputes his rule4 ,this 
was precisely what was done by priests  
of all  creeds when the                 
mechanico-physical theory of life began 
to supersede  the obsolete dreams of    
theistic medicine4 ,fair-minded persons 
will  surely allow that such action was 
natural4 ,but they can not approve of   
the methods resorted to1 unless they    
belong to those who feel bound  always  
to discern nothing but what is sacred in
 every action of a  servant of heaven4  
,in order to wage war most effectively  
against the physico-mechanical  theory  
of life1 the priesthood at once claimed 
for themselves the power  of completely 
controlling nature4 ,they made the      
people believe that  the celestials had 
bestowed upon them the faculty of       
dominating nature  in the interests of  
the sick1 and that all powers of the    
universe1 the  obvious ones as well as  
those mysteriously hidden in the depths 

of  nature1 were obedient to sacerdotal 
suggestions4 ,the servant of heaven     
professed that he could regulate the    
eternal processes of matter1 with  its  
becoming1 being1 and passing away1 quite
 as irresistibly as his eye  was able to
 survey the course of time in the past1 
present1 and future4    ,equipped with  
these extensive powers1 a priest        
necessarily appeared  to the people not 
only as physician1 but also as a        
miraculous being  crowned with the halo 
of the supernatural4 ,and this was the  
rle he  actually played in many ancient 
religions4 ,with the peoples of ,italy  
the priest appeared--at a period1       
indeed1 which was previous to the       
beginning of ,rome--as physician1       
prophet1 interpreter of dreams1  raiser 
of tempests1 etc4 ,he held exactly the  
same offices among the  ,celtic tribes  
in ,gaul and ,britain4 ,his position was
 the same in the  ,oriental world1 and  
by the ,medians and the ,persians       
especially were  priests considered to  

be persons endowed with supernatural    
powers4  ,we may notice that members of 
a certain ,median tribe formed the      
sacerdotal caste1 and bore the name of  
8,magi40 ,however1 this name1  which    
originally was confined to the priestly 
order1 obtained1 in the  course of time1
 a distinctly secular meaning4 ,very    
soon many cunning  fellows arrived at   
the conclusion that the trade of a      
sacerdotal  physician and conjurer might
 bring a profitable livelihood to its   
professor1 even if this professor were  
not a priest but a layman4 ,thus  there 
arose a special profession of sorcerers1
 miracle workers1 and  medicine-men1 who
 protested with solemn emphasis that    
they were able  to cure all physical as 
well as psychical ailments of their     
fellow  men as thoroughly as the priests
 had done4 ,but in order to bestow  the 
required consecration upon this art1    
these gentlemen usurped the  venerable  
name of the above-mentioned ,median     
sacerdotal caste and  called themselves 

8,magi40 ,thus it happened that the name
 8,magus0  7magician71 which originally 
served to designate a distinct          
sacerdotal  caste1 deteriorated into a  
designation of charlatans and swindlers4
  ,this could never have occurred unless
 the priests had prostituted their      
sublime profession and degraded it to   
various kinds of discreditable          
medico-physical deceptions4 ,this alone 
is why priesthood is responsible  for   
the rise of the magicians1 of these     
worthless fakirs4 ,but if ,pliny  7,book
 #cj1 ,chapter ,i41  #b7 attempts to    
rank magic as an offshoot of  medicine1 
he is justified in doing so only in so  
far as the priest1  during the theistic 
period1 was also the physician1 as is   
well known4  ,only from this point of   
view is it possible to trace a genetic  
relation  between medicine and magic4   
,but medicine in itself has not taken   
the slightest part in the promotion of  
magic and the success of its  unsavory  
reputation4 ,indeed1 our science has    

suffered too much through  the practise 
of magic to burden itself with the      
paternity of this  disreputable child of
 civilization4    ,it appears that the  
name of the ,celtic priests 78druids07  
had become  subject to the same abuse as
 the name of the ,median priests of     
sacerdotal caste4 ,thus we learn of     
female fortune-tellers of the  third    
century1 ,a4,d41 who call themselves    
8druidesses40 ,but it seems  that this  
application of the word 8druid0 has     
remained a local  one and strictly      
limited1 whereas the expression         
8magician10 quite  generally employed1  
became1 in the course of time1 the      
designation of  charlatans and medical  
impostors4 ,for these swindlers1 who    
carried on  medico-physical hocuspocus1 
and who claimed to exercise supernatural
  powers1 were called 8magicians0 during
 the entire period of classic           
antiquity1 and we find the same use of  
the word in the middle ages1 and        
sometimes also in more modern times4    

,but this profession of magician1 which 
sprang from priesthood1 has  largely    
promoted superstition in medicine1 and  
was particularly  instrumental in       
bringing it into extraordinary repute4  
,it is our  intention to concern        
ourselves a little more minutely with   
magicians  and magic4    #b4 ,the       
,spread of the ,word 8,magic40--,how and
 when magic was  transplanted from its  
,oriental home to the ,occident can not 
be  determined with certainty2 for the  
,greeks1 as well as all antique         
peoples1 probably all nations1 had a    
belief in ghosts and demons1 in         
fortune-telling1 and in sorcery4 ,but it
 appears1 nevertheless1 that  the       
ancient civilized peoples of the        
,orient1 and particularly the           
,persians1 cultivated the magic arts    
with especial devotion1 and it  is more 
than probable that it was from the ,east
 that the prevailing  cult of magic had 
been imported into the ,west4 ,pliny1   
for one1 tells  us 7,book #cj1 ,chapter 

,i41  #h7 that magic was brought to     
,europe by  a certain ,osthanes1 who    
accompanied ,king ,xerxes on his        
military  expedition against ,greece4   
,this man ,osthanes1 as ,pliny reports  
further1  is said to have disseminated  
the seeds of this supernatural art      
7velut  semina artis portentos          
insparsit7 wherever he went1 and with   
such  success that the ,hellenic peoples
 were actually mad after it1 and        
prominent men traveled through parts of 
the ,orient1 there to acquire           
personally and thoroughly these magic   
arts1 thus1 as was the case with        
,pythagoras1 ,empedocles1 ,democritus1  
and ,plato4 ,in fact1 it is said of     
,democritus that he opened the tomb of a
 celebrated magician--,dardanus of      
,phnicia--that he might restore to      
publicity the mysterious writings of    
the latter4 ,it appears1 moreover1 that 
,alexander the ,great entertained  an   
implicit belief in magic--at least1     
,pliny reports that during his  wars he 

was always accompanied by a celebrated  
magician4    ,magic arts were likewise  
in favor among the ,romans4 ,even ,nero 
attempted  to master the secrets of     
magic1 altho unsuccessfully 7,pliny1    
,book #cj1  ,chapter ,,ii41  #e74 ,a    
particular impetus was given to magic   
toward the  end of the last century     
before ,christ and during the first     
century  of the ,christian era1 when the
 rise of many fantastic philosophical   
systems greatly promoted and supported  
the belief in the supernatural  powers  
of magic4 ,subsequently1 in the middle  
ages1 magic experienced an  accepted and
 systematic development4 ,these         
conditions1 however1 will be  more      
explicitly referred to later on4    ,the
 treatment of the sick through          
supernatural agencies assumed  quite    
astonishing dimensions under the ,roman 
emperors4 ,the belief  in magicians was 
so generally disseminated that even the 
emperors  themselves and the imperial   
authorities were almost completely      

devoted  to it4 ,thus1 for instance1 the
 emperor ,hadrian 7#aag-ach1 ,a4,d47    
caused  himself to be treated by        
physicians who claimed miraculous       
powers1  and he is said to have written 
a book on theurgy4 ,in fact1 ,suidas    
7#fb  ,julianus7 reports that ,hadrian1 
on account of a severe outbreak of      
pestilence in ,rome1 sent for the son of
 the ,chaldean1 ,julian1 who1  simply by
 the power of his miracles1 arrested the
 progress of the  disease4 ,under       
,antoninus ,pius official proclamations 
were made in the  forum1 directing the  
attention of the people to the          
importance of  magicians 7,philostratus1
 #dc71 and the emperor ,marcus ,aurelius
 even  relates that1 when in ,caieta1   
the gods in a dream prescribed a remedy 
for the hemorrhagic cough and vertigo   
from which he was suffering  78,marcus  
,aurelius10 ,chapter ,i41  #ag1 page    
#aa74    ,but it appears that the       
magicians finally went too far with     
their  tricks1 and endangered human life

 by their treatment2 so that several    
emperors decided upon adopting more     
rigorous measures against their         
knaveries4 ,the emperor ,septimius      
,severus 7#aic-baa71 altho himself      
originally devoted to magic1 prohibited1
 when on a visit in ,egypt1  all books  
which taught curious arts 7,aelius      
,spartianus1 8,hadrianus10  ,chapter    
,,xv41  #e1 page #adf74 ,later the      
emperor ,diocletian took  energetic     
steps toward abating the mischief done  
by magical treatment  of the sick1 and  
the magicians were permitted to carry on
 such arts  only so far as would not be 
detrimental to the health of the people4
  ,however1 this order did not check the
 magicians any more than it  benefited  
those who were still tortured and       
brought to the point  of death by magic 
quackery4 ,neither did medical science  
derive any  advantage whatever from this
 well-meant but completely abortive     
effort  of the emperor1 for the magic   
physicians persisted in carrying on     

their hocuspocus1 and unconcernedly     
debased the pharmacopia by the          
introduction of nonsensical and         
loathsome substances4 ,let us examine   
more in detail this department of       
medical practise among the magicians4   
#c4 ,the ,medical ,practise of the      
,magicians4--,the magicians adopted     
various modes of procedure in the       
treatment of the sick3 they either      
attempted1 as do our modern quacks1 to  
create the impression1 by  administering
 medicine1 that they were actually able 
to direct the  treatment of the ailing  
in a rational manner1 or they restricted
  themselves to various kinds of magical
 observances4    ,the drug therapy of   
the magicians actually utilized         
everything under  the sun as a remedy4  
,the more out of the way and the less   
suitable  for a remedy a substance      
seemed to be1 the more likely it was to 
be  chosen by the magician intent upon  
healing4 ,for it was always the  main   
object of these practising quacks to    

make their treatment as  sensational as 
possible4 ,in this they succeeded best  
by employing  the most extraordinary    
substances as remedies4 ,thus they made 
use of  gold1 silver1 precious stones   
and pearls1 just because these1 owing to
  their value1 were held in great       
esteem1 and their medical application1  
therefore1 was bound to create a        
sensation4 ,but the most loathsome      
substances were quite as readily        
employed1 for here1 too1 the most       
general attention was bound to be       
attracted by their application4  ,human 
feces1 urine1 and menstrual blood were  
introduced into the  materia medica in  
such a manner4 ,the awe with which parts
 of corpses  usually inspired the       
non-medical part of the public was      
relied upon by  the magicians to        
advertise their cures4 ,thus these      
quacks administered  powders of human   
bones to the ailing4    ,but inasmuch as
 what is conspicuous and unusual has    
always enjoyed  an especial esteem with 

humanity1 the incredible remedies of the
  magicians naturally found everywhere  
an abundance of believers2 and  as      
particularly the most nonsensical theory
 is most tenacious of  life1 provided it
 has been presented in apparent         
combination with the  miraculous1 the   
medical armamentarium rapidly took on a 
very peculiar  aspect4 ,until the       
present more modern times medicine was  
condemned  to the encumbrance of this   
rubbish1 this list of odd and loathsome 
remedies1 whose admission to the        
pharmacopia was only due to the whim  of
 a human mind that constantly hankers   
after the extraordinary and the         
miraculous4    ,finally the magic       
observances to which the magicians      
resorted in the  treatment of the sick1 
have shown a remarkable vitality1 for   
they  are in vogue even in modern times1
 and many sections of our people  even  
to-day swear unconditionally by the     
curative efficacy of various  agencies  
which demonstratively have been derived 

from the medicine of  the magicians4    
,but now such agencies are no longer    
ascribed to magic or  sorcery1 but they 
are called 8cures by means of sympathy40
 ,and as many  modern people believe    
that various incomprehensible mystic    
performances  cause certain mysterious  
powers1 otherwise absolutely unknown1 to
  exert a curative influence upon       
certain diseases1 so did the ancients   
believe exactly the same4 ,this was the 
origin of exorcism as a remedy  for     
disease4 ,exorcism played a conspicuous 
part in the middle ages as  a means of  
stopping hemorrhages1 and even in these 
modern times1 as is  well-known1 this   
method of cure finds many adherents4    
,this magic treatment was believed to be
 especially efficacious if the          
exorcisms had been written or engraved  
upon paper1 gold1 precious  stones1     
etc41 in which case they were suspended 
around the neck of  the patient4        
,countless talismans 7from the ,arabic  
tilsam1 magic  image7 and amulets 7from 

the ,arabic hamalet1 trinket7 were thus 
manufactured1 and even to our own time  
there are survivals of this  medical    
superstition4 ,altho these mystic       
observances are performed in  various   
ways1 and their modifications are       
practically innumerable1 yet  certain   
radical resemblances are continually    
appearing among the magic  rites of the 
most diverse races1 and some of these   
practises have even  persisted up to the
 present time4 ,thus the rope of the    
hung criminal  plays a conspicuous part 
in antique magic as well as in modern   
sympathy  treatment2 the same importance
 is attributed to shooting-stars1 to    
the moon1 to crossroads1 to certain     
numerals1 such as #c1 #g1 #i1 etc4  ,it 
is a highly interesting fact that such  
conceptions1 as remarkable  for their   
therapeutical associations as for their 
crass superstition1  are possessed of a 
vitality which persists for centuries4  
,peoples1  religions1 philosophical     
systems1 political revolutions have     

risen  and vanished1 but the belief in  
the curative action of the rope of a    
hung criminal or the therapeutic        
significance of the crossroad has       
survived4 ,the mystic influence which is
 exerted by the numerals #c1 #g1  #i1   
and still more so by the dreadful #ac1  
upon the life and health of  man1 haunts
 the minds of the multitude in this     
century of physical  enlightenment      
exactly as it did in remote antiquity4  
,but we can not  here enter into the    
reason for these interesting facts1 and 
we must  refer those who desire more    
detailed information on this subject to 
the  voluminous literature of           
superstition4    ,furthermore1 the      
belief in magic cures was not more      
prevalent among  the ancient professors 
of medicine than among the laity1 and   
even the  most prominent practitioners  
were not able to emancipate themselves  
from this belief4 ,galen1 for instance1 
who1 as is well-known1 mastered  the    
entire literature of antique medicine as

 none before or after him  has ever     
done1 openly avows his belief in the    
efficacy of magic cures1  and1 what is  
more remarkable1 ,galen in this respect 
has changed from a  ,saul to a ,paul4   
,he ruefully recalled1 later1 the       
condemnatory decree  which he had       
originally promulgated regarding the    
magic treatment of  the sick4 ,let us   
call to mind how he expresses himself in
 his essay  on medical treatment in     
,homer3 8,many1 as ,i have done for a   
long time1  believe that conjurations   
resemble the fairy tales of old women4  
,but  gradually1 and from the           
observation of obvious facts1 ,i have   
come to  the conclusion that power is   
exercised by them2 for ,i have learned  
to know their advantages in stings of   
scorpions1 and also in bones  which     
became lodged in the throat1 and which  
were at once coughed  up as a result of 
conjuration4 ,many remedies are         
excellent in every  respect1 and magic  
formul answer their purpose0            

78,alexander of  ,tralles10 ,book #aa1  
,chapter ,i41 ,vol4 ,,ii41 page #dgg74  
,one of the most  prominent             
post-,galenian physicians also1         
,alexander of ,tralles1 openly  avows1  
with reference to this utterance of     
,galen1 that he himself is  a believer  
in magic cures1 and he says3 8,if the   
great ,galen1 as well  as many other    
physicians of ancient times1 bear       
witness to this fact  7the efficacy of  
magic treatment of the sick71 why shall 
we not impart  to you what we have      
learned from our own experience and what
 we have  heard from trustworthy        
friends80 78,alexander of ,tralles10    
ibid474  ,accordingly1 his   was filled 
with enumerations of the  most various  
magical cures4 ,but1 now1 if the        
classics of antique  medicine have      
proven themselves to be so friendly to  
the medical  science of magicians1 what 
was the condition of the mind1 then1 of 
the average physician of ancient times8 
,is it astonishing if young  and old1   

high and low1 without distinction1 were 
blind adherents of  magical medicine8   
,thus medical literature of the last    
century1 ,b4,c41  and especially that of
 the centuries from the ,christian era  
until  late in the middle ages1 was an  
actual treasury of conjuration and      
other mummeries4 ,this description      
applies specifically to the 8,materia   
,medica0 of ,quintus ,serenus           
,samonicus1 written in hexameters4 ,it  
is  true1 the magical sequel to this    
book entailed painful consequences on   
the writer1 for the emperor ,caracalla  
had the poor author executed  7,ael4    
,spartian41 8,caracalla10 ,chapter      
,,iv41  #d7 merely1 as it is  reported1 
because he dared to advise in his works 
as a remedy against  intermittent fever 
the wearing of amulets1 a medical       
expedient which  had been prohibited by 
the emperor himself4    ,the work of    
,sextus ,placitus ,papyriensis1 who     
lived in the fourth  century1 which     
treats of remedies derived from the     

animal kingdom1  teems with magic       
nonsense4    ,but an actually           
inexhaustible stock of medical          
conjurations was  contained in the work 
of a layman1 ,marcellus ,empiricus4     
,this gentleman1  who had been foreign  
minister under the emperors ,theodosius 
the first  and the second1 had written a
 thick folio volume on medicaments4     
,this literary performance1 which1      
according to our ideas1 appears to  be  
very odd for a minister of state1 was by
 no means remarkable in  the fifth      
century1 for the study of medical       
subjects was1 so to say1  fashionable   
among the laity of that period2 in fact1
 even prelates and  bishops did not     
think it beneath their dignity to busy  
themselves with  various medical        
questions and to write medico-physical  
books4 ,thus the  laurels of medical    
renown haunted our good ,marcellus and  
would not  let him sleep1 so that he    
abridged his hours of official duty to  
such  an extent that he was able to     

compile a ,materia ,medica of thirty-six
  apparently never-ending chapters4 ,but
 if the statesmanship of ,marcellus  was
 on a par with his medical book-making1 
the two ,theodosii could not  have      
missed the time their cabinet minister  
stole from them1 for his  medical       
scribbling is an utterly worthless      
compilation4 ,not only did  ,marcellus  
copy from medical authors of the most   
discordant opinion1  but he particularly
 busied himself in collecting           
indiscriminately all  the magical       
nonsense of the ancient times2 in fact1 
it seems that he  was very eager to     
obtain all this magical rigmarole direct
 from the  mouth of the people1 for he  
says that he collected his remedies 8ab 
agrestibus et plebeiis40 ,accordingly   
his book is as worthless and  insipid to
 the physician as it is valuable to the 
historian1 especially  the historian of 
civilization4 ,here are a few examples  
of this medicine  of the magicians3     
,remedy against warts and corns 7,pliny1

 ,book #bh1 ,chapter ,,iv41  #ab1  page 
#bfh73 8,lie on your back along a       
boundary line on the twentieth  day of  
the moon1 and extend the hands over the 
head4 ,with whatever  thing you grasp   
when so doing1 rub the warts1 and they  
will disappear  immediately40           
8,whoever1 when he sees a shooting-star1
 soon afterward pours a little  vinegar 
upon the hinge of a door1 is sure to be 
rid of his corns40    ,remedy against   
headache 7,pliny1 ibid473 8,tie the rope
 of a hung  criminal around the         
forehead40    ,remedy against bellyache 
7,priscian1 physician of the fourth     
century1  ,book #a1 ,chapter ,,xiv41 and
 ,sprengel1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 page #bdh73    
8,if any  one suffer from colicky pains 
he may sit down on a chair and say to   
himself3 #8,per te diacholon1 diacholon1
 diacholon4'0    8,a person who has an  
attack of colic may take the feces of a 
wolf1  which1 if possible1 should       
contain small particles of bone1 enclose
  them in a small tube1 and wear this   

amulet on the right arm1 thigh1 or      
hip40--,alexander of ,tralles1 ,book #h1
 ,chapter ,,ii41 page #cgd4    8,take   
the heart from the living lark and wear 
it as an amulet at the  left            
thigh40--,alexander of ,tralles1 ibid4  
,remedy against epilepsy 7advised by the
 physician1 ,moschion  ,diorthotes4     
8,alexander of ,tralles10 ,book #a1     
,chapter ,,xv41 page #egj73  8,the      
forehead of an ass is tied to the skin  
of the patient and worn40    8,gather   
iris1 peonies1 and nightshade when the  
moon is on the wane1  pack them into    
linen and wear as an amulet40 ,advised  
by the magician  ,osthanes4--,alexander 
of ,tralles1 ,book #a1 ,chapter ,,xv41  
page #eff4    8,take a nail from a cross
 and suspend it from an arm of the      
patient40  ,given by a physician of the 
second century1 ,a4,d41 by the name of  
,archigenes4--,alexander of ,tralles1   
,book #a1 ,chapter ,,xv41 page #eff4    
8,wear on the finger a jasper of        
bluish-gray luster40--,advised by       

,dioscorides1 ,book #e1 #aei4    ,remedy
 against podagra gout 78,alexander of   
,tralles10 ,book #ab1 page  #ehb73      
8,take a gold leaf and write upon it    
when the moon is on the  wane3 mei1     
threu1 mor1 for1 teux1 za1 zon1 the1 lu1
 chri1 ge1 ze1 on4  ,as the sun becomes 
firm in this name and daily renews      
itself1 so does  this formation also    
make firm as conditions were previously4
 ,quickly1  quickly1 rapidly1 rapidly4  
,for behold6 ,i call the great name in  
which  becomes firm again what was      
destined to die3 ,jas1 azyf1 zyon1      
threux1  dain1 chook4 ,make this        
formation firm as it has been1 quickly1 
quickly1  rapidly1 rapidly4 ,this       
document must be covered with the tendon
 of a  crane1 enclosed in a capsule1 and
 worn by the patient at his heel40      
,remedy against diseases of the eye     
7advised by ,sextus ,placitus           
,papyriensis4 ,magnus1 8,ophthalmology  
of the ,ancients10 page #eig73 8,if  the
 right eye becomes afflicted with       

glaucoma1 rub it with the right  eye of 
the wolf1 and1 similarly1 the left eye  
with the left eye of the  wolf40    ,in 
photophobia 7fear of light7 8,wear as an
 amulet an eye which  was taken from a  
live crab40--,quintus ,serenus          
,samonicus4 ,magnus1  8,ophthalmology of
 the ,ancients10 page #eie4    ,with    
pains of the eye the patient must1 with 
a copper needle1 put out  the eyes of a 
green lizard caught on a ,jupiter day1  
during a moon that  is on the wane1 in  
the month of ,september4 ,the eyes must 
be worn in a  golden capsule1 as an     
amulet around the neck 7,marcellus      
,empiricus4  ,magnus1 8,ophthalmology of
 the ,ancients10 page #fjb47    ,the    
above illustrations are surely          
sufficient to give the reader an  idea  
of the medicine of the magicians4 ,at   
the same time they show the  great      
similarity which exists between these   
ancient magic cures and the  sympathetic
 cures of our people at the present day4
     #d4 ,ancient ,medicine and         

,magic4--,but how is it possible that   
the  ancient physicians1 and even the   
most enlightened minds among them1      
should not only have tolerated such a   
crass medical superstition as the  above
 examples have shown us1 but should even
 have incorporated them in  their works8
 ,incomprehensible1 however1 as this    
fact may appear to the  modern          
practitioner1 it becomes conceivable if 
the condition of antique  medicine and  
of the medical profession of ancient    
times is considered4    ,in the first   
place1 ancient medical science adopted  
an entirely  different mode of          
diagnostico-theoretical method than that
 employed  by professors of medicine in 
modern times4 ,ancient natural science  
7compare also ,chapter ,v4 of this      
work71 as well as ancient medicine1     
obtained their scientific views         
exclusively by deduction--i4e41 they    
deduced individual results from general 
presumptions1 or1 rather1 they          
construed1 by reason of some general    

presumption1 the physico-medical        
consequences which were to follow from  
such a general supposition4 ,if  this   
attempt to obtain an insight into       
physical processes is extremely         
hazardous1 it becomes still more        
precarious when the manner and means  in
 which these general presumptions were  
arrived at were primarily of  an        
entirely hypothetical nature4 ,it is    
true1 no fundamental objection  can be  
raised to this method1 as even modern   
natural science and  medicine1 despite  
the fact that their methods of          
investigation in a                      
diagnostico-theoretical respect scarcely
 admit of material objections1  can not 
do without hypothesis4 ,but hypothesis  
is not always mere  hypothesis4 ,it is  
well known that there are hypotheses    
which1 even in  the minds of the most   
conscientious investigators1 are not    
inferior to  that knowledge which is    
obtained by experiment and observation1 
whereas  other hypotheses again present 

the distinct stamp of insufficiency and 
makeshift4 ,the trustworthiness and the 
heuristic value of an hypothesis  depend
 upon the quality of the                
diagnostico-theoretical process by means
  of which it was obtained4 ,if this    
process has been such as physical       
investigation is bound to insist upon1  
the hypothesis thus arrived  at is fully
 justified to supply the still absent   
data with regard  to the phenomena in   
question4 ,this1 however1 can be        
accomplished by  hypothesis only when   
the latter is not set forth until it    
plainly  appears that1 in spite of a    
conscientious and orderly arrangement of
  observation after observation1 of     
experiment upon experiment1 without  the
 admission of logical loopholes1 full   
data in regard to the nature  of the    
phenomena is not forthcoming4 ,in such a
 case we may consider  as actually      
proven by hypothesis what observation   
and systematic  experiment1 continuous  
and logical1 were intended to prove1 and

  failed4 ,however1 this inductive      
hypothesis is alone entitled to be      
considered in medicine4 ,naturally1 such
 an inductive hypothesis was not        
thought of by the ancients1 as the      
inductive method of investigation  was  
generally quite unknown to them4 ,the   
process by which ancient  medicine      
usually attempted to find its hypothesis
 was by an argument  from analogy4 ,each
 and every point of resemblance1 however
 superficial1  between two phenomena was
 considered sufficient by the ancient   
naturalists to warrant the assumption   
that analogous phenomena in the  most   
various domains were most certainly     
proven to possess similar  points of    
resemblance4 ,and upon the basis of such
 an insecure method  of                 
deduction--which1 moreover1 was selected
 entirely at the option of  the         
observer--the ancient investigator      
erected the boldest hypotheses4  ,thus1 
for instance1 the atomic theory of      
,leucippus and ,democritus is  an       

hypothesis which rests upon the basis of
 a conclusion from analogy4  ,the motes 
which appear in the rays of the sun led 
these two ancient  investigators to the 
conception that1 like the particles of  
dust  sporting in the air1 the primary  
component parts of everything that      
exists in the entire universe consisted 
of similar particles4#b          #b     
,lucretius1 ,book #b1 ,verse #aac1 sqq4 
,it appears that ,epicurus arrived at   
his theory of light 7according to       
which1 as is well known1 images of      
things were brought to the senses by    
delicate but absolutely objective small 
pictures which were detached  from the  
surface of things in a continuous       
current7 by the fact  that many         
animals--for instance1 snakes--shed     
their skins4 ,the theory  of humoral    
pathology1 one of the most important    
advances in medical  science1 was based 
on a conclusion from analogy and arrived
 at by the  deductive method4    ,the   
diagnostico-theoretical lines in which  

antique medicine moved  were bound--and 
this is the point of importance in this 
case--to exert  a determining influence 
upon medical criticism4 ,for            
medico-physical  criticism can only     
appear in closest connection with the   
prevailing  condition of the respective 
sciences1 being really nothing else but 
a precipitate from them4 ,thus the      
ancient physicians were compelled  to   
take an entirely different position     
toward magical medicine than  we        
moderns1 educated in the school of      
inductive methods1 have always  taken4  
,the probable and similar1 the          
supposable and possible1 in which       
deductive medicine found its data1      
working on the lines of argument  from  
analogy1 were necessarily bound to find 
expression also in the  character of    
medical critique1 and it was impossible1
 therefore1  for the ancient physician  
to detect anything absurd or contrary to
  experience in hypotheses which the    
practitioner of to-day at once  brands  

as nonsensical and superstitious4    ,we
 are not in the least justified1        
therefore1 in speaking disparagingly  of
 ,galen and ,alexander of ,tralles      
because they believed in magical        
medicine and applied it in their        
practise4 ,as no human being can  jump  
out of his skin1 so is he unable to get 
beyond the intellectual  advancement of 
his time4 ,as the ancient physicians    
were also unable to  do this1           
accordingly they were believers in the  
magical medicine4    ,but there is still
 a second point which explains the      
remarkable  position taken by ancient   
physicians in relation to magical       
medicine--namely1 the fact that the     
conception of miracle and magic  were   
essentially different in the ancient    
world from what they are at  present4   
,the belief in the interference of      
spirits and supernatural  beings in     
terrestrial matters1 and the            
manifestations of their  influence      
exerted in manifold ways--sometimes for 

good1 sometimes  for evil--had been     
widely disseminated from the earliest   
times1 and  we encounter them in all    
periods of classic antiquity4 ,this     
belief  in demons had become            
incorporated in the systems of many     
leading  philosophers of antiquity4 ,now
 if the world were filled with demons   
the  natural consequence was that their 
activity would manifest itself in       
various ways4 ,it was necessary1        
therefore1 that man should always be    
prepared to experience manifestations   
which more or less violated the         
customary order of terrestrial          
happenings1 and for this reason nothing 
that could be styled a miracle really   
existed for him4 ,a miracle could  not  
be conceived in its full modern sense   
until it was realized that  the course  
of all natural phenomena was nothing but
 the expression of  eternal and         
changeless laws4 ,however1 it was not   
until comparatively  late that this     
conception became generally             

disseminated2 thus1 for  instance1 it   
was considered as self-evident1 even in 
the latest periods  of the middle ages  
and during the first beginnings of      
modern times1  that divine influence    
could always1 and actually did always1  
cause an  alteration in the course of   
the functions of the body4 ,in fact1    
there  is an amazingly large number of  
people even in our time who believe     
this1 and for whom1 therefore1 the      
conception of miracles1 especially  of  
miraculous healing1 is to-day on about  
the same level as that on  which it     
stood in the time of ,galen and         
,alexander of ,tralles4    ,thus we must
 admit that the ancient physicians were 
by no means below  the standard of      
civilization and culture attained during
 their period  if they believed in the  
possibility of extraordinary cures      
effected  by means extraneous and       
unscientific in their treatment of the  
sick1  and1 accordingly1 they supported 
such methods4 ,however1 this belief  in 

miraculous medicines on the part of the 
ancient physician was  always restricted
 to certain limits4 ,it is true1 the    
conception was  always adhered to that  
this or that magical agency1 or this or 
that  magical action1 might exert an    
influence upon the disease2 but such  a 
belief never led them to omit any       
strictly medical measures of a  surgical
 or gynecological nature4 ,on the       
contrary1 the intelligent  physicians of
 antiquity firmly insisted that the     
actions of the surgeon  and of the      
gynecologist were not to be hampered by 
any metaphysical  considerations2 thus1 
for instance1 ,soranus demanded most    
energetically  that the midwife should  
be 80 7without fear of any              
demon7--i4e41 she was not to be         
superstitious1 but free from any        
imputation which would render her       
curative interposition objectionable4   
,the profession of the magicians1 due to
 the persecutions to which they  became 
subject under the ,christian emperors   

,valens1 ,valentinian1 and  ,theodosius1
 became considerably less prominent     
during the predominance  of             
,christianity1 but the ideas upon which 
it had been erected in  ancient times   
still survived2 in fact1 these ideas    
were even to a  certain extent          
systematically elaborated during the    
middle ages1 and at  this time a        
distinction was made between higher and 
lower1 or white  and black1 magic4 ,the 
white magic busied itself with good     
spirits1 the  black magic with the bad  
ones4 ,magicians1 therefore1 who        
operated by  the aid of the devil1 and  
even in medicine called in the          
assistance of  the devil1 were called   
8necromancers40 ,for the first time     
magic became  amalgamated with certain  
philosophical speculations and also with
  ,christian-dogmatic constituents4 ,the
 methods adopted by magic medicine      
under these conditions are so peculiar  
and are so close to the boundary  lines 
between philosophy and religion that we 

are really not quite  certain whether to
 relegate it to the domain of one or of 
the other4  ,but as the fundamental     
parts of these methods were actually    
supplied by  philosophy1 we propose to  
defer this discussion for the present1  
and  to take up here another form of    
medical superstition which was derived  
exclusively from religion--namely1      
8sleep in the temple40     #e4 ,sleep in
 the ,temple4--,one of the generally    
practised methods  of medical science   
during the period of ,hellenic          
civilization which  was still fully     
under the influence of theism--i4e41 for
 at least  two or three centuries before
 the ,hippocratic era--was what was     
known  as 8temple sleep40 ,in fact1 this
 method must be considered a sign  of a 
faith distinctly deep and sincere1 a    
faith naive and childlike  indeed2 but  
as a sign of such a faith this method is
 actually pathetic4  ,no taint of       
superstition could be found in it at the
 early period  referred to4 ,it was     

still the pure and unadulterated        
expression of the  generally prevailing 
conception that human art is to no      
purpose in any  case of disease1 and aid
 must be found with the gods--with those
 gods  who regulate and personally      
execute all terrestrial phenomena down  
to  the minutest details4 ,temple sleep 
was not degraded into superstition      
until medicine had come to the          
conclusion that the phenomena of disease
  were not evidence of an interference  
by supernatural power in the  functions 
of the body1 but disturbances of the    
function of the body  caused exclusively
 by natural causes4 ,in accordance with 
this view1  which first found its       
fullest and clearest exposition in the  
corpus  hippocraticum1 it would seem    
absolutely necessary for temple sleep to
  lose all recognition from the art of  
healing4 ,however1 this not being  the  
case1 it was bound to deteriorate into  
an act of superstitious  mummery1 and   
the principal blame for this sad        

decadence is to be laid  primarily upon 
the priests4 ,it was their duty         
especially to lead into  the path of    
truth the patients who persisted in     
crowding into the  temples in the spirit
 of naive and childlike piety4 ,they    
sealed their  own condemnation as       
fosterers of superstition when they     
failed to  do this duty1 and endeavored 
rather1 by every means in their power1  
to confirm the multitude in their       
ancient belief that the gods were       
practising medicine4 ,non-,christian as 
well as ,christian priests played  this 
rle for many centuries with equal       
ability and equal perseverance1  as will
 be seen from the following brief       
history of temple sleep4    ,the belief 
in the efficacy of temple sleep had     
already been thoroughly  shaken during  
the time of the great ,hippocrates2     
therefore1 in  the sixth century1       
,b4,c41 the laughing philosopher of     
,hellenism1  ,aristophanes1 the         
satirical contemporary of ,hippocrates1 

in ,act ,,ii41  verses #fed to #gej1 of 
his comedy 1 severely criticizes the    
manner and method in which temple sleep 
was employed4 ,let us listen  to the    
words in which the poet describes what  
happened in the temple  during the      
observance of this rite4    ,the god    
sculapius1 accompanied by his daughter  
,panakeia1 appears in  the temple to    
examine in person the patients gathered 
there4 ,the first  one he meets is a    
poor wretch1 ,neokleides1 who1 being    
blear-eyed1  expects cure from the god4 
,the medically skilled sculapius smears 
upon the inverted lids of this patient a
 salve which causes such pain  that the 
poor fellow will probably never seek his
 help again4 ,the  second patient met by
 the god is the blind god1  7i4e41      
,wealth ,personified74 ,here the conduct
 of sculapius is entirely  different    
from that which he adopted when treating
 poor ,neokleides4  ,now he carefully   
strokes the head of the patient1 then   
produces a  linen cloth and carefully   

touches the lids with it4 ,he then calls
  his daughter ,panakeia1 who winds a   
red cloth round the head of blind       
,wealth4 ,now sculapius whistles1 and   
two mighty serpents appear1 glide  under
 the purple cloth1 and lick the eyes of 
the patient4 ,shortly  afterward the god
 regains his sight4    ,this passage is 
a cutting satire on practises which     
undoubtedly  prevailed in the ,greek    
temples as early as the sixth century1  
,b4,c4  ,but1 nevertheless1 it took a   
long time before the patients lost      
their belief in the miraculous efficacy 
of temple sleep1 and the  priesthood    
continually strove to revive1 by the    
mysterious stories  of various kinds    
they recounted to doubters1 the belief  
in temple  sleep4 ,the sixth of the     
marble votive tablets which were found  
in  the temple of sculapius at          
,epidaurus shows the kind of miraculous 
reports invented by the priests4 ,the   
latter were in the habit of  inscribing 
upon these tablets reports of cures that

 had occurred in  their sanctuary1 for  
the benefit of the visitors of the      
temple and for  the still greater       
benefit of the medical historians2 but  
it is quite  probable that the          
priesthood1 intent upon curing1 were    
encouraged in  their medico-literary    
attempts only by the silent hope of     
creating  an abundant supply of patients
 by such miraculous reports4 ,the above 
tablet1 ,no4 #f--which probably dates   
from the third century1 ,b4,c4--tells   
us that a blind man by the name of      
,hermon1 a native of ,thasos1 had       
recovered his sight by sleeping in the  
,epidaurean temple of sculapius4        
,however1 it appears that this man      
,hermon had been a miserable wretch1    
for he disappeared without having       
expressed his thanks in hard cash4      
,naturally such ingratitude provoked the
 god1 and summarily he blinded  the     
thankless individual again4 ,it required
 a second temple sleep  before the god  
condescended to become helpful once     

more4 ,but our tablet  does not mention 
anything about the amount of the        
remuneration paid by  our friend ,hermon
 who had been twice cured of blindness2 
neither is  this at all necessary4 ,the 
miraculous tablet1 even without stating 
the  price1 doubtless made sufficient   
impression upon the minds even of the   
most parsimonious of future patients4   
,altho1 therefore1 the more enlightened 
among the ,greeks recognized1  as early 
as in the sixth century1 ,b4,c41 the    
futility of temple sleep  as a means of 
healing1 the ancient world never        
relinquished it  entirely4 ,we encounter
 it again in the later periods of       
antiquity4  ,thus1 for instance1        
,suetonius and other ancient authors    
tell us that  two patients1 one blind1  
the other lame1 one day approached the  
emperor ,vespasian1 who happened to be  
in ,alexandria1 asking him to  spit into
 the eyes of the one and to stroke the  
paralyzed limbs of  the other2 for they 
had been notified in temple sleep that  

they would  be restored to health if    
only the emperor would deign to perform 
the  above-mentioned manipulations4 ,but
 ,vespasian was an enlightened ruler    
who1 in spite of his imperial dignity1  
did not have much confidence in  the    
medical qualities of his saliva and of  
his hands1 and accordingly              
unceremoniously dismissed both          
supplicants4 ,this caused great terror  
among the priests of ,serapis and among 
the courtiers1 for obviously  they had  
interpreted this affair solely as       
intended in majorem  ,vespasiani        
gloriam4 ,the emperor was importuned1   
therefore1 kindly to  aid the           
unfortunate1 but he persisted in his    
refusal4 ,probably he was  right in     
fearing the loss of his prestige should 
the imperial medical  powers prove      
unequal to the task of curing disease4  
,not until the  priests solemnly vouched
 for the truthfulness of the            
dream-sending god  ,serapis1 and        
declared a failure of the imperial cure 

to be impossible1  did ,vespasian's     
stubbornness relent4 ,now he spat1 and  
rubbed the  paralyzed limbs1 and the    
blind saw1 and the paralytic arose and  
walked4    #f4 ,church ,sleep4--,when1  
subsequently1 the ancient religions died
 out1  and had left the world as an     
heritage to ,christianity1 temple sleep 
had  by no means died out also4 ,on the 
contrary1 after the lapse of three      
centuries1 it again came into favor with
 the ,christian priests4 ,and the  use  
of it now was scarcely less in favor    
than it had been a thousand  years      
previous in the world of the ancient    
,greeks4 ,let us mention a few          
examples4 ,the first four stories are   
taken from the works of ,gregory of     
,tours4    ,mummolus1 who came to the   
court of ,justinian 7#ebg to #efe7 as   
the  ambassador of ,king ,theudebert1   
suffered greatly from calculi of the    
urinary bladder1 and during this journey
 he became subject to an attack  of     
renal colic4 ,things went badly with    

poor ,mummolus1 and he was in  a great  
hurry to make his will4 ,whereupon he   
was advised to pass one  night sleeping 
in ,st4 ,andrew's ,church1 at ,pateras1 
for ,st4 ,andrew had  performed many    
miraculous cures in this place4 ,no     
sooner said than  done4 ,mummolus1      
greatly tormented by pain and fever1 and
 despairing  of life1 had himself placed
 upon the stone flags of the sanctuary1 
and waited there for the things that    
were to happen4 ,suddenly1 toward       
midnight1 the patient awoke with a      
violent desire to urinate1 and          
discharged in a natural manner a        
calculus which1 as ,st4 ,gregory assures
  us1 was so enormous that it fell with 
a loud clatter into the vessel4  ,from  
that hour ,mummolus was hale and hearty1
 and joyfully started on  his journey   
homeward4    ,in ,brioude1 the capital  
of the present department ,haute-,loire1
 there  was a woman named ,fedamia1 who 
had been paralyzed for years4 ,in       
addition to this1 she was penniless1 and

 her relatives1 therefore1  brought her 
to the ,church of ,st4 ,julian1 who     
enjoyed a great reputation  in ,brioude1
 in order that1 even if she did not     
become cured1 she might  at least make  
some money by begging at the church     
door4 ,for eighteen  years she had lived
 thus when1 one ,sunday night1 while she
 slept in  the colonnade adjoining the  
church1 a man appeared who took her by  
the  hand and led her toward the grave  
of ,st4 ,julian4 ,on arriving there she 
uttered a fervent prayer1 and in a      
moment felt as if a load of actual      
chains fell from her limbs4 ,all this1  
it is true1 happened in a dream1  but   
when the patient awoke she was hale and 
hearty1 and was able1 to  the amazement 
of the assembled multitude1 to walk1    
with loud prayers1  to the grave of the 
saint4    ,a certain man1 deaf1 dumb1   
and blind1 known by the name of         
,amagildus1  also tried the sleep in the
 ,church of ,st4 ,julian1 at ,brioude4  
,but it  appears that this saint was not

 always quite accessible to the wishes  
of the sick4 ,it is true1 ,amagildus was
 not obliged1 like ,fedamia of  the     
previous narrative1 to pass eighteen    
years in the basilica1 but1             
nevertheless1 he had to sleep for a full
 year in the colonnade of the  church   
before the curative power of the holy   
martyr delivered him from  his ailment4 
,veranus1 the slave of one of the clergy
 under ,gregory1 was so violently       
attacked by gout that he was absolutely 
unable to move for an entire  year4     
,thereupon his master pledged himself to
 advance the afflicted  slave to the    
priesthood if ,st4 ,martin would be     
willing to cure him4 ,to  accomplish    
this cure the slave was carried to the  
church1 and there  placed at the feet of
 the saint4 ,the poor wretch had to     
remain there  for five long days1 and it
 seemed as tho ,st4 ,martin had         
forgotten all  about him4 ,finally1 on  
the sixth day1 the patient was visited  
by a man  who seized his foot and drew  

it out straight4 ,the slave rose to his 
feet in terror1 and perceived that he   
was cured4 ,for many years he  served   
,st4 ,martin as a priest4    ,but the   
most wonderful cure was that of the     
,german emperor ,henry ,,ii41  called   
8,the ,saint0 7#ajjb to #ajbd74 ,this   
emperor1 who was of ,bavarian  stock1   
suffered greatly from the stone1 and had
 retired to the ,italian  cloister      
,monte ,cassino1 inasmuch as this       
cloister during that period  justly     
enjoyed an extraordinary medical        
reputation4 ,but whether the  monks of  
,monte ,cassino1 altho well versed in   
medical art1 did not have  sufficient   
confidence in their ability to treat an 
emperor1 or whether  they were induced  
by some other reason1 is not known2     
however1 instead  of submitting the     
imperial patient to the operations of   
terrestrial  medicine1 they surrendered 
him to the providence of heaven1 and    
more particularly to the sympathy of    
,st4 ,benedict4 ,this saint fully       

justified the confidence that was placed
 in him1 for1 during an acute  period in
 the patient's sufferings1 he appeared  
in his own holy person1  and with his   
own holy hands he performed the         
necessary operation1 and1  after having 
pressed the stone that he had removed   
from the bladder  into the hand of the  
sleeping emperor1 he retired heavenward4
 ,but he  took care from his heavenly   
residence to attend to the prompt       
healing  of the operation wound1 and    
this was surely very good of ,st4       
,benedict4  ,in fact1 his entire        
behavior during this case was extremely 
proper and  laudable2 for is it not much
 more fitting that the imperial bladder 
should be delivered from its            
disagreeable visitor1 the stone1 at the 
hands of a saint than by those of mortal
 beings1 even if those mortal  beings   
were the pious and medically skilled    
monks of ,monte ,cassino8#c    ,the form
 in which we encounter the ,christian   
temple sleep in the above  stories is as

 like as two peas to that practised in  
the ,hellenic  temples4 ,they are       
distinguished merely by the fact that   
the ,greek gods  generally hastened to  
the assistance of the patients after the
 latter  had spent one night in the     
temple1 whereas the ,christian saints   
often  allowed years to pass before the 
patient1 who was crying for aid1        
secured relief4          #c ,compare    
,leibnitz1 ,script4 ,brunsvic1 ,vol4    
,i41 page #ebe4        ,sprengel1 ,vol4 
,,ii41 page #ia4    ,christianity has1  
however1 created one variation of the   
temple sleep1  and this is the sleep    
which is taken1 altho outside of the    
church1 at  any place whatever1 but with
 invocation of the saints4 ,this sleep  
was  said to be exactly as efficacious  
as that taken in the church itself1     
provided the patient had fervently      
prayed before falling asleep1 and  had  
particularly remembered the saint whose 
assistance he required4  ,the two       
following narratives1 which are also    

taken from the works of  ,gregory of    
,tours1 may serve as significant        
examples of this variety of  temple     
sleep4    ,alpinus1 ,count of ,tours1   
was so tormented for years by a pain in 
his  foot that life had no further joys 
for him1 so that1 sleepless and  without
 appetite1 he took to his bed4 ,again   
and again had he1 in  secret prayer1    
appealed to ,st4 ,martin for relief4 ,so
 one day the ,count  suddenly falls into
 a deep sleep1 during which ,st4 ,martin
 appears to  him1 making the sign of the
 cross over the diseased foot4          
,thereupon the  pain suddenly left him1 
and ,alpinus was able to leave his      
couch1 fully  cured4 ,in this case the  
saint showed himself extremely          
considerate  toward the sick count1 in  
that he was attired in a smart uniform  
when  paying his visit4 ,it was his     
intention1 obviously1 in choosing this  
costume to gratify the martial tastes of
 the nobleman2 for ,st4 ,martin1  when  
visiting patients1 by no means always   

affected this warlike array1  as will be
 seen from the following story4    ,a   
certain woman was so severely afflicted 
with campsis of the fingers  that she   
completely lost the use of her hands4   
,even a visit to the  church which was  
consecrated to ,st4 ,martin in ,tours   
had brought her no  relief4 ,the patient
 was obliged to leave the sanctuary with
 her fingers  still diseased4 ,but it   
seems that this patient was actually of 
a very  contented disposition2 for when1
 upon her return1 away from ,tours1 she 
lay down to her first night's rest1 she 
thanked ,god that at least her  life was
 spared1 and that she had been permitted
 to see the grave of  ,st4 ,martin4     
,affected by so much modesty1 ,st4      
,martin appeared to her in  her sleep1  
and1 like to ,st4 ,benedict in the case 
of the emperor ,henry1  with his own    
holy hands he performed somewhat of an  
operation upon the  patient1 in that he 
stretched her bent fingers in such a    
manner that  the tense tendons were     

evidently torn2 for ,gregory tells us   
that1 under  the treatment described1   
blood flowed from the straightened      
fingers of  the woman4 ,but ,st4 ,martin
 had entirely discarded his martial     
attire  upon this visit4 ,evidently such
 a garb did not seem to him appropriate 
when visiting a female patient2 he      
therefore appeared before the  patient  
in a purple cloak with a cross in his   
hand4    ,however1 the medical activity 
of the saints was by no means restricted
  to cases of church slumber1 but was   
manifested in the most various  forms4  
#g4 ,medical ,saints4--,some saints had 
a decided predilection for  medical     
specialties1 and for that reason paid a 
particular attention to  certain        
varieties of disease4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,anna 
espoused ophthalmology2  ,st4 ,jude     
cured coughs2 ,st4 ,valentine1 epilepsy2
 ,st4 ,catherine of ,siena1  the plague4
 ,not even our domestic animals were    
forgotten by the saints4  ,thus1 ,st4   
,roch of ,montpellier distinguished     

himself especially by his  skill as a   
veterinarian4    ,various were the ways 
of obtaining the medical aid of this or 
that  saint4 ,the most simple was       
probably that the patient attended mass 
in  the church of his town1 and1 at the 
same time1 made an offering to  the     
saints4 ,more difficult was it to       
undertake a pilgrimage to one  or the   
other of the saints who enjoyed a       
medical reputation2 this  was generally 
done on the birthday of the celestial   
physician4 ,it  seems that the saint was
 especially inclined on this day to     
practise  medicine2 at least1 the       
chroniclers report that great numbers of
 the  most difficult cases were         
successfully treated on such days4    ,a
 very efficacious method of securing    
medical treatment from saints was       
considered to be the placing of the     
patient in the church during the  day in
 the space between the altar and the    
grave of the saint4 ,the bed  of the    
mortally sick1 fever-racked patient was 

placed there1 and for  days was         
compelled to remain here wrestling with 
death4 ,this was done1  for instance1   
with the dying ,countess ,eborin4 ,in   
case severe epidemics  were prevalent1  
it is likely that the churches very     
often resembled  actual hospitals4 ,then
 dozens of beds with their patients were
 set up  in the churches1 and many a one
 who was in good health when he entered 
the church to say his prayers probably  
returned home with the germ of a        
pestilence acquired in the sanctuary4   
,but the saints1 as we have seen1 were  
by no means always so anxious  or in    
such a hurry to manifest their medical  
skill4 ,they often made  the patient    
wait for years for their aid4 ,the      
church1 therefore1 made  practical      
arrangements to meet every requirement4 
,larger buildings were  erected close to
 the church intended for the reception  
of patients4  ,here those who were      
hoping to find help could obtain shelter
 and food1  and were1 therefore1 able to

 rest quietly1 and to await the moment  
when  heavenly aid might appear4 ,this  
arrangement proved to be extremely      
practical1 especially because a good    
many individuals felt themselves  cured 
only so long as they remained in the    
proximity of the saint1 but  became     
reafflicted as before when they returned
 to their homes4    ,but as the slumber 
and the protracted sojourn in the       
ecclesiastical  hostelries was1         
nevertheless1 rather uncomfortable1     
especially in  consideration of the     
difficulties and dangers which were     
involved in  traveling during the middle
 ages1 it was absolutely necessary to   
invent  a means of administering the    
medical aid of the saints in such a way 
as  was always accessible to the        
patient4 ,this was managed by the use of
  relics4    #h4 ,cult of ,relics4--,it 
was believed that ,god had endowed the  
bodies  of martyrs who died for the     
,christian faith1 or of saints          
distinguished  by extraordinary piety1  

with a miraculous power of extraordinary
  efficacy1 and not only the mortal     
relics of the martyrs and saints were   
wonder-working1 but actually all objects
 which had come in contact with  the    
persons of saints during their life as  
well as after their death4  ,all such   
objects were possessed of curative      
power4 ,let us listen to  what ,gregory 
of ,tours says under this head3 8,the   
miracles which our  ,lord ,god deigned  
to bring about through ,st4 ,martin1 his
 servant1 once a  pilgrim in the flesh1 
he causes to be repeated daily1 to      
strengthen the  confidence of the       
faithful2 for now he endows his tomb    
with precisely  the same wonder-working 
power as was exhibited by the saint     
himself  while still among us4 ,who will
 now persist in doubting the former     
miracles when he observes their         
continuation in the present day1 when   
he sees the lame walk1 the blind receive
 their sight1 devils cast  out1 and     
every variety of disease cured by the   

help of the saint80  78,bernoulli10 page
 #bhg74    ,the statement of such a     
luminary of the ,church as ,gregory of  
,tours has  undoubtedly gained          
ecclestiastical credence for the medical
 efficacy  not only of the tomb of ,st4 
,martin1 but of all the relics relating 
to  that saint4 ,it remained only to    
distribute the superior medical power   
which was contained in the holy tombs   
and relics in such a form as  would     
enable all patients1 wherever they      
happened to be1 to make use of  them4   
,this task1 apparently most difficult1  
was settled very easily4  ,it was       
discovered that everything which came in
 contact with a relic  actually absorbed
 a sacred and miraculous power contained
 in the same1  and what had been        
absorbed was by no means imponderable4  
,quite the  contrary4 ,something of     
material substance1 and1 therefore1     
physically  demonstrable1 passed from   
the relic into the objects surrounding  
it4  ,it was indeed a celestial fluid1  

but1 nevertheless1 of so terrestrial  a 
nature that the priests were able to    
demonstrate its transference  by means  
of a common pair of scales4 ,thus it was
 customary that the  silk shreds which  
were deposited by the pilgrims upon the 
tomb of the  apostle ,peter were weighed
 before they were placed there and      
weighed  again after their removal4     
,this weighing always and without       
exception  indicated a considerable     
increase in their weight4 ,the pilgrim  
then  could travel homeward and be      
thoroughly consoled1 as the scale had   
demonstrated to him the amount of       
miraculous power contained in his  silk 
rag4 ,it was really astonishing1 under  
some circumstances1 what  an enormous   
amount of curative fluid could flow from
 such a holy tomb  into a single        
terrestrial object4 ,this was what      
happened to a king of  the ,suavians4   
,he had a sick son1 for whose cure every
 remedy had proved  unavailing4 ,he at  
last sent an embassy to ,tours to obtain

 a relic of  ,st4 ,martin1 but this     
relic was destined to be manufactured   
with the  assistance of the embassy4    
,the priests were quite willing to      
comply  with the desire of their royal  
petitioner1 and thus a piece of silk1   
duly weighed beforehand1 was placed upon
 the tomb of ,st4 ,martin4 ,after  this 
silk had remained for one night upon the
 holy sepulchre1 and the  embassy had   
knelt beside praying fervently1 the silk
 absorbed so much  curative power that  
the register of the scale was raised to 
its highest  possible notch4            
,knowing1 then1 that any desired object 
could be saturated with the  miraculous 
power contained in a relic1 they used to
 apply this  celestial power through    
medicaments1 and to accomplish this a   
number  of methods were in use4 ,the    
most popular was to scrape the          
tombstones  on the graves of the saints 
as thoroughly as possible4 ,the powder  
thus obtained was then put into water or
 wine1 and thus a medicine  was acquired

 which possessed an astonishing curative
 power4 ,it was  efficacious even in the
 severest ailments of the body4 ,let us 
listen to  what ,gregory of ,tours has  
reported concerning the medicinal       
virtues of  such tombstone potions4     
,he says3 8,oh1 indescribable mixture1  
incomparable elixir1 antidote  beyond   
all praise6 ,celestial purgative 7if ,i 
may be permitted to  use the            
expression71 which throws into the shade
 every medical  prescription1 which     
surpasses in fragrance every earthly    
aroma1 and  is more powerful than all   
essences2 which purges the body like the
  juice of scammony1 clears the lungs   
like hyssop1 and the head like          
sneezewort2 which not only cures the    
ailing limbs1 but also1 and this  is    
much more valuable1 washes off the      
stains from the conscience60            
,according to this extensive power of   
the tombstone powder1 it is by no  means
 astonishing that ,gregory of ,tours1   
when traveling1 always carried  a box of

 this miraculous powder with him1 so    
that he was able at once  to heal the   
patients that surrounded him4 ,i was not
 able to obtain  from the literary      
sources at my disposal any data as to   
whether the  direct licking off of the  
tombstones might not have been still    
more  efficacious than the all-healing  
extract4 ,gregory does1 however1 report 
that he was cured of a tumor of the     
tongue and lips by merely licking  the  
railing of the tomb of ,st4 ,martin and 
kissing the curtain of the  temple4     
,another very efficacious remedy was the
 charred wick of the wax candles  which 
had burned in the church4 ,this wick was
 pulverized1 and in this  manner a very 
powerful curative powder was obtained   
which1 when taken1  acted in a manner   
similar to that of the watery or vinous 
tombstone  infusion4    ,the wax which  
dripped from candles that were placed   
near the holy  sepulchre was also       
credited with many medicinal virtues1   
but it seems  that it was employed more 

as an external than an internal remedy4 
,the water which had been used before   
,easter to clean the altar of  the      
saints was also considered to be a      
famous remedy4 ,if such water  was      
employed in washing a patient he        
recovered at once1 and this was  the    
happy experience of ,countess ,eborin4  
,this exhalted patient was  suffering so
 severely that she believed her hour had
 come4 ,she was then  quickly removed to
 the church of ,st4 ,martin1 and        
thoroughly washed  with the water that  
had been used in washing the altar4     
,and1 behold6  the disease disappeared1 
and let us hope that the overjoyed      
countess  afterward enjoyed many years  
of life4    ,oil from lamps hung in holy
 places was also a favorite remedy1 but 
it  appears that it was principally used
 for anointing4 ,however1 when mixed    
with holy water1 it furnished a remedy  
which could be administered to  diseased
 cattle with a prospect of positive     
cure4    ,water which was obtained by   

boiling the covers in which the relics  
were  wrapped also yielded a very       
efficacious medicine4 ,thus1 for        
instance1  ,gregory of ,tours caused a  
silk cover1 in which a piece of the     
cross  of ,christ had been wrapped1 to  
be thoroughly boiled1 and he then       
administered this decoction to patients2
 the curtains which were used  as       
ornaments over holy graves also         
displayed an extremely beneficent       
effect upon the sick4 ,if an individual 
suffering from headache touched1  for   
instance1 the carpet which was placed   
over the resting-place of ,st4  ,julian1
 the pain ceased4 ,but if a patient was 
afflicted with abdominal  pains1 all    
that was necessary to relieve him at    
once was to pull a  thread from this1   
the above-named carpet1 and to apply it 
to his  rebellious digestive apparatus4 
,however1 it was not necessary for the  
priests1 under some  circumstances1     
personally to take the trouble of       
manufacturing  miraculous medicines from

 relics4 ,there existed some holy graves
 which  were so accommodating that they 
furnished1 of their own accord1 the     
holy material that was required for the 
treatment of the sick4 ,thus  the       
chronicler records that the grave of the
 evangelist ,john exuded a  sort of     
white manna1 which1 owing to its        
wonder-working curative power1  was     
distributed all over the world4 ,a      
similar product was yielded by  the     
grave of the ,apostle ,andrew on the    
festival day of that saint4 ,a  precious
 oil scented like nectar also sprang    
from the resting-place of  this man of  
,god4    ,we see1 therefore1 that the   
sacred pharmacopia teemed with remedies1
  and that they were quite extensively  
employed is shown sufficiently by  the  
history of the saints and1 above all1 by
 the works of ,gregory of  ,tours4 ,the 
latter1 in particular1 offer an actually
 inexhaustible mine  of information     
concerning the medical activity of      
,christian saints4    ,it does not1     

however1 appear that this medical       
activity enjoyed the  confidence of     
priests or of laymen to such an extent  
that the services  of a professional    
physician were entirely discarded4 ,it  
is true1  ,gregory of ,tours expresses  
himself in reference to the terrestrial 
physicians in a manner which is by no   
means complimentary1 for he says3       
8,what are they 7the physicians7 able to
 accomplish with their  instruments8    
,their office is rather to cause pain   
than to alleviate  it2 if they open the 
eye and cut into it with pointed        
lancets1 they  surely cause the agony of
 death to come in sight before assisting
 in  the recovery of vision1 and if all 
precautionary measures are not          
thoroughly carried out the power of     
sight is lost forever4 ,our beloved     
saint1 however1 has only one instrument 
of steel1 and that is his will1  and    
only one salve1 and that is his curative
 power40    ,but in spite of this want  
of confidence in physicians1 ,gregory of

 ,tours  did not hesitate eventually to 
interfere quite extensively with the    
practise of the saints by the employment
 of ordinary medicine4    ,at least1 he 
frequently did so when he felt sick     
himself4 ,thus1 one  day1 when he was   
afflicted with severe bellyache1 he     
employed warm  poultices and baths1 and 
only when the refractory abdomen gave   
him no  rest1 after a continuance of    
this treatment for six days1 did        
,gregory  apply to ,st4 ,martin4 ,when1 
at another time1 ,gregory was affected  
with so severe an attack that his death 
was believed to be imminent1  he caused 
himself at first to be treated according
 to all the rules  of medical science1  
and not until improvement failed to     
appear1 did  he think of the aid of the 
saints4 ,then he spoke to his physician 
as  follows3 8,well1 you have exhausted 
all remedies of your art1 you have  used
 up all your powers and juices1 but the 
remedies of this world do  not help him 
who is destined to die4 ,only one thing 

remains for me to  do4 ,i shall tell you
 the great remedy3 take some stone      
powder from the  grave of ,st4 ,martin  
and prepare it for me40    ,the healing 
of the sick by the power of the saints  
and through relics  was in favor        
throughout the middle ages1 and even in 
the sixteenth  century it was so        
generally in vogue that a physician by  
the name  of ,wyer 7#aeae to #aehh7     
considered it expedient to demonstrate  
the  incredibility of such heavenly     
interference4    ,it is by no means my  
intention to hold solely dogmatic       
,christendom of  the middle ages and the
 ,christian priest responsible for the  
monstrous  superstition into which1     
according to the above description1     
,christian  religion had degenerated in 
the domain of medicine4 ,this           
superstition  resulted from the         
cooperation of quite incongruous        
factors2 but we  can by no means exempt 
the ,christian priest entirely from     
blame1 in  that he assisted very        

materially in furthering it4 ,for we    
must bear in  mind that the ,christian  
cloister of the middle ages was not only
 the  last refuge of humanistic culture1
 but the science of medicine found  an  
asylum of preeminent importance within  
its precincts4 ,medicine had  taken     
refuge in the cloister from the storms  
and tribulations which  followed the    
political collapse of antiquity and from
 the excitement of  national migrations1
 and had here attained a high degree of 
perfection4  ,in fact1 we may contend1  
without exaggeration1 that at certain   
periods  of the middle ages the         
,christian monastery had the importance 
as a  medical school which was later on 
claimed by the university2 for the      
,christian monks not only nursed the    
sick and practised medicine1  but also  
took an interest in its scientific      
development4 ,they were  well acquainted
 with the medical classics of ancient   
times1 such as  ,hippocrates1           
,herophilus1 ,dioscorides1 ,galen1 ,paul

 of gina1 and others1  as well as with  
the ancient medical celebrities of      
second and third  rank4 ,briefly1       
medical knowledge in its entirety was   
contained in  the cloisters of the      
middle ages2 the cloisters1 indeed1     
furnished a  considerably larger quota  
of the medical profession than the      
laity4 ,in  such a state of affairs it  
might have been expected that the monks 
and  priests should have applied their  
extensive medical knowledge to combat   
the terrible abuses which had invaded   
medicine in connection with the  names  
and the bones of the saints4 ,but this  
they never did1 neither  during the     
middle ages or later on4 ,priesthood has
 never seriously  attempted to promote  
medical enlightenment4 ,on the contrary1
 plenty of  writings exist in which the 
crassest superstition in medico-physical
  affairs was defended by the clergy1   
who quite frequently exhibit the  same  
spirit while practising medicine4       
,medical relief obtained by  entirely   

terrestrial remedies they speedily      
placed to the credit of the  saints1 as 
was done1 for instance1 by the monks of 
,monte ,cassino1 when  7as we have seen 
above7 they persuaded the emperor ,henry
 ,,ii4 that not  the temporal hands of  
the friar physicians had performed an   
operation  for stone upon him1 but that 
,st4 ,benedict in person had1 with his  
own  holy hands1 extracted the stone    
from the imperial bladder4    ,by       
leading the laity1 in numerous cases and
 against their better  knowledge and    
conscience1 to believe that the aid of  
the saints1 and  of the relics          
originating from them1 was far superior 
to medical  services1 the ,christian    
priests of the middle ages have on their
 part  contributed quite a considerable 
share to the horrors of medical         
superstition4 ,it is true1 we must not  
overlook the fact that monks  and       
priests of the middle ages were the     
product of their time1 in the  same     
manner as we of modern times are the    

product of our period4 ,and  as the     
middle ages formed an era of miracles1  
of demons1 devils1 and  witches1        
numerous members of the clergy1 as      
children of their time1  surely had an  
essentially different opinion of the    
belief in miracles  and demons from that
 which we have4 ,the conception of      
miracles was  entirely different during 
the middle ages from what it is in      
modern  times2 for the sincere and firm 
belief in the omnipotence of the one    
,god1 which with ,christianity had taken
 possession of the world1 had  firmly   
fixed in the ,christian mind of that    
period the idea that ,god  was able at  
any moment to manifest his omnipotence  
by changing the  course of terrestrial  
phenomena1 and actually did manifest it4
 ,thus to  a ,christian of the middle   
ages it did not appear miraculous that  
an  alteration in the course of natural 
law should occur4 ,it was considered    
quite conceivable that the same natural 
phenomena should spring from  one cause 

to-day and from a different one         
to-morrow1 according to  the pleasure of
 ,god2 it would have been just as       
inconceivable to the  early ,christians1
 and to their later coreligionists of   
the middle  ages1 that all natural      
processes are carried into effect       
according to  eternally unalterable     
laws1 beyond the interference of        
divinity1 as  it is incomprehensible to 
us to conceive that ,god would at any   
time  change a law of nature in favor of
 one or the other mortal being4  ,the   
conception of miracle during the first  
sixteen centuries of the  ,christian era
 was entirely different from that of the
 subsequent era4  ,we must not1         
therefore1 gauge the ideas of priests   
and laymen of those  centuries who      
believed in medical miracles by the same
 standard as  that by which we judge    
those who to-day still persist in       
admitting the  existence of             
medico-physical wonder or miracle4 ,it  
is highly probable  that1 under         

conditions as described above1 many     
,christian monks and  priests vacillated
 between the requirements of faith and  
the results of  their own medical       
knowledge4 ,the medieval scholar's      
feeling drew him to  one side1 his      
intelligence to the other1 and thus he  
became destitute  of a firm hold--the   
intellectual sport of his period and of 
his  environment4 ,that prominent lights
 of the ,church could become subject  to
 such vacillations we learn from        
,gregory of ,tours1 who attempted to    
cure bodily ailments at one time with   
the medicaments of professional         
medicine1 at other times with the saving
 means of the celestial  drug-store2 who
 at one time deprecated the art of      
temporal physicians  in favor of        
medically skilled saints1 at other times
 fled to human  medicine for refuge4    
,finally the position of the medically  
learned monk and priest with  reference 
to the general public1 during the middle
 ages1 was by no  means an easy or an   

agreeable one4 ,the people clung with   
invincible  tenacity to the belief in   
demons and miracles4 ,ancient as well as
  ,christian philosophy was firmly      
pledged to a belief in demons1 whose    
existence was supported by the sacred   
testimony of the ,gospel4 ,it is  not   
astonishing1 therefore1 that the people 
should cling to their  belief in various
 forms of supernatural interference with
 the functions  of organic beings1 and  
thus it may frequently have happened    
that a  medically enlightened priest1   
fearing the opposition of a people eager
  after celestial medicine1 sacrificed  
his scientific convictions to the       
caprices of a mistaken faith4           
,unfortunately1 only a few had in them  
the  making of a scientific martyr1 and 
the history of ,christianity teaches  us
 that it is much easier to be a martyr  
of faith than a martyr of  science4     
,but what has been stated thus far will 
by no means acquit the ,christian       
priest of blame which he incurred by    

favoring medical superstition2  such    
acquittal would be radically futile4    
,but we mean to show that the  conduct  
of the servants of our faith1 altho not 
pardonable1 is quite  explicable4 ,the  
historian1 in order to present to his   
readers the  relation which had         
gradually formed between ,christianity  
and medical  superstition1 must show    
himself prosecutor and defendant at the 
same  time4    ,equally with dogma and  
priesthood1 theistic belief also has    
been a  powerful instrument in the      
furthering of medical superstition1 and 
this  point we shall next consider4     
#i4 ,theistic ,thought as the ,fosterer 
of ,medical ,superstition4--,altho  the 
theist1 by accepting a                  
physico-mechanical interpretation of    
natural  phenomena1 abandoned his main  
position1 yet the theistic belief by no 
means became obsolete--i4e41 the belief 
that ,god1 unrestricted by  natural     
laws1 personally directed terrestrial   
manifestations still  held its ground4  

,this belief remained dominant in many  
minds1 in spite  of all that            
philosophers and naturalists said in    
regard to the forms  and life of organic
 structures4 ,the vitality which this   
belief has  shown during the development
 of our race is actually astonishing4   
,in  spite of the wide acceptance of the
 physico-mechanical theory of life1  the
 belief that ,god1 without regard to    
natural laws1 unceasingly  interfered   
with the course of natural events1 and1 
consequently1  also with the conditions 
of the human body1 has not only remained
  active1 but has even succeeded in     
recovering an extensive part of its     
lost ground4 ,we shall soon see that    
this is a repetition of what has        
occurred during all periods of human    
development4 ,even to-day1 when the     
mechanical theory of life has won its   
greatest triumphs1 and more than  twenty
 centuries have passed since the great  
,hippocrates preached a  theory of      
medicine1 purified from all theistic and

 theurgic accretions1  individuals are  
still met with who presuppose the       
therapeutic activity  of ,god in all    
cases of disease as a self-evident fact4
 ,such a condition  of opinion1 history 
teaches us1 always prevails at periods1 
during  which a craving for religious   
excitement becomes excessively acute4   
,it is either a new form of religion    
which so preoccupies the public  mind   
and the intelligence that all phenomena 
are conceived of as in  closest         
relationship with ,god1 or else some    
individual appears who1  carried away by
 religious enthusiasm1 teaches that the 
existence of  nature independent of ,god
 is not admissible1 and succeeds in     
enlisting  numerous followers under his 
banner4 ,under similar conditions       
theistic  belief had occasionally       
succeeded in regaining its supremacy in 
the domain of medicine4 ,in taking up   
the consideration of some such          
instances we can only treat them        
briefly1 as an exhaustive handling of   

this most interesting material would    
carry us too far away from our  present 
subject4    ,the belief that ,god was   
the best physician1 not only of the soul
 but  of the body also1 was deepened by 
the dissemination of ,christianity4     
,the sincerity of faith among the       
,christians of the first century was so 
intense that a great number of them     
believed that their bodily welfare      
could not be watched over more carefully
 than when it was commended  exclusively
 to the care of ,god in all cases of    
sickness4 ,accordingly1  they entirely  
neglected medical aid and treated all   
diseases only  by prayers1 by anointing1
 and by laying on of hands4 ,this mode  
of  treatment corresponds to what is    
contained in the epistle of ,james  v 3 
#ad-af--    8,is any sick among you8 let
 him call for the elders of the church2 
and  let them pray over him1 anointing  
him with oil in the name of the ,lord3  
8,and the prayer of faith shall save the
 sick1 and the ,lord shall raise  him   

up2 and if he have committed sins1 they 
shall be forgiven him4    8,confess your
 faults one to another1 and pray one for
 another1 that  ye may be healed4 ,the  
effectual fervent prayer of a righteous 
man  availeth much40    ,the extent of  
this treatment by prayer is shown by the
 fact that even  prominent fathers of   
the ,church--for instance1 ,st4         
,benedict 7died  #edc7--were addicted to
 it4    ,moreover1 an attempt was made  
to increase the therapeutic value of    
prayer by various accessories and aids4 
,thus the ,gospel was placed upon  the  
affected part of the body1 or clothing  
of a particularly pious man  was spread 
over the patient4 ,it appears that the  
sudarium and the coat  of the apostle   
,paul were held to possess such healing 
power1 and were1  therefore1 frequently 
employed as instruments of healing4     
,thus we read  in the ,act of the       
,apostles xix 3 #ab--8,so that from his 
body were brought  unto the sick        
handkerchiefs or aprons1 and the        

diseases departed from  them1 and the   
evil spirits went out of them40    ,in  
fact1 medical superstition went so far  
that it divined a potent  curative      
virtue even in the shadow of the apostle
 ,peter4 ,thus1 ,acts  v 3              
#ae--8;,insomuch that they brought forth
 the sick into the streets1  and laid   
them on beds and couches1 that at least 
the shadow of ,peter  passing by might  
overshadow some of them40    ,probably  
we shall not be wrong in regarding this 
procedure as the  origin of that relic  
cult which was destined to attain such  
astonishing  dimensions in medical      
practise4    ,the mode of treatment by  
means of prayer was1 perhaps1 intimately
  connected with the idea that bodily   
ailments were divinely ordained to  make
 the wrath of ,god distinctly           
perceptible by man4 ,this conception of 
pathological processes was a very       
ancient one4 ,we meet with it among  the
 ,egyptians1 and we read in the book of 
,exodus that ,god visited upon  ,pharaoh

 and his people various bodily          
afflictions1 such as pestilence1  black 
smallpox1 death1 as in the case of the  
first-born4 ,afterward  ,christianity   
adopted this view of sickness as        
providential1 and the  belief assumed   
very peculiar forms and dimensions in   
the middle  ages4 ,in those times any   
disease occurring epidemically was      
actually  considered to be an act of    
retribution on the part of the divine   
being1 a scourge with which ,god        
punished sinful ,christians4 ,thus1  for
 instance1 syphilis1 which originated in
 ,naples in #adie1 during  the struggle 
between the reigning house of ,aragon   
and the ,french1  was instantly declared
 to be the chastisement of ,god4 ,the   
emperor  ,maximilian declares1 in an    
edict issued ,august #g1 #adie1 at      
,worms3  8,quod novus ille et           
gravissimus hominum morbus nostris      
diebus exortus1  quem vulgo malum       
,francicum vocant1 post hominum memoriam
 inauditus  spe grassetur1 qu nos       

justissim ,dei ir merita debent         
admonere0  7,gregorovius ,,vii41 #chf1  
foot-note #a74    ,but it is very       
astonishing to observe the causes which 
aroused the  wrath of ,god so mightily  
that countless numbers of men were swept
  away4 ,thus1 for instance1 the pious  
,bishop of ,zeeland1 ,peter ,paladius1  
assures us that miliary fever1 that     
terrible disease which devastated       
,europe five times from #adhf to #aeea1 
was sent by ,god1 who was angry at  the 
excessive passion for finery which      
prevailed at that time4 ,medical        
science1 as founded on theism1 assumed  
menacing forms1 where1 in the  middle   
ages1 it associated itself with magic1  
but as we shall more  exhaustively      
enlarge upon this point in ,chapter     
,,iv4 we need merely  refer here to that
 part of our work4    ,it is indeed     
surprising that the above-mentioned     
manifestations all  occurred in periods 
in which medicine had already           
acknowledged the  physico-mechanical    

interpretation of all organic processes2
 but the  strangeness of this fact is   
enhanced by the consideration that1 even
  in recent times1 and even at the      
present moment1 there have been1 and    
are1 individuals who not only preach the
 doctrine that medicine is  bound to be 
subordinate to ,christian faith1 but    
also find adherents to  their dogmas1   
and find them in surprising numbers4    
,recently we have  learned from two     
exceedingly instructive examples to what
 extremes the  sentiment of fanatical   
religion may lead men so soon as they   
shake off  the steadying influence of   
physico-mechanical ideas in their theory
 of  life4 ,then ,theocracy strives for 
an exclusive ascendancy in the domain   
of medicine1 as is distinctly shown by  
the position taken by ,mrs4 ,eddy1  with
 her 8,christian ,science10 and ,rev4   
,john ,alexander ,dowie1 with his       
8,christian ,catholic ,church of ,zion40
    ,if we first of all examine the     
system of ,mrs4 ,eddy1 we find it an    

absurd farrago of undigested            
philosophical odds and ends1 illogical  
medical aphorisms1 and shallow          
investigation1 which reaches its pitch  
of folly in the belief that disease has 
no real foundation in the  material     
tissues of the body1 but should be      
explained as arising  exclusively from  
certain conditions of the mind4 ,in     
accordance with  this conception1 which 
has been borrowed from a natural        
philosophy long  since relegated to     
oblivion1 the services both of physician
 and physic  are to be rejected1 and the
 treatment of the sick is to be carried 
on  in such a manner that the patient1  
under supervision of an individual      
expert in such affairs1 is merely to fix
 his mind on the spiritual1 or  divine1 
principle inherent in himself4    ,we   
are by no means astonished that a person
 to whom the laws of  thought are       
entirely unfamiliar1 and who is not very
 much burdened  with knowledge of any   
other kind1 should advance such confused

 and  preposterous theories as those of 
,mrs4 ,eddy4 ,history teaches us that   
human beings have arisen at all periods1
 in all ranks of life1 and in  cold     
blood have given currency to the wildest
 of theories4 ,but the most  interesting
 point is that at this day when1 as we  
might believe1 the  advances in physical
 science have enlightened to some extent
 even the  most unintellectual1 ,mrs4   
,eddy is able to find adherents1        
especially  among the best classes of   
society1 and to find them in such       
numbers  that the authorities have been 
compelled to interfere in repressing the
  practises of this medical             
superstition4 ,i purposely say          
interesting1  and not 8astonishing0 or  
8wonderful10 because the historian1     
whatever  domain he undertakes to       
investigate1 will always discover that  
stupidity has at all times been a power 
superior to all the influences  of      
culture and learning4 ,mrs4 ,eddy1 with 
her ,christian ,science1 proves  to us  

that even in this era of scientific     
enlightenment1 this truth  remains      
incontrovertible4    ,rev4 ,john        
,alexander ,dowie1 with his ,christian  
,catholic ,church of ,zion1  must be    
judged from an entirely different       
view-point than ,mrs4 ,eddy4  ,it is    
true1 this latter-day saint arrives at  
exactly the same end as  ,mrs4          
,eddy--namely1 at the absolute rejection
 of professional treatment1  medical as 
well as surgical4 ,but he arrives at    
this theory1 which  so closely concerns 
both his own health and that of his     
adherents1  by an entirely different way
 from that taken by the ,eddy woman4 ,an
  unquestioning belief1 which in its    
navet is almost touching1 leads  him to 
hold that all utterances of the ,old as 
well as of the ,new  ,testament are     
direct revelations of ,god4 ,the further
 consequence  of this constancy of faith
 is the desire to believe and to follow 
everything that is contained in the     
,bible1 to the widest extent and  with  

the closest adherence to the wording of 
the book4 ,and as the book  of ,exodus1 
xv 3 #bf1 states1 8,i am the ,lord that 
healeth thee10 and in  the ,epistle to  
,james1 v 3 #ad-af1 prayer is           
recommended as the best  remedy in      
diseases1 ,dowie concludes that prayer  
must be resorted to as  the sole means  
of treating and curing all forms of     
disease4 ,prayer is  declared by him to 
be much more efficacious1 in surgical   
cases1 than  the skill of the most      
experienced operator4    ,dowie1        
therefore1 occupies exactly the same    
standpoint as the  ,christians of the   
first centuries after ,christ1 who also 
believed  that prayer would render the  
best assistance in all ailments of the  
body4 ,twenty centuries1 therefore1 with
 all their immense advance in  the      
training of thought and in the          
recognition of nature1 have not  been   
able to rid humanity of the conception  
that the omnipotence of  ,god1 among    
many other manifestations1 is to busy   

itself in the daily  regulation of the  
human body with all its numerous        
functions4 ,wherever  this conception   
obtains a firm foothold superstition1   
with its acts of  miraculous healing1   
never fails to follow4 ,accordingly1 all
 historic  periods of our cultural      
development1 in which the theocratic    
belief has  been on the ascendant1 are  
characterized by an excessive           
development of  medical superstition4   
,,iv      ,,the ,,influence ,,of        
,,philosophy ,,upon ,,the ,,form ,,and  
,,origin ,,of ,,medical                 
,,superstition      ,the idea that      
philosophy has exerted any material     
influence upon  superstition in medicine
 may appear strange to many4 ,for how   
can  it be possible that the science    
which teaches the laws of thought1      
which regulates our entire mental       
activity and guides it in the right     
direction1 which points out to us the   
intricate path of medical  theory and   
diagnosis--how is it possible that just 

this science should  either take or have
 taken part in misleading or obscuring  
our medical  perception8 ,we do not by  
any means intend to impute any such     
effect to  philosophy4 ,quite the       
contrary6 ,we are thoroughly aware of   
the great  influence which philosophy is
 entitled to claim in all sciences      
without  exception1 and for this reason 
we believe that modern representatives  
of medical science would be much better 
off if they were a little less  at      
variance with philosophy than they      
actually are4    ,in the wide realm of  
philosophy there are only certain points
 where  we can detect a tendency to     
promote the development of medical      
superstition4 ,this tendency appears in 
all endeavors which are made to  explain
 natural phenomena solely in a          
speculative manner1 or to build a       
theory of life upon a base of pure      
assumptions4 ,whenever such attempts    
were made manifest1 and impressed       
philosophy into their service under  the

 name of natural philosophy1 it resulted
 in the wide predominance of  medical   
superstition4    ,it is well known that 
all prae-,socratic philosophy aimed at  
the  discovery of a single principle as 
underlying and explaining all the       
phenomena of nature4 ,but in spite of   
this very apparent tendency1  it can    
scarcely be accused of promoting medical
 superstition2 for  prae-,socratic      
philosophy busied itself in speculations
 concerning  terrestrial phenomena4     
,earth and air1 fire and water1 cold and
 heat1  coming into being and passing   
away1 are the things in which it        
endeavored to find the elemental basis  
of nature with its multiform  phenomena4
 ,but upon the study of medicine these  
endeavors exercised1  for the time      
being1 a liberalizing influence4 ,they  
emancipated it  from the repressive     
grasp of theism1 and opened up the way  
for an  exclusively natural explanation 
of all processes of the body1 in  health
 as well as in sickness4 ,unfortunately 

the apparatus1 or organon1  which       
philosophy furnished to science in its  
terrestrial phenomena was  a very       
questionable one1 investigation of the  
conclusion from analogy  and the        
deductive method being of extremely     
little value1 either in  medical        
diagnosis or the pursuit of natural     
science4 ,for this reason  medicine was 
bound to be encumbered with countless   
badly founded  hypotheses4 ,but other   
monstrous guesses at truth could not    
fail to  become current4 ,let us        
consider1 for instance1 the absurd      
theory which  ,heraclitus of ,ephesus   
7#ejj ,b4,c47 has propounded as to the  
relations  between wine and the human   
soul4 ,as the soul1 according to this   
philosopher1 naturally was a fiery      
vapor1 and the drier and the more  fiery
 it remained the better1 the excessive  
use of alcohol would not  be advisable1 
in that the abundant infusion of fluids 
causes the soul  to become wet1 which   
would be harmful to its fiery nature1 as

 fire and  moisture are always          
incompatible4 ,who will venture to deny 
that it was  from his opinion regarding 
the use of wine that ,heraclitus        
acquired his  sobriquet of 8,whining    
,philosopher08    ,but curious as were  
all the hypotheses with which ,hellenic 
natural  philosophy foisted upon        
medicine1 they should by no means be    
confounded  with superstition1 for even 
a baseless hypothesis is far removed    
from superstition4 ,otherwise1 medicine 
and superstition would be  almost       
identical conceptions1 for baseless     
hypotheses have at no time  been wanting
 in our science4 ,superstition1 so far  
as its sources are  found in philosophy1
 did not enter medical science until    
philosophy  sought for an explanation of
 the various processes of life not only 
in material but also in immaterial      
forces4 ,and as ,indian as well as      
,persian philosophy1 in the earliest    
period of its existence known to  us1   
had already found in demons the         

immaterial elements which to a  great   
extent control the processes of life in 
man1 it will be seen that  the relations
 between philosophy and medical         
superstition are quite  old4 ,the       
,hellenic poets and philosophers1       
,homer1 ,hesiod1 ,empedocles1           
,democritus1 and ,plato1 elaborated this
 immemorial doctrine of demons  and     
introduced it into ,greece4 ,but the    
recognition of immaterial1  supernatural
 curative factors did not attain any    
considerable and  determining influence 
in ancient medicine until the year #aej 
,b4,c41  when1 under the eager advocacy 
of ,alexandrian ,jews1 ,oriental and    
,occidental doctrines became amalgamated
 to a coherent system of  theosophic and
 medical mysticism4 ,medicine suffered  
greatly for  centuries from this        
mysticism1 which prevailed late in the  
middle  ages and even up to more recent 
times4 ,the center of all the various   
forms under which speculations in the   
philosophical and theosophical  domain  

made their appearance was ,alexandria1  
the great central point  of culture in  
which the civilization of the ,orient   
and the ,occident  were united in the   
evolution of a new theory of life4 ,but 
that the  birthplace of developments so 
momentous for the future of medicine    
should be ,alexandria almost suggests   
the thought that the writers of  history
 were indulging in a satire upon medical
 science2 for it is well  known that    
,alexandria was the very place where    
medical enlightenment  and the progress 
of ancient medicine won their greatest  
triumphs under  the renowned anatomists1
 ,herophilus and ,erasistratus4    ,such
 speculations in theosophical and       
medical domains at first were  most     
eagerly entered upon by the ,jewish     
sects of the ,essenians1 or  ,essenes1  
and ,therapeut4 ,according to the       
description which ,josephus  7,book #b1 
,chapter ,,ii41 page #ac7 has left us of
 these two sects1  they were            
theosophical communists4 ,we1 as        

physicians1 however1 are  principally   
interested in the position they took    
with regard to our  profession1 and that
 was one of indifference4 ,they believed
 that they  should not obtain their     
knowledge of the body1 either in health 
or in  disease1 by observation1 on which
 physicians relied4 ,they believed  they
 could actually learn the art of healing
 from a study of their old  ,sacred     
,scriptures4 ,for that reason they      
especially applied themselves  to make a
 diligent examination of these ,holy    
,scriptures4 ,they believed  that they  
were able1 by various allegorical       
interpretations of  different letters   
and words1 as well as by subtle         
explanations of this  or that sentence1 
to acquire the knowledge necessary for  
the treatment  of their patients4       
,those1 however1 who had become imbued  
with this  wisdom of dotage in an       
especial degree1 claimed the possession 
of  numerous miraculous powers--for     
instance1 that of prediction4 ,but as   

they also believed in the existence of  
beings who1 while they were  lower than 
,god1 at the same time were higher than 
man1 they had1 ready  at hand1 the      
rarest resources to draw upon for the   
practise of their  juggling feats of    
miraculous medicine4 ,the belief in     
these mystical  doctrines took the most 
extravagant forms4 ,thus1 for instance1 
it was  believed that a man by the      
evacuation of feces offered an insult to
  divinity 7    1 says ,josephus1 lib4  
#b1  ,chapter ,,viii41 ,no4 #i1  #ae74  
,for that reason nobody might dare1 on  
the  ,sabbath1 to comply with such      
demands of nature4 ,but whether the call
 of  nature always yielded to these     
rather far-reaching requirements of the 
law1 or how the believer helped himself 
when the extremely disagreeable         
dissension between nature and faith     
caused too much uneasiness1 is not      
reported either by ,josephus or by      
,porphyrius4 ,besides1 the ,essenians   
had their troubles even on week-days in 

attending to final phases of  the       
digestive process1 in that it was       
incumbent upon them to conceal  the     
termination of the act of digestion from
 the view of the ,supreme  ,being by    
covering themselves with a cloak4       
,subsequently1 during the first century 
of the ,christian era1 appeared         
,neo-,pythagorism1 an attempt to combine
 monotheism with the ancient  fantastic 
cult of subordinate gods and demons4    
,then followed a period  of momentous   
importance for medicine2 for the attempt
 to displace the  physico-mechanical    
conception of corporeal phenomena by    
various ideas  of theosophic caprice1   
and to bring therapeutics once more     
under the  domination of the metaphysic 
methods1 prevalent in the days when the 
theistic theory of life held undisputed 
sway in medicine and natural  sciences1 
became more and more apparent4 ,the     
,neo-,pythagoreans acted  upon the      
principle that the practise of medicine 
was absolutely  indispensable to the    

true philosopher1 and that every one1   
therefore1  provided he had attained the
 required fitness by his intercourse    
with  demons1 was able to act as a      
physician4 ,it is quite obvious that    
such  ideas were bound to pave the way  
for the most abominable abuse and       
superstitions1 and1 naturally1 what the 
,neo-,pythagoreans offered as the  art  
of healing to the patients was nothing  
but a mixture of mysterious  customs1   
conjurations1 and witchcraft4 ,on the   
other hand1 the followers  of this      
school of philosophy did much to promote
 the bodily welfare of  their fellow    
men1 in that they urged them to lead a  
pure and temperate  life1 while they    
themselves appear to have adhered       
strictly to this  rgime4    ,the chief  
representative of ,neo-,pythagorism was 
,apollonius1 of  ,tyana1 in ,cappodocia1
 probably one of the most fantastic     
personages  of all ,greek and ,roman    
antiquity4 ,venerated as a god by some  
of his  contemporaries1 such as ,damis  

and ,philostratus1 his biographers1 on  
account of his wisdom and of his        
extraordinary works1 he is considered   
by others1 on the other hand1 as a      
magician engaged1 like a common         
charlatan1 in conjuring tricks4 ,the    
opinions which posterity1 down to       
modern times1 has passed on ,apollonius 
are of a similar nature4 ,there  are    
some who consider the ,tyanian to be a  
crafty magician1 whereas  others declare
 that he is an important personality in 
the history of  religion4 ,among these  
latter is ,baur1 who attempts to explain
 the life  and the deeds of the         
wonder-working ,neo-,pythagorean by     
citing as a  parallel the impression    
created by ,christianity upon some      
enlightened  minds4    ,personally1 ,i  
consider this high estimate of a        
trickster to be  perfectly absurd4      
,apollonius1 as we meet him in the      
celebrated  description of              
,philostratus1 is a purely poetical     
idealization1  prompted by a desire to  

delay the downfall of ancient religion1 
pointing to the reform which has been   
instituted in its moral  tendencies     
7,gregorovius1 page #dac74              
,apollonius flourished in the first     
,christian century1 during the  reigns  
of ,nero and of the succeeding emperors 
up to ,nerva1 who  appears to have been 
in very close relations with him4 ,the  
accounts  of ,philostratus regarding the
 adventures of our hero1 based as they  
are upon the early authorities          
accessible to him1 absolutely create    
the impression that heathen antiquity   
meant in ,apollonius to set a           
counterpart of ,christ4 ,according to   
ancient reports1 a supernatural         
apparition visited his mother1 apprizing
 her that she would bear a god1  and    
after his death ,apollonius appeared to 
his disciples to announce  to them the  
immortality of the soul4 ,the time      
between the birth and  death of the     
,tyanian was spent by him in restless   
wanderings over  the then known world4  

,wherever he went he conversed on the   
deepest  subjects with priests and      
cultured laymen1 and upon request he    
also  performed miracles of various     
kinds4 ,naturally1 we are only          
interested  in the medical performances 
of the wandering philosopher1 and of    
these  he is credited with a            
considerable number4 ,he cured the lame 
simply  by stroking the affected limbs2 
with equal facility he gave sight to    
the blind--in fact1 he even attended to 
obstetrical cases without fear  and     
trepidation4 ,for instance1 when the    
husband of a woman who had  borne seven 
children1 but always with the greatest  
difficulty1 came  to ,apollonius1 sadly 
telling him that his wife was again in  
labor and  nobody was able to help her1 
the man of miracles told him to be of   
good  cheer4 ,without even examining the
 woman for a possible narrow pelvis1  or
 for some other obstacle to birth1 he   
simply advised the husband to  procure1 
as soon as possible1 a living hare1 and1

 with this hare in his  arms1 to walk   
round and round the woman in labor1 and 
then allow the  hare to run away4 ,this 
one sample of his medical activity is   
sufficient  to characterize ,apollonius 
as a charlatan of the most contemptible 
class4 ,when we learn1 further1 that he 
raised the dead without any  difficulty1
 nobody will probably accuse us of an   
unjust opinion if we  pronounce this    
philosopher1 who was revered as a god by
 the heathen1 a  magician of the worst  
kind4    ,in order duly to enhance his  
authority ,apollonius arrogated to      
himself  certain mysterious powers4     
,thus1 he pretended that he was able to 
speak all languages without having ever 
learned them2 in fact1 this             
philological talent even extended to the
 languages of the animals1  which he    
undertook to master4 ,we are scarcely   
surprised to learn1 when  we consider   
the powers bestowed upon him1 that he   
knew the future1 and  was thoroughly    
aware of what happened at the same time 

at the most  distant parts of the world4
 ,he also endeavored to bear witness to 
his  vocation as a man of ,god by his   
manner of living and of dressing4 ,thus 
he was always attired in white linen    
garments1 and walked about with  long1  
flowing hair1 followed by his disciples4
 ,he never ate meat1 never  partook of  
wine1 and disdained love4 ,it would     
seem1 however1 that in  the last        
particular he was not quite             
consistent--at least1 various  erotic   
adventures are related of him4    ,the  
manner in which ,apollonius cast out a  
demon in ,india is extremely  amusing4  
,a woman came1 lamenting and crying1 to 
the medical miracle  worker1 and asked  
him to deliver her sixteen-year-old son 
from an evil  spirit4 ,apollonius at    
once gave her a letter directed to the  
evil  spirit which contained1 as        
,philostratus emphasizes particularly1  
the  most terrible threats against the  
good-for-nothing tormentor4 ,but the    
biographer does not tell us whether the 

reading of this letter caused  the demon
 to desist from his improper behavior4  
,but as even in a man of miracles the   
hour-glass of life finally is  emptied1 
so also a time came when ,apollonius    
realized that he must pay  his last debt
 to nature4 ,but the ,tyanian knew how  
to surround even the  act of dying with 
a halo of the extraordinary4 ,as a      
matter or fact1  he did not die2 but one
 day--if it is permissible to employ a  
trivial  expression in speaking of a    
demi-god--he evaporated without anybody 
knowing what had become of him4 ,this   
evaporation occurred in the  following  
manner4 ,there was in ,crete a temple of
 ,dictynna so securely  guarded by      
vicious dogs that no one dared to       
approach4 ,this temple was  entered by  
,apollonius1 whom the furious dogs left 
unmolested2 but1  after the doors of the
 sanctuary had closed behind the        
,pythagorean1  suddenly there resounded 
female voices singing from the depth of 
the  temple3 8,leave the earth6 ,go     

heavenward60 ,with these sounds and     
words ,apollonius disappeared forever4  
,thus his last medical act was a        
sleight-of-hand performance1 in that he 
even snapped his fingers at  death4     
,the grateful heathen world of antiquity
 rendered divine honors to  ,apollonius4
 ,in his birth-place1 ,tyana1 a temple  
was erected in his  honor at imperial   
expense1 and the priests everywhere     
erected statues  to a philosopher who   
had left this world without dying2 in   
fact1 even  the ,emperor ,alexander     
,severus set up an image of ,apollonius 
in his  lararium1 or domestic chapel4   
,and thus to medical superstition was   
accorded a triumph which no legitimate  
practitioner of any age has ever        
enjoyed4    ,these theosophic vagaries  
reached their climax in ,neo-,platonism1
 which  was founded toward the end of   
the second century of the ,christian era
  by the ,alexandrian porter1 ,ammonius 
7#age to #bdb71 and was further         
elaborated by ,plotinus 7#bjd to #bfi74 

,this religious1 philosophical  system  
is of very particular interest in the   
history of medicine  in that1 in the    
first place1 it stands in direct        
opposition to the  physico-mechanical   
conception of disease1 and1 explaining  
sickness from  a theistic standpoint as 
a logical consequence1 rejects the      
treatment  of disease by professional   
physicians4    ,now this theistic       
conception of disease was based         
primarily upon the  assumption that the 
universe is filled with countless       
demons1 spirits  which1 altho           
essentially superior to man1 are        
inferior to ,god4 ,such  a demon was    
supposed to be the 8spiritus rector0 of 
all terrestrial  occurrences1 especially
 all evil events were attributed to him4
          1  1  1 1     7,porphyrius de 
,abst41 lib4  #b1 #dj74 ,as the demons  
played havoc with the condition of the  
human  body1 protection against them    
could not be expected from a            
professional  physician1 but only from  

some one well versed in all their tricks
 and  devices1 and1 therefore1 alone    
able to punish them thoroughly for their
  mischievous behavior4 ,this taming of 
the demon could be accomplished  in     
various ways4 ,porphyrius enumerates    
three methods of gaining an  influence  
over the host of demons4    ,the first  
and principal method 7theosophy7        
attempted to attain the  most intimate  
union with ,god4 ,prayer1 abstraction of
 all thought from  things earthly1 and  
absorption in ,god were supposed to be  
the means of  participation in certain  
divine powers4 ,an individual thus      
favored was  enabled in a trice to      
restore health to incurable patients1   
such as the  blind1 the deaf1 and the   
lame1 and even the power of raising the 
dead  was conferred upon him4 ,however1 
the acquisition of such extraordinary   
powers demanded certain qualifications  
of a rather exacting and  terrestrial   
character4 ,it was incumbent upon such  
an applicant for  these special gifts to

 abstain from the use of meat1 and1     
above all1  from the society of women4  
,how many were deterred by these        
fastidious  requirements from choosing  
the career of a famous man of miracles  
we  do not know4 ,nothing is reported on
 this subject by the pillars of         
,neo-,platonism 7as1 ,plotinus1         
,porphyrius1 ,damascius1 ,jamblichus71  
nor do  they state whether they         
themselves absolutely abstained from    
meat and  from the society of women4    
,theurgy was the second method of       
counteracting the evil influence of     
demons4 ,in this way good demons were   
urged by prayer and offerings to  ward  
off disease or other misfortune4    ,by 
the third method 7goety7 attempts were  
made to dispel the evil  demons by      
conjurations and various kinds of       
mystical mummery4 ,these  mysterious    
accessories consisted mostly in         
muttering any number of  words as       
meaningless as possible4 ,the more      
meaningless and the more  unintelligible

 were these words the more              
efficacious--according to the  assurance
 of ,jamblichus--they would prove1      
especially when they were  taken from   
,oriental languages4 ,for1 as           
,jamblichus says1 the ,oriental         
languages are the most                  
ancient--therefore1 the most agreeable  
to the  gods4 ,in such a manner words   
utterly nonsensical were drawled out at 
the bedside1 and1 for greater security1 
written on tablets to be hung  round the
 neck of the patient4 ,the magic word   
8abracadabra0 enjoyed  especial respect4
 ,to render its power certain it was    
written as many  times as it has        
letters1 omitting the last letter each  
time until only  one remained1 and      
placing the words in such a succession  
as to form  an equilateral triangle4 ,a 
tablet thus inscribed was worn around   
the  neck of the sufferer as an amulet4 
,it may be that this wonder-working     
word has arisen from the word 8abraxas10
 with which the gnostic  ,basilides     

meant to designate the aggregate of the 
three hundred and  sixty-five forms of  
revelation of divinity which he assumed 
to exist4  ,numerous other explanations 
are in vogue1 however1 with regard to   
this medical1 magic term 7compare ,hser1
 ,vol4 ,i41 page #dcc74 ,very  ancient  
magic words which had originated in the 
earliest periods of  ,hellenism were    
revived4 ,thus1 to banish disease1      
certain words were  employed which were 
said to be derived from the temple of   
,artemis  in ,ephesus1 and which read3 1
 1 1 1 1  4 ,the meaning of these words1
 according to the explanation of the    
,pythagorean1 ,androcydes1 was3         
darkness1 light1 earth1 air1 sun1 truth4
  ,besides1 the attempt was made to     
obtain directly from the demons such    
magic words as were endowed with        
curative power4 ,for such purposes      
small children were employed1 in whom it
 was supposed that the demons  preferred
 to be present1 and expressed themselves
 through their mouths4  ,such children1 

therefore1 played a similar part as does
 a medium with  modern spiritualists4   
,the senseless stuff babbled by such a  
child was  considered the immediate     
manifestation of a demon1 and was       
accordingly  utilized to banish the     
demons which brought on disease4        
,moreover1  the nonsensical practise    
which was carried on by the             
,neo-,platonists  by letter and word was
 to a certain extent accepted by        
professional  physicians4 ,it had become
 a very common custom with physicians to
  apply various kinds of bombastic names
 to all their various plasters  and     
ointments1 powders1 and pills4 ,it is   
necessary only to cast a  glance upon   
the ancient pharmacopia to find the most
 curious names4  ,galen mentions        
disapprovingly the fact that ,egyptian  
and ,babylonian  expressions were       
preferred in the nomenclature of        
medicine 7,de ,simpl4  ,medicamentorum  
,facult4 ,lib4 ,sic4 ,preface74    ,such
 were the methods with which the        

,neo-,platonists did not hesitate  to   
treat the sick2 and not only minor      
practitioners1 but even the  leaders of 
the entire movement1 preferred banishing
 disease by means  of various kinds of  
magic formul to all other specially     
medical  methods of treatment4 ,thus1   
for instance1 ,eunapius of ,sardis      
7about  #djj7 recounts how ,plotinus1   
one of the most gifted of the           
,neo-,platonic  school1 repeatedly      
proved himself to be a medical          
miracle-worker1 most  conspicuously     
during the sickness of ,porphyrius4     
,when the latter1 a  favorite disciple  
of ,plotinus1 was traveling through     
,sicily he became  dangerously ill--in  
fact1 according to the description of   
,eunapius1  he was actually breathing   
his last4 ,then ,plotinus appeared1 and 
by  magic words cured the dying man     
instantly4 ,it appears1 moreover1  that 
,plotinus did not only operate with     
wonder-working words1 but he  employed  
still other agencies--as1 for instance1 

mysterious figures  74 ,villoison1      
,anecd4 grca1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 page #bca74  
,plotinus was  even said to possess his 
own demon1 who was at his disposal      
alone1 and  by the aid of whom he       
performed other wonders--as1 for        
instance1 that of  prophesying4         
,porphyrius1 probably the most notable  
disciple of the ,neo-,platonic  school  
after ,plotinus1 claimed even that the  
demons personally taught  him to expel1 
with certainty and despatch1 those      
pathogenic demons4  ,it was claimed by  
him that ,chaldean and ,hebrew words and
 songs were  the promptest means of     
turning out all these evil spirits2 in  
fact1  the philosopher1 ,alexander of   
,abonoteichos1 in ,paphlagonia1 was of  
the  opinion that a pestilence1 which   
was devastating ,italy1 could not be    
checked by any better means than that of
 affixing to the doors of the  infected 
towns and villages the sentence3        
8,phbus1 the hair unshorn1  dispels the 
clouds of disease40    ,thus the last   

great system into which the ancient     
philosophy developed  was attended by   
the unfortunate result of a very        
material increase  of superstition in   
the healing art4 ,this recrudescence of 
medical  superstition was by no means a 
transitory one1 but proved exceedingly  
persistent2 in fact1 we may             
unhesitatingly maintain that from that  
time superstition never again           
disappeared from our science4 ,this is  
principally the fault of the position   
which ,christianity took with  regard to
 demonology and the other fantastic     
ideas of ,neo-,platonism4    ,early     
,christianity1 from the outset1 was     
subjected to the influence  of ancient  
false ideas on the subject of demons4   
,without making any  modifications      
whatever1 it had appropriated this false
 doctrine1 and  had deduced from it the 
same medical notions as paganism had    
done4  ,the ,new ,testament exhibits    
numerous examples of a prevailing belief
  that supernatural beings--i4e41       

demons--were frequently the cause of    
bodily ailments2 and as ,christ and ,his
 disciples had often cured such         
patients1 it follows that the belief in 
demons and their relations to  pathology
 must have been widely disseminated     
among the ,christians of  that period4  
,the ,church ,fathers also bear witness 
to this fact1 as  they1 in their        
writings1 acknowledge1 in plain terms1  
the belief in  demons as causes of      
disease4 ,justin ,martyr1 ,tatian1      
,tertullian1 ,origen1  ,augustin1 all   
mention demons and their power over the 
human body  7compare ,harnack1 ,chapter 
,v41 page #fh1 etc41 where these        
conditions  are most lucidly depicted74 
,thus1 for instance1 ,st4 ,augustine    
says3  8,accipiunt 7scilicet dmones7    
enim spe potestatem et morbos immittere 
et ipsum aerem vitiando morbidum        
reddere40    ,and1 indeed1 early        
,christianity not only accepted pagan   
demonology  unchanged1 it even increased
 the therapeutic aspect of this delusion

 in  a most regrettable manner4 ,this   
belief in demons1 under the influence   
of ,christian doctrines1 developed into 
an epidemic of insanity which  prevailed
 unrestrictedly for two or three        
centuries1 and which was  again awakened
 in the late middle ages1 to grow at    
last into one of the  most terrible     
aberrations of the human mind--into the 
belief in witches4    ,this epidemic    
derangement of the mind1 to which the   
belief in demons  tended1 under the     
influence of ,christian doctrines1      
culminated in the  patient's manifest   
idea that he was possessed of a demon4  
,the mental  disturbance set in with    
wild1 spasmodic attacks of excitement1  
and1 as  it occurred not only in        
individual cases1 but was also          
contagious1 we  must not hesitate to    
designate this belief of the first three
 centuries  in demoniac possession an   
epidemic disease4 ,it was an affection1 
the mental substratum of which consisted
 in a mixture of overheated  religious  

sentiment and unrestrained medical      
superstition4 ,the extent  to which this
 belief in demoniac possession was      
disseminated during the  first centuries
 of the ,christian era is shown by the  
fact that a number  of persons busied   
themselves with the cure of this        
affection4 ,in the  first place1 most   
,christian communities owned an         
exorcist1 or official  caster-out of    
demons4 ,it seems that this profession  
of exorcists formed  a clerical order of
 its own2 for1 as all pagans1 according 
to the  ,christian conception1 were in  
the power of evil spirits1 these demons 
were to be thoroughly driven out before 
each baptism1 and thus the  institution 
of a special church officer1 whose duty 
it was to drive out  demons1 became     
absolutely necessary1 especially after  
exorcism had also  been introduced1     
during the fourth century1 in the       
baptism of children4  ,it may be stated1
 incidentally1 that ,catholic clergy of 
the third minor  order are even to-day  

called 8exorcists40    ,the ,christian  
exorcists1 in conjuring1 only made use  
of prayer and of  the name of ,christ2  
these two factors were considered       
sufficient to  cure the patient of his  
delusions1 and they actually did so4    
,why they  accomplished a cure has been 
explained very strikingly by ,harnack4  
,he  says3 8,it is not the prayer that  
cures1 but the praying person2 not the  
formula1 but the spirit2 not exorcism1  
but the exorcist4 ,only in those  cases 
in which the disease1 as in numerous    
cases of the second century1  had become
 epidemic and almost common1 did        
ordinary and conventional  means avail4 
,the exorcist became a mesmerizer1      
possibly a deceived  deceiver4 ,but when
 strong individuality is deceived       
concerning its own  personality by the  
demon of terror1 and the soul is        
actually shaken by  the power of        
darkness which possesses it1 and from   
which it purposes to  escape1 a powerful
 and holy will alone can interfere from 

the outside  world to deliver the       
shackled will4 ,in some cases we find   
traces of a  phenomenon which in modern 
times1 for want of some better name1 has
  been called #8suggestion'2 but the    
prophet suggests in a different  manner 
than does the professional exorcist40   
,besides these official ,christian      
exorcists1 a great multitude of other   
persons carried on the trade of conjurer
 of demons4 ,the sorcerers and          
magicians who plied their nefarious     
trade for the cure of the possessed  and
 for those suffering from other         
diseases1 worked with various kinds  of 
mystic signs and ceremonies1 and they   
certainly did an excellent  business1   
for he who humors the superstition and  
the stupidity of man  always prospers4  
,modern quackery illustrates this most  
strikingly4  ,but1 besides these        
healers1 there existed numerous other   
conjurers of  demons and medical        
wonder-workers who plied their trade not
 for the  sake of contemptible mammon1  

but solely for ethical reasons4 ,these  
were  the members of the various        
theosophico-philosophical sects1 who    
were  active during the first ,christian
 centuries and have been exhaustively   
described on the previous pages4        
,altho ,christians were eager to exalt  
their exorcists1 who worked only  with  
prayer and the invocation of ,christ1   
above all practises of  sorcery1 they   
were not able1 in the long run1 to      
prevent ,christian  dogmas from being   
confounded with and corrupted by those  
of philosophy4  ,under the influence of 
,saturninus1 ,basilides1 and            
,carpocrates1 the  various philosophical
 vagaries concerning accessory1         
intermediary1 and  inferior gods1 and   
their influences upon the fate of man1  
corrupted  the pure and simple teachings
 of ,christ4 ,that error against which  
,paul  had so impressively cautioned the
 early ,christian communities in his    
,epistle to the ,colossians1 ,chapter   
,,ii41 verse #h 78,beware lest any man  

spoil you through philosophy and vain   
deceit1 after the tradition of  men1    
after the rudiments of the world1 and   
not after ,christ071 had1  nevertheless1
 made its appearance at last1 and the   
adulteration of  pure ,gospel by        
philosophical speculations and fantastic
 views began to  grow more complete from
 the third century on4 ,this was the    
foundation  of the religio-mystic system
 which1 during the middle ages1 and even
  beyond the period of the ,renaissance1
 oppressed humanity like a  suffocating 
nightmare1 and not only checked         
progress1 but also filled  each branch  
of human knowledge with the most        
frightful superstition and  the crassest
 mysticism4 ,this was the case also in  
medicine2 in fact1  this branch of      
science has probably suffered most from 
the alliance of  ,christianity with the 
fantastic doctrines of philosophical    
schools4    ,the ancient doctrine of    
demons passed under the influence of    
,christian  mysticism through certain   

changes and transitions1 especially in  
its  relation to the bodily condition of
 individuals4 ,the variations in this   
doctrine were naturally most plainly    
evidenced in the medical views of  the  
day4 ,it was believed that every human  
being from birth was allotted  a good   
and an evil demon4 ,the good spirit held
 his hand protectingly  over his human  
charge1 whereas the evil demon only     
waited his chance to  inflict injury    
upon man1 forming especially the        
determining principle  in the etiology  
of disease4 ,it is true1 the evil       
spirits apparently  were no longer      
allowed to have such full sway over the 
health of  humanity as they formerly    
had4 ,god now utilized them principally 
as  executors of punishments which he   
intended for mankind as a retribution   
for various forms of delinquency4 ,thus 
the ,church ,father1 ,anastasius        
7,sprengel1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 page #baj71    
tells us that the reason why so many    
lepers and cripples were found among    

,christians was that ,god1 enraged  at  
the luxury of the members of the        
community1 had sent the evil demon  of  
disease among them4 ,the wrath of ,god  
from that time until late in  modern    
times has been considered a fully       
efficacious principle of  pathology2 in 
fact1 there are numbers of people even  
to-day who believe  that not natural1   
but supernatural and unearthly1 factors 
are active in  the bodily ailments of   
mankind4    ,the idea of good and evil  
demons1 however1 now assumed a          
specifically  ,christian character      
which1 it is true1 greatly resembled the
 ancient  ,babylonian notion1 excepting 
that the good demons were replaced by   
angels and saints1 whereas the evil     
spirits were embodied in the devil4     
,both1 saints as well as devils1 were   
thenceforth destined to play a  part in 
the domain of medicine4 ,it is true1 the
 general recognition  which they enjoyed
 during the middle ages and a           
considerable period  of modern times has

 probably now passed away1 but there    
still exist  numerous classes of our    
people in whom the medical rle of saints
 as  well as devils is most willingly   
acknowledged4    ,we have referred      
elsewhere to the therapeutic            
accomplishments of  the saints during   
the middle ages4 ,we will here only     
dwell upon the  influence which the     
devil1 the ,christian successor of the  
ancient  evil spirit1 has exerted upon  
the medical views of all classes of the 
people4 ,this influence was very great4 
,the devil and his subordinate  infernal
 spirits were considered the 8disturbers
 of peace0 in the  health of humanity4  
,disease in its various forms was their 
work2  they resolved to inflict it      
either from inherent villainy or as     
incited by various magical arts of evil 
men4 ,it was especially the  latter form
 of diabolical activity that1 during the
 entire middle  ages and during a       
considerable part of modern times1 was  
accepted  as uncontestedly authentic1   

and the imagination of mankind at that  
period was inexhaustible in inventing   
the greatest variety of infamous        
actions which the devil was able to     
perform either of his own accord  or as 
summoned by incantations4 ,any one      
desiring to acquaint himself  thoroughly
 with these delusive ideas should read  
the work of the ,friar  ,csarius1 who   
lived about #abbe1 in the               
,rhenish-,cistercian monastery  of      
,heisterbach4 ,naturally1 we are only   
interested in the medical acts  which   
the devil was always ready to perform4  
,according to the history  of medical   
superstition1 the devil1 who was invoked
 by various spells  or appeared of his  
own volition1 was able to influence each
 individual  bodily organ in a manner   
most disagreeable to the possessor of   
the  same4 ,neither were the ,prince of 
,hell and his hosts always satisfied  to
 tease and to plague an individual      
being1 but very frequently they  carried
 on this business wholesale4 ,they threw

 themselves upon the  entire population 
of a country1 and caused sickness in all
 who crossed  their path4 ,the great    
epidemic of ,st4 ,vitus's dance of the  
fourteenth  century1 for instance1 was  
considered to be the work of the devil1 
and  the clergy busied themselves in    
driving out this devil's pest by means  
of sprinkling holy water and by the     
utterance of conjuring formulas4    ,the
 sexual life of men as well as of women 
offered an especially  fruitful field   
for the activity of the devil and of his
 infernal  companions4 ,thus1 it was a  
favorite trick of the ruler of hell and 
of  his subordinate demons to assume the
 shape of the husband or lover  of this 
or that female1 and1 under this mask1 to
 assume rights which  should be         
permitted only to the husband4 ,the     
infernal spirit that  played this rle   
was called ,incubus4 ,thus1 for         
instance1 ,hinkmer tells  us of a nun   
who was mischievously claimed by such an
 infernal paramour1  and who could be   

relieved of him only by priestly aid4   
,but hell also  contained female        
constituents who played the same rle for
 the male  as did ,incubus for women4   
,such a wanton woman of hell was called 
,striga or ,lamia 7compare ,hansen1     
pages #ad and #gb74 ,these amorous      
female  friends of hell did not even    
stop when they met eminent saints4 ,in  
the  convent of ,st4 ,benedetto1 near   
the ,italian town of ,subiaco1 a        
rose-bush  is shown even to-day into    
which the naked ,st4 ,benedict threw    
himself in  order to resist the unholy  
temptation4 ,and every one is           
sufficiently  acquainted with the       
troubles which ,st4 ,anthony of ,padua  
had with these  infernal women4         
,however1 we physicians know well enough
 the cause  of these temptations4 ,they 
may surely and actually have approached 
the nun of whom ,hinkmer reports1 also  
,st4 ,benedict and ,st4 ,anthony2       
however1 they were not the devil's      
prostitutes1 but the expressions of     

suppressed and disregarded impulses of  
nature which1 in the form of  voluptuous
 imaginations1 appeared before the eyes 
of persons removed  from terrestrial    
gratifications2 for nature does not even
 exempt a  saint1 and the ancient       
saying1 8,naturam expellas furc1 tamen  
usque  recurret10 applies to them as    
well as to any other mortal4    ,finally
 these liberties which the devil and his
 infernal host were said  to take as    
regards matters pertaining to love1     
assumed general and  quite serious      
forms2 in fact1 they gave rise to       
delicately contrived  legal questions4  
,namely1 the idea had suggested itself  
that the  devil was able not only to    
call forth promiscuous love between men 
and women1 but that sometimes he derived
 a particular enjoyment if he  could    
manage to prevent a marriage that had   
already been consummated  by rendering  
the husband impotent4 ,maleficium was   
the technical term  for such an event1  
equally saddening to husband as to wife1

 and the  theologians1 philosophers1 and
 jurists of the middle ages have written
  the most learned commentaries         
regarding the legal consequences of this
  impotentia ex maleficio4 ,it was      
disputed whether or not this form of    
impotence would constitute a legal cause
 for dissolution of marriage  which1    
after all1 was a divine institution2 the
 reasons also why ,god  permitted the   
devil to play such a reprehensible game 
were investigated  in a most serious and
 profound manner4 ,any one interested in
 this  question of impotentia ex        
maleficio may read the most excellent   
description of this subject by ,hansen  
7,chapter ,,iii474    ,this impotentia  
ex maleficio--i4e41 one of the most     
extravagant  outgrowths of medical      
superstition--occasionally also gave    
rise to  scandalous lawsuits4 ,this was 
the case in the disgraceful divorce suit
  which took place about the year #hfj  
between ,king ,lothaire ,,ii4 and his   
spouse ,teutberga4 ,lothaire was said to

 have lost his procreative power        
completely1 owing to infernal artifices 
of his concubine1 ,waldrada4 ,the       
reason why a concubine should undertake 
such a step1 which1 after all1  was     
bound to discredit her title and office 
in the eyes of her lover1  is not quite 
evident4 ,however1 at that period it was
 not difficult to  find an explanation  
for this remarkable fact4 ,it was       
stated1 e4g41  that ,waldrada was       
instigated to this act solely by        
jealousy and  selfishness1 in order to  
divorce the king from his consort4 ,this
 first  step once taken1 the courtesan1 
by removing the spells cast by her1     
would take good care that the king      
should soon be delivered from the       
odious condition of impotence4 ,however1
 ,waldrada had reckoned without  her    
host--i4e41 in this case1 without       
,hinkmar1 ,archbishop of ,rheims2  for  
this latter gentleman1 exceedingly well 
versed in all matters  ecclesiastic1    
politic1 and diabolic1 a genuine        

clerical fighting-cock1  very soon      
closely investigated the impotence of   
his royal master4 ,in  an extensive     
memorial he considered the royal        
impotence according to  its legal1      
theologic1 philosophic1 moral1 and      
various other aspects4  ,medical        
superstition1 accordingly1 had acquired 
such power that the  sovereign of the   
holy ,roman and ,german empires had to  
submit his  potestas in venere to the   
test of public discussion4    ,but      
conditions were to become much worse4   
,when1 about the thirteenth  century1   
scholasticism had usurped full control  
of human reason1  and all sciences were 
permitted to be pursued only in a       
scholastic  sense1 medicine was entirely
 divorced from the actual conditions of 
life4 ,it was completely detached from  
nature1 its great teacher1 and          
irretrievably entangled in the          
subtleties of an uncertain philosophy4  
,its activity now depended exclusively  
upon the study of the ancients--by  no  

means1 however1 upon that study in which
 an attempt was made to  master the     
intellectual spirit of ancient medicine1
 but which consisted  in a slavish      
adherence to the letter4 ,every decision
 of the ancients1  without any regard to
 nature1 was made a dogma1 and he was   
the best  physician who was most        
familiar with these dogmas1 who         
understood  best how to interpret them  
most keenly4 ,mankind had entirely lost 
the  conception that the ancients had   
attained worth and importance only  in  
that they measured things by the        
standard of unbiased experience1  and   
tested their conclusions according to   
the phenomena of nature as  described   
from accurate observation of the sick4  
,it is quite obvious that superstition  
met with a well-prepared soil in  a     
system of medicine that was overburdened
 with dogmas and degraded  into utter   
subserviency to a vainglorious          
philosophy4 ,the natural  result was    
that the medical art of a period of the 

middle ages1 steeped  in scholasticism1 
was nothing but a chaos of the most     
despicable  superstition and folly4 ,the
 most shocking result of these          
conditions  was the belief in witches1  
and1 with this1 medical superstition    
entered  upon a new stage4 ,whereas     
until then it had possessed a           
restricted1  mere local vitality1 and   
entailed danger only upon those who1    
from  thoughtlessness1 lent a willing   
ear to it1 now it degenerated into a    
mental epidemic which threatened equally
 all classes of the people4  ,the       
unspeakable misery which this variety of
 medical superstition has  brought to   
the ,western world is well known1 so    
that we may refrain from  entering into 
details1 referring our readers to the   
excellent work of  ,hansen on this      
subject4    ,physico-medical thought was
 so thoroughly destroyed by the         
above-described conditions that1 even   
when humanity commenced to  shake off   
the scholastic yoke1 during the period  

of ,renaissance1  medicine was only     
able1 in part1 to follow this lead4     
,altho1 under the  inspiration of the   
ancients1 it returned to nature1 it was 
not able to  rid itself of the          
superstitious idea of the continuous    
interference of  supernatural powers    
with the performance of the most common 
functions  of the body4 ,the ,church    
still persisted in the implicit belief  
in such  views1 and still dominated     
men's minds so thoroughly that even many
  physicians1 who in other respects were
 entirely unbiased1 remained on  this   
point dutiful children of the ,church2  
in fact1 even those who were  fully     
aware of the shortcomings of the        
,christian ,church unhesitatingly       
adhered to the belief in demons as      
developed from antique conceptions  by  
the ,church ,fathers4 ,thus1 for        
instance1 ,dr4 ,martin ,luther was a    
strict believer in the doctrine which   
taught men to hold the devil            
responsible for the origin of all       

diseases4 ,he thus expressed himself1   
for instance3 8,no disease comes from   
,god1 who is good and does good to      
everybody2 but it is brought on by the  
devil1 who causes and performs  all     
mischief1 who interferes with all play  
and all arts1 who brings  into existence
 pestilence1 ,frenchmen1 fever1 etc40   
,he accordingly  believed that he       
himself was compelled to scuffle with   
the devil when  his physical condition  
was out of order4 ,thus1 when suffering 
from  violent headache1 he wrote to the 
,elector1 ,john of ,saxony3 8,my head   
is still slightly subject to him who is 
the enemy of health and of  all that is 
good2 he sometimes rides through my     
brain1 so that ,i am  not able to read  
or to write10 and upon another occasion 
he said1 in  regard to his health3 8,i  
believe that my diseases are by no means
 due  to natural causes1 but that       
#8,younker ,satan' plays his pranks with
 me by  sorcery40    ,the devil was also
 held responsible for the appearance of 

monsters2 it  was believed that the     
ruler of hell helped young girls against
 their  will to enjoy the delights of   
motherhood4 ,however1 these delights    
were  said to be of a peculiar kind1 in 
that intercourse with the devil  was    
always bound to be followed by the birth
 of the most frightful  monsters4 ,the  
devil then unloaded these most          
remarkable monsters into  respectable   
people's houses4 ,even ,luther was not  
able to free himself  from this most    
astonishing delusion4 ,on the contrary1 
he was devoted  to it with such         
conviction that1 when once in ,dessau1  
he heard of a  monster 7according to    
medical opinion1 it was a question of a 
rhachitic  child7 that had grown to be  
twelve years of age1 he advised1 in all 
seriousness1 that this sinful product of
 devilish intercourse be thrown  into   
the river ,mulde 7compare ,mhsen1 ,vol4 
,,ii41 page #ejf1 etc41 on 8,the        
,relations of ,luther to the ,devil074  
,if it was very improper of the devil to

 visit even clerical gentlemen1  he     
crowned his wickedness1 in that he very 
unceremoniously honored even  ministers 
in the pulpit with his visit4 ,such an  
occurrence took place  in ,friedeberg1  
,neumark1 in #aeic1 in which otherwise  
harmless town the  devil commenced      
suddenly to create an unheard-of        
commotion4 ,he harassed  about one      
hundred and fifty people1 and even in   
church he gave so  little rest to those 
he possessed1 that they raised various  
kinds of  mischief in this holy place4  
,when1 thereupon1 the preacher1         
,heinrich  ,lemrich1 thundered against  
these deviltries from the pulpit1 the   
devil  became so incensed that          
immediately he promenaded into the      
,reverend  ,lemrich himself1 so that the
 good minister raged in the pulpit      
exactly  as did the members of his      
congregation down below in the nave4    
,however1 this variety of medical       
superstition finally spread to such an  
extent that1 as medical aid was         

powerless against the devil1 the aid of 
,god1 by order of the consistory1 was   
invoked from all pulpits of the         
,margravate against the above-described 
misdeeds of hell's ruler4    ,but the   
clergy adopted still another plan to    
checkmate the devil4 ,in  various       
publications they enumerated the        
villainies which ,satan might  visit on 
mankind1 so that each and every one     
would be enabled to  protect himself    
against the aggressions of the devil1 in
 whatever form  he might make his       
appearance4 ,the first publication of   
this character  was issued in #aeee by  
the ,general ,superintendent of the     
,electorate of  ,brandenburg1 ,professor
 of the ,university of ,frankfort1 ,herr
 ,musculus2  it bore the very           
appropriate title1 ,the ,pantaloon      
,devil4 ,in fact1 as  early as #aege a  
compilation was published in            
,frankfort-on-the-,main1  in which      
twenty-four different forms1 which the  
devil might assume  in visiting         

humanity1 were discussed most           
conscientiously and with  becoming      
diffuseness of style 7compare ,mhsen1   
,vol4 ,,ii41 page #dbf1  etc474    ,from
 that time it was impossible for mankind
 to shake off the belief in  devil and  
demons4 ,the thought of being possessed 
played a conspicuous  part even in the  
first half of the nineteenth century1   
thanks to the  activity of ,justinus    
,kerner1 and even medicine felt called  
upon to busy  itself more thoroughly    
with this newly resurrected belief4     
,this was  done1 for instance1 by ,dr4  
,klencke1 who1 in #ahdj1 published a    
little  book exclusively for the purpose
 of disproving the existence of spirits4
    ,we have so far shown the potent    
influence exerted upon medical          
superstition by antique as well as by   
medieval philosophy4 ,but the  newer    
philosophy greatly influenced the       
destiny of medicine1 even  at the end of
 the eighteenth and at the beginning of 
the nineteenth  centuries4 ,the natural 

philosophy based upon the doctrines of  
,schelling once more submerged the art  
of healing in mysticism1 and thus       
necessarily abetted superstition4 ,the  
physician no longer conceived  disease  
as the effect of disturbances in the    
life of the bodily  organs1 but held    
various forms of inconceivable powers   
responsible  for the incidence of a     
malady4 ,the soul wrapped in sin had    
power  to lead the life of the body from
 the normal into the pathological       
condition1 and1 accordingly1 prayer and 
the belief in ,christian  dogmas again  
became active as curative factors4 ,it  
was especially  the ,munich clinician1  
,nepomuk von ,ringseis1 who placed such 
theories  before his pupils1 and who1 in
 his 8,system of ,medicine10 published  
in  #ahdj1 made them generally known4   
,ringseis states in this book3 8,as     
disease is originally the consequence of
 sin1 it is1 altho not always           
indispensable1 yet according to         
experience1 incomparably more safe  that

 physician as well as patient should    
obtain absolution before any  attempt at
 healing be made40 ,another passage     
reads3 8,christ is the  all-restorer1   
and as such ,he cooperates in every     
corporeal cure40 ,in  this sense        
,ringseis calls the sacraments 8the     
talismans coming from the  ,physician of
 all physicians1 and1 therefore1 the    
most excellent of all  physical1        
stimulating1 and alterative remedies40  
,thus1 after almost three thousand      
years1 medicine had returned to the     
stage at which it originated--namely1 to
 the view that incorporeal1             
supernatural factors were to play a     
determining part in pathology  and      
therapy4 ,however1 that there are plenty
 of individuals even in  our time who   
are at any moment ready again to        
sacrifice wantonly  all enlightenment   
and all progress to this varied         
superstition1  is demonstrated by the   
cases of ,mrs4 ,eddy and the ,reverend  
,dowie1  those modern representatives of

 medical superstition4 ,there is only   
one protection against these relapses1  
against these atavistic  tendencies1 and
 that is education in natural science4  
,the more it  becomes disseminated among
 the people the less danger there will  
be  that the heresies of a false        
philosophy1 or of an overheated         
religious  sentiment1 may again conjure 
up medical superstition to the detriment
  of humanity4          ,v    ,,the     
,,relations ,,of ,,natural ,,science    
,,to ,,medical ,,superstition      ,the 
point of view from which man has        
regarded nature for thousands of  years 
up to modern times has been such as to  
promote most effectually  the           
development of superstition2 for the    
idea that a satisfactory  insight into  
the character of natural phenomena can  
be obtained only  by means of adequate  
experiments1 and of observation         
perfected by the  employment of the     
inductive reasoning and ingenious       
instruments1 is  comparatively recent4  

,natural science applying such means is 
scarcely  two hundred years old4 ,fit   
instruments for the observation of      
nature  existed only to a limited extent
 up to the eighteenth century1 and1     
besides1 their complete efficiency left 
much to be desired4 ,the  attempts to   
wrest from ,nature her secrets by means 
of experiment were  but feeble and      
unsuccessful4 ,altho the ancients1 as is
 shown by the  writings of ,hippocrates1
 ,galen1 and others1 had some knowledge 
of  vivisection1 they had practised it  
to a most limited extent4 ,during  the  
middle ages and the period of the       
,renaissance comparatively few  physical
 experiments were made4 ,whatever       
researches in natural science  were then
 undertaken were intended much less for 
the investigation of  nature than for   
fantastic and superstitious             
purposes--as1 for instance1  the        
investigations of alchemy and astrology4
    ,it is quite obvious that1 under    
such circumstances1 a number of         

superficial1 imperfect1 and distorted   
observations crept into the  theoretic  
system of natural science4    ,however1 
this was not all2 the                   
diagnostico-theoretical method1 by      
means of which antiquity1 the middle    
ages1 and even the greatest part  of    
more modern times1 had seen the natural 
sciences treated1 was  radically wrong4 
,man did not feel his way carefully from
 experiment  to experiment1 from        
observation to observation1 until the   
general  principle was found which      
inductively comprised a number of       
phenomena  under one uniform principle  
of law1 but the principle which was at  
the bottom of phenomena was fixed upon a
 speculative basis1 and in  accordance  
with this principle the phenomena were  
interpreted--as was  done1 for instance1
 in medicine in the case of humoral     
pathology4 ,and  as this speculatively  
constructed principle was obtained      
exclusively by  a method dangerous to   
the cognition of natural sciences1 by   

conclusion  from analogy1 naturally the 
most fantastic and adventurous          
conceptions  soon became accepted in the
 realm of natural philosophy4 ,but      
natural  philosophy once lost in such a 
labyrinth1 an aberration of the         
perceptive powers can not fail to       
follow--at least1 in certain domains  of
 nature4 ,as a matter of fact1 this     
fallacious perception promptly  made its
 appearance1 and has proved the         
stumbling-block of science  from its    
earliest days up to the present times4  
,occultism1 mysticism1  or whatever the 
names may be of the various forms of    
superstition1  have sprung from these   
erroneous conceptions of natural        
science4 ,it  may even be contended that
 no variety of superstition exists which
 is  not somehow connected with a       
distorted observation or explanation of 
nature4 ,however interesting these      
considerations may be1 we can not  here 
pursue them any further4    ,such       
investigations belong to the history of 

superstition in general1  and any one   
who desires more detailed information is
 referred to the  enormous literature of
 the subject4 ,we can here consider only
 those  relations which prevail1 or have
 prevailed1 between superstition and    
natural science1 and principally the    
influence which was thus exerted  upon  
the art of healing by astronomy4        
,astronomy and medicine became most     
intimately connected during the         
earliest periods of human civilization4 
,the literature of cuneiform            
inscriptions shows us that the attempt  
to bring the stars into  connection with
 human destinies is primeval1 and       
reaches back to the  ancient ,babylonian
 age1 even to the ,sumero-,accadic      
period 7,sudhoff1  ,med4 ,woche4 #aija1 
,no4 #da74 ,how primeval peoples came to
 connect  their destinies with the      
heavenly bodies and their orbits is     
explained  so lucidly by ,troels-,lund  
7page #bh1 etc47 that we shall cite his 
descriptions1 even if they are rather   

long for quotation4 ,he says3 8,the     
,chaldean history of creation is        
inscribed upon seven clay tablets4 ,on  
the fifth tablet we read3 #8,the seventh
 day ,he instituted as a holy day1  and 
ordained that man should rest from all  
labor4' ,why just seven8  ,because the  
holy number seven of the planets        
imperceptibly shone  through the work of
 creation1 and was imperceptibly        
impressed upon the  entire order of     
thought4 ,we are here at the decisive   
epoch at which  the planets for the     
first time gave an impetus to human     
conception1  the effects of which were  
to persist for thousands of years4 ,this
 was  repeated a second time when       
,copernicus1 in dealing especially with 
the  orbit of the planets1 founded the  
still-prevailing conception of the      
universe4    8,for the theory of        
creation could be reconciled with the   
phenomenon of  sun and moon moving in   
their regular courses4 ,they were in    
this case  no longer1 as had been       

assumed until then1 individual living   
beings  and divinities1 but lights      
kindled by a mighty ,god1 and intended  
to  move day and night1 in an           
established order1 under the dome of    
heaven4  ,but the other five planets6   
,it was unnecessary to be a ,chaldean on
 the  ,babylonian ,tower in order to    
feel amazement at these4 ,every one who 
had ever followed with his eye their    
courses for a few nights during a       
caravan journey1 every one who1 lying   
awake1 had occasionally attempted  to   
read the time from the only clock of the
 night--the star-covered  canopy of     
heaven--was bound to have noticed their 
peculiarities as  to light and course4  
,they did not shine uniformly1 but      
sometimes  intensely1 at other times    
faintly1 and entirely different was     
their  radiance from that of other      
stars--reddish1 greenish1 bluish4 ,and  
their  course was at one time rapid1 at 
other times slow2 then backward or      
oblique2 sometimes they disappeared     

entirely4 ,necessarily they appeared    
inexplicable not only to the            
inexperienced observer1 but to a still  
higher grade of intellect--that of the  
most experienced ,chaldean2  for1 altho 
their periods could possibly be         
calculated1 their courses  beggared all 
geometrical figures4 ,these confused    
paths could be  explained only in one   
manner--namely1 as the expression of an 
arbitrary  will1 the manifestations of  
an independent life4 ,the courses of the
  planets furnished the astronomic proof
 that the heavenly bodies were          
animated4 ,the universe was more than   
created1 it was godhead itself in       
living activity4    8,how this point of 
view broadened and cleared everything6  
,the world  assumed the shape of an     
enormous hall upon which divine power1  
divine  will1 continuously acted from   
above4 ,farthest down was the world of  
the elements4 ,in boundless distances   
above it moved the moon and the  six    
other planets1 each one in its          

transparent heaven4 ,in the highest     
height1 finally1 revolved the canopy of 
impervious heaven1 into which           
constellations were ranged in shapes    
that resembled animals 7,tablet  ,v41   
verse #b74 ,apparently these rotations  
did not have anything in  common with   
each other2 a power which passed through
 them from above  moved these elemental 
worlds4 ,did not daily experience of    
their rising  determine winter1 storm1  
drought1 etc48 ,thus the processes on   
earth  only reflected and repeated the  
course of these divine and heavenly     
bodies2 yea1 divine will itself4 ,but   
their order of movement varied4  ,sun   
and moon with their regular courses     
spin1 as it were1 the firm  warps and   
woofs2 the other five are instrumental  
in producing what is  changeable and    
apparently accidental4 ,unitedly in     
their course through  heaven the seven  
weave the threads of fate4 ,silently    
they weave the  design of terrestrial   
life4 ,upon them depend not only summer 

and  winter1 rain and drought1 but also 
the life and death of every living      
being2 as determined by the             
constellation of their birth1 such is   
each  man1 so will he live4 ,never do   
the heavenly bodies repeat precisely the
  same relative positions1 and1         
therefore1 never are two years1 two     
days1  two human beings1 two leaves1    
completely identical40    ,so far       
,troels-,lund4    ,much as we agree with
 what ,troels-,lund says1 yet we believe
 that the  decisive motive which led    
humanity to bring their bodily welfare  
into  closest connection with the starry
 canopy of heaven was suggested by  the 
powerful influence which the sun exerts 
upon the bodily welfare  of all life4   
,as this life-giving power of the sun   
had a conspicuous  share in the origin  
of primeval sabianism1 so also it       
exerted a similar  influence upon the   
development of astrology2 for it must   
have been  obvious to even the most     
stupid observer that his well-being     

depended  to a great extent upon the    
action of the sun4 ,from this perception
  to the idea that other heavenly bodies
 were also intended to exert a  decisive
 influence upon things terrestrial was  
only a short step for  the ancient      
civilized peoples2 for here the         
conclusion from analogy was  actually so
 closely and so enticingly under every  
one's nose that all  he had to do was   
but to pitch upon the powers which rule 
all earthly  life and neatly box them up
 in a well-constructed system4 ,but as  
the  conclusion from analogy was always 
considered in the ancient world  as the 
most certain1 never-failing path to     
knowledge1 it was readily  followed in  
this connection also4 ,and thus         
astrology1 like the greater  part of    
medico-physical knowledge1 was based1 we
 think1 upon the  treacherous ground of 
a conclusion per analogiam4    ,besides1
 our opinion that the warming and       
vitalizing power of the sun  formed one 
of the most important factors in the    

origin of astrology  is confirmed by the
 utterances of astrologists themselves4 
,thus1 for  instance1 ,ptolemy points to
 the sun and moon as the sources of life
 to  mankind1 and ,hermes and ,almansor 
repeat the dictum4 ,this is furthermore 
proved by the unparalleled popularity   
which astrology has enjoyed in  all     
phases of civilization4 ,there is no    
civilized people1 either  of ancient or 
of modern times1 which has not adhered  
to astrologic  doctrines with the       
fullest confidence and most unswerving  
faith4  ,babylonians1 ,egyptians1       
,greeks1 ,romans1 ,germans1             
,romanians--in short1  all nations--have
 professed their belief in astrology4   
,such a conformity  of opinion would1   
however1 be inexplicable amid such a    
dissimilarity of  religious and cultural
 ideas as characterized the different   
peoples1  unless a common principle had 
decisively influenced all nations in the
  same manner4 ,this principle was      
acknowledged in the influence of the    

sun4 ,every human being was bound to    
observe the animating power of the  sun 
on his own bodily sense and from his own
 observation1 and would be  at once led 
to the conclusion that a similar power  
resided also in the  other celestial    
bodies4    ,this conception1 which to a 
great extent was brought about by       
conclusions from analogy1 provided a    
method of inference concerning  various 
other phenomena4 ,man meditated1        
speculated1 concluded1 until  the       
required sidereal relation of each organ
 and each function of the  human body   
was determined4 ,thus astrology may     
serve as one of the  most telling       
examples of scientific delusions to     
which the ancient                       
diagnostico-theoretical methods were    
bound to lead1 with their  conclusions  
from analogy and their deductive modes  
of procedure4    ,the above survey      
indicates1 altho only in very general   
outlines1  the origin of astrology4 ,we 
shall now consider more in detail the   

acquisition for which the art of        
medicine is especially indebted to      
astrology4    ,babylonico-,assyrian     
civilization possessed in its earliest  
ages a  well-developed system of        
astrologic medicine1 as is evident from 
writings bequeathed to us from          
antiquity4 ,campbell-,thompson has      
recently published1 from the great stock
 of cuneiform tablets in the  collection
 of the ,british ,museum1 #bgf          
inscriptions of an astrological  nature 
belonging to the so-called ,kouyunjik   
collection4 ,sudhoff has  compiled them1
 so far as they refer to medicine1 and  
has subjected them  to critical         
analysis4 ,we take the liberty of       
repeating certain extracts  from these  
cuneiform tablets1 which appear to be   
the reports which  ,assyrian and        
,babylonian court astrologists made to  
the king4    ,tablet #fi;a says3 8,if   
the wind comes from the west upon       
appearance of  the moon1 disease will   
prevail during this month40    ,tablet  

#bjg3 8,if ,venus approaches the        
constellation of ,cancer1 obedience  and
 prosperity will be in the land 444 the 
sick of the land will  recover4         
,pregnant women will carry their        
confinements to a favorable             
termination40    ,tablet #afc3 8,if     
,mercury rises on the fifteenth day of  
the month1 there  will be many deaths4  
,if the constellation of ,cancer becomes
 obscured1 a  fatal demon will possess  
the land and many deaths will occur40   
,tablet #bcb3 8,if ,mercury comes in    
conjunction with ,mars1 there will      
follow fatalities among horses40        
,tablet #age3 8,if a planet becomes pale
 in opposition to the moon1 or if  it   
enters into conjunction with it1 many   
lions will die40    ,tablet #aie3 8,if  
,mars and ,jupiter come in conjunction1 
many cattle will  die40    ,tablet #aag3
 8,if the greater halo surrounds the    
moon1 ruin will be  visited upon        
mankind40    ,tablet #bfi3 8,if an      
eclipse of the sun occurs on the        

twenty-ninth day of  the month of       
,jypar1 there will be many deaths on the
 first day40    ,tablet #bga3 8,an      
eclipse at the morning watch causes     
disease4444 ,if an  eclipse takes place 
during the morning watch1 and lasts     
throughout the  watch1 while the wind   
blows from the north1 the sick in ,akkad
 will  recover40    ,tablet #gi3 8,if a 
halo surrounds the moon and if ,regulus 
stands within1  women will bear male    
children40    ,tablet #id3 8,if sun and 
moon 444 on the fifteenth day #8answer  
my prayer'  shall he say 444 ,let him   
nestle close to his wife1 she shall     
conceive a  son40    ,these few extracts
 show us the close relations into which 
,assyrico-,babylonian culture brought   
the becoming and passing away of  all   
animal life with the stellar movement2  
in fact1 as we note from  ,tablet #id1  
the astrologists of this period did not 
hesitate to intrude  into the most      
intimate occurrences of married life4   
,it is quite obvious  that1 under such  

circumstances1 the ,babylonian physician
 was compelled  to consider very        
carefully the utterances of the         
astrologists in  carrying on his        
practise4 ,it may be possible that we   
shall obtain still  further information 
regarding the quality of sidereal       
therapy from the  numerously discovered 
cuneiform tablets4 ,we know positively  
that a  physician was forbidden to      
perform any surgical operations on      
certain  days of each month4 ,thus1 for 
instance1 the #gth1 #adth1 #aith1 #bast1
 and  #bhth of the month ,schall-,elul  
were unfavorable days for such          
operations  7,oefele74 ,these directions
 were especially stringent in regard to 
venesection1 to which act we shall again
 refer in greater detail4    ,when      
civilization1 later on1 continued to    
thrive upon the shores of  the ,nile1   
astrology still found a fertile soil    
there1 and it appears  that here also   
the name  has originated1 which1        
subsequently1 was a favorite designation

 of adherents to the sidereal  art of   
healing4 ,the astrological prognoses    
made by the professional  astrologist1  
,petosiris1 for the king ,nechepso of   
,sais are well known4  ,however1 it     
appears1 according to the latest        
investigations 7compare  the excellent  
work of ,sudhoff1 page #d1 etc471 that  
these prognoses have  nothing at all to 
do with that king ,nechepso who reigned 
in the seventh  century1 ,b4,c4 ,it     
seems more probable that some cunning   
,alexandrian  astrologist of the second 
century1 ,b4,c41 fraudulently used the  
name  of the king as a cover for his    
work4 ,but however this may be1 these   
prognoses of ,petosiris have            
considerable value1 in that they give us
 an  insight into the manufacture of    
such medical prophesies4    ,the object 
of these prognoses was primarily to     
discover the termination  of a disease1 
whether the patient would die or        
recover1 either soon  or only after the 
lapse of a certain time--for instance1  

after seven  days4 ,this was all that   
,petosiris undertook to predict4 ,all   
details  regarding treatment1           
complications1 and diagnosis of a case  
are still  entirely wanting4 ,petosiris1
 in making such a prognosis1 by no means
  relied solely upon the conjunction of 
certain celestial bodies1 but he        
employed a rather intricate method1 in  
which mystic numbers1 onomancy1  and    
astrology were important elements4 ,to  
prognosticate medically  according to   
this system a circle of numerals was    
required in the first  place4 ,there    
existed two different kinds of such     
circles--one simple1  the other more    
complicated4 ,berthelot has furnished us
 with examples of  both as used by      
,petosiris4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#a--;,,circle ,,of ,,petosiris          
7,after ,bouch-,leclercq1 p4 #eci7      
,the more simple formula 7,fig4 #a7     
consisted of two concentric circles1    
the smaller of which was divided into   
four quadrants4 ,between both           

concentric circles and within the       
horizontal diameters were inscribed  the
 words3  2 to the right of this3   2 to 
the left  of the vertical line3   4     
,under the vertical line was  inscribed3
  2 to the right of this3  2  and to the
 left of the vertical line3   4 ,only   
words  which point to the longer or     
shorter duration of life1 or to the     
death-struggle1 were therefore employed4
 ,the four quadrants of the  enclosed   
circle1 as well as the vertical         
diameter1 contained the  numerals from  
#a to #bi in a mystical order1          
representing the duration of  the moon's
 phases4 ,the above 7,fig4 #a7 shows us 
this astrological circle  of ,petosiris4
    ,the second--essentially more       
complicated--formula consists of three  
concentric circles4 ,various words are  
inscribed between the first and  second 
circles1 as in ,fig4 #a4 ,between the   
second and third circles1 and  in the   
verticals1 the numerals from #a to #cj  
are disposed in a mystical  arrangement4

 ,furthermore1 these circles are not1 as
 in ,fig4 #a1 divided  into four        
quadrants1 but into eight equal         
sections4 ,at these points  in which the
 radii forming the sectors intersect the
 periphery of the  outermost of the     
three concentric circles1 arched        
enclosures are raised  which also       
contain various words4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #b--;,,circle ,,of ,,petosiris  
7,after ,bouch-,leclercq1 p4 #edj7      
,when it was sought1 by means of the    
above-described figures1 to  determine  
the medical future or the life and death
 of an individual1  this could be       
accomplished with the aid of the diagram
 represented in  ,fig4 #a in such a     
manner that the duration of the disease 
in days1 the  numerical value of the    
name of the patient1 and the phases of  
the moon  were added1 and the sum       
divided by #bi4 ,the result thus        
obtained was  interpreted by referring  
to the diagram4 ,if this figure happened
 to be1  for instance1 in the right     

upper quadrant1 the patient1 altho he   
would  recover from his illness1 would  
live only for a very short period2  if  
this number was found in the vertical   
line1 below the horizontal  diameter1   
the patient was destined to die after a 
short struggle4    ,much more intricate 
was the use of the astrological         
apparatus  illustrated in ,fig #b4 ,here
 the number of the moon's day1 and the  
numerical values of the name of the     
patient were not added1 but each  of    
these figures was separately looked for 
in the diagram4 ,if the moon  figure was
 found in the lower1 the figure for the 
name in the upper1  ends of the         
verticals--i4e41 where  1 setting1 and  
1 rising1 stand--the individual         
concerned1 altho in  danger1 finally    
recovered4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the  
moon figure was  discovered in the      
upper1 and the figure for the name in   
the lower1 ends  of the verticals1      
nothing but evil was in store for the   
questioner1 but  the misfortune appeared

 under the guise of fortune4 ,if both   
numbers1  however1 were at the upper    
ends of the verticals1 the prospects    
were  favorable1 but bad if both figures
 occurred below the horizontal line4    
,a method which is similar to the simple
 apparatus of ,petosiris is  revealed to
 us in the so-called  4 ,it is contained
 in  the ,papyrus ,magica ,musei        
,lugdunensis ,batavia1 published by     
,dietrich4  ,fig4 #c shows the          
illustration belonging to this method1  
and also  the ,greek directions for use1
 as given in the papyrus4 ,it will be   
noticed that in the method of           
,democritus recourse is made to a table 
of numerals divided by a cross-line into
 the upper and larger1 and a  lower and 
smaller1 section4 ,the upper part       
contains in three vertical  columns #ah1
 in the lower1 #ab figures4 ,to use the 
table1 the day when  the disease began1 
the numerical value of the name1 and the
 days of the  moon were added1 and the  
sum thus obtained divided by #cj4 ,this 

quotient  was then looked for in the    
table of numbers4 ,if it was found above
 the  cross-line1 the patient recovered2
 if below1 he succumbed4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c--,,the ,,table 
,,of ,,democritus    ,there existed a   
great many other methods besides those  
described above2  for instance1 the     
system of the #ab places1 the circle of 
,manilius1 the  method of the mysterious
 ,hermes ,trismegistus1 the circle of   
,ptolemy1  etc4 ,however1 we can not    
here enter into a more detailed         
description of  these forms1 and refer  
those that wish more exhaustive         
information to  ,berthelot1 and1 above  
all1 to ,bouch-,leclercq4 ,astrology1   
and1 with it1  sidereal medicine1       
subsequently traveled from its ,oriental
 home into  all civilized countries of  
the then known world4    ,as regards    
,greek and ,roman antiquity1 astrology  
in all its forms won a  high reputation 
both in ,greece and ,italy4 ,even the   
most eminent ancient  physicians1 altho 

they did not unreservedly adopt sidereal
 medicine1  refrained from disavowing   
it4 ,thus we find in the ,corpus        
,hippocraticum1  the chief work of early
 ,greek medicine1 passages which betray 
more  than a friendly feeling toward the
 astral art of healing4 ,it is true1    
expressions are not wanting which sound 
like a direct disowning of  astrology4  
,let us consider for a few moments the  
attitude of ,hippocratic medicine       
toward astrology4    ,as to the         
rejection of astrologic medicine by the 
followers of  ,hippocrates1 we read     
78,ancient ,medicine10 ,chapter ,i42 in 
the  translation of ,fuchs1 ,vol4 ,i41  
page #ai73 8,for this reason ,i believe 
that it medical art requires no basis of
 vain presumption1 such as  the         
existence of invisible and doubtful     
factors1 the discussion of  which1 if it
 should be attempted1 necessitates a    
hypothetic science  of supernatural or  
of subterrestrial nature2 for1 if any   
one should  contend that he knew        

anything about such a matter1 neither   
he1 the  lecturer1 nor his hearers would
 clearly understand whether his         
statements were true or not1 because    
nothing exists to which reference  could
 be had for purposes of verification40  
,this surely is a refutation as definite
 as can be desired of a medicine  which 
depends upon witchcraft or astrologic   
vagaries4 ,however1 various  other      
passages of the ,corpus ,hippocraticum  
take an exactly contrary  position4 ,for
 example1 we find the following         
statement 7on 8,air1  ,water1 and       
,locality10 ,chapter ,,xvii41 in the    
translation of ,fuchs1  ,vol4 ,i41 page 
#cij73 8,attention must be paid to the  
rise of the stars1  especially to that  
of ,sirius1#d as well as to the rise of 
,arcturus1  and1 further1 to the setting
 of the ,pleiades1 for most diseases    
reach a  crisis during such periods1    
some of them abating in these days1     
others  ceasing entirely1 or developing 
into other symptoms and different       

conditions40 ,these words indicate a    
distinct intention of bringing          
prognosis and course of diseases into   
the closest relations with the  motions 
of the celestial bodies4 ,in the second 
chapter of the same book  similar       
expressions occur3 8,he who knows how   
the change of seasons and  the rising   
and setting of stars take place will    
also be able to foresee  how the year is
 going to be4 ,therefore1 any one who   
investigates these  subjects and        
predicts coming events will be          
thoroughly informed as to  each detail  
of the future2 he will enjoy the best of
 health1 and take  as much as possible  
the right road in art4 ,however1 if any 
one should  be of the opinion that these
 questions belong solely in the realm of
  astronomy1 he will soon change his    
opinion as he learns that astronomy  is 
not of slight1 but of a very essential1 
importance in medical art40  ,stars and 
diseases are also brought into mutual   
relations in the letter  to ,king       

,ptolemy 7,emerins1 page #bic74         
#d ,this star1 in particular1 played a  
rle in the astrologic        prognosis  
of the ,egyptians2 in fact1 in various  
systems it was        made the          
starting-point of medical predictions2  
for instance1        in the method of   
,hermes ,trismegistus4    ,the above    
quotations refer exclusively to the     
course of diseases in  relation to the  
stars1 but we find in other passages    
also distinct  references are made to   
therapeutic methods2 for instance1 in   
8,aphorisms10  #d1 paragraph #e1 we     
read3 8,purging is very difficult       
during or before the dog-days40    ,it  
would1 indeed1 be most remarkable if no 
astrologic remarks of any  kind were    
found in the ,corpus ,hippocraticum1 as 
the idea of close  relation between the 
celestial bodies and matters terrestrial
 had  common currency during the        
,hippocratic period4 ,the songs of      
,stesichorus  and of ,pindar show1 for  
instance 7as is also stated by ,pliny1  

,book #c1  ,chapter ,,xii41 ,vol4 ,i41  
page #aah71 that eclipses of certain    
stars were  considered to be pregnant   
with mischief4 ,this superstitious      
conception  has1 in some cases1 actually
 caused severe general calamities4      
,thus1  for instance1 the ,sicilian     
campaign ended unfortunately for the    
,athenians only because their general1  
,nicias1 under a superstitious          
apprehension concerning an eclipse1     
failed to put to sea4 ,and as this      
campaign was the cause to ,athens of a  
partial loss of ,greek hegemony1  we may
 safely say that astrology had a        
decisive share in the fall of  ,athens  
7,pliny1 ,book #b1 ,chapter ,,xxiii474  
,the appearance of comets1 like eclipses
 of the sun and the moon1 were  also    
reputed to be ominous among the         
ancients4 ,comets were considered       
heavenly mischief-makers of the worst   
kind1 and almost every sort  of calamity
 was ascribed to them4 ,a calamity was  
supposed to assume  various aspects1    

according to the position and form of   
the comet4  ,under some circumstances1  
however1 they were said to prognosticate
  many events advantageous to mankind   
7,pliny1 ,book #b1 ,chapter ,,xxiv474   
,thus ,augustus considered a comet1     
which was seen for an entire week at    
the northern quarter of the heavens at  
the onset of his rule1 during           
performances which were given in honor  
of ,venus genetrix1 to be his  lucky    
star4    ,however1 not only such        
extraordinary appearances in the sky as 
comets1  eclipses of the sun and the    
moon1 played a conspicuous part in      
medical  superstitions of the ancients4 
,even those celestial phenomena which   
occur with a regularity fixed by natural
 law1 such as the revolution  of the sun
 and the moon1 were considered highly   
important events in  therapeutic art4   
,thus1 affections of the eye in man and 
beast were said  to increase and to     
decrease with the moon 7,pliny1 ,book   
#b1 ,chapter ,,xli474    ,all acute     

diseases were believed to be controlled 
by the moon1 whereas  chronic affections
 were thought to be under the influence 
of the sun4  ,in fact1 everything that  
happened to man was brought in immediate
  relationship with appearances in the  
canopy of heaven4 ,thus1 for  instance1 
it is stated by ,marcus ,manilius1 the  
well-known author of an  astronomical   
didactic poem dedicated to the ,emperor 
,augustus3        8,omnis cum coelo     
fortun pendeat ordo40    ,in the        
thirteenth chapter of the second book   
the poet maintains that  each part of   
the human body is subordinate to a      
distinct sign of the  zodiac4 ,thus1 for
 instance1 the head to ,aries1 etc4     
,altho the further development of       
,occidental as well as ,oriental        
astrology drew its resources from the   
primeval ,assyrian1 ,babylonian1  and   
,egyptian doctrines1 yet from the second
 century1 ,a4,d41 the  astronomic work  
of ,ptolemy and the exhaustive          
description of antique  medicine by     

,galen derive their inspiration from    
,medicina ,astrologica4  ,whatever these
 two great masters were able to report  
of the dependence  of the functions of  
the body upon celestial bodies was from 
then on1  without further inspection and
 examination1 acknowledged to be true   
by the great majority of physicians4    
,only occasionally this or that         
practitioner is bold enough to oppose   
the intrusion of astrologic  vagaries   
into the art of healing2 among these    
radicals was the  philosophically       
trained physician1 ,sextus ,empiricus1  
who lived about  the year #aic1 ,a4,d4  
,however1 this protest of brave ,sextus1
 as well as  all subsequent ones1       
scarcely had any influence upon the     
astrological  development of medicine4  
,astrology could not be arrested on its 
road  to the domination of the world1   
and until the seventeenth century it    
controlled the thought of physicians    
with the same invincible sway that  it  
exercised over the mental life of all   

other professions and classes4          
,medico-astrological superstition had   
become legalized1 and this in  spite of 
the fact that ,galen himself at last    
expressed his distrust of  the ,medicina
 ,astrologica1 and at least endeavored  
to extenuate his  part in its           
dissemination4    ,let us now scrutinize
 more minutely the condition of         
,medicina  ,astrologica in the second   
century1 ,a4,d4 ,the works of ,ptolemy1 
the  8,iatromathematica0 of the         
mysterious ,hermes ,trismegistus1 and   
the third  book of ,galen's writing on  
the 8critical days0 furnish sufficient  
material for outlining the              
medico-astrological system of that      
period4    ,in the first place1 the     
method by which the authors of that     
period instilled their astrologic dotage
 into the minds of their  contemporaries
 varied considerably4 ,either           
astrological remarks were  here and     
there interspersed in a work on medical 
or on astronomical  subjects1 as was the

 case1 for instance1 in the 8,opus      
,quadripartitum0  of ,ptolemy and also  
in ,galen's book on the 8critical days10
 or  astrology was treated as a special 
science in the form of a connected      
system1 as is done1 for instance1 in the
 8,iatromathematica0 of ,hermes         
,trismegistus4 ,such textbooks of       
astrology obtained publicity in large   
numbers from about the fourteenth       
century on4 ,whoever may be inclined  to
 cast a glance into the learned work of 
,sudhoff will be astonished to  observe 
the extent to which iathromathematics   
flourished in the second  half of the   
middle ages and at the turning-point of 
the ,renaissance4  ,still another form  
was to impart to the public their       
astrological  doctrines in the form of  
short sentences4 ,we find nothing in    
such works  regarding the intricate     
calculations and methods by which       
endeavors  were made to fathom the      
language of the stars1 but astrological 
results  were communicated in concise1  

aphoristic sentences4 ,this was done in 
the 8,centiloquium0 of ,ptolemy1 a work 
which in a hundred brief sayings  brings
 an epitome of astrological wisdom to   
market4 ,the work enjoyed  the highest  
esteem in the middle ages4 ,such a book1
 therefore1 would  correspond to that   
form of modern literary production1     
which1 under  the title 8,method of     
acquiring this or that accomplishment   
within a  short period10 is advertised  
to us modern people in the daily press4 
,moreover1 the 8,centiloquium0 of       
,ptolemy had many imitators4 ,such  a   
work is found1 for instance1 in ,arabic 
literature1 and contains  astrologic    
wisdom condensed into #aej brief        
sentences by the astrologer  ,almansor1 
who furnished the handbook upon request 
of his ruler2 the  ,arabian1 ,bethem1   
has produced a similar work4 ,we find   
analogous works  appearing later in the 
middle ages4 ,eventually1 the doctrines 
of  astrology were put into neat rhymes2
 thus1 for instance1 ,heinrich von      

,rantzau1 who departed this life #aeih  
as governor of ,schleswig-,holstein1    
celebrates in #ajj well-turned verses   
the significance of the planets  in     
relation to the physical and mental     
welfare of humanity4 ,we shall  again   
refer to this subject when considering  
astrology of the middle  ages4 ,the     
iatromathematic passages in the         
above-mentioned writings  of ,ptolemy1  
,hermes1 and ,galen furnished the       
foundation for all later                
astrologico-medical theories4 ,for what 
the middle ages believed  regarding the 
medical importance of the sidereal      
world1 especially of  the planets and   
the zodiac1 was nothing but the         
immediate continuation1  or elaboration1
 of the astrologic teachings of ,ptolemy
 and other  authors of the first        
,christian centuries4    ,in the first  
place1 every portion of the human frame 
was placed under  the influence of a    
certain celestial body4    ,the five    
planets already known to the ancients1  

as well as sun and  moon1 governed1     
according to ,hermes1 the following     
parts of the body3        ,the sun1 the 
right eye4      ,the moon1 the left eye4
      ,saturn1 hearing4      ,jupiter1  
the brain4      ,mars1 the blood4       
,venus1 taste and smell4      ,mercury1 
tongue and gullet4    ,however1 the     
influence which sun1 moon1 and the      
planets exercised  upon the human body  
gradually became more intricate4 ,it was
 no longer  satisfactory to enumerate   
relations between the bodies of heaven  
and  the human organs of such a general 
nature as given by the above table  of  
,hermes4 ,all parts and functions of the
 body were to be brought  into the      
closest relations with the planets4     
,thus1 for instance1 the  celebrated    
humanist1 ,marsilius ,ficinus1 the      
friend of the ,medici 7#adcc  to #adii71
 depicts most minutely in a book 8,on   
,life10 which was much  read in its     
time1 the relations between the body and
 the planets4 ,this  was also done by   

,heinrich von ,rantzau1 in his 8,tractus
 ,astrologicus10  which in its time was 
very celebrated4 ,there we read         
regarding these  conditions as follows3 
,,saturn governs the spleen1 the        
bladder1 the bones1 the teeth1 and1     
in part1 the circulating juices of the  
body2 causes the color of      the skin 
of man to be dark yellowish2 impedes or 
promotes growth2      causes the eyes to
 be small1 and prevents the growth of   
the beard4      ,,jupiter governs the   
lungs1 the ribs1 cartilages1 the liver1 
arteries1 the pulse1 and the development
 of human semen2 causes      the white  
color of the skin1 and gives a good     
figure4      ,,mars governs the bile1   
kidneys1 veins1 and sexual organs1 and  
of      these especially the testicles2 
makes hair red and the temper           
irascible1 and inclined to outrages of  
various kinds4      ,,venus governs the 
uterus1 the breasts1 the sexual organs1 
the      spermatic tubes1 the loins1 and
 the buttocks2 endows man with          

physical beauty1 furnishes him with long
 hair1 round eyes1 and a                
well-formed face2 but it is inexcusable 
on the part of this star      that it   
presented mankind with gonorrhea4       
,,mercury governs all mental            
processes--memory1 imagination1 the     
brain      with its nerves1 the hands1  
feet1 and legs1 the bones and the       
bile2 causes man to be light-fingered4  
,,the ,,sun governs the brain1 nerves1  
urine1 the right eye of the male        
and the left one of the female1 the     
optic nerves1 and the entire      right 
half of the body2 gives a good          
complexion to man4      ,,the ,,moon    
governs the brain1 mouth1 belly1        
intestines1 bladder1      taste1 the    
organs of reproduction1 the left eye of 
the male1 the      right eye of the     
female1 and the feminine liver1 and the 
entire      left half of the body4      
,the signs of the zodiac1 like the      
planets1 exert full control over  the   
various parts of the body4 ,honest      

,bartisch1 of ,knigsbrck 7#aece  to     
#afjf71 has given us in his             
8,eye-,service0 an illustration of these
  relations4 ,fig4 #d is a reproduction 
of this plate of ,bartisch4    ,the sun1
 moon1 planets1 and zodiac regulated not
 only the life of the  various limbs of 
living man placed under their special   
care1 but their  activity commenced at  
that moment when the foundation was just
 about  to be laid for the future bodily
 existence of a mortal--i4e41 at the    
moment of conception4 ,if1 during this  
critical process1 the respective  bodies
 of the heavens were in an unfortunate  
conjunction1 the members  of the future 
being1 the most primitive forms of which
 had just been  founded1 were bound to  
suffer4 ,naturally1 however1 only those 
parts of  the body were affected by this
 destiny which were in the care of stars
  that happened to be in unpropitious   
conjunction at the time4    ,if the act 
of conception had passed without evil   
influence on those  that were actively  

and passively participating in it1 the  
product of  that hour could by no means 
be sure that this or that planet would  
not  maliciously thwart the ease and    
tranquillity of its embryonic and fetal 
life4 ,for sun1 moon1 and the seven     
planets each governed one month of      
intra-uterine life1 as is explained by  
,jacobus ,forliviensis4 ,saturn  reigns 
during the first month of pregnancy1    
,jupiter in the second1  ,mars in the   
third1 the sun in the fourth1 ,venus in 
the fifth1 ,mercury  in the sixth1 the  
moon in the seventh2 the eighth month is
 ruled again  by ,saturn1 and this      
latter planet now shows itself to be so 
malicious  that it immediately destroys 
all life born in the eighth month4      
,jupiter  again takes control during the
 ninth month1 and1 as this star is fond 
of warmth and humidity1 and1 therefore1 
a friend of life in any form1  no danger
 is to be feared for a fetus entering   
the world during this  month4 ,however1 
after the nine months of pregnancy have 

passed without  evil interference by the
 planets1 ,mars once more is in command1
 and his  influence helps in            
accomplishing a normal birth4    ,after 
the fetus had successfully passed all   
dangers which the planets  could cause  
during the nine months of intra-uterine 
life1 and after  it had successfully    
matured1 the hour of birth might1 after 
all1 be  accompanied with other quite   
severe sidereal complications4 ,for if  
any planet was in an unfavorable sign1  
or if the relations between  the signs  
of the zodiac and the sun or the moon   
were not quite in  their regular order1 
those members which were presided over  
by the  respective stars were made to   
suffer4 ,the correct casting of the     
medical horoscope1 therefore1 required  
the most accurate knowledge  of the     
minute of birth1 with simultaneous      
occurrences in the canopy  of heaven4   
,provident fathers1 accordingly1 were   
mindful of having  an astrologer1 during
 the hour of birth1 in the room in which

 the  confinement was to take place1 so 
that he might be able to ascertain as   
accurately as possible the celestial    
occurrences which would determine  the  
bodily welfare of the new-born1 and to  
arrange them for the  horoscope4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d--,,the         
,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,the
 ,,human ,,body ,,to  ,,the ,,signs ,,of
 ,,the ,,zodiac    ,after the young     
mortal had safely arrived1 and if a     
fortunate destiny  had placed in his    
cradle a favorable medical horoscope1   
both for the  hour during which the     
first material foundation had been laid 
for  his life and also for the hour of  
his birth1 he had overcome only a  small
 part of the troubles which the starry  
world might be able to  inflict on his  
bodily welfare4 ,if the various signs of
 heaven appeared  in unfavorable        
conjunction1 or if the moon entered into
 any fatal  relations with the signs of 
the zodiac1 members of the body which   
were  under the influence of the        

respective celestial bodies were still  
imperiled4 ,these dangers might threaten
 not only one individual1 but  they were
 capable1 eventually1 even of calling   
down epidemics and  pestilence upon all 
humanity4 ,after any form of disease had
 taken hold  of a person its course1    
treatment1 and termination could be     
clearly  read in the stars of heaven4   
,it was necessary1 above all1 to        
ascertain  the day1 hour1 and minute    
when the disease appeared4              
,unfortunately1  this must have been    
quite difficult at times2 for many      
diseases begin  so insidiously that the 
moment of the attack is completely      
beyond  precise definition4 ,in such a  
case one did the best that could be     
done1  and probably took as the moment  
of attack the first complaints of the   
patient regarding his disorder4 ,after  
the appearance of the disease was  dated
 in such a manner1 the heavenly body1 in
 the ascendant at this  period1 was then
 ascertained2 thus1 the position and the

 course and the  phases of the moon1 the
 relations of sun and moon to the twelve
 signs  of the zodiac1 and the planets  
would be noted4 ,it was necessary to    
observe whether the moon was in         
opposition1 quadrature1 or conjunction  
to the planets while she stood in the   
sign of this or that figure of  the     
zodiac4 ,from these observations clear  
conclusions were first drawn  regarding 
the general condition1 the character1   
the duration1 and the  prognosis of the 
affection4 ,these conclusions1 however1 
were by no  means satisfactory as yet4  
,an attempt was therefore made to obtain
 a  much more detailed insight into the 
causes1 complications1 and therapy  of  
the case in question by means of        
astrology1 and such information was     
abundantly provided in the ,medicina    
,astrologica4    ,in the first place1   
the fact that sun1 moon1 planets1 and   
the signs  of the zodiac shared the rule
 over the various organs of the body1   
and furnished positive intimations      

regarding the cause of the disease  in  
question1 made it unnecessary for the   
physician to trouble himself  at all    
with an examination of the patient in   
order to ascertain cause  and           
localization of the affection4 ,one     
glance at the conjunctions of  the stars
 was sufficient to show which organ of  
the patient happened  to be endangered  
by the celestial constellation4 ,if an  
individual  complained1 for instance1 of
 disturbed digestion1 and if the        
heavenly  body that presided over the   
liver presented any remarkable          
phenomena1  naturally only the liver was
 responsible for the case in question1  
and the diagnosis was made4             
,complications were to be expected if   
the  stars which controlled the         
circulation of blood and mucus showed   
unfavorable signs4 ,it was even possible
 for the physician well versed  in      
astrology to determine in advance the   
period of time at which the  occurrence 
of such humoral complications might be  

expected1 as he had  learned that the   
various hours of the day and of the     
night were to  exert a powerful         
influence upon the juices of the body4  
,for instance1  ,almanzor explains that 
the first three hours of day and of     
night are  in closest relation to the   
blood1 whereas the second quarters of   
day  and of night hold sway over the    
yellow1 the third over the black        
7bile71 and the last quarters1 finally1 
over the mucus4 ,however1 not  only were
 the various hours of great importance  
to the course of the  disease1 but      
certain days of the disease--so-called  
critical days--were  of still greater   
significance4 ,it is true1 the doctrine 
of these  critical days was by no means 
the property of ,medicina ,astrologica1 
but the ,corpus ,hippocraticum already  
contained a book   4 ,but the followers 
of ,hippocrates had developed this      
theory only from humoro-pathological    
premises1 and ,galen1 in his work   1   
had only included astrology in order to 

explain  and to prove the entire        
doctrine of crises 7compare also        
,sudhoff74 ,he  calculated in accordance
 with moon weeks and months1 and in such
 a  manner that a week counted six days 
and seventeen and one-half hours1  and  
the month of the moon only twenty-six   
days and twenty-two hours4  ,the        
seventh1 fourteenth1 twentieth1 and     
twenty-seventh days were to  be         
considered critical days of the first   
order4 8,contemplate10 says  ,galen1    
8the critical days in the course of the 
moon in the angles of  a geometrical    
figure of sixteen sides2 if you find    
these angles in a  favorable            
constellation1 the patient will fare    
well2 badly1 however1  if evil signs    
prevail40 ,but not only were certain    
hours and certain  days of the week said
 to exert an important astrological     
influence upon  the human body1 such an 
influence was ascribed also to certain  
years4  ,such years were called 8,anni  
,scansiles0--that is1 8climacteric40    

,the  expression 8,anni ,climacterici0  
was also used1 but this designation  has
 nothing in common with the modern      
conception of the climacteric4  ,it was 
believed that the condition of the body 
underwent a thorough  revolution during 
these climacteric years1 and that a new 
stage1 as it  were1 of organic life was 
reached4 ,heinrich von ,rantzau1 the    
astronomic  aristocrat and statesman1   
accordingly defines the climacteric     
years  as 8anni1 in quibus ad sequentis 
temporis constitutionem sese vertat  tas
 et inflectat40 ,therefore1 such years  
should in themselves harbor  dangers for
 corporeal existence1 and offer no      
favorable prospect for  the course of   
diseases4    ,two kinds of such         
climacteric years were distinguished4   
,one kind was  brought about by         
multiplication with the figure #g1 and  
they were  called anni hebdomatici1 or  
climacterici 7stricte sic dicta74       
,accordingly1 these were the years #g1  
#ad1 #ba1 #bh1 #ce1 #db1 #di1 #ef1 #fc4 

,these nine years formed the            
climactericus parvus1 whereas the years 
#gg1 #hd1 #ia1 #ih1 #aje1 #aab1 #aai1   
#abf were called the climactericus      
magnus4 ,a multiplication which extended
 further1 to #aga1 reached  the         
climactericus maximus4 ,the other kind  
of climacteric years was  obtained by   
multiplication with #i1 and such years  
were called anni  enneatici1 or         
decretorii4 ,these were the years #i1   
#ah1 #bg1 #cf1 #de1  #ed1 #fc1 #gb1 #ha1
 #ij1 #ii1 #ajh1 etc4    ,however1 these
 climacteric years did not all present  
the same dangers1  but the peril        
inherent in them varied considerably4   
,it was determined  by the              
multiplicator1 and here especially the  
#c and the #g played a  very fatal rle4 
,the #bast year of life 7#c  #g71 and   
the #bgth 7#c  #i71  were one grade     
higher in the scale of dangers than     
those obtained by  other multiplicators4
 ,still more dangerous were those years 
arrived at  by ascending in spaces of   

three hebdomads2 therefore1 the #bast   
year  of life--i4e41 the period of three
 hebdomads--namely1 #c  #g2 the #db;d   
year1 as a period of #b  #c             
hebdomads--i4e41 #b  #ba2 the #fc;d year
 of  life1 as a period of #c            
hebdomads--i4e41 #c  #ba2 #hd  to #d    
#ba2 #aje   #e  #ba1 etc4 ,the #dith    
year of life and the #efth year of life 
were  said to be still more dangerous   
than these years obtained from the      
period of three hebdomads4 ,it is true1 
the cause of the danger is quite        
obvious in the case of the #dith year2  
it was the ominous #g  #g which  here   
gave rise to forebodings4 ,and it was   
not quite comprehensible what  caused   
the bad reputation of innocent #ef2     
,rantzau fails to give us a  sufficient 
explanation4    ,but the most dangerous 
climacteric year was the #fc;d1 for this
 was made  up of #g  #i4 ,it was1       
therefore1 an annus hebdomaticus and1 at
 the  same time1 also an annus          
enneaticus1 for it belonged both to the 

class of those climacteric years which  
were formed by the multiplier #g1  as   
also to that which were obtained by the 
multiplier #i4 ,it was most  natural1   
therefore1 that a period of life which  
from two sides was  fraught with danger1
 like the unfortunate #fc;d year of     
life1 was bound  to appear equally      
suspicious to the healthy and to the    
sick4 ,it is  probable that this year   
was1 therefore1 called androdas1        
because1 as  ,rantzau believes1 it      
debilitates and breaks vitality4    ,it 
would appear1 moreover1 that the        
climacteric years enjoyed general       
consideration in ancient times as well  
as in the middle ages1 for  ,rantzau    
names a number of celebrated men who    
were said to have  expressed themselves 
regarding the significance of these     
years1 such as  ,plato1 ,censorinus1    
,gellius1 ,philo ,judus1 ,macrobius1    
,cicero1 ,botius1  ,st4 ,ambrose1 ,st4  
,augustine1 ,bede1 ,georgius ,valla1 and
 others4 ,not  satisfied with this      

statement1 ,rantzau also mentions in his
 catalog  a multitude of prominent men  
who all departed this life in their     
#fc;d  year1 and thus1 as he believes1  
had established the dangerousness of    
this year by their death4    ,it is     
probable1 therefore1 that the #fc;d     
birthday was celebrated with  great     
apprehension during the entire middle   
ages1 and the respective  individual did
 not draw an easy breath until after the
 ominous year had  been successfully    
passed4    ,however1 the stars knew not 
only how to tell particulars regarding  
the probable course and possible        
complications of diseases1 but they     
also gave information regarding very    
special forms of affections4 ,it  was   
possible1 thus1 to learn from them at   
what time diseases of the  eye were to  
be feared1 when mental diseases were    
threatening1 when  hemorrhages were to  
be expected1 etc4 ,the astrologically   
trained  physician was able to obtain   
prompt information from the stars       

regarding contingent surgical accidents2
 for there existed various  conjunctions
 of the celestial bodies1 according to  
,ptolemy1 which  surely pointed to      
wounds1 fractures of bones1 burns1      
concussions1 and  other lesions4 ,in    
fact1 it was possible to see in advance1
 from the  celestial phenomena1 what    
limbs would be exposed to forcible      
injury2  thus1 certain conjunctions of  
the planets were said to prognosticate  
with certainty wounds of the head2      
others1 of the face2 others1 again1  of 
the hands and feet1 of the fingers and  
toes1 of the arms and legs1  of the     
trunk and neck4 ,astrology1 moreover1   
was not satisfied with the  prognostic  
and diagnostic activity which we have   
just mentioned1 but it  also interfered 
in therapy1 internal as well as         
external4    ,regarding1 in the first   
place1 internal medicinal treatment1 the
  astrologer knew how to give positive  
information about the same2 for  all    
terrestrial beings1 of an organic as    

well as of an inorganic  nature1 were   
under the influence of the sun1 the     
moon1 of the planets1  and of the signs 
of the zodiac4 ,the stars imparted      
certain powers to  the planets1 to      
animals1 and to all structures of the   
inorganic world4  ,if1 therefore1 it    
were known what stars happened to appear
 in the  vault of heaven at the         
beginning of the disease or of its      
treatment1  it was only necessary       
seriously to consider the organic and   
inorganic  structures under their       
supervision1 and the remedies required  
for a  successful control of the disease
 were presently at hand4 ,but if the    
healer wished to be absolutely certain  
what medicaments to choose1 the  phases 
of the moon and the condition of the sun
 were also to be taken  into            
consideration4 ,some remedies could be  
administered only when the  moon was in 
a particular relation to certain planets
 or stars of the  zodiac4 ,these        
remedies were principally emetics and   

purges4    ,similarly to the internal   
clinician1 so also in surgery1 the      
healer  was entirely dependent upon the 
conjunction of the stars4 ,the primeval 
,babylonian directed that the body must 
not be touched with iron during  certain
 conjunctions of the stars1 and this was
 also prescribed in  all cases of       
,astrologica ,medica4 ,it appears1      
however1 that this  direction obtained  
less general surgical recognition1 but  
referred  principally to blood-letting4 
,even to this limited extent it implied 
a high-handed interference with the art 
of the ancient as well as of  the       
medieval physician2 for venesection     
occupied an entirely different  position
 among therapeutic measures during that 
period than it does  to-day4 ,whereas   
modern medicine does not consider       
blood-letting  necessary1 except in the 
rarest cases1 ancient as well as        
medieval  professors of medicine        
believed that they could under no       
circumstances  dispense with it2 in     

fact1 it is probable that until the     
seventeenth  century there was scarcely 
any form of disease the treatment of    
which  would have been possible without 
withdrawal of blood4 ,an actual  system 
of blood-letting had been elaborated    
under the influence of                  
humoro-pathological opinions4 ,every    
vein that could be reached with  the    
lancet was acted upon1 and the school of
 medicine of the period  was            
punctiliously careful in teaching which 
vessel presented the most  suitable     
point of attack for the hand of the     
physician in this or that  form of      
disease4 ,the therapeutic subtleties    
which were thus brought to  light are   
beyond description4 ,thus1 a withdrawal 
of blood from veins on  the right side  
of the body was said to yield an        
essentially different  effect from      
left-sided venesection1 and each        
individual vein of the  body promised a 
special advantage which was peculiar to 
this one vein4  ,the physician of that  

period surely had enough to do to bear  
in mind  all the numerous therapeutic   
effects which he was to achieve by the  
opening of the various veins4 ,to       
facilitate this difficult art to a      
certain degree special figures were     
designed--so-called venesection         
manikins1 in which the numerous points  
for bleeding were most carefully        
annotated4 ,fig4 #e 7page #age7 shows   
such a picture4 ,it indicates no less   
than #ec different localities for       
venesection1 and as each and every  one 
of them again implied four or five1 or  
possibly even more1 methods  of         
blood-letting1 we may consider that     
there were many hundreds of  different  
possibilities for phlebotomy4 ,if it was
 easy to become lost  in the labyrinth  
of this blood-thirsty therapy1 the      
difficulty of a  methodical application 
of venesection was very materially      
increased by  astrology2 for astrology  
differentiated between1 first1          
favorable1 then  doubtful1 and1 finally1

 unfavorable days for venesection1      
basing this  opinion upon certain       
positions between sun1 moon1 and        
planets4 ,then the  various ages of life
 had also different days for            
venesection2 days1 for  instance1 which 
promised to be exceptionally successful 
for venesection  in the young1 offered  
very unfavorable prospects to the aged4 
,thus1  for instance1 the period from   
the first quadrature of the moon to  the
 opposition was said to be excellent for
 bleeding in adolescence1  whereas this 
period was by no means inviting for     
phlebotomy in those  who had reached the
 senile period4 ,the chances for        
venesection became  rather intricate in 
their different aspects4 ,thus1 for     
instance1  ,stffler taught3             
the sun prohibits venesection two       
days before and one day after4          
,conjunction of      the moon with      
prohibits venesection one               
,saturn  day before and one day         
,mars    after4      ,quadrature of     

,sun     prohibits venesection    the   
moon with   ,saturn  twelve hours before
 and                    ,mars    twelve 
hours after4      ,opposition of   ,sun 
prohibits venesection one    the moon   
with   ,saturn  day before and one day  
,mars    after4    ,we see1 therefore1  
that the physician of that time was     
compelled to  be well-versed in         
astronomy unless he meant to commit     
grave mistakes  against the doctrines of
 ,medicina ,astrologica4 ,such sins     
could  eventually become rather         
dangerous to the physician1 for the code
 of  ,hammurabi 7about #bbjj1 ,b4,c41   
ruler of ,babylon7 threatens the        
operator1  for not quite unobjectionable
 surgical procedures1 with the loss of  
his  hands 7,winckler1 page #cc1  #bah74
    ,in order to satisfy the            
astrological requirement of the         
physician most  thoroughly1 there arose 
in the middle ages a very peculiar      
literature4  ,under the name of an      
almanac or calendarium1 thick folio     

volumes  appeared1 which enumerated1 in 
long tables1 the various positions of   
the planets and of the signs of the     
zodiac1 so that the astrologer was      
enabled to note the fate of mankind     
rapidly and easily4 ,the contents  of   
such calendaria are beyond description4 
,apart from remarks which  referred to  
all occurrences of civil life1 was      
stated the exact period  when to have   
the hair cut1 when venesection was to be
 performed1 when  to draw teeth1 when to
 take a bath1 etc4 ,even the proper time
 for  prayer was indicated by such a    
calendarium4 ,according to the          
experience  of ,peter of ,abano1 the    
conjunction of the moon with ,jupiter in
 the  ,dragon was sure to effect an     
answer to prayer4 ,hieronymus ,cardanus 
had discovered1 with the aid of         
astrology1 that a request was sure to   
be complied with if a prayer was offered
 to the ,virgin ,mary on the  first day 
of ,april1 at #h ,a4,m4 7,mhsen1 ,vol4  
,,ii41 page #dbc74 ,physicians  excelled

 in the compilation of such calendaria1 
especially during the  fifteenth and    
sixteenth centuries4 ,professors1       
forensic physicians1  surgeons--in fact1
 all representatives of medical         
art--were equally  intent upon          
instructing the public by calendaria in 
regard to the most  various branches of 
,medicina ,astrologica2 thus1 for       
instance1 ,david  ,herliz1 physician at 
,prenzlau1 supplied ,pomerania1         
,mecklenburg1 and  the ,margravate of   
,brandenburg with calendars for fifty   
years1 from the  year #aehd4 ,the       
,marburg professor of medicine1         
,victorinus ,schnfelder1  played a      
similar rle during the same period for  
western ,germany4 ,the  physician1 as   
almanac-maker1 is probably one of the   
most wonderful  results of medical      
superstition1 and this aberration of    
medicine clung  so firmly to the people 
that1 even in the eighteenth and        
nineteenth  centuries1 certain days of  
the year were considered as especially  

favorable for venesection1 and the      
calendars took particular pains to  call
 the attention of the public most       
emphatically to good days for           
blood-letting4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#e--,,venesection ,,in ,,its            
,,astronomical ,,connection             
,explanation of ,fig4 #e      ,a4 ,the  
astronomic signs which are noted on the 
different parts    of the body indicate 
the signs of the zodiac1 under the      
special    influence of which the       
respective members of the body are said 
to    be4      ,b4 ,the numerals which  
are found at the most varied parts of   
the    body refer to indications for    
venesection1 as stated below4 ,in       
these localities1 which are             
characterized by figures1 blood was     
drawn for the most various affections1  
namely in3       #a4 ,pains of the eyes 
and head2 affections of the face1       
including eruptions4       #b4          
,affections of the head2 mental         
disturbances4       #c4 ,affections of  

the eye of various kinds4       #d and  
#e4 ,pains in the ears2 lachrymation4   
#f and #g4 ,tinnitus aurium2 tremor of  
the head4       #h4 ,disturbances of    
hearing4       #i4 ,heaviness of the    
head2 flow from the eyes4 ,venesection  
here          also renders memory more  
acute1 as well as the activity of       
the brain in general4      #aj4         
,heaviness of the head4      #aa4       
,ulcers of the lips and of the gums4    
#ab4 ,the veins of the palate are to be 
opened in eruptions in          the     
face1 in toothache1 in affections of the
 palate and of          the mouth1      
heaviness of the head4      #ac4        
,neuralgia and toothache4      #ad4     
,headaches1 mental disturbances4        
#ae4 ,to render the memory more acute4  
#af4 ,in all affections of the mouth or 
of the chest4      #ag4 ,fetid breath4  
#ah4 ,pains in the jaws2 ftor e naso2   
eruptions of the face4       #ai4       
,neuralgia of the head2 eruptions4      
#bj4 ,disturbances in the chest of      

various kinds4      #ba4 ,flow from the 
eyes2 headache2 epilepsy4      #bb4     
,diseases of the chest of various kinds1
 including dyspnea2          headache2  
stitches in the side4      #bc4         
,diseases of the liver1 injuries to the 
right side of the          body2        
nosebleed4      #bd4 ,affections of the 
head and the eyes2 pains in the         
shoulder-blades2 coryza4      #be4      
,pains in the heart1 in the sides1 and  
in the mouth4      #bf4 ,spasms in the  
fingers2 pains in the spleen and in the 
limbs2 epistaxis2 stitches in the liver4
      #bg4 ,pains of the central parts  
of the body4      #bh4 ,affections of   
the lower portions of the body4         
#bi4 ,heart-disease4      #cj4 ,to      
render vision more acute1 and to        
strengthen the          dexterity of the
 body4      #ca4 ,headache1 fever1      
various kinds of cataract1 glaucoma1    
etc42          cloudiness of the sclera2
 inflammations of the tongue and        
of the pharynx4      #cb4 ,pains of the 

head1 lungs1 spleen4      #cc4 ,diseases
 of the blood2 chlorosis2 jaundice2     
affections of          the head2        
stitches in the right side4             
,blood-letting in this          locality
 purifies liver1 spleen1 breast4        
#cd4 ,same as #cb4      #cf4 ,affections
 of the spleen1 meningeal inflammation2 
hemorrhoids2 stitches in the left side2 
renal affections2          dysmenorrhea4
      #cg4 ,affections of the spleen and
 of the bladder4      #ch4 ,dropsy2     
disturbances of digestion2 ulcers of    
long standing4      #ci4 ,melancholia2  
venesection in this locality strengthens
          the kidneys4      #dj4        
,hemorrhoids2 strangury2 disturbances of
 digestion2          affections of the  
bladder and of the sexual organs4       
#da4 ,venesection here acts upon the    
proper condition of the body          in
 general4      #db4 ,diseases of the    
kidney1 bladder1 stone1 testicles4      
#dc4 ,venesection here strengthens the  
gait4      #dd4 ,all kinds of pains of  

the lower extremities1 such as          
arthritis1 gout2 also in dysmenorrhea4  
#de4 ,affections of the sexual organs2  
diseases of the kidney and              
bladder4      #df4 ,diseases of the     
testicles4      #dg4 ,disturbances of   
menstruation2 sterility of women2       
affections of the bladder and spleen4   
#dh4 ,various kinds of diseases of the  
feet4      #di4 ,dysmenorrhea2 eruptions
 in the face and on the legs4      #ej4 
,apoplexy2 paralysis4      #ea4         
,ophthalmia2 skin diseases2 cough2      
oppression of the chest4      #eb4      
,dysmenorrhea2 affections of the        
testicles2 costal pains4      #ec4      
,ophthalmia2 dysmenorrhea2 amenorrhea2  
skin eruptions4    ,such therapy1       
detached entirely from the actual       
requirements of the  case and based only
 upon observation of the sky1 was bound 
to be  attended with the most           
unfortunate results4 ,the suffering     
public was  frequently but little       
cheered by the assistance of its        

physicians1 and  often felt the desire  
to find out what another physician could
 do4 ,it  appears that such a condition 
occurred quite frequently1 for ,ptolemy1
  in number #eg of his 8,centiloquium10 
gives special directions under  what    
astral conditions such a change of      
physician could take place4 ,he  says3  
8,cum septimum locum atque ejus dominum 
in gritudine afflictum  videris1 medicum
 mutato40 ,it appears certain1          
accordingly1 that a  general change of  
physicians was inaugurated by the public
 so soon as  the above conjunction was  
noted in the sky4    ,those who desired 
to be very careful in the choice of     
their physician  did not change only    
when the conjunction of the stars       
recommended it as  advisable1 but they  
also attempted to ascertain the         
horoscope of the  newly chosen medical  
adviser1 for medical wisdom was found in
 greatest  abundance in a man whose     
aspects showed a certain form4          
8,perfectus  medicus erit1 cui ,mars et 

,venus fuerint in sexta10 says          
,almansor4    ,this condition of        
,astrologia ,medica was such as to weigh
 like  an oppressive nightmare upon     
mankind1 not only for centuries but  for
 thousands of years1 and in this way    
medical superstition has  slaughtered   
more human beings than the most bloody  
wars ever did4    ,however1 astrology   
has not always ruled our kind with equal
 strength4  ,there were periods during  
which belief in the fate-determining    
power of  the stars was more dominant1  
and others in which it was feebler4 ,the
  ancient world1 which was blindly      
devoted to all kinds of superstition1   
had also cherished and fostered         
astrology4 ,but when the ancient theory 
of life was demolished later on1 and the
 ,christian ,god of love had  taken     
possession of the world1 the belief in  
the fate-determining power  of the stars
 was shaken1 and centuries1 followed    
during which ,medicina  ,astrologica1   
altho it did not by any means disappear 

entirely1 was  forced more or less to   
the rear4 ,astrology did not become     
resurrected  until scholasticism and    
dogmatism had held back the activity of 
the mind from independent investigation1
 thus bringing about the  intellectual  
darkness which for centuries prevailed4 
,this use of  astrology truly forms one 
of the most wonderful pages in the      
history of  the development of our race1
 for an actual furor astrologicus seized
  upon the world in the course of the   
thirteenth century4 ,the movement       
originated at the court of ,emperor     
,frederick ,,ii4 ,the great ,ghibelline 
was so positive and so enthusiastic an  
adherent of all astrologic  doctrines   
that he did not decide upon any         
undertaking until he had  first learned 
the opinion of the stars regarding his  
enterprise4 ,it was  his firm belief    
that the stars prophesied for him a     
political rle  which was to shake the   
entire world1 and of his astrological   
prediction  he apprised his adversary1  

the pope1 in the following words3       
,fata volunt1 stellaeque docent1        
animumque volatus1      ,quod           
,fridericus ego malleus orbis ero4      
,but if a ruler of high mental gifts is 
always destined to exert a  powerful    
influence upon his epoch1 how much more 
telling is this  influence when the     
contemporaries of such a monarch lead a 
mental  life1 fettered by so many       
religious1 philosophical1 and physical  
prejudices as undeniably dominated      
mankind during the reign of  the great  
,hohenstaufen4 ,if these conditions were
 of the greatest  advantage to astrology
 in general1 circumstances shaped       
themselves  most favorably for ,medicina
 ,astrologica in particular4 ,very soon 
after the death of the star-learned     
,hohenstaufen emperor1 two highly       
talented physicians bound themselves    
body and soul to astrology--namely1     
,arnald ,bachuone1 called also1 after   
his birthplace1 ,villanueva1  ,arnaldus 
,villanovanus or ,arnald of ,villanova  

7#abce-acab71 and ,petrus1  called also1
 after his birthplace1 ,abano near      
,padua1 ,petrus de ,apono  or ,petrus   
,aponensis 7#abej-acae74 ,from that time
 until the seventeenth  century the most
 eminent representatives of all the     
sciences and  professions devoted       
themselves to the doctrines of          
astrology4 ,in the  excellent work of   
,sudhoff is cited a notable number of   
physicians--by  no means the most       
unskilful of their day--who confessed   
themselves to  be iatromathematicians   
7i4e41 medici astrologici74 ,astrology1 
and with it ,medicina ,astrologica1     
reigned supreme at most of the  princely
 courts from the thirteenth to the      
seventeenth centuries4 ,the             
,hohenstaufen1 ,frederick ,,ii41 was1 as
 we have seen1 an implicit adherent  to 
astrologic doctrines2 likewise the      
,visconti in ,milan4 ,the royal  court  
of ,aragon in ,palermo offered a        
sheltering asylum to astronomy  and to  
astrology4 ,alfonso ,x4 of ,castile was 

so enthusiastic a friend  of scientific 
astronomy that he ordered the           
planet-tables of ,ptolemy  to be        
restored1 with an outlay of enormous    
costs1 by fifty astronomers  called by  
him to ,toledo4 ,german princes1 such as
 ,elector ,joachim of  ,brandenburg1    
,albrecht1 ,elector of ,mayence1        
,landgrave ,william of ,hesse1  ,duke   
,albrecht of ,prussia1 not only adhered 
to the predictions of the  stars1 but   
they also subscribed to the statements  
of astrological  medicine4 ,thus1 for   
instance1 ,thomas ,erastus 7died #aehc7 
the well-known  opponent of ,paracelsus1
 tells us that1 as body-physician to the
  reigning count of ,henneberg1 he was  
not permitted to begin a course  of     
treatment until he had consulted the    
stars4 ,the ,german emperor1  ,charles  
,v41 was quite as constant a friend of  
the astrologists2 he  was instructed in 
astrology by his teacher1 the subsequent
 pope1  ,hadrian ,,vi4 ,the court of    
,denmark was the center of astrological 

teachings under ,frederick ,,ii41 as no 
less a personage than ,tycho de  ,brahe 
was active there4 ,but not only rulers  
favored astrology1 it met  with implicit
 belief from highly enlightened         
scholars1 statesmen1 and  naturalists4  
,thus1 ,melanchthon was so convinced an 
adherent of all  astrological doctrines 
that he was incessantly active in their 
favor by  mouth and by pen4 ,and when   
fatal disease had finally seized upon   
him1  he was soon satisfied as to the   
issue1 in that ,mars and ,saturn        
happened  to be in conjunction 7,mhsen1 
,vol4 ,,ii41 page #daf74    ,however1   
men were not wanting who courageously   
took up the battle  against astrological
 delusions4 ,thus1 for instance1 the    
friend of  ,lorenzo of ,medici1 the     
learned ,count ,pico of ,mirandola      
7#adfc-adid72  also ,girolamo           
,fracastori 7#adhc-aeec71 who is known  
by his didactic poem  on syphilis1      
opposed astrology4    ,if we now ask how
 it was possible that a superstition    

like astrology  could for centuries     
dominate ,occidental medicine1 and was  
even able  to influence the best minds  
in its favor1 an answer to this question
  will not be as difficult as might     
appear at first glance4 ,the very  best 
and the most enlightened minds are      
always particularly affected  by what is
 enigmatical and mysterious in the      
phenomena of life4 ,they  perceive the  
narrow limits set to our cognition of   
nature much more  acutely and deeply    
than the average mind4 ,this            
consciousness of the  insufficiency of  
our own knowledge1 joined with an ardent
 desire after  a broadening of our      
understanding1 tends to turn the mind in
 strange  directions4 ,the result of    
clearer self-knowledge in this modern   
epoch  of ours is an adverseness to any 
form of romantic fancy1 and is likely   
to end in a sad resignation that may    
result in pessimism4 ,but the  middle   
ages1 with their exuberant confidence   
and faith1 their belief in  wonders1 and

 their romantic ideas1 did not suffer to
 any great extent  from scientific      
apathy4 ,a sharply defined1 mystic      
tendency helped to  overcome what was   
inadequate in the cognition of nature4  
,and for this  reason do we find this   
mystic tendency prominent1 especially in
 those  representatives of that period  
who1 owing to their mental capacity1    
were bound to perceive their defective  
insight into the manifestations  of life
 much more intensely than this was felt 
by the average persons  of narrower     
intellect4    ,the conditions thus      
described1 as well as the               
diagnostico-theoretical  principles on  
which medicine and natural sciences were
 based in  antiquity and in the middle  
ages1 until late in the eighteenth      
century  led many mentally gifted men to
 consider astrology rather a refuge from
  the current defective conception of   
natural phenomena than a false          
doctrine4          ,,vi    ,,influence  
,,exerted ,,upon ,,the ,,development    

,,of ,,superstition ,,by ,,medicine     
,,itself      ,as ancient1 medieval1 and
 some more modern theories of medicine  
have  traveled over the same            
diagnostico-theoretical roads as did the
 natural  science of those periods1 they
 were naturally subject to the same     
errors and aberrations4 ,but the        
consequences of their errors differed   
materially4 ,whereas natural science1 in
 the early and middle ages1  with its   
faulty diagnostico-theoretical method1  
too frequently had  recourse to         
supernatural factors to explain         
terrestrial phenomena1 and  thus created
 superstition instead of elucidation1   
the pathology of  ancient as well as of 
medieval medicine avoided as much as    
possible  any recourse to miraculous    
agencies in explaining the pathological 
phenomena of the body4 ,this it was     
forced to do for the sake of            
self-preservation4 ,for what would have 
become of the physicians with  their    
art1 which was of a purely material     

kind1 working as it did with  drug and  
knife1 if they themselves had traced    
disease to supernatural  causes8 ,no    
one1 under such conditions1 would have  
had any dealings  with mundane medical  
science4 ,it is true1 there have been   
times when  such a state of things      
actually existed4 ,the physician1 with  
his  earthly appliances1 was always led 
astray as soon as metaphysical ideas    
had victoriously entered pathology4     
,history affords numerous examples  of  
this4 ,the cult of relics1 the belief in
 astrology during half of the  middle   
ages1 show plainly to what a degrading  
position the physician  was reduced as  
soon as a pathology reckoning with      
earthly factors was  replaced by a      
metaphysical theory of disease4 ,then   
the physician was  either completely    
thrust aside--'       1 as says         
,plutarch 78,superstition10 ,vol4 ,i41  
page #dab7--or he  was forced to submit 
to a disgraceful interference4 ,all     
schools of  medicine1 therefore1 from   

the humoral pathology of the followers  
of  ,hippocrates to the so-called       
parasitism of the nineteenth century1   
have avoided as much as possible the    
acknowledgment that supernatural        
influences were active as pathological  
factors4 ,various as the  principles of 
the countless medical schools may have  
been1 they were  all united in assuming 
as the starting-point of their          
speculations some  material process of  
the body itself1 in accordance with     
which they  applied their therapeutic   
agencies4    ,sometimes1 it is true1 it 
would seem as tho medicine1 under some  
circumstances1 had recourse to          
supernatural factors in explaining      
various phenomena of physiological as   
well as pathological conditions2  as1   
for instance1 in the primeval           
pneuma-doctrine1 or in those            
conceptions which attribute to a mental 
or psychical principle a  far-reaching  
influence upon the performance of all   
bodily functions4  ,upon closer         

investigation1 however1 we shall find   
that the pneuma1  or spirit1 the soul1  
or whatever else the mysterious         
mainspring  of all phenomena of life may
 be called1 was by no means conceived   
of by medicine as immaterial or         
supernatural4 ,on the contrary6         
,medicine1 as often as it required a    
spiritual something to explain  the     
manifestations of the body1 has always  
regarded this unknown  quantity as      
thoroughly substantial4 ,it has not1    
indeed1 been possible  to determine more
 precisely the material nature of this  
great unknown1  altho such attempts are 
by no means wanting in ,democritus1     
,galen1 and  others2 still it was always
 considered a corporeal thing4          
,supernatural  qualities were ascribed  
to it only after death1 but so long as  
the soul  animated the body1 united with
 the latter1 it was a terrestrial being1
  and as such obeyed the laws of        
terrestrial substance4 ,it was possible 
for medical science1 therefore1 to      

reckon with it in the explanation  of   
pathological processes without          
necessarily expecting a reproach that   
supernatural agencies were called in for
 assistance4    ,medicine1 therefore1   
altho it has traveled the same          
diagnostico-theoretical road as natural 
science1 has not1 like the  latter1     
directly produced superstition4 ,it is  
true1 it has called  forth innumerable  
erroneous hypotheses4 ,but a wrong      
hypothesis1 altho  it may be nonsensical
 to the utmost and give rise to the most
 serious  practical consequences1 is by 
no means superstition2 for both error   
and superstition--so far as it is a     
question of medical matters--are two    
radically different conceptions1 because
 the former concerns itself  only with  
natural1 the latter with supernatural   
factors4    ,yet it is quite conceivable
 that the dissemination of an           
intellectual  principle can be furthered
 and promoted without overt advocacy of 
the  principle itself1 and this was the 

relation that existed for thousands  of 
years between medicine and superstition2
 for we learn from this  investigation  
that the representatives of medicine    
were too often ready  to admit all kinds
 of superstitious views into medicine4  
,whenever  religion1 philosophy1 and    
natural science have seriously attempted
 to  influence medicine in a manner     
promoting superstition1 medical science 
yielded to these attempts1 and this is  
the only reproach which can be  justly  
laid at the door of our science4        
,however1 this reproach is mitigated if 
we consider that medicine did  not      
accord a home to superstition of its own
 free will1 or even from  a predilection
 for the heresies of other disciples1   
but it did so  under compulsion2 for the
 religious1 the philosophical1 the      
physical  views which forced the        
entrance of superstition into medical   
science  were almost always the views of
 a formidable party4 ,it is a fact      
sufficiently demonstrated by history    

that powerful and far-reaching          
predilections of the popular mind       
resistlessly hurry along whatever is  in
 their path4 ,such mental currents are  
the products of their period2  they are 
the immediate result of the general     
sentiment and feeling  of their time1   
and for this very reason they           
successfully overcome  resistance4 ,the 
opinion of a single individual may raise
 a protest  against the spirit of the   
age1 but this resistance is always bound
 to  be in vain4 ,the opinion of a      
single individual1 even if it actually  
represents the truth1 is absolutely     
powerless to resist the spirit of  the  
age which1 with elemental force1 compels
 obedience4 ,therefore1 the  courageous1
 truth-seeking resistance which was     
offered to the heresies  of ,medicina   
,astrologica by ,pico of ,mirandola and 
,girolamo ,fracastori  was bound to be  
futile1 because astrology was a genuine 
child of its  time1 and therefore held  
irresistible sway over thought and      

sentiment4    ,if religion and          
philosophy so often interfered with the 
development of  medicine1 this was only 
possible because the general tendency of
 the  contemporary mind was thoroughly  
absorbed in this or that religious or   
philosophical idea4 ,for each domain of 
human activity must needs be a  mere    
reflection of the tendency which guides 
the mind of its period4  ,this is a law 
which1 with iron force1 dominates the   
development of  culture4 ,superstition  
in medicine1 therefore1 was bound to    
flourish and  thrive whenever it        
harmonized with the spirit of the age4  
,this law1 tho it may have checked the  
development of our science1             
nevertheless holds out the certain      
promise of a period1 the  intellectual  
power of which will thoroughly clear    
away all relics of  superstition1 which1
 still persisting in the minds of the   
many1 drives  them to the faith-curist  
and to the quack4          ,,vii        
,,medical ,,superstition ,,and          

,,insanity      ,the history of medicine
 is conjoined with the evolution of     
theology  to an extent which makes them 
almost inseparable1 and this may  best  
be seen from a study of the management  
of the insane1 which  is a continuous   
record of cruelty based upon            
medico-theological  superstition4       
,perhaps the most heartrending chapter  
of unphilosophical  theology teems with 
the narration of thousands of           
unfortunate  beings murdered1 tortured1 
and mishandled by the finesse in the    
interpretation of ,biblical texts4 ,the 
greatest triumph of modern  medicine has
 consisted in unfettering the views of  
effete centuries1  born of superstition 
and misconception1 and in placing the   
treatment  of the insane upon a humane1 
often even a curative1 plane4 ,as other 
afflictions of humanity were attributed 
to the agency of evil spirits1  this was
 particularly the case with insanity2   
for if the evil one found  it an easy   
task to control the corporeal acts of   

humanity1 his power  over the mental    
functions of the person afflicted was   
even greater4  ,hence1 it was not the   
person who acted1 but the evil spirit in
 him4  ,thus1 the devil and his minions 
were the specific pathogenic agents4    
,this conception was not universal1 for 
history shows us that clear  thinkers1  
far in advance of their times1 had an   
almost correct view  of the nature of   
insanity--namely1 that it was due to an 
affection of  the mind4 ,among such men 
were ,hippocrates1 ,aretus1 ,soranus1   
,galen1  ,aurelianus1 etc41 and some of 
the ,mohammedan physicians4 ,these      
apostles  of science taught that        
insanity was a disease of the brain1 and
 the  most efficient remedy1 mild1      
palliative treatment4    ,the belief    
which had flourished in most of the     
,oriental religions from  remote        
antiquity1 that the power of evil demons
 was the active cause  of disease1      
particularly that lunacy was due to     
diabolic possession1  became rooted in  

the early ,christian ,church and        
flourished for eighteen  centuries1 each
 leaf of this malignant plant           
representing countless  unfortunates    
sacrificed to superstition4 ,later it   
was thought that the  moon had a direct 
influence upon perturbation of the mind2
 hence1 the  term 8lunacy0 developed4   
,these doctrines gained special credence
 in the first centuries after  ,christ  
by the dissemination under the ,church  
,fathers of the story  of the miracles  
which they claimed had been performed by
 ,jesus of  ,nazareth4 ,did not the     
,savior cast out devils8 ,did ,he not   
cure madness8  ,the very word 8epilepsy0
 shows by its derivation1  7to seize    
upon71 that possession was the          
presumable nature of the malady4    ,the
 noble work accomplished by the 8pagan0 
pioneer alienists was  discredited or   
forgotten1 and the ,church originated a 
process by which  the possessed were to 
be treated4 ,this method of treatment   
was derived  purely from theologic      

sources1 tempered with sufficient dogma4
 ,at first  the treatment was gentle1 in
 accordance with the spirit of the great
  physicians of antiquity1 and if the   
afflicted one was not violent he  was   
permitted to attend public worship4     
,sacred salves and holy water1  the     
breath or the spittle of the officiating
 priest1 the touching of  relics1 or a  
visit to holy places1 were the principal
 therapeutic  agents employed4 ,these   
methods1 even if they did no good       
7sometimes  merely the consolation of a 
kind word from the priest had a         
beneficial  effect71 certainly did no   
harm1 even tho such practises were      
factors in  the spread of superstition4 
,this mild form of treatment did not1   
however1 long continue4 ,soon  measures 
were directed toward driving out the    
evil spirit from the  possessed4 ,this  
was attempted in various ways2 first1 by
 exorcism1 in  the period of ,justin    
,martyr1 and continued up to almost     
recent times  7see ,lecky1 8,history of 

,european ,morals074 8,from the time of 
,justin  ,martyr for about two          
centuries1 there is1 ,i believe1 not a  
single  ,christian writer who does not  
solemnly and explicitly assert the      
reality and frequent employment of this 
power40    ,one of the chief attributes 
of the devil was pride1 therefore       
attempts  were made by exorcism to      
pierce this vulnerable point in the     
armor of  the evil one1 and the foulest1
 vilest epithets were used to attain    
this  end4 ,it is impossible to-day to  
print these expressions1 even in a work 
of scientific character1 and it is      
better1 perhaps1 to refer such as  are  
especially interested in them to the    
,manuale ,benedictionum1 by  the ,bishop
 of ,passau1 published in #ahdi1 and    
similar works4 ,adjuvants  to this form 
of treatment consisted in 8frightening0 
the devil by  long words1 difficult to  
pronounce1 commonly derived from        
,oriental  languages1 by the            
administration of malodorous and filthy 

8drugs10 and  similar practises4    ,it 
was claimed that many devils were thus  
driven out1 and the annals of  the      
,church contain numerous records of     
persons cured in this manner4  8,the    
,jesuit ,fathers at ,vienna1 in #aehc1  
glorified in the fact that  in such a   
contest they had cast out twelve        
thousand1 six hundred and  fifty-two    
living devils0 7,white74 ,the prevalence
 of these ideas to  such a degree in the
 minds of the people may be noted from  
the fact  that1 in the churches         
themselves1 such scenes are carved in   
stone and  depicted on canvas4 ,medieval
 drama teemed with similar conceptions1 
and this condition of affairs prevailed 
for over one thousand years1            
unfortunately not in this harmless      
manner1 but supplemented by great       
cruelty1 which forms1 perhaps1 the most 
terrible chapter in the history  of     
medical superstition4    ,the subtleties
 of theologic interpretation soon       
evolved a more  comprehensive method of 

dealing with the 8possessor0 and the    
possessed4  ,as an appeal to pride was  
ineffectual and noxious drugs           
unavailing1  it was found necessary to  
whip the devil out1 or the unfortunate  
individuals were imprisoned1 and as a   
refinement of this treatment they  were 
even tortured4 ,thus the jailer for a   
long time played the part  of a         
specialist in lunacy1 with the clergy in
 consultation4 ,places in  which the    
insane were confined were known as 8fool
 towers0 and 8witch  towers40    ,this  
state of things was not altered with the
 dawn of the ,reformation4  ,the        
writings of ,luther conclusively show   
his ideas in regard to  possession and  
witchcraft1 and these views under       
,calvin reached  enormous development4  
,even ,cotton ,mather1 in many respects 
far in  advance of his times1 and who   
himself had known persecution1 was not  
emancipated from these delusions1 and   
,salem has many a story to tell of      
possession and witch-baiting4 ,it is    

true we may quite properly consider     
these views as the thought of the times1
 but1 in many other respects1  ,luther1 
,calvin1 and ,mather were in advance of 
their period1 and1  therefore1 a        
justification for their actions is not  
quite apparent4  ,marcus ,aurelius also 
was much superior to his age1 yet was   
grateful to  his teachers that they     
taught him to disregard superstition in 
all its  various forms4    ,it is not   
unlikely that conditions of this kind   
frequently led to  epidemics--if not of 
actual insanity1 at least to            
hysteria--which not  rarely developed in
 cities1 nunneries1 and monasteries2    
thus the  epidemics in ,erfurt in #abcg1
 in the ,rhine countries in #acgd1 and  
many  others 7see ,hirsch74    ,it is   
rather remarkable that while such views 
and practises prevailed  in the         
,christian ,church1 the followers of    
,mohammed not only held  different      
views1 but adopted a mode of treatment  
of the insane which  laid the foundation

 of modern therapeutics in diseases of  
the mind4  ,in the twelfth century1 in  
,bagdad1 a palace called the 8,home of  
,mercy0  was built1 in which the insane 
were confined1 examined every month1 and
  released as soon as they had          
recovered4 ,an asylum in ,cairo was     
founded  in #acjd1 while the first      
,christian asylum expressly for the mad 
is  noted in #adji 7,lecky74    ,but    
science fought its way through the      
barriers of ignorance1  misdirected     
zeal1 and superstition4 ,altho there    
were physicians and  8magicians10 who   
conformed to the views of the ,church1  
the seed sown by  the earlier schools of
 medicine slowly but surely began to put
 forth  shoots1 and the result was a    
tree of knowledge1 the fruit of which   
may be observed in every modern insane  
asylum of the world1 where  the         
unfortunate sufferer is treated with    
kindness and skill1 which1  fortunately1
 often results in cure4    ,scientific  
reason frequently rebelled against the  

8insane  superstition10 at first mildly1
 but constantly increasing in strength1 
until an effectual protest was finally  
raised by ,john ,weir1 of ,cleves1  who 
was soon followed by ,michel de         
,montaigne4 ,and now a battle royal  was
 waged between the adherents of theology
 and the disciples of the  8resurrected0
 truth1 and once more in the history of 
the world was  demonstrated the         
correctness of the saying1 that 8truth  
crushed to  earth shall rise again40    
,all over the world the warfare was     
carried1  and at the end of the         
eighteenth century new champions        
arose--,jean  ,baptiste ,pinel in       
,france1 and ,william ,tuke in ,england4
 ,their followers  are legion1 and in   
the book of life1 in letters of gold1   
many a name  has been written of those  
who trod in the footsteps of these      
pioneers4  ,theology no longer          
interferes in the treatment of the      
insane2 in fact1  it would be manifestly
 unjust not to mention that many        

,christian  theologians subsequently    
joined in the noble work of lunacy      
reform1 and  aided progress greatly4    
,how great this progress in the         
treatment of the insane can best be     
appreciated by some of the older        
physicians in practise to-day4 ,who     
does not remember the chains1 the       
strait-jacket1 the dark locked cells  of
 the insane asylum8 ,these conditions   
existed not very many years ago1  and   
altho the novels of ,charles ,reade are 
no doubt greatly exaggerated  in regard 
to the conditions he portrayed in insane
 asylums1 yet more  than a grain of     
truth is probably contained in them4    
,the books did  much to bring about     
reforms in ,england and elsewhere4      
,modern alienists have wrought wonders2 
their successful operations  are not    
published in the daily press1 but any   
visitor who knows what  an insane asylum
 was fifty years ago1 and who spends a  
few hours in  a modern hospital for the 
treatment of lunatics1 will observe what

  appears but little short of the       
miraculous4 ,imagine two thousand  or   
more insane persons dining in a large   
hall1 upon the table a  tablecloth1 and 
the insane using knife and fork in a    
decorous manner1  and when the visitor  
is told that the 8violent ward0 is also 
present1  and is asked to single these  
out from among the many1 and fails 7as  
he invariably does71 the results        
attained by science1 above all other    
measures1 are strikingly apparent4      
,,bibliography        lius ,spartianus4 
,de ,vita ,hadriani4 ,caracalla4 ,in    
,peter3 ,scriptores      ,histori       
,august4 ,lipsi1 #ahhd4      ,alexander 
von ,tralles4 ,original ,text und       
,uebersetzung von      ,puschmann4      
,wien1 #ahgh-gi4      ,almansoris4      
,astrologi propositiones ad ,saracenorum
 regem4 ,basile1      #aeea4            
,aristophanis ,comoedi4 ,ed4 ,bergh4    
,lipsi1 #ahgh-gh4      ,aureli          
,augustini4 ,de divinatione daemomum4   
,corpus scriptorum      ecclesiasticorum

 latinorum4 ,ed4 ,zycha4 ,vindobon1     
#aijj4      ,bartisch1 4 ,das ist       
,augendienst4 ,dresden1 #aehc4          
,baur4 ,apollonius von ,tyana und       
,christus4 ,tbingen1 #ahcb4             
,bernoulli4 ,die ,heiligen der          
,merowinger4 ,tbingen1 #aijj4           
,berthelot4 ,la chemie des anciens et du
 moyen ge4 ,paris1 #ahhi4      ,bethem4 
,centiloquium4 ,basile1 #aeea4          
,bouch-,leclercq4 ,l'astrologie grecque4
 ,paris1 #ahii4      ,csarius           
,heisterbacensis4 ,dialogus miraculorum4
 ,ed4 ,strange4 ,cln1      #ahea4       
,campbell1 ,thompson4 ,the ,reports of  
the ,magicians and ,astrologers of      
,nineveh and ,babylon in the ,british   
,museum4 ,london1 #aijj4                
,delitzsch4 ,babel und ,bibel4 ,leipzig1
 #aijc4 ,batavi4 ,jahrbcher fr          
klassische ,philologie4 #af4            
,supplementband4 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4       
,erastus1 ,thomas4 ,de ,astrologia      
divinatrice epistol4 ,basile1 #aehj4    
,ermerius4 ,anecdota medica graeca4     

,lugd4 ,batovorum1 #ahdj4      ,eunapius
 ,sardianus4 ,de vitis philosophorum et 
sophistorum4 ,ed4      ,hieronymus      
,cammelin4 ,coloni ,allobrogum1 #afaf4  
,fhner4 ,lithotherapie4 ,berlin1 #aijb4 
,galeni ,opera omnia4 ,ed4 ,gottlieb    
,khn4 ,leipzig1 #ahba-cc4      ,gregorii
 ,turonici histori ,francorum libri     
decem4 ,paris1 #aefa4      ,gregorovius4
 ,geschichte der ,stadt ,rom im         
,mittelalter4 ,stuttgart1      #ahhf-if4
      ,gregorovius4 ,der ,kaiser        
,hadrian4 #c4 ,aufl4 ,stuttgart1 #ahhd4 
,hser4 ,lehrbuch der ,geschichte der    
,medicin und der epidemischen           
,krankheiten4 #c4 ,bearbeitung4 ,jena1  
#ahge-hb4      ,hansen4 ,zauberwahn1    
,inquisition und ,hexenprocess im       
,mittelalter4      ,historische         
,bibliothek4 ,band ,,xii4 ,mnchen und   
,leipzig1 #aijj4      ,harnack4         
,medicinisches aus der ltesten          
,kirchengeschichte4 ,leipzig1           
#ahib4      ,hermetis ,centum           
aphorismorum liber4 ,basile1 #aeea4     

,hippocrates4 ,smmtliche ,werke4 ,in's  
,deutsche bersetzt von      ,fuchs4     
,mnchen1 #ahie1 #aijj4      ,hoffmann4  
,de ,potentia diaboli in corpore4 ,hal1 
#agjc4      ,hoffmann4 ,medicus         
politicus4 ,hal1 #agdf4 ,deutsch von    
,ansbach4      ,leipzig1 #agec4         
,jacobi ,forliviensis egregia et        
subtilis expositio cum qustionibus      
supra aureum capitulum de generatione   
embrionis4 ,venedig1 #aejb4             
,josephi ,flavii opera4 ,ed4 ,destinon  
et ,niese4 ,band ,,vi4 ,berlin1 #ahid4  
,klenke4 ,wie mssen ,dmonenglauben1     
,besessensein und                       
,kerner-,eschenmayer'sche               
,gespenstererscheinungen nach dem       
heutigen ,standpunkt der ,physiologie   
und ,psychologie erklrt      werden8    
,leipzig1 #ahdj4      ,krusch4          
,passiones vitque sanctorum vi          
,merovingici et antiquorum      aliquot4
 ,in ,monumenta ,germani historica      
,tomus ,,iii4 u4 ,,iv4      ,hannover1  
#ahif1 #aijb4      ,lecky4 ,geschichte  

des ,ursprungs und ,einflusses der      
,aufklrung in      ,europa4 bersetzt von
 ,dr4 ,jolowicz4 ,leipzig und           
,heidelberg1 #ahfh4      ,lehman4       
,aberglaube und ,zauberei von den       
ltesten ,zeiten an bis in      die      
,gegenwart4 ,deutsche autorisierte      
,ausgabe von ,dr4 ,petersen4            
,stuttgart1 #ahih4      ,livius4 ,ab    
urbe condita4 ,ed4 ,weissenborn-,mller4 
,leipzig1 #ahia ff4      ,lucrez4 ,de   
rerum natura4 ,ed4 ,brieger4 ,lipsi1    
#ahii4      ,magnus4 ,medicin und       
,religion4 ,abhandlungen zur ,geschichte
 der      ,medicin4 ,herausg4 von       
,magnus1 ,neuburger1 ,sudhoff4 ,heft ,i4
      ,breslau1 #aijb4      ,magnus4    
,die ,augenheilkunde der ,alten4        
,breslau1 #aija4      ,magnus4          
,metaphysische ,krankenbehandlung4      
,medicin-geschichtliche      ,studien   
ber ,gesundbeten und verwandte          
,bestrebungen4 ,breslau1      #aijb4    
,dietrich4 ,papyrus magica musei        
,lugdunensis      ,marci ,manilii4      

,astronomicon4 ,basile1 #aeea4          
,moehsen4 ,beschreibung einer ,berliner 
,medaillen-,sammlung4                   
,gedchtnissmnzen berhmter ,aerzte4      
,berlin und ,leipzig1 #agha1 ,i4      u4
 ,,ii4      v4 ,oefele4 ,verbotene      
,aderlasstage in der ,keilschriftcultur4
 ,wiener      ,medicinische ,bltter1    
#aijb1 ,no4 #aj4      ,petersen4        
,hauptmomente in der geschichtlichen    
,entwickelung der      medicinischen    
,therapie4 ,kopenhagen1 #ahgg4          
,philostratus4 ,opera4 ,ed4 ,kayser4    
,leipzig1 #ahgj-ga4      ,c4 ,plini     
secundi ,naturalis histori libri        
,,xxxvii4 ,recensuit ,sillig4           
,hamburgi et ,goth1 #ahea-eh4           
,plutarchi ,chaeronensis ,moralia4 ,rec4
 ,bernardakis4 ,lipsi1 #ahhh4           
,porphyrii de abstinentia4 ,ed4 de      
,roer4 ,trajecti ad ,rhenum1 #agfg4     
,priscianus ,theodorus4 ,euporiston4    
,ed4 ,rose4 ,leipzig1 #ahid4            
,ptolemus4 ,quadripartitum4 ,basile1    
#aeea4      ,ptolemus4 ,centiloquicum4  

,basile1 #aeea4      ,puschmann4        
,handbuch der ,geschichte der ,medicin4 
,jena1 #aijb-jc4      ,rantzovius4      
,catalogus ,imperatorum1 regum ac       
principum qui artem      astrologicam   
amarunt et exercuerunt4 ,lipsi1 #aeha4  
,rantzovius4 ,tractatus astrologicus4   
,francofurti1 #aecc4      v4 ,ringseis4 
,system der ,medicin4 ,regensburg1      
#ahda4      ,sextus ,empiricus4  4 ,ed4 
,becker4 ,berlin1 #ahdb4      ,soranus  
,ephesius4 ,frauenkrankheiten und       
,geburtshlfe4 ,uebersetzt      von      
,lneburg und mit med4 ,noten versehen   
von ,chr4 ,huber4      ,mnchen1 #ahid4  
,sprengel4 ,versuch einer pragmatischen 
,geschichte der ,arzneykunde4           
,halle1 #ahba-ahbh4      ,stich4    4   
,lipsi1 #ahhb4      ,stffler4           
,calendarium romanum magnum4 ,oppenheim1
 #aeah4      ,sudhoff4 ,zur ,geschichte 
der ,lehre von den kritischen ,tagen im 
,krankheitsverlaufe4 ,wiener med4       
,wochenschrift1 #aijb1 ,no4 #e ff4      
,sudhoff4 ,medicinisches aus            

babylonisch-assyrischen                 
,astrologen-,berichten4 ,die            
medicinische ,woche1 #aija1 ,no4 #da4   
,sudhoff4 ,jatromathematiker1 vornemlich
 im #ae4 und #af4 ,jahrhundert4         
,abhandl4 zur ,geschichte der ,medicin4 
,herausgegeben von ,magnus1             
,neuburger1 ,sudhoff4 ,heft ,,ii4       
,breslau1 #aijb4      ,suidas1 ,lexicon4
 ,ed4 ,bekker4 ,berlin1 #ahed4          
,villoison4 ,anecdota grca4 ,venetiis1  
#agha4      ,wierus4 ,de dmonum         
prstigiis et incantationibus libri ,,vi4
 ,basile1      #aeff und #aegg4         
,amstelodami1 #affd4      ,winckler4    
,die ,gesetze ,hammurabis1 ,knigs von   
,babylon4 ,in3 ,der alte      ,orient4  
,jahrgang #d1 ,heft #d4 ,leipzig1 #aijb4
      ,windelband4 ,geschichte der alten
 ,philosophie4 ,handbuch der            
klassischen ,alterthums-,wissenschaft4  
,herausg4 von ,j4 von ,mller4      ,band
 ,v41 ,abth4 #a4 ,mnchen1 #ahid4        
,transcriber's note      ,words in      
italics were surrounded with underscores

 and words in small  capitals with all  
capitals4    ,the following corrections 
were made1 on page       #ah            
8conspiculously0 changed to             
8conspicuously0 7becomes                
conspicuously prominent7     #cj        
8explicity0 changed to 8explicitly0     
7will be more explicitly        referred
 to7     #eg 8,julien0 changed to       
8,julian0 7led her toward the grave of  
,st4 ,julian7     #gg 8guage0 changed to
 8gauge0 7gauge the ideas of priests7   
#ia 8,ephesus7#ejj0 changed to 8,ephesus
 7#ejj0 7the absurd theory which        
,heraclitus of ,ephesus 7#ejj ,b4,c47   
has propounded7    #aaf 8invidual0      
changed to 8individual0 7to plague an   
individual        being7    #aib 8person
 the0 changed to 8the person0 7it was   
not the person who        acted7    #aif
 8manasteries0 changed to 8monasteries0 
7nunneries1 and        monasteries7     
#bjc 8autorisirte0 changed to           
8autorisierte0 7,deutsche autorisierte  
,ausgabe74    ,otherwise the original   

was preserved1 including inconsistent   
hyphenation and possible errors in      
languages other than ,english1  for     
example the capitalisation in ,greek    
sentences4