,transcriber's ,notes ,this e-text is based on the #aiaj edition4 ,the following errors have been corrected4 p4 #fh3 standstone -- sandstone p4 #ga3 bad print image2 south of3 of restored p4 #aca3 exent -- extent ,italic text in the original version has been placed between underscores 7text72 bold passages have been symbolised by hash marks 7text74 ,the caret symbol 77 indicates a superscript letter2 the symbol oe represents the respective ligature4 ,illustration3 ,physical ,map of ,devon ,,cambridge ,,county ,,geographies ,general ,editor3 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,guillemard1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d4 ,,devonshire ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,manager ,illustration ,edinburgh3 #ajj1 ,,princes ,,street ,berlin3 ,a4 ,,asher ,,and ,,co4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,bombay and ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,all rights reserved ,cambridge ,county ,geographies ,,devonshire by ,,francis ,a4 ,,knight ,,and ,,louie ,m4 7,,knight7 ,,dutton ,with ,maps1 ,diagrams and ,illustrations ,cambridge3 at the ,university ,press #aiaj ,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press ,,preface ,in preparing this book much use has been made of the ,proceedings of the ,devonshire ,association and of the first volume of the ,victoria ,history of ,devon4 ,the authors also desire to take this opportunity of recording their grateful thanks to ,her ,gracious ,majesty ,queen ,alexandra for her kindness in providing one of the most interesting illustrations in the volume--the beautiful photograph of the ,armada trophy preserved among the ,royal plate in ,windsor ,castle1 taken for the purpose of this volume by her command4 ,f4 ,a4 ,k4 ,,and ,l4 ,m4 ,d4 ,march1 #aiaj4 ,,contents ,,page #a4 ,county and ,shire4 ,the ,name ,devonshire #a #b4 ,general ,characteristics #d #c4 ,size4 ,shape4 ,boundaries #h #d4 ,surface and ,general ,features #aa #e4 ,watershed4 ,rivers and the tracing of their courses4 ,lakes #bj #f4 ,geology #cj #g4 ,natural ,history #da #h4 ,a ,peregrination of the ,coast3 #a1 ,the ,bristol ,channel #ee #i4 ,a ,peregrination of the ,coast3 #b1 ,the ,english ,channel #fe #aj4 ,coastal ,gains and ,losses4 ,sandbanks4 ,lighthouses #gi #aa4 ,climate and ,rainfall #hh #ab4 ,people--,race4 ,dialects4 ,settlements4 ,population #ig #ac4 ,agriculture--,main ,cultivations4 ,woodlands4 ,stock #ajd #ad4 ,industries and ,manufactures #aaa #ae4 ,mines and ,minerals #aai #af4 ,fisheries and ,fishing ,stations #abd #ag4 ,shipping and ,trade #abi #ah4 ,history of ,devonshire #acf #ai4 ,antiquities #aeb #bj4 ,architecture--7a7 ,ecclesiastical4 ,cathedral1 ,churches1 ,abbeys and ,monastic ,houses #afg #ba4 ,architecture--7b7 ,military4 ,castles #ahe #bb4 ,architecture--7c7 ,domestic4 ,famous ,seats1 ,manor ,houses1 ,farms1 ,cottages #aib #bc4 ,communications3 ,past and ,present--,roads1 ,railways1 ,canals #bjb #bd4 ,administration and ,divisions--,ancient and ,modern #bjh #be4 ,the ,roll of ,honour of the ,county #bac #bf4 ,the ,chief ,towns and ,villages of ,devonshire #bbe ,,illustrations ,,page ,devonshire in the ,exeter ,domesday ,book4 ,phot4 ,worth ,co #c ,king ,tor1 near ,tavistock4 ,phot4 ,frith #e ,a ,typical ,devon ,stream--,watersmeet1 ,lynmouth4 ,phot4 ,coates ,co4 #f ,a ,devon ,valley--,yawl ,bottom1 ,uplyme4 ,phot4 ,frith #g ,glen ,lyn1 near ,lynmouth4 ,phot4 ,coates ,co4 #i ,the ,upper ,dart1 from the ,moors4 ,phot4 ,frith #ab ,tavy ,cleave1 showing disintegrated granite #ad ,on ,lundy #ag ,the ,river ,exe at ,tiverton4 ,phot4 ,frith #ba ,on the ,dart2 ,sharpham ,woods4 ,phot4 ,frith #bd ,the ,axe at ,axminster ,bridge4 ,phot4 ,frith #bf ,bideford and the ,torridge ,estuary4 ,phot4 ,frith #bh ,geological ,section across ,england #cb ,logan ,stone1 ,dartmoor4 ,phot4 ,frith #cd ,a smoothly-weathered granite ,tor1 ,dartmoor4 ,phot4 ,frith #cf ,footprints of ,cheirotherium4 ,phot4 ,h4 ,g4 ,herring #ch ,a ,red ,deer4 ,phot4 ,h4 ,g4 ,herring #dc ,otters4 ,phot4 ,h4 ,g4 ,herring #dd ,spurge ,hawk ,moth1 with ,pupa and ,caterpillar4 ,phot4 ,h4 ,g4 ,herring #ea ,the ,castle ,rock1 ,lynton4 ,phot4 ,coates ,co4 #ef ,valley of ,rocks1 ,lynton4 ,phot4 ,frith #eg ,ilfracombe1 from ,hillsborough4 ,phot4 ,coates ,co4 #ei ,cliffs near ,clovelly4 ,phot4 ,frith #fc ,clovelly ,harbour #fd ,church ,rock1 ,clovelly4 ,phot4 ,frith #fe ,pinhay ,landslip4 ,phot4 ,frith #fg ,white ,cliff1 ,seaton4 ,phot4 ,barrett #fh ,parson and ,clerk ,rocks1 ,dawlish4 ,phot4 ,frith #gj ,anstis ,cove1 near ,torquay4 ,phot4 ,frith #ga ,torquay from ,vane ,hill4 ,phot4 ,frith #gb ,brixham4 ,phot4 ,frith #gd ,britannia and ,hindostan in ,dartmouth ,harbour4 ,phot4 ,frith #ge ,a ,rough ,sea at ,ilfracombe4 ,phot4 ,frith #ha ,the ,eddystone ,lighthouse4 ,phot4 ,frith #hd ,the ,start ,lighthouse4 ,phot4 ,frith #hg ,the ,winter ,garden at ,torquay4 ,phot4 ,frith #ij ,upcott ,lane1 ,bideford4 ,phot4 ,frith #id ,a ,cockle ,woman1 ,river ,exe4 ,phot4 ,frith #aja ,a ,honiton ,lace-,worker4 ,phot4 ,frith #ajb ,old ,ford ,farm1 ,bideford4 ,phot4 ,frith #aje ,exmoor ,ponies4 ,phot4 ,sport and ,general ,illustrations ,co4 #ajf ,red ,devon ,cow #ajg ,gathering ,cider ,apples #aji ,a ,water-mill at ,uplyme4 ,phot4 ,frith #aaj ,devonshire ,lace #aac ,devonshire ,pottery from the ,watcombe ,works #aae ,cider-making in the #agth ,century #aaf ,a ,modern ,cider ,press #aag ,ship-building ,yard1 ,brixham4 ,phot4 ,frith #aah ,devon ,great ,consols ,mine4 ,phot4 ,frith #aba ,stone ,quarry1 ,beer4 ,phot4 ,frith #abc ,fish ,market at ,brixham4 ,phot4 ,lake #abf ,brixham ,trawlers4 ,phot4 ,frith #abh ,teignmouth4 ,phot4 ,coates ,co41 ,bristol #acc ,drake's ,island from ,mt4 ,edgcumbe4 ,phot4 ,frith #ace ,penny of ,ethelred ,,ii1 struck at ,exeter4 ,phot4 ,worth ,co4 #aci ,signatures of ,drake and ,hawkyns #adc ,flagon taken by ,drake from the ,capitana of the ,armada4 ,from a photograph taken by the ,queen's command #add ,drake's ,drum4 ,from a photograph presented by ,lady ,eliott ,drake #ade ,the ,mayflower ,stone on ,plymouth ,quay4 ,phot4 ,frith #adf ,palaeolithic ,implement from ,kent's ,cavern #aeb ,dolmen near ,drewsteignton4 ,phot4 ,mr ,john ,s4 ,amery #aed ,palstave of the ,bronze ,age1 from ,exeter ,museum4 ,phot4 ,worth ,co #aee ,fernworthy ,circle1 near ,chagford4 ,phot4 ,frith #aef ,hurston ,stone ,alignment4 ,phot4 ,mr ,john ,s4 ,amery #aeg ,triple ,stone ,row and ,circle near ,headlands1 ,dartmoor4 ,phot4 ,mr ,john ,s4 ,amery #aeh ,bronze ,centaur forming the ,head of a ,roman ,standard4 ,phot4 ,worth ,co #afb ,saxon ,sword-hilt #afd ,cyclopean ,bridge1 ,dartmoor4 ,phot4 ,frith #aff ,norman ,doorway1 ,axminster ,church4 ,phot4 ,miss ,e4 ,k4 ,prideaux #afi ,ottery ,st ,mary ,church4 ,phot4 ,frith #agj ,decorated ,window1 ,exeter ,cathedral4 ,phot4 ,worth ,co4 #aga ,rood ,screen and ,pulpit1 ,harberton ,church4 ,phot4 ,crossley1 ,knutsford #agd ,the ,seymour ,tomb1 ,berry ,pomeroy ,church4 ,phot4 ,frith4 #agg ,exeter ,cathedral1 ,west ,front4 ,phot4 ,worth ,co4 #agi ,the ,nave1 ,exeter ,cathedral4 ,phot4 ,worth ,co4 #aha ,buckland ,abbey from a photograph presented by ,lady ,eliott ,drake #ahd ,compton ,castle4 ,phot4 ,e4 ,kelly #ahi ,an ,old ,devon ,farmhouse ,chimney ,corner4 ,phot4 ,miss ,e4 ,k4 ,prideaux #aic ,hayes ,barton3 ,sir ,walter ,ralegh's ,house4 ,phot4 ,miss ,e4 ,k4 ,prideaux #aif ,mol's ,coffee ,house1 ,exeter4 ,phot4 ,s4 ,a4 ,moore of ,exeter #aih ,sydenham ,house #aii ,dartmouth3 ,old ,houses in the ,high ,street4 ,phot4 ,frith #bja ,newton ,village4 ,phot4 ,frith #bjb ,teignmouth3 the ,coast ,line and ,sea-wall4 ,phot4 ,frith #bjf ,the ,guildhall1 ,exeter4 ,phot4 ,frith #baa ,sir ,francis ,drake #bad ,sir ,walter ,ralegh4 ,phot4 ,emery ,walker4 ,signature4 ,phot4 ,worth ,co #baf ,charles ,kingsley4 ,phot4 ,emery ,walker #bbj ,blundell's ,school1 ,tiverton4 ,phot4 ,frith #bbb ,samuel ,taylor ,coleridge4 ,phot4 ,emery ,walker #bbc ,clovelly4 ,phot4 ,frith #bbh ,dartmouth1 from ,warfleet4 ,phot4 ,frith #bcj ,cherry ,bridge1 near ,lynmouth4 ,phot4 ,frith #bcd ,lynmouth ,harbour4 ,phot4 ,coates ,co4 #bce ,ogwell ,mill1 ,newton ,abbot4 ,phot4 ,frith #bcg ,shute ,manor ,house4 ,phot4 ,barrett #bdj ,tiverton ,bridge4 ,phot4 ,frith #bda ,diagrams #bdc ,,maps ,devonshire1 ,topographical ,front ,cover ,devonshire1 ,geological ,back ,cover ,england and ,wales1 showing ,annual ,rainfall #ib ,the authors are indebted to ,mr ,john ,s4 ,amery for leave to reproduce the pictures on pp4 #aed1 #aeg and #aeh4 #a4 ,county and ,shire4 ,the ,name ,devonshire4 ,the word shire1 which is probably derived1 like shear and share1 from an ,anglo-,saxon root meaning to cut1 was at one time used in a wider sense than it is at present1 and was formerly applied to a division of a county or even of a town4 ,thus1 there were once six small shires in ,cornwall4 ,the word shire was in use at the time of ,king ,ina1 and occurs in the code of laws which that monarch drew up about the year #gji2 but the actual division of ,england into shires was a gradual process1 and was not complete at the ,norman ,conquest4 ,lancashire1 for example1 was not constituted a shire until the twelfth century4 ,alterations in the extent and limits of some of the counties are1 indeed1 still being made2 and in the case of ,devonshire the boundaries have been changed several times within the memory of persons still living4 ,the object of thus dividing up the country was partly military and partly financial4 ,every shire was bound to provide a certain number of armed men to fight the king's battles1 and was also bound to contribute a certain sum of money towards his income and the expenses of the state2 and in each district a shire-reeve--or sheriff1 as we call the officer now--was appointed by the ,crown to see that the people did their duty in both respects4 ,the shire was a ,saxon institution4 ,county is a ,norman word1 which came into use after the ,conquest1 when the government of each shire was entrusted to some powerful noble1 often a count1 a title which originally meant a companion of the ,king4 ,it has been suggested that the reason why the names of some counties end or may end in shire1 while in other cases this syllable is never used1 is that the former were shorn off from some larger district1 while the latter represent entire ancient kingdoms or tribal divisions4 ,according to this theory1 ,yorkshire is a shire because it originally formed part of the kingdom of ,northumbria2 and ,kent is not a shire because it practically represents the ancient kingdom of the ,cantii4 ,the form ,kent-shire is1 however1 found in a record of the time of ,athelstan4 ,in the case of our own county both forms are in use1 and we say either ,devon or ,devonshire1 although the two names are not exactly interchangeable4 ,thus1 while we generally talk of ,red ,devon cattle1 we always speak of ,devonshire cream4 ,devon1 which is the older form1 may be derived either from ,dumnonii1 the name given by ,ptolemy1 an ,alexandrian geographer of the second century1 to the inhabitants of the south-west of ,britain1 perhaps from a ,celtic word ,dumnos1 people--or it may come from the old ,welsh word ,dyvnaint or ,dyfneint1 the land of the deeps1 that is to say1 of deep valleys or deep seas4 ,to the ,saxon settlers the people they found in possession of the district were ,defn-saetan or dwellers in ,devon2 and in time these settlers called themselves ,defenas1 or men of ,devon4 ,in the ,exeter ,domesday ,book--the ,norman survey of the five south-western counties1 completed probably before #ajhf--the name of the county is given as ,devenesira4 ,it would appear1 then1 that the ,britons called their province ,devon1 and that the ,saxons called it ,devonshire4 ,it is characteristic of the peaceable nature of the ,saxon occupation that the two names1 like the two nations1 seem to have quietly settled down side by side4 ,illustration3 ,devonshire in the ,exeter ,domesday ,book ,it is believed that it was ,alfred the ,great who marked out the border-line between ,devon and ,somerset2 and it was undoubtedly ,athelstan who1 after his victory over the ,west ,welsh1 made the ,tamar the boundary between ,devon and ,cornwall4 #b4 ,general ,characteristics4 ,devonshire is a county in the extreme south-west of ,england1 occupying the greater part of the peninsula between the ,english and ,bristol ,channels1 and having a coast-line both on the south and on the north4 ,situated thus1 on two seas1 and possessing1 especially on its southern sea-board1 a remarkable number of bays and estuaries1 it has always been noted as a maritime county4 ,and although many of its harbours have1 in the lapse of ages1 become silted up with sand or shingle1 and are now of comparatively slight importance1 it has one great sea-port1 which1 while only thirtieth in rank among ,british commercial ports1 is the greatest naval station in the ,empire4 ,the county has in the past been famous for its cloth-weaving and for its tin and copper-mining1 but these industries are now greatly decayed1 and the main occupation of the people is agriculture1 to which both the soil and the climate are particularly favourable4 ,illustration3 ,king ,tor1 near ,tavistock ,a special characteristic of ,devonshire is its scenery1 which is so striking that it is very generally considered the most beautiful county in ,england2 while there are probably very many who regard its mild and genial1 equable and health-giving climate as more noteworthy still4 ,it is a remarkably hilly country1 and it also possesses not only many rivers1 but a great number of broad river estuaries4 ,another characteristic with which every visitor to the district is struck is the redness which distinguishes its soil1 its southern cliffs1 and its famous breed of cattle1 which is not less noticeable than the soft and pleasant dialect1 with its close sound of the letter u so typical both of ,devon and of ,west ,somerset4 ,illustration3 ,a ,typical ,devon ,stream--,watersmeet1 ,lynmouth ,another characteristic of the people has always been their loyalty to their sovereign1 to their county1 and to each other4 ,devon is proverbial1 like ,cornwall and ,yorkshire1 for the clannishness of its inhabitants4 ,it is a land1 too1 where superstition dies hard4 ,belief in pixies--fairies1 as they are called elsewhere--in witches and witch-craft1 in whisht-hounds and other weird and uncanny creatures1 and in portents and omens1 still lingers1 especially on ,dartmoor4 ,illustration3 ,a ,devon ,valley--,yawl ,bottom1 ,uplyme ,dartmoor itself1 with its wild and picturesque scenery1 its unrivalled wealth of prehistoric antiquities1 and its singular geological structure1 forms one of the most striking features of the county1 and one to which there is no parallel in ,england4 ,the marine zoology of ,devonshire is more interesting than that of any other ,english county1 and nowhere else in the island has there been discovered clearer evidence of the great antiquity of man than was found in ,kent's ,cavern and other ,devonshire caves4 ,above all things1 its position has made ,devonshire a native land of heroes4 ,very few other counties have produced so many men of mark1 so many men of enterprise and daring4 ,certainly no other has played a greater part in the expansion of ,england4 ,from ,devonshire came not only some of the most distinguished seamen of the ,golden ,age of ,elizabeth1 some of the most skilful and daring of her naval captains1 but some of the earliest and most famous of our explorers2 the founder of the first ,english colony1 the first ,englishman to sail the polar sea1 the first ,englishman to circumnavigate the globe4 #c4 ,size4 ,shape4 ,boundaries4 ,devonshire1 which occupies rather more than one-twenty-second of the whole area of ,england and ,wales1 is one of the largest counties in the ,british ,islands1 being exceeded in size only by ,yorkshire and ,lincoln in ,england1 by ,inverness and ,argyll in ,scotland1 and by ,cork in ,ireland4 ,its extreme length from east to west1 measured along a horizontal line drawn through the middle of the county1 starting at the ,dorsetshire border half-way between ,lyme ,cobb and the ,seven ,rocks ,point1 passing close to the city of ,exeter1 and reaching to the point where the river ,ottery enters the county1 is #fg miles2 exactly the same as that of the county of ,somerset4 ,its greatest breadth1 from ,countisbury ,foreland on the north coast to ,prawle ,point on the south1 is #ga miles4 ,it may be added that a longer east and west line can be drawn only in ,yorkshire and ,sussex1 and a longer meridional line only in ,yorkshire and ,lincoln4 ,the area of the ,ancient or ,geographical county of ,devonshire1 according to the revised return furnished by the ,ordnance ,department1 is #a1ffg1aed acres1 or #bfje square miles4 ,compared with the counties that adjoin it1 it is two-and-a-half times the size of ,dorset1 it is roughly twice as large as ,cornwall1 and it is more than half as large again as ,somerset4 ,it is fifteen times as large as ,rutland1 it is about half the size of ,yorkshire1 and its area is less than that of ,lincolnshire by only #dh square miles4 ,illustration3 ,glen ,lyn1 near ,lynmouth ,although usually said to be irregular in form1 the outline of the county has a certain degree of symmetry1 being roughly shaped like a life-guardsman's cuirass1 with nearly equal sides1 with a small hollow at the top or north coast1 and a much larger one at the bottom or south coast4 ,devonshire1 like ,kent and ,cornwall1 is bounded on two sides by the sea1 having the ,bristol ,channel on the north and north-west1 and the ,english ,channel on the south4 ,on its western side the river ,tamar1 with its tributary the ,ottery1 forms almost the whole of the frontier between it and ,cornwall4 ,the eastern and north-eastern border is less definite1 but is roughly marked by ,exmoor and the ,blackdown ,hills1 which partly separate ,devonshire from ,somerset4 ,the short length of frontier between ,devonshire and ,dorsetshire is marked by no natural feature4 ,no part of ,devonshire is now1 as was formerly the case1 wholly surrounded by any other county4 ,three of its parishes1 however1 are partly in ,dorset1 one is partly in ,cornwall1 and one1 a district of ,exmoor containing no houses or inhabitants1 is partly in ,somerset4 ,culmstock1 which before #ahdb was considered to belong to ,somerset1 although completely islanded in ,devon1 and ,stockland and ,dalwood1 which were reckoned with ,dorset1 although they were entirely inside the ,devonshire border1 have now been formally transferred to this county4 ,on the other hand1 ,thornecombe and ,ford ,abbey1 which belonged to ,devonshire although they were situate in the adjoining county1 have been handed over to ,dorset4 ,still later alterations were the transfer of ,hawkchurch and ,churchstanton from ,dorset to ,devon in #ahif4 #d4 ,surface and ,general ,features4 ,devonshire is characterised by such great irregularity and unevenness of surface that practically the only level land in it is along the shores of its estuaries2 with the almost inevitable result that it is one of the most picturesque and beautiful counties in ,england4 ,its scenery has been very greatly affected by subterranean movements1 which have not only roughly shaped its hills and valleys1 partly by upheaval and partly by the shrinkage of the earth's crust1 but have been the principal cause of the breadth of the river estuaries which are so marked a feature of its coasts1 especially of the south4 ,at many points along the shore of ,devonshire there is evidence1 in raised sea-beaches1 and1 near ,torquay1 in the borings of marine mollusca at a great height above the present tide-line1 of upheavals that must have raised the whole coast1 even if they did not materially change the contour of the country4 ,on the other hand1 the existence of submerged forests at many places near the shore proves that the land has sunk at least forty feet1 thus allowing the sea to flow further inland2 thereby greatly widening the already existing valleys1 which had been formed in part by the shrinkage of the earth's crust1 and in part by the action of the rivers4 ,illustration3 ,the ,upper ,dart1 from the ,moors ,the chief physical feature of ,devonshire1 a feature without parallel in any other part of ,england1 is the ,forest of ,dartmoor1 the great upland1 some twenty miles long and eighteen miles broad1 which occupies so large a part of the southern half of the county4 ,it is all granite1 the largest mass of granite in ,england1 and forms part of a chain of outcrops of that formation extending from ,devonshire to the ,scilly ,isles4 ,the word forest1 it should be remembered1 originally meant1 not a wood1 but a hunting-ground4 ,no part of the open moor is now covered with trees1 nor is it likely1 considering the poorness of the soil1 that it ever was so covered1 although roots and other remains of trees have been found in various parts of it4 ,in early days it was a royal hunting-ground1 and most of it is still ,crown property1 forming part of the ,duchy of ,cornwall4 ,the most prominent feature of the moor1 which contains the highest ground in ,england south of ,ingleborough in ,yorkshire1 are the isolated rocky heights called tors1 some #agj in number1 many of which have been weathered1 not only into very rugged and highly picturesque1 but even into most strange and fantastic shapes2 in many cases having their steep slopes strewn with fallen fragments of rock1 some of them tons in weight1 forming what are known on the moor as clitters or clatters4 ,the highest points are ,high ,willhays1 #bjci feet2 ,yes ,tor1 #bjbi feet1 only half a mile away from its rival1 ,newlake1 #aihc feet2 ,cuthill1 #aihj feet2 and ,great ,lynx ,tor1 #aijh feet above sea-level2 and among the most striking and picturesque are ,great ,lynx ,tor1 ,staple ,tor1 ,mis ,tor1 and ,vixen ,tor1 although many others are remarkable for their strange and time-worn outlines4 ,the moor is seamed by many valleys and ravines1 not a few of which are1 in parts1 well-wooded1 each with its swiftly-flowing stream or river1 and many of them most picturesque and beautiful4 ,such1 in particular1 are the ,valley of the ,dart1 especially including ,holne ,chase and above2 of the ,teign near ,fingle ,bridge2 of the ,tavy at ,tavy ,cleave2 of the ,lyd at ,lydford1 and of the ,plym at the ,dewerstone4 ,illustration3 ,tavy ,cleave1 showing disintegrated granite ,dartmoor is distinguished in being the coldest and rainiest part of ,devonshire1 and to these two features of its climate are no doubt largely due the fogs which so frequently envelope it4 ,its great extent and its heavy rainfall make the moor the main watershed of the county4 ,most of its rivers have their sources in the bogs1 which are a well-known and somewhat dangerous feature of the district1 and of which the most remarkable are ,fox ,tor ,mire1 ,cranmere ,bog1 and ,cuthill ,bog4 ,its varied and peculiar features1 its vast expanses of wild and desolate moorland1 now aglow with golden gorse1 and now still more splendid with the magnificent purple of its broad sheets of heather or with the warm hues of dying bracken1 and beautiful1 as the seasons change1 with the varying tints of grass and sedge1 of ferns and rushes1 of moss and bog-myrtle and bilberry1 of cotton-grass and asphodel2 the almost unrivalled beauty of its river-valleys1 its multitudinous streams1 its wild life1 its extraordinary wealth of prehistoric antiquities1 its lingering superstitions of pixies1 of witch-craft1 of night-flying whisht-hounds and ghostly huntsmen1 its very solitude and silence1 combine to make ,dartmoor1 to the antiquary and the artist1 the naturalist and the angler1 one of the most attractive spots in ,england1 and one whose charm poets1 painters1 and authors have striven from earliest days to immortalise4 ,the greater part of ,exmoor1 and all its principal heights1 are in ,somerset1 but it extends into the north-eastern corner of ,devon1 and detached portions of it1 which appear to be really parts of the same upland1 reach to the hills above ,combe ,martin4 ,part of ,span ,head1 whose summit is #afai feet above the sea1 is in our county2 and the outlying spurs of ,bratton ,down1 ,kentisbury ,down1 and the ,great ,hangman are all over #ajjj feet high4 ,there is very beautiful scenery on ,exmoor1 especially on the ,somerset side of the border1 somewhat resembling that on ,dartmoor1 although less wild and picturesque1 and without any of the tors which are so characteristic of the greater upland4 ,exmoor is the only part of ,england where red deer still run wild2 and the district is visited every year by stag-hunters from all parts of the island and especially from ,ireland4 ,both it and ,dartmoor are famous for a breed of sturdy little ponies1 originally1 no doubt1 of the same stock4 ,in the ,badgeworthy ,valley1 which is in ,somerset1 although not far from ,lynton1 may be seen what are said to be the ruined huts of the ,doones1 a community of freebooters immortalised by ,blackmore1 who represents them as having been the terror of the country-side towards the close of the seventeenth century4 ,other ,devonshire hills are the ,black ,downs1 along the border of ,somerset1 in which the highest point is #hfj feet above the sea2 another ,black ,down1 six miles due south1 reaching #icj feet2 the ,great ,haldons1 south-west of ,exeter1 #hag feet high2 and ,dumpdon ,hill1 about two miles north by east of ,honiton1 #hef feet above sea-level4 ,devonshire is in parts extremely fertile1 especially towards the south1 and it has been called 7in common1 it is true1 with other counties7 the ,garden of ,england4 ,two very large and specially productive areas are the ,vale of ,exeter1 and the ,south ,hams1--the latter a name somewhat indefinitely applied to the district south of ,dartmoor and occupying a large part of the region between the ,teign and the ,plym1 with ,kingsbridge as its chief centre4 ,the great fertility of this famous district is due partly to the nature of the soil1 partly to the mildness of the climate and the shelter afforded by the heights of ,dartmoor1 and partly to its nearness to the sea4 ,illustration3 ,on ,lundy ,a very remarkable and interesting feature of ,devonshire is ,lundy--an island three miles long by one mile broad1 lying out in the ,bristol ,channel1 opposite ,barnstaple ,bay1 and twelve miles north-north-west of ,hartland ,point4 ,its name1 it is believed1 is derived from two ,norse words meaning ,puffin ,isle4 ,composed entirely of granite1 except for its southern extremity1 which is millstone grit1 its lofty cliffs are very wild and rugged and picturesque1 and for two miles along its eastern side there is a remarkable series of chasms1 from three to twenty feet wide and some of them of great depth1 known to the islanders as the ,earthquakes4 ,the shingle beach at the south-eastern corner1 in the shelter of ,rat ,island1 is the only landing-place1 but many vessels find good anchorage on the eastern side1 well protected from westerly winds4 ,many ships1 however1 have been wrecked among the terrible rocks round its base1 including the battleship ,montagu1 lost in #aijf1 and1 according to tradition1 one of the galleons of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,there is a lighthouse at each end of the island1 and the southern one is the most powerful in ,devonshire4 ,perhaps the greatest charm of ,lundy lies1 as will be shown in some detail in a later chapter1 in its natural history1 especially in the vast numbers of birds which visit it in the breeding season4 ,among very rare stragglers that have been shot here is the ,iceland falcon1 a species of which very few examples have been recorded for this country4 ,a few plants and insects are peculiar to the spot4 ,there are now few trees1 except those planted not long ago near the owner's house in a cleft at the south-eastern end1 but some shrubs1 such as fuchsias1 hydrangeas1 and rhododendrons grow to a great size1 and the mesembryanthemums are particularly vigorous and beautiful4 ,granite for the ,thames ,embankment was obtained here1 but the quarries have long been closed1 and farming is the chief industry of the few inhabitants4 ,there are evidences of very ancient occupation1 in the shape of kistvaens1 tumuli1 and the foundations of primitive dwellings2 and in times more recent the island has had a stirring history4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,ii it was held by the turbulent family of the ,montmorencies or ,moriscos1 and the shell of ,morisco ,castle1 now converted into cottages1 still stands on the south-east corner of the island4 ,during the ,civil ,war it was fortified for the king1 and only surrendered in #afdg4 ,at various times in the seventeenth century it was captured by ,french1 ,spaniards1 and ,algerines2 and it was1 moreover1 several times occupied by pirates1 some of whom were ,englishmen1 who found it a convenient station from which to plunder ships sailing up the ,bristol ,channel4 #e4 ,watershed4 ,rivers and the tracing of their courses4 ,lakes4 ,devonshire is a well-watered county1 a county of many rivers2 and although not one of its multitudinous streams is of real commercial importance or of much value as a water-way1 by their mere abundance and by the beauty of their scenery1 especially of the magnificent ravines which many of them in the lapse of ages have worn deep in the rock1 they form one of its most striking features4 ,by far the most important watershed is the great upland of ,dartmoor1 where1 with few exceptions1 rise all the principal rivers4 ,the headwaters of the ,tamar and the ,torridge--which rise close together1 but flow in very different directions and reach different seas--are in the high ground in the north-west1 on the very border of ,cornwall1 and the sources of the ,exe and of its great twin stream the ,barle are on the moor to which the former gives its name1 just inside the county of ,somerset4 ,but the tributaries of all these are drawn from the bogs of ,dartmoor1 and especially from the morasses round the now insignificant sheet of water known as ,cranmere ,pool4 ,the whole eastern border of the county1 from ,exmoor southward to the ,blackdown ,hills1 is a source of streams4 ,such are the ,lyn1 flowing into the ,bristol ,channel2 the ,bray1 the ,yeo1 and the ,mole1 tributaries of the ,taw2 the ,loman1 the ,culm1 and the ,clyst1 tributaries of the ,exe2 the ,otter1 falling into the ,english ,channel2 and the ,yarty1 a tributary of the ,axe4 ,it is remarkable that of all the many streams of ,devonshire1 only two of any consequence reach the estuary of the ,severn4 ,almost all flow into the ,english ,channel4 ,illustration3 ,the ,river ,exe at ,tiverton ,the longest of the ,devonshire rivers is the ,exe1 after which are named ,exford and ,exton in ,somerset1 and ,exeter and ,exmouth in our own county--a strong and beautiful stream which rises near ,simonsbath on ,exmoor1 flowing for the first twenty miles through ,somerset and crossing the ,devonshire border near ,dulverton station1 where it is met1 on the left bank1 by its great tributary the ,barle4 ,it then runs nearly due south1 through well-wooded and fertile country1 being joined on its left bank1 at ,tiverton1 the town of the two fords1 by the ,loman2 and farther down on the same side by the ,culm1 which gives its name to ,culmstock4 ,near ,exeter it receives on the right bank the ,creedy1 a pretty and winding stream that lends its name to ,crediton1 and along whose shores in some of the richest land in ,devonshire4 ,a little below ,exeter1 close to the once famous port of ,topsham1 it is joined on the left bank by the ,clyst1 a small and unimportant stream1 flowing through most fertile country1 and giving its name to no fewer than seven villages4 ,below ,topsham the ,exe widens out to nearly a mile1 forming1 at high tide1 from this point to the sea1 a noble estuary five miles long1 with the popular watering-place of ,exmouth on the slope of the eastern side of its entrance1 which is almost closed by a long sandbank called the ,warren1 divided into two parts by a stream4 ,until late in the thirteenth century the ,exe was navigable from the sea to ,exeter4 ,but in #abij ,isabella de ,fortibus1 ,countess of ,devon1 having quarrelled with the citizens1 blocked the river-bed with stones1 at a place still called the ,countess ,weir1 leaving1 however1 sufficient room for ships to pass4 ,at a later period this space was closed by the ,earl of ,devon1 and the navigation of the river entirely stopped4 ,vessels now reach ,exeter by a canal4 ,the second river in point of length is the ,tamar1 after which are named ,north ,tamerton in ,cornwall and ,tamerton ,foliott in our own county4 ,rising in the extreme north-west1 in the high ground that parts ,devonshire from ,cornwall1 it forms almost the whole of the dividing line between the two counties1 and is characterised throughout the lower portion of its course by some very beautiful scenery4 ,it is joined by many streams1 some rising in ,devonshire and some in ,cornwall2 some of which--the ,lyd1 for example--are renowned for their wildness and beauty4 ,the largest of the western tributaries is the ,lynher1 entirely a ,cornish river1 whose estuary joins the ,hamoaze4 ,the most important of those on the left bank is the ,tavy1 a ,dartmoor-drawn stream1 giving its name to the town of ,tavistock and to the villages of ,peter ,tavy and ,mary ,tavy1 and flowing through some of the most fruitful land in ,devonshire4 ,a particularly fertile district is that lying between the ,tavy and the ,tamar4 ,although it is a much shorter river than the ,exe or the ,tamar1 the ,dart is better known than either1 and is perhaps the most familiar by name of all the ,devonshire streams4 ,along its banks1 especially near ,holne and ,buckland-in-the-,moor1 and along the wooded shores of its magnificent estuary1 is some of the most beautiful river-scenery1 not in this county only but in all ,england4 ,the most important of its many tributaries are the ,east and the ,west ,dart--both of which rise in the great bog round ,cranmere ,pool1 and join at a picturesque spot called ,dartmeet--and the ,webburns1 ,east and ,west4 ,below ,totnes the ,dart widens out into a long and most beautiful estuary1 winding among finely-wooded hills4 ,on the west side of its entrance is the old port of ,dartmouth1 named1 like ,dartington1 after the river1 and on the opposite shore is the smaller but equally picturesque little town of ,kingswear4 ,illustration3 ,on the ,dart2 ,sharpham ,woods ,famous as the ,dart is for the wildness and beauty of its scenery1 and for the excellence of its trout and salmon fishing1 it has an evil name for the dangerous nature of its swiftly-flowing waters1 which1 after heavy rain on the moor1 rise with extraordinary rapidity1 changing it in a few hours from a peaceful and easily-forded stream into a raging and resistless torrent4 ,at ,hexworthy1 in ,november1 #ahid1 the river rose ten and a half feet above the level of the previous day4 ,characteristic of this as the other of the moorland streams1 is the strange sound it sometimes makes1 especially towards nightfall1 known as its cry1 and believed by the superstitious to be ominous of flood and danger4 ,to hear the ,broadstones crying--masses of granite lying in the bed of the stream--is considered by the moor-folk a sure sign of coming rain4 ,the ,dartmoor rivers1 in the upper part of their courses1 are naturally all swift1 and are all more or less tinged by the peat of their moorland birth-place--lightly1 when the stream is low1 and deepening in flood-time into the colour of a rich cairngorm4 ,the ,teign1 another of the streams that rise in the ,cranmere bog1 is famous both for the beauty of the scenery along its winding shores and for the many prehistoric antiquities--stone circles and alignments1 menhirs and tumuli--which stand near them4 ,its two main branches1 the ,north and the ,south ,teign1 meet about a mile to the west of ,chagford4 ,to the east of that moorland village the river flows through beautifully wooded valleys1 and is joined on its right bank1 below ,chudleigh1 by another ,dartmoor tributary1 the ,bovey1 on which stand ,bovey ,tracy1 famous for its beds of lignite and clay and for its potteries1 and ,north ,bovey1 near which are the remains of the very remarkable ,bronze ,age village of ,grimspound4 ,below ,newton ,abbot the ,teign becomes a broad estuary1 on or near whose shores are five of the townships that are named after the river1 the most important of which is the little port and well-known watering-place of ,teignmouth4 ,the river mouth is almost blocked by a low promontory1 which1 although now built over1 was once a mere sand-bank or dune1 from which latter word1 no doubt1 it takes its name of the ,den4 ,illustration3 ,the ,axe at ,axminster ,bridge ,other south-coast rivers are the ,axe--one of whose two main branches rises in ,somerset and the other in ,dorset--which gives its name to ,axminster and ,axmouth2 the ,otter1 which rises in the ,blackdown ,hills1 and flowing past ,honiton1 ,ottery ,st ,mary1 and ,otterton1 reaches the sea at ,budleigh ,salterton2 the ,aune or ,avon1 especially famous for its salmon1 the ,erme1 and the slopes ,yealm1 small but beautiful streams rising on the southern slopes of ,dartmoor1 widening into estuaries as they near the ,english ,channel1 and giving names to ,aveton1 ,ermington1 and ,yealmpton1 respectively4 ,the ,plym1 after which are named ,plympton1 ,plymouth1 and ,plymstock1 is another ,dartmoor river1 flowing through some very beautiful country1 especially in the neighbourhood of ,bickleigh1 and at length forming a broad and important estuary known first as the ,laira1 and lower down as the ,catwater or ,cattewater1 which joins ,plymouth ,sound4 ,the chief rivers on the north coast are the ,torridge and the ,taw1 the former of which1 rising in the extreme north-west1 on the ,cornish border1 near the source of the ,tamar1 flows south-west for nearly half its course1 and then sweeps round to run in the opposite direction1 giving its name to three several ,torringtons1 and having as its chief tributaries the ,walden1 the ,lew1 and the ,okement1 all on its right bank4 ,the last-named stream is formed of the ,east and the ,west ,okements1 which meet at ,okehampton1 their namesake4 ,the lower waters of the ,torridge form a long and narrow estuary--its shore only ten miles distant from the original source of the river--half-way down which is the once important port of ,bideford1 built on both sides of the stream1 which is here spanned by a very ancient bridge4 ,near the entrance of the estuary1 but neither of them on the open sea1 are ,appledore1 the port of ,barnstaple1 and ,instow1 a small but growing watering-place4 ,the ,taw is a ,dartmoor-drawn river1 rising1 like so many streams1 in the ,cranmere bog1 giving its name to ,tawstock and to three several ,tawtons1 and receiving on its right bank the ,yeo1 the ,little ,dart1 and the ,mole4 ,the most considerable town on it is ,barnstaple1 beyond which it becomes a broad tidal estuary1 joining that of the ,torridge1 and flowing out into what is known both as ,barnstaple and ,bideford ,bay4 ,illustration3 ,bideford and the ,torridge ,estuary ,many small streams fall into the ,bristol ,channel1 among which is the ,lyn1 renowned for its beautiful scenery and its good trout-fishing4 ,a large proportion of the ,celtic words in our language are found in the names of natural features1 especially of hills and rivers4 ,this is particularly well seen in ,devonshire1 where1 as has been pointed out1 the ,saxons came as settlers rather than conquerors1 adopting many of the names which they found already in use1 and where an unusually large number of towns and villages have been called after the streams on which they stand4 ,the names ,exe1 ,axe1 and ,okement1 from the ,celtic uisge2 ,avon1 ,aune1 and ,auney1 from afon2 ,dart1 from dwr2 and ,teign1 from tain1 are all derived from roots meaning water4 ,other names are taken from descriptive adjectives1 such as ,wrey1 from rea1 rapid2 ,lyn1 from lleven1 smooth2 and ,tamar1 ,taw1 and ,tavy1 from tam1 spreading or still4 ,the lakes of ,devonshire1 as is the case in the majority of ,english counties1 are little more than ponds4 ,cranmere ,pool1 in the great morass where many ,devonshire rivers rise1 lying in a dreary spot1 as befits the reputed place of punishment of evil spirits1 has shrunk of late years in consequence of much peat-cutting in its neighbourhood1 and is now an insignificant pond1 rarely more than seventy yards across1 and in hot summers sometimes quite dry4 ,bradmere ,pool and ,classenwell ,pool1 the sites of old mine-workings1 are beautiful little lakes1 but they are only a few acres in extent4 ,burrator ,reservoir has been made in order to supply water to ,plymouth4 ,the largest of these miniature lakes is ,slapton ,ley1 or ,lea1 a long and narrow sheet of water1 two and a quarter miles in length and measuring about #bjj acres1 separated from the sea1 with which it was no doubt once connected1 by a bank of fine shingle4 ,the reeds of its north-eastern end1 which are cut and sold for thatching1 are the haunt of many water-birds2 and the ,ley is visited in winter by immense numbers of migratory ducks and waders4 #f4 ,geology4 ,three main points characterise the geological features of ,devonshire2 the simplicity of the system in the west1 north-centre and south-west of the county2 the comparative complexity and variety of the strata in the east and south2 and1 most remarkable of all1 the extraordinary number of outcrops of igneous rock1 from the great mass of ,dartmoor granite1 which has no parallel in ,england1 to the hundreds of small dykes or elvans that are scattered chiefly over the southern region1 although some occur to the north and east of ,dartmoor4 ,the oldest rocks in ,devonshire are probably not1 as was once thought1 the granites1 but the highly altered or metamorphic formations in the extreme south2 that is to say1 the mica and quartz schists and the hornblende epidote schists which extend from near ,start ,point to ,bolt ,tail1 a district which1 owing in great measure to distortion by volcanic upheaval1 includes some of the most picturesque scenery in ,devon4 ,next in order of age is the series called ,devonian1 after the name of the county1 in which they were first distinguished from the ,old ,red ,sandstone4 ,they are1 however1 by no means confined to ,devonshire1 but are very widely distributed1 covering a large part of ,cornwall1 and occurring on the continent of ,europe1 especially in ,russia1 and in ,asia and ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the ,devonian beds--which are found both in the north and south1 occupying two distinct areas separated by widespread deposits of culm or carboniferous measures--were1 it is thought1 formed in open water1 and probably at the same time that the ,old ,red ,sandstone of the adjoining county of ,somerset and elsewhere1 which is not found in this county at all1 was being deposited in estuaries and land-locked seas4 ,,names ,,of ,,subdivisions ,,characters ,,of ,,rocks ,,systems ,metal ,age ,deposits ,recent ,neolithic ,superficial ,pleistocene ,palaeolithic ,deposits ,glacial ,t ,e ,cromer ,series ,r ,weybourne ,crag ,t,pliocene ,chillesford and ,norwich ,crags ,sands chiefly ,i ,red and ,walton ,crags ,a ,coralline ,crag ,r ,y,miocene ,absent from ,britain ,fluviomarine ,beds of ,hampshire ,bagshot ,beds ,eocene ,london ,clay ,clays and ,sands ,oldhaven ,beds1 ,woolwich and ,reading chiefly ,thanet ,sands ,groups ,chalk ,upper ,greensand and ,gault ,chalk at top ,cretaceous ,lower ,greensand ,sandstones1 ,mud ,s ,weald ,clay and ,clays below ,e ,hastings ,sands ,c ,o ,purbeck ,beds ,n ,portland ,beds ,d ,kimmeridge ,clay ,a ,corallian ,beds ,r,jurassic ,oxford ,clay and ,kellaways ,rock ,shales1 ,sandstones ,y ,cornbrash and ,oolitic ,forest ,marble ,limestones ,great ,oolite with ,stonesfield ,slate ,inferior ,oolite ,lias--,upper1 ,middle1 and ,lower ,rhaetic ,keuper ,marls ,triassic ,keuper ,sandstone ,red ,sandstones and ,upper ,bunter ,sandstone ,marls1 ,gypsum and ,bunter ,pebble ,beds ,salt ,lower ,bunter ,sandstone ,magnesian ,limestone and ,sandstone ,red ,sandstones ,permian ,marl ,slate and ,magnesian ,lower ,permian ,sandstone ,limestone ,p ,r ,coal ,measures ,sandstones1 ,shales ,i,carboniferous ,millstone ,grit and ,coals at top ,m ,mountain ,limestone ,sandstones in ,a ,basal ,carboniferous ,rocks middle ,limestone ,r and ,shales below ,y ,upper ,devonian and old ,red ,red ,sandstones1 ,devonian ,mid ,sandstone ,shales1 ,slates and ,lower ,limestones ,ludlow ,beds ,sandstones1 ,shales ,silurian ,wenlock ,beds and ,thin ,llandovery ,beds ,limestones ,caradoc ,beds ,shales1 ,slates1 ,ordovician ,llandeilo ,beds ,sandstones and ,arenig ,beds ,thin ,limestones ,tremadoc ,slates ,cambrian ,lingula ,flags ,slates and ,menevian ,beds ,sandstones ,harlech ,grits and ,llanberis ,slates ,sandstones1 ,pre-,cambrian ,no definite classification yet made ,slates and ,volcanic ,rocks ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,section ,,from ,,snowdon ,,to ,,harwich1 ,,about #bjj ,,miles4 ,this cross section shows what would be seen in a deep cutting nearly ,e4 and ,w4 across ,england and ,wales4 ,it shows also how1 in consequence of the folding of the strata and the cutting off of the uplifted parts1 old rocks which should be tens of thousands of feet down are found in borings in ,east ,anglia only #ajjj feet or so below the surface4 ,the ,north ,devonian beds1 which extend from the coast as far south as the latitude of ,barnstaple1 consist of slates1 grits1 and sandstones which1 it is believed1 judging from the organic remains in them1 were formed in shallow water and near shore4 ,their lower strata1 the ,foreland grits1 ,lynton beds1 and ,hangman grits1 contain some fossils and various kinds of coral4 ,but the ,middle beds1 the ,ilfracombe and ,morte slates1 are much richer in animal remains2 of which perhaps the most remarkable are primitive palaeozoic fish1 such as the very curious armoured pteraspis2 while corals and bivalve shells are abundant and characteristic4 ,the ,upper ,devonian is less fossiliferous1 but contains some large trilobites1 various marine shells1 and some land-plants4 ,the ,south ,devonian1 which covers nearly all ,south ,devon and a large part of ,cornwall1 is somewhat different in character1 consisting chiefly of slates1 with coralline limestones1 varied by volcanic outcrops or elvans--a word said to be of ,cornish origin1 and meaning white rock4 ,to judge from its fossils1 it was deposited in deeper water than the contemporary beds in the north of the county4 ,the ,lower and ,middle beds are also far richer in animal remains2 and the ,middle ,devonian of the south1 which is the most typical of the series and includes the limestones of ,plymouth and ,torbay1 is crowded with shells1 trilobites1 and corals4 ,among the shells1 bivalves--such as ,stringocephalus1 which occurs only in the ,devonian formations--spiral univalves1 and corals are very abundant4 ,there are also many crinoids1 distinct from those of the carboniferous limestone1 while perhaps the most characteristic form is the rare and curious ,caleola sandalina1 differing from all other corals in having an operculum4 ,there are not many varieties of trilobite1 but the large ,brontes flabellifer is not uncommon4 ,illustration3 ,logan ,stone1 ,dartmoor ,the ,lower beds of this series contain fewer organic remains1 although a good many fossils are found1 including fragmentary remains of various fishes which have not yet been identified4 ,the ,upper ,devonian is1 on the whole1 very poor in fossils4 ,between the two ,devonian areas1 and occupying a large part of the centre of the county1 are the carboniferous or coal-bearing measures1 containing1 however1 not true coal but anthracite1 which has more carbon in it than is found in ordinary coal2 and these beds are perhaps more often known as ,culm1 from the ,welsh cwlwm1 a knot1 in allusion to the fragmentary condition in which the mineral is frequently found4 ,anthracite1 which elsewhere and especially in ,south ,wales is a most valuable fuel1 is here clayey and impure1 and in thin seams4 ,it is worked to a small extent1 to be ground and made into a paint called ,bideford ,black4 ,the ,culm measures consist of grits1 shales1 and sandstones1 with beds of chert and limestone containing fossil plants and other forms of marine life4 ,fish are few1 only two species having been identified4 ,the anthracite occurs in the middle ,culm1 and there are other remains of plants in both the middle and upper beds4 ,the upper ,culm is well seen on the coast near ,clovelly and by the river ,torridge1 where it has been bent by volcanic upheaval into curious and beautiful curves4 ,these measures1 in general1 are characterised by many outcrops of volcanic rock1 some of which were probably contemporary1 that is to say1 they were poured out while the culm was in process of formation2 while others are intrusive1 or were forced up through the strata after these had been solidified into rock4 ,these igneous rocks are found in great variety4 ,illustration3 ,a smoothly-weathered granite ,tor1 ,dartmoor ,by far the most important and striking of these volcanic formations is the great granite mass of ,dartmoor1 one of the most prominent features of the county1 measuring #bbe square miles in extent1 and constituting the largest granitic area in ,england4 ,granite is a volcanic rock1 formed1 it has been suggested1 by fusion at a great depth and under great pressure1 and consisting in the main of three minerals1 quartz1 felspar1 and mica4 ,that of ,dartmoor is1 on the whole1 grey and coarse-grained1 but it varies a good deal in colour1 fineness1 and composition4 ,its real origin is obscure4 ,it has been assigned by various experts to various periods1 and it has been called the sphinx of ,devon geology4 ,there can1 however1 be no doubt about the great disturbance which has been caused in the county by upheaval and by the intrusion of melted rock1 which has bent1 broken1 and twisted previously-existing formations in a most extraordinary manner1 the results of which are well seen in the picturesque scenery of the ,start1 ,prawle ,point1 and ,bolt ,head4 ,lundy1 which is twelve miles from the nearest point of ,devonshire mainland1 is all granite1 except for a small part of its south end1 which is ,millstone ,grit4 ,a long interval of time appears to have followed the laying down of the ,culm measures1 during which so vast an amount of shattered rock was worn away that when the beds that come next in order--the ,new ,red ,sandstones--were formed1 they were1 in places1 deposited directly upon the ,devonian1 the superincumbent carboniferous or ,culm strata having entirely disappeared4 ,the ,new ,red ,sandstones occur chiefly in the east of the county1 where their lower beds fill up old creeks and valleys in the carboniferous system2 and they extend northwards from the coast past ,exeter as far as ,holcombe ,regis1 forming broad bands on either side of the ,exe1 characterised by the high fertility of the overlying soil1 and with one long spur traversing the heart of the county1 past ,crediton and ,exbourne1 with isolated patches round ,hatherleigh1 and with another and less extended prolongation a few miles west of ,tiverton4 ,the ,lower ,new ,red consists of clays1 conglomerates1 red breccias and sands1 in which occur many outcrops of trap1 the evidence1 not only of numerous eruptions1 but of eruptions extending over a long period of time4 ,these beds contain no fossils1 except in fragments of older rocks4 ,the ,middle ,new ,red1 in the form of thick beds of red marl and red and white limestones1 well seen on the south coast1 is covered in turn by the ,upper ,new ,red1 with beds of pebbles1 some of which are derived from the ,devonian and even from the ,silurian4 ,in this formation1 near ,sidmouth1 have been found the remains of two remarkable reptiles1 the ,hyperodapedon1 a strange form allied to the existing tuatera lizard of ,new ,zealand and in ,england only known elsewhere in the formations of ,warwickshire1 and the ,labyrinthodon1 so named from the intricate structure of its teeth1 and also called ,cheirotherium1 from the hand-like impressions of its feet4 ,illustration3 ,footprints of ,cheirotherium1 ,new ,red ,sandstone ,the ,rhaetic beds are not well seen in ,devonshire4 ,they occur on the coast between ,lyme ,regis and the mouth of the ,axe1 and in the estuary of that river1 but are much hidden by landslips of cretaceous formations from above4 ,one layer1 consisting of black shale1 with bivalve shells such as ,cardium and ,pecten1 contains also a bone-bed1 with remains of fish1 such as ,acrodus and ,hybodus4 ,the former is represented by its blunt teeth1 and the latter1 which was a huge1 shark-like creature1 by its long and formidable-looking fin-spines4 ,the ,lower ,lias is exposed in a narrow strip of coast from the ,devonshire border to the mouth of the ,axe1 and to a greater extent in the valley of the river above ,axminster4 ,it has been divided on the coast into four distinct zones1 each characterised by its own particular species of ammonite4 ,the cretaceous formations occupy a much wider area1 but they also are confined to the southern part of the county4 ,the ,greensands of the ,blackdown and ,haldon ,hills have been divided by geologists into fifteen layers1 varying in thickness from a few inches to as much as thirty-five feet1 some with few fossils1 and some very rich in animal remains4 ,trigonia and ,inoceramus are found in almost all the zones3 other forms less widely distributed are ,murex and ,turritella4 ,chalk occurs on the south coast from the ,dorset border to ,sidmouth2 and in isolated patches it extends inland as far as the ,blackdown ,hills1 and also further west1 in the ,haldons4 ,the ,lower ,chalk1 well seen on the coast and to the west of ,hinton1 is made up of calcareous sandstones1 with ammonites and pectens4 ,the ,middle beds1 composed of white chalk with flints1 the zone of ,terebratulina gracilis1 is exposed at ,beer4 ,the lower and harder layer is characterised by ,rhynconella4 ,the ,upper ,chalk also holds many flints1 with echini2 ,holaster in the lower1 and ,micraster in the upper strata4 ,last of all come the tertiary deposits1 which1 however1 occupy only a small area in the south-east1 chiefly in the valley of the ,teign1 from ,kingsteignton to ,bovey ,tracy2 and there are a few isolated patches1 as for example near ,bideford and at ,plymouth4 ,these beds consist of clays1 some of them of much value1 with flints from the chalk1 and gravels and beds of sand derived from the wearing away of older rocks4 ,the most interesting feature of this formation is the lignite of ,bovey ,tracy1 on the eastern edge of ,dartmoor4 ,lignite1 otherwise known as brown coal1 consists of the imperfectly fossilised remains of tropical or sub-tropical vegetation1 such as the palm1 cinnamon1 and laurel1 amongst which are found lumps of resin4 ,by far the most abundant remains are those of a very large tree allied to the sequoia of ,california4 ,it is very remarkable that in the ,pleistocene clay above the lignite are found stems and twigs of ,arctic birch and willow1 suggestive of a far colder climate than prevailed in ,tertiary times1 when the trees that went to form the lignite were growing4 ,to the ,pleistocene period also belong the gravels and alluvial deposits of some of the river valleys 7those of the ,exe and the ,teign1 for example71 the blown sands of ,braunton ,burrows and elsewhere1 the raised sea-beaches1 the submerged forests1 and the cave-deposits which are alluded to in other chapters4 #g4 ,natural ,history4 ,it is generally believed by naturalists that the ancestors of most of our fauna and flora reached this country at a time when what we now call the ,british ,isles formed part of the mainland of ,europe1 and when there was no intervening sea to bar the way4 ,before this colonisation was complete1 however--that is1 before all the different kinds of ,european beasts and birds had made their way to the extreme western districts--communication with the continent was broken off4 ,the land of the north-western districts of ,europe sank4 ,the sea flowed in1 forming the ,german ,ocean1 the ,english ,channel and the ,irish ,sea1 and the influx of animal life was stopped4 ,this is the reason why there are more than twice as many kinds of land animals in ,germany as there are in ,england1 and nearly twice as many in ,england as there are in ,ireland4 ,this is the reason why there are no snakes in ,ireland1 and why the nightingale1 on returning from the south1 never crosses into the sister kingdom4 ,on islands that have long been separated from a continent it is found that forms of life tend to vary in the lapse of time1 and that fresh species are developed4 ,that it is not long1 as geological periods go1 since ,great ,britain became an island1 is shown by the fact that we have no quadruped or reptile except the ,irish weasel 7,mustela hibernica71 and1 setting aside minor differences which some writers have magnified to the value of a species1 only one bird1 the red grouse1 which is not also to be found in ,europe4 ,very different is the case in ,japan1 which was separated from the mainland of ,asia so long ago that new species have had time to develope2 and the islands of that country contain many kinds of beasts and birds which are unknown on the adjacent continent4 ,some of the animals which came from ,europe into ,britain have died out1 either because the climate changed and so cut off their food supply1 or because they were destroyed by the hunters of the ,stone ,age4 ,the bones which have been found in ,kent's ,cavern at ,torquay1 and in other caverns1 afford clear evidence that the mammoth1 the lion1 the bear1 and the hyaena once roamed over the hills of ,devonshire4 ,although there are many more species of beasts and birds on the continent of ,europe than there are in this country1 both birds and beasts are numerically much more common here4 ,nothing strikes a naturalist more forcibly when travelling in ,france or ,italy1 for example1 than the scarcity of wild life1 and especially the fewness of the birds4 ,it is true that we have fewer species1 but we have many more individuals4 ,to this1 several causes have contributed4 ,englishmen do not1 as is the custom in many ,european countries1 shoot or trap for food small birds of every description4 ,and game preserving--although it has been fatal to the larger birds of prey1 such as kites1 falcons1 and buzzards1 and keeps down other species1 such as jays1 magpies1 and carrion crows--provides innumerable sanctuaries for great numbers of the smaller birds1 which are safe from harm during the breeding season4 ,the natural features of ,devonshire are so varied in character1 including as they do large areas of wild and uncultivated and thinly-inhabited country1 together with many well-wooded and sequestered valleys1 and wide stretches of bog1 salt-marsh1 and sea-coast1 that it is very rich in both animal and vegetable life4 ,its marine fauna and flora1 in particular1 are of very great interest1 and are among the most remarkable in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,a ,red ,deer ,nearly all the native mammals of the ,british ,isles are found or have been found in this county1 from the tall red deer that has run wild on ,exmoor from time immemorial1 down to the pygmy shrew1 the smallest but one of ,european quadrupeds1 and weighing only one-tenth of an ounce1 or about forty-three grains and a half4 ,illustration3 ,otters ,among the eight species of ,devonshire bats is the very rare particoloured bat 7,vesperugo discolor71 of which the only example ever recorded in ,england was taken at ,plymouth1 having perhaps travelled there in the rigging of a ship4 ,it is probably more than a hundred years since the last genuine wild-cat was seen in the county1 but both the marten and the polecat still survive in secluded spots4 ,foxes are common1 and there are still many badgers in some of the ,dartmoor valleys1 where the two species have been known to inhabit the same holt4 ,otters abound on all the principal streams1 and are as regularly hunted as the red deer and the fox4 ,devonshire is1 indeed1 pre-eminent for its otter-hunting1 and the ,culmstock pack is believed to be the oldest in the island4 ,harvest mice and dormice1 although widely distributed1 are not numerous1 and the original ,english black rat is now rare4 ,among the many marine mammalia that have been recorded for the county are two kinds of seal1 the sperm-whale1 the common rorqual--of which specimens nearly #gj feet long have been brought into ,plymouth--the rare bottle-nosed dolphin and the still rarer ,risso's grampus4 ,bones of a whale called ,balaenoptera robustus1 which were once washed ashore in ,torbay1 are said to represent a species so rare that these and a few similar relics stranded in ,sweden are the only remains of it that have ever been found4 ,situated as ,devonshire is1 between the ,english and the ,bristol ,channels1 and containing widely-different physical features1 suited to the needs of species of very different habits1 the list of its birds1 including residents1 migrants1 occasional visitors1 and stragglers from the ,atlantic and even from ,america1 is a very long one4 ,among the larger land-birds which still hold their ground in the county are the raven and buzzard1 both of which are to be seen on ,exmoor and ,dartmoor and on the coast1 and the peregrine falcon1 which has eyries on both the northern and southern seaboards4 ,a few pairs of choughs still build in the northern cliffs2 while such rare birds as ,montagu's harrier--first identified as a ,british species in this county--the hoopoe1 and the golden oriole still occasionally breed here1 and might do so regularly were they left in peace4 ,several birds1 such as the kite and the osprey1 the latter of which now breeds nowhere in ,england1 and the former only in one solitary spot1 have long since left the county4 ,warblers as a family are less abundant than in some other parts of the ,british ,isles4 ,the nightingale is nowhere common1 but it occurs every season near ,ashburton and in the valley of the ,teign4 ,owing to the mildness of the climate it is not at all an unusual thing for a few chiffchaffs and willow-warblers to spend the winter in sheltered valleys on the south coast1 instead of migrating to ,africa in the autumn4 ,the ring-ouzel is a regular visitor to the open country of ,dartmoor1 while the dipper haunts many of its streams4 ,two birds which have greatly increased in numbers of late years are the jackdaw and the starling4 ,it is thought that the former has done much towards exterminating the chough by destroying its eggs2 and the latter1 by taking possession of its holes1 has in many places driven away the green woodpecker4 ,partridges and pheasants are numerous1 but black-game1 once abundant on ,dartmoor1 have become so scarce that they are at present protected the whole year round4 ,but by far the most abundant1 and perhaps the most characteristic1 of the birds of ,devonshire are the sea-fowl1 the water-fowl1 and the waders1 of which more than #adj different kinds have been recorded for the county4 ,not only are its sandy shores1 its bays and estuaries and leys1 haunted in autumn and winter by multitudes of northern immigrants--swans1 geese1 ducks and a great variety of wading-birds2 but there are several spots along the south coast and a few on the north where sea-birds regularly breed2 while the reed-beds of ,slapton ,ley provide sanctuary for great numbers of coots and for many wild-ducks and teal1 together with some rarer species4 ,herons are common on the south coast and along the river estuaries1 and there are heronries at ,powderham and elsewhere4 ,a great black-headed gull 7,larus ichthyaetus7 shot on the ,exe in #ahei1 is the only one known to have been seen in the ,british ,islands4 ,there is1 however1 nothing on the mainland of ,devonshire to compare in ornithological interest with ,lundy1 which in the summer time is a bird-lover's paradise4 ,gannets1 once very numerous1 have now left the island1 but cormorants1 shags and gulls of various species here build their untidy nests4 ,here multitudes of guillemots and razorbills assemble in the spring and lay their great pear-shaped and boldly-marked eggs on the ledges of the cliffs2 while even vaster hosts of puffins come back every year to take up their quarters in rabbit-burrows or in holes which they have dug for themselves in the turf4 ,here the raven1 the buzzard1 and the peregrine have fastnesses4 ,here1 in chinks and crannies1 storm-petrels breed2 and here1 when darkness falls1 the startled listener may hear the weird1 wailing cry of the night-wandering shearwaters4 ,the few reptiles and batrachians of ,devonshire present no points of special interest4 ,vipers abound on ,dartmoor1 where they are commoner than grass-snakes4 ,it is curious that1 while the palmated newt is common throughout the county1 the smooth newt and the triton are now comparatively rare4 ,the freshwater fish differ little from those found in the neighbouring counties2 but there are fewer kinds in ,devonshire than there are in the midlands or in the east of ,england4 ,trout abound in all the streams1 and there are important salmon-fisheries on the ,exe1 the ,dart1 and other rivers4 ,a sturgeon seven-and-a-half feet long was once taken in the ,exe4 ,eels1 which are hatched in the ,atlantic1 to the west and north of the ,british ,islands1 at a depth of #cjjj feet or more1 come up from the sea when they are two years old1 and still very small1 and ascend the rivers1 especially ,exe1 in enormous numbers4 ,when they are mature1 which is not until they are several years old1 they go down to the sea to spawn1 and never return4 ,it is1 however1 in marine zoology1 for which few other parts of ,england afford so rich a field1 and for which its bays and inlets1 its rock-pools and stretches of sand provide ideal hunting-ground for the naturalist1 that ,devonshire is most distinguished4 ,many famous zoologists1 such as ,leach1 ,montagu1 ,parfitt1 ,gosse1 and ,kingsley have won renown both for themselves and for the county by their researches2 while the ,marine ,biological ,laboratory at ,plymouth is constantly adding to our knowledge of the multitudinous inhabitants of the sea4 ,the subject is so vast that only a few chief points can here be touched upon4 ,the sea-fish differ in marked degree from those of the east coast of ,england4 ,plaice and cod1 for example1 are smaller here than those caught in the ,north ,sea and the latter are scarce2 and the haddock1 one of the most important of east coast fish1 is here almost unknown4 ,two characteristic fish of the south coast of ,devon are the pollack1 which reaches a great size1 and the pilchard1 confined to this county and to ,cornwall4 ,many southern and even ,mediterranean species find their way to these waters3 notable examples are the gigantic tunny1 one specimen of which weighed #gjj pounds1 the beautiful rainbow wrasse1 one of the most brilliantly-coloured of all fish1 and the boar-fish1 which is sometimes quite common4 ,a number of rare species1 such as ,montagu's sucker and the crystal goby1 were first made known as ,british through being taken off the ,devonshire coast4 ,stray examples of the tropical bonito1 the flying-fish1 the electric torpedo1 and the sun-fish1 one specimen of which weighed #ejj pounds1 and the splendidly-coloured opal or king-fish1 have been recorded4 ,several kinds of sharks have been caught in these waters1 including the blue shark1 the spinous shark1 covered all over with sharp prickles1 the rare and formidable hammer-head1 the huge thresher1 and the still larger basking-shark4 ,the latter is1 indeed1 the largest of ,british fish4 ,specimens have been caught measuring #cj feet in length1 and weighing more than eight tons4 ,marketable marine-fish will be treated of in a later chapter4 ,rich as are the ,devonshire seas in fish1 they are richer still in crustaceans--crabs1 lobsters1 prawns1 shrimps and their allies2 and in this respect ours is the premier county of ,england4 ,among a multitude of species1 two which have occurred nowhere else in ,britain may be specially singled out4 ,one of these is the burying-shrimp1 ,callionassa subterranea1 a little creature something like a very small lobster1 with one claw--sometimes the right and sometimes the left--very much larger than the other4 ,it was one of ,montagu's many discoveries1 and was found two feet deep under the sand of the ,kingsbridge estuary4 ,the other rare species is the turtle-crab1 ,planes minutus1 a few specimens of which have been drifted ashore on fronds of ,sargasso weed4 ,the small grasshoppers which ,columbus saw floating in the sea a few days before he sighted the ,new ,world1 were1 it is believed1 not grasshoppers1 but turtle-crabs4 ,other and very beautiful forms of marine life1 such as starfish1 anemones1 corals and other zoophytes1 and sea-shells are very abundant4 ,and in spite of the comparative scarcity of lime in the soil of ,devonshire1 the list of land and freshwater shells is a long one4 ,it is remarkable that ,limnaea stagnalis and ,planorbis corneus1 two water-shells that are common in ,somerset1 are unknown in ,devon4 ,the pearl-bearing mussel1 ,unio margaritifer1 is found in both the ,taw and the ,teign4 ,the county is rich in insects1 especially as regards butterflies1 moths1 and beetles2 but several of the first-named which have been caught in ,somerset have not been recorded here4 ,the black-veined white 7,pieris crataegi71 once a common insect1 has disappeared within the last forty years1 and the greasy fritillary 7,melitaea ,artemis7--another vanishing species--is now almost extinct4 ,neither insect can have been hunted down for the sake of its beauty or its rarity1 and the reason for this disappearance is unknown4 ,illustration3 ,spurge ,hawk ,moth1 with ,pupa and ,caterpillar ,as in the case of birds1 the county is1 from its position1 a favourite alighting-place for insects coming from abroad4 ,between #ahgf and #ahij large numbers of a very striking and beautiful ,american butterfly1 ,danais plexippus1 appeared in ,england1 having apparently crossed the ,atlantic1 and three specimens were caught in ,devonshire4 ,the ,lulworth skipper 7,hesperia ,actaeon71 a small butterfly which elsewhere is only found in ,dorset1 occurs along the south-east coast of this county4 ,moths are very abundant1 and the first recorded ,british examples of several species were taken in ,devonshire4 ,about a hundred years ago1 caterpillars of the spurge hawk-moth 7,deilephila euphorbiae7 were very plentiful on spurge plants growing among the sand-hills near ,barnstaple4 ,many of these caterpillars were taken by naturalists1 and were reared1 and ultimately turned into perfect insects2 although neither there nor anywhere else in our island was a wild example of this very beautiful moth ever seen alive4 ,the spurge plants were long ago covered up by drifting sand1 and the caterpillars were all destroyed4 ,no other locality for them has been found in ,england1 and as far as this country is concerned the spurge hawk-moth appears to be extinct4 ,as might be expected in a district of such varied physical features1 with so mild a climate and such an ample rainfall1 the flowering plants of ,devonshire are very numerous1 no fewer than #aaef species having been recorded4 ,the abundance and beauty of its wild-flowers is one of the characteristics of the county4 ,no one who has ever seen them will forget the wonderful wealth of primroses in some of the river valleys--at ,holne1 for example--or the splendour of the ling-empurpled sweeps of ,dartmoor1 or its sheets of golden gorse2 or the marvellous mist of bluebells upon woodland slopes or in the shelter of straggling hedgerows4 ,each several district1 sea-shore and salt-marsh1 moor and bog1 wood and valley1 has its own distinct and characteristic flora4 ,one ,devonshire plant1 the ,romulea or gnotte1 ,romulea columnae1 a ,mediterranean species with very small pale blue flowers1 is abundant on the ,warren at the mouth of the ,exe1 but grows nowhere else in ,england1 although it is found in ,guernsey4 ,several plants occur in only one other ,english county2 such for instance are the white rock-rose1 ,helianthemum polifolium1 and the ,irish spurge1 ,euphorbia hibernica1 which are confined to ,devon and ,somerset1 and the flower of the ,exe1 ,lobelia urens1 which grows only in ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,three plants1 which are very abundant in ,somerset1 the cowslip1 the sweet violet1 and the mistletoe1 are rare in this county1 although not unknown4 ,the first plants of sea-kale ever brought into cultivation were originally dug up on ,slapton sands2 and the vegetable came into note in ,bath about #agge4 ,ferns are characteristic of ,devonshire4 ,not only are most of the familiar kinds abundant1 but rarer species as the true maiden-hair1 two filmy ferns1 and the parsley fern 7,cryptogramme crispa7 are to be found4 ,the magnificent royal fern1 ,osmunda regalis1 still grows in some of the river valleys1 and especially in ,holne ,chase1 but it has suffered much from the greed of collectors1 and the raids of unscrupulous dealers4 ,a great variety of spleenworts has been recorded for the county1 and one of the characteristic hedgerow ferns is the pretty little ,asplenium adiantum-nigrum4 ,mosses1 also1 are very abundant1 and there is one kind which occurs nowhere else in ,britain4 ,in sea-weeds ,devonshire is richer than any other county except ,dorset4 ,among its #dfh different species is the ,sargasso or ,gulf-weed1 sprays of which are sometimes thrown ashore after rough weather4 ,except on the moors ,devonshire is well timbered4 ,the elm is perhaps the most conspicuous tree1 but the beech and the ash are also very abundant4 ,there is a very fine wych-elm1 with a trunk #af ft4 in circumference1 in ,sharpham ,park4 ,the sycamore1 which when well-developed is a very beautiful tree1 here attains to fine proportions1 and there are noble examples at ,widecombe-in-the-,moor4 ,the oak1 although it grows freely1 does not1 as a rule1 reach a great size1 though there are some well-grown specimens at ,tawstock ,court4 ,there is an oak at ,flitton1 near ,north ,molton1 which is thirty-three feet in circumference1 and the ,meavy oak is twenty-five feet in girth4 ,an oak-tree thirteen and a half feet in diameter was cut down at ,okehampton in #aggf1 and there is a tradition that two couples danced upon its stump4 ,there are no very remarkable yews in ,devonshire4 ,probably the finest are at ,stoke ,gabriel1 ,kenn1 and ,withycombe ,raleigh1 but the first of these is only fifteen feet in girth at the level of the ground4 ,there is a story that1 under the yew-tree at ,mamhead1 ,boswell vowed that he would never get drunk again4 ,at ,bowringsleigh there is a magnificent avenue of lime-trees1 and the avenue of araucarias at ,bicton1 planted in #ahdb1 is said to be the finest in the kingdom4 ,several manor-houses possess one or more noble old mulberry-trees planted in the time of ,james ,i1 with a view to encourage the cultivation of silk4 ,at ,buckland ,abbey1 once the home of ,sir ,francis ,drake1 there are some beautiful tulip-trees4 ,palms and other sub-tropical trees grow without protection at several places on the south coast2 and at ,kingsbridge and other towns pomegranates1 oranges1 lemons1 and citrons will ripen their fruit in the open air4 ,a good many places in ,devonshire take their names from trees4 ,thus ,ashburton is named from the ash1 ,egg ,buckland from the oak1 ,bickleigh from the beech1 and ,holne from the holly4 #h4 ,a ,peregrination of the ,coast3 #a1 ,the ,bristol ,channel4 ,devonshire1 like ,cornwall and ,kent1 is remarkable in having both a northern and a southern seaboard2 a peculiarity shared by no other ,english county4 ,its two shores present striking points of difference4 ,the south coast-line is broken by many estuaries4 ,on the other shore there is only one important river mouth4 ,there are1 it is true1 many little coves and inlets on the ,bristol ,channel1 some of them of great beauty2 but they make little show upon the map of ,england1 and the stern outline of the ,north ,devon coast affords no harbour of refuge4 ,both shores are rock-bound4 ,but while the southern cliffs are1 in great measure1 of warm-hued and even brightly-coloured stone1 those on the north are dark and gloomy2 and their tones1 although in some places very beautiful1 are set in quieter key--in grey or brown or even verging upon black4 ,again1 the southern shore is fringed at some points with sandy beaches2 while on the north coast there are no sands at all1 except on the western side of ,bideford ,bay4 ,along the northern seaboard of ,devon there runs a series of magnificent cliffs1 in parts heavily wooded1 whose dark walls1 sloping steeply to the shore and with projecting bases suggestive of the ram of a battleship1 are relieved at many points by deep1 rocky clefts1 known variously as combes or mouths2 each with its stream1 each green with ferns and oak-coppice and thickets of thorn and hazel1 and each with its butterfly-haunted clumps of tall hemp-agrimony4 ,illustration3 ,the ,castle ,rock1 ,lynton ,down such a hollow1 the deep and finely-wooded valley of ,glenthorne1 runs the border-line that divides ,somerset from ,devon4 ,rather more than three miles west of it there stands out into the ,bristol ,channel the dark mass of ,countisbury ,foreland1 the most northerly point in the county1 and one of the highest along its coast1 #aajj feet above sea-level4 ,four miles beyond the ,foreland1 at the mouth of a deep and well-wooded valley1 down which runs the beautiful trout-stream from which it takes its name1 is ,lynmouth1 famous for its scenery1 of which two striking features are the ,watersmeet on the river1 and the ,valley of ,rocks on the coast4 ,a port and fishing-village up to the close of the eighteenth century1 its small tidal harbour is visited now only by a few small coasting vessels4 ,about four miles west of ,lynmouth is ,heddon's ,mouth1 a little bay at the foot of towering cliffs1 with another trout-stream flowing down to the sea through one of the loveliest combes in ,north ,devon4 ,five miles of cliff stretch from ,heddon's ,mouth to ,combe ,martin ,bay1 a little inlet lying in the shelter of two conspicuous heights1 the ,great ,hangman and the ,little ,hangman--names associated with no tragic story1 but derived1 like many others round our coasts1 from the ,celtic maen1 a stone--and with its village1 once famous for its rich silver-mines1 running a mile inland4 ,two miles of rock-bound and dangerous coast1 swept1 especially off ,rillage ,point1 by a strong tide-race1 extend from ,combe ,martin ,bay to the ancient port of ,ilfracombe1 whose mild yet bracing climate and beautiful surroundings have made it the most popular seaside resort in ,north ,devon4 ,its little land-locked harbour is almost surrounded by lofty hills and rugged cliffs1 whose beauty is greatly heightened by the varied colouring of the rock and by the vivid green of the abundant vegetation4 ,illustration3 ,valley of ,rocks1 ,lynton ,ilfracombe is a place that has played a part in history4 ,in the fourteenth century it provided six ships towards ,edward ,,iii's expedition against ,calais4 ,it was from this port that ,queen ,elizabeth sent troops to ,ireland during the rebellion of the ,earl of ,tyrone4 ,in the ,civil ,war it was taken alternately by ,royalists and ,parliamentarians4 ,it was from ,ilfracombe that ,wade and ,ferguson and other ,sedgemoor fugitives tried in vain to escape by sea4 ,and it was here1 in #agif1 that the ,french squadron which afterwards landed #ajjj scoundrels of the ,lgion noire at ,fishguard1 on the opposite coast--the last hostile invasion of these islands--burnt the fishing-smacks lying in the harbour4 ,the ,french ships were in the end taken by ,lord ,bridport4 ,a short distance west of ,ilfracombe is ,wildersmouth1 a beautiful bay1 with a gravelly beach1 famous for its richness in the lower forms of marine life1 and three miles farther down the coast juts out ,bull ,point1 a bold headland guarded by a powerful lighthouse1 marking the north-eastern limit of the most dangerous part of the coast1 which here turns abruptly southward1 facing squarely to the open ,atlantic4 ,a little farther on is ,morte ,point1 whose name the popular fancy regards1 although without foundation1 as hinting at the deadly character of its black1 jagged1 sea-swept rocks4 ,the village of ,mortehoe1 a few hundred yards inland1 was the property in the thirteenth century of the de ,traci family1 one of whom was among the murderers of ,thomas ,becket4 ,but there is no ground for the legend that he was buried here1 or for the traditions of him that are current in the district4 ,a tiny little cove on the south side of ,morte ,point1 called ,barracane ,beach1 was once famous for its rare and beautiful shells2 but it is now so widely known1 and its charm is so completely lost1 that it has been said of it that there are more collectors than specimens4 ,illustration3 ,ilfracombe1 from ,hillsborough ,beyond ,morte ,point is ,morte ,bay1 most of whose shore lies low1 and is fringed throughout almost its entire length by the broad expanse of ,woollacombe ,sands1 along whose margin1 at heights varying from eight to fifteen feet above high-water mark1 may be traced at intervals a raised sea-beach4 ,at the southern extremity of ,morte ,bay is the noble headland of ,baggy ,point1 a magnificent piece of cliff1 haunted by crowds of sea-birds1 and pierced by many caves4 ,the shore of ,croyde ,bay1 beyond the ,point1 is famous for its fertility2 and from the crest of ,saunton ,down1 the last headland before the estuary formed by the waters of the ,taw and the ,torridge1 is a view which1 embracing sea and coast-line1 rich expanses of farm-land1 the distant heights of ,dartmoor and the faint shape of ,lundy on the far horizon1 is one of the finest in all ,devon4 ,along the shore to the south of ,baggy ,point1 where ,saunton ,sands form the seaward fringe of ,braunton ,burrows1 is another long stretch of raised sea-beach1 from two to fifteen feet above high-water mark4 ,and in this beach1 not far from ,saunton1 is a large boulder of red granite1 a rock unknown in the district1 which may have been stranded here by floating ice4 ,braunton ,burrows is a long1 wide tract of sand-hills1 some eighteen square miles in area1 stretching far inland1 and reaching to the estuary of the ,taw and the ,torridge1 with deep hollows among which1 without a compass1 it is quite possible to get completely lost4 ,it is a place of much interest to the naturalist and the antiquarian4 ,a number of rare plants are found here1 great quantities of primitive flint implements have been discovered in the sand1 and at low water the remains of a submerged forest are to be seen along the shore4 ,the estuary formed by the combined streams of the ,taw and ,torridge1 the former of which is also known as the ,barnstaple ,river1 flows into ,barnstaple ,bay at the south end of ,braunton ,burrows4 ,there is no port on the open coast2 but just inside the estuary are the quaint old town of ,appledore and the equally ancient village of ,instow1 on the left and right banks1 respectively1 of the river ,torridge4 ,in the mouth of the same stream1 a little to the south of ,appledore1 is a long flat rock called the ,hubblestone2 named1 according to tradition1 after the viking ,hubba1 who pillaged this coast in the reign of ,king ,alfred1 and fell in battle at the mouth of the ,parrett1 in the adjoining county of ,somerset4 ,blocking up a great part of the river mouth1 and stretching down the coast past ,westward ,ho6 a distance of about two miles1 is the ,pebble ,ridge1 a remarkable bank of shingle and sea-worn boulders1 some of which are of great size1 though the majority are not more than a few inches in diameter4 ,the sea has gradually shifted it further and further inland1 and it now covers what was once a long stretch of good pasture-ground4 ,on its landward side are the golf-links of ,northam ,burrows1 considered to be among the finest south of the ,tweed4 ,westward ,ho6 a modern watering-place named in honour of ,kingsley's great romance1 is chiefly interesting on account of its submerged forest1 in whose peat and clay1 deeply covered by the sea at high tide1 have been found1 not only the trunks of large oak and fir-trees1 and bones of the wild boar1 stag1 horse1 and dog1 but bones of man1 together with charcoal1 pottery1 and implements of flint4 ,six miles south-west of ,westward ,ho6 and in the centre of the curve that marks the southern shore of ,barnstaple ,bay1 is the prettily situated fishing-village of ,buck's ,mill1 with red and wood-crowned cliffs behind and beyond it1 and extending to ,clovelly1 the famous little town that may truly be called one of the most remarkable spots1 not in ,devonshire only1 but in all ,england4 ,crowded in a hollow in the cliff1 with woods on either side1 and with an air of climbing up from its little tidal harbour sheltered by a rough stone pier of the time of ,richard ,,ii1 it consists of one long1 winding1 pebble-paved street1 too steep for wheeled traffic1 with quaint and irregularly-built cottages to left and right1 beautiful with creepers and myrtles1 fuchsias and geraniums4 ,not only is ,clovelly intimately associated with the memory of ,charles ,kingsley1 whose father was rector here1 but it is the original village of ,steepways1 in ,dickens and ,collins' ,christmas story1 ,a ,message from the ,sea4 ,illustration3 ,cliffs near ,clovelly ,a long stretch of wild and magnificent coast-line extends from ,clovelly to ,hartland ,point1 where the shore again turns southward1 and again from ,hartland to the county border2 a wall of precipitous black cliffs1 relieved here and there by bands of red schist1 and broken at intervals by green combes such as are characteristic of the seabord of ,devon2 a terrible coast1 strewn with fragments of wreckage from ill-fated ships4 ,illustration3 ,clovelly ,harbour ,hartland ,point1 believed to be the ,promontory of ,hercules alluded to by the geographer ,ptolemy1 is a noble headland1 whose dark steeps rise #cej feet sheer up out of a dangerous and ever restless sea4 ,perhaps there is not1 in any other part of ,north ,devon1 more striking evidence of volcanic upheaval and disturbance than is to be seen in the curved and gnarled and twisted strata of the cliffs that tower above ,hartland ,quay4 ,six miles south of ,hartland the northern seaboard of the county ends1 as it began1 in a deep hollow in the cliffs1 ,marsland ,mouth1 a beautiful combe1 down which1 under storm-beaten oaks and thickets of thorn and hazel1 there winds the stream that forms the border-line between ,devonshire and ,cornwall4 ,illustration3 ,church ,rock1 ,clovelly #i4 ,a ,peregrination of the ,coast3 #b1 ,the ,english ,channel4 ,the points that specially characterise the southern seaboard of ,devonshire1 and distinguish it from the northern shore1 are its many estuaries1 its numerous bays and bold headlands1 the strong1 deep red1 in some places1 of its rugged cliffs1 and1 in a minor degree1 the sandy beaches which lend an added charm to many of its seaside towns4 ,no natural feature marks the spot1 half-way between ,lyme ,cobb and the ,seven ,rocks ,point1 where the border-line between ,dorsetshire and ,devonshire begins4 ,but all that part of the coast1 almost as far as the mouth of the ,axe1 shows signs of having been broken away by repeated landslips2 one of the most serious of which happened in #ahci1 when a vast mass of cliff1 extending all the way from ,pinhay 7or ,pinner7 to ,culverhole ,point1 slipped bodily down some #cjj feet1 carrying with it fields and houses2 and it now lies in most picturesque ruin on the beach4 ,the mouth of the ,axe1 above whose eastern side rises the ,haven ,cliff1 a fine mass of red sandstone crowned by white chalk1 has long since been silted up by pebbles1 and no ships now visit either ,axmouth or ,seaton1 the latter of which was once of sufficient importance to contribute two vessels towards ,edward ,,iii's expedition against ,calais1 but is now only a watering-place4 ,beyond the mouth of the ,axe1 separated from it by a mile of low-lying shore1 the ,white ,cliff1 also a scene of many landslips1 rises sheer up out of the sea2 a fine piece of cliff-wall1 the effect of whose bands of red and white1 of brown and grey1 is greatly heightened by the green of its abundant vegetation4 ,more striking still is the white precipice of ,beer ,head1 the most southerly outcrop of chalk in ,england1 worn above into picturesque and ivy-mantled crags1 and hollowed at its base into many caves4 ,from its summit1 #dbf feet above the sea1 is a far-reaching view of the coast1 covering the #ej miles from ,portland on the east to the ,start on the west4 ,half-way between the mouth of the ,axe and ,beer ,head is the quaint and old-world village of ,beer1 famous for its labyrinthine quarries tunnelled deep into the hill1 for its fisheries and lace-making1 and1 formerly1 as a special haunt of smugglers4 ,from ,beer ,head1 past the little openings of ,branscombe ,mouth1 ,weston ,mouth1 and ,salcombe1 to ,sidmouth1 is a range of magnificent and picturesquely-coloured cliffs1 white and grey and yellow1 and at some points rising straight up from the sea-line4 ,illustration3 ,pinhay ,landslip ,illustration3 ,white ,cliff1 ,seaton ,sidmouth1 the ,baymouth of ,thackeray's ,pendennis1 set among beautiful hills1 and one of the pleasantest of west-country watering-places1 was once a port1 with valuable pilchard fisheries4 ,but its harbour has been destroyed by repeated falls of rock from its grand cliffs of deep red sandstone1 the ,sid is silted up with sand and shingle1 and the pilchards have left this part of the coast4 ,about a mile west of ,sidmouth is the beautiful headland of ,high ,peak1 whose summit1 #eaa feet above the sea1 is the most lofty point on the south coast of ,devon4 ,just beyond it is the popular bathing-place of ,ladram ,cove1 whose firm sands are fringed with brightly-coloured pebbles4 ,rather more than two miles farther on is the estuary of the ,otter1 a harbour #ejj years ago1 but now1 like so many of these river mouths1 barred with shingle4 ,close to the estuary lies the quiet little town of ,budleigh ,salterton1 set in a beautiful valley1 famous for its mild climate and its luxuriant vegetation4 ,some five miles of coast-line--broken half-way by ,straight ,point1 beyond which the shore is low--extend from ,budleigh to the mouth of the ,exe1 the widest of ,devonshire estuaries1 but almost closed by a long bar of grass-grown sand called the ,warren1 on which1 during the ,civil ,war1 stood a ,royalist fort mounting sixteen guns4 ,exmouth1 at the east side of the estuary1 formerly a fishing-village1 is now a highly popular watering-place4 ,illustration3 ,parson and ,clerk ,rocks1 ,dawlish ,four miles farther on1 in a little bay walled-in by lofty cliffs of deep red sandstone1 is ,dawlish1 noted for its warm climate and its good sands4 ,at the eastern end of the bay is a rock called the ,langstone1 and at the western end are the strange-looking pillars of red sandstone known as the ,parson and ,clerk4 ,teignmouth lies rather more than two miles ,s4,s4,w4 of ,dawlish1 with picturesque red cliffs and firm sands all the way1 at the mouth of the estuary of the river ,teign1 whose swiftly-flowing stream is here crossed by one of the longest wooden bridges in ,england4 ,it is a small port and a very popular watering-place1 with beautiful inland scenery behind it1 and inside the ,den--the dune or sand-bank which bars a great part of the river's mouth--is a good harbour for vessels of light draught4 ,teignmouth is one of the towns that in the past have suffered from the attacks of the ,french1 who burnt it in #acdg and again in #afij4 ,illustration3 ,anstis ,cove1 near ,torquay ,four miles south of the estuary of the ,teign is ,babbacombe ,bay1 in whose beautiful cliffs of red and grey is some of the richest colouring on the whole coast4 ,the paler-toned cliffs round the picturesque little inlet of ,anstis ,cove are of limestone4 ,half a mile farther is the prominent cape called ,hope's ,nose1 the northern limit of ,torbay1 and a spot of much interest to the geologist on account of the raised sea-beach which1 at a height of some thirty feet above the present high tide-line1 may be traced under the headland1 and also1 at a lower level1 on the ,thatcher ,rock4 ,among the marine shells of the latter deposit is ,trophon truncatus1 an arctic species1 whose presence here is another proof that the climate of ,devonshire was once far colder than it is now4 ,illustration3 ,torquay from ,vane ,hill ,torbay1 which extends from ,hope's ,nose on the north to ,berry ,head on the south--two prominent headlands nearly five miles apart--is one of the best known and most beautiful bays on the coast of ,england4 ,in all except easterly winds it affords an excellent anchorage which was much used by ships of the ,royal ,navy in the old sailing days1 and it is still a great yachting station4 ,at the northern end of the bay1 occupying1 it is said1 more ground in proportion to its population than any other town in the island1 is the much frequented watering-place of ,torquay1 widely celebrated for the beauty of its situation and the mildness of its winter climate4 ,along the whole coast of ,torbay1 at a level which shows that the land has sunk some forty feet1 lies a submerged forest1 in which have been found bones of the wild boar1 red-deer antlers1 and mammoth's teeth4 ,but proofs of an elevation on a still greater scale are to be found in the borings of sea-shells in the limestone cliffs above ,kent's ,cavern1 within the limits of the town1 at a height of #bjj feet above the present sea level4 ,half-way along the shore of ,torbay is ,paignton1 another favourite seaside resort1 famous for its fine beach1 and on a steep slope at the head of an inlet rather more than a mile before coming to ,berry ,head stands ,brixham1 a town second only in importance to ,plymouth among the fishing-stations of the south coast of ,england4 ,here1 on the #eth of ,november1 #afhh1 the ,prince of ,orange landed4 ,and here1 six weeks after the ,battle of ,waterloo1 the ,bellerophon anchored1 with ,napoleon ,buonaparte a prisoner on board4 ,illustration3 ,brixham ,beyond ,berry ,head1 which forms the end of a broad promontory1 worn at its base into many caves1 and noted for its quarries1 there extends for many miles--all the way1 in fact1 to the mouth of the ,dart--a stretch of very beautiful coast-line1 with low but finely-coloured cliffs of sandstone and limestone and slate1 varying in tint from red to purple1 and from brown to grey1 with a series of sandy bays and fringed by outlying rocks1 two of which are called ,mewstones4 ,one of these1 standing just where the coast sweeps round to the estuary of the ,dart1 is a lofty pinnacle of stone more than #ajj feet high4 ,well inside the mouth of the ,dart1 on the steep slope of its left or eastern entrance1 is the quaint little town of ,kingswear2 and opposite to it1 on the western shore1 lies ,dartmouth1 once a noted port1 but now only a favourite yachting station4 ,the old man-of-war1 the ,britannia1 anchored here close to land and long used as a training-ship1 has been superseded by a naval college on shore1 and is now used only as a store4 ,dartmouth is a place of much historic interest4 ,it was from here that part of ,richard ,coeur de ,lion's crusading fleet sailed for ,palestine4 ,the port furnished thirty-one ships towards ,edward ,,iii's attack on ,calais4 ,twice1 in the half century that followed1 it was plundered by the ,french4 ,it played a prominent part in the ,civil ,war1 and was taken first by ,prince ,maurice1 and afterwards by ,fairfax4 ,illustration3 ,the ,britannia and ,hindostan in ,dartmouth ,harbour ,between the mouth of the ,dart and ,start ,point1 nine miles as the crow flies1 is ,start ,bay1 walled for about half its length with low and quiet-coloured cliffs of slate1 and fringed in great part with sand and shingle4 ,at ,blackpool1 a picturesque little cove near the northern end of the bay1 du ,chastel the ,breton landed1 in #adjd1 on a pillaging expedition1 for the plundering was not all on the side of the ,english4 ,but the ,frenchman was killed1 with #djj of his men1 and #bjj more were taken prisoners4 ,half-way along the shore of ,start ,bay are ,slapton ,sands1 where a beach of small and brightly-coloured pebbles and a bank of shingle separate the long and narrow lake called ,slapton ,ley from the waters of the ,channel4 ,off this spot1 marked by two beacons on the shore1 is the spot1 measured mile for testing the speed of steamships4 ,not far from ,slapton the coast rises again1 and above the fishing villages of ,hallsands and ,beesands1 which stand at the water's edge1 reaches a height of some hundreds of feet4 ,the people of these two little hamlets train powerful dogs1 which1 in rough weather1 swim out through the surf1 catch the painters thrown to them and thus enable the fishing-boats to be dragged ashore4 ,start ,point1 or1 as it is perhaps more often called1 the ,start1 is one of the famous capes of ,britain1 a bold headland sloping steeply both ways1 like the roof of a house2 whose iron base1 fringed with white quartz pebbles2 has been the scene of many shipwrecks1 and whose dark cliffs and rugged crags are haunted by multitudes of sea-birds4 ,the cliffs of this part of ,devon1 from the ,start round ,prawle ,point and ,bolt ,head to ,bolt ,tail--cliffs whose grey rock1 relieved by bands of white quartz1 has been bent and twisted by volcanic upheaval1 and weathered by rain and frost1 by wind and sea1 into the wildest and most fantastic shapes--are as remarkable for picturesqueness of form as other parts are for richness of colouring4 ,three miles beyond the ,start is ,prawle ,point1 a magnificent mass of jagged rock1 the most southerly point in the county1 and a well-known steering-mark for ships in the ,channel4 ,it was off this shore1 in #agic1 that the ,english ship ,nymphe captured the ,french man-of-war ,clopatre2 the first naval battle in the struggle between ,england and the ,french ,republic4 ,between ,prawle ,point and ,bolt ,head is ,salcombe ,mouth1 a creek rather than an estuary2 a long1 winding1 and picturesque inlet1 whose entrance is obstructed by a bank of sand4 ,trunks of oak and other trees1 from a submerged forest not far from land1 are sometimes thrown ashore here after rough weather4 ,to the west of ,salcombe stands ,bolt ,head1 of no great height1 but a noble mass of rugged and weather-worn rock4 ,beyond the ,head the coast rises into steep and lofty cliffs1 culminating in ,bolt ,tail1 close under whose eastern face1 in #agfj1 the #gd-;gun ship ,ramillies was lost1 with more than #gjj of her crew4 ,a gun recovered from the wreck lies by the ,hope signal-station1 on the height above4 ,these cliffs have been much broken away by landslips2 and a series of fissures called the ,pits suggest that much more ground is still to fall4 ,round ,bigbury ,bay1 of which ,bolt ,tail is the eastern limit1 is some of the most beautiful scenery of this beautiful coast4 ,a striking feature of the bay is a great rock called the ,thurlestone1 an outlying mass of red sandstone1 conspicuous against the general greyness of the cliffs1 and pierced by a lofty archway1 worn by wind and sea4 ,two estuaries1 the ,avon ,mouth and the ,erme ,mouth1 break the coast-line of the bay2 and there is a third1 called ,yealm ,mouth1 near the entrance of ,plymouth ,sound1 a couple of miles beyond the grand slate headland of ,stoke ,point4 ,outside the ,avon ,mouth is ,borough ,island1 carpeted in spring-time with the beautiful blue of the delicate little vernal squill4 ,the ,erme1 whose mouth is guarded by rugged cliffs of slate1 is strewn with rocks and sandbanks2 but the estuary of the ,yealm is a fine sheet of deep1 navigable water4 ,standing far out into ,wembury ,bay1 at the mouth of the ,yealm1 is the third of the ,mewstones1 a rocky and beautiful little islet1 nearly #bjj feet high1 and frequented1 as its name implies1 by many sea-gulls4 ,the ,mewstone may be said to mark the eastern side of the entrance of ,plymouth ,sound1 one of the best known1 most important1 and most beautiful bays in the kingdom4 ,it is by nature fully exposed to southerly winds1 and it has1 in the past1 been the scene of many shipwrecks4 ,but the breakwater1 which was built in the early half of the nineteenth century right across it1 two miles south of ,plymouth ,hoe1 with the special object of sheltering ships of the ,royal ,navy1 now affords a safe and excellent anchorage4 ,nearer the shore is ,drake's ,island1 now strongly fortified1 but in ,stuart times a ,state prison1 where ,lambert1 one of the most distinguished of ,parliamentary generals1 spent the last eighteen years of his life4 ,at the head of the ,sound1 on its eastern side1 is the inlet called the ,catwater1 the estuary of the river ,plym1 an important mercantile anchorage1 protected by ,batten breakwater4 ,it was here that the ,english ,fleet waited until the ,spanish ,armada1 on its way up the ,channel1 had passed the entrance of the ,sound4 ,between the ,catwater and the ,hamoaze1 the great naval anchorage which extends from the ,sound to ,saltash ,bridge1 are the ,three ,towns1 ,plymouth1 ,stonehouse1 and ,devonport1 now joined into one by continuous buildings1 forming the busiest and most populous part of the county1 and constituting1 with their dockyards1 barracks1 gun-wharves1 and victualling yards1 one of the most important stations of the ,royal ,navy4 #aj4 ,coastal ,gains and ,losses4 ,sandbanks4 ,lighthouses4 ,there are parts of our island where1 even within historic times1 the coast-line has been greatly changed by the encroachment of the sea1 usually through the wearing away of the cliffs along the shore4 ,this is especially the case on the eastern coast of ,england1 where1 in the lapse of ages1 villages1 towns1 and whole manors have been completely swept away4 ,the old town of ,ravenspur1 for example1 a place that in its time rivalled ,hull as a sea-port1 is to-day a mere sandbank far out from shore2 and the sea runs twenty feet deep over the once great shipping town of ,dunwich1 whose site is now two miles from the land4 ,on the other hand1 there are places where the reverse has happened2 where the shore has gained upon the sea4 ,the town of ,yarmouth1 for instance1 stands on ground that first became firm enough to build upon nine hundred years ago4 ,a large tract of land on the coast of ,carnarvonshire has1 in times much more recent1 been reclaimed from the sea2 and the day cannot be far distant when the mud-flats of the ,wash will be under the plough4 ,similar changes--changes resulting both from gain and loss--have happened and are still happening in ,devonshire4 ,braunton ,great ,field1 a rich tract of land some #cjj acres in extent1 cut up into hundreds of small freeholds1 was1 it is believed1 reclaimed from the estuary of the ,taw4 ,on the other hand1 the ,pebble ,ridge on the shore of ,barnstaple ,bay has been slowly driven inland by the force of the sea1 and is said to have advanced #bjj yards in the last fifty years1 thus covering a long stretch of pasture-land under heaps of stones4 ,attempts have been lately made1 by means of piles and groynes of timber1 to stop its further movement4 ,much more remarkable1 however1 and much more widely distributed1 are the alterations that have taken place on the south coast of ,devonshire1 owing mainly to erosion of the cliffs and consequent landslips1 and to the washing up1 by strong currents1 of vast quantities of sand and shingle4 ,from the ,dorset border westwards1 especially between ,pinhay ,bay and ,culverhole ,point1 in the ,white ,cliff near ,seaton1 and at ,beer ,head1 long stretches of cliff1 undermined probably by streams and heavy rains1 have fallen1 sometimes in masses half a mile long4 ,the old town of ,sidmouth is now buried under the shingle1 the cliffs that protected the harbour having been entirely washed away4 ,at ,dawlish1 again1 rather more than fifty years since1 a mass estimated at #djjj tons fell bodily into the sea4 ,nor is the erosion the work of natural forces alone4 ,in #ahig immense quantities of fine shingle were taken from the beach at ,hallsands1 to make concrete for ,keyham dockyard1 with the result that the beach there has sunk twelve feet1 that high-water mark is now much farther in-shore1 and that many houses in the village have been swept away by the sea1 whose further inroads have at last been checked by means of massive walls of concrete4 ,illustration3 ,a ,rough ,sea at ,ilfracombe ,most of the south coast estuaries1 as has already been pointed out1 have been more or less blocked up by banks of sand or shingle1 some of which are still undergoing change4 ,the ,warren1 for example1 the great bar at the mouth of the ,exe1 now connected with the western shore1 was in the seventeenth century joined to the ,exmouth side of the river1 and was still reached from there by stepping-stones as late as #agcj4 ,the ,warren is now being slowly washed away1 at the rate1 it is said1 of an acre in a year2 and the river has within historic times encroached upon the site of ,newenham ,abbey4 ,great as has been the loss of land on the south coast1 there have been some gains4 ,more than #agj acres of land1 for instance1 have been reclaimed from the ,laira near ,plymouth2 and the village of ,penny-come-quick1 lower down1 whose anglicised ,celtic name means the house at the head of the creek1 is no longer at the water's edge4 ,in #ahje some thirty acres were recovered from the ,charleston marshes1 on the ,salcombe estuary4 ,the ,bristol ,channel is one of the most stormy and dangerous parts of the ,british seas1 and is the scene of about one-tenth of all the shipping disasters that happen on our coasts every year4 ,in its upper reaches navigation is made difficult by banks of mud and sand which are continually altering in shape and position4 ,on the north coast of ,devonshire1 however1 there are no outlying sandbanks4 ,there is a small patch of sand off ,lynmouth1 #a-a_/b miles ,n4,n4,w4 of ,countisbury ,foreland1 and the estuary of the ,taw and ,torridge is obstructed by a dangerous and shifting sandbank known as ,barnstaple ,bar1 upon which 7the harbour bar of ,kingsley's song71 many vessels have been wrecked4 ,but the dangers of this stormy shore lie mainly in the iron-bound coast itself1 and in the rocks that stretch seaward from the bases of the cliffs4 ,from ,bull ,point to ,baggy ,point1 especially off ,morte ,point1 and again from ,clovelly to the border of ,cornwall1 particularly off ,hartland ,point1 the shore is fringed with reefs and sharp edges of rock4 ,lundy1 again1 is a constant source of danger to sailors2 partly because of the many rocks that stretch out from it1 especially the ,hen and ,chickens at the north end and the ,lee ,rocks at the south2 partly because of the strong currents that1 off the south point of the island1 run five knots an hour2 and partly because of the fogs that so frequently envelope it4 ,it was all three clauses combined that1 in #aijf1 occasioned the loss of the first-class battleship ,montagu1 which1 carried out of her course by the current1 and deceived by the fog1 became a total wreck on the ,shutter ,rock1 the southern extremity of the island4 ,off ,lundy1 too1 are the only banks of importance4 ,over the ,stanley ,bank1 which lies to the north-east1 where the depth at one point is only four and a half fathoms1 there run1 in heavy weather1 the dangerous tide-rips known as the ,white ,horses4 ,the navigation of the south shore of ,devonshire is much more important than that of the north2 partly because of the number of ports in the county itself1 and partly because the ,english ,channel is a much more crowded waterway4 ,the principal danger to navigation on the south coast is the group of reefs called the ,eddystone ,rocks1 fourteen miles south-south-west of the entrance of ,plymouth ,sound4 ,they are all covered at high tide1 but the top of one of them is nineteen feet above low-water mark4 ,in ,plymouth ,sound itself1 especially near the eastern shore1 there are many rocks and shallow patches4 ,the most conspicuous of the former is the ,mewstone1 #aid feet high4 ,on the ,shagstone1 a little farther in1 the ,p4 and ,o4 steamship ,nepaul was lost4 ,from this point eastward the coast is fringed with rocks and small islets1 most of them close in-shore4 ,but from the ,start a chain of sandbanks called the ,skerries extends out some miles from the land4 ,from ,bigbury ,bay to the ,start is one of the most dangerous parts of the coast1 and has been the scene of many wrecks4 ,here1 to name a few of many instances1 were lost the ,ramillies1 of whose crew #gjh were drowned2 the ,chanteloupe1 when only one man was saved2 the ,marana1 from which seven men escaped2 and the ,dryad1 on which every man perished4 ,illustration3 ,the ,eddystone ,lighthouse ,from the mouth of the ,dart to ,hope's ,nose there are many outlying rocks2 but from that headland to the ,dorsetshire border the coast is comparatively clean1 that is to say1 free from obstructions4 ,all the rivers east of ,plymouth ,sound are more or less blocked by bars1 with the exception of the ,dart1 whose entrance1 however1 is strewn with rocks4 ,to warn the sailor against these and other dangers1 buoys1 bells1 beacons1 fog-horns or sirens1 guns or explosive signals1 and lighthouses have been provided at many points along the ,devonshire coasts4 ,there are also numerous storm-signalling stations1 and there are no fewer than thirteen lifeboats1 of which eight are on the south coast4 ,the men of the thirty-three ,devonshire ,coastguard stations have been the means of saving many lives4 ,on the two coasts1 including ,lundy1 there are in all fifty-one lights of various sorts and sizes1 from the eight first-class lighthouses with massive stone towers1 of which the most famous although not the most powerful is the ,eddystone1 down to the small but useful lights of a hundred candle-power or less1 most of which are connected with quays and harbours2 while others1 like that at ,clovelly1 lighted only in the fishing-season1 are temporary1 a number of them consisting merely of a lantern on the top of a post4 ,a hut that carries the red and white lights at the mouth of the ,barnstaple river is on wheels1 and is moved as the bar shifts its position4 ,the first ,eddystone lighthouse1 a fantastic structure of wood1 with six stages1 begun in #afij by ,winstanley--who1 while engaged in building it1 was carried off by a ,french privateer1 but promptly released by command of ,louis ,,xiv--was swept away1 with its builder and three other men1 in the historic storm of #agjc4 ,the second lighthouse1 also of wood1 built by ,rudyerd in #agjf1 was destroyed by fire in #agee4 ,the third1 which was the first real lighthouse ever erected1 was constructed by ,smeaton of stones dovetailed together1 with a shaft eighty-seven feet high1 shaped like the trunk of an oak-tree for the sake of strength1 and with the idea that it would offer greater resistance to the waves4 ,it was finished in #agei1 but its woodwork having been burnt in #aggj was then replaced by stone4 ,the foundations of this tower having been undermined by the sea1 a fourth lighthouse1 whose top is #acc feet above high-water mark1 was built by ,douglas1 between #ahgh and #ahhb1 on a rock forty yards south-south-east of the original site1 which is nine miles and a quarter from the nearest land4 ,part of the old tower was taken down1 and re-erected on ,plymouth ,hoe1 in memory of ,smeaton4 ,like most of the ,devonshire lights the ,eddystone lantern is of the group-flashing order1 giving a light equal to that of nearly #cjj1jjj candles1 with two quick flashes every half-minute1 and visible in clear weather for seventeen miles4 ,a minor fixed light1 in the same tower1 shines on the ,hand ,deeps1 a bank to the north-west2 and the lighthouse is also provided with an explosive fog-signal1 giving two reports every five minutes4 ,illustration3 ,the ,start ,lighthouse ,other very powerful lights1 visible for from seventeen to twenty-one miles1 are--giving them in ascending order--those at ,hartland1 ,bull ,point1 ,countisbury ,foreland1 ,north ,lundy1 the ,start1 and ,south ,lundy1 the last named being the most brilliant of all1 of #cgd1bbe candle-power4 ,all these lighthouses have fog-sirens or explosive fog-signals4 ,most of the ,english lighthouses are under the charge of the ,trinity ,house1 a corporation founded in #aeab1 and now having a yearly revenue of #cjj1jjj1 derived from light-dues levied on shipping4 ,the expense of keeping up the lighthouses of the ,united ,kingdom in #aiji amounted1 however1 to #dfd1edj4 ,the early beacon-lights were simply fires of coal1 and one of these was in use at ,st ,bees ,head as recently as #ahab4 ,there are now round the coasts of ,britain more than a thousand lighthouses and lights of various degrees of importance1 from those at the ,lizard and at ,st ,catherine's ,point1 which are the most brilliant in the world1 and may be reckoned in millions of candles1 down to insignificant little structures1 of which there are many1 like the #ajj-;candle-power ,jack-in-the-,box on the river ,tees4 #aa4 ,climate and ,rainfall4 ,the climate of any country1 or in other words1 its average weather1 by which1 again1 we mean its temperature1 rainfall1 and hours of sunshine1 as well as the dryness or otherwise of its air1 depends upon various circumstances and conditions1 but especially upon geographical position1 that is to say1 upon the nearness of the country to the equator1 upon its distance from the sea and its height above sea-level2 partly also upon its soil and vegetation4 ,speaking generally1 the nearer we approach the equator the hotter will be the climate1 and the nearer to the sea-coast the milder and more equable it will be4 ,the highest temperature in the shade ever yet recorded1 however--#abg ,fahr4--was in the ,algerian ,sahara1 at a spot not even within the tropics2 and the greatest cold ever experienced1 #ij below zero1 ,fahr41 was at a place in ,siberia only just within the arctic circle4 ,the climate of the ,british ,isles is very greatly influenced by the great ocean current1 often called the ,gulf ,stream1 from its supposed source in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 which1 impelled by steady winds1 carries a constant stream of warm water from the equatorial regions towards the north pole4 ,this current washes the shores of these islands1 and it is this circumstance which makes our winters so much milder than those of ,labrador1 which is no nearer to the pole than we are4 ,were it not for the ,gulf ,stream our weather would probably be more severe than that of ,newfoundland4 ,the highest shade temperature ever experienced in ,britain was #aja ,fahr41 at ,alton in ,hampshire1 in ,july1 #ahha2 and the lowest was #aj below zero1 ,fahr41 at ,buxton in ,derbyshire1 in ,february1 #ahie4 ,a temperature of #bc below zero is said to have been measured in ,berwickshire1 in #ahgi1 but the correctness of the record has been questioned4 ,what is1 however1 of more importance1 is the average temperature for the year1 which1 for the whole of ,england1 is #dh ,fahr4 ,the sunniest part of ,england lies1 as might be expected1 along the south coast1 although the south-east and south-west coasts also get more sunshine than inland districts in the same latitude4 ,the sun is above the horizon in this country for more than #ddej hours in the year2 but1 owing to the frequent presence of clouds1 he is not visible for even half that time in any part of the ,british ,isles and the average for the country as a whole is only #acee hours4 ,the southern coasts sometimes enjoy #bjjj hours of bright sunshine in a year1 but their average is probably not more than #agjj or #ahjj hours1 or about five hours a day all the year round4 ,the amount decreases as we go north2 while the manufacturing districts of the midland counties1 owing to the smoke which so often obscures the sky1 get #abjj hours or less4 ,at ,manchester in #aijg only #hid hours of sunshine were recorded for the year's total4 ,the sunniest months throughout the country generally are ,may and ,june1 and the gloomiest month is ,december4 ,illustration3 ,the ,winter ,garden at ,torquay ,the climate of a country1 however1 depends not only upon the sunshine1 but upon the rainfall4 ,the amount of rain that falls in any place varies according to the height of that place above the sea1 its distance from the coast1 and the configuration of the ground1 that is to say1 upon its position with respect to valleys1 up which moisture-laden air may be driven by the wind1 to be compressed and cooled until its moisture falls in rain4 ,the rainfall varies very much in different parts of ,england1 but the average amount for the whole country is about #cc inches in a year4 ,when we speak of an inch of rain we mean that it would lie an inch deep on a perfectly level piece of ground4 ,thus1 if all the rain that fell in a year stayed on the ground1 and did not evaporate1 or run away1 or sink into the earth1 the water would be #cc inches deep all over ,england at the end of the twelve months4 ,an inch of rain all over an acre of ground weighs rather more than #ajj tons4 ,not only does the rainfall vary in different parts of the country1 but it varies in different years4 ,the wettest year on record was #aijc1 when the rainfall averaged #ej inches for the whole of ,england2 and the driest year was #ahhg1 when it amounted to no more than #bd inches4 ,the heaviest rainfall in ,great ,britain is in the mountains round ,ben ,nevis and ,snowdon1 in the ,english ,lake ,district1 and in the uplands of ,cornwall and ,devon4 ,and it may fairly accurately be said that1 as we cross ,england from west to east1 the amount of the annual fall steadily decreases1 as is shown in the accompanying map4 ,the moisture-laden clouds1 driven across the ,atlantic by the prevalent ,s4,w4 winds1 discharge their contents on meeting the cold high lands of western ,england1 which thus act as a sort of umbrella1 the driest parts of the country being on the east coast4 ,while the average fall over a considerable part of the west side of it is from #dj to #fj inches1 that on the east is no more than from #be to #cj2 and round the ,wash and in parts of ,suffolk and ,essex it is under #be inches4 ,thus it sometimes happens that when the west of ,england has rain enough and to spare1 the eastern districts are suffering from the want of it4 ,the effect of this difference is shown in a marked degree in the character of the crops4 ,the farms of the rainier west are to a great extent laid down in grass4 ,the drier districts of the east grow more corn1 which needs dry weather to ripen it4 ,illustration3 ,,england ,,wales ,,annual ,,rainfall 7,the figures give the approximate annual rainfall in inches47 ,the driest month in ,england generally is ,march1 whose rainfall averages #adf inches2 and the wettest is ,october1 in which the average amount is #bha inches4 ,the pleasant climate of ,devonshire1 which is highly conducive to health and to extreme longevity1 and which1 especially in the south1 favours luxuriant and even sub-tropical vegetation1 owes its character to five main causes2--the fact that the county is bounded on two sides by the sea2 the influence of the ,gulf ,stream or warm ocean current1 which directly affects both coasts2 the warmth and moisture of the prevailing winds2 the shelter afforded to the southern districts by the high ground of ,dartmoor2 and the large amount of bright sunshine which the county1 and especially the south of it1 is favoured4 ,it is owing to the ,gulf ,stream that the temperature of the sea in the ,english ,channel is many degrees higher in winter1 even as far east as the ,goodwins1 than that in the ,north ,sea4 ,thus1 the east wind1 blowing over #bjj miles of warmed water1 has1 by the time it reaches ,devonshire1 lost much of its proverbial bitterness4 ,on the other hand it is mainly owing to the influence of the ,gulf ,stream that the climate of ,ilfracombe is more equable than that of any other town in ,england except ,falmouth1 and is1 in fact1 from half a degree to a degree warmer in winter and cooler in summer than ,torquay itself4 ,illustration3 ,upcott ,lane1 ,bideford ,it is largely the shelter given to it by ,dartmoor and the ,blackdown ,hills that makes the south and south-east of ,devonshire so famous for its warm and pleasant climate4 ,the south-west also benefits from the protection afforded by the spurs of ,dartmoor1 but the rainfall of that district is heavier and the air more relaxing4 ,the prevailing winds in ,devonshire are the west and south-west1 which1 blowing across the open ,atlantic1 are also the chief rain-carrying winds4 ,both are comparatively warm1 the latter following the course of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,but they are often violent1 and vegetation fully exposed to them does not flourish4 ,the peninsula of which ,devonshire forms a part contains the warmest districts in ,great ,britain4 ,the annual average temperature of the whole county is #di-a_/b ,fahr41 which is a degree and a half higher than that of the whole of ,england2 while the average for ,torquay is #ea4 ,in the three winter months1 ,january1 ,february1 and ,march1 in which the average temperature for ,london is #cig1 that for ,torquay is #dac4 ,the annual amount of bright sunshine in ,devonshire naturally varies in different years4 ,in #aijf it was nearly #bjjj hours on the south coast1 and not less than #ahjj on the north4 ,the average amount appears1 however1 to be about #agjj in the south1 and #aejj on the north coast1 or between three and four hours a day4 ,the actual amount would1 of course1 be much more than this in summer1 and much less in the winter4 ,the amount of rain in ,devonshire in #aijg1 which was an average year throughout the country1 was 7taking the mean of the #afi stations named in ,dr ,h4 ,r4 ,mill's ,british ,rainfall7 #dabd inches1 falling on #baj days1 or about #g-a_/b inches and #g days above the average for the whole of ,england and ,wales4 ,in the same year #aif4af inches of rain were registered at the ,llyn ,llydaw ,copper ,mine near ,snowdon1 and only #aff inches at ,clacton-on-,sea4 ,the wettest part of the county is ,dartmoor1 which catches the moisture-laden clouds coming up from the ,atlantic4 ,in #aijg some #ha inches of rain fell at ,princetown1 at a spot #acij feet above the sea4 ,this amount was1 however1 much exceeded in #aijc1 when the rainfall at the same station was #ajbcb inches1 and in ,cowsic ,valley1 a little lower down1 it was half an inch more4 ,the driest part of ,devonshire is the south-east coast4 ,in #aijg only #bfbg inches of rain fell at ,exmouth1 for example4 ,heavy as the rainfall is1 the slopes of the land are so steep and the soil in general so porous that the water soon runs away1 with the result that both the earth and the air are drier than might be expected4 ,a feature of ,dartmoor even more striking and characteristic than its heavy rainfall is the fog which so frequently covers it1 and which is sometimes so dense as to cause the most experienced moor-men to lose their way4 ,speaking generally1 the climate of ,devonshire may be described as warm and moist and remarkably equable4 ,the winters are very mild1 and snow is rare1 except on ,dartmoor4 ,on the south coast of the county many plants which in less favoured parts of ,england need protection in the winter1 such1 for instance1 as geraniums1 hydrangeas1 heliotropes1 and camellias1 are left out-of-doors all the year4 ,magnolias reach to the tops of the houses1 myrtles grow to a height of thirty feet or more1 palms and eucalyptus flourish1 and oranges1 lemons1 and citrons do well in the open air4 ,devonshire seems peculiarly liable to seismic disturbances1 and many slight shocks of earthquake have been recorded4 #ab4 ,people--,race4 ,dialects4 ,settlements4 ,population4 ,the earliest inhabitants of ,devonshire1 the people of the ,palaeolithic or ,early ,stone ,age1 have left few traces beyond their weapons and implements of flint4 ,they lived in caves or on the banks of rivers4 ,they were hunters1 and appear to have practised no craft but that of hunting1 while their arts seem to have been almost if not entirely limited to the use of fire and to the making of rude instruments of stone4 ,but during the ,neolithic ,period1 as the ,later ,stone ,age is called1 the district1 it is believed1 was invaded by an ,iberian or ,ivernian race from south-western ,europe1 a race possessing flocks and herds1 with a knowledge of many arts and crafts1 such as spinning and weaving1 the making of pottery and of dug-out canoes1 but having at first no acquaintance with the use of metal4 ,they were of the same stock as the ,silures of ,south ,wales1 and were probably dark-haired and black-eyed1 round-headed and short of stature4 ,their descendants may1 perhaps1 still be seen in the county1 especially on the skirts of ,exmoor1 and it is quite possible that their breeds of domestic animals may be represented upon ,devonshire farms to-day4 ,the ,iberians were1 it is thought1 conquered and driven westward by the very different ,goidels or ,gaels1 a powerful ,celtic race1 tall1 fair1 long-headed1 much further advanced in arts and crafts1 and to some extent users of bronze for tools and ornaments4 ,it is thought by some authorities that it was they who set up the stone circles1 avenues1 and menhirs1 and who built the rude stone huts which still remain on ,dartmoor4 ,many of the people of ,scotland and ,ireland are their descendants1 and their language is still spoken in the ,highlands and ,western ,isles of ,scotland1 in parts of ,ireland1 and in the ,isle of ,man4 ,the ,gaels were1 it is believed1 succeeded and conquered in the fourth century before ,christ by the ,brythons1 another ,celtic race1 who gave their name to our island4 ,they took possession of ,wales1 and of ,scotland as far as the ,highlands1 but they do not appear to have crossed into ,ireland4 ,they were1 to a great extent1 users of bronze1 but they also worked in iron1 and were the first of the ,iron ,age in this country4 ,it is probable that they built most of the hill-forts of ,devonshire1 and that they made many of the roads1 some of which were afterwards adapted and improved by the ,romans4 ,shortly before the landing of ,julius ,caesar1 ,britain was invaded by still another ,celtic race1 the ,belgae from ,gaul1 a tall1 dark-haired people1 as may be gathered from the appearance of their descendants1 the ,walloons of ,lige and the ,ardennes4 ,the ,roman tenure of ,devonshire was of a very limited character1 and can have had little effect upon the inhabitants4 ,the ,saxon occupation of the district was more of the nature of colonisation than of conquest4 ,by the time they had crossed ,somerset the ,saxons were1 at least nominally1 ,christians2 and although their treatment of the original occupants was none too gentle1 as1 for instance1 in the expulsion of the ,britons from ,exeter by ,athelstan1 it seems likely that the two races settled quietly down together1 the ,saxons probably becoming the land-owners1 and the ,celts the peasantry4 ,it is thought that the main population of the county is ,celtic1 of one or other of the three waves of ,celtic invasion4 ,there are in ,devonshire many ,celtic place-names1 especially of hills and rivers2 and some of the latter1 with the addition of ,saxon endings1 such as ham1 ton1 and stock1 survive also in the names of towns4 ,in some cases1 curious ,english-looking names can be traced to ,celtic words of quite another meaning4 ,thus1 ,bowerman's ,nose1 the name of a famous crag on ,dartmoor1 is probably a corruption of ,veor maen1 the great stone4 ,the dialect of ,devonshire1 like the very similar speech of west ,somerset1 is ,saxon1 with strong traces of ,celtic influence in its pronunciation4 ,one of many peculiarities is the sound of the diphthongs oo and ou1 which are pronounced like the ,french u or the ,german 4 ,another peculiarity is the great variety of the vowel sounds1 and the indistinctness or modification of some of the consonants4 ,again1 th and even v are often sounded like dh4 ,it is also very characteristic to put d for th as1 for instance1 datch for thatch1 or dishle for thistle4 ,there are many words in common use in ,devonshire which are almost or entirely unknown elsewhere1 and which may be regarded as survivals of ancient ,saxon or1 in some cases1 ,british speech4 ,such1 for example1 are3-- whisht1 weird1 uncanny1 lonely1 overlooked4 cloam1 earthenware4 clam1 a foot-bridge4 yark1 lively4 stivery1 disordered4 clunk1 to swallow4 giglets1 young men or women seeking new situations4 havage1 character4 zamzoaky1 tepid4 coochey1 clumsy4 mawn1 a basket4 frickety1 heavy1 sodden4 pluff1 not well4 spraggetty1 spotted4 dimpety1 dusk4 chicket1 cheerful4 spilsky1 lean4 fess1 smart4 plum1 soft4 scamlin1 irregular4 thurdle1 miserable4 sklum1 to grasp roughly4 yaw1 to bite4 shugg1 shy4 ippet1 a lizard4 ,it should be remembered that some of the forms of ,devonshire dialect which strike the educated ear as ungrammatical are really survivals of pure ,saxon speech1 such as was in use at the courts of ,alfred the ,great and ,athelstan4 ,english in other parts of ,england has undergone great changes4 ,in the ,west ,country it has in some respects kept closer to the original forms4 ,the ,norman ,conquest left its mark in many places4 ,double names1 such as ,berry ,pomeroy1 ,sampford ,courtenay1 and ,wear ,gifford1 suggest the addition of a ,norman family title to the existing ,saxon name of a manor4 ,it is quite possible that the common ,devonshire word fay1 as in ,yes1 fay and ,no1 fay1 is a survival of the ,old ,french fay 7for foi71 faith4 ,illustration3 ,a ,cockle ,woman1 ,river ,exe ,huguenots and other ,french refugees have also at various times settled in the county1 as1 for instance1 at ,exeter1 where they introduced the art of weaving tapestry1 at ,barnstaple1 where they taught new and better methods of making cloth1 and at ,plymouth1 where many took refuge after the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes4 ,and it seems likely that ,bratton ,fleming and ,stoke ,fleming were named after ,flemish immigrants1 many of whom settled in ,devonshire4 ,illustration3 ,a ,honiton ,lace-,worker ,the population of the ,geographical ,county of ,devonshire1 according to the census of #aija1 is #ffa1cad1 and there are in the county #abc1fjh inhabited houses4 ,a hundred years ago the population was #cdj1cjh2 it has1 therefore1 not quite doubled during the century4 ,in the busier county of ,kent the population has in the same time increased from #bfh1jig to #a1cdh1hda4 ,in common with all except five of the counties of ,england1 there are in ,devonshire more women than men2 the excess of the female over the male population being #cg1jif4 ,the chief occupation is agriculture1 which provides employment for #db1jjj people1 or about one-nineteenth of the inhabitants--a considerably lower proportion than in the adjoining county of ,somerset4 ,less than #cjjj men are engaged in mines and quarries2 #bjjj are fishermen1 and lace-making occupies #cej men and #aejj women4 ,in common with many other parts of ,england the small country parishes of ,devonshire are much less populous than they were4 ,in the last fifty years there has been a decline of #ag1jjj in the rural population4 ,devonshire is a somewhat thinly-inhabited county4 ,there are in it a little more than #b-a_/b acres to every man1 woman1 and child1 or #bed persons to the square mile1 compared with #eeh to the square mile for the whole of ,england and ,wales4 ,westmorland1 the most sparsely-populated county1 has only #hb people to the square mile1 or eight acres to each inhabitant4 ,lancashire1 on the other hand1 contains more than #bcjj people to the square mile1 or four people to every acre2 and in the county of ,middlesex there are #ab1ffi to the square mile1 which gives about twenty inhabitants to every acre of ground4 #ac4 ,agriculture--,main ,cultivations4 ,woodlands4 ,stock4 ,the area of all the land in ,england is1 in round numbers1 #cb-a_/b millions of acres1 of which #bd-a_/b millions are under cultivation2 #aj-c_/d million acres being arable1 and the greater part of the rest being devoted to permanent grass4 ,for some years past the area of cultivation in the ,british ,islands has been gradually growing less2 and in #aijh the decrease in ,england alone was more than #be1jjj acres1 chiefly in the amount of land given up to barley and oats1 but extending to almost all crops except wheat1 potatoes1 and lucerne1 which showed a slight advance4 ,the cultivation of fruit1 especially of small fruit1 continues to increase1 but the total space devoted to it is not quite #cjj1jjj acres4 ,with regard to live stock1 the ,government returns show that the total number of horses in ,england 7about a million7 was #aj1jjj less in #aijh than in #aijg2 but that the number of cattle 7about five millions71 of sheep 7about sixteen millions71 and of pigs 7about two and a half millions7 had increased1 especially in the case of sheep and pigs4 ,illustration3 ,old ,ford ,farm1 ,bideford ,devonshire is eminently an agricultural county1 having few industrial or manufacturing centres1 and still fewer mining interests1 although in the past it has been famous for weaving1 and for tin and copper mining4 ,there is in the county a great variety of soil1 from almost barren sand to the rich alluvial earth of the many river valleys1 such as the vales of ,honiton and ,exeter1 for example1 and that not very clearly defined tract of country called the ,south ,hams1 lying south of ,dartmoor1 including the district between the ,tamar and the ,teign1 and containing some of the most fertile land in ,england4 ,the climate1 as has been shown1 is mild and equable1 but the rainfall is heavy2 and the farms of ,devonshire1 like those in the adjacent counties1 are mainly devoted to pasturage1 although fruit-growing is an important industry4 ,red ,devon cattle are well known and highly valued2 and the sturdy little ponies of ,exmoor and ,dartmoor have been famous since ,saxon times4 ,illustration3 ,exmoor ,ponies ,according to the latest returns of the ,ordnance ,survey1 ,devonshire contains1 exclusive of water1 more than a million and a half 7#a1ffg1aed7 acres1 of which nearly a million and a quarter 7#a1baa1fdh7 are under cultivation1 including rather more than #ejj1jjj acres of arable land1 and nearly #gjj1jjj acres of permanent grass4 ,the latter1 which as will be seen is more than half the cultivated area1 is more than twice that in ,dorset or ,cornwall1 rather more than that in ,somerset1 and is only exceeded in the much larger county of ,yorkshire4 ,it may be added that the arable land was #aa1jjj acres less and the permanent grass #aa1jjj acres more in #aijh than in #aijg4 ,illustration3 ,red ,devon ,cow ,corn crops--which in the returns are made to include not only wheat1 barley1 oats1 and rye1 but peas and beans--occupy altogether about #bjj1jjj acres1 or one-sixth of the cultivated area4 ,in this respect ,devonshire surpasses the three adjoining counties1 and is excelled by only six ,english shires2 ,essex and ,lincoln1 where corn crops occupy one-third of the area1 ,norfolk1 where they are two-fifths1 ,cambridge and ,suffolk1 where they take up nearly one-half1 and ,yorkshire1 where more than half the cultivated area is thus occupied4 ,with regard to wheat alone1 the average yield per acre in ,devonshire1 for the last ten years1 is only #bf-a_/d bushels1 which is lower than that of any other county in ,england except ,monmouth4 ,green crops other than permanent grass1 and roots1 occupy altogether about #cjj1jjj acres1 an amount exceeded only in ,norfolk and ,yorkshire4 ,devonshire ranks very high as a fruit-growing county1 and the area of its apple-orchards1 about #bg1jjj acres1 was1 in #aijh1 greater than that of any other county in ,england4 ,apples are grown in many districts1 but especially in the ,vale of ,exeter1 in the ,south ,hams1 and in the ,valley of the ,dart4 ,much of the fruit is1 however1 grown only for making cider1 and is of little value for the table4 ,plympton is said to have had the first cider-orchard in ,england4 ,when pears1 plums1 and cherries are included in the fruit returns1 ,devonshire takes third place1 being surpassed by ,kent and ,hereford4 ,vines are grown against many cottage walls1 as is the case in other southern counties2 but it is remarkable1 considering the mildness of the climate1 that no ,devonshire vineyard is mentioned in ,domesday ,book1 although several are included in the survey for ,somerset4 ,the space devoted to small fruits--strawberries1 raspberries1 currants1 and gooseberries--although showing a large comparative increase over #aijg1 amounted in #aijh to no more than #abeb acres4 ,in this respect ,devonshire is fourteenth among the ,english counties1 producing little more than one-twentieth as much small fruit as ,kent1 for instance4 ,devonshire has no true forests4 ,dartmoor and ,exmoor were so called in the sense of being unenclosed and uncultivated4 ,but except on the moors1 the county is well-timbered1 and its fine trees add greatly to its beauty4 ,its woods1 plantations1 and coppices amount altogether to nearly #ij1jjj acres1 or about one-eighteenth of its whole area2 and it here ranks fifth among the shires of ,england4 ,sussex has the greatest proportion of woodland1 about one-seventh of its total area2 and ,cambridgeshire1 with only one-ninety-second1 has the least4 ,there are considerable woods in some of the many beautiful parks2 but probably the most famous is the ,wistman's ,wood1 near ,two ,bridges1 the ancestors of whose stunted and fantastic-looking oak-trees are mentioned in ,domesday ,book4 ,illustration3 ,gathering ,cider ,apples ,the total number of agricultural holdings in ,devonshire1 in #aijh1 was nearly #ae1jjj1 or about one-twentieth of those in all ,england4 ,this is greater than that of any other county except ,lancashire1 ,lincoln1 and ,yorkshire4 ,nearly #cjjj holdings are of five acres or less1 and there are only six other counties which have more of these small farms4 ,illustration3 ,a ,water-mill at ,uplyme ,the numbers of the various kinds of live stock in ,devonshire are large1 and the county ranks very high under the four main heads4 ,in cattle 7#bie1jjj1 or #bjjj less than in #aijg7 it stands second in all ,england1 being surpassed only by ,yorkshire2 in horses 7#ei1jjj1 or #aejj less than the previous year7 it is fourth2 in sheep 7#ijj1jjj1 or #bi1jjj more7 it is fifth2 and in pigs 7#ajf1jjj1 or #ejjj more7 it is sixth4 ,the average price per stone of fat ,devon cattle was higher in #aijh than that of any other breed in ,england1 and the value per head of three-year-old ,devon store cattle was only exceeded by that of ,herefords4 ,there is no cheese made in ,devonshire to compare with the famous ,cheddar of the neighbouring county2 but ,devonshire cream1 although closely rivalled by that of both ,cornwall and ,somerset1 is known all over the kingdom4 #ad4 ,industries and ,manufactures4 ,devonshire1 although in former ages famous even on the continent of ,europe for its cloth-weaving1 no longer ranks as a manufacturing county4 ,apart from agriculture and fishing1 its industries are now mainly confined to the making of lace and cider1 to ship-building1 and to the manufacture of earthenware4 ,the prevalence in the county of the names of ,webber and ,tucker is some evidence of the extent and antiquity of the woollen trade1 which1 from very early times1 flourished all over ,devonshire until the closing years of the eighteenth century1 when it was greatly checked by the introduction of cotton fabrics4 ,one of the most important seats of the manufacture was ,tiverton1 where the industry was established in the fourteenth century1 and reached perhaps its greatest height in the sixteenth4 ,it was his success as a cloth-merchant which enabled ,peter ,blundell to found here his famous school4 ,the chief woollen market of the county was originally at ,crediton1 but it was removed in the sixteenth century to ,exeter1 which long ranked second only to ,leeds1 and in its palmy days exported annually more than #cjj1jjj pieces of cloth4 ,other important centres of the trade were ,barnstaple1 where towards the end of the sixteenth century improved methods of weaving were introduced by ,french refugees2 ,tavistock1 whose kerseymeres had a ,european reputation2 ,honiton1 ,cullompton1 and ,totnes4 ,now ,ashburton and ,buckfastleigh1 where there are some manufactures of blankets and serges1 are the only towns where the industry survives4 ,lace-making1 which has been a characteristic ,devonshire industry for nearly three hundred years1 is said to have been introduced at ,honiton by ,flemish refugees at the close of the sixteenth century1 and to have been well established by #afcj4 ,the lace was a most costly product1 chiefly because the special thread used in making it had to be imported from the ,low ,countries4 ,in old days the price of ,devonshire lace is said to have been reckoned by the number of shillings which would cover it4 ,but the change of fashion in men's dress lessened the demand for lace2 and the introduction of machinery in #ahjh greatly diminished its cost4 ,the piece of lace which in the eighteenth century would have cost #ae1 could be purchased a few years later for #aes41 and can now be obtained1 machine-made1 for #ae;d4 ,there was some revival of the trade after the making1 at ,beer1 of ,queen ,victoria's wedding-dress1 at a cost of a thousand pounds4 ,schools were established for the training of lace-workers2 and by #ahgj the industry provided employment for #hjjj people4 ,the manufacture has1 however1 again greatly declined1 and although there is a lace-factory at ,tiverton1 and although hand-made or pillow-lace is still worked in many cottages in the south-east1 especially at ,beer1 ,colyton1 and ,seaton1 the total number of lace-workers in the whole county1 at the last census1 was less than #bjjj4 ,illustration3 ,devonshire ,lace ,carpets in imitation of those of ,turkey were first made at ,axminster in #agee1 but in #ahce the looms were removed to ,wilton1 near ,salisbury4 ,there are valuable deposits of various kinds of potter's clay in ,devonshire1 and although much of this is exported1 a good deal is used in the county4 ,there were formerly many small1 scattered potteries in ,north ,devon1 but the chief seats of the industry now are at ,bideford1 where a good deal of rough pottery is made2 at ,annery1 noted for its glazed bricks and tiles2 and at ,barnstaple1 where are extensive and long-established potteries of what is called ,barum ware1 which has been compared to the ,italian sgraffito4 ,the potteries of ,bovey ,tracy1 which use both local and imported clay1 employ from #bej to #cej hands4 ,the fine red clay of ,watcombe is used to make terra-cotta2 and at ,lee ,moor1 near ,plympton1 whence much kaolin or fine china clay is exported1 the silicious refuse is made up into bricks of high quality for use in metallurgical furnaces4 ,the kaolin deposits of ,devonshire were discovered by ,cookworthy1 who made porcelain at ,plymouth from #aggb to #aggd1 after which date the works were removed to ,bristol4 ,illustration3 ,devonshire ,pottery from the ,watcombe ,works ,devonshire is one of the chief cider-producing counties1 and its apple-orchards are the most extensive in our island4 ,some of the best varieties of apples for cider-making--an industry which is carried on throughout a very large part of the county though ,totnes1 ,whimple1 ,crediton1 ,exeter and ,tiverton are perhaps the best known centres--are ,kingston ,black1 both the sweet and the sour ,woodbines 7known locally as ,slack-me-girdles71 ,sweet ,alford and ,fair ,maid of ,devon4 ,illustration3 ,cider-making in the #agth ,century 7,from an old print7 ,illustration3 ,a ,modern ,cider ,press ,it is interesting to note that printing was early introduced into ,devonshire4 ,in #aebe the fifth printing-press in ,england was set up in ,tavistock4 ,there are paper-mills at ,cullompton1 iron-works near ,kingsbridge1 glove-factories at ,torrington1 umber-works at ,ashburton1 tanneries and shoe-factories at ,crediton1 and agricultural implement works at ,exeter4 ,illustration3 ,ship-building ,yard1 ,brixham ,in addition to the very important ,government works at ,devonport and ,keyham dockyards1 there is a considerable amount of ship and boat-building1 especially on the ,dart and at ,brixham1 and the industry employs altogether about #cejj men4 #ae4 ,mines and ,minerals4 ,there was a time when mining1 especially tin-mining1 was the most important industry of ,devonshire4 ,traces left all over ,dartmoor show that at a very early period tin was obtained there by the process called streaming1 that is to say by the washing of grains of the metal out of the disintegrated and crumbling granite4 ,vast numbers of abandoned shafts sunk in search of tin1 copper1 iron1 manganese1 and even silver1 remain1 together with their too often ugly buildings1 as evidence of the former magnitude of the industry4 ,at the present day1 however1 only twenty-four mines are in active operation1 providing employment for no more than #gjj men1 who1 in #aijg1 raised less than #agjj tons of metal of all descriptions4 ,the tin-miners of ,devon and ,cornwall were early formed into a corporate body whose affairs were managed by a ,stannary parliament that met on ,hingston ,down4 ,at a later period1 probably at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 the ,devonshire men held their own parliament1 which assembled on ,crockern ,tor4 ,they were governed by a ,warden--,sir ,walter ,ralegh held the office for some years--appointed by the ,duchy of ,cornwall1 who collected the ,duchy dues or royalties1 and having ascertained the purity of each block of tin by coinage1 that is1 by cutting off for analysis a coin or corner1 stamped it with the ,duchy arms4 ,a miner convicted of selling impure tin was punished by having some of the melted metal poured down his throat4 ,lydford1 ,tavistock1 ,chagford1 and ,ashburton were called ,stannary ,towns1 since at each of those places blocks of tin might be tested2 and the arbitrary nature of the ,stannary ,court is hinted at in the proverbial expression3 ,lydford ,law2 hang first and try afterwards4 ,the chief mining district of ,devonshire begins at the ,tamar and extends across ,dartmoor and along its borders4 ,the most important centre was ,tavistock1 but there were rich mines at ,north ,molton1 where several kinds of metal were worked1 near ,ashburton1 and elsewhere4 ,the principal ores are those of copper and tin2 some iron is worked1 and there are rich veins1 believed to be not yet exhausted although not now worked1 of galena or silver-lead4 ,the ,devonshire mines formerly produced more tin than those of ,cornwall2 but since the fourteenth century the output of the latter county has been the greater4 ,the quantity now raised in ,devonshire is inconsiderable1 and in #aijg amounted to only #id tons4 ,tin is very largely used in making what is called tin-plate1 which is really sheet-iron dipped into the melted metal4 ,it is also mixed with copper to make bronze or machine-brass1 and it was for the manufacture of bronze that it was so much sought after by the ancient inhabitants of the country4 ,copper-mining in ,devonshire is believed to be a comparatively modern industry4 ,it is not known whether the ancient ,britons made their own bronze from native tin and copper1 or whether they imported it from abroad4 ,the ,devon ,great ,consols ,mine1 four miles from ,tavistock1 once by far the richest mine in ,england1 and one of the richest in the world1 has shipped as much as #abjj tons of copper in a single month1 and has produced altogether #c-a_/b million pounds' worth of ore2 but it now yields little but arsenic4 ,in #aijg only #feb tons were raised in the whole county4 ,the ore is not exhausted1 but the cost of raising it from deep mines is too great to withstand foreign competition4 ,illustration3 ,devon ,great ,consols ,mine ,ores of iron and zinc are widely distributed1 but are little worked2 and the annual yield1 both of these metals and of manganese1 of which this county was once a chief source of supply1 is inconsiderable4 ,very rich silver-lead ore was formerly worked at ,bere ,alston and at ,combe ,martin1 but the mines in both places have been abandoned4 ,a very massive cup1 made of ,combe ,martin silver1 given to the ,corporation of ,london by ,queen ,elizabeth1 is still used at the inauguration of each ,lord ,mayor4 ,arsenic and arsenical pyrites1 ochre1 and umber are obtained1 especially from some mines whose more valuable ore is exhausted4 ,cobalt1 tungsten1 and uranium also occur1 and gold has been found in small quantities1 generally in streams1 as1 for instance1 in the ,west ,webburn and below ,lethitor4 ,although the metal mines of ,devonshire have lost their old importance1 there are other minerals of great commercial value1 of which altogether more than a million tons are obtained in the course of a year4 ,china clay1 or kaolin1 a product of the natural decomposition of granite1 is worked at ,lee ,moor1 and more than #ge1jjj tons--which1 however1 is only one-tenth of that obtained from ,cornwall--are annually exported1 especially to ,staffordshire1 for the making of fine earthenware4 ,other kinds of potter's clay1 white at ,kingsteignton and ,bovey ,tracy1 and red at ,watcombe1 are dug in still larger quantities4 ,there are many quarries in ,devonshire1 the most important of them being of limestone1 of which more than half a million tons are worked every year4 ,heytor granite was used in ,london ,bridge and ,waterloo ,bridge1 and ,lundy granite in the ,thames ,embankment4 ,but the stone is not considered equal to that from ,cornwall4 ,the same remark applies to the slate1 of which only #ejjj tons are now raised annually4 ,there are old quarries of it near ,kingsbridge1 and also at ,tavistock and other places4 ,colyton slate is used for billiard-tables4 ,marble is worked at ,chudleigh1 and a finer quality at ,ipplepen1 ,torquay1 and ,plymouth4 ,there are large quarries at ,beer4 ,the material for whetstones has long been dug in the ,blackdown ,hills1 where the refuse from the workings1 like lines of railway embankment1 is a feature in the landscape4 ,illustration3 ,stone ,quarry1 ,beer ,there is no coal in ,devonshire1 but there is much lignite at ,bovey ,tracy1 where1 in the bed of an ancient lake1 a deposit of layers of it occurs1 alternating with clay and sand1 to a depth of #ajj feet4 ,on account of its disagreeable smell while burning and its low heating-power it is not used for fuel except for firing bricks1 and to some extent in the pottery-kilns4 ,there are also extensive beds of anthracite or culm near ,bideford2 but this1 again1 is not of a quality to serve as fuel1 except for lime-burning1 and the product of the one solitary working is ground up to make a paint called ,bideford ,black4 ,there are vast and valuable deposits of peat on ,dartmoor1 in some places as much as thirty feet deep4 #af4 ,fisheries and ,fishing ,stations4 ,the fisheries of the ,british ,islands form one of our most important industries1 providing regular or occasional employment for nearly #ajj1jjj men and boys in the catching of the fish2 for a very great number of persons engaged in secondary occupations connected with the industry1 who probably far outnumber the actual fishermen2 and for innumerable people of all grades engaged in distributing the eight million pounds' worth of fish brought into the ports of ,england and ,wales each year by ,british ships alone4 ,the fisheries also furnish an immense quantity of cheap and wholesome food1 which1 by rapid methods of transit1 is available in all parts of the country4 ,by far the most productive of our fishing-grounds1 although not as predominant as it was some years ago1 is the ,north ,sea--an area of more than #aej1jjj square miles1 in which are taken more than half of all the ,british-caught fish1 not including shell-fish1 which are annually landed on the coasts of ,england and ,wales4 ,more fish are brought1 every year1 into ,grimsby1 ,hull1 ,lowestoft1 and ,yarmouth than into all the other fishing-ports of ,england put together4 ,it is interesting to note that1 while according to the latest returns there were #agca ,british steam-trawlers and drifters1 exclusive of ordinary fishing-boats1 engaged in the ,north ,sea fisheries1 there were only #dea similar craft belonging to the ports of ,germany1 ,holland1 ,belgium1 and ,france put together4 ,in other words there are four ,british steam-trawlers in the ,north ,sea to every foreigner4 ,much fishing is also done by ,english trawlers off the shores of ,iceland1 ,norway1 and the ,faros1 and the boats now go as far even as the ,white ,sea and the coast of ,morocco4 ,about half the fish are taken by trawling1 which consists in dragging a beam of wood1 with a net attached to it1 along the bottom of the sea1 in comparatively shallow water4 ,very many different species are caught in this way1 but haddock1 plaice1 and cod are by far the most numerous1 and make up between them nearly half the total amount of all the fish landed in ,england and ,wales in a year4 ,much fishing is also done with seine nets1 or with drift nets1 both of which are long nets1 attached to floats of cork or to air-bladders and let down into the sea without regard to the depth1 and sometimes at a considerable distance from the shore4 ,stake nets1 fastened to poles fixed in shallow water near the land1 are also much used4 ,herrings are the chief fish caught in drift nets and seines1 and more of them are landed than of any other kind of fish4 ,the latest return gives the total quantity of herrings annually brought into ,english ports as rather more than #bjj1jjj tons1 of cod as about #ajj1jjj tons1 and of plaice as about #ej1jjj tons4 ,pilchards1 which are full-grown sardines1 and much resemble herrings in appearance1 are caught in large quantities--which1 however1 seem trifling in comparison with those of the three fish named above--in seine nets off the coasts of ,cornwall and ,devon1 and nowhere else in the ,british ,isles4 ,many fish1 especially halibut1 cod1 and ling are taken with hook and line1 sometimes at great depths4 ,crabs and lobsters are caught in wicker traps or baskets called pots1 and oysters are usually taken by dredging4 ,illustration3 ,fish ,market at ,brixham ,in spite of its two long stretches of seaboard1 the fisheries of ,devonshire are not equal in productiveness to those of ,cornwall1 and are insignificant in comparison with those of the east coast2 and the total value of the fish landed at all its ports taken together amounted1 according to the latest return1 to no more than #aej1jjj1 or one-nineteenth of what is landed at ,grimsby alone4 ,it was far exceeded at five other east-coast fishing stations4 ,the fish of the ,english ,channel differ considerably from those of the ,north ,sea4 ,haddock1 the most abundant species on the east coast1 is very rare in the south1 and practically none are caught at any of the ,devonshire fishing stations4 ,the cod1 again1 is a northern species1 and is almost entirely absent from both the ,bristol and the ,english ,channels4 ,whiting is one of the most abundant of ,english ,channel fish2 and in this species1 as well as in soles and turbot1 the south coast is of all the ,british fishing-grounds second only in productiveness to the east coast4 ,more conger-eels are caught in the ,english ,channel than anywhere else off our islands1 and there is also a great abundance of gurnards1 skates1 and dogfish4 ,the ,devonshire fishermen catch great quantities of whiting1 herring1 mackerel1 sprats1 and pilchards1 together with considerable numbers of soles1 turbot1 plaice1 pollack1 skates1 congers1 crabs1 lobsters1 and prawns4 ,herrings were formerly very abundant off ,lynmouth4 ,the last great shoals appeared in #ahbc4 ,a skate caught off the south coast of ,devonshire measured nine feet by six and a half feet1 and weighed #efj pounds4 ,the quantity of sprats annually caught in ,devonshire waters is very great1 but1 as in other districts1 varies very much in different years4 ,thus the amount brought into ,torquay in #aije was more than #ejj tons1 or more than were landed at any other port in the kingdom2 but in #aijf the quantity was only #ajj tons4 ,pilchards1 as has been already observed1 are confined to ,cornwall and to the south coast of ,devon2 but by far the greater quantity are taken at the fishing stations of the former county4 ,almost all the pilchards caught in ,devonshire waters are landed at ,plymouth4 ,none are taken further east than ,dawlish4 ,these fish1 which are particularly oily1 are mostly salted and exported to the ,mediterranean4 ,dogfish1 which are very abundant and formerly thrown away as worthless1 are finding an increasing market1 especially in ,london1 where they are filleted and sold as flake4 ,illustration3 ,brixham ,trawlers ,the most important fishing stations are ,plymouth1 ,brixham1 and ,torquay1 the annual value of whose fisheries according to the latest return is about #ff1jjj1 #fj1jjj and #h1jjj respectively4 ,there is also a good deal of fishing off ,exmouth1 ,teignmouth1 ,dartmouth1 ,torcross1 and ,budleigh ,salterton1 where the annual values vary from #djjj to #gej a year4 ,it is interesting to compare these figures with the annual value of the fish brought into ,grimsby1 which1 by the last return1 amounted to nearly three millions sterling4 ,there are valuable salmon fisheries at ,exmouth1 ,teignmouth1 and ,babbacombe2 and most of the ,devonshire streams abound with trout1 although the fish as a rule run small4 ,thirteen ,devonshire fisheries are named in ,domesday ,book4 ,the most valuable was that at ,dartington1 for which two fishermen paid a yearly rent of eighty salmon4 #ag4 ,shipping and ,trade4 ,the ports of ,devonshire once ranked among the first in ,england1 and her sailors have for many centuries been famous for their enterprise and daring4 ,it was from this county that the first ,english trading-expeditions sailed to ,africa1 ,brazil1 and ,north ,america4 ,they were ,devonshire men1 who1 by taking possession of ,newfoundland1 established the first ,english colony--in which most of the old families are of ,devonshire descent4 ,devonshire ships were long the terror of the ,spanish ,main4 ,devonshire men were among the very foremost in the defeat of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,a ,devonshire captain was the first ,englishman to sail round the world2 and although we remember with regret that his friend and comrade was the first ,englishman to engage in the iniquitous traffic of the slave-trade1 we are proud to think that few men did more than he to improve our ships and the condition of our seamen4 ,in their palmy days1 in the century or more following the flight of the ,armada1 ,bideford and ,topsham had each of them more trade with the young colonies of ,north ,america than any other ,english town except ,london4 ,barnstaple1 ,ilfracombe1 ,dartmouth1 ,brixham1 and ,appledore were once important seaports4 ,at the present day not one of the whole seven has sufficient trade to be honoured with a separate entry in the ,government ,shipping ,returns4 ,plymouth is now the only maritime town of commercial importance4 ,even its traffic1 large as it seems1 is small in comparison with that of ,london or ,liverpool1 and as far as trading statistics go1 it stands no higher than thirtieth among the ports of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,several causes have contributed to the decay of the ,devonshire ports4 ,most of them are situated on river-estuaries which1 in the lapse of ages1 have become silted up by mud and sand brought down by the rivers1 or obstructed by shingle washed up by the waves4 ,the harbour of ,sidmouth was destroyed by the encroachment of the sea and the fall of the cliffs which formerly protected it4 ,again1 the tonnage of ships1 and consequently the amount of water they draw1 have very greatly increased since ,tudor and ,stuart times1 when these ports were in their prime2 and it would be impossible for the large vessels of to-day to navigate the shallow and danger-strewn waters of our estuaries1 even if they could cross the bars by which they are obstructed4 ,nor is it worth while to improve the navigation by dredging1 as is done to so great an extent on the ,thames1 the ,mersey1 and the ,clyde4 ,the industries of ,devonshire are now of small importance1 and the county has no great manufacturing centres to supply freights4 ,plymouth ,sound is the only busy waterway1 and ,plymouth is the one populous town requiring large quantities of imports4 ,the only harbour in ,north ,devon given in the shipping returns is ,barnstaple1 with which are associated ,ilfracombe1 ,bideford1 and ,appledore4 ,ilfracombe1 the only port in the long stretch of coast between ,bridgwater and ,padstow1 had formerly a good deal of traffic with ,wales and ,ireland1 but its tidal harbour is now visited only by excursion steamers and small coasting-vessels4 ,the other three towns are river-ports4 ,barnstaple is eight miles from the mouth of the ,torridge1 ,appledore is just inside the entrance of the ,taw1 and ,bideford is five miles up the same river1 whose estuary is obstructed by a dangerous bar1 only to be crossed at high tide4 ,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries all three towns had an active trade with ,north ,america2 and even in comparatively recent times ships of #ajjj tons have been moored at ,barnstaple quay4 ,but at the present day only #cg cargo-carrying vessels sail to and from the whole group in a year1 and the trade 7chiefly in timber and dye-stuffs7 of all four together1 principally with home ports1 but also with ,sweden and ,norway and some other ,european countries1 amounts to little more than #ah1jjj in twelve months4 ,dartmouth1 ,brixham1 and ,salcombe form another group of ports1 all of which have played a part in history4 ,their total trade1 the import of timber and the export of ships and boats1 amounts to nearly #ai1jjj a year1 and such foreign intercourse as they have is chiefly with ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,russia4 ,exeter and ,exmouth1 with which is associated ,lyme ,regis in the adjoining county of ,dorsetshire1 rank next in importance1 ,topsham1 the ancient port of ,exeter1 having gone entirely to decay4 ,their annual trade1 about half of which consists of wood1 cured fish1 and sugar1 and which1 as regards foreign intercourse1 is mainly with ,france1 ,germany1 and ,sweden1 is nearly #ajj1jjj4 ,the trade of ,teignmouth and ,torquay together1 in the importation of paper-making materials and timber1 and in the export of ,china-clay1 chiefly with ,english ports1 but also with ,france1 ,germany1 ,belgium1 and ,norway1 amounts to #aaj1jjj in the twelve-month4 ,illustration3 ,teignmouth ,plymouth which1 as has been already pointed out1 is the only large sea-port in the county1 has four times as much trade1 and is entered and cleared by four times as many vessels as all the other ports of ,devonshire put together4 ,its chief imports are grain 7#edj1jjj71 timber 7#bej1jjj71 sugar 7#ace1jjj71 guano and manures 7#aaj1jjj71 and petroleum 7#eb1jjj72 and its principal export is #eb1jjj worth of clay4 ,its imports and exports taken together amount to #a-c_/d million pounds sterling1 and it is entered and cleared by #afef ships in a year4 ,its chief foreign trade is with ,france1 but its commerce may truly be said to be world-wide4 ,thirteen lines of ocean steamers sail from or call at ,plymouth1 the principal of which are the ,white ,star1 ,american1 ,norddeutscher-,lloyd1 and ,hamburg-,american for the ,united ,states2 the ,orient and ,peninsular and ,oriental for ,australia2 the latter and the ,british ,india for ,india2 the ,shaw-,savill and ,new ,zealand ,,ss4 ,co4 for ,new ,zealand2 and the ,british and ,african for the ,west ,coast of ,africa4 ,there are also regular sailings of steamers for ,france1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 the ,channel ,isles1 and various home ports4 ,it is interesting to compare this sea-traffic with that of ,london1 which is entered and cleared by #ah1dia cargo-carrying ships in the course of twelve months1 and has a total annual import and export trade of #ccc millions of pounds sterling2 which are respectively about #aa times1 and about #aij times as large as the corresponding figures for ,plymouth4 ,but although ,plymouth is a place of considerable maritime trade1 a busy fishing station and a port of call for ocean-going steamers1 for whose accommodation are provided spacious docks and ample quays1 its greatest importance and renown--remembering that we include with it its sister towns of ,stonehouse and ,devonport--rest upon its rank as a naval station1 as an arsenal which is second only to that of ,woolwich1 and as a naval dockyard which is the largest in the kingdom4 ,the anchorage at the head of the ,sound1 once very much exposed and dangerous in southerly winds1 is now protected by a stone breakwater nearly a mile long1 designed to shelter ships of the ,royal ,navy4 ,it was commenced in #ahab by ,rennie1 continued by his son1 modified in the slope of its sides and improved in stability by violent storms1 especially in #ahag1 and completed in #ahdj4 ,illustration3 ,drake's ,island from ,mt4 ,edgcumbe1 ,plymouth ,taking all its various features into account1 its commerce1 its passenger traffic by means of ocean-liners and other steamers1 its fisheries1 its docks and dockyards1 its barracks1 its factories of marine appliances1 its arsenal1 and lastly the vast number of ships of all sizes1 belonging to the navy1 to the mercantile marine1 or to the fishing-fleet1 that are constantly leaving or entering the ,sound1 ,plymouth is one of the most important sea-ports in the ,british ,empire4 #ah4 ,history of ,devonshire4 ,the history of our country begins with the ,roman occupation4 ,for although we have ample and striking traces1 in the shape of earthworks and stone circles1 tools and weapons1 pottery and ornaments1 of the successive races of men who lived here before ,julius ,caesar set foot in ,britain1 those ancient and primitive people left no written records1 not so much as an inscription on a single coin1 and our knowledge of them is in the highest degree vague and uncertain4 ,of many parts of our island the ,romans took complete possession1 constructing fortresses1 making roads1 establishing towns1 building baths and temples and luxuriously appointed villas1 and scattering1 wherever they went1 the coins whose lettering and devices have revealed to us so much concerning the some time masters of the world4 ,in ,somerset1 for example1 to which the conquerors were attracted partly by the hot and health-restoring springs of ,bath1 and partly by the silver-bearing lead mines of the ,mendip ,hills1 the relics of their occupation have been found from one end of the county to the other4 ,in ,devonshire1 on the other hand1 such relics are so few1 and are confined to so limited an area that we are driven to the conclusion that1 except as regards the city of ,exeter1 there was no definite ,roman occupation at all4 ,there is probably not one camp of ,roman workmanship in the whole county4 ,it is doubtful if any ,roman road went farther than the river ,teign4 ,the sites of only two ,roman villas are known with certainty4 ,and although ,roman coins have been found in many places1 sometimes in hoards of hundreds1 and in one case even of thousands1 they are not absolute proof of actual occupation4 ,the names ,chester ,moor1 ,scrobchester1 and ,wickchester1 all near the ,cornish border1 may1 perhaps1 be of ,roman origin4 ,there is1 however1 no doubt that ,exeter1 believed to be the ,isca ,dumniorum of ,antonine's ,itinerary--that wonderful register1 planned by ,julius ,caesar and carried out by ,augustus1 of distances and stations along all the roads in the ,empire--was an important ,roman town2 and there is reason to think1 from the coins that have been found at many points within the walls1 that the city was held by the ,romans from the latter half of the first century of the ,christian era until the time when the legions were recalled from ,britain4 ,the site of ,moridunum1 the second ,roman station mentioned in the ,itinerary1 has not been identified1 but there is some ground for the theory that it was at ,hembury1 four miles from ,honiton4 ,a few vague and brief allusions in the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 believed to refer to this county1 describing how ,ina fought against ,geraint1 how ,cynewulf fought very many battles against the ,welsh1 and how ,egbert laid waste ,west ,wales from eastward to westward1 contain practically all that we know of the ,saxon conquest of ,devonshire4 ,there is1 indeed1 so little record of actual fighting that it seems probable that the invaders settled here rather as colonists than conquerors1 although ,athelstan appears to have found it necessary to expel from ,exeter the ,britons who had so far shared the town with the ,saxons4 ,the chief events in ,devonshire between the departure of the ,romans and the ,norman ,conquest were the repeated descents1 spread over a long period of years1 of the pirates whom we speak of as ,danes or ,northmen or ,vikings2 who pillaged the coast towns1 sacked ,exeter1 sailed up the ,tamar1 and burnt and plundered ,tavistock and ,lydford4 ,victory was not always on the side of the marauders4 ,their first raid1 in #hea1 was repulsed with great slaughter2 and when1 five and twenty years later1 ,guthrum seized ,exeter1 ,king ,alfred promptly drove him out of it4 ,during the ,saxon period there were mints at ,exeter1 ,barnstaple1 ,totnes1 and ,lydford1 and thousands of ,devonshire-struck silver pennies are in existence4 ,by far the greater number of them are in the royal museum at ,stockholm1 the most numerous being those of ,ethelred ,,ii and ,canute4 ,of the former there are in ,stockholm #bbed specimens1 compared with #add in the ,british ,museum4 ,these ,swedish specimens probably represent partly the plunder carried off by the ,northmen1 partly the bribes vainly paid to the invaders by ,ethelred 7whose surname of ,unradig1 he who will not take counsel1 or the headstrong1 has been misrendered the ,unready71 and partly the results of commerce while ,canute was king4 ,illustration3 ,penny of ,ethelred ,,ii1 struck at ,exeter ,the year succeeding the ,battle of ,hastings found ,william the ,conqueror before the gates of ,exeter1 a place already regarded1 as it continued to be for many centuries1 as the key of the ,west of ,england4 ,he took the city after a brief siege and proceeded to secure his hold upon it by building the castle of ,rougemont1 which was hardly finished when it was unsuccessfully attacked by the ,saxons4 ,a year later the sons of ,harold also tried in vain to take it4 ,the last man of mark in ,devonshire to hold out against ,norman rule was ,sithric1 the ,saxon abbot of ,tavistock1 who1 when all was lost1 fled to ,hereward's camp of refuge in the ,fens4 ,a few ,englishmen were left by the ,conqueror in possession of their estates2 but the county1 as a whole1 was divided among a number of ,norman nobles1 some of whose descendants1 ,courtenay1 ,carew1 and ,champernowne1 for example1 still survive in ,devonshire4 ,an interesting link with ,norman times and customs is the ringing of the curfew bell1 which is still kept up at ,exeter1 ,okehampton1 and other places4 ,at eight o'clock every evening thirty strokes are sounded for ,curfew1 and then eight more for the hour4 ,in the stormy reign of ,king ,stephen ,exeter was the last place to hold out for ,queen ,maud4 ,the king was admitted into the town by the citizens1 but the castle of ,rougemont cost him a three months' siege4 ,the importance of ,devonshire sea-ports brought the county into great prominence in mediaeval times4 ,part of ,richard ,coeur-de-,lion's crusading fleet1 we are told1 assembled at ,dartmouth--a town which ,chaucer1 probably regarding it as a typical sea-port1 chose for the native place of the ,shipman in the ,canterbury ,tales4 ,no other part of ,england furnished so many ships and men for ,edward ,,iii's expedition against ,calais4 ,again and again1 in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 the ,french1 in reprisal for what they had suffered by the attacks of ,england1 harried the coast of ,devon1 plundering and burning ,teignmouth1 ,plymouth1 and other places on the coast4 ,the ,black ,death1 the most terrible and destructive epidemic of which we have any record1 which devastated the whole of ,england in #acdh and #acdi1 was very severe in this county1 paralyzing agriculture and trade1 and stopping for a time the building of ,exeter cathedral4 ,fighting in ,devonshire during the ,wars of the ,roses was confined to an unsuccessful and half-hearted siege of ,exeter by the ,yorkists1 and to attacks on the fortified manor-houses of ,shute and ,upcott4 ,but many men in the county took sides in the struggle1 and some of the great families suffered severely4 ,sir ,william ,bonville was beheaded after the second ,battle of ,st ,albans4 ,of the ancient house of ,courtenay1 ,thomas1 ,earl of ,devon1 was executed at ,york1 ,sir ,hugh was beheaded at ,sarum1 and ,sir ,john was killed at ,wakefield ,green4 ,the county as a whole was ,lancastrian4 ,queen ,margaret herself was there after her defeat at ,barnet2 and ,french gold coins found in ,blackpool sands are believed to be relics of the landing there1 in #adgj1 of ,warwick and ,clarence4 ,but when in the same year ,edward ,,iv visited ,exeter1 he was so well satisfied with his reception that he presented the corporation with a sword of state1 which is still carried in processions before the mayor4 ,the peace of ,devonshire in the fifteenth century was further disturbed by a rising1 in #adhc1 against ,richard ,,iii2 by the march through the county1 in #adig1 of an army of ,cornishmen who had risen in revolt against a heavy war-tax1 and who were ultimately beaten at ,blackheath2 and by the insurrection1 also in #adig1 of ,perkin ,warbeck1 who claimed to be the ,richard ,duke of ,york usually said to have been murdered in the ,tower1 and who made a desperate although vain attack upon ,exeter1 when some of his men fought their way into the town1 but were driven out again by the citizens4 ,about fifty years later1 in #aedi1 there was a widespread and determined and altogether much more serious rebellion called the ,commotion1 caused partly by the suppression of the ,monasteries1 which was greatly objected to by the poor1 and partly by the introduction of the ,prayer ,book4 ,the insurgents1 who had collected from all parts of the ,west ,country1 and who were led by such men of mark as ,pomeroy1 ,arundel1 and ,coffin1 laid siege to ,exeter and ,plymouth1 and for a time held the king's troops helplessly at bay4 ,in the end1 however1 ,lord ,russell1 one of the newly-created ,lords ,lieutenant1 aided by ,german cavalry and ,italian arquebusiers1 defeated the rebels with great slaughter in a series of hotly-contested battles4 ,the vicar of ,st ,thomas in ,exeter1 who had encouraged the rising and who was described as very skilled both with the long-bow and the hand-gun1 was hanged in his ,popish apparel on the tower of his own church1 and his body was left there for four years4 ,the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth has been called the ,golden ,age of ,english ,history4 ,and among the heroic figures of that stirring time there are few more striking than the little group of ,devonshire men who played so gallant a part in making ,england great3--,drake and ,hawkyns1 the scourges of ,spain2 ,ralegh1 courtier and soldier1 sailor and author2 ,gilbert1 the discoverer of ,newfoundland2 and ,grenville1 who at ,flores1 in the ,revenge of immortal memory1 kept at bay a ,spanish fleet of fifty-three sail4 ,illustration3 ,signatures of ,drake and ,hawkyns ,the great event of the reign was the defeat of the ,armada4 ,and although ,howard of ,effingham1 the ,lord ,high ,admiral1 showed himself a skilful and intrepid sailor1 it is ,drake whom we always think of first in connection with the victory4 ,it was ,drake whose buccaneering exploits on the coasts of ,spain and her colonies did so much to heighten ,philip ,,ii's ambition to humiliate ,england4 ,it was ,drake who1 in #aehg1 dashed into ,cadiz1 where the ,armada was preparing1 and by destroying #ajj ships and vast quantities of stores1 delayed for a whole year the sailing of the expedition4 ,and when at last the ,armada had been sighted1 it was ,drake who1 according to the commonly received tradition1 thinking it wiser to wait until the enemy's fleet had passed ,plymouth ,sound1 and so take them in the rear1 persuaded his fellow-captains to stay and finish that never-to-be-forgotten game of bowls1 before the ,english ships1 lying ready in the ,catwater1 should slip their moorings and stand out to sea4 ,it was ,drake who was foremost in the attack4 ,it was ,drake who took the ,capitana1 the flagship of ,pedro de ,valdez1 and brought her1 the first prize of the great victory1 into ,torbay4 ,and when the ,english fireships had scattered the hostile fleet in headlong flight1 it was ,drake who was foremost in the chase4 ,illustration3 ,flagon taken by ,drake from the ,capitana of the ,armada 7,in ,windsor ,castle7 ,illustration3 ,drake's ,drum ,among the relics of ,devonshire's greatest hero1 carefully treasured by his descendants at his old home at ,buckland ,abbey1 are his sword and the famous drum that he carried with him round the world2 while at ,nutwell ,court are flags that he flew while in command of the ,pelican1 the miniature of herself given to him by ,queen ,elizabeth1 and other objects of the greatest historical interest4 ,and among the ,royal plate in ,windsor ,castle is preserved the noble wine-flagon of bold silver-gilt repouss work1 standing nearly a yard high1 which ,drake took from the ,capitana of the ,armada and presented to ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,an illustration of it1 from a photograph taken for this book by command of the ,queen1 is here shown for the first time4 ,illustration3 ,the ,mayflower ,stone on ,plymouth ,quay ,during the retreat to ,spain a second ,armada vessel1 the hospital-ship ,st ,peter the ,great1 was driven ashore in ,hope ,cove2 and the pulpit of ,st ,james's church1 ,exeter1 and the timber roof of ,tiverton ,school were1 it is believed1 made of wood either from this ship or from the ,capitana4 ,it was not until this period that ,plymouth came into prominence as a naval station4 ,a special tax was levied on the pilchard fishery to provide money for the fortifications1 and a leat or water-course was constructed with the primary object1 it is said1 of supplying fresh water for the royal ships4 ,a memorable event in ,james ,i's reign was the sailing of the ,mayflower4 ,preceded by another ship called the ,speedwell she set sail from ,leyden in the autumn of #afbj1 having on board a number of ,puritan refugees bent on finding in ,north ,america the religious freedom denied to them in ,england4 ,the two vessels having met at ,southampton and put into ,dartmouth1 were finally driven back by stress of weather into ,plymouth1 whence--her consort having proved unseaworthy--the ,mayflower alone continued the voyage1 ultimately landing her #aja exiles at ,plymouth1 ,massachusetts1 which1 however1 had received its name five years before4 ,in the ,civil ,war between ,charles ,i and the ,parliament1 few counties saw more fighting than ,devonshire4 ,the fighting consisted1 however1 not of pitched battles1 but of sieges and attacks on fortified positions2 which1 indeed1 was characteristic of the whole war1 in whatever part of the country it was waged4 ,every ,devonshire town of importance1 a great number of villages1 many castles1 manor-houses1 and even churches played a part in the struggle4 ,as a whole1 the towns1 with the exception of ,exeter1 sympathised with the ,parliament1 while the rural districts1 encouraged by the great landowners1 were mainly for the king4 ,the royal forces were1 however1 numerous in ,devonshire2 ,goring's army1 in #afdb1 was #fjjj strong2 and although fortune wavered1 and although towns were taken and retaken1 there came a time1 before the arrival of ,fairfax and the ,new ,model ,army1 when the royal standard flew from nearly every important town in ,devon1 ,somerset1 and ,cornwall4 ,there was one conspicuous exception4 ,the party of the people never lost its hold on ,plymouth1 which1 at a cost of #hjjj lives1 or more than the entire population of the town1 withstood a blockade lasting from #afdb to #afdf1 together with many desperate attacks by ,hopton1 ,prince ,maurice1 and the ,king himself1 enduring altogether a longer siege than any other town in ,england4 ,exeter was early seized for the ,parliament1 but the majority of the citizens were ,royalists1 and the city1 which was regarded as one of the strongest ,cavalier holds in the west1 was soon retaken by ,prince ,maurice4 ,queen ,henrietta was there in #afdd1 and there ,king ,charles's youngest daughter1 afterwards ,duchess of ,orleans1 was born4 ,when ,fairfax retook the town in #afdf he allowed the garrison to march out with all the honours of war4 ,that year saw the final ruin of the ,royal cause in the west1 and the dispersal of the only army which1 although little better than a mob1 still kept the field for the ,king4 ,one of the most important1 and at the same time most fiercely-contested ,parliamentary victories1 was the storming of the town of ,torrington by ,fairfax1 at midnight1 in the winter of #afdf4 ,after the battle1 the church1 which had been used by the king's troops 7as also was ,exeter cathedral7 as a powder-magazine1 was blown up1 and #bjj ,royalist prisoners who had been confined in it and many of their guards were killed4 ,the loss of ,torrington was the death-blow of the ,royal cause in ,devon4 ,all that a brave man could do1 ,hopton did4 ,but the county was sick of the ,royalists and their methods4 ,the people had learnt that the well-disciplined troops of ,fairfax were not mere robbers1 like the ruffians of ,grenville and ,goring2 and after ,torrington the ,royal army melted away4 ,the last place in the county to hold out for the ,king except ,lundy1 where there was no fighting1 but which did not surrender until #afdg1 was ,clifton ,castle1 or ,fort ,charles1 near ,salcombe4 ,after enduring a blockade and siege of four months1 with the trifling loss of one man killed and one wounded1 the besieged were granted the same terms as the garrisons of ,exeter and ,barnstaple1 and marched out with matches lighted1 drums beating1 and colours flying4 ,after the ,battle of ,worcester1 in #afea1 ,charles ,,ii took refuge for a time in ,devonshire4 ,four years later there was an attempt at an insurrection in his favour1 known as ,penruddock's ,rising1 and ,charles was proclaimed ,king at ,south ,molton4 ,the movement was promptly suppressed1 and its leader1 ,colonel ,penruddock1 was executed4 ,it is interesting to remember that1 at the ,restoration in #affj1 ,exeter was the first town in ,england to acknowledge ,charles ,,ii1 and that he was there proclaimed ,king ten days before he landed at ,dover4 ,seven years later1 in #affg1 the great ,dutch ,admiral ,de ,ruyter captured all the shipping in ,torbay4 ,during the ,commonwealth and later1 when there was no copper coinage in this country1 many tradesmen all over ,england struck money of their own1 chiefly in the form of farthings4 ,nearly #djj varieties of ,devonshire tokens1 as they were called1 issued by sixty different towns1 are known4 ,ninety-one were struck at ,exeter alone1 which is more than were issued from any other provincial town except ,norwich4 ,at a much later period shillings and sixpenny tokens of leather were in circulation at ,hartland4 ,after the ,duke of ,monmouth landed at ,lyme in ,dorsetshire1 in #afhe1 ,axminster was the first town that he occupied1 and a number of ,colyton men are said to have joined his army4 ,otherwise the rebellion hardly touched ,devonshire4 ,yet ,judge ,jeffreys put to death1 at various places in the county1 thirty-seven of the ,duke's misguided followers4 ,after the ,battle of ,sedgemoor1 ,wade and other fugitives attempted to escape by sea from ,ilfracombe1 but they were obliged to put back1 and were caught in the woods near ,lynton4 ,when1 under very different auspices1 ,william of ,orange landed at ,brixham on the #eth of ,november1 #afhh1 he marched to ,exeter1 as the chief city of the west4 ,the citizens at first held aloof1 but in the end they gave to the ,deliverer their hearty and most valuable support4 ,two years later the ,french admiral ,tourville1 fresh from his victory over our fleet off ,beachy ,head1 landed a strong force at ,teignmouth1 and sacked and burnt that part of the town which ever since has been known as ,french ,street4 ,both in #agae and in #agde the county was suspected of showing sympathy with the exiled ,stuarts4 ,but when in the former year the ,duke of ,ormond1 with a small party of ,french soldiers1 appeared in a war-ship off ,brixham1 expecting to be welcomed by the ,devonshire ,jacobites1 he met with no encouragement4 ,several episodes in the history of ,devonshire are associated with the ,french war of the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries4 ,in #agig a ,french squadron1 afterwards captured by ,admiral ,bridport1 sank the fishing-boats in ,ilfracombe harbour4 ,a few years later1 in #ahji1 ,princetown was built for the reception of the rougher class of ,french prisoners of war1 and during the five years that followed #ab1fgi ,frenchmen and ,americans were confined there1 while many others were billeted at ,okehampton1 ,ashburton1 ,tavistock1 and ,moreton ,hampstead4 ,the ,princetown buildings were afterwards disused--except for a short occupation by a naphtha company--until #ahej1 when they were converted into a prison for convicts4 ,it was at this period that ,torquay came into note1 having become a place of residence for the families of naval officers serving on men-of-war anchored in ,torbay4 ,in ,torbay1 too1 was enacted what may be called the last scene of the war4 ,for it was here1 on the #bdth of ,july1 #ahae1 that ,napoleon was brought a prisoner4 ,and here he remained1 except for a few days spent in ,plymouth ,sound1 until the #aath of ,august1 when he was taken to ,st ,helena4 #ai4 ,antiquities4 ,to the archaeologist and the antiquarian ,devonshire is one of the most interesting counties in ,england4 ,with the exception of ,cornwall no other district is so rich in relics of the ancient inhabitants of ,britain2 and it was from the caves of this county that ,pengelly obtained that clear evidence of the extreme antiquity of man in this island which proved that he lived here1 unnumbered ages back1 when such animals as the cave-lion1 the hyaena1 and the mammoth ran wild in what we now call ,england4 ,illustration3 ,palaeolithic ,flint ,implement 7,from ,kent's ,cavern7 ,the people who inhabited ,britain before the coming of the ,romans are said to have belonged to the ,stone ,age1 the ,bronze ,age1 or the ,iron ,age1 according to the material which they used for their tools and weapons2 and the first of these epochs is further divided into the ,earlier and the ,later ,stone ,ages1 or the ,palaeolithic and the ,neolithic ,periods4 ,the implements of the former were very roughly fashioned of chipped1 unpolished flint2 those of the latter were more skilfully made1 and were sometimes very highly finished4 ,relics of all these periods have been found in ,devonshire1 but it is not always possible to say to which age a particular weapon or implement belongs4 ,the use of flint for arrow-heads1 for example1 certainly continued long after the invention of bronze2 and bronze was employed1 especially for ornaments1 long after iron had come into regular use4 ,traces of ,palaeolithic man are nowhere common1 and they are rare in ,devonshire2 but they have been found1 in the shape of massive tools of roughly chipped flint1 in ,kent's ,cavern near ,torquay1 in the ,cattedown ,cave1 now destroyed1 near ,plymouth1 and in the river-drift near ,axminster4 ,very fine examples have been obtained from a ballast-pit at ,broome4 ,remains belonging to the ,neolithic ,age1 on the other hand1 are not only much more abundant1 but are of greater variety1 showing an advance in knowledge of the arts of life1 and they include not only axe-heads1 spear-points1 and arrow-tips of flint1 in some cases beautifully finished1 but weapons and ornaments of bone and horn1 rude pottery1 spindle-whorls1 and even primitive musical instruments4 ,no traces of the dwellings of the people of this age1 except as regards the caves that sheltered some of them and their predecessors of the earlier time1 have yet been found1 nor of their graves1 if we except the ,spinster's ,rock1 two miles west of ,drewsteignton4 ,this is a dolmen consisting of three huge stones1 on which rests a still larger block1 twelve feet long and estimated at sixteen tons in weight2 it doubtless was a ,neolithic burying-place4 ,illustration3 ,dolmen near ,drewsteignton ,relics of the ,bronze ,age are far more abundant1 and they form1 indeed1 the chief archaeological feature of ,devonshire4 ,dartmoor in particular1 chiefly perhaps because its great upland wilderness has never been broken up by the plough1 is dotted all over with remains of primitive ,bronze ,age dwellings1 sometimes standing alone1 sometimes grouped in villages and surrounded by a wall1 and also with many stone circles1 tumuli1 kistvaens1 menhirs1 and rows of upright stones4 ,it is1 moreover1 intersected by a network of ancient trackways1 linking settlement to settlement4 ,illustration3 ,palstave of the ,bronze ,age 7,in ,exeter ,museum7 ,the best example of an early ,bronze ,age village is ,grimspound1 eight miles north-east of ,princetown4 ,it consists of twenty-four round huts made of stone slabs set on end and standing about three feet above ground1 scattered over a space of about four acres1 surrounded by a nearly circular double wall1 from nine to fourteen feet thick1 and about five feet high1 built of blocks of granite1 some of which are tons in weight4 ,half the huts contain fire-hearths1 which have been much used2 and a good many have raised stone benches1 from eight inches to a foot high4 ,except that the roofs1 which were no doubt made of poles and thatch1 have disappeared1 these primitive dwellings1 of which there are hundreds on ,dartmoor1 are probably much in the same condition as when they were inhabited1 perhaps #bjjj years ago4 ,it has been suggested that ,grimspound1 like many ancient camps or hill-forts1 was a place of refuge in times of danger1 rather than a permanently occupied fortress4 ,illustration3 ,fernworthy ,circle1 near ,chagford ,the objects found in these and similar dwellings consist of flint implements1 pottery--some of it decorated--spindle-whorls1 and cooking-stones such as are still in use among the ,eskimo4 ,so far1 no fragment of metal of any kind has been discovered1 from which it might1 perhaps1 have been inferred that the huts were the work of a race unacquainted with the use of metal4 ,but the pottery so closely resembles that found in the burial-mounds of the ,bronze ,age that archaeologists are satisfied that the dwellings belong to that period4 ,illustration3 ,hurston ,stone ,alignment ,other remarkable monuments are the stone circles1 or upright1 unhewn blocks of granite arranged in rings1 of which there are many on ,dartmoor1 and of which some of the finest are the ,grey ,wethers near ,post ,bridge1 and similar structures near ,chagford and on ,langstone ,moor2 the avenues or alignments1 consisting of rows of stones set up in straight lines1 as at ,merivale ,bridge1 ,hurston1 and ,challacombe2 and the menhirs1 which are single stones1 sometimes twelve feet high1 of which the best are at ,drizlecombe1 at ,merivale1 and on ,langstone ,moor4 ,illustration3 ,triple ,stone ,row and ,circle near ,headlands1 ,dartmoor ,it is probable that these structures were connected with primitive forms of worship1 but ,sir ,norman ,lockyer has endeavoured to show1 in one of the most fascinating chapters of archaeological research1 that the circles and avenues1 and the monoliths or menhirs connected with them1 were in all probability set up as rough astronomical instruments for observing the rising of the sun or of particular stars1 in order to regulate the true length of the year4 ,it is even possible1 he contends1 to form some idea of the date of their erection4 ,thus the two avenues at ,merivale were probably laid out at different times1 one about #afaj ,b4,c41 and the other about #adbj ,b4,c41 in order to watch the sunrise in ,may1 which was then regarded as the first month of the year2 while the avenues at ,challacombe1 among the most remarkable of all the monuments1 are probably of far older date1 perhaps #cejj ,b4,c41 and seem to have been arranged for the observation of sunrise in ,november1 a month long accepted by some ,celtic tribes as marking the beginning of the year4 ,kistvaens1 of which nearly #ajj have been found1 almost all of them on ,dartmoor1 are small stone burial chambers1 generally used for the reception of the burnt ashes of the dead1 probably in many instances originally covered with earth1 and made of four slabs of granite set on edge1 forming a sort of vault1 with another and more massive stone laid on the top4 ,specially good examples have been found at ,fernworthy1 on ,lakehead ,hill1 and at ,plymouth4 ,the most remarkable kistvaen--belonging1 however1 to a later period1 when burial had displaced cremation--was that discovered on ,lundy1 containing a human skeleton eight feet two inches in length4 ,tumuli or burial mounds1 called cairns when they are made of small stones1 and barrows when they are merely piles of earth1 are to be seen in all parts of ,devonshire1 especially on high ground1 sometimes alone1 sometimes in groups of from two to ten or twelve1 and always round4 ,no long barrows have been discovered in the county4 ,the men of the ,bronze ,age reached a much higher stage of civilisation than their stone-using predecessors1 and very fine examples of their bronze swords1 daggers1 spear-heads and axes2 of their pottery1 some of it finely decorated2 and of their ornaments1 including beads of shale and clay and amber1 and an amber dagger-hilt with studs of gold1 have been found at various places in ,devonshire4 ,relics that can be attributed with certainty to the prehistoric ,iron ,age are rare1 partly1 no doubt1 because iron so quickly rusts away4 ,some very remarkable remains of this period were however found on ,stamford ,hill near ,plymouth1 during the construction of a fort1 when the workmen dug into an ancient burial-ground1 in which1 in addition to human bones1 were discovered red1 black1 and yellow pottery1 mirrors and finger rings of bronze1 fragments of beautiful amber-tinted glass1 and some much-corroded cutting-instruments of iron4 ,in the old camp called ,holne ,chase ,castle1 a man digging out a rabbit came upon about a dozen bars of rusty iron1 two feet long1 nearly two inches broad1 and a quarter of an inch thick1 which although at first mistaken1 as has been the case elsewhere1 for unfinished sword-blades1 were subsequently identified as specimens of the iron currency-bars which passed as money among the ancient ,britons4 ,british coins of gold1 silver1 and copper have been found in several places1 particularly at ,exeter and at ,mount ,batten near ,plymouth4 ,the commonest are of what is known as the ,channel ,islands type1 bearing the effigy of a horse rudely imitated from the ,macedonian stater1 and probably struck about #bjj ,b4,c4 ,a special feature of the prehistoric antiquities of ,devonshire is the great number of camps or hill-forts1 of which there are more than #adj2 some in the heart of the county1 some on the coast1 often on prominent headlands1 and some along the lines of division between this and the adjoining shires2 showing in many instances great military skill and knowledge both in construction and in the choice of good1 defensive sites4 ,two of the most remarkable of the many strongholds1 both near ,honiton1 are the great encampment of ,dumpdon and the magnificently planned fortress of ,hembury--a monument of military skill4 ,another fine example is ,hawkesdown1 the strongest of the chain of border forts--of which ,membury and ,musbury are two important links--built along the river ,axe as defences against the ancient inhabitants of ,dorsetshire4 ,one of the largest and most elaborate of all is ,clovelly ,dykes1 twenty acres in extent1 and defended by from three to five lines of intricate earthworks4 ,another remarkable fort1 and the largest in the county1 is ,milber ,down1 two miles south-east of ,newton ,abbot4 ,illustration3 ,bronze ,centaur forming the ,head of a ,roman ,standard 7,found at ,sidmouth7 ,there is no real clue to the makers of these fortresses4 ,roman coins have been found in several of them1 but there is not one which competent authorities attribute to the ,romans1 and it is probable that they were built by ,british tribes during the ages of ,bronze and of ,iron1 but perhaps chiefly by the ,gaels or ,goidels4 ,a few of them have played a part in modern history4 ,cadbury1 for instance1 was occupied by ,fairfax in #afde2 and in #afhh the ,prince of ,orange parked his artillery in the great fort of ,milber ,down1 a camp which it is thought was not only occupied but adapted by the ,romans4 ,the ,romans1 as was pointed out in the previous chapter1 left comparatively few traces in ,devonshire2 and at only twelve spots in the county have ,roman relics other than coins been discovered4 ,at ,exeter1 the only town where there seems to have been continuous occupation1 there have been found the foundations of the city walls1 a bath1 several tesselated pavements--one of which has been relaid in the hall of the police-court1 on the spot where it was discovered--statuettes in bronze and in stone1 engraved gems1 lamps--one encrusted with lizards1 toads1 and newts--many pieces of finely decorated ,samian pottery1 and great numbers of coins4 ,the finest mosaic pavement was that found at ,uplyme1 on the site of one of the only two known ,roman villas in the county4 ,coins have been dug up in many places4 ,considerable hoards have been discovered at ,compton ,gifford1 ,holcombe1 ,tiverton1 and ,widworthy4 ,the largest1 however1 was at ,kingskerswell1 where #bjjj were found together4 ,perhaps the most remarkable ,roman relic was a bronze object found on the beach at ,sidmouth1 believed to be the head of a standard1 and representing ,chiron the ,centaur carrying ,achilles4 ,except as regards coins1 of which great numbers are in existence1 especially1 as has been stated1 in the ,royal ,museum at ,stockholm1 few antiquities that can be ascribed to the ,saxons have been found in ,devonshire4 ,one remarkable relic1 now in the ,british ,museum1 was a bronze sword-hilt1 dug up in ,exeter in #ahcc1 finely ornamented with key-pattern1 and inscribed ,,leofric,,me,,fec7,,it74 ,part of the lettering is inverted1 a fact which at first entirely disguised the real words4 ,one of the treasures of ,exeter ,cathedral is an ,old ,english manuscript headed ,a ,mycel ,englisc ,bok1 placed in the ,chapter ,library by ,leofric1 who in #ajej was bishop of the diocese4 ,it contains some of the work of ,cynewulf and his school4 ,one poem has been thus translated3 ,to the ,frisian wife comes a dear welcome guest2 the keel is at rest2 his vessel is come2 her husband is home2 her own cherished lord she leads to the board2 his wet weeds she wrings2 dry garments she brings4 ,ah1 happy is he whom1 home from the sea his true love awaits4 ,illustration3 ,saxon ,sword-hilt ,a ,norman relic of the highest interest is the ,exeter ,domesday ,book1 also preserved in the ,chapter ,library1 describing in greater detail than is given by the ,winchester ,survey1 especially as regards live stock1 the five counties of ,devon1 ,cornwall1 ,dorset1 ,somerset1 and ,wiltshire4 ,among many points of difference between the two books is that where the more general survey gives the letters ,t4,r4,e41 for tempore regis ,edwardi1 meaning that such were the facts in the time of ,edward the ,confessor1 the ,exeter ,book uses the phrase eadie qa rex,efum for e die qua ,rex ,edwardus fuit vivus et mortuus1 that is to say1 on the day when ,king ,edward was alive and dead1 meaning the day he died1 which was the #fth of ,january1 #ajff4 ,it is worthy of note that1 with one exception1 the ,devonshire ,hundreds were the same in #ajhf1 the supposed year of the completion of the ,survey1 as they are in our time4 ,scattered up and down over ,devonshire are many old stone crosses1 some in churchyards or by the wayside1 probably intended as preaching places1 and some standing on the open moor as marks of boundary or of lines of ancient roadway1 a few of them bearing brief inscriptions or traces of decoration4 ,fine examples are those of ,addiscot1 ,helliton1 ,mary ,tavy1 and ,south ,zeal1 the last-named of which has been restored1 and measures1 with its steps1 eighteen feet in height2 the ,merchant's ,cross near ,meavy1 the tallest on ,dartmoor2 the very ancient ,coplestone ,cross1 once decorated with interlaced ,celtic ornament1 standing where three parishes meet1 and named in an ,anglo-,saxon charter of #igd2 and the ,nun's or ,siward's ,cross1 inscribed on one side 7,,si7,,ward1 and on the other ,,boc ,,lond1 set up in the twelfth century to mark the boundary between the royal forest and the property of ,buckland ,abbey4 ,with these may be mentioned the inscribed stones of ,lustleigh1 ,stowford1 ,tiverton1 and ,fardel--the latter now removed4 ,the last-named1 and one of the three ,tiverton examples1 bear inscriptions in ,ogham or ,irish runic characters4 ,illustration3 ,cyclopean ,bridge1 ,dartmoor ,among the features of ,dartmoor are the so-called clapper bridges1 made of great blocks of unhewn stone4 ,their date and their builders are matters of conjecture4 ,if1 as has been said1 they were meant for pack-horse traffic1 they may be at least as old as the time of the ,norman ,conquest1 for packhorses are mentioned in the ,exeter ,domesday4 ,there are fine examples at ,dartmeet1 ,bellaford1 and near ,scaurhill ,circle4 ,but the most striking and perhaps the most ancient is that at ,post ,bridge1 in which two of the stones are fifteen feet long4 ,the idea has long been abandoned that ,logan or rocking stones were the work of man1 or that the rock basins which are found on the top of some of the ,dartmoor tors had anything to do with ,druidical ceremonies4 ,both are now recognised as of natural origin4 ,but it may here be noted that the largest of the ,devonshire ,logans is the ,rugglestone1 at ,widecombe1 estimated at from #ajj to #aej tons1 but it can no longer be moved4 ,the largest that will still rock is one of about fifty tons weight at ,smallacombe4 ,the largest of the many rock basins1 which vary from a few inches to five feet or more1 are on ,heltor and ,kestor4 #bj4 ,architecture--7a7 ,ecclesiastical4 ,the ecclesiastical buildings of ,devonshire1--its magnificent cathedral1 which is without doubt the finest example of the ,decorated style in all ,england2 its many noble churches1 some of which1 specially remarkable for their interest and beauty1 are situated in remote and thinly-peopled rural parishes2 and1 in a minor degree1 the picturesque fragments of its ruined abbeys--form altogether one of the most striking features of the county4 ,speaking generally1 it may be said that ,devonshire churches1 as a whole1 are remarkable for their interiors1 very many of them containing beautiful wood-work1 especially rood-screens1 and finely-carved stone pulpits1 to which1 in many instances1 the addition of gold and colour has lent a still more striking and even gorgeous effect4 ,some of the exteriors also are very beautiful2 but1 on the other hand1 many of them1 partly on account of the intractable nature of the stone of which they were built1 are simple and even severe in character4 ,as might be expected1 the material varies with the geological formation4 ,thus1 many churches were built of grey limestone4 ,in ,east ,devon much use was made of flints and of freestone from ,beer4 ,round ,exeter and ,crediton volcanic tufa was often employed1 particularly in vaulting4 ,the use of ,old ,red ,sandstone and even of granite greatly affected the style1 which in buildings of those difficult materials is plain and with little ornament4 ,a large proportion of the churches of ,devonshire were more or less rebuilt during the ,perpendicular period1 that is1 between #acgg and #aedg2 but many1 probably even the majority of them1 contain features of earlier dates1 in a few cases going as far back as ,saxon times4 ,some have been skilfully restored4 ,but in too many cases the work of renewal was carried out in an age when church architecture was imperfectly understood1 and when the value of old and beautiful1 even if time-worn1 details was not sufficiently appreciated2 and it is unfortunately true that1 in order to accomplish needless or barbarous alterations1 many interesting features were ruthlessly swept away4 ,illustration3 ,norman ,doorway1 ,axminster ,church ,the oldest existing work is the ,saxon masonry in the bases of some of the central ,norman towers--those of ,branscombe1 ,axminster1 and ,colyton1 for example1 and in the crypt of ,sidbury4 ,no church is wholly or even largely ,norman2 but the transeptal towers of ,exeter ,cathedral are of this period1 as are the towers of ,south ,brent1 ,ilfracombe1 and ,aveton ,gifford1 in addition to those named above4 ,there are also fine ,norman doorways at ,paignton1 ,kelly1 ,axminster1 ,hartland1 ,bishop's ,teignton1 and elsewhere4 ,in at least a hundred churches1 most of which probably possess no other feature of the time1 there are ,norman fonts1 of which the most remarkable are those at ,hartland1 ,alphington1 and ,bradsworthy4 ,the font in ,dolton church is believed to be ,saxon4 ,illustration3 ,ottery ,st ,mary ,church ,perhaps the best examples of ,early ,english architecture are to be seen in the aisles and transeptal towers--the latter imitated from those of ,exeter ,cathedral--of the very beautiful church of ,ottery ,st ,mary1 the finest and most interesting church in ,devon4 ,the plain little building on ,brent ,tor1 one of the smallest of churches1 measuring only forty feet by fourteen1 is probably all ,early ,english4 ,the churches of ,sampford ,peverell1 ,haccombe1 and ,aveton ,gifford are almost entirely of this period1 as are the transepts and central tower of ,combe ,martin and the tower of ,buckfastleigh1 which carries one of the few spires in the county4 ,illustration3 ,decorated ,window1 ,exeter ,cathedral ,the ,decorated style is not so well represented as regards the number of examples4 ,but to this period belongs almost the whole of ,exeter ,cathedral1 a great part of the beautiful church of ,tavistock1 and the nave1 chancel1 and ,lady-chapel of ,ottery ,st ,mary4 ,there is also good work of this style at ,beer ,ferris1 ,plympton1 and ,denbury4 ,so many ,devonshire churches1 as already remarked1 were rebuilt in ,tudor times that the majority of the ecclesiastical buildings in the county appear to belong to the ,perpendicular period4 ,there is very beautiful ,perpendicular work in the church of ,tiverton1 whose south front and chapel were decorated by their founder1 a wool-merchant named ,greenway1 with very elaborate carvings1 some symbolic of his trade1 and some representing scenes from the life of ,christ4 ,other notable churches mainly of this period--to name a few only out of a multitude of examples--are those of ,crediton1 ,hartland1 ,plymptree1 ,awliscombe1 ,kenton1 ,harberton1 ,dartmouth1 and ,buckland ,monachorum4 ,to the ,perpendicular period belong the finest of the ,devonshire towers1 which as a rule1 however1 owing in many instances to the absence or to the poorness of buttresses and pinnacles1 lack the majesty of those which are so striking a feature of the ecclesiastical architecture of ,somerset4 ,there is a group of three towers in near neighbourhood1 assigned by tradition to the same architect1 and known as ,length1 ,strength and ,beauty1 at ,bishop's ,nympton1 ,south ,molton1 and ,chittlehampton1 respectively2 and the last of these1 a magnificent piece of architecture1 is the most beautiful specimen of an enriched tower in ,devonshire4 ,other very fine towers are those of ,cullompton1 ,chumleigh1 ,berrynarbor1 ,arlington1 ,kentisbury1 and ,combe ,martin4 ,the tower of ,colyton is unique in character1 being crowned by an octagonal lantern supported by slender flying buttresses4 ,there are not now many spires in ,devonshire1 but there are fine examples at ,modbury--which tapers the whole way up--and at ,barnstaple1 both of the sixteenth century2 and there are others at ,braunton1 ,brushford1 and ,west ,worlington4 ,one of the towers of ,ottery ,st ,mary carries a spire1 the other is without4 ,one of the special characteristics of ,devonshire churches is their woodwork1 their roofs and bench-ends1 their pulpits--although some of the best of these are of stone--and1 above all1 their rood-screens4 ,the last-named are among the finest in the kingdom1 and are not rivalled even in ,norfolk and ,suffolk4 ,there are good timber roofs at ,cullompton1 ,widecombe1 ,south ,tawton1 ,hartland1 ,ashburton1 ,chittlehampton1 ,sampford ,courtenay1 and ,hatherleigh4 ,the bench-ends at ,abbotsham1 ,ilsington1 ,ashton1 ,mortehoe1 ,tawstock1 ,braunton1 ,monksleigh1 ,frithelstock1 ,east ,budleigh1 and ,combe-in-,teignhead are specially fine4 ,the seventeenth century seats at ,cruwys ,morchard are inscribed with the farm names of the parish4 ,rood-screens1 which are here the most remarkable feature of the ,perpendicular period1 are very numerous in ,devonshire4 ,although many have disappeared1 having been removed or broken up1 there are still some #aej in more or less perfect condition4 ,so many of them1 moreover1 are of such truly exquisite workmanship that it is difficult to say which are the most beautiful4 ,the material1 in the majority of cases1 is wood1 perhaps because of the scarcity of tractable stone--elaborately carved1 and very often splendidly decorated with gold and colour4 ,there are1 however1 magnificent screens of stone in ,exeter ,cathedral and in the churches of ,totnes and ,awliscombe4 ,illustration3 ,rood ,screen and ,pulpit1 ,harberton ,church ,it is probable that most of the screens were the work of native craftsmen1 but there are some whose style shows distinct signs of foreign influence4 ,the beautiful screen at ,harberton1 for example1 suggests ,spanish work or influence1 that of ,colebrook ,french1 that of ,kenton ,flemish1 and that of ,swymbridge ,italian4 ,while by far the greater number are of the ,perpendicular period1 that of ,washfield is ,jacobean1 and that of ,cruwys ,morchard is ,georgian4 ,it is perhaps generally considered that the magnificent screen at ,kenton is the finest of all2 but it has a good many rivals which closely approach it in beauty of design and in excellence of workmanship4 ,other splendid specimens1 all of them of great beauty1 are those at ,kentisbere1 ,hartland1 ,hemyock1 ,swymbridge1 ,kingsnympton1 ,dartmouth1 ,honiton1 ,holbeton1 ,tawstock1 ,lustleigh1 ,lapford1 ,pinhoe1 and ,uffculme4 ,the last-named1 which measures sixty-seven feet1 is the longest1 and that at ,welcombe is believed to be the oldest1 in the county4 ,carved pulpits are another special feature of ,devonshire churches4 ,the finest stone pulpit1 which is at ,harberton1 contains1 like the beautiful examples at ,south ,molton and ,chittlehampton1 full-length figures in panels4 ,other good stone pulpits are at ,pilton1 ,totnes1 ,paignton1 ,dartmouth and elsewhere4 ,two particularly fine carved oaken pulpits are those of ,hartland and ,kenton1 the latter of which is very richly decorated with gold and colour4 ,there are also good specimens at ,east ,allington1 ,tor ,bryan1 ,ipplepen1 and ,holne4 ,ancient stained glass is very rare in ,devon1 much having been destroyed by ,puritan fanatics4 ,the best which has survived is at ,doddiscombeleigh1 where there are four very beautiful windows4 ,there is also very good glass at ,cheriton ,bishop and ,budleigh2 and some less striking but noteworthy examples may be seen at ,ashton1 ,christow1 ,cadbury1 ,manaton1 ,atherington and other places4 ,the great east window in ,exeter ,cathedral contains some very fine coloured glass1 and there are a few remains in some of the clerestory windows4 ,among the very striking recumbent effigies of warriors and churchmen and great ladies to be found in our churches there are some not to be surpassed in ,england2 and the magnificent examples in ,exeter ,cathedral1 in particular1 afford most valuable chronological studies both of costume and of carving4 ,among the finest of those in the cathedral are the splendid thirteenth century alabaster effigy of ,bishop ,bronescombe1 the fourteenth century mail-clad figures of ,humphrey de ,bohun and ,sir ,richard ,stapledon1 and the sixteenth century effigy of ,bishop ,hugh ,oldham4 ,perhaps the grandest of those in parish churches1 to name a few only out of many1 are the fourteenth century effigies of ,sir ,otho ,grandisson and his wife at ,ottery ,st ,mary1 and the seventeenth century figures of ,denys ,rolle and his wife at ,bicton4 ,other fine effigies are at ,paignton1 ,broadclyst1 ,landkey1 ,tawstock1 ,haccombe1 and ,horwood and the ,seymour tomb at ,berry ,pomeroy4 ,our county is rich also in monumental brasses1 most of which date from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,among the finest are the splendid triple-canopied fifteenth century brasses in the church of ,st ,saviour1 ,dartmouth1 in memory of ,sir ,john ,hawley and his two wives1 the fifteenth century brass of ,sir ,nicholas ,carew in ,exeter ,cathedral1 which is a wonderful representation of the military costume of the period1 and the fine sixteenth century brass at ,tiverton1 in memory of ,john and ,joan ,greenway4 ,other good brasses are in ,exeter ,cathedral and in the churches of ,stoke-in-,teignhead1 ,stoke ,fleming1 ,clovelly1 ,braunton1 ,haccombe1 and ,clyst ,st ,george4 ,many of the churches1 that of ,pilton1 for example1 have specially musical peals of bells2 and there are very old bells at ,ogwell1 ,abbot's ,beckington1 ,alverdiscott and ,hittesleigh4 ,at the latter place is the most ancient bell in the county4 ,illustration3 ,the ,seymour ,tomb1 ,berry ,pomeroy ,church ,by far the most important and remarkable ecclesiastical building in ,devonshire is ,exeter ,cathedral1 which1 although not one of the largest or--externally1 at any rate--one of the most majestic cathedrals in this country1 is without doubt the most beautiful example in all ,england of the ,decorated style of architecture4 ,it is built of ,beer stone2 a material which when first quarried is white and easily worked1 but which1 in this case1 is now dark and crumbling with age4 ,the two features which specially distinguish this from all other cathedrals are its transeptal towers1 of which the only other ,english example is at ,ottery ,st ,mary2 and the great length of its roof1 which extends unbroken over nave and choir4 ,the exterior is further remarkable for the statuary on its west front with its figures of kings and knights1 saints and angels2 for its flying buttresses and its richly carved pinnacles4 ,and the interior1 which has been called the finest in ,europe1 is distinguished for the beautiful tracery of its many ,decorated windows1 the elaborate details of its side-chapels2 its episcopal throne1 more than fifty feet high1 a marvel of wood-carving1 without a rival in the island2 its noble screen1 one of the best in a county particularly rich in screens2 its ancient and quaintly-carved misereres1 the earliest in ,england2 its fourteenth century minstrels' gallery1 the most nearly perfect known2 its long stretch of stone vaulted roof1 the longest of the kind in existence2 its clustered columns2 its richly yet delicately carved bosses and finely sculptured corbels2 its many monuments and recumbent effigies of knights in armour and of bishops in their robes of office2 and1 generally1 by the wonderful uniformity and symmetry of its design4 ,illustration3 ,exeter ,cathedral1 ,west ,front ,the cathedral is the work of many hands4 ,hardly one of its long line of bishops but has left his mark upon it4 ,but that it is an architectural masterpiece is due in the first place to the genius of one man1 and in the second place to the wisdom of his successors in faithfully carrying out his original design4 ,the cathedral stands on the site of a ,saxon church1 of which no trace remains2 and of the ,norman edifice which succeeded it little is left but the two transeptal towers4 ,these towers1 the northern of which has been much altered1 and now has strongly-marked ,perpendicular characters1 were built by ,bishop ,warelwast 7#aajg-aacf71 the son of ,william the ,conqueror's sister2 and ,bishop ,marshall 7#aaid-abjf71 brother of that ,earl of ,pembroke who helped ,henry ,,ii in the conquest of ,ireland1 finished the building in the ,norman style4 ,but it was ,bishop ,quivil 7#abhj-abia7 who planned the reconstruction of the whole cathedral in the ,decorated style1 with the exception of the towers1 and himself began the transformation1 rebuilding the transepts1 the ,lady-chapel1 and part of the nave4 ,and although the work extended over more than a hundred years after ,quivil's time1 and was continued far into the ,perpendicular period1 the architecture was not altered1 and there are few features in the building which are not in keeping with the bishop's first design4 ,the magnificent ,perpendicular eastern window is filled with beautiful glass of the previous period1 and it is believed that its tracery also was originally of the ,decorated style4 ,illustration3 ,the ,nave1 ,exeter ,cathedral ,of the bishops who succeeded ,quivil1 ,stapledon 7#acjh-acbf71 a statesman as well as a prelate and an architect1 murdered in ,cheapside by ruffian partisans of the ,she-,wolf of ,france1 carried out some of the finest work in the building1 including the rood-screen1 the episcopal throne1 and the stone sedilia4 ,last of the great builders was ,bishop ,grandisson 7#acbg-acfi71 who1 in his long tenure of the see1 completed and finally consecrated the cathedral1 to which1 however1 some details were added by those who followed him4 ,bishop ,brantyngham 7#acgj-acid71 for instance1 finished the west front1 the great east window1 and the cloisters--destroyed by the ,puritans and only recently rebuilt4 ,there have been two main restorations of the cathedral2 one in #affb1 and one between #ahgj and #ahgg1 when the reredos and other features were added4 ,the chapter-house1 which is an exception in style to the rest of the building1 its lower part being ,early ,english1 and its upper part ,perpendicular1 contains part of the cathedral library4 ,the rest of the #ae1jjj volumes of books1 together with some very valuable manuscripts1 including the ,exeter ,domesday ,book1 ,leofric's ,book of ,saxon ,poetry1 and the original charter signed by ,edward the ,confessor1 ,earl ,godwin1 ,harold and ,tostig1 authorising the removal of the see from ,crediton to ,exeter are preserved in the ,chapter ,library4 ,in the north transept of the cathedral are the dials of an ancient and curious clock1 believed to have been set up early in the reign of ,edward ,,iii1 although its movement has been renewed4 ,it sounds the hours and the curfew on ,great ,peter1 a ponderous bell in the tower above it4 ,the peal of ten bells in the southern tower is the heaviest in ,england4 ,at many points in ,devonshire may be seen the ruins of monasteries1 priories1 and nunneries which were closed by order of ,henry ,,viii4 ,almost all of them have suffered so severely from decay1 or perhaps even more from having been used as quarries1 that in a great many instances only a few fragments of ruin remain of what1 in their time1 were large and magnificent buildings4 ,these monastic houses were originally founded as places to which people might retreat who wished to retire from the world1 and to lead simple lives of holiness1 benevolence1 and poverty1 serving ,god and benefiting their fellows4 ,for a time the inmates did all these things4 ,as long as they were poor they were a blessing to the countries where they lived4 ,they preached to the people1 they taught in schools1 tended the poor and the sick1 practised agriculture and many useful arts1 such as the construction of clocks1 keeping alive such learning as there was1 and making beautiful manuscript copies of the ,bible and of the works of classical writers which otherwise would have been lost4 ,but when they grew rich they became idle1 careless1 and ignorant1 and their lives too often a scandal to the world4 ,henry ,,viii1 as the result of a commission which he sent round to enquire into their condition1 decided to suppress them4 ,the houses were closed1 their inmates were scattered1 their estates were sold for trifling sums or given to the king's favourites1 while part of their vast wealth was used in founding grammar-schools4 ,the richest monastic house in the county was the ,cistercian ,priory of ,plympton1 of which little now remains beyond the refectory and the kitchen4 ,of the ,benedictine monastery of ,tavistock1 an establishment second in wealth only to ,plympton1 the gateway1 a porch1 and two towers alone are left4 ,the remains of the ,norbertine abbey of ,torre consist chiefly of the refectory1 a gate-house1 and the fine building known as the ,spanish ,barn1 from a tradition that ,spanish prisoners of war were confined in it4 ,the two ,cistercian houses of ,buckfast and ,buckland are specially interesting4 ,the ruins of the former1 which was a very ancient and very rich establishment1 whose last abbot attained his office as a reward for having helped to capture ,tyndale1 were bought in #ahhb by a community of ,french monks1 who have rebuilt much of the abbey in the original style4 ,part of ,buckland ,abbey1 which had been converted into a dwelling-house in ,henry ,,viii's time1 was bought and rebuilt by ,sir ,francis ,drake4 ,several relics of ,drake are preserved here1 and the house1 with its fine cedars and stately tulip trees1 is one of the most picturesque buildings in ,devon4 ,hartland ,abbey1 originally founded1 like ,buckfast1 in ,saxon times1 has also been converted into a dwelling-house1 into which were built the ,early ,english cloisters4 ,at ,leigh1 near ,christow1 are the very picturesque remains--a fine gate-house1 the refectory1 and the dormitory--of a small cell connected with ,buckland ,abbey4 ,illustration3 ,buckland ,abbey ,other monastic remains1 mostly in a fragmentary condition1 are those at ,polsloe 7,benedictine nuns71 ,denbury 7,benedictine cell connected with ,tavistock71 ,newenham and ,dunkeswell 7both ,cistercian71 ,cornworthy 7,augustinian nuns71 and ,frithelstock 7a house of ,augustinian canons74 #ba4 ,architecture--7b7 ,military4 ,as has already been pointed out1 there were in ,devonshire a very great number of primitive castles or fortresses1 generally on the tops of hills1 and consisting simply of enclosures surrounded by ramparts of earth or of loose stones4 ,after the ,norman ,conquest castles of a very different type1 strongly built of stone1 were erected in our county1 as in many other parts of ,england1 partly by order of the king himself1 and partly by his knights and nobles1 who found it necessary to defend themselves against the ,saxons1 of whose lands they had taken possession4 ,by the end of the reign of ,king ,stephen1 after less than ninety years of ,norman rule1 there were #aaae such strongholds in ,england4 ,the early ,norman castle consisted1 as a rule1 of a single three-storied tower with walls of great thickness4 ,but at a later period1 after the experience gained in the ,crusades1 and in consequence of the introduction of powerful engines capable of throwing great stones against a besieged fortress1 military architecture became much more elaborate4 ,the castles of the ,middle ,ages1 which sometimes occupied a space of many acres1 were usually built on high ground1 or close to a river or the sea-shore1 and were almost always surrounded by a ditch or moat1 which1 if possible1 was filled with water4 ,inside the moat was a high and very thick wall1 generally with towers at intervals1 especially at the corners1 with a parapet to shelter the men fighting on the top of it1 and with spaces called embrasures through which they could shoot arrows at the enemy4 ,the principal gate was strongly defended by covering towers1 and above it were holes through which melted lead1 or boiling water1 or hot pitch or sand could be thrown on the besiegers4 ,the doorway was reached by a drawbridge1 raised and lowered by chains1 and was closed by a heavy door1 or a strong grating called a portcullis4 ,smaller gates were the postern and the sally-port4 ,the space inside the outer wall was known as the outer bailey1 inside which was another wall1 also with towers and a gate1 within which were dwellings and store-houses4 ,this was the inner bailey2 and within it was the most important part of the fortress1 the high tower called the keep--a building of several floors1 with walls #ae or even #bj feet thick--the last place of retreat when the rest of the castle was taken4 ,on the ground floor1 which had no windows1 were the well1 sometimes of immense depth1 the dungeon1 and the store-rooms4 ,on the next floor1 which was lighted by narrow loop-holes1 were the soldiers' quarters4 ,on upper floors were the chapel and the apartments of the governor and his family4 ,there were nearly twenty ,norman and mediaeval castles in ,devonshire1 few of them large or elaborate from the military point of view1 and some1 perhaps even the majority of them1 insignificant in size and simple in style4 ,of some of these twenty strongholds no trace remains4 ,almost all1 of which anything survives1 are ruinous and uninhabitable4 ,and although a few have been partially restored and are now occupied as dwelling-houses1 only one1 that of ,powderham1 retains its ancient dignity1 after continuous occupation that has lasted for nearly six centuries4 ,comparatively little is known of the history of these castles2 but many of them have been the scenes of fighting1 especially in ,norman times1 in the reign of ,henry ,,viii and during the ,civil ,war4 ,one of the most famous and at the same time one of the oldest of ,devonshire castles1 is that of ,exeter1 called ,rougemont from the colour of the rock on which it stands1 built in #ajfg by ,william the ,conqueror on the site of an earlier fortress constructed by ,athelstan1 destroyed by ,sweyn1 and restored by ,cnut and ,edward the ,confessor4 ,its first ,norman governor was ,baldwin de ,brioniis1 the ,conqueror's nephew by marriage4 ,it1 or the city round it1 has sustained many sieges2 by the ,saxons1 by the sons of ,harold1 by ,king ,stephen1 by the ,yorkists1 by rebel armies1 by ,royalists and ,parliamentarians1 but it was ruinous even when ,fairfax captured ,exeter in #afdf4 ,a mere fragment1 consisting chiefly of the gateway tower1 is all that now remains of it4 ,the picturesque ruins of ,okehampton ,castle1 built1 it is believed1 in the thirteenth century1 partly of water-worn stones from the river below1 and dismantled by order of ,henry ,,viii1 stand in a strong position above the ,west ,okement1 and include the remains of many rooms and of a great banqueting hall4 ,a ,french prisoner of war has left a ,latin inscription cut in one of the stones4 ,the remains of the ancient castle of ,berry ,pomeroy--founded1 as some think1 in the reign of ,william ,i--the most picturesque ruin in ,devonshire1 standing on a rocky eminence surrounded by dense woods three miles north-east of ,totnes1 consist principally of two towers1 and of the gate-house and the chapel1 whose fine masonry1 much of which is thirteenth century work1 is overgrown with moss and ivy4 ,inside the original building stands a very large but unfinished mansion1 of great magnificence1 begun by ,lord ,seymour1 to whom1 when ,sir ,thomas ,pomeroy was deprived of his estates because of his share in the ,commotion of #aedi1 the castle was given4 ,the property still belongs to the ,duke of ,somerset1 and has thus been in the hands of only two families since the ,norman ,conquest4 ,compton ,castle1 about two miles west of ,torquay1 a very strongly fortified manor-house of the early fifteenth century built on the site of a castle of ,william ,i's time1 is specially interesting from its association with ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert4 ,it is now occupied as a farm4 ,nearness to the sea1 and the consequent danger from the raids of foreign invaders1 led to the strength of its defences4 ,the building1 which is large and picturesque1 includes a number of ancient features1 especially the chapel and two gateways4 ,illustration3 ,compton ,castle ,lydford ,castle1 now little more than the shell of a square tower1 stands on an artificial mound1 and is said to have been founded soon after the ,conquest4 ,it was a place of great importance in the palmy days of ,devonshire tin-mining1 when ,lydford was one of the chief towns in the county4 ,here1 from a very early period until late in the eighteenth century1 was held the ,stannary ,court1 proverbial for its arbitrary methods of procedure2 and within the walls was a notorious dungeon1 used as the ,stannary prison4 ,plympton ,castle1 built by ,richard de ,redvers1 first ,earl of ,devon1 and the scene of fighting in the reigns of ,stephen1 ,john1 and ,charles ,i1 is now quite ruinous4 ,tiverton ,castle1 ascribed to the same founder1 but reconstructed in the fourteenth century and dismantled after the ,civil ,war1 has been partly adapted as a modern house4 ,it sustained a brief siege1 of only a few hours' duration1 by ,fairfax in #afde4 ,a cannon-shot cut the chain of the drawbridge1 the bridge fell1 and the besiegers1 pouring in1 were quickly masters of the fortress4 ,the chief ancient features are the great gate1 a tower1 and the remains of the banqueting hall and the chapel4 ,the scanty remains of ,hemyock ,castle1 two miles east of ,culmstock1 and not far from the border of ,somerset1 at first garrisoned for the ,parliament1 then taken by the ,royalists1 and finally dismantled by ,cromwell1 consist of little more than the gateway and its covering-towers1 which are of flint4 ,totnes ,castle1 whose ivy-clad walls of red sandstone look down upon the river ,dart1 was founded by ,judhael1 soon after the ,conquest1 but it has been a ruin since the time of ,henry ,,viii4 ,of ,dartmouth ,castle1 a very picturesque ruin at the end of a promontory guarding the harbour1 the chief remains are a square tower of the time of ,edward ,,iv1 and a round tower of the reign of ,henry ,,vii4 ,the place may still be seen where a chain was drawn across the river to ,gomerock ,castle1 a small fort on the opposite shore1 to keep hostile ships from sailing up the ,dart4 ,kingswear ,castle1 a small thirteenth century building on the same river1 the scene of some fighting during the ,civil ,war1 has been restored1 and is now a private residence4 ,salcombe or ,clifton ,castle1 on the ,kingsbridge estuary1 one of ,henry ,,viii's coast defences against the long-expected attack of the ,spanish ,armada1 was the last place on the ,devonshire mainland to hold out for ,charles ,i4 ,the square ,morisco fortress on ,lundy1 whose plain walls now shelter cottages that have been built inside it1 is twelfth century work4 ,the scanty ruins of ,colcombe ,castle near ,colyton1 supposed to have been destroyed by the ,parliamentarians1 and the square tower of ,gidleigh1 not far from ,chagford1 date1 it is believed1 from the century following2 and the castle of ,ilton1 two miles north-west of ,salcombe1 on the ,kingsbridge estuary1 now used as a farm1 was built in the fourteenth century4 ,of ,torrington ,castle a few fragments only are left4 ,the castles of ,exmouth and ,bampton have entirely disappeared2 and of ,barnstaple ,castle1 built1 it is said1 by ,athelstan1 but ruinous as far back as the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 nothing but the site remains4 ,powderham ,castle1 the only one of all these fortresses which has been continuously inhabited since its foundation1 stands--from a military point of view--on a poor site1 on low ground close to the estuary of the ,exe4 ,its chief charm is in its setting1 in its beautiful park and fine timber1 especially its magnificent oak-trees4 ,built in #acbe in the form of a long parallelogram1 with six towers1 four of which remain intact1 while two have been restored1 it has been altered and added to by many hands1 and is now a vast1 irregular pile of buildings4 ,its present owner is the lineal descendant of its original founder1 the ,sir ,philip ,courtenay who1 in #acfg1 was knighted by the ,black ,prince on the field of ,navarete4 ,successfully held for the ,king in ,december1 #afde1 against ,fairfax himself1 it was taken by ,colonel ,hammond in the following ,january after some sharp fighting1 in which the ,parliamentary troops1 as happened on not a few occasions during the war1 seized and fortified the village church4 #bb4 ,architecture--7c7 ,domestic4 ,scattered up and down over ,devonshire are many fine old manor-houses1 some of them1 in parts at least1 very ancient1 some with picturesque and striking features1 many set in very beautiful surroundings1 and others of interest for the sake of their historic associations4 ,such houses are so numerous that only a few of them can here be even lightly touched upon4 ,illustration3 ,an ,old ,devon ,farmhouse ,chimney ,corner ,not one of the famous houses of ,devonshire is entirely1 or even in great part1 as old as the thirteenth century1 although there are several that contain features of that period4 ,such1 for example1 is ,bowringsleigh1 near ,kingsbridge1 a fine old building1 which although mainly ,tudor1 and containing details of later eras--beautiful ,jacobean oak screens and highly-decorated plaster ceilings of the time of ,william and ,mary--has some striking thirteenth century work in it4 ,at ,little ,hempstone1 near ,totnes1 is a very interesting and well-preserved pre-,reformation parsonage or priest's residence of the fourteenth century2 and ,ayshford ,court1 near ,burlescombe1 a fine old house now used like the ,little ,hempstone parsonage as a farm1 contains a fourteenth century chapel4 ,of the same period are the great hall1 now dismantled1 and the old kitchen and other buildings connected with the mansion of ,dartington1 which although as a whole a noble example of ,elizabethan architecture1 was originally erected in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 ,manor-houses of the fifteenth century are much more numerous4 ,the most remarkable of them--indeed1 the finest of all the many great houses in the county1 is ,wear ,gifford1 on the ,torridge1 about #b-a_/b miles south of ,bideford1 a perfect example of an old ,english manorial residence1 built1 it is believed1 during the reign of ,henry ,,vi4 ,greatly damaged during the ,civil ,war1 the house1 which stands in a commanding situation with fine timber1 especially oak-trees1 about it1 was for a long period occupied as a farm1 and having become much dilapidated1 was restored about eighty years ago4 ,it contains many beautiful and interesting details1 but the most striking of the original features are the square embattled tower with the fine entrance archway beneath it1 and the magnificent hall1 rising to the whole height of the building1 with richly-decorated oaken panelling and a carved1 open1 hammer-beam roof which is one of the very finest examples of ,perpendicular woodwork in ,england4 ,other good specimens of fifteenth century architecture are ,wortham1 at ,lifton1 near the border of ,cornwall1 an almost perfect house of the period2 ,bradley1 near ,newton ,abbot1 a very picturesque building with a fine hall and chapel2 and the main fabric of ,exeter ,guildhall1 which was erected in #adfd though the front is ,elizabethan4 ,the noblest ,tudor mansion in ,devonshire is ,holcombe ,rogus1 in the village of that name1 near ,burlescombe1 about three miles from the border of ,somerset4 ,a good deal of the building is a modern restoration1 but many details of the time of its foundation1 in the reign either of ,henry ,,viii or of ,edward ,,vi1 still remain4 ,as in the case of ,wear ,gifford1 the most striking features of the house are the very picturesque tower and gate-house1 and the great hall--a magnificent room1 more than forty feet long1 lighted by two great six-light windows4 ,some of the rooms are finely wainscoted with curiously carved oaken panelling4 ,adjoining the building is the original church-house1 consisting of kitchen1 refectory1 and cellar1 where parishioners could cook their food and brew their beer1 where the poor received their doles1 and where the needs of casual wayfarers were relieved4 ,another very interesting ,tudor mansion1 only part of which1 however1 is now habitable1 and is used as a farm1 is ,cadhay1 at ,ottery ,st ,mary4 ,the interior of the house has been a good deal altered1 but the exterior is much as it was in the days of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,its most remarkable feature is the inner court1 round which the house is built1 and in each of whose four sides1 over an arched ,tudor doorway1 is a highly-decorated projecting canopied niche4 ,in these niches are statues of ,henry ,,viii1 ,edward ,,vi1 ,queen ,mary1 and ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,another very fine sixteenth century house1 containing also some earlier details1 is ,bradfield1 near ,uffculme1 in which are a beautiful music-room1 a fine banqueting-hall with good panelling1 a minstrels' gallery1 and a richly-carved roof4 ,altogether1 this is one of the best examples of domestic architecture in ,devonshire4 ,illustration3 ,hayes ,barton3 ,sir ,walter ,ralegh's ,house ,other interesting and noteworthy houses of the period are ,colleton ,barton at ,chumleigh1 ,flete ,house at ,holbeton1 ,hayes ,barton at ,east ,budleigh1 and ,mol's ,coffee ,house in ,exeter4 ,flete has been rebuilt1 but it is a fine mansion1 whose beauty is much enhanced by its surroundings and its avenue of cedars4 ,hayes ,barton1 where ,ralegh was born--it was thus he always spelt his name--and where a table said to have belonged to him is shown1 is a rather modern-looking house1 plainly built of cobb2 but its gables1 its mullioned windows and its heavy door are characteristic of the time4 ,in ,mol's ,coffee ,house1 which is one of the sights of ,exeter1 is an oak-panelled room decorated with the arms of ,drake1 ,ralegh1 ,monk and others1 in which the great ,devonshire soldiers and sailors of ,armada days were accustomed to meet4 ,two particularly interesting seventeenth century mansions are ,sydenham ,house1 not far from ,tavistock1 and ,forde ,house1 near ,newton ,abbot4 ,in the former1 which is a specially fine example of the work of the early part of the century1 containing also some fourteenth century details1 is some very good carved and decorated woodwork1 especially in the form of artistic panelling and stately staircases4 ,there are also secret rooms and passages1 some of which have been contrived in the thickness of the walls4 ,the house was greatly damaged during the ,civil ,war1 when it is said to have been stormed by the troops of the ,parliament4 ,at ,forde ,house1 which was taken and retaken several times in the struggle between the ,king and the ,commons1 the ,prince of ,orange slept on the first night after his landing at ,brixham4 ,charles ,i was there twice1 in the first year of his reign4 ,illustration3 ,mol's ,coffee ,house1 ,exeter ,some good examples of more modern houses are ,kingsnympton1 in the parish of that name1 about four miles from ,chumleigh1 surrounded by well-wooded grounds1 on a commanding eminence looking down on the ,taw2 ,ugbrooke1 near ,chudleigh1 standing in a deer-park of rare beauty1 finely timbered1 and most picturesquely varied by wood and hill and water1 and where ,dryden's grove may still be seen2 ,rousdon1 near ,axmouth1 built of flint faced with ,purbeck stone1 and considered one of the most magnificent modern mansions in ,devon2 ,saltram ,house1 three miles east-north-east of ,plymouth1 a stately building in a large and beautiful park2 and ,bicton ,house near ,budleigh ,salterton1 whose trees1 brought from all parts of the world1 and including a wonderful avenue of araucarias1 form one of the finest collections of the kind in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,sydenham ,house ,other interesting houses are ,ashe ,house near ,axminster1 the home of the ,drake family and the birth-place of the great ,duke of ,marlborough1 partly burnt down during the ,civil ,war and repaired with stones from the ruins of ,newenham ,abbey1 and now a farmhouse2 ,great ,fulford1 in the parish of ,dunsford1 about eight miles west of ,exeter1 owned by a family who have held it since the time of ,richard ,i1 stormed by ,fairfax in #afde2 and the residence in ,exeter of the ,abbots of ,buckfast1 a good example of mediaeval architecture4 ,some very picturesque old half-timbered houses are to be seen in ,exeter1 especially in ,high ,street1 ,north ,street1 and ,south ,street2 and there are so many in ,dartmouth that the town has been called the ,chester of ,devonshire4 ,nor should the fine old almshouses of ,tiverton and ,exeter be forgotten4 ,devonshire possesses a great variety of building stone2 and the materials employed have naturally varied1 as a rule1 according to the geological formation of the district4 ,some of the best houses are of ,beer stone4 ,some1 as has been shown1 are of flint4 ,brick1 which when of good colour and quality is an excellent material1 has been largely employed4 ,many cottages1 and even whole villages1 such as ,otterton and ,east ,budleigh1 are built of cobb1 which is a mixture of clay and straw4 ,illustration3 ,dartmouth3 ,old ,houses in the ,high ,street ,thatch1 which is still used for roofing1 although to a less extent than formerly1 has in the past been the cause of many disastrous fires4 ,as recently as #ahff more than #ajj houses were burnt down in ,ottery ,st ,mary4 ,nearly the whole of ,chudleigh was thus destroyed in #ahjg4 ,fires in ,crediton1 in the eighteenth century1 destroyed hundreds of houses4 ,perhaps the town that has suffered most severely in this way is ,tiverton1 where there were very destructive fires in the eighteenth century4 ,one in #afab consumed almost every house1 and in another1 in #aeih1 no fewer than #djj houses were burnt down4 ,illustration3 ,newton ,village #bc4 ,communications3 ,past and ,present4 ,in prehistoric times ,devonshire was crossed by a network of trackways1 some of which are to-day broad and well-kept high roads4 ,others form those proverbially narrow1 awkward1 and frequently muddy ,devonshire lanes which are so characteristic of the county1 having become worn in the lapse of ages so deep below the level of the adjacent country1 owing partly to the softness of the ground1 and partly to the heavy rainfall1 that their high banks1 although often very beautiful1 completely shut out the view4 ,others1 again1 that once served merely to connect one hill-fort with another1 have fallen out of use1 and are now hardly to be traced4 ,these roads1 probably begun in the ,neolithic ,period as footpaths1 may have been made into tracks for packhorses in the ,bronze ,age1 and more or less adapted for wheeled traffic by the prehistoric users of iron4 ,packhorses1 however1 usually or frequently in teams of six1 were in common use in the county until the middle of the eighteenth century2 and although good roads were made across ,dartmoor in #agib there were parts of that wild district where1 before the year #ahca1 wheeled vehicles were unknown4 ,at the present time the total length of all the roads in ,devonshire is only exceeded in the county of ,yorkshire4 ,it is generally believed that no ,devonshire road was wholly constructed by the ,romans1 who probably reached the district by the already existing ,british coast-road from ,dorchester4 ,there are some1 however1 who think that the ,fosse ,way joined this road and passed through ,exeter1 going as far as the river ,teign4 ,the ,romans made no road beyond this point1 at any rate2 and here1 not far from ,newton ,abbot1 they built over the river a bridge of freestone1 on whose foundations the modern structure--the third since then--now rests4 ,some ancient roads have been abandoned because of their steepness1 or because they have been superseded by more convenient ways4 ,such1 for example1 are the lane from ,crockam ,bridge over the ,teign to ,trusham1 and the ,lichway 7i4e4 the way of the corpse7 along which1 before #abfj1 the dead were carried for burial into ,lydford1 crossing the river over ,willsworthy ,steps1 a series of eighteen stepping-stones4 ,one of the most remarkable of these old roads was the great central trackway on ,dartmoor1 leading from ,chagford to ,tavistock1 #aj feet wide1 #b-a_/b feet deep1 and made of rough stones with smaller stones above4 ,although much of it has been destroyed for the sake of its materials1 about #ah miles of it still remain4 ,it was during the seventeenth century that the ,moor-stones--upright monoliths of granite--were set up to serve as guide-posts for wayfarers during the mists that so often cover the moor4 ,one of the most important highways in ,devonshire is the great trunk road from ,london1 which enters the county with the ,great ,western ,railway and accompanies it to ,exeter1 thence making straight for ,plymouth1 and passing on into ,cornwall4 ,in common with other ,english counties ,devonshire possesses a number of hamlets whose names end in ford1 a syllable which1 in words of ,saxon origin1 means that an old road there passed through the shallows of a stream or river4 ,such1 to give a few familiar instances1 are ,chagford1 ,lydford1 and ,bideford4 ,devonshire canals are short and unimportant4 ,the hilly country is not adapted for them2 and such traffic as some of them once enjoyed has been absorbed by the railways4 ,there is1 however1 a good deal of traffic on the ,exeter ,canal--constructed in #aeff1 and therefore one of the oldest ship canals in ,england and the first lock-canal in the kingdom--but it is worked at a loss4 ,most of the ,bude ,canal has been abandoned1 and only two miles of it are now in use4 ,the ,grand ,western ,canal1 running ten-and-a-half miles eastward from ,tiverton1 nearly to the ,somerset border--all that was ever made of a waterway intended to reach ,taunton--the ,stover ,canal1 two miles in length1 and the ,hackney ,canal1 only half-a-mile long1 both connected with the river ,teign1 are all under the control of the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,no ,devonshire river is now of much value as a waterway4 ,there is some traffic on some of the estuaries1 especially the ,teign2 and the ,tamar is navigable to ,gunnislake1 a distance of twenty miles4 ,there are in our county some very old lines of stone-tramway for horse-traction2 from ,tavistock to ,princetown1 for example1 and from the ,heytor quarries to the head of the ,stover ,canal1 but they are no longer in use4 ,down the former was brought granite to build ,london ,bridge4 ,the railway from ,london to ,bristol was opened by the ,great ,western ,company in #ahda1 was continued to ,exeter by the ,bristol and ,exeter ,company in #ahdd1 and to ,plymouth by the ,south ,devon ,company in #ahdf4 ,atmospheric pressure was tried for a time between ,exeter and ,newton ,abbot1 but it was a failure1 and was soon superseded by steam-traction4 ,brunel's railways were made on the broad-gauge system with seven feet between the rails1 in order to give stability to the trains and to allow of a high rate of speed2 and the entire line from ,london to ,plymouth was broad gauge4 ,most other companies1 however1 adopted the narrow gauge1 in which there is only four feet eight-and-a-half inches between the rails2 and owing mainly to the inconvenience of not being able to interchange rolling-stock with other lines1 the ,great ,western ,railway ,company have converted their whole system to narrow gauge4 ,illustration3 ,teignmouth3 the ,coast ,line and ,sea-wall ,the ,devonshire railways are now owned by two companies only1 the ,great ,western and the ,london and ,south ,western4 ,the latter1 which enters the county near ,axminster1 runs to ,plymouth1 especially serving the south coast to the east of ,exmouth1 with important branches to ,barnstaple and ,ilfracombe and to ,bude1 and with a continuation into ,cornwall4 ,the ,great ,western ,railway enters ,devonshire at two points2 near ,burlescombe1 running thence to ,plymouth and into ,cornwall1 and near ,venn ,cross1 for ,barnstaple4 ,the ,cornish ,riviera ,express from ,paddington1 which slips a coach at ,reading1 and1 passing south of ,bristol1 slips another at ,exeter1 performs the journey of #bbe miles to ,plymouth--the longest non-stop run of any train in ,england--in #g minutes over #d hours1 which is an average speed of #ee miles an hour4 ,there are some famous bridges on the ,devonshire roads and railways1 of which the most remarkable are the ,saltash ,viaduct1 #bbdj feet long and #ajb feet above high-water mark1 built by ,brunel across the ,tamar2 the old stone bridge of #af arches over the ,taw at ,barnstaple1 originally built in the thirteenth century1 but since much altered and widened2 the fifteenth century stone bridge of #bd arches over the ,torridge at ,bideford1 also much changed from the days when it was only wide enough for a pack-horse1 but always a valuable source of revenue to the town from the money that has1 at various times1 been left for its maintenance1 and has been used to promote education1 municipal improvements1 charity and other objects2 and the wooden bridge over the ,teign at ,teignmouth1 one of the longest of its kind in ,england4 ,very different in character are the ,lydford ,bridge1 whose single arch of stone spans the deep gorge of the river1 close to the town2 and the ancient stone clapper bridges1 of which perhaps ,post ,bridge is the best known1 already described in the chapter on antiquities4 #bd4 ,administration and ,divisions--,ancient and ,modern4 ,in the days of our ancestors the ,anglo-,saxons1 ,devonshire was governed much in the same way as it is governed now4 ,that is to say1 while the people had to obey the laws that were drawn up under the direction of the ,king1 they had a great deal of what we now call self-government4 ,every little group of houses in ,devonshire had its own tun-moot or village council1 which made its own by-laws 7from the ,danish by1 a town7 and managed its own affairs4 ,the large divisions of the county called ,hundreds--groups of a hundred families--had their more important hundred-moot2 while the general business of the whole shire was conducted by the shire-moot1 with its two chief officers1 the ealdorman1 or earl1 for military commander1 and the shire-reeve for judicial president4 ,the ,devonshire shire-moot met twice in the year4 ,these three assemblies may fairly be said to correspond to the ,parish ,councils1 the ,district ,councils1 and the ,county ,council of the present time4 ,our lord-lieutenant corresponds to the ealdorman of other days1 and the present sheriff to the ancient shire-reeve4 ,the division called a ,hundred may have been named1 as already suggested1 because it contained a hundred families4 ,but the present ,devonshire ,hundreds1 of which there are #cb1 vary a good deal in population4 ,the ,hundred of ,black ,torrington1 for example1 contains #ch parishes1 and the ,hundred of ,hemyock only three4 ,the ,parish is another ancient institution1 and was originally a township or cluster of houses1 to which a single priest ministered1 to whom its tithes and ecclesiastical dues were paid4 ,many of the #eaf ecclesiastical parishes or parts of parishes situated wholly or partly within the ,ancient ,geographical ,county of ,devon fairly correspond to the manors described in ,domesday ,book2 but the whole country was not divided up into parishes until the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,the parishes1 again1 vary much in size and population4 ,thus1 the parish of ,lydford1 which includes a large part of ,dartmoor1 and measures more than #ej1jjj acres1 being the largest parish in ,england1 contains #cbe inhabited houses and a population of #bhab4 ,the parish of ,haccombe1 on the other hand1 contains three inhabited houses and nine people4 ,queen ,elizabeth made the parishes areas of taxation1 partly1 at any rate1 to provide funds for the relief of the poor4 ,in modern times1 with the idea of taking still better care of the poor1 the parishes have been grouped together in ,poor ,law ,unions1 of which there are #bj in ,devonshire1 each provided with a workhouse1 which was meant to be a place in which the able-bodied poor might find employment4 ,now1 however1 the workhouse is little more than a refuge for the destitute1 the idle1 and the incapable4 ,the local government of ,saxon times was swept away by the feudal system of the ,normans1 which transferred the power of making and carrying out laws from the freemen to the lords of the various manors1 and was only restored as recently as #ahhh and #ahid4 ,the affairs of each parish1 since the latter date1 have been managed by a ,parish ,council of from #e to #ae men or women1 elected by the parishioners4 ,district ,councils have charge of wide areas1 and have larger powers4 ,they are1 in particular1 the sanitary authorities1 and are responsible for the water-supply4 ,the ,county ,council1 whose very considerable powers extend to the whole shire1 is a small parliament1 which can levy rates and borrow money for public works4 ,it manages lunatic asylums and reformatories1 keeps roads and bridges in repair1 controls the police in conjunction with the ,quarter ,sessions1 appoints coroners and officers of health1 and sees that the ,acts relating to local government are carried out4 ,the ,devonshire ,county ,council consists of #ajc members1 of whom #gg are elected every three years by the ratepayers of the various electoral districts2 while #bf are aldermen1 elected or co-opted by the #gg2 thirteen of them in one triennial period1 to serve for six years1 and the other thirteen in the next period1 to serve for the same length of time4 ,the ,council meets at ,exeter1 four times in the year4 ,plymouth1 ,devonport1 and ,exeter are called ,county ,boroughs1 and their corporations have the powers of a ,county ,council4 ,ten other towns1 ,barnstaple1 ,bideford1 ,dartmouth1 ,great ,torrington1 ,honiton1 ,okehampton1 ,south ,molton1 ,tiverton1 ,torquay1 and ,totnes1 are called ,municipal ,boroughs and are governed by a mayor and corporation4 ,for the administration of justice the county1 which is in the ,western ,circuit1 has one court of ,quarter ,sessions1 the ,assizes being held at ,exeter2 while ,petty ,sessions1 presided over by local justices of the peace1 are held weekly in #bb towns1 to try cases and to punish those who have broken the law4 ,illustration3 ,the ,guildhall1 ,exeter ,ecclesiastical affairs are in the hands of the ,bishop of ,exeter1 the archdeacons of ,barnstaple1 ,exeter1 and ,totnes1 together with numerous deans and other church officials1 in addition to the parish clergy4 ,the ,county ,council appoints a number of ,education ,committees1 who have charge of all ,government elementary and secondary schools throughout the county4 ,devonshire is divided into eleven ,constituencies1 of which eight are ,parliamentary ,divisions1 known as those of ,honiton1 ,tiverton1 ,south ,molton1 ,barnstaple1 ,tavistock1 ,totnes1 ,torquay1 and ,ashburton1 each of which returns one member4 ,in addition to these ,plymouth and ,devonport each return two members and ,exeter one1 so that the county is represented altogether by thirteen ,members of ,parliament4 ,we may recall with pride the fact that1 among the ,members for ,devon1 have been some of the most distinguished men who have ever sat in ,parliament4 ,thus1 ,sir ,walter ,ralegh sat for the county1 ,plymouth has been represented by ,sir ,francis ,drake1 ,sir ,john ,hawkyns1 and ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert1 ,tavistock by ,john ,pym and ,lord ,john ,russell1 ,barnstaple by ,skippon and ,lord ,exmouth1 ,okehampton by ,william ,pitt and ,lord ,rodney1 ,plympton by ,lord ,castlereagh and ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 ,dartmouth by ,lord ,howe1 and ,tiverton by ,lord ,palmerston4 #be4 ,the ,roll of ,honour of the ,county4 ,famous as our county is for its beautiful scenery1 its wealth of prehistoric antiquities1 and the abundance and variety of its wild life1 it is still more renowned for its long ,roll of ,honour1 for the many great and distinguished men who were born in it1 or who have been more or less closely associated with it by residence within its borders4 ,there can be little doubt that the foremost man in the whole history of ,devon is ,sir ,francis ,drake1 the greatest of ,elizabethan seamen1 the first ,english circumnavigator of the globe1 the terror of every ,spanish ship1 and the most conspicuous figure in the defeat of the ,armada4 ,born near ,tavistock1 about #aedj1 of humble parentage1 he early took to the sea1 and was only seventeen when he and his kinsman ,hawkyns1 in the course of a trading-voyage to ,guiana1 were so ill-treated at a ,south ,american ,spanish port that1 for the rest of his life1 ,drake's chief aim seems to have been to avenge his injuries by plundering the towns1 destroying the shipping1 and capturing the treasure-ships of both ,spain and ,portugal4 ,among his greatest exploits were his voyage round the world1 between #aegg and #aehj--;after which1 on his return1 he was knighted by ,queen ,elizabeth on board his ship the ,golden ,hind2 the ravaging of the ,west ,indies in #aehe and #aehf2 the destruction in the harbour of ,cadiz of ships and stores intended for the invasion of ,england1 by which he delayed for a whole year the sailing of the ,armada2 and the prominent part he took in the defeat of the ,armada itself1 when he captured the flagship of ,admiral ,pedro de ,valdez4 ,illustration3 ,sir ,francis ,drake ,during the comparatively few years he spent on shore ,drake constructed the still-existing leat or water-course for bringing drinking-water into ,plymouth1 and he also represented that town as ,member of ,parliament4 ,in #aeie he and ,hawkyns set out for the ,west ,indies on what proved to be their last expedition4 ,misfortune dogged the fleet from the outset4 ,both commanders died at sea1 ,hawkyns off ,porto ,rico1 late in #aeie1 and ,drake off ,porto ,bello1 early in #aeif4 ,a greater man in some ways than even ,drake himself was the gentle1 noble1 lovable1 gallant ,sir ,walter ,ralegh1 a man who won renown in many fields1 not only as soldier1 sailor1 and explorer1 as courtier and administrator1 but as historian and poet2 whose whole life was crowded with adventure and romance1 and who is one of the most picturesque figures in the entire range of ,english ,history4 ,born in #aeeb1 in a house that still stands at ,hayes ,barton1 he was only #ag when he left ,oxford to fight for the ,huguenots2 and from that time1 except for brief intervals at ,court1 and even shorter periods of quiet enjoyment of his property in ,ireland1 or of his home at ,sherborne1 or when he was a prisoner in the ,tower1 the rest of his life was spent in action2 now fighting the rebel ,desmonds in ,ireland1 now harrying the ships and towns of ,spain and ,portugal1 now helping in the attack on the ,armada1 now engaged with his half-brother ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert in perilous and fruitless exploration in the far north of ,america1 now attempting to colonise ,virginia--an enterprise whose sole result was the introduction to this country of tobacco and potatoes--and now sailing up the ,orinoco in the vain quest of the fabled golden city of ,manoa4 ,illustration3 ,sir ,walter ,ralegh and his signature ,elizabeth1 whose favour he won by the sacrifice of his cloak1 and lost again for a time owing to her jealousy of his passion for one of her ,maids of ,honour1 when he had to spend four years in the ,tower1 knighted him1 gave him vast estates in ,ireland1 made him captain of the guard1 ,governor of ,jersey1 ,lord ,warden of the ,stannaries and ,vice-,admiral of ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,like ,drake1 he sat in ,parliament2 and it was while still in favour with the ,queen that he was elected ,member for his county4 ,on the accession of ,james ,i1 however1 ,ralegh was charged with joining in the plot on behalf of ,arabella ,stuart1 and was again sent to the ,tower4 ,during his long imprisonment there he wrote his most famous work1 the ,history of the ,world1 whose learned1 eloquent1 and philosophic pages proved that his skill was no less with his pen than with his sword4 ,his stirring description of the last fight of the ,revenge inspired ,tennyson's noble ballad4 ,released from prison by ,james in order that he might once more sail up the ,orinoco in search of the mythical treasure-land ruled over by ,el ,dorado1 he came back from that most disastrous expedition a broken man4 ,again committed to the ,tower at the instigation of the ,spanish ,ambassador1 he was soon afterwards beheaded on the old charge of treason1 dying as he had lived1 dignified1 noble1 and fearless to the last4 ,two other heroic figures of the ,elizabethan age1 worthy to be ranked in the same company with ,drake1 are his gallant comrade ,hawkyns1 who was born at ,plymouth in #aecb1 and ,grenville the indomitable1 the hero of that last fight of the ,revenge4 ,several other men who were born in our county have distinguished themselves as explorers1 or by having helped1 by peaceable means1 to found our over-seas empire4 ,such were ,davis1 the arctic navigator1 who was born near ,dartmouth about #aeej1 who left his name in ,davis's ,straits1 and who wrote ,the ,seaman's ,secrets and other works2 ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert1 born in #aeci at ,dartmouth1 distinguished as a soldier in the ,irish wars of ,elizabeth's reign1 but still more as having taken possession of ,newfoundland1 thus establishing the first ,british colony2 ,gate1 who with ,somers colonised ,bermuda in #afaa2 and ,wills1 who perished in #ahfa with ,burke in crossing ,australia4 ,devonshire has been the native land of many soldiers4 ,two of the most distinguished1 both of whom strongly influenced their country's destiny1 and were made dukes as a reward for their services1 were ,monck and ,marlborough4 ,george ,monck1 born near ,torrington in #afjh1 distinguished himself both by land and sea4 ,he twice defeated the great ,dutch admiral ,van ,tromp2 and although severely beaten by de ,ruyter he afterwards gained a great victory over him off the ,north ,foreland4 ,at first a ,royalist1 he joined the parliamentary army after his capture by ,fairfax 7followed by two years in the ,tower7 and ,cromwell made him governor of ,scotland4 ,on the death of the ,protector he marched to ,london1 and was the chief instrument in the ,restoration of ,charles ,,ii1 who made him ,duke of ,albemarle4 ,john ,churchill1 better known as the ,duke of ,marlborough1 born at ,ashe ,house in #afej1 was not only the greatest general of his time1 but one of the ablest military commanders the world has ever seen4 ,his most memorable successes were the four great battles of ,blenheim1 ,ramillies1 ,oudenarde1 and ,malplaquet1 in which he defeated the long-victorious armies of ,louis ,,xiv1 then the most powerful monarch on the continent4 ,by this series of victories1 followed by the ,treaty of ,utrecht in #agac1 the peace of ,europe was secured for thirty years4 ,many great ,devonshire men1 including some of the earliest who became distinguished1 were churchmen or divines1 not a few of whom are also famous as authors4 ,such1 for example1 was ,winfrid1 otherwise ,saint ,boniface1 and known as the ,apostle of ,germany1 who1 born probably at ,crediton in #fhj1 began his career as a ,benedictine monk at ,exeter1 and after spending many years in converting the wild ,german tribes to ,christianity1 was appointed archbishop of ,mainz1 and was afterwards murdered by the ,frisians in #gee4 ,such were ,leofric1 the first bishop of ,exeter1 ,warelwast the builder of the ,norman cathedral1 ,quivil the designer of the magnificent fabric that replaced it1 ,stapledon and ,grandisson his able successors1 ,reynolds the leading ,puritan divine at the ,hampton ,court ,conference of #afjd1 whose proposal of a new translation of the ,bible led to the ,authorised ,version of #afaa1 ,trelawney1 one of the ,seven ,bishops whose trial and acquittal formed one of the most memorable events of the reign of ,james ,,ii1 ,jewel1 ,bishop of ,salisbury1 one of the fathers of ,english ,protestantism1 the ,judicious ,hooker1 author of the ,laws of ,ecclesiastical ,polity1 ,barclay1 who translated ,brant's satiric allegory under the title ,the ,shyp of ,folys1 ,prince1 author of the ,worthies of ,devon1 ,dean ,buckland the famous geologist1 author of ,reliquiae ,diluvianae1 who died in #ahef1 and ,charles ,kingsley1 born at ,holne in #ahai1 distinguished as an able and eloquent preacher and as a strenuous worker for the good of mankind1 as poet1 novelist1 and naturalist1 author of many books1 and especially of ,westward ,ho6 and the ,water ,babies1 and of the words of many beautiful songs1 such as the ,three ,fishers4 ,not a native of the county1 but ,bishop of ,exeter in #aeea1 was ,miles ,coverdale1 whose translation of the ,bible appeared in #aece4 ,to him many of the finest phrases in our ,authorised ,version of #afaa are directly due4 ,illustration3 ,charles ,kingsley ,the most distinguished of the many ,devonshire men of letters is ,coleridge1 poet and dreamer1 philosopher and critic1 who was born at ,ottery ,st ,mary in #aggb4 ,that1 however1 was his sole connection with the county4 ,it was chiefly during his three years' residence at ,nether ,stowey1 in ,somerset1 that the finest of his few masterpieces1 especially the ,ancient ,mariner and part of ,christabel1 were written4 ,amongst other authors who were born in ,devon may be named ,gay1 writer of plays1 fables1 and songs1 among them the ,beggars' ,opera and ,black-eyed ,susan2 ,ford the dramatist2 ,william ,browne1 the author of ,britannia's ,pastorals2 ,kitto1 the deaf compiler of ,biblical literature2 ,merivale the ,roman historian2 ,rowe and ,risdon1 each of whom wrote books on the county2 and ,froude the historian1 author of many books1 and especially of the ,history of ,england from the ,fall of ,wolsey to the ,defeat of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,herrick was not ,devonshire born1 but it was while he was vicar of ,dean ,prior1 between #afdg and #afgd1 that he wrote the ,hesperides1 among which are some of the best lyrics in the language4 ,dryden1 again1 was a frequent visitor at ,lord ,clifford's seat at ,ugbrooke1 and there is a tradition that he there finished his translation of ,virgil4 ,it was at ,lynton that ,shelley wrote part of ,queen ,mab4 ,keats finished ,endymion at ,teignmouth4 ,tennyson was often a guest of ,froude at ,salcombe1 and it is said that he had ,salcombe ,bar in mind when he wrote his last verses1 ,crossing the ,bar4 ,distinguished in other ways may be mentioned ,blundell1 the ,tiverton cloth-merchant1 who1 dying in #afja1 left money for the establishment of ,blundell's ,school2 ,bodley1 born at ,exeter in #aede1 founder of the ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford2 ,john ,baring1 founder of the great banking-house of ,baring ,brothers2 ,babbage1 the inventor of the calculating machine2 ,bidder1 the ,calculating ,boy1 son of a stone-mason of ,moreton ,hampstead2 ,cookworthy1 the originator of ,plymouth china2 and ,newcomen1 a ,dartmouth ironmonger1 whose improvement on the atmospheric steam-engine of ,savery1 also a ,devonshire man1 was used early in the eighteenth century for pumping water out of mines4 ,illustration3 ,blundell's ,school1 ,tiverton ,devonshire has been specially remarkable for its artists1 of whom the most distinguished were ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 the great portrait-painter1 born at ,plympton in #agbc2 ,cosway1 who painted exquisite miniatures2 ,samuel ,prout1 the famous architectural painter1 and ,skinner ,prout his nephew2 ,eastlake1 the great painter of figures1 and the author of books on art2 and ,hilliard the goldsmith of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,illustration3 ,samuel ,taylor ,coleridge ,two very famous ,devonshire houses are those of ,courtenay and ,carew4 ,there is said to be hardly a parish in all ,devon in which a ,courtenay did not hold land4 ,courtenays followed the ,king to many wars4 ,one tilted with ,francis ,i at the ,field of the ,cloth of ,gold4 ,three were at ,navarete with the ,black ,prince4 ,three died during the ,wars of the ,roses1 either in battle or on the scaffold4 ,of the house of ,carew1 one was at ,cressy and another at ,agincourt4 ,one was knighted on the field of ,bosworth1 one was at ,flodden1 and one1 while fighting the ,french1 was blown up with the ,mary ,rose4 #bf4 ,,the ,,chief ,,towns ,,and ,,villages ,,of ,,devonshire4 7,the figures in brackets after each name give the population of the parish in #aija1 from the official returns1 and those at the end of each paragraph are references to the pages in the text47 ,appledore 7#bfbe74 ,a small sea-port at the mouth of the ,torridge1 wrongly supposed1 through confusion with an ,appledore in ,kent1 to have been the landing-place of ,hubba the ,dane4 7pp4 #bg1 #fa1 #acj1 #aca47 ,ashburton 7#bfbh74 ,a market-town on the ,yeo1 eight miles south-west of ,newton ,abbot1 one of the ,stannary ,towns1 with some manufacture of cloth4 ,a good centre for ,dartmoor1 and with a fine church and other old buildings4 ,near it are ,holne ,chase and the ,buckland ,woods1 with very beautiful scenery4 7pp4 #df1 #aab1 #aah1 #abj1 #aea1 #agc1 #bab47 ,axminster 7#bijf74 ,close to the border of ,dorset1 high above the ,axe4 ,interesting for the history of its church1 founded in #gee1 and endowed by ,athelstan after his victory over the ,danes4 ,the manufacture of ,axminster carpets was discontinued here in #ahce4 7pp4 #aad1 #aej1 #aec1 #afh1 #agj1 #aii1 #bjf47 ,axmouth 7#fdc74 ,a pretty village in a combe in rugged chalk cliffs1 near the mouth of the ,axe4 ,the coast here has been much altered by landslips4 7pp4 #ff1 #aii47 ,bampton 7#afeg74 ,an old market-town1 near the border of ,somerset1 with a very large annual fair1 especially for the sale of sheep and ,exmoor ponies4 ,has also large limestone quarries4 7p4 #aia47 ,barnstaple 7#aa1iii74 ,the chief town of ,north ,devon1 nine miles from the mouth of the ,taw1 where the river widens into a tidal estuary4 ,it formerly had much trade with ,america1 but is now noted only for its pottery1 called ,barum ware4 ,the river is spanned by a famous stone bridge of #af arches1 dating from the thirteenth century4 7pp4 #hb1 #aja1 #aab1 #aad1 #acj1 #aca1 #aci1 #adi1 #agc1 #aib1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #baj1 #bab47 ,beer 7#aaah74 ,a fishing-village at the foot of a narrow1 deep valley near the ,dorset border1 noted for lace-making1 and for its very extensive subterranean quarries of fine building-stone4 7pp4 #fh1 #aab1 #aad1 #abc1 #afh1 #bjj47 ,bere ,alston4 ,a village eight miles north of ,plymouth1 close to the border of ,cornwall1 was formerly noted for its rich silver mine1 flooded by the ,tamar in #ahfj4 7p4 #aba47 ,berry ,pomeroy 7#dbc74 ,a village in the valley of the ,dart1 near ,totnes1 famous for its ruined castle1 the most picturesque ruin in ,devonshire4 7pp4 #ajj1 #agf1 #ahh47 ,bideford 7#hged7 is a market-town and river-port near the mouth of the ,torridge1 here crossed by a fine bridge1 built in the fifteenth century in place of the dangerous ford which gave its name to the town4 ,it was a very important place in ,armada days1 and formerly had great trade with ,newfoundland and other ,american colonies4 7pp4 #aad1 #abc1 #acj1 #aca1 #aid1 #bjd1 #bjg1 #baj47 ,bovey ,tracy 7#bfic71 six miles north-west of ,newton ,abbot1 is noted for beds of clay and lignite1 and for its potteries4 7pp4 #be1 #dj1 #aad1 #abb1 #abc47 ,brixham 7#hjib71 a sea-port with a good harbour1 a market-town1 and a very important fishing-station1 with many trawlers1 stands on ,berry ,head1 at the south end of ,torbay4 ,here ,william of ,orange landed in #afhh4 7pp4 #gc1 #aah1 #abh1 #acj1 #acb1 #aej1 #aed1 #aig47 ,buckfastleigh 7#bgha7 is a small town in the ,dart valley1 with woollen factories4 ,buckfast ,abbey1 a ,saxon foundation1 was restored and reinhabited by ,french ,benedictine monks in #ahhb4 7pp4 #aab1 #aga1 #ahd1 #bjj47 ,buckland ,abbey1 seven miles north of ,plymouth1 was in part converted into a dwelling-house by ,sir ,richard ,grenville1 and this was afterwards altered by ,sir ,francis ,drake1 of whom interesting relics are here preserved4 7pp4 #ed1 #ade1 #aff1 #ahd47 ,budleigh ,salterton 7#ahhc74 ,a small port and favourite watering-place1 beautifully situated five miles east of the mouth of the ,exe4 7pp4 #fi1 #abi1 #aii47 ,chagford 7#acig74 ,a small market-town1 high above the ,teign valley1 on the borders of ,dartmoor1 forming a good centre for tourists1 naturalists1 and archaeologists4 ,there are many ,bronze ,age antiquities in the neighbourhood4 7pp4 #be1 #abj1 #aia1 #bjd47 ,chudleigh 7#ahbj71 seven miles inland from ,dawlish1 contains the ruins of the palace of the ,bishop of ,exeter1 built in #ajhj4 ,ugbrooke1 often visited by ,dryden1 is a mile away4 7pp4 #abc1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bba47 ,chumleigh 7#aaeh71 is a village on high ground above the valley of the ,taw1 chiefly interesting for the history of the ,seven ,prebends of its church4 7pp4 #agb1 #aif1 #aig47 ,clovelly 7#fba74 ,a small but extraordinarily picturesque fishing-village1 consisting of one cobble-paved street1 running steeply up a narrow ravine through a densely-wooded hill-side4 ,near it is the ,hobby ,drive4 ,there is a fine camp on the hill above4 7pp4 #fb1 #fc1 #he1 #afa1 #agf47 ,illustration3 ,clovelly ,colyton 7#aidc7 is a small market-town1 beautifully situated in the ,coly valley1 near the border of ,dorset1 with a fine church4 7pp4 #aad1 #abb1 #aej1 #afh1 #aia47 ,combe ,martin 7#aeba71 a village on the coast six miles east of ,ilfracombe1 in a fertile valley1 was formerly noted for its very rich silver mine2 now for market-gardening4 7pp4 #ae1 #aba1 #aga1 #agb47 ,countisbury 7#bgi7 is a little village on the west side of the ,foreland1 close to the ,somerset border4 ,crediton 7#cigd71 a market-town with boot and shoe1 and cider factories1 stands above the valley of the ,creedy1 eight miles north-west of ,exeter1 whither the see of the ,bishopric was1 for greater safety1 moved from here by ,leofric1 in #ajej4 ,the very fine church1 of unusual length1 contains many monuments4 7pp4 #aab1 #aah1 #afh1 #agb1 #bjj1 #bai47 ,cullompton 7#biai7 is a market-town #ab miles north-east of ,exeter1 on the road from ,bristol4 ,the manor belonged to ,buckland ,abbey4 ,the ,walronds is a fine ,elizabethan mansion4 7pp4 #aab1 #aah1 #agb1 #agc47 ,dartington 7#dgh71 so-named when the tidal estuary of the ,dart ran close to it1 is now a suburb of ,totnes4 ,dartington ,hall is a very fine ,elizabethan house4 7pp4 #abi1 #aid47 ,dartmouth 7#fegi71 a market-town1 and favourite resort of yachtsmen1 and formerly a port of great importance1 at the narrow entrance of the ,dart estuary1 is a place of exceptional beauty and of great historic interest1 built in terraces on a steep1 wooded hill4 ,in the old town along the quay and in the ,butter-,walk are fine old ,elizabethan houses4 ,st ,saviour's1 one of its four churches1 dates from #acgb1 and has a splendid rood-screen and a very fine pulpit4 ,the land-locked harbour was guarded by two castles4 ,on a hill above the town is the great white building of the naval college1 which has superseded the old training-ship ,britannia4 7pp4 #bc1 #gd1 #ge1 #abi1 #acj1 #acb1 #adj1 #adg1 #agb1 #age1 #agf1 #aia1 #bjj1 #baj1 #bab1 #bah1 #bbb47 ,illustration3 ,dartmouth1 from ,warfleet ,dawlish 7#dbhg7 is a charming and highly popular watering-place with fine sands and beautiful red cliffs1 in a sheltered combe1 south of the estuary of the ,exe4 ,a pretty pleasure garden called the ,lawn1 with a stream through it1 divides the new town from the old4 7pp4 #fi1 #hj1 #abh47 ,devonport 7#gj1dcg7 is a parliamentary1 municipal1 and county borough1 on high ground above the estuary of the ,tamar1 two miles west-north-west of ,plymouth1 one of the chief naval arsenals in ,britain1 with government establishments--dockyards1 barracks1 magazines1 etc4--stretching nearly four miles along the ,hamoaze1 a great anchorage for men-of-war4 7pp4 #gi1 #aah1 #baj1 #bab47 ,drewsteignton 7#fgc71 a large village near the ,teign1 not far from which is the ,spinster's ,rock1 the only cromlech in ,devonshire4 7p4 #aed47 ,exeter 7#dg1ahe71 the capital of ,devonshire1 and long regarded as the ,key of the ,west of ,england1 is a picturesque old city1 standing on high ground above the ,exe1 which passes through the town4 ,it is a port1 with a large basin connected with the estuary of the ,exe by a canal4 ,a municipal1 county1 and parliamentary borough1 it has factories of agricultural implements and gloves1 and there are large nurseries round it4 ,of its castle of ,rougemont1 built by the ,conqueror in #ajfg1 little now remains4 ,but its magnificent cathedral1 which contains many most beautiful and interesting features1 is the finest example of the ,decorated style of architecture in ,england4 ,other interesting or important buildings are the ,deanery1 the ,house of the ,abbots of ,buckfast1 ,mol's ,coffee ,house1 the ,guildhall1 and the ,albert ,memorial ,museum4 ,the history of the town is of the highest interest1 and is linked with every event of importance connected with the county4 ,it has been besieged in turn by ,danes and ,normans and ,saxons1 by ,king ,stephen1 by the army of ,perkin ,warbeck1 and the rebels of the ,commotion1 by the ,yorkists1 and by ,royalists and ,parliamentarians4 ,many distinguished ,bishops have held the see2 and noteworthy names of those who have been born in the city are those of the ,judicious ,hooker1 ,sir ,thomas ,bodley1 and the ,princess ,henrietta1 daughter of ,charles ,i1 and afterwards ,duchess of ,orleans4 7pp4 #bb1 #aja1 #aab1 #aah1 #acb1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #afj1 #afc1 #afd1 #afh1 #agj1 #aga1 #age1 #agf1 #agh1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahg1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig1 #bjj1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bje1 #baj1 #bab1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbb47 ,exminster 7#beej71 a village on the west bank of the ,exe1 where is a large asylum4 ,exmouth 7#aj1dhe71 once a sea-port1 is a rapidly growing and very popular watering-place1 with docks and brick-works1 at the entrance of the estuary of the ,exe1 here narrowed to a swift current by the sand-bank called the ,warren4 7pp4 #bb1 #hb1 #if1 #abi1 #acb1 #aia1 #bjf47 ,haccombe 7#i71 the smallest parish in ,england1 contains the residence1 not always occupied1 of the ,carew family1 and three other houses4 ,in the tiny church1 the rector of which is an arch-priest1 are many memorials4 7pp4 #aga1 #agf1 #bji47 ,hartland 7#afcd71 a small town in a very large but thinly-inhabited parish1 stands on the west side of ,hartland ,point4 ,in the church1 whose lofty tower serves as a steering-mark for ships in the ,bristol ,channel1 is one of the longest rood-screens in ,devon1 and also a good ,norman font and door4 7pp4 #fd1 #aej1 #agj1 #agb1 #agc1 #age1 #ahd47 ,holbeton 7#hej7 stands on the ,erme estuary1 ten miles from ,plymouth4 ,its fine church contains a magnificent rood-screen and a ,norman font4 7pp4 #age1 #aif47 ,holcombe ,rogus 7#fjg71 on the ,somerset border1 south-west of ,wellington1 contains a church in which are many monuments of the ,bluett family1 who formerly owned ,holcombe ,rogus ,court1 the finest ,tudor mansion in the county4 7p4 #aie47 ,holne 7#bgc71 a small village in the beautifully-wooded valley of the ,upper ,dart1 was the birth-place of ,charles ,kingsley4 ,the church has a fine screen and pulpit4 7pp4 #bc1 #afj1 #age1 #bbj47 ,holsworthy 7#acga71 is an important market near the border of ,cornwall1 ten miles inland from ,bude4 ,the very ancient horse-fair of ,st ,peter is held here in ,july4 ,honiton 7#cbga71 a municipal borough on the ,london and ,exeter road1 #af miles from the latter town1 gives its name to the lace which was first made here by ,flemish refugees4 ,st ,margaret's ,hospital for ,lepers has been converted into almshouses4 ,four miles away is ,hembury fort1 one of the finest camps in ,devon4 7pp4 #aab1 #ach1 #afa1 #age1 #baj1 #bab47 ,ilfracombe 7#heeg71 a small sea-port and very popular watering-place on the north coast1 having a land-locked harbour sheltered by the ,capstone ,hill1 and with the ,chapel of ,st ,nicholas1 now a lighthouse1 at the entrance of it1 is celebrated for the exceptional mildness of its climate4 7pp4 #eh1 #id1 #acj1 #aca1 #aej1 #aea1 #agj1 #bjf47 ,instow 7#fcd71 a small but very ancient port1 at the point where the ,taw and the ,torridge meet1 has weekly communication with ,lundy4 7pp4 #bg1 #fa47 ,kenton 7#afab71 a very picturesque village1 inland from ,starcross1 with a fine church of red sandstone1 whose rood-screen1 partly ,flemish1 is one of the best in ,england1 and its oaken pulpit perhaps the finest in ,devon4 7pp4 #agb1 #agd1 #age47 ,kingsbridge 7#cjbe with ,dodbrooke7 is a small but important market-town at the head of the ,kingsbridge estuary1 which is really a tidal creek without a river1 in the extreme south of the county4 ,it is one of the chief places in the fertile district called the ,south ,hams4 7pp4 #af1 #ej1 #ed1 #aah1 #abb1 #aic47 ,kingswear 7#hda7 is a picturesque village opposite ,dartmouth1 which is reached from it by a steam-ferry4 ,near the old castle1 now modernised1 but said to date from ,john's reign1 are the remains of a guard-house from which a chain was stretched across the river to ,dartmouth ,castle1 to guard the estuary4 7pp4 #gd1 #aia47 ,lydford 7#bhab71 a small village in the largest parish in ,england1 including a great part of ,dartmoor1 was once second in importance to ,exeter1 a ,stannary ,town1 and the seat of the ,stannary prison4 ,there is a ruined ,norman castle4 ,lydford ,gorge1 spanned by a single-arched stone bridge1 is one of the most beautiful spots in ,devon4 7pp4 #ad1 #abj1 #ach1 #aci1 #aij1 #bjd1 #bjg1 #bji47 ,illustration3 ,cherry ,bridge1 near ,lynmouth ,lynton 7#afda7 and ,lynmouth 7#djb7 are two villages in the parish of ,lynton1 on the north coast1 the latter on the shore1 and the former #dej feet above it1 famous for their very beautiful scenery1 especially along the river ,lyn--where one of the finest spots is at the ,watersmeet--and in the wild ravine called the ,valley of ,rocks4 7pp4 #af1 #eg1 #hb1 #abg1 #aej1 #bba47 ,illustration3 ,lynmouth ,harbour ,modbury 7#abdb7 is a small market-town #ab miles south-east of ,plymouth1 once the principal residence of the ,champernownes1 who made it famous as a musical centre in ,tudor times4 ,moreton ,hampstead 7#aeda71 a picturesque little town on the eastern border of ,dartmoor1 with an important cattle-market4 7pp4 #aea1 #bbb47 ,mortehoe 7#ghh71 a small but growing watering-place near ,ilfracombe1 with an interesting church1 and not far from ,woollacombe ,sands and the dangerous headland of ,morte ,point4 7pp4 #fj1 #agc47 ,newton ,abbot 7#af1iea71 in very beautiful country six miles from ,torquay1 has large markets for cattle and for dairy-produce1 and wharves on the ,teign for trade in timber and coal4 ,the parish church has fine screens and many monuments4 ,both ,charles ,i and the ,prince of ,orange were entertained here at ,forde ,house4 7pp4 #bf1 #afa1 #aie1 #aig1 #bjc1 #bje47 ,illustration3 ,ogwell ,mill1 near ,newton ,abbot ,okehampton 7#befi71 on the north-west edge of ,dartmoor1 has large markets for cattle and agricultural produce4 ,in the neighbourhood are the very picturesque ruins of a ,norman castle and other attractions both for antiquarians and naturalists4 7pp4 #adj1 #aea1 #ahh1 #baj47 ,ottery ,st ,mary 7#cdie71 a market-town south-east of ,exeter1 in the beautiful valley of the ,otter1 is famous for its noble church1 the finest in ,devonshire1 and containing many very interesting and beautiful features1 and also as being the birth-place of the poet ,coleridge4 7pp4 #agj1 #aga1 #agc1 #agf1 #agh1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bba47 ,paignton 7#hche71 a rapidly-growing watering-place on ,torbay1 with a fine situation1 a bracing climate1 and good sands 7pp4 #gc1 #age1 #agf47 ,plymouth 7#ajg1fcf71 very finely situated at the mouth of the river ,plym1 at the head of ,plymouth ,sound1 a parliamentary1 municipal1 and county borough1 the chief seat of trade1 commerce1 and manufactures in ,devonshire1 is one of the most famous seaports in the kingdom4 ,described in ,domesday ,book as ,sutton1 and occasionally known as ,plymouth as early as the fourteenth century1 it did not definitely receive its present name until the reign of ,henry ,,vi4 ,its spacious docks1 ,millbay1 the graving-dock and the floating basin1 can accommodate the largest merchant-ships4 ,in ,sutton ,pool and the ,catwater1 in the ,hamoaze--the estuary of the ,tamar1 the ,lynher and the ,tavy--and at the head of the ,sound1 in the shelter of the breakwater1 a very large number of vessels find safe and convenient anchorage4 ,at its numerous quays1 connected with the ,great ,western ,railway1 to which company the docks belong1 are landed passengers and mails from the ,united ,states1 from ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 from the ,west ,coast of ,africa and the ,cape1 from ,india and the ,east1 as well as merchandise from all parts of the world1 especially from ,france4 ,next to ,newlyn1 it is the most important fishing-station on the south coast of ,england4 ,further details will be found in the chapters on shipping and fisheries4 ,two of its most remarkable monuments1 both on the ,hoe1 are a copy of ,boehm's fine statue of ,drake1 and part of the old ,eddystone lighthouse1 re-erected as a memorial to ,smeaton4 ,plymouth has had a stirring history4 ,in mediaeval times1 especially in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 it suffered much from the attacks of the ,french1 who1 in #adjc1 under du ,chastel1 are said to have burnt #fjj houses4 ,its most important periods are those connected with the defeat of the ,armada1 with the ,civil ,war1 and with the ,french war that ended with the battle of ,waterloo4 ,it was in the ,catwater that the ,english fleet lay at anchor1 while ,drake and his fellow-captains waited on the ,hoe1 the famous ridge between ,millbay and ,sutton ,pool1 until the ,spanish ships had passed4 ,more or less closely blockaded from #afdb to #afdf by the ,royal forces1 and many times desperately assailed1 ,plymouth was the one town in the whole west of ,england that was never lost to the ,parliament4 ,in the ,napoleonic war the town was the scene of great activity1 fitting out many naval expeditions against the ,french1 and receiving many captured ships4 ,many famous names are associated with the town4 ,it was from here that the ,black ,prince set out for ,france and the victory of ,agincourt4 ,here1 in #adgj1 landed the ,duke of ,clarence1 in the hope of enlisting recruits for the ,lancastrian army4 ,here1 too1 came ,margaret herself1 with ,prince ,edward1 just before the final overthrow at ,tewkesbury4 ,it was at ,plymouth that the ,princess of ,aragon landed1 on her way to marry ,prince ,arthur4 ,from ,plymouth sailed ,drake and ,hawkyns on their filibustering expeditions1 and to this port they came back loaded with ,spanish gold4 ,here1 too1 came ,drake1 after his voyage round the world4 ,from here ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert set out on his last voyage1 and from here sailed ,captain ,cook4 ,in the streets and on the quays of ,plymouth ,benbow and ,rodney1 ,howe and ,jervis1 ,collingwood and ,nelson1 were1 in their time1 familiar figures4 7pp4 #dh1 #gh1 #gi1 #hb1 #hc1 #hf1 #aja1 #aad1 #abc1 #abh1 #acj1 #aca1 #acb1 #acd1 #acf1 #adj1 #adb1 #add1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #aea1 #aec1 #aei1 #afj1 #aii1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #baj1 #bab1 #bae1 #bag1 #bbb47 ,plympton 7#died71 a parish north of ,plymouth1 comprising two separate villages which grew up round the castle and the priory4 ,until the fifteenth century the ,prior of ,plympton controlled the affairs of ,plymouth4 7pp4 #ajh1 #aad1 #agb1 #ahc1 #aij1 #bab1 #bbc47 ,plymstock 7#caie71 a parish to the east of ,plymouth1 with large quarries1 and with extensive fortifications for the protection of the harbour4 ,powderham 7#bcc71 a village on the west side of the estuary of the ,exe1 where1 in a very beautiful park1 stands ,powderham ,castle1 chief seat of the ,courtenays1 ,earls of ,devon4 7pp4 #ahg1 #aib47 ,princetown1 in the western part of ,dartmoor1 is the site of a famous convict prison1 originally built1 in #ahji1 for the reception of ,french prisoners of war4 ,the convicts have brought much land into cultivation1 and there are also large granite quarries in the neighbourhood4 7pp4 #if1 #aea1 #aee1 #bje47 ,salcombe 7#agaj71 a small port at the mouth of the ,kingsbridge estuary1 with an exceptionally mild climate1 and with other attractions as a watering-place4 7pp4 #hb1 #acb1 #adi1 #aia1 #bbb47 ,seaton 7#acbe71 a pleasant watering-place near the mouth of the ,axe1 in the chalk cliffs1 close to ,dorset4 7pp4 #ff1 #hj1 #aad47 ,shute 7#dfa71 a scattered parish1 containing the former seat of the ,de la ,poles1 has many monuments to them in its church4 ,illustration3 ,shute ,manor ,house ,sidmouth 7#dbja71 a fashionable watering-place1 very pleasantly situated at the mouth of the ,sid1 between ,exmouth and the border of ,dorset4 ,its equable climate is perhaps its chief attraction1 but it was an important harbour before its sheltering cliffs were destroyed by landslips4 ,queen ,victoria spent some years of her childhood here4 7pp4 #fh1 #hj1 #acj1 #afc47 ,south ,molton 7#bhdh71 a very ancient market-town in the south of ,exmoor1 has corn-mills and a very fine church-tower4 7pp4 #agb1 #bab47 ,tavistock 7#dgbh71 close to the border of ,cornwall1 with the ruins of a great abbey1 round which the town grew up1 was formerly very famous as a mining-centre1 and was one of the ,stannary ,towns4 ,sir ,francis ,drake was born here1 and the statue of him by ,boehm1 of which there is a copy on ,plymouth ,hoe1 is one of that sculptor's finest works4 7pp4 #aab1 #aah1 #abj1 #abb1 #ach1 #aea1 #aga1 #ahc1 #aig1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bab1 #bac47 ,teignmouth 7#gcff71 an ancient sea-port1 a modern and very popular watering-place and a market-town at the mouth of the ,teign1 has a good harbour1 sheltered by the ,den1 once a mere sandbank1 but now a promenade and pleasure-garden4 ,the wooden bridge over the river is one of the longest in ,england4 7pp4 #bf1 #fi1 #ga1 #abi1 #acb1 #adj1 #aej1 #bjg1 #bba47 ,tiverton 7#aj1chb71 an old market-town where the ,loman joins the ,exe--hence the name1 ,two-ford-town--was formerly noted for its woollen trade1 but now for its lace-factory4 ,the church contains many interesting monuments4 7pp4 #aaa1 #aad1 #adf1 #afc1 #aff1 #agb1 #agf1 #aij1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bje1 #baj1 #bab1 #bbb47 ,illustration3 ,tiverton ,bridge ,topsham 7#bgij71 once a famous port1 is now a market-town and fishing station on the estuary of the ,exe4 7pp4 #bb1 #acj1 #acb47 ,torcross1 a small fishing-village and watering-place at the south end of the ,slapton ,sands4 ,the bay being very exposed1 the fishermen train ,newfoundland dogs to swim out to boats in rough weather1 and take the painter ashore4 7p4 #abi47 ,torquay 7#cc1fbe71 one of the best-known towns in ,devon1 is a large and fashionable watering-place1 very celebrated for its mild and equable climate1 standing on the south slopes of the northern headland of ,torbay4 ,from the well-sheltered little harbour the town rises in a semicircle1 so protected from rough winds that palms1 myrtles1 aloes1 agaves and other sub-tropical trees flourish here freely in the open air4 ,near the town is ,kent's ,cavern1 in which have been discovered many most interesting remains of extinct animals and of pre-historic man4 7pp4 #aa1 #gc1 #id1 #ie1 #abc1 #abg1 #abh1 #acb1 #aea1 #aec1 #ahh1 #baj1 #bab47 ,torrington 7#cbda71 a market-town on the ,torridge1 south of ,bideford1 with important fairs and cattle-shows1 and with factories of gloves4 ,the storming of ,torrington by ,fairfax in ,february1 #afdf1 was the death-blow to the cause of ,king ,charles1 and practically ended the ,civil ,war in ,devonshire4 7pp4 #aah1 #adh1 #adi1 #aia1 #baj1 #bah47 ,totnes 7#djce71 one of the oldest municipal boroughs in ,england1 at the head of the navigable portion of the river ,dart1 is one of the chief market-towns of the ,south ,hams1 with a ruined castle and other remains of fortification1 some picturesque old houses1 a fine church with a specially good stone rood-screen1 and a granite obelisk in memory of the ,australian explorer ,wills1 who was born here4 7pp4 #bc1 #aab1 #aci1 #age1 #ahh1 #aia1 #aid1 #baj1 #bab47 ,westward ,ho6 a watering-place on ,northam ,burrows on the shore of ,barnstaple ,bay1 with a good climate1 and with many attractions for the marine zoologist1 was named in honour of ,kingsley's great romance4 7pp4 #fb47 ,widecombe-in-the-,moor 7#feg71 a village in the centre of ,dartmoor1 with an annual fair for the sale of sheep and ponies1 with many very interesting prehistoric remains in the neighbourhood1 and a very fine church tower4 7pp4 #afg1 #agc47 ,illustration3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,england ,wales #cg1cbg1dgi acres ------ ,devon ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,fig4 #a4 ,the ,area of the ,ancient ,geographical ,county of ,devon 7#a1ffg1aed acres71 compared with that of ,england and ,wales ,illustration3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,england ,wales ,population #cb1ebg1hdc ----- ,devon ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,fig4 #b4 ,the ,population of ,devon 7#ffa1cad7 compared with that of ,england and ,wales 7in #aija7 ,illustration3 ,lancashire #bcdg ,england and ,wales #eeh ,devonshire #bed ,fig4 #c4 ,comparative ,density of ,population to ,square ,mile in #aija 7,each square represents a square mile7 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,proportionate ,area under ,corn ,crops in ,devon in #aijh ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,proportionate ,area of chief ,cereals in ,devon in #aijh ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,proportion of ,perennial ,pasture to other ,areas in ,devon in #aijh ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,proportionate numbers of chief ,live-stock in ,devon in #aijh ,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press4 ,illustration3 ,geological ,map of ,devon