,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text enclosed in equal signs is in bold 7#cej74 ,small capital text has been replaced with all capitals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,animals ,,enter ,,the ,,ark4 ,,frontispiece--,,story ,,of ,,the ,,bible ,,animals4 ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,bible ,,animals ,a ,description of the ,habits and ,uses of every living ,creature mentioned in the ,scriptures1 ,,with ,,explanation ,,of ,,passages ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,testament ,,in ,,which ,,reference ,,is ,,made ,,to ,,them4 ,,by ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,,author ,,of ,,homes ,,without ,,hands1 ,,the ,,illustrated ,,natural ,,history1 ,,etc4 #cjj ,,illustrations4 ,,published ,,at ,,the ,,office ,,of ,,charles ,,foster',s ,,publications1 ,no4 #aah ,south ,seventh ,street1 ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,illustration3 ,,war-,,horses ,,and ,,ancient ,,egyptian ,,chariot4 ,see page #cjg4 ,,copyright1 #ahhh1 ,,by ,w4 ,a4 ,,foster4 ,,preface4 ,owing to the different conditions of time1 language1 country1 and race under which the various books of the ,holy ,scriptures were written1 it is impossible that they should be rightly understood at the present day without some study of the customs and manners of ,eastern peoples1 as well as of the countries in which they lived4 ,the ,oriental character of the scriptural writings causes them to abound with metaphors and symbols taken from the common life of the time4 ,they contain allusions to the trees1 flowers1 and herbage1 the creeping things of the earth1 the fishes of the sea1 the birds of the air1 and the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the deserts and forests4 ,unless1 therefore1 we understand these writings as those understood them for whom they were written1 it is evident that we shall misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them4 ,the field which is laid open to us is so large that only one department of ,natural ,history--namely1 ,zoology--can be treated in this work1 although it is illustrated by many references to other branches of ,natural ,history1 to the physical geography of ,palestine1 ,egypt1 and ,syria1 the race-character of the inhabitants1 and historical parallels4 ,the importance of understanding the nature1 habits1 and uses of the animals which are constantly mentioned in the ,bible1 cannot be overrated as a means of elucidating the ,scriptures1 and without this knowledge we shall not only miss the point of innumerable passages of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 but the words of our ,lord ,himself will often be totally misinterpreted1 or at least lose part of their significance4 ,the object of the present work is therefore1 to take in its proper succession1 every creature whose name is given in the ,scriptures1 and to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to understand all the passages in which it is mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,shepherd ,,leading ,,sheep ,,and ,,goats ,,to ,,their ,,fold ,,in ,,the ,,rock4 ,see page #aia4 ,,the ,,author4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood is a native of ,london1 ,england4 ,he was educated at ,oxford ,university1 and has long been known1 both in ,england and ,america1 as not only a learned and accurate writer on ,natural ,history1 but a popular one as well1 having the happy faculty of making the results of scientific study and painstaking observation1 interesting and instructive to all classes of readers4 ,he has published a number of works on the most familiar departments of the history of animals1 designed to awaken popular interest in the study4 ,their titles are ,sketches and ,anecdotes of ,animal ,life2 ,common ,objects of the ,seashore and ,country2 ,my ,feathered ,friends2 ,homes ,without ,hands--being a description of the habitations of animals1--and the ,illustrated ,natural ,history1 a book which is widely known both in ,england and ,america as a standard work of great value4 ,it has given the author celebrity1 and has caused him to be considered an eminent authority on the subject which it treats4 ,it is evident1 from these facts1 that it would be difficult to find a man better qualified than ,mr4 ,wood1 to write a book describing the animals mentioned in the ,bible4 ,profoundly impressed with the ignorance which prevails towards so important a feature of the ,scriptural ,narrative1 he has devoted his ripe powers and special knowledge to the work of dissipating it1 and in this volume1 not only fully describes the nature and habits of all the animals mentioned in the ,scriptures1 but tells the story of their relations to mankind4 ,mr4 ,wood is a clergyman of the ,church of ,england1 and was for a time connected with ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,he has devoted himself mainly1 however1 to authorship in the field which he has chosen1 and in which he has become so well known4 ,in his works he usually employs a popular style of writing1 and does not make scientific terms prominent4 ,this is especially true of the ,story of the ,bible ,animals1 which from its easy and interesting character is adapted to the comprehension of young and old4 ,illutration3 animals ,many of the pictures in this book are taken from the living animals1 or from photographs and sketches by ,eastern travellers4 ,others represent imaginary scenes1 or ancient historical events1 and have been designed by skilful artists after careful study of the subjects4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,a complete ,index of ,subjects will be found at the end of this ,volume4 ,,no4 ,,page #a4 ,,the ,,animals ,,enter ,,the ,,ark #b #b4 ,,war-,,horses ,,and ,,ancient ,,egyptian ,,chariot #d #c4 ,,shepherd ,,leading ,,sheep ,,and ,,goats ,,to ,,their ,,fold ,,in ,,the ,,rock #f #d4 ,a ,,desert-,,scene #h #e4 ,,the ,,garden ,,of ,,eden #ai #f4 ,,lion ,,drinking ,,at ,a ,,pool #ba #g4 ,a ,,lion ,,kills ,,the ,,prophet ,,from ,,judah #bb #h4 ,,lion ,,and ,,tiger #bc #i4 ,,the ,,lion ,,replies ,,to ,,the ,,thunder #be #aj4 ,,lioness ,,and ,,young #bg #aa4 ,,lion ,,carrying ,,home ,,supplies #ca #ab4 ,,african ,,lions #cb #ac4 ,,the ,,lion ,,attacks ,,the ,,herd #cd #ad4 ,,the ,,lair ,,of ,,the ,,lion #ce #ae4 ,,the ,,lion ,,listens ,,to ,,the ,,approach ,,of ,,the ,,hunter #ci #af4 ,,the ,,leopard #dc #ag4 ,,leopard ,,attacking ,a ,,herd ,,of ,,deer #de #ah4 ,,the ,,leopard ,,leaps ,,upon ,,his ,,prey #dg #ai4 ,,waiting #di #bj4 ,,leopard #ea #ba4 ,,cat ,,and ,,kittens #eb #bb4 ,,cat #ed #bc4 ,,dogs ,,in ,,an ,,eastern ,,city ,,at ,,night #eg #bd4 ,,shimei ,,exulting ,,over ,,king ,,david #ei #be4 ,,lazarus ,,lying ,,at ,,the ,,rich ,,man',s ,,door #fb #bf4 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,jezebel #fc #bg4 ,,syrian ,,dog #fd #bh4 ,,eastern ,,water-,,seller #fh #bi4 ,,wolves ,,attacking ,a ,,flock ,,of ,,sheep #gj #cj4 ,,wolves ,,chasing ,,deer #gb #ca4 ,,the ,,wolf #gc #cb4 ,,wolves ,,attacking ,,wild ,,goats #ge #cc4 ,,the ,,jackal #gf #cd4 ,,foxes ,,or ,,jackals ,,devouring ,,the ,,carcase ,,of ,a ,,goat #gg #ce4 ,a ,,feast ,,in ,,prospect #gi #cf4 ,a ,,feast ,,secured #ha #cg4 ,a ,,trespasser #hc #ch4 ,,leopard ,,robbed ,,of ,,its ,,prey ,,by ,,hy,,nas #hg #ci4 ,,hy,,nas ,,devouring ,,bones #hi #dj4 ,,weasels #ic #da4 ,,the ,,biter ,,bit #ie #db4 ,,badgers #ii #dc4 ,,supposed ,,form ,,and ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,tabernacle #aja #dd4 ,,bears ,,descending ,,the ,,mountains #aje #de4 ,,on ,,the ,,watch #ajg #df4 ,,seeking ,,an ,,outlook #aji #dg4 ,a ,,family ,,party #aaa #dh4 ,,bear #aab #di4 ,,porcupine #aac #ej4 ,,the ,,mole-,,rat #aae #ea4 ,,the ,,mouse #aai #eb4 ,,dagon ,,fallen ,,down ,,before ,,the ,,ark #abj #ec4 ,,mouse ,,and ,,nest #aba #ed4 ,,jerboa ,,or ,,leaping-,,mouse #abb #ee4 ,,the ,,field-,,mouse #abc #ef4 ,,the ,,syrian ,,hare #abg #eg4 ,a ,,timid ,,group #abi #eh4 ,,altar ,,of ,,burnt-,,offering #acc #ei4 ,,the ,,prodigal ,,son ,,returns #acd #fj4 ,,abraham ,,offers ,,food ,,to ,,the ,,three ,,strangers #ace #fa4 ,,oxen ,,treading ,,out ,,grain #aci #fb4 ,,eastern ,,ox-,,cart #adj #fc4 ,,the ,,ark ,,of ,,the ,,covenant ,,being ,,drawn ,,by ,,cows #ada #fd4 ,,ploughing ,,with ,,oxen #adc #fe4 ,,mummy ,,of ,a ,,sacred ,,bull ,,taken ,,from ,,an ,,egyptian ,,tomb #adf #ff4 ,,animals ,,being ,,sold ,,for ,,sacrifice ,,in ,,the ,,porch ,,of ,,the ,,temple #adg #fg4 ,,jeroboam ,,sets ,,up ,a ,,golden ,,calf ,,at ,,bethel #adh #fh4 ,,the ,,buffalo #adi #fi4 ,,the ,,bhainsa1 ,,or ,,domestic ,,buffalo1 ,,and ,,camel ,,drawing ,,the ,,plough #aea #gj4 ,,wild ,,bull ,,or ,,oryx #aee #ga4 ,,the ,,oryx #aeg #gb4 ,,the ,,unicorn #aeh #gc4 ,,the ,,bison #afj #gd4 ,,bison ,,killing ,,wolf #afa #ge4 ,,the ,,gazelle ,,or ,,roe ,,of ,,scripture #afc #gf4 ,,gazelles #afd #gg4 ,,the ,,falcon ,,used ,,in ,,our ,,hunt #afh #gh4 ,,the ,,arab ,,is ,,delighted ,,at ,,the ,,success ,,of ,,the ,,hunt #afi #gi4 ,,the ,,gazelle #agj #hj4 ,,the ,,addax #agb #ha4 ,,the ,,bubale ,,or ,,fallow ,,deer ,,of ,,scripture #age #hb4 ,,sheep #agf #hc4 ,,arabs ,,journeying ,,to ,,fresh ,,pastures #agh #hd4 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,pyramids #agi #he4 ,,jacob ,,meets ,,rachel ,,at ,,the ,,well #ahb #hf4 ,,eastern ,,shepherd ,,watching ,,his ,,flock #ahc #hg4 ,,david ,,gathers ,,stones ,,from ,,the ,,brook ,,to ,,cast ,,at ,,goliath #ahe #hh4 ,,an ,,eastern ,,shepherd #ahf #hi4 ,,sheep ,,following ,,their ,,shepherd #ahg #ij4 ,,ancient ,,sheep-,,pen #aij #ia4 ,,the ,,poor ,,man',s ,,lamb #aic #ib4 ,,the ,,rich ,,man',s ,,feast #aic #ic4 ,,flocks ,,of ,,sheep ,,being ,,taken ,,into ,,jerusalem #aie #id4 ,,sounding ,,the ,,trumpets ,,in ,,the ,,year ,,of ,,jubilee #bjb #ie4 ,,ram',s ,,horn ,,trumpet #bjc #if4 ,a ,,lamb ,,upon ,,the ,,altar ,,of ,,burnt ,,offering #bjd #ig4 ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,sacrifice #bjf #ih4 ,,the ,,chamois #baa #ii4 ,,chamois ,,defending ,,its ,,young #bac #ajj4 ,,chasing ,,the ,,aoudad #bad #aja4 ,,the ,,mouflon #baf #ajb4 ,,jacob ,,deceives ,,his ,,father ,,and ,,takes ,,esau',s ,,blessing #bah #ajc4 ,,the ,,angel ,,appears ,,to ,,gideon #bai #ajd4 ,,eastern ,,water-,,carriers ,,with ,,bottles ,,made ,,of ,,goat-,,skin #bbd #aje4 ,,goats ,,on ,,the ,,march #bbh #ajf4 ,,herd ,,of ,,goats ,,attacked ,,by ,a ,,lion #bca #ajg4 ,,arabian ,,ibex1 ,,the ,,wild ,,goat ,,of ,,scripture #bcf #ajh4 ,,the ,,deer #bch #aji4 ,,red ,,deer #bci #aaj4 ,,fallow ,,deer ,,or ,,hind ,,of ,,scripture #bdj #aaa4 ,a ,,quiet ,,spot #bda #aab4 ,,red ,,deer ,,and ,,fawn #bdc #aac4 ,,the ,,leader ,,of ,,the ,,herd #bde #aad4 ,,the ,,watchful ,,doe #bdg #aae4 ,a ,,kneeling ,,camel #bdh #aaf4 ,,jacob ,,leaves ,,laban ,,and ,,returns ,,to ,,canaan #bdi #aag4 ,a ,,camp ,,in ,,the ,,desert #bej #aah4 ,a ,,grateful ,,shade #bec #aai4 ,,camels ,,laden ,,with ,,boughs #beg #abj4 ,,morning ,,in ,,the ,,desert3 ,,starting ,,of ,,the ,,caravan #beh #aba4 ,,the ,,camel ,,post #bfa #abb4 ,a ,,runaway #bfc #abc4 ,,an ,,arab ,,sheik ,,mounted ,,upon ,,his ,,camel #bfd #abd4 ,,aaron',s ,,rod ,,bears ,,almonds #bff #abe4 ,,camel ,,riding #bfg #abf4 ,,the ,,deloul1 ,,or ,,swift ,,camel #bfh #abg4 ,,another ,,mode ,,of ,,riding ,,the ,,camel #bgj #abh4 ,,passing ,a ,,camel ,,in ,a ,,narrow ,,street ,,of ,,an ,,eastern ,,city #bgg #abi4 ,,moses ,,at ,,the ,,burning ,,bush #bgh #acj4 ,,an ,,arab ,,encampment #bgi #aca4 ,,on ,,the ,,march #bha #acb4 ,,hair ,,of ,,the ,,camel #bhc #acc4 ,,camel ,,going ,,through ,a ,,needle',s ,,eye #bhe #acd4 ,a ,,rest ,,in ,,the ,,desert #bhg #ace4 ,,bactrian ,,camels ,,drawing ,,cart #bhi #acf4 ,,trial ,,of ,,arab ,,horses #bib #acg4 ,,an ,,arab ,,horse ,,of ,,the ,,kochlani ,,breed #bic #ach4 ,,the ,,war-,,horse #bie #aci4 ,,arab ,,horses #big #adj4 ,,buying ,,an ,,arab ,,horse #bii #ada4 ,,the ,,arab',s ,,favorite ,,steeds #cja #adb4 ,,pharaoh ,,pursues ,,the ,,israelites ,,with ,,chariots ,,and ,,horses1 ,,and ,,the ,,sea ,,covers ,,them #cjb #adc4 ,,elijah ,,is ,,carried ,,up #cjd #add4 ,,the ,,israelites1 ,,led ,,by ,,joshua1 ,,take ,,jericho #cjh #ade4 ,,ancient ,,battlefield #cji #adf4 ,,chariot ,,of ,,state #caa #adg4 ,,ancient ,,egyptian ,,sculpture ,,representing ,a ,,victorious ,,king ,,in ,,his ,,chariot ,,slaying ,,his ,,enemies #cac #adh4 ,,mummy ,,of ,,an ,,egyptian ,,king ,,over ,,three ,,thousand ,,years ,,old #cad #adi4 ,,ass ,,and ,,driver #cae #aej4 ,,entering ,,jerusalem #cag #aea4 ,,syrian ,,asses #cai #aeb4 ,a ,,street ,,in ,,cairo1 ,,egypt #cbb #aec4 ,,beggar ,,in ,,the ,,streets ,,of ,,cairo #cbd #aed4 ,,night-,,watch ,,in ,,cairo #cbe #aee4 ,,hunting ,,wild ,,asses #cca #aef4 ,,mules ,,of ,,the ,,east #ccd #aeg4 ,,absalom ,,is ,,caught ,,in ,,the ,,boughs ,,of ,,an ,,oak ,,tree #cce #aeh4 ,,daniel ,,refuses ,,to ,,eat ,,the ,,king',s ,,meat #ccg #aei4 ,,the ,,prodigal ,,son #cdj #afj4 ,,eleazar ,,refuses ,,to ,,eat ,,swine',s ,,flesh #cda #afa4 ,a ,,mother ,,and ,,her ,,seven ,,sons ,,tortured ,,for ,,refusing ,,to ,,eat ,,swine',s ,,flesh #cdb #afb4 ,,the ,,evil ,,spirits ,,enter ,a ,,herd ,,or ,,swine #cdc #afc4 ,,wild ,,boars ,,devouring ,,the ,,carcase ,,of ,a ,,deer #cdd #afd4 ,,wild ,,boars #cde #afe4 ,,wild ,,boars ,,destroying ,a ,,vineyard #cdg #aff4 ,,indian ,,elephant #cdi #afg4 ,,king ,,solomon1 ,,seated ,,upon ,,his ,,throne1 ,,receives ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,sheba #cej #afh4 ,,indian ,,elephants #cea #afi4 ,,the ,,war-,,elephant #cee #agj4 ,,african ,,elephants #cei #aga4 ,,elephants' ,,watering-,,place #cfa #agb4 ,,tiger #cfc #agc4 ,,tiger ,,in ,,the ,,reeds #cfd #agd4 ,,head ,,of ,,tiger #cfe #age4 ,,the ,,hyrax #cfg #agf4 ,,hippopotamus #cgb #agg4 ,,hippopotamus ,,pool #cge #agh4 ,,the ,,great ,,jaws ,,of ,,the ,,hippopotamus #cgf #agi4 ,,hippopotamus ,,emerging ,,from ,,the ,,river #cgg #ahj4 ,,hippopotamus ,,eating ,,grass #cgi #aha4 ,a ,,hippopotamus-,,hunt ,,in ,,egypt #cha #ahb4 ,,hippopotamus ,,and ,,trap #chd #ahc4 ,,the ,,baboon #chg #ahd4 ,,the ,,rhesus ,,monkey #chi #ahe4 ,,feeding ,,the ,,monkeys ,,in ,,india #cij #ahf4 ,,troublesome ,,neighbors #cia #ahg4 ,,monkeys ,,entering ,a ,,plantation #cib #ahh4 ,,slothful ,,monkeys #cic #ahi4 ,a ,,privileged ,,race #cid #aij4 ,,the ,,wanderoo #cif #aia4 ,,the ,,enemy ,,discovered #cig #aib4 ,,bonnet ,,monkeys #cii #aic4 ,,the ,,bat #dja #aid4 ,,bats' ,,resting-,,place #djc #aie4 ,,great ,,fox-,,headed ,,bat1 ,,or ,,flying ,,fox #dje #aif4 ,,cave ,,near ,,the ,,site ,,of ,,ancient ,,jericho #djf #aig4 ,,night ,,in ,,the ,,tropics #djg #aih4 ,,leopards #djh #aii4 ,,the ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,vulture #daa #bjj4 ,the ,l,,mmergeier #dab #bja4 ,a ,,successful ,,defence #dae #bjb4 ,,struck ,,from ,a ,,dizzy ,,height #dag #bjc4 ,,the ,,vulture',s ,,nest #dah #bjd4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,vulture1 ,,or ,,gier ,,eagle #dbj #bje4 ,,vultures #dbe #bjf4 ,,the ,,eagle ,,and ,,the ,,hare #dcj #bjg4 ,,eagles #dcb #bjh4 ,,eagle ,,returning ,,to ,,the ,,nest ,,with ,,her ,,prey #dce #bji4 ,,the ,,osprey ,,searching ,,for ,,fish #dcg #baj4 ,,snatched ,,from ,,the ,,deep3 ,,the ,,osprey ,,rises ,,with ,,his ,,prey #dci #baa4 ,,the ,,kite1 ,,or ,,vulture ,,of ,,scripture #dda #bab4 ,,the ,,peregrine ,,falcon1 ,,or ,,glede #ddd #bac4 ,,the ,,lanner ,,falcon #ddf #bad4 ,,the ,,hawk #ddg #bae4 ,,kestrel ,,hovering ,,over ,a ,,field ,,in ,,search ,,of ,,prey #ddi #baf4 ,,the ,,wind-,,hover1 ,,or ,,kestrel #dej #bag4 ,,the ,,barn ,,owl #ded #bah4 ,,the ,,little ,,owl #def #bai4 ,,caught ,,napping #deg #bbj4 ,,raven4--,,barn ,,owl4--,,eagle ,,owl #dei #bba4 ,a ,,family ,,council #dfj #bbb4 ,,the ,,night ,,hawk ,,on ,,the ,,wing #dfb #bbc4 ,,the ,,night ,,hawk #dfc #bbd4 ,,the ,,swallow #dff #bbe4 ,,lost ,,from ,,the ,,flock #dfi #bbf4 ,,the ,,swallow ,,and ,,swift #dga #bbg4 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,of ,,galilee #dgb #bbh4 ,,the ,,swallow',s ,,favorite ,,haunt #dgc #bbi4 ,,swallows ,,at ,,home #dge #bcj4 ,,the ,,hoopoe #dgh #bca4 ,,eastern ,,housetops #dgi #bcb4 ,,reading ,,the ,,law ,,to ,,the ,,people ,,after ,,the ,,return ,,from ,,captivity #dhb #bcc4 ,,the ,,blue ,,thrush1 ,,or ,,sparrow ,,of ,,scripture #dhc #bcd4 ,,the ,,tree ,,sparrow #dhe #bce4 ,,sparrows #dhf #bcf4 ,a ,,forest ,,scene #dhg #bcg4 ,,the ,,great ,,spotted ,,cuckoo #dhh #bch4 ,,noah ,,receives ,,the ,,dove #dhi #bci4 ,,jesus ,,drives ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,the ,,moneychangers ,,and ,,those ,,who ,,sold ,,doves #dic #bdj4 ,,the ,,rock ,,dove #did #bda4 ,,blue ,,rock ,,pigeons #die #bdb4 ,,the ,,turtle ,,dove #dig #bdc4 ,,the ,,hen ,,and ,,her ,,brood #dih #bdd4 ,,the ,,domestic ,,fowl #dii #bde4 ,,poultry #ejj #bdf4 ,,the ,,peacock #eja #bdg4 ,,peafowl #ejc #bdh4 ,,feathers ,,of ,,the ,,peacock #ejd #bdi4 ,,partridges #eje #bej4 ,,the ,,greek ,,partridge #ejg #bea4 ,,partridge ,,and ,,their ,,young #ejh #beb4 ,,eastern ,,quail #eji #bec4 ,,the ,,quail #eaj #bed4 ,,flight ,,of ,,quail #eae #bee4 ,,the ,,raven #eag #bef4 ,,elijah ,,fed ,,by ,,ravens #eah #beg4 ,,ravens' ,,roosting-,,place #eba #beh4 ,,ravens' ,,nest #ebb #bei4 ,,ostrich ,,and ,,nest #ebg #bfj4 ,,arabs ,,hunting ,,the ,,ostrich #ecc #bfa4 ,,the ,,bittern #ecg #bfb4 ,,bittern ,,and ,,cormorant #eci #bfc4 ,,the ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,bittern #eda #bfd4 ,,the ,,heron #edc #bfe4 ,,the ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,heron #ede #bff4 ,,the ,,papyrus ,,plant #edh #bfg4 ,,the ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,crane #edi #bfh4 ,,the ,,crane #eej #bfi4 ,,the ,,stork #eec #bgj4 ,,storks ,,and ,,their ,,nests #eee #bga4 ,a ,,nest ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,stork #eei #bgb4 ,,ibis ,,and ,,gallinule #efa #bgc4 ,,the ,,pelican #efh #bgd4 ,,lizards #ege #bge4 ,,tortoises #egg #bgf4 ,,the ,,dhubb ,,and ,,the ,,tortoise #egh #bgg4 ,,water ,,tortoise #egi #bgh4 ,,crocodile ,,attacking ,,horses #ehg #bgi4 ,a ,,crocodile ,,pool ,,of ,,ancient ,,egypt #eij #bhj4 ,,crocodiles ,,of ,,the ,,upper ,,nile #eia #bha4 ,,ichneumon ,,devouring ,,the ,,eggs ,,of ,,the ,,crocodile #eig #bhb4 ,a ,,crocodile ,,trap #eii #bhc4 ,a ,,fight ,,for ,,life #fja #bhd4 ,,the ,,cyprius1 ,,or ,,lizard #fjb #bhe4 ,,the ,,chameleon #fje #bhf4 ,,gecko ,,and ,,chameleon #fjf #bhg4 ,,the ,,gecko #fji #bhh4 ,,serpents #faa #bhi4 ,,boa ,,constrictor ,,and ,,tiger #fac #bij4 ,,cobra ,,and ,,cerastes #fae #bia4 ,,the ,,israelites ,,are ,,bitten ,,by ,,serpents ,,in ,,the ,,wilderness1 ,,and ,,moses ,,lifts ,,up ,,the ,,serpent ,,of ,,brass #faf #bib4 ,,the ,,serpent-,,charmer #fai #bic4 ,,the ,,viper #fba #bid4 ,,teaching ,,cobras ,,to ,,dance #fbc #bie4 ,,horned ,,viper #fbe #bif4 ,,the ,,viper1 ,,or ,,epheh #fbg #big4 ,,the ,,toxicoa #fbh #bih4 ,,the ,,frog #fcj #bii4 ,,fishes #fcc #cjj4 ,a ,,river ,,scene #fce #cja4 ,,peter ,,catches ,,the ,,fish #fcf #cjb4 ,,mur,,na1 ,,long-,,headed ,,barbel1 ,,and ,,sheat ,,fish #fch #cjc4 ,,sucking ,,fish1 ,,tunny1 ,,and ,,coryphene #fdj #cjd4 ,,fishing ,,scene ,,on ,,the ,,sea ,,of ,,galilee #fdb #cje4 ,,mode ,,of ,,dragging ,,the ,,seine ,,net #fde #cjf4 ,,nile ,,perch1 ,,surmullet1 ,,and ,,star-,,gazer #fdg #cjg4 ,,the ,,pearl ,,oyster #fec #cjh4 ,,insects #fee #cji4 ,a ,,swarm ,,of ,,locusts #fei #caj4 ,,the ,,locust #ffc #caa4 ,,the ,,bee #ffe #cab4 ,,the ,,hornet ,,and ,,its ,,nest #ffi #cac4 ,,ants ,,on ,,the ,,march #fga #cad4 ,,ant ,,of ,,palestine #fge #cae4 ,,the ,,crimson ,,worm #fgg #caf4 ,,mordecai ,,is ,,led ,,through ,,the ,,city ,,upon ,,the ,,king',s ,,horse #fgi #cag4 ,,butterflies ,,of ,,palestine #fhb #cah4 ,,noxious ,,flies ,,of ,,palestine #fhe #cai4 ,,the ,,scorpion #fij #cbj4 ,,coral #fid ,illustration3 more animals ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,bible ,,animals4 ,,the ,,lion4 ,frequent mention of the ,lion in the ,scriptures--,the ,lion employed as an emblem in the ,bible--,similarity of the ,african and ,asiatic species--,the chief characteristics of the ,lion--its strength1 activity1 and mode of seizing its prey--,the ,lion hunt4 ,of all the undomesticated animals of ,palestine1 none is mentioned so frequently as the ,,lion4 ,this may appear the more remarkable1 because for many years the ,lion has been extinct in ,palestine4 ,the leopard1 the wolf1 the jackal1 and the hyna1 still retain their place in the land1 although their numbers are comparatively few2 but the ,lion has vanished completely out of the land4 ,the reason for this disappearance is twofold1 first1 the thicker population2 and second1 the introduction of firearms4 ,no animal is less tolerant of human society than the ,lion4 ,in the first place1 it dreads the very face of man1 and as a rule1 whenever it sees a man will slink away and hide itself4 ,there are1 of course1 exceptional cases to this rule4 ,sometimes a ,lion becomes so old and stiff1 his teeth are so worn1 and his endurance so slight1 that he is unable to chase his usual prey1 and is obliged to seek for other means of subsistence4 ,in an unpopulated district1 he would simply be starved to death1 but when his lot is cast in the neighbourhood of human beings1 he is perforce obliged to become a man-eater4 ,even in that case1 a ,lion will seldom attack a man1 unless he should be able to do so unseen1 but will hang about the villages1 pouncing on the women as they come to the wells for water1 or upon the little children as they stray from their parents1 and continually shifting his quarters lest he should be assailed during his sleep4 ,the ,lion requires a very large tract of country for his maintenance1 and the consequence is1 that in proportion as the land is populated does the number of ,lions decrease4 ,firearms are the special dread of the ,lion4 ,in the first place1 the ,lion1 like all wild beasts1 cannot endure fire1 and the flash of the gun terrifies him greatly4 ,then1 there is the report1 surpassing even his roar in resonance2 and lastly1 there is the unseen bullet1 which seldom kills him at once1 but mostly drives him to furious anger by the pain of his wound1 yet which he does not dread nearly so much as the harmless flash and report4 ,there is another cause of the ,lion's banishment from the ,holy ,land4 ,it is well known that to attract any wild beast or bird to some definite spot1 all that is required is to provide them with a suitable and undisturbed home1 and a certainty of food4 ,consequently1 the surest method of driving them away is to deprive them of both these essentials4 ,then the ,lion used to live in forests1 which formerly stretched over large tracts of ground1 but which have long since been cut down1 thus depriving the ,lion of its home1 while the thick population and the general use of firearms have deprived him of his food4 ,in fact1 the ,lion has been driven out of ,palestine1 just as the wolf has been extirpated from ,england4 ,but1 in the olden times1 ,lions must have been very plentiful4 ,there is scarcely a book in the ,bible1 whether of the ,old or ,new ,testaments1 whether historical or prophetical1 that does not contain some mention of this terrible animal2 sometimes describing the actions of individual ,lions1 but mostly using the word as an emblem of strength and force1 whether used for a good purpose or abused for a bad one4 ,illustration3 ,,lion ,,drinking ,,at ,a ,,pool4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,lion ,,kills ,,the ,,prophet ,,from ,,judah4 ,there are several varieties of ,lion1 which may be reduced to two1 namely1 the ,african and the ,asiatic ,lion4 ,it is almost certain1 however1 that these animals really are one and the same species1 and that the trifling differences which exist between an ,african and an ,asiatic ,lion1 are not sufficient to justify a naturalist in considering them to be distinct species4 ,the habits of both are identical1 modified1 as is sure to be the case1 by the difference of locality2 but then1 such variations in habit are continually seen in animals confessedly of the same species1 which happen to be placed in different conditions of climate and locality4 ,that it was once exceedingly plentiful in ,palestine is evident1 from a very cursory knowledge of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,it is every where mentioned as a well-known animal1 equally familiar and dreaded4 ,when the disobedient prophet was killed by the ,lion near ,bethel1 the fact seemed not to have caused any surprise in the neighbourhood4 ,when the people came out to rescue the body of the prophet1 they wondered much because the ,lion was standing by the fallen man1 but had not torn him1 and had left the ass unhurt4 ,but that a ,lion should have killed a man seems to have been an event which was not sufficiently rare to be surprising4 ,we will now proceed to those characteristics of the ,lion which bear especial reference to the ,scriptures4 ,in the first place1 size for size1 the ,lion is one of the strongest of beasts4 ,illustration3 ,,lion ,,and ,,tiger4 ,moreover1 the strength of the ,lion is equally distributed over the body and limbs1 giving to the animal an easy grace of movement which is rare except with such a structure4 ,a full-grown ,lion cannot only knock down and kill1 but can carry away in its mouth1 an ordinary ox2 and one of these terrible animals has been known to pick up a heifer in its mouth1 and to leap over a wide ditch still carrying its burden4 ,another ,lion carried a two-year old heifer1 and was chased for five hours by mounted farmers1 so that it must have traversed a very considerable distance4 ,yet1 in the whole of this long journey1 the legs of the heifer had only two or three times touched the ground4 ,it kills man1 and comparatively small animals1 such as deer and antelopes1 with a blow of its terrible paw2 and often needs to give no second blow to cause the death of its victim4 ,the sharp talons are not needed to cause death1 for the weight of the blow is sufficient for that purpose4 ,when the hunter pursues it with dogs1 after the usual fashion1 there is often a great slaughter among them1 especially among those that are inexperienced in the chase of the ,lion4 ,urged by their instinctive antipathy1 the dogs rush forward to the spot where the ,lion awaits them1 and old hounds bay at him from a safe distance1 while the young and inexperienced among them are apt to convert the sham attack into a real one4 ,their valour meets with a poor reward1 for a few blows from the ,lion's terrible paws send his assailants flying in all directions1 their bodies streaming with blood1 and in most cases a fatal damage inflicted1 while more than one unfortunate dog lies fairly crushed by the weight of a paw laid with apparent carelessness upon its body4 ,there is before me a ,lion's skin1 a spoil of one of these animals shot by the celebrated sportsman1 ,gordon ,cumming4 ,although the skin lies flat upon the floor1 and the paws are nothing but the skin and talons1 the weight of each paw is very considerable1 and always surprises those who hear it fall on the floor4 ,there are several ,hebrew words which are used for the ,lion1 but that which signifies the animal in its adult state is derived from an ,arabic word signifying strength2 and therefore the ,lion is called the ,strong-one1 just as the ,bat is called the ,night-flier4 ,no epithet could be better deserved1 for the ,lion seems to be a very incarnation of strength1 and1 even when dead1 gives as vivid an idea of concentrated power as when it was living4 ,and1 when the skin is stripped from the body1 the tremendous muscular development never fails to create a sensation of awe4 ,the muscles of the limbs1 themselves so hard as to blunt the keen-edged knives employed by a dissecter1 are enveloped in their glittering sheaths1 playing upon each other like well-oiled machinery1 and terminating in tendons seemingly strong as steel1 and nearly as impervious to the knife4 ,not until the skin is removed can any one form a conception of the enormously powerful muscles of the neck1 which enable the ,lion to lift the weighty prey which it kills1 and to convey it to a place of security4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lion ,,replies ,,to ,,the ,,thunder4 ,although usually unwilling to attack an armed man1 it is one of the most courageous animals in existence when it is driven to fight1 and if its anger is excited1 it cares little for the number of its foes1 or the weapons with which they are armed4 ,even the dreaded firearms lose their terrors to an angry ,lion1 while a ,lioness1 who fears for the safety of her young1 is simply the most terrible animal in existence4 ,we know how even a hen will fight for her chickens1 and how she has been known to beat off the fox and the hawk by the reckless fury of her attack4 ,it may be easily imagined1 therefore1 that a ,lioness actuated by equal courage1 and possessed of the terrible weapons given to her by her ,creator1 would be an animal almost too formidable for the conception of those who have not actually witnessed the scene of a ,lioness defending her little ones4 ,the roar of the ,lion is another of the characteristics for which it is celebrated4 ,there is no beast that can produce a sound that could for a moment be mistaken for the roar of the ,lion4 ,the ,lion has a habit of stooping his head towards the ground when he roars1 so that the terrible sound rolls along like thunder1 and reverberates in many an echo in the far distance4 ,owing to this curious habit1 the roar can be heard at a very great distance1 but its locality is rendered uncertain1 and it is often difficult to be quite sure whether the ,lion is to the right or the left of the hearer4 ,there are few sounds which strike more awe than the ,lion's roar4 ,even at the ,zoological ,gardens1 where the hearer knows that he is in perfect safety1 and where the ,lion is enclosed in a small cage faced with strong iron bars1 the sound of the terrible roar always has a curious effect upon the nerves4 ,it is not exactly fear1 because the hearer knows that he is safe2 but it is somewhat akin to the feeling of mixed awe and admiration with which one listens to the crashing thunder after the lightning has sped its course4 ,if such be the case when the ,lion is safely housed in a cage1 and is moreover so tame that even if he did escape1 he would be led back by the keeper without doing any harm1 the effect of the roar must indeed be terrific when the ,lion is at liberty1 when he is in his own country1 and when the shades of evening prevent him from being seen even at a short distance4 ,illustration3 ,,lioness ,,and ,,young4 ,in the dark1 there is no animal so invisible as a ,lion4 ,almost every hunter has told a similar story--of the ,lion's approach at night1 of the terror displayed by dogs and cattle as he drew near1 and of the utter inability to see him1 though he was so close that they could hear his breathing4 ,sometimes1 when he has crept near an encampment1 or close to a cattle inclosure1 he does not proceed any farther lest he should venture within the radius illumined by the rays of the fire4 ,so he crouches closely to the ground1 and1 in the semi-darkness1 looks so like a large stone1 or a little hillock1 that any one might pass close to it without perceiving its real nature4 ,this gives the opportunity for which the ,lion has been watching1 and in a moment he strikes down the careless straggler1 and carries off his prey to the den4 ,sometimes1 when very much excited1 he accompanies the charge with a roar1 but1 as a general fact1 he secures his prey in silence4 ,the roar of the ,lion is very peculiar4 ,it is not a mere outburst of sound1 but a curiously graduated performance4 ,no description of the ,lion's roar is so vivid1 so true1 and so graphic as that of ,gordon ,cumming3 ,one of the most striking things connected with the ,lion is his voice1 which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking4 ,it consists at times of a low1 deep moaning1 repeated five or six times1 ending in faintly audible sighs4 ,at other times he startles the forest with loud1 deep-toned1 solemn roars1 repeated five or six times in quick succession1 each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth1 when his voice dies away in five or six low1 muffled sounds1 very much resembling distant thunder4 ,as a general rule1 ,lions roar during the night1 their sighing moans commencing as the shades of evening envelop the forest1 and continuing at intervals throughout the night4 ,in distant and secluded regions1 however1 ,i have constantly heard them roaring loudly as late as nine or ten o'clock on a bright sunny morning4 ,in hazy and rainy weather they are to be heard at every hour in the day1 but their roar is subdued4 ,lastly1 we come to the dwelling-place of the ,lion4 ,this animal always fixes its residence in the depths of some forest1 through which it threads its stealthy way with admirable certainty4 ,no fox knows every hedgerow1 ditch1 drain1 and covert better than the ,lion knows the whole country around his den4 ,each ,lion seems to have his peculiar district1 in which only himself and his family will be found4 ,these animals seem to parcel out the neighbourhood among themselves by a tacit law like that which the dogs of eastern countries have imposed upon themselves1 and which forbids them to go out of the district in which they were born4 ,during the night he traverses his dominions2 and1 as a rule1 he retires to his den as soon as the sun is fairly above the horizon4 ,sometimes he will be in wait for prey in the broadest daylight1 but his ordinary habits are nocturnal1 and in the daytime he is usually asleep in his secret dwelling-place4 ,we will now glance at a few of the passages in which the ,lion is mentioned in the ,holy ,scriptures1 selecting those which treat of its various characteristics4 ,the terrible strength of the ,lion is the subject of repeated reference4 ,in the magnificent series of prophecies uttered by ,jacob on his deathbed1 the power of the princely tribe of ,judah is predicted under the metaphor of a ,lion--the beginning of its power as a ,lion's whelp1 the fulness of its strength as an adult ,lion1 and its matured establishment in power as the old ,lion that couches himself and none dares to disturb him4 ,then ,solomon1 in the ,proverbs1 speaks of the ,lion as the strongest among beasts1 and that turneth not away for any4 ,solomon also alludes to its courage in the same book1 ,prov4 xxviii4 #a1 in the well-known passage1 ,the wicked fleeth when no man pursueth3 but the righteous are bold as a lion4 ,and1 in #b ,sam4 xxiii4 #bj1 the courage of ,benaiah1 one of the mighty three of ,david's army1 is specially honoured1 because he fought and killed a ,lion single-handed1 and because he conquered two lion-like men of ,moab4 ,david1 their leader1 had also distinguished himself1 when a mere keeper of cattle1 by pursuing and killing a ,lion that had come to plunder his herd4 ,in the same book of ,samuel which has just been quoted 7xvii4 #aj71 the valiant men are metaphorically described as having the hearts of ,lions4 ,the ferocity of this terrible beast of prey is repeatedly mentioned1 and the ,psalms are full of such allusions1 the fury and anger of enemies being compared to the attacks of the ,lion4 ,many passages refer to the ,lion's roar1 and it is remarkable that the ,hebrew language contains several words by which the different kind of roar is described4 ,one word1 for example1 represents the low1 deep1 thunder-like roar of the ,lion seeking its prey1 and which has already been mentioned4 ,this is the word which is used in ,amos iii4 #d1 ,will a lion roar in the forest when he hath no prey8 and in this passage the word which is translated as ,lion signifies the animal when full grown and in the prime of life4 ,another word is used to signify the sudden exulting cry of the ,lion as it leaps upon its victim4 ,a third is used for the angry growl with which a ,lion resents any endeavour to deprive it of its prey1 a sound with which we are all familiar1 on a miniature scale1 when we hear a cat growling over a mouse which she has just caught4 ,the fourth term signifies the peculiar roar uttered by the young ,lion after it has ceased to be a cub and before it has attained maturity4 ,this last term is employed in ,jer4 li4 #ch1 ,they shall roar together like lions2 they shall yell as lions' whelps1 in which passage two distinct words are used1 one signifying the roar of the ,lion when searching after prey1 and the other the cry of the young ,lions4 ,the prophet ,amos1 who in his capacity of herdsman was familiar with the wild beasts1 from which he had to guard his cattle1 makes frequent mention of the ,lion1 and does so with a force and vigour that betoken practical experience4 ,how powerful is this imagery1 ,the lion hath roared2 who will not fear8 ,the ,lord ,god hath spoken2 who can but prophesy8 ,here we have the picture of the man himself1 the herdsman and prophet1 who had trembled many a night1 as the ,lions drew nearer and nearer2 and who heard the voice of the ,lord1 and his lips poured out prophecy4 ,nothing can be more complete than the parallel which he has drawn4 ,it breathes the very spirit of piety1 and may bear comparison even with the prophecies of ,isaiah for its simple grandeur4 ,it is remarkable how the sacred writers have entered into the spirit of the world around them1 and how closely they observed the minutest details even in the lives of the brute beasts4 ,there is a powerful passage in the book of ,job1 iv4 #aa1 ,the old lion perisheth for lack of prey1 in which the writer betrays his thorough knowledge of the habits of the animal1 and is aware that the usual mode of a ,lion's death is through hunger1 in consequence of his increasing inability to catch prey4 ,the nocturnal habits of the ,lion and its custom of lying in wait for prey are often mentioned in the ,scriptures4 ,the former habit is spoken of in that familiar and beautiful passage in the ,psalms 7civ4 #bj71 ,thou makest darkness1 and it is night2 wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth4 ,the young ,lions roar after their prey2 and seek their meat from ,god4 ,the sun ariseth1 they gather themselves together1 and lay them down in their dens4 ,illustration3 ,,lion ,,carrying ,,home ,,supplies4 ,an animal so destructive among the flocks and herds could not be allowed to carry out its depredations unchecked1 and as we have already seen1 the warfare waged against it has been so successful1 that the ,lions have long ago been fairly extirpated in ,palestine4 ,the usual method of capturing or killing the ,lion was by pitfalls or nets1 to both of which there are many references in the ,scriptures4 ,the mode of hunting the ,lion with nets was identical with that which is practised in ,india at the present time4 ,the precise locality of the ,lion's dwelling-place having been discovered1 a circular wall of net is arranged round it1 or if only a few nets can be obtained1 they are set in a curved form1 the concave side being towards the ,lion4 ,they then send dogs into the thicket1 hurl stones and sticks at the den1 shoot arrows into it1 fling burning torches at it1 and so irritate and alarm the animal that it rushes against the net1 which is so made that it falls down and envelopes the animal in its folds4 ,if the nets be few1 the drivers go to the opposite side of the den1 and induce the ,lion to escape in the direction where he sees no foes1 but where he is sure to run against the treacherous net4 ,other large and dangerous animals were also captured by the same means4 ,illustration3 ,,african ,,lions4 ,another and more common1 because an easier and a cheaper method was1 by digging a deep pit1 covering the mouth with a slight covering of sticks and earth1 and driving the animal upon the treacherous covering4 ,it is an easier method than the net1 because after the pit is once dug1 the only trouble lies in throwing the covering over its mouth4 ,but1 it is not so well adapted for taking beasts alive1 as they are likely to be damaged1 either by the fall into the pit1 or by the means used in getting them out again4 ,animals1 therefore1 that are caught in pits are generally1 though not always1 killed before they are taken out4 ,the net1 however1 envelops the animal so perfectly1 and renders it so helpless1 that it can be easily bound and taken away4 ,the hunting net is very expensive1 and requires a large staff of men to work it1 so that none but a rich man could use it in hunting4 ,the passages in which allusion is made to the use of the pitfall in hunting are too numerous to be quoted1 and it will be sufficient to mention one or two passages1 such as those wherein the ,psalmist laments that his enemies have hidden for him their net in a pit1 and that the proud have digged pits for him4 ,lions that were taken in nets seem to have been kept alive in dens1 either as mere curiosities1 or as instruments of royal vengeance4 ,such seems to have been the object of the ,lions which were kept by ,darius1 into whose den ,daniel was thrown1 by royal command1 and which afterwards killed his accusers when thrown into the same den4 ,it is plain that the ,lions kept by ,darius must have been exceedingly numerous1 because they killed at once the accusers of ,daniel1 who were many in number1 together with their wives and children1 who1 in accordance with the cruel custom of that age and country1 were partakers of the same punishment with the real culprits4 ,the whole of the first part of ,ezek4 xix4 alludes to the custom of taking ,lions alive and keeping them in durance afterwards4 ,sometimes the ,lion was hunted as a sport1 but this amusement seems to have been restricted to the great men1 on account of its expensive nature4 ,such hunting scenes are graphically depicted in the famous ,nineveh sculptures1 which represent the hunters pursuing their mighty game in chariots1 and destroying them with arrows4 ,rude1 and even conventional as are these sculptures1 they have a spirit1 a force1 and a truthfulness1 that prove them to have been designed by artists to whom the scene was a familiar one4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lion ,,attacks ,,the ,,herd4 ,upon the ,african ,continent the ,lion reigns supreme1 monarch of the feline race4 ,whatever may be said of the distinction between the ,asiatic and ,african ,lion1 there seems to be scarcely sufficient grounds for considering the very slight differences a sufficient warrant for constituting separate species4 ,from all accounts1 it seems that the habits of all ,lions are very similar1 and that a ,lion acts like a ,lion whether found in ,africa or ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lair ,,of ,,the ,,lion4 ,an old ,boer1 as the ,dutch settlers of ,southern ,africa are called1 gave me a most interesting account of an adventure with a ,lion4 ,the man was a well-known hunter1 and lived principally by the sale of ivory and skins4 ,he was accustomed each year to make a trip into the game country1 and traded with the ,kaffirs1 or native blacks1 under very favorable auspices4 ,his stock in trade consisted of guns and ammunition1 several spans of fine oxen1 some horses1 and about a dozen dogs4 ,a ,lion which appeared to have been roaming about the country happened to pass near this hunter's camp1 and scenting the horses and oxen1 evidently thought that the location would suit him for a short period4 ,a dense wood situated about a mile from the camp afforded shelter1 and this spot the ,lion selected as a favorable position for his headquarters4 ,the hunter had not to wait for more than a day1 before the suspicions which had been aroused by some broad footmarks1 which he saw imprinted in the soil1 were confirmed into a certainty that a large ,lion was concealed near his residence4 ,it now became a question of policy whether the ,boer should attack the ,lion1 or wait for the ,lion to attack him4 ,he thought it possible that the savage beast1 having been warned off by the dogs1 whose barking had been continued and furious during the night on which the ,lion was supposed to have passed1 might think discretion the better part of valor1 and consequently would move farther on1 in search of a less carefully guarded locality upon which to quarter himself4 ,he determined1 therefore1 to wait1 but to use every precaution against a night-surprise4 ,the ,lion1 however1 was more than a match for the man2 for during the second night a strong ox from his best span was quietly carried off1 and1 although there was some commotion among the dogs and cattle1 it was then thought that the alarm had scared the ,lion away4 ,the morning light1 however1 showed that the beast had leaped the fence which surrounded the camp1 and1 having killed the ox1 had evidently endeavored to scramble over it again with the ox in his possession4 ,the weight of the ,lion and the ox had caused the stakes to give way1 and the ,lion had easily carried off his prey through the aperture4 ,the track of the ,lion was immediately followed by the ,boer1 who took with him a negro and half a dozen of his best dogs4 ,the tracks were easily seen1 and the hunter had no difficulty in deciding that the ,lion was in the wood previously mentioned4 ,but this in itself was no great advance1 for the place was overgrown with a dense thicket of thorn-bushes1 creepers1 and long grass1 forming a jungle so thick and impenetrable that for a man to enter seemed almost impossible4 ,it was therefore agreed that the ,boer should station himself on one side1 while the negro went to the other side of the jungle1 the dogs meanwhile being sent into the thicket4 ,this arrangement1 it was hoped1 would enable either the hunter or the negro to obtain a shot2 for they concluded that the dogs1 which were very courageous animals1 would drive the ,lion out of the bushes4 ,the excited barking of the dogs soon indicated that they had discovered the ,lion1 but they appeared to be unable to drive him from his stronghold2 for1 although they would scamper away every now and then1 as though the enraged monster was chasing them1 still they returned to bark at the same spot4 ,both of the hunters fired several shots1 with the hope that a stray bullet might find its way through the underwood to the heart of the savage beast1 but a great quantity of ammunition was expended and no result achieved4 ,at length1 as the dogs had almost ceased to bark1 it was considered advisable to call them off4 ,but all the whistling and shouting failed to recall more than two out of the six1 and one of these was fearfully wounded4 ,the others1 it was afterwards found1 had been killed by the ,lion3 a blow from his paw had sufficed to break the back or smash the skull of all which had come within his reach4 ,thus the first attempt on the ,lion was a total failure1 and the hunter returned home lamenting the loss of his dogs1 and during the night watched beside his enclosure2 but the ,lion did not pay him a second visit4 ,early on the following evening1 accompanied by the negro1 he started afresh for the wood2 and1 having marked the spot from which the ,lion had on the former occasion quitted the dense thorny jungle1 the two hunters ascended a tree and watched during the whole night in the hope of obtaining a shot at the hated marauder4 ,but while they were paying the residence of the ,lion a visit he favored the camp with a call1 and this time1 by way of variety1 carried away a very valuable horse1 which he conveyed to the wood1 being wise enough to walk out and to return by a different path from that he had previously used1 consequently avoiding the ambush prepared for him4 ,when the hunter returned to his camp1 he was furious at this new loss1 and determined upon a plan which1 though dangerous1 still appeared the most likely to insure the destruction of the ravenous monster4 ,this plan was to enter the wood alone1 without attendant or dogs1 and with noiseless1 stealthy movements creep near enough to the ,lion to obtain a shot4 ,now1 when we consider the difficulty of moving through thick bushes without making a noise1 and remember the watchful habits of every member of the cat tribe1 we may be certain that to surprise the ,lion was a matter of extreme difficulty1 and that the probability was that the hunter would meet with disaster4 ,at about ten o'clock on the morning after the horse-slaughter1 the hunter started for the wood armed with a double-barrelled smooth-bore gun1 and prepared to put forth his utmost skill in stalking his dangerous enemy4 ,now1 it is the nature of the ,lion1 when gorged1 to sleep during the day2 and if the animal has carried off any prey1 it usually conceals itself near the remnants of its feast1 to watch them until ready for another meal4 ,the hunter was aware of this1 and laid his plans very judiciously4 ,he approached the wood slowly and silently1 found the track of the ,lion1 and began tracing it to find the spot where the remains of the horse could be seen4 ,he moved forward very slowly and with great caution1 being soon surrounded by the thick bushes1 the brightness of the plain also being succeeded by the deep gloom of the wood4 ,being an experienced hand at bush-craft1 he was able to walk or crawl without causing either a dried stick to crack or a leaf to rustle1 and he was aware that his progress was without noise2 for the small birds1 usually so watchful and alert1 flew away only when he approached close to them1 thus showing that their eyes1 and not their ears1 had made them conscious of the presence of man4 ,birds and monkeys are the great obstacles in the bush to the success of a surprise1 for the birds fly from tree to tree and whistle or twitter1 whilst the monkeys chatter and grimace1 expressing by all sorts of actions that a strange creature is approaching4 ,when1 therefore1 the bushranger finds that birds and monkeys are unconscious of his presence until they see him1 he may be satisfied that he has traversed the bush with tolerable silence1 and has vanquished such dangerous betrayers of his presence as dried sticks and dead leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lion ,,listens ,,to ,,the ,,approach ,,of ,,the ,,hunter4 ,the hunter had not proceeded thus more than fifty yards into the jungle1 before he found indications that he was close upon the lair of the ,lion3 a strong leonine scent was noticeable1 and part of the carcase of his horse was visible between the bushes4 ,instead1 therefore1 of advancing farther1 as an incautious or inexperienced bushranger would have done1 he crouched down behind a bush and remained motionless4 ,all animals are aware of the advantages of a surprise1 and the cat tribe especially practise the ambuscading system4 ,the hunter1 therefore1 determined1 if possible1 to turn the tables on the ,lion1 and to surprise1 rather than to be surprised4 ,he concluded that the ,lion1 even when gorged with horseflesh1 would not be so neglectful of his safety as to sleep with more than one eye closed1 and that1 although he had crept with great care through the bush1 he had probably1 from some slight sound1 caused the ,lion to be on the alert2 if1 therefore1 he should approach the carcase of the horse1 he might be pounced upon at once4 ,after remaining silent and watchful for several minutes1 the hunter at length saw that an indistinctly-outlined object was moving behind some large broad-leafed plants at about twenty paces from him4 ,this object was the ,lion4 ,it was crouched behind some shrubs1 attentively watching the bushes where the hunter was concealed4 ,its head only was clearly visible1 the body being hidden by the foliage4 ,it was evident that the ,lion was suspicious of something1 but was not certain that anything had approached4 ,the hunter1 knowing that this was a critical period for him1 remained perfectly quiet4 ,he did not like to risk a shot at the forehead of the ,lion1 for it would require a very sure aim to insure a death-wound1 and the number of twigs and branches would be almost certain to deflect the bullet4 ,the ,lion1 after a careful inspection1 appeared to be satisfied1 and laid down behind the shrubs4 ,the hunter then cocked both barrels of his heavy gun and turned the muzzle slowly around1 so that he covered the spot on which the ,lion lay1 and shifted his position so as to be well placed for a shot4 ,the slight noise he made in moving1 attracted the attention of the ,lion1 who immediately rose to his feet4 ,a broadside shot1 which was the most sure1 could not be obtained1 so the hunter fired at the head of the animal1 aiming for a spot between the eyes4 ,the ball struck high1 as is usually the case when the distance is short1 and the charge of powder heavy1 but the ,lion fell over on its back1 rising1 however1 almost immediately and uttering a terrific roar4 ,in regaining its feet it turned its side to the hunter1 giving him the opportunity he had so anxiously waited for4 ,aiming at a spot behind the shoulder1 he fired again1 and had the satisfaction of seeing the savage beast1 maddened by the pain of a mortal wound1 tearing up the ground in its fury within a very few paces of his hiding-place4 ,by degrees its fierce roars subsided into angry growls1 and the growls into heavy moans1 until the terrible voice was hushed and silence reigned throughout the wood4 ,the hunter immediately started off home1 and brought his negroes and dogs to the spot1 where they found stretched dead upon the ground a ,lion of the largest size4 ,before sunset that evening its skin was pegged down at the hunter's camp1 and all were filled with delight1 knowing that they would be no more disturbed by the fierce marauder4 ,,the ,,leopard4 ,the ,leopard not often mentioned in the ,scriptures--its attributes exactly described--,probability that several animals were classed under the name--,how the ,leopard takes its prey--,craft of the ,leopard--its ravages among the flocks--,the empire of man over the beast--,the ,leopard at ,bay--,localities wherein the ,leopard lives--,the skin of the ,leopard--,various passages of ,scripture explained4 ,of the ,,leopard but little is said in the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,in the ,new ,testament this animal is only mentioned once1 and then in a metaphorical rather than a literal sense4 ,in the ,old ,testament it is casually mentioned seven times1 and only in two places is the word ,leopard used in the strictly literal sense4 ,yet1 in those brief passages of ,holy ,writ1 the various attributes of the animal are delineated with such fidelity1 that no one could doubt that the ,leopard was familiarly known in ,palestine4 ,its colour1 its swiftness1 its craft1 its ferocity1 and the nature of its dwelling-place1 are all touched upon in a few short sentences scattered throughout the ,old ,testament1 and even its peculiar habits are alluded to in a manner that proves it to have been well known at the time when the words were written4 ,it is my purpose in the following pages to give a brief account of the ,leopard of the ,scriptures1 laying most stress on the qualities to which allusion is made1 and then to explain the passages in which the name of the animal occurs4 ,in the first place1 it is probable that under the word ,leopard are comprehended three animals1 two of which1 at least1 were thought to be one species until the time of ,cuvier4 ,these three animals are the ,,leopard proper 7,leopardus varius71 the ,,ounce 7,leopardus uncia71 and the ,,chetah1 or ,,hunting ,,leopard 7,gueparda jubata74 ,all these three species belong to the same family of animals2 all are spotted and similar in colour1 all are nearly alike in shape1 and all are inhabitants of ,asia1 while two of them1 the ,leopard and the ,chetah1 are also found in ,africa4 ,it is scarcely necessary to mention that the ,leopard is a beast of prey belonging to the cat tribe1 that its colour is tawny1 variegated with rich black spots1 and that it is a fierce and voracious animal1 almost equally dreaded by man and beast4 ,it inhabits many parts of ,africa and ,asia1 and in those portions of the country which are untenanted by mankind1 it derives all its sustenance from the herb-eating animals of the same tracts4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,leopard4 ,to deer and antelopes it is a terrible enemy1 and in spite of their active limbs1 seldom fails in obtaining its prey4 ,swift as is the ,leopard1 for a short distance1 and wonderful as its spring1 it has not the enduring speed of the deer or antelope1 animals which are specially formed for running1 and which1 if a limb is shattered1 can run nearly as fast and quite as far on three legs as they can when all four limbs are uninjured4 ,instinctively knowing its inferiority in the race1 the ,leopard supplies by cunning the want of enduring speed4 ,it conceals itself in some spot whence it can see far around without being seen1 and thence surveys the country4 ,a tree is the usual spot selected for this purpose1 and the ,leopard1 after climbing the trunk by means of its curved talons1 settles itself in the fork of the branches1 so that its body is hidden by the boughs1 and only its head is shown between them4 ,with such scrupulous care does it conceal itself1 that none but a practised hunter can discover it1 while any one who is unaccustomed to the woods cannot see the animal even when the tree is pointed out to him4 ,as soon as the ,leopard sees the deer feeding at a distance1 he slips down the tree and stealthily glides off in their direction4 ,he has many difficulties to overcome1 because the deer are among the most watchful of animals1 and if the ,leopard were to approach to the windward1 they would scent him while he was yet a mile away from them4 ,if he were to show himself but for one moment in the open ground he would be seen1 and if he were but to shake a branch or snap a dry twig he would be heard4 ,so1 he is obliged to approach them against the wind1 to keep himself under cover1 and yet to glide so carefully along that the heavy foliage of the underwood shall not be shaken1 and the dry sticks and leaves which strew the ground shall not be broken4 ,he has also to escape the observation of certain birds and beasts which inhabit the woods1 and which would certainly set up their alarm-cry as soon as they saw him1 and so give warning to the wary deer1 which can perfectly understand a cry of alarm1 from whatever animal it may happen to proceed4 ,still1 he proceeds steadily on his course1 gliding from one covert to another1 and often expending several hours before he can proceed for a mile4 ,by degrees he contrives to come tolerably close to them1 and generally manages to conceal himself in some spot towards which the deer are gradually feeding their way4 ,as soon as they are near enough1 he collects himself for a spring1 just as a cat does when she leaps on a bird1 and dashes towards the deer in a series of mighty bounds4 ,for a moment or two they are startled and paralysed with fear at the sudden appearance of their enemy1 and thus give him time to get among them4 ,singling out some particular animal1 he leaps upon it1 strikes it down with one blow of his paw1 and then1 couching on the fallen animal1 he tears open its throat1 and laps the flowing blood4 ,illustration3 ,,leopard ,,attacking ,a ,,herd ,,of ,,deer4 ,in this manner does it obtain its prey when it lives in the desert1 but when it happens to be in the neighbourhood of human habitations1 it acts in a different manner4 ,whenever man settles himself in any place1 his presence is a signal for the beasts of the desert and forest to fly4 ,the more timid1 such as the deer and antelope1 are afraid of him1 and betake themselves as far away as possible4 ,the more savage inhabitants of the land1 such as the lion1 leopard1 and other animals1 wage an unequal war against him for a time1 but are continually driven farther and farther away1 until at last they are completely expelled from the country4 ,the predaceous beasts are1 however1 loth to retire1 and do so by very slow degrees4 ,they can no longer support themselves on the deer and antelopes1 but find a simple substitute for them in the flocks and herds which man introduces1 and in the seizing of which there is as much craft required as in the catching of the fleeter and wilder animals4 ,sheep and goats cannot run away like the antelopes1 but they are penned so carefully within inclosures1 and guarded so watchfully by herdsmen and dogs1 that the ,leopard is obliged to exert no small amount of cunning before it can obtain a meal4 ,sometimes it creeps quietly to the fold1 and escapes the notice of the dogs1 seizes upon a sheep1 and makes off with it before the alarm is given4 ,sometimes it hides by the wayside1 and as the flock pass by it dashes into the midst of them1 snatches up a sheep1 and disappears among the underwood on the opposite side of the road4 ,sometimes it is crafty enough to deprive the fold of its watchful guardian4 ,dogs which are used to ,leopard-hunting never attack the animal1 though they are rendered furious by the sound of its voice4 ,they dash at it as if they meant to devour it1 but take very good care to keep out of reach of its terrible paws4 ,by continually keeping the animal at bay1 they give time for their master to come up1 and generally contrive to drive it into a tree1 where it can be shot4 ,but instances have been known where the ,leopard has taken advantage of the dogs1 and carried them off in a very cunning manner4 ,it hides itself tolerably near the fold1 and then begins to growl in a low voice4 ,the dogs think that they hear a ,leopard at a distance1 and dash towards the sound with furious barks and yells4 ,in so doing1 they are sure to pass by the hiding-place of the ,leopard1 which springs upon them unawares1 knocks one of them over1 and bounds away to its den in the woods4 ,it does not content itself with taking sheep or goats from the fold1 but is also a terrible despoiler of the hen-roosts1 destroying great numbers in a single night when once it contrives to find its way into the house4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,leopard ,,leaps ,,upon ,,his ,,prey4 ,as an instance of the cunning which seems innate in the ,leopard1 ,i may mention that whenever it takes up its abode near a village1 it does not meddle with the flocks and herds of its neighbours1 but prefers to go to some other village at a distance for food1 thus remaining unsuspected almost at the very doors of the houses4 ,in general1 it does not willingly attack mankind1 and at all events seems rather to fear the presence of a full-grown man4 ,but1 when wounded or irritated1 all sense of fear is lost in an overpowering rush of fury1 and it then becomes as terrible a foe as the lion himself4 ,it is not so large nor so strong1 but it is more agile and quicker in its movements2 and when it is seized with one of these paroxysms of anger1 the eye can scarcely follow it as it darts here and there1 striking with lightning rapidity1 and dashing at any foe within reach4 ,its whole shape seems to be transformed1 and absolutely to swell with anger2 its eyes flash with fiery lustre1 its ears are thrown back on the head1 and it continually utters alternate snarls and yells of rage4 ,it is hardly possible to recognise the graceful1 lithe glossy creature1 whose walk is so noiseless1 and whose every movement is so easy1 in the furious passion-swollen animal that flies at every foe with blind fury1 and pours out sounds so fierce and menacing that few men1 however well armed1 will care to face it4 ,as is the case with most of the cat tribe1 the ,leopard is an excellent climber1 and can ascend trees and traverse their boughs without the least difficulty4 ,it is so fond of trees1 that it is seldom to be seen except in a well-wooded district4 ,its favourite residence is a forest where there is plenty of underwood1 at least six or seven feet in height1 among which trees are sparingly interspersed4 ,when crouched in this cover it is practically invisible1 even though its body may be within arm's length of a passenger4 ,the spotted body harmonizes so perfectly with the broken lights and deep shadows of the foliage that even a practised hunter will not enter a covert in search of a ,leopard unless he is accompanied by dogs4 ,the instinct which teaches the ,leopard to choose such localities is truly wonderful1 and may be compared with that of the tiger1 which cares little for underwood1 but haunts the grass jungles1 where the long1 narrow blades harmonize with the stripes which decorate its body4 ,illustration3 ,,waiting4 ,the skin of the ,leopard has always been highly valued on account of its beauty1 and in ,africa1 at the present day1 a robe made of its spotted skin is as much an adjunct of royalty as is the ermine the emblem of judicial dignity in ,england4 ,in more ancient times1 a leopard skin was the official costume of a priest1 the skin being sometimes shaped into a garment1 and sometimes thrown over the shoulders and the paws crossed over the breast4 ,such is a general history of the ,leopard4 ,we will now proceed to the various passages in which it is mentioned1 beginning with its outward aspect4 ,in the first place1 the ,hebrew word ,namer signifies spotted1 and is given to the animal in allusion to its colours4 ,the reader will now see how forcible is the lament of ,jeremiah1 ,can the ,ethiopian change his skin1 or the ,leopard his spots8 ,literally1 ,can the ,ethiopian change his skin1 or the spotted one his spots8 ,the agility and swiftness of the ,leopard are alluded to in the prediction by the prophet ,habakkuk of the vengeance that would come upon ,israel through the ,chaldeans4 ,in chap4 i4 #e1 we read3 ,i will work a work in your days1 which ye will not believe though it be told you4 ,for1 lo1 ,i raise up the ,chaldeans1 that bitter and hasty nation1 which shall march through the breadth of the land1 to possess the dwelling-places that are not theirs4 ,they are terrible and dreadful2 their judgment and their dignity shall proceed of themselves4 ,their horses also are swifter than the ,leopards1 and are more fierce than the evening wolves4 ,the craftiness of the ,leopard1 and the manner in which it lies in wait for its prey1 are alluded to in more than one passage of ,holy ,writ4 ,hosea the prophet alludes to the ,leopard in a few simple words which display an intimate acquaintance with the habits of this formidable animal1 and in this part of his prophecies he displays that peculiar local tone which distinguishes his writings4 ,speaking of the ,israelites under the metaphor of a flock1 or a herd1 he proceeds to say3 ,according to their pasture so were they filled2 they were filled1 and their heart was exalted2 therefore have they forgotten me4 ,therefore ,i will be unto them as a lion1 as a ,leopard by the way will ,i observe them4 ,the reader will note the peculiar force of this sentence1 whereby ,god signifies that ,he will destroy them openly1 as a lion rushes on its prey1 and that he will chastise them unexpectedly1 as if it were a ,leopard crouching by the wayside1 and watching for the flock to pass1 that it may spring on its prey unexpectedly4 ,the same habit of the ,leopard is also alluded to by ,jeremiah1 who employs precisely the same imagery as is used by ,habakkuk4 ,see ,jer4 v4 #e1 #f1 ,these have altogether broken the yoke1 and burst the bonds4 ,wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay them1 and a wolf of the evenings shall spoil them1 a leopard shall watch over their cities4 ,it is evident from the employment of this image by two prophets1 the one being nearly a hundred years before the other1 that the crafty1 insidious habits of the ,leopard were well known in ,palestine1 and that the metaphor would tell with full force among those to whom it was addressed4 ,illustration3 leopard ,illustration3 cats ,,the ,,cat4 ,the ,cat never mentioned by name in the canonical ,scriptures1 and only once in the ,apocrypha--,the ,cat domesticated among the ,egyptians1 and trained in bird-catching--,neglected capabilities of the ,cat--,anecdote of an ,english ,cat that caught fish for her master--,presumed reason why the ,scriptures are silent about the ,cat--,the ,cat mentioned by ,baruch4 ,it is a very remarkable circumstance that the word ,,cat is not once mentioned in the whole of the canonical ,scriptures1 and only once in the ,apocrypha4 ,the ,egyptians1 as is well known1 kept ,cats domesticated in their houses1 a fact which is mentioned by ,herodotus1 in his second book1 and the #ffth and #fgth chapters4 ,after describing the various animals which were kept and fed by this nation1 he proceeds to narrate the habits of the ,cat1 and writes as follows3 ,when a fire takes place1 a supernatural impulse seizes the cats4 ,for the ,egyptians1 standing at a distance1 take care of the cats and neglect to quench the fire2 but the cats make their escape1 and leaping over the men1 cast themselves into the fire1 and when this occurs1 great lamentations are made among the ,egyptians4 ,in whatever house a cat dies of a natural death1 all the family shave their eyebrows4 ,all cats that die are carried to certain sacred houses1 where1 after being embalmed1 they are buried in the city of ,bubastis4 ,now1 as many of those cat-mummies have been discovered in good preservation1 the species has been identified with the ,egyptian ,cat of the present day1 which is scientifically termed ,felis maniculatus4 ,not only did the ,egyptians keep ,cats at their houses1 but1 as is shown by certain sculptures1 took the animals with them when they went bird-catching1 and employed them in securing their prey4 ,some persons have doubted this statement1 saying1 that in the first place1 the ,cat is not possessed of sufficient intelligence for the purpose2 and that in the second place1 as the hunter is represented as catching wild fowl1 the ,cat would not be able to assist him1 because it would not enter the water4 ,neither objection is valid1 nor would have been made by a naturalist4 ,there are no grounds whatever for assuming that the ,cat has not sufficient intelligence to aid its master in hunting4 ,on the contrary1 there are many familiar instances where the animal has been trained1 even in this country1 to catch birds and other game1 and bring its prey home4 ,by nature the ,cat is an accomplished hunter1 and1 like other animals of the same disposition1 can be taught to use its powers for mankind4 ,we all know that the chetah1 a member of the same tribe1 is in constant use at the present day1 and we learn from ancient sculptures that the lion was employed for the same purpose4 ,passing from land to water1 mankind has succeeded in teaching the seal and the otter to plunge into the water1 catch their finny prey1 and deliver it to their owners4 ,among predaceous birds1 we have trained the eagle1 the falcon1 and various hawks1 to assist us in hunting the finned and feathered tribes1 while we have succeeded in teaching the cormorant to catch fish for its master1 and not for itself4 ,why1 then1 should the ,cat be excepted from a rule so general8 ,the fact is1 the ,cat has been1 although domesticated for so many centuries1 a comparatively neglected animal2 and it is the fashion to heap upon it the contumacious epithets of sullen1 treacherous1 selfish1 spiteful1 and intractable1 just as we take as our emblems of stupidity the ass and the goose1 which are really among the most cunning of the lower animals4 ,we have never tried to teach the ,cat the art of hunting for her owners1 but that is no reason for asserting that the animal could not be taught4 ,as to entering the water1 every one who is familiar with the habits of the ,cat knows perfectly well that the ,cat will voluntarily enter water in chase of prey4 ,a ,cat does not like to wet her feet1 and will not enter the water without a very powerful reason1 but when that motive is supplied1 she has no hesitation about it4 ,a curious and valuable confirmation of this fact appeared some time ago in ,the ,field newspaper1 in which was recorded the history of an old fisherman1 whose ,cat invariably went to sea with him1 and as invariably used to leap overboard1 seize fish in her mouth1 and bring them to the side of the boat1 where her kindly owner could lift her out1 together with the captured fish4 ,the ,cat1 then1 having been the favoured companion of the ,egyptians1 among whom the ,israelites lived while they multiplied from a family into a nation1 it does seem very remarkable that the sacred writers should not even mention it4 ,there is no prohibition of the animal1 even indirectly1 in the ,mosaic law2 but it may be the case that the ,israelites repudiated the ,cat simply because it was so favoured by their former masters4 ,illustration3 cat ,,the ,,dog4 ,antipathy displayed by ,orientals towards the ,dog1 and manifested throughout the ,scriptures--,contrast between ,european and ,oriental ,dogs--,habits of the ,dogs of ,palestine--,the ,city ,dogs and their singular organization--,the herdsman's ,dog--,various passages of ,scripture--,dogs and the crumbs--their numbers--,signor ,pierotti's experience of the ,dogs--,possibility of their perfect domestication--,the peculiar humiliation of ,lazarus--,voracity of the ,wild ,dogs--,the fate of ,ahab and ,jezebel--,anecdote of a volunteer ,watch-dog--,innate affection of the ,dog towards mankind--,peculiar local ,instinct of the ,oriental ,dog--,albert ,smith's account of the ,dogs at ,constantinople--,the ,dervish and his ,dogs--,the ,greyhound--,uncertainty of the word4 ,scarcely changed by the lapse of centuries1 the ,oriental of the present day retains most of the peculiarities which distinguished him throughout the long series of years during which the books of sacred ,scripture were given to the world4 ,in many of these characteristics he differs essentially from ,europeans of the present day1 and exhibits a tone of mind which seems to be not merely owing to education1 but to be innate and inherent in the race4 ,one of these remarkable characteristics is the strange loathing with which he regards the ,dog4 ,in all other parts of the world1 the ,dog is one of the most cherished and valued of animals1 but among those people whom we popularly class under the name of ,orientals1 the ,dog is detested and despised4 ,as the sacred books were given to the world through the mediumship of ,orientals1 we find that this feeling towards the ,dog is manifested whenever the animal is mentioned2 and whether we turn to the books of the ,law1 the splendid poetry of the ,psalms and the book of ,job1 the prophetical or the historical portions of the ,old ,testament1 we find the name of the ,dog repeatedly mentioned2 and in every case in connexion with some repulsive idea4 ,if we turn from the ,old to the ,new ,testament1 we find the same idea manifested1 whether in the ,gospels1 the ,epistles1 or the ,revelation4 ,to the mind of the true ,oriental the very name of the ,dog carries with it an idea of something utterly repugnant to his nature1 and he does not particularly like even the thought of the animal coming across his mind4 ,and this is the more extraordinary1 because at the commencement and termination of their history the ,dog was esteemed by their masters4 ,the ,egyptians1 under whose rule they grew to be a nation1 knew the value of the ,dog1 and showed their appreciation in the many works of art which have survived to our time4 ,then the ,romans1 under whose iron grasp the last vestiges of nationality crumbled away1 honoured and respected the ,dog1 made it their companion1 and introduced its portrait into their houses4 ,but1 true to their early traditions1 the ,jews of the ,east have ever held the ,dog in the same abhorrence as is manifested by their present masters1 the followers of ,mahommed4 ,owing to the prevalence of this feeling1 the ,dogs of ,oriental towns are so unlike their more fortunate ,european relatives1 that they can hardly be recognised as belonging to the same species4 ,in those lands the traveller finds that there is none of the wonderful variety which so distinguishes the ,dog of ,europe4 ,there he will never see the bluff1 sturdy1 surly1 faithful mastiff1 the slight gazelle-like greyhound1 the sharp1 intelligent terrier1 the silent1 courageous bulldog1 the deep-voiced1 tawny bloodhound1 the noble ,newfoundland1 the clever1 vivacious poodle1 or the gentle1 silken-haired spaniel4 ,as he traverses the streets1 he finds that all the dogs are alike1 and that all are gaunt1 hungry1 half starved1 savage1 and cowardly1 more like wolves than dogs1 and quite as ready as wolves to attack when they fancy they can do so with safety4 ,they prowl about the streets in great numbers1 living1 as they best can1 on any scraps of food that they may happen to find4 ,they have no particular masters1 and no particular homes4 ,charitable persons will sometimes feed them1 but will never make companions of them1 feeling that the very contact of a dog would be a pollution4 ,they are certainly useful animals1 because they act as scavengers1 and will eat almost any animal substance that comes in their way4 ,the strangest part of their character is the organization which prevails among them4 ,by some extraordinary means they divide the town into districts1 and not one dog ever ventures out of that particular district to which it is attached4 ,the boundaries1 although invisible1 are as effectual as the loftiest walls1 and not even the daintiest morsel will tempt a dog to pass the mysterious line which forms the boundary of his district4 ,generally1 these bands of dogs are so savage that any one who is obliged to walk in a district where the dogs do not know him is forced to carry a stout stick for his protection4 ,like their ,european relatives1 they have great dislike towards persons who are dressed after a fashion to which they are unaccustomed1 and therefore are sure to harass any one who comes from ,europe and wears the costume of his own country4 ,as is customary among animals which unite themselves in troops1 each band is under the command of a single leader1 whose position is recognised and his authority acknowledged by all the members4 ,illustration3 ,,dogs ,,in ,,an ,,eastern ,,city ,,at ,,night4 ,these peculiarities are to be seen almost exclusively in the dogs which run wild about the towns1 because there is abundant evidence in the ,scriptures that the animal was used in a partially domesticated state1 certainly for the protection of their herds1 and possibly for the guardianship of their houses4 ,that the ,dog was employed for the first of these purposes is shown in ,job xxx4 i3 ,but now they that are younger than ,i have me in derision1 whose fathers ,i would have disdained to have set with the dogs of my flock4 ,and that the animal was used for the protection of houses is thought by some commentators to be shown by the well-known passage in ,is4 lvi4 #aj3 ,his watchmen are blind3 they are all ignorant1 they are all dumb dogs1 they cannot bark2 sleeping1 lying down1 loving to slumber4 ,still1 it is very probable that in this passage the reference is not made to houses1 but to the flocks and herds which these watchmen ought to have guarded4 ,the rooted dislike and contempt felt by the ,israelites towards the ,dog is seen in numerous passages4 ,even in that sentence from ,job which has just been quoted1 wherein the writer passionately deplores the low condition into which he has fallen1 and contrasts it with his former high estate1 he complains that he is despised by those whose fathers he held even in less esteem than the dogs which guarded his herds4 ,there are several references to the ,dog in the books of ,samuel1 in all of which the name of the animal is mentioned contemptuously4 ,for example1 when ,david accepted the challenge of ,goliath1 and went to meet his gigantic enemy without the ordinary protection of mail1 and armed only with a sling and his shepherd's staff ,goliath said to him1 ,am ,i a dog1 that thou comest to me with staves8 7#a ,sam4 xvii4 #dc47 ,and in the same book1 chapter xxiv4 #ad1 ,david remonstrates with ,saul for pursuing so insignificant a person as himself1 and said1 ,after whom is the ,king of ,israel come out8 after a dead dog1 after a flea4 ,illustration3 ,,shimei ,,exulting ,,over ,,king ,,david4 ,the same metaphor is recorded in the second book of the same writer4 ,once it was employed by ,mephibosheth1 the lame son of ,jonathan1 when extolling the generosity of ,david1 then ,king of ,israel in the place of his grandfather ,saul3 ,and he bowed himself1 and said1 ',what is thy servant1 that thou shouldest look upon such a dead dog as ,i am8' 7#b ,sam4 ix4 #h47 ,in the same book1 chapter xvi4 #i1 ,abishai applies this contemptuous epithet to ,shimei1 who was exulting over the troubled monarch with all the insolence of a cowardly nature1 ,why should this dead dog curse my lord the king8 ,abner also makes use of a similar expression1 ,am ,i a dog's head8 ,and we may also refer to the familiar passage in #b ,kings viii4 #ac1 ,elisha had prophesied to ,hazael that he would become king on the death of ,ben-hadad1 and that he would work terrible mischief in the land4 ,horrified at these predictions1 or at all events pretending to be so1 he replied1 ,but what1 is thy servant a dog1 that he should do this great thing8 ,if we turn from the ,old to the ,new ,testament1 we find the same contemptuous feeling displayed towards the ,dog4 ,it is mentioned as an intolerable aggravation of the sufferings endured by ,lazarus the beggar as he lay at the rich man's gate1 that the dogs came and licked his sores4 ,in several passages1 the word ,dog is employed as a metaphor for scoffers1 or unclean persons1 or sometimes for those who did not belong to the ,church1 whether ,jewish or ,christian4 ,in the ,sermon on the ,mount our ,lord himself uses this image1 ,give not that which is holy unto dogs 7,matt4 vii4 #f47 ,in the same book1 chapter xv4 #bf1 ,jesus employs the same metaphor when speaking to the ,canaanitish woman who had come to ask him to heal her daughter3 ,it is not meet to take the children's bread and cast it to dogs4 ,and that she understood the meaning of the words is evident from her answer1 in which faith and humility are so admirably blended4 ,both ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,john employ the word ,dog in the same sense4 ,in his epistle to the ,philippians1 chapter iii4 #b1 ,st4 ,paul writes1 ,beware of dogs1 beware of evil workers4 ,and in the ,revelation1 chapter xxii4 #ad1 these words occur3 ,blessed are they that do his commandments1 that they may have right to the tree of life1 and may enter in through the gates to the city2 for without are dogs1 and sorcerers1 444 and murderers1 and idolaters1 and whomsoever loveth and maketh a lie4 ,that the dogs of ancient times formed themselves into bands just as they do at present is evident from many passages of ,scripture1 among which may be mentioned those sentences from the ,psalms1 wherein ,david is comparing the assaults of his enemies to the attacks of the dogs which infested the city4 ,thou hast brought me into the dust of death2 for dogs have compassed me1 the assembly of the wicked have enclosed me4 ,this passage will be better appreciated when the reader has perused the following extract from a recent work by ,signor ,pierotti4 ,after giving a general account of the ,dogs of ,palestine and their customs1 he proceeds as follows3-- ,in ,jerusalem1 and in the other towns1 the dogs have an organization of their own4 ,they are divided into families and districts1 especially in the night time1 and no one of them ventures to quit his proper quarter2 for if he does1 he is immediately attacked by all the denizens of that into which he intrudes1 and is driven back1 with several bites as a reminder4 ,therefore1 when an ,european is walking through ,jerusalem by night1 he is always followed by a number of canine attendants1 and greeted at every step with growls and howls4 ,these tokens of dislike1 however1 are not intended for him1 but for his followers1 who are availing themselves of his escort to pass unmolested from one quarter to another4 ,during a very hard winter1 ,i fed many of the dogs who frequented the road which ,i traversed almost every evening1 and afterwards1 each time that ,i passed1 ,i received the homage not only of the individuals1 but of the whole band to which they belonged1 for they accompanied me to the limits of their respective jurisdictions and were ready to follow me to my own house1 if ,i did but give them a sign of encouragement1 coming at my beck from any distance4 ,they even recollected the signal two years afterwards1 though it was but little that ,i had given them4 ,the account which this experienced writer gives of the animal presents a singular mixture of repulsive and pleasing traits1 the latter being attributable to the true nature of the ,dog1 and the former to the utter neglect with which it is treated4 ,he remarks that the dogs which run wild in the cities of ,palestine are ill-favoured1 ill-scented1 and ill-conditioned beasts1 more like jackals or wolves than dogs1 and covered with scars1 which betoken their quarrelsome nature4 ,yet1 the same animals lose their wild1 savage disposition1 as soon as any human being endeavours to establish that relationship which was evidently intended to exist between man and the dog4 ,how readily even these despised and neglected animals respond to the slightest advance1 has been already shown by ,sig4 ,pierotti's experience1 and there is no doubt that these tawny1 short-haired1 wolf-like animals1 could be trained as perfectly as their more favoured brethren of the western world4 ,as in the olden times1 so at the present day1 the dogs lie about in the streets1 dependent for their livelihood upon the offal that is flung into the roads1 or upon the chance morsels that may be thrown to them4 ,an allusion to this custom is made in the well-known passage in ,matt4 xv4 ,the reader will remember the circumstance that a woman of ,canaan1 and therefore not an ,israelite1 came to ,jesus1 and begged him to heal her daughter1 who was vexed with a devil4 ,then1 to try her faith1 ,he said1 ,it is not meet to take the children's bread1 and to cast it to dogs4 ,and she said1 ,truth1 ,lord3 yet the dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from their master's table4 ,now1 the crumbs which are here mentioned are the broken pieces of bread which were used at table1 much as bread is sometimes used in eating fish4 ,the form of the loaves being flat1 and much like that of the oat-cake of this country1 adapted them well to the purpose4 ,the same use of broken bread is alluded to in the parable of ,lazarus1 who desired to be fed with the crumbs that fell from the rich man's table1 i4 e4 to partake of the same food as the dogs which swarmed round him and licked his sores4 ,illustration3 ,,lazarus ,,lying ,,at ,,the ,,rich ,,man',s ,,door4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,jezebel4 ,the crumbs1 however liberally distributed1 would not nearly suffice for the subsistence of the canine armies1 and their chief support consists of the offal1 which is rather too plentifully flung into the streets4 ,if the body of any animal1 not excluding their own kind1 be found lying in the streets1 the dogs will assemble round it1 and tear it to pieces1 and they have no scruples even in devouring a human body4 ,of course1 owing to the peculiar feeling entertained by the ,orientals towards the ,dog1 no fate can be imagined more repulsive to the feelings of humanity than to be eaten by dogs2 and therein lies the terror of the fate which was prophesied of ,ahab and ,jezebel4 ,moreover1 the blood1 even of the lower animals1 was held in great sanctity1 and it was in those days hardly possible to invoke a more dreadful fate upon any one than that his blood should be lapped by dogs4 ,we lose much of the real force of the ,scriptures1 if we do not possess some notion of the manners and customs of ,palestine and the neighbouring countries1 as well as of the tone of mind prevalent among the inhabitants4 ,in our own country1 that any one should be eaten by dogs would be a fate so contrary to usage1 that we can hardly conceive its possibility1 and such a fate would be out of the ordinary course of events4 ,but1 if such a fate should happen to befall any one1 we should have no stronger feeling of pity than the natural regret that the dead person was not buried with ,christian rites4 ,but1 with the inhabitants of ,palestine1 such an event was by no means unlikely4 ,it was1 and is still1 the custom to bury the corpse almost as soon as life has departed1 and such would ordinarily have been the case with the dead body of ,jezebel4 ,but1 through fear of the merciless ,jehu1 by whose command she had been flung from the window of her own palace1 no one dared to remove her mangled body4 ,the dogs1 therefore1 seized upon their prey2 and1 even before ,jehu had risen from the banquet with which he celebrated his deed1 nothing was left of the body but the skull1 the feet1 and the hands4 ,illustration3 ,,syrian ,,dog4 ,in ,mr4 ,tristram's work1 the author has recognised the true dog nature1 though concealed behind an uninviting form3 ,our watch-dog1 ,beirt1 attached himself instinctively to ,wilhelm1 though his canine instinct soon taught him to recognise every one of our party of fourteen1 and to cling to the tents1 whether in motion or at rest1 as his home4 ,poor ,beirt6 though the veriest pariah in appearance1 thy plebeian form encased as noble a dog-heart as ever beat at the sound of a stealthy step4 ,the same author records a very remarkable example of the sagacity of the native ,dog1 and the fidelity with which it will keep guard over the property of its master4 ,the guard-house provided us1 unasked1 with an invaluable and vigilant sentry1 who was never relieved1 nor ever quitted the post of duty4 ,the poor ,turkish conscript1 like every other soldier in the world1 is fond of pets1 and in front of the grim turret that served for a guard-house was a collection of old orange-boxes and crates1 thickly peopled with a garrison of dogs of low degree1 whose attachment to the spot was certainly not purchased by the loaves and fishes which fell to their lot4 ,one of the family must indeed have had hard times1 for she had a family of no less than five dependent on her exertions1 and on the superfluities of the sentries' mess4 ,with a sagacity almost more than canine1 the poor gaunt creature had scarcely seen our tents pitched before she came over with all her litter and deposited them in front of our tent4 ,at once she scanned the features of every member of the encampment1 and introduced herself to our notice4 ,during the week of our stay1 she never quitted her post1 or attempted any depredation on our kitchen-tent1 which might have led to her banishment4 ,night and day she proved a faithful and vigilant sentry1 permitting no stranger1 human or canine1 ,european or ,oriental1 to approach the tents without permission1 but keeping on the most familiar terms with ourselves and our servants4 ,on the morning of our departure1 no sooner had she seen our camp struck1 than she conveyed her puppies back to their old quarters in the orange-box1 and no entreaties or bribes could induce her to accompany us4 ,on three subsequent visits to ,jerusalem1 the same dog acted in a similar way1 though no longer embarrassed by family cares1 and would on no account permit any strange dog1 nor even her companions at the guard-house1 to approach within the tent ropes4 ,after perusing this account of the ,dog of ,palestine1 two points strike the reader4 ,the first is the manner in which the ,dog1 in spite of all the social disadvantages under which it labours1 displays one of the chief characteristics of canine nature1 namely1 the yearning after human society4 ,the animal in question had already attached herself to the guard-house1 where she could meet with some sort of human converse1 though the inborn prejudices of the ,moslem would prevent the soldiers from inviting her to associate with them1 as would certainly have been done by ,european soldiers4 ,she nestled undisturbed in the orange-box1 and1 safe under the protection of the guard1 brought up her young family in their immediate neighbourhood4 ,but1 as soon as ,europeans arrived1 her instinct told her that they would be closer associates than the ,turkish soldiers who were quartered in the guard-house1 and accordingly she removed herself and her family to the shelter of their tents4 ,herein she carried out the leading principle of a dog's nature4 ,a dog must have a master1 or at all events a mistress1 and just in proportion as he is free from human control1 does he become less dog-like and more wolf-like4 ,in fact1 familiar intercourse with mankind is an essential part of a dog's true character1 and the animal seems to be so well aware of this fact1 that he will always contrive to find a master of some sort1 and will endure a life of cruel treatment at the hands of a brutal owner rather than have no master at all4 ,the second point in this account is the singular local instinct which characterises the ,dogs of ,palestine and other eastern countries1 and which is as much inbred in them as the faculty of marking game in the pointer1 the combative nature in the bulldog1 the exquisite scent in the bloodhound1 and the love of water in the ,newfoundland dog4 ,in this country1 we fancy that the love of locality belongs especially to the cat1 and that the ,dog cares little for place1 and much for man4 ,but1 in this case1 we find that the local instinct overpowered the yearning for human society4 ,fond as was this dog of her newly-found friends1 and faithful as she was in her self-imposed service1 she would not follow them away from the spot where she had been born1 and where she had produced her own young4 ,this curious love for locality has evidently been derived from the traditional custom of successive generations1 which has passed from the realm of reason into that of instinct4 ,the reader will remember that ,sig4 ,pierotti mentions an instance where the dogs which he had been accustomed to feed would follow him as far as the limits of their particular district1 but would go no farther4 ,the late ,albert ,smith1 in his ,month at ,constantinople1 gives a similar example of this characteristic4 ,he first describes the general habits of the dogs4 ,on the first night of his arrival1 he could not sleep1 and went to the window to look out in the night4 ,the noise ,i heard then ,i shall never forget4 ,to say that if all the sheep-dogs1 in going to ,smithfield on a market-day1 had been kept on the constant bark1 and pitted against the yelping curs upon all the carts in ,london1 they could have given any idea of the canine uproar that now first astonished me1 would be to make the feeblest of images4 ,the whole city rang with one vast riot4 ,down below me1 at ,tophan--over-about ,stamboul--far away at ,scutari--the whole sixty thousand dogs that are said to overrun ,constantinople appeared engaged in the most active extermination of each other1 without a moment's cessation4 ,the yelping1 howling1 barking1 growling1 and snarling1 were all merged into one uniform and continuous even sound1 as the noise of frogs becomes when heard at a distance4 ,for hours there was no lull4 ,i went to sleep1 and woke again1 and still1 with my windows open1 ,i heard the same tumult going on2 nor was it until daybreak that anything like tranquillity was restored4 ,going out in the daytime1 it is not difficult to find traces of the fights of the night about the limbs of all the street dogs4 ,there is not one1 among their vast number1 in the possession of a perfect skin4 ,some have their ears gnawed away or pulled off2 others have their eyes taken out2 from the backs and haunches of others perfect steaks of flesh had been torn away2 and all bear the scars of desperate combats4 ,wild and desperate as is their nature1 these poor animals are susceptible of kindness4 ,if a scrap of bread is thrown to one of them now and then1 he does not forget it2 for they have1 at times1 a hard matter to live--not the dogs amongst the shops of ,galata or ,stamboul1 but those whose 'parish' lies in the large burying-grounds and desert places without the city2 for each keeps1 or rather is kept1 to his district1 and if he chanced to venture into a strange one1 the odds against his return would be very large4 ,one battered old animal1 to whom ,i used occasionally to toss a scrap of food1 always followed me from the hotel to the cross street in ,pera1 where the two soldiers stood on guard1 but would never come beyond this point4 ,he knew the fate that awaited him had he done so2 and therefore1 when ,i left him1 he would lie down in the road1 and go to sleep until ,i came back4 ,when a horse or camel dies1 and is left about the roads near the city1 the bones are soon picked very clean by these dogs1 and they will carry the skulls or pelves to great distances4 ,i was told that they will eat their dead fellows--a curious fact1 ,i believe1 in canine economy4 ,they are always troublesome1 not to say dangerous1 at night2 and are especially irritated by ,europeans1 whom they will single out amongst a crowd of ,levantines4 ,in the same work there is a short description of a solitary dervish1 who had made his home in the hollow of a large plane-tree1 in front of which he sat1 surrounded by a small fence of stakes only a foot or so in height4 ,around him1 but not venturing within the fence1 were a number of gaunt1 half-starved dogs1 who prowled about him in hopes of having an occasional morsel of food thrown to them4 ,solitary as he was1 and scanty as must have been the nourishment which he could afford to them1 the innate trustfulness of the dog-nature induced them to attach themselves to human society of some sort1 though their master was one1 and they were many--he was poor1 and they were hungry4 ,illustration3 ,,eastern ,,water-,,seller4 ,,the ,,wolf4 ,identity of the animal indisputable--its numbers1 past and present--,the ,wolf never mentioned directly--its general habits--,references in ,scripture--its mingled ferocity and cowardice--its association into packs--,the ,wolf's bite--,how it takes its prey--its ravages among the flocks--,allusions to this habit--,the shepherd and his nightly enemies--,mr4 ,tristram and the ,wolf--,a semi-tamed ,wolf at ,marsaba4 ,there is no doubt that the ,hebrew word ,zeb1 which occurs in a few passages of the ,old ,testament1 is rightly translated as ,,wolf1 and signifies the same animal as is frequently mentioned in the ,new ,testament4 ,this fierce and dangerous animal was formerly very plentiful in ,palestine1 but is now much less common1 owing to the same causes which have extirpated the lion from the country4 ,it is a rather remarkable fact1 that in no passage of ,holy ,writ is the ,wolf directly mentioned4 ,its name is used as a symbol of a fierce and treacherous enemy1 but neither in the ,old nor ,new ,testament does any sacred writer mention any act as performed by the ,wolf4 ,we have already heard of the lion which attacked ,samson and was killed by him1 of the lion which slew the disobedient prophet1 and of the lions which spared ,daniel when thrown into their den4 ,we also read of the dogs which licked ,ahab's blood1 and ate the body of ,jezebel1 also of the bears which tore the mocking children4 ,but in no case is the ,wolf mentioned1 except in a metaphorical sense2 and this fact is the more remarkable1 because the animals were so numerous that they were very likely to have exercised some influence on a history extending over such a lengthened range of years1 and limited to so small a portion of the earth4 ,yet we never hear of the ,wolf attacking any of the personages mentioned in ,scripture2 and although we are told of the exploit of ,david1 who pursued a lion and a bear that had taken a lamb out of his fold1 we are never told of any similar deed in connexion with the ,wolf4 ,illustration3 ,,wolves ,,attacking ,a ,,flock ,,of ,,sheep4 ,this animal was then what it is now4 ,seldom seen by day1 it lies hidden in its covert as long as the light lasts1 and steals out in search of prey in the evening4 ,this custom of the ,wolf is mentioned in several passages of ,holy ,scripture1 such as that in ,jer4 v4 #e1 #f3 ,these have altogether broken the yoke1 and burst the bonds4 ,wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay them1 and a wolf of the evenings shall spoil them4 ,in this passage the reader will see that the rebellious ,israelites are compared to restive draught cattle which have broken away from their harness and run loose1 so that they are deprived of the protection of their owners1 and exposed to the fury of wild beasts4 ,a similar reference is made in ,hab4 i4 #h3 ,their horses also are swifter than the leopards1 and are more fierce than the evening wolves4 ,the same habit of the ,wolf is alluded to in ,zeph4 iii4 #c3 ,her princes within her are roaring lions2 her judges are evening wolves4 ,individually1 the ,wolf is rather a timid animal4 ,it will avoid a man rather than meet him4 ,it prefers to steal upon its prey and take it unawares1 rather than to seize it openly and boldly4 ,it is ever suspicious of treachery1 and is always imagining that a trap is laid for it4 ,even the shallow device of a few yards of rope trailing from any object1 or a strip of cloth fluttering in the breeze1 is quite sufficient to keep the ,wolf at bay for a considerable time4 ,this fact is well known to hunters1 who are accustomed to secure the body of a slain deer by simply tying a strip of cloth to its horn4 ,if taken in a trap of any kind1 or even if it fancies itself in an enclosure from which it can find no egress1 it loses all courage1 and will submit to be killed without offering the least resistance4 ,it will occasionally endeavour to effect its escape by feigning death1 and has more than once been known to succeed in this device4 ,but1 collectively1 the ,wolf is one of the most dangerous animals that can be found4 ,herding together in droves when pressed by hunger1 the wolves will openly hunt prey1 performing this task as perfectly as a pack of trained hounds4 ,full of wiles themselves1 they are craftily wise in anticipating the wiles of the animals which they pursue2 and even in full chase1 while the body of the pack is following on the footsteps of the flying animal1 one or two are detached on the flanks1 so as to cut it off if it should attempt to escape by doubling on its pursuers4 ,there is no animal which a herd of wolves will not attack1 and very few which they will not ultimately secure4 ,strength avails nothing against the numbers of these savage foes1 which give no moment of rest1 but incessantly assail their antagonist1 dashing by instinct at those parts of the body which can be least protected1 and lacerating with their peculiar short1 snapping bite4 ,should several of their number be killed or disabled1 it makes no difference to the wolves1 except that a minute or two are wasted in devouring their slain or wounded brethren1 and they only return to the attack the more excited by the taste of blood4 ,swiftness of foot avails nothing against the tireless perseverance of the wolves1 who press on in their peculiar1 long1 slinging gallop1 and in the end are sure to tire out the swifter footed but less enduring animal that flees before them4 ,the stately buffalo is conquered by the ceaseless assaults of the wolves2 the bear has been forced to succumb to them1 and the fleet-footed stag finds his swift limbs powerless to escape the pursuing band1 and his branching horns unable to resist their furious onset when once they overtake him4 ,illustration3 ,,wolves ,,chasing ,,deer4 ,that the ,wolf is a special enemy to the sheep-fold is shown in many parts of the ,scriptures1 both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 especially in the latter4 ,in ,john x4 #a-af1 ,jesus compares himself to a good shepherd1 who watches over the fold1 and1 if the wolves should come to take the sheep1 would rather give up ,his life than they should succeed4 ,but the false teachers are compared to bad shepherds1 hired for money1 but having no interest in the sheep1 and who therefore will not expose themselves to danger in defence of their charge4 ,this metaphor was far more effective in ,palestine1 and at that time1 than it is in this country and at the present day4 ,in this land1 the shepherd has no anxiety about the inroads of wild beasts1 but in ,palestine one of his chief cares was to keep watch at night lest the wolves should attack the fold1 and to drive them away himself in case they should do so4 ,therefore the shepherd's life was one which involved no small danger as well as anxiety1 and the metaphor used by our ,lord gains additional force from the knowledge of this fact4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wolf4 ,a similar metaphor is used when ,jesus wished to express in forcible terms the dangers to which the chosen seventy would oft be subjected1 and the impossibility that they should be able to overcome the many perils with which they would be surrounded4 ,go your ways3 behold1 ,i send you forth as lambs among wolves 7,luke x4 #c74 ,mr4 ,tristram several times met wolves while he was engaged in his travels1 and mostly saw solitary specimens4 ,one such encounter took place in the wilderness of ,judah3 ,on my way back1 ,i met a fine solitary wolf1 who watched me very coolly1 at the distance of sixty yards1 while ,i drew my charge and dropped a bullet down the barrel4 ,though ,i sent the ball into a rock between his legs as he stood looking at me in the wady1 he was not sufficiently alarmed to do more than move on a little more quickly1 ever and anon turning to look at me1 while gradually increasing his distance4 ,darkness compelled me to desist from the chase1 when he quietly turned and followed me at a respectful distance4 ,he was a magnificent animal1 larger than any ,european wolf1 and of a much lighter colour4 ,those who are acquainted with the character of the animal will appreciate the truthfulness of this description4 ,the cautious prowl at a distance1 the slow trot away when he fancied he might be attacked1 the reverted look1 and the final turning back and following at a respectful distance1 are all characteristic traits of the ,wolf1 no matter to what species it may belong1 nor what country it may inhabit4 ,on another occasion1 while riding in the open plain of ,gennesaret1 the horse leaped over the bank of a little ditch1 barely three feet in depth4 ,after the horse had passed1 and not until then1 a ,wolf started out of the ditch1 literally from under the horses hoofs1 and ran off4 ,the animal had been crouching under the little bank1 evidently watching for some cows and calves which were grazing at a short distance1 under the charge of a ,bedouin boy4 ,the same author mentions that one of the monks belonging to the monastery at ,marsaba had contrived to render a ,wolf almost tame4 ,every evening at six o'clock the ,wolf came regularly across the ravine1 ate a piece of bread1 and then went back again4 ,with the peculiar jealousy of all tamed animals1 the ,wolf would not suffer any of his companions to partake of his good fortune4 ,several of them would sometimes accompany him1 but as soon as they came under the wall of the monastery he always drove them away4 ,illustration3 ,,wolves ,,attacking ,,wild ,,goats4 ,the inhabitants of ,palestine say that the ,wolves of that country hunt singly1 or at most in little packs of few in number4 ,still they dread the animal exceedingly on account of the damage it inflicts upon their flocks of sheep and goats4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,jackal4 ,,the ,,fox ,,or ,,jackal4 ,the two animals comprehended under one name--,the ,jackal--its numbers in ancient and modern ,palestine--,general habits of the ,jackal--,localities where the ,jackal is found--,samson1 and the three hundred foxes--,popular objections to the narrative--,the required number easily obtained--,signor ,pierotti's remarks upon the ,jackal--,an unpleasant position--,how the fields were set on fire--,the dread of fire inherent in wild beasts--,the truth of the narrative proved--,the ,fox and ,jackal destructive among grapes ,there are several passages in the ,old ,testament in which the word ,fox occurs1 and it is almost certain that the ,hebrew word ,shul1 which is rendered in our translation as ,fox1 is used rather loosely1 and refers in some places to the ,jackal1 and in others to the ,fox4 ,we will first take those passages in which the former rendering of the word is evidently the right one1 and will begin by examining those characteristics of the animal which afford grounds for such an assertion4 ,illustration3 ,,foxes ,,or ,,jackals ,,devouring ,,the ,,carcase ,,of ,a ,,goat4 ,even at the present time1 the ,jackal is extremely plentiful in ,palestine2 and as the numbers of wild beasts have much decreased in modern days1 the animals must have been even more numerous than they are at present4 ,it is an essentially nocturnal and gregarious animal4 ,during the whole of the day the ,jackals lie concealed in their holes or hiding-places1 which are usually cavities in the rocks1 in tombs1 or among ruins4 ,at nightfall they issue from their dens1 and form themselves into packs1 often consisting of several hundred individuals1 and prowl about in search of food4 ,carrion of various kinds forms their chief subsistence1 and they perform in the country much the same task as is fulfilled by the dogs in the cities4 ,if any animal should be killed1 or even severely wounded1 the ,jackals are sure to find it out and to devour it before the daybreak4 ,they will scent out the track of the hunter1 and feed upon the offal of the beasts which he has slain4 ,if the body of a human being were to be left on the ground1 the ,jackals would certainly leave but little traces of it2 and in the olden times of warfare1 they must have held high revelry in the battle-field after the armies had retired4 ,it is to this propensity of the ,jackal that ,david refers--himself a man of war1 who had fought on many a battle-field1 and must have seen the carcases of the slain mangled by these nocturnal prowlers3 ,those that seek my soul1 to destroy it1 shall go into the lower parts of the earth4 ,they shall fall by the sword2 they shall be a portion for foxes 7,ps4 lxiii4 #i1 #aj74 ,being wild beasts1 afraid of man1 and too cowardly to attack him even when rendered furious by hunger1 and powerful by force of numbers1 they keep aloof from towns and cities1 and live in the uninhabited parts of the country4 ,therefore the prophet ,jeremiah1 in his ,book of ,lamentations1 makes use of the following forcible image1 when deploring the pitiful state into which ,juda had fallen3 ,for this our heart is faint2 for these things our eyes are dim3 because of the mountain of ,zion1 which is desolate1 the foxes walk upon it 7,lam4 v4 #ag74 ,and ,ezekiel makes use of a similar image3 ,o ,israel1 thy prophets are like foxes in the desert4 ,but1 by far the most important passage in which the ,fox is mentioned1 is that wherein is recorded the grotesque vengeance of ,samson upon the ,philistines3 ,and ,samson went and caught three hundred foxes1 and took firebrands1 and turned tail to tail1 and put a firebrand in the midst between two tails4 ,and when he had set the brands on fire1 he let them go into the standing com of the ,philistines1 and burnt up both the shocks and also the standing corn1 with the vineyards and olives 7,judges xv4 #d1 #e74 ,now1 as this is one of the passages of ,holy ,writ to which great objections have been taken1 it will be as well to examine these objections1 and see whether they have any real force4 ,the first of these objections is1 that the number of foxes is far too great to have been caught at one time1 and to this objection two answers have been given4 ,the first answer is1 that they need not have been caught at once1 but by degrees1 and kept until wanted4 ,but the general tenor of the narrative is undoubtedly in favour of the supposition that this act of ,samson was unpremeditated1 and that it was carried into operation at once1 before his anger had cooled4 ,the second answer is1 that the requisite number of ,foxes might have been miraculously sent to ,samson for this special purpose4 ,this theory is really so foolish and utterly untenable1 that ,i only mention it because it has been put forward4 ,it fails on two grounds3 the first being that a miracle would hardly have been wrought to enable ,samson to revenge himself in so cruel and unjustifiable a manner2 and the second1 that there was not the least necessity for any miracle at all4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,feast ,,in ,,prospect4 ,if we put out of our minds the idea of the ,english ,fox1 an animal comparatively scarce in this country1 and solitary in its habits1 and substitute the extremely plentiful and gregarious ,jackal1 wandering in troops by night1 and easily decoyed by hunger into a trap1 we shall see that double the number might have been taken1 if needful4 ,moreover1 it is not to be imagined that ,samson caught them all with his own hand4 ,he was at the head of his people1 and had many subordinates at his command1 so that a large number of hunters might have been employed simultaneously in the capture4 ,in corroboration of this point1 ,i insert an extremely valuable extract from ,signor ,pierotti's work1 in which he makes reference to this very portion of the sacred history3-- ,it is still very abundant near ,gaza1 ,askalon1 ,ashdod1 ,ekron1 and ,ramleh4 ,i have frequently met with it during my wanderings by night1 and on one occasion had an excellent opportunity of appreciating their number and their noise4 ,one evening in the month of ,january1 while it was raining a perfect deluge1 ,i was obliged1 owing to the dangerous illness of a friend1 to return from ,jerusalem to ,jaffa4 ,the depth of snow on the road over a great part of the mountain1 the clayey mud in the plain1 and the darkness of the night1 prevented my advancing quickly2 so that about half-past three in the morning ,i arrived on the bank of a small torrent1 about half an hour's journey to the east of ,ramleh4 ,i wished to cross3 my horse at first refused1 but1 on my spurring it1 advanced and at once sank up to the breast1 followed of course by my legs1 thus teaching me to respect the instinct of an ,arab horse for the future4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,feast ,,secured4 ,there ,i stuck1 without the possibility of escape1 and consoled my horse and myself with some provisions that ,i had in my saddle-bags1 shouting and singing at intervals1 in the hope of obtaining succour1 and of preventing accidents1 as ,i knew that the year before a mule in the same position had been mistaken for a wild beast1 and killed4 ,the darkness was profound1 and the wind very high2 but1 happily1 it was not cold2 for the only things attracted by my calls were numbers of jackals1 who remained at a certain distance from me1 and responded to my cries1 especially when ,i tried to imitate them1 as though they took me for their music-master4 ,about five o'clock1 one of the guards of the ,english consulate at ,jerusalem came from ,ramleh and discovered my state4 ,he charitably returned thither1 and brought some men1 who extricated me and my horse from our unpleasant bath1 which1 as may be supposed1 was not beneficial to our legs4 ,during this most uncomfortable night1 ,i had good opportunity of ascertaining that1 if another ,samson had wished to burn again the crops in the country of the ,philistines1 he would have had no difficulty in finding more than three hundred jackals1 and catching as many as he wanted in springs1 traps1 or pitfalls4 7,see ,ps4 cxl4 #e47 ,the reader will now see that there was not the least difficulty in procuring the requisite number of animals1 and that consequently the first objection to the truth of the story is disposed of4 ,we will now proceed to the second objection1 which is1 that if the animals were tied tail to tail1 they would remain on or near the same spot1 because they would pull in different directions1 and that1 rather than run about1 they would turn round and fight each other4 ,now1 in the first place1 we are nowhere told that the tails of the foxes1 or jackals1 were placed in contact with each other1 and it is probable that some little space was left between them4 ,that animals so tied would not run in a straight line is evident enough1 and this was exactly the effect which ,samson wished to produce4 ,had they been at liberty1 and the fiery brand fastened to their tails1 they would have run straight to their dens1 and produced but little effect4 ,but their captor1 with cruel ingenuity1 had foreseen this contingency1 and1 by the method of securing them which he adopted1 forced them to pursue a devious course1 each animal trying to escape from the dreaded firebrand1 and struggling in vain endeavours to drag its companion towards its own particular den4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,trespasser4 ,all wild animals have an instinctive dread of fire2 and there is none1 not even the fierce and courageous lion1 that dares enter within the glare of the bivouac fire4 ,a lion has even been struck in the face with a burning brand1 and has not ventured to attack the man that wielded so dreadful a weapon4 ,consequently it may be imagined that the unfortunate animals that were used by ,samson for his vindictive purpose1 must have been filled with terror at the burning brands which they dragged after them1 and the blaze of the fire which was kindled wherever they went4 ,they would have no leisure to fight1 and would only think of escaping from the dread and unintelligible enemy which pursued them4 ,when a prairie takes fire1 all the wild inhabitants flee in terror1 and never think of attacking each other1 so that the bear1 the wolf1 the cougar1 the deer1 and the wild swine1 may all be seen huddled together1 their natural antagonism quelled in the presence of a common foe4 ,so it must have been with the miserable animals which were made the unconscious instruments of destruction4 ,that they would stand still when a burning brand was between them1 and when flames sprang up around them1 is absurd4 ,that they would pull in exactly opposite directions with precisely balanced force is equally improbable1 and it is therefore evident that they would pursue a devious path1 the stronger of the two dragging the weaker1 but being jerked out of a straight course and impeded by the resistance which it would offer4 ,that they would stand on the same spot and fight has been shown to be contrary to the custom of animals under similar circumstances4 ,thus it will be seen that every objection not only falls to the ground1 but carries its own refutation1 thus vindicating this episode in sacred history1 and showing1 that not only were the circumstances possible1 but that they were highly probable4 ,of course every one of the wretched animals must have been ultimately burned to death1 after suffering a prolonged torture from the firebrand that was attached to it4 ,such a consideration would1 however1 have had no effect for deterring ,samson from employing them4 ,the ,orientals are never sparing of pain1 even when inflicted upon human beings1 and in too many cases they seem utterly unable even to comprehend the cruelty of which they are guilty4 ,and ,samson was by no means a favourable specimen of his countrymen4 ,he was the very incarnation of strength1 but was as morally weak as he was corporeally powerful2 and to that weakness he owed his fall4 ,neither does he seem to possess the least trace of forbearance any more than of self-control1 but he yields to his own undisciplined nature1 places himself1 and through him the whole ,israelitish nation1 in jeopardy1 and then1 with a grim humour1 scatters destruction on every side in revenge for the troubles which he has brought upon himself by his own acts4 ,,the ,,hy,,na4 ,the ,hyna not mentioned by name1 but evidently alluded to--,signification of the word ,zabua--,translated in the ,septuagint as ,hyna--,a scene described by the prophet ,isaiah--,the ,hyna plentiful in ,palestine at the present day--its well-known cowardice and fear of man--,the uses of the ,hyna and the services which it renders--,the particular species of ,hyna--,the ,hyna in the burial-grounds--,hunting the ,hyna--,curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties of its skin--,precautions adopted in flaying it--,popular legends of the ,hyna and its magical powers--,the cavern home of the ,hyna--,the valley of ,zeboim4 ,although in our version of the ,scriptures the ,hyna is not mentioned by that name1 there are two passages in the ,old ,testament which evidently refer to that animal1 and therefore it is described in these pages4 ,if the reader will refer to the prophet ,jeremiah1 xii4 #g-i1 he will find these words3 ,i have forsaken mine house1 ,i have left mine heritage2 ,i have given the dearly beloved of my soul into the hand of her enemies4 ,mine heritage is unto me as a lion in the forest2 it crieth out against me3 therefore have ,i hated it4 ,mine heritage is unto me as a speckled bird2 the birds round about are against her3 come ye1 assemble all the beasts of the field1 come to devour4 ,now1 the word zabua signifies something that is streaked1 and in the ,authorized ,version it is rendered as a speckled bird4 ,but in the ,septuagint it is rendered as ,hyna1 and this translation is thought by many critical writers to be the true one4 ,it is certain that the word zabua is one of the four names by which the ,talmudical writers mention the ,hyna1 when treating of its character2 and it is equally certain that such a rendering makes the passage more forcible1 and is in perfect accordance with the habits of predacious animals4 ,the whole scene which the ,prophet thus describes was evidently familiar to him4 ,first1 we have the image of a deserted country1 allowed to be overrun with wild beasts4 ,then we have the lion1 which has struck down its prey1 roaring with exultation1 and defying any adversary to take it from him4 ,then1 the lion having eaten his fill and gone away1 we have the ,hynas1 vultures1 and other carrion-eating creatures1 assembling around the carcase1 and hastening to devour it4 ,this is a scene which has been witnessed by many hunters who have pursued their sport in lands where lions1 hynas1 and vultures are found2 and all these creatures were inhabitants of ,palestine at the time when ,jeremiah wrote4 ,at the present day1 the ,hyna is still plentiful in ,palestine1 though in the course of the last few years its numbers have sensibly diminished4 ,the solitary traveller1 when passing by night from one town to another1 often falls in with the ,hyna1 but need suffer no fear1 as it will not attack a human being1 and prefers to slink out of his way4 ,but dead1 and dying1 or wounded animals are the objects for which it searches2 and when it finds them1 it devours the whole of its prey4 ,the lion will strike down an antelope1 an ox1 or a goat--will tear off its flesh with its long fangs1 and lick the bones with its rough tongue until they are quite cleaned4 ,the wolves and jackals will follow the lion1 and eat every soft portion of the dead animal1 while the vultures will fight with them for the coveted morsels4 ,but the ,hyna is a more accomplished scavenger than lion1 wolf1 jackal1 or vulture2 for it will eat the very bones themselves1 its tremendously-powerful jaws and firmly-set teeth enabling it to crush even the leg-bone of an ox1 and its unparalleled digestive powers enabling it to assimilate the sharp and hard fragments which would kill any creature not constituted like itself4 ,in a wild1 or even a partially-inhabited country1 the ,hyna is1 therefore1 a most useful animal4 ,it may occasionally kill a crippled or weakly ox1 and sometimes carry off a sheep2 but1 even in that case1 no very great harm is done1 for it does not meddle with any animal that can resist4 ,but these few delinquencies are more than compensated by the great services which it renders as scavenger1 consuming those substances which even the lion cannot eat1 and thus acting as a scavenger in removing objects which would be offensive to sight and injurious to health4 ,illustration3 ,,leopard ,,robbed ,,of ,,its ,,prey ,,by ,,hy,,nas4 ,the species which is mentioned in the ,scriptures is the ,striped ,hyna 7,hyna striata72 but the habits of all the species are almost exactly similar4 ,we are told by travellers of certain towns in different parts of ,africa which would be unendurable but for the ,hynas4 ,with the disregard for human life which prevails throughout all savage portions of that country1 the rulers of these towns order executions almost daily1 the bodies of the victims being allowed to lie where they happened to fall4 ,no one chooses to touch them1 lest they should also be added to the list of victims1 and the decomposing bodies would soon cause a pestilence but for the ,hynas1 who assemble at night round the bodies1 and by the next morning have left scarcely a trace of the murdered men4 ,even in ,palestine1 and in the present day1 the ,hyna will endeavour to rifle the grave1 and to drag out the interred corpse4 ,the bodies of the rich are buried in rocky caves1 whose entrances are closed with heavy stones1 which the ,hyna cannot move2 but those of the poor1 which are buried in the ground1 must be defended by stones heaped over them4 ,even when this precaution is taken1 the ,hyna will sometimes find out a weak spot1 drag out the body1 and devour it4 ,in consequence of this propensity1 the inhabitants have an utter detestation of the animal4 ,they catch it whenever they can1 in pitfalls or snares1 using precisely the same means as were employed two thousand years ago2 or they hunt it to its den1 and then kill it1 stripping off the hide1 and carrying it about still wet1 receiving a small sum of money from those to whom they show it4 ,afterwards the skin is dressed1 by rubbing it with lime and salt1 and steeping it in the waters of the ,dead ,sea4 ,it is then made into sandals and leggings1 which are thought to be powerful charms1 and to defend the wearer from the ,hyna's bite4 ,they always observe certain superstitious precautions in flaying the dead animal4 ,believing that the scent of the flesh would corrupt the air1 they invariably take the carcase to the leeward of the tents before they strip off the skin4 ,even in the animal which has been kept for years in a cage1 and has eaten nothing but fresh meat1 the odour is too powerful to be agreeable1 as ,i can testify from practical experience when dissecting a ,hyna that had died in the ,zoological ,gardens2 and it is evident that the scent of an animal that has lived all its life on carrion must be almost unbearable4 ,the skin being removed1 the carcase is burnt1 because the hunters think that by this process the other ,hynas are prevented from finding the body of their comrade1 and either avenging its death or taking warning by its fate4 ,illustration3 ,,hy,,nas ,,devouring ,,bones4 ,superstitions seem to be singularly prevalent concerning the ,hyna4 ,in ,palestine1 there is a prevalent idea that if a ,hyna meets a solitary man at night1 it can enchant him in such a manner as to make him follow it through thickets and over rocks1 until he is quite exhausted1 and falls an unresisting prey2 but that over two persons he has no such influence1 and therefore a solitary traveller is gravely advised to call for help as soon as he sees a ,hyna1 because the fascination of the beast would be neutralized by the presence of a second person4 ,so firmly is this idea rooted in the minds of the inhabitants1 that they will never travel by night1 unless they can find at least one companion in their journey4 ,in ,northern ,africa there are many strange superstitions connected with this animal1 one of the most curious of which is founded on its well-known cowardice4 ,the ,arabs fancy that any weapon which has killed a ,hyna1 whether it be gun1 sword1 spear1 or dagger1 is thenceforth unfit to be used in warfare4 ,throw away that sword1 said an ,arab to a ,french officer1 who had killed a ,hyna1 it has slain the ,hyna1 and it will be treacherous to you4 ,at the present day1 its numbers are not nearly so great in ,palestine as they used to be1 and are decreasing annually4 ,the cause of this diminution lies1 according to ,signor ,pierotti1 more in the destruction of forests than in the increase of population and the use of fire-arms1 though the two latter causes have undoubtedly considerable influence4 ,there is a very interesting account by ,mr4 ,tristram of the haunt of these animals4 ,while exploring the deserted quarries of ,es ,sumrah1 between ,beth-arabah and ,bethel1 he came upon a wonderful mass of hynine relics4 ,the quarries in which were lying the half-hewn blocks1 scored with the marks of wedges1 had evidently formed the resort of ,hynas for a long series of years4 ,vast heaps of bones of camels1 oxen1 and sheep had been collected by these animals1 in some places to the depth of two or three feet1 and on one spot ,i counted the skulls of seven camels4 ,there were no traces whatever of any human remains4 ,we had here a beautiful recent illustration of the mode of foundation of the old bone caverns1 so valuable to the geologist4 ,these bones must all have been brought in by the ,hynas1 as no camel or sheep could possibly have entered the caverns alive1 nor could any floods have washed them in4 ,near the entrance where the water percolates1 they were already forming a soft breccia4 ,the second allusion to the ,hyna is made in #a ,sam4 xiii4 #ah1 ,another company turned to the way of the border that looketh to the ,valley of ,zeboim towards the wilderness1 i4e4 to the ,valley of ,hynas4 ,the colour of the ,striped ,hyna varies according to its age4 ,when young1 as is the case with many creatures1 birds as well as mammals1 the stripes from which it derives its name are much more strongly marked than in the adult specimen4 ,the general hue of the fur is a pale grey-brown1 over which are drawn a number of dark stripes1 extending along the ribs and across the limbs4 ,in the young animal these stripes are nearly twice as dark and twice as wide as in the adult1 and they likewise appear on the face and on other parts of the body1 whence they afterwards vanish4 ,the fur is always rough2 and along the spine1 and especially over the neck and shoulders1 it is developed into a kind of mane1 which gives a very fierce aspect to the animal4 ,the illustration shows a group of ,hynas coming to feed on the relics of a dead animal4 ,the jackals and vultures have eaten as much of the flesh as they can manage1 and the vultures are sitting1 gorged1 round the stripped bones4 ,the ,hynas are now coming up to play their part as scavengers1 and have already begun to break up the bones in their crushing-mills of jaws4 ,,the ,,weasel4 ,difficulty of identifying the ,weasel of ,scripture--,the ,weasel of ,palestine--,suggested identity with the ,ichneumon4 ,the word ,weasel occurs once in the ,holy ,scriptures1 and therefore it is necessary that the animal should be mentioned4 ,there is a great controversy respecting the identification of the animal1 inasmuch as there is nothing in the context which gives the slightest indication of its appearance or habits4 ,the passage in question is that which prohibits the ,weasel and the mouse as unclean animals 7see ,lev4 xi4 #bi74 ,now the word which is here translated ,weasel is ,choled1 or ,chol'd2 and1 ,i believe1 never occurs again in the whole of the ,old ,testament4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,houghton conjectures that the ,hebrew word ,choled is identical with the ,arabic ,chuld and the ,syriac ,chuldo1 both words signifying a mole2 and therefore infers that the unclean animal in question is not a ,weasel1 but a kind of mole4 ,the ,weasel does exist in ,palestine1 and seems to be as plentiful there as in our own country4 ,indeed1 the whole tribe of ,weasels is well represented1 and the polecat is seen there as well as the ,weasel4 ,there is hardly any animal which1 for its size1 is so much dreaded by the creatures on which it preys as the common ,weasel4 ,although its small proportions render a single ,weasel an insignificant opponent to man or dog1 yet it can wage a sharp battle even with such powerful foes1 and refuses to yield except at the last necessity4 ,the proportions of the ,weasel are extremely small1 a full-grown male not exceeding ten inches in length4 ,the color of its fur is bright reddish-brown on the upper parts of the body1 and the under-portions are pure white4 ,the audacity and courage of this little animal are really remarkable4 ,it seems to hold every being except itself in the most sovereign contempt1 and1 to all appearances1 is as ready to match itself against a man as against a mouse4 ,it is a terrible foe to many of the smaller animals1 such as rats and mice1 and performs a really good service to the farmer in destroying many of these farmyard pests4 ,the ,weasel is specially dreaded by rats and mice1 because there is no hole through which they can pass that will not also admit the passage of their enemy2 and1 as the ,weasel is most persevering and determined in pursuit1 it seldom happens that rats or mice escape when their little foe has set itself fairly on their track4 ,illustration3 ,,weasels4 ,not only does the ,weasel pursue its prey through the windings of the burrows1 but it will even cross water in the chase4 ,when it has at last reached its victim1 it leaps upon the devoted creature and endeavours to fix its teeth in the back of the neck1 where it retains its deadly hold in spite of every struggle on the part of the wounded animal4 ,if the attack be rightly made and the animal a small one1 the ,weasel can drive its teeth into the brain and cause instantaneous death4 ,the ,weasel is very fond of eggs1 and young birds of all kinds4 ,it is said that an egg that has been broken by a ,weasel1 can always be recognized1 by the peculiar mode which the little creature employs for the purpose4 ,instead of breaking the egg to pieces or biting a large hole in the shell1 the ,weasel contents itself with making quite a small aperture at one end1 through which it abstracts the liquid contents4 ,a curious example of the courage of the ,weasel1 is related by a gentleman who while crossing a field at dusk1 saw an owl pounce upon some object on the ground1 and carry it in the air4 ,in a short time the bird showed signs of distress1 trying to free itself from some annoying object by means of its talons1 and flapping about in a very bewildered manner4 ,soon afterwards the owl fell dead to the earth2 and when the spectator of the arial combat approached1 a weasel ran away from the dead body of the bird1 itself being apparently uninjured4 ,on examination of the owl's body1 it was found that the ,weasel1 which had been marked out for the owl's repast1 had in its turn become the assailant1 and had attacked the unprotected parts which lie beneath the wings4 ,a considerable wound had been made in that spot1 and the large blood-vessels torn through4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,biter ,,bit4 ,illustration3 scene ,,the ,,badger4 ,difficulty in identifying the ,tachash of ,scripture--,references to ,badgers' skins--,the ,dugong thought to be the ,badger--,the ,bedouin sandals--,nature of the materials for the ,tabernacle--,habits of the ,badger--,the species found in ,palestine--,uses of the ,badgers' skins--,looseness of zoological terms4 ,until very lately1 there was much difficulty in ascertaining whether the word ,tachash has been rightly translated as ,badger4 ,it occurs in several parts of the ,scriptures1 and almost invariably is used in relation to a skin or fur of some sort4 ,we will first examine the passages in which the ,badger is mentioned1 and then proceed to identify the animal4 ,nearly all the references to the ,badger occur in the book of ,exodus1 and form part of the directions for constructing the ,tabernacle and its contents4 ,the first notice of the word occurs in ,exodus xxv4 #e1 where the people of ,israel are ordered to bring their offerings for the sanctuary1 among which offerings are gold1 silver1 and brass1 blue1 purple1 and scarlet1 fine linen1 goats' hair1 rams' skins dyed red1 badgers' skins1 and shittim wood--all these to be used in the construction of the ,tabernacle4 ,then a little farther on1 in chapter xxvi4 #ad1 we find one of the special uses to which the badgers' skins were to be put1 namely1 to make the outer covering or roof of the tabernacle4 ,another use for the badgers' skins was to form an outer covering for the ark1 table of shewbread1 and other furniture of the ,tabernacle1 when the people were on the march4 ,in all these cases the badger-skin is used as a covering to defend a building or costly furniture1 but there is one example where it is employed for a different purpose4 ,this passage occurs in the book of ,ezekiel1 chapter xvi4 #aj4 ,the prophet is speaking of ,jerusalem under the image of a woman1 and uses these words1 ,i anointed thee with oil2 ,i clothed thee also with broidered work1 and shod thee with badger's skin1 and ,i girded thee about with fine linen1 and ,i covered thee with silk4 ,i decked thee also with ornaments1 and ,i put bracelets upon thy hands1 and a chain upon thy neck1 and ,i put a jewel on thy forehead1 and earrings in thine ears1 and a beautiful crown upon thine head4 ,so we have here the fact1 that the same material which was used for the covering of the ,tabernacle1 and of the sacred furniture1 could also be used for the manufacture of shoes4 ,this passage is the more valuable because of an inference which may be drawn from it4 ,the reader will see that the badger-skin1 whatever it may have been1 must have been something of considerable value1 and therefore1 in all probability1 something of much rarity4 ,in the present instance1 it is classed with the most luxurious robes that were known in those days1 and it is worthy of special mention among the bracelet1 earrings1 necklace1 and coronal with which the symbolized city was adorned4 ,if the reader will now refer to the passage in which the children of ,israel were commanded to bring their offerings1 he will see that in those cases also the badger-skins were ranked with the costliest articles of apparel that could be found1 and had evidently been brought from ,egypt1 the peculiar home of all the arts2 together with the vast quantity of gold and jewels which were used for the same sacred purpose4 ,now we find that the badger-skins in question must possess three qualities3 they must be costly1 they must be capable of forming a defence against the weather1 and they must be strong enough to be employed in the manufacture of shoes4 ,if we accept the word ,tachash as signifying a ,badger1 we shall find that these conditions have been fulfilled4 ,but many commentators have thought that badger-skins could not have been procured in sufficient numbers for the purpose1 and have therefore conjectured that some other animal must be signified by the word ,tachash4 ,a species of dugong 7,halicore hemprichii7 is the animal that has been selected as the ,badger of the ,scriptures4 ,it is one of the marine mammalia1 and always lives near the shore1 where it can find the various alg on which it feeds4 ,it is a gregarious animal1 and1 as it frequently ascends rivers for some distance1 it may be captured in sufficient numbers to make both its flesh and skin useful4 ,moreover1 it is of considerable size1 fourteen or fifteen feet in length being its usual dimensions1 so that a comparatively small number of the skins would be required for the covering of the ,tabernacle4 ,that shoes can be made of it is evident from the fact that at the present day shoes1 or rather sandals1 are made from its hide1 and are commonly used by the ,bedouins4 ,but the very qualities and peculiarities which render it a fit material for the sandal of a half-naked ,bedouin ,arab1 who has to walk continually over hard1 hot1 sandy1 and rough ground1 would surely make it unsuitable for the delicate shoes worn by a woman of rank who spends her time in the house1 and the rest of whose clothing is of fine linen and silk1 embroidered with gold and jewels4 ,in our own country1 the hobnailed shoes of the ploughman and the slight shoe of a lady are made of very different materials1 and it is reasonable to conjecture that such was the case when the passage in question was written4 ,then ,dr4 ,robinson1 who admits that the hide of the dugong could hardly have been used as the material for a lady's shoe1 thinks that it would have answered very well for the roof of the ,tabernacle1 because it was large1 clumsy1 and coarse4 ,it seems strange that he did not also perceive that the two latter qualities would completely disqualify such skins for that service4 ,everything clumsy and coarse was studiously prohibited1 and nothing but the very best was considered fit for the ,tabernacle of the ,lord4 ,by special revelation1 ,moses was instructed to procure1 not merely the ordinary timber of the country for the framework--not only the fabrics which would keep out rain and wind--not simply the metals in common use1 from which to make the lamps and other furniture--not the ordinary oils for supplying the lamps2 but1 on the contrary1 the finest linen1 the most elaborate embroidery1 the rarest woods1 the purest gold1 the costliest gems1 were demanded1 and nothing common or inferior was accepted4 ,the commonest material that was permitted was the long1 soft fleece of rams' wool2 but1 even in that case1 the wool had to be dyed of the regal scarlet--a dye so rare and so costly that none but the wealthiest rulers could use it4 ,even the very oil that burned in the lamps must be the purest olive-oil1 prepared expressly for that purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,badgers4 ,the very fact1 therefore1 that any article was plentiful and could easily be obtained1 would be a proof that such article was not used for so sacred a purpose2 while it is impossible that anything coarse and clumsy could have been accepted for the construction of that ,tabernacle within which the ,shekinah ever burned over the ,mercy-seat--over which the cloud rested by day1 and the fire shone by night1 visible external proofs of the ,divine glory within4 ,we therefore dismiss from our minds the possibility of accepting any material for it which was not exceptionably valuable1 and which would be employed in the uses of ordinary life4 ,the great object of the minutely-elaborate directions which were given through ,moses to the ,israelites was evidently to keep continually before their eyes the great truth that they owed all to ,god1 and that their costliest offerings were but acknowledgments of their dependence4 ,we will now presume that the ,tachash of the ,pentateuch and ,ezekiel is really the animal which we know by the name of ,badger4 ,it exists throughout the whole of the district traversed by the ,israelites1 though it is not very plentiful1 nor is it easily taken4 ,had such been the case1 its fur would not have been employed in the service of the sanctuary4 ,it is nocturnal in its habits1 and very seldom is seen during the hours of daylight1 so that it cannot be captured by chase4 ,it is not gregarious1 so that it cannot be taken in great numbers1 as is the case with certain wild animals which have been thought to be the ,tachash of ,scripture4 ,it is not a careless animal1 so that it cannot be captured or killed without the exercise of considerable ingenuity1 and the expenditure of much time and trouble4 ,it is one of the burrowing animals1 digging for itself a deep subterranean home1 and always ready whenever it is alarmed to escape into the dark recesses of its dwelling1 from which it can scarcely be dislodged4 ,it is not a large animal1 so that a considerable number of skins would be required in order to make a covering which should overlap a structure forty-five feet in length and fifteen in breadth4 ,were it a solitary animal1 there might be a difficulty in procuring a sufficient number of skins4 ,but it is partly gregarious in its habits1 living together in small families1 seven or eight being sometimes found to inhabit a single dwelling-place4 ,it is1 therefore1 sufficiently rare to make its skin valuable1 and sufficiently plentiful to furnish the requisite number of skins4 ,all these facts tend to show that the cost of such a covering must have been very great1 even though it was the outermost1 and1 consequently1 the least valuable of the four4 ,it has been suggested that these skins were only used to lay over the lines where the different sets of coverings overlapped each other1 and that1 in consequence1 they need not have been very numerous4 ,illustration3 ,,supposed ,,form ,,and ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,tabernacle1 ,,camp1 ,,etc4 ,but we find that these same skins1 which were evidently those which formed the external roof1 were used1 when the ,tabernacle was taken down1 for the purpose of forming distinct coverings for the ark of the testimony1 the table of shewbread1 the seven-branched candlestick1 the golden altar1 the various vessels used in the ministrations1 and lastly1 the altar of sacrifice itself4 ,thus1 when we recollect the dimensions of the ark1 the table1 the candlestick1 and the two altars1 we shall see that1 in order to make separate covers for them1 a quantity of material would be used which would be amply sufficient to cover the whole roof of the ,tabernacle1 even if it had1 as was most probably the case1 a ridged1 and not a flat roof4 ,we now come to our next point1 namely1 the aptitude of the ,badger's skin to resist weather4 ,any one who has handled the skin of the ,badger will acknowledge that a better material could hardly be found4 ,the fur is long1 thick1 and1 though light1 is moderately stiff1 the hairs falling over each other in such a manner as to throw off rain or snow as off a penthouse4 ,and1 as to the third point1 namely1 its possible use as a material for the manufacture of shoes1 we may call to mind that the skin of the ,badger is proverbially tough1 and that this very quality has caused the animal to be subjected to most cruel treatment by a class of sporting men which is now almost extinct4 ,the ,septuagint gives little assistance in determining the precise nature of the ,tachash1 and rather seems to consider the word as expressive of the colour with which the fur was dyed than that of the animal from which it was taken4 ,still1 it must be remembered that not only are zoological terms used very loosely in the ,scriptures1 but that in ,hebrew1 as in all other languages1 the same combination of letters often expresses two different ideas1 so that the word ,tachash may equally signify a colour and an animal4 ,moreover1 it has been well pointed out that the repeated use of the word in the plural number shows that it cannot refer to colour2 while its almost invariable combination with the ,hebrew word that signifies a skin implies that it does not refer to colour1 but to an animal4 ,what that animal may be1 is1 as ,i have already mentioned1 conjectural4 ,but1 as the authorized translation renders the word as ,badger1 and as this reading fulfils the conditions necessary to its identification1 and as no other reading does fulfil them1 we cannot be very far wrong if we accept that translation as the correct one1 and assume the ,tachash of the ,scriptures to be the animal which we call by the name of ,badger4 ,,the ,,bear4 ,the ,syrian ,bear--,identity of the ,hebrew and ,arabic titles--,its colour variable according to age--,bears once numerous in ,palestine1 and now only occasionally seen--,reason for their diminution--,present localities of the ,bear1 and its favourite haunts--,food of the ,bear--,its general habits--,its ravages among the flocks--,the ,bear dangerous to mankind--,the ,bear robbed of her whelps--,illustrative passages--,its mode of fighting--,various references to the ,bear1 from the time of ,samuel to that of ,st4 ,john4 ,whatever doubt may exist as to the precise identity of various animals mentioned in the ,scriptures1 there is none whatever as to the creature which is frequently alluded to under the name of ,bear4 ,the ,hebrew word is ,db1 and it is a remarkable fact that the name of this animal in the ,arabic language is almost identical with the ,hebrew term1 namely1 ,dubh4 ,the peculiar species of ,bear which inhabits ,palestine is the ,syrian ,bear 7,ursus ,isabellinus71 and1 though it has been variously described by different eye-witnesses1 there is no doubt that the same species was seen by them all4 ,as is the case with many animals1 the ,syrian ,bear changes its colour as it grows older4 ,when a cub1 it is of a darkish brown1 which becomes a light brown as it approaches maturity4 ,but1 when it has attained its full growth1 it becomes cream-coloured1 and each succeeding year seems to lighten its coat1 so that a very old ,bear is nearly as white as its relative of the ,arctic regions4 ,travellers1 therefore1 who have met the younger specimens1 have described them as brown in hue1 while those who have seen more aged individuals have stated that the colour of the ,syrian ,bear is white4 ,owing to the destruction of forests1 the ,bear1 which is essentially a lover of the woods1 has decreased considerably in number4 ,yet1 even at the present time1 specimens may be seen by the watchful traveller1 mostly about the range of ,lebanon1 but sometimes at a considerable distance from that locality4 ,mr4 ,tristram1 for example1 saw it close to the ,lake of ,gennesaret4 ,we never met with so many wild animals as on one of those days4 ,first of all1 a wild boar got out of some scrub close to us1 as we were ascending the valley4 ,then a deer was started below1 ran up the cliff1 and wound along the ledge1 passing close to us4 ,then a large ichneumon almost crossed my feet and ran into a cleft2 and1 while endeavouring to trace him1 ,i was amazed to see a brown ,syrian ,bear clumsily but rapidly clamber down the rocks and cross the ravine4 ,he was1 however1 far too cautious to get within hailing distance of any of the riflemen4 ,the same author mentions that some of the chief strongholds of this ,bear are certain clefts in the face of a precipitous chasm through which the river ,leontes flows4 ,this river runs into the sea a few miles northward of ,tyre1 and assists in carrying off the melted snows from the ,lebanon range of mountains4 ,his description is so picturesque1 that it must be given in his own words4 ,the channel1 though a thousand feet deep1 was so narrow that the opposite ridge was within gunshot4 ,looking down the giddy abyss1 we could see the cliff on our side partially covered with myrtle1 bay1 and caper hanging from the fissures1 while the opposite side was perforated with many shallow caves1 the inaccessible eyries of vultures1 eagles1 and lanner falcons1 which were sailing in multitudes around4 ,the lower part had many ledges clad with shrubs1 the strongholds of the ,syrian ,bear1 though inaccessible even to goats4 ,far beneath dashed the milk-white river1 a silver line in a ruby setting of oleanders1 roaring doubtless fiercely1 but too distant to be heard at the height on which we stood4 ,this cleft of the ,leontes was the only true ,alpine scenery we had met with in ,palestine1 and in any country1 and amidst any mountains1 it would attract admiration4 ,illustration3 ,,bears ,,descending ,,the ,,mountains4 ,on those elevated spots the ,bear loves to dwell1 and throughout the summer-time generally remains in such localities4 ,for the ,bear is one of the omnivorous animals1 and is able to feed on vegetable as well as animal substances1 preferring the former when they can be found4 ,there is nothing that a ,bear likes better than strawberries and similar fruits1 among which it will revel throughout the whole fruit season1 daintily picking the ripest berries1 and becoming wonderfully fat by the constant banquet4 ,sometimes1 when the fruits fail1 it makes incursions among the cultivated grounds1 and is noted for the ravages which it makes among a sort of vetch which is much grown in the ,holy ,land4 ,but during the colder months of the year the ,bear changes its diet1 and becomes carnivorous4 ,sometimes it contents itself with the various wild animals which it can secure1 but sometimes it descends to the lower plains1 and seizes upon the goats and sheep in their pastures4 ,this habit is referred to by ,david1 in his well-known speech to ,saul1 when the king was trying to dissuade him from matching himself against the gigantic ,philistine4 ,and ,saul said to ,david1 ,thou art not able to go against this ,philistine to fight with him3 for thou art but a youth1 and he a man of war from his youth4444 ,thy servant kept his father's sheep1 and there came a lion and a bear1 and took a lamb out of the flock3 and ,i went out after him1 and smote him1 and delivered it out of his hand2 and when he arose against me1 ,i caught him by the beard1 and smote him1 and slew him4 ,thy servant slew both the lion and the bear3 and this uncircumcised ,philistine shall be as one of them1 seeing he hath defied the armies of the living ,god4--#a ,sam4 xvii4 #cc-cf4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,watch4 ,though not generally apt to attack mankind1 it will do so if first attacked1 and then becomes a most dangerous enemy4 ,see1 for example1 that most graphic passage in the book of the prophet ,amos1 whose business as a herdsman must have made him conversant with the habits1 not only of the flocks and herds which he kept1 but of the wild beasts which might devour them3--,woe unto you that desire the day of the ,lord6 to what end is it for you8 the day of the ,lord is darkness1 and not light4 ,as if a man did flee from a lion1 and a bear met him2 or went into a house1 and leaned his hand on the wall1 and a serpent bit him4 7v4 #ai47 ,another reference to the dangerous character of the ,bear is made in #b ,kings ii4 #bc1 #bd1 in which is recorded that two she-bears came out of the wood near ,bethel1 and killed forty-two of the children that mocked at ,elisha4 ,as the ,bear is not swift of foot1 but rather clumsy in its movements1 it cannot hope to take the nimbler animals in open chase4 ,it prefers to lie in wait for them in the bushes1 and to strike them down with a sudden blow of its paw1 a terrible weapon1 which it can wield as effectively as the lion uses its claws4 ,an allusion to this habit is made in the ,lamentations of ,jeremiah 7iii4 #aj71 ,he was unto me as a bear lying in wait1 and as a lion in secret places4 ,harmless to man as it generally is1 there are occasions on which it becomes a terrible and relentless foe1 not seeking to avoid his presence1 but even searching for him1 and attacking him as soon as seen4 ,in the proper season of the year1 hunters1 or those who are travelling through those parts of the country infested by the ,bear1 will sometimes find the cubs1 generally two in number1 their mother having left them in the den while she has gone to search for food4 ,although they would not venture to take the initiative in an attack upon either of the parents1 they are glad of an opportunity which enables them to destroy one or two ,bears without danger to themselves4 ,the young ,bears are easily killed or carried off1 because at a very early age they are as confident as they are weak1 and do not try to escape when they see the hunters approaching4 ,the only danger lies in the possibility that their deed may be discovered by the mother before they can escape from the locality1 and1 if she should happen to return while the robbers are still in the neighbourhood1 a severe conflict is sure to follow4 ,at any time an angry ,bear is a terrible antagonist1 especially if it be wounded with sufficient severity to cause pain1 and not severely enough to cripple its movements4 ,but1 when to this easily-roused ferocity is added the fury of maternal feelings1 it may be imagined that the hunters have good reason to fear its attack4 ,illustration3 ,,seeking ,,an ,,outlook4 ,to all animals that rear their young is given a sublime and almost supernatural courage in defending their offspring1 and from the lioness1 that charges a host of armed men when her cubs are in danger1 to the hen1 which defies the soaring kite or prowling fox1 or to the spider1 that will give up her life rather than abandon her yet unhatched brood1 the same self-sacrificing spirit actuates them all4 ,most terrible therefore is the wrath of a creature which possesses1 as is the case of the ,bear1 the strongest maternal affections1 added to great size1 tremendous weapons1 and gigantic strength4 ,that the sight of a ,bear bereaved of her young was well known to both writers and contemporary readers of the ,old ,testament1 is evident from the fact that it is mentioned by several writers1 and always as a familiar illustration of furious anger4 ,see for example #b ,sam4 xvii4 #h1 when ,hushai is dissuading ,absalom from following the cautious counsel of ,ahithophel1 ,for thou knowest thy father and his men1 that they be mighty men of war1 and they be chafed in their minds as a bear robbed of her whelps in the field4 ,solomon also1 in the ,proverbs 7xvii4 #ab71 uses the same image1 ,let a bear robbed of her whelps meet a man1 rather than a fool in his folly4 ,when the ,bear fights1 it delivers rapid strokes with its armed paw1 tearing and rending away everything that it strikes4 ,a blow from a bear's paw has been several times known to strip the entire skin1 together with the hair1 from a man's head1 and1 when fighting with dogs1 to tear its enemies open as if each claw were a chisel4 ,bears are capable of erecting themselves on their hinder limbs1 and of supporting themselves in an upright position with the greatest ease4 ,when attacked in close combat1 they have a habit of rearing themselves upon their hinder feet--a position which enables them to deliver with the greatest effect the terrific blows with their fore paws1 upon which they chiefly rely in defending themselves4 ,with fearful ingenuity1 the ,bear1 when engaged with a human foe1 directs its attack upon the head of its antagonist1 and1 as previously stated1 has been known to strike off the entire scalp with a single blow4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,family-,,party4 ,a hunter who had the misfortune to be struck down by a ,bear--and the singular good fortune to afterwards escape from it--says1 that when he was lying on the ground at the mercy of the angry beast1 the animal1 after biting him upon the arms and legs1 deliberately settled itself upon his head and began to scarify it in the fiercest manner1 leaving wounds eight and nine inches in length4 ,bears are the more terrible antagonists from their extreme tenacity of life1 and the fearful energy which they compress into the last moment of existence1 when they are suffering from a mortal wound4 ,unless struck in the heart or brain1 the mortally-wounded ,bear is more to be feared than if it had received no injury whatever1 and contrives to wreak more harm in the few minutes that immediately precede its death1 than it had achieved while still uninjured4 ,many a hunter has received mortal hurts by incautiously approaching a ,bear1 which lay apparently dead1 but was in reality only stunned4 ,illustration3 bear ,illustration3 porcupine ,,the ,,porcupine4 ,presumed identity of the ,kippd with the ,porcupine--,habits of the ,porcupine--the common ,porcupine found plentifully in ,palestine4 ,although1 like the hedgehog1 the ,porcupine is not mentioned by name in the ,scriptures1 many commentators think that the word ,kippd signifies both the hedgehog and ,porcupine4 ,that the two animals should be thought to be merely two varieties of one species is not astonishing1 when we remember the character of the people among whom the ,porcupine lives4 ,not having the least idea of scientific geology1 they look only to the most conspicuous characteristics1 and because the ,porcupine and hedgehog are both covered with an armature of quills1 and the quills are far more conspicuous than the teeth1 the inhabitants of ,palestine naturally class the two animals together4 ,in reality1 they belong to two very different orders1 the hedgehog being classed with the shrew-mice and moles1 while the ,porcupine is a rodent animal1 and is classed with the rats1 rabbits1 beavers1 marmots1 and other rodents4 ,it is quite as common in ,palestine as the hedgehog1 a fact which increases the probability that the two animals may have been mentioned under a common title4 ,being a nocturnal animal1 it retires during the day-time to some crevice in a rock or burrow in the ground1 and there lies sleeping until the sunset awakens it and calls it to action4 ,and as the hedgehog is also a nocturnal animal1 the similarity of habit serves to strengthen the mutual resemblance4 ,the ,porcupine is peculiarly fitted for living in dry and unwatered spots1 as1 like many other animals1 of which our common rabbit is a familiar example1 it can exist without water1 obtaining the needful moisture from the succulent roots on which it feeds4 ,the sharply pointed quills with which its body is covered are solid1 and strengthened in a most beautiful manner by internal ribs1 that run longitudinally through them1 exactly like those of the hollow iron masts1 which are now coming so much into use4 ,as they are1 in fact1 greatly developed hairs1 they are continually shed and replaced1 and when they are about to fall are so loosely attached that they fall off if pulled slightly1 or even if the animal shakes itself4 ,consequently the shed quills that lie about the localities inhabited by the ,porcupine indicate its whereabouts1 and so plentiful are these quills in some places1 that quite a bundle can be collected in a short time4 ,there are many species of ,porcupines which inhabit different parts of the world1 but that which has been mentioned is the common ,porcupine of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,,the ,,mole4 ,the two ,hebrew words which are translated as ,mole--,obscurity of the former name--,a parallel case in our own language--,the second name--,the ,moles and the ,bats1 why associated together--,the real ,mole of ,scripture1 its different names1 and its place in zoology--,description of the ,mole-rat and its general habits--,curious superstition--,discovery of the species by ,mr4 ,tristram--,scripture and science--,how the ,mole-rat finds its food--,distinction between the ,mole and the present animal4 ,there are two words which are translated as ,mole in our authorized version of the ,bible4 ,one of them is so obscure that there seems no possibility of deciding the creature that is represented by it4 ,we cannot even tell to what class of the animal kingdom it refers1 because in more than one place it is mentioned as one of the unclean birds that might not be eaten 7translated as swan in our version71 whereas1 in another place1 it is enumerated among the unclean creeping things4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mole-,,rat4 ,we may conjecture that the same word might be used to designate two distinct animals1 though we have no clue to their identification4 ,it is rather a strange coincidence1 in corroboration of this theory1 that our word ,mole signifies three distinct objects--firstly1 an animal2 secondly1 a cutaneous growth2 and thirdly1 a bank of earth4 ,now1 supposing ,english to be a dead language1 like the ,hebrew1 it may well be imagined that a translator of an ,english book would feel extremely perplexed when he saw the word ,mole used in such widely different senses4 ,the best ,hebraists can do no more than offer a conjecture founded on the structure of the word ,tinshemeth1 which is thought by some to be the chameleon4 ,some think that it is the ,mole1 some the ibis1 some the salamander1 while others consider it to be the centipede2 and in neither case have any decisive arguments been adduced4 ,we will therefore leave the former of these two names1 and proceed to the second1 ,chephor-peroth4 ,this word occurs in that passage of ,isaiah which has already been quoted when treating of the bat4 ,in that day a man shall cast his idols of silver and his idols of gold1 which they made each one to himself to worship1 to the moles and to the bats2 to go into the clefts of the rocks and into the tops of the ragged rocks1 for fear of the ,lord and for the glory of his majesty1 when he ariseth to shake terribly the earth4 ,it is highly probable that the animal in question is the ,mole of ,palestine1 which is not the same as our ,european species1 but is much larger in size1 and belongs to a different order of mammalia4 ,the true ,mole is one of the insectivorous and carnivorous animals1 and is allied to the shrews and the hedgehogs2 whereas the ,mole of ,palestine 7,spalax typhlus7 is one of the rodents1 and allied to the rabbits1 mice1 marmots1 and jerboas4 ,a better term for it is the ,mole-rat1 by which name it is familiar to zoologists4 ,it is also known by the names of ,slepez and ,nenni4 ,in length it is about eight inches1 and its colour is a pale slate4 ,as is the case with the true ,moles1 the eyes are of very minute dimensions1 and are not visible through the thick soft fur with which the whole head and body are covered4 ,neither are there any visible external ears1 although the ear is really very large1 and extremely sensitive to sound4 ,this apparent privation of both ears and eyes gives to the animal a most singular and featureless appearance1 its head being hardly recognisable as such but for the mouth1 and the enormous projecting teeth1 which not only look formidable1 but really are so4 ,there is a curious superstition in the ,ukraine1 that if a man will dare to grasp a ,mole-rat in his bare hand1 allow it to bite him1 and then squeeze it to death1 the hand that did the deed will ever afterwards possess the virtue of healing goitre or scrofula4 ,this animal is spread over a very large tract of country1 and is very common in ,palestine4 ,mr4 ,tristram gives an interesting account of its discovery4 ,we had long tried in vain to capture the ,mole of ,palestine4 ,its mines and its mounds we had seen everywhere1 and reproached ourselves with having omitted the mole-trap among the items of our outfit4 ,from the size of the mounds and the shallowness of the subterranean passages1 we felt satisfied it could not be the ,european species1 and our hopes of solving the question were raised when we found that one of them had taken up its quarters close to our camp4 ,after several vain attempts to trap it1 an ,arab one night brought a live ,mole in a jar to the tent4 ,it was no ,mole properly so called1 but the ,mole-rat1 which takes its place throughout ,western ,asia4 ,the man1 having observed our anxiety to possess a specimen1 refused to part with it for less than a hundred piastres1 and scornfully rejected the twenty piastres ,i offered4 ,ultimately1 ,dr4 ,chaplin purchased it for five piastres after our departure1 and ,i kept it alive for some time in a box1 feeding it on sliced onions4 ,the same gentleman afterwards caught many of the ,mole-rats1 and kept them in earthen vessels1 as they soon gnawed their way through wood4 ,they fed chiefly on bulbs1 but also ate sopped bread4 ,like many other animals1 they reposed during the day1 and were active throughout the night4 ,the author then proceeds to remark on the peculiarly appropriate character of the prophecy that the idols should be cast to the ,moles and the bats4 ,had the ,european ,mole been the animal to which reference was made1 there would have been comparatively little significance in the connexion of the two names1 because1 although both animals are lovers of darkness1 they do not inhabit similar localities4 ,but the ,mole-rat is fond of frequenting deserted ruins and burial-places1 so that the ,moles and the bats are really companions1 and as such are associated together in the sacred narrative4 ,here1 as in many other instances1 we find that closer study of the ,scriptures united to more extended knowledge are by no means the enemies of religion1 as some well-meaning1 but narrow-minded persons think4 ,on the contrary1 the ,scriptures were never so well understood1 and their truth and force so well recognised1 as at the present day2 and science has proved to be1 not the destroyer of the ,bible1 but its interpreter4 ,we shall soon cease to hear of ,science versus the ,bible1 and shall substitute ,science and the ,bible versus ,ignorance and ,prejudice4 ,the ,mole-rat needs not to dig such deep tunnels as the true ,moles1 because its food does not lie so deep4 ,the ,moles live chiefly upon earthworms1 and are obliged to procure them in the varying depths to which they burrow4 ,but the ,mole-rat lives mostly upon roots1 preferring those of a bulbous nature4 ,now bulbous roots are1 as a rule1 situated near the surface of the ground1 and1 therefore1 any animal which feeds upon them must be careful not to burrow too deeply1 lest it should pass beneath them4 ,the shallowness of the burrows is thus accounted for4 ,gardens are often damaged by this animal1 the root-crops1 such as carrots and onions1 affording plenty of food without needing much exertion4 ,the ,mole-rat does not keep itself quite so jealously secluded as does our common ,mole1 but occasionally will come out of the burrow and lie on the ground1 enjoying the warm sunshine4 ,still it is not easily to be approached2 for though its eyes are almost useless1 the ears are so sharp1 and the animal is so wary1 that at the sound of a footstep it instantly seeks the protection of its burrow1 where it may bid defiance to its foes4 ,how it obtains its food is a mystery4 ,there seems to be absolutely no method of guiding itself to the precise spot where a bulb may be growing4 ,it is not difficult to conjecture the method by which the ,mole discovers its prey4 ,its sensitive ears may direct it to the spot where a worm is driving its way through the earth1 and should it come upon its prey1 the very touch of the worm1 writhing in terror at the approach of its enemy1 would be sufficient to act as a guide4 ,i have kept several ,moles1 and always noticed that1 though they would pass close to a worm without seeming to detect its presence1 either by sight or scent1 at the slightest touch they would spring round1 dart on the worm1 and in a moment seize it between their jaws4 ,but with the ,mole-rat the case is different4 ,the root can utter no sound1 and can make no movement1 nor is it likely that the odour of the bulb should penetrate through the earth to a very great distance4 ,illustration3 mice ,,the ,,mouse4 ,the ,mice which marred the land--,the ,field-mouse--,its destructive habits and prolific nature--,the ,hamster1 and its habits--,the ,jerboa1 its activity and destructiveness--,various species of ,dormice and ,sand-rats4 ,that the ,mouse mentioned in the ,old ,testament was some species of rodent animal is tolerably clear1 though it is impossible to state any particular species as being signified by the ,hebrew word ,akbar4 ,the probable derivation of this name is from two words which signify destruction of corn1 and it is therefore evident that allusion is made to some animal which devours the produce of the fields1 and which exists in sufficient numbers to make its voracity formidable4 ,some commentators on the ,old ,testament translate the word ,akbar as jerboa4 ,now1 although the jerboa is common in ,syria1 it is not nearly so plentiful as other rodent animals1 and would scarcely be selected as the means by which a terrible disaster is made to befall a whole country4 ,the student of ,scripture is well aware that1 in those exceptional occurrences which are called miracles1 a needless development of the wonder-working power is never employed4 ,we are not to suppose1 for example1 that the clouds of locusts that devoured the harvests of the ,egyptians were created for this express purpose1 but that their already existing hosts were concentrated upon a limited area1 instead of being spread over a large surface4 ,nor need we fancy that the frogs which rendered their habitations unclean1 and contaminated their food1 were brought into existence simply to inflict a severe punishment on the fastidious and superstitious ,egyptians4 ,of course1 had such an exercise of creative power been needed1 it would have been used1 but we can all see that a needless miracle is never worked4 ,he who would not suffer even a crumb of the miraculously multiplied bread to be wasted1 is not likely to waste that power by which the miracle was wrought4 ,illustration3 ,,dagon ,,fallen ,,down ,,before ,,the ,,ark4 ,if we refer to the early history of the ,israelitish nation1 as told in #a ,sam4 iv4-vi41 we shall find that the ,israelites made an unwarrantable use of the ark1 by taking it into battle1 and that it was captured and carried off into the country of the ,philistines4 ,then various signs were sent to warn the captors to send the ark back to its rightful possessors4 ,dagon1 their great god1 was prostrated before it1 painful diseases attacked them1 so that many died1 and scarcely any seem to have escaped1 while their harvests were ravaged by numbers of mice that marred the land4 ,illustration3 ,,mouse ,,and ,,nest4 ,the question is now simple enough4 ,if the ordinary translation is accepted1 and the word ,akbar rendered as ,mouse1 would the necessary conditions be fulfilled1 i4e4 would the creature be destructive1 and would it exist in very great numbers8 ,now we shall find that both these conditions are fulfilled by the common ,field-mouse4 ,this little creature is1 in proportion to its size1 one of the most destructive animals in the world4 ,let its numbers be increased from any cause whatever1 and it will most effectually mar the land4 ,it will devour every cereal that is sown1 and kill almost any sapling that is planted4 ,it does not even wait for the corn to spring up1 but will burrow beneath the surface1 and dig out the seed before it has had time to sprout4 ,in the early part of the year1 it will eat the green blade as soon as it springs out of the ground1 and is an adept at climbing the stalks of corn1 and plundering the ripe ears in the autumn4 ,illustration3 ,,jerboa1 ,,or ,,leaping ,,mouse4 ,when stacked or laid up in barns1 the harvest is by no means safe1 for the ,mice will penetrate into any ordinary barn1 and find their way into any carelessly-built stack1 from which they can scarcely be ejected4 ,the rat itself is not so dire a foe to the farmer1 as the less obtrusive1 but equally mischievous ,field-mouse4 ,the ferret will drive the rats out of their holes1 and if they have taken possession of a wheat-stack they can be ejected by depriving them of access to water4 ,but the burrows of the ,field-mouse are so small that a ferret cannot make its way through them1 and the nightly dew that falls on the stack affords an ample supply of water4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,field-,,mouse4 ,when the ,field-mouse is deprived of the food which it loves best1 it finds a subsistence among the trees4 ,whenever mice can discover a newly-planted sapling1 they hold great revel upon it1 eating away the tender young bark as high as they can reach1 and consequently destroying the tree as effectually as if it were cut down4 ,even when the young trees fail them1 and no tender bark is to be had1 the ,field-mice can still exert their destructive powers4 ,they will then betake themselves to the earth1 burrow beneath its surface1 and devour the young rootlets of the forest trees4 ,all botanists know that a healthy tree is continually pushing forward fresh roots below the ground1 in order to gain sufficient nourishment to supply the increasing growth above4 ,if1 therefore1 these young roots are destroyed1 the least harm that can happen to the tree is that its further growth is arrested2 while1 in many cases1 the tree1 which cannot repair the injuries it has received1 droops gradually1 and finally dies4 ,even in this country1 the ,field-mouse has proved itself a terrible enemy to the agriculturist1 and has devastated considerable tracts of land4 ,so much for the destructive powers of the ,field-mouse1 and the next point to be considered is its abundance4 ,nearly all the rats and mice are singularly prolific animals1 producing a considerable number at a brood1 and having several broods in a season4 ,the ,field-mouse is by no means an exception to the general rule1 but produces as many young in a season as any of the ,mice4 ,not only is it formidable from its numbers1 but from the insidious nature of its attacks4 ,any one can see a rabbit1 a hare1 or even a rat2 but to see a ,field-mouse is not easy1 even when the little creatures are present in thousands4 ,a ,field-mouse never shows itself except from necessity1 its instinct teaching it to escape the observation of its many furred and feathered enemies4 ,short-legged and soft-furred1 it threads its noiseless way among the herbage with such gentle suppleness that scarcely a grass-blade is stirred1 while1 if it should be forced to pass over a spot of bare ground1 the red-brown hue of its fur prevents it from being detected by an inexperienced eye4 ,generally the ,field-mouse is safe from human foes1 and has only to dread the piercing eye and swift wings of the hawk1 or the silent flight and sharp talons of the owl4 ,although there can be no doubt that the ,field-mouse is one of the animals to which the name of ,akbar is given1 it is probable that many species were grouped under this one name4 ,small rodents of various kinds are very plentiful in ,palestine1 and there are several species closely allied to the ,field-mouse itself4 ,among them is the ,hamster 7,cricetus frumentarius71 so widely known for the ravages which it makes among the crops4 ,this terribly destructive animal not only steals the crops for immediate subsistence1 but lays up a large stock of provisions for the winter1 seeming to be actuated by a sort of miserly passion for collecting and storing away4 ,there seems to be no bounds to the quantity of food which a ,hamster will carry into its subterranean store-house1 from seventy to one hundred pounds' weight being sometimes taken out of the burrow of a single animal4 ,the fact of the existence of these large stores shows that the animal must need them1 and accordingly we find that the ,hamster is only a partial hibernator1 as it is awake during a considerable portion of the winter months1 and is consequently obliged to live on the stores which it has collected4 ,it is an exceedingly prolific animal1 each pair producing on an average twenty-five young in the course of a year4 ,the families are unsociable1 and1 as soon as they are strong enough to feed themselves1 the young ,hamsters leave their home1 and make separate burrows for themselves4 ,thus we see that the ,hamster1 as well as the ,field-mouse1 fulfils the conditions which are needed in order to class it under the general title of ,akbar4 ,i have already stated that some translators of the ,bible use the word ,jerboa as a rendering of the ,hebrew ,akbar4 ,as the ,jerboa certainly is found in ,palestine1 there is some foundation for this idea1 and we may safely conjecture that it also is one of the smaller rodents which are grouped together under the appellation of ,mouse4 ,the ,common ,jerboa 7,dipus gyptiacus7 is plentiful in ,palestine1 and several other species inhabit the same country1 known at once by their long and slender legs1 which give them so curious a resemblance to the kangaroos of ,australia4 ,the ,jerboas pass over the ground with astonishing rapidity4 ,instead of creeping stealthily among the grass-blades1 like the short-limbed field-mouse1 the ,jerboa flies along with a succession of wonderful leaps1 darting here and there with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow its wayward movements4 ,when quiet and undisturbed1 it hops along gently enough1 but as soon as it takes alarm1 it darts off in its peculiar manner1 which is to the ordinary walk of quadrupeds what the devious course of a frightened snipe is to the steady flight of birds in general4 ,it prefers hot and dry situations1 its feet being defended by a thick coating of stiff hairs1 which serve the double purpose of protecting it from the heat1 and giving it a firm hold on the ground4 ,it is rather a destructive animal1 its sharp and powerful teeth enabling it to bite its way through obstacles which would effectually stop an ordinary ,mouse4 ,that the ,jerboa may be one of the ,akbarim is rendered likely by the prohibition in ,lev4 xi4 #bi1 forbidding the ,mouse to be eaten4 ,it would be scarcely probable that such a command need have been issued against eating the common ,mouse1 whereas the ,jerboa1 a much larger and palatable animal1 is always eaten by the ,arabs4 ,the ,hamster is at the present day eaten in ,northern ,syria4 ,beside these creatures there are the ,dormice1 several species of which animal inhabit ,palestine at the present day4 ,there are also the ,sand-rats1 one species of which is larger than our ordinary rats4 ,the ,sand-rats live more in the deserts than the cultivated lands1 making their burrows at the foot of hills1 and among the roots of bushes4 ,,the ,,hare4 ,the prohibitions of the ,mosaic law--,the chewing of the cud1 and division of the hoof--,identity of the ,hare of ,scripture--,rumination described--,the ,hare a rodent and not a ruminant--,cowper and his ,hares--,structure of the rodent tooth--,the ,mosaic law accommodated to its recipients--,the ,hares of ,palestine and their habits4 ,among the many provisions of the ,mosaic law are several which refer to the diet of the ,israelites1 and which prohibit certain kinds of food4 ,special stress is laid upon the flesh of animals1 and the list of those which may be lawfully eaten is a singularly restricted one1 all being excluded except those which divide the hoof and chew the cud4 ,and1 lest there should be any mistake about the matter1 examples are given both of those animals which may and those which may not be eaten4 ,the ox1 sheep1 goat1 and antelopes generally are permitted as lawful food1 because they fulfil both conditions2 whereas there is a special prohibition of the swine1 because it divides the hoof but does not chew the cud1 and of the camel1 coney1 and hare because they chew the cud1 but do not divide the hoof4 ,our business at present is with the last of these animals4 ,considerable discussion has been raised concerning this animal1 because1 as is well known to naturalists1 the ,hare is not one of the ruminant animals1 but belongs to the same order as the rat1 rabbit1 beaver1 and other rodents4 ,neither its teeth nor its stomach are constructed for the purpose of enabling it to ruminate1 i4e4 to return into the mouth the partially-digested food1 and then to masticate it afresh2 and therefore it has been thought that either there is some mistake in the sacred narrative or that the ,hebrew word has been mistranslated4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,syrian ,,hare4 ,taking the latter point first1 as being the simplest of the two1 we find that the ,hebrew word which is rendered as ,hare is ,arnebeth1 and that it is rendered in the ,septuagint as ,dasypus1 or the ,hare1--a rendering which the ,jewish ,bible adopts4 ,that the ,arnebeth is really the ,hare may also be conjectured from the fact that the ,arabic name for that animal is ,arneb4 ,in consequence of the rather wide sense to which the ,greek word ,dasypus 7i4e4 hairy-foot7 is used1 some commentators have suggested that the rabbit may have been included in the same title4 ,this1 however1 is not at all likely1 inasmuch as the ,hare is very plentiful in ,palestine1 and the rabbit is believed not to be indigenous to that part of the world4 ,and1 even if the two animals had been classed under the same title1 the physiological difficulty would not be removed4 ,before proceeding further1 it will be as well to give a brief description of the curious act called rumination1 or chewing the cud4 ,there are certain animals1 such as the oxen1 antelopes1 deer1 sheep1 goats1 camels1 c4 which have teeth unfitted for the rapid mastication of food1 and which therefore are supplied with a remarkable apparatus by which the food can be returned into the mouth when the animal has leisure1 and be re-masticated before it passes into the true digestive organs4 ,for this purpose they are furnished with four stomachs1 which are arranged in the following order4 ,first comes the paunch or rumen 7whence the word ruminating71 into which passes the food in a very rough state1 just as it is torn1 rather than bitten1 from the herbage1 and which is analogous to the crop in birds4 ,it thence passes into the second stomach1 or honeycomb1 the walls of which are covered with small angular cells4 ,into those cells the food is received from the first stomach1 and compressed into little balls1 which can be voluntarily returned into the mouth for mastication4 ,after the second mastication has been completed1 the food passes at once into the third stomach1 and thence into the fourth1 which is the true digesting cavity4 ,by a peculiar structure of these organs1 the animal is able to convey its food either into the first or third stomach1 at will1 i4e4 into the first when the grass is eaten1 and into the third after rumination4 ,thus it will be seen that an animal which chews the cud must have teeth of a certain character1 and be possessed of the fourfold stomach which has just been described4 ,two points are conceded which seem to be utterly irreconcilable with each other4 ,the first is that the ,mosaic law distinctly states that the ,hare chews the cud2 the second is that in point of fact the ,hare is not1 and cannot be1 a ruminating animal1 possessing neither the teeth nor the digestive organs which are indispensable for that process4 ,yet1 totally opposed as these statements appear to be1 they are in fact1 not so irreconcilable as they seem4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,timid ,,group4 ,why the flesh of certain animals was prohibited1 we do not at the present time know4 ,that the flesh of swine should be forbidden food is likely enough1 considering the effects which the habitual eating of swine's flesh is said to produce in hot countries4 ,but it does seem very strange that the ,israelites should have been forbidden to eat the flesh of the camel1 the coney 7or hyrax71 and the ,hare1 and that these animals should have been specified is a proof that the eating or refraining from their flesh was not a mere sanitary regulation1 but was a matter of importance4 ,the flesh of all these three animals is quite as good and nutritious as that of the oxen1 or goats1 which are eaten in ,palestine1 and that of the ,hare is far superior to them4 ,therefore1 the people of ,israel1 who were always apt to take liberties with the restrictive laws1 and were crafty enough to evade them on so many occasions1 would have been likely to pronounce that the flesh of the ,hare was lawful meat1 because the animal chewed the cud1 or appeared to do so1 and they would discreetly have omitted the passage which alluded to the division of the hoof4 ,to a non-scientific observer the ,hare really does appear to chew the cud4 ,when it is reposing at its ease1 it continually moves its jaws about as if eating something1 an action which may readily be mistaken for true rumination4 ,even ,cowper1 the poet1 who kept some hares for several years1 and had them always before his eyes1 was deceived by this mumbling movement of the jaws4 ,speaking of his favourite hare1 ,puss1 he proceeds as follows3 ,finding him exceedingly tractable1 ,i made it my custom to carry him always after breakfast into the garden1 where he hid himself generally under the leaves of a cucumber vine1 sleeping1 or chewing the cud1 till evening4 ,the real object of this continual grinding or mumbling movement is simple enough4 ,the chisel-like incisor teeth of the rodent animals need to be rubbed against each other1 in order to preserve their edge and shape1 and if perchance such friction should be wanting to a tooth1 as1 for example1 by the breaking of the opposite tooth1 it becomes greatly elongated1 and sometimes grows to such a length as to prevent the animal from eating4 ,instinctively1 therefore1 the ,hare1 as well as the rabbit and other rodents1 always likes to be nibbling at something1 as any one knows who has kept rabbits in wooden hutches1 the object of this nibbling not being to eat the wood1 but to keep the teeth in order4 ,but we may naturally ask ourselves1 why the ,mosaic law1 an emanation from heaven1 should mention an animal as being a ruminant1 when its very structure shows that such an act was utterly impossible8 ,the answer is clear enough4 ,the law was suited to the capacity of those for whom it was intended1 and was never meant to be a handbook of science1 as well as a code of religious duties and maxims4 ,the ,jews1 like other ,orientals1 were indifferent to that branch of knowledge which we designate by the name of physical science1 and it was necessary that the language in which the law was conveyed to them should be accommodated to their capabilities of receiving it4 ,it would have been worse than useless to have interrupted the solemn revelation of ,divine will with a lesson in comparative anatomy2 the object of the passage in question being1 not to teach the ,jews the distinctive characteristics of a rodent and a ruminant1 but to guard against their mistaking the ,hare for one of the ruminants which were permitted as food4 ,that they would in all probability have fallen into that mistake is evident from the fact that the ,arabs are exceedingly fond of the flesh of the ,hare1 and accept it1 as well as the camel1 as lawful food1 because it chews the cud1 the division of the hoof not being considered by them as an essential4 ,hares are very plentiful in ,palestine1 and at least two species are found in that country4 ,one of them1 which inhabits the more northern and hilly portion of ,palestine1 closely resembles our own species1 but has not ears quite so long in proportion1 while the head is broader4 ,the second species1 which lives in the south1 and in the valley of the ,jordan1 is very small1 is of a light dun colour1 and has very long ears4 ,in their general habits1 these ,hares resemble the ,hare of ,england4 ,,cattle4 ,the cattle of ,palestine1 and their decadence at the present day--,ox-flesh not used for food in modern times--,oxen of the stall1 and oxen of the pasture--,the use of the ox in agriculture--,the yoke and its structure--,the plough and the goad--,the latter capable of being used as a weapon--,treading out the corn--,the cart and its wheels--,the ox used as a beast of burden--,cattle turned loose to graze--,the bulls of ,bashan--,curiosity of the ox-tribe--,a season of drought--,branding the cattle--,an ,egyptian field scene--,cattle-keeping an honourable post--,the ox as used for sacrifice--,ox-worship--,the bull ,apis1 and his history--,persistency of the bull-worship--,jeroboam's sin--,various names of cattle--,the ,indian buffalo4 ,under this head we shall treat of the domesticated oxen of ,scripture1 whether mentioned as ,bull1 ,cow1 ,ox1 ,calf1 ,heifer1 c4 ,two distinct species of cattle are found in ,palestine1 namely1 the ordinary domesticated ox1 and the ,indian buffalo1 which lives in the low-lying and marshy valley of the ,jordan4 ,of this species we shall treat presently4 ,the domesticated cattle are very much like our own1 but there is not among them that diversity of breed for which this country is famous2 nor is there even any distinction of long and short horned cattle4 ,there are some places where the animals are larger than in others1 but this difference is occasioned simply by the better quality and greater quantity of the food4 ,as is the case in most parts of the world where civilization has made any progress1 ,domesticated ,cattle were1 and still are1 plentiful in ,palestine4 ,even at the present time the cattle are in common use1 though it is evident1 from many passages of ,holy ,writ1 that in the days of ,juda's prosperity cattle were far more numerous than they are now1 and were treated in a better fashion4 ,to take their most sacred use first1 a constant supply of cattle was needed for the sacrifices1 and1 as it was necessary that every animal which was brought to the altar should be absolutely perfect1 it is evident that great care was required in order that the breed should not deteriorate1 a skill which has long been rendered useless by the abandonment of the sacrifices4 ,illustration3 ,,altar ,,of ,,burnt-,,offering4 ,another reason for their better nurture in the times of old is that in those days the ox was largely fed and fatted for the table1 just as is done with ourselves4 ,at the present day1 the flesh of the cattle is practically unused as food1 that of the sheep or goat being always employed1 even when a man gives a feast to his friends4 ,but1 in the old times1 stalled oxen1 i4e4 oxen kept asunder from those which were used for agricultural purposes1 and expressly fatted for the table1 were in constant use4 ,see for example the well-known passage in the ,prov4 xv4 #ag1 ,better is a dinner of herbs where love is1 than a stalled ox and hatred therewith4 ,again1 the ,prophet ,jeremiah makes use of a curious simile1 ,egypt is like a very fair heifer1 but destruction cometh2 it cometh out of the north4 ,also her hired men are in the midst of her like fatted bullocks or1 bullocks of the stall1 for they also are turned back1 and are fled away together4 7,jer4 xlvi4 #bj47 ,and in #a ,kings iv4 #bb1 #bc1 when describing the glories of ,solomon's household1 the sacred writer draws a distinction between the oxen which were especially fattened for the table of the king and the superior officers1 and those which were consumed by the lower orders of his household3 ,and ,solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures of fine flour1 and threescore measures of meal1 ten fat oxen1 and twenty oxen out of the pastures1 and an hundred sheep1 beside harts1 and roebucks1 and fallow-deer1 and fatted fowl4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,prodigal ,,son ,,returns1 ,,and ,,the ,,fatted ,,calf ,,is ,,killed4 ,calves--mostly1 if not always1 bull-calves--were largely used for food in ,palestine1 and in the households of the wealthy were fatted for the table4 ,see1 for example1 the familiar parable of the prodigal son1 in which the rejoicing father is mentioned as preparing a great feast in honour of his son's return1 and ordering the fatted calf to be killed--the calf in question being evidently one of the animals that were kept in good condition against any festive occasion4 ,and1 even in the earliest history of the ,bible1 the custom of keeping a fatted calf evidently prevailed1 as is shown by the conduct of ,abraham1 who1 when he was visited by the three heavenly guests1 ran unto the herd1 and fetched a calf1 tender and good1 and had it killed and dressed at once1 after the still existing fashion of the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,,abraham ,,offers ,,food ,,to ,,the ,,three ,,strangers4 ,but1 even in the times of ,israel's greatest prosperity1 the chief use of the ox was as an agricultural labourer1 thus reversing the custom of this country1 where the horse has taken the place of the ox as a beast of draught1 and where cattle are principally fed for food4 ,ploughing was1 and is1 always performed by oxen1 and allusions to this office are scattered plentifully through the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,when understood in this sense1 oxen are almost always spoken of in connexion with the word yoke1 and as each yoke comprised two oxen1 it is evident that the word is used as we employ the term brace1 or pair4 ,the yoke1 which is the chief part of the harness1 is a very simple affair4 ,a tolerably stout beam of wood is cut of a sufficient length to rest upon the necks of the oxen standing side by side1 and a couple of hollows are scooped out to receive the crest of the neck4 ,in order to hold it in its place1 two flexible sticks are bent under their necks1 and the ends fixed into the beam of the yoke4 ,in the middle of this yoke is fastened the pole of the plough or cart1 and this is all the harness that is used1 not even traces being required4 ,it will be seen that so rude an implement as this would be very likely to gall the necks of the animals1 unless the hollows were carefully smoothed1 and the heavy beam adapted to the necks of the animals4 ,this galling nature of the yoke1 so familiar to the ,israelites1 is used repeatedly as a metaphor in many passages of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,these passages are too numerous to be quoted1 but ,i will give one or two of the most conspicuous among them4 ,the earliest mention of the yoke in the ,scriptures is a metaphor4 ,after ,jacob had deceived his father1 in procuring for himself the blessing which was intended for his elder brother1 ,isaac comforts ,esau by the prophecy that1 although he must serve his brother1 yet it shall come to pass when thou shalt have the dominion1 that thou shalt break his yoke from off thy neck4 ,again1 in the next passage where the yoke is mentioned1 namely1 ,lev4 xxvi4 #ac1 the word is employed in the metaphorical sense3 ,i am the ,lord your ,god1 which brought you forth out of the land of ,egypt1 that ye should not be their bondmen1 and ,i have broken the bands of your yoke1 and made you go upright4 ,the plough was equally simple1 and consisted essentially of a bent branch1 one end of which was armed with an iron point by way of a share1 while the other formed the pole or beam1 and was fastened to the middle of the yoke4 ,it was guided by a handle1 which was usually a smaller branch that grew from the principal one4 ,a nearly similar instrument is used in ,asia ,minor to the present day1 and is a curious relic of the most ancient times of history1 for we find on the ,egyptian monuments figures of the various agricultural processes1 in which the plough is made after this simple manner4 ,of course such an instrument is a very ineffective one1 and can but scratch1 rather than plough the ground1 the warmth of the climate and fertility of the land rendering needless the deep ploughing of our own country1 where the object is to turn up the earth to the greatest possible depth4 ,one yoke of oxen was generally sufficient to draw a plough1 but occasionally a much greater number were required4 ,we read1 for example1 of ,elisha1 who1 when he received his call from ,elijah1 was ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen1 i4 e4 twenty-four4 ,it has been suggested1 that the twelve yoke of oxen were not all attached to the same plough1 but that there were twelve ploughs1 each with its single yoke of oxen4 ,this was most probably the case4 ,the instrument with which the cattle were driven was not a whip1 but a goad4 ,this goad was a long and stout stick1 armed with a spike at one end1 and having a kind of spud at the other1 with which the earth could be scraped off the share when it became clogged4 ,such an instrument might readily be used as a weapon1 and1 in the hands of a powerful man1 might be made even more formidable than a spear4 ,as a weapon1 it often was used1 as we see from many passages of the ,scriptures4 ,for example1 it is said in ,judges iii4 #ca1 that ,shamgar the son of ,anath killed six hundred ,philistines with an ox-goad4 ,afterwards1 in the beginning of ,saul's reign1 when the ,israelites fairly measured themselves against the ,philistines1 it was found that only ,saul and ,jonathan were even tolerably armed4 ,fearful of the numbers and spirit of the ,israelites1 the ,philistines had disarmed them1 and were so cautious that they did not even allow them to possess forges wherewith to make or sharpen the various agricultural instruments which they possessed1 lest they should surreptitiously provide themselves with weapons4 ,the only smith's tool which they were allowed to retain was a file with which each man might trim the edges of the ploughshares1 mattocks1 axes1 and sharpen the points of the goad4 ,the only weapons which they could muster were made of their agricultural implements1 and among the most formidable of them was the goad4 ,how the goad came into use in ,palestine may easily be seen4 ,the ,egyptians1 from among whom the people of ,israel passed into the ,promised ,land1 did not use the goad in ploughing1 but the whip1 which1 from the representations on the ,egyptian monuments1 was identical with the koorbash1 or cow-hide whip1 which is now in use in the same country4 ,but this terrible whip1 which is capable1 when wielded by a skilful hand1 of cutting deep grooves through the tough hide of the ox1 could not be obtained by the ,jews1 because the hippopotamus1 of whose hide it was made1 did not live in or near ,palestine4 ,they therefore were forced to use some other instrument wherewith to urge on the oxen1 and the goad was clearly the simplest and most effective implement for this purpose4 ,after the land was ploughed and sown1 and the harvest was ripened1 the labours of the oxen were again called into requisition1 first for threshing out the corn1 and next for carrying or drawing the grain to the storehouses4 ,in the earlier days1 the process of threshing was very simple4 ,a circular piece of ground was levelled1 and beaten very hard and flat1 its diameter being from fifty to a hundred feet4 ,on this ground the corn was thrown1 and a number of oxen were driven here and there on it1 so that the constant trampling of their feet shook the ripe grain out of the ears4 ,the corn was gathered together in the middle of the floor1 and as fast as it was scattered by the feet of the oxen1 it was thrown back towards the centre4 ,afterwards1 an improvement was introduced in the form of a rough sledge1 called moreg1 to which the oxen were harnessed by a yoke1 and on which the driver stood as he guided his team round the threshing-floor4 ,this instrument is mentioned in ,isa4 xli4 #ae3 ,behold1 ,i will make thee a new and sharp threshing instrument having teeth or mouths3 thou shalt thresh the mountains1 and beat them small1 and shalt make the hills as chaff4 ,mention is also made of the same implement in #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #bb1 where it is related that ,araunah the ,jebusite offered to give ,david the oxen for a burnt-sacrifice1 and the moregs and other implements as wood with which they could be burned4 ,the work of treading out the corn was a hard and trying one for the oxen1 and it was probably on this account that the kindly edict was made1 that the oxen who trod out the corn should not be muzzled4 ,as a rule1 the cattle were not fed nearly as carefully as is done with us1 and so the labours of the threshing-floor would find a compensation in the temporary abundance of which the animals might take their fill4 ,illustration3 ,,oxen ,,treading ,,out ,,grain4 ,after the corn was threshed1 or rather trodden out1 the oxen had to draw it home in carts4 ,these were but slight improvements on the threshing-sledge1 and were simply trays or shallow boxes on a pair of wheels4 ,as the wheels were merely slices cut from the trunk of a tree1 and were not furnished with iron tires1 they were not remarkable for roundness1 and indeed1 after a little time1 were worn into rather irregular ovals1 so that the task of dragging a cart over the rough roads was by no means an easy one4 ,and1 as the axle was simply a stout pole fastened to the bottom of the cart1 and having its rounded ends thrust through holes in the middle of the wheels1 the friction was enormous4 ,as1 moreover1 oil and grease were far too precious luxuries to be wasted in lubricating the axles1 the creaking and groaning of the wheels was a singularly disagreeable and ear-piercing sound4 ,illustration3 ,,eastern ,,ox-,,cart4 ,the common hackery of ,india is a good example of the carts mentioned in the ,scriptures4 ,as with the plough1 the cart was drawn by a couple of oxen1 connected by the yoke4 ,the two kinds of cart1 namely1 the tray and the box1 are clearly indicated in the ,scriptures4 ,the new cart on which the ,ark was placed when it was sent back by the ,philistines 7see #a ,sam4 vi4 #g7 was evidently one of the former kind1 and so was that which was made twenty years afterwards1 for the purpose of conveying the ,ark to ,jerusalem4 ,although the cattle were evidently better tended in the olden times than at present1 those animals which were used for agriculture seem to have passed rather a rough life1 especially in the winter time4 ,it is rather curious that the ,jews should have had no idea of preserving the grass by making it into hay1 as is done in ,europe4 ,consequently the chief food of the cattle was the straw and chaff which remained on the threshing-floor after the grain had been separated4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ark ,,of ,,the ,,covenant ,,being ,,drawn ,,by ,,cows4 ,this1 indeed1 was the only use to which the straw could be put1 for it was so crushed and broken by the feet of the oxen and the threshing-sledge that it was rendered useless4 ,the want of winter forage is the chief reason why cattle are so irregularly disposed over ,palestine1 many parts of that country being entirely without them1 and only those districts containing them in which fresh forage may be found throughout the year4 ,except a few yoke of oxen1 which are kept in order to draw carts1 and act as beasts of burden1 the cattle are turned loose for a considerable portion of the year1 and run about in herds from one pasturage to another4 ,thus they regain many of the characteristics of wild animals1 and it is to this habit of theirs that many of the ,scriptural allusions can be traced4 ,for example1 see ,ps4 xxii4 #ab1 ,many bulls have compassed me1 strong bulls of ,bashan have beset me round4 ,they gaped on me with their mouths or1 their mouths opened against me as a ravening and a roaring lion4 ,this passage alludes to the curiosity inherent in cattle1 which have a habit of following objects which they do not understand or dislike1 and surrounding it with looks of grave wonderment4 ,even in their domesticated state this habit prevails4 ,when ,i was a boy1 ,i sometimes amused myself with going into a field where a number of cows and oxen were grazing1 and lying down in the middle of it4 ,the cattle would soon become uneasy1 toss their heads about1 and gradually draw near on every side1 until at last they would be pressed together closely in a circle1 with their heads just above the object of their astonishment4 ,their curious1 earnest looks have always been present to my mind when reading the above quoted passage4 ,the ,psalmist does not necessarily mean that the bulls in question were dangerous animals4 ,on the contrary1 the bulls of ,palestine are gentle in comparison with our own animals1 which are too often made savage by confinement and the harsh treatment to which they are subjected by rough and ignorant labourers4 ,in ,palestine a pair of bulls may constantly be seen attached to the same yoke1 a thing that never would be seen in this country4 ,the custom of turning the herds of cattle loose to find pasture for themselves is alluded to in ,joel i4 #ah1 ,how do the beasts groan6 the herds of cattle are perplexed because they have no pasture4 ,we can easily imagine to ourselves the terrible time to which the prophet refers1 when the rivers of waters are dried up1 and the fire hath devoured the pastures of the wilderness1 as it is wont to do when a spark falls upon grass dried up and withered1 by reason of the sun's heat and the lack of water4 ,over such a country1 first withered by drought1 and then desolated by fire1 would the cattle wander1 vainly searching on the dusty and blackened surface for the tender young blades which always spring up on a burnt pasture as soon as the first rains fall4 ,moaning and bellowing with thirst and disappointment1 they would vainly seek for food or water in places where the seed lies still under the clods where it was sown 7v4 #ag71 where the vines are dried up1 and the fig1 the pomegranate and the palm 7v4 #ab7 are all withered for want of moisture4 ,illustration3 ,,ploughing ,,with ,,oxen4 ,such scenes are still to be witnessed in several parts of the world4 ,southern ,africa is sometimes sadly conspicuous for them1 an exceptional season of drought keeping back the fresh grass after the old pastures have been burned 7the ordinary mode of cultivating pasture land74 ,then the vast herds of cattle1 whose milk forms the staff of life to the inhabitants1 wander to and fro1 gathering in masses round any spot where a spring still yields a little water1 and bellowing and moaning with thirst as they press their way towards the spot where their owners are doling out to each a small measure of the priceless fluid4 ,the cattle are branded with the mark of their owners1 so that in these large herds there might be no difficulty in distinguishing them when they were re-captured for the plough and the cart4 ,on one of the ,egyptian monuments there is a very interesting group1 which has furnished the idea for the plate which illustrates this article4 ,it occurs in the tombs of the kings at ,thebes1 and represents a ploughing scene4 ,the simple two-handled plough is being dragged by a pair of cows1 who have the yoke fastened across the horns instead of lying on the neck1 and a sower is following behind1 scattering the grain out of a basket into the newly-made furrows4 ,in front of the cows is a young calf1 which has run to meet its mother1 and is leaping for joy before her as she steadily plods along her course4 ,the action of both animals is admirably represented2 the steady and firm gait of the mother contrasting with the light1 gambolling step and arched tail of her offspring4 ,in the olden times of the ,israelitish race1 herd-keeping was considered as an honourable occupation1 in which men of the highest rank might engage without any derogation to their dignity4 ,we find1 for instance1 that ,saul himself1 even after he had been appointed king1 was acting as herdsman when the people saw the mistake they had made in rejecting him as their monarch1 and came to fetch their divinely-appointed leader from his retirement4 7,see #a ,sam4 xi4 #e47 ,doeg1 too1 the faithful companion of ,saul1 was made the chief herdsman of his master's cattle1 so that for ,saul to confer such an office1 and ,doeg to accept it1 shows that the post was one of much honour4 ,and afterwards1 when ,david was in the zenith of his power1 he completed the organization of his kingdom1 portioning out not only his army into battalions1 and assigning a commanding officer to each battalion1 but also appointing a ruler to each tribe1 and setting officers over his treasury1 over the vineyards1 over the olive-trees1 over the storehouses1 and over the cattle4 ,and these offices were so important that the names of their holders are given at length in #a ,chron4 xxvii4 those of the various herdsmen being thought as worthy of mention as those of the treasurers1 the military commanders1 or the headmen of the tribes4 ,before concluding this necessarily short account of the domesticated oxen of ,palestine1 it will be needful to give a few lines to the animal viewed in a religious aspect4 ,here we have1 in bold contrast to each other1 the divine appointment of certain cattle to be slain as sacrifices1 and the reprobation of worship paid to those very cattle as living emblems of divinity4 ,this false worship was learned by the ,israelites during their long residence in ,egypt1 and so deeply had the customs of the ,egyptian religion sunk into their hearts1 that they were not eradicated after the lapse of centuries4 ,it may easily be imagined that such a superstition1 surrounded as it was with every external circumstance which could make it more imposing1 would take a powerful hold of the ,jewish mind4 ,chief among the multitude of idols or symbols was the god ,apis1 represented by a bull4 ,many other animals1 specially the cat and the ibis1 were deeply honoured among the ancient ,egyptians1 as we learn from their own monuments and from the works of the old historians4 ,all these creatures were symbols as well as idols1 symbols to the educated and idols to the ignorant4 ,none of them was held in such universal honour as the bull ,apis4 ,the particular animal which represented the deity1 and which was lodged with great state and honour in his temple at ,memphis1 was thought to be divinely selected for the purpose1 and to be impressed with certain marks4 ,his colour must be black1 except a square spot on the forehead1 a crescent-shaped white spot on the right side1 and the figure of an eagle on his back4 ,under the tongue must be a knob shaped like the sacred scarabus1 and the hairs of his tail must be double4 ,illustration3 ,,mummy ,,of ,a ,,sacred ,,bull ,,taken ,,from ,,an ,,egyptian ,,tomb4 ,this representative animal was only allowed to live for a certain time1 and when he had reached this allotted period1 he was taken in solemn procession to the ,nile1 and drowned in its sacred waters4 ,his body was then embalmed1 and placed with great state in the tombs at ,memphis4 ,after his death1 whether natural or not1 the whole nation went into mourning1 and exhibited all the conventional signs of sorrow1 until the priests found another bull which possessed the distinctive marks4 ,the people then threw off their mourning robes1 and appeared in their best attire1 and the sacred bull was exhibited in state for forty days before he was taken to his temple at ,memphis4 ,the reader will here remember the analogous case of the ,indian cattle1 some of which are held to be little less than incarnations of divinity4 ,even at the very beginning of the exodus1 when their minds must have been filled with the many miracles that had been wrought in their behalf1 and with the cloud and fire of ,sinai actually before their eyes1 ,aaron himself made an image of a calf in gold1 and set it up as a symbol of the ,lord4 ,that the idol in question was intended as a symbol by ,aaron is evident from the words which he used when summoning the people to worship1 ,to-morrow is a feast of the ,lord 7,gen4 xxxii4 #e74 ,the people1 however1 clearly lacked the power of discriminating between the symbol and that which it represented1 and worshipped the image just as any other idol might be worshipped4 ,and1 in spite of the terrible and swift punishment that followed1 and which showed the profanity of the act1 the idea of ox-worship still remained among the people4 ,illustration3 ,,animals ,,being ,,sold ,,for ,,sacrifice ,,in ,,the ,,porch ,,of ,,the ,,temple4 ,illustration3 ,,jeroboam ,,sets ,,up ,a ,,golden ,,calf ,,at ,,bethel4 ,five hundred years afterwards we find a familiar example of it in the conduct of ,jeroboam1 who made ,israel to sin1 the peculiar crime being the open resuscitation of ox-worship4 ,the king made two calves of gold and said unto them1 ,it is too much for you to go up to ,jerusalem3 behold thy gods1 ,o ,israel1 which brought thee up out of the land of ,egypt4 ,and he set the one in ,bethel1 and the other put he in ,dan4444 ,and he made an house of high places1 and made priests of the lowest of the people1 which were not of the tribe of ,levi4 ,and ,jeroboam ordained a feast 444 like unto the feast in ,judah1 and he offered upon the altar4 ,so did he in ,bethel1 sacrificing unto the calves that he had made4 ,here we have a singular instance of a king of ,israel repeating1 after a lapse of five hundred years1 the very acts which had drawn down on the people so severe a punishment1 and which were so contrary to the law that they had incited ,moses to fling down and break the sacred tables on which the commandments had been divinely inscribed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,buffalo4 ,another species of the ox-tribe now inhabits ,palestine though commentators rather doubt whether it is not a comparatively late importation4 ,this is the true ,,buffalo 7,bubalus buffelus1 ,gray71 which is spread over a very large portion of the earth1 and is very plentiful in ,india4 ,in that country there are two distinct breeds of the ,buffalo1 namely1 the ,arnee1 a wild variety1 and the ,bhainsa1 a tamed variety4 ,the former animal is much larger than the latter1 being sometimes more than ten feet in length from the nose to the root of the tail1 and measuring between six and seven feet in height at the shoulder4 ,its horns are of enormous length1 the tail is very short1 and tufts of hair grow on the forehead and horns4 ,the tamed variety is at least one-third smaller1 and1 unlike the ,arnee1 never seems to get into high condition4 ,it is an ugly1 ungainly kind of beast1 and is rendered very unprepossessing to the eye by the bald patches which are mostly found upon its hide4 ,being a water-loving animal1 the ,buffalo always inhabits the low-lying districts1 and is fond of wallowing in the oozy marshes in which it remains for hours1 submerged all but its head1 and tranquilly chewing the cud while enjoying its mud-bath4 ,while thus engaged the animal depresses its horns so that they are scarcely visible1 barely allowing more than its eyes1 ears1 and nostrils to remain above the surface1 so that the motionless heads are scarcely distinguishable from the grass and reed tufts which stud the marshes4 ,nothing is more startling to an inexperienced traveller than to pass by a silent and tranquil pool where the muddy surface is unbroken except by a number of black lumps and rushy tufts1 and then to see these tufts suddenly transformed into twenty or thirty huge beasts rising out of the still water as if by magic4 ,generally1 the disturber of their peace had better make the best of his way out of their reach1 as the ,buffalo1 whether wild or tame1 is of a tetchy and irritable nature1 and resents being startled out of its state of dreamy repose4 ,in the ,jordan valley the ,buffalo is found1 and is used for agriculture1 being of the ,bhainsa1 or domesticated variety4 ,being much larger and stronger than the ordinary cattle1 it is useful in drawing the plough1 but its temper is too uncertain to render it a pleasant animal to manage4 ,as is the case with all half-wild cattle1 its milk is very scanty1 but compensates by the richness of the quality for the lack of quantity4 ,in the picture which appears on a following page1 one of these domesticated ,buffaloes is represented1 harnessed with a camel1 to a rude form of plough used in the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bhainsa1 ,,or ,,domestic ,,buffalo1 ,,and ,,camel1 ,,drawing ,,the ,,plough4 ,,the ,,wild ,,bull4 ,the ,t1 ,wild ,bull of the ,old ,testament--,passages in which it is mentioned--,the ,wild ,bull in the net--,hunting with nets in the ,east--,the ,oryx supposed to be the ,t of ,scripture--,description of the ,oryx1 its locality1 appearance1 and habits--,the points in which the ,oryx agrees with the ,t--,the snare in which the foot is taken1 as distinguished from the net4 ,in two passages of the ,old ,testament an animal is mentioned1 respecting which the translators and commentators have been somewhat perplexed1 in one passage being translated as the ,wild ,ox1 and in the other as the ,wild ,bull4 ,in the ,jewish ,bible the same rendering is preserved1 but the sign of doubt is added to the word in both cases1 showing that the translation is an uncertain one4 ,the first of these passages occurs in ,deut4 xiv4 #e1 where it is classed together with the ox1 sheep1 goats1 and other ruminants1 as one of the beasts which were lawful for food4 ,now1 although we cannot identify it by this passage1 we can at all events ascertain two important points--the first1 that it was a true ruminant1 and the second1 that it was not the ox1 the sheep1 or the goat4 ,it was1 therefore1 some wild ruminant1 and we now have to ask how we are to find out the species4 ,if we turn to ,isa4 li4 #bj1 we shall find a passage which will help us considerably4 ,addressing ,jerusalem1 the prophet uses these words1 ,by whom shall ,i comfort thee8 ,thy sons have fainted1 they lie at the head of all the streets1 as a wild bull in a net2 they are full of the fury of the ,lord1 the rebuke of thy ,god4 ,we now see that the ,t or ,te must be an animal which is captured by means of nets1 and therefore must inhabit spots wherein the toils can be used4 ,moreover1 it is evidently a powerful animal1 or the force of the simile would be lost4 ,the prophet evidently refers to some large and strong beast which has been entangled in the hunter's nets1 and which lies helplessly struggling in them4 ,we are1 therefore1 almost perforce driven to recognise it as some large antelope4 ,the expression used by the prophet is so characteristic that it needs a short explanation4 ,in this country1 and at the present day1 the use of the net is almost entirely restricted to fishing and bird-catching2 but in the ,east nets are still employed in the capture of very large game4 ,a brief allusion to the hunting-net is made at page #ca1 but1 as the passage in ,isaiah li4 requires a more detailed account of this mode of catching large animals1 it will be as well to describe the sport as at present practised in the ,east4 ,when a king or some wealthy man determines to hunt game without taking much trouble himself1 he gives orders to his men to prepare their nets1 which vary in size or strength according to the particular animal for which they are intended4 ,if1 for example1 only the wild boar and similar animals are to be hunted1 the nets need not be of very great width2 but for agile creatures1 such as the antelope1 they must be exceedingly wide1 or the intended prey will leap over them4 ,as the net is much used in ,india for the purpose of catching game1 ,captain ,williamson's description of it will explain many of the passages of ,scripture wherein it is mentioned4 ,the material of the net is hemp1 twisted loosely into a kind of rope1 and the mode in which it is formed is rather peculiar4 ,the meshes are not knotted together1 but only twisted round each other1 much after the fashion of the ,south ,american hammocks1 so as to obtain considerable elasticity1 and to prevent a powerful animal from snapping the cord in its struggles4 ,some of these nets are thirteen feet or more in width1 and even such a net as this has been overleaped by a herd of antelopes4 ,their length is variable1 but1 as they can be joined in any number when set end to end1 the length is not so important as the width4 ,the mode of setting the nets is singularly ingenious4 ,when a suitable spot has been selected1 the first care of the hunters is to stretch a rope as tightly as possible along the ground4 ,for this purpose stout wooden stakes or truncheons are sunk crosswise in the earth1 and between these the rope is carefully strained4 ,the favourite locality of the net is a ravine1 through which the animals can be driven so as to run against the net in their efforts to escape1 and across the ravine a whole row of these stakes is sunk4 ,the net is now brought to the spot1 and its lower edge fastened strongly to the ground rope4 ,the strength of this mode of fastening is astonishing1 and1 although the stakes are buried scarcely a foot below the surface1 they cannot be torn up by any force which can be applied to them2 and1 however strong the rope may be1 it would be broken before the stakes could be dragged out of the ground4 ,a smaller rope is now attached to the upper edge of the net1 which is raised upon a series of slight poles4 ,it is not stretched quite tightly1 but droops between each pair of poles1 so that a net which is some thirteen feet in width will only give nine or ten feet of clear height when the upper edge is supported on the poles4 ,these latter are not fixed in the ground1 but merely held in their places by the weight of the net resting upon them4 ,when the nets have been properly set1 the beaters make a wide circuit through the country1 gradually advancing towards the fatal spot1 and driving before them all the wild animals that inhabit the neighbourhood4 ,as soon as any large beast1 such1 for example1 as an antelope1 strikes against the net1 the supporting pole falls1 and the net collapses upon the unfortunate animal1 whose struggles--especially if he be one of the horned animals--only entangle him more and more in the toils4 ,as soon as the hunters see a portion of the net fall1 they run to the spot1 kill the helpless creature that lies enveloped in the elastic meshes1 drag away the body1 and set up the net again in readiness for the next comer4 ,sometimes the line of nets will extend for half a mile or more1 and give employment to a large staff of hunters1 in killing the entangled animals1 and raising afresh those portions of the net which had fallen4 ,accepting the theory that the ,t is one of the large antelopes that inhabit1 or used to inhabit1 the ,holy ,land and its neighbourhood1 we may safely conjecture that it may signify the beautiful animal known as the ,,oryx 7,oryx leucoryx71 an animal which has a tolerably wide range1 and is even now found on the borders of the ,holy ,land4 ,it is a large and powerful antelope1 and is remarkable for its beautiful horns1 which sometimes exceed a yard in length1 and sweep in a most graceful curve over the back4 ,sharp as they are1 and evidently formidable weapons1 the manner in which they are set on the head renders them apparently unserviceable for combat4 ,when1 however1 the ,oryx is brought to bay1 or wishes to fight1 it stoops its head until the nose is close to the ground1 the points of the horns being thus brought to the front4 ,as the head is swung from side to side1 the curved horns sweep through a considerable space1 and are so formidable that even the lion is chary of attacking their owner4 ,indeed1 instances are known where the lion has been transfixed and killed by the horns of the ,oryx4 ,sometimes the animal is not content with merely standing to repel the attacks of its adversaries1 but suddenly charges forward with astonishing rapidity1 and strikes upwards with its horns as it makes the leap4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,bull1 ,,or ,,oryx4 ,but these horns1 which can be used with such terrible effect in battle1 are worse than useless when the animal is hampered in the net4 ,in vain does the ,oryx attempt its usual defence3 the curved horns get more and more entangled in the elastic meshes1 and become a source of weakness rather than strength4 ,we see now how singularly appropriate is the passage1 ,thy sons lie at the heads of all the streets1 as a wild bull 7or ,oryx7 in a net1 and how completely the force of the metaphor is lost without a knowledge of the precise mode of fixing the nets1 of driving the animals into them1 and of the manner in which they render even the large and powerful animals helpless4 ,the height of the ,oryx at the shoulder is between three and four feet1 and its colour is greyish white1 mottled profusely with black and brown in bold patches4 ,it is plentiful in ,northern ,africa1 and1 like many other antelopes1 lives in herds1 so that it is peculiarly suited to that mode of hunting which consists in surrounding a number of animals1 and driving them into a trap of some kind1 whether a fenced enclosure1 a pitfall1 or a net4 ,there is1 by the way1 the term snare1 which is specially used with especial reference to catching the foot as distinguished from the net which enveloped the whole body4 ,for example1 in ,job xviii4 #h1 ,he is cast into a net1 he walketh on a snare1 where a bold distinction is drawn between the two and their mode of action4 ,and in ver4 #aj1 ,the snare is laid for him in the ground4 ,though ,i would not state definitely that such is the case1 ,i believe that the snare which is here mentioned is one which is still used in several parts of the world4 ,it is simply a hoop1 to the inner edge of which are fastened a number of elastic spikes1 the points being directed towards the centre4 ,this is merely laid in the path which the animal will take1 and is tied by a short cord to a log of wood4 ,as the deer or antelope treads on the snare1 the foot passes easily through the elastic spikes1 but1 when the foot is raised1 the spikes run into the joint and hold the hoop upon the limb4 ,terrified by the check and the sudden pang1 the animal tries to run away1 but1 by the united influence of sharp spikes and the heavy log1 it is soon forced to halt1 and so becomes an easy prey to its pursuers4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,oryx4 ,illustration3 unicorn ,,the ,,unicorn4 ,the ,unicorn apparently known to the ,jews--,its evident connection with the ,ox tribe--,its presumed identity with the now extinct ,urus--,enormous size and dangerous character of the ,urus4 ,there are many animals mentioned in the ,scriptures which are identified with difficulty1 partly because their names occur only once or twice in the sacred writings1 and partly because1 when they are mentioned1 the context affords no clue to their identity by giving any hint as to their appearance or habits4 ,in such cases1 although the translators would have done better if they had simply given the ,hebrew word without endeavouring to identify it with any known animal1 they may be excused for committing errors in their nomenclature4 ,there is one animal1 however1 for which no such excuse can be found1 and this is the ,rem of ,scripture1 translated as ,unicorn in the authorized version4 ,even in late years the ,unicorn has been erroneously supposed to be identical with the ,rhinoceros of ,india4 ,it is1 however1 now certain that the ,unicorn was not the ,rhinoceros1 and that it can be almost certainly identified with an animal which1 at the time when the passages in question were written1 was plentiful in ,palestine1 although1 like the ,lion1 it is now extinct4 ,on turning to the ,jewish ,bible we find that the word ,rem is translated as buffalo1 and there is no doubt that this rendering is nearly the correct one4 ,at the present day naturalists are nearly all agreed that the ,unicorn of the ,old ,testament must have been of the ,ox tribe4 ,probably the ,urus1 a species now extinct1 was the animal alluded to4 ,a smaller animal1 the ,bonassus or ,bison1 also existed in ,palestine1 and even to the present day continues to maintain itself in one or two spots1 though it will probably be as soon completely erased from the surface of the earth as its gigantic congener4 ,that the ,unicorn was one of the two animals is certain1 and that it was the larger is nearly as certain4 ,the reason for deciding upon the ,urus is1 that its horns were of great size and strength1 and therefore agree with the description of the ,unicorn2 whereas those of the ,bonassus1 although powerful1 are short1 and not conspicuous enough to deserve the notice which is taken of them by the sacred writers4 ,of the extinct variety we know but little4 ,we do know1 however1 that it was a huge and most formidable beast1 as is evident from the skulls and other bones which have been discovered4 ,their character also indicates that the creature was nothing more than a very large ,ox1 probably measuring twelve feet in length1 and six feet in height4 ,such a wild animal1 armed1 as it was1 with enormous horns1 would prove a most formidable antagonist4 ,illustration3 bison ,,the ,,bison4 ,the ,bison tribe and its distinguishing marks--,its former existence in ,palestine--,its general habits--,origin of its name--,its musky odour--,size and speed of the ,bison--,its dangerous character when brought to bay--,its defence against the wolf--,its untameable disposition4 ,a few words are now needful respecting the second animal which has been mentioned in connexion with the ,rem2 namely1 the ,bison1 or ,bonassus4 ,the ,bisons are distinguishable from ordinary cattle by the thick and heavy mane which covers the neck and shoulders1 and which is more conspicuous in the male than in the female4 ,the general coating of the body is also rather different1 being thick and woolly instead of lying closely to the skin like that of the other oxen4 ,the ,bison certainly inhabited ,palestine1 as its bones have been found in that country4 ,it has1 however1 been extinct in the ,holy ,land for many years1 and1 not being an animal that is capable of withstanding the encroachments of man1 it has gradually died out from the greater part of ,europe and ,asia1 and is now to be found only in a very limited locality1 chiefly in a ,lithuanian forest1 where it is strictly preserved1 and in some parts of the ,caucasus4 ,there it still preserves the habits which made its ancient and gigantic relative so dangerous an animal4 ,unlike the buffalo1 which loves the low-lying and marshy lands1 the ,bison prefers the high wooded localities1 where it lives in small troops4 ,illustration3 ,,bison ,,killing ,,wolf4 ,its name of ,bison is a modification of the word ,bisam1 or musk1 which was given to it on account of the strong musky odour of its flesh1 which is especially powerful about the head and neck4 ,this odour is not so unpleasant as might be supposed1 and those who have had personal experience of the animal say that it bears some resemblance to the perfume of violets4 ,it is developed most strongly in the adult bulls1 the cows and young male calves only possessing it in a slight degree4 ,it is a tolerably large animal1 being about six feet high at the shoulder--a stature nearly equivalent to that of the ordinary ,asiatic elephant2 and1 in spite of its great bulk1 is a fleet and active animal1 as indeed is generally the case with those oxen which inhabit elevated localities4 ,still1 though it can run with considerable speed1 it is not able to keep up the pace for any great distance1 and at the end of a mile or two can be brought to bay4 ,like most animals1 however large and powerful they may be1 it fears the presence of man1 and1 if it sees or scents a human being1 will try to slip quietly away2 but when it is baffled in this attempt1 and forced to fight1 it becomes a fierce and dangerous antagonist1 charging with wonderful quickness1 and using its short and powerful horns with great effect4 ,a wounded ,bison1 when fairly brought to bay1 is perhaps as awkward an opponent as can be found1 and to kill it without the aid of firearms is no easy matter4 ,although the countries in which it lives are infested with wolves1 it seems to have no fear of them when in health2 and1 even when pressed by their winter's hunger1 the wolves do not venture to attack even a single ,bison1 much less a herd of them4 ,like other wild cattle1 it likes to dabble in muddy pools1 and is fond of harbouring in thickets near such localities2 and those who have to travel through the forest keep clear of such spots1 unless they desire to drive out the animal for the purpose of killing it4 ,like the extinct ,aurochs1 the ,bison has never been domesticated1 and1 although the calves have been captured while very young1 and attempts have been made to train them to harness1 their innate wildness of disposition has always baffled such efforts4 ,illustration3 gazelle ,,the ,,gazelle1 ,,or ,,roe ,,of ,,scripture4 ,its swiftness1 its beauty1 and the quality of its flesh--,different varieties of the ,gazelle--,how the ,gazelle defends itself against wild beasts--,chase of the ,gazelle4 ,we now leave the ,ox tribe1 and come to the ,antelopes1 several species of which are mentioned in the ,scriptures4 ,four kinds of antelope are found in or near the ,holy ,land1 and there is little doubt that all of them are mentioned in the sacred volume4 ,the first that will be described is the ,,gazelle1 which is acknowledged to be the animal that is represented by the word ,tsebi1 or ,tsebiyah4 ,the ,jewish ,bible accepts the same rendering4 ,this word occurs many times1 sometimes as a metaphor1 and sometimes representing some animal which was lawful food1 and which therefore belonged to the true ruminants4 ,moreover1 its flesh was not only legally capable of being eaten1 but was held in such estimation that it was provided for the table of ,solomon himself1 together with other animals which will be described in their turn4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,gazelle4 ,it is even now considered a great dainty1 although it is not at all agreeable to ,european taste1 being hard1 dry1 and without flavour4 ,still1 as has been well remarked1 tastes differ as well as localities1 and an article of food which is a costly luxury in one land is utterly disdained in another1 and will hardly be eaten except by one who is absolutely dying of starvation4 ,the ,gazelle is very common in ,palestine in the present day1 and1 in the ancient times1 must have been even more plentiful4 ,there are several varieties of it1 which were once thought to be distinct species1 but are now acknowledged to be mere varieties1 all of which are referable to the single species ,gazella ,dorcas4 ,there is1 for example1 the ,corinna1 or ,corine ,antelope1 which is a rather boldly-spotted female2 the ,kevella ,antelope1 in which the horns are slightly flattened2 the small variety called the ,ariel1 or ,cora2 the grey ,kevel1 which is a rather large variety2 and the ,long-horned ,gazelle1 which owes its name to a rather large development of the horns4 ,whatever variety may inhabit any given spot1 they all have the same habits4 ,they are gregarious animals1 associating together in herds often of considerable size1 and deriving from their numbers an element of strength which would otherwise be wanting4 ,against mankind1 numbers are of no avail2 but when the agile though feeble ,gazelle has to defend itself against the predatory animals of its own land1 it can only defend itself by the concerted action of the whole herd4 ,should1 for example1 the wolves prowl round a herd of ,gazelles1 after their treacherous wont1 the ,gazelles instantly assume a posture of self-defence4 ,they form themselves into a compact phalanx1 all the males coming to the front1 and the strongest and boldest taking on themselves the honourable duty of facing the foe4 ,the does and the young are kept within their ranks1 and so formidable is the array of sharp1 menacing horns1 that beasts as voracious as the wolf1 and far more powerful1 have been known to retire without attempting to charge4 ,as a rule1 however1 the ,gazelle does not desire to resist1 and prefers its legs to its horns as a mode of insuring safety4 ,so fleet is the animal1 that it seems to fly over the ground as if propelled by volition alone1 and its light1 agile frame is so enduring1 that a fair chase has hardly any prospect of success4 ,hunters1 therefore1 prefer a trap of some kind1 if they chase the animal merely for food or for the sake of its skin1 and contrive to kill considerable numbers at once4 ,sometimes they dig pitfalls1 and drive the ,gazelles into them by beating a large tract of country1 and gradually narrowing the circle4 ,sometimes they use nets1 such as have already been described1 and sometimes they line the sides of a ravine with archers and spearmen1 and drive the herd of ,gazelles through the treacherous defile4 ,these modes of slaughter are1 however1 condemned by the true hunter1 who looks upon those who use them much in the same light as an ,english sportsman looks on a man who shoots foxes4 ,the greyhound and the falcon are both employed in the legitimate capture of the ,gazelle1 and in some cases both are trained to work together4 ,hunting the ,gazelle with the greyhound very much resembles coursing in our own country1 and chasing it with the hawk is exactly like the system of falconry that was once so popular an ,english sport1 and which even now shows signs of revival4 ,it is1 however1 when the dog and the bird are trained to work together that the spectacle becomes really novel and interesting to an ,english spectator4 ,as soon as the ,gazelles are fairly in view1 the hunter unhoods his hawk1 and holds it up so that it may see the animals4 ,the bird fixes its eye on one ,gazelle1 and by that glance the animal's doom is settled4 ,the falcon darts after the ,gazelles1 followed by the dog1 who keeps his eye on the hawk1 and holds himself in readiness to attack the animal that his feathered ally may select4 ,suddenly the falcon1 which has been for some few seconds hovering over the herd of ,gazelles1 makes a stoop upon the selected victim1 fastening its talons in its forehead1 and1 as it tries to shake off its strange foe1 flaps its wings into the ,gazelle's eyes so as to blind it4 ,consequently1 the rapid course of the antelope is arrested1 so that the dog is able to come up and secure the animal while it is struggling to escape from its feathered enemy4 ,sometimes1 though rarely1 a young and inexperienced hawk swoops down with such reckless force that it misses the forehead of the ,gazelle1 and impales itself upon the sharp horns1 just as in ,england the falcon is apt to be spitted on the bill of the heron4 ,the most sportsmanlike mode of hunting the ,gazelle is to use the falcon alone2 but for this sport a bird must possess exceptional strength1 swiftness1 and intelligence4 ,a very spirited account of such a chase is given by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,chasseaud1 in his ,druses of the ,lebanon3-- ,whilst reposing here1 our old friend with the falcon informs us that at a short distance from this spot is a khan called ,nebbi ,youni1 from a supposition that the prophet ,jonah was here landed by the whale2 but the old man is very indignant when we identify the place with a fable1 and declare to him that similar sights are to be seen at ,gaza and ,scanderoon4 ,but his good humour is speedily recovered by reverting to the subject of the exploits and cleverness of his falcon4 ,this reminds him that we have not much time to waste in idle talk1 as the greater heats will drive the gazelles from the plains to the mountain retreats1 and lose us the opportunity of enjoying the most sportsmanlike amusement in ,syria4 ,accordingly1 bestriding our animals again1 we ford the river at that point where a bridge once stood4 ,we have barely proceeded twenty minutes before the keen eye of the falconer has descried a herd of gazelles quietly grazing in the distance4 ,immediately he reins in his horse1 and enjoining silence1 instead of riding at them1 as we might have felt inclined to do1 he skirts along the banks of the river1 so as to cut off1 if possible1 the retreat of these fleet animals where the banks are narrowest1 though very deep1 but which would be cleared at a single leap by the gazelles4 ,having successfully accomplished this manuvre1 he again removes the hood from the hawk1 and indicates to us that precaution is no longer necessary4 ,accordingly1 first adding a few slugs to the charges in our barrels1 we balance our guns in an easy posture1 and1 giving the horses their reins1 set off at full gallop1 and with a loud hurrah1 right towards the already startled gazelles4 ,the timid animals1 at first paralysed by our appearance1 stand and gaze for a second terror-stricken at our approach2 but their pause is only momentary2 they perceive in an instant that the retreat to their favourite haunts has been secured1 and so they dash wildly forward with all the fleetness of despair1 coursing over the plain with no fixed refuge in view1 and nothing but their fleetness to aid in their delivery4 ,a stern chase is a long chase1 and so1 doubtless1 on the present occasion it would prove with ourselves1 for there is many and many a mile of level country before us1 and our horses1 though swift of foot1 stand no chance in this respect with the gazelles4 ,now1 however1 the old man has watched for a good opportunity to display the prowess and skill of his falcon3 he has followed us only at a hand-gallop2 but the hawk1 long inured to such pastime1 stretches forth its neck eagerly in the direction of the flying prey1 and being loosened from its pinions1 sweeps up into the air like a shot1 and passes overhead with incredible velocity4 ,five minutes more1 and the bird has outstripped even the speed of the light-footed gazelle2 we see him through the dust and haze that our own speed throws around us1 hovering but an instant over the terrified herd2 he has singled out his prey1 and1 diving with unerring aim1 fixes his iron talons into the head of the terrified animal4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,falcon ,,used ,,in ,,our ,,hunt4 ,this is the signal for the others to break up their orderly retreat1 and to speed over the plain in every direction4 ,some1 despite the danger that hovers on their track1 make straight for their old and familiar haunts1 and passing within twenty yards of where we ride1 afford us an opportunity of displaying our skill as amateur huntsmen on horseback2 nor does it require but little nerve and dexterity to fix our aim whilst our horses are tearing over the ground4 ,however1 the moment presents itself1 the loud report of barrel after barrel startles the unaccustomed inmates of that unfrequented waste2 one gazelle leaps twice its own height into the air1 and then rolls over1 shot through the heart2 another bounds on yet a dozen paces1 but1 wounded mortally1 staggering1 halts1 and then falls to the ground4 ,this is no time for us to pull in and see what is the amount of damage done1 for the falcon1 heedless of all surrounding incidents1 clings firmly to the head of its terrified victim1 flapping its strong wings awhile before the poor brute's terrified eyes1 half blinding it and rendering its head dizzy2 till1 after tearing round and round with incredible speed1 the poor creature stops1 panting for breath1 and1 overcome with excessive terror1 drops down fainting upon the earth4 ,now the air resounds with the acclamations and hootings of the ruthless victors4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,arab ,,is ,,delighted ,,at ,,the ,,success ,,of ,,the ,,hunt4 ,the ,arab is wild in his transports of delight4 ,more certain of the prowess of his bird than ourselves1 he had stopped awhile to gather together the fruits of our booty1 and now galloped furiously up1 waving his long gun1 and shouting lustily the while the praises of his infallible hawk2 then getting down1 and hoodwinking the bird again1 he first of all takes the precaution of fastening together the legs of the fallen gazelle1 and then he humanely blows up into its nostrils4 ,gradually the natural brilliancy returns to the dimmed eyes of the gazelle1 then it struggles valiantly1 but vainly1 to disentangle itself from its fetters4 ,pitying its efforts1 the falconer throws a handkerchief over its head1 and1 securing this prize1 claims it as his own1 declaring that he will bear it home to his house in the mountains1 where1 after a few weeks' kind treatment and care1 it will become as domesticated and affectionate as a spaniel4 ,meanwhile1 ,abou ,shein gathers together the fallen booty1 and1 tying them securely with cords1 fastens them behind his own saddle1 declaring1 with a triumphant laugh1 that we shall return that evening to the city of ,beyrout with such game as few sportsmen can boast of having carried thither in one day4 ,the gentle nature of the ,gazelle is as proverbial as its grace and swiftness1 and is well expressed in the large1 soft1 liquid eye1 which has formed from time immemorial the stock comparison of ,oriental poets when describing the eyes of beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,gazelle4 ,,the ,,pygarg1 ,,or ,,addax4 ,the ,dishon or ,dyshon--,signification of the word ,pygarg--,certainty that the ,dishon is an antelope1 and that it must be one of a few species--,former and present range of the ,addax--,description of the ,addax4 ,there is a species of animal mentioned once in the ,scriptures under the name of ,dishon which the ,jewish ,bible leaves untranslated1 and merely gives as ,dyshon1 and which is rendered in the ,septuagint by ,pugargos1 or ,,pygarg1 as one version gives it4 ,now1 the meaning of the word ,pygarg is white-crouped1 and for that reason the ,pygarg of the ,scriptures is usually held to be one of the white-crouped antelopes1 of which several species are known4 ,perhaps it may be one of them--it may possibly be neither1 and it may probably refer to all of them4 ,but that an antelope of some kind is meant by the word ,dishon is evident enough1 and it is also evident that the ,dishon must have been one of the antelopes which could be obtained by the ,jews4 ,now as the species of antelope which could have furnished food for that nation are very few in number1 it is clear that1 even if we do not hit upon the exact species1 we may be sure of selecting an animal that was closely allied to it4 ,moreover1 as the nomenclature is exceedingly loose1 it is probable that more than one species might have been included in the word ,dishon4 ,modern commentators have agreed that there is every probability that the ,dishon of the ,pentateuch was the antelope known by the name of ,addax4 ,this handsome antelope is a native of ,northern ,africa4 ,it has a very wide range1 and1 even at the present day1 is found in the vicinity of ,palestine1 so that it evidently was one of the antelopes which could be killed by ,jewish hunters4 ,from its large size1 and long twisted horns1 it bears a strong resemblance to the ,koodoo of ,southern ,africa4 ,the horns1 however1 are not so long1 nor so boldly twisted1 the curve being comparatively slight1 and not possessing the bold spiral shape which distinguishes those of the koodoo4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,addax4 ,the ordinary height of the ,addax is three feet seven or eight inches1 and the horns are almost exactly alike in the two sexes4 ,their length1 from the head to the tips1 is rather more than two feet4 ,its colour is mostly white1 but a thick mane of dark black hair falls from the throat1 a patch of similar hair grows on the forehead1 and the back and shoulders are greyish brown4 ,there is no mane on the back of the neck1 as is the case with the koodoo4 ,the ,addax is a sand-loving animal1 as is shown by the wide and spreading hoofs1 which afford it a firm footing on the yielding soil4 ,in all probability1 this is one of the animals which would be taken1 like the wild bull1 in a net1 being surrounded and driven into the toils by a number of hunters4 ,it is not1 however1 one of the gregarious species1 and is not found in those vast herds in which some of the antelopes love to assemble4 ,illustration3 decoration ,,the ,,fallow-,,deer1 ,,or ,,bubale4 ,the word ,jachmur evidently represents a species of antelope--,resemblance of the animal to the ox tribe--,its ox-like horns and mode of attack--,its capability of domestication--,former and present range of the ,bubale--,its representation on the monuments of ancient ,egypt--,delicacy of its flesh--,size and general appearance of the animal4 ,it has already been mentioned that in the ,old ,testament there occur the names of three or four animals1 which clearly belong to one or other of three or four antelopes4 ,only one of these names now remains to be identified4 ,this is the ,jachmur1 or ,yachmur1 a word which has been rendered in the ,septuagint as ,boubalos1 and has been translated in our ,authorized ,version as ,,fallow ,,deer4 ,we shall presently see that the ,fallow ,deer is to be identified with another animal1 and that the word ,jachmur must find another interpretation4 ,if we follow the ,septuagint1 and call it the ,,bubale1 we shall identify it with a well-known antelope called by the ,arabs the ,bekk'r-el-,wash1 and known to zoologists as the ,,bubale 7,acronotus bubalis74 ,this fine antelope would scarcely be recognised as such by an unskilled observer1 as in its general appearance it much more resembles the ox tribe than the antelope4 ,indeed1 the ,arabic title1 ,bekk'r-el-,wash1 or ,wild ,cow1 shows how close must be the resemblance to the oxen4 ,the ,arabs1 and indeed all the ,orientals in whose countries it lives1 believe it not to be an antelope1 but one of the oxen1 and class it accordingly4 ,how much the appearance of the ,bubale justifies them in this opinion may be judged by reference to the figure on page #adc4 ,the horns are thick1 short1 and heavy1 and are first inclined forwards1 and then rather suddenly bent backwards4 ,this formation of the horns causes the ,bubale to use his weapons after the manner of the bull1 thereby increasing the resemblance between them4 ,when it attacks1 the ,bubale lowers its head to the ground1 and as soon as its antagonist is within reach1 tosses its head violently upwards1 or swings it with a sidelong upward blow4 ,in either case1 the sharp curved horns1 impelled by the powerful neck of the animal1 and assisted by the weight of the large head1 become most formidable weapons4 ,it is said that in some places1 where the ,bubales have learned to endure the presence of man1 they will mix with his herds for the sake of feeding with them1 and by degrees become so accustomed to the companionship of their domesticated friends1 that they live with the herd as if they had belonged to it all their lives4 ,this fact shows that the animal possesses a gentle disposition1 and it is said to be as easily tamed as the gazelle itself4 ,even at the present day the ,bubale has a very wide range1 and formerly had in all probability a much wider4 ,it is indigenous to ,barbary1 and has continued to spread itself over the greater part of ,northern ,africa1 including the borders of the ,sahara1 the edges of the cultivated districts1 and up the ,nile for no small distance4 ,in former days it was evidently a tolerably common animal of chase in ,upper ,egypt as there are representations of it on the monuments1 drawn with the quaint truthfulness which distinguishes the monumental sculpture of that period4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bubale1 ,,or ,,fallow-,,deer ,,of ,,scripture4 ,it is probable that in and about ,palestine it was equally common1 so that there is good reason why it should be specially named as one of the animals that were lawful food4 ,not only was its flesh permitted to be eaten1 but it was evidently considered as a great dainty1 inasmuch as the ,jachmur is mentioned in #a ,kings iv4 #bc as one of the animals which were brought to the royal table4 ,harts and ,roebucks and ,fallow-,deer are the wild animals mentioned in the passage alluded to4 ,illustration3 sheep and birds ,,the ,,sheep4 ,importance of ,sheep in the ,bible--,the ,sheep the chief wealth of the pastoral tribes--,arab shepherds of the present day--,wanderings of the flocks in search of food--,value of the wells--,how the ,sheep are watered--,the shepherd usually a part owner of the flocks--,structure of the sheepfolds--,the rock caverns of ,palestine--,david's adventure with ,saul--,use of the dogs--,the broad-tailed ,sheep1 and its peculiarities4 ,we now come to a subject which will necessarily occupy us for some little time4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no animal which occupies a larger space in the ,scriptures than the ,,sheep4 ,whether in religious1 civil1 or domestic life1 we find that the ,sheep is bound up with the ,jewish nation in a way that would seem almost incomprehensible1 did we not recall the light which the ,new ,testament throws upon the ,old1 and the many allusions to the coming ,messiah under the figure of the ,lamb that taketh away the sins of the world4 ,in treating of the ,sheep1 it will be perhaps advisable to begin the account by taking the animal simply as one of those creatures which have been domesticated from time immemorial1 dwelling slightly on those points on which the sheep-owners of the old days differed from those of our own time4 ,the only claim to the land seems1 in the old times of the ,scriptures1 to have lain in cultivation1 or perhaps in the land immediately surrounding a well4 ,but any one appears to have taken a piece of ground and cultivated it1 or to have dug a well wherever he chose1 and thereby to have acquired a sort of right to the soil4 ,the same custom prevails at the present day among the cattle-breeding races of ,southern ,africa4 ,the banks of rivers1 on account of their superior fertility1 were considered as the property of the chiefs who lived along their course1 but the inland soil was free to all4 ,had it not been for this freedom of the land1 it would have been impossible for the great men to have nourished the enormous flocks and herds of which their wealth consisted2 but1 on account of the lack of ownership of the soil1 a flock could be moved to one district after another as fast as it exhausted the herbage1 the shepherds thus unconsciously imitating the habits of the gregarious animals1 which are always on the move from one spot to another4 ,pasturage being thus free to all1 ,sheep had a higher comparative value than is the case with ourselves1 who have to pay in some way for their keep4 ,there is a proverb in the ,talmud which may be curtly translated1 ,land sell1 sheep buy4 ,the value of a good pasture-ground for the flocks is so great1 that its possession is well worth a battle1 the shepherds being saved from a most weary and harassing life1 and being moreover fewer in number than is needed when the pasturage is scanty ,sir ,s4 ,baker1 in his work on ,abyssinia1 makes some very interesting remarks upon the ,arab herdsmen1 who are placed in conditions very similar to those of the ,israelitish shepherds4 ,illustration3 ,,arabs ,,journeying ,,to ,,fresh ,,pastures4 ,the ,arabs are creatures of necessity2 their nomadic life is compulsory1 as the existence of their flocks and herds depends upon the pasturage4 ,thus1 with the change of seasons they must change their localities according to the presence of fodder for their cattle4444 ,the ,arab cannot halt in one spot longer than the pasturage will support his flocks4 ,the object of his life being fodder1 he must wander in search of the ever-changing supply4 ,his wants must be few1 as the constant change of encampment necessitates the transport of all his household goods2 thus he reduces to a minimum his domestic furniture and utensils4444 ,this striking similarity to the descriptions of the ,old ,testament is exceedingly interesting to a traveller when residing among these curious and original people4 ,with the ,bible in one's hand1 and these unchanged tribes before the eyes1 there is a thrilling illustration of the sacred record2 the past becomes the present1 the veil of three thousand years is raised1 and the living picture is a witness to the exactness of the historical description4 ,at the same time there is a light thrown upon many obscure passages in the ,old ,testament by the experience of the present customs and figures of speech of the ,arabs1 which are precisely those that were practised at the periods described4444 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,pyramids4 ,should the present history of the country be written by an ,arab scribe1 the style of the description would be precisely that of the ,old ,testament4 ,there is a fascination in the unchangeable features of the ,nile regions4 ,there are the vast pyramids that have defied time1 the river upon which ,moses was cradled in infancy1 the same sandy desert through which he led his people1 and the watering-places where their flocks were led to drink4 ,the wild and wandering ,arabs1 who thousands of years ago dug out the wells in the wilderness1 are represented by their descendants1 unchanged1 who now draw water from the deep wells of their forefathers1 with the skins that have never altered their fashion4 ,the ,arabs1 gathering with their goats and sheep around the wells to-day1 recall the recollection of that distant time when ',jacob went on his journey1 and came into the land of the people of the east4 ,and he looked1 and behold a well in the field1 and lo6 there were three flocks of sheep lying by it1' c4 ,the picture of that scene would be an illustration of ,arab daily life in the ,nubian deserts1 where the present is a mirror of the past4 ,owing to the great number of ,sheep which they have to tend1 and the peculiar state of the country1 the life of the shepherd in ,palestine is even now very different from that of an ,english shepherd1 and in the days of the early ,scriptures the distinction was even more distinctly marked4 ,sheep had to be tended much more carefully than we generally think4 ,in the first place1 a thoughtful shepherd had always one idea before his mind1--namely1 the possibility of obtaining sufficient water for his flocks4 ,even pasturage is less important than water1 and1 however tempting a district might be1 no shepherd would venture to take his charge there if he were not sure of obtaining water4 ,in a climate such as ours1 this ever-pressing anxiety respecting water can scarcely be appreciated1 for in hot climates not only is water scarce1 but it is needed far more than in a temperate and moist climate4 ,thirst does its work with terrible quickness1 and there are instances recorded where men have sat down and died of thirst in sight of the river which they had not strength to reach4 ,in places therefore through which no stream runs1 the wells are the great centres of pasturage1 around which are to be seen vast flocks extending far in every direction4 ,these wells are kept carefully closed by their owners1 and are only opened for the use of those who are entitled to water their flocks at them4 ,noontide is the general time for watering the ,sheep1 and towards that hour all the flocks may be seen converging towards their respective wells1 the shepherd at the head of each flock1 and the ,sheep following him4 ,see how forcible becomes the imagery of ,david1 the shepherd poet1 ,the ,lord is my ,shepherd2 ,i shall not want4 ,he maketh me to lie down in green pastures 7or1 in pastures of tender grass73 ,he leadeth me beside the still waters 7,ps4 xxiii4 #a1 #b74 ,here we have two of the principal duties of the good shepherd brought prominently before us1--namely1 the guiding of the ,sheep to green pastures and leading them to fresh water4 ,very many references are made in the ,scriptures to the pasturage of sheep1 both in a technical and a metaphorical sense2 but as our space is limited1 and these passages are very numerous1 only one or two of each will be taken4 ,in the story of ,joseph1 we find that when his father and brothers were suffering from the famine1 they seem to have cared as much for their ,sheep and cattle as for themselves1 inasmuch as among a pastoral people the flocks and herds constitute the only wealth4 ,so1 when ,joseph at last discovered himself1 and his family were admitted to the favour of ,pharaoh1 the first request which they made was for their flocks4 ,pharaoh said unto his brethren1 ,what is your occupation8 ,and they said unto ,pharaoh1 ,thy servants are shepherds1 both we1 and also our fathers4 ,they said moreover unto ,pharaoh1 ,for to sojourn in the land are we come2 for thy servants have no pasture for their flocks2 for the famine is sore in the land of ,canaan3 now therefore1 we pray thee1 let thy servants dwell in the land of ,goshen4 ,this one incident1 so slightly remarked in the sacred history1 gives a wonderfully clear notion of the sort of life led by ,jacob and his sons4 ,forming1 according to custom1 a small tribe of their own1 of which the father was the chief1 they led a pastoral life1 taking their continually increasing herds and flocks from place to place as they could find food for them4 ,for example1 at the memorable time when the story of ,joseph begins1 he was sent by his father to his brothers1 who were feeding the flocks1 and he wandered about for some time1 not knowing where to find them4 ,it may seem strange that he should be unable to discover such very conspicuous objects as large flocks of sheep and goats1 but the fact is that they had been driven from one pasture-land to another1 and had travelled in search of food all the way from ,shechem to ,dothan4 ,in #a ,chron4 iv4 #ci1 #dj1 we read of the still pastoral ,israelites that they went to the entrance of ,gedor1 even unto the east side of the valley1 to seek pasture for their flocks4 ,and they found fat pasture and good1 and the land was wide1 and quiet1 and peaceable4 ,how it came to be quiet and peaceable is told in the context4 ,it was peaceable simply because the ,israelites were attracted by the good pasturage1 attacked the original inhabitants1 and exterminated them so effectually that none were left to offer resistance to the usurpers4 ,and we find from this passage that the value of good pasture-land where the ,sheep could feed continually without being forced to wander from one spot to another was so considerable1 that the owners of the flocks engaged in war1 and exposed their own lives1 in order to obtain so valuable a possession4 ,illustration3 ,,jacob ,,meets ,,rachel ,,at ,,the ,,well4 ,we will now look at one or two of the passages that mention watering the ,sheep--a duty so imperative on an ,oriental shepherd1 and so needless to our own4 ,in the first place we find that most graphic narrative which occurs in ,gen4 xxix4 to which a passing reference has already been made4 ,when ,jacob was on his way from his parents to the home of ,laban in ,padan-aram1 he came upon the very well which belonged to his uncle1 and there saw three flocks of ,sheep lying around the well1 waiting until the proper hour arrived4 ,according to custom1 a large stone was laid over the well1 so as to perform the double office of keeping out the sand and dust1 and of guarding the precious water against those who had no right to it4 ,and when he saw his cousin ,rachel arrive with the flock of which she had the management1 he1 according to the courtesy of the country and the time1 rolled away the ponderous barrier1 and poured out water into the troughs for the ,sheep which ,rachel tended4 ,illustration3 ,,eastern ,,shepherd ,,watching ,,his ,,flock4 ,about two hundred years afterwards1 we find ,moses performing a similar act4 ,when he was obliged to escape into ,midian on account of his fatal quarrel with a tyrannical ,egyptian1 he sat down by a well1 waiting for the time when the stone might be rolled away1 and the water be distributed4 ,now it happened that this well belonged to ,jethro1 the chief priest of the country1 whose wealth consisted principally of ,sheep4 ,he entrusted his flock to the care of his seven daughters1 who led their ,sheep to the well and drew water as usual into the troughs4 ,presuming on their weakness1 other shepherds came and tried to drive them away1 but were opposed by ,moses1 who drove them away1 and with his own hands watered the flock4 ,now in both these examples we find that the men who performed the courteous office of drawing the water and pouring it into the sheep-troughs married afterwards the girl to whose charge the flocks had been committed4 ,this brings us to the ,oriental custom which has been preserved to the present day4 ,the wells at which the cattle are watered at noon-day are the meeting-places of the tribe1 and it is chiefly at the well that the young men and women meet each other4 ,as each successive flock arrives at the well1 the number of the people increases1 and while the sheep and goats lie patiently round the water1 waiting for the time when the last flock shall arrive1 and the stone be rolled off the mouth of the well1 the gossip of the tribe is discussed1 and the young people have ample opportunity for the pleasing business of courtship4 ,as to the passages in which the wells1 rivers1 brooks1 water-springs1 are spoken of in a metaphorical sense1 they are too numerous to be quoted4 ,and here ,i may observe1 that in reality the whole of ,scripture has its symbolical as well as its outward signification2 and that1 until we have learned to read the ,bible strictly according to the spirit1 we cannot understand one-thousandth part of the mysteries which it conceals behind its veil of language2 nor can we appreciate one-thousandth part of the treasures of wisdom which lie hidden in its pages4 ,another duty of the shepherd of ancient ,palestine was to guard his flock from depredators1 whether man or beast4 ,therefore the shepherd was forced to carry arms2 to act as a sentry during the night2 and1 in fact1 to be a sort of irregular soldier4 ,a fully-armed shepherd had with him his bow1 his spear1 and his sword1 and not even a shepherd lad was without his sling and the great quarter-staff which is even now universally carried by the tribes along the ,nile--a staff as thick as a man's wrist1 and six or seven feet in length4 ,he was skilled in the use of all these weapons1 especially in that of the sling4 ,illustration3 ,,david ,,gathers ,,stones ,,from ,,the ,,brook ,,to ,,cast ,,at ,,goliath4 ,in these days1 the sling is only considered as a mere toy1 whereas1 before the introduction of fire-arms1 it was one of the most formidable weapons that could be wielded by light troops4 ,round and smooth stones weighing three or four ounces were the usual projectiles1 and1 by dint of constant practice from childhood1 the slingers could aim with a marvellous precision4 ,of this fact we have a notable instance in ,david1 who knew that the sling and the five stones in the hand of an active youth unencumbered by armour1 and wearing merely the shepherd's simple tunic1 were more than a match for all the ponderous weapons of the gigantic ,philistine4 ,it has sometimes been the fashion to attribute the successful aim of ,david to a special miracle1 whereas those who are acquainted with ancient weapons know well that no miracle was wrought1 because none was needed2 a good slinger at that time being as sure of his aim as a good rifleman of our days4 ,the sling was in constant requisition1 being used both in directing the ,sheep and in repelling enemies3 a stone skilfully thrown in front of a straying ,sheep being a well-understood signal that the animal had better retrace its steps if it did not want to feel the next stone on its back4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,eastern ,,shepherd4 ,passing his whole life with his flock1 the shepherd was identified with his ,sheep far more than is the case in this country4 ,he knew all his ,sheep by sight1 he called them all by their names1 and they all knew him and recognised his voice4 ,he did not drive them1 but he led them1 walking in their front1 and they following him4 ,sometimes he would play with them1 pretending to run away while they pursued him1 exactly as an infant-school teacher plays with the children4 ,consequently1 they looked upon him as their protector as well as their feeder1 and were sure to follow wherever he led them4 ,illustration3 ,,sheep ,,following ,,their ,,shepherd4 ,we must all remember how ,david1 who had passed all his early years as a shepherd1 speaks of ,god as the ,shepherd of ,israel1 and the people as ,sheep2 never mentioning the ,sheep as being driven1 but always as being led4 ,thou leddest ,thy people like a flock1 by the hands of ,moses and ,aaron 7,ps4 lxxvii4 #bj72 ,the ,lord is my ,shepherd4444 ,he leadeth me beside the still waters 7,ps4 xxiii4 #a1 #b72 ,lead me in a plain path1 because of mine enemies 7,ps4 xxvii4 #aa72 together with many other passages too numerous to be quoted4 ,our ,lord ,himself makes a familiar use of the same image3 ,he calleth his own sheep by name1 and leadeth them out ,and when he putteth forth his own sheep1 he goeth before them1 and the sheep follow him3 for they know his voice4 ,although the shepherds of our own country know their ,sheep by sight1 and say that there is as much difference in the faces of ,sheep as of men1 they have not1 as a rule1 attained the art of teaching their ,sheep to recognise their names4 ,this custom1 however1 is still retained1 as may be seen from a well-known passage in ,hartley's ,researches in ,greece and the ,levant3-- ,having had my attention directed last night to the words in ,john x4 #c1 ,i asked my man if it were usual in ,greece to give names to the sheep4 ,he informed me that it was1 and that the sheep obeyed the shepherd when he called them by their names4 ,this morning ,i had an opportunity of verifying the truth of this remark4 ,passing by a flock of sheep1 ,i asked the shepherd the same question which ,i had put to the servant1 and he gave me the same answer4 ,i then bade him call one of his sheep4 ,he did so1 and it instantly left its pasturage and its companions1 and ran up to the hands of the shepherd1 with signs of pleasure1 and with a prompt obedience which ,i had never before observed in any other animal4 ,it is also true that in this country1 'a stranger will they not follow1 but will flee from him4' ,the shepherd told me that many of his sheep were still wild1 that they had not learned their names1 but that by teaching them they would all learn them4 ,generally1 the shepherd was either the proprietor of the flock1 or had at all events a share in it1 of which latter arrangement we find a well-known example in the bargain which ,jacob made with ,laban1 all the white ,sheep belonging to his father-in-law1 and all the dark and spotted ,sheep being his wages as shepherd4 ,such a man was far more likely to take care of the ,sheep than if he were merely a paid labourer2 especially in a country where the life of a shepherd was a life of actual danger1 and he might at any time be obliged to fight against armed robbers1 or to oppose the wolf1 the lion1 or the bear4 ,the combat of the shepherd ,david with the last-mentioned animals has already been noticed4 ,in allusion to the continual risks run by the ,oriental shepherd1 our ,lord makes use of the following well-known words3--,the thief cometh not but for to steal1 and to kill1 and to destroy3 ,i am come that they might have life1 and have it more abundantly4 ,i am the ,good ,shepherd3 the good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep4 ,but he that is an hireling1 444 whose own the sheep are not1 seeth the wolf coming1 and leaveth the sheep1 and fleeth3 and the wolf catcheth them1 and scattereth the sheep4 ,the hireling fleeth because he is an hireling1 and careth not for the sheep4 ,owing to the continual moving of the ,sheep1 the shepherd had very hard work during the lambing time1 and was obliged to carry in his arms the young lambs which were too feeble to accompany their parents1 and to keep close to him those ,sheep who were expected soon to become mothers4 ,at that time of year the shepherd might constantly be seen at the head of his flock1 carrying one or two lambs in his arms1 accompanied by their mothers4 ,in allusion to this fact ,isaiah writes3 ,his reward is with ,him1 and ,his work before ,him4 ,he shall feed ,his flock like a shepherd2 ,he shall gather the lambs with ,his arms and carry them in ,his bosom1 and shall gently lead them that are with young 7or1 that give suck1 according to the marginal reading74 ,here we have presented at once before us the good shepherd who is no hireling1 but owns the ,sheep2 and who therefore has his reward with him1 and his work before him2 who bears the tender lambs in his arms1 or lays them in the folds of his mantle1 and so carries them in his bosom1 and leads by his side their yet feeble mothers4 ,frequent mention is made of the folds in which the ,sheep are penned2 and as these folds differed--and still differ--materially from those of our own land1 we shall miss the force of several passages of ,scripture if we do not understand their form1 and the materials of which they were built4 ,our folds consist merely of hurdles1 moveable at pleasure1 and so low that a man can easily jump over them1 and so fragile that he can easily pull them down4 ,moreover1 the ,sheep are frequently enclosed within the fold while they are at pasture4 ,if any one should entertain such an idea of the ,oriental fold1 he would not see the force of the well-known passage in which our ,lord compares the ,church to a sheepfold1 and ,himself to the door4 ,he that entereth not by the door into the sheepfold1 but climbeth up some other way1 the same is a thief and a robber4 ,but he that entereth in by the door is the shepherd of the sheep4 ,to him the porter openeth1 and the sheep hear his voice4444 ,all that ever came before me are thieves and robbers3 but the sheep did not hear them4 ,i am the door3 by me if any man enter in1 he shall be saved1 and shall go in and out1 and find pasture4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,sheep ,,pen4 ,had the fold here mentioned been a simple enclosure of hurdles1 such an image could not have been used4 ,it is evident that the fold to which allusion was made1 and which was probably in sight at the time when ,jesus was disputing with the ,pharisees1 was a structure of some pretensions2 that it had walls which a thief could only enter by climbing over them--not by breaking through them1 as in the case of a mud-walled private house2 and that it had a gate1 which was guarded by a watchman4 ,in fact1 the fold was a solid and enduring building1 made of stone4 ,thus in ,numbers xxxii4 it is related that the tribes of ,reuben and ,gad1 who had great quantities of ,sheep and other cattle1 asked for the eastward side of ,jordan as a pasture-ground1 promising to go and fight for the people1 but previously to build fortified cities for their families1 and folds for their cattle1 the folds being evidently1 like the cities1 buildings of an enduring nature4 ,in some places the folds are simply rock caverns1 partly natural and partly artificial1 often enlarged by a stone wall built outside it4 ,it was the absence of these rock caverns on the east side of ,jordan that compelled the ,reubenites and ,gadites to build folds for themselves1 whereas on the opposite side places of refuge were comparatively abundant4 ,see1 for example1 the well-known history related in #a ,sam4 xxiii4-xxiv4 ,david and his miscellaneous band of warriors1 some six hundred in number1 were driven out of the cities by the fear of ,saul1 and were obliged to pass their time in the wilderness1 living in the strong holds 7xxiii4 #ad1 #ai71 which we find immediately afterwards to be rock caves 7ver4 #be74 ,these caves were of large extent1 being able to shelter these six hundred warriors1 and1 on one memorable occasion1 to conceal them so completely as they stood along the sides1 that ,saul1 who had just come out of the open air1 was not able to discern them in the dim light1 and ,david even managed to approach him unseen1 and cut off a portion of his outer robe4 ,that this particular cave was a sheepfold we learn from xxiv4 #b-d3 ,then ,saul took three thousand chosen men out of all ,israel1 and went to seek ,david and his men upon the rocks of the wild goats4 ,and he came to the sheepcotes by the way4 ,into these strongholds the ,sheep are driven towards nightfall1 and1 as the flocks converge towards their resting-place1 the bleatings of the sheep are almost deafening4 ,the shepherds as well as their flocks found shelter in these caves1 making them their resting-places while they were living the strange1 wild1 pastoral life among the hills2 and at the present day many of the smaller caves and holes of the rock exhibit the vestiges of human habitation in the shape of straw1 hay1 and other dried herbage1 which has been used for beds1 just as we now find the rude couches of the coast-guard men in the cliff caves of our shores4 ,the dogs which are attached to the sheepfolds were1 as they are now1 the faithful servants of man1 although1 as has already been related1 they are not made the companions of man as is the case with ourselves4 ,lean1 gaunt1 hungry1 and treated with but scant kindness1 they are yet faithful guardians against the attack of enemies4 ,they do not1 as do our sheepdogs1 assist in driving the flocks1 because the ,sheep are not driven1 but led1 but they are invaluable as nocturnal sentries4 ,crouching together outside the fold1 in little knots of six or seven together1 they detect the approach of wild animals1 and at the first sign of the wolf or the jackal they bark out a defiance1 and scare away the invaders4 ,it is strange that the old superstitious idea of their uncleanness should have held its ground through so many tens of centuries2 but1 down to the present day1 the shepherd of ,palestine1 though making use of the dog as a guardian of his flock1 treats the animal with utter contempt1 not to say cruelty1 beating and kicking the faithful creature on the least provocation1 and scarcely giving it sufficient food to keep it alive4 ,sometimes the ,sheep are brought up by hand at home4 ,house-lamb1 as we call it1 is even now common1 and the practice of house-feeding peculiar in the old ,scriptural times4 ,we have an allusion to this custom in the well-known parable of the prophet ,nathan3 ,the poor man had nothing1 save one little ewe lamb1 which he had bought and nourished up3 and it grew up together with him1 and with his children2 it did eat of his own meat1 and drank of his own cup1 and lay in his bosom1 and was unto him as a daughter 7#b ,sam4 xii4 #c74 ,a further1 though less distinct1 allusion is made to this practice in ,isaiah vii4 #ba3 ,it shall come to pass in that day1 that a man shall nourish a young cow1 and two sheep4 ,how the ,sheep thus brought up by hand were fattened may be conjectured from the following passage in ,mr4 ,d4 ,urquhart's valuable work on the ,lebanon3-- ,in the month of ,june1 they buy from the shepherds1 when pasturage has become scarce and sheep are cheap1 two or three sheep2 these they feed by hand4 ,after they have eaten up the old grass and the provender about the doors1 they get vine leaves1 and1 after the silkworms have begun to spin1 mulberry leaves4 ,they purchase them on trial1 and the test is appetite4 ,if a sheep does not feed well1 they return it after three days4 ,to increase their appetite they wash them twice a day1 morning and evening1 a care they never bestow on their own bodies4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,poor ,,man',s ,,lamb4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rich ,,man',s ,,feast4 ,if the sheep's appetite does not come up to their standard1 they use a little gentle violence1 folding for them forced leaf-balls and introducing them into their mouths4 ,the mulberry has the property of making them fat and tender4 ,at the end of four months the sheep they had bought at eighty piastres will sell for one hundred and forty1 or will realize one hundred and fifty4 ,the sheep is killed1 skinned1 and hung up4 ,the fat is then removed2 the flesh is cut from the bones1 and hung up in the sun4 ,meanwhile1 the fat has been put in a cauldron on the fire1 and as soon as it has come to boil1 the meat is laid on4 ,the proportion of the fat to the lean is as four to ten1 eight 'okes' fat and twenty lean4 ,a little salt is added1 it is simmered for an hour1 and then placed in jars for the use of the family during the year4 ,the large joints are separated and used first1 as not fit for keeping long4 ,the fat1 with a portion of the lean1 chopped fine1 is what serves for cooking the 'bourgoul1' and is called ,dehen4 ,the sheep are of the fat-tailed variety1 and the tails are the great delicacy4 ,this last sentence reminds us that there are two breeds of ,sheep in ,palestine4 ,one much resembles the ordinary ,english ,sheep1 while the other is a very different animal4 ,it is much taller on its legs1 larger-boned1 and long-nosed4 ,only the rams have horns1 and they are not twisted spirally like those of our own ,sheep1 but come backwards1 and then curl round so that the point comes under the ear4 ,the great peculiarity of this ,sheep is the tail1 which is simply prodigious in point of size1 and is an enormous mass of fat4 ,indeed1 the long-legged and otherwise lean animal seems to concentrate all its fat in the tail1 which1 as has been well observed1 appears to abstract both flesh and fat from the rest of the body4 ,so great is this strange development1 that the tail alone will sometimes weigh one-fifth as much as the entire animal4 ,a similar breed of ,sheep is found in ,southern ,africa and other parts of the world4 ,in some places1 the tail grows to such an enormous size that1 in order to keep so valuable a part of the animal from injury1 it is fastened to a small board1 supported by a couple of wheels1 so that the ,sheep literally wheels its own tail in a cart4 ,frequent reference to the fat of the tail is made in the ,authorized ,version of the ,scriptures1 though in terms which would not be understood did we not know that the ,sheep which is mentioned in those passages is the long-tailed ,sheep of ,syria4 ,see1 for example1 the history narrated in ,exod4 xxix4 #bb1 where special details are given as to the ceremony by which ,aaron and his sons were consecrated to the priesthood4 ,thou shalt take of the ram the fat and the rump1 and the fat that covereth the inwards1 and the caul above the liver1 and the two kidneys1 and the fat that is upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,flocks ,,of ,,sheep ,,being ,,taken ,,into ,,jerusalem4 ,though this particular breed is not very distinctly mentioned in the ,bible1 the ,talmudical writers have many allusions to it4 ,in the ,mischna these broad-tailed ,sheep are not allowed to leave their folds on the ,sabbath-day1 because by wheeling their little tail-waggons behind them they would break the ,sabbath4 ,the writers describe the tail very graphically1 comparing its shape to that of a saddle1 and saying that it is fat1 without bones1 heavy and long1 and looks as if the whole body were continued beyond the hind-legs1 and thence hung down in place of a tail4 ,the ,rabbinical writers treat rather fully of the ,sheep1 and give some very amusing advice respecting their management4 ,if the ewes cannot be fattened in the ordinary manner1 that end may be achieved by tying up the udder so that the milk cannot flow1 and the elements which would have furnished milk are forced to produce fat4 ,if the weather should be chilly at the shearing time1 and there is danger of taking cold after the wool is removed1 the shepherd should dip a sponge in oil and tie it on the forehead of the newly-shorn animal4 ,or1 if he should not have a sponge by him1 a woollen rag will do as well4 ,the same potent remedy is also efficacious if the ,sheep should be ill in lambing time4 ,that the ,sheep is liable to the attack of the gadfly1 which deposits its eggs in the nostrils of the unfortunate animal1 was as well known in the ancient as in modern times4 ,it is scarcely necessary to mention that the insect in question is the strus ovis4 ,instinctively aware of the presence of this insidious and dreaded enemy1 which1 though so apparently insignificant1 is as formidable a foe as any of the beasts of prey1 the ,sheep display the greatest terror at the sharp1 menacing sound produced by the gadfly's wings as the insect sweeps through the air towards its destination4 ,they congregate together1 placing their heads almost in contact with each other1 snort and paw the ground in their terror1 and use all means in their power to prevent the fly from accomplishing its purpose4 ,when a gadfly succeeds in attaining its aim1 it rapidly deposits an egg or two in the nostril1 and then leaves them4 ,the tiny eggs are soon hatched by the natural heat of the animal1 and the young larv crawl up the nostril towards the frontal sinus4 ,there they remain until they are full-grown1 when they crawl through the nostrils1 fall on the ground1 burrow therein1 and in the earth undergo their changes into the pupal and perfect stages4 ,it need hardly be said that an intelligent shepherd would devote himself to the task of killing every gadfly which he could find1 and1 as these insects are fond of basking on sunny rocks or tree-trunks1 this is no very difficult matter4 ,the ,rabbinical writers1 however1 being totally ignorant of practical entomology1 do not seem to have recognised the insect until it had reached its full larval growth4 ,they say that the rams manage to shake the grubs out of their nostrils by butting at one another in mimic warfare1 and that the ewes1 which are hornless1 and are therefore incapable of relieving themselves by such means1 ought to be supplied with plants which will make them sneeze1 so that they may shake out the grubs by the convulsive jerkings of the head caused by inhaling the irritating substance4 ,the same writers also recommend that the rams should be furnished with strong leathern collars4 ,when the flock is on the march1 the rams always go in the van1 and1 being instinctively afraid of their ancient enemy the wolf1 they continually raise their heads and look about them4 ,this line of conduct irritates the wolves1 who attack the foremost rams and seize them by the throat4 ,if1 therefore1 a piece of stout leather be fastened round the ram's neck1 the wolf is baffled1 and runs off in sullen despair4 ,generally1 the oldest ram is distinguished by a bell1 and1 when the flock moves over the hilly slopes1 the ,sheep walk in file after the leader1 making narrow paths1 which are very distinct from a distance1 but are scarcely perceptible when the foot of the traveller is actually upon them4 ,from this habit has arisen an ancient proverb1 ,as the sheep after the sheep1 so the daughter after the mother1 a saying which is another form of our own familiar proverb1 ,what is bred in the bone will not come out of the flesh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now come to the ,sheep considered with reference to its uses4 ,first and foremost the ,sheep was1 and still is1 one of the chief means of subsistence1 being to the pastoral inhabitants of ,palestine what the oxen are to the pastoral inhabitants of ,southern ,africa4 ,to ordinary persons the flesh of the ,sheep was a seldom-tasted luxury2 great men might eat it habitually1 faring sumptuously every day1 and we find that1 among the glories of ,solomon's reign1 the sacred chronicler has thought it worth while to mention that part of the daily provision for his household included one hundred ,sheep4 ,no particular pains seem to have been taken about the cooking of the animal1 which seems generally to have been boiled4 ,as1 however1 in such a climate the flesh could not be kept for the purpose of making it tender1 as is the case in this part of the world1 it was cooked as soon as the animal was killed1 the fibres not having time to settle into the rigidity of death4 ,generally1 when ordinary people had the opportunity of tasting the flesh of the ,sheep1 it was on the occasion of some rejoicing1--such1 for example1 as a marriage feast1 or the advent of a guest1 for whom a lamb or a kid was slain and cooked on the spot1 a young male lamb being almost invariably chosen as less injurious than the ewe to the future prospects of the flock4 ,roasting over a fire was sometimes adopted1 as was baking in an oven sunk in the ground1 a remarkable instance of which we shall see when we come to the ,jewish sacrifices4 ,boiling1 however1 was the principal mode2 so much so1 indeed1 that the ,hebrew word which signifies boiling is used to signify any kind of cooking1 even when the meat was roasted4 ,the process of cooking and eating the ,sheep was as follows4 ,the animal having been killed according to the legal form1 the skin was stripped off1 and the body separated joint from joint1 the right shoulder being first removed4 ,this1 it will be remembered1 was the priest's portion2 see ,lev4 vii4 #cb3 ,the right shoulder shall ye give unto the priest for an heave offering of the sacrifices of your peace offerings4 ,the whole of the flesh was then separated from the bones1 and chopped small1 and even the bones themselves broken up1 so that the marrow might not be lost4 ,a reference to this custom is found in ,micah iii4 #b1 #c1 ,who pluck off their skin from off them1 and their flesh from off their bones2 who also eat the flesh of my people 444 and they break their bones1 and chop them in pieces1 as for the pot1 and as flesh within the caldron4 ,the reader will now understand more fully the force of the prophecy1 ,he keepeth all ,his bones3 not one of them is broken 7,psa4 xxxiv4 #bj74 ,the mixed mass of bones and flesh was then put into the caldron1 which was generally filled with water1 but sometimes with milk1 as is the custom with the ,bedouins of the present day1 whose manners are in many respects identical with those of the early ,jews4 ,it has been thought by some commentators that the injunction not to seethe a kid in his mothers milk 7,deut4 xiv4 #ba7 referred to this custom4 ,i believe1 however1 that the expression in his mother's milk does not signify that the flesh of the kid might not be boiled in its mother's milk1 but that a kid might not be taken which was still in its mother's milk1 i4e4 unweaned4 ,salt and spices were generally added to it2 see ,ezek4 xxiv4 #aj3 ,heap on wood1 kindle the fire1 consume the flesh1 and spice it well4 ,the surface was carefully skimmed1 and1 when the meat was thoroughly cooked1 it and the broth were served up separately4 ,the latter was used as a sort of sauce1 into which unleavened bread was dipped4 ,so in ,judges vi4 #ai we read that when ,gideon was visited by the angel1 according to the hospitable custom of the land1 he made ready a kid1 and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour3 the flesh he put in a basket1 and he put the broth in a pot1 and brought it out unto him under the oak1 and presented it to him4 ,valuable1 however1 as was the ,sheep for this purpose1 there has always existed a great reluctance to kill the animal1 the very sight of the flocks being an intense gratification to a pastoral ,oriental4 ,the principal part of the food supplied by the ,sheep was1 and is still1 the milk2 which afforded abundant food without thinning the number of the flock4 ,as all know who have tasted it1 the milk of the ,sheep is peculiarly rich1 and in the ,east is valued much more highly than that of cattle4 ,the milk was seldom drunk in a fresh state1 as is usually the case with ourselves1 but was suffered to become sour1 curdled1 and semi-solid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now come to a portion of the ,sheep scarcely less important than the flesh and the milk1 i4e4 the fleece1 or wool4 ,in the ancient times nearly the whole of the clothing was made of wool1 especially the most valuable part of it1 namely the large mantle1 or haick1 in which the whole person could be folded1 and which was the usual covering during sleep4 ,the wool1 therefore1 would be an article of great national value2 and so we find that when the king of ,moab paid his tribute in kind to the king of ,israel1 it was carefully specified that the ,sheep should not be shorn4 ,and ,mesha king of ,moab was a sheep-master1 and rendered unto the king of ,israel an hundred thousand lambs1 and an hundred thousand rams1 with the wool4 ,the wool of the ,sheep of ,palestine differed extremely in value2 some kinds being coarse and rough1 while others were fine4 ,the wool was dressed in those times much as it is at present1 being carded and then spun with the spindle1 the distaff being apparently unused1 and the wool simply drawn out by the hand4 ,the shape of the spindle was much like that of the well-known flat spinning-tops that come from ,japan--namely1 a disc through which passes an axle4 ,a smart twirl given by the fingers to the axle makes the disc revolve very rapidly1 and its weight causes the rotation to continue for a considerable time4 ,spinning the wool was exclusively the task of the women1 a custom which prevailed in this country up to a very recent time1 and which still traditionally survives in the term spinster1 and in the metaphorical use of the word distaff as synonymous with a woman's proper work4 ,when spun into threads1 the wool was woven in the simple loom which has existed up to our own day1 and which is identical in its general principles throughout a very large portion of the world4 ,it consisted of a framework of wood1 at one end of which was placed the beam to which the warp was attached2 and at the other end was the pin on which the cloth was rolled as it was finished4 ,the reader may remember that when ,delilah was cajoling ,samson to tell her the secret of his strength1 he said1 ,if thou weavest the seven locks of my head with the web4 ,so1 as he slept1 she interwove his long hair with the fabric which was on her loom1 and1 to make sure1 fastened it with the pin1 i4e4 wove it completely into the cloth which was rolled round the pin4 ,so firmly had she done so1 that when he awoke he could not disentangle his hair1 but left the house with the whole of the loom1 the beam and the pin1 and the web hanging to his head4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wool was often dyed of various colours2 blue1 purple1 and scarlet being those which were generally employed4 ,the rams' skins which formed part of the covering of the ,tabernacle were ordered to be dyed scarlet1 partly on account of the significance of the colour1 and partly because none but the best and purest fleeces would be chosen for so rare and costly a dye4 ,how the colour was produced we shall learn towards the end of the volume4 ,sheep-shearing was always a time of great rejoicing and revelry1 which seem often to have been carried beyond the bounds of sobriety4 ,thus when ,nabal had gathered together his three thousand ,sheep in ,carmel1 and held a shearing festival1 ,david sent to ask for some provisions for his band1 and was refused in accordance with the disposition of the man1 who had inflamed his naturally churlish nature with wine4 ,he held a feast in his house1 like the feast of a king3 and ,nabal's heart was merry within him1 for he was very drunken 7#a ,sam4 xxv4 #cf74 ,the same was probably the case when ,laban was shearing his ,sheep 7,gen4 xxxi4 #ai74 ,otherwise it would scarcely have been possible for ,jacob to have gone away unknown to ,laban1 taking with him his wives and children1 his servants1 his camels1 and his flocks1 the rapid increase of which had excited the jealousy of his uncle1 and which were so numerous that1 in fear of his brother ,esau1 he divided them into two bands1 and yet was able to select from them a present to his brother1 consisting in all of nearly six hundred sheep1 camels1 oxen1 goats1 and asses4 ,sometimes the shepherds and others who lived in pastoral districts made themselves coats of the skins of the ,sheep1 with the wool still adhering to it4 ,the custom extends to the present day1 and even in many parts of ,europe the sheep-skin dress of the shepherds is a familiar sight to the traveller4 ,the skin was sometimes tanned and used as leather1 but was considered as inferior to that of the goat4 ,mr4 ,tristram conjectures that the leathern girdle worn by ,st4 ,john the ,baptist was probably the untanned sheep-skin coat which has been just mentioned4 ,so it is said of the early ,christians1 that they wandered about in sheep-skins and goat-skins1 being destitute1 afflicted1 tormented1 the sheep-skins in question being evidently the rude shepherd's coats4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the horn of the ram had a national value1 as from it were made the sacred trumpets which played so important a part in the history of the ,jewish nation4 ,there is no doubt that the primitive trumpets were originally formed either from the horn of an animal1 such as the ox1 the large-horned antelopes1 the sheep1 and the goat1 and that in process of time they were made of metal1 generally copper or silver4 ,references are frequently made in the ,bible to these trumpets1 for which there were different names1 probably on account of their different forms4 ,these names are1 however1 very loosely rendered in our version1 the same word being sometimes translated the cornet1 and sometimes the trumpet4 ,illustration3 ,,sounding ,,the ,,trumpets ,,in ,,the ,,year ,,of ,,jubilee4 ,the jubilee year was always ushered in by the blasts of the sacred trumpets4 ,then shalt thou cause the trumpet of the jubilee to sound on the tenth day of the seventh month1 in the day of atonement shall ye make the trumpet sound throughout all your land 7,lev4 xxv4 #i74 ,then there was the festival known as the ,feast of ,trumpets4 ,in the seventh month1 on the first day of the month1 ye shall have an holy convocation2 ye shall do no servile work3 it is a day of blowing the trumpets unto you 7,numb4 xxix4 #a74 ,one of these trumpets is now before me1 and is shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,in length it measures eighteen inches1 i4e4 a cubit1 and it is formed entirely in one piece4 ,as far as ,i can judge1 it is made from the left horn of the broad-tailed ,sheep1 which1 as has already been remarked1 is not spiral1 but flattish1 curved backwards1 and forming nearly a circle1 the point passing under the ear4 ,this structure1 added to the large size of the horn1 adapts it well for its purpose4 ,in order to bring it to the proper shape1 the horn is softened by heat1 and is then modelled into the very form which was used by the ,jewish priests who blew the trumpet before the ark4 ,illustration3 ,,ram',s ,,horn ,,trumpet4 ,at the present day one such trumpet1 at least1 is found in every ,jewish community1 and is kept by the man who has the privilege of blowing it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now come to the important subject1 the use of the ,sheep in sacrifice4 ,no animal was used so frequently for this purpose as the ,sheep1 and in many passages of the ,mosaic law are specified the precise age as well as the sex of the ,sheep which was to be sacrificed in certain circumstances4 ,sometimes the ,sheep was sacrificed as an offering of thanksgiving1 sometimes as an expiation for sin1 and sometimes as a redemption for some more valuable animal4 ,the young male lamb was the usual sacrifice2 and almost the only sacrifice for which a ,sheep might not be offered was that of the two goats on the great ,day of ,atonement4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,lamb ,,upon ,,the ,,altar ,,of ,,burnt ,,offering4 ,to mention all the passages in which the ,sheep is ordered for sacrifice would occupy too much of our space1 and we will therefore restrict ourselves to the one central rite of the ,jewish nation1 the sacrifice of the ,paschal lamb1 the precursor of the ,lamb of ,god1 who taketh away the sins of the world4 ,without examining in full the various ceremonies of the ,paschal sacrifice1 we will glance over the salient points which distinguish it from any other sacrifice4 ,the lamb must be a male1 which is selected and examined with the minutest care1 that it may be free from all blemish1 and must be of the first year4 ,it must be killed on the fourteenth of the month ,abib as the sun is setting1 and the blood must be sprinkled with hyssop4 ,in the first or ,egyptian ,passover the blood was sprinkled on the lintels and doorposts of the houses1 but afterwards on the altar4 ,it must be roasted with fire1 and not boiled1 after the usual custom in the ,east2 not a bone must be broken4 ,it must be eaten by the household in haste1 as if they were just starting on a journey1 and if any of it should be left1 it must be consumed in the fire1 and not eaten on the following day4 ,such are the chief points in connexion with the ,paschal rite1 at once a sacrifice and a feast4 ,the original directions not being sufficiently minute to meet all the practical difficulties which might hinder the correct performance of the rite1 a vast number of directions are given by the ,rabbinical writers4 ,in order1 for example1 to guard against the destruction of any part of the animal by careless cooking over a fire1 or the possible fracture of a bone by a sudden jet of flame1 the ,paschal lamb was rather baked than roasted1 being placed in an earthen oven from which the ashes had been removed4 ,in order to prevent it from being burned or blackened against the sides of the oven1 7in which case it would be cooked with earthenware and not with fire71 it was transfixed with a wooden stake1 made from the pomegranate-tree1 and a transverse spit was thrust through the shoulders4 ,these spits were made of wood1 because a metal spit would become heated in the oven1 and would cause all the flesh which it touched to be roasted with metal1 and not with fire2 and the wood of the pomegranate was chosen1 because that wood was supposed not to emit any sap when heated4 ,if a drop of water had fallen on the flesh1 the law would have been broken1 as that part of the flesh would be considered as boiled1 and not roasted4 ,as to the eating of unleavened bread and bitter herbs with the lamb1 the custom does not bear on the present subject4 ,in shape the oven seems to have resembled a straw beehive1 having an opening at the side by which the fuel could be removed and the lamb inserted4 ,the ceremony of the ,passover has been described by several persons1 such as the late ,consul ,rogers and the ,dean of ,westminster1 the latter of whom has given1 a most striking and vivid account of the rite in his ,lectures on the ,jewish ,church4 ,the place which is now employed in the celebration of this rite is a level spot about two hundred yards from the summit of the mountain1 a place which is apparently selected on account of its comparative quiet and seclusion4 ,dean ,stanley thinks that in former times1 when the ,samaritans were the masters of the country1 they celebrated the sacrifice on the sacred plateau on the very summit of the mountain1 so that the rite could be seen for a vast distance on every side4 ,now1 however1 the less conspicuous place is preferred4 ,by the kindness of the ,palestine ,exploration ,society1 ,i am enabled to present the reader with a view of this sacred spot1 taken from a photograph made an hour or two before the time of sacrifice4 ,the rough1 rugged character of the mountain is shown by this illustration1 though not so well as in several other photographs of ,gerizim1 in which the entire surface seems to be loosely covered with stones like those of which the low wall is built4 ,near the centre of the illustration may be seen a pile of sticks and the tops of two caldrons1 on each of which a stone is laid to keep the cover from being blown off by the wind4 ,these sticks nearly fill a trench in which the caldrons are sunk1 and their use will be presently seen on reading ,dean ,stanley's narrative4 ,in the far distance are the plains of ,samaria1 and the long-drawn shadows of the priest and his nephew1 and probable successor1 show that the time of sacrifice is rapidly approaching4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,sacrifice4 ,on the previous day the whole of the community had pitched their tents on the mountain1 and as the time of sunset approached the women retired to the tents1 and all the males1 except those who were unclean according to the provisions of the ,mosaic law1 assembled near a long deep trench that had been dug in the ground4 ,the men are clothed in long white garments1 and the six young men who are selected as the actual sacrifices are dressed in white drawers and shirts4 ,these youths are trained to the duty1 but whether they hold any sacred office could not be ascertained4 ,then1 according to the narrative of ,dean ,stanley1 the priest1 ascending a large rough stone in front of the congregation1 recited in a loud chant or scream1 in which the others joined1 prayers or praises chiefly turning on the glories of ,abraham and ,isaac4 ,their attitude was that of all ,orientals in prayer2 standing1 occasionally diversified by the stretching out of the hands1 and more rarely by kneeling or crouching1 with their knees wrapped in their clothes and bent to the ground1 towards the ,holy ,place on the summit of ,gerizim4 ,the priest recited his prayers by heart2 the others had mostly books in ,hebrew and ,arabic4 ,presently1 suddenly there appeared amongst the worshippers six sheep1 driven up by the side of the youths before mentioned4 ,the unconscious innocence with which they wandered to and fro amongst the bystanders1 and the simplicity in aspect and manner of the young men who tended them1 more recalled a pastoral scene in ,arcadia1 or one of those inimitable patriarchal tableaux represented in the ,ammergau ,mystery1 than a religious ceremonial4 ,the sun1 meanwhile1 which had hitherto burnished up the ,mediterranean in the distance1 now sank very nearly to the farthest western ridge overhanging the plain of ,sharon4 ,the recitation became more vehement4 ,the priest turned about1 facing his brethren1 and the whole history of the ,exodus from the beginning of the plagues of ,egypt was rapidly1 almost furiously1 chanted4 ,the sheep1 still innocently playful1 were driven more closely together4 ,the setting sun now touched the ridge4 ,the youths burst into a wild murmur of their own1 drew forth their long bright knives1 and brandished them aloft4 ,in a moment the sheep were thrown on their backs1 and the flashing knives rapidly drawn across their throats4 ,then a few convulsive but silent struggles--'as a sheep 444 dumb 444 that openeth not his mouth1'--and the six forms lay lifeless on the ground1 the blood streaming from them2 the one only ,jewish sacrifice lingering in the world4 ,in the blood the young men dipped their fingers1 and a small spot was marked on the foreheads and noses of the children4 ,a few years ago the red stain was placed on all4 ,but this had now dwindled away into the present practice1 preserved1 we were told1 as a relic or emblem of the whole4 ,then1 as if in congratulation at the completion of the ceremony1 they all kissed each other1 in the ,oriental fashion1 on each side of the head4 ,the next process was that of the fleecing and roasting of the slaughtered animals1 for which the ancient temple furnished such ample provisions4 ,two holes on the mountain side had been dug2 one at some distance1 of considerable depth1 the other1 close to the scene of the sacrifice1 comparatively shallow4 ,in this latter cavity1 after a short prayer1 a fire was kindled1 out of the mass of dry heath1 juniper1 and briers1 such as furnished the materials for the conflagration in ,jotham's parable1 delivered not far from this spot4 ,over the fire were placed two caldrons full of water4 ,whilst the water boiled1 the congregation again stood around1 and 7as if for economy of time7 continued the recitation of the ,book of ,exodus1 and bitter herbs were handed round wrapped in a strip of unleavened bread--'with unleavened bread and bitter herbs shall they eat it4' ,then was chanted another short prayer2 after which the six youths again appeared1 poured the boiling water over the sheep1 and plucked off their fleeces4 ,the right forelegs of the sheep1 with the entrails1 were thrown aside and burnt4 ,the liver was carefully put back4 ,long poles were brought1 on which the animals were spitted2 near the bottom of each pole was a transverse peg or stick1 to prevent the body from slipping off4 ,this cross-piece does not1 however1 penetrate the body1 which in most cases scarcely touches it1 so that there is little or no resemblance to a crucifixion4 ,the writer lays especial stress on this point1 because the early ,christians saw in the transverse spit an emblem of the cross4 ,in the ,jewish ,passover this emblem would have been more appropriate1 as in that ceremony the cross-piece was passed through the shoulders1 and the forefeet tied to it4 ,the ,sheep being now prepared1 they were carried to the oven1 which on this occasion was a deep1 circular pit1 in which a fire had been previously kindled4 ,into this the victims were carefully lowered1 the stakes on which they were impaled guarding their bodies from touching the sides of the oven1 and the cross-piece at the end preventing them from slipping off the stake to the bottom of the pit among the ashes4 ,a hurdle was then laid on the mouth of the pit1 and wet earth was heaped upon it so as to close it completely4 ,the greater part of the community then retired to rest4 ,in about five hours1 the ,paschal moon being high in the heavens1 announcement was made that the feast was about to begin4 ,then1 to resume ,dean ,stanley's narrative1 ,suddenly the covering of the hole was torn off1 and up rose into the still moonlit sky a vast column of smoke and steam2 recalling1 with a shock of surprise1 that1 even by an accidental coincidence1 ,reginald ,heber should have so well caught this striking feature of so remote and unknown a ritual3 ',smokes on ,gerizim's mount ,samaria's sacrifice4' ,out of the pit were dragged successively the six sheep1 on their long spits1 black from the oven4 ,the outlines of their heads1 their ears1 their legs1 were still visible--'his head1 with his legs1 and with the inward parts thereof4' ,they were hoisted aloft1 and then thrown on large square brown mats1 previously prepared for their reception1 on which we were carefully prevented from treading1 as also from touching even the extremities of the spit4 ,the bodies thus wrapped in the mats were hurried down to the trench where the sacrifice had taken place1 and laid out upon them in a line between two files of the ,samaritans4 ,those who had before been dressed in white robes still retained them1 with the addition now of shoes on their feet and staves in their hands1 and ropes round their waists--'thus shall ye eat it2 with your loins girded1 your shoes on your feet1 your staff in your hand4' ,the recitation of prayers or of the ,pentateuch recommenced1 and continued till it suddenly terminated in their all sitting down on their haunches1 after the ,arab fashion at meals1 and beginning to eat4 ,this1 too1 is a deviation from the practice of only a few years since1 when they retained the ,mosaic ritual of standing whilst they ate4 ,the actual feast was conducted in rapid silence1 as of men in hunger1 as no doubt most of them were1 and so as soon to consume every portion of the blackened masses1 which they tore away piecemeal with their fingers--'ye shall eat in haste4' ,there was a general merriment1 as of a hearty and welcome meal4 ,in ten minutes all was gone but a few remnants4 ,to the priest and to the women1 who1 all but two 7probably his two wives71 remained in the tents1 separate morsels were carried round4 ,the remnants were gathered into the mats1 and put on a wooden grate1 or hurdle1 over the hole where the water had been originally boiled2 the fire was again lit1 and a huge bonfire was kindled4 ,by its blaze1 and by candles lighted for the purpose1 the ground was searched in every direction1 as for the consecrated particles of sacramental elements2 and these fragments of flesh and bone were thrown upon the burning mass--'ye shall let nothing remain until the morning2 and that which remaineth until the morning ye shall burn with fire2' 'there shall not anything of the flesh which thou sacrificest the first day at even remain all night until the morning2' 'thou shalt not carry forth aught of the flesh abroad out of the house4' ,the flames blazed up once more1 and then gradually sank away4 ,illustration3 sheep ,perhaps in another century the fire on ,mount ,gerizim will be the only relic left of this most interesting and ancient rite4 ,illustration3 chamois ,,the ,,chamois4 ,the ,zemer or ,chamois only once mentioned in the ,bible--,signification of the word ,zemer--,probability that the ,zemer is the ,aoudad--,its strength and activity--,the ,mouflon probably classed with the ,aoudad under the name of ,zemer4 ,among the animals which may be used for food is mentioned one which in our version is rendered ,chamois4 ,see ,deut4 xiv4 #e1 a passage which has several times been quoted4 ,it is evident to any one acquainted with zoology that1 whatever may be the ,hebrew word1 ,chamois cannot be the correct rendering1 inasmuch as this animal does not inhabit ,palestine1 nor are there any proofs that it ever did so4 ,the ,chamois frequents the lofty inaccessible crags of the highest mountains1 finding its food in the scanty herbage which grows in such regions1 appearing on the brink of awful precipices1 and leaping from ledge to ledge with ease and safety4 ,we must1 therefore1 look for some other animal4 ,the ,chamois is one of the most wary of ,antelopes1 and possesses the power of scenting mankind at what would seem to be an impossible distance4 ,its ears are as acute as its nostrils1 so that there are few animals which are so difficult to approach4 ,only those who have been trained to climb the giddy heights of the ,alpine ,mountains1 to traverse the most fearful precipices with a quiet pulse and steady head1 to exist for days amid the terrible solitudes of ice1 rock1 and snow1--only these1 can hope to come within sight of the ,chamois1 when the animal is at large upon its native cliffs4 ,the ,hebrew word1 which has been rendered ,chamois1 is ,zamar1 or ,zemer1 i4 e4 the leaper1 and therefore an animal which is conspicuous for its agility4 ,zoologists have now agreed in the opinion that the ,zamer of ,deuteronomy is the handsome wild sheep which we know under the name of ,aoudad 7,ammotragus ,tragelaphus74 ,this splendid sheep is known by various names4 ,it is the ,jaela of some authors1 and the ,bearded ,sheep of others4 ,it is also called the ,fichtall1 or ,lerwea2 and the ,french zoologists describe it under the name of ,mouflon manchettes1 in allusion to the fringe of long hair that ornaments the fore limbs4 ,the ,aoudad is a large and powerful animal1 exceedingly active1 and has the habits of the goat rather than of the sheep1 on which account it is reckoned among the goats by the ,arabs of the present day1 and doubtless was similarly classed by the ancient inhabitants of ,palestine4 ,the height of the adult ,aoudad is about three feet1 and its general colour is pale dun1 relieved by the dark masses of long hair that fall from the neck and the tufts of similar hair which decorate the knees of the male4 ,the female is also bearded and tufted1 but the hair1 which in the male looks like the mane of the lion1 in the female is but slightly developed4 ,it is so powerful and active an animal1 that an adult male which lived for some time in the ,zoological ,gardens was much dreaded by the keepers1 not even the man who fed it liking to enter the enclosure if he could help himself4 ,the animal was given to making unexpected charges1 and would do so with astonishing quickness1 springing round and leaping at the object of his hate with tremendous force1 and with such rapidity that even the experienced keeper1 who knew all the ways of the animals under his charge1 had often some difficulty in slipping behind the door1 against which the horns of the ,aoudad would clatter as if they would break the door to pieces4 ,so fond was he of attacking something that he would often butt repeatedly at the wooden side of the shed1 hurling himself against it with eager fury4 ,illustration3 ,,chamois ,,defending ,,its ,,young4 ,illustration3 ,,chasing ,,the ,,aoudad4 ,the horns of the ,aoudad are about two feet in length1 and are of considerable diameter4 ,they curve boldly and gracefully backwards1 their points diverging considerably from each other1 so that when the animal throws its head up1 the points of the horns come on either side of the back4 ,this divergence of the horns has another object4 ,they cover a considerable space1 so that when the animal makes its charge the object of its anger has much more difficulty in escaping the blow than if the horns were closer together4 ,whether these horns were used as musical instruments is doubtful1 simply because we are not absolutely sure that the ,zamar and the ,aoudad are identical1 however great may be the probability4 ,but inasmuch as the horn-trumpets were evidently of various sizes1 it is certain that the ,jewish musicians would never have neglected to take advantage of such magnificent materials as they would obtain from the horns of this animal4 ,perhaps the ,chaldaic keren may have been the horn of the ,aoudad1 or of the animal which will next be mentioned4 ,the ,aoudad is wonderfully active1 and even the young ones bound to an astonishing height4 ,i have seen the marks of their hoofs eight feet from the ground4 ,in its wild state the ,aoudad lives in little flocks or herds1 and prefers the high and rocky ground1 over which it leaps with a sure-footed agility equal to that of the ,chamois itself4 ,these flocks are chased by hunters1 who try to get it upon the lowest and least broken ground1 where it is at a disadvantage1 and then run it down with their horses1 as seen in the illustration on page #bad4 ,the ,aoudad was formerly plentiful in ,egypt1 and even now is found along the ,atlas mountain-range4 ,it is seen on the ,egyptian monuments1 and1 owing to its evident profusion1 we have every reason to conjecture that it was one of those animals which were specially indicated as chewing the cud and cleaving the hoof4 99 99 99 99 99 ,perhaps the ,,mouflon 7,caprovis ,musimon7 may be the animal which is meant by the ,hebrew word ,zamar1 and it is not unlikely that both animals may have been included in one name4 ,this animal1 which is nearly allied to the ,aoudad1 is also very goatlike in general aspect4 ,it is indeed to this resemblance that the name ,caprovis1 or goat-sheep1 has been given to it4 ,the name ,ammotragus1 which1 as mentioned above1 belongs to the ,aoudad1 has a similar signification4 ,the horns of the ,mouflon belong only to the male animal1 and are of enormous size1 so that if trumpets of deep tone and great power were needed1 they could be obtained from the horns of this animal4 ,those of the ,aoudad are very large1 and would be well adapted for the same purpose1 but they would not furnish such instruments as the horns of the ,mouflon1 which are so large that they seem almost unwieldy for an animal of twice the ,mouflon's size1 and give visible proofs of the strength and agility of an animal which can carry them so lightly and leap about under their weight so easily as does the ,mouflon4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mouflon4 ,at the present time the ,mouflon is only to be found in ,crete1 ,sardinia1 and ,corsica1 but formerly it was known to inhabit many other parts of the earth1 and was almost certainly one of the many animals which then haunted the ,lebanon1 but which have in later days been extirpated4 ,,the ,,goat4 ,value of the ,goat--,its use in furnishing food--,the male kid the usual animal of slaughter--,excellence of the flesh and deception of ,isaac--,milk of the ,goat--,an ,oriental milking scene--,the hair of the goat1 and the uses to which it is put--,the ,goat's skin used for leather--,the bottle of ,scripture--,mode of making and repairing the bottles--,ruse of the ,gibeonites--,the bottle in the smoke--,the sacks and the kneading troughs--,the ,goat as used for sacrifice--,general habits of the ,goat--,separation of the ,goats from the sheep--,performing ,goats--,different breeds of ,goats in ,palestine4 ,whether considered in reference to food1 to clothing1 or to sacrifice1 the ,,goat was scarcely a less important animal than the sheep4 ,it was especially valuable in such a country as ,palestine1 in which the soil and the climate vary so much according to the locality4 ,upon the large fertile plains the sheep are bred in vast flocks1 the rich and succulent grass being exactly to their taste2 while in the hilly and craggy districts the ,goats abound1 and delight in browsing upon the scanty herbage that grows upon the mountain-side4 ,for food the ,goat was even more extensively used than the sheep4 ,the adult male was1 of course1 not eaten1 being very tough1 and having an odour which would repel any but an actually starving man4 ,neither were the females generally eaten1 as they were needed for the future increase of the flocks4 ,the young male kid formed the principal material of a feast1 and as soon as a stranger claimed the hospitality of a man in good circumstances1 the first thing that was done was to take a young male kid and dress it for him4 ,for example1 when the angel visited ,gideon in the guise of a stranger1 ,gideon went in and made ready a kid1 and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour1 and brought them to his guest 7,judges vi4 #ai74 ,and when ,isaac was on his death-bed and asked ,esau to take his bow and arrows and hunt for venison1 which was probably the flesh of one of the antelopes which have already been mentioned1 a ready substitute was found in the two kids1 from whose flesh ,rebekah made the dish for which he longed4 ,the imposition might easily pass without detection1 because the flesh of the kid is peculiarly tender1 and can scarcely be distinguished from lamb1 even when simply roasted4 ,isaac1 therefore1 with his senses dulled by his great age1 was the less likely to discover the imposture1 when the flesh of the kids was stewed into savoury meat such as he loved4 ,illustration3 ,,jacob ,,deceives ,,his ,,father ,,and ,,takes ,,esau',s ,,blessing4 ,a curious illustration of the prevalence of kid's flesh as food is given in the parable of the prodigal son1 for whom his father had killed the fatted calf4 ,and he answering said to his father1 ,lo1 these many years do ,i serve thee1 neither transgressed ,i at any time thy commandment3 and yet thou never gavest me a kid1 that ,i might make merry with my friends 7,luke xv4 #bi74 ,the force of the reproval cannot be properly understood unless we are acquainted with the customs of the ,east4 ,the kid was the least valuable animal that could have been given1 less valuable than a lamb1 and infinitely inferior to the fatted calf1 which was kept in wealthy households for some feast of more than ordinary magnificence4 ,the kid was cooked exactly in the same manner as the sheep1 namely1 by cutting to pieces and stewing in a caldron1 the meat and broth being served separately4 ,see1 for example1 the case of ,gideon1 to whom a reference has already been made4 ,when he brought the banquet to his guest1 the flesh he put in a basket1 and he put the broth in a pot1 and brought it out unto him under the oak1 and presented it4 ,and the angel of ,god said unto him1 ,take the flesh and the unleavened cakes1 and lay them upon this rock1 and pour out the broth4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,angel ,,appears ,,to ,,gideon4 ,gideon did so1 and the angel reached forth the staff that was in his hand1 and touched the flesh1 and there rose up fire out of the rock and burnt up the offering4 ,the same custom exists at the present day4 ,when an ,arab chief receives a guest1 a kid is immediately killed and given to the women to be cooked1 and the guest is pressed to stay until it is ready1 in the very words used by ,gideon three thousand years ago4 ,depart not hence1 ,i pray thee1 until ,i come unto thee1 and bring forth my present1 and set it before thee4 ,the refusal of proffered hospitality would be1 and still is considered to be1 either a studied insult1 or a proof of bad manners1 and no one with any claims to breeding would commit such an action without urgent cause and much apology4 ,like the sheep1 the ,goat is extremely valuable as a milk-producer1 and at the present day the milk of the ,goat is used as largely as that of the sheep4 ,at ,rasheiya1 under ,mount ,hermon1 writes ,mr4 ,tristram1 we saw some hundreds of goats gathering for the night in the wide open market-place beneath the castle4 ,it was no easy matter to thread our way among them1 as they had no idea of moving for such belated intruders on their rest4 ,all the she-goats of the neighbouring hills are driven in every evening1 and remain for their morning's milking1 after which they set forth on their day's excursion4 ,each house possesses several1 and all know their owners4 ,the evening milking is a picturesque scene4 ,every street and open space is filled with the goats2 and women1 boys1 and girls are everywhere milking with their small pewter pots1 while the goats are anxiously awaiting their turn1 or lying down to chew the cud as soon as it is over4 ,as no kids or he-goats are admitted1 the scene is very orderly1 and there is none of the deafening bleating which usually characterises large flocks4 ,these mountain goats are a solemn set1 and by the gravity of their demeanour excite a suspicion that they have had no youth1 and never were kids4 ,they need no herdsman to bring them home in the evening1 for1 fully sensible of the danger of remaining unprotected1 they hurry homewards of their own accord as soon as the sun begins to decline4 99 99 99 99 99 ,like the wool of the sheep1 the hair of the ,goat is used for the manufacture of clothing2 and1 as is the case with wool1 its quality differs according to the particular breed of the animal1 which assumes almost as many varieties as the sheep or the dog4 ,the hair of some varieties is thick and rough1 and can only be made into coarse cloths1 while others1 of which the mohair ,goat and ,cashmere ,goat are familiar examples1 furnish a staple of surpassing delicacy and fineness4 ,it is most likely that the covering and curtains of the ,tabernacle mentioned in ,exod4 xxvi4 #g were of the latter kind1 as otherwise they would have been out of character with the fine linen1 and blue and scarlet1 their golden clasps1 and the profuse magnificence which distinguished every part of the sacred building4 ,moreover1 the hair of the ,goat is classed among the costly offerings which were made when the ,tabernacle was built4 ,and they came forth1 men and women1 as many as were willing hearted1 and brought bracelets1 and earrings1 and rings1 and tablets1 all jewels of gold3 and every man that offered offered an offering of gold unto the ,lord4 ,and every man1 with whom was found blue1 and purple1 and scarlet1 and fine linen1 and goats' hair1 and red skins of rams1 and badgers' skins1 brought them to be used in the structure of that wonderful building1 in which nothing might be used except the finest and costliest that could be procured4 ,one of the principal uses to which the goat-skin was applied was the manufacture of leather1 for which purpose it is still used1 and is considered far better than that of the sheep4 ,perhaps the most common form in which this leather is used is the well-known water-vessel1 or bottle of the ,bible4 ,these so-called bottles are made from the entire skin of the animal1 which is prepared in slightly different methods according to the locality in which the manufacture is carried on4 ,in ,palestine they are soaked for some little time in the tanning mixture1 and are then filled with water1 after the seams have been pitched4 ,in this state they are kept for some time1 and are kept exposed to the sun1 covered entirely with the tanning fluid1 and filled up with water to supply the loss caused by evaporation and leakage4 ,the hair is allowed to remain on the skins1 because it acts as a preservative against the rough usage to which they are subject at the hard hands of the water-carriers4 ,by degrees the hairy covering wears off1 first in patches1 and then over the entire surface1 so that a new bottle can be recognised at a glance1 and any one who wished to sell an old bottle at the price of a new one would be at once detected4 ,vessels made in this rude manner are absolutely necessary in the countries wherein they are used4 ,wooden or metal vessels would be too heavy1 and1 besides1 the slight though constant evaporation that always takes place through the pores of the leather keeps down the temperature of the water1 even under a burning sun1 the slight loss which is caused by the porousness of the skin being more than counterbalanced by the coolness of the water4 ,it is true that the goat-skin communicates to the liquid a flavour far from pleasant1 but in those countries the quality of the water is of little consequence1 provided that it is plentiful in quantity1 and tolerably cool4 ,in all parts of the world where the skin is used for this purpose the mode of manufacture is practically identical4 ,an account of the art of preparing the goat-skin as practised in ,abyssinia is given by ,mr4 ,c4 ,johnston1 in his ,travels in ,southern ,abyssinia3-- ,to be of any value it must be taken off uncut1 except around the neck1 and in those situations necessary to enable the butchers to draw the legs out of the skin2 also1 of course1 where the first incision is made to commence the process1 and which is a circular cut carried around both haunches1 not many inches from and having the tail for a centre4 ,the hide is then stripped over the thighs1 and two smaller incisions being made round the middle joint of the hind-legs enable them to be drawn out4 ,a stick is now placed to extend these extremities1 and by this1 for the convenience of the operators1 the whole carcase is suspended from the branch of a tree1 and1 by some easy pulls around the body1 the skin is gradually withdrawn over the fore-legs1 which are incised around the knees1 to admit of their being taken out2 after which1 the head being removed1 the whole business concludes by the skin being pulled inside out over the decollated neck4 ,one of the parties now takes a rough stone and well rubs the inside surface1 to divest it of a few fibres of the subcutaneous muscle which are inserted into the skin1 and after this operation it is laid aside until the next day2 the more interesting business of attending to the meat calling for immediate attention4 ,these entire skins are afterwards made into sacks by the apertures around the neck and legs being secured by a double fold of the skin being sewed upon each other1 by means of a slender but very tough thong4 ,these small seams are rendered quite air-tight1 and the larger orifice around the haunches being gathered together by the hands1 the yet raw skin is distended with air2 and the orifice being then tied up1 the swollen bag is left in that state for a few days1 until slight putrefaction has commenced1 when the application of the rough stone soon divests its surface of the hair4 ,after this has been effected1 a deal of labour1 during at least one day1 is required to soften the distended skin by beating it with heavy sticks1 or trampling upon it for hours together1 the labourer supporting himself by clinging to the bough of a tree overhead1 or holding on by the wall of the house4 ,in this manner1 whilst the skin is drying1 it is prevented from getting stiff1 and1 still further to secure it from this evil condition1 it is frequently rubbed with small quantities of butter4 ,when it is supposed that there is no chance of the skin becoming hard and easily broken1 the orifice is opened1 the air escapes1 and a very soft1 flaccid leather bag is produced1 but which1 for several days after1 affords an amusement to the owner1 when otherwise unemployed1 by well rubbing it all over with his hands4 ,the reader will see that the two processes are practically identical1 the chief difference being that in one country the skins are distended with water and in the other with air4 ,as these bottles are rather apt to be damaged by the thorns1 branches1 rocks1 and similar objects with which they come in contact1 and are much too valuable to be thrown away as useless1 their owners have discovered methods of patching and repairing them1 which enable them to be used for some time longer4 ,patches of considerable size are sometimes inserted1 if the rent should be of importance1 while the wound caused by a thorn is mended by a simple and efficacious expedient4 ,the skin is first emptied1 and a round flat piece of wood1 or even a stone of suitable shape1 is put into it4 ,the skin is then held with the wounded part downwards1 and the stone shaken about until it comes exactly upon the hole4 ,it is then grasped1 the still wet hide gathered tightly under it1 so as to pucker up the skin1 and a ligature is tied firmly round it4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have practised the same method of mending a punctured football4 ,allusion to this mode of mending the skin bottles is made in ,josh4 ix4 #d1 #ac4 ,the ,gibeonites did work wilily1 and went and made as if they had been ambassadors1 and took old sacks upon their asses1 and wine bottles1 old1 and rent1 and bound up 444 and said 444 these bottles of wine1 which we filled1 were new2 and1 behold1 they be rent4 ,if these skin bottles be allowed to become dry1 as is sometimes the case when they are hung up in the smoky tents1 they shrivel up1 and become rotten and weak1 and are no longer enabled to bear the pressure caused by the fermentation of new wine4 ,so1 in ,ps4 cxix4 #ha-hc3 ,my soul fainteth for ,thy salvation3 but ,i hope in ,thy word4 ,illustration3 ,,eastern ,,water-,,carriers ,,with ,,bottles ,,made ,,of ,,goat-,,skin4 ,mine eyes fail for ,thy word1 saying1 ,when wilt ,thou comfort me8 ,for ,i am become like a bottle in the smoke2 yet do ,i not forget ,thy statutes4 ,how forcible does not this image become1 when we realize the early life of the shepherd poet1 his dwelling in tents wherein are no windows nor chimneys1 and in which the smoke rolls to and fro until it settles in the form of soot upon the leathern bottles and other rude articles of furniture that are hung from the poles6 ,in the ,new ,testament there is a well-known allusion to the weakness of old bottles3 ,neither do men put new wine into old bottles1 or the bottles break and the wine runneth out1 and the bottles perish2 but they put new wine into new bottles1 and both are preserved4 ,it would be impossible to understand the meaning of this passage unless we knew that the bottles in question were not vessels of glass or earthenware1 but merely the partly-tanned skins of goats4 ,another allusion to the use of the goat-skin is made in that part of the ,book of ,joshua which has already been mentioned4 ,if the reader will refer to ,josh4 ix4 #d1 he will see that the ,gibeonites took with them not only old bottles1 but old sacks4 ,now1 these sacks bore no resemblance to the hempen bags with which we are so familiar1 but were nothing more than the same goat-skins that were employed in the manufacture of bottles1 but with the opening at the neck left open4 ,they were1 in fact1 skin-bottles for holding solids instead of liquids4 ,the sacks which ,joseph's brethren took with them1 and in the mouths of which they found their money1 were simply goat-skin bags1 made as described4 ,yet another use for the goat-skin4 ,it is almost certain that the kneading-troughs of the ancient ,israelites were simply circular pieces of goat-skin1 which could be laid on the ground when wanted1 and rolled up and carried away when out of use4 ,thus1 the fact that the people took their dough before it was leavened1 their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothing upon their shoulders1 need cause no surprise4 ,nothing could be more in accordance with probability4 ,the women were all hard at work1 preparing the bread for the expected journey1 when the terrified ,pharaoh called for ,moses and ,aaron by night1 and said1 ,rise up1 and get you forth from among my people1 both ye and the children of ,israel1 and go1 serve the ,lord1 as ye have said4444 ,and the ,egyptians were urgent upon the people that they might send them out of the land in haste2 for they said1 ,we be all dead men4 ,so the women1 being disturbed at their work1 and being driven out of the country before they had leavened1 much less baked1 their bread1 had no alternative but to roll up the dough in the leathern kneading-troughs1 tie them up in a bundle with their spare clothing1 and carry them on their shoulders2 whereas1 if we connect the kneading-troughs with the large heavy wooden implements used in this country1 we shall form an entirely erroneous idea of the proceeding4 ,as soon as they came to their first halting-place at ,succoth1 they took the leathern kneading-troughs out of their clothes1 unrolled them1 took the dough which had not even been leavened1 so unexpectedly had the order for marching arrived1 made it into flat cakes1 and baked them as they best could4 ,the same kind of kneading-trough is still in use in many parts of the world4 ,stone as well as earthenware jars were also used by the inhabitants of ancient ,palestine2 but they were only employed for the storage of wine in houses1 whereas the bottles that were used in carrying wine from one place to another were invariably made of leather4 ,water also was stored in stone or earthenware jars4 ,see1 for example1 ,john ii4 #f3 ,and there were set there six waterpots of stone1 after the manner of the purifying of the ,jews1 containing two or three firkins apiece4 ,whereas1 when it was carried about1 it was poured into bottles made of skin4 ,such was probably the bottle of water that ,abraham put on ,hagar's shoulder1 when she was driven away by the jealousy of ,sarah1 and such was the bottle of wine that ,hannah brought as her offering when she dedicated ,samuel to the service of ,god4 ,in sacrifices the ,goat was in nearly as much requisition as the lamb1 and in one--namely1 that which was celebrated on the ,great ,day of ,atonement--the ,goat was specially mentioned as the only animal which could be sacrificed4 ,the reader will1 perhaps1 remember that for this peculiar sacrifice two ,goats were required1 on which two lots were cast1 one for the ,lord1 i4e4 with the word ,jehovah upon it1 and the other for the scapegoat1 i4e4 inscribed with the word ,azazel4 ,the latter term is derived from two ,hebrew words1 the former being ,az1 which is the general name for the ,goat1 and the second azel1 signifying he departed4 ,the former1 which belonged to ,jehovah1 was sacrificed1 and its blood sprinkled upon the mercy-seat and the altar of incense2 and the ,goat ,azazel was led away into the wilderness1 bearing upon its head the sins of the people1 and there let loose4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these being the uses of the ,goat1 it may naturally be imagined that the animal is one of extreme importance1 and that it is watched as carefully by its owners as the sheep4 ,indeed1 both sheep and ,goats belong to the same master1 and are tended by the same shepherd1 who exercises the same sway over them that he does over the sheep4 ,they are1 however1 erratic animals1 and1 although they will follow the shepherd wherever he may lead them1 they will not mix with the sheep4 ,the latter will walk in a compact flock along the valley1 the shepherd leading the way1 and the sheep following him1 led in their turn by the sound of the bell tied round the neck of the master-ram of the flock4 ,the ,goats1 however1 will not submit to walk in so quiet a manner1 but prefer to climb along the sides of the rocks that skirt the valleys1 skipping and jumping as they go1 and seeming to take delight in getting themselves into dangerous places1 where a man could not venture to set his foot4 ,in the evening1 when the shepherds call their flocks to repose1 they often make use of the caverns which exist at some height in the precipitous side of the hills1 as being safe strongholds1 where the jackal and the hyna will not venture to attack them4 ,when such is the case1 the shepherds take their station by the mouth of the cave1 and assist the sheep as they come sedately up the narrow path that leads to the cavern4 ,the ,goats1 however1 need no assistance1 but come scrambling along by paths where no foot but a ,goat's could tread1 mostly descending from a considerable height above the cave1 and1 as if in exultation at their superior agility1 jumping over the backs of the sheep as they slowly file into the accustomed fold4 ,friendly as they are1 the ,goats and sheep never mingle together4 ,there may be large flocks of them feeding in the same pasturage1 but the ,goats always take the highest spots on which verdure grows1 while the sheep graze quietly below4 ,goats are specially fond of the tender shoots of trees1 which they find in plenty upon the mountain side2 and1 according to ,mr4 ,tristram1 by their continual browsing1 they have extirpated many species of trees which were once common on the hills of ,palestine1 and which now can only be found in ,lebanon on the east of the ,jordan4 ,illustration3 ,,goats ,,on ,,the ,,march4 ,even when folded together in the same enclosure1 the ,goats never mix with the sheep1 but gather together by themselves1 and they instinctively take the same order when assembled round the wells at mid-day4 ,this instinctive separation of the sheep and the goats naturally recalls to our minds the well-known saying of our ,lord that before ,him shall be gathered all nations1 and ,he shall separate them one from another1 as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats3 and ,he shall set the sheep on ,his right hand1 and the goats on ,his left4 ,the image thus used was one that was familiar to all the hearers1 who were accustomed daily to see the herds of sheep and ,goats under one shepherd1 yet totally distinct from each other4 ,at feeding-time the ,goats will be browsing in long lines on the mountain sides1 while the sheep are grazing in the plain or valley2 at mid-day1 when the flocks are gathered round the wells to await the rolling away of the stone that guards the water1 the ,goats assemble on one side and the sheep on the other4 ,and at night1 when they are all gathered into one fold by one shepherd1 they are still separated from each other4 ,the same image is employed by the prophet ,ezekiel3 ,as for you1 ,o my flock1 thus said the ,lord ,god1 ,behold ,i judge between cattle and cattle1 between rams and the he-goats4 ,generally1 the leading ,goat was distinguished by a bell as well as the leading sheep1 and in reference to this custom there was an old proverb1 ,if the shepherd takes the lead1 he blinds the bell-goat1 while another proverb is based upon the inferior docility of the animal--,if the shepherd be lame1 the ,goats will run away4 ,yet the ,goat can be tamed very effectively1 and can even be taught to perform many tricks4 ,we saw just below us1 on the rudely-constructed 'parade1' a crowd of men and children1 surrounding a fantastically-dressed man exhibiting a ,goat1 which had been tutored to perform some cunning trick4 ,it stood with its four feet close together on the top of a very long pole1 and allowed the man to lift it up and carry it round and round within the circle2 then the ,goat was perched on four sticks1 and again carried about4 ,a little band of music--pipes1 drums1 and tambourines--called together the people from all parts of the town to witness this performance4 ,the ,goat danced and balanced himself obediently and perfectly1 in very unnatural-looking positions1 as if thoroughly understanding the words and commands of his master4 ,the men who watched the actions of the ,goat looked as grave and serious as if they were attending a philosophical or scientific lecture4 7,domestic ,life in ,palestine1 by ,miss ,rogers47 ,another feat is a favourite with the proprietors of trained ,goats4 ,the man takes a stool and plants it carefully on the ground1 so as to be perfectly level1 and then orders the ,goat to stand upon it4 ,a piece of wood about six inches in length1 and shaped something like a dice-box1 is then placed on the stool1 and the ,goat manages to stand on it1 all his sharp1 hard hoofs being pressed closely together on the tiny surface4 ,the man then takes another piece of wood and holds it to the ,goat's feet4 ,the animal gently removes first one foot and then another1 and1 by careful shifting of the feet1 enables its master to place the second piece of wood on the first4 ,successive additions are made1 until at the last the ,goat is perched on the topmost of some nine or ten pieces of wood balanced on each other1 the whole looking like a stout reed marked off with joints4 ,the stately steps and bold bearing of the old he-goat is mentioned in the ,proverbs3 ,there be three things which go well1 yea1 four are comely in going3 ,a lion1 which is strongest among beasts1 and turneth not away for any2 ,a greyhound2 an he-goat also2 and a king1 against whom there is no rising up4 7,prov4 xxx4 #bi-ca47 ,the word which is here rendered as he-goat signifies literally the ,butter1 and is given to the animal on account of the mode in which it uses its formidable horns4 ,the word is not common in the ,bible1 but it is used even at the present day among the ,arabs4 ,several herds of goats exist in ,palestine1 the most valuable of which is the ,mohair ,goat1 and the most common the ,syrian ,goat4 ,these1 however dissimilar they may be in appearance1 are only varieties of the ordinary domestic animal1 the former being produced artificially by carefully selecting those specimens for breeding which have the longest and finest hair4 ,it was from the hair of this breed that the costly fabrics used in the ,tabernacle were woven1 and it is probably to this breed that reference is made in ,solomon's ,song1 iv4 #a1 #b3 ,behold1 thou art fair1 my love2 behold1 thou art fair2 thou hast doves' eyes within thy locks3 thy hair is as a flock of goats1 that appear from ,mount ,gilead4 ,thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn1 which came up from the washing4 ,in this passage the careful reader will also note another reference to the habits of the ,goats and sheep1 the hair being compared to the dark-haired ,goats that wander on the tops of the hills1 while the teeth are compared to sheep that are ranged in regular order below4 ,the ,mohair ,goat is known scientifically as ,capra ,angorensis4 ,the same image is used again in chap4 vi4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,herd ,,of ,,goats ,,attacked ,,by ,a ,,lion4 ,the second breed is that which is commonest throughout the country4 ,it is known by the name of the ,syrian ,goat1 and is remarkable for the enormous length of its ears1 which sometimes exceed a foot from root to tip4 ,this variety has been described as a separate species under the name of ,capra ,mambrica1 or ,c4 ,syriaca1 but1 like the ,mohair ,goat1 and twenty-three other so-called species1 is simply a variety of the common ,goat1 ,hircus gragus4 ,reference is made to the long ears of the ,syrian ,goat in ,amos iii4 #ab3 ,thus saith the ,lord3 ,as the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion two legs1 or a piece of an ear2 so shall the children of ,israel be taken out that dwell in ,samaria4 ,such a scene1 which was familiar to ,amos1 the shepherd as well as the prophet1 is represented in the illustration4 ,in the foreground is the goat on which the lion has sprung1 and from which one of the long ears has been torn away4 ,its companions are gathering round it in sympathy1 while its kid is trying to discover the cause of its mother's uneasiness4 ,in the background is a group of armed shepherds1 standing round the lion which they have just killed1 while one of them is holding up the torn ear which he has taken out of the lion's mouth4 ,,the ,,wild ,,goat4 ,the ,azelim or ,wild ,goats of ,scripture identical with the ,beden or ,arabian ,ibex--,different names of the ,beden--,its appearance and general habits--,en-gedi1 or ,goats' ,fountain--,the ,beden formerly very plentiful in ,palestine1 and now tolerably common--,its agility--,difficulty of catching or killing it--,how the young are captured--,flesh of the ,beden--,use of the horns at the present day--,the ,ako of ,deuteronomy4 ,in three passages of the ,old ,testament occurs a word1 ,azelim1 which is variously translated in our ,authorized ,version4 ,it is first seen in #a ,sam4 xxiv4 #b1 in which it is rendered as ,wild ,goats4 ,it was told ,saul1 saying1 ,behold1 ,david is in the wilderness of ,en-gedi i4e4 the ,fountain of the ,goat4 ,then ,saul took three thousand chosen men out of all ,israel1 and went to seek ,david and his men upon the rocks of the wild goats 7azelim74 ,the same word occurs in ,job xxxix4 #a3 ,knowest thou the time when the wild goats of the rock bring forth8 ,it is also found in ,ps4 civ4 #ah3 ,the high hills are a refuge for the wild goats4 ,in all these passages it is rendered as wild goats4 ,but1 in ,prov4 v4 #ai1 it is translated as roe3 ,rejoice with the wife of thy youth4 ,let her be as the loving hind and pleasant roe 7azelah74 ,the ,jewish ,bible follows the same diverse renderings4 ,we now have to discover the animal which was signified by the word ,azel4 ,according to its etymology1 it is the ,climber1 just as the adult he-goat is called the ,butter4 ,that it was a climbing animal is evident from its name1 and that it loved to clamber among precipices is equally evident from the repeated connexion of the word rock with the name of the animal4 ,we also see1 from the passage in ,job1 that it is a wild animal whose habits were not known4 ,there is scarcely any doubt that the ,azel of the ,old ,testament is the ,,arabian ,,ibex or ,,beden 7,capra ,nubiana74 ,this animal is very closely allied to the well-known ,ibex of the ,alps1 or ,steinbock1 but may be distinguished from it by one or two slight differences1 such as the black beard and the slighter make of the horns1 which moreover have three angles instead of four1 as is the case with the ,alpine ,ibex4 ,the ,beden is known by several names4 ,it is sometimes called the ,jaela1 sometimes the ,nubian ,wild ,goat1 and is also known as the ,wild ,goat of ,sinai4 ,the general colour of the ,beden is grey1 becoming brownish in winter1 and being whitish grey beneath4 ,the feet are spotted with black and white1 and the beard of the male is black1 differing from that of the ,alpine ,ibex1 which is brown4 ,the female is beardless4 ,the lines along the back and the sides of the tail are black1 and there are three streaks on each ear4 ,the ,beden generally lives in little herds of eight or ten1 and is even now to be found in ,palestine4 ,at the strange1 wild1 weird-looking ,en-gedi 7,ain ,jiddy71 or ,fountain of the ,goats1 the ,beden is still to be seen4 ,mr4 ,tristram suggests that ,david and his followers took up their residence at ,en-gedi for the sake of the ,wild ,goats that were plentiful upon the spot1 and which would furnish food for himself and his hardy band of outlaws4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,en-gedi1 remarks this traveller1 while encamped by the ,dead ,sea shore1 we obtained several fine specimens1 and very interesting it was to find the graceful creature by the very fountain to which it gave name4 ,when clambering over the heights above ,en-gedi1 ,i often1 by the help of my glass1 saw the ,ibex from a distance1 and once1 when near ,mar-saba1 only a few miles from ,jerusalem1 started one at a distance of four hundred yards4 ,at the south end of the ,dead ,sea they were common1 and ,i have picked up a horn both near ,jericho on the hills and also on the hills of ,moab on the eastern side4 ,at ,jericho1 too1 ,i obtained a young one which ,i hoped to rear1 but which died after ,i had had it for ten days1 owing1 ,i believe1 to the milk with which it was fed being sour4 ,further north and west we did not find it1 though ,i have reason to believe that a few linger on the mountains between ,samaria and the ,jordan1 and perhaps also on some of the spurs of ,lebanon4 ,we found its teeth in the breccia of bone occurring in the ,lebanon1 proving its former abundance there4 ,as the ,beden was found so plentifully even in these days when fire-arms have rendered many wild animals scarce and wary1 so that they will not show themselves within range of a bullet1 it is evident that in the time when ,david lived at ,en-gedi and drank of the ,goats' ,fountain they were far more numerous1 and could afford nourishment to him and his soldiers4 ,travellers1 moreover1 who do not happen to be experienced hunters1 will often fail in seeing the ,beden1 even in places where it is tolerably plentiful4 ,the colour of its coat resembles so nearly that of the rocks1 that an inexperienced eye would see nothing but bare stones and sticks where a practised hunter would see numbers of ,beden1 conspicuous by their beautifully curved horns4 ,the agility of the ,beden is extraordinary4 ,loving the highest and most craggy parts of the mountain ridge1 it flings itself from spot to spot with a recklessness that startles one who has not been accustomed to the animal1 and the wonderful certainty of its foot4 ,it will1 for example1 dash at the face of a perpendicular precipice that looks as smooth as a brick wall1 for the purpose of reaching a tiny ledge which is hardly perceptible1 and which is some fifteen feet or so above the spot whence the animal sprang4 ,its eye1 however1 has marked certain little cracks and projections on the face of the rock1 and as the animal makes its leap1 it takes these little points of vantage in rapid succession1 just touching them as it passes upwards1 and by the slight stroke of its foot keeping up the original impulse of its leap4 ,similarly1 the ,ibex comes sliding and leaping down precipitous sides of the mountains1 sometimes halting with all the four feet drawn together1 on a little projection scarcely larger than a penny1 and sometimes springing boldly over a wide crevasse1 and alighting with exact precision upon a projecting piece of rock that seems scarcely large enough to sustain a rat comfortably4 ,the young of the ,ibex are sometimes captured and tamed4 ,they are1 however1 difficult to rear1 and give much more trouble than the young gazelles when taken in a similar manner4 ,the natives can generally procure the kids at the proper time of year1 and sell them at a very cheap rate4 ,they seldom1 however1 can be reared1 and even those who live in the country experience the greatest difficulty in keeping the young ,beden alive until it attains maturity4 ,were it not for the curious habits of the ,beden1 the young could scarcely ever be obtained alive1 as they are so agile that they could easily leap away from their slow two-legged pursuers4 ,but the mother ,ibex has a habit of leading a very independent life1 wandering to considerable distances1 and leaving her kid snugly hidden in some rock-cleft4 ,the hunters watch the mother as she starts off in the morning1 clamber up to the spot where the kid is concealed1 and secure it without difficulty4 ,the ,arabs say that there are always two kids at a birth1 but there is considerable discrepancy of evidence on this point1 which1 after all1 is of very little importance4 ,illustration3 ,,arabian ,,ibex1 ,,or ,,beden2 ,,the ,,wild ,,goat ,,of ,,scripture4 ,the flesh of the ,beden is really excellent4 ,it is far superior to that of the gazelle1 which is comparatively dry and hard1 and it has been happily suggested that the ,beden was the animal in search of which ,esau was sent to hunt with his quiver and his bow1 and which furnished the savoury meat which ,isaac loved4 ,none but a true hunter can hope to secure the ,beden1 and even all the knowledge1 patience1 and energy of the best hunters are tried before they can kill their prey4 ,it was therefore no matter of wonder that ,isaac should be surprised when he thought that he heard ,esau return so soon from the hunting-grounds4 ,how is it that thou hast found it so quickly1 my son8 ,there are few animals more wary than the ,beden1 and even the chamois of the ,alps does not exercise the finest qualities of a hunter more than does the ,beden of ,palestine4 ,it is gifted with very keen eyes1 which can discern the approach of an enemy long before its grey coat and curved horns can be distinguished from the stones and gnarled boughs of the mountain side4 ,and1 even if the enemy be not within range of the animal's sight1 its nostrils are so keen that it can detect a man by scent alone at a considerable distance4 ,like all gregarious animals1 the ,beden insures the safety of the flock by stationing sentries1 which are posted on places that command the whole surrounding country1 and to deceive the watchful senses of these wary guardians tests all the qualities of the hunter4 ,the dawn of day is the time that is generally chosen for approaching a herd1 because the animals are then feeding1 and if the hunter can manage to approach them against the wind1 he may chance to come within range4 ,should however the wind change its direction1 he may quietly walk home again1 for at the first breath of the tainted gale the sentinels utter their shrill whistle of alarm1 and the whole party dash off with a speed that renders pursuit useless4 ,the horns of the ,beden are of very great size1 and from their bold curves1 with the large rings and ridges which cover their front1 are remarkably handsome objects4 ,in their own country they are in great request as handles to knives1 and even in ,england they may be occasionally seen serving as handles to carving-knives and forks4 ,as to the word ,ako1 which occurs in ,deut4 xiv4 #e1 together with other animals1 and is rendered as ,wild ,goat1 there is so much doubt about the correct translation that ,i can do no more than mention that the ,jewish ,bible follows our authorized edition in translating ,ako as ,wild ,goat1 but adds the doubtful mark to the word4 ,illustration3 deer ,,the ,,deer4 ,the ,hart and ,hind of ,scripture--,species of ,deer existing in ,palestine--,earliest mention of the ,hind--,the ,hart classed among the clean animals--,passages alluding to its speed--,care of the mother for her young1 and her custom of secreting it--,tameable character of the ,deer4 ,we now come to the ,,deer which are mentioned in ,scripture4 ,there are not many passages in which they are mentioned1 and one of them is rather doubtful1 as we shall see when we come to it4 ,there is no doubt that the two words ,,hart and ,,hind 7in the ,hebrew ,ayzal and ,ayzalah7 represent ,deer of some kind1 and the question is to find out what kind of ,deer is signified by these words4 ,i think that we may safely determine that no particular species is meant1 but that under the word ,ayzal are comprehended any kinds of ,deer that inhabit ,palestine1 and were likely to be known to those to whom the earlier ,scriptures were addressed4 ,that some kind of ,deer was plentiful is evident from the references which are made to it1 and specially by the familiar word ,ajala or ,ayala1 as it is pronounced1 which signifies the ,deer-ground or pasture4 ,but the attempt to discriminate between one species and another is simply impossible1 and the more careful the search the more impracticable the task appears4 ,illustration3 ,,red ,,deer4 ,as far as can be ascertained1 at least two kinds of ,deer inhabited ,palestine in the earlier days of the ,jewish history1 one belonging to the division which is known by its branched horns1 and the other to that in which the horns are flat or palmated over the tips4 ,examples of both kinds are familiar to us under the titles of the ,,red ,,deer and the ,,fallow ,,deer1 and it is tolerably certain that both these animals were formerly found in ,palestine1 or that at all events the ,deer which did exist there were so closely allied to them as to be mere varieties occasioned by the different conditions in which they were placed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we will now proceed to the various passages in which the ,hart and ,hind are mentioned in the ,bible4 ,illustration3 ,,fallow-,,deer1 ,,or ,,hind ,,of ,,scripture4 ,as might be expected1 we come upon it among the number of the beasts which divided the hoof and chewed the cud1 and were specially indicated as fit for food2 see ,deut4 xii4 #ae3 ,notwithstanding thou mayest kill and eat flesh in all thy gates1 444 the unclean and the clean may eat thereof1 as of the roebuck1 and as of the hart4 ,there is1 however1 an earlier mention of the word in ,gen4 xlix4 #ba4 ,it occurs in that splendid series of imagery in which ,jacob blesses his sons1 and prophesies their future1 each image serving ever afterwards as the emblem of the tribe3 ,naphtali is a hind let loose3 he giveth goodly words2--or1 according to the ,jewish ,bible1 ,naphtali is a hind sent forth3 he giveth sayings of pleasantness4 ,now1 such an image as this would never have been used1 had not the spectacle of the hind let loose been perfectly familiar to the eyes both of the dying patriarch and his hearers1 and equally so with the lion1 the ass1 the vine1 the serpent1 and other objects used emblematically in the same prophetic poem4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,quiet ,,spot4 ,the excellence of the ,hart's flesh is shown by its occurrence among the animals used for ,king ,solomon's table3 see #a ,kings iv4 #bc1 a passage which has been quoted several times1 and therefore need only be mentioned4 ,allusion is made to the speed and agility of the ,deer in several passages4 ,see1 for example1 ,isa4 xxxv4 #f3 ,then shall the lame man leap as an hart1 and the tongue of the dumb sing4 ,again1 in #b ,sam4 xxii4 #cc1 #cd3 ,god is my strength and power3 and ,he maketh my way perfect4 ,he maketh my feet like hinds' feet3 and setteth me upon my high places4 ,nearly four hundred years afterwards we find ,habakkuk using precisely the same image1 evidently quoting ,david's ,psalm of ,thanksgiving3--,yet ,i will rejoice in the ,lord1 ,i will joy in the ,god of my salvation4 ,the ,lord ,god is my strength1 and ,he will make my feet like hinds' feet1 and ,he will make me to walk upon mine high places4 7iii4 #ah1 #ai47 ,a passage of a similar character may be found in ,solomon's ,song1 ii4 #h1 #i3 ,the voice of my beloved6 behold1 he cometh leaping upon the mountains1 skipping upon the hills4 ,my beloved is like a roe or a young hart4 ,there is one passage in the ,psalms which is familiar to us in many ways1 and not the least in that it has been chosen as the text for so many well-known anthems4 ,as the hart panteth after the water-brooks1 so panteth my soul after ,thee1 ,o ,god4 ,my soul thirsteth for ,god1 for the living ,god3 when shall ,i come and appear before ,god8 7,ps4 xlii4 #a1 #b47 ,beautiful as this passage is1 it cannot be fully understood without the context4 ,illustration3 ,,red ,,deer ,,and ,,fawn4 ,david wrote this psalm before he had risen to royal power1 and while he was fleeing from his enemies from place to place1 and seeking an uncertain shelter in the rock-caves4 ,in verse #f he enumerates some of the spots in which he has been forced to reside1 far away from the altar1 the priests1 and the sacrifice4 ,he has been hunted about from place to place by his enemies as a stag is hunted by the hounds1 and his very soul thirsted for the distant ,tabernacle1 in which the ,shekinah1 the visible presence of ,god1 rested on the mercy-seat between the golden cherubim4 ,wild and unsettled as was the early life of ,david1 this was ever the reigning thought in his mind1 and there is scarcely a psalm that he wrote in which we do not find some allusion to the visible presence of ,god among men4 ,no matter what might be the troubles through which he had to pass1 even though he trod the valley of the shadow of death1 the thought of his ,god was soothing as water to the hunted stag1 and in that thought he ever found repose4 ,through all his many trials and adversities1 through his deep remorse for his sins1 through his wounded paternal affections1 through his success and prosperity1 that one thought is the ruling power4 ,he begins his career with it when he opposed ,goliath3 ,thou comest to me with a sword1 and with a spear1 and with a shield3 but ,i come to thee in the name of the ,lord of hosts1 the ,god of the armies of ,israel4 ,he closes his career with the same thought1 and1 in the last words that are recorded1 he charged his son to keep the commandments of the ,lord1 that he might do wisely all that he did4 ,we now come to another point in the ,deer's character2 namely1 the watchful care of the mother over her young4 ,she always retires to some secret place when she instinctively knows that the birth is at hand1 and she hides it from all eyes until it is able to take care of itself4 ,by some strange instinct1 the little one1 almost as soon as it is born1 is able to comprehend the signals of its mother1 and there is an instance1 well known to naturalists1 where a newly-born ,deer1 hardly an hour old1 crouched low to the earth in obedience to a light tap on its shoulder from its mother's hoof4 ,she1 with the intense watchfulness of her kind1 had seen a possible danger1 and so warned her young one to hide itself4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,leader ,,of ,,the ,,herd4 ,there is scarcely any animal so watchful as the female ,deer1 as all hunters know by practical experience4 ,it is comparatively easy to deceive the stag who leads the herd1 but to evade the eyes and ears of the hinds is a very different business1 and taxes all the resources of a practised hunter4 ,if they take such care of the herd in general1 it may be imagined that their watchfulness would be multiplied tenfold when the object of their anxiety is their own young4 ,it is in allusion to this well-known characteristic that a passage in the ,book of ,job refers3 ,knowest thou the time when the wild goats of the rock bring forth8 or canst thou mark when the hinds do calve8 7xxxix4 #a47 ,a similar image is used in ,psa4 xxix4 #i4 ,after enumerating the wonders that are done by the voice of the ,lord1 the thunders and rain torrents1 the devastating tempests1 the forked lightning1 and the earthquake that shaketh the wilderness of ,kadesh1 the ,psalmist proceeds3 ,the voice of the ,lord maketh the hinds to calve1 and discovereth the forests1--this being as mysterious to the writer as the more conspicuous wonders which he had previously mentioned4 ,so familiar to the ,hebrews was the watchful care which the female ,deer exercised over her young1 that it forms the subject of a powerful image in one of ,jeremiah's mournful prophecies3 ,yea1 the hind also calved in the field1 and forsook it1 because there was no grass4 7xiv4 #e47 ,to those who understand the habits of the animal1 this is a most telling and picturesque image4 ,in the first place1 the ,hind1 a wild animal that could find food where less active creatures would starve1 was reduced to such straits that she was obliged to remain in the fields at the time when her young was born1 instead of retiring to some sheltered spot1 according to her custom4 ,and when it was born1 instead of nurturing it carefully1 according to the natural maternal instinct1 she was forced from sheer hunger to abandon it in order to find a sufficiency of food for herself4 ,that the ,deer could be tamed1 and its naturally affectionate disposition cultivated1 is evident from a passage in the ,proverbs 7v4 #ah1 #ai73 ,let thy fountain be blessed3 and rejoice with the wife of thy youth4 ,let her be as the loving hind and pleasant roe4 ,we might naturally expect that the ,rabbinical writers would have much to say on the subject of the ,hart and ,hind4 ,among much that is irrelevant to the object of the present work there are a few passages that deserve mention4 ,alluding to the annual shedding of the ,deer's horns1 there is a proverb respecting one who ventures his money too freely in trade1 that he has hung it on the stag's horns1 meaning thereby that he will never see it again4 ,it is remarkable that in ,western ,africa there is a proverb of a similar character1 the imprudent merchant being told to look for his money in the place where ,deer shed their horns4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,watchful ,,doe4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,kneeling ,,camel4 ,,the ,,camel4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,the two species of ,camel1 and the mode of distinguishing them--,value of the ,camel in the ,east--,thirst-enduring capability--,the hump1 and its use to the animal--,the ,camel as a beast of draught and burden--,how the ,camel is laden--,camels for riding--,difficulty of sitting a ,camel--,a rough-paced steed--,method of guiding the ,camel--,the swift dromedary--,young ,camels and their appearance--,the deserted ,camel4 ,before treating of the ,scriptural references to the ,camel1 it will be as well to clear the ground by noticing that two distinct species of ,camel are known to zoologists2 namely1 the common ,camel 7,camelus dromedarius71 which has one hump1 and the ,bactrian ,camel 7,camelus ,bactrianus71 which has two of these curious projections4 ,there is a popular but erroneous idea that the dromedary and the ,camel are two distinct animals1 the latter being distinguished by its huge hump1 whereas the fact is1 that the dromedary is simply a lighter and more valuable breed of the one-humped ,camel of ,arabia1 the two-humped ,bactrian ,camel being altogether a different animal1 inhabiting ,central ,asia1 ,thibet1 and ,china4 ,the ,camel is still one of the most valued animals that inhabit ,palestine1 and in former times it played a part in ,jewish history scarcely inferior to that of the ox or sheep4 ,we shall1 therefore1 devote some space to it4 ,in some parts of the land it even exceeded in value the sheep1 and was infinitely more useful than the goat4 ,at the very beginning of ,jewish history we read of this animal1 and it is mentioned in the ,new ,testament nearly two thousand years after we meet with it in the ,book of ,genesis4 ,the earliest mention of the ,camel occurs in ,gen4 xii4 #af1 where is related the journey of ,abram3 ,he had sheep1 and oxen1 and he-asses1 and men-servants1 and maid-servants1 and she-asses1 and camels4 ,illustration3 ,,jacob ,,leaves ,,laban ,,and ,,returns ,,to ,,canaan ,,with ,,his ,,camels1 ,,sheep1 ,,and ,,cattle4 ,belonging1 as he did1 to the nomad race which lives almost wholly on the produce of their herds1 ,abram needed ,camels1 not only for their milk1 and1 for all we know1 for their flesh1 but for their extreme use as beasts of burden1 without which he could never have travelled over that wild and pathless land4 ,the whole of ,abram's outer life was exactly that of a ,bedouin sheikh of the present day1 in whom we find reproduced the habits1 the tone of thought1 and the very verbiage of the ancient ,scriptures4 ,many years afterwards1 when the son of his old age was desirous of marrying a wife of his own kindred1 we find that he sent his trusted servants with ten of his ,camels to ,mesopotamia1 and it was by the offering of water to these ,camels1 that ,rebekah was selected as ,isaac's wife 7see ,gen4 xxiv4 #aj1 #ai74 ,in after days1 when ,jacob was about to leave ,laban1 these animals are mentioned as an important part of his wealth3 ,and the man increased exceedingly1 and had much cattle1 and maid-servants1 and men-servants1 and camels1 and asses 7,gen4 xxx4 #dc74 ,it is thought worthy of mention in the sacred narrative that ,job had three thousand1 and afterwards six thousand ,camels 7,job i4 #c1 and xlii4 #ab72 that the ,midianites and ,amalekites possessed camels without number1 as the sand by the seaside4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,camp ,,in ,,the ,,desert4 ,they were valuable enough to be sent as presents from one potentate to another4 ,for example1 when ,jacob went to meet ,esau1 he gave as his present two hundred and twenty sheep1 the same number of goats1 fifty oxen1 thirty asses1 and sixty camels1 i4e4 thirty mothers1 each with her calf4 ,they were important enough to be guarded by men of position4 ,in #a ,chron4 xxvii4 #cj1 we find that the charge of ,david's ,camels was confided to one of his officers1 ,obil the ,ishmaelite1 who1 from his origin1 might be supposed to be skilful in the management of these animals4 ,bochart1 however1 conjectures that the word ,obil ought to be read as ,abal1 i4e4 the camel-keeper1 and that the passage would therefore read as follows3 ,over the camels was an ,ishmaelitish camel-keeper4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we will now proceed to the uses of the ,camel1 and first take it in the light of food4 ,by the ,mosaic law1 the ,camel was a forbidden animal1 because it did not divide the hoof1 although it chewed the cud4 ,yet1 although the ,jews might not eat its flesh1 they probably used the milk for food1 as they do at the present day4 ,no distinct ,scriptural reference is made to the milk of the ,camel2 but1 as the ,jews of the present day are quite as fastidious as their ancestors in keeping the ,mosaic law1 we are justified in concluding that1 although they would not eat the flesh of the animal1 they drank its milk4 ,at the present time1 the milk is used1 like that of the sheep1 goat1 and cow1 both in a fresh and curdled state1 the latter being generally preferred to the former4 ,a kind of cheese is made from it1 but is not much to the taste of the ,european traveller1 on account of the quantity of salt which is put in it4 ,butter is churned in a very simple manner1 the fresh milk being poured into a skin bag1 and the bag beaten with a stick until the butter makes its appearance4 ,that it was really used in the patriarchal times is evident by the passage which has already been mentioned1 where ,jacob is related to have brought as a present to his brother ,esau thirty milch ,camels1 together with their young4 ,so decided a stress would certainly not have been laid upon the fact that the animals were milch ,camels unless the milk were intended for use4 ,perhaps the use of the ,camel's milk might be justified by saying that the prohibition extended only to eating and not to drinking1 and that therefore the milk might be used though the flesh was prohibited4 ,there was another mode in which the ,camel might be used by travellers to sustain life4 ,the reader is probably aware that1 even in the burning climate in which it dwells1 the ,camel is able to go for a long time without drinking1--not that it requires less liquid nourishment than other animals1 but that it is able1 by means of its internal construction1 to imbibe at one draught a quantity of water which will last for a considerable time4 ,it is furnished with a series of cells1 into which the water runs as fast as it is drunk1 and in which it can be kept for some time without losing its life-preserving qualities4 ,as much as twenty gallons have been imbibed by a ,camel at one draught1 and this amount will serve it for several days1 as it has the power of consuming by degrees the water which it has drunk in a few minutes4 ,this curious power of the ,camel has often proved to be the salvation of its owner4 ,it has often happened that1 when travellers have been passing over the desert1 their supply of water has been exhausted1 partly by the travellers and partly by the burning heat which causes it to evaporate through the pores of the goat-skin bottle in which it was carried4 ,then the next well1 where they had intended to refill their skins and refresh themselves1 has proved dry1 and the whole party seemed doomed to die of thirst4 ,under these circumstances1 only one chance of escape is left them4 ,they kill a ,camel1 and from its stomach they procure water enough to sustain life for a little longer1 and perhaps to enable them to reach a well or fountain in which water still remains4 ,the water which is thus obtained is unaltered1 except by a greenish hue1 the result of mixing with the remains of herbage in the cells4 ,it is1 of course1 very disagreeable1 but those who are dying from thirst cannot afford to be fastidious1 and to them the water is a most delicious draught4 ,it is rather curious that1 if any of the water which is taken out of a dead ,camel can be kept for a few days1 both the green hue and the unpleasant flavour disappear1 and the water becomes fresh1 clear1 and limpid4 ,so wonderfully well do the internal cells preserve the water1 that after a ,camel has been dead for ten days--and in that hot climate ten days after death are equal to a month here--the water within it has been quite pure and drinkable4 ,many persons believe in the popular though erroneous idea that the ,camel does not require as much water as ordinary animals4 ,he will see1 however1 from the foregoing account that it needs quite as much water as the horse or the ox1 but that it possesses the capability of taking in at one time as much as either of these animals would drink in several days4 ,so far from being independent of water1 there is no animal that requires it more1 or displays a stronger desire for it4 ,a thirsty ,camel possesses the power of scenting water at a very great distance1 and1 when it does so1 its instincts conquer its education1 and it goes off at full speed towards the spot1 wholly ignoring its rider or driver4 ,many a desert spring has been discovered1 and many a life saved1 by this wonderful instinct1 the animal having scented the distant water when its rider had lost all hope1 and was resigning himself to that terrible end1 the death by thirst4 ,the sacred ,zemzem fountain at ,mecca was discovered by two thirsty ,camels4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,grateful ,,shade4 ,except by the ,jews1 the flesh of the ,camel is eaten throughout ,palestine and the neighbouring countries1 and is looked upon as a great luxury4 ,the ,arab1 for example1 can scarcely have a greater treat than a ,camel-feast1 and looks forward to it in a state of wonderful excitement4 ,he is so impatient1 that scarcely is the animal dead before it is skinned1 cut up1 and the various parts prepared for cooking4 ,to ,european palates the flesh of the ,camel is rather unpleasant1 being tough1 stringy1 and without much flavour4 ,the fatty hump is universally considered as the best part of the animal1 and is always offered to the chief among the guests1 just as the ,north ,american ,indian offers the hump of the bison to the most important man in the assembly4 ,the heart and the tongue1 however1 are always eatable1 and1 however old a ,camel may be1 these parts can be cooked and eaten without fear4 ,the hump1 or bunch as it is called in the ,bible1 has no connexion with the spine1 and is a supplementary growth1 which varies in size1 not only in the species1 but in the individual4 ,it is analogous to the hump upon the shoulders of the ,american bison and the ,indian zebra1 and in the best-bred ,camels it is the smallest though the finest and most elastic4 ,this hump1 by the way1 affords one of the points by which the value of the ,camel is decided4 ,when it is well fed and properly cared for1 the hump projects boldly1 and is firm and elastic to the touch4 ,but if the ,camel be ill1 or if it be badly fed or overworked1 the hump becomes soft and flaccid1 and in bad cases hangs down on one side like a thick flap of skin4 ,consequently1 the dealers in ,camels always try to produce their animals in the market with their humps well developed2 and1 if they find that this important part does not look satisfactory1 they use various means to give it the required fulness1 inflating it with air being the most common4 ,in fact1 there is as much deception among ,camel-dealers in ,palestine as with dog or pigeon fanciers in ,england4 ,here perhaps ,i may remark that the hump has given rise to some strange but prevalent views respecting the ,camel4 ,many persons think that the dromedary has one hump and the ,camel two--in fact1 that they are two totally distinct animals4 ,now the fact is that the ,camel of ,palestine is of one species only1 the dromedary being a lighter and swifter breed1 and differing from the ordinary ,camel just as a hunter or racer differs from a cart-horse4 ,the two-humped ,camel is a different species altogether1 which will be briefly described at the end of the present article4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,camel is also used as a beast of draught1 and1 as we find1 not only from the ,scriptures1 but from ancient monuments1 was employed to draw chariots and drag the plough4 ,thus in ,isa4 xxi4 #g3 ,and he saw a chariot with a couple of horsemen1 a chariot of asses1 and a chariot of camels4 ,it is evident that in this passage some chariots were drawn by ,camels and some by asses4 ,it is1 however1 remarkable that in ,kennard's ,eastern ,experiences1 these two very useful animals are mentioned as being yoked together3 ,we passed through a fertile country1 watching the fellaheen at their agricultural labours1 and not a little amused at sometimes remarking a very tall camel and a very small donkey yoked together in double harness1 dragging a plough through the rich brown soil4 ,camels drawing chariots are still to be seen in the ,assyrian sculptures4 ,in ,palestine--at all events at the present time--the ,camel is seldom if ever used as a beast of draught1 being exclusively employed for bearing burdens and carrying riders4 ,taking it first as a beast of burden1 we find several references in different parts of the ,scriptures4 ,for example1 see #b ,kings viii4 #i3 ,so ,hazael went to meet him1 and took a present with him1 even of every good thing of ,damascus1 forty camels' burden4 ,again1 in #a ,chron4 xii4 #dj3 ,moreover they that were nigh them1 even unto ,issachar and ,zebulun and ,naphtali1 brought bread on asses1 and on camels1 and on mules1 and on oxen4 ,another allusion to the same custom is made in ,isaiah3 ,they will carry their riches upon the shoulders of young asses1 and their treasures upon the bunches 7or humps7 of camels4 ,the ,camel can carry a considerable load1 though not so much as is generally fancied4 ,a sort of a pack-saddle of a very simple description is used1 in order to keep the burden upon so strangely-shaped an animal4 ,a narrow bag about eight feet long is made1 and rather loosely stuffed with straw or similar material4 ,it is then doubled1 and the ends firmly sewn together1 so as to form a great ring1 which is placed over the hump1 and forms a tolerably flat surface4 ,a wooden framework is tied on the pack-saddle1 and is kept in its place by a girth and a crupper4 ,the packages which the ,camel is to carry are fastened together by cords1 and slung over the saddle4 ,they are only connected by those semi-knots called hitches1 so that1 when the ,camel is to be unloaded1 all that is needed is to pull the lower end of the rope1 and the packages fall on either side of the animal4 ,so quickly is the operation of loading performed1 that a couple of experienced men can load a ,camel in very little more than a minute4 ,as is the case with the horse in ,england1 the ,camels that are used as beasts of burden are of a heavier1 slower1 and altogether inferior breed to those which are employed to carry riders1 and all their accoutrements are of a ruder and meaner order1 devoid of the fantastic ornaments with which ,oriental riders are fond of decorating their favourite animals4 ,in the large illustration are represented four of the ordinary ,camels of burden1 as they appear when laden with boughs for the ,feast of ,tabernacles4 ,the branches are those of the ,hebrew pine1 and1 as may be seen1 the animals are so heavily laden with them that their forms are quite hidden under their leafy burdens4 ,the weight which a ,camel will carry varies much1 according to the strength of the individual1 which has given rise to the ,oriental proverb1 ,as the camel1 so the load4 ,but an animal of ordinary strength is supposed to be able to carry from five to six hundred pounds for a short journey1 and half as much for a long one1--a quantity which1 as the reader will see1 is not so very great when the bulk of the animal is taken into consideration4 ,it is remarkable that the ,camel knows its own powers1 and instinctively refuses to move if its correct load be exceeded4 ,but1 when it is properly loaded1 it will carry its burden for hours together at exactly the same pace1 and without seeming more fatigued than it was when it started4 ,illustration3 ,,camels ,,laden ,,with ,,boughs4 ,illustration3 ,,morning ,,in ,,the ,,desert3 ,,starting ,,of ,,the ,,caravan4 ,the riding ,camels are always of a better breed than those which are used for burden1 and maybe divided into two classes2 namely1 those which are meant for ordinary purposes1 and those which are specially bred for speed and endurance4 ,there is as much difference between the ordinary riding ,camel and the swift ,camel as there is between the road hack and the race-horse4 ,we will first begin with the description of the common riding ,camel and its accoutrements4 ,the saddle which is intended for a rider is very different from the pack-saddle on which burdens are carried1 and has a long upright projection in front1 to which the rider can hold if he wishes it4 ,the art of riding the ,camel is far more difficult of accomplishment than that of riding the horse1 and the preliminary operation of mounting is not the least difficult portion of it4 ,of course1 to mount a ,camel while the animal is standing is impossible1 and accordingly it is taught to kneel until the rider is seated4 ,kneeling is a natural position with the ,camel1 which is furnished with large callosities or warts on the legs and breast1 which act as cushions on which it may rest its great weight without abrading the skin4 ,these callosities are not formed1 as some have imagined1 by the constant kneeling to which the ,camel is subjected1 but are born with it1 though of course less developed than they are after they have been hardened by frequent pressure against the hot sand4 ,when the ,camel kneels1 it first drops on its knees1 and then on the joints of the hind legs4 ,next it drops on its breast1 and then again on the bent hind legs4 ,in rising it reverses the process1 so that a novice is first pitched forward1 then backward1 then forward1 and then backward again1 to the very great disarrangement of his garments1 and the probable loss of his seat altogether4 ,then when the animal kneels he is in danger of being thrown over its head by the first movement1 and jerked over its tail by the second2 but after a time he learns to keep his seat mechanically4 ,as to the movement of the animal1 it is at first almost as unpleasant as can be conceived1 and has been described by several travellers1 some of whose accounts will be here given4 ,one well-known traveller declares that any person desiring to practise ,camel-riding can readily do so by taking a music-stool1 screwing it up as high as possible1 putting it into a cart without springs1 sitting on the top of it cross-legged1 and having the cart driven at full speed transversely over a newly-ploughed field4 ,there is1 however1 as great a difference in the gait of ,camels as of horses1 some animals having a quiet1 regular1 easy movement1 while others are rough and high-stepping1 harassing their riders grievously in the saddle4 ,even the smooth-going ,camel is1 however1 very trying at first1 on account of its long swinging strides1 which are taken with the legs of each side alternately1 causing the body of the rider to swing backwards and forwards as if he were rowing in a boat4 ,those who suffer from sea-sickness are generally attacked with the same malady when they make their first attempts at ,camel-riding1 while even those who are proof against this particular form of discomfort soon begin to find that their backs are aching1 and that the pain becomes steadily worse4 ,change of attitude is but little use1 and the wretched traveller derives but scant comfort from the advice of his guide1 who tells him to allow his body to swing freely1 and that in a short time he will become used to it4 ,some days1 however1 are generally consumed before he succeeds in training his spine to the continual unaccustomed movement1 and he finds that1 when he wakes on the morning that succeeds his first essay1 his back is so stiff that he can scarcely move without screaming with pain1 and that the prospect of mounting the ,camel afresh is anything but a pleasant one4 ,i tried to sit erect without moving1 writes ,mr4 ,kennard1 when describing his experience of ,camel-riding4 ,this proved a relief for a few minutes1 but1 finding the effort too great to continue long in this position1 ,i attempted to recline with my head resting upon my hand4 ,this last manuvre ,i found would not do1 for the motion of the camel's hind legs was so utterly at variance with the motion of his fore-legs that ,i was jerked upwards1 and forwards1 and sideways1 and finally ended in nearly rolling off altogether4 ,without going into the details of all that ,i suffered for the next two or three days--how that on several occasions ,i slid from the camel's back to the ground1 in despair of ever accustoming my half-dislocated joints to the ceaseless jerking and swaying to and fro1 and how that ,i often determined to trudge on foot over the hot desert sand all the way to ,jerusalem rather than endure it longer--,i shall merely say that the day did at last arrive when ,i descended from my camel1 after many hours' riding1 in as happy and comfortable a state of mind as if ,i had been lolling in the easiest of arm-chairs4 ,a very similar description of the transition from acute and constant suffering to perfect ease is given by ,albert ,smith1 who states that more than once he has dozed on the back of his ,camel1 in spite of the swaying backwards and forwards to which his body was subjected4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,camel ,,post4 ,if such be the discomfort of riding a smooth-going and good-tempered ,camel1 it may be imagined that to ride a hard-going and cross-grained animal must be a very severe trial to an inexperienced rider4 ,a very amusing account of a ride on such a ,camel1 and of a fall from its back1 is given by ,mr4 ,hamilton in his ,sinai1 the ,hedjaz1 and ,soudan3-- ,a dromedary ,i had obtained at ,suk ,abu ,sin for my own riding did not answer my expectations1 or rather the saddle was badly put on--not an easy thing to do well1 by the way--and one of my servants1 who saw how out of patience ,i was at the many times ,i had had to dismount to have it arranged1 persuaded me to try the one he was riding1 the ,sheik's present4 ,i had my large saddle transferred to his beast1 and1 nothing doubting1 mounted it4 ,he had not only no nose-string1 but was besides a vicious brute1 rising with a violent jerk before ,i was well in the saddle1 and anxious to gain the caravan1 which was a little way ahead1 he set off at his roughest gallop4 ,carpets1 kufieh1 tarbush1 all went off in the jolting2 at every step ,i was thrown a foot into the air1 glad to come down again1 bump1 bump1 on the saddle1 by dint of holding on to the front pommel with the left hand1 while the right was engaged with the bridle1 which in the violence of the exercise it was impossible to change to its proper hand4 ,i had almost reached the caravan1 and had no doubt my hump-backed ,pegasus would relax his exertions1 when a camel-driver1 one of the sons of iniquity1 seeing me come up at full speed1 and evidently quite run away with1 took it into his head to come to my assistance4 ,i saw what he was at1 and called out to him to get out of the way1 but instead of this he stuck himself straight before me1 stretching himself out like a ,st4 ,andrew's cross1 with one hand armed with a huge club1 and making most diabolical grimaces4 ,of course the camel was frightened1 it was enough to frighten a much more reasonable being2 so1 wheeling quickly round1 it upset my unstable equilibrium4 ,down ,i came head foremost to the ground1 and when ,i looked up1 my forehead streaming with blood1 the first thing ,i saw was my ,arab with the camel1 which he seemed mightily pleased with himself for having so cleverly captured1 while the servant who had suggested the unlucky experiment came ambling along on my easy-paced dromedary1 and consoled me by saying that he knew it was a runaway beast1 which there was no riding without a nose-string4 ,i now began to study the way of keeping one's seat in such an emergency4 ,an ,arab1 when he gallops his dromedary with one of these saddles1 holds hard on with the right hand to the back part of the seat1 not to the pommel1 and grasps the bridle tightly in the other4 ,the movement of the camel in galloping throws one violently forward1 and without holding on1 excepting on the naked back1 when the rider sits behind the hump1 it is impossible to retain one's seat4 ,i afterwards thought myself lucky in not having studied this point sooner1 as1 from the greater resistance ,i should have offered1 my tumble1 since it was fated ,i should have one1 would probably have been much more severe4 ,it is true ,i might also have escaped it1 but in the chapter of probabilities ,i always think a mishap the most probable4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,runaway4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,arab ,,sheik ,,mounted ,,upon ,,his ,,camel4 ,it may be imagined that a fall from a ,camel's back is not a trifle1 and1 even if the unskilful rider be fortunate enough to fall on soft sand instead of hard rock1 he receives a tolerably severe shock1 and runs no little risk of breaking a limb4 ,for the average height of a ,camel's back is rather more than six feet1 while some animals measure seven feet from the ground to the top of the hump4 ,this height1 however1 is of material advantage to the traveller4 ,in the first place it lifts him above the waves of heated air that are continually rolling over the sand on which the burning rays of the sun are poured throughout the day2 and in the second place it brings him within reach of the slightest breeze that passes above the stratum of hot air1 and which comes to the traveller like the breath of life4 ,moreover1 his elevated position enables him to see for a very great distance1 which is an invaluable advantage in a land where every stranger may be a robber1 and is probably a murderer besides4 ,the best mode of avoiding a fall is to follow the ,arab mode of riding1--namely1 to pass one leg over the upright pommel1 which1 as has been mentioned1 is a mere wooden peg or stake1 and hitching the other leg over the dangling foot4 ,perhaps the safest1 though not the most comfortable1 mode of sitting is by crossing the legs in front1 and merely grasping the pommel with the hands4 ,yet1 fatiguing as is the seat on the ,camel's back to the beginner1 it is less so than that on the horse's saddle1 inasmuch as in the latter case one position is preserved1 while in the former an infinite variety of seat is attainable when the rider has fairly mastered the art of riding4 ,the ,camel is not held by the bit and bridle like the horse1 but by a rope tied like a halter round the muzzle1 and having a knot on the left or near side4 ,this is held in the left hand1 and is used chiefly for the purpose of stopping the animal4 ,the ,camel is guided partly by the voice of its rider1 and partly by a driving-stick1 with which the neck is lightly touched on the opposite side to that which its rider wishes it to take4 ,a pressure of the heel on the shoulder-bone tells it to quicken its pace1 and a little tap on the head followed by a touch on the short ears are the signals for full speed4 ,there are three different kinds of stick with which the ,camel is driven2 one of them1 a mere almond branch with the bark1 and an oblique head1 is the sceptre or emblem of sovereignty of the ,prince of ,mecca4 ,mr4 ,hamilton suggests that this stick1 called the mesh'ab1 is the original of the jackal-headed stick with which so many of the ,egyptian deities are represented2 and that ,aaron's rod that brought forth buds1 and bloomed blossoms1 and yielded almonds1 was the mesh'ab1 the almond-branch sceptre1 the emblem of his almost regal rank and authority4 ,illustration3 ,,aaron',s ,,rod ,,bears ,,almonds4 ,the women mostly ride in a different manner from the men4 ,sometimes they are hardy enough to sit the animal in the same way as their husbands1 but as a rule they are carried by the animal rather than ride it1 sitting in great basket-like appendages which are slung on either side of the ,camel4 ,these constitute the furniture which is mentioned in ,gen4 xxxi4 #cd4 ,when ,jacob left the house of ,laban1 to lead an independent life1 ,rachel stole her father's images1 or teraphim1 and carried them away with her1 true to her affectionate though deceptive nature1 which impelled her to incur the guilt of robbery for the sake of enriching her husband with the cherished teraphim of her father4 ,from the most careful researches we learn that these teraphim were used for divining the future1 and that they were made in the human form4 ,that they were of considerable size is evident from the fact that1 when ,saul was hunting after ,david1 his wife ,michal contrived to convey him out of the house1 and for a time to conceal her fraud by putting an image 7or teraph7 into the bed as a representative of her husband4 ,had not1 therefore1 the camel-furniture been of considerable dimensions1 images of such a size could not be hidden1 but they could well be stowed away in the great panniers1 as long as their mistress sat upon them1 after the custom of ,oriental travellers and declined to rise on the ready plea of indisposition4 ,illustration3 ,,camel-,,riding4 ,this sort of carriage is still used for the women and children4 ,the wife and child came by in the string of camels1 the former reclining in an immense circular box1 stuffed and padded1 covered with red cotton1 and dressed with yellow worsted ornaments4 ,this family nest was mounted on a large camel4 ,it seemed a most commodious and well-arranged travelling carriage1 and very superior as a mode of camel-riding to that which our ,sitteen rejoiced in 7i4e4 riding upon a saddle74 ,the ,arab wife could change her position at pleasure1 and the child had room to walk about and could not fall out1 the sides of the box just reaching to its shoulders4 ,various jugs and skins and articles of domestic use hung suspended about it1 and trappings of fringe and finery ornamented it4 ,this last sentence brings us to another point which is several times mentioned in the ,bible2 namely1 the ornaments with which the proprietors of ,camels are fond of bedizening their favourite animals4 ,their leathern collars are covered with cowrie shells sewn on them in various fantastic patterns4 ,crescent-shaped ornaments are made of shells sewn on red cloth1 and hung so abundantly upon the harness of the animal that they jingle at every step which it takes4 ,sheiks and other men of rank often have these ornaments made of silver1 so that the cost of the entire trappings is very great4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,deloul1 ,,or ,,swift ,,camel4 ,we now come to the ,swift ,camel1 or ,deloul4 ,the limbs of the ,deloul are long and wiry1 having not an ounce of superfluous fat upon them1 the shoulders are very broad1 and the hump1 though firm and hard1 is very small4 ,a thoroughbred ,deloul1 in good travelling condition1 is not at all a pleasing animal to an ordinary eye1 being a lank1 gaunt1 and ungainly-looking creature1 the very conformation which insures its swiftness and endurance being that which detracts from its beauty4 ,an ,arab of the desert1 however1 thinks a good ,deloul one of the finest sights in the world4 ,as the talk of the pastoral tribes is of sheep and oxen1 so is the talk of the nomads about ,camels4 ,it is a subject which is for ever on their lips1 and a true ,bedouin may be seen to contemplate the beauties of one of these favourite animals for hours at a time1--if his own1 with the rapture of a possessor1 or1 if another's1 with the determination of stealing it when he can find an opportunity4 ,instead of plodding along at the rate of three miles an hour1 which is the average speed of the common ,camel1 the ,deloul can cover1 if lightly loaded1 nine or ten miles an hour1 and go on at the same pace for a wonderful time1 its long legs swinging1 and its body swaying1 as if it were but an animated machine4 ,delouls have been reported to have journeyed for nearly fifty hours without a single stop for rest1 during which time the animals must have traversed nearly five hundred miles4 ,such examples must1 however1 be exceptional1 implying1 as they do1 an amount of endurance on the part of the rider equal to that of the animal2 and even a journey of half that distance is scarcely possible to ordinary men on ,delouls4 ,for the movements of the ,deloul are very rough1 and the rider is obliged to prepare himself for a long journey by belting himself tightly with two leathern bands1 one just under the arms1 and the other round the pit of the stomach4 ,without these precautions1 the rider would be likely to suffer serious injuries1 and1 even with them1 the exercise is so severe1 that an ,arab makes it a matter of special boast that he can ride a ,deloul for a whole day4 ,a courier belonging to the ,sherif of ,mecca told ,mr4 ,hamilton that he often went on the same dromedary from ,mecca to ,medina in forty-eight hours1 the distance being two hundred and forty miles4 ,and a thoroughbred ,deloul will travel for seven or eight weeks with only four or five days of rest4 ,even at the present time1 these ,camels are used for the conveyance of special messages1 and in the remarkable ,bornu kingdom a regular service of these animals is established1 two couriers always travelling in company1 so that if one rider or ,camel should fail or be captured by the ,arabs1 who are always on the alert for so valuable a prey1 the other may post on and carry the message to its destination4 ,illustration3 ,,another ,,mode ,,of ,,riding ,,the ,,camel4 ,the swift dromedary1 or ,deloul1 is mentioned several times in the ,old ,testament4 ,one of them occurs in ,isa4 lx4 #f3 ,the multitude of camels shall cover thee1 the dromedaries of ,midian and ,ephah4 ,in this passage a distinction is drawn between the ordinary ,camel and the swift dromedary1 the former being the word gamel1 and the latter the word beker1 which is again used in ,jer4 ii4 #bc3 ,see thy way in the valley1 know what thou hast done3 thou art a swift dromedary4 ,there is a passage in the ,book of ,esther which looks as if it referred to the ordinary ,camel and the swift dromedary1 but there is considerable uncertainty about the proper rendering ,it runs as follows3 ,and he wrote in king ,ahasuerus' name1 and sealed it with the king's ring1 and sent letters and posts on horseback1 and riders on mules1 camels1 and young dromedaries4 ,the ,jewish ,bible1 however1 translates this passage as follows3 ,and sent letters by the runners on the horses1 and riders on the racers1 mules1 and young mares4 ,now1 the word rekesh1 which is translated as racer1 is rendered by ,buxtorf as a swift horse or mule1 and the word beni-rammachim1 which is translated as young mares1 literally signifies those born of mares4 ,the ,camel-drivers behave towards their animals with the curious inconsistency which forms so large a part of the ,oriental character4 ,prizing them above nearly all earthly things1 proud of them1 and loving them after their own fashion1 the drivers will talk to them1 cheer them1 and sing interminable songs for their benefit4 ,towards the afternoon the singing generally begins1 and it goes on without cessation in a sort of monotonous hum1 as ,dr4 ,bonar calls it4 ,the same traveller calls attention to a passage in ,caussinus' ,polyhistor ,symbolicus1 in which the learned and didactic author symbolizes the maxim that more can be done by kindness than by blows4 ,the ,camel is greatly taken with music and melody4 ,so much so1 indeed1 that if it halts through weariness1 the driver does not urge it with stripes and blows1 but soothes it by his songs4 ,several travellers have mentioned these songs4 ,see1 for example1 ,miss ,rogers' account of some ,bedouins3 ,their songs were already subdued to harmonize with their monotonous swinging pace1 and chimed softly and plaintively with the tinkling of camel-bells1 thus-- ',dear unto me as the sight of mine eyes1 ,art thou1 ,o my ,camel6 ,precious to me as the health of my life1 ,art thou1 ,o my ,camel6 ,sweet to my ears is the sound ,of thy tinkling bells1 ,o my ,camel6 ,and sweet to thy listening ears ,is the sound of my evening song4' ,and so on1 ad libitum4 ,sometimes a female ,camel gives birth to a colt on the journey4 ,in such a case1 a brief pause is made1 and then the train proceeds on its journey1 the owner of the ,camel carrying the young one in his arms until the evening halt4 ,he then gives it to its mother1 and on the following day it is able to follow her without further assistance4 ,the young ,camels are almost pretty1 their hair being paler than that of the adult animal1 and their limbs more slender4 ,although the young ,camel is better-looking than its parents1 it is not one whit more playful4 ,unlike almost all other animals1 the ,camel seems to have no idea of play1 and even the young ,camel of a month or two old follows its mother with the same steady1 regular pace which she herself maintains4 ,in spite of all the kindness with which a driver treats his ,camels1 he can at times be exceedingly cruel to them1 persisting in over-loading and over-driving them1 and then1 if a ,camel fall exhausted1 removing its load1 and distributing it among the other ,camels4 ,as soon as this is done1 he gives the signal to proceed1 and goes on his way1 abandoning the wretched animal to its fate--i4e4 to thirst and the vultures4 ,he will not even have the humanity to kill it1 but simply leaves it on the ground1 muttering that it is his fate6 ,,the ,,camel4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,camel and its master--,occasional fury of the animal--,a boy killed by a ,camel--,another instance of an infuriated ,camel--,theory respecting the ,arab and his ,camel--,apparent stupidity of the ,camel--,its hatred of a load1 and mode of expressing its disapprobation--,riding a ,camel through the streets--,a narrow escape--,ceremony of weaning a young ,camel--,the ,camel's favourite food--,structure of the foot and adaptation to locality--,difficulty in provisioning--,camel's hair and skin--,sal-ammoniac and ,desert fuel--,the ,camel and the needle's eye--,straining at a gnat and swallowing a ,camel4 ,we now come to the general characteristics of the ,camel4 ,the ,camels know their master well1 some of them being much more affectionate than others4 ,but they are liable to fits of strange fury1 in which case even their own masters are not safe from them4 ,they are also of a revengeful nature1 and have an unpleasant faculty of treasuring up an injury until they can find a time of repaying it4 ,signor ,pierotti gives a curious example of this trait of character4 ,as he was going to the ,jordan1 he found a dead ,camel lying on the roadside1 the head nearly separated from the body4 ,on inquiry he found that the animal had a master who ill-treated it1 and had several times tried to bite him4 ,one evening1 after the ,camels had been unloaded1 the drivers lay down to sleep as usual4 ,the ,camel made its way to its master1 and stamped on him as he slept4 ,the man uttered one startled cry1 but had no time for another4 ,the infuriated ,camel followed up its attack by grasping his throat in its powerful jaws1 and shaking him to death4 ,the whole scene passed so rapidly1 that before the other drivers could come to the man's assistance he was hanging dead from the jaws of the ,camel1 who was shaking him as a dog shakes a rat1 and would not release its victim until its head had been nearly severed from its body by sword-cuts4 ,a similar anecdote is told by ,mr4 ,palgrave1 in his ,central and ,eastern ,arabia3-- ,one passion alone he possesses1 namely1 revenge1 of which he gives many a hideous example2 while1 in carrying it out1 he shows an unexpected degree of forethoughted malice1 united meanwhile with all the cold stupidity of his usual character4 ,one instance of this ,i well remember--it occurred hard by a small town in the plain of ,baalbec1 where ,i was at the time residing4 ,a lad of about fourteen had conducted a large camel1 laden with wood1 from that very village to another at half an hour's distance or so4 ,as the animal loitered or turned out of the way1 its conductor struck it repeatedly1 and harder than it seems to have thought he had a right to do4 ,but1 not finding the occasion favourable for taking immediate quits1 it 'bided its time1' nor was that time long in coming4 ,a few days later1 the same lad had to re-conduct the beast1 but unladen1 to his own village4 ,when they were about half way on the road1 and at some distance from any habitation1 the camel suddenly stopped1 looked deliberately round in every direction to assure itself that no one was in sight1 and1 finding the road clear of passers-by1 made a step forward1 seized the unlucky boy's head in its monstrous mouth1 and1 lifting him up in the air1 flung him down again on the earth1 with the upper part of his head completely torn off1 and his brains scattered on the ground4 ,having thus satisfied its revenge1 the brute quietly resumed its pace towards the village1 as though nothing were the matter1 till some men1 who had observed the whole1 though unfortunately at too great a distance to be able to afford timely help1 came up and killed it4 ,indeed1 so marked is this unamiable propensity1 that some philosophers have ascribed the revengeful character of the ,arabs to the great share which the flesh and milk of the camel have in their sustenance1 and which are supposed to communicate1 to those who partake of them over-largely1 the moral or immoral qualities of the animal to which they belonged4 ,i do not feel myself capable of pronouncing an opinion on so intricate a question1 but thus much ,i can say1 that the camel and its ,bedouin master do afford so many and such divers points of resemblance1 that ,i do not think our ,arab of ,shomer far in the wrong1 when ,i once on a time heard him say1 ',god created the ,bedouin for the camel1 and the camel for the ,bedouin4' ,the reader will observe that ,mr4 ,palgrave in this anecdote makes reference to the stupidity of the ,camel4 ,there is no doubt that the ,camel is by no means an intellectual animal2 but it is very possible that its stupidity may in a great measure be owing to the fact that no one has tried to cultivate its intellectual powers4 ,the preceding anecdotes show clearly that the ,camel must possess a strong memory1 and be capable of exercising considerable ingenuity4 ,still it is not a clever animal4 ,if its master should fall off its back1 it never dreams of stopping1 as a well-trained horse would do1 but proceeds at the same plodding pace1 leaving his master to catch it if he can4 ,should it turn out of the way to crop some green thorn-bush1 it will go on in the same direction1 never thinking of turning back into the right road unless directed by its rider4 ,should the ,camel stray1 it is a thousand to one that he will never find his way back to his accustomed home or pasture1 and the first man who picks him up will have no particular shyness to get over2 444 and the losing of his old master and of his former cameline companions gives him no regret1 and occasions no endeavour to find them again4 ,he has the strongest objection to being laden at all1 no matter how light may be the burden1 and expresses his disapprobation by growling and groaning1 and attempting to bite4 ,so habitual is this conduct that if a kneeling ,camel be only approached1 and a stone as large as a walnut laid on its back1 it begins to remonstrate in its usual manner1 groaning as if it were crushed to the earth with its load4 ,the ,camel never makes way for any one1 its instinct leading it to plod onward in its direct course4 ,what may have been its habits in a state of nature no one can tell1 for such a phenomenon as a wild ,camel has never been known in the memory of man4 ,there are wild oxen1 wild goats1 wild sheep1 wild horses1 and wild asses1 but there is no spot on the face of the earth where the ,camel is found except as the servant of man4 ,through innate stupidity1 according to ,mr4 ,palgrave1 it goes straight forwards in the direction to which its head happens to be pointed1 and is too foolish even to think of stopping unless it hears the signal for halt4 ,as it passes through the narrow streets of an ,oriental city1 laden with goods that project on either side1 and nearly fill up the thoroughfare1 it causes singular inconvenience1 forcing every one who is in front of it to press himself closely to the wall1 and to make way for the enormous beast as it plods along4 ,the driver or rider generally gives notice by continually calling to the pedestrians to get out of the way1 but a laden ,camel rarely passes through a long street without having knocked down a man or two1 or driven before it a few riders on asses who cannot pass between the ,camel and the wall4 ,one source of danger to its rider is to be found in the low archways which span so many of the streets4 ,they are just high enough to permit a laden ,camel to pass under them1 but are so low that they leave no room for a rider4 ,the natives1 who are accustomed to this style of architecture1 are always ready for an archway1 and1 when the rider sees an archway which will not allow him to retain his seat1 he slips to the ground1 and remounts on the other side of the obstacle4 ,mr4 ,kennard had a very narrow escape with one of these arch ways4 ,i had passed beneath one or two in perfect safety1 without being obliged to do more than just bend my head forward1 and was in the act of conversing with one of my companions behind1 and was therefore in a happy state of ignorance as to what was immediately before me1 when the shouting and running together of the people in the street on either side made me turn my head quickly1 but only just in time to feel my breath thrown back on my face against the keystone of a gateway1 beneath which my camel1 with too much way on him to be stopped immediately1 had already commenced to pass4 ,with a sort of feeling that it was all over with me1 ,i threw myself back as far as ,i could1 and was carried through in an almost breathless state1 my shirt-studs actually scraping along against the stonework4 ,on emerging again into the open street1 ,i could hardly realize my escape1 for if there had been a single projecting stone to stop my progress1 the camel would have struggled to get free1 and my chest must have been crushed in4 ,it will be seen from these instances that the charge of stupidity is not an undeserved one4 ,still the animal has enough intellect to receive all the education which it needs for the service of man1 and which it receives at a very early age4 ,the ordinary ,camel of burden is merely taught to follow its conductor1 to obey the various words and gestures of command1 and to endure a load4 ,the ,deloul1 however1 is more carefully trained4 ,it is allowed to follow its mother for a whole year in perfect liberty4 ,towards the expiration of that time the young animal is gradually stinted in its supply of milk1 and forced to browse for its nourishment4 ,on the anniversary of its birth1 the young ,deloul is turned with its head towards ,canopus1 and its ears solemnly boxed1 its master saying at the same time1 ,henceforth drinkest thou no drop of milk4 ,for this reason the newly-weaned ,camel is called ,lathim1 or the ear-boxed4 ,it is then prevented from sucking by a simple though cruel experiment4 ,a wooden peg is sharpened at both ends1 and one end thrust into the young animal's nose4 ,when it tries to suck1 it pricks its mother with the projecting end1 and at the same time forces the other end more deeply into the wound1 so that the mother drives away her offspring1 and the young soon ceases to make the attempt4 ,the food of the ,camel is very simple1 being1 in fact1 anything that it can get4 ,as it proceeds on its journey1 it manages to browse as it goes along1 bending its long neck to the ground1 and cropping the scanty herbage without a pause4 ,camels have been known to travel for twenty successive days1 passing over some eight hundred miles of ground1 without receiving any food except that which they gathered for themselves by the way4 ,the favourite food of the ,camel is a shrub called the ghada1 growing to six feet or so in height1 and forming a feathery tuft of innumerable little green twigs1 very slender and flexible4 ,it is so fond of this shrub that a ,camel can scarcely ever pass a bush without turning aside to crop it2 and even though it be beaten severely for its misconduct1 it will repeat the process at the next shrub that comes in sight4 ,illustration3 ,,passing ,a ,,camel ,,in ,a ,,narrow ,,street ,,of ,,an ,,eastern ,,city4 ,it also feeds abundantly on the thorn-bushes which grow so plentifully in that part of the world2 and though the thorns are an inch or two in length1 very strong1 and as sharp as needles1 the hard1 horny palate of the animal enables it to devour them with perfect ease4 ,illustration3 ,,moses ,,at ,,the ,,burning ,,bush4 ,there are several species of these thorn-shrubs1 which are scattered profusely over the ground1 and are1 in fact1 the commonest growth of the place4 ,after they die1 being under the fierce sun of that climate1 they dry up so completely1 that if a light be set to them they blaze up in a moment1 with a sharp cracking sound and a roar of flame1 and in a moment or two are nothing but a heap of light ashes4 ,no wonder was it that when ,moses saw the thorn-bush burning without being consumed he was struck with awe at the miracle4 ,these withered bushes are the common fuel of the desert1 giving out a fierce but brief heat1 and then suddenly sinking into ashes4 ,for as the crackling of thorns under a pot1 so is the laughter of the fool 7,eccl4 vii4 #f74 ,the dried and withered twigs of these bushes are also eaten by the ,camel1 which seems to have a power of extracting nutriment from every sort of vegetable substance4 ,it has been fed on charcoal1 and1 as has been happily remarked1 could thrive on the shavings of a carpenter's workshop4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,arab ,,encampment4 ,still1 when food is plentiful1 it is fed as regularly as can be managed1 and generally after a rather peculiar manner4 ,our guide1 writes ,mr4 ,hamilton1 in the work which has already been mentioned1 is an elderly man1 the least uncouth of our camel-drivers4 ,he has three camels in the caravan1 and it was amusing to see his preparations for their evening's entertainment4 ,the table-cloth1 a circular piece of leather1 was duly spread on the ground2 on this he poured the quantity of dourrah destined for their meal1 and calling his camels1 they came and took each its place at the feast4 ,it is quaint to see how each in his turn eats1 so gravely and so quietly1 stretching his long neck into the middle of the heap1 then raising his head to masticate each mouthful2 all so slowly and with such gusto1 that we could swear it was a party of epicures sitting in judgment on one of ,vachette's chefs d'uvre4 ,the foregoing passages will show the reader how wonderfully adapted is the constitution of the ,camel for the country in which it lives1 and how indispensable it is to the inhabitants4 ,it has been called the ship of the desert1 for without the ,camel the desert would be as impassable as the sea without ships4 ,no water being found for several days' journey together1 the animal is able to carry within itself a supply of water which will last it for several days1 and1 as no green thing grows far from the presence of water1 the ,camel is able to feed upon the brief-lived thorn-shrubs which have sprung up and died1 and which1 from their hard and sharp prickles1 are safe from every animal except the hard-mouthed ,camel4 ,but these advantages would be useless without another--i4 e4 the foot4 ,the mixed stones and sand of the desert would ruin the feet of almost any animal1 and it is necessary that the ,camel should be furnished with a foot that cannot be split by heat like the hoof of a horse1 that is broad enough to prevent the creature from sinking into the sand1 and is tough enough to withstand the action of the rough and burning soil4 ,such a foot does the ,camel possess4 ,it consists of two long toes resting upon a hard elastic cushion with a tough and horny sole4 ,this cushion is so soft that the tread of the huge animal is as noiseless as that of a cat1 and1 owing to the division of the toes1 it spreads as the weight comes upon it1 and thus gives a firm footing on loose ground4 ,the foot of the moose-deer has a similar property1 in order to enable the animal to walk upon the snow4 ,in consequence of this structure1 the ,camel sinks less deeply into the ground than any other animal2 but yet it does sink in it1 and dislikes a deep and loose sand1 groaning at every step1 and being wearied by the exertion of dragging its hard foot out of the holes into which they sink4 ,it is popularly thought that hills are impracticable to the ,camel2 but it is able to climb even rocky ground from which a horse would recoil4 ,mr4 ,marsh1 an ,american traveller1 was much surprised by seeing a caravan of fifty camels pass over a long ascent in ,arabia ,petra4 ,the rock was as smooth as polished marble1 and the angle was on an average fifteen degrees2 but the whole caravan passed over it without an accident4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,march4 ,the soil that a ,camel most hates is a wet and muddy ground1 on which it is nearly sure to slip4 ,if the reader will look at a ,camel from behind1 he will see that the hinder legs are close together until the ankle-joint1 when they separate so widely that the feet are set on the ground at a considerable distance from each other4 ,on dry ground this structure increases the stability of the animal by increasing its base2 but on wet ground the effect is singularly unpleasant4 ,the soft1 padded feet have no hold1 and slip sideways at every step1 often with such violence as to dislocate a joint and cause the death of the animal4 ,when such ground has to be traversed1 the driver generally passes a bandage round the hind legs just below the ankle-joint1 so as to prevent them from diverging too far4 ,it must be remarked1 however1 that the country in which the animal lives is essentially a dry one1 and that moist and muddy ground is so exceptional that the generality of ,camels never see it in their lives4 ,camels do not object to mud an inch or two deep1 provided that there is firm ground below2 and they have been seen to walk with confident safety over pavements covered with mud and half-frozen snow4 ,the animals can ford rivers well enough1 provided that the bed be stony or gravelly2 but they are bad swimmers1 their round bodies and long necks being scarcely balanced by their legs1 so that they are apt to roll over on their sides1 and in such a case they are sure to be drowned4 ,when swimming is a necessity1 the head is generally tied to the stern of a boat1 or guided by the driver swimming in front1 while another often clings to the tail1 so as to depress the rump and elevate the head4 ,it is rather curious that the ,camels of the ,sahara cannot be safely entrusted to the water4 ,they will swim the river readily enough2 but they are apt to be seized with illness afterwards1 and to die in a few hours4 ,we now come to some other uses of the ,camel4 ,its hair is of the greatest importance1 as it is used for many purposes4 ,in this country1 all that we know practically of the ,camel's hair is that it is employed in making brushes for painters2 but in its own land the hair plays a really important part4 ,at the proper season it is removed from the animal1 usually by being pulled away in tufts1 but sometimes by being shorn1 and it is then spun by the women into strong thread4 ,from this thread are made sundry fabrics where strength is required and coarseness is not an objection4 ,the black tents of the ,bedouin ,arabs1 similar to those in which ,abraham lived1 are made of ,camel's hair1 and so are the rugs1 carpets1 and cordage used by the nomad tribes4 ,even mantles for rainy or cold weather are made of ,camel's hair1 and it was in a dress of this coarse and rough material that ,st4 ,john the ,baptist was clad4 ,the best part of the ,camels hair is that which grows in tufts on the back and about the hump1 the fibre being much longer than that which covers the body4 ,there is also a little very fine under-wool which is carefully gathered1 and1 when a sufficient quantity is procured1 it is spun and woven into garments4 ,shawls of this material are even now as valuable as those which are made from the ,cachmire goat4 ,illustration3 ,,hair ,,of ,,the ,,camel4 ,the skin of the ,camel is made into a sort of leather4 ,it is simply tanned by being pegged out in the sun and rubbed with salt4 ,sandals and leggings are made of this leather1 and in some places water-bottles are manufactured from it1 the leather being thicker and less porous than that of the goat1 and therefore wasting less of the water by evaporation4 ,the bones are utilized1 being made into various articles of commerce4 ,so universally valuable is the ,camel that even its dung is important to its owners4 ,owing to the substances on which the animal feeds1 it consists of little but macerated fragments of aromatic shrubs4 ,it is much used as poultices in case of bruises or rheumatic pains1 and is even applied with some success to simple fractures4 ,it is largely employed for fuel1 and the desert couriers use nothing else1 their ,camels being furnished with a net1 so that none of this useful substance shall be lost4 ,for this purpose it is carefully collected1 mixed with bits of straw1 and made into little rolls1 which are dried in the sun1 and can then be laid by for any time until they are needed4 ,mixed with clay and straw1 it is most valuable as a kind of mortar or cement with which the walls of huts are rendered weather-proof1 and the same material is used in the better-class houses to make a sort of terrace on the flat roof4 ,this must be waterproof in order to withstand the wet of the rainy season1 and no material answers the purpose so well as that which has been mentioned4 ,so strangely hard and firm is this composition1 that stoves are made of it4 ,these stoves are made like jars1 and have the faculty of resisting the power of the inclosed fire4 ,even after it is burned it has its uses1 the ashes being employed in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are two passages in the ,new ,testament which mention the ,camel in an allegorical sense4 ,the first of these is the proverbial saying of our ,lord1 ,a rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of heaven4 ,again ,i say unto you1 ,it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle1 than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of ,god 7,matt4 xix4 #bc1 #bd74 ,now1 this well-known but scarcely understood passage requires some little dissection4 ,if the reader will refer to the context1 he will see that this saying was spoken in allusion to the young and wealthy man who desired to be one of the disciples1 but clung too tightly to his wealth to accept the only conditions on which he could be received4 ,his possessions were a snare to him1 as was proved by his refusal to part with them at ,christ's command4 ,on his retiring1 the expression was used1 that a rich man shall hardly 7or1 with difficulty7 enter the kingdom of heaven2 followed by the simile of the ,camel and the needle's eye4 ,now1 if we are to take this passage literally1 we can but draw one conclusion from it1 that a rich man can no more enter heaven than a camel pass through the eye of a needle1 i4e4 that it is impossible for him to do so4 ,whereas1 in the previous sentence1 ,christ says not that it is impossible1 but difficult 77 for him to do so4 ,it is difficult for a man to use his money for the service of ,god1 the only purpose for which it was given him1 and the difficulty increases in proportion to its amount4 ,but wealth in itself is no more a bar to heaven than intellect1 health1 strength1 or any other gift1 and1 if it be rightly used1 is one of the most powerful tools that can be used in the service of ,god4 ,our ,lord did not condemn all wealthy men alike4 ,he knew many2 but there was only one whom ,he advised to sell his possessions and give them to the poor as the condition of being admitted among the disciples4 ,illustration3 ,,camel ,,going ,,through ,a ,,needle',s ,,eye4 ,we will now turn to the metaphor of the ,camel and the needle's eye4 ,of course it can be taken merely as a very bold metaphor1 but it may also be understood in a simpler sense1 the sense in which it was probably understood by those who heard it4 ,in ,oriental cities1 there are in the large gates small and very low apertures called metaphorically needle's-eyes1 just as we talk of certain windows as bull's-eyes4 ,these entrances are too narrow for a ,camel to pass through them in the ordinary manner1 especially if loaded4 ,when a laden ,camel has to pass through one of these entrances1 it kneels down1 its load is removed1 and then it shuffles through on its knees4 ,yesterday1 writes ,lady ,duff-,gordon from ,cairo1 ,i saw a camel go through the eye of a needle1 i4e4 the low-arched door of an enclosure4 ,he must kneel1 and bow his head to creep through2 and thus the rich man must humble himself4 ,there is another passage in which the ,camel is used by our ,lord in a metaphorical sense4 ,this is the well-known sentence3 ,ye blind guides1 which strain at a gnat1 and swallow a camel 7,matt4 xxiii4 #bd74 ,it is remarkable that an accidental misprint has robbed this passage of its true force4 ,the real translation is3 which strain out the gnat1 and swallow the camel4 ,the ,greek word is 1 which signifies to filter thoroughly2 and the allusion is made to the pharisaical custom of filtering liquids before drinking them1 lest by chance a gnat or some such insect which was forbidden as food might be accidentally swallowed4 ,,the ,,bactrian ,,camel4 ,general description of the animal--,its use in mountain roads--,peculiar formation of the foot--,uses of a mixed breed--,its power of enduring cold--,used chiefly as a beast of draught--,unfitness for the plough--,the cart and mode of harnessing--,the load which it can draw--,camel-skin ropes--,a ,rabbinical legend4 ,the second kind of ,camel--namely1 the ,bactrian species--was probably unknown to the ,jews until a comparatively late portion of their history4 ,this species was employed by the ,assyrians1 as we find by the sculptures upon the ruins1 and if in no other way the ,jews would become acquainted with them through the nation by whom they were conquered1 and in whose land they abode for so long4 ,the ,bactrian ,camel is at once to be distinguished from that which has already been described by the two humps and the clumsier and sturdier form4 ,still the skeletons of the ,bactrian and ,arabian species are so similar that none but a very skilful anatomist can distinguish between them1 and several learned zoologists have expressed an opinion1 in which ,i entirely coincide1 that the ,bactrian and ,arabian ,camels are but simple varieties of one and the same species1 not nearly so dissimilar as the greyhound and the bulldog4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,rest ,,in ,,the ,,desert4 ,unlike the one-humped ,camel1 the ,bactrian species is quite at home in a cold climate1 and walks over ice as easily as its congener does over smooth stone4 ,it is an admirable rock-climber1 and is said even to surpass the mule in the sureness of its tread4 ,this quality is probably occasioned by the peculiar structure of the foot1 which has an elongated toe projecting beyond the soft pad1 and forming a sort of claw4 ,in the winter time the riders much prefer them to horses1 because their long legs enable them to walk easily through snow1 in which a horse could only plunge helplessly1 and would in all probability sink and perish4 ,a mixed breed of the one-humped and the ,bactrian animals is thought to be the best for hill work in winter time1 and ,general ,harlan actually took two thousand of these animals in winter time for a distance of three hundred and sixty miles over the snowy tops of the ,indian ,caucasus2 and though the campaign lasted for seven months1 he only lost one ,camel1 and that was accidentally killed4 ,owing to its use among the hills1 the ,bactrian species is sometimes called the ,mountain ,camel4 ,it very much dislikes the commencement of spring1 because the warm mid-day sun slightly melts the surface of the snow1 and the frost of night converts it into a thin plate of ice4 ,when the ,camel walks upon this semi-frozen snow1 its feet plunge into the soft substratum through the icy crust1 against which its legs are severely cut4 ,the beginning of the winter is liable to the same objection4 ,the mixed breed which has just been mentioned must be procured from a male ,bactrian and a female ,arabian ,camel4 ,if the parentage be reversed1 the offspring is useless1 being weak1 ill-tempered1 and disobedient4 ,the ,bactrian ,camel is1 as has been mentioned1 tolerant of cold1 and is indeed so hardy an animal that it bears the severest winters without seeming to suffer distress1 and has been seen quietly feeding when the thermometer has reached a temperature several degrees below zero4 ,sometimes1 when the cold is more than usually sharp1 the owners sew a thick cloth round its body1 but even in such extreme cases the animal is left to find its own food as it best can4 ,and1 however severe the weather may be1 the ,bactrian ,camel never sleeps under a roof4 ,this ,camel is sometimes employed as a beast of burden1 but its general use is for draught4 ,it is not often used alone for the plough1 because it has an uncertain and jerking mode of pulling1 and does not possess the steady dragging movement which is obtained by the use of the horse or ox4 ,illustration3 ,,bactrian ,,camels ,,drawing ,,cart4 ,it is almost invariably harnessed to carts1 and always in pairs4 ,the mode of yoking the animals is as simple as can well be conceived4 ,a pole runs between them from the front of the vehicle1 and the ,camels are attached to it by means of a pole which passes over their necks4 ,oxen were harnessed in a similar manner4 ,it was probably one of these cars or chariots that was mentioned by ,isaiah in his prophecy respecting ,assyria3--,and he saw a chariot with a couple of horsemen1 a chariot of asses1 and a chariot of camels 7,isa4 xxi4 #g74 ,the cars themselves are as simple as the mode of harnessing them1 being almost exactly like the ox carts which have already been described4 ,the weight which can be drawn by a pair of these ,camels is really considerable4 ,on a tolerably made road a good pair of ,camels are expected to draw from twenty-six to twenty-eight hundred weight1 and to continue their labours for twenty or thirty successive days1 traversing each day an average of thirty miles4 ,it is much slower than the ,arabian ,camel1 seldom going at more than two and a half miles per hour4 ,if1 however1 the vehicle to which a pair of ,bactrians are harnessed were well made1 the wheels truly circular1 and the axles kept greased so as to diminish the friction1 there is no doubt that the animals could draw a still greater load to longer distances1 and with less trouble to themselves4 ,as it is1 the wheels are wretchedly fitted1 and their ungreased axles keep up a continual creaking that is most painful to an unaccustomed ear1 and totally unheeded by the drivers4 ,the hair of the ,bactrian ,camel is long1 coarse1 and strong2 and1 like that of the ,arabian animal1 is made into rough cloth4 ,it is plucked off by hand in the summer time1 when it naturally becomes loose in readiness for its annual renewal1 and the weight of the entire crop of hair ought to be about ten pounds4 ,the skin is not much valued1 and is seldom used for any purpose except for making ropes1 straps1 and thongs1 and is not thought worth the trouble of tanning4 ,the milk1 like that of the ,arabian animal1 is much used for food1 but the quantity is very trifling1 barely two quarts per diem being procured from each ,camel4 ,there is but little that is generally interesting in the ,rabbinical writers on the ,camel4 ,they have one proverbial saying upon the shortness of its ears4 ,when any one makes a request that is likely to be refused1 they quote the instance of the ,camel1 who1 it seems1 was dissatisfied with its appearance1 and asked for horns to match its long ears4 ,the result of the request was1 that it was deprived of its ears1 and got no horns4 ,,the ,,horse4 ,the ,hebrew words which signify the ,horse--,the ,horse introduced into ,palestine from ,egypt--,similarity of the war-horse of ,scripture and the ,arab horse of the present day--,characteristics of the ,horse--,courage and endurance of the ,horse--,hardness of its unshod hoofs--,love of the ,arab for his ,horse--,difficulty of purchasing the animal--,the ,horse prohibited to the ,israelites--,solomon's disregard of the edict--,the war-chariot1 its form and use--,probable construction of the iron chariot--,the cavalry ,horse--,lack of personal interest in the animal4 ,several ,hebrew words are used by the various ,scriptural writers to signify the ,horse1 and1 like our own terms of horse1 mare1 pony1 charger1 c41 are used to express the different qualities of the animal4 ,the chief distinction of the ,horse seemed to lie in its use for riding or driving1 the larger and heavier animals being naturally required for drawing the weighty springless chariots4 ,the chariot horse was represented by the word ,sus1 and the cavalry horse by the word ,parash1 and in several passages both these words occur in bold contrast to each other4 ,see1 for example1 #a ,kings iv4 #bf1 c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the many passages of ,scripture in which the ,horse is mentioned1 there are few which do not treat of it as an adjunct of war1 and therefore it is chiefly in that light that we must regard it4 ,the ,horse of the ,scriptures was evidently a similar animal to the ,arab ,horse of the present day1 as we find not only from internal evidence1 but from the sculptures and paintings which still remain to tell us of the vanished glories of ,egypt and ,assyria4 ,it is remarkable1 by the way1 that the first mention of the ,horse in the ,scriptures alludes to it as an ,egyptian animal4 ,during the terrible famine which ,joseph had foretold1 the ,egyptians and the inhabitants of neighbouring countries were unable to find food for themselves or fodder for their cattle1 and1 accordingly1 they sold all their beasts for bread4 ,and they brought their cattle unto ,joseph1 and ,joseph gave them bread in exchange for horses and the flocks1 and for the cattle of herds1 and for the asses1 and he fed them with bread for all their cattle for that year4 ,this particular breed of ,horses is peculiarly fitted for the purposes of war1 and is much less apt for peaceful duties than the heavier and more powerful breeds1 which are found in different parts of the world4 ,it is remarkable for the flexible agility of its movements1 which enable it to adapt itself to every movement of the rider1 whose intentions it seems to divine by a sort of instinct1 and who guides it not so much by the bridle as by the pressure of the knees and the voice4 ,examples of a similar mode of guidance may be seen on the well-known frieze of the ,parthenon1 where1 in the ,procession of ,horsemen1 the riders may be seen directing their steeds by touching the side of the neck with one finger1 thus showing their own skill and the well-trained quality of the animals which they ride4 ,illustration3 ,,trial ,,of ,,arab ,,horses4 ,its endurance is really wonderful1 and a horse of the ,kochlani breed will go through an amount of work which is almost incredible4 ,even the trial by which a ,horse is tested is so severe1 that any other animal would be either killed on the spot or ruined for life4 ,when a young mare is tried for the first time1 her owner rides her for some fifty or sixty miles at full speed1 always finishing by swimming her through a river4 ,after this trial she is expected to feed freely2 and should she refuse her food1 she is rejected as an animal unworthy of the name of ,kochlani4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,arab ,,horse ,,of ,,the ,,kochlani ,,breed4 ,partly from native qualities1 and partly from constant association with mankind1 the ,arab ,horse is a singularly intelligent animal4 ,in ,europe we scarcely give the ,horse credit for the sensitive intelligence with which it is endowed1 and look upon it rather as a machine for draught and carriage than a companion to man4 ,the ,arab1 however1 lives with his horse1 and finds in it the docility and intelligence which we are accustomed to associate with the dog rather than the ,horse4 ,it will follow him about and come at his call4 ,it will stand for any length of time and await its rider without moving4 ,should he fall from its back1 it will stop and stand patiently by him until he can remount2 and there is a well-authenticated instance of an ,arab ,horse whose master had been wounded in battle1 taking him up by his clothes and carrying him away to a place of safety4 ,even in the very heat and turmoil of the combat1 the true ,arab ,horse seems to be in his true element1 and fully deserves the splendid eulogium in the ,book of ,job 7xxxix4 #ai-be73 ,hast thou given the horse strength8 hast thou clothed his neck with thunder8 ,canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper8 the glory of his nostrils is terror4 ,he paweth in the valley1 and rejoiceth in his strength3 he goeth on to meet the armed men4 ,he mocketh at fear1 and is not affrighted2 neither turneth he back from the sword4 ,the quiver rattleth against him1 the glittering spear and the shield4 ,he walketh the ground with fierceness and rage3 neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet4 ,he saith among the trumpets1 ,ha1 ha2 and he smelleth the battle afar off1 the thunder of the captains1 and the shouting4 ,in another passage an allusion is made to the courage of the ,horse1 and its love for the battle4 ,i hearkened and heard1 but they spake not aright3 no man repented him of his wickedness1 saying1 ,what have ,i done8 ,every one turned to his course1 as the horse rusheth into the battle4 7,jer4 viii4 #f47 ,even in the mimic battle of the djereed the ,horse seems to exult in the conflict as much as his rider1 and wheels or halts almost without the slightest intimation4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,war ,,horse4 ,the hoofs of the ,arab ,horses are never shod1 their owners thinking that that act is not likely to improve nature1 and even among the burning sands and hard rocks the ,horse treads with unbroken hoof4 ,in such a climate1 indeed1 an iron shoe would be worse than useless1 as it would only scorch the hoof by day1 and in consequence of the rapid change of temperature by day or night1 the continual expansion and contraction of the metal would soon work the nails loose1 and cause the shoe to fall off4 ,a tender-footed ,horse would be of little value1 and so we often find in the ,scriptures that the hardness of the hoof is reckoned among one of the best qualities of a ,horse4 ,see1 for example1 ,isa4 v4 #bh3 ,whose arrows are sharp1 and all their bows bent1 their horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint1 and their wheels like a whirlwind4 ,again1 in ,micah iv4 #ac3 ,arise and thresh1 ,o daughter of ,zion3 for ,i will make thine horn iron1 and ,i will make thy hoofs brass3 and thou shalt beat in pieces many people4 ,allusion is here made to one mode of threshing1 in which a number of ,horses were turned into the threshing-floor1 and driven about at random among the wheat1 instead of walking steadily like the oxen4 ,in ,judges v4 #bb there is a curious allusion to the hoofs of the ,horse4 ,it occurs in the ,psalm of ,thanksgiving sung by ,deborah and ,barak after the death of ,sisera3 ,then were the horse-hoofs broken by the means of the prancings1 the prancings of their mighty ones4 ,horses possessed of the qualities of courage1 endurance1 and sureness of foot are naturally invaluable2 and even at the present day the ,arab warrior esteems above all things a ,horse of the purest breed1 and1 whether he buys or sells one1 takes care to have its genealogy made out and hung on the animal's neck4 ,as to the mare1 scarcely any inducement is strong enough to make an ,arab part with it1 even to a countryman1 and the sale of the animal is hindered by a number of impediments which in point of fact are almost prohibitory4 ,signor ,pierotti1 whose long residence in ,palestine has given him a deep insight into the character of the people1 speaks in the most glowing terms of the pure ,arab ,horse1 and of its inestimable value to its owner4 ,of the difficulties with which the sale of the animal is surrounded1 he gives a very amusing account3-- ,after this enumeration of the merits of the horse1 ,i will describe the manner in which a sale is conducted1 choosing the case of the mare1 as that is the more valuable animal4 ,the price varies with the purity of blood of the steed1 and the fortunes of its owner4 ,when he is requested to fix a value1 his first reply is1 ',it is yours1 and belongs to you1 ,i am your servant2' because1 perhaps1 he does not think that the question is asked with any real design of purchasing2 when the demand is repeated1 he either makes no answer or puts the question by2 at the third demand he generally responds rudely with a sardonic smile1 which is not a pleasant thing to see1 as it is a sign of anger2 and then says that he would sooner sell his family than his mare4 ,this remark is not meant as a mere jest2 for it is no uncommon thing for a ,bedawy to give his parents as hostages rather than separate himself from his friend4 ,illustration3 ,,arab ,,horses4 ,if1 however1 owing to some misfortune1 he determines on selling his mare1 it is very doubtful whether he or his parents will allow her to leave their country without taking the precaution to render her unfit for breeding4 ,there are many methods of arranging the sale1 all of which ,i should like to describe particularly2 however1 ,i will confine myself to a general statement4 ,before the purchaser enters upon the question of the price to be paid1 he must ascertain that the parents1 friends1 and allies of the owners give their consent to the sale1 without which some difficulty or other may arise1 or perhaps the mare may be stolen from her new master4 ,he must also obtain an unquestionable warranty that she is fit for breeding purposes1 and that no other has a prior claim to any part of her body4 ,this last precaution may seem rather strange1 but it arises from the following custom4 ,it sometimes happens that1 when a ,bedawy is greatly in want of money1 he raises it most easily by selling a member of his horse2 so that very frequently a horse belongs to a number of owners1 one of whom has purchased the right fore-leg1 another the left1 another the hind-leg1 or the tail1 or an ear1 or the like2 and the proprietors have each a proportionate interest in the profits of its labour or sale4 ,so also the offspring are sold in a similar manner2 sometimes only the first-born1 sometimes the first three2 and then it occasionally happens that two or three members of the foal are1 as it were1 mortgaged4 ,consequently1 any one who is ignorant of this custom may find that1 after he has paid the price of the mare to her supposed owner1 a third person arises who demands to be paid the value of his part2 and1 if the purchaser refuse to comply1 he may find himself in a very unpleasant situation1 without any possibility of obtaining help from the local government4 ,whoever sells his mare entirely1 without reserving to himself one or two parts1 must be on good terms with the confederate chiefs in the neighbourhood1 and must have obtained their formal sanction1 otherwise they would universally despise him1 and perhaps lie in wait to kill him1 so that his only hope of escape would be a disgraceful flight1 just as if he had committed some great crime4 ,it is an easier matter to purchase a stallion2 but even in this case the above formalities must be observed4 ,illustration3 ,,buying ,,an ,,arab ,,horse4 ,these remarks only apply to buying horses of the purest blood2 those of inferior race are obtained without difficulty1 and at fair prices4 ,for some reason1 perhaps the total severance of the ,israelites from the people among whom they had lived so long in captivity1 the use of the ,horse1 or1 at all events1 the breeding of it1 was forbidden to the ,israelites2 see ,deut4 xvi4 #af4 ,after prophesying that the ,israelites1 when they had settled themselves in the ,promised ,land1 would want a king1 the inspired writer next ordains that the new king must be chosen by ,divine command1 and must belong to one of the twelve tribes4 ,he then proceeds as follows3--,but he shall not multiply horses to himself1 nor cause the people to return to ,egypt1 to the end that he should multiply horses3 forasmuch as the ,lord hath said unto you1 ,ye shall henceforth return no more that way4 ,the foresight of this prophetical writer was afterwards shown by the fact that many kings of ,israel did send to ,egypt for ,horses1 ,egypt being the chief source from which these animals were obtained4 ,and1 judging from the monuments to which reference has been made1 the ,horse of ,egypt was precisely the same animal as the ,arab ,horse of the present day1 and was probably obtained from nomad breeders4 ,in spite of the prohibitory edict1 both ,david and ,solomon used ,horses in battle1 and the latter supplied himself largely from ,egypt1 disregarding as utterly the interdict against plurality of ,horses as that against plurality of wives1 which immediately follows4 ,david seems to have been the first king who established a force of chariots1 and this he evidently did for the purpose of action on the flat grounds of ,palestine1 where infantry were at a great disadvantage when attacked by the dreaded chariots2 yet he did not controvert the law by multiplying to himself ,horses1 or even by importing them from ,egypt2 and when he had an opportunity of adding to his army an enormous force of chariots1 he only employed as many as he thought were sufficient for his purpose4 ,after he defeated ,hadadezer1 and had taken from him a thousand chariots with their ,horses together with seven hundred cavalry1 he houghed all the ,horses except those which were needed for one hundred chariots4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,arab',s ,,favourite ,,steeds4 ,solomon1 however1 was more lax1 and systematically broke the ancient law by multiplying ,horses exceedingly1 and sending to ,egypt for them4 ,we learn from #a ,kings iv4 #bf of the enormous establishment which he kept up both for chariots and cavalry4 ,besides those which were given to him as tribute1 he purchased both chariots and their ,horses from ,egypt and ,syria4 ,chariots were far more valued in battle than horsemen1 probably because their weight made their onset irresistible against infantry1 who had no better weapons than bows and spears4 ,the slingers themselves could make little impression on the chariots2 and even if the driver1 or the warrior who fought in the chariot1 or his attendant1 happened to be killed1 the weighty machine1 with its two ,horses1 still went on its destructive way4 ,illustration3 ,,pharaoh ,,pursues ,,the ,,israelites ,,with ,,chariots ,,and ,,horses1 ,,and ,,the ,,sea ,,covers ,,them4 ,of their use in battle we find very early mention4 ,for example1 in ,exod4 xiv4 #f it is mentioned that ,pharaoh made ready his chariot to pursue the ,israelites2 and in a subsequent part of the same chapter we find that six hundred of the ,egyptian chariot force accompanied their master in the pursuit1 and that the whole army was delayed because the loss of the chariot wheels made them drive heavily4 ,then in the familiar story of ,sisera and ,jael the vanquished general is mentioned as alighting from his chariot1 in which he would be conspicuous1 and taking flight on foot2 and1 after his death1 his mother is represented as awaiting his arrival1 and saying to the women of the household1 ,why is his chariot so long in coming8 ,why tarry the wheels of his chariot8 ,during the war of conquest which ,joshua led1 the chariot plays a somewhat important part4 ,as long as the war was carried on in the rugged mountainous parts of the land1 no mention of the chariot is made2 but when the battles had to be fought on level ground1 the enemy brought the dreaded chariots to bear upon the ,israelites4 ,in spite of these adjuncts1 ,joshua won the battles1 and1 unlike ,david1 destroyed the whole of the ,horses and burned the chariots4 ,many years afterwards1 a still more dreadful weapon1 the iron chariot1 was used against the ,israelites by ,jabin4 ,this new instrument of war seems to have cowed the people completely2 for we find that by means of his nine hundred chariots of iron ,jabin mightily oppressed the children of ,israel for twenty years4 ,it has been well suggested that the possession of the war chariot gave rise to the saying of ,benhadad's councillors1 that the gods of ,israel were gods of the hills1 and so their army had been defeated2 but that if the battle were fought in the plain1 where the chariots and ,horses could act1 they would be victorious4 ,so dreaded were these weapons1 even by those who were familiar with them and were accustomed to use them1 that when the ,syrians had besieged ,samaria1 and had nearly reduced it by starvation1 the fancied sound of a host of chariots and ,horses that they heard in the night caused them all to flee and evacuate the camp1 leaving their booty and all their property in the hands of the ,israelites4 ,whether the ,jews ever employed the terrible scythe chariots is not quite certain1 though it is probable that they may have done so2 and this conjecture is strengthened by the fact that they were employed against the ,jews by ,antiochus1 who had footmen an hundred and ten thousand1 and horsemen five thousand and three hundred1 and elephants two and twenty1 and three hundred chariots armed with hooks 7#b ,macc4 xiii4 #b74 ,some commentators think that by the iron chariots mentioned above were signified ordinary chariots armed with iron scythes projecting from the sides4 ,illustration3 ,,elijah ,,is ,,carried ,,up4 ,by degrees the chariot came to be one of the recognised forces in war1 and we find it mentioned throughout the books of the ,scriptures1 not only in its literal sense1 but as a metaphor which every one could understand4 ,in the ,psalms1 for example1 are several allusions to the war-chariot4 ,he maketh wars to cease unto the end of the earth2 ,he breaketh the bow1 and cutteth the spear in sunder2 ,he burneth the chariot in the fire 7,ps4 xlvi4 #i74 ,again3 ,at ,thy rebuke1 ,o ,god of ,jacob1 both the chariot and horse are cast into a dead sleep 7,ps4 lxxvi4 #f74 ,and3 ,some trust in chariots1 and some in horses3 but we will remember the name of the ,lord our ,god 7,ps4 xx4 #g74 ,now1 the force of these passages cannot be properly appreciated unless we realize to ourselves the dread in which the war-chariot was held by the foot-soldiers4 ,even cavalry were much feared2 but the chariots were objects of almost superstitious fear1 and the rushing sound of their wheels1 the noise of the ,horses' hoofs1 and the shaking of the ground as the prancing horses and jumping chariots 7,nah4 iii4 #b7 thundered along1 are repeatedly mentioned4 ,see1 for example1 ,ezek4 xxvi4 #aj3 ,by reason of the abundance of his horses their dust shall cover thee3 thy walls shall shake at the noise of the horsemen1 and of the wheels1 and of the chariots4 ,also1 ,jer4 xlvii4 #c3 ,at the noise of the stamping of the hoofs of his strong horses1 at the rushing of his chariots1 and at the rumbling of his wheels1 the fathers shall not look back to their children for feebleness of hands4 ,see also ,joel ii4 #d1 #e3 ,the appearance of them is as the appearance of horses2 and as horsemen1 so shall they run4 ,like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall they leap1 like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble1 as a strong people set in battle array4 ,in several passages the chariot and ,horse are used in bold imagery as expressions of ,divine power3 ,the chariots of ,god are twenty thousand1 even thousands of angels3 the ,lord is among them1 as in ,sinai1 in the holy place 7,ps4 lxviii4 #ag74 ,a similar image is employed in ,ps4 civ4 #c3 ,who maketh the clouds ,his chariot3 who walketh upon the wings of the wind4 ,in connexion with these passages1 we cannot but call to mind that wonderful day when the unseen power of the ,almighty was made manifest to the servant of ,elisha1 whose eyes were suddenly opened1 and he saw that the mountain was full of ,horses and chariots of fire round about ,elisha4 ,the chariot and horses of fire by which ,elijah was taken from earth are also familiar to us1 and in connexion with the passage which describes that wonderful event1 we may mention one which occurs in the splendid prayer of ,habakkuk 7iii4 #h73 ,was the ,lord displeased against the rivers8 was ,thine anger against the rivers8 was ,thy wrath against the sea1 that ,thou didst ride upon ,thine horses and ,thy chariots of salvation8 ,by degrees the chariot came to be used for peaceful purposes1 and was employed as our carriages of the present day1 in carrying persons of wealth4 ,that this was the case in ,egypt from very early times is evident from ,gen4 xli4 #dc1 in which we are told that after ,pharaoh had taken ,joseph out of prison and raised him to be next in rank to himself1 the king caused him to ride in the second chariot which he had1 and so to be proclaimed ruler over ,egypt4 ,many years afterwards we find him travelling in his chariot to the land of ,goshen1 whither he went to meet ,jacob and to conduct him to the presence of ,pharaoh4 ,at first the chariot seems to have been too valuable to the ,israelites to have been used for any purpose except war1 and it is not until a comparatively late time that we find it employed as a carriage1 and even then it is only used by the noble and wealthy4 ,absalom had such chariots1 but it is evident that he used them for purposes of state1 and as appendages of his regal rank4 ,chariots or carriages were1 however1 afterwards employed by the ,israelites as freely as by the ,egyptians1 from whom they were originally procured2 and accordingly we find ,rehoboam mounting his chariot and fleeing to ,jerusalem1 ,ahab riding in his chariot from ,samaria to ,jezreel1 with ,elijah running before him2 and in the ,new ,testament we read of the chariot in which sat the chief eunuch of ,ethiopia whom ,philip baptized 7,acts viii4 #bh74 ,as to the precise form and character of these chariots1 they are made familiar to us by the sculptures and paintings of ,egypt and ,assyria1 from both of which countries the ,jews procured the vehicles4 ,differing very slightly in shape1 the principle of the chariot was the same2 and it strikes us with some surprise that the ,assyrians1 the ,egyptians1 and the ,jews1 the three wealthiest and most powerful nations of the world1 should not have invented a better carriage4 ,they lavished the costliest materials and the most artistic skill in decorating the chariots1 but had no idea of making them comfortable for the occupants4 ,they were nothing but semicircular boxes on wheels1 and of very small size4 ,they were hung very low1 so that the occupants could step in and out without trouble1 though they do not seem to have had the sloping floor of the ,greek or ,roman chariot4 ,they had no springs1 but1 in order to render the jolting of the carriage less disagreeable1 the floor was made of a sort of network of leathern ropes1 very tightly stretched so as to be elastic4 ,the wheels were always two in number1 and generally had six spokes4 ,to the side of the chariot was attached the case which contained the bow and quiver of arrows1 and in the case of a rich man these bow-cases were covered with gold and silver1 and adorned with figures of lions and other animals4 ,should the chariot be intended for two persons1 two bow-cases were fastened to it1 the one crossing the other4 ,the spear had also its tubular case1 in which it was kept upright1 like the whip of a modern carriage4 ,two ,horses were generally used with each chariot1 though three were sometimes employed4 ,they were harnessed very simply1 having no traces1 and being attached to the central pole by a breast-band1 a very slight saddle1 and a loose girth4 ,on their heads were generally fixed ornaments1 such as tufts of feathers1 and similar decorations1 and tassels hung to the harness served to drive away the flies4 ,round the neck of each ,horse passed a strap1 to the end of which was attached a bell4 ,this ornament is mentioned in ,zech4 xiv4 #bj3 ,in that day shall there be upon the bells of the horses1 ,holiness unto the ,lord--i4e4 the greeting of peace shall be on the bells of the animals once used in war4 ,sometimes the owner drove his own chariot1 even when going into battle1 but the usual plan was to have a driver1 who managed the ,horses while the owner or occupant could fight with both his hands at liberty4 ,in case he drove his own ,horse1 the reins passed round his waist1 and the whip was fastened to the wrist by a thong1 so that when the charioteer used the bow1 his principal weapon1 he could do so without danger of losing his whip4 ,thus much for the use of the chariot in war2 we have now the ,horse as the animal ridden by the cavalry4 ,as was the case with the chariot1 the war-horse was not employed by the ,jews until a comparatively late period of their history4 ,they had been familiarized with cavalry during their long sojourn in ,egypt1 and in the course of their war of conquest had often suffered defeat from the horsemen of the enemy4 ,but we do not find any mention of a mounted force as forming part of the ,jewish army until the days of ,david1 although after that time the successive kings possessed large forces of cavalry4 ,many references to mounted soldiers are made by the prophets1 sometimes allegorically1 sometimes metaphorically4 ,see1 for example1 ,jer4 vi4 #bc3 ,they shall lay hold on bow and spear2 they are cruel1 and have no mercy2 their voice roareth like the sea2 and they ride upon horses1 set in array as men for war against thee1 ,o daughter of ,zion4 ,the same prophet has a similar passage in chap4 l4 #db1 couched in almost precisely the same words4 ,and in chap4 xlvi4 #d1 there is a further reference to the cavalry1 which is specially valuable as mentioning the weapons used by them4 ,the first call of the prophet is to the infantry3 ,order ye the buckler and shield1 and draw near to battle 7verse #c72 and then follows the command to the cavalry1 ,harness the horses2 and get up1 ye horsemen1 and stand forth with your helmets2 furbish the spears1 and put on the brigandines4 ,the chief arms of the ,jewish soldier were therefore the cuirass1 the helmet1 and the lance1 the weapons which in all ages1 and in all countries1 have been found to be peculiarly suitable to the horse-soldier4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,israelites1 ,,led ,,by ,,joshua1 ,,take ,,jericho4 99 99 99 99 99 ,being desirous of affording the reader a pictorial representation of the war and state chariots1 ,i have selected ,egypt as the typical country of the former1 and ,assyria of the latter4 ,both have been executed with the greatest care in details1 every one of which1 even to the harness of the ,horses1 the mode of holding the reins1 the form of the whip1 and the offensive and defensive armour1 has been copied from the ancient records of ,egypt and ,nineveh4 ,we will first take the war-chariot of ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,battle-,,field4 ,this form has been selected as the type of the war-chariot because the earliest account of such a force mentions the war-chariots of ,egypt1 and because1 after the ,israelites had adopted chariots as an acknowledged part of their army1 the vehicles1 as well as the trained ,horses1 and probably their occupants1 were procured from ,egypt4 ,the scene represents a battle between the imperial forces and a revolted province1 so that the reader may have the opportunity of seeing the various kinds of weapons and armour which were in use in ,egypt at the time of ,joseph4 ,in the foreground is the chariot of the general1 driven at headlong speed1 the ,horses at full gallop1 and the springless chariot leaping off the ground as the ,horses bound along4 ,the royal rank of the general in question is shown by the feather fan which denotes his high birth1 and which is fixed in a socket at the back of his chariot1 much as a coachman fixes his whip4 ,the rank of the rider is further shown by the feather plumes on the heads of his ,horses4 ,by the side of the chariot are seen the quiver and bow-case1 the former being covered with decorations1 and having the figure of a recumbent lion along its sides4 ,the simple but effective harness of the ,horses is especially worthy of notice1 as showing how the ancients knew1 better than the moderns1 that to cover a ,horse with a complicated apparatus of straps and metal only deteriorates from the powers of the animal1 and that a ,horse is more likely to behave well if he can see freely on all sides1 than if all lateral vision be cut off by the use of blinkers4 ,just behind the general is the chariot of another officer1 one of whose ,horses has been struck1 and is lying struggling on the ground4 ,the general is hastily giving his orders as he dashes past the fallen animal4 ,on the ground are lying the bodies of some slain enemies1 and the ,horses are snorting and shaking their heads1 significative of their unwillingness to trample on a human being4 ,by the side of the dead man are his shield1 bow1 and quiver1 and it is worthy of notice that the form of these weapons1 as depicted upon the ancient ,egyptian monuments1 is identical with that which is still found among several half-savage tribes of ,africa4 ,in the background is seen the fight raging round the standards4 ,one chief has been killed1 and while the infantry are pressing round the body of the rebel leader and his banner on one side1 on the other the imperial chariots are thundering along to support the attack1 and are driving their enemies before them4 ,in the distance are seen the clouds of dust whirled into the air by the hoofs and wheels1 and circling in clouds by the eddies caused by the fierce rush of the vehicles1 thus illustrating the passage in ,jer4 iv4 #ac3 ,behold1 he shall come up as clouds1 and his chariots shall be as a whirlwind3 his horses are swifter than eagles4 ,woe unto us6 for we are spoiled4 ,the reader will see1 by reference to the illustration1 how wonderfully true and forcible is this statement1 the writer evidently having been an eye-witness of the scene which he so powerfully depicts4 ,illustration3 ,,chariot ,,of ,,state4 ,the second scene is intentionally chosen as affording a strong contrast to the former4 ,here1 instead of the furious rush1 the galloping ,horses1 the chariots leaping off the ground1 the archers bending their bows1 and all imbued with the fierce ardour of battle1 we have a scene of quiet grandeur1 the ,assyrian king making a solemn progress in his chariot after a victory1 accompanied by his attendants1 and surrounded by his troops1 in all the placid splendour of ,eastern state4 ,chief object in the illustration stands the great king in his chariot1 wearing the regal crown1 or mitre1 and sheltered from the sun by the umbrella1 which in ancient ,nineveh1 as in more modern times1 was the emblem of royalty4 ,by his side is his charioteer1 evidently a man of high rank1 holding the reins in a business-like manner2 and in front marches the shield-bearer4 ,in one of the sculptures from which this illustration was composed1 the shield-bearer was clearly a man of rank1 fat1 fussy1 full of importance1 and evidently a portrait of some well-known individual4 ,the ,horses are harnessed with remarkable lightness1 but they bear the gorgeous trappings which befit the rank of the rider1 their heads being decorated with the curious successive plumes with which the ,assyrian princes distinguished their chariot ,horses1 and the breast-straps being adorned with tassels1 repeated in successive rows like the plumes of the head4 ,the reader will probably notice the peculiar high action of the ,horses4 ,this accomplishment seems to have been even more valued among the ancients than by ourselves1 and some of the sculptures show the ,horses with their knees almost touching their noses4 ,of course the artist exaggerrated the effect that he wanted to produce2 but the very fact of the exaggeration shows the value that was set on a high and showy action in a ,horse that was attached to a chariot of state4 ,the old ,assyrian sculptors knew the ,horse well1 and delineated it in a most spirited and graphic style1 though they treated it rather conventionally4 ,the variety of attitude is really wonderful1 considering that all the figures are profile views1 as indeed seemed to have been a law of the historical sculptures4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before closing this account of the ,horse1 it may be as well to remark the singular absence of detail in the ,scriptural accounts4 ,of the other domesticated animals many such details are given1 but of the ,horse we hear but little1 except in connexion with war4 ,there are few exceptions to this rule1 and even the oft-quoted passage in ,job1 which goes deeper into the character of the ,horse than any other portion of the ,scriptures1 only considers the ,horse as an auxiliary in battle4 ,we miss the personal interest in the animal which distinguishes the many references to the ox1 the sheep1 and the goat2 and it is remarkable that even in the ,book of ,proverbs1 which is so rich in references to various animals1 very little is said of the ,horse4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,egyptian ,,sculpture ,,representing ,a ,,victorious ,,king ,,in ,,his ,,chariot ,,slaying ,,his ,,enemies4 ,illustration3 ,,mummy ,,of ,,an ,,egyptian ,,king 7,,over ,,three ,,thousand ,,years ,,old74 ,illustration3 ass ,,the ,,ass4 ,importance of the ,ass in the ,east--,its general use for the saddle--,riding the ,ass not a mark of humility--,the triumphal entry--,white ,asses--,character of the ,scriptural ,ass--,saddling the ,ass--,samson and ,balaam4 ,in the ,scriptures we read of two breeds of ,ass1 namely1 the ,domesticated and the ,wild ,ass4 ,as the former is the more important of the two1 we will give it precedence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the ,east1 the ,ass has always played a much more important part than among us ,westerns1 and on that account we find it so frequently mentioned in the ,bible4 ,in the first place1 it is the universal saddle-animal of the ,east4 ,among us the ,ass has ceased to be regularly used for the purposes of the saddle1 and is only casually employed by holiday-makers and the like4 ,some persons certainly ride it habitually1 but they almost invariably belong to the lower orders1 and are content to ride without a saddle1 balancing themselves in some extraordinary manner just over the animal's tail4 ,in the ,east1 however1 it is ridden by persons of the highest rank1 and is decorated with saddle and harness as rich as those of the horse4 ,so far from the use of the ,ass as a saddle-animal being a mark of humility1 it ought to be viewed in precisely the opposite light4 ,in consequence of the very natural habit of reading1 according to ,western ideas1 the ,scriptures1 which are books essentially ,oriental in all their allusions and tone of thought1 many persons have entirely perverted the sense of one very familiar passage1 the prophecy of ,zechariah concerning the future ,messiah4 ,rejoice greatly1 ,o daughter of ,zion2 shout1 ,o daughter of ,jerusalem3 behold1 thy ,king cometh unto thee3 ,he is just1 and having salvation2 lowly1 and riding upon an ass1 and upon a colt the foal of an ass 7,zech4 ix4 #i74 ,now this passage1 as well as the one which describes its fulfilment so many years afterwards1 has often been seized upon as a proof of the meekness and lowliness of our ,saviour1 in riding upon so humble an animal when ,he made ,his entry into ,jerusalem4 ,the fact is1 that there was no humility in the case1 neither was the act so understood by the people4 ,he rode upon an ,ass as any prince or ruler would have done who was engaged on a peaceful journey1 the horse being reserved for war purposes4 ,he rode on the ,ass1 and not on the horse1 because ,he was the ,prince of ,peace and not of war1 as indeed is shown very clearly in the context4 ,for1 after writing the words which have just been quoted1 ,zechariah proceeds as follows 7ver4 #aj73 ,and ,i will cut off the chariot from ,ephraim1 and the horse from ,jerusalem1 and the battle bow shall be cut off3 and ,he shall speak peace unto the heathen3 and ,his dominion shall be from sea even to sea1 and from the river even to the ends of the earth4 ,meek and lowly was ,he1 as became the new character1 hitherto unknown to the warlike and restless ,jews1 a ,prince1 not of war1 as had been all other celebrated kings1 but of peace4 ,had ,he come as the ,jews expected--despite so many prophecies--their ,messiah to come1 as a great king and conqueror1 ,he might have ridden the war-horse1 and been surrounded with countless legions of armed men4 ,but ,he came as the herald of peace1 and not of war2 and1 though meek and lowly1 yet a ,prince1 riding as became a prince1 on an ,ass colt which had borne no inferior burden4 ,that the act was not considered as one of lowliness is evident from the manner in which it was received by the people1 accepting ,him as the ,son of ,david1 coming in the name of the ,highest1 and greeting ,him with the cry of ,hosanna6 7,save us now17 quoted from verses #be1 #bf of ,ps4 cxviii43 ,save now1 ,i beseech ,thee1 ,o ,lord3 ,o ,lord1 ,i beseech ,thee1 send now prosperity4 ,blessed be ,he that cometh in the name of the ,lord4 ,illustration3 ,,entering ,,jerusalem4 ,the palm-branches which they strewed upon the road were not chosen by the attendant crowd merely as a means of doing honour to ,him whom they acknowledged as the ,son of ,david4 ,they were necessarily connected with the cry of ,hosanna6 ,at the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 it was customary for the people to assemble with branches of palms and willows in their hands1 and for one of the priests to recite the ,great ,hallel1 i4e4 ,ps4 cxiii4 and cxviii4 ,at certain intervals1 the people responded with the cry of ,hosanna6 waving at the same time their palm-branches4 ,for the whole of the seven days through which the feast lasted they repeated their ,hosannas1 always accompanying the shout with the waving of palm-branches1 and setting them towards the altar as they went in procession round it4 ,every child who could hold a palm-branch was expected to take part in the solemnity1 just as did the children on the occasion of the triumphal entry4 ,by degrees1 the name of ,hosanna was transferred to the palm-branches themselves1 as well as to the feast1 the last day being called the ,great ,hosanna4 ,the reader will now see the importance of this carrying of palm-branches1 accompanied with ,hosannas1 and that those who used them in honour of ,him whom they followed into ,jerusalem had no idea that ,he was acting any lowly part4 99 99 99 99 99 ,again1 the woman of ,shunem1 who rode on an ,ass to meet ,elisha1 a mission in which the life of her only child was involved1 was a woman of great wealth 7#b ,kings iv4 #h71 who was able not only to receive the prophet1 but to build a chamber1 and furnish it for him4 ,not to multiply examples1 we see from these passages that the ,ass of the ,east was held in comparatively high estimation1 being used for the purposes of the saddle1 just as would a high-bred horse among ourselves4 ,consequently1 the ,ass is really a different animal4 ,in this country he is repressed1 and seldom has an opportunity for displaying the intellectual powers which he possesses1 and which are of a much higher order than is generally imagined4 ,it is rather remarkable1 that when we wish to speak slightingly of intellect we liken the individual to an ,ass or a goose1 not knowing that we have selected just the quadruped and the bird which are least worthy of such a distinction4 ,putting aside the bird1 as being at present out of place1 we shall find that the ,ass is one of the cleverest of our domesticated animals4 ,we are apt to speak of the horse with a sort of reverence1 and of the ,ass with contemptuous pity1 not knowing that1 of the two animals1 the ,ass is by far the superior in point of intellect4 ,it has been well remarked by a keen observer of nature1 that if four or five horses are in a field1 together with one ,ass1 and there be an assailable point in the fence1 the ,ass is sure to be the animal that discovers it1 and leads the way through it4 ,take even one of our own toil-worn animals1 turned out in a common to graze1 and see the ingenuity which it displays when persecuted by the idle boys who generally frequent such places1 and who try to ride every beast that is within their reach4 ,it seems to divine at once the object of the boy as he steals up to it1 and he takes a pleasure in baffling him just as he fancies that he has succeeded in his attempt4 ,illustration3 ,,syrian ,,asses4 ,should the ,ass be kindly treated1 there is not an animal that proves more docile1 or even affectionate4 ,stripes and kicks it resents1 and sets itself distinctly against them2 and1 being nothing but a slave1 it follows the slavish principle of doing no work that it can possibly avoid4 ,now1 in the ,east the ,ass takes so much higher rank than our own animal1 that its whole demeanour and gait are different from those displayed by the generality of its brethren4 ,why1 the very slave of slaves1 writes ,mr4 ,lowth1 in his ,wanderer in ,arabia1 the crushed and grief-stricken1 is so no more in ,egypt3 the battered drudge has become the willing servant4 ,is that active little fellow1 who1 with race-horse coat and full flanks1 moves under his rider with the light step and the action of a pony--is he the same animal as that starved and head-bowed object of the ,north1 subject for all pity and cruelty1 and clothed with rags and insult8 ,look at him now4 ,on he goes1 rapid and free1 with his small head well up1 and as gay as a crimson saddle and a bridle of light chains and red leather can make him4 ,it was a gladdening sight to see the unfortunate as a new animal in ,egypt4 ,hardy animal as is the ,ass1 it is not well adapted for tolerance of cold1 and seems to degenerate in size1 strength1 speed1 and spirit in proportion as the climate becomes colder4 ,whether it might equal the horse in its endurance of cold provided that it were as carefully treated1 is perhaps a doubtful point2 but it is a well-known fact that the horse does not necessarily degenerate by moving towards a colder climate1 though the ,ass has always been found to do so4 ,there is1 of course1 a variety in the treatment which the ,ass receives even in the ,east4 ,signor ,pierotti1 whose work on the customs and traditions of ,palestine has already been mentioned1 writes in very glowing terms of the animal4 ,he states that he formed a very high opinion of the ,ass while he was in ,egypt1 not only from its spirited aspect and its speed1 but because it was employed even by the ,viceroy and the great ,court officers1 who may be said to use ,asses of more or less intelligence for every occasion4 ,he even goes so far as to say that1 if all the ,asses were taken away from ,egypt1 travel would be impossible4 ,the same traveller gives an admirable summary of the character of the ,ass1 as it exists in ,egypt and ,palestine4 ,what1 then1 are the characteristics of the ass8 ,much the same as those which adorn it in other parts of the ,east--namely1 it is useful for riding and for carrying burdens2 it is sensible of kindness1 and shows gratitude2 it is very steady1 and is larger1 stronger1 and more tractable than its ,european congener2 its pace is easy and pleasant2 and it will shrink from no labour1 if only its poor daily feed of straw and barley is fairly given4 ,if well and liberally supplied1 it is capable of any enterprise1 and wears an altered and dignified mien1 apparently forgetful of its extraction1 except when undeservedly beaten by its masters1 who1 however1 are not so much to be blamed1 because1 having learned to live among sticks1 thongs1 and rods1 they follow the same system of education with their miserable dependants4 ,the wealthy feed him well1 deck him with fine harness and silver trappings1 and cover him1 when his work is done1 with rich ,persian carpets4 ,the poor do the best they can for him1 steal for his benefit1 give him a corner at their fireside1 and in cold weather sleep with him for more warmth4 ,in ,palestine1 all the rich men1 whether monarchs or chiefs of villages1 possess a number of asses1 keeping them with their flocks1 like the patriarchs of old4 ,no one can travel in that country1 and observe how the ass is employed for all purposes1 without being struck with the exactness with which the ,arabs retain the ,hebrew customs4 ,the result of this treatment is1 that the ,eastern ,ass is an enduring and tolerably swift animal1 vying with the camel itself in its powers of long-continued travel1 its usual pace being a sort of easy canter4 ,on rough ground1 or up an ascent1 it is said even to gain on the horse1 probably because its little sharp hoofs give it a firm footing where the larger hoof of the horse is liable to slip4 ,the familiar term saddling the ,ass requires some little explanation4 ,the saddle is not in the least like the article which we know by that name1 but is very large and complicated in structure4 ,over the animal's back is first spread a cloth1 made of thick woollen stuff1 and folded several times4 ,the saddle itself is a very thick pad of straw1 covered with carpet1 and flat at the top1 instead of being rounded as is the case with our saddles4 ,the pommel is very high1 and when the rider is seated on it1 he is perched high above the back of the animal4 ,over the saddle is thrown a cloth or carpet1 always of bright colours1 and varying in costliness of material and ornament according to the wealth of the possessor4 ,it is mostly edged with a fringe and tassels4 ,the bridle is decorated1 like that of the horse1 with bells1 embroidery1 tassels1 shells1 and other ornaments4 ,as we may see from #b ,kings iv4 #bd1 the ,ass was generally guided by a driver who ran behind it1 just as is done with donkeys hired to children here4 ,owing to the unchanging character of the ,east1 there is no doubt that the riders on asses of the ,scriptures rode exactly after the mode which is adopted at the present day4 ,what that mode is1 we may learn from ,mr4 ,bayard ,taylor's amusing and vivid description of a ride through the streets of ,cairo3-- ,illustration3 ,a ,,street ,,in ,,cairo1 ,,egypt4 ,to see ,cairo thoroughly1 one must first accustom himself to the ways of these long-eared cabs1 without the use of which ,i would advise no one to trust himself in the bazaars4 ,donkey-riding is universal1 and no one thinks of going beyond the ,frank quarters on foot4 ,if he does1 he must submit to be followed by not less than six donkeys with their drivers4 ,a friend of mine who was attended by such a cavalcade for two hours1 was obliged to yield at last1 and made no second attempt4 ,when we first appeared in the gateway of an hotel1 equipped for an excursion1 the rush of men and animals was so great that we were forced to retreat until our servant and the porter whipped us a path through the yelling and braying mob4 ,after one or two trials ,i found an intelligent ,arab boy named ,kish1 who for five piastres a day furnished strong and ambitious donkeys1 which he kept ready at the door from morning till night4 ,the other drivers respected ,kish's privilege1 and henceforth ,i had no trouble4 ,the donkeys are so small that my feet nearly touched the ground1 but there is no end to their strength and endurance4 ,their gait1 whether in pace or in gallop1 is so easy and light that fatigue is impossible4 ,the drivers take great pride in having high-cushioned red saddles1 and in hanging bits of jingling brass to the bridles4 ,they keep their donkeys close shorn1 and frequently beautify them by painting them various colours4 ,the first animal ,i rode had legs barred like a zebra's1 and my friend's rejoiced in purple flanks and a yellow belly4 ,the drivers ran behind them with a short stick1 punching them from time to time1 or giving them a sharp pinch on the rump4 ,very few of them own their donkeys1 and ,i understood their pertinacity when ,i learned that they frequently received a beating on returning home empty-handed4 ,the passage of the bazaars seems at first quite as hazardous on donkey-back as on foot2 but it is the difference between knocking somebody down and being knocked down yourself1 and one certainly prefers the former alternative4 ,there is no use in attempting to guide the donkey1 for he won't be guided4 ,the driver shouts behind1 and you are dashed at full speed into a confusion of other donkeys1 camels1 horses1 carts1 water-carriers1 and footmen4 ,in vain you cry out ',bess' 7enough71 ',piacco1' and other desperate adjurations2 the driver's only reply is3 ',let the bridle hang loose6' ,you dodge your head under a camel-load of planks2 your leg brushes the wheel of a dust-cart2 you strike a fat ,turk plump in the back2 you miraculously escape upsetting a fruit-stand2 you scatter a company of spectral1 white-masked women2 and at last reach some more quiet street1 with the sensations of a man who has stormed a battery4 ,illustration3 ,,beggar ,,in ,,the ,,streets ,,of ,,cairo4 ,at first this sort of riding made me very nervous1 but presently ,i let the donkey go his own way1 and took a curious interest in seeing how near a chance ,i ran of striking or being struck4 ,sometimes there seemed no hope of avoiding a violent collision2 but1 by a series of the most remarkable dodges1 he generally carried you through in safety4 ,the cries of the driver running behind gave me no little amusement4 ',the hawadji comes6 ,take care on the right hand6 ,take care on the left hand6 ,o man1 take care6 ,o maiden1 take care6 ,o boy1 get out of the way6 ,the hawadji comes6' ,kish had strong lungs1 and his donkey would let nothing pass him2 and so wherever we went we contributed our full share to the universal noise and confusion4 ,illustration3 ,,night-,,watch ,,in ,,cairo4 ,this description explains several allusions which are made in the ,scriptures to treading down the enemies in the streets1 and to the chariots raging and jostling against each other in the ways4 ,the ,ass was used in the olden time for carrying burdens1 as it is at present1 and1 in all probability1 carried them in the same way4 ,sacks and bundles are tied firmly to the pack-saddle2 but poles1 planks1 and objects of similar shape are tied in a sloping direction on the side of the saddle1 the longer ends trailing on the ground1 and the shorter projecting at either side of the animal's head4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians carry the poles of their huts1 or wigwams1 in precisely the same way1 tying them on either side of their horses1 and making them into rude sledges1 upon which are fastened the skins that form the walls of their huts4 ,the same system of carriage is also found among the ,esquimaux1 and the hunters of the extreme ,north1 who harness their dogs in precisely the same manner4 ,the ,ass1 thus laden1 becomes a very unpleasant passenger through the narrow and crowded streets of an ,oriental city2 and many an unwary traveller has found reason to remember the description of ,issachar as the strong ,ass between two burdens4 ,the ,ass was also used for agriculture1 and was employed in the plough1 as we find from many passages4 ,see for example1 ,blessed are ye that sow beside all waters1 that send forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass 7,isa4 xxxii4 #bj74 ,sowing beside the waters is a custom that still prevails in all hot countries1 the margins of rivers being tilled1 while outside this cultivated belt there is nothing but desert ground4 ,the ox and the ,ass were used in the first place for irrigation1 turning the machines by which water was lifted from the river1 and poured into the trenches which conveyed it to all parts of the tilled land4 ,if1 as is nearly certain1 the rude machinery of the ,east is at the present day identical with those which were used in the old ,scriptural times1 they were yoked to the machine in rather an ingenious manner4 ,the machine consists of an upright pivot1 and to it is attached the horizontal pole to which the ox or ,ass is harnessed4 ,a machine exactly similar in principle may be seen in almost any brick-field in ,england2 but the ingenious part of the ,eastern water-machine is the mode in which the animal is made to believe that it is being driven by its keeper1 whereas the man in question might be at a distance1 or fast asleep4 ,the animal is first blindfolded1 and then yoked to the end of the horizontal bar4 ,fixed to the pivot1 and rather in front of the bar1 is one end of a slight and elastic strip of wood4 ,the projecting end1 being drawn forward and tied to the bridle of the animal1 keeps up a continual pull1 and makes the blinded animal believe that it is being drawn forward by the hand of a driver4 ,some ingenious but lazy attendants have even invented a sort of self-acting whip1 i4e4 a stick which is lifted and allowed to fall on the animal's back by the action of the wheel once every round4 ,the field being properly supplied with water1 the ,ass is used for ploughing it4 ,it is worthy of mention that at the present day the prohibition against yoking an ox and an ,ass together is often disregarded4 ,the practice1 however1 is not a judicious one1 as the slow and heavy ox does not act well with the lighter and more active animal1 and1 moreover1 is apt to butt at its companion with its horns in order to stimulate it to do more than its fair proportion of the work4 ,there is a custom now in ,palestine which probably existed in the days of the ,scriptures1 though ,i have not been able to find any reference to it4 ,whenever an ,ass is disobedient and strays from its master1 the man who captures the trespasser on his grounds clips a piece out of its ear before he returns it to its owner4 ,each time that the animal is caught on forbidden grounds it receives a fresh clip of the ear4 ,by looking at the ears of an ,ass1 therefore1 any one can tell whether it has ever been a straggler2 and if so1 he knows the number of times that it has strayed1 by merely counting the clip-marks1 which always begin at the tip of the ear1 and extend along the edges4 ,any ,ass1 no matter how handsome it may be1 that has many of those clips1 is always rejected by experienced travellers1 as it is sure to be a dull as well as a disobedient beast4 ,there are recorded in the ,scriptures two remarkable circumstances connected with the ,ass1 which1 however1 need but a few words4 ,the first is the journey of ,balaam from ,pethor to ,moab1 in the course of which there occurred that singular incident of the ,ass speaking in human language 7see ,numb4 xxii4 #ba1 #ce74 ,the second is the well-known episode in the story of ,samson1 where he is recorded as breaking the cords with which his enemies had bound him1 and killing a thousand ,philistines with the fresh jaw-bone of an ,ass4 ,,the ,,wild ,,ass4 ,various allusions to the ,wild ,ass--,its swiftness and wildness--,the ,wild ,ass of ,asia and ,africa--,how the ,wild ,ass is hunted--,excellence of its flesh--,meeting a ,wild ,ass--,origin of the domestic ,ass--,the ,wild ,asses of ,quito4 ,there are several passages of ,scripture in which the ,wild ,ass is distinguished from the domesticated animal1 and in all of them there is some reference made to its swiftness1 its intractable nature1 and love of freedom4 ,it is an astonishingly swift animal1 so that on the level ground even the best horse has scarcely a chance of overtaking it4 ,it is exceedingly wary1 its sight1 hearing1 and sense of scent being equally keen1 so that to approach it by craft is a most difficult task4 ,like many other wild animals1 it has a custom of ascending hills or rising grounds1 and thence surveying the country1 and even in the plains it will generally contrive to discover some earth-mound or heap of sand from which it may act as sentinel and give the alarm in case of danger4 ,it is a gregarious animal1 always assembling in herds1 varying from two or three to several hundred in number1 and has a habit of partial migration in search of green food1 traversing large tracts of country in its passage4 ,it has a curiously intractable disposition1 and1 even when captured very young1 can scarcely ever be brought to bear a burden or draw a vehicle4 ,attempts have been often made to domesticate the young that have been born in captivity1 but with very slight success1 the wild nature of the animal constantly breaking out1 even when it appears to have become moderately tractable4 ,although the ,wild ,ass does not seem to have lived within the limits of the ,holy ,land1 it was common enough in the surrounding country1 and1 from the frequent references made to it in ,scriptures1 was well known to the ancient ,jews4 ,we will now look at the various passages in which the ,wild ,ass is mentioned1 and begin with the splendid description in ,job xxxix4 #e-h3 ,who hath sent out the wild ass free8 or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass8 ,whose house ,i have made the wilderness1 and the barren lands 7or salt places7 his dwellings4 ,he scorneth the multitude of the city1 neither regardeth he the crying of the driver4 ,the range of the mountains is his pasture1 and he searcheth after every green thing4 ,here we have the animal described with the minuteness and truth of detail that can only be found in personal knowledge2 its love of freedom1 its avoidance of mankind1 and its migration in search of pasture4 ,another allusion to the pasture-seeking habits of the animal is to be found in chapter vi4 of the same book1 verse #e3 ,doth the wild ass bray when he hath grass8 or1 according to the version of the ,jewish ,bible1 over tender grass8 99 99 99 99 99 ,a very vivid account of the appearance of the animal in its wild state is given by ,sir ,r4 ,kerr ,porter1 who was allowed by a ,wild ,ass to approach within a moderate distance1 the animal evidently seeing that he was not one of the people to whom it was accustomed1 and being curious enough to allow the stranger to approach him4 ,the sun was just rising over the summit of the eastern mountains1 when my greyhound started off in pursuit of an animal which1 my ,persians said1 from the glimpse they had of it1 was an antelope4 ,i instantly put spurs to my horse1 and with my attendants gave chase4 ,after an unrelaxed gallop of three miles1 we came up with the dog1 who was then within a short stretch of the creature he pursued2 and to my surprise1 and at first vexation1 ,i saw it to be an ass4 ,upon reflection1 however1 judging from its fleetness that it must be a wild one1 a creature little known in ,europe1 but which the ,persians prize above all other animals as an object of chase1 ,i determined to approach as near to it as the very swift ,arab ,i was on could carry me4 ,but the single instant of checking my horse to consider had given our game such a head of us that1 notwithstanding our speed1 we could not recover our ground on him4 ,i1 however1 happened to be considerably before my companions1 when1 at a certain distance1 the animal in its turn made a pause1 and allowed me to approach within pistol-shot of him4 ,he then darted off again with the quickness of thought1 capering1 kicking1 and sporting in his flight1 as if he were not blown in the least1 and the chase was his pastime4 ,when my followers of the country came up1 they regretted that ,i had not shot the creature when he was within my aim1 telling me that his flesh is one of the greatest delicacies in ,persia4 ,the prodigious swiftness and the peculiar manner in which he fled across the plain coincided exactly with the description that ,xenophon gives of the same animal in ,arabia4 ,but above all1 it reminded me of the striking portrait drawn by the author of the ,book of ,job4 ,i was informed by the ,mehnander1 who had been in the desert when making a pilgrimage to the shrine of ,ali1 that the wild ass of ,irak ,arabi differs in nothing from the one ,i had just seen4 ,he had observed them often for a short time in the possession of the ,arabs1 who told him the creature was perfectly untameable4 ,a few days after this discussion1 we saw another of these animals1 and1 pursuing it determinately1 had the good fortune to kill it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been suggested by many zoologists that the ,wild ,ass is the progenitor of the domesticated species4 ,the origin of the domesticated animal1 however1 is so very ancient1 that we have no data whereon even a theory can be built4 ,it is true that the ,wild and the ,domesticated ,ass are exactly similar in appearance1 and that an ,asinus hemippus1 or ,wild ,ass1 looks so like an ,asiatic ,asinus vulgaris1 or ,domesticated ,ass1 that by the eye alone the two are hardly distinguishable from each other4 ,but with their appearance the resemblance ends1 the domestic animal being quiet1 docile1 and fond of man1 while the wild animal is savage1 intractable1 and has an invincible repugnance to human beings4 ,illustration3 ,,hunting ,,wild ,,asses4 ,this diversity of spirit in similar forms is very curious1 and is strongly exemplified by the semi-wild ,asses of ,quito4 ,they are the descendants of the animals that were imported by the ,spaniards1 and live in herds1 just as do the horses4 ,they combine the habits of the ,wild ,ass with the disposition of the tame animal4 ,they are as swift of foot as the ,wild ,ass of ,syria or ,africa1 and have the same habit of frequenting lofty situations1 leaping about among rocks and ravines1 which seem only fitted for the wild goat1 and into which no horse can follow them4 ,nominally1 they are private property1 but practically they may be taken by any one who chooses to capture them4 ,the lasso is employed for the purpose1 and when the animals are caught they bite1 and kick1 and plunge1 and behave exactly like their wild relations of the ,old ,world1 giving their captors infinite trouble in avoiding the teeth and hoofs which they wield so skilfully4 ,but1 as soon as a load has once been bound on the back of one of these furious creatures1 the wild spirit dies out of it1 the head droops1 the gait becomes steady1 and the animal behaves as if it had led a domesticated life all its days4 ,,the ,,mule4 ,ancient use of the ,mule--,various breeds of ,mule--,supposed date of its introduction into ,palestine--,mule-breeding forbidden to the ,jews--,the ,mule as a saddle-animal--,its use on occasions of state--,the king's ,mule--,obstinacy of the ,mule4 ,there are several references to the ,,mule in the ,holy ,scriptures1 but it is remarkable that the animal is not mentioned at all until the time of ,david1 and that in the ,new ,testament the name does not occur at all4 ,the origin of the ,mule is unknown1 but that the mixed breed between the horse and the ass has been employed in many countries from very ancient times is a familiar fact4 ,it is a very strange circumstance that the offspring of these two animals should be1 for some purposes1 far superior to either of the parents1 a well-bred ,mule having the lightness1 surefootedness1 and hardy endurance of the ass1 together with the increased size and muscular development of the horse4 ,thus it is peculiarly adapted either for the saddle or for the conveyance of burdens over a rough or desert country4 ,the ,mules that are most generally serviceable are bred from the male ass and the mare1 those which have the horse as the father and the ass as the mother being small1 and comparatively valueless4 ,at the present day1 ,mules are largely employed in ,spain and the ,spanish dependencies1 and there are some breeds which are of very great size and singular beauty1 those of ,andalusia being especially celebrated4 ,in the ,andes1 the ,mule has actually superseded the llama as a beast of burden4 ,its appearance in the sacred narrative is quite sudden4 ,in ,gen4 xxxvi4 #bd1 there is a passage which seems as if it referred to the ,mule3 ,this was that ,anah that found the mules in the wilderness4 ,now the word which is here rendered as ,mules is ,yemim1 a word which is not found elsewhere in the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,the best ,hebraists are agreed that1 whatever interpretation may be put upon the word1 it cannot possibly have the signification that is here assigned to it4 ,some translate the word as hot springs1 while the editors of the ,jewish ,bible prefer to leave it untranslated1 thus signifying that they are not satisfied with any rendering4 ,illustration3 ,,mules ,,of ,,the ,,east4 ,the word which is properly translated as ,mule is ,pered2 and the first place where it occurs is #b ,sam4 xiii4 #bi4 ,absalom had taken advantage of a sheep-shearing feast to kill his brother ,amnon in revenge for the insult offered to ,tamar3 ,and the servants of ,absalom did unto ,amnon as ,absalom had commanded4 ,then all the king's sons arose1 and every man gat him up upon his mule1 and fled4 ,it is evident from this passage that the ,mule must have been in use for a considerable time1 as the sacred writer mentions1 as a matter of course1 that the king's sons had each his own riding mule4 ,illustration3 ,,absalom ,,is ,,caught ,,in ,,the ,,boughs ,,of ,,an ,,oak ,,tree4 ,farther on1 chap4 xviii4 #i records the event which led to the death of ,absalom by the hand of ,joab4 ,and ,absalom met the servants of ,david4 ,and ,absalom rode upon a mule1 and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak1 and his head caught hold of the oak1 and he was taken up between the heaven and the earth2 and the mule that was under him went away4 ,we see by these passages that the ,mule was held in such high estimation that it was used by the royal princes for the saddle1 and had indeed superseded the ass4 ,in another passage we shall find that the ,mule was ridden by the king himself when he travelled in state1 and that to ride upon the king's ,mule was considered as equivalent to sitting upon the king's throne4 ,see1 for example1 #a ,kings i4 in which there are several passages illustrative of this curious fact4 ,see first1 ver4 #cc1 in which ,david gives to ,zadok the priest1 ,nathan the prophet1 and ,benaiah the captain of the hosts1 instructions for bringing his son ,solomon to ,gihon1 and anointing him king in the stead of his father3 ,take with you the servants of your lord1 and cause ,solomon my son to ride upon mine own mule1 and bring him down to ,gihon4 ,that the ,mule was as obstinate and contentious an animal in ,palestine as it is in ,europe is evident from the fact that the ,eastern mules of the present day are quite as troublesome as their ,european brethren4 ,they are very apt to shy at anything1 or nothing at all2 they bite fiercely1 and every now and then they indulge in a violent kicking fit1 flinging out their heels with wonderful force and rapidity1 and turning round and round on their fore-feet so quickly that it is hardly possible to approach them4 ,there is scarcely a traveller in the ,holy ,land who has not some story to tell about the ,mule and its perverse disposition2 but1 as these anecdotes have but very slight bearing on the subject of the ,mule as mentioned in the ,scriptures1 they will not be given in these pages4 ,illustration3 ,,daniel ,,refuses ,,to ,,eat ,,the ,,king',s ,,meat4 ,,swine4 ,the ,mosaic prohibition of the pig--,hatred of ,swine by ,jews and ,mahometans--,the prodigal son--,supposed connexion between ,swine and diseases of the skin--,destruction of the herd of ,swine--,the wild boar of the woods--,the damage which it does to the vines4 ,many are the animals which are specially mentioned in the ,mosaic law as unfit for food1 beside those that come under the general head of being unclean because they do not divide the hoof and chew the cud4 ,there is none1 however1 that excited such abhorrence as the hog1 or that was more utterly detested4 ,it is utterly impossible for a ,european1 especially one of the present day1 to form even an idea of the utter horror and loathing with which the hog was regarded by the ancient ,jews4 ,even at the present day1 a zealous ,jew or ,mahometan looks upon the hog1 or anything that belongs to the hog1 with an abhorrence too deep for words4 ,the older and stricter ,jews felt so deeply on this subject1 that they would never even mention the name of the hog1 but always substituted for the objectionable word the term the abomination4 ,several references are made in the ,scriptures to the exceeding disgust felt by the ,jews towards the ,swine4 ,the portion of the ,mosaic law on which a ,jew would ground his antipathy to the flesh of ,swine is that passage which occurs in ,lev4 xi4 #g3 ,and the swine1 though he divide the hoof1 and be cloven-footed1 yet he cheweth not the cud2 he is unclean to you4 ,but the very same paragraph1 of which this passage forms the termination1 treats of other unclean beasts1 such as the coney 7or hyrax7 and the hare1 neither of which animals are held in such abhorrence as the ,swine4 ,this enactment could not therefore have produced the singular feeling with which the ,swine were regarded by the ,jews1 and in all probability the antipathy was of far greater antiquity than the time of ,moses4 ,how hateful to the ,jewish mind was the hog we may infer from many passages1 several of which occur in the ,book of ,isaiah4 ,see1 for example1 lxv4 #c1 #d3 ,a people that provoketh me to anger continually to my face2 that sacrificeth in gardens1 and burneth incense upon altars of brick2 ,which remain among the graves1 and lodge in the monuments1 which eat swine's flesh1 and broth of abominable things is in their vessels4 ,here we have the people heaping one abomination upon another--the sacrifice to idols in the gardens1 the burning of incense upon a forbidden altar and with strange fire1 the living among the tombs1 where none but madmen and evil spirits were supposed to reside1 and1 as the culminating point of iniquity1 eating ,swine's flesh1 and drinking the broth in which it was boiled4 ,in the next chapter1 verse #c1 we have another reference to the ,swine4 ,speaking of the wickedness of the people1 and the uselessness of their sacrifices1 the prophet proceeds to say3 ,he that killeth an ox is as if he slew a man2 he that sacrificeth a lamb1 as if he had cut off a dog's neck2 he that offereth an oblation1 as if he offered swine's blood4 ,we see here how the prophet proceeds from one image to another3 the murder of a man1 the offering of a dog instead of a lamb1 and the pouring out of ,swine's blood upon the altar instead of wine--the last-mentioned crime being evidently held as the worst of the three4 ,another reference to the ,swine occurs in the same chapter1 verse #ag3 ,they that sanctify themselves1 and purify themselves in the gardens behind one tree in the midst1 eating swine's flesh1 and the abomination1 and the mouse1 shall be consumed together1 saith the ,lord4 ,not only did the ,jews refuse to eat the flesh of the hog1 but they held in utter abomination everything that belonged to it1 and would have thought themselves polluted had they been even touched with a hog's bristle4 ,even at the present day this feeling has not diminished1 and both by ,jews and ,mahometans the hog is held in utter abhorrence4 ,some recent travellers have made great use of this feeling4 ,signor ,pierotti1 for example1 during his long sojourn in ,palestine1 found the flesh of the hog extremely beneficial to him4 ,how often has the flesh of this animal supported me1 especially during the earlier part of my stay in ,palestine1 before ,i had learned to like the mutton and the goats' flesh6 ,i give the preference to this meat because it has often saved me time by rendering a fire unnecessary1 and freed me from importunate1 dirty1 and unsavoury guests1 who used their hands for spoons1 knives1 and forks4 ,a little piece of bacon laid conspicuously upon the cloth that served me for a table was always my best friend4 ,without this talisman ,i should never have freed myself from unwelcome company1 at least without breaking all the laws of hospitality by not inviting the chiefs of my escort or the guides to share my meal2 a thing neither prudent nor safe in the open country4 ,therefore1 on the contrary1 when thus provided ,i pressed them with the utmost earnestness to eat with me1 but of course never succeeded in persuading them2 and so dined in peace1 keeping on good terms with them1 although they did call me behind my back a 'dog of a ,frank' for eating pork4 ,besides1 ,i had then no fear of my stores failing1 as ,i always took care to carry a stock large enough to supply the real wants of my party4 ,so a piece of bacon was more service to me than a revolver1 a rifle1 or a sword2 and ,i recommend all travellers in ,palestine to carry bacon rather than arms4 ,such being the feelings of the ,jews1 we may conceive the abject degradation to which the ,prodigal ,son of the parable must have descended1 when he was compelled to become a swine-herd for a living1 and would have been glad even to have eaten the very husks on which the ,swine fed4 ,these husks1 by the way1 were evidently the pods of the locust-tree1 or carob1 of which we shall have more to say in a future page4 ,we have in our language no words to express the depths of ignominy into which this young man must have fallen1 nor can we conceive any office which in our estimation would be so degrading as would be that of swine-herd to a ,jew4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,prodigal ,,son4 ,how deeply rooted was the abhorrence of the ,swine's flesh we can see from a passage in #b ,maccabees1 in which is related a series of insults offered to the religion of the ,jews4 ,the temple in ,jerusalem was to be called the ,temple of ,jupiter ,olympus1 and that on ,gerizim was to be dedicated to ,jupiter1 the defender of strangers4 ,the altars were defiled by forbidden things1 and the celebration of the ,sabbath1 or of any ,jewish ceremony1 was punishable with death4 ,severe as were all these afflictions1 there was one which the ,jews seem1 from the stress laid upon it1 to have felt more keenly than any other4 ,this was the compulsory eating of ,swine's flesh1 an act which was so abhorrent to the ,jews that in attempting to enforce it1 ,antiochus found that he was foiled by the passive resistance offered to him4 ,the ,jews had allowed their temples to be dedicated to the worship of heathen deities1 they had submitted to the deprivation of their sacred rites1 they had even consented to walk in procession on the ,feast of ,bacchus1 carrying ivy like the rest of the worshippers in that most licentious festival4 ,it might be thought that any people who submit to such degradation would suffer any similar indignity4 ,but even their forbearance had reached its limits1 and nothing could induce them to eat the flesh of ,swine4 ,illustration3 ,,eleazar ,,refuses ,,to ,,eat ,,swine',s ,,flesh4 ,several examples of the resistance offered by them are recorded in the book just mentioned4 ,eleazer1 for example1 a man ninety years old1 sternly refused to partake of the abominable food4 ,some of the officials1 in compassion for his great age1 advised him to take lawful meat with him and to exchange it for the ,swine's flesh4 ,this he refused to do1 saying that his age was only a reason for particular care on his part1 lest the young should be led away by his example4 ,his persecutors then forced the meat into his mouth1 but he rejected it1 and died under the lash4 ,another example of similar1 but far greater heroism1 is given by the same chronicler4 ,a mother and her seven sons were urged with blows to eat the forbidden food1 and refused to do so4 ,thinking that the mother would not be able to endure the sight of her sons' sufferings1 the officers took them in succession1 and inflicted a series of horrible tortures upon them1 beginning by cutting off their tongues1 hands1 and feet1 and ending by roasting them while still alive4 ,their mother1 far from counselling her sons to yield1 even though they were bribed by promises of wealth and rank1 only encouraged them to persevere1 and1 when the last of her sons was dead1 passed herself through the same fiery trial4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,mother ,,and ,,her ,,seven ,,sons ,,tortured ,,for ,,refusing ,,to ,,eat ,,swine',s ,,flesh4 ,it has been conjectured1 and with plausibility1 that the pig was prohibited by ,moses on account of the unwholesomeness of its flesh in a hot country1 and that its almost universal repudiation in such lands is a proof of its unfitness for food4 ,in countries where diseases of the skin are so common1 and where the dreaded leprosy still maintains its hold1 the flesh of the pig is thought1 whether rightly or wrongly1 to increase the tendency to such diseases1 and on that account alone would be avoided4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,evil ,,spirits ,,enter ,a ,,herd ,,of ,,swine4 ,it has1 however1 been shown that the flesh of ,swine can be habitually consumed in hot countries without producing any evil results2 and1 moreover1 that the prohibition of ,moses was not confined to the ,swine1 but included many other animals whose flesh is used without scruple by those very persons who reject that of the pig4 ,knowing the deep hatred of the ,jews towards this animal1 we may naturally wonder how we come to hear of herds of ,swine kept in ,jewish lands4 ,of this custom there is a familiar example in the herd of ,swine that was drowned in the sea 7,matt4 viii4 #bh-cd74 ,it is an open question whether those who possessed the ,swine were ,jews of lax principles1 who disregarded the ,law for the sake of gain1 or whether they were ,gentiles1 who1 of course1 were not bound by the ,law4 ,the former seems the likelier interpretation1 the destruction of the ,swine being a fitting punishment for their owners4 ,it must be here remarked1 that our ,lord did not1 as is often said1 destroy the ,swine1 neither did ,he send the devils into them1 so that the death of these animals cannot be reckoned as one of the divine miracles4 ,ejecting the evil spirits from the maniacs was an exercise of ,his divine authority2 the destruction of the ,swine was a manifestation of diabolical anger1 permitted1 but not dictated4 ,swine are at the present day much neglected in ,palestine1 because the ,mahometans and ,jews may not eat the flesh1 and the ,christians1 as a rule1 abstain from it1 so that they may not hurt the feelings of their neighbours4 ,pigs are1 however1 reared in the various monasteries1 and by the ,arabs attached to them4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,boars ,,devouring ,,the ,,carcase ,,of ,a ,,deer4 ,we now come to the wild animal4 ,there is only one passage in the ,scriptures in which the ,,wild ,,boar is definitely mentioned1 and another in which a reference is made to it in a paraphrase4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,boars4 ,the former of these is the well-known verse of the ,psalms3 ,why hast thou broken down her hedges1 so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her8 ,the boar out of the wood doth waste it1 and the wild beast of the field doth devour it 7,ps4 lxxx4 #ab1 #ac74 ,the second passage is to be found in ,ps4 lxviii4 #cj4 ,in the ,authorized ,version it is thus rendered3 ,rebuke the company of spearmen1 the multitude of bulls1 with the calves of the people4 ,if the reader will refer to the marginal translation 7which1 it must be remarked1 is of equal authority with the text71 the passage runs thus3 ,rebuke the beasts of the reeds1 c4 ,now1 this is undoubtedly the correct rendering1 and is accepted in the ,jewish ,bible4 ,having quoted these two passages1 we will proceed to the description and character of the animal4 ,in the former times1 the ,wild ,boar was necessarily much more plentiful than is the case in these days1 owing to the greater abundance of woods1 many of which have disappeared by degrees1 and others been greatly thinned by the encroachments of mankind4 ,woods and reed-beds are always the habitations of the ,wild ,boar1 which resides in these fastnesses1 and seems always to prefer the reed-bed to the wood1 probably because it can find plenty of mud1 in which it wallows after the fashion of its kind4 ,there is no doubt whatever that the beast of the reeds is simply a poetical phrase for the ,wild ,boar4 ,if there should be any cultivated ground in the neighbourhood1 the ,boar is sure to sally out and do enormous damage to the crops4 ,it is perhaps more dreaded in the vineyards than in any other ground1 as it not only devours the grapes1 but tears down and destroys the vines1 trampling them under foot1 and destroying a hundredfold as much as it eats4 ,if the reader will refer again to ,ps4 lxxx4 he will see that the ,jewish nation is described under the image of a vine3 ,thou hast brought a vine out of ,egypt3 ,thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it1 c4 ,no image of a destructive enemy could therefore be more appropriate than that which is used4 ,we have read of the little foxes that spoil the vines1 but the ,wild ,boar is a much more destructive enemy1 breaking its way through the fences1 rooting up the ground1 tearing down the vines themselves1 and treading them under its feet4 ,a single party of these animals will sometimes destroy an entire vineyard in a single night4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,boars ,,destroying ,a ,,vineyard4 ,we can well imagine the damage that would be done to a vineyard even by the domesticated ,swine1 but the ,wild ,boar is infinitely more destructive4 ,it is of very great size1 often resembling a donkey rather than a boar1 and is swift and active beyond conception4 ,the ,wild ,boar is scarcely recognisable as the very near relation of the domestic species4 ,it runs with such speed1 that a high-bred horse finds some difficulty in overtaking it1 while an indifferent steed would be left hopelessly behind4 ,even on level ground the hunter has hard work to overtake it2 and if it can get upon broken or hilly ground1 no horse can catch it4 ,the ,wild ,boar can leap to a considerable distance1 and can wheel and turn when at full speed1 with an agility that makes it a singularly dangerous foe4 ,indeed1 the inhabitants of countries where the ,wild ,boar flourishes would as soon face a lion as one of these animals1 the stroke of whose razor-like tusks is made with lightning swiftness1 and which is sufficient to rip up a horse1 and cut a dog nearly asunder4 ,although the ,wild ,boar is not as plentiful in ,palestine as used to be the case1 it is still found in considerable numbers4 ,whenever the inhabitants can contrive to cut off the retreat of marauding parties among the crops1 they turn out for a general hunt1 and kill as many as they can manage to slay4 ,after one of these hunts1 the bodies are mostly exposed for sale1 but1 as the demand for them is very small1 they can be purchased at a very cheap rate4 ,signor ,pierotti bought one in the plains of ,jericho for five shillings4 ,for the few who may eat the hog1 this is a fortunate circumstance1 the flesh being very excellent1 and as superior to ordinary pork as is a pheasant to a barn-door fowl or venison to mutton4 ,illustration3 chase ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,elephant4 ,,the ,,elephant4 ,the ,elephant indirectly mentioned in the ,authorized ,version--,the ,elephant as an engine of war--,antiochus and his ,elephants--,oriental exaggeration--,self-devotion of ,eleazar--,attacking the ,elephants1 and their gradual abandonment in war4 ,except indirectly1 the ,elephant is never mentioned in the ,authorized ,version of the ,canonical ,scriptures1 although frequent references are made to ivory1 the product of that animal4 ,the earliest mention of ivory in the ,scriptures is to be found in #a ,kings x4 #ah3 ,moreover the king 7i4e4 ,solomon7 made a great throne of ivory1 and overlaid it with the best gold4 ,this passage forms a portion of the description given by the sacred historian of the glories of ,solomon's palace1 of which this celebrated throne1 with the six steps and the twelve lions on the steps1 was the central and most magnificent object4 ,it is named together with the three hundred golden shields1 the golden vessel of the royal palace1 and the wonderful arched viaduct crossing the valley of the ,tyropon1 the ascent by which he went up unto the house of the ,lord1 all of which glories so overcame the ,queen of ,sheba that there was no more spirit in her4 ,illustration3 ,,king ,,solomon1 ,,seated ,,upon ,,his ,,throne1 ,,receives ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,sheba4 ,we see1 therefore1 that in the time of ,solomon ivory was so precious an article that it was named among the chief of the wonders to be seen in the palace of ,solomon1 the wealthiest and most magnificent monarch of sacred or profane history4 ,that it should not have been previously mentioned is very singular4 ,five hundred years had elapsed since the ,israelites escaped from the power of ,egypt1 and during the whole of that time1 though gold and silver and precious stones and costly raiment are repeatedly mentioned1 we do not find a single passage in which any allusion is made to ivory4 ,had we not known that ivory was largely used among the ,egyptians1 such an omission would cause no surprise4 ,but the researches of modern travellers have brought to light many articles of ivory that were in actual use in ,egypt1 and we therefore cannot but wonder that a material so valued and so beautiful does not seem to have been reckoned among the treasures which were brought by the ,israelites from the land of their captivity1 and which were so abundant that the ,tabernacle was entirely formed of them4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,elephants4 ,in the various collections of ,europe are many specimens of ivory used by the ancient ,egyptians1 among the chief of which may be mentioned an ivory box in the ,louvre1 having on its lid the name of the dynasty in which it was carved1 and the ivory-tipped lynch-pins of the splendid war-chariot in ,florence1 from which the illustration on page #cji has been drawn4 ,the ivory used by the ,egyptians was1 of course1 that of the ,african ,elephant2 and was obtained chiefly from ,ethiopia1 as we find in ,herodotus 7,thalia1 #aad73--,where the meridian declines towards the setting sun1 the ,ethiopian territory reaches1 being the extreme part of the habitable world4 ,it produces much gold1 huge elephants1 wild trees of all kinds1 ebony1 and men of large stature1 very handsome and long-lived4 ,the passages in the ,bible in which the ,elephant itself is named are only to be found in the ,apocrypha1 and in all of them the ,elephant is described as an engine of war4 ,if the reader will refer to the ,first ,book of the ,maccabees1 he will find that the ,elephant is mentioned at the very commencement of the book4 ,now when the kingdom was established before ,antiochus1 he thought to reign over ,egypt1 that he might have the dominion of two realms4 ,wherefore he entered into ,egypt with a great multitude1 with chariots1 and elephants1 and horsemen1 and a great navy4 7i4 #af1 #ag47 ,here we see that the ,elephant was considered as a most potent engine of war1 and1 as we may perceive by the context1 the ,king of ,egypt was so alarmed by the invading force1 that he ran away1 and allowed ,antiochus to take possession of the country4 ,after this1 ,antiochus ,eupator marched against ,jerusalem with a vast army1 which is thus described in detail3--,the number of his army was one hundred thousand footmen1 and twenty thousand horsemen1 and two and thirty elephants exercised in battle4 ,and to the end that they might provoke the elephants to fight1 they showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries4 ,moreover1 they divided the beasts among the armies1 and for every elephant they appointed a thousand men1 armed with coats of mail1 and with helmets of brass on their heads2 and1 besides this for every beast were ordained five hundred horsemen of the best4 ,these were ready at every occasion wheresoever the beast was2 and whithersoever the beast went they went also1 neither departed they from him4 ,and upon the beasts were there strong towers of wood1 which covered every one of them1 and were girt fast unto them with devices2 there were also upon every one two and thirty strong men that fought upon them1 beside the ,indian that ruled him4 ,as for the remnant of the horsemen1 they set them on this side and that side at the two fronts of the host1 giving them signs what to do1 and being harnessed all over amidst the ranks4 7#a ,macc4 vi4 #cj1 c47 ,it is evident from this description that1 in the opinion of the writer1 the ,elephants formed the principal arms of the opposing force1 these animals being prominently mentioned1 and the rest of the army being reckoned as merely subsidiaries of the terrible beasts4 ,the thirty-two ,elephants appear to have taken such a hold of the narrator's mind1 that he evidently looked upon them in the same light that the ancient ,jews regarded chariots of war1 or as at the present day savages regard artillery4 ,according to his ideas1 the thirty-two ,elephants constituted the real army1 the hundred thousand infantry and twenty thousand cavalry being only in attendance upon these animals4 ,taken as a whole1 the description of the war ,elephant is a good one1 though slightly exaggerated1 and is evidently written by an eye-witness4 ,the mention of the native mahout1 or ,indian that guided him1 is characteristic enough1 as is the account of the howdah1 or wooden carriage on the back of the animal4 ,the number of warriors1 however1 is evidently exaggerated1 though not to such an extent as the account of ,julius ,csar's ,elephants1 which are said to have carried on their backs sixty soldiers1 beside the wooden tower in which they fought4 ,it is evident that1 in the first place1 no ,elephant could carry a tower large enough to hold so many fighting men1 much less one which would afford space for them to use their weapons4 ,a good account of the fighting ,elephant is given by ,topsel 7p4 #aeg73--,there were certain officers and guides of the ,elephants1 who were called ,elephantarch1 who were the governors of sixteen ,elephants1 and they which did institute and teach them martial discipline were called ,elephantagogi4 ,the ,military ,elephant did carry four persons on his bare back1 one fighting on the right hand1 another fighting on the left hand1 a third1 which stood fighting backwards from the ,elephant's head1 and a fourth in the middle of these1 holding the rains1 and guiding the ,beast to the discretion of the ,souldiers1 even as the ,pilot in a ship guideth the stem1 wherein was required an equall knowledge and dexterity2 for when the ,indian which ruled them said1 ,strike here on the right hand1 or else on the left1 or refrain and stand still1 no reasonable man could yield readier obedience4 ,this description is really a very accurate as well as spirited one1 and conveys a good idea of the fighting ,elephant as it appeared when brought into action4 ,strangely enough1 after giving this temperate and really excellent account of the war ,elephant1 the writer seems to have been unable to resist the fascination of his theme1 and proceeds to describe1 with great truth and spirit1 the mode of fighting adopted by the animal1 intermixed with a considerable amount of the exaggeration from which the former part of his account is free4 ,they did fasten iron chains1 first of all1 upon the ,elephant that was to bear ten1 fifteen1 twenty1 or thirty men1 on either side two panniers of iron bound underneath their belly1 and upon them the like panniers of wood1 hollow1 wherein they placed their men at armes1 and covered them over with small boards 7for the trunck of the ,elephant was covered with a mail for defence1 and upon that a broadsword two cubits long72 this 7as also the wooden ,castle1 or pannier aforesaid7 were fastened first to the neck and then to the rump of the ,elephant4 ,being thus armed1 they entered the battle1 and they shewed unto the ,beasts1 to make them more fierce1 wine1 liquor made of ,rice1 and white cloth1 for at the sight of any of these his courage and rage increaseth above all measure4 ,then at the sound of the ,trumpet1 he beginneth with teeth to strike1 tear1 beat1 spoil1 take up into the air1 cast down again1 stamp upon men under feet1 overthrow with his trunck1 and make way for his riders to pierce with ,spear1 ,shield1 and ,sword2 so that his horrible voice1 his wonderful body1 his terrible force1 his admirable skill1 his ready and inestimable obedience1 and his strange and seldom-seen shape1 produced in a main battel no mean accidents and overturns4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,war ,,elephant4 ,in this account there is a curious mixture of truth and exaggeration4 ,as we have already seen1 the number of soldiers which the animal was supposed to carry is greatly exaggerated1 and it is rather amusing to note how the towers in which they fought are modified into panniers4 ,then the method by which the animal is incited to the combat is partly true1 and partly false4 ,of course an ,elephant is not angered by seeing a piece of white cloth1 or by looking at wine1 or a liquor made of rice4 ,but that the wine1 or the liquor made of rice1 i4e4 arrack1 was administered to the ,elephant before it was brought into the battle-field1 is likely enough4 ,elephants are wonderfully fond of strong drink4 ,they can be incited to perform any task within their powers by a provision of arrack1 and when stimulated by a plentiful supply of their favourite drink they would be in good fighting condition4 ,next we find the writer describing the ,elephant as being furnished with a coating of mail armour on its proboscis1 the end of which was armed with a sword a yard in length4 ,now any one who is acquainted with the ,elephant will see at once that such offensive and defensive armour would deprive the animal of the full use of the proboscis1 and would1 therefore1 only weaken1 and not strengthen1 its use in battle4 ,accordingly we find that the writer1 when describing with perfect accuracy the mode in which the ,elephant fights1 utterly omits all mention of the sword and the mailed proboscis1 and describes the animal1 not as striking or thrusting with the sword1 but as overthrowing with the trunk1 taking up into the air1 and casting down again--acts which could only be performed when the proboscis was unencumbered by armour4 ,the use of weapons was left to the soldiers that fought upon its back1 the principal object of the huge animal being to trample its way through the opposing ranks1 and to make a way for the soldiers that followed4 ,it may be easily imagined that1 before soldiers become familiarized with the appearance of the ,elephant1 they might be pardoned for being panic-struck at the sight of so strange an animal4 ,not only was it formidable for its vast size1 and for the armed men which it carried1 but for the obedience which it rendered to its keeper1 and the skill with which it wielded the strange but powerful weapon with which ,nature had armed it4 ,at first1 the very approach of so terrible a foe struck consternation into the soldiers1 who knew of no mode by which they could oppose the gigantic beast1 which came on in its swift1 swinging pace1 crushing its way by sheer weight through the ranks1 and striking right and left with its proboscis4 ,no other method of checking the ,elephant1 except by self-sacrifice1 could be found2 and in #a ,macc4 vi4 #dc-df1 we read how ,eleazar1 the son of ,mattathias1 nobly devoted himself for his country4 ,eleazar also1 surnamed ,savaran1 perceiving that one of the beasts1 armed with royal harness1 was higher than all the rest1 and supposing that the king was upon him1 ,put himself in jeopardy1 to the end he might deliver his people1 and get him a perpetual name4 ,whereupon he ran upon him courageously1 through the midst of the battle1 slaying on the right hand and on the left1 so that they were divided from him on both sides4 ,which done1 he crept under the elephant1 and thrust him under1 and slew him2 whereupon the elephant fell down upon him1 and he died4 ,i may here mention that the surname of ,savaran1 or ,avaran1 as it ought to be called1 signifies one who pierces an animal from behind1 and was given to him after his death1 in honour of his exploit4 ,at first1 then1 ,elephants were the most formidable engines of war that could be brought into the battle-field1 and the very sight of these huge beasts1 towering above even the helmets of the cavalry1 disheartened the enemy so much that victory became easy4 ,after a while1 however1 when time for reflection had been allowed1 the more intellectual among the soldiers began to think that1 after all1 the ,elephant was not a mere engine1 but a living animal1 and1 as such1 subject to the infirmities of the lower animals4 ,so they invented scheme after scheme1 by which they baffled the attacks of these once dreaded foes1 and sometimes even succeeded in driving them back among the ranks of their own soldiery1 so maddened with pain and anger1 that they dealt destruction among the soldiers for whom they were fighting1 and so broke up their order of battle that the foe easily overcame them4 ,the vulnerable nature of the proboscis was soon discovered1 and soldiers were armed with very sharp swords1 set on long handles1 with which they continually attacked the ,elephants' trunks4 ,others were mounted on swift horses1 dashed past the ,elephant1 and hurled their darts before the animal could strike them4 ,others1 again1 were placed in chariots1 and armed with very long and sharply-pointed spears4 ,several of these chariots would be driven simultaneously against an ,elephant1 and sometimes succeeded in killing the animal4 ,slingers also were told off for the express purpose of clearing the castles1 or howdahs1 of the soldiers who fought on the ,elephants' backs1 and their especial object was the native mahout1 who sat on the animal's neck4 ,sometimes they made way for the ,elephant as it pressed forward1 and then closed round it1 so as to make it the central mark1 on which converged a hail of javelins1 arrows1 and stones on every side1 until the huge animal sank beneath its many wounds4 ,by degrees1 therefore1 the ,elephant was found to be so uncertain an engine of war1 that its use was gradually discontinued1 and finally abandoned altogether4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,elephant which was employed in these wars was the ,indian species1 ,elephas ,indicus1 which is thought to be more susceptible of education than the ,african ,elephant4 ,the latter1 however1 has been tamed1 and1 in the days of ,rome's greatest splendour1 was taught to perform a series of tricks that seem almost incredible4 ,as1 however1 the ,indian species is that with which we have here to do1 ,i have selected it for the principal illustrations4 ,it may be at once distinguished from its ,african relative by the comparatively small ears1 those of the ,african ,elephant reaching above the back of the head1 and drooping well below the neck4 ,the shape of the head1 too1 is different4 ,in the ,indian species1 only the males bear tusks1 and even many of them are unarmed4 ,in the ,african species1 however1 both sexes bear tusks1 those of the male furnishing the best ivory1 with its peculiar creamy colour and beautiful graining1 and those of the female being smaller in size1 and producing ivory of a much inferior quality4 ,illustration3 ,,african ,,elephants4 ,the ,elephant1 whether of ,asia or ,africa1 always lives in herds varying greatly in numbers1 and invariably found in the deepest forests1 or in their near vicinity4 ,both species are fond of water1 and never wander far from some stream or fountain1 although they can1 and do1 make tolerably long journeys for the purpose of obtaining the needful supply of liquid4 ,they have a curious capability of laying up a store of water in their interior1 somewhat after the fashion of the camel1 but also possess the strange accomplishment of drawing the liquid supply from their stomachs by means of their trunks1 and scattering it in a shower over their backs to cool their heated bodies4 ,when drinking1 the ,elephant inserts the tip of his trunk into the stream1 fills it with water1 and then1 turning it into his throat1 discharges the contents4 ,the strangest portion of the ,elephant is the trunk1 or proboscis4 ,this wonderful appendage is furnished at its extremity with a finger-like projection1 with which the animal can pluck a single blade of grass or pick up a small object from the ground4 ,the value of the proboscis to the ,elephant can be estimated when it is considered that without its aid the animal must soon starve to death4 ,the short1 thick neck and projecting tusks would entirely prevent it from reaching any of the vegetation upon which it feeds4 ,with the trunk1 however1 the ,elephant readily carries its food to its mouth1 and employs the useful member just as if it were a long and flexible arm4 ,the ,elephant bears a worldwide fame for its capabilities as a servant and companion of man1 and for the extraordinary development of its intellectual faculties4 ,the ,indian or ,asiatic ,elephant is the variety that is considered most docile and easy to train2 these are almost invariably taken in a wild state from their native forests4 ,the ,indian hunters usually proceed into the woods with trained female ,elephants4 ,these advance quietly1 and by their blandishments so occupy the attention of any unfortunate male that they meet that the hunters are enabled to tie his legs together and fasten him to a tree4 ,his treacherous companions now leave him to struggle in impotent rage until he is so subdued by hunger and fatigue that the hunters can drive him home between two tame elephants4 ,when once captured1 he is easily trained4 ,the following curious instance of intelligence in an ,elephant is given by a traveller in ,ceylon3 ,one evening1 while riding in the vicinity of ,kandy1 my horse showed some excitement at a noise which was heard in the thick jungle1 sounding something like ',urmph6 ,urmph6' uttered in a hoarse and dissatisfied tone4 ,a turn in the forest explained the mystery1 by bringing me face to face with a tame working ,elephant unaccompanied by any driver or attendant4 ,he was laboring painfully with a heavy beam of timber1 which he had balanced across his tusks and was carrying to the village from which ,i had come4 ,the pathway being narrow1 he was compelled to bend his head to one side to permit the passage of the long piece of wood1 and the exertion and inconvenience combined1 led him to utter the dissatisfied sounds which had frightened my horse4 ,illustration3 ,,elephants' ,,watering-,,place4 ,on seeing us halt1 the ,elephant raised his head1 looked at us for a moment1 then dropped the timber1 and forced himself backward among the bushes at the side of the road1 so as to leave us plenty of room to pass4 ,my horse still hesitated2 the ,elephant observed this1 and impatiently crowded himself still deeper in the jungle1 repeating his cry of1 ',urmph6 ,urmph6' but in a voice evidently meant to encourage us to come on4 ,still the horse trembled2 and1 anxious to observe the conduct of the two sagacious creatures1 ,i forbore any interference4 ,again the ,elephant wedged himself farther in among the trees and waited for us to pass him4 ,at last the horse timidly did so1 after which ,i saw the wise ,elephant come out of the wood1 take up the heavy timber upon his tusks1 and resume his route1 hoarsely snorting1 as before1 his discontented remonstrance4 ,although so valuable an animal for certain kinds of work1 the ,elephant is hardly so effective an assistant as might be supposed4 ,the working ,elephant is always a delicate animal1 and requires watchfulness and care2 as a beast of burden he is unsatisfactory1 for1 although in the matter of mere strength there is hardly any weight that could be conveniently placed on him which he could not carry1 it is difficult to pack it without causing abrasions of the ,elephant's skin1 which afterwards ulcerate4 ,his skin is easily chafed by harness1 especially in wet weather4 ,either during long droughts1 or too much moisture1 his feet are also liable to sores which render him useless for months4 ,in ,india the ,elephant is used more for purposes of state display or for hunting than for hard labor4 ,it is especially trained for tiger-hunting1 and1 as there is a natural dread of the terrible tiger deeply implanted in almost all ,elephants1 it is no easy matter to teach the animal to approach his powerful foe4 ,a stuffed tiger-skin is employed for this purpose1 and is continually shown to the ,elephant until he learns to lose all distrust of the inanimate object1 and to strike it1 to crush it with his feet1 or to pierce it with his tusks4 ,after a while a boy is put inside the tiger-skin1 in order to accustom the ,elephant to the sight of the tiger in motion4 ,illustration3 ,,tiger4 ,the last stage in the proceedings is to procure a dead tiger1 and to substitute it for the stuffed skin4 ,even with all this training1 it most frequently happens that when the ,elephant is brought to face a veritable living tiger the furious bounds1 the savage yells1 and gleaming eyes of the beast are so terrifying that he turns tail and makes a hasty retreat4 ,hardly one ,elephant out of ten will face an angry tiger4 ,the ,elephant1 when used in tiger-hunting1 is always guided by a native driver1 called a mahout1 who sits astride of the animal's neck and guides its movements by means of the voice and the use of an iron hook at the end of a short stick4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tiger ,,in ,,the ,,reeds4 ,the hunters who ride upon the ,elephant sit in a kind of box called a howdah1 which is strapped firmly upon the animal's back1 or else merely rests upon a large flat pad furnished with cross-ropes for maintaining a firm hold4 ,the ,elephant generally kneels to enable the riders to mount1 and then rises from the ground with a peculiar swinging motion that is most discomposing to beginners in the art4 ,the chase of the tiger is among the most exciting and favourite sports in ,india4 ,when starting on a hunt1 a number of hunters usually assemble1 mounted on ,elephants trained for the purpose1 and carrying with them a supply of loaded rifles in their howdahs1 or carriages mounted on the ,elephants' backs4 ,thus armed1 they proceed to the spot where a tiger has been seen4 ,the animal is usually found hidden in the long grass or jungle1 which is frequently eight or more feet in height2 and when roused1 it endeavours to creep away under the grass4 ,the movement of the leaves betrays him1 and he is checked by a rifle-ball aimed at him through the jungle4 ,finding that he cannot escape without being seen1 he turns round and springs at the nearest ,elephant1 endeavouring to clamber up it and attack the party in the howdah4 ,this is the most dangerous part of the proceedings1 as many ,elephants will turn round and run away1 regardless of the efforts of their drivers to make them face the tiger4 ,should1 however1 the ,elephant stand firm1 a well-directed ball checks the tiger in his spring2 and he then endeavours to again escape1 but a volley of rifle-balls from the backs of the other ,elephants1 who by this time have come up1 lays the savage animal prostrate1 and in a very short time his skin decorates the successful marksman's howdah4 ,illustration3 tiger ,illustration3 jungle scene ,,the ,,coney1 ,,or ,,hyrax4 ,the ,shaphan of ,scripture1 and the correct meaning of the word--,identification of the ,shaphan with the ,syrian ,hyrax--,description of the animal--,its feet1 teeth1 and apparent rumination--,passages in which the ,coney is mentioned--,habits of the animal--,its activity and wariness--,the ,south ,african ,hyrax1 and its mode of life--,difficulty of procuring it--,similarity in appearance and habits of the ,syrian species--,three species of ,hyrax known to naturalists4 ,among the many animals mentioned in the ,bible1 there is one which is evidently of some importance in the ,jewish code1 inasmuch as it is twice named in the ,mosaic law4 ,that it was also familiar to the ,jews is evident from other references which are made to its habits4 ,this animal is the ,shaphan of the ,hebrew language1 a word which has very wrongly been translated in the ,authorized ,version as ,coney1 i4e4 ,rabbit1 the creature in question not being a rabbit1 nor even a rodent4 ,no rabbit has ever been discovered in ,palestine1 and naturalists have agreed that the true ,coney or ,rabbit has never inhabited the ,holy ,land4 ,there is no doubt that the ,shaphan of the ,hebrew ,scripture1 and the ,coney of the ,vulgate1 was the ,,syrian ,,hyrax 7,hyrax ,syriacus74 ,this little animal is rather larger than an ordinary rabbit1 is not unlike it in appearance1 and has many of its habits4 ,it is clothed with brown fur1 it is very active1 it inhabits holes and clefts in rocks1 and it has in the front of its mouth long chisel-shaped teeth1 very much like those of the rabbit4 ,consequently1 it was classed by naturalists among the rodents for many years1 under the name of ,rock ,rabbit4 ,yet1 as ,i have already mentioned1 it is not even a rodent1 but belongs to the pachydermatous group of animals1 and occupies an intermediate place between the rhinoceros and the hippopotamus4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hyrax4 ,if it be examined carefully1 the rodent-like teeth will be seen to resemble exactly the long curved tusks of the hippopotamus1 with their sharp and chisel-edged tips2 the little feet1 on a close inspection1 are seen to be furnished with a set of tiny hoofs just like those of the rhinoceros2 and there are many other points in its structure which1 to the eye of a naturalist1 point out its true place in nature4 ,in common with the rodents1 and other animals which have similarly-shaped teeth1 the ,hyrax1 when at rest1 is continually working its jaws from side to side1 a movement which it instinctively performs1 in order that the chiselled edges of the upper and lower teeth may be preserved sharp by continually rubbing against each other1 and that they may not be suffered to grow too long1 and so to deprive the animal of the means whereby it gains its food4 ,but for this peculiar movement1 which looks very like the action of ruminating1 the teeth would grow far beyond the mouth1 as they rapidly deposit dental material in their bases in order to supply the waste caused at their tips by the continual friction of the edges against each other4 ,it may seem strange that an animal which is classed with the elephant1 the rhinoceros1 and the hippopotamus1 all bare-skinned animals1 should be clothed with a furry coat4 ,the reader may perhaps remember that the ,hyrax does not afford a solitary instance of this structure1 and that1 although the elephants of our day have only a few bristly hairs thinly scattered over the body1 those of former days were clad in a thick and treble coat of fur and hair4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are four passages of ,scripture in which the ,,coney is mentioned--two in which it is prohibited as food1 and two in which allusion is made to its manner of life4 ,in order to understand the subject better1 we will take them in their order4 ,the first mention of the ,coney occurs in ,leviticus xi4 #e1 among the list of clean and unclean animals3 ,the coney1 because he cheweth the cud1 but divideth not the hoof2 he is unclean unto you4 ,the second is of a like nature1 and is to be found in ,deut4 xiv4 #g3 ,these ye shall not eat of them that chew the cud1 or of them that divide the cloven hoof2 as the camel1 and the hare1 and the coney3 for they chew the cud1 but divide not the hoof2 therefore they are unclean unto you4 ,the remaining passages1 which describe the habits of the ,coney1 are as follow4 ,the first alludes to the rock-loving habits of the animal3 ,the high hills are a refuge for the wild goats1 and the rocks for the conies4 7,ps4 civ4 #ah47 ,the second makes a similar mention of the localities which the animal frequents1 and in addition speaks of its wariness1 including it among the four things which are little upon the earth1 but they are exceedingly wise4 ,the four are the ants1 the locusts1 the spiders1 and the ,conies1 which are but a feeble folk1 yet make they their houses in the rocks4 ,we will take these passages in their order4 ,it has already been mentioned that the ,hyrax1 a true pachyderm1 does not merely chew the cud1 but that the peculiar and constant movement of its jaws strongly resembles the act of rumination4 ,the ,jews1 ignorant as they were of scientific zoology1 would naturally set down the ,hyrax as a ruminant1 and would have been likely to eat it1 as its flesh is very good4 ,it must be remembered that two conditions were needful to render an animal fit to be eaten by a ,jew1 the one that it must be a ruminant1 and the second that it should have a divided hoof4 ,granting1 therefore1 the presence of the former qualification1 ,moses points out the absence of the latter1 thereby prohibiting the animal as effectually as if he had entered into a question of comparative anatomy1 and proved that the ,hyrax was incapable of rumination4 ,we now come to the habits of the animal4 ,as we may gather from the passages of ,scripture which have already been mentioned1 the ,hyrax inhabits rocky places1 and lives in the clefts that are always found in such localities4 ,it is an exceedingly active creature1 leaping from rock to rock with wonderful rapidity1 its little sharp hoofs giving it a firm hold of the hard and irregular surface of the stony ground4 ,even in captivity it retains much of its activity1 and flies about its cage with a rapidity that seems more suitable to a squirrel than to an animal allied to the rhinoceros and hippopotamus4 ,there are several species--perhaps only varieties--of the ,hyrax1 all of them identical in habits1 and almost precisely similar in appearance4 ,the best known of these animals is that which inhabits ,southern ,africa 7,hyrax ,capensis71 and which is familiar to the colonists by its name of ,klip-das1 or ,rock-rabbit4 ,in situations which suit it1 the ,hyrax is very plentiful1 and is much hunted by the natives1 who esteem its flesh very highly4 ,small and insignificant as it appears to be1 even ,europeans think that to kill the ,hyrax is a tolerable test of sportsmanship1 the wariness of the animal being so great that much hunter's craft is required to approach it4 ,the following account of the ,hyrax has been furnished to me by ,major ,a4 ,w4 ,drayson1 ,r4,a43--,in the ,cape ,colony1 and over a great portion of ,southern ,africa1 this little creature is found4 ,it is never1 as far as my experience goes1 seen in great numbers1 as we find rabbits in ,england1 though the caution of the animal is such as to enable it to remain safe in districts from which other animals are soon exterminated4 ,as its name implies1 it is found among rocks1 in the crevices and holes of which it finds a retreat4 ,when a natural cavity is not found1 the klip-das scratches a hole in the ground under the rocks1 and burrows like a common rabbit4 ,in size it is about equal to a hare1 though it is much shorter in the legs1 and has ears more like those of a rat than a rabbit4 ,its skin is covered with fur1 thick and woolly1 as though intended for a colder climate than that in which it is usually found2 and1 when seen from a distance1 it looks nearly black4 ,the rock-rabbit is a very watchful creature1 and usually feeds on the summit of any piece of rock near its home1 always choosing one from which it can obtain a good view of the surrounding country4 ,when it sees an enemy approaching1 it sits rigidly on the rock and watches him without moving1 so that at a little distance it is almost impossible to distinguish it from the rock on which it sits4 ,when it does move1 it darts quickly out of sight1 and disappears into its burrow with a sudden leap4 ,in consequence of its activity and cunning1 the rock-rabbit is seldom killed by white men2 and when a hunter does secure one1 it is generally by means of a long shot4 ,the natives usually watch near its burrow1 or noiselessly stalk it4 ,i once killed one of these animals by a very long shot from a rifle1 as it was sitting watching us from the top of a large boulder1 at a distance of a hundred and fifty yards or thereabouts4 ,the ,dutch ,boers who were with me were delighted at the sight of it1 as they said it was good eating2 and so it proved to be1 the flesh being somewhat like that of a hare1 though in our rough field-cookery we could not do justice to it4 ,this short narrative excellently illustrates the character of the animal1 which is classed among the four things which be exceeding wise4 ,it is so crafty that no trap or snare ever set has induced a ,hyrax to enter it1 and so wary that it is with difficulty to be killed even with the aid of fire-arms4 ,no animal1 writes ,mr4 ,tristram1 ever gave us so much trouble to secure4444 ,the only chance of securing one is to be concealed1 particularly about sunset or before sunrise1 on some overhanging cliff1 taking care not to let the shadow be cast below1 and then to wait until the little creatures cautiously peep forth from their holes4 ,they are said to be common by those who have not looked for them1 but are certainly not abundant in ,palestine1 and few writers have ever had more than a single glimpse of one4 ,i had the good fortune to see one feeding in the gorge of the ,kedron1 and then to watch it as it sat at the mouth of its hole1 ruminating1 metaphorically if not literally1 while waiting for sunset4 ,should the ,hyrax manage to catch a glimpse of the enemy1 it utters a shrill cry or squeal1 and darts at once to its hole--an action which is followed by all its companions as soon as they hear the warning cry4 ,it is a tolerably prolific animal1 rearing four or five young at a birth1 and keeping them in a soft bed of hay and fur1 in which they are almost hidden4 ,if surprised in its hole and seized1 the ,hyrax will bite very sharply1 its long chisel-edged teeth inflicting severe wounds on the hand that attempts to grasp it4 ,but it is of a tolerably docile disposition1 and in a short time learns to know its owner1 and to delight in receiving his caresses4 ,three species of ,hyrax are known to naturalists4 ,one is the ,klip-das1 or ,rock-rabbit1 of ,southern ,africa2 the second is the ,ashkoko of ,abyssinia2 and the third is the ,syrian ,hyrax1 or the ,coney of the ,bible4 ,the two last species have often been confounded together1 but the ,syrian animal may be known by the oblong pale spot on the middle of its back4 ,illustration3 ,,hippopotamus4 ,,behemoth4 ,literal translation of the word ,behemoth--,various theories respecting the identity of the animal--,the ,hippopotamus known to the ancient ,hebrews--,geographical range of the animal--,he eateth grass like the ox--,ravages of the ,hippopotamus among the crops--,structure of the mouth and teeth--,the sword or scythe of the ,hippopotamus--,some strange theories--,haunts of the ,hippopotamus--,the ,egyptian hunter--,a valuable painting--,strength of the ,hippopotamus--,rising of the ,nile--,modern hunters--,wariness of the ,hippopotamus--,the pitfall and the drop-trap4 ,in the concluding part of that wonderful poem which is so familiar to us as the ,book of ,job1 the ,lord is represented as reproving the murmurs of ,job1 by showing that he could not even understand the mysteries of the universe1 much less the purposes of the ,creator4 ,by presuming to bring a charge of injustice against his ,maker1 he in fact inferred that the accuser was more competent to govern the world than was the ,creator1 and thus laid himself open to the unanswerable irony of the splendid passages contained in chapters xl4 xli41 which show that man cannot even rule the animals1 his fellow-creatures1 much less control the destinies of the human race4 ,the passages with which we are at present concerned are to be found at the end of the fortieth chapter1 and contain a most powerful description of some animal which is called by the name of ,behemoth4 ,now this word only occurs once in the whole of the ,scriptures1 i4e4 in ,job xl4 #ae3 ,behold now behemoth1 which ,i made with thee1 c4 ,some commentators1 in consequence of the plural termination of the word1 which may be literally translated as beasts1 have thought that it was a collective term for all the largest beasts of the world1 such as the elephant1 the hippopotamus1 the wild cattle1 and their like4 ,others have thought that the elephant was signified by the word ,behemoth2 and some later writers1 acquainted with palontology1 have put forward a conjecture that the ,behemoth must have been some extinct pachydermatous animal1 like the dinotherium1 in which might be combined many of the qualities of the elephant and hippopotamus4 ,it is now1 however1 agreed by all ,biblical scholars and naturalists1 that the hippopotamus1 and no other animal1 is the creature which was signified by the word ,behemoth1 and this interpretation is followed in the ,jewish ,bible4 ,we will now take the whole of the passage1 and afterwards examine it by degrees1 comparing the ,authorized ,version with the ,jewish ,bible1 and noting at the same time one or two variations in the rendering of certain phrases4 ,the passage is given as follows in the ,jewish ,bible1 and may be compared with our ,authorized ,version3-- ,behold now the river-horse1 which ,i have made with thee3 he eateth grass like an ox4 ,lo now1 his strength is in his loins1 and his vigour is in the muscles of his body4 ,he moveth his tail like a cedar3 the sinews of his thighs are wrapped together4 ,his bones are pipes of copper2 his bones are like bars of iron4 ,he is the chief of the ways of ,god3 he that made him can alone reach his sword4 ,that the mountains should bring forth food for him1 and all the beasts of the field play there4 ,he lieth under wild lotuses1 in the covert of the reed1 and fens4 ,wild lotuses cover him with their shadow2 willows of the brook compass him about4 ,behold1 should a river overflow1 he hasteth not3 he feels secure should ,jordan burst forth up to his mouth4 ,he taketh it in with his eyes3 his nose pierceth through snares4 ,we will now take this description in detail1 and see how far it applies to the now familiar habits of the hippopotamus4 ,a little allowance must of course be made for poetical imagery1 but we shall find that in all important details the account of the ,behemoth agrees perfectly with the appearance and habits of the hippopotamus4 ,in the first place1 it is evident that we may dismiss from our minds the idea that the ,behemoth was an extinct pachyderm4 ,the whole tenor of the passage shows that it must have been an animal then existing1 and whose habits were familiar to ,job and his friends4 ,now the date of the ,book of ,job could not have been earlier than about #aejj ,b4,c41 and in consequence1 the ideas of a palozoic animal must be discarded4 ,we may also dismiss the elephant1 inasmuch as it was most unlikely that ,job should have known anything about the animal1 and it is certain that he could not have attained the familiarity with its appearance and habits which is inferred by the context4 ,moreover1 it cannot be said of the elephant that he eateth grass as an ox4 ,the elephant feeds chiefly on the leaves of trees1 and when he does eat grass1 he cannot do so like an ox1 but plucks it with his proboscis1 and then puts the green tufts into his mouth4 ,so characteristic a gesture as this would never have passed unnoticed in a description so full of detail4 ,that the hippopotamus was known to the ancient ,hebrews is certain4 ,after their sojourn in ,egypt they had necessarily become familiarized with it2 and if1 as most commentators believe1 the date of the ,book of ,job be subsequent to the liberation of the ,israelites1 there is no difficulty in assuming that ,job and his companions were well acquainted with the animal4 ,even if the book be of an earlier date1 it is still possible that the hippopotamus may1 in those days1 have lived in rivers where it is now as much extinct as it is in ,england4 ,mr4 ,tristram remarks on this point3 ,no hippopotamus is found in ,asia1 but there is no reason for asserting that it may not have had an eastern range as far as ,palestine1 and wallowed in the ,jordan2 for its bones are found in the dbris of the rivers of ,algeria1 flowing into the ,mediterranean1 when tradition is quite silent as to its former existence4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hippopotamus4 ,there is no doubt that the hippopotamus and the urus were the two largest animals known to the ,jews1 and it is probably on that account that the former received the name of ,behemoth4 ,assuming1 therefore1 that the ,behemoth is identical with the hippopotamus1 we will proceed with the description4 ,he eateth grass like the ox4 ,the word which is here rendered grass is translated in ,numb4 xi4 #e as leeks4 ,it means1 something that is green1 and is probably used to signify green herbage of any description4 ,now it is perfectly true of the hippopotamus that it eats grass like an ox1 or like cattle1 as the passage may be translated4 ,in order to supply its huge massive body with nourishment1 it consumes vast quantities of food4 ,the mouth is enormously broad and shovel-shaped1 so as to take in a large quantity of food at once2 and the gape is so wide1 that when the animal opens its jaws to their full extent it seems to split its head into two nearly equal portions4 ,this great mobility of jaw is assisted by the peculiar form of the gape1 which takes a sudden turn upwards1 and reaches almost to the eyes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,jaws ,,of ,,the ,,hippopotamus4 ,just as the mouth is formed to contain a vast quantity of food1 so the jaws and teeth are made to procure it4 ,from the front of the lower jaw the incisor teeth project horizontally1 no longer performing the ordinary duties of teeth1 but being modified into tusks1 which are in all probability used as levers for prising up the vegetables on which the animal lives4 ,but the most singular portion of the jaw is the mode in which the canine teeth are modified so as to resemble the incisor teeth of rodents1 and to perform a similar office4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hippopotamus4 ,these teeth are very long1 curved1 and chisel-edged at their tips1 their shape being preserved by continual attrition1 just as has been mentioned of the hyrax4 ,the material of the teeth is peculiarly hard1 so much so1 indeed1 that it is in great request for artificial teeth1 the verniers of philosophical instruments1 and similar purposes4 ,consequently1 with these teeth the hippopotamus can cut through the stems of thick and strong herbage as with shears1 and the strength of its jaws is so great that an angered hippopotamus has been known to bite a man completely in two1 and to crush a canoe to fragments with a single movement of its enormous jaws4 ,keeping this description in our minds1 we shall see how true is the statement in verse #ai4 ,this passage is not adequately rendered in the ,authorized ,version3 the word which is translated as sword also signifies a scythe1 and evidently having that meaning in the text4 ,the passage is best translated thus3 ,his ,maker hath furnished him with his scythe4 ,the havoc which such an animal can make among growing crops may be easily imagined4 ,it is fond of leaving the river1 and forcing its way into cultivated grounds1 where it eats vast quantities of green food1 and destroys as much as it eats1 by the trampling of its heavy feet4 ,owing to the width of the animal1 the feet are placed very far apart1 and the consequence is that the hippopotamus makes a double path1 the feet of each side trampling down the herbage1 and causing the track to look like a double rut1 with an elevated ridge between them4 ,some little difficulty has been made respecting the passage in verse #bj1 ,surely the mountains bring him forth food4 ,commentators ignorant of the habits of the hippopotamus1 and not acquainted with the character of the country where it lives1 have thought that the animal only lived in the rivers1 and merely found its food along its banks1 or at most upon the marshes at the river-side4 ,the hippopotamus1 say they1 is not a dweller on the mountains1 but an inhabitant of the river1 and therefore this passage cannot rightly be applied to the animal4 ,now1 in the first place1 the word harim1 which is translated as mountains in the ,authorized ,version1 is rendered as hills by many ,hebraists4 ,moreover1 as we know from many passages of ,scripture1 the word mountain is applied to any elevated spot1 without reference to its height4 ,such places are very common along the banks of the ,nile1 and are employed for the culture of vegetables1 which would not grow properly upon the flat and marshy lands around them4 ,these spots are very attractive to the hippopotamus1 who likes a change of diet1 and thus finds food upon the mountains4 ,in many parts of ,egypt the river runs through a mountainous country1 so that the hills are within a very short distance of the water1 and are easily reached by the hippopotamus4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hippopotamus ,,eating ,,grass4 ,we will now proceed to the next verse4 ,after mentioning that the ,behemoth can eat grass like an ox1 and finds its food upon the hills1 the sacred writer proceeds to show that in its moments of repose it is an inhabitant of the rivers and marshy ground3 ,he lieth under the shady trees1 in the covert of the reed1 and fens4 ,the shady trees cover him with their shadow2 the willows of the brook compass him about4 ,here ,i may remind the reader that the compound ,hebrew word which is rendered in the ,authorized ,version as shady trees is translated by some persons as wild lotuses--a rendering which is followed by the editor of the ,jewish ,bible4 ,apparently1 however1 the ,authorized ,version gives a more correct meaning of the term4 ,judging from a well-known ,egyptian painting1 which represents a hunter in the act of harpooning the hippopotamus1 the tall papyrus reeds are the plants that are signified by this word1 which occurs in no other place in the ,scriptures4 ,nothing can be more accurate than this description of the habits of the animal4 ,i have now before me a number of sketches by ,mr4 ,t4 ,baines1 representing various incidents in the life of the hippopotamus2 and in one or two of them1 the little islands that stud the river1 as well as the banks themselves1 are thickly clothed with reeds mixed with papyrus1 the whole being exactly similar to those which are represented in the conventional style of ,egyptian art4 ,these spots are the favourite haunts of the hippopotamus1 which loves to lie under their shadow1 its whole body remaining concealed in the water1 and only the eyes1 ears1 and nostrils appearing above the surface4 ,as reference will be made to this painting when we come to the ,leviathan1 it will be as well to describe it in detail4 ,in order that the reader should fully understand it1 ,i have had it translated1 so to speak1 from the conventional outline of ,egyptian art into perspective1 exactly as has been done with the ,assyrian and ,egyptian chariots4 ,in the foreground is seen the hunter1 standing on a boat that closely resembles the raft-boat which is still in use in several parts of ,africa4 ,it is made of the very light wood called ambatch1 by cutting down the requisite number of trees1 laying them side by side so that their bases form the stern and their points the bow of the extemporized boat4 ,they are then firmly lashed together1 the pointed ends turned upwards1 and the simple vessel is complete4 ,it is1 in fact1 nothing more than a raft of triangular shape1 but the wood is so buoyant that it answers every purpose4 ,in his hand the hunter grasps the harpoon which he is about to launch at the hippopotamus4 ,this is evidently the same weapon which is still employed for that purpose4 ,it consists of a long shaft1 into the end of which a barbed iron point is loosely inserted4 ,to the iron point is attached one end of a rope1 and to the other end1 which is held in the left hand of the harpooner1 a float of ambatch wood is fastened4 ,when the weapon is thrown1 the furious struggles of the wounded animal disengage the shaft of the harpoon1 which is regained by the hunter2 and as it dashes through the water1 throwing up spray as it goes1 the ambatch float keeps the end of the rope at the surface1 so that it can be seen as soon as the animal becomes quieter4 ,sometimes it dives to the bottom1 and remains there as long as its breath can hold out2 and when it comes up to breathe1 it only pushes the nostrils out of the water under the shadow of the reeds1 so that but for the float it might manage to escape4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,hippopotamus ,,hunt ,,in ,,egypt4 7,this picture is taken from an ancient ,egyptian painting47 ,in the meantime1 guided by the float1 the hunter follows the course of the animal1 and1 as soon as it comes within reach of his weapon1 drives another spear into it1 and so proceeds until the animal dies from loss of blood4 ,the modern hunters never throw a second harpoon unless the one already fixed gives way1 mainly employing a spear to inflict the last wounds4 ,but if we may judge from this painting1 the ,egyptian hunter attached a new rope with every cast of his weapon1 and1 when the hippopotamus became weak from its wounds1 gathered up the ropes and came to close quarters4 ,in the bow of the boat is the hunter's assistant1 armed with a rope made lasso-wise into a noose1 which he is throwing over the head of the hippopotamus1 whose attitude and expression show evidently1 in spite of the rudeness of the drawing1 the impotent anger of the weakened animal4 ,behind the hippopotamus are the tall and dense reeds and papyrus under the shelter of which the animal loves to lie1 and on the surface of the water float the beautiful white flowers of the lotus4 ,in the ,egyptian painting1 the artist1 in spite of the conventionalities to which he was bound1 has depicted the whole scene with skill and spirit4 ,the head and open mouth of the hippopotamus are remarkably fine1 and show that the artist who drew the animal must have seen it when half mad with pain1 and half dead from loss of blood4 ,the enormous strength of the hippopotamus is shown in verses #af1 #ah1 the last of which passages requires a little explanation4 ,two different words are used here to express the bones of the animal4 ,the first is derived from a word signifying strength1 and means the strong bones1 i4e4 those of the legs4 ,these are hollow1 and are therefore aptly compared to tubes or pipes of copper4 ,the second term is thought by some ,hebraists to refer to the rib-bones1 which are solid1 and therefore are not likened to tubes1 but to bars of iron4 ,the #bc;d verse has been translated rather variously4 ,the ,authorized ,version can be seen by reference to a ,bible1 and another translation1 that of the ,jewish ,bible1 is given on page #cgd4 ,a third1 and perhaps the best rendering of this passage is given by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,drake1 in ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,lo1 the river swelleth proudly against him1 yet he is not alarmed2 he is securely confident though a ,jordan burst forth against his mouth4 ,in all probability reference is here made to the annual rising of the ,nile1 and the inundations which it causes4 ,in some years1 when it rises much above its usual height1 the floods become most disastrous4 ,whole villages are swept away1 and scarcely a vestige of the mud-built houses is left2 the dead bodies of human beings are seen intermixed with those of cattle1 and the whole country is one scene of desolation4 ,yet the almost amphibious hippopotamus cares nothing for the floods1 as long as it can find food1 and so1 though the river swelleth proudly against him1 he is not alarmed4 ,from the use of the word ,jordan in the same verse1 it might be thought that the river of ,palestine was intended4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,the word ,jordan is simply used as a poetical term for any river1 and is derived from a ,hebrew word which signifies descending quickly4 ,we now come to the last verse of this noble description3 ,he taketh it in with his eyes4 ,these words have also been variously rendered1 some translating them as ,he receiveth it 7i4e4 the river7 up to his eyes4 ,but the translation which seems to suit the context best is1 ,who will take him when in his sight8 ,his nose pierceth through 7i4e4 detects7 snares4 ,now1 this faculty of detecting snares is one of the chief characteristics of the hippopotamus1 when it lives near places inhabited by mankind1 who are always doing their best to destroy it4 ,in the first place1 its body gives them an almost unlimited supply of flesh1 the fat is very highly valued for many purposes1 the teeth are sold to the ivory-dealers1 and the hide is cut up into whips1 or khoorbashes4 ,there is now before me a khoorbash1 purchased from a native ,egyptian who was beating a servant with it4 ,the whip is identical with that which was used by the ancient ,egyptians in urging the ,israelites to their tasks1 and the scene reminded the traveller so forcibly of the old ,scriptural times that he rescued the unfortunate servant1 and purchased the khoorbash1 which is now in my collection4 ,not content with hunting the hippopotamus1 the natives contrive various traps1 either pitfalls or drop-traps4 ,the former are simply pits dug in the path of the animal1 covered with sticks and reeds1 and having at the bottom a sharp stake on which the victim is impaled1 and so effectually prevented from escaping or damaging the pit by its struggles4 ,the drop-trap is a log of wood1 weighted with stones1 and having at one end an iron spike1 which is sometimes poisoned4 ,the path which the animal takes is watched1 a conveniently overhanging branch is selected1 and from that branch the cruel spear is suspended1 by a catch or trigger1 exactly over the centre of the path4 ,there is no difficulty in finding the precise centre of the path1 owing to the peculiar gait of the animal1 which has already been described4 ,one end of the trigger supports the spear1 and to the other is attached a rope1 which is brought across the path in such a way that when touched it relieves the spear1 which is driven deeply into the animal's back4 ,if well hung1 the spear-blade divides the spine1 and the wounded animal falls on the spot1 but1 even if it should miss a vital part1 the poison soon does its fatal work4 ,illustration3 ,,hippopotamus ,,and ,,trap4 ,in consequence of the continual persecution to which it is subjected1 the hippopotamus becomes exceedingly wary1 and1 huge1 clumsy1 and blundering as it looks1 is clever enough to detect either pitfall or drop-trap that have not been contrived with especial care4 ,an old and experienced hippopotamus becomes so wary that he will be suspicious even of a bent twig1 and1 rather than venture across it1 he will leave the path1 force for himself a roundabout passage1 and return to the path beyond the object that alarmed him4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,baines1 to whose sketches ,i am indebted for the illustration1 told me that the hippopotamus is possessed of much more intellect than might be expected from a creature of so dull1 clumsy1 and unpromising aspect4 ,apathetic it generally is1 and1 as long as it is left unmolested1 does not care to molest even the human beings that intrude upon its repose4 ,it likes to lie in the shade of the reeds and rushes1 and may be seen floating in the water1 with only the nostrils1 the eyes1 and the ears above the surface1 these organs being set in a line along the head1 evidently for the purpose of allowing the whole body to be hidden under water while the three most important senses are capable of acting4 ,a canoe-man who knows the habits of the hippopotamus will fearlessly take his fragile vessel through a herd of the animals1 knowing that1 if he only avoids contact with them1 they will not interfere with him4 ,the only danger is1 that a hippopotamus may rise under the canoe1 and strike itself against the boat1 in which case the animal is rather apt to consider the intruding object as an enemy1 and to attack it1 sometimes crushing the canoe between its teeth1 and mostly upsetting it1 and throwing the crew into the water4 ,in such a case1 the men always dive at once to the bottom of the river1 and hold on to some weed or rock as long as they can exist without breathing4 ,the reason for this proceeding is1 that the hippopotamus always looks for its enemy upon the surface of the water1 and1 if the men were to swim to shore1 they would be caught and killed before they had swum many strokes4 ,but1 as it sees nothing but the damaged canoe1 its short-lived anger vanishes1 and it sinks again into the river1 leaving the men at liberty to regain and repair their vessel4 ,there is one passage in the description of the ,behemoth which requires a few words of explanation3 ,he moveth his tail like a cedar 7v4 #ag74 ,several commentators have imagined that this expression shows that the ,behemoth must have been an animal which had a very long and powerful tail1 and have adduced the passage as a proof that the crocodile was the animal that was signified by the ,behemoth4 ,others1 again1 have shifted the position of the tail1 and1 by rendering it as the proboscis1 have identified the ,behemoth with the elephant4 ,there is1 however1 no necessity for straining the interpretation1 the passage evidently signifying that the member in question is stiff and inflexible as the cedar-stem4 ,illustration3 lily pad scene ,illustration3 ,,baboon4 ,,the ,,ape4 ,the ,monkey tribe rarely mentioned in ,scripture--,why the ,ape was introduced into ,palestine--,solomon's ships1 and their cargo of ,apes1 peacocks1 ivory1 and gold--,various species of ,monkey that might have been imported--,habits of the ,monkey1 and reverence in which it is held by the natives--,the ,egyptians and their ,baboon worship--,idols and memorials--,the ,wanderoo--its singular aspect--,reasons why it should be introduced into ,palestine--,general habits of the ,wanderoo--,various species of ,monkey that may be included in the term ,kophim4 ,animals belonging to the monkey tribe are but sparingly mentioned in ,holy ,writ4 ,if1 as is possible1 the ,satyr of ,scripture signifies some species of baboon1 there are but three passages either in the ,old or ,new ,testament where these animals are mentioned4 ,in #a ,kings x4 #bb1 and the parallel passage #b ,chron4 ix4 #ba1 the sacred historian makes a passing allusion to apes as forming part of the valuable cargoes which were brought by ,solomon's fleet to ,tharshish1 the remaining articles being gold1 ivory1 and peacocks4 ,the remaining passage occurs in ,is4 xiii4 #ba1 where the prophet foretells that on the site of ,babylon satyrs shall dance4 ,the reason for this reticence is simple enough4 ,no monkey was indigenous to ,palestine when the various writers of the ,bible lived1 and all their knowledge of such animals must have been derived either from the description of sailors1 or from the sight of the few specimens that were brought as curiosities from foreign lands4 ,such specimens must have been extremely rare or they would not have been mentioned as adjuncts to the wealth of ,solomon1 the wealthiest1 as well as the wisest monarch of his time4 ,to the mass of the people they must have been practically unknown1 and therefore hold but a very inferior place in the ,scriptures1 which were addressed to all mankind4 ,there is scarcely any familiar animal1 bird1 reptile or insect1 which is not used in some metaphorical sense in the imagery which pervades the whole of the ,scriptures4 ,for example1 the various carnivorous animals1 such as the lion1 wolf1 and bear1 are used as emblems of destruction in various ways2 while the carnivorous birds1 such as the eagle and hawk1 and the destructive insects1 such as the locust and the caterpillar1 are all similarly employed in strengthening and illustrating the words of ,holy ,writ4 ,but we never find any animal of the monkey tribe mentioned metaphorically1 possibly because any monkeys that were imported into ,palestine must only have been intended as objects of curiosity1 just as the peacocks which accompanied them were objects of beauty1 and the gold and ivory objects of value--all being employed in the decoration of the king's palace4 ,the question that now comes before us is the species of monkey that is signified by the ,hebrew word ,kophim4 ,in modern days1 we distinguish this tribe of animals into three great sections1 namely1 the apes1 the baboons1 and the monkey2 and according to this arrangement the ape1 being without tails1 must have been either the chimpanzee of ,africa1 the orang-outan of ,sumatra1 or one of the ,gibbons4 ,but there is no reason to imagine that the word ,kophim was intended to represent any one of these animals1 and it seems evident that the word was applied to any species of monkey1 whether it had a tail or not4 ,perhaps the best method of ascertaining approximately the particular species of monkey1 is to notice the land from which the animals came4 ,accordingly1 we find that the ships of ,solomon brought gold1 ivory1 apes1 and peacocks1 and that they evidently brought their cargoes from the same country4 ,consequently1 the country in question must produce gold1 and must be inhabited by the monkey tribe1 by the elephant1 and by the peacock4 ,if the peacock had not been thus casually mentioned1 we should have been at a loss to identify the particular country to which reference is made2 but the mention of that bird shows that some part of ,asia must be signified4 ,it is most probable that the vessels in question visited both ,india and ,ceylon1 although1 owing to the very imperfect geographical knowledge of the period1 it is not possible to assert absolutely that this is the case4 ,in ,india1 however1 and the large island of ,ceylon1 gold1 elephants1 peacocks1 and monkeys exist2 and therefore we will endeavour to identify the animals which are mentioned under the general term ,apes1 or ,kophim4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rhesus ,,monkey4 ,we are quite safe in suggesting that some of the apes in question must have belonged to the ,macaques1 and it is most likely that one of them was the ,,rhesus ,,monkey4 ,illustration3 ,,feeding ,,the ,,monkeys ,,in ,,india4 ,this animal is very plentiful in ,india1 and is one of the many creatures which are held sacred by the natives4 ,consequently1 it takes up its quarters near human habitations1 feeling sure that it will not be injured1 and knowing that plenty of food is at hand4 ,it is said that in some parts of ,india the natives always leave one-tenth of their grain-crops for the monkeys1 and thus the animals content themselves with this offering1 and refrain from devastating the fields1 as they would otherwise do4 ,this story may be true or not4 ,it is certainly possible that in a long series of years the monkeys of that neighbourhood have come to look upon their tithe as a matter belonging to the ordinary course of things2 but whether it be true or not1 it illustrates the reverence entertained by the ,hindoos for their monkeys4 ,in many places where grain and fruit crops are cultivated1 the monkeys get rather more than their share1 plundering without scruple1 and finding no hindrance from the rightful owners1 who dare not drive them away1 lest they should injure any of these sacred beings4 ,however1 being of the opinion that no evil will follow a foreigner's action1 they are only too glad to avail themselves of the assistance of ,europeans1 who have no scruples on the subject4 ,still1 although they are pleased to see the monkeys driven off1 and their crops saved1 they would rather lose all their harvest than allow a single monkey to be killed1 and in the earlier years of the ,indian colony1 several riots took place between the natives and the ,english1 because the latter had killed a monkey through ignorance of the reverence in which it was held4 ,illustration3 ,,troublesome ,,neighbors4 ,another monkey which may probably have been brought to ,palestine from ,india is the ,,hoonuman1 ,,entellus1 or ,,makur1 which is more reverenced by the ,hindoos than any other species4 ,its scientific title is ,presbytes entellus4 ,in some parts of ,india it is worshipped as a form of divinity1 and in all it is reverenced and protected to such an extent that it becomes a positive nuisance to ,europeans who are not influenced by the same superstitious ideas as those which are so prevalent in ,india4 ,being a very common species1 it could easily be captured1 especially if1 as is likely to be the case1 it was fearless of man through long immunity from harm4 ,the sailors who manned ,solomon's navy would not trouble themselves about the sacred character of the monkeys1 but would take them without the least scruple wherever they could be found4 ,illustration3 ,,monkeys ,,entering ,a ,,plantation4 ,the ,hoonuman would also be valued by them on account of its docility when taken young1 and the amusing tricks which it is fond of displaying in captivity as well as in a state of freedom4 ,moreover1 it is rather a pretty creature1 the general colour being yellowish1 and the face black4 ,illustration3 ,,slothful ,,monkeys4 ,perfectly aware of the impunity with which they are permitted to act1 these monkeys prefer human habitations to the forests which form the natural home of their race1 and crowd into the villages and temples1 the latter being always swarming with the long-tailed host4 ,as is the case with the ,rhesus1 the ,hoonuman monkeys are much too fond of helping themselves from the shops and stalls1 and if they can find a convenient roof1 will sit there and watch for the arrival of the most dainty fruits4 ,however1 the natives1 superstitious as they are1 and unwilling to inflict personal injury on a monkey1 have no scruple in making arrangements by which a monkey that trespasses on forbidden spots will inflict injury on itself4 ,they may not shoot or wound in any way the monkeys which cluster on their roofs1 and the animals are so perfectly aware of the fact1 that they refuse to be driven away by shouts and menacing gestures4 ,but1 they contrive to make the roofs so uncomfortable by covering them with thorns1 that the monkeys are obliged to quit their points of vantage1 and to choose some spot where they can sit down without fear of hurting themselves4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,privileged ,,race4 ,that the ,hindoos should pay homage almost divine to a monkey1 does seem equally absurd and contemptible4 ,but1 strange as this superstition may be1 and the more strange because the intellectual powers of the educated ,hindoos are peculiarly subtle and penetrating1 it was shared by a greater1 a mightier1 and a still more intellectual race1 now extinct as a nation4 ,the ancient ,egyptians worshipped the baboon1 and ranked it among the most potent of their deities2 and it can but strike us with wonder when we reflect that a people who could erect buildings perfectly unique in the history of the world1 who held the foremost place in civilization1 who perfected arts which we1 at a distance of three thousand years1 have only just learned1 should pay divine honours to monkeys1 bulls1 and snakes4 ,such1 however1 was the case2 and we find that the modern ,hindoo shows as great reverence for the identical animals as did the ,egyptian when ,pharaoh was king1 and ,joseph his prime minister4 ,it is said by some1 that neither the ,egyptian of the ancient times1 nor the ,hindoo of the present day1 actually worshipped these creatures1 but that they reverenced them as external signs of some attribute of ,god4 ,precisely the same remarks have been made as to the worship of idols1 and it is likely enough that the highly educated among the worshippers did look upon a serpent merely as an emblem of divine wisdom1 a bull as an image of divine strength1 and a monkey as an external memorial of the promised incarnation of divinity4 ,so with idols1 which to the man of educated and enlarged mind were nothing but visible symbols employed for the purpose of directing the mind in worship4 ,but1 though this was the case with the educated and intellectual1 the ignorant and uncultivated1 who compose the great mass of a nation1 did undoubtedly believe that both the living animal and the lifeless idol were themselves divine1 and did worship them accordingly4 ,there is one species of monkey1 which is extremely likely to have been brought to ,palestine1 and used for the adornment of a luxurious monarch's palace4 ,this is the ,,wanderoo1 or ,,nil-,,bhunder 7,silenus veter74 ,the ,wanderoo1 or ,ouanderoo1 as the name is sometimes spelled1 is a very conspicuous animal1 on account of the curious mane that covers its neck and head1 and the peculiarly formed tail1 which is rather long and tufted1 like that of a baboon1 and has caused it to be ranked among those animals by several writers1 under the name of the ,lion-tailed ,baboon4 ,that part of the hairy mass which rolls over the head is nearly black1 but as it descends over the shoulders1 it assumes a greyer tinge1 and in some specimens is nearly white4 ,as is the case with many animals1 the mane is not noticeable in the young specimens1 but increases in size with age1 only reaching its full dimensions when the animal has attained adult age4 ,only in the oldest specimens is the full1 white1 venerable1 wig-like mane to be seen in perfection4 ,in captivity1 the general demeanour of this monkey corresponds with its grave and dignified aspect4 ,it seems to be more sedate than the ordinary monkeys1 to judge from the specimens which have lived in the ,zoological ,gardens1 and sits peering with its shiny brown eyes out of the enormous mane1 with as much gravity as if it were really a judge deciding an important case in law4 ,not that it will not condescend to the little tricks and playful sallies for which the monkeys are so celebrated2 but it soon loses the vivacity of youth1 and when full-grown1 presents as great a contrast to its former vivacity1 as does a staid full-grown cat sitting by the fire1 to the restless1 lively1 playful kitten of three months old4 ,during its growth1 it can be taught to go through several amusing performances1 but it has little of the quick1 mercurial manner1 which is generally found among the monkey tribe4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wanderoo4 ,the docility of the ,wanderoo often vanishes together with its youth4 ,the same animal may be gentle1 tractable1 and teachable when young1 and yet1 when a few years have passed over its head and whitened its mane1 may be totally obstinate and dull4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,enemy ,,discovered4 ,the natives of the country in which the ,wanderoo lives1 attribute to it the wisdom which its venerable aspect seems to imply1 much as the ancient ,athenians venerated the owl as the bird of wisdom1 and the chosen companion of the learned ,minerva4 ,in many places1 the ,wanderoo is thought to be a sort of king among monkeys1 and to enjoy the same supremacy over its maneless kinsfolk1 that the king-vulture maintains over the other vultures which are destitute of the brilliant crest that marks its rank4 ,i am induced to believe that the ,wanderoo must have been one of the monkeys which were brought to ,solomon1 for two reasons4 ,in the first place1 it is a native both of ,india and ,ceylon1 and therefore might have formed an article of merchandise1 together with the peacock1 gold1 and ivory4 ,and if1 as is extremely probable1 the ,tharshish of the ,scripture is identical with ,ceylon1 it is almost certain that the ,wanderoo would have been brought to ,solomon1 in order to increase the glories of his palace4 ,sir ,emerson ,tennant points out very forcibly1 that in the ,tamil language1 the words for apes1 ivory1 and peacocks1 are identical with the ,hebrew names for the same objects1 and thus gives a very strong reason for supposing that ,ceylon was the country from which ,solomon's fleet drew its supplies4 ,another reason for conjecturing that the ,wanderoo would have been one of the animals sent to grace the palace of ,solomon is this4 ,in the days when that mighty sovereign lived1 as indeed has been the case in all partially civilized countries1 the kings and rulers have felt a pride in collecting together the rarest objects which they could purchase1 giving the preference to those which were in any way conspicuous1 whether for intrinsic value1 for size1 for beauty1 or for ugliness4 ,thus1 giants1 dwarfs1 and deformed persons of either sex1 and even idiots1 were seen as regular attendants at royal courts1 a custom which extended even into the modern history of ,england1 the ,fool being an indispensable appendage to the train of every person of rank4 ,animals from foreign lands were also prized1 and value was set upon them1 not only for their variety1 but for any external characteristic which would make them especially conspicuous4 ,ordinary sovereigns would make collections of such objects1 simply because they were rare1 and in accordance with the general custom2 and in importing the apes and peacocks together with the gold and ivory1 ,solomon but followed the usual custom4 ,he1 however1 on whom the gift of wisdom had been especially bestowed1 would have another motive besides ostentation or curiosity4 ,he was learned in the study of that science which we now call ,natural ,history4 ,it is1 therefore1 extremely probable1 that he would not neglect any opportunities of procuring animals from distant lands1 in order that he might study the products of countries which he had not personally visited1 and it is not likely that so conspicuous an animal as the ,wanderoo would have escaped the notice of those who provided the cargo for which so wealthy a king could pay1 and for which they would demand a price proportionate to its variety4 ,illustration3 ,,bonnet ,,monkeys4 ,there is perhaps no monkey which is so conspicuous among its kin as the ,wanderoo1 and certainly no monkey or ape inhabiting those parts of the world to which the fleet of ,solomon would have access4 ,its staid1 sedate manners1 its black body1 lion-like tail1 and huge white-edged mane1 would distinguish it so boldly from its kinsfolk1 that the sailors would use all their efforts to capture an animal for which they would be likely to obtain a high price4 ,the peculiar and unique character of ,solomon affords good reason for conjecture that1 not only were several species of the monkey tribe included under the general word ,kophim1 but that the number of species must have been very great4 ,he wrote largely of the various productions of the earth1 and1 to judge him by ourselves1 it is certain that with such magnificent means at his command1 he would have ransacked every country that his ships could visit1 for the purpose of collecting materials for his works4 ,it is therefore almost certain that under the word ,kophim may be included all the most plentiful species of monkey which inhabit the countries to which his fleet had access1 and that in his palace were collected together specimens of each monkey which has here been mentioned1 besides many others of which no special notice need be taken1 such as the ,bonnet ,monkeys1 and other ,macaques4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bat4 ,,the ,,bat4 ,the ,bat mentioned always with abhorrence--,meaning of the ,hebrew name--,the prohibition against eating ,bats--,the edible species1 their food and mode of life--,the noisome character of the ,bat1 and the nature of its dwelling-place--,its hatred of light--,mr4 ,tristram's discoveries--,bats found in the quarries from which the stone of the ,temple was hewn--,edible ,bats in a cave near the centre of ,palestine--,another species of long-tailed ,bat captured in the rock caves where hermits had been buried--,other species which probably inhabit ,palestine4 ,among the animals that are forbidden to be eaten by the ,israelites we find the ,,bat prominently mentioned1 and in one or two parts of ,scripture the same creature is alluded to with evident abhorrence4 ,in ,isaiah ii4 #bj1 for example1 it is prophesied that when the day of the ,lord comes1 the worshippers of idols will try to hide themselves from the presence of the ,lord1 and will cast their false gods to the bats and the moles1 both animals being evidently used as emblems of darkness and ignorance1 and associated together for a reason which will be given when treating of the mole4 ,the ,hebrew name of the ,bat is expressive of its nocturnal habits1 and literally signifies some being that flies by night1 and it is a notable fact that the ,greek and ,latin names for the bat have also a similar derivation4 ,in ,lev4 xi4 #bj1 the words1 ,all fowls that creep1 going upon all four1 shall be an abomination unto you1 are evidently intended to apply to the bat1 which1 as is now well known1 is not a bird with wings1 but a mammal with very long toes1 and a well developed membrane between them4 ,like other mammals1 the ,bat crawls1 or walks1 on all four legs1 though the movement is but a clumsy one1 and greatly different from the graceful ease with which the creature urges its course through the evening air in search of food4 ,perhaps the prohibition to eat so unsightly an animal may seem almost needless2 but it must be remembered that in several parts of the earth1 certain species of ,bat are used as food4 ,these are chiefly the large species1 that are called ,kalongs1 and which feed almost entirely on fruit1 thus being to their insectivorous relatives what the fruit-loving bear is among the larger carnivora4 ,these edible ,bats have other habits not shared by the generality of their kin4 ,some of the species do not retire to caves and hollow trees for shelter during their hours of sleep1 but suspend themselves by their hind legs from the topmost branches of the trees whose fruit affords them nourishment4 ,in this position they have a most singular aspect1 looking much as if they themselves were large bunches of fruit hanging from the boughs4 ,thus1 they are cleanly animals1 and are as little repulsive as bats can be expected to be4 ,but the ordinary bats1 such as are signified by the night-fliers of the ,scriptures1 are1 when in a state of nature1 exceedingly unpleasant creatures4 ,almost all animals are infested with parasitic insects1 but the ,bat absolutely swarms with them1 so that it is impossible to handle a ,bat recently dead without finding some of them on the hands4 ,also1 the bats are in the habit of resorting to caverns1 clefts in the rocks1 deserted ruins1 and similar dark places1 wherein they pass the hours of daylight1 and will frequent the same spots for a long series of years4 ,in consequence of this habit1 the spots which they select for their resting place become inconceivably noisome1 and can scarcely be entered by human beings1 so powerful is the odour with which they are imbued4 ,sometimes1 when travellers have been exploring the chambers of ruined buildings1 or have endeavoured to penetrate into the recesses of rocky caves1 they have been repelled by the bats which had taken up their habitation therein4 ,no sooner does the light of the torch or lamp shine upon the walls1 than the clusters of bats detach themselves from the spots to which they had been clinging1 and fly to the light like moths to a candle4 ,no torch can withstand the multitude of wings that come flapping about it1 sounding like the rushing of a strong wind1 while the bats that do not crowd around the light1 dash against the explorers1 beating their leathery wings against their faces1 and clinging in numbers to their dress4 ,they would even settle on the face unless kept off by the hands1 and sometimes they force the intruders to beat a retreat4 ,they do not intend to attack1 for they are quite incapable of doing any real damage2 and1 in point of fact1 they are much more alarmed than those whom they annoy4 ,nocturnal in their habits1 they cannot endure the light1 which completely dazzles them1 so that they dash about at random1 and fly blindly towards the torches in their endeavours to escape4 ,illustration3 ,,bats' ,,resting-,,place4 ,if1 then1 we keep in mind the habits of the bats1 we shall comprehend that their habitations must be inexpressibly revolting to human beings1 and shall the better understand the force of the prophecy that the idols shall be cast to the bats and the moles4 ,no particular species of ,bat seems to be indicated by the ,hebrew word ,hatalleph1 which is evidently used in a comprehensive sense1 and signifies all and any species of ,bat4 ,until very lately1 the exact species of ,bats which inhabit ,palestine were not definitely ascertained1 and could only be conjectured4 ,but1 ,mr4 ,tristram1 who travelled in the ,holy ,land for the express purpose of investigating its physical history1 has set this point at rest1 in his invaluable work1 ,the ,land of ,israel1 to which frequent reference will be made in the course of the following pages4 ,almost every cavern which he entered was tenanted by bats1 and he procured several species of these repulsive but interesting animals4 ,while exploring the vast quarries in which the stone for the ,temple was worked beneath the earth1 so that no sound of tool was heard during the building1 numbers of bats were disturbed by the lights1 and fluttered over the heads of the exploring party4 ,on another occasion1 he was exploring a cave near the centre of ,palestine1 when he succeeded in procuring some specimens1 and therefore in identifying at least one species4 ,in climbing the rocks soon afterwards1 to examine a cave1 ,i heard a singular whining chatter within1 and on creeping into its recesses1 a stone thrown up roused from their roosting-places a colony of large bats1 the soft waving flap of whose wings ,i could hear in the darkness4 ,how to obtain one ,i knew not2 but on vigorously plying my signal whistle1 all the party soon gathered to my help4 ,b4 suggested smoking them1 so a fire of brushwood was kindled1 and soon two or three rushed out4 ,two fell to our shot1 and ,i was delighted to find myself the possessor of a couple of large fox-headed bats of the genus ,pteropus 7,xantharpya gyptiaca71 and extending twenty and a half inches from wing to wing4 ,as none of the bats of ,palestine are yet known1 this was a great prize1 and another instance of the extension westward of the ,indian fauna4 ,these ,bats belong to the fruit-eating tribe1 and are closely allied to the ,flying ,foxes of ,java1 ,australia1 and ,southern ,africa4 ,therefore1 this would be one of the species commonly used for food1 and hence the necessity for the prohibition4 ,the present species extends over the greater part of ,northern ,africa and into parts of ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,,great ,,fox-,,headed ,,bat1 ,,or ,,flying ,,fox4 ,the same traveller subsequently discovered several more species of bats4 ,on one occasion1 he was exploring some caves1 near the site of the ancient ,jericho4 ,on the eastern face of the cliffs are a number of caves1 arranged in regular tiers1 and originally approached by steps cut out of the face of the rock4 ,these staircases are1 however1 washed away by time and the rains1 and in consequence the upper tiers were almost inaccessible4 ,in some of these caves the walls were covered with brilliant1 but mutilated frescoes2 and in others1 hermits had lived and died and been buried4 ,mr4 ,tristram and his companions had penetrated to the second tier1 and there made a curious discovery4 ,illustration3 ,,cave ,,near ,,the ,,site ,,of ,,ancient ,,jericho4 ,in the roof of this was a small hole1 athwart which lay a stick4 ,after many efforts1 we got a string across it1 and so hauled up a rope1 by which1 finding the stick strong enough1 we climbed1 and with a short exercise of the chimney-sweeper's art1 we found ourselves in a third tier of cells1 similar to the lower ones1 and covered with the undisturbed dust of ages4 ,behind the chapel was a dark cave1 with an entrance eighteen inches high4 ,having lighted our lantern1 we crept in on our faces1 and found the place full of human bones and skulls2 with dust several inches deep4 ,we were in an ancient burying-place of the ,anchorites1 or hermits of the country1 whose custom it was to retire to such desert and solitary places4 ,their bones lay in undisturbed order1 probably as the corpses had been stretched after death4 ,after capturing two or three long-tailed bats1 of a species new to us1 which were the only living occupants of the cave1 we crept out1 with a feeling of religious awe1 from this strange1 sepulchral cavern4 ,besides the species of bats that have been described1 it is probable that representatives of several more families of bats inhabit ,palestine4 ,illustration3 bat ,illustration3 ,,leopards4 ,illustration3 ,,birds4 ,illustration3 bird and nest ,illustration3 ossifrage ,,the ,l,,mmergeier1 ,,or ,,ossifrage ,,of ,,scripture4 ,difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in ,scripture--,the vultures of ,palestine--,the ,lmmergeier1 or ,ossifrage of ,scripture--,appearance of the ,lmmergeier--,its flight and mode of feeding--,nest of the ,lmmergeier4 ,it has already been mentioned that even the best ,biblical scholars have found very great difficulties in identifying several of the animals which are named in ,scripture4 ,this difficulty is greatly increased when we come to the ,,birds1 and in many instances it is absolutely impossible to identify the ,hebrew word with any precise species4 ,in all probability1 however1 the nomenclature of the birds is a very loose one1 several species being classed under the same title4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,l,,mmergeier4 ,keeping this difficulty in mind1 ,i shall mention all the species which are likely to have been classed under a single title1 giving a general description of the whole1 and a detailed account of the particular species which seems to answer most closely to the ,hebrew word4 99 99 99 99 99 ,following the arrangement which has been employed in this work1 ,i shall begin with the bird which has been placed by zoologists at the head of its class1 namely1 the ,l,,mmergeier1 the bird which may be safely identified with the ,ossifrage of ,scripture4 ,the ,hebrew word is ,peres1 a term which only occurs twice when signifying a species of bird2 namely1 in ,lev4 xi4 #ac1 and the parallel passage in ,deut4 xiv4 #ab4 ,the first of these passages runs as follows3 ,these ye shall have in abomination among the fowls2 they shall not be eaten1 they are an abomination3 the eagle1 and the ossifrage1 and the ospray4 ,the corresponding passage in ,deuteronomy has precisely the same signification1 though rather differently worded3 ,these are they of which ye shall not eat3 the eagle1 and the ossifrage1 and the ospray4 ,the word peres signifies a breaker2 and the ,latin term ,ossifraga1 or ,bone-breaker1 is a very good translation of the word4 ,how it applies to the ,lmmergeier we shall presently see4 ,the ,lmmergeier belongs to the vultures1 but has much more the appearance of an eagle than a vulture1 the neck being clothed with feathers1 instead of being naked or only covered with down4 ,it may at once be known by the tuft of long1 hair-like feathers which depends from the beak1 and which has gained for the bird the title of ,bearded ,vulture4 ,the colour of the plumage is a mixture of different browns and greys1 tawny below and beautifully pencilled above1 a line of pure white running along the middle of each feather4 ,when young it is nearly black1 and indeed has been treated as a separate species under the name of ,black ,vulture4 ,it is one of the largest of the flying birds1 its length often exceeding four feet1 and the expanse of its wings being rather more than ten feet4 ,in consequence of this great spread of wing1 it looks when flying like a much larger bird than it really is1 and its size has often been variously misstated4 ,its flight1 as may be imagined from the possession of such wings1 is equally grand and graceful1 and it sweeps through the air with great force1 apparently unaccompanied by effort4 ,the ,lmmergeier extends through a very large range of country1 and is found throughout many parts of ,europe and ,asia4 ,it is spread over the ,holy ,land1 never congregating in numbers1 like ordinary vultures1 but living in pairs1 and scarcely any ravine being uninhabited by at least one pair of ,lmmergeiers4 ,the food of the ,lmmergeier is1 like that of other vultures1 the flesh of dead animals1 though it does not feed quite in the same manner that they do4 ,when the ordinary vultures have found a carcase they tear it to pieces1 and soon remove all the flesh4 ,this having been done1 the ,lmmergeier comes to the half-picked bones1 eats the remaining flesh from them1 and finishes by breaking them and eating the marrow4 ,that a bird should be able to break a bone as thick and hard as the thigh-bone of a horse or ox seems rather problematical1 but the bird achieves the feat in a simple and effectual manner4 ,seizing the bone in its claws1 it rises to an immense height in the air1 and then1 balancing itself over some piece of rock1 it lets the bone fall1 and sweeps after it with scarce less rapidity than the bone falls4 ,should the bone be broken by the fall1 the bird picks the marrow out of the fragments2 and should it have escaped fracture by reason of falling on a soft piece of ground instead of a hard rock1 the bird picks it up1 and renews the process until it has attained its object4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that the name of ,ossifrage1 or ,bone-breaker1 may very properly be given to this bird4 ,not only does it extract the marrow from bones in this peculiar manner1 but it procures other articles of food by employing precisely the same system4 ,if it sees a tortoise1 many of which reptiles are found in the countries which it inhabits1 it does not waste time and trouble by trying to peck the shell open1 but carries its prey high in the air1 drops it on the ground1 and so breaks its shell to pieces4 ,tortoises are often very hard-shelled creatures1 and the ,lmmergeier has been observed to raise one of them and drop it six or seven times before the stubborn armour would yield4 ,snakes1 too1 are killed in a similar manner1 being seized by the neck1 and then dropped from a height upon rocks or hard ground4 ,the reader may perhaps be aware that the ,hooded ,crow of ,england breaks bones and the shells of bivalve molluscs in a similar manner4 ,mr4 ,tristram suggests1 with much probability1 that the eagle which mistook the bald head of the poet schylus for a white stone1 and killed him by dropping a tortoise upon it1 was in all likelihood a ,lmmergeier1 the bird being a denizen of the same country1 and the act of tortoise-dropping being its usual mode of killing those reptiles4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,successful ,,defence4 ,we now see why the ,lmmergeier is furnished with such enormous wings1 and so great a power of flight1 these attributes being needful in order to enable it to lift its prey to a sufficient height4 ,the air1 as we all know1 becomes more and more attenuated in exact proportion to the height above the earth2 and did not the bird possess such great powers of flight1 it would not be able to carry a heavy tortoise into the thinner strata of air which are found at the height to which it soars4 ,the instinct of killing its prey by a fall is employed against other animals besides snakes and tortoises1 though exerted in a somewhat different manner4 ,the bird1 as has already been mentioned1 lives among mountain ranges1 and it may be seen floating about them for hours together1 watching each inch of ground in search of prey4 ,should it see a goat or other inhabitant of the rocks standing near a precipice1 the ,lmmergeier sweeps rapidly upon it1 and with a blow of its wing knocks the animal off the rock into the valley beneath1 where it lies helplessly maimed1 even if not killed by the fall4 ,even hares and lambs are killed in this manner1 and it is from the havoc which the ,lmmergeier makes among the sheep that it has obtained the name of ,lmmergeier1 or ,lamb-,vulture4 ,so swift and noiseless is the rush of the bird1 that an animal which has once been marked by its blood-red eye seldom escapes from the swoop2 and even the ,alpine hunters1 who spend their lives in pursuit of the chamois1 have occasionally been put in great jeopardy by the sudden attack of a ,lmmergeier1 the bird having mistaken their crouching forms for the chamois1 and only turned aside at the last moment4 ,the reason for employing so remarkable a mode of attack is to be found in the structure of the feet1 which1 although belonging to so large and powerful a bird1 are comparatively feeble1 and are unable1 like those of the eagle1 to grasp the living animal in a deadly hold1 and to drive the sharp talons into its vitals4 ,they are not well adapted for holding prey1 the talons not possessing the hook-like form or the sharp points which characterise those of the eagle4 ,the feet1 by the way1 are feathered down to the toes4 ,the beak1 too1 is weak when compared with the rest of the body1 and could not perform its work were not the object which it tears previously shattered by the fall from a height4 ,illustration3 ,,struck ,,from ,a ,,dizzy ,,height4 ,the nest of the ,lmmergeier is made of sticks and sods1 and is of enormous dimensions4 ,it is almost always placed upon a lofty cliff1 and contains about a wagon-load or so of sticks rudely interwoven1 and supporting a nearly equal amount of sods and moss4 ,an allied species lives in ,northern ,africa1 where it is called by a name which signifies ,father ,longbeard1 in allusion to the beard-like tufts of the bill4 ,illustration3 bird feeding young ,,the ,,egyptian ,,vulture1 ,,or ,,gier-,,eagle4 ,the ,rchm or ,gier-,eagle identified with the ,egyptian ,vulture--,its appearance on the ,egyptian monuments--,the shape1 size1 and colour of the bird--,its value as a scavenger1 and its general habits--,the ,egyptian ,vultures and the griffons--,its fondness for the society of man--,nest of the ,egyptian ,vulture4 ,in the same list of unclean birds which has already been given1 we find the name of a bird which we can identify without much difficulty1 although there has been some little controversy about it4 ,this is the so-called ,gier-,eagle1 which is named with the cormorant and the pelican as one of the birds which the ,jews are forbidden to eat4 ,the word which is translated as ,gier-,eagle is ,rchm1 a name which is almost identical with the ,arabic name of the ,,egyptian ,,vulture1 sometimes called ,pharaoh's ,chicken1 because it is so often sculptured on the ancient monuments of ,egypt4 ,it is called by the ,turks by a name which signifies ,white ,father1 in allusion to the colour of its plumage4 ,this bird is not a very large one1 being about equal to a raven in size1 though its enormously long wings give it an appearance of much greater size4 ,its colour is white1 with the exception of the quill feathers of the wings1 which are dark-brown4 ,the bill and the naked face and legs are bright ochreous yellow4 ,it does not attain this white plumage until its third year1 its colour before reaching adult age being brown1 with a grey neck and dull yellow legs and face4 ,the ,egyptian ,vulture1 although not large1 is a really handsome bird1 the bold contrast of pure white and dark brown being very conspicuous when it is on the wing4 ,in this plumage it has never been seen in ,england1 but one or two examples are known of the ,egyptian ,vulture being killed in ,england while still in its dark-brown clothing4 ,it inhabits a very wide range of country1 being found throughout all the warmer parts of the ,old ,world4 ,although it is tolerably plentiful1 it is never seen in great numbers1 as is the case with several of the vultures1 but is always to be found in pairs1 the male and female never separating1 and invariably being seen close together4 ,in fact1 in places where it is common it is hardly possible to travel more than a mile or two without seeing a pair of ,egyptian ,vultures4 ,should more than two of these birds be seen together1 the spectator may be sure that they have congregated over some food4 ,it has been well suggested that its ,hebrew name of ,rchm1 or ,love1 has been given to it in consequence of this constant association of the male and female4 ,illustration3 ,,egyptian ,,vulture1 ,,or ,,gier-,,eagle4 ,the ,egyptian ,vulture is one of the best of scavengers1 not only devouring the carcases of dead animals1 but feeding on every kind of offal or garbage4 ,indeed1 its teeth and claws are much too feeble to enable it to cope with the true vultures in tearing up a large carcase1 and in consequence it never really associates with them1 although it may be seen hovering near them1 and it never ventures to feed in their company1 keeping at a respectful distance while they feed1 and1 when they retire1 humbly making a meal on the scraps which they have left4 ,mr4 ,tristram narrates an amusing instance of this trait of character4 ,on a subsequent occasion1 on the north side of ,hermon1 we observed the griffons teaching a lesson of patience to the inferior scavengers4 ,a long row of ,egyptian vultures were sitting on some rocks1 so intently watching a spot in a corn-field that they took no notice of our approach4 ,creeping cautiously near1 we watched a score of griffons busily engaged in turning over a dead horse1 one side of which they had already reduced to a skeleton4 ,their united efforts had just effected this1 when we showed ourselves1 and they quickly retired4 ,the inferior birds1 who dreaded us much less than them1 at once darted to the repast1 and1 utterly regardless of our presence within ten yards of them1 began to gorge4 ,we had hardly retired two hundred yards1 when the griffons came down with a swoop1 and the ,egyptian vultures and a pair or two of eagles hurriedly resumed their post of observation2 while some black kites remained1 and contrived by their superior agility to filch a few morsels from their lordly superiors4 ,so useful is this bird as a scavenger1 that it is protected in all parts of the ,east by the most stringent laws1 so that a naturalist who wishes for specimens has some difficulty in procuring the bird1 or even its egg4 ,it wanders about the streets of the villages1 and may generally be found investigating the heaps of refuse which are left to be cleared away by the animals and birds which constitute the scavengers of the ,east4 ,it not only eats dead animal substances1 but kills and devours great quantities of rats1 mice1 lizards1 and other pests that swarm in hot countries4 ,so tame is it1 that it may even be observed1 like the gull and the rook of our own country1 following the ploughman as he turns up the ground1 and examining the furrow for the purpose of picking up the worms1 grubs1 and similar creatures that are disturbed by the share4 ,being thus protected and encouraged by man1 there is good reason why it should have learned in course of time to fear him far less than its own kind4 ,indeed1 it is so utterly fearless with regard to human beings1 that it habitually follows the caravans as they pass from one town to another1 for the sake of feeding on the refuse food and other offal which is thrown aside on the road4 ,two articles of diet which certainly do not seem to fall within the ordinary range of vulture's food are said to be consumed by this bird4 ,the first is the egg of the ostrich1 the shell of which is too hard to be broken by the feeble beak of the ,egyptian ,vulture4 ,the bird cannot1 like the lmmergeier1 carry the egg into the air and drop it on the ground1 because its feet are not large enough to grasp it1 and only slip off its round and polished surface4 ,therefore1 instead of raising the egg into the air and dropping it upon a stone1 it carries a stone into the air and drops it upon the egg4 ,so at least say the natives of the country which it inhabits1 and there is no reason why we should doubt the truth of the statement4 ,the other article of food is a sort of melon1 very full of juice4 ,this melon is called nara1 and is devoured by various creatures1 such as lions1 leopards1 mice1 ostriches1 c4 and seems to serve them instead of drink4 ,the nest of the ,egyptian ,vulture is made in some rocky ledge1 and the bird does not trouble itself about selecting a spot inaccessible to man1 knowing well that it will not be disturbed4 ,the nest is1 like that of other vultures1 a large and rude mass of sticks1 sods1 bones1 and similar materials1 to which are added any bits of rag1 rope1 skin1 and other village refuse which it can pick up as it traverses the streets4 ,there are two1 and occasionally three1 eggs1 rather variously mottled with red4 ,in its breeding1 as in its general life1 it is not a gregarious bird1 never breeding in colonies1 and1 indeed1 very seldom choosing a spot for its nest near one which has already been selected by another pair4 ,the illustration on page #dbj represents part of the nest of the ,egyptian ,vulture1 in which the curious mixture of bones and sticks is well shown4 ,the parent birds are drawn in two characteristic attitudes taken from life1 and well exhibit the feeble beak1 the peculiar and intelligent1 almost cunning expression of the head1 and the ruff of feathers which surrounds the upper part of the neck4 ,in the distance another bird is drawn as it appears on the wing1 in order to show the contrast between the white plumage and the dark quill feathers of the wings1 the bird presenting a general appearance very similar to that of the common sea-gull4 ,,the ,,griffon ,,vulture1 ,,or ,,eagle ,,of ,,scripture4 ,the ,griffon ,vulture identified with the ,eagle of ,scripture--,geographical range of the ,griffon--,its mode of flight and sociable habits--,the featherless head and neck of the bird--,the ,vulture used as an image of strength1 swiftness1 and rapacity--,its powers of sight--,how ,vultures assemble round a carcase--,nesting-places of the ,griffon--,mr4 ,tristram's description of the ,griffon--,rock-caves of the ,wady ,hamm--,care of the young1 and teaching them to fly--,strength of the ,griffon4 ,the ,griffon ,vulture is found throughout a large portion of the ,old ,world1 inhabiting nearly all the warmer portions of this hemisphere4 ,the colour of the adult bird is a sort of yellowish brown1 diversified by the black quill feathers and the ruff of white down that surrounds the neck4 ,the head and neck are without feathers1 but are sparingly covered with very short down of a similar character to that of the ruff4 ,it is really a large bird1 being little short of five feet in total length1 and the expanse of wing measuring about eight feet4 ,the ,griffon ,vulture is very plentiful in ,palestine1 and1 unlike the lesser though equally useful ,egyptian ,vulture1 congregates together in great numbers1 feeding1 flying1 and herding in company4 ,large flocks of them may be seen daily1 soaring high in the air1 and sweeping their graceful way in the grand curves which distinguish the flight of the large birds of prey4 ,they are best to be seen in the early morning1 being in the habit of quitting their rocky homes at daybreak1 and indulging in a flight for two or three hours1 after which they mostly return to the rocks1 and wait until evening1 when they take another short flight before retiring to rest4 ,allusion is made in the ,scriptures to the gregarious habits of the ,vultures3 ,wheresoever the carcase is1 there will the eagles be gathered together 7,matt4 xxiv4 #bh74 ,that the ,vulture1 and not the eagle1 is here signified1 is evident from the fact that the eagles do not congregate like the ,vultures1 never being seen in greater numbers than two or three together1 while the ,vultures assemble in hundreds4 ,there is also a curious passage in the ,book of ,proverbs1 chap4 xxx4 ver4 #ag1 which alludes to the carnivorous nature of the bird3 ,the eye that mocketh at his father1 and despiseth to obey his mother1 the ravens of the valley shall pick it out1 and the young eagles shall eat it4 ,allusion is made in several passages to the swiftness of the ,vulture1 as well as its voracity4 ,see1 for example1 a portion of ,david's lamentation over the bodies of ,saul and ,jonathan1 who1 according to the poet's metaphor1 were lovely and pleasant in their lives1 and in their death they were not divided2 they were swifter than eagles1 they were stronger than lions4 ,the bitter people--namely1 the ,chaldeans--are again mentioned in a very similar manner by the prophet ,jeremiah3 ,our persecutors are swifter than the eagles of the heavens2 they pursued us upon the mountains1 they laid wait for us in the wilderness 7,lam4 iv4 #ai74 ,there is something peculiarly appropriate in employing the ,vulture as an image of strength and swiftness when applied to warriors1 the bird being an invariable attendant on the battle1 and flying to the field of death with marvellous swiftness4 ,all who had ever witnessed a battle were familiar with the presence of the ,vulture--the scene of carnage1 and the image which is employed1 would be one which commended itself at once to those for whom it was intended4 ,and1 as the earlier history of the ,jewish nation is essentially of a warlike character1 we cannot wonder that so powerful and familiar an image should have been repeatedly introduced into the sacred writings4 ,wonderful powers of sight are possessed by this bird4 ,its eyes are able to assume either a telescopic or a microscopic character1 by means of a complex and marvellous structure1 which can alter the whole shape of the organ at the will of the bird4 ,illustration3 ,,vultures4 ,not only can the eye be thus altered1 but it changes instantaneously1 so as to accommodate itself to the task which it is to perform4 ,a ,vulture1 for example1 sees from a vast height the body of a dead animal1 and instantly swoops down upon it like an arrow from a bow4 ,in order to enable the bird to see so distant an object1 the eye has been exercising its telescopic powers1 and yet1 in a second or two1 when the ,vulture is close to its prey1 the whole form of the eye must be changed1 or the bird would mistake its distance1 and dash itself to pieces on the ground4 ,by means of its powerful eyes1 the ,vulture can see to an enormous distance1 and with great clearness1 but neither so far nor so clearly as is popularly supposed4 ,it is true that1 as soon as a carcase is discovered1 it will be covered with ,vultures1 who arrive from every side1 looking at first like tiny specks in the air1 scarcely perceptible even to practised eyes1 and all directing their flight to the same point4 ,where the carcase is1 there will the vultures be gathered together4 ,but1 although they all fly towards the same spot1 it does not follow that they have all seen the same object4 ,the fact is1 they see and understand each other's movements4 ,a single ,vulture1 for example1 sees a dead or dying sheep1 and swoops down upon it4 ,the other ,vultures which are flying about in search of food1 and from which the animal in question may be concealed1 know perfectly well that a ,vulture soars high in the air when searching for food1 and only darts to the earth when it has found a suitable prey4 ,they immediately follow its example1 and in their turn are followed by other ,vultures1 which can see their fellows from a distance1 and know perfectly well why they are all converging to one spot4 ,in this way all the ,vultures of a neighbourhood will understand1 by a very intelligible telegraph1 that a dead body of some animal has been found1 and1 aided by their wonderful powers of flight1 will assemble over its body in an almost incredibly short space of time4 ,the resting-place of the ,griffon ,vulture is always on some lofty spot4 ,the ,arabian ,vulture will build within easy reach1 the eagle prefers lofty situations1 but nothing but the highest and most inaccessible spots will satisfy the ,vulture4 ,to reach the nest of this bird is therefore a very difficult task1 only to be attempted by experienced and intrepid cragsmen2 and1 in consequence1 both the eggs and young of the ,griffon ,vulture cannot be obtained except for a very high price4 ,the birds are fond of building in the rock-caves which are found in so many parts of ,palestine1 and in some places they fill these places as thickly as rooks fill a rookery4 ,in ,mr4 ,tristram's ,land of ,israel1 there is a very graphic description of the ,griffon's nests1 and of the difficulty experienced in reaching them4 ,a narrow gorge1 with limestone cliffs from five hundred to six hundred feet high1 into which the sun never penetrates1 walls the rapid brook on each side so closely that we often had to ride in the bed of the stream4 ,the cliffs are perforated with caves at all heights1 wholly inaccessible to man1 the secure resting-place of hundreds of noble griffons1 some lmmergeiers1 lanner falcons1 and several species of eagle4444 ,one day in the ravine well repaid us1 though so terrific were the precipices1 that it was quite impossible to reach any of the nests with which it swarmed4 ,we were more successful in the ,wady ,hamm1 the south-west end of the plain1 the entrance from ,hattin and the ,buttauf1 where we spent three days in exploration4 ,the cliffs1 though reaching the height of fifteen hundred feet1 rise like terraces1 with enormous masses of dbris1 and the wood is half a mile wide4 ,by the aid of ,giacomo1 who proved himself an expert rope-climber1 we reaped a good harvest of griffons' eggs1 some of the party being let down by ropes1 while those above were guided in working them by signals from others below in the valley4 ,it required the aid of a party of a dozen to capture these nests4 ,the idea of scaling the cliff with ropes was quite new to some ,arabs who were herding cattle above1 and who could not1 excepting one little girl1 be induced to render any assistance4 ,she proved herself most sensible and efficient in telegraphing4 ,while capturing the griffons' nests1 we were re-enacting a celebrated siege in ,jewish history4 ,close to us1 at the head of the cliffs which form the limits of the celebrated ,plain of ,hattin1 were the ruins of ,irbid1 the ancient ,arbela1 marked principally by the remains of a synagogue1 of which some marble shafts and fragments of entablature1 like those of ,tell ,hm1 are still to be seen1 and were afterwards visited by us4 ,hosea mentions the place apparently as a strong fortress3 ',all thy fortresses shall be spoiled1 as ,shalman spoiled ,beth-arbel in the day of battle' 7,hos4 x4 #ad74 ,perhaps the prophet here refers to the refuges in the rocks below4 ,the long series of chambers and galleries in the face of the precipice are called by the ,arabs1 ,kulat ,ibn ,man1 and are very fully described by ,josephus4 ,these cliffs were the homes of a set of bandits1 who resided here with their families1 and for years set the power of ,herod the ,great at defiance4 ,at length1 when all other attempts at scaling the fortress had failed1 he let down soldiers at this very spot in boxes1 by chains1 who attacked the robbers with long hooks1 and succeeded in rooting them all out4 ,the rock galleries1 though now only tenanted by griffons1 are very complete and perfect1 and beautifully built4 ,long galleries wind backwards and forwards in the cliff side1 their walls being built with dressed stone1 flush with the precipice1 and often opening into spacious chambers4 ,tier after tier rise one after another with projecting windows1 connected by narrow staircases1 carried sometimes upon arches1 and in the upper portions rarely broken away4 ,in many of the upper chambers to which we were let down1 the dust of ages had accumulated1 undisturbed by any foot save that of the birds of the air2 and here we rested during the heat of the day1 with the plains and lake set as in a frame before us4 ,we obtained a full zoological harvest1 as in three days we captured fourteen nests of griffons4 ,although these caverns and rocky passages are much more accessible than most of the places whereon the ,griffons build1 the natives never venture to enter them1 being deterred not so much by their height1 as by their superstitious fears4 ,the ,griffons instinctively found out that man never entered these caverns1 and so took possession of them4 ,as the young ,griffons are brought up in these lofty and precipitous places1 it is evident that their first flight must be a dangerous experiment1 requiring the aid of the parent birds4 ,at first the young are rather nervous at the task which lies before them1 and shrink from trusting themselves to the air4 ,the parents1 however1 encourage them to use their wings1 take short flights in order to set them an example1 and1 when they at last venture from the nest1 accompany and encourage them in their first journey4 ,in flight it is one of the most magnificent birds that can be seen1 and even when perched it often retains a certain look of majesty and grandeur4 ,sometimes1 however1 especially when basking in the sun1 it assumes a series of attitudes which are absolutely grotesque1 and convert the noble-looking bird into a positively ludicrous object4 ,at one moment it will sit all hunched up1 its head sunk between its shoulders1 and one wing trailing behind it as if broken4 ,at another it will bend its legs and sit down on the ankle-joint1 pushing its feet out in front1 and supporting itself by the stiff feathers of its tail4 ,often it will touch nearly flat on the ground1 partly spread its wings1 and allow their tips to rest on the earth1 and sometimes it will support nearly all the weight of its body on the wings1 which rest1 in a half doubled state1 on the ground4 ,i have before me a great number of sketches1 taken in a single day1 of the attitudes assumed by one of these birds1 every one of which is strikingly different from the others1 and transforms the whole shape of the bird so much that it is scarcely recognisable as the same individual4 ,illustration3 tree ,illustration3 eagle ,,the ,,eagle4 ,signification of the word ,asniyeh--,the ,golden ,eagle and its habits--,the ,imperial ,eagle--,its solitary mode of life--,the ,short-toed ,eagle--,its domestic habits and fondness for the society of man--,the ,osprey1 or ,fishing ,eagle--,its mode of catching fish--,its distribution in ,palestine4 ,as to the ,eagle1 rightly so called1 there is little doubt that it is one of the many birds of prey that seem to have been classed under the general title of ,asniyeh--the word which in the ,authorized ,version of the ,bible is rendered as ,osprey4 ,a similar confusion is observable in the modern ,arabic1 one word1 ogab1 being applied indiscriminately to all the ,eagles and the large falconid4 ,the chief of the true ,eagles1 namely1 the ,golden ,eagle 7,aquila chrysatos71 is one of the inhabitants of ,palestine1 and is seen frequently1 though never in great numbers4 ,indeed1 its predacious habits unfit it for associating with its kind4 ,any animal which lives chiefly1 if not wholly1 by the chase1 requires a large district in order to enable it to live1 and thus twenty or thirty eagles will be scattered over a district of twice the number of miles4 ,like the lion among the mammalia1 the ,eagle leads an almost solitary life1 scarcely ever associating with any of its kind except its mate and its young4 ,the whole of the ,falconid1 as the family to which the ,eagles belong is called1 are very destructive birds1 gaining their subsistence chiefly by the chase1 seldom feeding on carrion except when pressed by hunger1 or when the dead animal has only recently been killed4 ,herein they form a complete contrast to the vultures1 whose usual food is putrefying carrion1 and fresh meat the exception4 ,destructive though the ,eagles may be1 they cannot be called cruel birds1 for1 although they deprive many birds and beasts of life1 they effect their purpose with a single blow1 sweeping down upon the doomed creature with such lightning velocity1 and striking it so fiercely with their death-dealing talons1 that almost instantaneous death usually results4 ,when the ,eagle pounces on a bird1 the mere shock caused by the stroke of the ,eagle's body is almost invariably sufficient to cause death1 and the bird1 even if a large one--such as the swan1 for example--falls dead upon the earth with scarcely a wound4 ,smaller birds are carried off in the talons of their pursuers1 and are killed by the grip of their tremendous claws1 the ,eagle in no case making use of its beak for killing its prey4 ,if the great bird carries off a lamb or a hare1 it grasps the body firmly with its claws1 and then by a sudden exertion of its wonderful strength drives the sharp talons deep into the vitals of its prey1 and does not loosen its grasp until the breath of life has fled from its victim4 ,the structure by means of which the ,eagle is enabled to use its talons with such terrible effect is equally beautiful and simple1 deserving special mention4 ,now1 many observant persons have been struck with the curious power possessed by birds which enables them to hold their position upon a branch or perch even while sleeping4 ,in many instances the slumbering bird retains its hold of the perch by a single foot1 the other being drawn up and buried in the feathers4 ,as this grasp is clearly an involuntary one1 it is evidently independent of the mere will of the bird1 and is due to some peculiar formation4 ,on removing the skin from the leg of any bird1 and separating the muscles from each other1 the structure in question is easily seen4 ,the muscles which move the leg and foot1 and the tendons1 or leaders which form the attachment of the muscles to the bones1 are so arranged that whenever the bird bends its leg the foot is forcibly closed1 and is opened again when the leg is straightened4 ,a common chicken1 as it walks along1 closing its toes as it lifts its foot from the ground and spreading them as the leg is unbent1 cannot do otherwise1 as the tendons are shortened and lengthened as each step is taken4 ,illustration3 ,,eagles4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that when a bird falls asleep upon a branch the legs are not only bent1 but are pressed downwards by the weight of the body2 so that the claws hold the perch with a firm and involuntary grasp which knows no fatigue1 and which remains secure as long as the pressure from above keeps the limbs bent4 ,to return to the ,eagle4 ,when1 therefore1 the bird desires to drive his talons into the body of his prey1 he needs only to sink downwards with his whole weight1 and the forcible bending of his legs will contract the talons with irresistible force1 without the necessity of any muscular exertion4 ,exertion1 indeed1 is never needlessly used by the ,eagle1 for it is very chary of putting forth its great muscular powers1 and unless roused by the sight of prey1 or pressed to fly abroad in search of food1 will sit upon a tree or point of rock for hours as motionless as a stuffed figure4 ,the ,golden ,eagle is a truly magnificent bird in size and appearance4 ,a full-grown female measures about three feet six inches in length1 and the expanse of her wings is nine feet4 ,the male bird is smaller by nearly six inches4 ,the colour of the bird is a rich blackish brown on the greater part of the body1 the head and neck being covered with feathers of a golden red1 which have earned for the bird its customary name4 ,the ,golden ,eagle is observed to frequent certain favourite places1 and to breed regularly in the same spot1 for a long series of years4 ,the nest is always made upon some high place1 generally upon a ledge of rock1 and is most roughly constructed of sticks4 ,in hunting for their prey the ,eagle and his mate assist each other4 ,it may be also mentioned here that ,eagles keep themselves to a single mate1 and live together throughout their lives4 ,should1 however1 one of them die or be killed1 the survivor does not long remain in a state of loneliness1 but vanishes from the spot for a longer or shorter time1 and then returns with a new mate4 ,as rabbits and hares1 which form a frequent meal for the ,eagle1 are usually hidden under bushes and trees during the day1 the birds are frequently forced to drive them from their place of concealment2 this they have been observed to do in a very clever manner4 ,one of the ,eagles conceals itself near the cover1 and its companion dashes among the bushes1 screaming and making such a disturbance that the terrified inmates rush out in hopes of escape1 and are immediately pounced upon by the watchful confederate4 ,the prey is immediately taken to the nest1 and distributed to the young after being torn to pieces by the parent birds4 ,four or five species of ,eagle are known to inhabit ,palestine4 ,there is1 for example1 the ,imperial ,eagle 7,aquila mogilnik71 which may be distinguished from the ,golden ,eagle by a white patch on the shoulders1 and the long1 lancet-shaped feathers of the head and neck4 ,these feathers are of a fawn colour1 and contrast beautifully with the deep black-brown of the back and wings4 ,it is not very often seen1 being a bird that loves the forest1 and that does not care to leave the shelter of the trees4 ,it is tolerably common in ,palestine4 ,then there are several of the allied species1 of which the best example is perhaps the ,short-toed ,eagle 7,circatus cinereus71 a bird which is extremely plentiful in the ,holy ,land--so plentiful indeed that1 as ,mr4 ,tristram remarks1 there are probably twice as many of the ,short-toed ,eagles in ,palestine as of all the other species put together4 ,the genus to which this bird belongs does not take rank with the true ,eagles1 but is supposed by systematic naturalists to hold an intermediate place between the true ,eagles and the ospreys4 ,the ,short-toed ,eagle is seldom a carrion-eater1 preferring to kill its prey for itself4 ,it feeds mostly on serpents and other reptiles1 and is especially fond of frogs4 ,it is a large and somewhat heavily built bird1 lightness and swiftness being far less necessary than strength in taking the animals on which it feeds4 ,it is rather more than two feet in length1 and is a decidedly handsome bird1 the back being dark brown1 and the under parts white1 covered with crescent-shaped black spots4 ,illustration3 eagle ,illustration3 ,,eagle ,,returning ,,to ,,the ,,nest ,,with ,,her ,,prey4 ,,the ,,osprey4 ,the ,osprey1 or ,fishing ,eagle--,its geographical range--,mode of securing prey--,structure of its feet--,its power of balancing itself in the air4 ,we now come to the ,osprey itself 7,pandion haliatus71 which was undoubtedly one of the birds grouped together under the collective term ,asniyeh4 ,this word occurs only in the two passages in ,deut4 xiv4 and ,lev4 xi4 which have been several times quoted already1 and need not be mentioned again4 ,this fine bird is spread over a very large range of country1 and is found in the ,new ,world as well as the ,old4 ,in consequence of its peculiar habits1 it is often called the ,fishing ,eagle4 ,the ,osprey is essentially a fish-eater4 ,it seems very strange that a predacious bird allied to the eagles1 none of which birds can swim1 much less dive1 should obtain its living from the water4 ,that the cormorant and other diving birds should do so is no matter of surprise1 inasmuch as they are able to pursue the fish in their own element1 and catch them by superior speed4 ,but any bird which cannot dive1 and which yet lives on fish1 is forced to content itself with those fish that come to the surface of the water1 a mode of obtaining a livelihood which does not appear to have much chance of success4 ,yet the ,osprey does on a large scale what the kingfisher does on a small one1 and contrives to find abundant food in the water4 ,its method of taking prey is almost exactly like that which is employed by the kingfisher4 ,when it goes out in search of food1 it soars into the air1 and floats in circles over the water1 watching every inch of it as narrowly as a kestrel watches a stubble-field4 ,no sooner does a fish rise toward the surface to take a fly1 or to leap into the air for sport1 than the ,osprey darts downwards1 grasps the fish in its talons1 drags the struggling prey from the water1 and with a scream of joy and triumph bears it away to shore1 where it can be devoured at leisure4 ,the bird never dives1 neither does it seize the fish with its beak like the kingfisher4 ,it plunges but slightly into the water1 as otherwise it would not be able to use its strong wings and carry off its prey4 ,in order to enable the bird to seize the hard and slippery body of the fish1 it is furnished with long1 very sharp1 and boldly-hooked talons1 which force themselves into the sides of the fish1 and hold it as with grappling irons4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,osprey ,,searching ,,for ,,fish4 ,the flight of the ,osprey is peculiarly easy and elegant1 as might be expected from a bird the length of whose body is only twenty-two inches1 and the expanse of wing nearly five feet and a half4 ,it is therefore able to hover over the water for long periods of time1 and can balance itself in one spot without seeming to move a wing1 having the singular facility of doing so even when a tolerably strong breeze is blowing4 ,it has even been observed to maintain its place unmoved when a sharp squall swept over the spot4 ,harmless though the ,osprey be--except to the fish--it is a most persecuted bird1 being everywhere annoyed by rooks and crows1 and1 in ,america1 robbed by the more powerful white-headed eagle4 ,such a scene is thus described by ,wilson3 ,elevated on the high1 dead limb of a gigantic tree that commanded a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean1 the great white-headed eagle calmly surveys the motions of various smaller birds that pursue their busy avocations below4 ,the snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air2 the trains of ducks streaming over the surface2 silent and watchful cranes1 intent and wading1 and all the winged multitude that subsist by the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature4 ,high over all these1 hovers one whose action instantly arrests the eagle's attention4 ,by his wide curvature of wing and sudden suspension in the air he knows him to be the ,osprey1 settling over some devoted victim of the deep4 ,the eyes of the eagle kindle at the sight1 and balancing himself with half-opened wings on the branch1 he watches the result4 ,down1 rapid as an arrow1 from heaven descends the ,osprey1 the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the water1 making the surges foam around6 ,at this moment the eager looks of the eagle are all ardour1 and1 levelling his neck for flight1 he sees the ,osprey once more emerge1 struggling with his prey1 and mounting in the air with screams of exultation4 ,these are the signals for the eagle1 who1 launching into the air1 instantly gives chase1 and soon gains on the ,osprey2 each exerts his utmost to mount above the other1 displaying in this encounter the most elegant and sublime arial evolutions4 ,illustration3 ,,snatched ,,from ,,the ,,deep3 ,,the ,,osprey ,,rises ,,with ,,his ,,prey4 ,the unencumbered eagle rapidly advances1 and is just on the point of reaching his opponent1 when1 with a sudden scream1 probably of despair and honest execration1 the ,osprey drops his fish4 ,the eagle1 poising himself for a moment1 as if to take a more certain aim1 descends like a whirlwind1 snatches it in his grasp ere it reaches the water1 and bears his ill-gotten booty silently away to the woods4 ,although not very plentiful in ,palestine1 nor indeed in any other country1 the ,osprey is seen throughout the whole of that country where it can find a sufficiency of water4 ,it prefers the sea-shore and the rivers of the coast1 and is said to avoid the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,,the ,,kite1 ,,or ,,vulture ,,of ,,scripture4 ,the word ,dayah and its signification--,dayah a collective term for different species of ,kites--,the ,common or ,red ,kite plentiful in ,palestine--,its piercing sight and habit of soaring--,the ,black ,kite of ,palestine and its habits--,the ,egyptian ,kite--,the ,raah or ,glede of ,scripture--,the ,buzzards and their habits--,the ,peregrine ,falcon an inhabitant of ,central ,palestine1 and the ,lanner of the eastern parts of the country4 ,in ,lev4 xi4 #ad and ,deut4 xiv4 #ac1 we find the ,vulture among the list of birds which the ,jews were not permitted to eat4 ,the word which is translated as ,vulture is dayah1 and we find it occurring again in ,isaiah xxxiv4 #ae1 ,there shall the vultures also be gathered1 every one with her mate4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that this translation of the word is an incorrect one1 and that it ought to be rendered as ,kite4 ,in ,job xxviii4 #g1 there is a similar word1 ayah1 which is also translated as ,vulture1 and which is acknowledged to be not a ,vulture1 but one of the ,kites3 ,there is a path which no fowl knoweth1 and which the vulture's eye hath not seen4 ,both these words are nearly identical with modern ,arabic terms which are employed rather loosely to signify several species of ,kite4 ,buxtorf1 in his ,hebrew ,lexicon1 gives the correct rendering1 translating dayah as ,milvus1 and the ,vulgate in one or two places gives the same translation1 though in others it renders the word as ,vulture4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,kite1 ,,or ,,vulture ,,of ,,scripture4 ,mr4 ,tristram1 who has given much attention to this subject1 is inclined to refer the word ayah to the ,common ,kite 7,milvus regalis71 which was once so plentiful in this country1 and is now nearly extinct2 and dayah to the ,black ,kite 7,milvus atra74 ,he founds this distinction on the different habits of the two species1 the ,common or ,red ,kite being thinly scattered1 and being in the habit of soaring into the air at very great heights1 and the latter being very plentiful and gregarious4 ,we will first take the ,red ,kite4 ,this bird is scattered all over ,palestine1 feeding chiefly on the smaller birds1 mice1 reptiles1 and fish4 ,in the capture of fish the ,kite is almost as expert as the osprey1 darting from a great height into the water1 and bearing off the fish in its claws4 ,the wings of this bird are very long and powerful1 and bear it through the air in a peculiarly graceful flight4 ,it is indeed in consequence of this flight that it has been called the ,glede1 the word being derived from its gliding movements4 ,the sight of this bird is remarkably keen and piercing1 and1 from the vast elevation to which it soars when in search of food1 it is able to survey the face of the country beneath1 and to detect the partridge1 quail1 chicken1 or other creature that will serve it for food4 ,this piercing sight and habit of soaring render the passage in ,job peculiarly appropriate to this species of ,kite1 though it does not express the habits of the other4 ,should the ,kite suspect danger when forced to leave its nest1 it escapes by darting rapidly into the air1 and soaring at a vast height above the trees among which its home is made4 ,from that elevation it can act as a sentinel1 and will not come down again until it is assured of safety4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of the habits of the ,,black ,,kite 7,milvus atra71 ,mr4 ,tristram gives an admirable description4 ,the habits of the bird bear out the allusion in ,isa4 xxxiv4 #ae1 for it is1 excepting during the winter three months1 so numerous everywhere in ,palestine as to be almost gregarious4 ,it returns about the beginning of ,march1 and scatters itself over the whole country1 preferring especially the neighbourhood of valleys1 where it is a welcome and unmolested guest4 ,it does not appear to attack the poultry1 among whom it may often be seen feeding on garbage4 ,it is very sociable1 and the slaughter of a sheep at one of the tents will soon attract a large party of black kites1 which swoop down regardless of man and guns1 and enjoy a noisy scramble for the refuse1 chasing each other in a laughable fashion1 and sometimes enabling the wily raven to steal off with the coveted morsel during their contentions4 ,it is the butt of all the smaller scavengers1 and is evidently most unpopular with the crows and daws1 and even rollers1 who enjoy the amusement of teasing it in their tumbling flight1 which is a manuvre most perplexing to the kite4 ,the same writer proceeds to mention that the ,black ,kite unlike the red species1 is very careless about the position of its nest1 and never even attempts to conceal it1 sometimes building it in a tree1 sometimes on a rock-ledge1 and sometimes in a bush growing on the rocks4 ,it seems indeed desirous of making the nest as conspicuous as possible1 and hangs it all over with bits of cloth1 strips of bark1 wings of birds1 and even the cast skins of serpents4 ,another species 7,milvus gyptiacus7 is sometimes called the ,black ,kite from the dark hue of its plumage1 but ought rather to retain the title of ,egyptian ,kite4 ,unlike the black kite1 this bird is a great thief1 and makes as much havoc among poultry as the red kite4 ,it is also a robber of other birds1 and if it should happen to see a weaker bird with food1 it is sure to attack and rob it4 ,like the black kite1 it is fond of the society of man1 and haunts the villages in great numbers1 for the purpose of eating the offal1 which in ,oriental towns is simply flung into the streets to be devoured by the dogs1 vultures1 kites1 and other scavengers1 without whom no village would be habitable for a month4 99 99 99 99 99 ,whether the word raah1 which is translated as ,glede in ,deut4 xiv4 #ac1 among the list of birds which may not be eaten1 is one of these species of ,kite1 or a bird of a different group1 is a very doubtful point4 ,this is the only passage in which the word occurs1 and we have but small grounds for definitely identifying it with any one species4 ,the ,hebrew ,bible retains the word ,glede1 but affixes a mark of doubt to it1 and several commentators are of opinion that the word is a wrong reading of dayah1 which occurs in the parallel passage in ,lev4 xi4 #ad4 ,the reading of the ,septuagint follows this interpretation1 and renders it as ,vulture in both cases4 ,buxtorf translates the word raah as ,rook1 but suggests that dayah is the correct reading4 ,accepting1 however1 the word raah1 we shall find that it is derived from a root which signifies sight or vision1 especially of some particular object1 so that a piercing sight would therefore be the chief characteristic of the bird1 which1 as we know1 is one of the attributes of the ,kites1 together with other birds of prey1 so that it evidently must be classed among the group with which we are now concerned4 ,it has been suggested that1 granting the raah to be a species distinct from the dayah1 it is a collective term for the larger falcons and buzzards1 several species of which inhabit ,palestine1 and are not distinctly mentioned in the ,bible4 ,several species of buzzard inhabit the ,holy ,land1 and there is no particular reason why they should be mentioned except by a collective name4 ,some of the buzzards are very large birds1 and though their wings are short when compared with those of the vultures and eagles1 the flight of the bird is both powerful and graceful4 ,it is not1 however1 remarkable for swiftness1 and never was employed1 like the falcon1 in catching other birds1 being reckoned as one of the useless and cowardly birds of prey4 ,in consonance with this opinion1 to compare a man to a buzzard was thought a most cutting insult4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,peregrine ,,falcon1 ,,or ,,glede ,,of ,,scripture4 ,as a general rule1 it does not chase its prey like the eagles or the large-winged falcons1 but perches on a rock or tree1 watches for some animal on which it can feed1 pounces on it1 and returns to its post1 the whole movements being very like those of the flycatcher4 ,this sluggishness of disposition1 and the soft and almost owl-like plumage1 have been the means of bringing the bird into contempt among falconers4 ,as to the large falcons1 which seem to be included in the term raah1 the chief of them is the ,peregrine ,falcon 7,falco peregrinus71 which is tolerably common in the ,holy ,land4 ,in his ,land of ,israel1 ,mr4 ,tristram gives several notices of this bird1 from which we may take the following picture from a description of a scene at ,endor4 ,dreary and desolate looked the plain1 though of exuberant fertility4 ,here and there might be seen a small flock of sheep or herd of cattle1 tended by three or four mounted villagers1 armed with their long firelocks1 and pistols and swords1 on the watch against any small party of marauding cattle-lifters4 ,griffon vultures were wheeling in circles far over the rounded top of ,tabor2 and here and there an eagle was soaring beneath them in search of food1 but at a most inconvenient distance from our guns4 ,hariers were sweeping more rapidly and closely over the ground1 where lambs appeared to be their only prey2 and a noble peregrine falcon1 which in ,central ,palestine does not give place to the more eastern lanner1 was perched on an isolated rock1 calmly surveying the scene1 and permitting us to approach and scrutinize him at our leisure4 ,the habit of perching on the rock1 as mentioned above1 is very characteristic of the ,peregrine ,falcon1 who loves the loftiest and most craggy cliffs1 and makes its nest in spots which can only be reached by a bold and experienced climber4 ,the nests of this bird are never built in close proximity1 the ,peregrine preferring to have its home at least a mile from the nest of any other of its kinsfolk4 ,sometimes it makes a nest in lofty trees1 taking possession of the deserted home of some other bird2 but it loves the cliff better than the tree1 and seldom builds in the latter when the former is attainable4 ,in the passage from the ,land of ,israel is mentioned the ,,lanner ,,falcon 7,falco lanarius71 another of the larger falcons to which the term raah may have been applied4 ,this bird is much larger than the ,peregrine ,falcon1 and1 indeed1 is very little less than the great gerfalcon itself4 ,it is one of the birds that were reckoned among the noble falcons2 and the female1 which is much larger and stronger than the male1 was employed for the purpose of chasing the kite1 whose long and powerful wings could not always save it from such a foe4 ,although the ,lanner has been frequently mentioned among the ,british birds1 and the name is therefore familiar to us1 it is not even a visitor of our island4 ,the mistake has occurred by an error in nomenclature1 the young female ,peregrine ,falcon1 which is much larger and darker than the male bird1 having been erroneously called by the name of ,lanner4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lanner ,,falcon4 ,in the illustration1 a pair of ,lanner ,falcons are depicted as pursuing some of the rock-pigeons which abound in ,palestine1 the attitudes of both birds being taken from life4 ,illustration3 hawk ,,the ,,hawk4 ,the ,netz or ,hawk--,number of species probably grouped under that name--,rare occurrence of the word--,the ,sparrow-,hawk and its general habits--,its place of nesting--,the ,kestrel1 or ,wind-hover--,various names by which it is known in ,england--,its mode of feeding and curious flight--,the ,hariers--,probable derivation of the name--,species of ,harier known to inhabit ,palestine--,falconry apparently unknown to the ancient ,jews4 ,there is no doubt that a considerable number of species are grouped together under the single title ,netz1 or ,hawk1 a word which is rightly enough translated4 ,that a great number of birds should have been thus confounded together is not surprising1 seeing that even in this country and at the present time1 the single word ,hawk may signify any one of at least twelve different species4 ,the various falcons1 the hariers1 the kestrel1 the sparrow-hawk1 and the hobbies1 are one and all called popularly by the name of ,hawk1 and it is therefore likely that the ,hebrew word ,netz would signify as many species as the ,english word ,hawk4 ,from them we will select one or two of the principal species4 ,in the first place1 the word is of very rare occurrence4 ,we only find it three times4 ,it first occurs in ,lev4 xi4 #af1 in which it is named1 together with the eagle1 the ossifrage1 and many other birds1 as among the unclean creatures1 to eat which was an abomination4 ,it is next found in the parallel passage in ,deut4 xiv4 #ae1 neither of which portions of ,scripture need be quoted at length4 ,that the word netz was used in its collective sense is very evident from the addition which is made to it in both cases4 ,the ,hawk1 after its kind1 is forbidden1 showing therefore that several kinds or species of ,hawk were meant4 ,indeed1 any specific detail would be quite needless1 as the collective term was quite a sufficient indication1 and1 having named the vultures1 eagles1 and larger birds of prey1 the simple word netz was considered by the sacred writer as expressing the rest of the birds of prey4 ,we find the word once more in that part of the ,bible to which we usually look for any reference to natural history4 ,in ,job xxxix4 #bf1 we have the words1 ,doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom1 and turn or stretch her wings toward the south8 ,the precise signification of this passage is rather doubtful1 but it is generally considered to refer to the migration of several of the ,hawk tribe4 ,that the bird in question was distinguished for its power of flight is evident from the fact that the sacred poet has selected that one attribute as the most characteristic of the ,netz4 ,taking first the typical example of the ,hawks1 we find that the ,,sparrow-,,hawk 7,accipiter nisus7 is plentiful in ,palestine1 finding abundant food in the smaller birds of the country4 ,it selects for its nest just the spots which are so plentiful in the ,holy ,land1 i4e4 the crannies of rocks1 and the tops of tall trees4 ,sometimes it builds in deserted ruins1 but its favourite spot seems to be the lofty tree-top1 and1 in default of that1 the rock-crevice4 ,it seldom builds a nest of its own1 but takes possession of that which has been made by some other bird4 ,some ornithologists think that it looks out for a convenient nest1 say of the crow or magpie1 and then ejects the rightful owner4 ,i am inclined to think1 however1 that it mostly takes possession of a nest that is already deserted1 without running the risk of fighting such enemies as a pair of angry magpies4 ,this opinion is strengthened by the fact that the bird resorts to the same nest year after year4 ,it is a bold and dashing bird1 though of no great size1 and when wild and free displays a courage which it seems to lose in captivity4 ,as is the case with so many of the birds1 the female is much larger than her mate1 the former weighing about six ounces1 and measuring about a foot in length1 and the latter weighing above nine ounces1 and measuring about fifteen inches in length4 ,illustration3 ,,kestrel ,,hovering ,,over ,a ,,field ,,in ,,search ,,of ,,prey4 ,the most plentiful of the smaller ,hawks of ,palestine is the ,,common ,,kestrel4 ,this is the same species which is known under the names of ,kestrel1 ,wind-hover1 and ,stannel ,hawk4 ,it derives its name of ,wind-hover from its remarkable habit of hovering1 head to windward1 over some spot for many minutes together4 ,this action is always performed at a moderate distance from the ground2 some naturalists saying that the ,hawk in question never hovers at an elevation exceeding forty feet1 while others1 myself included1 have seen the bird hovering at a height of twice as many yards4 ,generally1 however1 it prefers a lower distance1 and is able by employing this manuvre to survey a tolerably large space beneath4 ,as its food consists in a very great measure of field-mice1 the ,kestrel is thus able by means of its telescopic eyesight to see if a mouse rises from its hole2 and if it should do so1 the bird drops on it and secures it in its claws4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wind-,,hover1 ,,or ,,kestrel4 ,unlike the sparrow-hawk1 the ,kestrel is undoubtedly gregarious1 and will build its nest in close proximity to the habitations of other birds1 a number of nests being often found within a few yards of each other4 ,mr4 ,tristram remarks that he has found its nest in the recesses of the caverns occupied by the griffon vultures1 and that the ,kestrel also builds close to the eagles1 and is the only bird which is permitted to do so4 ,it also builds in company with the jackdaw4 ,several species of ,kestrel are known1 and of them at least two inhabit the ,holy ,land1 the second being a much smaller bird than the ,common ,kestrel1 and feeding almost entirely on insects1 which it catches with its claws1 the common chafers forming its usual prey4 ,great numbers of these birds live together1 and as they rather affect the society of mankind1 they are fond of building their nests in convenient crannies in the mosques or churches4 ,independently of its smaller size1 it may be distinguished from the ,common ,kestrel by the whiteness of its claws4 ,the illustration is drawn from a sketch taken from life4 ,the bird hovered so near a house1 and remained so long in one place1 that the artist fixed a telescope and secured an exact sketch of the bird in the peculiar attitude which it is so fond of assuming4 ,after a while1 the ,kestrel ascended to a higher elevation1 and then resumed its hovering1 in the attitude which is shown in the upper figure4 ,in consequence of the great abundance of this species in ,palestine1 and the peculiarly conspicuous mode of balancing itself in the air while in search of prey1 we may feel sure that the sacred writers had it specially in their minds when they used the collective term ,netz4 ,it is easily trained1 and1 although in the old hawking days it was considered a bird which a noble could not carry1 it can be trained to chase the smaller birds as successfully as the falcons can be taught to pursue the heron4 ,the name ,tinnunculus is supposed by some to have been given to the bird in allusion to its peculiar cry1 which is clear1 shrill1 and consists of a single note several times repeated4 ,on page #ddd the reader may see a representation of a pair of ,,harier ,,hawks flying below the rock on which the peregrine falcon has perched1 and engaged in pursuing one of the smaller birds4 ,they have been introduced because several species of ,harier are to be found in ,palestine1 where they take1 among the plains and lowlands1 the place which is occupied by the other hawks and falcons among the rocks4 ,the name of ,harier appears to be given to these birds on account of their habit of regularly quartering the ground over which they fly when in search of prey1 just like hounds when searching for hares4 ,this bird is essentially a haunter of flat and marshy lands1 where it finds frogs1 mice1 lizards1 on which it usually feeds4 ,it does not1 however1 confine itself to such food1 but will chase and kill most of the smaller birds1 and occasionally will catch even the leveret1 the rabbit1 the partridge1 and the curlew4 ,when it chases winged prey1 it seldom seizes the bird in the air1 but almost invariably keeps above it1 and gradually drives it to the ground4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that its flight is mostly low1 as suits the localities in which it lives1 and it seldom soars to any great height1 except when it amuses itself by rising and wheeling in circles together with its mate4 ,this proceeding generally takes place before nest-building4 ,the usual flight is a mixture of that of the kestrel and the falcon1 the ,harier sometimes poising itself over some particular spot1 and at others shooting forwards through the air with motionless wings4 ,unlike the falcons and most of the hawks1 the ,harier does not as a rule perch on rocks1 but prefers to sit very upright on the ground1 perching generally on a mole-hill1 stone1 or some similar elevation4 ,even its nest is made on the ground1 and is composed of reeds1 sedges1 sticks1 and similar matter1 materials that can be procured from marshy land4 ,the nest is always elevated a foot or so from the ground1 and has occasionally been found on the top of a mound more than a yard in height4 ,it is1 however1 conjectured that in such cases the mound is made by one nest being built upon the remains of another4 ,the object of the elevated nest is probably to preserve the eggs in case of a flood4 ,at least five species of ,hariers are known to exist in the ,holy ,land1 two of which are among the ,british birds1 namely1 the ,marsh ,harier 7,circus ruginosus71 sometimes called the ,duck ,hawk and the ,moor ,buzzard1 and the ,hen ,harier 7,circus cyaneus71 sometimes called the ,white ,hawk1 ,dove ,hawk1 or ,blue ,hawk1 on account of the plumage of the male1 which differs greatly according to age2 and the ,ring-tailed ,hawk1 on account of the dark bars which appear on the tail of the female4 ,all the ,hariers are remarkable for the circlet of feathers that surrounds the eyes1 and which resembles in a lesser degree the bold feather-circle around the eye of the owl tribe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before taking leave of the ,hawks1 it is as well to notice the entire absence in the ,scriptures of any reference to falconry4 ,now1 seeing that the art of catching birds and animals by means of ,hawks is a favourite amusement among ,orientals1 as has already been mentioned when treating of the gazelle 7page #afh71 and knowing the unchanging character of the ,east1 we cannot but think it remarkable that no reference should be made to this sport in the ,scriptures4 ,it is true that in ,palestine itself there would be but little scope for falconry1 the rough hilly ground and abundance of cultivated soil rendering such an amusement almost impossible4 ,besides1 the use of the falcon implies that of the horse1 and1 as we have already seen1 the horse was scarcely ever used except for military purposes4 ,had1 therefore1 the experience of the ,israelites been confined to ,palestine1 there would have been good reason for the silence of the sacred writers on this subject4 ,but when we remember that the surrounding country is well adapted for falconry1 that the amusement is practised there at the present day1 and that the ,israelites passed so many years as captives in other countries1 we can but wonder that the ,hawks should never be mentioned as aids to bird-catching4 ,we find that other bird-catching implements are freely mentioned and employed as familiar symbols1 such as the gin1 the net1 the snare1 the trap1 and so forth2 but that there is not a single passage in which the ,hawks are mentioned as employed in falconry4 ,illustration3 ,,barn ,,owl4 ,,the ,,owl4 ,the words which have been translated as ,owl--,use made of the ,little ,owl in bird-catching--,habits of the bird--,the ,barn1 ,screech1 or ,white ,owl a native of ,palestine--,the ,yanshph1 or ,egyptian ,eagle ,owl--,its food and nest4 ,in various parts of the ,old ,testament there occur several words which are translated as ,,owl in the ,authorized ,version1 and in most cases the rendering is acknowledged to be the correct one1 while in one or two instances there is a difference of opinion on the subject4 ,in ,lev4 xi4 #af1 #ag1 we find the following birds reckoned among those which are an abomination1 and which might not be eaten by the ,israelites3 ,the owl1 and the night-hawk1 and the cuckoo1 and the hawk after his kind2 ,and the little owl1 and the cormorant1 and the great owl4 ,it is very likely that the ,little ,owl here mentioned is identical with the ,boomah of the ,arabs4 ,it is a bird that is common in ,europe1 where it is much valued by bird-catchers1 who employ it as a means of attracting small birds to their traps4 ,they place it on the top of a long pole1 and carry it into the fields1 where they plant the pole in the ground4 ,this ,owl has a curious habit of swaying its body backwards and forwards1 and is sure to attract the notice of all the small birds in the neighbourhood4 ,it is well known that the smaller birds have a peculiar hatred to the ,owl1 and never can pass it without mobbing it1 assembling in great numbers1 and so intent on their occupation that they seem to be incapable of perceiving anything but the object of their hatred4 ,even rooks1 magpies1 and hawks are taken by this simple device4 ,whether or not the ,little ,owl was used for this object by the ancient inhabitants of ,palestine is rather doubtful2 but as they certainly did so employ decoy birds for the purpose of attracting game1 it is not unlikely that the ,little ,owl was found to serve as a decoy4 ,we shall learn more about the system of decoy-birds when we come to the partridge4 ,the ,little ,owl is to be found in almost every locality1 caring little whether it takes up its residence in cultivated grounds1 in villages1 among deserted ruins1 or in places where man has never lived4 ,as1 however1 it is protected by the natives1 it prefers the neighbourhood of villages1 and may be seen quietly perched in some favourite spot1 not taking the trouble to move unless it be approached closely4 ,and to detect a perched ,owl is not at all an easy matter1 as the bird has a way of selecting some spot where the colours of its plumage harmonize so well with the surrounding objects that the large eyes are often the first indication of its presence4 ,many a time ,i have gone to search after ,owls1 and only been made aware of them by the sharp angry snap that they make when startled4 ,the common and well-known ,barn ,owl1 also inhabits ,palestine4 ,like the ,little ,owl1 it affects the neighbourhood of man1 though it may be found in ruins and similar localities4 ,an old ruined building is sure to be tenanted by the ,barn ,owl1 whose nightly shrieks very often terrify the belated wanderer1 and make him fancy that the place is haunted by disturbed spirits4 ,such being the habits of the bird1 it is likely that in the ,east1 where popular superstition has peopled every well with its jinn and every ruin with its spirit1 the nocturnal cry of this bird1 which is often called the ,screech ,owl from its note1 should be exceedingly terrifying1 and would impress itself on the minds of sacred writers as a fit image of solitude1 terror1 and desolation4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,little ,,owl4 ,the ,screech ,owl is scarcely less plentiful in ,palestine than the ,little ,owl1 and1 whether or not it be mentioned under a separate name1 is sure to be one of the birds to which allusion is made in the ,scriptures4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another name now rises before us3 this is the ,yanshph1 translated as the ,great ,owl1 a word which occurs not only in the prohibitory passages of ,leviticus and ,deuteronomy1 but in the ,book of ,isaiah4 ,in that book1 ch4 xxxiv4 ver4 #aj1 #aa1 we find the following passage3 ,from generation to generation it shall lie waste2 none shall pass through it for ever and ever4 ,illustration3 ,,caught ,,napping4 ,but the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it2 the owl 7yanshph7 also and the raven shall dwell in it3 and ,he shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion1 and the stones of emptiness4 ,the ,jewish ,bible follows the same reading4 ,it is most probable that the ,great ,owl or ,yanshph is the ,,egyptian ,,eagle ,,owl 7,bubo ascalaphus71 a bird which is closely allied to the great ,eagle ,owl of ,europe 7,bubo maximus71 and the ,virginian ,eared ,owl 7,bubo ,virginianus7 of ,america4 ,this fine bird measures some two feet in length1 and looks much larger than its real size1 owing to the thick coating of feathers which it wears in common with all true ,owls1 and the ear-like feather tufts on the top of its head1 which it can raise or depress at pleasure4 ,its plumage is light tawny4 ,this bird has a special predilection for deserted places and ruins1 and may at the present time be seen on the very spots of which the prophet spoke in his prediction4 ,it is very plentiful in ,egypt1 where the vast ruins are the only relics of a creed long passed away or modified into other forms of religion1 and its presence only intensifies rather than diminishes the feeling of loneliness that oppresses the traveller as he passes among the ruins4 ,the ,european ,eagle ,owl has all the habits of its ,asiatic congener4 ,it dwells in places far from the neighbourhood of man1 and during the day is hidden in some deep and dark recess1 its enormous eyes not being able to endure the light of day4 ,in the evening it issues from its retreat1 and begins its search after prey1 which consists of various birds1 quadrupeds1 reptiles1 fish1 and even insects when it can find nothing better4 ,on account of its comparatively large dimensions1 it is able to overcome even the full-grown hare and rabbit1 while the lamb and the young fawn occasionally fall victims to its voracity4 ,it seems never to chase any creature on the wing1 but floats silently through the air1 its soft and downy plumage deadening the sound of its progress1 and suddenly drops on the unsuspecting prey while it is on the ground4 ,the nest of this ,owl is made in the crevices of rocks1 or in ruins1 and is a very large one1 composed of sticks and twigs1 lined with a tolerably large heap of dried herbage1 the parent ,owls returning to the same spot year after year4 ,should it not be able to find either a rock or a ruin1 it contents itself with a hollow in the ground1 and there lays its eggs1 which are generally two in number1 though occasionally a third egg is found4 ,the ,egyptian ,eagle ,owl does much the same thing1 burrowing in sand-banks1 and retreating1 if it fears danger1 into the hollow where its nest has been made4 ,illustration3 ,,raven4 ,,barn ,,owl4 ,,eagle ,,owl4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,family ,,council4 ,in the large illustration the two last-mentioned species are given4 ,the ,egyptian ,eagle ,owl is seen with its back towards the spectator1 grasping in its talons a dead hare1 and with ear-tufts erect is looking towards the ,barn ,owl1 which is contemplating in mingled anger and fear the proceedings of the larger bird4 ,near them is perched a raven1 in order to carry out more fully the prophetic words1 the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it4 ,illustration3 owl ,illustration3 night-hawk ,,the ,,night-,,hawk4 ,different interpretations of the word ,tachms--,probability that it signifies the ,nightjar--,various names of the bird--,its remarkable jarring cry1 and wheeling flight--,mode of feeding--,boldness of the bird--,deceptive appearance of its size4 ,we next come to the vexed question of the word ,tachms which is rendered in the ,authorized ,version as ,,night-,,hawk4 ,this word only occurs among the list of prohibited birds 7see ,lev4 xi4 #af1 and ,deut4 xiv4 #ae71 and has caused great controversies among commentators4 ,the balance of probability seems to lie between two interpretations1--namely1 that which considers the word tachms to signify the ,night-hawk1 and that which translates it as ,owl4 ,for both of these interpretations much is to be said1 and it cannot be denied that of the two the latter is perhaps the preferable4 ,if so1 the ,white or ,barn ,owl is probably the particular species to which reference is made4 ,still1 many commentators think that the ,night-hawk or ,nightjar is the bird which is signified by the word tachms2 and1 as we have already treated of the owls1 we will accept the rendering of the ,authorized ,version4 ,moreover1 the ,jewish ,bible follows the same translation1 and renders tachms as ,night-hawk1 but affixes the mark of doubt4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,night-,,hawk4 ,it is not unlikely that the ,jews may have reckoned this bird among the owls1 just as is the case with the uneducated among ourselves1 who popularly speak of the ,nightjar as the ,fern ,owl1 ,churn ,owl1 or ,jar ,owl1 the two last names being given to it on account of its peculiar cry4 ,there are few birds1 indeed1 which have received a greater variety of popular names1 for1 besides the ,goatsucker and the five which have already been mentioned1 there are the ,wheel-bird and ,dor-hawk1 the former of these names having been given to the bird on account of its wheeling round the trees while seeking for prey1 and the latter on account of the dor-beetles on which it largely feeds4 ,this curious variety of names is probably due to the very conspicuous character of the ,nightjar1 its strange1 jarring1 weird-like cry forcing itself on the ear of the least attentive1 as it breaks the silence of night4 ,it hardly seems like the cry of a bird1 but rather resembles the sound of a pallet falling on the cogs of a rapidly-working wheel4 ,it begins in the dusk of evening1 the long1 jarring note being rolled out almost interminably1 until the hearer wonders how the bird can have breath enough for such a prolonged sound4 ,the hearer may hold his breath as long as he can1 take a full inspiration1 hold his breath afresh1 and repeat this process over and over again1 and yet the ,nightjar continues to trill out its rapid notes without a moment's cessation for breath1 the sound now rising shrill and clear1 and now sinking as if the bird were far off1 but never ceasing for an instant4 ,this remarkable cry has caused the uneducated rustics to look upon the bird with superstitious dread1 every one knowing its cry full well1 though to many the bird is unknown except by its voice4 ,it is probable that1 in the days when ,moses wrote the ,law1 so conspicuous a bird was well known to the ,jews1 and we may therefore conjecture that it was one of those birds which he would specially mention by name4 ,the general habits of the ,nightjar are quite as remarkable as its note4 ,it feeds on the wing1 chasing and capturing the various moths1 beetles1 and other insects that fly abroad by night4 ,it may be seen wheeling round the branches of some tree1 the oak being a special favourite1 sometimes circling round it1 and sometimes rising high in the air1 and the next moment skimming along the ground4 ,suddenly it will disappear1 and next moment its long trilling cry is heard from among the branches of the tree round which it has been flying4 ,to see it while singing is almost impossible1 for it has a habit of sitting longitudinally on the branch1 and not across it1 like most birds1 so that the outline of its body cannot be distinguished from that of the bough of which it is seated4 ,as suddenly as it began1 the sound ceases1 and simultaneously the bird may be seen wheeling again through the air with its noiseless flight4 ,being a very bold bird1 and not much afraid of man1 it allows a careful observer to watch its movements clearly4 ,i have often stood close to the tree round which several ,nightjars were circling1 and seen them chase their prey to the ground within a yard or two of the spot on which ,i was standing4 ,the flight of the ,nightjar is singularly graceful4 ,swift as the swallow itself1 it presents a command of wing that is really wonderful1 gliding through the air with consummate ease1 wheeling and doubling in pursuit of some active moth1 whose white wings glitter against the dark background1 while the sober plumage of its pursuer is scarcely visible1 passing often within a few feet of the spectator1 and yet not a sound or a rustle will reach his ears4 ,sometimes the bird is said to strike its wings together over its back1 so as to produce a sharp snapping sound1 intended to express anger at the presence of the intruder4 ,i never1 however1 heard this sound1 though ,i have watched the bird so often4 ,owing to the soft plumage with which it is clad1 this bird1 like the owls1 looks larger than really is the case4 ,it is between ten and eleven inches in length1 with an expanse of wing of twenty inches1 and yet weighs rather less than three ounces4 ,its large mouth1 like that of the swallow tribe1 opens as far as the eyes1 and is furnished with a set of vibriss or bristles1 which remind the observer of the whale-bone which is set on the jaw of the ,greenland whale4 ,illustration3 trees and bird ,illustration3 swallow ,,the ,,swallow4 ,identification of the smaller birds--,oriental indifference to natural history--,use of collective terms--,the ,swallow--,the ,bird of ,liberty--,swallows and ,swifts--,variety of small birds found in ,palestine--,the ,swallows of ,palestine4 ,difficult as is the identification of the mammalia mentioned in the ,bible1 that of the birds is much more intricate4 ,some of the larger birds can be identified with tolerable certainty1 but when we come to the smaller and less conspicuous species1 we are at once lost in uncertainty1 and at the best can only offer conjectures4 ,the fact is1 the ,jews of old had no idea of discriminating between the smaller birds1 unless they happened to be tolerably conspicuous by plumage or by voice4 ,we need not be much surprised at this4 ,the ,orientals of the present day do precisely the same thing1 and not only fail to discriminate between the smaller birds1 but absolutely have no names for them4 ,by them1 the shrikes1 the swallows1 the starlings1 the thrushes1 the larks1 the warblers1 and all the smaller birds1 are called by a common title1 derived from the twittering sound of their voices1 only one or two of them having any distinctive titles4 ,they look upon the birds much as persons ignorant of entomology look at a collection of moths4 ,there is not much difficulty in discriminating between the great hawk-moths1 and perhaps in giving a name to one or two of them which are specially noticeable for any peculiarity of form or colour2 but when they come to the ,rustics1 the ,carpets1 the ,wainscots1 and similar groups1 they are utterly lost2 and1 though they may be able to see the characteristic marks when the moths are placed side by side1 they are incapable of distinguishing them separately1 and1 to their uneducated eyes1 twenty or thirty species appear absolutely alike4 ,i believe that there is no country where a knowledge of practical natural history is so widely extended as in ,england1 and yet how few educated persons are there who1 if taken along a country lane1 can name the commonest weed or insect1 or distinguish between a sparrow1 a linnet1 a hedge-sparrow1 and a chaffinch4 ,nay1 how many are there who1 if challenged even to repeat the names of twelve little birds1 would be unable to do so without some consideration1 much less to know them if the birds were placed before them4 ,such being the case in a country where the capability of observation is more or less cultivated in every educated person1 we may well expect that a profound ignorance on the subject should exist in countries where that faculty is absolutely neglected as a matter of education4 ,moreover1 in ,england1 there is a comparatively limited list of birds1 whereas in ,palestine are found nearly all those which are reckoned among ,british birds1 and many other species besides4 ,those which reside in ,england reside also for the most part in ,palestine1 while the greater part of the migratory birds pass1 as we might expect1 into the ,holy ,land and the neighbouring countries4 ,if then we put together the two facts of an unobservant people and a vastly extended fauna1 we shall not wonder that so many collective terms are used in the ,scriptures1 one word often doing duty for twenty or thirty species4 ,the only plan1 therefore1 which can be adopted1 is to mention generally the birds which were probably grouped under one name1 and to describe briefly one or two of the most prominent4 ,it is1 however1 rather remarkable that the song of birds does not appear to be noticed by the sacred writers4 ,we might expect that several of the prophets1 especially ,isaiah1 the great sacred poet1 who drew so many of his images from natural objects1 would have found in the song of birds some metaphor expressive of sweetness or joy4 ,we might expect that in the ,book of ,job1 in which so many creatures are mentioned1 the singing of birds would be brought as prominently forward as the neck clothed with thunder of the horse1 the tameless freedom of the wild ass1 the voracity of the vulture1 and the swiftness of the ostrich4 ,we might expect the song of birds to be mentioned by ,amos1 the herdman of ,tekoa1 who introduces into his rugged poem the roar of the old lion and the wail of the cub1 the venom of the serpent hidden in the wattled wall of the herdman's hut1 and the ravages of the palmer-worm among the olives4 ,above all1 we might expect that in the ,psalms there would be many allusions to the notes of the various birds which have formed such fruitful themes for the poets of later times4 ,there are1 however1 in the whole of the ,scriptures but two passages in which the song of birds is mentioned1 and even in these only a passing allusion is made4 ,one of them occurs in ,psalm civ4 #ab3 ,by them 7i4e4 the springs of water7 shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation1 which sing among the branches4 ,this passage is perhaps rendered more closely in the ,jewish ,bible3 ,over them dwell the fowls of the heaven2 they let their voices resound 7or give their voice7 from between the foliage4 ,the other occurs in ,eccles4 xii4 #d3 ,and the doors shall be shut in the streets1 when the sound of the grinding is low1 and he shall rise up at the voice of the bird1 and all the daughters of music shall be brought low4 ,the word which is here translated as bird1 is that which is rendered in some places as sparrow1 in others as fowl1 and in others as bird4 ,even in these passages1 as the reader will have noticed1 no marks of appreciation are employed1 and we hear nothing of the sweetness1 joyousness1 or mournfulness of the bird's song4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we will now proceed to the words which have been translated as ,swallow in the ,authorized ,version4 ,these are two in number1 namely1 derr and agar4 ,hebraists are1 however1 agreed that the latter word has been wrongly applied1 the translators having interchanged the signification of two contiguous words4 ,we will therefore first take the word deror4 ,this word signifies liberty1 and is well applied to the ,swallow1 the bird of freedom4 ,it is remarkable1 by the way1 how some of the old commentators have contrived to perplex themselves about a very simple matter4 ,one of them comments upon the bird as being so called1 because it has the liberty of building in the houses of mankind4 ,another takes a somewhat similar view of the case1 but puts it in a catechetical form3 ,why is the swallow called the bird of liberty8 ,because it lives both in the house and in the field4 ,it is scarcely necessary to point out to the reader that the liberty to which allusion is made is the liberty of flight1 the bird coming and going at its appointed times1 and not being capable of domestication4 ,illustration3 ,,lost ,,from ,,the ,,flock4 ,several kinds of ,swallow are known in ,palestine1 including the true ,swallows1 the martins1 and the swifts1 and1 as we shall presently see1 it is likely that one of these groups was distinguished by a separate name4 ,whether or not the word deror included other birds beside the ,swallows is rather doubtful1 though not at all unlikely2 and if so1 it is probable that any swift-winged insectivorous bird would be called by the name of ,deror1 irrespective of its size or colour4 ,the bee-eaters1 for example1 are probably among the number of the birds grouped together under the word deror1 and we may conjecture that the same is the case with the sunbirds1 those bright-plumed little beings that take in the ,old ,world the place occupied by the humming-birds in the ,new1 and often mistaken for them by travellers who are not acquainted with ornithology4 ,one of these birds1 the ,nectarinia ,ose1 is described by ,mr4 ,tristram as a tiny little creature of gorgeous plumage1 rivalling the humming-birds of ,america in the metallic lustre of its feathers--green and purple1 with brilliant red and orange plumes under its shoulders4 ,in order to account for the singular variety of animal life which is to be found in ,palestine1 and especially the exceeding diversity of species among the birds1 we must remember that ,palestine is a sort of microcosm in itself1 comprising within its narrow boundaries the most opposite conditions of temperature1 climate1 and soil4 ,some parts are rocky1 barren1 and mountainous1 chilly and cold at the top1 and acting as channels through which the winds blow almost continuously4 ,the cliffs are full of holes1 rifts1 and caverns1 some natural1 some artificial1 and some of a mixed kind1 the original caverns having been enlarged and improved by the hand of man4 ,as a contrast to this rough and ragged region1 there lie close at hand large fertile plains1 affording pasturage for unnumbered cattle1 and of a tolerably equable temperature1 so that the animals which are pastured in it can find food throughout the year4 ,through the centre of ,palestine runs the ,jordan1 fertilizing its banks with perpetual verdure1 and ending its course in the sulphurous and bituminous waters of the ,dead ,sea1 under whose waves the ruins of the wicked cities are supposed to lie4 ,westward we have the shore of the ,mediterranean with its tideless waves of the salt sea1 and on the eastward of the mountain range that runs nearly parallel to the sea is the great ,lake of ,tiberias1 so large as to have earned the name of the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,swallow ,,and ,,swift4 ,under these favourable conditions1 therefore1 the number of species which are found in ,palestine is perhaps greater than can be seen in any other part of the earth of the same dimensions1 and it seems probable that for this reason1 among many others1 ,palestine was selected to be the ,holy ,land4 ,if1 for example1 the ,christian ,church had been originated under the tropics1 those who lived in a cold climate could scarcely have understood the language in which the ,scriptures must necessarily have been couched4 ,had it1 on the contrary1 taken its rise in the ,arctic regions1 the inhabitants of the tropics and temperate regions could not have comprehended the imagery in which the teachings of ,scripture must have been conveyed4 ,but the small and geographically insignificant ,land of ,palestine combines in itself many of the characteristics which belong respectively to the cold1 the temperate1 and the hot regions of the world1 so that the terms in which the sacred writings are couched are intelligible to a very great proportion of the world's inhabitants4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,of ,,galilee4 ,this being the case1 we naturally expect to find that several species of the ,swallow are inhabitants of ,palestine1 if so migratory a bird can be said to be an inhabitant of any one country4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,swallow',s ,,favourite ,,haunt4 ,the chief characteristic of the ,swallow1 the bird of freedom1 is that it cannot endure captivity1 but is forced by instinct to pass from one country to another for the purpose of preserving itself in a tolerably equable temperature1 moving northwards as the spring ripens into summer1 and southwards as autumn begins to sink into winter4 ,by some marvellous instinct it traces its way over vast distances1 passing over hundreds of miles where nothing but the sea is beneath it1 and yet at the appointed season returning with unerring certainty to the spot where it was hatched4 ,how it is guided no one knows1 but the fact is certain1 that ,swallows1 remarkable for some peculiarity by which they could be at once identified1 have been observed to leave the country on their migration1 and to return in the following year to the identical nest whence they started4 ,its habit of making its nest among the habitations of mankind is mentioned in a well-known passage of the ,psalms3 ,the sparrow hath found an house1 and the swallow a nest for herself1 where she may lay her young1 even ,thine altars1 ,o ,lord of ,hosts1 my ,king and my ,god 7,ps4 lxxxiv4 #c74 ,the ,swallow seems in all countries to have enjoyed the protection of man1 and to have been suffered to build in peace under his roof4 ,we find the same idea prevalent in the ,new ,world as well as the ,old1 and it is rather curious that the presence of the bird should so generally be thought to bring luck to a house4 ,in some parts of our country1 a farmer would not dare to kill a ,swallow or break down its nest1 simply because he thinks that if he did so his cows would fail to give their due supply of milk4 ,the connexion between the milking of a cow in the field and the destruction of a ,swallow's nest in the house is not very easy to see1 but nevertheless such is the belief4 ,this idea ranks with that which asserts the robin and the wren to be the male and female of the same species1 and to be under some special divine protection4 ,whatever may be the origin of this superstition1 whether it be derived from some forgotten source1 or whether it be the natural result of the confiding nature of the bird1 the ,swallow enjoys at the present day the protection of man1 and builds freely in his houses1 and even his places of worship4 ,the heathen temples1 the ,mahometan mosques1 and the ,christian churches are alike inhabited by the ,swallow1 who seems to know her security1 and often places her nest where a child might reach it4 ,the bird does not1 however1 restrict itself to the habitations of man1 though it prefers them2 and in those places where no houses are to be found1 and yet where insects are plentiful1 it takes possession of the clefts of rocks1 and therein makes its nest4 ,many instances are known where the ,swallow has chosen the most extraordinary places for its nest4 ,it has been known to build year after year on the frame of a picture1 between the handles of a pair of shears hung on the wall1 on a lamp-bracket1 in a table-drawer1 on a door-knocker1 and similar strange localities4 ,the swiftness of flight for which this bird is remarkable is noticed by the sacred writers4 ,as the bird by wandering1 as the swallow by flying1 so the curse causeless shall not come 7,prov4 xxvi4 #b74 ,this passage is given rather differently in the ,jewish ,bible1 though the general sense remains the same3 ,as the bird is ready to flee1 as the swallow to fly away2 so a causeless execration1 it shall not come4 ,it is possible1 however1 that this passage may allude rather to the migration than the swiftness of the bird4 ,illustration3 ,,swallows ,,at ,,home4 ,,the ,,hoopoe1 ,,or ,,lapwing ,,of ,,scripture4 ,the ,dukiphath of ,scripture--,various interpretations of the word--,the ,hoopoe--,its beauty and ill reputation--,the unpleasant odour of its nest--,food of the ,hoopoe--,its beautiful nest1 and remarkable gestures--,a curious legend of ,solomon and the ,hoopoe4 ,in the two parallel chapters1 ,lev4 xi4 and ,deut4 xiv41 there occurs the name of a bird which is translated in the ,authorized ,version1 ,lapwing3 ,and the stork1 the heron after her kind1 the lapwing1 and the bat4 ,the ,hebrew word is dukiphath1 and various interpretations have been proposed for it1 some taking it to be the common domestic fowl1 others the cock-of-the-woods1 or capercailzie1 while others have preferred to translate it as ,hoopoe4 ,the ,jewish ,bible retains the word lapwing1 but adds the mark of doubt4 ,commentators are1 however1 agreed that of all these interpretations1 that which renders the word as ,,hoopoe 7,upupa epops7 is the best4 ,there would be no particular object in the prohibition of such a bird as the lapwing1 or any of its kin1 while there would be very good reasons for the same injunction with regard to the ,hoopoe4 ,in spite of the beauty of the bird1 it has always had rather an ill reputation1 and1 whether in ,europe or ,asia1 its presence seems to be regarded by the ignorant with a kind of superstitious aversion4 ,this universal distaste for the ,hoopoe is probably occasioned by an exceedingly pungent and disagreeable odour which fills the nest of the bird1 and which infects for a considerable time the hand which is employed to take the eggs4 ,the nest is1 moreover1 well calculated for retaining any unpleasant smell1 being generally made in the hollow of a tree1 and having therefore but little of that thorough ventilation which is found in nearly all nests which are built on boughs and sprays4 ,the food of the ,hoopoe consists almost entirely of insects ,they have been said to feed on earth-worms2 but this notion seems to be a mistaken one1 as in captivity they will not touch an earth-worm so long as they can procure an insect4 ,beetles of various kinds seem to be their favourite food1 and when the beetles are tolerably large--say1 for example1 as large as the common cockchafer and dor-beetle--the bird beats them into a soft mass before it attempts to eat them4 ,smaller beetles are swallowed without any ceremony4 ,the various boring insects which make their home in decaying wood are favourite articles of diet with the ,hoopoe1 which digs them out of the soft wood with its long curved beak4 ,it has already been mentioned that the nest is usually made in the hollow of a tree4 ,in many parts of the country however1 hollow trees cannot be found1 and in that case the ,hoopoe resorts to clefts in the rock1 or even to holes in old ruins4 ,the bird is a peculiarly conspicuous one1 not only on account of its boldly-barred plumage and its beautiful crest1 but by its cry and its gestures4 ,it has a way of elevating and depressing its crest1 and bobbing its head up and down1 in a manner which could not fail to attract the attention even of the most incurious1 the whole aspect and expression of the bird varying with the raising and depressing of the crest4 ,respecting this crest there is a curious old legend4 ,as is the case with most of the ,oriental legends1 it introduces the name of ,king ,solomon1 who1 according to ,oriental notions1 was a mighty wizard rather than a wise king1 and by means of his seal1 on which was engraven the mystic symbol of ,divinity1 held sway over the birds1 the beasts1 the elements1 and even over the ,jinns and ,afreets1 i4e4 the good and evil spirits1 which are too ethereal for the material world and too gross for the spiritual1 and therefore hold the middle place between them4 ,on one of his journeys across the desert1 ,solomon was perishing from the heat of the sun1 when the ,hoopoes came to his aid1 and flew in a dense mass over his head1 thus forming a shelter from the fiery sunbeams4 ,grateful for this assistance1 the monarch told the ,hoopoes to ask for a boon1 and it should be granted to them4 ,the birds1 after consulting together1 agreed to ask that from that time every ,hoopoe should wear a crown of gold like ,solomon himself4 ,the request was immediately granted1 and each ,hoopoe found itself adorned with a royal crown4 ,at first1 while their honours were new1 great was the joy of the birds1 who paused at every little puddle of water to contemplate themselves1 bowing their heads over the watery mirror so as to display the crown to the best advantage4 ,soon1 however1 they found cause to repent of their ambition4 ,the golden crown became heavy and wearisome to them1 and1 besides1 the wealth bestowed on the birds rendered them the prey of every fowler4 ,the unfortunate ,hoopoes were persecuted in all directions for the sake of their golden crowns which they could neither take off nor conceal4 ,at last1 the few survivors presented themselves before ,solomon1 and begged him to rescind his fatal gift1 which he did by substituting a crest of feathers for the crown of gold4 ,the ,hoopoe1 however1 never forgets its former grandeur1 and is always bowing and bending itself as it used to do when contemplating its golden crown in the water4 ,illustration3 lapwing ,illustration3 ,,eastern ,,house-,,top4 ,,the ,,sparrow4 ,the ,sparrow upon the house top--,architecture of the ,east--,little birds exposed for sale in the market--,the two ,sparrows sold for a farthing--,bird-catching--,the net1 the snare1 and the trap4 ,we have already discussed the signification of the compound word tzippor-deror1 and will now take the word tzippor alone4 ,like many other ,hebrew terms1 the word is evidently used in a collective sense1 signifying any small bird that is not specially designated4 ,in several portions of ,scripture it is translated as ,sparrow1 and to that word we will at present restrict ourselves4 ,on turning to ,ps4 cii4 #e-g1 we find that the word is used as an emblem of solitude and misery3 ,by reason of the voice of my groaning1 my bones cleave to my skin4 ,i am like a pelican of the wilderness3 ,i am like an owl of the desert1 ,i watch1 and am as a sparrow alone upon the house-top4 ,the word which is here translated as ,sparrow is tzippor1 the same which is rendered as bird in ,lev4 xiv4 #d4 ,the ,hebrew ,bible more consistently uses the collective term bird in both instances1 and renders the passage as1 ,i watch1 and am as a lonely bird upon a roof4 ,now1 any one who knows the habits of the ,sparrow is perfectly aware that it is a peculiarly sociable bird4 ,it is quarrelsome enough with its fellows1 and always ready to fight for a stray grain or morsel of food2 but it is exceedingly gregarious1 assembling together in little parties1 enlivening the air with its merry though unmusical twitterings4 ,this cosmopolitan bird is plentiful in the coast towns of ,palestine1 where it haunts the habitations of men with the same dauntless confidence which it displays in this country4 ,it is often seen upon roofs or house-tops1 but is no more apt to sit alone in ,palestine than it is here4 ,on the contrary1 the ,sparrows collect in great numbers on the house-tops1 attracted by the abundant supply of food which it finds there4 ,this requires some little explanation4 ,the house-tops of the ,east1 instead of being gabled and tiled as among ourselves1 to allow the rain to run off1 are quite flat1 and serve as terraces or promenades in the evening1 or even for sleeping-places2 and from the house-tops proclamations were made4 ,see1 for example1 #a ,sam4 ix4 #be3 ,and when they were come down from the high place into the city1 ,samuel communed with ,saul upon the top of the house--this being the ordinary place which would be chosen for a conversation4 ,in order to keep out the heat of the mid-day sun1 tents were sometimes pitched upon these flat house-tops4 7,see #b ,sam4 xvi4 #bb47 ,reference to the use of the house-tops as places for conversation are made in the ,new ,testament4 ,see1 for example1 ,matt4 x4 #bg3 ,what ,i tell you in darkness1 that speak ye in light2 and what ye hear in the ear1 that preach ye upon the house-tops4 ,another passage of a similar nature occurs in ,luke xii4 #c3 ,therefore whatsoever ye have spoken in darkness shall be heard in the light1 and that which ye have spoken in the ear in closets shall be proclaimed on the house-tops4 ,these roofs1 instead of being built with sloping rafters like those to which we are accustomed in this country1 are made with great beams of wood laid horizontally1 and crossed by planks1 poles1 and brushwood packed tightly together4 ,as this roof would not keep out the rain1 it is covered with a thick layer of clay mixed with straw1 and beaten down as hard as possible4 ,this covering has constantly to be renewed1 as1 even in the best made roofs1 the heavy rains are sure to wash away some portion of the clay covering1 which has to be patched up with a fresh supply of earth4 ,a stone roller is generally kept on the roof of each house for the purpose of making a flat and even surface4 ,the earth which is used for this purpose is brought from the uncultivated ground1 and is full of various seeds4 ,as soon as the rains fall1 these seeds spring up1 and afford food to the ,sparrows and other little birds1 who assemble in thousands on the house-tops1 and then peck away just as they do in our own streets and farm-yards4 ,it is now evident that the sparrow alone and melancholy upon the house-tops cannot be the lively1 gregarious ,sparrow which assembles in such numbers on these favourite feeding-places4 ,we must therefore look for some other bird1 and naturalists are now agreed that we may accept the ,,blue ,,thrush 7,petrocossyphus cyaneus7 as the particular ,tzippor1 or small bird1 which sits alone on the house-tops4 ,the colour of this bird is a dark blue1 whence it derives its popular name4 ,its habits exactly correspond with the idea of solitude and melancholy4 ,the ,blue ,thrushes never assemble in flocks1 and it is very rare to see more than a pair together4 ,it is fond of sitting on the tops of houses1 uttering its note1 which1 however agreeable to itself1 is monotonous and melancholy to a human ear4 ,in connexion with the passage already quoted1 ,what ye hear in the ear1 that preach ye upon the house-tops1 ,i will take the opportunity of explaining the passage itself1 which scarcely seems relevant to the occasion unless we understand its bearings4 ,the context shows that our ,lord was speaking of the new doctrines which ,he had come to teach1 and the duty of spreading them1 and alludes to a mode of religious teaching which was then in vogue4 ,the long captivity of the ,jews in ,babylon had caused the ,hebrew language to be disused among the common people1 who had learned the ,chaldaic language from their captors4 ,after their return to ,palestine1 the custom of publicly reading the ,scriptures was found to be positively useless1 the generality of the people being ignorant of the ,hebrew language4 ,illustration3 ,,reading ,,the ,,law ,,to ,,the ,,people ,,after ,,the ,,return ,,from ,,captivity4 ,accordingly1 the following modification was adopted4 ,the roll of the ,scriptures was brought out as usual1 and the sacred words read1 or rather chanted4 ,after each passage was read1 a doctor of the law whispered its meaning into the ear of a ,targumista or interpreter1 who repeated to the people in the ,chaldaic language the explanation which the doctor had whispered in ,hebrew4 ,the reader will now see how appropriate is the metaphor1 the whispering in the ear and subsequent proclamation being the customary mode of imparting religious instruction4 ,if the reader will now turn to ,matt4 x4 #bi1 he will find that the word sparrow is used in a passage which has become very familiar to us4 ,are not two sparrows sold for a farthing8 and one of them shall not fall on the ground without your ,father4 ,but the very hairs of your head are all numbered4 ,fear ye not therefore1 ye are of more value than many sparrows4 ,the same sentences are given by ,st4 ,luke 7xii4 #f71 in almost the same words4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,blue ,,thrush1 ,,or ,,sparrow ,,of ,,scripture4 ,now the word which is translated as ,sparrow is strouthion1 a collective word1 signifying a bird of any kind4 ,without the addition of some epithet1 it was generally used to signify any kind of small bird1 though it is occasionally employed to signify even so large a creature as an eagle1 provided that the bird had been mentioned beforehand4 ,conjoined with the word great1 it signifies the ostrich2 and when used in connexion with a word significative of running1 it is employed as a general term for all cursorial birds4 ,in the passages above quoted it is used alone1 and evidently signifies any kind of little bird1 whether it be a sparrow or not4 ,allusion is made by our ,lord to a custom1 which has survived to the present day1 of exposing for sale in the markets the bodies of little birds4 ,they are stripped of their feathers1 and spitted together in rows1 and always have a large sale4 ,various birds are sold in this manner1 little if any distinction being made between them1 save perhaps in respect of size1 the larger species commanding a higher price than the small birds4 ,in fact1 they are arranged exactly after the manner in which the ,orientals sell their kabobs1 i4e4 little pieces of meat pierced by wooden skewers4 ,it is evident that to supply such a market it is necessary that the birds should be of a tolerably gregarious nature1 so that a considerable number can be caught at a time4 ,nets were employed for this purpose1 and we may safely infer that the forms of the nets and the methods of using them were identical with those which are employed in the same country at the present day4 ,the fowlers supply themselves with a large net supported on two sticks1 and1 taking a lantern with them fastened to the top of a pole1 they sally out at night to the places where the small birds sleep4 ,raising the net on its sticks1 they lift it to the requisite height1 and hold the lantern exactly opposite to it1 so as to place the net between the birds and the lantern4 ,the roosting-places are then beaten with sticks or pelted with stones1 so as to awaken the sleeping birds4 ,startled by the sudden noise1 they dash from their roosts1 instinctively make towards the light1 and so fall into the net4 ,bird-catching with nets is several times mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 but in the ,new the net is only alluded to as used for taking fish4 ,beside the net1 several other modes of bird-catching were used by the ancient ,jews1 just as is the case at the present day4 ,boys1 for example1 who catch birds for their own consumption1 and not for the market1 can do so by means of various traps1 most of which are made on the principle of the noose1 or snare4 ,sometimes a great number of hair-nooses are set in places to which the birds are decoyed1 so that in hopping about many of them are sure to become entangled in the snares4 ,sometimes the noose is ingeniously suspended in a narrow passage which the birds are likely to traverse1 and sometimes a simple fall-trap is employed4 ,we now pass to another division of the subject4 ,in ,ps4 lxxxiv4 #a-c1 we come upon a passage in which the ,sparrow is again mentioned3 ,how amiable are ,thy tabernacles1 ,o ,lord of hosts6 ,my soul longeth1 yea1 even fainteth for the courts of the ,lord2 my heart and my flesh crieth out for the living ,god4 ,yea1 the sparrow hath found an house1 and the swallow a nest for herself1 where she may lay her young1 even ,thine altars1 ,o ,lord of hosts1 my ,king1 and my ,god4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tree-,,sparrow1 ,,or ,,sparrow ,,of ,,scripture4 ,it is evident that we have in this passage a different bird from the ,sparrow that sitteth alone upon the house-tops2 and though the same word1 tzippor1 is used in both cases1 it is clear that whereas the former bird was mentioned as an emblem of sorrow1 solitude1 and sadness1 the latter is brought forward as an image of joy and happiness4 ,blessed are they1 proceeds the ,psalmist1 that dwell in ,thy house3 they will be still praising ,thee4444 ,for a day in ,thy courts is better than a thousand4 ,i had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my ,god1 than to dwell in the tents of wickedness4 ,according to ,mr4 ,tristram1 this is probably one of the species to which allusion is made by the ,psalmist4 ,while inspecting the ruins in the neighbourhood of the ,temple1 he came upon an old wall4 ,near this gate ,i climbed on to the top of the wall1 and walked along for some time1 enjoying the fine view at the gorge of the ,kedron1 with its harvest crop of little white tombs4 ,in a chink ,i discovered a sparrow's nest 7,passer cisalpinus1 var47 of a species so closely allied to our own that it is difficult to distinguish it1 one of the very kind of which the ,psalmist sung4444 ,the swallows had departed for the winter1 but the sparrow has remained pertinaciously through all the sieges and changes of ,jerusalem4 ,the same traveller thinks that the ,,tree ,,sparrow 7,passer montanus7 may be the species to which the sacred writer refers1 as it is even now very plentiful about the neighbourhood of the ,temple4 ,in all probability we may accept both these birds as representatives of the ,sparrow which found a home in the ,temple4 ,the swallow is separately mentioned1 possibly because its migratory habits rendered it a peculiarly conspicuous bird2 but it is probable that many species of birds might make their nests in a place where they felt themselves secure from disturbance1 and that all these birds would be mentioned under the collective and convenient term of ,tzipporim4 ,illustration3 sparrows ,illustration3 old tree ,,the ,,cuckoo4 ,the ,cuckoo only twice mentioned in ,scripture--,the common species1 and the ,great ,spotted ,cuckoo--,depositing the egg4 ,only in two instances is the word ,,cuckoo found in the ,authorized ,version of the ,bible1 and as they occur in parallel passages they are practically reduced to one4 ,in ,lev4 xi4 #af we find it mentioned among the birds that might not be eaten1 and the same prohibition is repeated in ,deut4 xiv4 #ae1 the ,jews being ordered to hold the bird in abomination4 ,it is rather remarkable that the ,arabic name for the bird is exactly the same as ours1 the peculiar cry having supplied the name4 ,its habit of laying its eggs in the nests of other birds is well known1 together with the curious fact1 that although so large a bird1 measuring more than a foot in length1 its egg is not larger than that of the little birds1 such as the hedge-sparrow1 robin1 or redstart4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,spotted ,,cuckoo4 ,besides this species1 another ,cuckoo inhabits ,palestine1 and is much more common4 ,this is the ,,great ,,spotted ,,cuckoo 7,oxylophus glandarius74 ,the birds belonging to this genus have been separated from the other ,cuckoos because the feathers on the head are formed into a bold crest1 in some species1 such as ,le ,vaillant's ,cuckoo1 reminding the observer of the crest of the cockatoo4 ,this fine bird measures nearly sixteen inches in length1 and can be distinguished1 not only by the crested head1 but by the reddish grey of the throat and chest1 and the white tips of the wing and tail feathers4 ,this species lays its eggs in the nests of comparatively large birds1 such as the rooks1 crows1 and magpies4 ,illustration3 ,,noah ,,receives ,,the ,,dove4 ,,the ,,dove4 ,parallel between the lamb and the ,dove--,the ,dove and the olive branch--,abram's sacrifice1 and its acceptance--,the ,dove-sellers of the ,temple--,the ,rock ,dove and its multitudes4 ,in giving the ,scriptural history of the ,doves and ,pigeons1 we shall find ourselves rather perplexed in compressing the needful information into a reasonable space4 ,there is no bird which plays a more important part1 both in the ,old and the ,new ,testaments1 or which is employed so largely in metaphor and symbol4 ,the ,doves and ,pigeons were to the birds what were the sheep and lambs to the animals1 and1 like them1 derived their chief interest from their use in sacrifice4 ,both the lamb and the young pigeon being emblems of innocence1 both were used on similar occasions1 the latter being in many instances permitted when the former were too expensive for the means of the offerer4 ,as to the rendering of the ,hebrew words which have been translated as ,pigeon1 ,dove1 and ,turtle ,dove1 there has never been any discussion4 ,the ,hebrew word yonh has always been acknowledged to signify the ,dove or ,pigeon1 and the word tr to signify the ,turtle ,dove4 ,generally1 the two words are used in combination1 so that tor-yonh signifies the ,turtle ,dove4 ,though the interpretation of the word yonh is universally accepted1 there is a little difficulty about its derivation1 and its signification apart from the bird4 ,some have thought that it is derived from a root signifying warmth1 in allusion to the warmth of its affection1 the ,dove having from time immemorial been selected as the type of conjugal love4 ,others1 among whom is ,buxtorf1 derive it from a word which signifies oppression1 because the gentle nature of the ,dove1 together with its inability to defend itself1 cause it to be oppressed1 not only by man1 but by many rapacious birds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first passage in which we hear of the ,dove occurs in the earlier part of ,genesis4 ,indeed1 the ,dove and the raven are the first two creatures that are mentioned by any definite names1 the word nachosh1 which is translated as serpent in ,gen4 iii4 #a1 being a collective word signifying any kind of serpent1 whether venomous or otherwise1 and not used for the purpose of designating any particular species4 ,turning to ,gen4 viii4 #h1 we come to the first mention of the ,dove4 ,the whole passage is too familiar to need quoting1 and it is only needful to say that the ,dove was sent out of the ark in order that ,noah might learn whether the floods had subsided1 and that1 after she had returned once1 he sent her out again seven days afterwards1 and that she returned1 bearing an olive-branch 7or leaf1 in the ,jewish ,bible74 ,seven days afterwards he sent the ,dove for the third time1 but she had found rest on the earth1 and returned no more4 ,it is not within the province of this work to treat1 except in the most superficial manner1 of the metaphorical signification of the ,scriptures4 ,i shall1 therefore1 allude but very slightly to the metaphorical sense of the passages which record the exit from the ark and the sacrifice of ,noah4 ,suffice it to say that1 putting entirely aside all metaphor1 the characters of the raven and the ,dove are well contrasted4 ,the one went out1 and1 though the trees were at that time submerged1 it trusted in its strong wings1 and hovered above the watery expanse until the flood had subsided4 ,the ,dove1 on the contrary1 fond of the society of man1 and having none of the wild1 predatorial habits which distinguish the raven1 twice returned to its place of refuge1 before it was finally able to find a resting-place for its foot4 ,after this1 we hear nothing of the ,dove until the time of ,abraham1 some four hundred years afterwards1 when the covenant was made between the ,lord and ,abram1 when he believed in the ,lord1 and it was counted to him for righteousness4 ,in order to ratify this covenant he was ordered to offer a sacrifice1 which consisted of a young heifer1 a she-goat1 a ram1 a turtle-dove1 and a young dove or pigeon4 ,the larger animals were severed in two1 but the birds were not divided1 and between the portions of the sacrifice there passed a lamp of fire as a symbol of the ,divine presence4 ,in after days1 when the promise that the seed of ,abram should be as the stars of heaven for multitude had been amply fulfilled1 together with the prophecy that they should be strangers in a land that was not theirs1 and should be in slavery and under oppression for many years1 the ,dove was specially mentioned in the new law as one of the creatures that were to be sacrificed on certain defined occasions4 ,even the particular mode of offering the ,dove was strictly defined4 ,see ,lev4 i4 #ad-ag3 ,if the burnt sacrifice for his offering to the ,lord be of fowls1 then he shall bring his offering of turtle-doves1 or of young pigeons4 ,and the priest shall bring it unto the altar1 and wring off his head1 and burn it on the altar2 and the blood thereof shall be wrung out at the side of the altar4 ,and he shall pluck away his crop with his feathers1 and cast it beside the altar1 on the east part1 by the place of the ashes4 ,and he shall cleave it with the wings thereof1 but shall not divide it asunder3 and the priest shall burn it upon the altar1 upon the wood that is upon the fire4 ,here we have a repetition not only of the sacrifice of ,abram1 but of the mode in which it was offered1 care being taken that the body of the bird should not be divided4 ,there is a slight1 though not very important variation in one or two portions of this passage4 ,for example1 the wringing off the head of the bird is1 literally1 pinching off1 and had to be done with the thumb nail2 and the passage which is by some translators rendered as the crop and the feathers1 is by others translated as the crop and its contents--a reading which seems to be more consonant with the usual ceremonial of sacrifice than the other4 ,as a general rule1 the pigeon was only sanctioned as a sacrificial animal in case one of more value could not be afforded2 and so much care was taken in this respect1 that with the exception of the two sparrows 7tzipporim7 that were enjoined as part of the sacrifice by which the cleansed leper was received back among the people 7,lev4 xiv4 #d71 no bird might be offered in sacrifice unless it belonged to the tribe of pigeons4 ,it was in consequence of the poverty of the family that the ,virgin ,mary brought two young pigeons when she came to present her new-born ,son in the ,temple4 ,for those who were able to afford it1 the required sacrifice was a lamb of the first year for a burnt-offering1 and a young pigeon or ,turtle ,dove for a sin-offering4 ,but if she be not able to bring a lamb1 then she shall bring two turtles1 or two young pigeons1 the one for the burnt-offering and the other for a sin-offering4 ,the extraordinary value which all ,israelites set upon the first-born son is well known1 both parents even changing their own names1 and being called respectively the father and mother of ,elias1 or ,joseph1 as the case may be4 ,if the parents who had thus attained the summit of their wishes possessed a lamb1 or could have obtained one1 they would most certainly have offered it in the fulness of their joy1 particularly when1 as in the case of ,mary1 there was such cause for rejoicing2 and the fact that they were forced to substitute a second pigeon for the lamb is a proof of their extreme poverty4 ,while the ,israelites were comparatively a small and compact nation1 dwelling around their tabernacle1 the worshippers could easily offer their sacrifices1 bringing them from their homes to the altar4 ,but in process of time1 when the nation had become a large and scattered one1 its members residing at great distances1 and only coming to the ,temple once or twice in the year to offer their sacrifices1 they would have found that for even the poor to carry their pigeons with them would have greatly increased the trouble1 and in many cases have been almost impossible4 ,for the sake of convenience1 therefore1 a number of dealers established themselves in the outer courts of the ,temple1 for the purpose of selling ,doves to those who came to sacrifice4 ,sheep and oxen were also sold for the same purpose1 and1 as offerings of money could only be made in the ,jewish coinage1 money-changers established themselves for the purpose of exchanging foreign money brought from a distance for the legal ,jewish shekel4 ,that these people exceeded their object1 and endeavoured to overreach the foreign ,jews who were ignorant of the comparative value of money and goods1 is evident from the fact of their expulsion by our ,lord1 and the epithets which were applied to them4 ,illustration3 ,,jesus ,,drives ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,the ,,money-,,changers ,,and ,,those ,,who ,,sold ,,doves4 ,according to some old writers1 the ,dove was considered as having a superiority over other birds in the instinctive certainty with which it finds its way from one place to another4 ,at the present time1 our familiarity with the variety of pigeon known as the ,carrier has taught us that the eye is the real means employed by the pigeon for the direction of its flight4 ,those who fly pigeons for long distances always take them several times over the same ground1 carrying them to an increasing distance at every journey1 so that the birds shall be able to note certain objects which serve them as landmarks4 ,bees and wasps have recourse to a similar plan4 ,when a young wasp leaves its nest for the first time1 it does not fly away at once1 but hovers in front of the entrance for some time1 getting farther and farther away from the nest until it has learned the aspect of surrounding objects4 ,the pigeon acts in precisely the same manner1 and so completely does it depend upon eyesight that1 if a heavy fog should come on1 the best-trained pigeon will lose its way4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rock ,,dove4 ,the old writers1 however1 made up their minds that the pigeon found its way by scent1 which sense alone1 according to their ideas1 could guide it across the sea4 ,they were not aware of the power possessed by birds of making their eyes telescopic at will1 or of the enormous increase of range which the sight obtains by elevation4 ,a pigeon at the elevation of several hundred yards can see to an astonishing distance1 and there is no need of imagining one sense to receive a peculiar development when the ordinary powers of another are sufficient to obtain the object4 ,that dove-cotes were in use among the earlier ,jews is well known4 ,an allusion to the custom of keeping pigeons in cotes is seen in ,isa4 lx4 #h3 ,who are these that fly as a cloud1 and as the doves to their windows8 or1 as the ,jewish ,bible translates the passage1 as the doves to their apertures8 ,in this passage the sacred writer utters a prophecy concerning the coming of the world to the ,messiah1 the ,gentiles flocking to ,him as the clouds of pigeons fly homeward to their cotes4 ,illustration3 ,,blue ,,rock ,,pigeons4 ,the practice of pigeon-keeping has survived to the present day1 the houses of wealthy men being furnished with separate pigeon-houses for the protection and shelter of these popular birds4 ,in the ,holy ,land are found all the species of ,pigeons with which we are familiar1 together with one or two others4 ,first1 there is the ,rock ,pigeon1 or ,blue ,rock ,dove1 which is acknowledged to be the origin of our domestic breeds of ,pigeons1 with all their infinite variety of colour and plumage4 ,this species1 though plentiful in ,palestine1 is not spread over the whole of the land1 but lives chiefly on the coast and in the higher parts of the country4 ,in these places it multiplies in amazing numbers1 its increase being almost wholly unchecked by man1 on account of the inaccessible cliffs in which it lays its eggs and nurtures its young1 its only enemies being a few of the birds and beasts of prey1 which can exercise but a trifling influence on these prolific birds4 ,mr4 ,tristram1 while visiting the ,wady 7or ,valley7 ,seimn1 which lies near the ,lake of ,gennesaret1 witnessed an amusing example of the vast number of these ,pigeons4 ,no description can give an adequate idea of the myriads of rock pigeons4 ,in absolute clouds they dashed to and fro in the ravine1 whirling round with a rush and a whirr that could be felt like a gust of wind4 ,it was amusing to watch them upset the dignity and the equilibrium of the majestic griffon as they swept past him4 ,this enormous bird1 quietly sailing along1 was quite turned on his back by the sudden rush of wings and wind4 ,in ,palestine these birds are taken in nets1 into which they are decoyed by a very effective though cruel device4 ,when one of these birds is trapped or snared1 it is seized by its capturers1 who spare its life for the sake of using it as a decoy4 ,they blind it by sewing its eyelids together1 and then fasten it to a perch among trees4 ,the miserable bird utters plaintive cries1 and continually flaps its wings1 thus attracting others of its kind1 who settle on the surrounding branches and are easily taken1 their whole attention being occupied by the cries of their distressed companion4 ,we now come to the ,turtle ,doves1 several of which inhabit the ,holy ,land2 but1 as they are similar in habits1 we will confine ourselves to the common species1 with which we are so familiar in this country4 ,its migratory habits are noticed in the sacred writings4 ,see the following passage in the ,song of ,solomon3 ,lo1 the winter is past1 the rain is over and gone2 the flowers appear on the earth2 the time of the singing of birds is come1 and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land 7,cant4 ii4 #aa1 #ab74 ,the prophet ,jeremiah also refers to the migration of this bird3 ,yea1 the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed times2 and the turtle1 and the crane1 and the swallow observe the time of their coming2 but my people know not the judgment of the ,lord 7viii4 #g74 ,beside this species1 there is the ,collared ,turtle ,dove1 one variety of which is known as the ,barbary ,dove4 ,it is a large species1 measuring more than a foot in length4 ,another species is the ,palm ,turtle1 so called from its habit of nesting on palm-trees1 when it is obliged to build at a distance from the habitations of man4 ,it is a gregarious bird1 several nests being generally found on one tree1 and even1 when it cannot find a palm1 it will build among the thorns in multitudes4 ,like the common ,dove1 it is fond of the society of man1 and is sure to make its nest among human habitations1 secure in its knowledge that it will not be disturbed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,turtle ,,dove4 ,it is rather a small bird1 being barely ten inches in length1 and having no collar on the neck1 like the two preceding species4 ,illustration3 chickens ,,poultry4 ,poultry plentiful in ,palestine at the present day--,the ,domestic ,fowl unknown in the early times of ,israel--,the eating and gathering of eggs--,references to ,poultry in the ,new ,testament--,the egg and the scorpion--,the fatted fowl of ,solomon--,the hen brooding over her eggs--,poultry prohibited within ,jerusalem--,the cock-crowing4 ,at the present day1 poultry are plentiful both in ,palestine and ,syria1 and that they were bred in the time of the ,apostles is evident from one or two references which are made by our ,lord4 ,how long the ,domestic ,fowl had been known to the ,jews is extremely uncertain1 and we have very little to guide us in our search4 ,that it was unknown to the ,jews during the earlier period of their history is evident from the utter silence of the ,old ,testament on the subject4 ,a bird so conspicuous and so plentiful would certainly have been mentioned in the ,law of ,moses had it been known to the ,israelites2 but1 in all its minute and detailed provisions1 the ,law is silent on the subject4 ,neither the bird itself nor its eggs are mentioned1 although there are a few references to eggs1 without signifying the bird which laid them4 ,the humane provision in ,deut4 xxii4 #f1 #g1 refers not to a domesticated1 but to a wild bird3 ,if a bird's nest chance to be before thee in any tree1 or on the ground1 whether they be young ones1 or eggs1 and the dams sitting upon the young1 or upon the eggs1 thou shalt not take the dam with the young3 but thou shalt in any wise let the dam go1 and take the young to thee2 that it may be well with thee1 that thou mayest prolong thy days4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,domestic ,,fowl4 ,there is but one passage in the ,old ,testament which has ever been conjectured to refer to the ,domestic ,fowl4 ,it occurs in #a ,kings iv4 #bb1 #bc3 ,and ,solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures of fine flour1 and threescore measures of meal1 ,ten fat oxen1 and twenty oxen out of the pastures1 and an hundred sheep1 besides harts1 and roebucks1 and fallow-deer1 and fatted fowl4 ,many persons think that the fatted fowl mentioned in the above-quoted passage were really ,domestic ,fowl1 which ,solomon had introduced into ,palestine1 together with various other birds and animals1 by means of his fleet4 ,there may be truth in this conjecture1 but1 as there can be no certainty1 we will pass from the ,old ,testament to the ,new4 ,we are all familiar with the passages in which the ,domestic ,fowl is mentioned in the ,new ,testament4 ,there is1 for example1 that touching image employed by our ,lord when lamenting over ,jerusalem3 ,o ,jerusalem1 ,jerusalem1 thou that killest the prophets1 and stonest them that are sent unto thee2 how often would ,i have gathered thy children together1 as a hen doth gather her brood under her wings1 and ye would not6 ,the reference is evidently made to the ,domesticated ,fowl1 which in the time of our ,lord was largely bred in the ,holy ,land4 ,some writers have taken objection to this statement in consequence of a ,rabbinical law which prohibited poultry from being kept within the walls of ,jerusalem1 lest in their search for food they should scratch up any impurity which had been buried1 and so defile the holy city4 ,but it must be remembered that in the time of ,christ ,jerusalem belonged practically to the ,romans1 who held it with a garrison1 and who1 together with other foreigners1 would not trouble themselves about any such prohibition1 which would seem to them1 as it does to us1 exceedingly puerile1 not to say unjustifiable4 ,that the bird was common in the days of our ,lord is evident from the reference to the cock-crowing as a measure of time4 ,illustration3 chickens ,illustration3 peacock ,,the ,,peacock4 ,the foreign curiosities imported by ,solomon--,the word ,tucciyim and its various interpretations--,identity of the word with the ,cingalese name of the ,peacock--,reasons why the ,peacock should have been brought to ,solomon--,its subsequent neglect and extirpation4 ,among the many foreign objects which were imported by ,solomon into ,palestine1 we find that the ,peacock is specially mentioned4 7,see a passage which has already been mentioned in connexion with ivory and apes47 ,the sacred historian1 after mentioning the ivory throne1 the golden shields and targets1 that all the vessels in ,solomon's house were of gold1 and that silver was so common as to be of no account1 proceeds to give the reason for this profuse magnificence4 ,for the king had at sea a navy of ,tharshish with the navy of ,hiram3 once in three years came the navy of ,tharshish1 bringing gold1 and silver1 ivory1 and apes1 and peacocks 7#a ,kings x4 #bb74 ,that this magnificent bird should have been one of those creatures that were imported by ,solomon is almost certain4 ,it would be imported for the same reason as the apes2 namely1 for the purpose of adding to the glories of ,solomon's house1 and no bird could have been selected which would have a more magnificent effect than the ,peacock4 ,moreover1 although unknown in ,palestine1 it is extremely plentiful in ,india and ,ceylon1 inhabiting the jungle by thousands1 and1 by a curious coincidence1 being invariably most plentiful in those spots which are most frequented by tigers4 ,in many parts of the country1 great numbers of ,peacocks frequent the temples1 and live amicably with the sacred monkeys1 passing their lives in absolute security1 protected by the sanctity of the place4 ,their numbers1 therefore1 would render them easily accessible to ,solomon's envoys1 who would purchase them at a cheap rate from the native dealers1 while their surpassing beauty would render them sure of a sale on their arrival in ,jerusalem4 ,indeed1 their beauty made so great an impression that they are separately mentioned by the sacred chronicler1 the ,peacock and the ape being the only two animals that are thought worthy of enumeration4 ,the ,peacock may safely be termed one of the most beautiful of the feathered tribe1 and may even lay a well-founded claim to the chief rank among birds1 in splendour of plumage and effulgence of colouring4 ,we are so familiar with the ,peacock that we think little of its real splendour2 but if one of these birds was brought to this country for the first time1 it would create a greater sensation than many animals which are now viewed in menageries with the greatest curiosity and interest4 ,the train of the male ,peacock is the most remarkable feature of this beautiful bird2 the feathers composing it are very long1 and are coloured with green1 purple1 bronze1 gold1 and blue in such a manner as to form distinct eyes4 ,on the head is a tuft of upright feathers1 blackish upon their shafts1 and rich golden green1 shot with blue1 on their expanded tips4 ,the top of the head1 the throat1 and neck are the most refulgent blue1 changing in different lights to gold and green4 ,the wings are darker than the rest of the plumage1 the abdomen blackish1 and the feathers of the thighs are fawn4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,peacock4 ,the female is much smaller than her mate1 and not nearly so beautiful1 the train being almost wanting1 and the colour ashy-brown1 with the exception of the throat and neck1 which are green4 ,it seems that after ,solomon's death the breed of ,peafowl was not kept up1 owing in all probability to the troubles which beset the throne after that magnificent monarch died4 ,illustration3 feathers ,illustration3 partridge ,,the ,,partridge4 ,the word ,kore and its signification--,the ,partridge upon the mountains--,david's simile--,the ,desert ,partridge and its habits--,hunting the ,partridge with sticks--,eggs of the ,partridge--,egg-hunting in ,palestine--,the various species of ,partridge4 ,there is a bird mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 which1 although its name is only given twice1 is a very interesting bird to all students of the ,scriptures1 both passages giving an insight into the manners and customs of the scarcely changing ,east4 ,this is the bird called in the ,hebrew ,kore1 a word which has been generally accepted as signifying some kind of ,partridge4 ,there is no doubt that1 like most other ,hebrew names of animated beings1 the word is a collective one1 signifying a considerable number of species4 ,the first passage occurs in #a ,sam4 xxvi4 #bj4 ,when ,david was being pursued by ,saul1 and had been forced to escape from the city and hide himself in the rocky valleys1 he compared himself to the ,partridge1 which frequented exactly the same places3 ,the king of ,israel is come out to seek a flea1 as when one doth hunt a partridge upon the mountains4 ,the appositeness of this simile is perfect4 ,the bird to which ,david alluded was in all probability the ,desert ,partridge 7,ammoperdix ,heyii71 a species which especially haunts rocky and desert places1 and even at the present day is exceedingly plentiful about the ,cave of ,adullam4 ,the males1 when they think themselves unobserved1 are fond of challenging1 or calling to each other in a loud ringing note1 a peculiarity that has earned for the bird the ,hebrew name of ,kore1 or the caller4 ,it is a very active bird1 not taking to flight if it can escape by means of its legs1 and1 when pursued or disturbed1 running with great swiftness to some rocky cleft in which it may hide itself1 taking care to interpose1 as it runs1 stones or other obstacles between itself and the object of its alarm4 ,thus1 then1 it will be seen how close was the parallel between this bird and ,david1 who was forced1 like the ,partridge1 to seek for refuge in the rocky caves4 ,but the parallel becomes even closer when we come to examine the full meaning of the passage4 ,the ,partridge is at the present day hunted on the mountains exactly as was the case in the time of ,david4 ,the usual hunters are boys1 who provide themselves with a supply of stout sticks about eighteen inches in length1 and1 armed with these1 they chase the birds1 hurling the sticks one after the other along the ground1 so as to strike the ,partridge as it runs4 ,generally1 several hunters chase the same bird1 some of them throwing the sticks along the ground1 while others hurl them just above the bird1 so that if it should take to flight1 it may be struck as it rises into the air4 ,by pertinaciously chasing an individual bird1 the hunters tire it1 and contrive to come so close that they are certain to strike it4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,greek ,,partridge4 ,the reader will now see how perfect is the image4 ,driven from the city1 ,david was forced to wander1 together with the ,desert ,partridge1 upon the hill-sides1 and1 like that bird1 his final refuge is the rock4 ,then came the hunters and pursued him1 driving him from place to place1 as the boys hunt the ,partridge1 until he was weary of his life1 and exclaimed in his despair1 ,i shall now perish one day by the hand of ,saul4 ,the ,partridges of ,palestine are1 like those of our own land1 exceedingly prolific birds1 laying a wonderful number of eggs1 more than twenty being sometimes found in a single nest4 ,these eggs are used for food1 and the consumption of them is very great1 so that many a ,partridge has been deprived of her expected family3 she has sat upon eggs1 and hatched them not4 ,just as hunting the ,partridge is an acknowledged sport among the inhabitants of the uncultivated parts of ,palestine1 so is searching for the eggs of the bird a regular business at the proper time of year4 ,illustration3 ,,partridges ,,and ,,their ,,young4 ,of these birds several species inhabit ,palestine4 ,there is1 for example1 the ,desert ,partridge1 which has already been mentioned4 ,it is beautifully1 though not brilliantly coloured1 and may be known by the white spot behind the eye1 the purple and chestnut streaks on the sides1 and the orange bill and legs4 ,these1 however1 soon lose their colour after death4 ,illustration3 ,,eastern ,,quail4 ,,the ,,quail4 ,migration of the ,quail--,modes of catching the ,quail in the ,east--,the ,quail-hunters of ,northern ,africa--,quarrelsome nature of the bird--,quail-fighting in the ,east--,how the ,quails were brought to the ,israelites4 ,in one or two parts of the ,old ,testament is found a word which has been translated in the ,authorized ,version of the ,bible as ,,quail4 ,the word is selv1 and in every case where it is mentioned it is used with reference to the same occurrence2 namely1 the providing of flesh-meat in the wilderness1 where the people could find no food4 ,as the passages remarkably bear upon each other1 it will be advisable to quote them in the order in which they come4 ,the first mention of the ,selv occurs in ,exod4 xvi4 ,only a few days after the ,israelites had passed the ,red ,sea1 they began to complain of the desert land into which ,moses had led them1 and openly said that they wished they had never left the land of their slavery1 where they had plenty to eat4 ,according to ,his custom1 pitying their narrow-minded and short-sighted folly1 the natural result of the long servitude to which they had been subject1 the ,lord promised to send both bread and flesh-meat4 ,and the ,lord spake unto ,moses1 saying1 ,i have heard the murmurings of the children of ,israel3 speak unto them1 saying1 ,at even ye shall eat flesh1 and in the morning ye shall be filled with bread2 and ye shall know that ,i am the ,lord your ,god4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,quail4 ,and it came to pass1 that at even the quails came up1 and covered the camp 7ver4 #aa-ac74 ,the next passage records a similar circumstance1 which occurred about a year afterwards1 when the ,israelites were tired of eating nothing but the manna1 and again wished themselves back in ,egypt4 ,and there went forth a wind from the ,lord1 and brought quails from the sea1 and let them fall by the camp as it were a day's journey on this side1 and as it were a day's journey on the other side1 round about the camp1 and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth4 ,and the people stood up all that day1 and all that night1 and all the next day1 and they gathered the quails3 he that gathered least gathered ten homers2 and they spread them all abroad for themselves round about the camp 7,numb4 xi4 #ca1 #cb74 ,the last passage in which ,quails are mentioned occurs in the ,psalms4 ,in ,ps4 cv4 are enumerated the various wonders done on behalf of the ,israelites1 and among them is specially mentioned this gift of the ,quails and manna4 ,the people asked1 and ,he brought quails1 and satisfied them with the bread of heaven 7ver4 #dj74 ,he had commanded the clouds from above1 and opened the doors of heaven1 ,and had rained down manna upon them to eat1 and had given them of the corn of heaven4 ,man did eat angels' food3 ,he sent them meat to the full4 ,he caused an east wind to blow in the heaven2 and by ,his power ,he brought in the south wind4 ,he rained flesh also upon them as dust1 and feathered fowls like as the sand of the sea 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #bc-bg74 ,if the ordinary interpretation of selv by ,quail be accepted1 the description is exactly correct4 ,the ,quails fly in vast flocks1 and1 being weak-winged birds1 never fly against the direction of the wind4 ,they will wait for days until the wind blows in the required direction1 and will then take wing in countless multitudes2 so that in an hour or two a spot on which not a ,quail could be seen is covered with them4 ,on account of their short wings1 they never rise to any great height1 even when crossing the sea1 while on land they fly at a very low elevation1 merely skimming over the ground1 barely a yard or two cubits high upon the face of the earth4 ,moreover1 the flesh of the ,quail is peculiarly excellent1 and would be a great temptation to men who had passed so long a time without eating animal food4 ,another corroboration of the identity of the ,quail and the ,selv is to be found in the mode in which the flesh is prepared at the present day4 ,as soon as the birds have arrived1 they are captured in vast multitudes1 on account of their weariness4 ,many are consumed at once1 but great numbers are preserved for future use by being split and laid out to dry in the sun1 precisely as the ,israelites are said to have spread out the ,selavim all abroad for themselves round about the camp4 99 99 99 99 99 ,accepting1 therefore1 the ,selv and ,quail to be identical1 we may proceed to the description of the bird4 ,it is small1 plump1 and round-bodied1 with the head set closely on the shoulders4 ,owing to this peculiarity of form1 it has its ,arab name1 which signifies plumpness or fatness4 ,the wings are pressed closely to the body1 and the tail is pointed1 very short1 and directed downwards1 so that it almost appears to be absent1 and the bird seems to be even more plump than really is the case4 ,several modes of capturing these birds are still practised in the ,east1 and were probably employed1 not only on the two occasions mentioned in ,exodus and ,numbers1 but on many others of which the ,scriptural narrative takes no notice4 ,one very simple plan is1 for the hunters to select a spot on which the birds are assembled1 and to ride or walk round them in a large circle1 or rather in a constantly diminishing spiral4 ,the birds are by this process driven closer and closer together1 until at the last they are packed in such masses that a net can be thrown over them1 and a great number captured in it4 ,sometimes a party of hunters unite to take the ,quails1 and employ a similar manuvre1 except that1 instead of merely walking round the ,quails1 they approach simultaneously from opposite points1 and then circle round them until the birds are supposed to be sufficiently packed4 ,at a given signal they all converge upon the terrified birds1 and take them by thousands at a time4 ,in ,northern ,africa these birds are captured in a very similar fashion4 ,as soon as notice is given that a flight of ,quails has settled1 all the men of the village turn out with their great burnouses or cloaks4 ,making choice of some spot as a centre1 where a quantity of brushwood grows or is laid down1 the men surround it on all sides1 and move slowly towards it1 spreading their cloaks in their outstretched hands1 and flapping them like the wings of huge birds4 ,indeed1 when a man is seen from a little distance performing this act1 he looks more like a huge bat than a human being4 ,as the men gradually converge upon the brushwood1 the ,quails naturally run towards it for shelter1 and at last they all creep under the treacherous shade4 ,still holding their outspread cloaks in their extended hands1 the hunters suddenly run to the brushwood1 fling their cloaks over it1 and so enclose the birds in a trap from which they cannot escape4 ,much care is required in this method of hunting1 lest the birds should take to flight1 and so escape4 ,the circle is therefore made of very great size1 and the men who compose it advance so slowly that the ,quails prefer to use their legs rather than their wings1 and do not think of flight until their enemies are so close upon them that their safest course appears to be to take refuge in the brushwood4 ,boys catch the ,quails in various traps and springes1 the most ingenious of which is a kind of trap1 the door of which over-balances itself by the weight of the bird4 ,by reason of the colour of the ,quail1 and its inveterate habit of keeping close to the ground1 it easily escapes observation1 and even the most practised eye can scarcely distinguish a single bird1 though there may be hundreds within a very small compass4 ,fortunately for the hunters1 and unfortunately for itself1 it betrays itself by its shrill whistling note1 which it frequently emits1 and which is so peculiar that it will at once direct the hunter to his prey4 ,this note is at the same time the call of the male to the female and a challenge to its own sex4 ,like all the birds of its group1 the ,quail is very combative1 and generally fights a battle for the possession of each of its many mates4 ,it is not gifted with such weapons of offence as some of its kinsfolk1 but it is none the less quarrelsome1 and fights in its own way as desperately as the game-cock of our own country4 ,indeed1 in the ,east1 it is used for exactly the same purpose as the game-cock4 ,battles between birds and beasts1 not to say men1 are the common amusement with ,oriental potentates1 and1 when they are tired of watching the combats of the larger animals1 they have ,quail-fights in their own chambers4 ,the birds are selected for this purpose1 and are intentionally furnished with stimulating food1 so as to render them even more quarrelsome than they would be by nature4 ,partridges are employed for the same cruel purpose2 and as both these birds are easily obtained1 and are very pugnacious1 they are especially suited for the sport4 ,two passages occur in the ,scriptures which exactly explain the mode in which the ,quails were sent to the ,israelites4 ,the first is in ,ps4 lxxviii4 #bf4 ,the ,psalmist mentions that the ,lord caused an east wind to blow in the heaven1 and by ,his power ,he brought in the south wind4 ,here1 on examining the geographical position of the ,israelites1 we see exactly how the south-east wind would bring the ,quails4 ,the ,israelites had just passed the ,red ,sea1 and had begun to experience a foretaste of the privations which they were to expect in the desert through which they had to pass4 ,passing northwards in their usual migrations1 the birds would come to the coast of the ,red ,sea1 and there would wait until a favourable wind enabled them to cross the water4 ,the south-east wind afforded them just the very assistance which they needed1 and they would naturally take advantage of it4 ,it is remarkable how closely the ,scriptural narrative agrees with the habits of the ,quail1 the various passages1 when compared together1 precisely coinciding with the character of the bird4 ,in ,exod4 xvi4 #ac it is mentioned that at even the quails came up and covered the camp4 ,nocturnal flight is one of the characteristics of the ,quail4 ,when possible1 they invariably fly by night1 and in this manner escape many of the foes which would make great havoc among their helpless columns if they were to fly by day4 ,the identity of the ,selv with the common ,quail is now seen to be established4 ,in the first place1 we have the name still surviving in the ,arabic language4 ,next1 the various details of the ,scriptural narrative point so conclusively to the bird1 that even if we were to put aside the etymological corroboration1 we could have but little doubt on the subject4 ,there is not a detail which is not correct4 ,the gregarious instinct of the bird1 which induces it to congregate in vast numbers2 its habit of migration2 its inability to fly against the wind1 and the necessity for it to await a favourable breeze2 its practice of flying by night1 and its custom of merely skimming over the surface of the ground2 the ease with which it is captured2 the mode of preserving by drying in the sun1 and the proverbial delicacy of its flesh1 are characteristics which all unite in the ,quail4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before closing our account of the ,quail1 it will be as well to devote a short space to the nature of the mode by which the ,israelites were twice fed4 ,commentators who were unacquainted with the natural history of the bird have represented the whole occurrence as a miraculous one1 and have classed it with the division of the ,red ,sea and of the ,jordan1 with the various plagues by which ,pharaoh was induced to release the ,israelites1 and with many other events which we are accustomed to call miracles4 ,illustration3 birds ,in reality1 there is scarcely anything of a miraculous character about the event1 and none seems to have been claimed for it4 ,the ,quails were not created at the moment expressly for the purpose of supplying the people with food1 nor were they even brought from any great distance4 ,they were merely assisted in the business on which they were engaged--namely1 their migration or customary travel from south to north1 and waiting on the opposite side of the narrow sea for a south-east wind4 ,that such a wind should blow was no miracle4 ,the ,quails expected it to blow1 and without it they could not have crossed the sea4 ,that it was made to blow earlier than might have been the case is likely enough1 but that is the extent of the miraculous character of the event4 ,,the ,,raven4 ,the ,raven tribe plentiful in ,palestine--,the ,raven and the ,dove--,elijah and the ,ravens--,desert-loving habits of the ,raven--,notions of the old commentators--,ceremonial use of the ,raven--,return of the ,ravens--,cunning of the bird--,nesting-places of the ,raven--,the magpie and its character--,the starling--,its introduction into ,palestine4 ,it is more than probable that1 while the ,hebrew word oreb primarily signifies the bird which is so familiar to us under the name of ,,raven1 it was also used by the ,jews in a much looser sense1 and served to designate any of the ,corvid1 or ,crow tribe1 such as the raven itself1 the crow1 the rook1 the jackdaw1 and the like4 ,we will first take the word in its restricted sense1 and then devote a brief space to its more extended signification4 ,as might be expected from the cosmopolitan nature of the ,raven1 it is very plentiful in ,palestine1 and even at the present time is apparently as firmly established as it was in the days when the various ,scriptural books were written4 ,there are few birds which are more distinctly mentioned in the ,holy ,scriptures than the ,raven1 though the passages in which its name occurs are comparatively few4 ,it is the first bird which is mentioned in the ,scriptures1 its name occurring in ,gen4 viii4 #g3 ,and it came to pass at the end of forty days that ,noah opened the window of the ark which he had made2 ,and he sent forth a raven1 which went forth to and fro until the waters were dried up from off the earth4 ,here we have1 at the very outset1 a characteristic account of the bird4 ,it left the ark1 and flew to and fro1 evidently for the purpose of seeking food4 ,the dove1 which immediately followed the ,raven1 acted in a different manner4 ,she flew from the ark in search of food1 and1 finding none1 was forced to return again4 ,the ,raven1 on the contrary1 would find plenty of food in the bodies of the various animals that had been drowned1 and were floating on the surface of the waters1 and1 therefore1 needed not to enter again into the ark4 ,the context shows that it made the ark a resting-place1 and that it went forth to and fro1 or1 as the ,hebrew ,bible renders the passage1 in going and returning1 until the waters had subsided4 ,here1 then1 is boldly drawn the distinction between the two birds1 the carrion-eater and the feeder on vegetable substances--a distinction to which allusion has already been made in the history of the dove4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,raven4 ,passing over the declaration in ,lev4 xi4 #ae and ,deut4 xiv4 #ad1 that every ,raven 7i4e4 the ,raven and all its tribe7 is unclean1 we come to the next historical mention of the bird4 ,this occurs in #a ,kings xvii4 ,when ,elijah had excited the anger of ,ahab by prophesying three years of drought1 he was divinely ordered to take refuge by the brook ,cherith1 one of the tributaries of the ,jordan4 ,and it shall be1 that thou shalt drink of the brook2 and ,i have commanded the ravens orebim to feed thee there4 ,illustration3 ,,elijah ,,fed ,,by ,,the ,,ravens4 ,so he went and did according unto the word of the ,lord3 for he went and dwelt by the brook ,cherith1 that is before ,jordan4 ,and the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning1 and bread and flesh in the evening1 and he drank of the brook4 ,in this passage we have a history of a purely miraculous character4 ,it is not one that can be explained away4 ,some have tried to do so by saying that the banished prophet found the nests of the ,ravens1 and took from them daily a supply of food for his sustenance4 ,the repetition of the words bread and flesh shows that the sacred writer had no intention of signifying a mere casual finding of food which the ,ravens brought for their young1 but that the prophet was furnished with a constant and regular supply of bread and meat twice in the day4 ,it is a statement which1 if it be not accepted as the account of a miracle1 must be rejected altogether4 ,the desert-loving habit of the ,raven is noticed in ,isa4 xxxiv4 #aa3 ,the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it2 the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it3 and ,he shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion1 and the stones of emptiness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we will now pass to the notices of the ,raven as given by the writers and commentators of the ,talmud4 ,being an unclean bird1 and one of ill omen1 it was not permitted to perch on the roof of the ,temple4 ,according to some writers1 it was kept off by means of scarecrows1 and according to others1 by long and sharp iron spikes set so closely together that there was no room for the bird to pass between them4 ,the latter is by far the more probable account1 as the ,raven is much too cunning a bird to be deceived by a scarecrow for any length of time4 ,it might be alarmed at the first sight of a strange object1 but in a very short time it would hold all scarecrows in supreme contempt4 ,its carrion-eating propensities were well known to the ancient writers1 who must have had many opportunities of seeing the ,raven unite with the vultures in consuming the bodies1 not only of dead animals1 but of warriors killed in battle4 ,so fond was the ,raven of this food that1 according to those writers1 the very smell of human blood attracted the bird2 and1 if a man accidentally cut himself1 or if he were bled for some illness1 the odour of the blood would bring round the spot all the ,ravens of the place4 ,the punctuality with which the ,raven1 in common with all its kin1 returns to its roosting-place1 was also familiar to the ,talmudists1 who made rather an ingenious use of this habit ,the ceremonial law of the ,jews required the greatest care in observing certain hours1 and it was especially necessary to know the precise time which marked the separation of one day from another4 ,this was ascertained easily enough as long as the day was clear1 but in case of a dull1 murky day1 when the course of the sun could not be traced1 some other plan was needed4 ,in the olden times1 no artificial means of measuring time were known1 and the devout ,jew was consequently fearful lest he might unwittingly break the law by doing on one day an act which ought to have been done on another4 ,a convenient method for ascertaining the time was1 however1 employed1 and1 as soon as the ,ravens1 rooks1 and similar birds were seen returning to their homes1 the sun was supposed to be setting4 ,this habit of returning regularly at the same time is mentioned by ,mr4 ,tristram in his ,land of ,israel3-- ,of all the birds of ,jerusalem1 the raven is decidedly the most characteristic and conspicuous4 ,it is present everywhere to eye and ear1 and the odours that float around remind us of its use4 ,on the evening of our arrival we were perplexed by a call-note1 quite new to us1 mingling with the old familiar croak1 and soon ascertained that there must be a second species of raven along with the common ,corvus corax4 ,this was the ,african species 7,corvus umbrinus1 ,hed471 the ashy-necked raven1 a little smaller than the world-wide raven1 and here more abundant in individuals4 ,beside these1 the rook 7,corvus agricola1 ,trist471 the common grey1 or hooded crow 7,corvus cornix1 ,l471 and the jackdaw 7,corvus monedula1 ,l471 roost by hundreds in the sanctuary4 ,we used to watch them in long lines passing over our tents every morning at daybreak1 and returning in the evening1 the rooks in solid phalanx leading the way1 and the ravens in loose order bringing up the rear1 generally far out of shot4 ,before retiring for the night1 popular assemblies of the most uproarious character were held together in the trees of the ,kedron and ,mount ,olivet1 and not until sunset did they withdraw in silence1 mingled indiscriminately1 to their roosting-places on the walls4 ,my companions were very anxious to obtain specimens of these ,jerusalem birds1 which could only be approached as they settled for the night2 but we were warned by the ,consul that shooting them so close to the mosque might be deemed a sacrilege by the ,moslems1 and provoke an attack by the guardians of the ,haram and the boys of the neighbourhood4 ,they finally determined1 nevertheless1 to run the risk2 and stationing themselves just before sunset in convenient hiding-places near the walls1 at a given signal they fired simultaneously1 and1 hastily gathering up the spoils1 had retreated out of reach1 and were hurrying to the tents before an alarm could be raised4 ,the discharge of ten barrels had obtained fourteen specimens1 comprising five species4 ,illustration3 ,,ravens' ,,roosting-,,place4 ,the same manuvre was repeated with equal success on another evening2 but on the third occasion the ravens had learned wisdom by experience1 and1 sweeping round ,siloam1 chose another route to their dormitory4 ,those who have tried to come within gunshot of a ,raven1 can appreciate this anecdote1 and can understand how the ,raven would ever afterwards keep clear of the spot where the flash and smoke of fire-arms had twice appeared4 ,in a large garden in which the sparrows used to congregate1 it was a custom of the owner to lay a train of corn for the sparrows to eat1 and then to rake the whole line with a discharge from a gun concealed in an outhouse4 ,a tame ,raven lived about the premises1 and as soon as it saw any one carrying a gun towards the fatal outhouse1 it became much alarmed1 and hurried off to hide itself4 ,as soon as the gun was fired1 out came the ,raven from its place of concealment1 pounced on one of the dead sparrows1 carried it off1 and ate it in its private haunt4 ,illustration3 birds in flight ,the nest to which the ,raven returns with such punctuality is placed in some spot where it is safe from ordinary intruders4 ,the tops of lofty trees are favoured localities for the nest1 and so are old towers1 the interior of caves1 and clefts in lofty precipices4 ,,the ,,ostrich4 ,hebrew words designating the ,ostrich--,description of the bird in the ,book of ,job--,ancient use of ,ostrich plumes--,supposed heedlessness of eggs and young--,mode of depositing the eggs--,hatching them in the sand--,natural enemies of the ,ostrich--,anecdote of ,ostriches and their young--,alleged stupidity of the ,ostrich--,methods of hunting and snaring the bird--,the ,ostrich in domestication--,speed of the ,ostrich--,the flesh of the bird prohibited to the ,jews--,ostrich eggs and their uses--,food of the ,ostrich--,mode of drinking--,cry of the ,ostrich1 and reference made to it in ,micah4 ,there is rather a peculiarity about the manner in which this bird is mentioned in the ,authorized ,version of the ,scriptures1 and1 unless we go to the original ,hebrew1 we shall be greatly misled4 ,in that version the ,ostrich is mentioned only three times1 but in the ,hebrew it occurs eight times4 ,the ,hebrew word bath-haya'nah1 which is translated in the ,authorized ,version as owl1 ought really to be rendered as ,ostrich4 ,taking this to be the case1 we find that there are several passages in the ,scriptures in which the word has been used in the wrong sense4 ,in those places1 instead of rendering the word as owl1 we ought to read it as ,ostrich4 ,the first mention of this bird occurs in ,lev4 xi4 #af1 and the parallel passage of ,deut4 xiv41 in which the ,ostrich is reckoned among the unclean birds1 without any notice being given of its appearance or habits4 ,in the ,book of ,job1 however1 we have the ,ostrich mentioned with that preciseness and fulness of description which is so often the case when the writer of that wonderful poem treats of living creatures4 ,gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks8 or wings and feathers unto the ostrich8 ,who leaveth her eggs in the earth1 and warmeth them in the dust1 ,and forgetteth that the foot may crush them1 or that the wild beast may break them4 ,she is hardened against her young ones1 as though they were not hers3 her labour is in vain without fear2 ,because ,god hath deprived her of wisdom1 neither hath ,he imparted to her understanding4 ,what time she lifteth up herself on high1 she scorneth the horse and his rider4 7,job xxxix4 #ac-ai47 ,there is rather a peculiarity in the translation of this passage1 wherein the word which has been translated as peacock is now allowed to be properly rendered as ,ostrich1 while the word which is translated as ,ostrich ought to have been given as feathers4 ,the marginal translation gives the last words of ver4 #ac in a rather different manner1 and renders it thus3--,gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks1 or the feathers of the stork and ostrich8 ,the ,hebrew ,bible renders the next verses as follows3-- ,she would yet leave her eggs on the earth1 and warm them in dust2 and forget that the foot may crush them1 or that the beast of the field may break them4 ,she is hardened against her young ones1 for those not hers2 being careless1 her labour is in vain4 ,in the same ,book1 chap4 xxx41 is another passage wherein this bird is mentioned4 ,i went mourning without the sun3 ,i stood up1 and ,i cried in the congregation4 ,i am a brother to dragons1 and a companion to owls1 or ,ostriches1 in the marginal and correct reading4 ,the ,jewish ,bible also translates the word as ,ostriches1 but the word which the ,authorized ,version renders as dragons it translates as jackals4 ,of this point we shall have something to say on a future page4 ,a somewhat similar passage occurs in ,isa4 xliii4 #bj3 ,the beast of the field shall honour me1 the dragons and the owls 7,ostriches in marginal reading71 because ,i give waters in the wilderness1 and rivers in the desert1 to give drink to ,my people1 ,my chosen4 ,the ,jewish ,bible retains the same reading1 except that the word dragons is given with the mark of doubt4 ,accepting1 therefore1 the rendering of the ,hebrew as ,ostriches1 let us see how far the passages of ,scripture agree with the appearance and habits of the bird4 ,here ,i may observe that1 although in the ,scriptures frequent allusions are made to the habits of animals1 we are not to look for scientific exactness to the ,scriptures4 ,among much that is strictly and completely true1 there are occasional errors1 to which a most needless attention has been drawn by a certain school of critics1 who point to them as invalidating the truth of ,scripture in general4 ,the real fact is1 that they have no bearing whatever on the truth or falsehood of the ,scriptural teachings4 ,the ,scriptures were written at various times1 for instruction in spiritual and not in temporal matters1 and were never intended for scientific treatises on astronomy1 mathematics1 zoology1 or any such branch of knowledge4 ,the references which are made to the last-mentioned subject are in no case of a scientific nature1 but are always employed by way of metaphor or simile1 as the reader must have seen in the previous pages4 ,no point of doctrine is taught by them1 and none depends on them4 ,the ,spirit which conveyed religious instruction to the people could only use the means that existed1 and could no more employ the scientific knowledge of the present time than use as metaphors the dress1 arms1 and inventions of the present day4 ,the ,scriptures were written in ,eastern lands for ,orientals by ,orientals1 and were consequently adapted to ,oriental ideas2 and it would be as absurd to look for scientific zoology in the writings of an ancient ,oriental1 as for descriptions of the printing-press1 the steam-engine1 the photographic camera1 or the electric telegraph4 ,so1 when we remember that only a few years ago the real history of the ,ostrich was unknown to those who had made zoology the study of their lives1 we cannot wonder that it was also unknown to those who lived many centuries ago1 and who had not the least idea of zoology1 or any kindred science4 ,still1 even with these drawbacks1 it is wonderful how accurate in many instances were the writers of the ,scriptures1 and the more so when we remember the character of the ,oriental mind1 with its love of metaphor1 its disregard of arithmetical precision1 and its poetical style of thought4 ,we will now take the passage in ,job xxxix4 ,in ver4 #ac reference is made to the wings and feathers of the ,ostrich4 ,if the reader will refer to page #caj1 he will see that the feathers of the ,ostrich were formerly used as the emblem of rank4 ,in this case1 they are shown as fastened to the heads of the horses1 and also in the form of a plume1 fixed to the end of a staff1 and appended to a chariot1 as emblematical of the princely rank of the occupier4 ,in the ancient ,egyptian monuments these ,ostrich plumes are repeatedly shown1 and in every case denote very high rank4 ,these plumes were therefore held in high estimation at the time in which the ,book of ,job was written1 and it is evidently in allusion to this fact that the sacred writer has mentioned so prominently the white plumes of the ,ostrich4 ,passing the next portion of the description1 we find that the ,ostrich is mentioned as a bird that is careless of its eggs1 and leaves them in the earth1 and warmeth them in the dust1 and forgetteth that the foot may crush them1 or that the wild beast may break them4 ,now it is true that the ,ostrich is often known to take the greatest care of its eggs1 the male collecting and sitting on them1 and watching them with loving assiduity1 and by some persons this fact has been brought forward as a proof that the writer of the ,book of ,job was mistaken in his statements4 ,a further acquaintance with the habits of the bird tells us1 however1 that in those parts of the world which were known to the writer of that book the ,ostrich does behave in precisely the manner which is described by the sacred writer4 ,several females lay their eggs in the same nest1 if the title of nest can be rightly applied to a mere hollow scooped in the sand1 and1 at least during the daytime1 when the sun is shining1 they simply cover the eggs with sand1 so as to conceal them from ordinary enemies1 and leave them to be hatched by the warm sunbeams4 ,they are buried to the depth of about a foot1 so that they receive the benefit of a tolerably equable warmth4 ,so much1 then1 for the assertion that the ,ostrich leaves her eggs in the earth1 and warmeth them in the dust4 ,we next come to the statement that she forgets that the foot may crush them1 or that the wild beast may break them4 ,it is evident from the preceding description that eggs which are buried a foot deep in the sand could not be crushed by the foot1 even were they of a fragile character1 instead of being defended by a shell as thick1 and nearly as hard1 as an ordinary earthenware plate4 ,neither would the wild beast be likely to discover much less to break them4 ,illustration3 ,,ostrich ,,and ,,nest4 ,a more intimate acquaintance with the history of the ,ostrich shows that1 even in this particular1 the sacred writer was perfectly correct4 ,besides the eggs which are intended to be hatched1 and which are hidden beneath the sand to be hatched1 a number of supplementary eggs are laid which are not meant to be hatched1 and are evidently intended as food for the young until they are able to forage for themselves4 ,these are left carelessly on the surface of the ground1 and may easily be crushed by the hoof of a horse1 if not by the foot of man4 ,we meet1 however1 with another statement1--namely1 that they may be broken by the wild beasts4 ,here we have reference to another fact in the history of the ,ostrich4 ,the scattered eggs1 to which allusion is made1 are often eaten1 not only by beasts1 but also by birds of prey2 the former breaking the shells by knocking them against each other1 and the latter by picking up large stones in their claws1 rising above the eggs1 and dropping the stones on them4 ,the bird would like to seize the egg1 rise with it in the air1 and drop it on a stone1 as mentioned on page #dad1 but the round1 smooth surface of the egg defies the grasp of talons1 and1 instead of dropping the egg upon a stone1 it is obliged to drop a stone upon the egg4 ,up to the present point1 therefore1 the writer of the ,book of ,job is shown to be perfectly correct in his statements4 ,we will now proceed to verse #af3 ,she is hardened against her young ones1 as though they were not hers4 ,now in the ,jewish ,bible the passage is rendered rather differently3 ,she is hardened against her young ones1 for those not hers2 and1 as we shall presently see1 the reading perfectly agrees with the character of the ,ostrich4 ,there has long existed a belief that the ,ostrich1 contrary to the character of all other birds1 is careless of her young1 neglects them1 and is even cruel to them4 ,that this notion was shared by the writer of the ,book of ,job is evident from the preceding passage4 ,it also prevailed for at least a thousand years after the ,book of ,job was written4 ,see ,lam4 iv4 #c3 ,even the sea monsters draw out the breast1 they give suck to their young ones3 the daughter of my people is become cruel1 like the ostriches in the wilderness4 ,it is probable that this idea respecting the cruelty of the ,ostrich towards its young is derived from the fact that if a flock of ,ostriches be chased1 and among them there be some very young birds1 the latter are left behind by their parents1 and fall a prey to the hunters4 ,but1 in reality1 the ,ostrich has no choice in the matter4 ,the wide sandy desert affords no place of concealment in which it might hide its young4 ,nature has not furnished it with weapons by means of which it can fight for them2 and consequently it is forced to use the only means of escape by which it can avoid sacrificing its own life1 as well as the lives of the young4 ,it does not1 however1 leave the young until it has tried1 by all means in its power1 to save them4 ,for example1 it sometimes has recourse to the manuvre with which we are so familiar in the case of the lapwing1 and pretends to be wounded or lamed1 in order to draw the attention of its pursuers1 while its young escape in another direction4 ,an instance of this practice is given by ,mr4 ,andersson in his ,lake ,ngami4 ,when we had proceeded little more than half the distance1 and in a part of the plain entirely destitute of vegetation1 we discovered a male and female ostrich1 with a brood of young ones1 about the size of ordinary barn-yard fowls4 ,we forthwith dismounted from out oxen1 and gave chase1 which proved of no ordinary interest4 ,the moment the parent birds became aware of our intention1 they set off at full speed--the female leading the way1 and the cock1 though at some little distance1 bringing up the rear of the family party4 ,it was very touching to observe the anxiety the birds evinced for the safety of their progeny4 ,finding that we were quickly gaining upon them1 the male at once slackened his pace and diverged somewhat from his course2 but1 seeing that we were not to be diverted from our purpose1 he again increased his speed1 and1 with wings drooping so as almost to touch the ground1 he hovered round us1 now in wide circles1 and then decreasing the circumference until he came almost within pistol-shot1 when he abruptly threw himself on the ground1 and struggled desperately to regain his legs1 as it appeared1 like a bird that has been badly wounded4 ,having previously fired at him1 ,i really thought he was disabled1 and made quickly towards him4 ,but this was only a ruse on his part1 for1 on my nearer approach1 he slowly rose1 and began to run in a different direction to that of the female1 who by this time was considerably ahead with her charge4 ,nor is this a solitary instance of the care which the ,ostrich will take of her young4 ,thunberg mentions that on one occasion1 when he happened to ride near a place where an ,ostrich was sitting on the eggs1 the bird jumped up and pursued him1 evidently with the object of distracting his attention from the eggs4 ,when he faced her1 she retreated2 but as soon as he turned his horse1 she pursued him afresh4 ,the care of the mother for the young is perhaps less needed with the ,ostrich than with most birds4 ,the young are able to run with such speed that ordinary animals are not able to overtake them1 and1 besides1 they are protected by their colour as long as they are comparatively helpless4 ,their downy plumage harmonizes completely with the sandy and stony ground1 even when they run1 and when they crouch to the earth1 as is their manner when alarmed1 even the most practised eye can scarcely see them4 ,mr4 ,andersson1 an experienced hunter1 states that when the ,ostrich chicks were crouching almost under his feet1 he had the greatest difficulty in distinguishing their forms4 ,owing to the great number of the eggs that are laid1 the young are often very numerous1 between thirty and forty chicks sometimes belonging to one brood4 ,in the ,ostrich chase which has already been described1 the brood were eighteen in number1 and so great was their speed that1 in spite of their youth and diminutive size1 ,mr4 ,andersson only succeeded in capturing nine of them after an hour's severe chase4 ,we find1 therefore1 that we must acquit the ,ostrich of neglecting its young1 much more of cruelty towards them2 and we will now turn to the next charge against the bird1 that of stupidity4 ,in one sense1 the bird certainly may be considered stupid4 ,like nearly all wild creatures which live on large plains1 it always runs against the wind1 so as to perceive by scent if any enemies are approaching4 ,its nostrils are very sensitive1 and can detect a human being at a very great distance4 ,so fastidious is it in this respect1 that no hunter who knows his business ever attempts to approach the ,ostrich except from leeward4 ,if a nest is found1 and the discoverer wishes the birds to continue laying in it1 he approaches on the leeward side1 and rakes out the eggs with a long stick4 ,the little ,bushman1 who kills so many of these birds with his tiny bow and arrow1 makes use of this instinct when he goes to shoot the ,ostrich1 disguised in a skin of one of the birds4 ,should an ,ostrich attack him1 as is sometimes the case1 he only shifts his position to windward1 so as to allow the birds to catch the scent of a human being1 when they instantly make off in terror4 ,when1 therefore1 the ,ostriches are alarmed1 they always run to windward1 instinctively knowing that1 if an enemy should approach in that direction1 their powers of scent will inform them of the danger4 ,being aware of this habit1 the hunters manage so that while one of them goes round by a long detour to frighten the game1 the others are in waiting at a considerable distance to windward1 but well on one side1 so that no indication of their presence may reach the sensitive nostrils of the birds4 ,as soon as the concealed hunters see the ,ostriches fairly settled down to their course1 they dash off at right angles to the line which the birds are taking1 and in this way come near enough to use their weapons4 ,the antelopes of the same country have a similar instinct1 and are hunted in precisely the same manner4 ,thus1 then1 in one sense the ,ostrich may be considered as open to the charge of stupidity1 inasmuch as it pursues a course which can be anticipated by enemies who would otherwise be unable to overtake it4 ,but it must be remembered that instinct cannot be expected to prove a match for reason1 and that1 although its human enemies are able to overreach it1 no others can do so1 the instinct of running against the wind serving to guard it from any foe which it is likely to meet in the desert4 ,when captured alive and tamed1 it certainly displays no particular amount of intellect4 ,the ,arabs often keep tame ,ostriches about their tents1 the birds being as much accustomed to their quarters as the horses4 ,in all probability they did so in ancient times1 and the author of the ,book of ,job was likely to be familiar with tame ,ostriches1 as well as with the wild bird4 ,stupidity is probably attributed to the tame bird in consequence of the habit possessed by the ,ostrich of picking up and eating substances which cannot be used as food4 ,for example1 it will eat knives1 bits of bone or metal1 and has even been known to swallow bullets hot from the mould4 ,on dissecting the digestive organs of an ,ostrich1 ,i have found a large quantity of stones1 pieces of brick1 and scraps of wood4 ,these articles are1 however1 not intended to serve as food1 but simply to aid digestion1 and the bird eats them just as domestic fowls pick up gravel1 and smaller birds grains of sand4 ,in swallowing them1 therefore1 the ,ostrich does not display any stupidity1 but merely obeys a natural instinct4 ,lastly1 we come to the speed of the ,ostrich3 ,what time she lifteth up herself on high1 she scorneth the horse and his rider4 ,this statement is literally true4 ,when the ,ostrich puts forth its full speed1 there is no horse that can catch it in a fair chase4 ,it may be killed by the ruse which has already been described1 but an adult ,ostrich can run away from the swiftest horse4 ,when it runs at full speed1 it moves its long legs with astonishing rapidity1 covering at each stride an average of twenty-four feet1 a fact from which its rate of speed may be deduced4 ,in consequence of this width of stride1 and the small impression made in the sand by the two-toed foot1 the track of a running ,ostrich is very obscure4 ,perhaps no better proof of the swiftness of the bird can be given than the extreme value set upon it by the ,arabs4 ,although they are bred to the desert as much as the ,ostrich itself1 and are mounted on horses whose swiftness and endurance are proverbial1 they set a very high value on the ,ostrich1 and to have captured one of these birds establishes an ,arab's fame as a hunter4 ,sometimes the ,arabs employ the plan of cutting across the course of the bird1 but at others they pursue it in fair chase1 training their horses and themselves specially for the occasion4 ,they furnish themselves with a supply of water1 and then start in pursuit of the first flock of ,ostriches they find4 ,they take care not to alarm the birds1 lest they should put out their full speed and run away out of sight1 but just keep sufficiently near to force the birds to be continually on the move4 ,they will sometimes continue this chase for several days1 not allowing their game time to eat or rest1 until at last it is so tired that it yields itself an easy prey4 ,in ,southern ,africa1 snares are used for taking the ,ostrich4 ,they are in fact ordinary springes1 but of strength suitable to the size of the bird4 ,the cord is made fast to a sapling1 which is bent down by main strength1 and the other end is then formed into a noose and fastened down with a trigger4 ,sometimes the bird is enticed towards the snare by means of a bait1 and sometimes it is driven over it by the huntsmen4 ,in either case1 as soon as the ,ostrich puts its foot within the fatal noose1 the trigger is loosed1 the sapling is released1 and1 with a violent jerk1 the ,ostrich is caught by the leg and suspended in the air4 ,why the flesh of the ,ostrich should have been prohibited to the ,jews is rather a mystery4 ,it is much valued by most natives1 though some of the ,arab tribes still adhere to the ,jewish prohibition1 and those ,europeans who have tried it pronounce it to be excellent when the bird is young and tender1 but to be unpleasantly tough when it is old4 ,mr4 ,andersson says that its flesh resembles that of the zebra1 and mentions that the fat and blood are in great request1 being mixed together by cutting the throat of the bird1 passing a ligature round the neck just below the incision1 and then shaking and dragging the bird about for some time4 ,nearly twenty pounds of this substance are obtained from a single ,ostrich4 ,illustration3 ,,arabs ,,hunting ,,the ,,ostrich4 ,the ancient ,romans valued exceedingly the flesh of this bird4 ,we are told that ,heliogabalus once had a dish served at his table containing six hundred ,ostrich brains1 and that another emperor ate a whole ,ostrich at a meal4 ,as an adult ,ostrich weighs some three hundred and fifty pounds1 we may presume that the bird in question was a young one4 ,the eggs are most valuable articles of food1 both on account of their excellent flavour and their enormous size4 ,it is calculated that one ,ostrich egg contains as much as twenty-five ordinary hen's eggs4 ,cooking the ,ostrich egg is easily performed4 ,a hole is made in the upper part of the egg1 and the lower end is set on the fire4 ,a forked stick is then introduced into the egg1 and twirled between the hands1 so as to beat up the whole of the interior4 ,europeans usually add pepper and salt1 and say that this simple mode of cooking produces an excellent omelette4 ,the ordinary food of the ,ostrich consists of the seeds1 buds1 and tops of various plants4 ,it seems strange1 however1 that in the deserts1 where there is so little vegetation1 the bird should be able to procure sufficient food to maintain its enormous body4 ,each of the specimens which are kept at the ,zoological ,gardens eats on an average a pint of barley1 the same quantity of oats1 four pounds' weight of cabbage1 and half a gallon of chaff1 beside the buns1 bread1 and other articles of food which are given to them by visitors4 ,although the ,ostrich1 like many other inhabitants of the desert1 can live for a long time without water1 yet it is forced to drink1 and like the camel1 which it resembles in so many of its ways1 drinks enormously1 taking in the water by a succession of gulps4 ,when the weather has been exceptionally hot1 the ,ostrich visits the water-springs daily1 and is so occupied in quenching its thirst that it will allow the hunter to come within a very short distance4 ,it appears1 indeed1 to be almost intoxicated with its draught1 and1 even when it does take the alarm1 it only retreats step by step1 instead of scudding off with its usually rapid strides4 ,the camel-like appearance of the ,ostrich has already been mentioned4 ,in the ,arabic language the ,ostrich is called by a name which signifies camel-bird1 and many of the people have an idea that it was originally a cross between a bird and a camel4 ,the cry of the ,ostrich is a deep bellow1 which1 according to travellers in ,southern ,africa1 so resembles the roar of the lion that even the practised ears of the natives can scarcely distinguish the roar of the animal from the cry of the bird4 ,the resemblance is increased by the fact that both the lion and ,ostrich utter their cry by night4 ,it is evidently to this cry that the prophet ,micah alludes3 ,therefore ,i will wail and howl1 ,i will go stripped and naked3 ,i will make a wailing like the dragons1 and mourning as the owls 7,ostriches in marginal reading74 ,the cry of the variety of ,ostrich which inhabits ,northern ,africa is said to bear more resemblance to the lowing of an ox than the roar of the lion2 but as the bird is smaller than its southern relative1 the difference is probably accounted for4 ,it has been mentioned that the ,ostrich has no weapons wherewith to fight for its young2 still1 though it be destitute of actual weapons1 such as the spur of the gamecock or the beak and talons of the eagle1 it is not entirely defenceless4 ,its long and powerful legs can be employed as weapons1 and it can kick with such force that a man would go down before the blow1 and probably1 if struck on the leg or arm1 have the limb broken4 ,the blow is never delivered backward1 as is the kick of the horse1 but forward1 like that of the kangaroo4 ,the natives of the countries where it resides say that it is able to kill by its kick the jackal that comes to steal its eggs1 and that even the hyna and the leopard are repelled by the gigantic bird4 ,illustration3 peaceful scene ,,the ,,bittern4 ,the ,bittern and its general appearance--,the bird of solitude--,difficulty of detecting the ,bittern in its haunts--,mudie's description of the ,bittern and its home--,nest of the ,bittern--,scarcity of the bird at the present day--,food of the ,bittern4 ,the ,bittern belongs to the same family as the herons1 the cranes1 and the storks1 and has many of the habits common to them all4 ,it is1 however1 essentially a bird of solitude1 hating the vicinity of man1 and living in the most retired spots of marshy ground4 ,as it sits among the reeds and rushes1 though it is a large bird1 it is scarcely visible even to a practised eye1 its mottled plumage harmonizing with surrounding objects in such a way that the feathers of the bird can scarcely be distinguished from the sticks1 stones1 and grass tufts among which it sits4 ,the ground colour of the plumage is dark buff1 upon which are sprinkled mottlings and streaks of black1 chestnut1 grey1 and brown4 ,these mottled marks harmonize with the stones and tufts of withered grass1 while the longitudinal dashes of buff and black on the neck and breast correspond with the sticks and reeds4 ,in a similar manner the tiger1 though so large an animal1 can lie in a very small covert of reeds without being detected1 its striped fur corresponding with the reeds themselves and the shadows thrown by them2 and the leopard can remain hidden among the boughs of a tree1 its spotted coat harmonizing with the broken light and shade of the foliage4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bittern4 ,the following powerful description of the ,bittern's home is given by ,mudie3 ,it is a bird of rude nature1 where the land knows no character save that which the untrained1 working of the elements impresses upon it2 so that when any locality is in the course of being won to usefulness1 the bittern is the first to depart1 and when any one is abandoned1 it is the last to return4 ',the bittern shall dwell there' is the final curse1 and implies that the place is to become uninhabited and uninhabitable4 ,it hears not the whistle of the ploughman1 nor the sound of the mattock2 and the tinkle of the sheep-bell1 or the lowing of the ox 7although the latter bears so much resemblance to its own hollow and dismal voice1 that it has given foundation to the name71 is a signal for it to be gone4 ,extensive and dingy pools--if moderately upland1 so much the better--which lie in the hollows1 catching1 like so many traps1 the lighter and more fertile mould which the rains wash and the winds blow from the naked heights around1 and converting it into harsh and dingy vegetation1 and the pasture of those loathsome things which wriggle in the ooze1 or crawl and swim in the putrid and mantling waters1 are the habitation of the bittern4 ,places which scatter blight and mildew over every herb which is more delicate than a sedge1 a carex1 or a rush1 and consume every wooded plant that is taller than the sapless and tasteless cranberry or the weeping upland willow2 which shed murrain over the quadrupeds1 chills which eat the flesh off their bones1 and which1 if man ventures there1 consume him by putrid fever in the hot and dry season1 and shake him to pieces with ague when the weather is cold and humid4 ,places from which the heath and the lichen stand aloof1 and where even the raven1 lover of disease1 and battener upon all that expires miserably and exhausted1 comes rarely and with more than wonted caution1 lest that death which he comes to seal and riot upon in others should unawares come upon himself4 ,the raven loves carrion on the dry and unpoisoning moor1 scents it from afar1 and hastens to it upon his best and boldest wing2 but 'the reek o' the rotten fen' is loathsome to the sense of even the raven1 and it is hunger's last pinch ere he come nigh to the chosen habitation1 the only loved abode1 of the bittern4 ,secure in its retreat1 the ,bittern keeps its place even if a sportsman should pass by the spot on which it crouches4 ,it will not be tempted to leave its retreat by noise1 or even by stone throwing1 for it knows instinctively that the quaking bogland which it selects as its home is unsafe for the step of man4 ,the very cry of the ,bittern adds to this atmosphere of desolation4 ,by day the bird is silent1 but after the sun has gone down it utters its strange wild cry1 a sound which exactly suits the localities in which it loves to make its habitation4 ,during part of the year it only emits a sharp1 harsh cry as it rises on the wing1 but during the breeding season it utters the cry by which it summons its mate1 one of the strangest love-calls that can be imagined4 ,it is something between the neighing of a horse1 the bellow of a bull1 and a shriek of savage laughter4 ,it is very loud and deep1 so that it seems to shake the loose and marshy ground4 ,there was formerly an idea that1 when the ,bittern uttered this booming cry1 it thrust its bill into the soft ground1 and so caused it to shake4 ,in reality1 the cry is uttered on the wing1 the bird wheeling in a spiral flight1 and modulating its voice in accordance with the curves which it describes in the air4 ,this strange sound is only uttered by the male bird4 ,illustration3 ,,bittern4 ,,cormorant4 ,like most of the long-legged wading birds1 the ,bittern is able to change its shape1 and apparently to alter its size1 in an astonishing manner4 ,when it is walking over the ground1 with head erect and eye glanced vigilantly at surrounding objects1 it looks a large1 bold1 vigorous1 and active bird4 ,next minute it will sink its head in its shoulders1 so that the long beak seems to project from them1 and the neck totally disappears1 the feathers enveloping each other as perfectly and smoothly as if it never had had a neck4 ,in this attitude it will stand for an hour at a time on one leg1 with the other drawn close to its body1 looking as dull1 inert1 and sluggish a bird as can well be imagined1 and reduced apparently to one half of its former size4 ,the ,bittern is represented in one of its extraordinary attitudes on the plate which illustrates the cormorant4 ,the nest of the ,bittern is placed on the ground1 and near the water1 though the bird always takes care to build it on an elevated spot which will not be flooded if the water should rise by reason of a severe rain4 ,there is1 however1 but little reason for the ,bittern to fear a flood1 as at the time of year which is chosen for nest-building the floods are generally out1 and the water higher than is likely to be the case for the rest of the year4 ,the materials of the nest are found in marshes1 and consist of leaves1 reeds1 and rushes4 ,as if to add to the general effect of its character1 it is essentially a solitary bird1 and in this characteristic entirely unlike its relatives the heron and the stork1 which are peculiarly sociable1 and love to gather themselves together in multitudes4 ,but the ,bittern is never found except alone1 or at the most accompanied for a time by its mate and one or two young ones4 ,the localities in which it resides are sufficient evidence of the nature of its food4 ,frogs appear to be its favourite diet1 but it also feeds on various fish1 insects1 molluscs1 worms1 and similar creatures4 ,dull and apathetic as it appears to be1 it can display sufficient energy to capture tolerably large fish4 ,though the ,bittern is only about two feet in total length1 one of these birds was killed1 in the stomach of which were found one perfect rudd eight inches in length and two in depth1 together with the remains of another fish1 of a full-grown frog1 and of an aquatic insect4 ,in another instance1 a ,bittern had contrived to swallow an eel as long as itself2 while in many cases the remains of five or six full-grown frogs have been found in the interior of the bird1 some just swallowed1 and others in various stages of digestion4 ,illustration3 wetland ,illustration3 ,,the ,,heron4 ,,the ,,heron4 ,the ,heron mentioned as an unclean bird--,nesting of the ,heron--,the papyrus marshes and their dangers--,description of the papyrus--,vessels of bulrushes4 ,the name of the ,heron is only mentioned twice in the ,scriptures--namely1 in the two parallel passages of ,lev4 xi4 #ai and ,deut4 xiv4 #ah2 in both of which places the ,heron is ranked among the unclean birds that might not be eaten4 ,in some of the cases where beasts or birds are prohibited as food1 the prohibition seems scarcely needed4 ,to us of the present day this seems to be the case with the ,heron1 as it is never brought to table4 ,the reason for this disuse of the ,heron as food is not that it is unfit for the table1 but that it has become so scarce by the spread of cultivation and housebuilding1 that it has been gradually abandoned as a practically unattainable article of diet4 ,the flesh of the ,heron1 like that of the bittern1 is remarkably excellent1 and in the former days1 when it was comparatively plentiful1 and falconry was the ordinary amusement of the rich1 the ,heron formed a very important dish at every great banquet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,heron4 ,the bird1 however1 must be eaten when young4 ,a gentleman who liked to try experiments for himself in the matter of food1 found that1 if young ,herons were properly cooked1 they formed a most excellent dish1 equal1 in his opinion1 to grouse4 ,wishing to have his own judgment confirmed by that of others1 he had several of them trussed and dressed like wild geese1 and served up at table under that name4 ,the guests approved greatly of the bird1 and compared it to hare1 the resemblance being further increased by the dark colour of the flesh4 ,there was not the slighest fishy flavour about the bird4 ,this1 however1 is apt to be found in the older birds1 but can be removed by burying them in the earth for several days1 just as is done with the solan goose and one or two other sea-birds4 ,the abundance of birds belonging to the ,heron tribe is well shown by some of the paintings and carvings on ,egyptian monuments1 in which various species of ,herons and other water-birds are depicted as living among the papyrus reeds1 exactly the locality in which they are most plentiful at the present day4 ,unlike the bittern1 the ,heron is a most sociable bird1 and loves not only to live1 but even to feed1 in company with others of its own species4 ,i have watched the ,herons feeding in close proximity to each other4 ,the birds were fond of wading stealthily along the edge of the lake until they came to a suitable spot1 where they would stand immersed in the water up to the thighs1 waiting patiently for their prey4 ,they stood as still as if they were carved out of wood1 the ripples of the lake reflected on their plumage as the breeze ruffled the surface of the water4 ,suddenly there would be a quick dive of the beak1 either among the reeds or in the water1 and each stroke signified that the ,heron had caught its prey4 ,frogs and small fishes are the usual food of the ,heron1 though it often grapples with larger prey1 having been seen to capture an eel of considerable size in its beak4 ,under such circumstances it leaves the water1 with the fish in its mouth1 and beats it violently against a stone so as to kill it4 ,now and then the bird is vanquished in the struggle by the fish1 several instances being known in which an eel1 in its endeavours to escape1 has twisted itself so tightly round the neck of the bird that both have been found lying dead on the shore4 ,in one such case the ,heron's beak had struck through the eyes of the eel1 so that the bird could not disengage itself4 ,in another the ,heron had tried to swallow an eel which was much too large for it1 and had been nearly choked by its meal4 ,the eel must necessarily have been a very large one1 as the ,heron has a wonderful capacity for devouring fish4 ,even when quite young1 it can swallow a fish as large as a herring1 and when it is full grown it will eat four or five large herrings at a meal4 ,now when we remember that a man of average appetite finds one herring to form a very sufficient breakfast1 we can easily imagine what must be the digestive power of a bird which1 though very inferior to man in point of bulk1 can eat four times as much at a meal4 ,even though the fish be much larger in diameter than the neck of the bird1 the ,heron can swallow it as easily as a small snake swallows a large frog4 ,the neck merely seems to expand as if it were made of ,indiarubber1 the fish slips down1 and the bird is ready for another4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,heron4 ,generally the ,herons feed after sunset1 but ,i have frequently seen them busily engaged in catching their prey in full daylight1 when the sunbeams were playing in the water so as to produce the beautiful rippling effect on the ,heron's plumage which has already been mentioned4 ,the ,heron does not restrict itself to fishes or reptiles1 but1 like the bittern1 feeds on almost any kind of aquatic animal which comes within its reach4 ,when it lives near tidal rivers1 it feeds largely on the shrimps1 prawns1 green crabs1 and various other crustacea2 and when it lives far inland1 it still makes prey of the fresh-water shrimps1 the water-beetles1 and the boat-flies1 and similar aquatic creatures4 ,in fact1 it acts much after the fashion of the lions1 tigers1 and leopards1 which put up with locusts and beetles when they can find no larger prey4 ,the long beak of the ,heron is not merely an instrument by which it can obtain food1 but is also a weapon of considerable power4 ,when attacked1 it aims a blow at the eye of its opponent1 and makes the stroke with such rapidity that the foe is generally blinded before perceiving the danger4 ,when domesticated1 it has been known to keep possession of the enclosure in which it lived1 and soon to drive away dogs by the power of its beak4 ,when it is young1 it is quite helpless1 its very long legs being unable to support its body1 which is entirely bare of plumage1 and has a very unprepossessing appearance4 ,the flight of the ,heron is very powerful1 its wings being very large in proportion to its slender body4 ,sometimes the bird takes to ascending in a spiral line1 and then the flight is as beautiful as it is strong4 ,when chased by the falcon it mostly ascends in this manner1 each of the two birds trying to rise above the other4 ,the nest of the ,heron is always made on the top of some lofty tree1 whenever the bird builds in places where trees can be found2 and as the bird is an eminently sociable one1 a single nest is very seldom found1 the ,heron being as fond of society as the rook4 ,in some parts of ,palestine1 however1 where trees are very scarce1 the ,heron is obliged to choose some other locality for its nest1 and in that case prefers the great thickets of papyrus reeds which are found in the marshes1 and which are even more inaccessible than the tops of trees4 ,one of these marshes is well described by ,mr4 ,tristram in his ,land of ,israel4 ,the whole marsh is marked in the map as impassable2 and most truly it is so4 ,i never anywhere have met with a swamp so vast and utterly impenetrable4 ,the papyrus extends right across to the east side4 ,a false step off its roots will take the intruder over head in suffocating peat-mud4 ,we spent a long time in attempting to effect an entrance1 and at last gave it up1 satisfied that the marsh birds were not to be had4 ,in fact1 the whole is simply a floating bog of several miles square2 a very thin crust of vegetation covers an unknown depth of water2 and1 if the explorer breaks through this1 suffocation is imminent4 ,some of the ,arabs1 who were tilling the plain for cotton1 assured us that even a wild boar never got through it4 ,we shot two bitterns1 but in endeavouring to retrieve them ,i slipped from the root on which ,i was standing1 and was drawn down in a moment1 only saving myself from drowning by my gun1 which had providentially caught across a papyrus stem4 ,it may here be mentioned that the bulrush of ,scripture is undoubtedly the papyrus4 ,the ark or basket of bulrushes1 lined with slime and pitch1 in which ,moses was laid1 was made of the papyrus1 which at the present day is used for the manufacture of baskets1 mats1 sandals1 and for the thatching of houses4 ,many tribes which inhabit the banks of the ,nile make simple boats1 or rather rafts1 of the papyrus1 which they cut and tie in bundles2 and it is worthy of notice that the ,australian native makes a reed boat in almost exactly the same manner4 ,compare ,is4 xviii4 #a1 #b3 ,woe to the land shadowing with wings1 which is beyond the rivers of ,ethiopia4 ,that sendeth ambassadors by the sea1 even in vessels of bulrushes4 ,did we not know that vessels are actually made of bulrushes at the present day1 a custom which has survived from very ancient times1 we might find a difficulty in understanding this passage1 while the meaning is intelligible enough when it is viewed by the light of the knowledge that the ,ethiopian of the present day takes gold1 and ivory1 and other merchandise down the ,nile in his boat of papyrus 7or bulrush7 reeds tied together4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,papyrus ,,plant4 ,the papyrus runs from ten to fifteen or sixteen feet in height1 so that the ,herons are at no loss for suitable spots whereon to place their nests4 ,from the name papyrus our word paper is derived4 ,the stems of the plant1 after having been split into thin slices1 joined together1 and brought to a smooth surface1 formed the paper upon which the ancient ,egyptians wrote4 ,the ,egrets1 which are probably included under the generic title of ,anphah1 are birds of passage1 and at the proper season are plentiful in ,palestine4 ,these pretty birds much resemble the heron in general form1 and in general habits both birds are very much alike1 haunting the marshes and edges of lakes and streams1 and feeding upon the frogs and other inhabitants of the water4 ,in countries where rice is cultivated1 the ,egret may generally be seen in the artificial swamps in which that plant is sown4 ,the colour of the ,egret is pure white1 with the exception of the train4 ,this consists of a great number of long slender feathers of a delicate straw colour4 ,like those which form the train of the peacock1 they fall over the feathers of the tail1 and entirely conceal them4 ,illustration3 jungle scene ,,the ,,crane4 ,various passages in which the ,crane is mentioned--,its migratory habits1 and loud voice--,geographical range of the ,crane--,its favourite roosting-places--,size of the ,crane1 and measurement of the wings--,the ,crane once used as food--,plumes of the ,crane and their use--,structure of the vocal organs--,nest and eggs of the ,crane4 ,in the description of the dove and the swallow two passages have been quoted in which the name of the ,,crane is mentioned1 one referring to its voice1 and the other to its migratory instinct4 ,the first passage occurs in ,isa4 xxxviii4 #ad3 ,like a crane or swallow1 so did ,i chatter2 and the other in ,jer4 viii4 #g3 ,the turtle and the crane and the swallow observe the time of their coming4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crane4 ,it is rather remarkable that in both these cases the word ,crane is used in connexion with the swallow1 or rather the swift1 and that in both instances the names of the birds should have been interchanged4 ,if we refer to the original of these passages1 we shall find that the former of them would run thus1 ,like a sis or an agur1 and the latter thus1 ,the turtle and the sis and the agur4 ,that in these passages the interpretation of the words sis and agur have been interchanged has already been mentioned1 and1 as the former has been described under the name of swallow or swift1 we shall now treat of the latter under the title of ,crane4 ,the species here mentioned is the common ,crane1 a bird which has a very wide range1 and which seeks a warm climate on the approach of winter4 ,the ,crane performs its annual migrations in company1 vast flocks of many thousand individuals passing like great clouds at an immense height1 whence their trumpet-like cry is audible for a great distance round1 and attracts the ear if not the eye to them4 ,thus we have at a glance both the characteristics to which reference is made in the ,scriptures1 namely1 the noisy cry and the habit of migration4 ,it is a very gregarious bird1 associating with its comrades in flocks1 just as do the starlings and rooks of our own country1 and1 like these birds1 has favourite roosting-places in which it passes the night4 ,when evening approaches1 the ,cranes may be seen in large flocks passing to their roosting-places1 and1 on account of their great size1 having a very strange effect4 ,a fair-sized ,crane will measure seven feet across the expanded wings1 so that even a solitary bird has a very imposing effect when flying1 while that of a large flock of ,cranes on the wing is simply magnificent4 ,the spots which the ,crane selects for its roosting-places are generally of the same character4 ,being in some respects a wary bird1 though it is curiously indifferent in others1 it will not roost in any place near bushes1 rocks1 or other spots which might serve to conceal an enemy4 ,the locality most favoured by the ,crane is a large1 smooth1 sloping bank1 far from any spot wherein an enemy may be concealed4 ,the birds keep a careful watch during the night1 and it is impossible for any foe to approach them without being discovered4 ,the ,crane is noisy on the wing1 and1 whether it be soaring high over head on its long migratory journeys1 or be merely flying at dusk to its roosting-place1 it continually utters its loud1 clangorous cry4 ,the food of the ,crane is much like that of the heron1 but in addition to the frogs1 fish1 worms1 and insects1 it eats vegetable substances4 ,sometimes it is apt to get into cultivated grounds1 and then does much damage to the crops1 pecking up the ground with its long beak1 partly for the sake of the worms1 grubs1 and other creatures1 and partly for the sake of the sprouting seeds4 ,although by reason of its scarcity the ,crane has been abandoned as food1 its flesh is really excellent1 and in former days was valued very highly4 ,like the egret1 the ,crane is remarkable for the flowing plumes of the back1 which fall over the tail feathers1 and form a train4 ,these feathers are much used as plumes1 both for purposes of dress and as brushes or flappers wherewith to drive off the flies4 ,by reason of this conformation1 some systematic zoologists have thought that it has some affinity to the ostrich1 the rha1 and similar birds1 and that the resemblance is strengthened by the structure of the digestive organs1 which are suited to vegetable as well as animal substances1 the stomach being strong and muscular4 ,the peculiar voice of the ,crane1 which it is so fond of using1 and to which reference is made in the ,scriptures1 is caused by a peculiar structure of the windpipe1 which is exceedingly long1 and1 instead of going straight to the lungs1 undergoes several convolutions about the breast-bone1 and then proceeds to the lungs4 ,the ,crane makes its nest on low ground1 generally among osiers or reeds1 and it lays only two eggs1 pale olive in colour1 dashed profusely with black and brown streaks4 ,illustration3 water side ,illustration3 stork ,,the ,,stork4 ,signification of the ,hebrew word ,chasidah--,various passages in which it is mentioned--,the ,chasidah therefore a large1 wide-winged1 migratory bird--,its identification with the ,stork--,the ,stork always protected4 ,in the ,old ,testament there are several passages wherein is mentioned the word ,chasidah4 ,the ,authorized ,version invariably renders the word ,chasidah as ,stork and is undoubtedly right4 ,in ,buxtorf's ,lexicon there is a curious derivation of the word4 ,he says that the word ,chasidah is derived from chesed1 a word that signifies benevolence4 ,according to some writers1 the name was given to the ,stork because it was supposed to be a bird remarkable for its filial piety2 for the storks in their turn support their parents in their old age3 they allow them to rest their necks on their bodies during migration1 and1 if the elders are tired1 the young ones take them on their backs4 ,according to others1 the name is given to the ,stork because it exercises kindness towards its companions in bringing them food2 but in all cases the derivation of the word is acknowledged to be the same4 ,partly in consequence of this idea1 which is a very old and almost universal one1 and partly on account of the great services rendered by the bird in clearing the ground of snakes1 insects1 and garbage1 the ,stork has always been protected through the ,east1 as it is to the present day in several parts of ,europe4 ,the slaughter of a ,stork1 or even the destruction of its eggs1 would be punished with a heavy fine2 and in consequence of the immunity which it enjoys1 it loves to haunt the habitations of mankind4 ,in many of the ,continental towns1 where sanitary regulations are not enforced1 the ,stork serves the purpose of a scavenger1 and may be seen walking about the market-place1 waiting for the offal of fish1 fowls1 and the like1 which are simply thrown on the ground for the ,storks to eat4 ,in ,eastern lands the ,stork enjoys similar privileges1 and we may infer that the bird was perfectly familiar both to the writers of the various ,scriptural books in which it was mentioned1 and to the people for whom these books were intended4 ,when they settle upon a tract of ground1 the ,storks divide it among themselves in a manner that seems to have a sort of system in it1 spreading themselves over it with wonderful regularity1 each bird appearing to take possession of a definite amount of ground4 ,by this mode of proceeding1 the ground is rapidly cleared of all vermin2 the ,storks examining their allotted space with the keenest scrutiny1 and devouring every reptile1 mouse1 worm1 grub1 or insect that they can find on it4 ,sometimes they will spread themselves in this manner over a vast extent of country1 arriving suddenly1 remaining for several months1 and departing without giving any sign of their intention to move4 ,illustration3 ,,storks ,,and ,,their ,,nests4 ,the wings of the ,stork1 which are mentioned in ,holy ,writ1 are very conspicuous1 and are well calculated to strike an imaginative mind4 ,the general colour of the bird is white1 while the quill feathers of the wings are black2 so that the effect of the spread wings is very striking1 an adult bird measuring about seven feet across1 when flying4 ,as the body1 large though it may be1 is comparatively light when compared with the extent of wing1 the flight is both lofty and sustained1 the bird flying at very great height1 and1 when migrating1 is literally the stork in the heavens4 ,next we come to the migratory habits of the ,stork4 ,like the swallow1 the ,stork resorts year after year to the same spots2 and when it has once fixed on a locality for its nest1 that place will be assuredly taken as regularly as the breeding-season comes round4 ,the same pair are sure to return to their well-known home1 notwithstanding the vast distances over which they pass1 and the many lands in which they sojourn4 ,should one of the pair die1 the other finds a mate in a very short time1 and thus the same home is kept up by successive generations of ,storks1 much as among men one ancestral mansion is inhabited by a series of members of the same family4 ,so well is this known1 that when a pair of ,storks have made their nest in a human habitation their return is always expected1 and when they arrive the absentees are welcomed on all sides4 ,in many countries breeding-places are specially provided for the ,storks2 and when one of them is occupied for the first time1 the owner of the house looks upon it as a fortunate omen4 ,the localities chosen by the ,stork for its nest vary according to the surrounding conditions4 ,the foundation which a ,stork requires is a firm platform1 the more elevated the better1 but the bird seems to care little whether this platform be on rocks1 buildings1 or trees4 ,if1 for example1 it builds its nest in craggy places1 far from the habitations of man1 it selects some flat ledge for the purpose1 preferring those that are at the extreme tops of the rocks4 ,the summit of a natural pinnacle is a favourite spot with the ,stork4 ,in many cases the ,stork breeds among old ruins1 and under such circumstances it is fond of building its nest on the tops of pillars or towers1 the summits of arches1 and similar localities4 ,when it takes up its abode among mankind1 it generally selects the breeding-places which have been built for it by those who know its taste1 but it frequently chooses the top of a chimney1 or some such locality4 ,sometimes1 however1 it is obliged to build in spots where it can find neither rocks nor buildings1 and in such cases it builds on trees1 and1 like the heron1 is sociable in its nesting1 a whole community residing in a clump of trees4 ,it is not very particular about the kind of tree1 provided that it be tolerably tall1 and strong enough to bear the weight of its enormous nest2 and the reader will at once see that the fir-trees are peculiarly fitted to be the houses for the ,stork4 ,as may be expected from the localities chosen by the ,stork for its breeding-place1 its nest is very large and heavy4 ,it is constructed with very little skill1 and is scarcely more than a huge quantity of sticks1 reeds1 and similar substances1 heaped together1 and having in the middle a slight depression in which the eggs are laid4 ,these eggs are usually three1 or perhaps four in number1 and now and then a fifth is seen1 and are of a very pale buff or cream colour4 ,as is the case with the heron1 the young of the ,stork are quite helpless when hatched1 and are most ungainly little beings1 with their long legs doubled under them1 unable to sustain their round and almost naked bodies1 while their large beaks are ever gaping for food4 ,those of my readers who have had young birds of any kind must have noticed the extremely grotesque appearance which they possess when they hold up their heads and cry for food1 with their bills open to an almost incredible extent4 ,in such birds as the ,stork1 the heron1 and others of the tribe1 the grotesque appearance is exaggerated in proportion to the length and gape of the bill4 ,the ,stork is noted for being a peculiarly kind and loving parent to its young1 in that point fully deserving the derivation of its ,hebrew name1 though its love manifests itself towards the young1 and not towards the parent4 ,the ,rev4 ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram mentions from personal experience an instance of the watchful care exercised by the ,stork over its young4 ,the writer was once in camp near an old ruined tower in the plains of ,zana1 south of the ,atlas1 where a pair of storks had their nest4 ,the four young might often be seen from a little distance1 surveying the prospect from their lonely height1 but whenever any of the human party happened to stroll near the tower1 one of the old storks1 invisible before1 would instantly appear1 and1 lighting on the nest1 put its feet gently on the necks of all the young1 so as to hold them down out of sight till the stranger had passed1 snapping its bill meanwhile1 and assuming a grotesque air of indifference1 as if unconscious of there being anything under its charge4 ,the snapping noise which is here mentioned is the only sound produced by the ,stork1 which is an absolutely silent bird1 as far as voice is concerned4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is another species of ,stork found in ,palestine1 to which the fir-trees are especially a home4 ,this is the ,black ,stork 7,ciconia nigra71 which in some parts of the country is even more plentiful than its white relative1 which it resembles in almost every particular1 except that it has a dark head and back1 the feathers being glossed with purple and green like those of the magpie4 ,this species1 which is undoubtedly included in the ,hebrew word chasidah1 always makes its nest on trees whenever it can find them1 and in some of the more densely wooded parts of ,palestine is in consequence plentiful1 placing its nest in the deepest parts of the forests4 ,when it cannot obtain trees1 it will build its nest on rocky ledges4 ,it lays two or three eggs of a greenish white colour4 ,like the preceding species1 the ,black ,stork is easily domesticated4 ,colonel ,montague kept one which was very tame1 and would follow its keeper like a dog4 ,its tameness enabled its proceedings to be closely watched1 and its mode of feeding was thereby investigated4 ,it was fond of examining the rank grass and mud for food1 and while doing so always kept its bill a little open1 so as to pounce down at once on any insect or reptile that it might disturb4 ,eels were its favourite food1 and it was such an adept at catching them that it was never seen to miss one1 no matter how small or quick it might be4 ,as soon as it had caught one of these active fish1 it went to some dry place1 and then disabled its prey by shaking and beating it against the ground before swallowing it1 whereas many birds that feed on fish swallow their prey as soon as it is caught4 ,the ,stork was never seen to swim as the heron sometimes does1 but it would wade as long as it could place its feet on the bed of the stream1 and would strain its head and the whole of its neck under water in searching for fish4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,nest ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,stork4 ,it was of a mild and peaceable disposition1 and1 even if angered1 did not attempt to bite or strike with its beak1 but only denoted its displeasure by blowing the air sharply from its lungs1 and nodding its head repeatedly4 ,after the manner of ,storks1 it always chose an elevated spot on which to repose1 and took its rest standing on one leg1 with its head so sunk among the feathers of its shoulders that scarcely any part of it was visible1 the hinder part of the head resting on the back1 and the bill lying on the fore-part of the neck4 ,though the bird is so capable of domestication1 it does not of its own accord haunt the dwellings of men1 like the ,white ,stork1 but avoids the neighbourhood of houses1 and lives in the most retired places it can find4 ,,the ,,swan4 ,signification of the word ,tinshemeth--,the ,gallinule and the ,ibis--,appearance and habits of the ,hyacinthine ,gallinule--,a strange use for the bird--,the ,white or ,sacred ,ibis4 ,in the two parallel chapters of ,lev4 xi4 #ah and ,deut4 xiv4 #af1 the ,hebrew word tinshemeth is found1 and evidently signifies some kind of bird which was forbidden as food4 ,after stating 7,lev4 xi4 #ac7 that these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls2 they shall not be eaten1 they are an abomination1 the sacred lawgiver proceeds to enumerate a number of birds1 nearly all of which have already been described4 ,among them occurs the name of tinshemeth1 between the great owl and the pelican4 ,what was the precise species of bird which was signified by this name it is impossible to say1 but there is no doubt that it could not have been the ,swan1 according to the rendering of the ,authorized ,version4 ,the ,swan is far too rare a bird in ,palestine to have been specially mentioned in the law of ,moses1 and in all probability it was totally unknown to the generality of the ,israelites4 ,even had it been known to them1 and tolerably common1 there seems to be no reason why it should have been reckoned among the list of unclean birds4 ,on turning to the ,hebrew ,bible1 we find that the word is left untranslated1 and simply given in its ,hebrew form1 thereby signifying that the translators could form no opinion whatever of the proper rendering of the word4 ,the ,septuagint translates the ,tinshemeth as the ,porphyrio or ,ibis1 and the ,vulgate follows the same rendering4 ,later naturalists have agreed that the ,septuagint and ,vulgate have the far more probable reading2 and1 as two birds are there mentioned1 they will be both described4 ,illustration3 ,,ibis ,,and ,,gallinule 7,,swan ,,of ,,scripture74 ,the first is the ,porphyrio1 by which we may understand the ,,hyacinthine ,,gallinule 7,porphyrio veterum74 ,all the birds of this group are remarkable for the enormous length of their toes1 by means of which they are enabled to walk upon the loose herbage that floats on the surface of the water as firmly as if they were treading on land4 ,their feet are also used1 like those of the parrots1 in conveying food to the mouth4 ,we have in ,england a very familiar example of the ,gallinules in the common water-hen1 or moor-hen1 the toes of which are of great proportionate length1 though not so long as those of the ,purple ,gallinule1 which almost rivals in this respect the jacanas of ,south ,america and ,china4 ,the water-rail1 and corncrake or land-rail1 are also allied to the ,gallinules4 ,the ,hyacinthine ,gallinule derives its name from its colour1 which is a rich and variable blue1 taking a turquoise hue on the head1 neck1 throat1 and breast1 and deep indigo on the back4 ,the large bill and the legs are red4 ,like many other birds1 however1 it varies much in colour according to age4 ,it has a very wide geographical range1 being found in many parts of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 and is common in the marshy districts of ,palestine1 where its rich blue plumage and its large size1 equalling that of a duck1 render it very conspicuous4 ,the large and powerful bill of this bird betokens the nature of its food1 which consists almost entirely of hard vegetable substances1 the seeds of aquatic herbage forming a large portion of its diet4 ,when it searches for food on the seashore1 it eats the marine vegetation1 mixing with this diet other articles of an animal nature1 such as molluscs and small reptiles4 ,though apparently a clumsy bird1 it moves with wonderful speed1 running not only swiftly but gracefully1 its large feet being no hindrance to the rapidity of its movements4 ,it is mostly found in shallow marshes1 where the construction of its feet enables it to traverse both the soft muddy ground and the patches of firm earth with equal ease4 ,its wings1 however1 are by no means equal to its legs either in power or activity2 and1 like most of the rail tribe1 it never takes to the air unless absolutely obliged to do so4 ,the nest of the ,hyacinthine ,gallinule is made on the sedge-patches which dot the marshes1 much like that of the coot4 ,the nest1 too1 resembles that of the coot1 being composed of reeds1 sedges1 and other aquatic plants4 ,the eggs are three or four in number1 white in colour1 and nearly spherical in form4 ,as the ,ibis has an equal claim to the title of ,tinshemeth we will devote a few lines to a description of the bird4 ,the particular species which would be signified by the word tinshemeth would undoubtedly be the ,,white or ,,sacred ,,ibis 7,ibis religiosa71 a bird which derives its name of ,sacred from the reverence with which it was held by the ancient ,egyptians1 and the frequency with which its figure occurs in the monumental sculptures4 ,it was also thought worthy of being embalmed1 and many mummies of the ,ibis have been found in the old ,egyptian burial-places1 having been preserved for some three thousand years4 ,it is about as large as an ordinary hen1 and1 as its name imports1 has the greater part of its plumage white1 the ends of the wing-feathers and the coverts being black1 with violet reflections4 ,the long neck is black and bare1 and has a most curious aspect1 looking as if it were made of an old black kid glove1 very much crumpled1 but still retaining its gloss4 ,the reason for the extreme veneration with which the bird was regarded by the ancient ,egyptians seems rather obscure4 ,it is probable1 however1 that the partial migration of the bird was connected in their minds with the rise of the ,nile1 a river as sacred to the old ,egyptians as the ,ganges to the modern ,hindoo4 ,as soon as the water begins to rise1 the ,ibis makes its appearance1 sometimes alone1 and sometimes in small troops4 ,it haunts the banks of the river1 and marshy places in general1 diligently searching for food by the aid of its long bill4 ,it can fly well and strongly1 and it utters at intervals a rather loud cry1 dipping its head at every utterance4 ,,the ,,cormorant4 ,the word ,shlk and its signification--,habits of the ,cormorant--,the bird trained to catch fish--,mode of securing its prey--,nests and eggs of the ,cormorant--,nesting in fir-trees--,flesh of the bird4 ,although in the ,authorized ,version of the ,scriptures the word ,cormorant occurs three times1 there is no doubt that in two of the passages the ,hebrew word ought to have been rendered as ,pelican1 as we shall see when we come presently to the description of that bird4 ,in the two parallel passages1 ,lev4 xi4 #ag and ,deut4 xiv4 #ag1 a creature called the ,shlk is mentioned in the list of prohibited meats4 ,that the ,shlk must be a bird is evident from the context1 and we are therefore only left to discover what sort of bird it may be4 ,on looking at the etymology of the word we find that it is derived from a root which signifies hurling or casting down1 and we may therefore presume that the bird is one which plunges or sweeps down upon its prey4 ,weighing1 carefully1 the opinions of the various ,hebraists and naturalists1 we may safely determine that the word shlk has been rightly translated in the ,authorized ,version4 ,the ,hebrew ,bible gives the same reading1 and does not affix the mark of doubt to the word1 though there are very few of the long list of animals in ,lev4 xi4 and ,deut4 xiv4 which are not either distinguished by the mark of doubt1 or1 like the ,tinshemeth1 are left untranslated4 ,the ,cormorant belongs to the family of the pelicans1 the relationship between them being evident to the most unpractised eye2 and the whole structure of the bird shows its admirable adaptation for the life which it leads4 ,its long beak enables it to seize even a large fish1 while the hook at the end prevents the slippery prey from escaping4 ,the long snake-like neck gives the bird the power of darting its beak with great rapidity1 and at the same time allows it to seize prey immediately to the right or left of its course4 ,its strong1 closely-feathered wings enable it to fly with tolerable speed1 while at the same time they can be closed so tightly to the body that they do not hinder the progress of the bird through the water2 while the tail serves equally when spread to direct its course through the air1 and when partially or entirely closed to act as a rudder in the water4 ,lastly1 its short powerful legs1 with their broadly-webbed feet1 act as paddles1 by which the bird urges itself through the water with such wonderful speed that it can overtake and secure the fishes even in their own element4 ,besides these outward characteristics1 we find that the bird is able to make a very long stay under water1 the lungs being adapted so as to contain a wonderful amount of air4 ,the ,cormorant has been trained to play the same part in the water as the falcon in the air1 and has been taught to catch fish1 and bring them ashore for its master4 ,so adroit are they1 that if one of them should catch a fish which is too heavy for it1 another bird will come to its assistance1 and the two together will bring the struggling prey to land4 ,trained birds of this description have been employed in ,china from time immemorial4 ,in order to prevent it from swallowing the fish which it takes1 each bird has a ring or ligature passed round its neck4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,cormorant is a most voracious bird1 swallowing a considerable weight of fish at a meal1 and digesting them so rapidly that it is soon ready for another supply4 ,although it is essentially a marine bird1 hunger often takes it inland1 especially to places where there are lakes or large rivers4 ,while the ducks and teal and widgeons may be stationary on the pool1 the cormorant is seen swimming to and fro1 as if in quest of something4 ,first raising his body nearly perpendicular1 down he plunges into the deep1 and1 after staying there a considerable time1 he is sure to bring up a fish1 which he invariably swallows head foremost4 ,sometimes half an hour elapses before he can manage to accommodate a large eel quietly in his stomach4 ,you see him straining violently with repeated efforts to gulp it2 and when you fancy that the slippery mouthful is successfully disposed of1 all on a sudden the eel retrogrades upwards from its dismal sepulchre1 struggling violently to escape4 ,the cormorant swallows it again1 and up again it comes1 and shows its tail a foot or more out of its destroyer's mouth4 ,at length1 worn out with ineffectual writhings and slidings1 the eel is gulped down into the cormorant's stomach for the last time1 there to meet its dreaded and inevitable fate4 ,mr4 ,fortune gives a very interesting account of the feeding of tame ,cormorants in ,china4 ,the birds preferred eels to all other food1 and1 in spite of the difficulty in swallowing the slippery and active creature1 would not touch another fish as long as an eel was left4 ,the bird is so completely at home in the water that it does not need1 like the heron and other aquatic birds1 to bring its prey ashore in order to swallow it1 but can eat fish in the water as well as catch them4 ,it always seizes the fish crosswise1 and is therefore obliged to turn it before it can swallow the prey with the head downwards4 ,sometimes it contrives to turn the fish while still under water1 but1 if it should fail in so doing1 it brings its prey to the surface1 and shifts it about in its bill1 making a series of little snatches at it until the head is in the right direction4 ,when it seizes a very large fish1 the bird shakes its prey just as a dog shakes a rat1 and so disables it4 ,it is said to eat its own weight of fish in a single day4 ,sometimes1 when it has been very successful or exceptionally hungry1 it loads itself with food to such an extent that it becomes almost insensible during the process of digestion1 and1 although naturally a keen-eyed and wary bird1 allows itself to be captured by hand4 ,the nest of the ,cormorant is always upon a rocky ledge1 and generally on a spot which is inaccessible except by practised climbers furnished with ropes1 poles1 hooks1 and other appurtenances4 ,mr4 ,waterton mentions that when he descended the ,raincliff1 a precipice some four hundred feet in height1 he saw numbers of the nests and eggs1 but could not get at them except by swinging himself boldly off the face of the cliff1 so as to be brought by the return swing into the recesses chosen by the birds4 ,the nests are mostly placed in close proximity to each other1 and are made of sticks and seaweeds1 and1 as is usual with such nests1 are very inartificially constructed4 ,the eggs are of a greenish white on the outside1 and green on the inside4 ,when found in the nest1 they are covered with a sort of chalky crust1 so that the true colour is not perceptible until the crust is scraped off4 ,two to four eggs are generally laid in1 or rather on1 each nest4 ,as may be imagined from the character of the birds' food1 the odour of the nesting-place is most horrible4 ,sometimes1 when rocks cannot be found1 the ,cormorant is obliged to select other spots for its nest4 ,it is mentioned in the ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society1 that upon an island in the midst of a large lake there were a number of ,scotch fir-trees1 upon the branches of which were about eighty nests of the ,cormorant4 ,the flesh of the ,cormorant is very seldom eaten1 as it has a fishy flavour which is far from agreeable4 ,to eat an old ,cormorant is indeed almost impossible1 but the young birds may be rendered edible by taking them as soon as killed1 skinning them1 removing the whole of the interior1 wrapping them in cloths1 and burying them for some time in the ground4 ,,the ,,pelican4 ,the ,pelican of the wilderness--,attitudes of the bird--,its love of solitude--,mode of feeding the young--,fables regarding the ,pelican--,breeding-places of the bird--,the object of its wide wings and large pouch--,colour of the ,pelican4 ,it has been mentioned that in two passages of ,scripture1 the word which is translated in the ,authorized ,version as ,cormorant1 ought to have been rendered as ,,pelican4 ,these1 however1 are not the first passages in which we meet with the word kaath4 ,the name occurs in the two parallel passages of ,lev4 xi4 and ,deut4 xiv4 among the list of birds which are proscribed as food4 ,passing over them1 we next come to ,ps4 cii4 #f4 ,in this passage1 the sacred writer is lamenting his misery3 ,by reason of the voice of my groaning my bones cleave to my skin4 ,i am like a pelican of the wilderness3 ,i am like an owl of the desert4 ,in these sentences1 we see that the ,kaath was a bird of solitude that was to be found in the wilderness1 i4e4 far from the habitations of man4 ,this is one of the characteristics of the ,pelican1 which loves not the neighbourhood of human beings1 and is fond of resorting to broad1 uncultivated lands1 where it will not be disturbed4 ,in them it makes its nest and hatches its young1 and to them it retires after feeding1 in order to digest in quiet the ample meal which it has made4 ,mr4 ,tristram well suggests that the metaphor of the ,psalmist may allude to the habit common to the ,pelican and its kin1 of sitting motionless for hours after it has gorged itself with food1 its head sunk on its shoulders1 and its bill resting on its breast4 ,this is but one of the singular1 and often grotesque1 attitudes in which the ,pelican is in the habit of indulging4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pelican4 ,there are before me a number of sketches made of the ,pelicans at the ,zoological ,gardens1 and in no two cases does one attitude in the least resemble another4 ,in one sketch the bird is sitting in the attitude which has just been described4 ,in another it is walking1 or rather staggering1 along1 with its head on one side1 and its beak so closed that hardly a vestige of its enormous pouch can be seen4 ,another sketch shows the same bird as it appeared when angry with a companion1 and scolding its foe in impotent rage2 while another shows it basking in the sun1 with its magnificent wings spread and shaking in the warm beams1 and its pouch hanging in folds from its chin4 ,one of the most curious of these sketches shows the bird squatting on the ground1 with its head drawn back as far as possible1 and sunk so far among the feathers of the back and shoulders that only a portion of the head itself can be seen1 while the long beak is hidden1 except an inch or two of the end4 ,in this attitude it might easily be mistaken at a little distance for an oval white stone4 ,the derivation of the ,hebrew word kaath is a very curious one4 ,it is taken from a verb signifying to vomit1 and this derivation has been explained in different ways4 ,the early writers1 who were comparatively ignorant of natural history1 thought that the ,pelican lived chiefly on molluscs1 and that1 after digesting the animals1 it rejected their shells1 just as the owl and the hawk reject the bones1 fur1 and feathers of their prey4 ,they thought that the ,pelican was a bird of a hot temperament1 and that the molluscs were quickly digested by the heat of the stomach4 ,at the present day1 however1 knowing as we do the habits of the ,pelican1 we find that1 although the reasons just given are faulty1 and that the ,pelican lives essentially on fish1 and not on molluscs1 the derivation of the word is really a good one1 and that those who gave the bird the name of ,kaath1 or the vomiter1 were well acquainted with its habits4 ,the bird certainly does eat molluscs1 but the principal part of its diet is composed of fish1 which it catches dexterously by a sort of sidelong snatch of its enormous bill4 ,the skin under the lower part of the beak is so modified that it can form1 when distended1 an enormous pouch1 capable of holding a great quantity of fish1 though1 as long as it is not wanted1 the pouch is so contracted into longitudinal folds as to be scarcely perceptible4 ,when it has filled the pouch1 it usually retires from the water1 and flies to a retired spot1 often many miles inland1 where it can sit and digest at its ease the enormous meal which it has made4 ,as it often chooses its breeding-places in similar spots1 far from the water1 it has to carry the food with which it nourishes its young for many miles4 ,for this purpose it is furnished1 not only with the pouch which has been just mentioned1 but with long1 wide1 and very powerful wings1 often measuring from twelve to thirteen feet from tip to tip4 ,no one1 on looking at a ,pelican as it waddles about or sits at rest1 would imagine the gigantic dimensions of the wings1 which seem1 as the bird spreads them1 to have almost as unlimited a power of expansion as the pouch4 ,in these two points the true ,pelicans present a strong contrast to the cormorants1 though birds closely allied4 ,the cormorant has its home close by the sea1 and therefore needs not to carry its food for any distance4 ,consequently1 it needs no pouch1 and has none4 ,neither does it require the great expanse of wing which is needful for the ,pelican1 that has to carry such a weight of fish through the air4 ,accordingly1 the wings1 though strong enough to enable the bird to carry for a short distance a single fish of somewhat large size1 are comparatively short and closely feathered1 and the flight of the cormorant possesses neither the grace nor the power which distinguishes that of the ,pelican4 ,when the ,pelican feeds its young1 it does so by pressing its beak against its breast1 so as to force out of it the enclosed fish4 ,now the tip of the beak is armed1 like that of the cormorant1 with a sharply-curved hook1 only1 in the case of the ,pelican1 the hook is of a bright scarlet colour1 looking1 when the bird presses the beak against the white feathers of the breast1 like a large drop of blood4 ,hence arose the curious legend respecting the ,pelican1 which represented it as feeding its young with its own blood1 and tearing open its breast with its hooked bill4 ,we find that this legend is exemplified by the oft-recurring symbol of the ,pelican feeding its young in ecclesiastical art1 as an emblem of ,divine love4 ,this is one of the many instances in which the inventive1 poetical1 inaccurate ,oriental mind has seized some peculiarity of form1 and based upon it a whole series of fabulous legends4 ,as long as they restricted themselves to the appearance and habits of the animals with which they were familiarly acquainted1 the old writers were curiously full1 exact1 and precise in their details4 ,but as soon as they came to any creature of whose mode of life they were entirely or partially ignorant1 they allowed their inventive faculties full scope1 and put forward as zoological facts statements which were the mere creation of their own fancy4 ,we have already seen several examples of this propensity1 and shall find more as we proceed with the zoology of the ,scriptures4 ,the fabulous legends of the ,pelican are too numerous to be even mentioned1 but there is one which deserves notice1 because it is made the basis of an old ,persian fable4 ,the writer of the legend evidently had some partial knowledge of the bird4 ,he knew that it had a large pouch which could hold fish and water2 that it had large and powerful wings2 and that it was in the habit of flying far inland1 either for the purpose of digesting its food or nourishing its young4 ,knowing that the ,pelican is in the habit of choosing solitary spots in which it may bring up its young in safety1 but not knowing the precise mode of its nesting1 the writer in question has trusted to his imagination1 and put forward his theories as facts4 ,knowing that the bird dwells in the wilderness1 he has assumed that the wilderness in question is a sandy1 arid desert1 far from water1 and consequently from vegetation4 ,such being the case1 the nurture of the ,pelican's young is evidently a difficult question4 ,being aquatic birds1 the young must needs require water for drink and bathing1 as well as fish for food2 and1 though a supply of both these necessaries could be brought in the ample pouches of the parents1 they would be wasted unless some mode of storing were employed4 ,accordingly1 the parent birds were said to make their nest in a hollow tree1 and to line it with clay1 or to build it altogether of clay1 so as to leave a deep basin4 ,this basin the parent birds were said to use as a sort of store-pond1 bringing home supplies of fish and water in their pouches1 and pouring them into the pond4 ,the wild beasts who lived in the desert were said to be acquainted with these nests1 and to resort to them daily in order to quench their thirst1 repaying their entertainers by protecting their homes4 ,in real fact1 the ,pelican mostly breeds near water1 and is fond of selecting little rocky islands where it cannot be approached without danger4 ,the nest is made on the ground1 and is formed in a most inartificial manner of reeds and grass1 the general mass of the nest being made of the reeds1 and the lining being formed of grass4 ,the eggs are white1 of nearly the same shape at both ends1 and are from two to five in number4 ,on an average1 however1 each nest will contain about two eggs4 ,the parent birds are very energetic in defence of their eggs or young1 and1 according to ,le ,vaillant1 when approached they are like furious harpies let loose against us1 and their cries rendered us almost deaf4 ,they often flew so near us that they flapped their wings in our faces1 and1 though we fired our pieces repeatedly1 we were not able to frighten them4 ,when the well-known naturalist ,sonnerat tried to drive a female ,pelican from her nest1 she appeared not to be frightened1 but angry4 ,she would not move from her nest1 and when he tried to push her off1 she struck at him with her long bill and uttered cries of rage4 ,in order to aid the bird in carrying the heavy weights with which it loads itself1 the whole skeleton is permeated with air1 and is exceedingly light4 ,beside this1 the whole cellular system of the bird is honeycombed with air-cells1 so that the bulk of the bird can be greatly increased1 while its weight remains practically unaltered1 and the ,pelican becomes a sort of living balloon4 ,the habit of conveying its food inland before eating it is so characteristic of the ,pelican that other birds take advantage of it4 ,in some countries there is a large hawk which robs the ,pelican1 just as the bald-headed eagle of ,america robs the osprey4 ,knowing instinctively that when a ,pelican is flying inland slowly and heavily and with a distended pouch it is carrying a supply of food to its home1 the hawk dashes at it1 and frightens it so that the poor bird opens its beak1 and gives up to the assailant the fish which it was bearing homewards4 ,it is evident that the wings which are needed for supporting such weights1 and which1 as we have seen1 exceed twelve feet in length from tip to tip1 would be useless in the water1 and would hinder rather than aid the bird if it attempted to dive as the close-winged cormorant does4 ,accordingly1 we find that the ,pelican is not a diver1 and1 instead of chasing its finny prey under water1 after the manner of the cormorant1 it contents itself with scooping up in its beak the fishes which come to the surface of the water4 ,the very buoyancy of its body would prevent it from diving as does the cormorant1 and1 although it often plunges into the water so fairly as to be for a moment submerged1 it almost immediately rises1 and pursues its course on the surface of the water1 and not beneath it4 ,like the cormorant1 the ,pelican can perch on trees1 though it does not select such spots for its roosting-places1 and prefers rocks to branches4 ,in one case1 however1 when some young ,pelicans had been captured and tied to a stake1 their mother used to bring them food during the day1 and at night was accustomed to roost in the branches of a tree above them4 ,though under some circumstances a thoroughly social bird1 it is yet fond of retiring to the most solitary spots in order to consume at peace the prey that it has captured2 and1 as it sits motionless and alone for hours1 more like a white stone than a bird1 it may well be accepted as a type of solitude and desolation4 ,the colour of the common ,pelican is white1 with a very slight pinky tinge1 which is most conspicuous in the breeding season4 ,the feathers of the crest are yellow1 and the quill feathers of the wings are jetty black1 contrasting well with the white plumage of the body4 ,the pouch is yellow1 and the upper part of the beak bluish grey1 with a red line running across the middle1 and a bright red hook at the tip4 ,this plumage belongs only to the adult bird1 that of the young being ashen grey1 and four or five years are required before the bird puts on its full beauty4 ,there is no difference in the appearance of the sexes4 ,the illustration represents a fine old male ,crested ,pelican4 ,the general colour is a greyish white1 with a slight yellowish tint on the breast4 ,the pouch is bright orange1 and the crest is formed of curling feathers4 ,illustration3 scene ,illustration3 reptile ,,reptiles4 ,illustration3 scene ,illustration3 tortoise ,,the ,,tortoise4 ,the ,tzab of the ,scriptures1 translated as ,tortoise--,flesh and eggs of the ,tortoise--,its slow movements--,hibernation dependent on temperature--,the ,water-,tortoises--,their food and voracity--,their eggs--,their odour terrifying the horses--,the ,dhubb lizard and its legends--,its food1 and localities which it prefers4 ,we now come to a different class of animated beings4 ,in ,levit4 xi4 #bi1 there occurs among the list of unclean beasts a word which is translated in the ,authorized ,version as tortoise4 ,the word is ,tzab1 and is rendered in the ,hebrew ,bible as lizard1 but with the mark of doubt affixed to it4 ,as the correct translation of the word is very dubious1 we shall examine it in both these senses4 ,the common ,tortoise is very common in ,palestine1 and is so plentiful that it would certainly have been used by the ,israelites as food1 had it not been prohibited by law4 ,at the present day it is cooked and eaten by the inhabitants of the country who are not ,jews1 and its eggs are in as great request as those of the fowl4 ,these eggs are hard1 nearly spherical1 thick-shelled1 and covered with minute punctures1 giving them a roughness like that of a file4 ,in captivity the ,tortoise is very careless about the mode in which they are deposited1 and ,i have seen a large yard almost covered with eggs laid by ,tortoises and abandoned4 ,the white or albumen of the egg is so stiff and gelatinous that to empty one of them without breaking the shell is a difficult task1 and the yolk is very dark1 and covered with minute spots of black4 ,when fresh the eggs are as good as those of the fowl1 and many persons even think them better2 the only drawback being that their small size and thick shell cause considerable trouble in eating them4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dhubb ,,or ,,lizard ,,and ,,the ,,tortoise4 ,the flesh of the ,tortoise is eaten1 not only by human beings1 but by birds1 such as the lmmergeier4 ,in order to get at the flesh of the ,tortoise1 they carry it high in the air and drop it on the ground so as to break the shell to pieces1 should the reptile fall on a stone or rock4 ,if1 as is not often the case in such a rocky land as that of ,palestine1 it should fall on a soft spot1 the bird picks it up1 soars aloft1 and drops it again4 ,the ,tortoises have no teeth1 but yet are able to crop the herbage with perfect ease4 ,in lieu of teeth the edges of the jaws are sharp-edged and very hard1 so that they cut anything that comes between them like a pair of shears4 ,leaves that are pulpy and crisp are bitten through at once1 but those that are thin1 tough1 and fibrous are rather torn than bitten1 the ,tortoise placing its feet upon them1 and dragging them to pieces with its jaws4 ,the carnivorous ,tortoises have a similar habit1 as we shall presently see4 ,illustration3 ,,water ,,tortoise4 ,this is the species from whose deliberate and slow movements the familiar metaphor of slow as a ,tortoise was derived1 and it is this species which is the hero of the popular fable of the ,hare and the ,tortoise4 ,many of the reptiles are very slow in some things and astonishingly quick in others4 ,some of the lizards1 for example1 will at one time remain motionless for many hours together1 or creep about with a slow and snail-like progress1 while at others they dart from spot to spot with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow their movements4 ,this however is not the case with the ,tortoise1 which is always slow1 and1 but for the defensive armour in which it is encased1 would long ago have been extirpated4 ,during the whole of the summer months it may be seen crawling deliberately among the herbage1 eating in the same deliberate style which characterises all its movements1 and occasionally resting in the same spot for many hours together1 apparently enjoying the warm beams of the sunshine4 ,as winter approaches1 it slowly scrapes a deep hole in the ground1 and buries itself until the following spring awakes it once more to active life4 ,the depth of its burrow depends on the severity of the winter1 for1 as the cold increases1 the ,tortoise sinks itself more deeply into the earth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mention has been made of a species of ,tortoise that inhabits the water4 ,this is the ,,caspian ,,emys 7,emys caspica71 a small species1 measuring about six inches in length4 ,it belongs to the large family of the ,terrapins1 several of which are so well known in ,america1 and has a long1 retractile neck1 very sharp jaws1 and webbed feet1 and a well-developed tail4 ,the body is flattish1 and the colour is olive1 with lines of yellow edged with black1 and the head is marked with longitudinal streaks of bright yellow4 ,after the death of the creature these yellow streaks fade away gradually1 and at last become nearly black4 ,the skin of the head is thin1 but very hard4 ,in general appearance it is not unlike the chicken ,tortoise of ,america1 a species which is often brought to ,england and kept in captivity1 on account of its hardy nature and the little trouble which is needed for keeping it in health4 ,i have kept specimens of the ,caspian ,emys for some time1 and found them to be more interesting animals than they at first promised to be4 ,they were active1 swimming with considerable speed1 and snatching quickly at anything which they fancied might be food4 ,they were exceedingly voracious1 consuming daily a quantity of meat apparently disproportioned to their size1 and eating it in a manner that strongly reminded me of the mole when engaged on a piece of meat or the body of a bird or mouse4 ,the ,tortoise would plant its fore-paws firmly at each side of the meat1 seize a mouthful in its jaws1 and1 by retracting its head violently1 would tear away the piece which it had grasped4 ,they are most destructive among fish1 and are apt to rise quietly underneath a fish as it basks near the surface of the water1 grasp it beneath with its sharp-edged jaws1 and tear away the piece1 leaving the fish to die4 ,it is rather remarkable that the ,lepidosiren1 or mud-fish of the ,gambia1 destroys fish in a precisely similar manner1 though1 as its jaws are much sharper than those of the ,emys1 it does not need the aid of fore-paws in biting out its mouthful of flesh4 ,like the land ,tortoise1 it is one of the hibernators1 and during the winter months buries itself deeply in the earth1 choosing for this purpose the soft1 muddy bed or bank of the pond in which it lives4 ,its eggs are white1 and hard-shelled1 but are more oval than those of the land ,tortoise1 and both ends are nearly alike4 ,in fact1 its egg might well be mistaken for that of a small pigeon4 ,the shell has a porcelain-like look1 and is very liable to crack1 so that the resemblance is increased4 ,there is one drawback to these reptiles when kept as pets4 ,they give out a very unpleasant odour1 which is disagreeable to human nostrils1 but is absolutely terrifying to many animals4 ,the monkey tribe have the strongest objection to these aquatic ,tortoises4 ,i once held one of them towards a very tame chimpanzee1 much to his discomfiture4 ,he muttered and remonstrated1 and retreated as far as he could1 pushing out his lips in a funnel-like form1 and showing his repugnance to the reptile in a manner that could not be mistaken4 ,horses seem to be driven almost frantic with terror1 not only by the sight1 but by the odour of these ,tortoises4 ,in ,southern ,africa there are ,tortoises closely allied to the ,caspian ,emys1 and having the same power of frightening horses4 ,i have read an account of an adventure there with one of those ,tortoises1 which ,i will give4 ,this variety is described as being of an olive colour4 ,when adult1 there is a slight depression on either side of the vertebral line4 ,some very awkward accidents have occurred to parties from the terror caused by the fresh-water turtle 7,pelamedusa subrufa74 ,carts have been smashed to fragments1 riders thrown1 and the utmost confusion caused by them4 ,it is their smell1 and it is certainly very disagreeable4 ,my first acquaintance with the fact was in this wise4 ,i was out shooting with two young ladies who had volunteered as markers2 and1 as you know1 all our shooting is done from horseback4 ,i had jumped off for a shot at some francolins near a knill1 or water-hole1 and1 after picking up my birds1 was coming round the knoll to windward of the horses4 ,in my path scrambled a turtle4 ,i called out to my young friends1 and told them of my find1 on which one of them1 in a hasty voice1 said1 ',oh1 please1 ,mr4 ,l41 don't touch it2 you will frighten the horses6' ,of course ,i laughed at the idea1 and picked up the reptile1 which instantly emitted its pungent odour--its means of defence4 ,though a long way off1 the moment the horses caught the scent1 away they flew1 showing terror in every action4 ,the girls1 luckily splendid riders1 tugged in vain at the reins2 away they went over the ,veldt1 leaving me in mortal fear that the yawning 'aard-vark' holes 7,orycteropus capensis7 would break their necks4 ,my own horse1 which ,i had hitched to a bush1 tore away his bridle1 and with the ends streaming in the wind and the stirrups clashing about him1 sped off home at full gallop1 and was only recovered after a severe chase by my gallant young ,amazons1 who1 after a race of some miles1 succeeded in checking their affrighted steeds and in securing my runaway4 ,but for some hours after1 if ,i ventured to windward1 there were wild-looking eyes and cocked ears--the smell of the reptile clung to me4 ,should any of my readers keep any of those water ,tortoises1 they will do well to supply them plentifully with food1 to give them an elevated rocky perch on which they can scramble1 and on which they will sit for hours so motionless that at a little distance they can scarcely be distinguished from the stone on which they rest4 ,they should also be weighed at regular intervals1 as decrease of weight is a sure sign that something is wrong1 and1 as a general rule1 is an almost certain precursor of death4 ,this little reptile is not without its legends4 ,according to the old writers on natural history1 it is of exceeding use to vine-growers in the season when there is excess of rain or hail4 ,whenever the owner of a vineyard sees a black cloud approaching1 all he has to do is1 to take one of these ,tortoises1 lay it on its back1 and carry it round the vineyard4 ,he must then go into the middle of the ground and lay the reptile on the earth1 still on its back2 and the effect of this proceeding would be that the cloud would pass aside from a place so well protected4 ,but1 proceeds the narrator1 not wishing to be responsible for the statement1 such diabolical and foolish observations were not so muche to be remembered in this place1 were it not for their sillinesse1 that by knowing them men might learn the weaknesse of human wisdom when it erreth from the fountain of all science and true knowledge 7which is ,divinity71 and the most approved assertions of nature4 ,and so ,i will say no more in this place of the sweet-water tortoise4 ,,the ,,dhubb4 ,we now come to the second animal1 which may probably be the ,tzab of the ,old ,testament4 ,this creature is one of the lizards1 and is a very odd-looking creature4 ,it is certainly not so attractive in appearance that the ,jews might be supposed to desire it as food2 but it often happens that1 as is the case with the turtle and iguana1 from the most ungainly1 in the latter animal even repulsive1 forms are produced the most delicate meats4 ,the ,,dhubb1 or ,,egyptian ,,mastigure1 as the lizard is indifferently called1 grows to a considerable size1 measuring when adult three feet in length4 ,its colour is green1 variegated with brown1 and is slightly changeable1 though not to the extent that distinguishes the chameleon4 ,the chief peculiarity of this lizard consists in its tail1 which is covered with a series of whorls or circles of long1 sharply-pointed1 hard-edged scales4 ,the very appearance of this tail suggests its use as a weapon of defence1 and it is said that even the dreaded cerastes is conquered by it1 when the lizard and the snake happen to find themselves occupants of the same hole4 ,the ancients had a very amusing notion respecting the use of the spiny tail possessed by the ,dhubb and its kin4 ,they had an idea that1 comparatively small though it was1 it fed upon cattle1 and that it was able to take them from the herd and drive them to its home4 ,for this purpose1 when it had selected an ox1 it jumped on its back1 and by the pricking of its sharp claws drove the animal to gallop in hope of ridding himself of his tormentor4 ,in order to guide him in the direction of its home1 it made use of its tail1 lashing the ox to make him go with his rider to the place of his most fit execution1 free from all rescue of his herdsman1 or pastor1 or the annoyance of passengers1 where1 in most cruel and savage manner1 he teareth the limbs and parts one from another till he be devoured4 ,this very absurd account is headed by an illustration1 which1 though bad in drawing and rude in execution1 is yet so bold and truthful that there is no doubt that it was sketched from the living animal4 ,as it haunts sandy downs1 rocky spots1 and similar localities1 it is well adapted for the ,holy ,land1 which is the home of a vast number of reptiles1 especially of those belonging to the lizards4 ,in the summer time they have the full enjoyment of the hot sunbeams1 in which they delight1 and which seem to rouse these cold-blooded creatures to action1 while they deprive the higher animals of all spirit and energy4 ,in the winter time these very spots afford localities wherein the lizards can hibernate until the following spring1 and in such a case they furnish the reptiles with secure hiding-places4 ,although the ,dhubb does not destroy and tear to pieces oxen and other cattle1 it is yet a rather bloodthirsty reptile1 and will kill and devour birds as large as the domestic fowl4 ,usually1 however1 its food consists of beetles and other insects1 which it takes deliberately4 ,illustration3 rocks and water ,,the ,,leviathan ,,or ,,crocodile4 ,signification of the word ,leviathan--,description in the ,book of ,job--,structure and general habits of the ,crocodile--,the throat-valve and its use--,position of the nostrils--,worship of the ,crocodile--,the reptile known in the ,holy ,land--,two legends respecting its presence there--,mode of taking prey--,cunning of the ,crocodile--,the baboons and the ,crocodile--,speed of the reptile--,eggs and young of the ,crocodile1 and their enemies--,curious story of the ichneumon and ibis--,modes of capturing the ,crocodile--,analysis of ,job's description--,the ,crocodile also signified by the word ,tannin4 ,aaron's rod changed into a ,tannin--,various passages in which the word occurs--,use of the word by the prophet ,jeremiah4 ,the word ,leviathan is used in a rather loose manner in the ,old ,testament1 in some places representing a mammalian of the sea1 and in others signifying a reptile inhabiting the rivers4 ,as in the most important of these passages the ,crocodile is evidently signified1 we will accept that rendering1 and consider the ,crocodile as being the ,leviathan of ,scripture4 ,the ,jewish ,bible accepts the word ,crocodile1 and does not add the mark of doubt4 ,the fullest account of the ,leviathan occurs in ,job xli41 the whole of which chapter is given to the description of the terrible reptile4 ,as the translation of the ,jewish ,bible differs in some points from that of the ,authorized ,version1 ,i shall here give the former1 so that the reader may be able to compare them with each other4 ,canst thou draw out a crocodile with a hook1 or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest down8 ,canst thou put a reed into his nose1 or bore his jaw through with a thorn8 ,will he make many supplications unto thee8 will he speak soft words unto thee8 ,will he make a covenant with thee8 wilt thou take him as a servant for ever8 ,wilt thou play with him as with a bird1 or wilt thou bind him for thy maidens8 ,shall the companions make a banquet of him8 shall they part him among the merchants8 ,canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons1 or his head with fish-spears8 ,lay thine hand upon him1 thou wilt no more remember the battle4 ,behold1 the hope of him is in vain2 shall not one be cast down at the sight of him8 ,none is so fierce that dare stir him up2 who then is able to stand before ,me8 ,who hath forestalled ,me that ,i should repay him8 whatsoever is under the whole heaven is ,mine4 ,i will not be silent of his parts1 nor of the matter of his power1 nor of his comely proportion4 ,who can uncover the face of his garment8 who would enter the double row in his jaw8 ,who can open the doors of his face8 his teeth are terrible round about4 ,the strength of his shields are his pride1 shut up together as with a close seal4 ,one is so near to another that no air can come between them4 ,they are joined one to another1 they stick together that they cannot be sundered4 ,his snortings make light to shine1 and his eyes are like the eyelids of the morning dawn4 ,out of his nostrils goeth smoke1 as out of a seething pot or caldron4 ,his breath kindleth live coals1 and a flame goeth out of his mouth4 ,in his neck abideth strength1 and before him danceth terror4 ,the flakes of his flesh are joined together1 they are firm in themselves2 yea1 as hard as nether millstone4 ,when he raiseth himself up1 the mighty are afraid2 by reason of breakings they lose themselves4 ,the sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold3 the spear1 the dart1 nor the habergeon4 ,he esteemeth iron as straw1 and copper as rotten wood4 ,the arrow cannot make him flee3 sling-stones are turned with him into stubble4 ,clubs are counted as stubble2 he laugheth at the shaking of a spear4 ,illustration3 ,,crocodile ,,attacking ,,horses4 ,his under parts are like sharp points of potsherd2 he speaketh sharp points upon the mire4 ,he maketh the deep to boil like a pot2 he maketh the sea like a pot of ointment4 ,he maketh a path to shine after him2 one would think the deep to be hoary4 ,upon earth there is not his like1 who is made without fear4 ,he beholdeth all high things2 he is a king over all the children of pride4 ,this splendid description points as clearly to the ,crocodile as the description of the ,behemoth which immediately precedes it does to the hippopotamus1 and it is tolerably evident that the sacred poet who wrote these passages must have been personally acquainted with both the ,crocodile and the hippopotamus4 ,in both descriptions there are a few exaggerations1 or rather1 poetical licences4 ,for example1 the bones of the hippopotamus are said to be iron and copper1 and the ,crocodile is said to kindle live coals with his breath4 ,these1 however1 are but the natural imagery of an ,oriental poet1 and1 considering the subject1 we may rather wonder that the writer has not introduced even more fanciful metaphors4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,crocodile4 ,there are several species of ,crocodile in different parts of the world1 ten species at least being known to science4 ,some inhabit ,india1 some tropical ,america1 some ,asia1 and some ,africa1 so that the genus is represented in nearly all the warmer parts of the world4 ,they are all known by the formation of the teeth1 the lower canines fitting each into a notch on the side of the upper jaw4 ,the feet are webbed to the tips1 and though the reptile mostly propels itself through the water by means of its tail1 it can also paddle itself gently along by means of its feet4 ,the teeth are all made for snatching and tearing1 but not for masticating1 the ,crocodile swallowing its prey entire when possible2 and when the animal is too large to be eaten entire1 the reptile tears it to pieces1 and swallows the fragments without attempting to masticate them4 ,in order to enable it to open its mouth under water1 the back of its throat is furnished with a very simple but beautiful contrivance1 whereby the water is received on a membranous valve and1 in proportion to its pressure1 closes the orifice of the throat4 ,as the ,crocodiles mostly seize their prey in their open jaws and hold it under water until drowned1 it is evident that without such a structure as has been described the ,crocodile would be as likely to drown itself as its prey4 ,but the throat-valve enables it to keep its mouth open while the water is effectually prevented from running down its throat1 and the nostrils1 placed at the end of the snout1 enable it to breathe at its ease1 while the unfortunate animal which it has captured is being drowned beneath the surface of the water4 ,this position of the nostrils serves another purpose1 and enables the ,crocodile to breathe while the whole of its body is under the water1 and only an inch or two of the very end of the snout is above the surface4 ,as1 moreover1 the ,crocodile1 as is the case with most reptiles1 is able to exist for a considerable time without breathing1 it only needs to protrude its nostrils for a few moments1 and can then sink entirely beneath the water4 ,in this way the reptile is able to conceal itself in case it should suspect danger2 and as1 in such instances1 it dives under the herbage of the river1 and merely thrusts its nose into the air among the reeds and rushes1 it is evident that1 in spite of its enormous size1 it baffles the observation of almost every foe4 ,among reptiles1 the mailed ,crocodiles may be mentioned as most formidable foes to man4 ,vast in bulk1 yet grovelling with the belly on the earth2 clad in bony plates with sharp ridges2 green eyes with a peculiar fiery stare1 gleaming out from below projecting orbits2 lips altogether wanting1 displaying the long rows of interlocking teeth even when the mouth is closed1 so that1 even when quiet1 the monster seems to be grinning with rage1--it is no wonder that the ,crocodile should be1 in all the countries which it inhabits1 viewed with dread4 ,nor is this terror groundless4 ,the ,crocodiles1 both of the ,nile and of the ,indian rivers1 are well known to make man their victim1 and scarcely can a more terrible fate be imagined than that of falling into the jaws of this gigantic reptile4 ,strange as it may appear1 the ,crocodile is one of the many animals to which divine honours were paid by the ancient ,egyptians4 ,this we learn from several sources4 ,herodotus1 for example1 in ,euterpe1 chapter #fi1 writes as follows3 ,those who dwell about ,thebes and ,lake ,mris1 consider them to be very sacred2 and they each of them train up a ,crocodile1 which is taught to be quite tame2 and they put crystal and gold ear-rings into their ears1 and bracelets on their fore-paws2 and they give them appointed and sacred food1 and treat them as well as possible while alive and when dead1 they embalm them1 and bury them in sacred vaults4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,crocodile ,,pool ,,of ,,ancient ,,egypt4 ,the reasons for this worship are several4 ,at the root of them all lies the tendency of man to respect that which he fears rather than that which he loves2 and the nearer the man approaches the savage state1 the more is this feeling developed4 ,by this tendency his worship is regulated1 and it will be found that when man is sufficiently advanced to be capable of worship at all1 his reverence is invariably paid to the object which has the greatest terrors for him4 ,the ,crocodile1 therefore1 being the animal that was most dreaded by the ancient ,egyptians1 was accepted as the natural type of divinity4 ,illustration3 ,,crocodiles ,,of ,,the ,,upper ,,nile4 ,owing to the accuracy of the description in the ,book of ,job1 which is evidently written by one who was personally acquainted with the ,crocodile1 it is thought by many commentators that the writer must have been acquainted with the ,nile1 in which river both the ,crocodile and hippopotamus are found at the present day4 ,it is possible1 however1 that the hippopotamus and the ,crocodile have had at one time a much wider range than they at present enjoy4 ,even within the memory of man the hippopotamus has been driven further and further up the ,nile by the encroachments of man4 ,it has long been said that even at the present day the ,crocodile exists in ,palestine in the river which is called ,nhar ,zurka1 which flows from ,samaria through the plains of ,sharon4 ,several of the older writers have mentioned its existence in this river1 and1 since this work was commenced1 the long-vexed question has been set at rest2 a ,crocodile1 eight feet in length1 having been captured in the ,nhar ,zurka4 ,no description of the ,crocodile would be complete without allusion to the mode in which it seizes its prey4 ,it does not attack it openly1 neither1 as some have said1 does it go on shore for that purpose4 ,it watches to see whether any animal comes to drink1 and then1 sinking beneath the surface of the water1 dives rapidly1 rises unexpectedly beneath the unsuspecting victim1 seizes it with a sudden snap of its huge jaws1 and drags it beneath the water4 ,should the intended prey be too far from the water to be reached by the mouth1 or so large that it may offer a successful resistance1 the ,crocodile strikes it a tremendous blow with its tail1 and knocks it into the water4 ,the dwellers on the ,nile bank say that a large ,crocodile will with a single blow of its tail break all the four legs of an ox or a horse4 ,these cunning reptiles even contrive to catch birds as they come for water4 ,on the banks of the ,nile the smaller birds drink in a very peculiar manner4 ,they settle in numbers on the flexible branches that overhang the stream1 and when1 by their weight1 the branch bends downwards1 they dip their beaks in the water4 ,the ,crocodile sees afar off a branch thus loaded1 swims as near as possible1 and then dives until it can see the birds immediately above it1 when it rises suddenly1 and with a snap of its jaws secures a whole mouthful of the unsuspecting birds4 ,sir ,s4 ,baker1 in his travels on the ,nile1 gave much attention to the ,crocodile1 and has collected a great amount of interesting information about the reptile1 much of which is peculiarly valuable1 inasmuch as it illustrates the ,scriptural notices of the creature4 ,he states that it is a very crafty animal1 and that its usual mode of attack is by first showing itself1 then swimming slowly away to a considerable distance1 so as to make its intended victim think that danger is over1 and then returning under water4 ,it is by means of this manuvre that it captures the little birds4 ,it first makes a dash at them1 open-mouthed1 causing them to take to flight in terror4 ,it then sails slowly away as if it were so baffled that it did not intend to renew the attack4 ,when it is at a considerable distance1 the birds think that their enemy has departed1 and return to the branch1 which they crowd more than ever1 and in a minute or two several dozen of them are engulfed in the mouth of the ,crocodile1 which has swiftly dived under them4 ,on one occasion1 ,sir ,s4 ,baker was walking near the edge of the river1 when he heard a great shrieking of women on the opposite bank4 ,it turned out that a number of women had been filling their gerbas 7water-skins71 when one of them was suddenly attacked by a large ,crocodile4 ,she sprang back1 and the reptile1 mistaking the filled gerba for a woman1 seized it1 and gave the owner time to escape4 ,it then dashed at the rest of the women1 but only succeeded in seizing another gerba4 ,a short time previously a ,crocodile1 thought by the natives to be the same individual1 had seized a woman and carried her off2 and another had made an attack on a man in a very curious manner4 ,a number of men were swimming across the river1 supported1 after their custom1 on gerbas inflated with air1 when one of them felt himself seized by the leg by a ,crocodile1 which tried to drag him under water4 ,he1 however1 retained his hold on the skin1 and his companions also grasped his arms and hair with one hand1 while with the other they struck with their spears at the ,crocodile4 ,at last they succeeded in driving the reptile away1 and got their unfortunate companion to land1 where they found that the whole of the flesh was stripped from the leg from the knee downwards4 ,the poor man died shortly afterwards4 ,another traveller relates that three young men who were obliged to cross a branch of a river in their route1 being unable to procure a boat1 endeavoured to swim their horses to the opposite shore4 ,two of them had reached the bank in safety1 but the third loitered so long on the brink as only to have just entered the water at the moment his comrades had reached the opposite side4 ,when he was nearly half-way across1 they saw a large ,crocodile1 which was known to infest this pass1 issuing from under the reeds4 ,they instantly warned their companion of his danger2 but it was too late for him to turn back4 ,when the ,crocodile was so close as to be on the point of seizing him1 he threw his saddle-bag to it4 ,the ravenous animal immediately caught the whole bundle in its jaws1 and disappeared for a few moments1 but soon discovered its mistake1 and rose in front of the horse1 which1 then seeing it for the first time1 reared and threw its rider4 ,he was an excellent swimmer1 and had nearly escaped by diving towards the bank2 but1 on rising for breath1 his pursuer also rose1 and seized him by the middle4 ,this dreadful scene1 which passed before the eyes of his companions1 without the least possibility of their rendering any assistance1 was terminated by the ,crocodile1 having previously drowned the unfortunate man1 appearing on an opposite sand-bank with the body1 and there devouring it4 ,the crafty ,crocodile tries to catch the baboons by lying in wait for them at their drinking places2 but the baboons are generally more than a match for the ,crocodile in point of cunning and quickness of sight4 ,sir ,s4 ,baker witnessed an amusing example of such an attempt and its failure4 ,the large tamarind-trees on the opposite bank are generally full of the dog-faced baboons 7,cynocephalus7 at their drinking hour4 ,i watched a large ,crocodile creep slily out of the water and lie in waiting among the rocks at the usual drinking place before they arrived1 but the baboons were too wide awake to be taken in so easily4 ,a young fellow was the first to discover the enemy4 ,he had accompanied several wise and experienced old hands to the extremity of a bough that at a considerable height overhung the river2 from this post they had a bird's eye view1 and reconnoitred before one of the numerous party descended to drink4 ,the sharp eyes of the young one at once detected the ,crocodile1 who matched in colour so well with the rocks that most probably a man would not have noticed it until too late4 ,at once the young one commenced shaking the bough and screaming with all his might1 to attract the attention of the ,crocodile and to induce it to move4 ,in this he was immediately joined by the whole party1 who yelled in chorus1 while the large old males bellowed defiance1 and descended to the lowest branches within eight or ten feet of the ,crocodile4 ,it was of no use--the pretender never stirred1 and ,i watched it until dark4 ,it remained still in the same place1 waiting for some unfortunate baboon whose thirst might provoke his fate1 but not one was sufficiently foolish1 although the perpendicular bank prevented them from drinking except at that particular spot4 ,it may be imagined that if the ,crocodile were to depend entirely for its food upon the animals that it catches on the bank or in the river1 it would run a risk of starving4 ,the fact is1 that its principal food consists of fish1 which it can chase in the water4 ,the great speed at which the ,crocodile darts through the water is not owing to its webbed feet1 but to its powerful tail1 which is swept from side to side1 and thus propels the reptile after the manner of a man sculling a boat with a single oar in the stern4 ,the whales and the fishes have a similar mode of propulsion4 ,on land1 the tail is the ,crocodile's most formidable weapon4 ,it is one mass of muscle and sinew1 and the force of its lateral stroke is terrible1 sweeping away every living thing that it may meet4 ,fortunately for its antagonists1 the ,crocodile can turn but very slowly1 so that1 although it can scramble along at a much faster pace than its appearance indicates1 there is no great difficulty in escaping1 provided that the sweep of its tail be avoided4 ,as the ,crocodile of the ,nile attains when adult a length of thirty feet1 one moiety of which is taken up by the tail1 it may easily be imagined that the power of this weapon can scarcely be exaggerated4 ,as if to add to the terrors of the animal1 its head1 back1 and tail are shielded by a series of horny scales1 which are set so closely together that the sharpest spear can seldom find its way through them1 and even the rifle ball glances off1 if it strikes them obliquely4 ,like many other reptiles1 the ,crocodile is hatched from eggs which are laid on shore and vivified by the warmth of the sun4 ,these eggs are exceedingly small when compared with the gigantic lizard which deposited them1 scarcely equalling in dimensions those of the goose4 ,there is now before me an egg of the cayman of ,south ,america1 a fresh-water lizard but little smaller than the ,crocodile of the ,nile1 and this is barely equal in size to an ordinary hen's egg4 ,it is longer in proportion to its width1 but the contents of the two eggs would be as nearly as possible of the same bulk4 ,on the exterior it is very rough1 having a granulated appearance1 not unlike that of dried sharkskin1 and the shell is exceedingly thin and brittle4 ,the lining membrane1 however1 is singularly thick and tough1 so that the egg is tolerably well defended against fracture4 ,when first hatched1 the young ,crocodile is scarcely larger than a common newt1 but it attains most formidable dimensions in a very short time4 ,twenty or thirty eggs are laid in one spot1 and1 were they not destroyed by sundry enemies1 the ,crocodiles would destroy every living creature in the rivers4 ,fortunately1 the eggs and young have many enemies1 chiefly among which is the well-known ichneumon1 which discovers the place where the eggs are laid and destroys them1 and eats any young ,crocodiles that it can catch before they succeed in making their way to the water4 ,the old writers were aware of the services rendered by the ichneumon1 but1 after their wont1 exaggerated them by additions of their own1 saying that the ichneumon enters into the mouth of the ,crocodile as it lies asleep1 and eats its way through the body1 putting the ,crocodile to exquisite and intolerable torment1 while the ,crocodile tumbleth to and fro1 sighing and weeping1 now in the depth of water1 now on the land1 never resting till strength of nature faileth4 ,for the incessant gnawing of the ichneumon so provoketh her to seek her rest in the unrest of every part1 herb1 element1 throws1 throbs1 rollings1 but all in vain1 for the enemy within her breatheth through her breath1 and sporteth herself in the consumption of those vital parts which waste and wear away by yielding to unpacificable teeth1 one after another1 till she that crept in by stealth at the mouth1 like a puny thief1 comes out at the belly like a conqueror1 through a passage opened by her own labour and industry4 ,the author has in the long passage1 a part of which is here quoted1 mentioned that the ichneumon takes its opportunity of entering the jaws of the ,crocodile as it lies with its mouth open against the beams of the sun4 ,it is very true that the ,crocodile does sleep with its mouth open2 and1 in all probability1 the older observers1 knowing that the ichneumon did really destroy the eggs and young of the ,crocodile1 only added a little amplification1 and made up their minds that it also destroyed the parents4 ,the same writer who has lately been quoted ranks the ibis among the enemies of the ,crocodile1 and says that the bird affects the reptile with such terror that1 if but an ibis's feather be laid on its back1 the ,crocodile becomes rigid and unable to move4 ,the ,arabs of the present time say that the water-tortoises are enemies to the eggs1 scratching them out of the sand and eating them4 ,illustration3 ,,ichneumon ,,devouring ,,the ,,eggs ,,of ,,the ,,crocodile4 ,as this reptile is so dangerous a neighbour to the inhabitants of the river-banks1 many means have been adopted for its destruction4 ,one such method1 where a kind of harpoon is employed1 is described by a traveller in the ,east as follows3-- ,the most favourable season for thus hunting the ,crocodile is either the winter1 when the animal usually sleeps on sand-banks1 luxuriating in the rays of the sun1 or the spring1 after the pairing time1 when the female regularly watches the sand islands where she has buried her eggs4 ,the native hunter finds out the place and conceals himself by digging a hole in the sand near the spot where the animal usually lies4 ,on its arrival at the accustomed spot the hunter darts his harpoon or spear with all his force1 for1 in order that its stroke may be successful1 the iron should penetrate to a depth of at least four inches1 in order that the barb may be fixed firmly in the flesh4 ,the ,crocodile1 on being wounded1 rushes into the water1 and the huntsman retreats into a canoe1 with which a companion has hastened to his assistance4 ,a piece of wood attached to the harpoon by a long cord swims on the water and shows the direction in which the ,crocodile is moving4 ,the hunters pull on this rope and drag the beast to the surface of the water1 where it is again pierced by a second harpoon4 ,when the animal is struck it by no means remains inactive2 on the contrary1 it lashes instantly with its tail1 and endeavours to bite the rope asunder4 ,to prevent this1 the rope is made of about thirty separate slender lines1 not twisted together1 but merely placed in juxtaposition1 and bound around at intervals of every two feet4 ,the thin strands get between the ,crocodile's teeth1 and it is unable to sever them4 ,in spite of the great strength of the reptile1 two men can drag a tolerably large one out of the water1 tie up his mouth1 twist his legs over his back1 and kill him by driving a sharp steel spike into the spinal cord just at the back of the skull4 ,there are many other modes of capturing the ,crocodile1 one of which is the snare portrayed in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,crocodile ,,trap ,two elastic saplings are bent down and kept in position by stout cords1 one of which1 bears a baited hook1 while the other is fashioned into a noose4 ,these cords are so arranged as to release the bent saplings as soon as the ,crocodile pulls upon the baited hook4 ,if all works properly1 the animal suddenly finds himself suspended in the air1 where he remains helpless and at the mercy of the hunter1 who soon arrives and despatches him4 ,the extreme tenacity of life possessed by the ,crocodile is well exemplified by an incident which occurred in ,ceylon4 ,a fine specimen had been caught1 and to all appearance killed1 its interior parts removed1 and the aperture kept open by a stick placed across it4 ,a few hours afterwards the captors returned to their victim with the intention of cutting off the head1 but were surprised to find the spot vacant4 ,on examining the locality it was evident that the creature had retained sufficient life to crawl back into the water4 ,from this it may be imagined that it is no easy matter to drive the breath out of a ,crocodile4 ,its life seems to take a separate hold of every fibre in the creature's body1 and though pierced through and through with bullets1 crushed by heavy blows1 and its body converted into a very pincushion for spears1 it writhes and twists and struggles with wondrous strength1 snapping savagely with its huge jaws1 and lashing its muscular tail from side to side with such vigour that it requires a bold man to venture within range of that terrible weapon4 ,sometimes combats occur between this creature and the tiger1 one of the fiercest and most terrible of all quadrupeds4 ,tigers frequently go down to the rivers to drink1 and1 upon these occasions1 the ,crocodile1 if near1 may attempt to seize them4 ,the ferocious beast1 however1 seldom falls unrevenged2 for the instant he finds himself seized1 he turns with great agility and fierceness on his enemy1 and endeavours to strike his claws into the ,crocodile's eyes1 while the latter drags him into the water1 where they continue to struggle until the tiger be drowned1 and his triumphant antagonist feasts upon his carcass4 ,such a combat is depicted in the illustration which appears on an accompanying page4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fight ,,for ,,life4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cyprius1 ,,or ,,lizard ,,of ,,scripture4 ,,the ,,let,h ,,or ,,lizard4 ,difficulty of identifying the ,leth--,probability that it is a collective and not a specific term--,various ,lizards of ,palestine--,the ,green or ,jersey ,lizard--,the ,cyprius1 its appearance and habits--,the ,glass ,snake or ,scheltopusic--,translation of the word chomet--,probability that it signifies the ,skink--,medicinal uses of the ,lizard--,the ,seps tribe--,the common ,cicigna1 and the popular belief concerning its habits--,the ,sphnops and its shallow tunnel4 ,in ,leviticus xi4 #cj1 the word ,,lizard is used as the rendering of the ,hebrew word leth 7pronounced as ,l'th-h74 ,there are one or two difficulties about the word1 but1 without going into the question of etymology1 which is beside the object of this work1 it will be sufficient to state that the best authorities accept the rendering1 and that in the ,jewish ,bible the word ,lizard is retained1 but with the mark of doubt appended to it4 ,a very common species of ,lizard1 and therefore likely to be one of those which are grouped under the common name of ,leth1 is the ,,cyprius 7,plestiodon auratum74 ,this handsome ,lizard is golden-yellow in colour1 beautifully spotted with orange and scarlet1 and may be distinguished1 even when the colours have fled after death1 by the curiously formed ears1 which are strongly toothed in front4 ,it is very plentiful in ,palestine1 and1 like others of its kin1 avoids cultivated tracts1 and is generally found on rocky and sandy soil which cannot be tilled4 ,it is active1 and1 if alarmed1 hides itself quickly in the sand or under stones4 ,it belongs to the great family of the ,skinks1 many of which1 like the familiar blind-worm of our own country1 are without external legs1 and1 though true ,lizards1 progress in a snake-like manner1 and are generally mistaken for snakes4 ,one of these is the ,,glass ,,snake or ,,scheltopusic 7,pseudopus pallasii71 which has two very tiny hind legs1 but which is altogether so snake-like that it is considered by the natives to be really a serpent4 ,they may well be excused for their error1 as the only external indications of limbs are a pair of slightly-projecting scales at the place where the hind legs would be in a fully-developed ,lizard4 ,though tolerably plentiful1 the ,scheltopusic is not very often seen1 as it is timid and wary1 and1 when it suspects danger1 glides away silently into some place of safety4 ,when adult1 the colour of this ,lizard is usually chestnut1 profusely mottled with black or deep brown1 the edge of each scale being of the darker colour4 ,it feeds upon insects and small reptiles1 and has been known to devour a nest full of young birds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,levit4 xi4 #cj is a ,hebrew word1 chomet1 which is given in the ,authorized ,version as ,,snail4 ,there is1 however1 no doubt that the word is wrongly translated1 and that by it some species of ,lizard is signified4 ,the ,jewish ,bible follows the ,authorized ,version1 but affixes the mark of doubt to the word4 ,there is another word1 shablul1 which undoubtedly does signify the snail1 and will be mentioned in its proper place4 ,it is most probable that the word chomet includes1 among other ,lizards1 many of the smaller ,skinks which inhabit ,palestine4 ,among them we may take as an example the ,,common ,,skink 7,scincus officinalis71 a reptile which derives its specific name from the fact that it was formerly used in medicine1 together with mummy1 and the other disgusting ingredients which formed the greater part of the old ,pharmacopia4 ,even at the present day1 it is used for similar purposes in the ,east1 and is in consequence captured for the use of physicians1 the body being simply dried in the sun1 and then sent to market for sale4 ,it is principally employed for the cure of sunstroke1 nettle-rash1 sand-blindness1 or fever1 and both patient and physician have the greatest confidence in its powers4 ,it is said by some ,european physicians that the flesh of the ,skink really does possess medicinal powers1 and that it has fallen into disrepute chiefly because those powers have been exaggerated4 ,in former days1 the head and feet were thought to possess the greatest efficacy1 and were valued accordingly4 ,like all its tribe1 the ,skink loves sandy localities1 the soil exactly suiting its peculiar habits4 ,although tolerably active1 it does not run so fast or so far as many other ,lizards1 and1 when alarmed1 it has a peculiar faculty for sinking itself almost instantaneously under the sand1 much after the fashion of the shore-crabs of our own country4 ,indeed1 it is even more expeditious than the crab1 which occupies some little time in burrowing under the wet and yielding sand1 whereas the ,skink slips beneath the dry and comparatively hard sand with such rapidity that it seems rather to be diving into a nearly excavated burrow than to be scooping a hollow for itself4 ,the sand is therefore a place of safety to the ,skink1 which does not1 like the crab1 content itself with merely burying its body just below the surface1 but continues to burrow1 sinking itself in a few seconds to the depth of nearly a yard4 ,the length of the ,skink is about eight inches1 and its very variable colour is generally yellowish brown1 crossed with several dark bands4 ,several specimens1 however1 are spotted instead of banded with brown1 while some are banded with white1 and others are spotted with white4 ,in all1 however1 the under-surface is silver grey4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,chameleon4 ,,the ,,chameleon1 ,,monitor1 ,,and ,,gecko4 ,demeanour of the ,chameleon on the ground--,the independent eyes--,its frequent change of colour--,the ,nilotic ,monitor4 ,in ,levit4 xi4 #cj there occurs a word which has caused great trouble to commentators4 ,the word is koach4 ,there are two lizards to which the term may possibly be applied--namely1 the ,chameleon and the ,monitor2 and1 as the ,authorized ,version of the ,scriptures accepts the former interpretation1 we will first describe the ,chameleon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this reptile is very plentiful in the ,holy ,land1 as well as in ,egypt1 so that the ,israelites would be perfectly familiar with it1 both during their captivity and after their escape4 ,it is but a small reptile1 and the reader may well ask why a name denoting strength should be given to it4 ,i think that we may find the reason for its name in the extraordinary power of its grasp1 as it is able1 by means of its peculiarly-formed feet and prehensile tail1 to grasp the branches so tightly that it can scarcely be removed without damage4 ,i once saw six or seven ,chameleons huddled up together1 all having clasped each other's legs and tails so firmly that they formed a bundle that might be rolled along the ground without being broken up4 ,in order to show the extraordinary power of the ,chameleon's grasp1 ,i have had a figure drawn from a sketch taken by myself from a specimen which ,i kept for several months4 ,illustration3 ,,gecko ,,and ,,chameleon4 ,when the ,chameleon wished to pass from one branch to another1 it used to hold firmly to the branch by the tail and one hind-foot1 and stretch out its body nearly horizontally1 feeling about with the other three feet1 as if in search of a convenient resting-place4 ,in this curious attitude it would remain for a considerable time1 apparently suffering no inconvenience1 though even the spider-monkey would have been unable to maintain such an attitude for half the length of time4 ,the strength of the grasp is really astonishing when contrasted with the size of the reptile1 as any one will find who allows the ,chameleon to grasp his finger1 or who tries to detach it from the branch to which it is clinging4 ,the feet are most curiously made4 ,they are furnished with five toes1 which are arranged like those of parrots and other climbing birds1 so as to close upon each other like the thumb and finger of a human hand4 ,they are armed with little yellow claws1 slightly curved and very sharp1 and when they grasp the skin of the hand they give it an unpleasantly sharp pinch4 ,the tail is as prehensile as that of the spider-monkey1 to which the ,chameleon bears a curious resemblance in some of its attitudes1 though nothing can be more different than the volatile1 inquisitive1 restless disposition of the spider-monkey and the staid1 sober demeanour of the ,chameleon4 ,the reptile has the power of guiding the tail to any object as correctly as if there were an eye at the end of the tail4 ,when it has been travelling over the branches of trees1 ,i have often seen it direct its tail to a projecting bud1 and grasp it as firmly as if the bud had been before and not behind it4 ,sometimes1 when it rests on a branch1 it allows the tail to hang down as a sort of balance1 the tip coiling and uncoiling unceasingly4 ,but1 as soon as the reptile wishes to move1 the tail is tightened to the branch1 and at once coiled round it4 ,there really seems to be almost a separate vitality and consciousness on the part of the tail1 which glides round an object as if it were acting with entire independence of its owner4 ,on the ground the ,chameleon fares but poorly4 ,its walk is absolutely ludicrous1 and an experienced person might easily fail to identify a ,chameleon when walking with the same animal on a branch4 ,it certainly scrambles along at a tolerable rate1 but it is absurdly awkward1 its legs sprawling widely on either side1 and its feet grasping futilely at every step4 ,the tail1 which is usually so lithe and nimble1 is then held stiffly from the body1 with a slight curve upwards4 ,the eyes are strange objects1 projecting far from the head1 and each acting quite independently of the other1 so that one eye may often be directed forwards1 and the other backwards4 ,the eyeballs are covered with a thick wrinkled skin1 except a small aperture at the tip1 which can be opened and closed like our own eyelids4 ,the changing colour of the ,chameleon has been long known1 though there are many mistaken ideas concerning it4 ,the reptile does not necessarily assume the colour of any object on which it is placed1 but sometimes takes a totally different colour4 ,thus1 if my ,chameleon happened to come upon any scarlet substance1 the colour immediately became black1 covered with innumerable circular spots of light yellow4 ,the change was so instantaneous that1 as it crawled on the scarlet cloth1 the colour would alter1 and the fore-part of the body would be covered with yellow spots1 while the hinder parts retained their dull black4 ,scarlet always annoyed the ,chameleon1 and it tried to escape whenever it found itself near any substance of the obnoxious hue4 ,the normal colour was undoubtedly black1 with a slight tinge of grey4 ,but in a short time the whole creature would become a vivid verdigris green1 and1 while the spectator was watching it1 the legs would become banded with rings of bright yellow1 and spats and streaks of the same colour would appear on the head and body4 ,when it was excited either by anger or by expectation--as1 for example1 when it heard a large fly buzzing near it--the colours were singularly beautiful1 almost exactly resembling in hue and arrangement those of the jaguar4 ,of all the colours1 green seemed generally to predominate1 but the creature would pass so rapidly from one colour to another that it was scarcely possible to follow the various gradations of hue4 ,some persons have imagined that the variation of colour depends on the wants and passions of the animal4 ,this is not the case4 ,the change is often caused by mental emotion1 but is not dependent on it2 and ,i believe that the animal has no control whatever over its colour4 ,the best proof of this assertion may be found in the fact that my own ,chameleon changed colour several times after its death2 and1 indeed1 as long as ,i had the dead body before me1 changes of hue were taking place4 ,the food of the ,chameleon consists of insects1 mostly flies1 which it catches by means of its tongue1 which can be protruded to an astonishing distance4 ,the tongue is nearly cylindrical1 and is furnished at the tip with a slight cavity1 which is filled with a very glutinous secretion4 ,when the ,chameleon sees a fly or other insect1 it gently protrudes the tongue once or twice1 as if taking aim1 like a billiard-player with his cue1 and then1 with a moderately smart stroke1 carries off the insect on the glutinous tip of the tongue4 ,the force with which the ,chameleon strikes is really wonderful4 ,my own specimen used to look for flies from my hand1 and at first ,i was as much surprised with the force of the blow struck by the tongue as ,i was with the grasping power of the feet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,gecko4 ,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,gecko--,,under ,,side4 ,so much for the ,chameleon4 ,we will now take the ,,nilotic ,,monitor and the ,,land ,,monitor1 the other reptiles which have been conjectured to be the real representatives of the ,koach4 ,these lizards attain to some size1 the former sometimes measuring six feet in length1 and the latter but a foot or so less4 ,of the two1 the ,land ,monitor1 being the more common1 both in ,palestine and ,egypt1 has perhaps the best claim to be considered as the ,koach of ,scripture4 ,it is sometimes called the ,land ,crocodile4 ,it is a carnivorous animal1 feeding upon other reptiles and the smaller mammalia1 and is very fond of the eggs of the crocodile1 which it destroys in great numbers1 and is in consequence much venerated by the inhabitants of the country about the ,nile4 ,the theory that this reptile may be the ,koach of ,leviticus is strengthened by the fact that even at the present day it is cooked and eaten by the natives1 whereas the chameleon is so small and bony that scarcely any one would take the trouble of cooking it4 ,the ,gecko takes its name from the sound which it utters1 resembling the word geck-o4 ,it is exceedingly plentiful1 and inhabits the interior of houses1 where it can find the flies and other insects on which it lives4 ,on account of the structure of the toes1 each of which is flattened into a disk-like form1 and furnished on the under surface with a series of plates like those on the back of the sucking-fish1 it can walk up a smooth1 perpendicular wall with perfect ease1 and can even cling to the ceiling like the flies on which it feeds4 ,in the illustration the reader will observe the flat1 fan-like expansions at the ends of the toes1 by which the ,gecko is able to adhere to flat surfaces1 and to dart with silent rapidity from place to place4 ,illustration3 serpent ,illustration3 serpents ,,serpents4 ,serpents in general--,the fiery ,serpents of the wilderness--,explanation of the words flying and fiery as applied to ,serpents--,haunts of the ,serpent--,the ,cobra1 or ,asp of ,scripture--,the ,cerastes1 or ,horned ,serpent--,appearance and habits of the reptile--,the ,adder in the path4 ,as we have seen that so much looseness of nomenclature prevailed among the ,hebrews even with regard to the mammalia1 birds1 and lizards1 we can but expect that the names of the ,serpents will be equally difficult to identify4 ,no less than seven names are employed in the ,old ,testament to denote some species of ,serpent2 but there are only two which can be identified with any certainty1 four others being left to mere conjecture1 and one being clearly a word which1 like our snake or serpent1 is a word not restricted to any particular species1 but signifying ,serpents in general4 ,this word is nchsh 7pronounced nah-kahsh74 ,it is unfortunate that the word is so variously translated in different passages of ,scripture1 and we cannot do better than to follow it through the ,ola ,testament1 so as to bring all the passages under our glance4 ,the first mention of the ,nchsh occurs in ,gen4 iii41 in the well-known passage where the ,serpent is said to be more subtle than all the beasts of the field1 the wisdom or subtlety of the ,serpent having evidently an allegorical and not a categorical signification4 ,we find the same symbolism employed in the ,new ,testament1 the disciples of our ,lord being told to be wise as serpents1 and harmless as doves4 ,allusion is made to the gliding movement of the ,serpent tribe in ,prov4 xxx4 #ai4 ,on this part of the subject little need be said1 except that the movements of the ,serpent are owing to the mobility of the ribs1 which are pushed forward in succession and drawn back again1 so as to catch against any inequality of the ground4 ,this power is increased by the structure of the scales4 ,those of the upper part of the body1 which are not used for locomotion1 are shaped something like the scales of a fish2 but those of the lower part of the body1 which come in contact with the ground1 are broad belts1 each overlapping the other1 and each connected with one pair of ribs4 ,when1 therefore1 the ,serpent pushes forward the ribs1 the edges of the scaly belts will catch against the slightest projection1 and are able to give a very powerful impetus to the body4 ,it is scarcely possible to drag a snake backwards over rough ground2 while on a smooth surface1 such as glass1 the ,serpent would be totally unable to proceed4 ,this1 however1 was not likely to have been studied by the ancient ,hebrews1 who were among the most unobservant of mankind with regard to details of natural history3 it is1 therefore1 no wonder that the gliding of the ,serpent should strike the writer of the proverb in question as a mystery which he could not explain4 ,the poisonous nature of some of the ,serpents is mentioned in several passages of ,scripture2 and it will be seen that the ancient ,hebrews1 like many modern ,europeans1 believed that the poison lay in the forked tongue4 ,see1 for example1 ,ps4 lviii4 #d3 ,their poison is like the poison of a serpent 7nchsh74 ,also ,prov4 xxiii4 #cb1 in which the sacred writer says of wine that it brings woe1 sorrow1 contentions1 wounds without cause1 redness of eyes1 and that at the last it biteth like a serpent1 and stingeth like an adder4 ,illustration3 ,,cobra ,,and ,,cerastes1 ,,the ,,asp ,,and ,,adder ,,of ,,scripture4 ,the idea that the poison of the ,serpent lies in the tongue is seen in several passages of ,scripture4 ,they have sharpened their tongues like a serpent2 adders' poison is under their lips 7,ps4 cxl4 #c74 ,also in ,job xx4 #af1 the sacred writer says of the hypocrite1 that he shall suck the poison of asps3 the viper's tongue shall slay him4 ,as to the fiery ,serpents of the wilderness1 it is scarcely needful to mention that the epithet of fiery does not signify that the ,serpents in question produced real fire from their mouths1 but that allusion is made to the power and virulence of their poison1 and to the pain caused by their bite4 ,we ourselves naturally employ a similar metaphor1 and speak of a burning pain1 of a fiery trial1 of hot anger1 and the like4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,israelites ,,are ,,bitten ,,by ,,serpents ,,in ,,the ,,wilderness1 ,,and ,,moses ,,lifts ,,up ,,the ,,serpent ,,of ,,brass4 ,the epithet of flying which is applied to these ,serpents is explained by the earlier commentators as having reference to a ,serpent which they called the ,dart ,snake1 and which they believed to lie in wait for men and to spring at them from a distance4 ,they thought that this snake hid itself either in hollows of the ground or in trees1 and sprang through the air for thirty feet upon any man or beast that happened to pass by4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we will now take the various species of ,serpents mentioned in the ,bible1 as nearly as they can be identified4 ,of one species there is no doubt whatever4 ,this is the ,cobra di ,capello1 a serpent which is evidently signified by the ,hebrew word pethen4 ,this celebrated ,serpent has long been famous1 not only for the deadly power of its venom1 but for the singular performances in which it takes part4 ,the ,cobra inhabits many parts of ,asia1 and in almost every place where it is found1 certain daring men take upon themselves the profession of serpent-charmers1 and handle these fearful reptiles with impunity1 cause them to move in time to certain musical sounds1 and assert that they bear a life charmed against the bite of these deadly playmates4 ,one of these men will take a ,cobra in his bare hands1 toss it about with perfect indifference1 allow it to twine about his naked breast1 tie it around his neck1 and treat it with as little ceremony as if it were an earth-worm4 ,he will then take the same ,serpent--or apparently the same--make it bite a fowl1 which soon dies from the poison1 and will then renew his performance4 ,some persons say that the whole affair is but an exhibition of that jugglery in which the natives of the ,east ,indies are such wondrous adepts2 that the ,serpents with which the man plays are harmless1 having been deprived of their fangs1 and that a really venomous specimen is adroitly substituted for the purpose of killing the fowl4 ,it is1 moreover1 said1 and truly1 that a snake thought to have been rendered harmless by the deprivation of its fangs1 has bitten one of its masters and killed him1 thus proving the imposture4 ,still1 neither of these explanations will entirely disprove the mastery of man over a venomous ,serpent4 ,in the first instance1 it is surely as perilous an action to substitute a venomous ,serpent as to play with it4 ,where was it hidden1 why did it not bite the man instead of the fowl1 and how did the juggler prevent it from using its teeth while he was conveying it away8 ,and1 in the second instance1 the detection of one impostor is by no means a proof that all who pretend to the same powers are likewise impostors4 ,the following narrative by a traveller in the ,east seems to prove that the serpent-charmer possessed sufficient power to induce a truly poisonous ,serpent to leave its hole1 and to perform certain antics at his command3 ,a snake-charmer came to my bungalow1 requesting me to allow him to show his snakes4 ,as ,i had frequently seen his performance1 ,i declined to witness a repetition of it1 but told him that if he would accompany me to the jungle and catch a ,cobra1 that ,i knew frequented the place1 ,i would give him a present of money4 ,he was quite willing1 and as ,i was anxious to test the truth of the charm he claimed to possess1 ,i carefully counted his tame snakes1 and put a guard over them until we should return4 ,before starting ,i also examined his clothing1 and satisfied myself that he had no snake about his person4 ,when we arrived at the spot1 he commenced playing upon a small pipe1 and1 after persevering for some time1 out crawled a large ,cobra from an ant-hill which ,i knew it occupied4 ,on seeing the man it tried to escape1 but he quickly caught it by the tail and kept swinging it round until we reached the bungalow4 ,he then laid it upon the ground and made it raise and lower its head to the sound of his pipe4 ,before long1 however1 it bit him above the knee4 ,he immediately bandaged the leg tightly above the wound1 and applied a piece of porous stone1 called a snake-stone1 to extract the poison4 ,he was in great pain for a few minutes1 but afterwards it gradually subsided1 the stone falling from the wound just before he was relieved4 ,when he recovered he held up a cloth1 at which the snake flew and hung by its fangs4 ,while in this position the man passed his hand up its back1 and having seized it tightly by the throat1 he pulled out the fangs and gave them to me4 ,he then squeezed out the poison1 from the glands in the ,serpent's mouth1 upon a leaf4 ,it was a clear1 oily substance1 which when rubbed with the hand produced a fine lather4 ,the whole operation was carefully watched by me1 and was also witnessed by several other persons4 ,how the serpent-charmers perform their feats is not very intelligible4 ,that they handle the most venomous ,serpents with perfect impunity is evident enough1 and it is also clear that they are able to produce certain effects upon the ,serpents by means of musical 7or unmusical7 sounds4 ,but these two items are entirely distinct1 and one does not depend upon the other4 ,in the first place1 the handling of venomous snakes has been performed by ordinary men without the least recourse to any arts except that of acquaintance with the habits of ,serpents4 ,the late ,mr4 ,waterton1 for example1 would take up a rattlesnake in his bare hand without feeling the least uneasy as to the behaviour of his prisoner4 ,he once took twenty-seven rattlesnakes out of a box1 carried them into another room1 put them into a large glass case1 and afterwards replaced them in the box4 ,he described to me the manner in which he did it1 using my wrist as the representative of the ,serpent4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,serpent-,,charmer4 ,the nature of all ,serpents is rather peculiar1 and is probably owing to the mode in which the blood circulates4 ,they are extremely unwilling to move1 except when urged by the wants of nature1 and will lie coiled up for many hours together when not pressed by hunger4 ,consequently1 when touched1 their feeling is evidently like that of a drowsy man1 who only tries to shake off the object which may rouse him1 and composes himself afresh to sleep4 ,a quick and sudden movement would1 however1 alarm the reptile1 which would strike in self-defence1 and1 sluggish as are its general movements1 its stroke is delivered with such lightning rapidity that it would be sure to inflict its fatal wound before it was seized4 ,if1 therefore1 ,mr4 ,waterton saw a ,serpent which he desired to catch1 he would creep very quietly up to it1 and with a gentle1 slow movement place his fingers round its neck just behind the head4 ,if it happened to be coiled up in such a manner that he could not get at its neck1 he had only to touch it gently until it moved sufficiently for his purpose4 ,when he had once placed his hand on the ,serpent1 it was in his power4 ,he would then grasp it very lightly indeed1 and raise it gently from the ground1 trusting that the reptile would be more inclined to be carried quietly than to summon up sufficient energy to bite4 ,even if it had tried to use its fangs1 it could not have done so as long as its captor's fingers were round its neck4 ,as a rule1 a great amount of provocation is needed before a venomous ,serpent will use its teeth4 ,one of my friends1 when a boy1 caught a viper1 mistaking it for a common snake4 ,he tied it round his neck1 coiled it on his wrist by way of a bracelet1 and so took it home1 playing many similar tricks with it as he went4 ,after arrival in the house1 he produced the viper for the amusement of his brothers and sisters1 and1 after repeating his performances1 tried to tie the snake in a double knot4 ,this1 however1 was enough to provoke the most pacific of creatures1 and in consequence he received a bite on his finger4 ,the poison was not slow to take effect2 first1 the wound looked and felt like a nettle sting1 then like a wasp sting1 and in the course of a few minutes the whole finger was swollen4 ,at this juncture his father1 a medical man1 fortunately arrived1 and set the approved antidotes1 ammonia1 oil1 and lunar caustic1 to the wound1 having previously made incisions about the punctured spot1 and with paternal affection attempted to suck out the poison4 ,in spite of these remedies a serious illness was the result of the bite1 from which the boy did not recover for several weeks4 ,illustration3 snake ,there is no doubt that the snake-charmers trust chiefly to this sluggish nature of the reptile1 but they certainly go through some ceremonies by which they believe themselves to be rendered impervious to snake-bites4 ,they will coil the cobra round their naked bodies1 they will irritate the reptile until it is in a state of fury2 they will even allow it to bite them1 and yet be none the worse for the wound4 ,then1 as if to show that the venomous teeth have not been abstracted1 as is possibly supposed to be the case1 they will make the cobra bite a fowl1 which speedily dies from the effects of the poison4 ,even if the fangs were extracted1 the ,serpents would lose little of their venomous power4 ,these reptiles are furnished with a whole series of fangs in different stages of development1 so that when the one in use is broken or shed in the course of nature1 another comes forward and fills its place4 ,there is now before me a row of four fangs1 which ,i took from the right upper jawbone of a viper which ,i recently caught4 ,in her interesting ,letters from ,egypt1 ,lady ,duff-,gordon gives an amusing account of the manner in which she was formally initiated into the mysteries of snake-charming1 and made ever afterwards impervious to the bite of venomous ,serpents3-- ,at ,km ,omboo1 we met with a ,rifee darweesh with his basket of tame snakes4 ,after a little talk1 he proposed to initiate me3 and so we sat down and held hands like people marrying4 ,omar her attendant sat behind me1 and repeated the words as my 'wakeel4' ,then the ,rifee twisted a cobra round our joined hands1 and requested me to spit on it2 he did the same1 and ,i was pronounced safe and enveloped in snakes4 ,my sailors groaned1 and ,omar shuddered as the snakes put out their tongues2 the darweesh and ,i smiled at each other like ,roman augurs4 ,she believed that the snakes were toothless2 and perhaps on this occasion they may have been so4 ,extracting the teeth of the ,serpent is an easy business in experienced hands1 and is conducted in two ways4 ,those snake-charmers who are confident of their own powers merely grasp the reptile by the neck1 force open its jaws with a piece of stick1 and break off the fangs1 which are but loosely attached to the jaw4 ,those who are not so sure of themselves irritate the snake1 and offer it a piece of cloth1 generally the corner of their mantle1 to bite4 ,the snake darts at it1 and1 as it seizes the garment1 the man gives the cloth a sudden jerk1 and so tears away the fangs4 ,still1 although some of the performers employ mutilated snakes1 there is no doubt that others do not trouble themselves to remove the fangs of the ,serpents1 but handle with impunity the cobra or the cerastes with all its venomous apparatus in good order4 ,we now come to the second branch of the subject1 namely1 the influence of sound upon the cobra and other ,serpents4 ,the charmers are always provided with musical instruments1 of which a sort of flute with a loud shrill sound is the one which is mostly used in the performances4 ,having ascertained1 from slight marks which their practised eyes easily discover1 that a ,serpent is hidden in some crevice1 the charmer plays upon his flute1 and in a short time the snake is sure to make its appearance4 ,as soon as it is fairly out1 the man seizes it by the end of the tail1 and holds it up in the air at arm's length4 ,in this position it is helpless1 having no leverage1 and merely wriggles about in fruitless struggles to escape4 ,having allowed it to exhaust its strength by its efforts1 the man lowers it into a basket1 where it is only too glad to find a refuge1 and closes the lid4 ,after a while1 he raises the lid and begins to play the flute4 ,illustration3 ,,teaching ,,cobras ,,to ,,dance4 ,the ,serpent tries to glide out of the basket1 but1 as soon as it does so1 the lid is shut down again1 and in a very short time the reptile finds that escape is impossible1 and1 as long as it hears the sound of the flute1 only raises its head in the air1 supporting itself on the lower portion of its tail1 and continues to wave its head from side to side as long as it hears the sound of the music4 ,the rapidity with which a cobra learns this lesson is extraordinary1 the charmers being as willing to show their mastery over newly-caught ,serpents as over those which have been long in their possession4 ,the colour of the ,cobra is in most cases a brownish olive4 ,the most noted peculiarity is the expansion of the neck1 popularly called the hood4 ,this phenomenon is attributable not only to the skin and muscles1 but to the skeleton4 ,about twenty pairs of the ribs of the neck and fore part of the back are flat instead of curved1 and increase gradually from the head to the eleventh or twelfth pair1 from which they decrease until they are merged into the ordinary curved ribs of the body4 ,when the snake is excited1 it brings these ribs forward so as to spread the skin1 and then displays the oval hood to best advantage4 ,in the ,cobra di ,capello the back of the hood is ornamented by two large eye-like spots1 united by a curved black stripe1 so formed that the whole mark bears a singular resemblance to a pair of spectacles4 ,,the ,,cerastes1 ,,or ,,shephiphon ,,of ,,scripture4 ,the word shephiphon1 which evidently signifies some species of snake1 only occurs once in the ,scriptures1 but fortunately that single passage contains an allusion to the habits of the serpent which makes identification nearly certain4 ,the passage in question occurs in ,gen4 xlix4 #ag1 and forms part of the prophecy of ,jacob respecting his children3 ,dan shall be a serpent by the way1 an adder in the path1 that biteth the horse's heels1 so that his rider shall fall backward4 ,putting aside the deeper meaning of this prophecy1 there is here an evident allusion to the habits of the ,,cerastes1 or ,,horned ,,viper1 a species of venomous serpent1 which is plentiful in ,northern ,africa1 and is found also in ,palestine and ,syria4 ,it is a very conspicuous reptile1 and is easily recognised by the two horn-like projections over the eyes4 ,the name ,cerastes1 or horned1 has been given to it on account of these projections4 ,this snake has a custom of lying half buried in the sand1 awaiting the approach of some animal on which it can feed4 ,its usual diet consists of the jerboas and other small mammalia1 and as they are exceedingly active1 while the ,cerastes is slow and sluggish1 its only chance of obtaining food is to lie in wait4 ,it will always take advantage of any small depression1 such as the print of a camel's foot1 and1 as it finds many of these depressions in the line of the caravans1 it is literally a serpent by the way1 an adder in the path4 ,illustration3 ,,horned ,,viper4 ,according to the accounts of travellers1 the ,cerastes is much more irritable than the cobra1 and is very apt to strike at any object which may disturb it4 ,therefore1 whenever a horseman passes along the usual route1 his steed is very likely to disturb a ,cerastes lying in the path1 and to be liable to the attack of the irritated reptile4 ,horses are instinctively aware of the presence of the snake1 and mostly perceive it in time to avoid its stroke4 ,its small dimensions1 the snake rarely exceeding two feet in length1 enable it to conceal itself in a very small hollow1 and its brownish-white colour1 diversified with darker spots1 causes it to harmonize so thoroughly with the loose sand in which it lies buried1 that1 even when it is pointed out1 an unpractised eye does not readily perceive it4 ,even the cobra is scarcely so dreaded as this little snake1 whose bite is so deadly1 and whose habits are such as to cause travellers considerable risk of being bitten4 ,the head of the ,viper affords a very good example of the venomous apparatus of the poisonous serpents1 and is well worthy of description4 ,the poison fangs or teeth lie on the sides of the upper jaw1 folded back1 and almost undistinguishable until lifted with a needle4 ,they are singularly fine and delicate1 hardly larger than a lady's needle1 and are covered almost to their tips with a muscular envelope1 through which the points just peer4 ,the poison bags or glands1 and the reservoir in which the venom is stored1 are found at the back and sides of the head1 and give to the venomous serpents that peculiar width of head which is so unfailing a characteristic4 ,on examining carefully the poison fangs1 the structure by which the venom is injected into the wound will be easily understood4 ,under a magnifying glass they will be seen to be hollow1 thus affording a passage for the poison4 ,when the creature draws back its head and opens its mouth to strike1 the deadly fangs spring up with their points ready for action1 and fully charged with their poisonous distillment4 ,illustration3 viper ,,the ,,viper1 ,,or ,,epheh4 ,the ,sand-,viper1 or ,toxicoa--,its appearance and habits--,adder's poison--,the ,cockatrice1 or ,tsepha--,the ,yellow ,viper--,ancient ideas concerning the ,cockatrice--,power of its venom4 ,we now come to the species of snake which cannot be identified with any certainty1 and will first take the word epheh4 ,mr4 ,tristram believes that he has identified the ,epheh of the ,old ,testament with the ,sand-,viper1 or ,toxicoa4 ,this reptile1 though very small1 and scarcely exceeding a foot in length1 is a dangerous one1 but its bite is not so deadly as that of the cobra or cerastes4 ,it is variable in colour1 and has angular white streaks on its body1 with a row of whitish spots along the back4 ,the top of the head is dark1 and variegated with arrow-shaped white marks4 ,the ,toxicoa is very plentiful in ,northern ,africa1 ,palestine1 ,syria1 and the neighbouring countries1 and1 as it is exceedingly active1 is held in some dread by the natives4 ,another name of a poisonous snake occurs several times in the ,old ,testament4 ,the word is tsepha1 or tsiphni1 and it is sometimes translated as ,adder1 and sometimes as ,cockatrice4 ,the word is rendered as ,adder in ,prov4 xxiii4 #cb1 where it is said that wine biteth like a serpent1 and stingeth like an adder4 ,even in this case1 however1 the word is rendered as ,cockatrice in the marginal translation4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,toxicoa4 7,supposed to be the viper of ,scripture47 ,it is found three times in the ,book of ,isaiah4 ,ch4 xi4 #h3 ,the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den4 ,also1 ch4 xiv4 #bi3 ,rejoice not thou1 whole ,palestina1 because the rod of him that smote thee is broken3 for out of the serpent's 7nachash7 nest shall come forth a cockatrice 7tsepha71 and his fruit shall be a fiery flying serpent4 ,the same word occurs again in ch4 lix4 #e3 ,they hatch cockatrice' eggs4 ,in the prophet ,jeremiah we again find the word3 ,for1 behold1 ,i will send serpents1 cockatrices among you1 which will not be charmed1 and they shall bite you1 saith the ,lord4 ,around this reptile a wonderful variety of legends have been accumulated4 ,the ,cockatrice was said to kill by its very look1 because the beams of the ,cockatrice's eyes do corrupt the visible spirit of a man1 which visible spirit corrupted all the other spirits coming from the brain and life of the heart1 are thereby corrupted1 and so the man dyeth4 ,the subtle poison of the ,cockatrice infected everything near it1 so that a man who killed a ,cockatrice with a spear fell dead himself1 by reason of the poison darting up the shaft of the spear and passing into his hand4 ,any living thing near which the ,cockatrice passed was instantly slain by the fiery heat of its venom1 which was exhaled not only from its mouth1 but its sides4 ,for the old writers1 whose statements are here summarized1 contrived to jumble together a number of miscellaneous facts in natural history1 and so to produce a most extraordinary series of legends4 ,i should not have given even this limited space to such puerile legends1 but for the fact that such stories as these were fully believed in the days when the ,authorized ,version of the ,bible was translated4 ,the translators of the ,bible believed most heartily in the mysterious and baleful reptile1 and1 as they saw that the ,tsepha of ,scripture was an exceptionally venomous serpent1 they naturally rendered it by the word ,cockatrice4 ,illustration3 viper ,illustration3 frog ,,the ,,frog4 ,the ,frog only mentioned in the ,old ,testament as connected with the plagues of ,egypt--,the severity of this plague explained--,the ,frog detestable to the ,egyptians--,the ,edible ,frog and its numbers--,description of the species4 ,plentiful as is the ,,frog throughout ,egypt1 ,palestine1 and ,syria1 it is very remarkable that in the whole of the canonical books of the ,old ,testament the word is only mentioned thrice1 and each case in connexion with the same event4 ,in ,exod4 viii4 we find that the second of the plagues which visited ,egypt came out of the ,nile1 the sacred river1 in the form of innumerable ,frogs4 ,the reader will probably remark1 on perusing the consecutive account of these plagues1 that the two first plagues were connected with that river1 and that they were foreshadowed by the transformation of ,aaron's rod4 ,when ,moses and ,aaron appeared before ,pharaoh to ask him to let the people go1 ,pharaoh demanded a miracle from them1 as had been foretold4 ,following the divine command1 ,aaron threw down his rod1 which was changed into a serpent4 ,next1 as was most appropriate1 came a transformation wrought on the river by means of the same rod which had been transformed into a ,serpent1 the whole of the fresh-water throughout the land being turned into blood1 and the fish dying and polluting the venerated river with their putrefying bodies4 ,in ,egypt1 a partially rainless country1 such a calamity as this was doubly terrible1 as it at the same time desecrated the object of their worship1 and menaced them with perishing by thirst4 ,the next plague had also its origin in the river1 but extended far beyond the limits of its banks4 ,the frogs1 being unable to return to the contaminated stream wherein they had lived1 spread themselves in all directions1 so as to fulfil the words of the prediction3 ,if thou refuse to let them go1 behold1 ,i will smite all thy borders with frogs3 ,and the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly1 which shall go up and come into thine house1 and into thy bed-chamber1 and upon thy bed1 and into the house of thy servants1 and upon thy people1 and into thine ovens1 and into thy kneading-troughs 7or dough74 ,supposing that such a plague was to come upon us at the present day1 we should consider it to be a terrible annoyance1 yet scarcely worthy of the name of plague1 and certainly not to be classed with the turning of a river into blood1 with the hail and lightning that destroyed the crops and cattle1 and with the simultaneous death of the first-born4 ,but the ,egyptians suffered most keenly from the infliction4 ,they were a singularly fastidious people1 and abhorred the contact of anything that they held to be unclean4 ,we may well realize1 therefore1 the effect of a visitation of ,frogs1 which rendered their houses unclean by entering them1 and themselves unclean by leaping upon them2 which deprived them of rest by getting on their beds1 and of food by crawling into their ovens and upon the dough in the kneading-troughs4 ,and1 as if to make the visitation still worse1 when the plague was removed1 the ,frogs died in the places into which they had intruded1 so that the ,egyptians were obliged to clear their houses of the dead carcases1 and to pile them up in heaps1 to be dried by the sun or eaten by birds and other scavengers of the ,east4 ,as to the species of ,frog which thus invaded the houses of the ,egyptians1 there is no doubt whatever4 ,it can be but the ,,green1 or ,,edible ,,frog 7,rana esculenta71 which is so well known for the delicacy of its flesh4 ,this is believed to be the only aquatic ,frog of ,egypt1 and therefore must be the species which came out of the river into the houses4 ,both in ,egypt and ,palestine it exists in very great numbers1 swarming in every marshy place1 and inhabiting the pools in such numbers that the water can scarcely be seen for the ,frogs4 ,thus the multitudes of the ,frogs which invaded the ,egyptians was no matter of wonder1 the only miraculous element being that the reptiles were simultaneously directed to the houses1 and their simultaneous death when the plague was taken away4 ,frogs are also mentioned in ,rev4 xvi4 #ac3 ,and ,i saw three unclean spirits like frogs come out of the mouth of the dragon1 and out of the mouth of the beast1 and out of the mouth of the false prophet4 ,with the exception of this passage1 which is a purely symbolical one1 there is no mention of ,frogs in the ,new ,testament4 ,it is rather remarkable that the ,toad1 which might be thought to afford an excellent symbol for various forms of evil1 is entirely ignored1 both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,probably the ,frogs and ,toads were all classed together under the same title4 ,illustration3 creek ,illustration3 waterfall ,illustration3 birds over water ,,fishes4 ,impossibility of distinguishing the different species of ,fishes--,the fishermen ,apostles--,fish used for food--,the miracle of the loaves and ,fishes--,the ,fish broiled on the coals--,clean and unclean ,fishes--,the ,sheat-fish1 or ,silurus--,the ,eel and the ,murna--,the ,long-headed ,barbel--,fish-ponds and preserves--,the ,fish-ponds of ,heshbon--,the ,sucking-fish--,the ,lump-sucker--,the ,tunny--,the ,coryphene4 ,we now come to the ,,fishes1 a class of animals which are repeatedly mentioned both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 but only in general terms1 no one species being described so as to give the slightest indication of its identity4 ,this is the more remarkable because1 although the ,jews were1 like all ,orientals1 utterly unobservant of those characteristics by which the various species are distinguished from each other1 we might expect that ,st4 ,peter and other of the fisher ,apostles would have given the names of some of the ,fish which they were in the habit of catching1 and by the sale of which they gained their living4 ,it is true that the ,jews1 as a nation1 would not distinguish between the various species of ,fishes1 except1 perhaps1 by comparative size4 ,but professional fishermen would be sure to distinguish one species from another1 if only for the fact that they would sell the best-flavoured ,fish at the highest price4 ,we might have expected1 for example1 that the ,apostles and disciples who were present when the miraculous draught of ,fishes took place would have mentioned the technical names by which they were accustomed to distinguish the different degrees of the saleable and unsaleable kinds4 ,illustration3 ,,peter ,,catches ,,the ,,fish4 ,or we might have expected that on the occasion when ,st4 ,peter cast his line and hook into the sea1 and drew out a ,fish holding the tribute-money in his mouth1 we might have learned the particular species of ,fish which was thus captured4 ,we ourselves would assuredly have done so4 ,it would not have been thought sufficient merely to say that a ,fish was caught with money in its mouth1 but it would have been considered necessary to mention the particular fish as well as the particular coin4 ,but it must be remembered that the whole tone of thought differs in ,orientals and ,europeans1 and that the exactness required by the one has no place in the mind of the other4 ,the whole of the ,scriptural narratives are essentially ,oriental in their character1 bringing out the salient points in strong relief1 but entirely regardless of minute detail4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we find from many passages both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments that ,fish were largely used as food by the ,israelites1 both when captives in ,egypt and after their arrival in the ,promised ,land4 ,take1 for example1 ,numb4 xi4 #d1 #e3 ,and the children of ,israel also wept again1 and said1 ,who shall give us flesh to eat8 ,we remember the fish which we did eat in ,egypt freely4 ,then1 in the ,old ,testament1 although we do not find many such categorical statements1 there are many passages which allude to professional fishermen1 showing that there was a demand for the ,fish which they caught1 sufficient to yield them a maintenance4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 however1 there are several passages in which the ,fishes are distinctly mentioned as articles of food4 ,take1 for example1 the well-known miracle of multiplying the loaves and the ,fishes1 and the scarcely less familiar passage in ,john xxi4 #i3 ,as soon then as they were come to land1 they saw a fire of coals there1 and fish laid thereon1 and bread4 ,we find in all these examples that bread and ,fish were eaten together4 ,indeed1 ,fish was eaten with bread just as we eat cheese or butter2 and ,st4 ,john1 in his account of the multiplication of the loaves and ,fishes1 does not use the word fish1 but another word which rather signifies sauce1 and was generally employed to designate the little ,fish that were salted down and dried in the sunbeams for future use4 ,as to the various species which were used for different purposes1 we know really nothing1 the ,jews merely dividing their ,fish into clean and unclean4 ,some of the species to which the prohibition would extend are evident enough4 ,there are1 for example1 the ,sheat-fishes1 which have the body naked1 and which are therefore taken out of the list of permitted ,fishes4 ,the ,sheat-fishes inhabit rivers in many parts of the world1 and often grow to a very considerable size4 ,they may be at once recognised by their peculiar shape1 and by the long1 fleshy tentacles that hang from the mouth4 ,the object of these tentacles is rather dubious1 but as the fish have been seen to direct them at will to various objects1 it is likely that they may answer as organs of touch4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,mur,,na4 #b4 ,,long-,,headed ,,barbel4 #c4 ,,sheat-,,fish4 ,as might be conjectured from its general appearance1 it is one of the ,fishes that love muddy banks1 in which it is fond of burrowing so deeply that1 although the river may swarm with ,sheat-fishes1 a practised eye is required to see them4 ,as far as the ,sheat-fishes are concerned1 there is little need for the prohibition1 inasmuch as the flesh is not at all agreeable in flavour1 and is difficult of digestion1 being very fat and gelatinous4 ,the swimming-bladder of the ,sheat-fish is used in some countries for making a kind of isinglass1 similar in character to that of the sturgeon1 but of coarser quality4 ,the lowermost figure in the above illustration represents a species which is exceedingly plentiful in the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,on account of the mode in which their body is covered1 the whole of the sharks and rays are excluded from the list of permitted ,fish1 as1 although they have fins1 they have no scales1 their place being taken by shields varying greatly in size4 ,the same rule excludes the whole of the lamprey tribe1 although the excellence of their flesh is well known4 ,moreover1 the ,jews almost universally declare that the ,murna and ,eel tribe are also unclean1 because1 although it has been proved that these ,fishes really possess scales as well as fins1 and are therefore legally permissible1 the scales are hidden under a slimy covering1 and are so minute as to be practically absent4 ,the uppermost figure in the illustration represents the celebrated ,murna1 one of the fishes of the ,mediterranean1 in which sea it is tolerably plentiful4 ,in the days of the old ,roman empire1 the ,murna was very highly valued for the table4 ,the wealthier citizens built ponds in which the ,murn were kept alive until they were wanted4 ,this ,fish sometimes reaches four feet in length4 ,the rest of the ,fishes which are shown in the three illustrations belong to the class of clean ,fish1 and were permitted as food4 ,the figure of the ,fish between the ,murna and ,sheat-fish is the ,long-headed ,barbel1 so called from its curious form4 ,the ,barbels are closely allied to the carps1 and are easily known by the barbs or beards which hang from their lips4 ,like the sheat-fishes1 the ,barbels are fond of grubbing in the mud1 for the purpose of getting at the worms1 grubs1 and larv of aquatic insects that are always to be found in such places4 ,the ,barbels are rather long in proportion to their depth1 a peculiarity which1 owing to the length of the head1 is rather exaggerated in this species4 ,the ,long-headed ,barbel is extremely common in ,palestine1 and may be taken with the very simplest kind of net4 ,indeed1 in some places1 the fish are so numerous that a common sack answers nearly as well as a net4 ,it has been mentioned that the ancient ,romans were in the habit of forming ponds in which the ,murn were kept1 and it is evident1 from several passages of ,scripture1 that the ,jews were accustomed to preserve fish in a similar manner1 though they would not restrict their tanks or ponds to one species4 ,the accompanying illustration represents ,fishes of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and it is probable that one of them may be identified1 though the passage in which it is mentioned is only an inferential one4 ,in the prophecy against ,pharaoh1 king of ,egypt1 the prophet ,ezekiel writes as follows3 ,i will put hooks in thy jaws1 and ,i will cause the fish of thy rivers to stick unto thy scales1 and ,i will bring thee up out of the midst of thy rivers1 and all the fish of thy rivers shall stick unto thy scales 7xxix4 #d74 ,illustration3 ,,fishes ,,of ,,the ,,mediterranean4 #a4 ,,sucking-,,fish4 #b4 ,,tunny4 #c4 ,,coryphene4 ,some believe that the prophet made allusion to the ,sucking-fish1 which has the dorsal fins developed into a most curious apparatus of adhesion1 by means of which it can fasten itself at will to any smooth object1 and hold so tightly to it that it can scarcely be torn away without injury4 ,the common ,sucking-fish is shown in the upper part of the illustration4 ,there are1 however1 other fish which have powers of adhesion which1 although not so remarkable as those of the ,sucking-fish1 are yet very strong4 ,there is1 for example1 the well-known ,lump-sucker1 or ,lump-fish1 which has the ventral fins modified into a sucker so powerful that1 when one of these fishes has been put into a pail of water1 it has attached itself so firmly to the bottom of the vessel that when lifted by the tail it raised the pail1 together with several gallons of water4 ,the ,gobies1 again1 have their ventral fins united and modified into a single sucker1 by means of which the fish is able to secure itself to a stone1 rock1 or indeed any tolerably smooth surface4 ,these fishes are popularly known as ,bull-routs4 ,the centre of the illustration is occupied by another of the ,mediterranean fishes4 ,this is the well-known ,tunny1 which furnishes food to the inhabitants of the coasts of this inland sea1 and indeed constitutes one of their principal sources of wealth4 ,this fine fish is on an average four or five feet in length1 and sometimes attains the length of six or seven feet4 ,the flesh of the ,tunny is excellent1 and the fish is so conspicuous1 that the silence of the ,scriptures concerning its existence shows the utter indifference to specific accuracy that prevailed among the various writers4 ,the other figure represents the ,coryphene1 popularly1 though very wrongly1 called the ,dolphin1 and celebrated1 under that name1 for the beautiful colours which fly over the surface of the body as it dies4 ,the flesh of the ,coryphene is excellent1 and in the times of classic ,rome the epicures were accustomed to keep these fish alive1 and at the beginning of a feast to lay them before the guests1 so that they might1 in the first place1 witness the magnificent colours of the dying fish1 and1 in the second place1 might be assured that when it was cooked it was perfectly fresh4 ,even during life1 the ,coryphene is a most lovely fish1 and those who have witnessed it playing round a ship1 or dashing off in chase of a shoal of flying-fishes1 can scarcely find words to express their admiration of its beauty4 ,illustration3 fishermen ,,fishes4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,various modes of capturing ,fish--,the hook and line--,military use of the hook--,putting a hook in the jaws--,the fishing spear--,different kinds of net--,the casting-net--,prevalence of this form--,technical words among fishermen--,fishing by night--,the draught of ,fishes--,the real force of the miracle--,selecting the ,fish--,the ,fish-gate and ,fish-market--,fish killed by a draught--,fishing in the ,dead ,sea--,dagon1 the fish-god of ,philistina1 ,assyria1 and ,siam--,various ,fishes of ,egypt and ,palestine4 ,as to the various methods of capturing ,fish1 we will first take the simplest plan1 that of the hook and line4 ,sundry references are made to angling1 both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,see1 for example1 the well-known passage respecting the leviathan1 in ,job xli4 #a1 #b3 ,canst thou draw out leviathan with an hook8 or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest down8 ,canst thou put an hook into his nose8 or bore his jaw through with a thorn8 ,it is thought that the last clause of this passage refers1 not to the actual capture of the ,fish1 but to the mode in which they were kept in the tanks1 each being secured by a ring or hook and line1 so that it might be taken when wanted4 ,on referring to the ,new ,testament1 we find that the fisher ,apostles used both the hook and the net4 ,see ,matt4 xvii4 #bg3 ,go thou to the sea1 and cast an hook1 and take up the fish that first cometh up4 ,now this passage explains one or two points4 ,in the first place1 it is one among others which shows that1 although the ,apostles gave up all to follow ,christ1 they did not throw away their means of livelihood1 as some seem to fancy1 nor exist ever afterwards on the earnings of others4 ,on the contrary1 they retained their fisher equipment1 whether boats1 nets1 or hooks2 and here we find ,st4 ,peter1 after the way of fishermen1 carrying about with him the more portable implements of his craft4 ,next1 the phrase casting the hook into the sea is exactly expressive of the mode in which angling is conducted in the sea and large pieces of water1 such as the ,lake of ,galilee4 ,the fisherman does not require a rod1 but takes his line1 which has a weight just above the hook1 coils it on his left arm in lasso fashion1 baits the hook1 and then1 with a peculiar swing1 throws it into the water as far as it will reach4 ,the hook is allowed to sink for a short time1 and is then drawn towards the shore in a series of jerks1 in order to attract the ,fish1 so that1 although the fisherman does not employ a rod1 he manages his line very much as does an angler of our own day when spinning for pike or trout4 ,sometimes the fisherman has a number of lines to manage1 and in this case he acts in a slightly different manner4 ,after throwing out the loaded hook1 as above mentioned1 he takes a short stick1 notched at one end1 and pointed at the other1 thrusts the sharp end into the ground at the margin of the water1 and hitches the line on the notch4 ,he then proceeds to do the same with all his lines in succession1 and when he has flung the last hook into the water1 he sits down on a heap of leaves and grass which he has gathered together1 and watches the lines to see if either of them is moved in the peculiar jerking manner which is characteristic of a bite4 ,after a while1 he hauls them in successively1 removes the ,fish that may have been caught1 and throws the lines into the water afresh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now come to the practice of catching ,fish by the net1 a custom to which the various ,scriptural writers frequently refer1 sometimes in course of historical narrative1 and sometimes by way of allegory or metaphor4 ,the reader will remember that the net was also used on land for the purpose of catching wild animals1 and that many of the allusions to the net which occur in the ,old ,testament refer to the land and not to the water4 ,the commonest kind of net1 which was used in the olden times as it is now1 was the casting-net4 ,this kind of net is circular1 and is loaded all round its edge with weights1 and suspended by the middle to a cord4 ,when the fisherman throws this net1 he gathers it up in folds in his arms1 and1 with a peculiar swing of the arms1 only to be learned by long practice1 flings it so that it spreads out and falls in its circular form upon the surface of the water4 ,it rapidly sinks to the bottom1 the loaded circumference causing it to assume a cup-like form1 enclosing within its meshes all the ,fish that happen to be under it as it falls4 ,when it has reached the bottom1 the fisherman cautiously hauls in the rope1 so that the loaded edges gradually approach each other1 and by their own weight cling together and prevent the ,fish from escaping as the net is slowly drawn ashore4 ,this kind of net is found1 with certain modifications1 in nearly all parts of the world4 ,the ,chinese are perhaps supreme in their management of it4 ,they have a net of extraordinary size1 and cast it by flinging it over their backs1 the huge circle spreading itself out in the most perfect manner as it falls on the water4 ,at the present day1 when the fishermen use this net they wade into the sea as far as they can1 and then cast it4 ,in consequence of this custom1 the fishermen are always naked while engaged in their work1 wearing nothing but a thick cap in order to save themselves from sun-stroke4 ,it is probable that on the memorable occasion mentioned by ,st4 ,john1 in chap4 xxi41 all the fishermen were absolutely1 and not relatively naked1 wearing no clothes at all1 not even the ordinary tunic4 ,that a great variety of nets was used by the ancient ,jews is evident from the fact that there are no less than ten words to signify different kinds of net4 ,at the present day we have very great difficulty in deciding upon the exact interpretation of these technical terms1 especially as in very few cases are we assisted either by the context or by the etymology of the words4 ,it is the same in all trades or pursuits1 and we can easily understand how our own names of drag-net1 seine1 trawl1 and keer-drag would perplex any commentator who happened to live some two thousand years after ,english had ceased to be a living language4 ,illustration3 ,,mode ,,of ,,dragging ,,the ,,seine-,,net4 ,the ,sagene1 or seine-net1 was made in lengths1 any number of which could be joined together1 so as to enclose a large space of water4 ,the upper edge was kept at the surface of the water by floats1 and the lower edge sunk by weights4 ,this net was always taken to sea in vessels1 and when shot the various lengths were joined together1 and the net extended in a line1 with a boat at each end4 ,the boats then gradually approached each other1 so as to bring the net into a semicircle1 and finally met1 enclosing thereby a vast number of ,fishes in their meshen walls4 ,the water was then beaten1 so as to frighten the ,fishes and drive them into the meshes1 and the net was then either taken ashore1 or lifted by degrees on board the boats1 and the ,fish removed from it4 ,as in a net of this kind ,fishes of all sorts are enclosed1 the contents are carefully examined1 and those which are unfit for eating are thrown away4 ,even at the present day much care is taken in the selection1 but in the ancient times the fishermen were still more cautious1 every ,fish having to be separately examined in order that the presence both of fins and scales might be assured before the captors could send it to the market4 ,it is to this custom that ,christ alludes in the well-known parable of the net3 ,again1 the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was cast into the sea1 and gathered of every kind2 ,which1 when it was full1 they drew to shore1 and sat down1 and gathered the good into vessels1 but cast the bad away4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lastly1 we come to the religious1 or rather superstitious1 part played by ,fish in the ancient times4 ,that the ,egyptians employed ,fish as material symbols of ,divine attributes we learn from secular writers1 such as ,herodotus and ,strabo4 ,the ,jews1 who seem to have had an irrepressible tendency to idolatry1 and to have adopted the idols of every people with whom they came in contact1 resuscitated the ,fish-worship of ,egypt as soon as they found themselves among the ,philistines4 ,we might naturally imagine that as the ,israelites were bitterly opposed to their persistent enemy1 who trod them under foot and crushed every attempt at rebellion for more than three hundred years1 they would repudiate the worship as well as the rule of their conquerors4 ,but1 on the contrary1 they adopted the worship of ,dagon1 the ,fish-god1 who was the principal deity of the ,philistines1 and erected temples in his honour4 ,we find precisely the same worship at the present day in ,siam1 where ,dagon has exactly the same form as among the ,philistines of old4 ,there is now before me a photograph of a great temple at ,ayutia1 the entrance to which is guarded by two huge images of the ,fish-god4 ,they are about sixty feet in height1 and have both legs and feet like man1 but in addition the lower part of the body is modified into the tail of a ,fish1 which1 in common with the whole of the body1 is covered with gilded scales4 ,in order that the reader may see examples of the typical ,fish which are to be found in ,egypt and ,palestine1 ,i have added three more species1 which are represented in the following illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,fishes ,,of ,,egypt ,,and ,,palestine4 #a4 ,,nile ,,perch4 #b4 ,,surmullet4 #c4 ,,star-,,gazer4 ,the uppermost figure represents the ,,nile ,,perch4 ,this ,fish is plentiful in the ,nile1 and in the mouths of many ,asiatic rivers4 ,it is brown above1 silvery white below1 and may be distinguished by the armed gill-covers1 and the three strong spines of the anal fin4 ,the tongue is smooth4 ,immediately below the ,nile ,perch is the ,,star-,,gazer4 ,this ,fish is found in the ,mediterranean1 and derives its name from the singular mode in which the eyes are set in the head1 so that it looks upwards instead of sideways4 ,it is one of the mud-lovers1 a fact which accounts for the peculiar position of the eyes4 ,it is said to feed after the fashion of the fishing-frog--i4e4 by burying itself in the mud and attracting other ,fishes by a worm-like appendage of its mouth1 and pouncing on them before they are aware of their danger4 ,this is not a pretty ,fish1 and as it is very spiny1 is not pleasant to the grasp1 but its flesh is very good1 and it is much valued by those who can obtain it4 ,the last ,fish to be noticed is the ,,surmullet1 a ,fish that is equally remarkable for the beauty of its colours and the excellence of its flesh4 ,illustration3 man ,,molluscs4 ,the purple of ,scripture--,the sac containing the purple dye--,curious change of colour--,mode of obtaining the dye--,the ,tyrian purple--,the king of the ,ethiopians and the purple robe--,the professional purple dyers--,various words expressive of different shades of purple4 ,leaving the higher forms of animal life1 we now pass to the ,invertebrated ,animals which are mentioned in ,scripture4 ,as may be inferred from the extreme looseness of nomenclature which prevails among the higher animals1 the species which can be identified are comparatively few1 and of them but a very few details are given in the ,scriptures4 ,taking them in their zoological order1 we will begin with the ,,molluscs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are all familiar with the value which was set by the ancients upon the peculiar dye which may be called by the name of ,imperial ,purple4 ,in the first place1 it was exceedingly costly1 not only for its richness of hue1 but from the great difficulty with which a sufficient quantity could be procured for staining a dress4 ,purple was exclusively a royal colour1 which might not be worn by a subject4 ,among the ancient ,romans1 during the times of the ,csars1 any one who ventured to appear in a dress of purple would do so at the peril of his life4 ,in the consular days of ,rome1 the dress of the consuls was white1 striped with purple2 but the ,csars advanced another step in luxury1 and dyed the whole toga of this costly hue4 ,the colour of the dye is scarcely what we understand by the term purple1 i4e4 a mixture of blue and red4 ,it has but very little blue in it1 and has been compared by the ancients to the colour of newly-clotted blood4 ,it is obtained from several ,shell ,fish belonging to the great ,whelk family1 the chief of which is the ,murex brandaris4 ,the shell is shaped something like that of a whelk1 but is very smooth and porcelain-like1 and is generally white1 ornamented with several coloured bands4 ,it is1 however1 one of the most variable of shells1 differing not only in colour but in form4 ,it always inhabits the belt of the shore between tide-marks1 and preys upon other ,molluscs1 such as the mussel and periwinkle1 literally licking them to pieces with its long riband tongue4 ,this tongue is beset with rows of hooked teeth1 exactly like the shark-tooth weapons of the ,samoan and ,mangaian ,islanders1 and with it the creature is enabled to bore through the shells of mussels and similar ,molluscs1 and to eat the enclosed animal4 ,it is very destructive to periwinkles1 thrusting its tongue through the mouth of the shell1 piercing easily the operculum by which the entrance is closed1 and gradually scooping out the unfortunate inmate4 ,even the bivalves1 which can shut themselves up between two shells1 fare no better1 the tongue of the ,dog-,whelk rasping a hole in the hard shell in eight-and-forty hours4 ,in order to procure the animal1 the shell must be broken with a sharp blow of a small hammer1 and the receptacle of the colouring matter can then be seen behind the head1 and recognised by its lighter hue4 ,when it is opened1 a creamy sort of matter exudes4 ,it is yellowish1 and gives no promise of its future richness of hue4 ,there is only one drop of this matter in each animal1 and it is about sufficient in quantity to stain a piece of linen the size of a dime4 ,the best mode of seeing the full beauty of the purple is to take a number of the ,molluscs1 and to stain as large a surface as possible4 ,the piece of linen should then be exposed to the rays of the sun1 when it will go through a most curious series of colours4 ,the yellow begins to turn green1 and1 after a while1 the stained portions of the linen will be entirely green1 the yellow having been vanquished by the blue4 ,by degrees the blue predominates more and more over the yellow1 until the linen is no more green1 but blue4 ,then1 just as the yellow yielded to the blue1 the blue yields to red1 and becomes first violet1 then purple1 and lastly assumes the blood-red hue of royalty4 ,the colour is very permanent1 and1 instead of fading by time1 seems rather to brighten4 ,in some cases the ancients appear not to have troubled themselves with the complicated operation of taking the animal out of the shell1 opening the receptacle1 and squeezing the contents on the fabric to be dyed1 but simply crushed the whole of the ,mollusc1 so as to set the colouring matter free1 and steeped the cloth in the pulp4 ,tyre was one of the most celebrated spots for this manufacture1 the ,tyrian dye being celebrated for its richness4 ,heaps of broken shells remain to the present day as memorials of the long-perished manufacture4 ,the value which the ancients set upon this dye is shown by many passages in various books4 ,among others we may refer to ,herodotus4 ,cambyses1 it appears1 had a design to make war upon three nations1 the ,ammonians1 the ,carthaginians1 and the ,ethiopians4 ,he determined to invade the first by land1 and the second by sea2 but1 being ignorant of the best method of reaching the ,ethiopians1 he dispatched messengers to them1 nominally as ambassadors1 but practically as spies4 ,he sent to the ,king of ,ethiopia valuable presents--namely1 a purple mantle1 a golden necklace and bracelet1 an elaborate box of perfumed ointment1 and a cask of palm-wine1 these evidently being considered a proof of imperial magnificence4 ,the ,ethiopian king ridiculed the jewels1 praised the wine1 and asked curiously concerning the dye with which the purple mantle was stained4 ,on being told the mode of preparation1 he refused to believe the visitors1 and1 referring to the changing hues of the mantle and to the perfume of the ointment1 he showed his appreciation of their real character by saying that the goods were deceptive1 and so were the bearers4 ,the ,hebrew word argaman1 which signifies the regal purple1 occurs several times in ,scripture1 and takes a slightly different form according to the ,chaldaic or ,hebraic idiom4 ,for example1 we find it in ,exod4 xxv4 #d3 ,this is the offering which ye shall take of them3 gold1 and silver1 and brass1 ,and blue1 and purple1 and scarlet1 and fine linen1 c4 c4 ,it occurs again in #b ,chron4 ii4 #g3 ,send me now therefore a man cunning to work in gold1 and in silver1 and in brass1 and in iron1 and in purple1 and crimson1 and blue4 ,,the ,,snail4 ,the ,snail which melteth--,rendering of the ,jewish ,bible--,theory respecting the track of the ,snail--,the ,hebrew word ,shablul--,various ,snails of ,palestine4 ,there is a very remarkable and not very intelligible passage in ,ps4 lviii4 #h3 ,as a snail which melteth1 let every one of them pass away4 ,the ,jewish ,bible renders the passage in a way which explains the idea which evidently prevailed at the time when the ,psalms were composed3 ,as a snail let him melt as he passeth on4 ,the ancients had an idea that the slimy track made by a ,snail as it crawled along was subtracted from the substance of its body1 and that in consequence the farther it crept1 the smaller it became1 until at last it wasted entirely away4 ,the commentators on the ,talmud took this view of the case4 ,the ,hebrew word shablul1 which undoubtedly does signify a ,snail of some kind1 is thus explained3 ,the ,shablul is a creeping thing3 when it comes out of its shell1 saliva pours from itself1 until it becomes liquid1 and so dies4 ,other explanations of this passage have been offered1 but there is no doubt that the view taken by these commentators is the correct one1 and that the ,psalmist1 when he wrote the terrible series of denunciations in which the passage in question occurs1 had in his mind the popular belief regarding the gradual wasting away of the ,snail as it passeth on4 ,it is needless to say that no particular species of ,snail is mentioned1 and almost as needless to state that in ,palestine there are many species of ,snails1 to any or all of which these words are equally applicable4 ,illustration3 ,,pearl ,,oyster4 ,,the ,,pearl4 ,the ,pearl of ,scripture--,wisdom compared to ,pearl--,metaphorical uses of the ,pearl--,the ,pearl of great price--,casting ,pearls before swine4 ,there is only one passage in the ,old ,testament in which can be found the word which is translated as ,,pearl1 and it is certain that the word in question may have another interpretation4 ,the word in question is gabish1 and occurs in ,job xxviii4 #ah4 ,treating of wisdom1 in that magnificent passage beginning1 ,but where shall ,wisdom be found1 and where is the place of understanding8 the sacred writer uses these words1 ,no mention shall be made of coral1 or of pearls3 for the price of wisdom is above rubies4 ,in consequence of the labour and research required for seeking wisdom1 it was proverbially likened to a ,pearl1 and in this sense we must understand the warning of our ,lord1 not to cast ,pearls before swine4 ,the pearl of great price is another form of the same metaphor4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the substance of ,pearls is essentially the same as that which lines many shells1 and is known as mother of pearl4 ,although a large number of shell-fish secrete mother of pearl1 only a few of them yield true ,pearls4 ,the finest are obtained from the so-called ,pearl oyster1 an illustration of which is given on the preceding page4 ,the ,ancients obtained their ,pearls chiefly from ,india and the ,persian ,gulf1 where to this day the industry of ,pearl-fishing is still carried on by the natives4 ,the oysters containing the ,pearls are brought up from the bottom of the sea by divers1 who go out in boats to the fishing-grounds1 which are some distance from the shore4 ,leaping naked into the water1 carrying a heavy stone to enable him to sink quickly to the bottom1 the diver descends to where the oysters lie1 and secures as many of them as possible during the limited time that his breath lasts4 ,on an average the divers remain under water from fifty to eighty seconds1 though some can endure a much longer period4 ,sharks are the special dread of ,pearl-divers1 and many are carried off by this fierce monster of the deep4 ,to arm himself against their attack the diver carries a sharp knife1 and instances are known of his having attacked and fairly defeated the dread destroyer in its own element4 ,not only is the diver exposed to the danger of attack from sharks1 but his hazardous calling is necessarily exhausting1 and1 as a rule1 he is a short-lived man4 ,there are some kinds of fresh-water mussels which contain ,pearls of an inferior quality2 perhaps the most celebrated of these is the ,pearl ,mussel of the ,chinese1 who make a singular use of it4 ,they string a number of globular pellets1 and introduce them between the valves of the mussel1 so that in course of time the creature deposits a coating of pearly substance upon them1 and forms a very good imitation of real ,pearls4 ,illustration3 insects ,illustration3 butterfly ,,insects4 ,,the ,,locust4 ,insects--,the ,locust-,the two migratory ,locusts at rest and on the wing--,the ,locust swarms--,gordon ,cumming's account--,progress of the insect hosts--,vain attempts to check them--,tossed up and down as a ,locust--,effect of the winds on the insect--,the east and the west winds--,locusts used for food--,ancient and modern travellers--,the food of ,john the ,baptist4 ,of the ,,locusts there are several species in ,palestine1 two of which are represented in the accompanying plate4 ,those on the ground are the common ,migratory ,locusts1 while those on the wing1 which have long heads1 are a species of ,truxalis4 ,the ,locust belongs to the great order of ,orthoptera1 or straight-winged insects4 ,they have1 when fully developed1 four wings1 the two front being thick and membraneous1 while the two hinder wings are large1 delicate1 translucent1 and folded longitudinally under the front pair of wings when the insect is at rest4 ,in the ,locusts these characteristics are admirably shown4 ,the appearance of a ,locust when at rest and when flying is so different that the creature is at first sight scarcely recognisable as the same creature4 ,when at rest1 it is a compact and tolerably stout insect1 with a dull though delicately coloured body2 but when it takes flight it appears to attain twice its previous dimensions4 ,the front pair of wings1 which alone were seen before they were expanded1 became comparatively insignificant1 while the hinder pair1 which were before invisible1 became the most prominent part of the insect1 their translucent folds being coloured with the most brilliant hues1 according to the species4 ,the body seems to have shrunk as the wings have increased1 and to have diminished to half its previous size1 while the long legs that previously were so conspicuous are stretched out like the legs of a flying heron4 ,all the ,locusts are vegetable-feeders1 and do great harm wherever they happen to be plentiful1 their powerful jaws severing even the thick grass stems as if cut by scissors4 ,but it is only when they invade a country that their real power is felt4 ,they come flying with the wind in such vast multitudes that the sky is darkened as if by thunder-clouds2 and when they settle1 every vestige of green disappears off the face of the earth4 ,mr4 ,gordon ,cumming once saw a flight of these ,locusts4 ,they flew about three hundred feet from the ground1 and came on in thick1 solid masses1 forming one unbroken cloud4 ,on all sides nothing was to be seen but ,locusts4 ,the air was full of them1 and the plain was covered with them1 and for more than an hour the insect army flew past him4 ,when the ,locusts settle1 they eat with such voracity that the sound caused by their jaws cutting the leaves and grass can be heard at a great distance2 and even the young ,locusts1 which have no wings1 and are graphically termed by the ,dutch colonists of ,southern ,africa voet-gangers1 or foot-goers1 are little inferior in power of jaw to the fully-developed insect4 ,as long as they have a favourable wind1 nothing stops the progress of the ,locusts4 ,they press forward just like the vast herds of antelopes that cover the plains of ,africa1 or the bisons that once blackened the prairies of ,america1 and the progress of even the wingless young is as irresistible as that of the adult insects4 ,regiments of soldiers have in vain attempted to stop them4 ,trenches have been dug across their path1 only to be filled up in a few minutes with the advancing hosts1 over whose bodies the millions of survivors continued their march4 ,when the trenches were filled with water1 the result was the same2 and even when fire was substituted for water1 the flames were quenched by the masses of ,locusts that fell into them4 ,when they come to a tree1 they climb up it in swarms1 and devour every particle of foliage1 not even sparing the bark of the smaller branches4 ,they ascend the walls of houses that come in the line of their march1 swarming in at the windows1 and gnawing in their hunger the very woodwork of the furniture4 ,we shall now see how true to nature is the terrible prophecy of ,joel4 ,a day of darkness and of gloominess1 a day of clouds and of thick darkness1 as the morning spread upon the mountains3 a great people and a strong2 there hath not been ever the like1 neither shall be any more after it1 even to the years of many generations4 ,illustration3 ,,locusts4 ,a fire devoureth before them2 and behind them a flame burneth3 the land is as the garden of ,eden before them1 and behind them a desolate wilderness2 yea1 and nothing shall escape them4 ,and the ,lord shall utter ,his voice before ,his army3 for ,his camp is very great 7,joel ii4 #b-aa74 ,nothing can be more vividly accurate than this splendid description of the ,locust armies4 ,first we have the darkness caused by them as they fly like black clouds between the sun and the earth4 ,then comes the contrast between the blooming and fertile aspect of the land before they settle on it1 and its utter desolation when they leave it4 ,there is one passage in the ,scriptures which at first sight seems rather obscure1 but is clear enough when we understand the character of the insect to which it refers3 ,i am gone like the shadow when it declineth3 ,i am tossed up and down as the locust 7,ps4 cix4 #bc74 ,although the ,locusts have sufficient strength of flight to remain on the wing for a considerable period1 and to pass over great distances1 they have little or no command over the direction of their flight1 and always travel with the wind1 just as has been mentioned regarding the quail4 ,so entirely are they at the mercy of the wind1 that if a sudden gust arises the ,locusts are tossed about in the most helpless manner2 and if they should happen to come across one of the circular air-currents that are so frequently found in the countries which they inhabit1 they are whirled round and round without the least power of extricating themselves4 ,in the account of the great plague of ,locusts1 the wind is mentioned as the proximate cause both of their arrival and their departure4 ,see1 for example1 ,exod4 x4 #ab1 #ac3 ,and the ,lord said unto ,moses1 ,stretch out thine hand over the land of ,egypt for the locusts1 that they may come up upon the land of ,egypt1 and eat every herb of the land1 even all that the hail hath left4 ,and ,moses stretched forth his rod over the land of ,egypt1 and the ,lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day1 and all that night2 and when it was morning1 the east wind brought the locusts4 ,afterwards1 when ,moses was brought before ,pharaoh1 and entreated to remove the plague which had been brought upon the land1 the west wind was employed to take the ,locusts away1 just as the east wind had brought them4 ,he went out from ,pharaoh1 and entreated the ,lord4 ,and the ,lord turned a mighty strong west wind1 which took away the locusts1 and cast them into the ,red ,sea2 there remained not one locust in all the coasts of ,egypt 7,exod4 x4 #ah1 #ai74 ,modern travellers have given accounts of these ,locust armies1 which exactly correspond with the sacred narrative4 ,one traveller mentions that1 after a severe storm1 the ,locusts were destroyed in such multitudes1 that they were heaped in a sort of wall1 varying from three to four feet in height1 fifty miles in length1 and almost unapproachable1 on account of the odour of their decomposing bodies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now come to the use of ,locusts as food4 ,very few insects have been recognised as fit for human food1 even among uncivilized nations1 and it is rather singular that the ,israelites1 whose dietary was so scrupulously limited1 should have been permitted the use of the ,locust4 ,these insects are1 however1 eaten in all parts of the world which they frequent1 and in some places form an important article of diet1 thus compensating in some way for the amount of vegetable food which they consume4 ,when their captors have roasted and eaten as many as they can manage to devour1 they dry the rest over the fires1 pulverize them between two stones1 and keep the meal for future use1 mixing it with water1 or1 if they can get it1 with milk4 ,we will now take a few accounts given by travellers of the present day1 selecting one or two from many4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,palgrave1 in his ,central and ,eastern ,arabia1 gives a description of the custom of eating ,locusts4 ,on a sloping bank1 at a short distance in front1 we discerned certain large black patches1 in strong contrast with the white glisten of the soil around1 and at the same time our attention was attracted by a strange whizzing1 like that of a flight of hornets1 close along the ground1 while our dromedaries capered and started as though struck with sudden insanity4 ,the cause of all this was a vast swarm of locusts1 here alighted in their northerly wanderings from their birthplace in the ,dahna2 their camp extended far and wide1 and we had already disturbed their outposts4 ,these insects are wont to settle on the ground after sunset1 and there1 half-stupified by the night chill1 await the morning rays1 which warm them once more into life and movement4 ,this time1 the dromedaries did the work of the sun1 and it would be hard to say which of the two were the most frightened1 they or the locusts4 ,it was truly laughable to see so huge a beast lose his wits for fear at the flight of a harmless1 stingless insect1 for1 of all timid creatures1 none equal this 'ship of the desert' for cowardice4 ,but1 if the beasts were frightened1 not so their masters4 ,i really thought they would have gone mad for joy4 ,locusts are here an article of food1 nay1 a dainty1 and a good swarm of them is begged of ,heaven in ,arabia4444 ,the locust1 when boiled or fried1 is said to be delicious1 and boiled and fried accordingly they are to an incredible extent4 ,however1 ,i never could persuade myself to taste them1 whatever invitations the inhabitants of the land1 smacking their lips over large dishes full of entomological 'delicatesses1' would make me to join them4 ,barakt ventured on one for a trial4 ,he pronounced it oily and disgusting1 nor added a second to the first3 it is caviare to unaccustomed palates4 ,the swarm now before us was a thorough godsend for our ,arabs1 on no account to be neglected4 ,thirst1 weariness1 all were forgotten1 and down the riders leaped from their starting camels4 ,this one spread out a cloak1 that one a saddle-bag1 a third his shirt1 over the unlucky creatures1 destined for the morning meal4 ,some flew away1 whizzing across our feet2 others were caught1 and tied up in sacks4 ,mr4 ,mansfield ,parkyns1 in his ,life in ,abyssinia1 mentions that the true ,abyssinian will not eat the ,locust1 but that the negroes and ,arabs do so4 ,he describes the flavour as being something between the burnt end of a quill and a crumb of linseed cake4 ,the flavour1 however1 depends much on the mode of cooking1 and1 as some say1 on the nature of the ,locusts' food4 ,signor ,pierotti states1 in his ,customs and ,traditions of ,palestine1 that ,locusts are really excellent food1 and that he was accustomed to eat them1 not from necessity1 but from choice1 and compares their flavour to that of shrimps4 ,dr4 ,livingstone makes a similar comparison4 ,in ,palestine1 ,locusts are eaten either roasted or boiled in salt and water1 but1 when preserved for future use1 they are dried in the sun1 their heads1 wings1 and legs picked off1 and their bodies ground into dust4 ,this dust has naturally a rather bitter flavour1 which is corrected by mixing it with camel's milk or honey1 the latter being the favourite substance4 ,we may now see that the food of ,john the ,baptist was1 like his dress1 that of a people who lived at a distance from towns1 and that there was no more hardship in the one than in the other4 ,some commentators have tried to prove that he fed on the fruit of the locust or carob tree--the same that is used in some countries for feeding cattle2 but there is not the least ground for such an explanation4 ,the account of his life1 indeed1 requires no explanation2 ,locust-dust1 mixed with honey1 being an ordinary article of food even at the present day4 ,illustration3 locust ,illustration3 flowers ,,the ,,bee4 ,the ,honey ,bee of ,palestine--,abundance of ,bees in the ,holy ,land--,habitations of the wild ,bee--,the honey of ,scripture--,domesticated ,bees and their hives--,stores of wild honey--,the story of ,jonathan--,the ,crusaders and the honey4 ,fortunately1 there is no doubt about the rendering of the ,hebrew word debrah1 which has always been acknowledged to be rightly translated as ,bee4 ,the ,honey ,bee is exceedingly plentiful in ,palestine1 and in some parts of the country multiplying to such an extent that the precipitous ravines in which it takes up its residence are almost impassable by human beings1 so jealous are the ,bees of their domains4 ,although the ,bee is not exactly the same species as that of our own country1 being the ,banded ,bee 7,apis fasciata71 and not the ,apis mellifica1 the two insects very much resemble each other in shape1 colour1 and habits4 ,both of them share the instinctive dislike of strangers and jealousy of intrusion1 and the ,banded ,bee of ,palestine has as great an objection to intrusion as its congener in this country4 ,several allusions are made in the ,scriptures to this trait in the character of the ,bee4 ,see1 for example1 ,deut4 i4 #dd3 ,and the ,amorites1 which dwelt in that mountain1 came out against you1 and chased you1 as bees do1 and destroyed you in ,seir1 even unto ,hormah4 ,all those who have had the misfortune to offend ,bees will recognise the truth of this metaphor1 the ,amorites swarming out of the mountain like wild ,bees out of the rocky clefts which serve them as hives1 and chasing the intruder fairly out of their domains4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bee ,a similar metaphor is employed in the ,psalms3 ,they compassed me about2 yea1 they compassed me about2 but in the name of the ,lord ,i will destroy them4 ,they compassed me about like bees1 they are quick as the fire of thorns1 but in the name of the ,lord ,i will destroy them4 ,the custom of swarming is mentioned in one of the earlier books of ,scripture4 ,the reader will remember that1 after ,samson had killed the lion which met him on the way1 he left the carcase alone4 ,the various carnivorous beasts and birds at once discover such a banquet1 and in a very short time the body of a dead animal is reduced to a hollow skeleton1 partially or entirely covered with skin1 the rays of the sun drying and hardening the skin until it is like horn4 ,in exceptionally hot weather1 the same result occurs even in this country4 ,some years before this account was written there was a very hot and dry summer1 and a great mortality took place among the sheep4 ,so many indeed died that at last their owners merely flayed them1 and left their bodies to perish4 ,one of the dead sheep had been thrown into a rather thick copse1 and had fallen in a spot where it was sheltered from the wind1 and yet exposed to the fierce heat of the summer's sun4 ,the consequence was that in a few days it was reduced to a mere shell4 ,the heat hardened and dried the external layer of flesh so that not even the carnivorous beetles could penetrate it1 while the whole of the interior dissolved into a semi-putrescent state1 and was rapidly devoured by myriads of blue-bottles and other larv4 ,it was so thoroughly dried that scarcely any evil odour clung to it1 and as soon as ,i came across it the story of ,samson received a simple elucidation4 ,in the hotter ,eastern lands1 the whole process would have been more rapid and more complete1 and the skeleton of the lion1 with the hard and horny skin strained over it1 would afford exactly the habitation of which a wandering swarm of ,bees would take advantage4 ,at the present day swarms of wild ,bees often make their habitations within the desiccated bodies of dead camels that have perished on the way4 ,as to the expression hissing for the ,bee1 the reader must bear in mind that a sharp1 short hiss is the ordinary call in ,palestine1 when one person desires to attract the attention of another4 ,a similar sound1 which may perhaps be expressed by the letters tst1 prevails on the ,continent at the present day4 ,signor ,pierotti remarks that the inhabitants of ,palestine are even now accustomed to summon ,bees by a sort of hissing sound4 ,whether the honey spoken of in the ,scriptures was obtained from wild or domesticated ,bees is not very certain1 but1 as the manners of the ,east are much the same now as they were three thousand years ago1 it is probable that ,bees were kept then as they are now4 ,the hives are not in the least like ours1 but are cylindrical vases of coarse earthenware1 laid horizontally1 much like the bark hives employed in many parts of ,southern ,africa4 ,in some places the hives are actually built into the walls of the houses1 the closed end of the cylinder projecting into the interior1 while an entrance is made for the ,bees in the other end1 so that the insects have no business in the house4 ,when the inhabitants wish to take the honey1 they resort to the operation which is technically termed driving by bee-masters4 ,they gently tap the end within the house1 and continue the tapping until the ,bees1 annoyed by the sound1 have left the hive4 ,they then take out the circular door that closes the end of the hive1 remove as much comb as they want1 carefully put back those portions which contain grubs and bee-bread1 and replace the door1 when the ,bees soon return and fill up the gaps in the combs4 ,as to the wasteful1 cruel1 and foolish custom of burning the ,bees1 the ,orientals never think of practising it4 ,in many places the culture of ,bees is carried out to a very great extent1 numbers of the earthenware cylinders being piled on one another1 and a quantity of mud thrown over them in order to defend them from the rays of the sun1 which would soon melt the wax of the combs4 ,in consequence of the geographical characteristics of the ,holy ,land1 which supplies not only convenient receptacles for the ,bees in the rocks1 but abundance of thyme and similar plants1 vast stores of bee-comb are to be found in the cliffs1 and form no small part of the wealth of the people4 ,the abundance of wild honey is shown by the memorable events recorded in #a ,sam4 xiv4 ,saul had prohibited all the people from eating until the evening4 ,jonathan1 who had not heard the prohibition1 was faint and weary1 and1 seeing honey dripping on the ground from the abundance and weight of the comb1 he took it up on the end of his staff1 and ate sufficient to restore his strength4 ,thus1 if we refer again to the history of ,john the ,baptist and his food1 we shall find that he was in no danger of starving for want of nourishment1 the ,bees breeding abundantly in the desert places he frequented1 and affording him a plentiful supply of the very material which was needed to correct the deficiencies of the dried locusts which he used instead of bread4 ,the expression a land flowing with milk and honey has become proverbial as a metaphor expressive of plenty4 ,those to whom the words were spoken understood it as something more than a metaphor4 ,in the work to which reference has already been made ,signor ,pierotti writes as follows3--,let us now see how far the land could be said to flow with milk and honey during the latter part of its history and at the present day4 ,we find that honey was abundant in the time of the ,crusades1 for the ,english1 who followed ,edward ,i4 to ,palestine1 died in great numbers from the excessive heat1 and from eating too much fruit and honey4 ,at the present day1 after traversing the country in every direction1 ,i am able to affirm that in the south-east and north-east1 where the ancient customs of the patriarchs are most fully preserved1 and the effects of civilization have been felt least1 milk and honey may still be said to flow1 as they form a portion of every meal1 and may even be more abundant than water1 which fails occasionally in the heat of summer4444 ,i have often eaten of the comb1 which ,i found very good and of delicious fragrance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,bee represented in the illustration is the common ,bee of ,palestine1 ,apis fasciata4 ,the lowest figure in the corner1 with a long body and shut wings1 is the queen4 ,the central figure represents the drone1 conspicuous by means of his large eyes1 that almost join each other at the top of the head1 and for his thicker and stouter body1 while the third figure represents the worker ,bee4 ,near them is shown the entrance to one of the natural hives which are so plentiful in the ,holy ,land1 and are made in the clefts of the rocks4 ,a number of ,bees are shown issuing from the hole4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hornet ,,and ,,its ,,nest4 ,,the ,,hornet4 ,the ,tzirah or ,hornet of ,scripture--,travellers driven away by ,hornets--,the ,hornet used as a metaphor--,oriental symbolism--,sting of the ,hornet4 ,still keeping to the hymenopterous insects1 we come to the ,hornet4 ,there are three passages in which occurs the word tzirah1 which has been translated as ,hornet4 ,in every case when the word is mentioned the insect is employed in a metaphorical sense4 ,see1 for example1 ,exod4 xxiii4 #bg1 #bh3 ,i will send my fear before thee1 and will destroy all the people to whom thou shalt come2 and ,i will make all thine enemies turn their backs unto thee4 ,and ,i will send hornets before thee1 which shall drive out the ,hivite1 the ,canaanite1 and the ,hittite1 from before thee4 ,the ,hornet affords a most appropriate image for such a promise as was made to the ,israelites1 and was one which they must have thoroughly comprehended4 ,the ,hornets of ,palestine and the neighbouring countries are far more common than our own ,hornets here1 and they evidently infested some parts to such an extent that they gave their name to those spots4 ,thus the word ,zoreah1 which is mentioned in ,josh4 xv4 #cc1 signifies the place of ,hornets4 ,they make their nests in various ways2 some species placing them underground1 and others disposing them as shown in the illustration1 and merely sheltering them from the elements by a paper cover4 ,such nests as these would easily be disturbed by the animals which accompanied the ,israelites on their journeys1 even if the people were careful to avoid them4 ,in such a case1 the irritated insects rush out at the intruders2 and so great is the terror of their stings1 that men and beasts fly promiscuously in every direction1 each only anxious to escape from the winged foes4 ,the recollection of such scenes would necessarily dwell in the memory of those who had taken part in them1 and cause the metaphor to impress itself strongly upon them4 ,it is needless to say that the passages in question might be literal statements of facts1 and that the various nations were actually driven out of their countries by ,hornets4 ,let the insects be brought upon the land in sufficient numbers1 and neither man nor beast could stay in it4 ,it is not likely1 however1 that such a series of miracles1 far exceeding the insect-plagues of ,egypt1 would have been worked without frequent references to them in the subsequent books of the ,scriptures2 and1 moreover1 the quick1 short1 and headlong flight of the attack of ,hornets is a very different thing from the emigration which is mentioned in the ,scriptures1 and the long journeys which such a proceeding involved4 ,illustration3 ,,ants ,,on ,,the ,,march4 ,,the ,,ant4 ,the ,ant of ,scripture--,habit of laying up stores of food--,the ,ants of ,palestine1 and their habits--,the ,agricultural or ,mound-making ,ant--,preparing ground1 sowing1 tending1 reaping1 and storing the crop--,different habits of ,ants--,the winged ,ants4 ,one of the best-known and most frequently quoted passages of ,scripture is found in ,proverbs1 chap4 vi4 #f-h3 ,go to the ant1 thou sluggard2 consider her ways1 and be wise3 ,which1 having no guide1 overseer1 or ruler1 ,provideth her meat in the summer1 and gathereth her food in the harvest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,palestine ,ants abound1 and the species are tolerably numerous4 ,among them are found some species which do convey seeds into their subterranean home2 and if their stores should be wetted by the heavy rains which sometimes prevail in that country1 bring them to the outer air1 as soon as the weather clears up1 and dry them in the sun4 ,the writer of the ,proverbs was therefore perfectly right when he alluded to the vegetable stores within the nest1 and only spoke the truth when he wrote of the ,ant that it was exceeding wise4 ,any one who wishes to test the truth of his words can easily do so by watching the first ,ants' nest which he finds1 the species of the ,ant not being of much consequence4 ,the nests of the ,wood-,ant are perhaps the best suited for investigation1 partly because the insect and its habitation are comparatively large1 and1 secondly1 because so much of the work is done above-ground4 ,the most wonderful ,ant in the world is one which hitherto is only known in some parts of ,america4 ,its scientific name is ,atta malefaciens1 and it has been called by various popular names1 such as the ,mound-making ,ant and the ,agricultural ,ant on account of its habits1 and the ,stinging ,ant on account of the pungency of its venom4 ,this characteristic has gained for it the scientific name of malefaciens1 or villanous4 ,the habits of this ,ant were studied in ,texas by ,dr4 ,lincecum for the space of twelve years1 and the result of his investigations was communicated to the ,linnan ,society by ,c4 ,darwin1 ,esq4 ,it is so extraordinary an account that it must be given the narrator's own words3-- ,the species which ,i have named ',agricultural' is a large brownish ant4 ,it dwells in what may be termed paved cities1 and1 like a thrifty1 diligent1 provident farmer1 makes suitable and timely arrangements for the changing seasons4 ,it is1 in short1 endowed with skill1 ingenuity1 and untiring patience sufficient to enable it successfully to contend with the varying exigencies which it may have to encounter in the life-conflict4 ,when it has selected a situation for its habitation1 if on ordinary dry ground1 it bores a hole1 around which it raises the surface three and sometimes six inches1 forming a low circular mound having a very gentle inclination from the centre to the outer border1 which on an average is three or four feet from the entrance4 ,but if the location is chosen on low1 flat1 wet land liable to inundation1 though the ground may be perfectly dry at the time the ant sets to work1 it nevertheless elevates the mound1 in the form of a pretty sharp cone1 to the height of fifteen to twenty inches or more1 and makes the entrance near the summit4 ,around the mound in either case the ant clears the ground of all obstructions1 levels and smooths the surface to the distance of three or four feet from the gate of the city1 giving the space the appearance of a handsome pavement1 as it really is4 ,within this paved area not a blade of any green thing is allowed to grow1 except a single species of grain-bearing grass4 ,having planted this crop in a circle around1 and two or three feet from1 the centre of the mound1 the insect tends and cultivates it with constant care1 cutting away all other grasses and weeds that may spring up amongst it and all around outside of the farm-circle to the extent of one or two feet more4 ,the cultivated grass grows luxuriantly1 and produces a heavy crop of small1 white1 flinty seeds1 which under the microscope very closely resemble ordinary rice4 ,when ripe1 it is carefully harvested1 and carried by the workers1 chaff and all1 into the granary cells1 where it is divested of the chaff and packed away4 ,the chaff is taken out and thrown beyond the limits of the paved area4 ,during protracted wet weather1 it sometimes happens that the provision stores become damp1 and are liable to sprout and spoil4 ,in this case1 on the first fine day the ants bring out the damp and damaged grain1 and expose it to the sun till it is dry1 when they carry it back and pack away all the sound seeds1 leaving those that had sprouted to waste4 ,in a peach-orchard not far from my house is a considerable elevation1 on which is an extensive bed of rock4 ,in the sand-beds overlying portions of this rock are fine cities of the ,agricultural ants1 evidently very ancient4 ,my observations on their manners and customs have been limited to the last twelve years1 during which time the enclosure surrounding the orchard has prevented the approach of cattle to the ant-farms4 ,the cities which are outside of the enclosure as well as those protected in it are1 at the proper season1 invariably planted with the ant-rice4 ,the crop may accordingly always be seen springing up within the circle about the #ast of ,november every year4 ,of late years1 however1 since the number of farms and cattle has greatly increased1 and the latter are eating off the grass much closer than formerly1 thus preventing the ripening of the seeds1 ,i notice that the ,agricultural ant is placing its cities along the turn-rows in the fields1 walks in gardens1 inside about the gates1 c41 where they can cultivate their farms without molestation from the cattle4 ,there can be no doubt of the fact1 that the particular species of grain-bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted4 ,in farmer-like manner the ground upon which it stands is carefully divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it is growing4 ,when it is ripe the grain is taken care of1 the dry stubble cut away and carried off1 the paved area being left unencumbered until the ensuing autumn1 when the same 'ant-rice' reappears within the same circle1 and receives the same agricultural attention as was bestowed upon the previous crop2 and so on year after year1 as ,i know to be the case1 in all situations where the ants' settlements are protected from graminivorous animals4 ,in a second letter1 ,dr4 ,lincecum1 in reply to an inquiry from ,mr4 ,darwin1 whether he supposed that the ,ants plant seeds for the ensuing crop1 says1 ,i have not the slightest doubt of it4 ,and my conclusions have not been arrived at from hasty or careless observation1 nor from seeing the ants do something that looked a little like it1 and then guessing at the results4 ,i have at all seasons watched the same ant-cities during the last twelve years1 and ,i know that what ,i stated in my former letter is true4 ,i visited the same cities yesterday1 and found the crop of ant-rice growing finely1 and exhibiting also the signs of high cultivation1 and not a blade of any other kind of grass or weed was to be seen within twelve inches of the circular row of ant-rice4 ,the economical habits of this wonderful insect far surpass anything that ,solomon has written of the ,ant1 and it is not too much to say that if any of the ,scriptural writers had ventured to speak of an ,ant that not only laid up stores of grain1 but actually prepared the soil for the crop1 planted the seed1 kept the ground free from weeds1 and finally reaped the harvest1 the statement would have been utterly disbelieved1 and the credibility not only of that particular writer but of the rest of ,scripture severely endangered4 ,as may be inferred from the above description1 the habits of ,ants vary greatly according to their species and the climate in which they live4 ,all1 however1 are wonderful creatures2 and whether we look at their varied architecture1 their mode of procuring food1 the system of slave-catching adopted by some1 the milking of aphides practised by others1 their astonishing mode of communicating thought to each other1 and their perfect system of discipline1 we feel how true were the words of the royal naturalist1 that the ,ants are little upon earth1 but are exceeding wise4 ,illustration3 ,,ant ,,of ,,palestine4 ,there is one point of their economy in which all known species agree4 ,only those which are destined to become perfectly developed males and females attain the winged state4 ,before they assume the transitional or pupal condition1 each spins around itself a slight but tough silken cocoon1 in which it lies secure during the time which is consumed in developing its full perfection of form4 ,when it is ready to emerge1 the labourer ,ants aid in freeing it from the cocoon1 and in a short time it is ready to fly4 ,millions of these winged ants rise into the air1 seeking their mates1 and1 as they are not strong on the wing1 and are liable to be tossed about by every gust of wind1 vast numbers of them perish4 ,whole armies of them fall into the water and are drowned or devoured by fish1 while the insectivorous birds hold great festival on so abundant a supply of food4 ,as soon as they are mated they bend their wings forward1 snap them off1 and pass the rest of their lives on the ground4 ,in consequence of the destruction that takes place among the winged ,ants1 the ,arabs have a proverb which is applied to those who are over-ambitious3 ,if ,god purposes the destruction of an ant1 ,he permits wings to grow upon her4 ,,the ,,crimson ,,worm4 ,the scarlet or crimson of ,scripture--,the ,coccus or ,cochineal of ,palestine compared with that of ,mexico--,difference between the sexes--,mode of preparing the insect4 ,we now come to another order of insects4 ,just as the purple dye was obtained from a shell-fish1 the scarcely less valuable crimson or scarlet was obtained from an insect4 ,this is an insect popularly known as the ,crimson ,worm4 ,it is closely allied to the cochineal insect of ,mexico1 which gives a more brilliant dye1 and has at the present day nearly superseded the native insect4 ,it is1 however1 still employed as a dye in some parts of the country4 ,like the cochineal insect of ,mexico1 the female is very much larger than her mate1 and it is only from her that the dye is procured4 ,at the proper season of year the females are gathered off the trees and carefully dried1 the mode of drying having some effect upon the quality of the dye4 ,during the process of drying the insect alters greatly1 both in colour and size1 shrinking to less than half its original dimensions1 and assuming a greyish brown hue instead of a deep red4 ,when placed in water it soon gives out its colouring matter1 and communicates to the water the rich colour with which we are familiar under the name of carmine1 or crimson4 ,this latter name1 by the way1 is only a corruption of the ,arabic kermes1 which is the name of the insect4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crimson ,,worm4 ,the reader will remember that this was one of the three sacred colours--scarlet1 purple1 and blue--used in the vestments of the priests and the hangings of the tabernacle1 the white not taking rank as a colour4 ,,the ,,clothes ,,moth4 ,the ,moth of ,scripture evidently the ,clothes ,moth--,moths and garments--,accumulation of clothes in the ,east--,various uses of the hoarded robes--,the ,moths1 the rust1 and the thief4 ,one of the insects mentioned by name in the ,scriptures is the ,,moth1 by which we must always understand some species of ,clothes ,moth4 ,these are as plentiful and destructive in ,palestine as in this country4 ,several references are made to the ,moth in the ,scriptures1 and nearly all have reference to its destructive habits4 ,the solitary exceptions occur in the ,book of ,job1 ,behold1 ,he put no trust in ,his servants2 and ,his angels ,he charged with folly3 how much less in them that dwell in houses of clay1 whose foundation is in the dust1 which are crushed before the moth8 ,in the ,new ,testament reference is made several times to the ,moth4 ,lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth1 where moth and rust doth corrupt1 and where thieves break through and steal 7,matt4 vi4 #ai74 ,even to ourselves these passages are significant enough1 but to the ,jews and the inhabitants of ,palestine they possessed a force which we can hardly realize in this country4 ,in the ,east large stores of clothing are kept by the wealthy1 not only for their own use1 but as presents to others4 ,at a marriage feast1 for example1 the host presents each of the guests with a wedding garment4 ,clothes are also given as marks of favour1 and a present of changes of raiment1 i4e4 suits of clothing1 is one of the most common gifts4 ,as at the present day1 there was anciently no greater mark of favour than for the giver to present the very robe which he was wearing1 and when that robe happened to be an official one1 the gift included the rank which it symbolized4 ,thus ,joseph was invested with royal robes1 as well as with the royal ring 7,gen4 xli4 #db74 ,mordecai was clothed in the king's robes3 ,let the royal apparel be brought which the king useth to wear1 and the horse the king rideth upon1 and the crown royal which is set upon his head4 ,illustration3 ,,mordecai ,,is ,,led ,,through ,,the ,,city ,,upon ,,the ,,king',s ,,horse4 ,and let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of one of the king's most noble princes1 that they may array the man withal whom the king delighteth to honour1 and bring him on horseback through the street of the city1 and proclaim before him1 ,thus shall it be done to the man whom the king delighteth to honour4 7,esther vi4 #h1 #i47 ,the loose clothing of the ,east requires no fitting1 as is the case with the tight garments of the ,west2 any garment fits any man3 so that the powerful and wealthy could lay up great stores of clothing1 knowing that they would fit any person to whom they were given4 ,an allusion to this practice of keeping great stores of clothing is made in ,job xxvii4 #bf3 ,though he heap up silver as the dust1 and prepare raiment as the clay2 ,he may prepare it1 but the just shall put it on1 and the innocent shall divide the silver4 ,so large was the supply of clothing in a wealthy man's house1 that special chambers were set apart for it1 and a special officer1 called the keeper of the garments 7#b ,chron4 xxxiv4 #bb71 was appointed to take charge of them4 ,thus1 when a man was said to have clothing1 the expression was a synonym for wealth and power4 ,see ,isa4 iii4 #f3 ,when a man shall take hold of his brother of the house of his father1 saying1 ,thou hast clothing1 be thou our ruler4 ,the reader will now see how forcible was the image of the ,moth and the garments1 that is used so freely in the ,scriptures4 ,the ,moth would not meddle with garments actually in use1 so that a poor man would not be troubled with it4 ,only those who were rich enough to keep stores of clothing in their houses need fear the ,moth4 ,,the ,,silkworm ,,moth4 ,probability that the ,hebrews were acquainted with ,silk--,present cultivation of the ,silkworm--,the ,silk-farms of the ,lebanon--,silkworms and thunder4 ,in the ,authorized ,version there are several passages wherein silk is mentioned1 but it is rather doubtful whether the translation be correct or not1 except in one passage of the ,revelation3 ,and the merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her2 for no man buyeth their merchandise any more3 ,the merchandise of gold1 and silver1 and precious stones1 and of pearls1 and fine linen1 and purple1 and silk4 7xviii4 #aa1 #ab47 ,that the ,hebrews were acquainted with silk from very early times is nearly certain1 but it is probable that until comparatively late years they only knew the manufactured material1 and were ignorant of the source whence it was derived4 ,as to the date at which silk was introduced into ,palestine1 nothing certain is known2 but it is most likely that ,solomon's fleets brought silk from ,india1 together with the other valuables which are mentioned in the history of that monarch4 ,at the present day silk is largely cultivated1 and the silk-farmers of the ,lebanon are noted for the abundance of the crop which is annually produced4 ,the greatest care is taken in rearing the worms4 ,an excellent account of these farms is given by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,chasseaud in his ,druses of the ,lebanon3-- ,proceeding onward1 and protected from the fierce heat of the sun's rays by the pleasant shade of mountain pines1 we were continually encountering horseloads of cocoons1 the fruit of the industry of the ,druse silk-rearer4 ,the whole process1 from hatching the silkworms' eggs till the moment that the worm becomes a cocoon1 is one series of anxiety and labour to the peasant4 ,the worms are so delicate that the smallest change of temperature exposes them to destruction1 and the peasant can never confidently count upon reaping a harvest until the cocoon is fairly set4 ,after a long and interesting description of the multiplied and ceaseless labours of the silk-grower in providing food for the armies of caterpillars and sheltering them from the elements1 the writer proceeds as follows3-- ,the peasant is unwilling to permit of our remaining and watching operations4 ,traditional superstition has inculcated in him a dread of the evil eye4 ,if we stop and admire the wisdom displayed by the worm1 it will1 in his opinion1 be productive of evil results2 either the cocoon will be badly formed1 or the silk will be worthless4 ,so1 first clearing the place of all intruders1 he puts a huge padlock on the door1 and1 locking the khlook 7room in which the silkworms are kept71 deposits the key in his zinnar1 or waistband4 ,next week he will come and take out the cocoons1 and1 separating them from the briars1 choose out a sufficiency for breeding purposes1 and all the rest are handed over to the women of his family4 ,these first of all disentangle the cocoon from the rich and fibrous web with which it is enveloped1 and which constitutes an article of trade by itself4 ,the cocoons are then either reeled off by the peasant himself or else sold to some of the silk factories of the neighbourhood1 where they are immediately reeled off1 or are suffocated in an oven1 and afterwards1 being well aired and dried1 piled up in the magazines of the factory4 ,such is a brief account or history of these cocoons1 of which we were continually encountering horseload after horseload4 ,as you will perceive1 unless suffering from a severe cold in the head1 the odour arising from these cocoons is not the most agreeable2 but this arises partly from the neglect and want of care of the peasants themselves1 who1 reeling off basketful after basketful of cocoons1 suffer the dead insects within to be thrown about and accumulate round the house1 where they putrefy and emit noxious vapours4 ,illustration3 ,,butterflies ,,of ,,palestine4 ,,syrian ,,grayling4 ,,syrian ,,orange-,,tip4 ,,syrian ,,swallow-,,tail4 ,although our limits will not permit the cultivation of the ,silkworm to be described more fully1 it may here be added that all silk-growers are full of superstition regarding the welfare of the caterpillars1 and imagine that they are so sensitive that they will die of fear4 ,the noise of a thunderclap is1 in their estimation1 fatal to ,silkworms2 and the breeders were therefore accustomed to beat drums within the hearing of the ,silkworms1 increasing the loudness of the sound1 and imitating as nearly as possible the crash and roll of thunder1 so that the caterpillars might be familiar with the sound if the thunderstorm should happen to break near them4 ,,flies4 ,flies of ,scripture--,annoyance caused by the ,house-fly--,flies and ophthalmia--,signor ,pierotti's account of the ,flies--,the sovereign remedy against ,flies--,causes of their prevalence4 ,there are two ,hebrew words which are translated as fly4 ,one is zebub1 and the other is arob1 the latter being applied to the flies which were brought upon ,egypt in the great plague4 ,it is probable that some different species is here signified1 but there is no certainty in the matter4 ,any species1 however1 would be a sufficient plague if they exceeded the usual number which infest ,egypt1 and which at first make the life of a foreigner a burden to him4 ,they swarm in such myriads1 that he eats flies1 drinks flies1 and breathes flies4 ,not the least part of the nuisance is1 that they cluster in the eyes of those who are affected with the prevalent ophthalmia1 which is so fertile a cause of blindness1 and so convey the infection with them4 ,a stranger is always struck with the appearance of the children1 who have quantities of these pests upon and about their eyes1 and yet seem perfectly unaffected by a visitation which would wellnigh drive a ,european mad4 ,signor ,pierotti writes feelingly on the subject3-- ,these insects sometimes cause no slight suffering in ,palestine1 as ,i can vouch from my own experience4 ,however large or however small they may be1 a rabid and restless foe1 they attack alike1 and make themselves insufferable in a thousand ways1 in every season and place1 in the house and in the field1 by day and by night4 ,while ,i was encamped near the tents of the ,bedawn1 in the neighbourhood of the ,jordan1 and to the south of ,hebron1 flies were brought in such numbers by the east wind that all1 beasts and men1 were in danger of being choked by them1 as they crept into our ears1 noses1 and mouths1 and all over our bodies4 ,my servant and ,i were the first to fly from the pest1 as we were spotted all over like lepers with the eruption caused by their bites3 the ,bedawn themselves were not slow to follow our example4 ,the flies1 therefore1 still infest ,palestine as they did of old1 except that they are not now so numerous as to compel the chiefs of the villages or tribes 7answering to the kings of the ,pentateuch and ,joshua7 to evacuate the country before them4 ,the ,philistines had a special deity whom they invoked against these pests1 ,baalzebub1 the ,god of ,flies1 whose temple was at ,ekron4 ,the reason of this is evident at the present day1 for the ancient country of the ,philistines is infested with insect plagues1 as ,i experienced to my cost4 ,as1 however1 we had no faith in ,baalzebub1 we were obliged to arm ourselves with fly-traps and stoical patience4 ,many travellers bring with them a perfect druggist's shop from ,europe as a protection against these nuisances1 and leave behind them this only efficacious remedy1 patience4 ,this ,i strongly recommend2 it is very portable1 very cheap1 and equally useful in all climates4 ,it is especially valuable in the case of the insects1 as they are found everywhere in greater or less numbers2 especially in the dwellings1 where they are nourished by the carrion that lies about1 the heaps of rubbish1 the filth of the streets1 the leakage of cesspools and sewers1 the dirt in the houses1 the filthy clothing worn by the people1 and the kind of food they eat4 ,though the country of ,baalzebub is deserted and enslaved1 the flies are still abundant and free1 self-invited guests at the table1 unasked assistants in the kitchen1 tasting everything1 immolating themselves in their gastronomic ardour1 and forming an undesired seasoning in every dish4 ,,gnats4 ,the ,gnat of ,scripture--,straining out the ,gnat and swallowing the camel1 a typographical error--,probable identity of the ,gnat and the mosquito4 ,it has already been stated that only one species of fly is mentioned by name in the ,scriptures4 ,this is the ,gnat1 the name of which occurs in the familiar passage1 ,ye blind guides1 which strain at a gnat and swallow a camel 7,matt1 xxiii4 #bd74 ,illustration3 ,,noxious ,,flies ,,of ,,palestine4 ,,mosquito4 ,,camel ,,fly4 ,i may again mention here that the words strain at ought to have been printed strain out1 the substitution of one for the other being only a typographical error4 ,the allusion is made to a custom which is explained by reference to the preceding article on the fly4 ,in order to avoid taking flies and other insects into the mouth while drinking1 a piece of thin linen stuff was placed over the cup1 so that if any insects1 as was usually the case1 had got into the liquid1 they would be strained out by the linen4 ,whether or not any particular species of insect was signified by the word gnat is very doubtful1 and in all probability the word is only used to express the contrast between the smallest known insects and the largest known beasts4 ,gnats1 especially those species which are popularly known by the word mosquito1 are very plentiful in many parts of ,palestine1 especially those which are near water1 and are as annoying there as in other lands which they inhabit4 ,,the ,,louse4 ,insect parasites--,the plague of ,lice--,its effect on the magicians or priests--,the ,hebrew word ,chinnim--,probability that it may be represented by tick--,habits of the ticks1 their dwellings in dust1 and their effects on man and beast4 ,we close the history of insects mentioned in ,scripture with two parasites of a singularly disagreeable character4 ,with respect to the former of them1 we find it mentioned in the account of the great plagues of ,egypt4 ,after the two plagues of the waters and the frogs1 both of which were imitated by the magicians1 i4e4 the priests1 a third was brought upon ,egypt1 which affected the magicians even more than the people1 for a reason which we shall presently see3-- ,and the ,lord said unto ,moses1 ,say unto ,aaron1 ,stretch out thy rod1 and smite the dust of the land1 that it may become lice1 throughout all the land of ,egypt4 ,and they did so2 for ,aaron stretched out his hand with his rod1 and smote the dust of the earth1 and it became lice in man and in beast2 all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of ,egypt4 ,and the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth lice1 but they could not3 so there were lice upon man and upon beast4 ,now it is hardly possible to conceive a calamity which would have told with greater effect upon the magicians1 by whose advice ,pharoah had resisted the requests of ,moses and ,aaron4 ,living in a land where all1 from the highest to the lowest1 were infested with parasites1 the priests were so much in advance of the laity that they were held polluted if they harboured one single noxious insect upon their persons1 or in their clothing4 ,the clothing1 being linen1 could be kept clean by frequent washing1 while the possibility of the body being infested by parasites was prevented by the custom of shaving the whole of the body1 from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot1 at least once in every three days4 ,it may easily be imagined1 therefore1 how terrible this visitation must have been to such men4 ,as swine to the ,pharisee1 as the flesh of cattle to the ,brahmin1 so was the touch of a parasite to the ,egyptian priest4 ,he was degraded in his own estimation and in that of his fellows4 ,he could perform no sacred offices3 so that1 in fact1 all the idolatrous worship of ,egypt ceased until this particular plague had been withdrawn4 ,we now come to a consideration of the insect which is signified by the ,hebrew word chinnim4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker is of opinion that the word ought to have been translated as ticks1 and for the following reasons3-- ,after quoting the passage which relates to the stretching of ,aaron's rod over the dust1 and the consequence of that action1 he proceeds as follows3 ,now the louse that infests the human body and hair has no connexion whatever with dust1 and1 if subjected to a few hours' exposure to the dry heat of the burning sand1 it would shrivel and die4 ,but a tick is an inhabitant of the dust1 a dry horny insect1 without any apparent moisture in its composition4 ,it lives in hot sand and dust1 where it cannot possibly obtain nourishment until some wretched animal should lie down upon the spot1 and become covered with these horrible vermin4 ,i have frequently seen dry desert places so infested with ticks that the ground was perfectly alive with them1 and it would have been impossible to have rested upon the earth4 ,in such spots1 the passage in ,exodus has frequently seemed to me as bearing reference to these vermin1 which are the greatest enemy to man and beast4 ,it is well known that from the size of a grain of sand1 in their natural state1 they will distend to the size of a hazel nut after having preyed for some days on the body of an animal4 ,granting that this suggestion be the correct one1 as it certainly is the most consistent both with actual facts and with the words of ,holy ,writ1 the plague would lose none of its intensity1 but would1 if anything1 be more horrible4 ,only those who have suffered from them can appreciate the miseries caused by the attack of these ticks1 which cling so tightly that they can scarcely be removed without being torn in pieces1 and without leaving some portion of their head beneath the skin of their victim4 ,man and beast suffer equally from them1 as is implied in the words of ,scripture1 and1 unless they are very cautiously removed1 painful and obstinate is the result of their bites4 ,,the ,,flea4 ,prevalence of the ,flea in the ,east1 and the annoyance caused by them to travellers-,fleas of the ,lebanon--,the ,bey's bedfellows--,the ,pasha at the bath--,use of the word in ,scripture4 ,this active little pest absolutely swarms in the ,east4 ,the inhabitants are so used to the ,fleas that either the insects do not touch them1 or by long custom they become so inured to their attack that the bites are not felt4 ,but every traveller in ,eastern lands has a tale to tell about the ,fleas1 which seem to be accepted as one of the institutions of the country1 and to be contemplated with perfect equanimity4 ,miss ,rogers1 for example1 in her ,domestic ,life in ,palestine1 mentions how she was obliged to stand upon a box in order to be out of the reach of a large company of ,fleas that were hopping about on the floor6 ,mr4 ,urquhart1 experienced ,orientalist as he was1 found on one occasion that the ,fleas were too strong for him4 ,he had forgotten his curtain1 and was invaded by armies of ,fleas1 that marched steadily up the bed and took possession of their prey4 ,the people were quite amused at his complaints1 and said that their ,bey could not sleep without a couple of hundred of them in his bosom4 ,mr4 ,urquhart suggests that these little creatures act as a wholesome irritant to the skin1 and says that the last two mouthfuls of every meal are for the benefit of the ,fleas4 ,in order to show the perfect indifference with which the presence of these little pests is regarded1 ,i quote a passage from ,mr4 ,farley's ,druses of the ,lebanon4 ,he was in a ,turkish bath1 and was much amused at a scene which presented itself4 ,a man1 whose skin resembled old discoloured vellum1 was occupying himself with the somewhat undignified pursuit of pursuing with great eagerness something that1 from the movement of his hands1 seemed continually to elude him1 jumping about and taking refuge in the creases and folds of his shirt1 that was spread out over his lap as he sat cross-legged on his bedstead like a tailor on his board4 ,this oddity was no less a dignitary than a ,pasha4 ,illustration3 ,,scorpion4 ,,the ,,scorpion4 mud walls--,venom of the ,scorpion--,scorpions at sea--,the ,scorpion whip1 and its use--,the ,scorpion ,pass4 ,scorpions are exceedingly common in ,palestine1 and to a novice are a constant source of terror until he learns to be accustomed to them4 ,the appearance of the ,scorpion is too well known to need description1 every one being aware that it is in reality a kind of spider that has the venom claw at the end of its body1 and not in its jaw4 ,as to the rendering of the word akrabbim as ,scorpions1 there has never been any doubt4 ,these unpleasant creatures always manage to insinuate themselves in some crevice1 and an experienced traveller is cautious where the ,scorpions are plentiful1 and will never seat himself in the country until he has ascertained that no ,scorpions are beneath the stones on or near which he is sitting4 ,holes in walls are favourite places of refuge for the ,scorpion1 and are very plentiful1 the mud walls always tumbling down in parts1 and affording homes for ,scorpions1 spiders1 snakes1 and other visitors4 ,the venom of the ,scorpion varies much in potency according to the species and size of the creature1 some of the larger ,scorpions being able to render a man ill for a considerable time1 and even to kill him if he should be a sensitive subject4 ,so much feared were the ,scorpions that one of the chief privileges of the ,apostles and their immediate followers was their immunity from the stings of ,scorpions and the bite of venomous serpents4 ,it is said1 however1 that after a person has been stung once by a ,scorpion1 he suffers comparatively little the second time1 and that if he be stung three or four times1 the only pain that he suffers arises from the puncture4 ,sailors also say that after a week at sea the poison of the ,scorpion loses its power1 and that they care nothing for the ,scorpions which are sure to come on board inside the bundles of firewood4 ,those passages which mention the venom of the ,scorpion are numerous1 though most1 if not all1 of them occur in the ,new ,testament4 ,see ,rev4 ix4 #e3 ,and to them it was given that they should not kill them1 but that they should be tormented five months1 and their torment was as the torment of a scorpion1 when he striketh a man4 ,also ver4 #aj of the same chapter3 ,and they had tails like unto scorpions3 and there were stings in their tails3 and their power was to hurt men five months4 ,there is1 also1 the well-known saying of our ,lord1 ,if a son shall ask an egg1 will he offer him a scorpion8 7,luke xi4 #ab47 ,and in the preceding chapter of the same ,evangelist ,scorpions are classed with serpents in their power of injury3 ,behold1 ,i give unto you power to tread on serpents and scorpions1 and over all the power of the enemy2 and nothing shall by any means hurt you4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is another reference to the ,scorpion in the ,old ,testament1 which requires an explanation4 ,it forms part of the rash counsel given to ,rehoboam by his friends3 ,my father made your yoke heavy1 and ,i will add to your yoke2 my father also chastised you with whips1 but ,i will chastise you with scorpions4 ,the general tenor of this passage is evident enough1 namely1 that he intended to be far more severe than his father had been4 ,but his words assume a new force when we remember that there was a kind of whip called a ,scorpion4 ,this terrible instrument was made for the express purpose of punishing slaves1 so that the mere mention of it was an insult4 ,it consisted of several thongs1 each of which was loaded with knobs of metal1 and tipped with a metal hook1 so that it resembled the jointed and hooked tail of the ,scorpion4 ,this dreadful instrument of torture could kill a man by a few blows1 and it was even used in combats in the amphitheatre1 a gladiator armed with a ,scorpion being matched against one armed with a spear4 ,,the ,,spider4 ,spiders of ,palestine4 ,there are very many species of ,spider in ,palestine2 some which spin webs1 like the common ,garden ,spider1 some which dig subterranean cells and make doors in them1 like the well-known ,trap-door ,spider of ,southern ,europe1 and some which have no webs1 but chase their prey upon the ground1 like the ,wolf and ,hunting ,spiders4 ,,the ,,horse ,,leech4 ,signification of the word ,alukah--,leeches in ,palestine--,the horse and the ,leech4 ,in ,prov4 xxx4 #ae there is a word which only occurs once in the ,scriptures4 ,this is alukah1 which is translated as horse-leech4 ,the horseleech hath two daughters1 crying1 ,give1 give4 ,the ,leeches are very common in ,palestine1 and infest the rivers to such an extent that they enter the nostrils of animals who come to drink1 and cause great annoyance and even danger4 ,the following anecdote1 related by ,mr4 ,h4 ,dixon in his ,holy ,land1 gives us a good idea of the prevalence of the ,leeches1 and the tenacity with which they retain their hold3-- ,at ,beit-,dejan1 on a slight twist in the road1 we find the wheel and well1 and hear a delicious plash and rustle in the troughs4 ,to slip from my seat to dip ,sabeah's nose into the fluid is the work of a second2 but no sooner has she lapped up a mouthful of water1 than one sees that the refuse falling back from her lips into the tank is dabbled and red4 ,opening her mouth1 ,i find a gorged leech dangling from her gum4 ,but the reptile being swept off1 and the mare's nose dipt into the cooling stream1 the blood still flows from between her teeth1 and1 forcing them open1 ,i find two other leeches lodged in the roof of her mouth4 ,poor little beast6 how grateful and relieved she seems1 how gay1 how gentle1 when ,i have torn these suckers from her flesh1 and soused the water about her wounds2 and how my hunting-whip yearns to descend upon the shoulders of that laughing and careless ,nubian slave6 ,persons passing through the river are also attacked by them1 and1 if they have a delicate skin1 suffer greatly4 ,illustration3 ,,coral4 ,,sponge ,,and ,,coral4 ,use of the ,sponge in ,scripture--,probability that the ancient ,jews were acquainted with it--,sponges of the ,mediterranean--,the ,coral1 and its value--,signification of the word ,ramoth4 ,there is little to be said on either of these subjects4 ,sponge is only mentioned with reference to the events of the ,crucifixion1 where it is related that a soldier placed a sponge upon hyssop1 dipped it in vinegar 7i4e4 the acid wine issued to the ,roman soldiers71 and held it to the ,lord's lips4 ,there is little doubt that the ancient ,hebrews were fully aware of the value of the ,sponge1 which they could obtain from the ,mediterranean which skirted all their western coasts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,coral is mentioned in two passages of ,scripture3 ,no mention shall be made of coral1 or of pearls 7,job xxviii4 #ah74 ,the second occurrence of the word is in ,ezek4 xxvii4 #af3 ,they occupied in thy fairs with emeralds1 purple1 and broidered work1 and fine linen1 and coral1 and agate4 ,this ,coral1 which is described as being brought from ,syria1 was probably that of the ,red ,sea1 where the ,coral abounds1 and where it attains the greatest perfection4 ,illustration3 roses ,,the ,,end4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,,page ,addax1 #aga-agc ,adder1 #fbh ,ant1 #fga agricultural1 #fgb habits of1 #fgd cocoon1 #fge ,aoudad1 #bab-bae ,ape1 #chg brought by ,solomon1 #chi worshipped in ,india1 #cij-cie ,apis1 #ade ,ass1 #cae domesticated1 #cae royal1 #caf treatment of1 #cai saddle1 #cba in ,cairo1 #cbc uses of1 #cbf wild1 #cbh ,b4 ,badger1 #if skins for tabernacle1 #if-aab skins for robes and sandals1 #ig nocturnal in habits1 #ajj ,barbel1 long-headed1 #fci ,bat1 #dja ,bear1 ,syrian1 #ajc omnivorous1 #ajf a dangerous enemy1 #ajh robbed of whelps1 #aaj mode of fighting1 #aaj ,beden1 #bcc-bcg ,bee1 #ffd banded1 #ffd hives1 #ffg honey1 #ffg ,behemoth1 #cgb food1 #cgf hunted1 #chj ,bison1 #afj ,bittern1 #ecf haunts waste places1 #ech cry1 #ech nest1 #edj ,blue thrush1 #dha ,boer hunting the lion1 #cf-da ,bottles1 skin1 #bba-bbe ,bubale1 #agc-age ,buffalo1 #adi ,bull1 #adb wild1 #aeb hunted with nets1 #aec ,c4 ,calf1 #acd fatted1 #ace worshipped1 #adf1 #adh ,camel1 #bdh ,arabian1 #bdh ,bactrian1 #bdh1 #bhf-bij milk of1 #bea power of carrying water1 #beb flesh1 #bed as beast of burden1 #bee-beh riding1 #bei-bfh speed1 #bfi malice of1 #bgc food1 #bgg-bhj foot1 #bhj hair and skin1 #bhc needle's eye1 #bhd ,caspian emys1 #ehj hibernates1 #eha terror to horses1 #eha legends1 #ehb ,cattle1 #acb ,cerastes1 #fbd ,chameleon1 #fjb strength of grasp1 #fjg eyes1 #fjg change of color1 #fjh ,chamois1 #baa ,chariots1 #cjj-caa ,chetah1 #db ,cobra di capello1 #faf ,cockatrice1 #fbh ,coney1 #cff ruminant1 #cfh watchful1 #cgj ,coral1 #fie ,cormorant1 #efc fishing1 #efd voracious1 #efe in ,china1 #efe nests1 #eff ,coryphene1 #fda ,crane1 #edi ,crocodile1 #ehe description in ,job1 #ehf worshipped by ,egyptians1 #ehi seizing its prey1 #eib eggs1 #eie hunting1 #eih ,cuckoo1 #dhg great spotted1 #dhh ,cyprius1 #fjb ,d4 ,deer1 #bch hunted1 #bdd watchfulness of1 #bdd-bdf ,deloul1 #bfh ,dhubb1 #ehc ,dishon1 #aga ,dove1 #dhi turtle1 #dhi1 #dif ,noah's1 #dij in sacrifice1 #dia carrier1 #dic blue rock1 #die collared turtle1 #dig palm1 #dig ,barbary1 #dig ,e4 ,eagle1 #dcj golden1 #dcc short-toed1 #dcd ,egret1 #edh ,egyptian mastigure1 #ehc ,elephant1 #cdi ivory1 #cdi in war1 #ceb in hunting1 #cfb ,f4 ,falcon1 peregrine1 #dde lanner1 #dde ,fallow deer1 #agc-age ,field-mouse1 #aba-abd ,fishes1 #fce-fdh apostolic fishermen1 #fce as food1 #fcg manner of catching1 #fdc as symbols1 #fdf ,flea1 #fhh ,flies1 #fhc god of1 #fhd ,frogs1 #fcj plague of1 #fca green1 #fcb edible1 #fcb ,fox1 #gf plentiful in ,palestine1 #gg feeds upon the slain1 #gh ,samson's foxes1 #gh-he ,g4 ,gazelle1 #afc mode of defence1 #afe manner of capture1 #aff chase of1 #aff-agj ,gecko1 #fje ,gier-eagle1 #dai ,gnats1 #fhe ,goad1 #acg ,goat1 #bag as food1 #bag-bai milking-scene1 #bbj hair for clothing1 #bbj skin bottles1 #bba-bbe kneading-troughs1 #bbe scapegoat1 #bbf intractable1 #bbg separated from sheep1 #bbg-bbi ,h4 ,hamster1 #abd ,hare1 #abf not a ruminant1 #abg two species in ,palestine1 #aca ,hart1 #bee ,hawk1 #ddg sparrow1 #ddh harrier1 #dea white1 #dec dove1 #dec blue1 #dec ring-tailed1 #dec night1 #dfb ,herdsmen1 #add ,arab1 #agg ,heron1 #edb as food1 #edb sociable1 #edd flight1 #edf nest1 #edg ,hind1 #bee ,hippopotamus1 #cgd ,honey1 #ffg ,hoopoe1 #dgf legend of1 #dgg ,hornet1 #ffi ,horse1 #bia ,arab1 #bia hoofs1 #bie sale of ,arab1 #bif-cjj chariots1 #cjj ,horse-leech1 #fic ,house-top1 #dhj ,hyacinthine gallinule1 #efj ,hyna1 #he as scavenger1 #hf-hh haunting graves1 #hh odour of1 #hi superstitions concerning1 #ij ,hyrax1 #cff ,i4 ,ibex1 #bcc-bcf ,ibis1 white or sacred1 #efb ,ichneumon1 #eif ,insects1 #feg ,ivory1 #cdi-ceb ,j4 ,jackal1 #gf ,jerboa1 #abe ,k4 ,kestrel1 #ddi ,kite1 #ddj red1 #dda black1 #ddb ,kneading-troughs1 #bbe ,l4 ,lmmergeier1 #daa food1 #dad bone-breaker1 #dad ,lapwing1 #dgf ,leviathan1 #ehe ,lizard1 #fjb ,locust1 #feg swarms1 #feh plague of1 #ffj as food1 #ffa ,louse1 #fhf ,lump-fish1 #fda ,m4 ,mole1 #aad hard to capture1 #aaf frequents ruins1 #aag food1 #aah ,molluscs1 #fdh ,monitor1 #fje ,nilotic1 #faj land1 #faj ,monkey1 #chg ,mosquito1 #fhf ,mouflon1 #bae ,mouse1 #aai voracity1 #aai ,mule1 #ccc ridden by kings1 #cce perverse1 #ccf ,murna1 #fci ,moth1 clothes1 #fgh silkworm1 #fhj ,n4 ,night-hawk1 #dfb ,nightjar1 #dfb cry1 #dfd ,nile-perch1 #fdg ,nineveh1 sculptures of1 #cd ,o4 ,oryx1 #aed-aef ,osprey1 #dcf fishing1 #dcf flight1 #dch ,ossifrage1 #daa ,ostrich1 #ebc neglect of young1 #ebf-ebh nest in sand1 #ebf chase1 #ebi scent1 #ecj speed1 #eca as food1 #ecb eggs1 #ecd cry1 #eca ,ounce1 #db ,owl1 #ded use in bird-catching1 #dee little1 #dee barn1 #dee screech1 #def great1 #def ,egyptian eagle1 #deh ,european eagle1 #deh ,virginian eared1 #deh ,ox1 #acc stalled1 #acc yoke1 #acf plough1 #acf goad1 #acg threshing1 #ach cart1 #aci pasturage1 #ada worshipped1 #adh ,p4 ,palestine1 #dgj ,partridge1 #eje desert1 #ejg ,passover1 #bjd ,samaritan1 #bje-baj ,peacock1 #eja ,pearl1 #fec ,pelican1 #efg pouch1 #efi feeding young1 #egj legends1 #egj flight1 #egb crested1 #egc ,pigeon1 #dhi ,plough1 #acf ,porcupine1 #aac ,poultry1 #dih ,purple dye1 #fdi ,pygarg1 #aga ,q4 ,quail1 #eji sent to ,israelites1 #eaj flight1 #eaa as food1 #eaa mode of capture1 #eab ,r4 ,rams' horns1 #bja-bjc ,raven1 #eaf in ark1 #eaf sent to ,elijah1 #eah notices of1 in ,talmud1 #eai ashy-necked1 #ebj in ,jerusalem1 #ebj ,s4 ,scheltopusic1 #fjc ,scorpion1 #fij ,serpents1 #fac motion1 #fad poison1 #fae sluggish1 #fbj anecdotes of1 #fbj ,sheat-fishes1 #fcg ,sheep1 #agg pasturage1 #agg watering1 #ahj names1 #ahf folds1 #ahi-aia dogs1 #aia broad-tailed1 #aid uses of1 #aig in sacrifice1 #bjc ,shepherds1 #ahe sling1 #ahe care of flock1 #ahh ,shephiphon1 #fbd ,silkworm1 #fha ,skink1 #fjc ,snail1 #feb ,snake1 glass1 #fjc dart1 #faf charmer1 #fag ,sparrow1 #dgi on house-tops1 #dhj value of1 #dhc caught with nets1 #dhd nests1 #dhe tree1 #dhf ,spider1 #fib ,sponge1 #fid ,star-gazer1 #fdg ,stork1 #eec sacred1 #eed migratory1 #eef care of young1 #eeg black1 #eeh ,sucking-fish1 #fdj ,surmullet1 #fdh ,swallow1 #dff swift1 #dgj1 #dgd ,swan1 #efj ,swine1 #ccg prohibited to ,jews1 #ccg hated1 #cch wild1 #ccd ,t4 ,threshing1 #ach ,tortoise1 #egg as food1 #egg slow-motioned1 #egi ,toxicoa1 #fbg ,tunny1 #fda ,u4 ,unicorn1 #aeh a real animal1 #aei ,v4 ,viper1 horned1 #fbd sand1 #fbg ,vulture1 ,egyptian1 #dai scavengers1 #dba griffon1 #dbc ,w4 ,wanderoo1 #cie-djj ,weasel1 #ib fond of eggs1 #id story of owl and weasel1 #id ,wild bull1 #aeb goat1 #bcc ass1 #cbh boar1 #cdd ,wind-hover1 #ddi ,wolf1 #fi only mentioned symbolically1 #fi hunting in packs1 #ga fierceness of1 #ga special enemy of sheep1 #gb tamed by a monk1 #ge ,wool1 #aii ,worm1 crimson1 #fgf ,y4 ,yoke1 #acf ,,the ,,home ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,story of the ,bible ,surpasses in ,value and ,completeness ,all ,former ,editions of this ,standard ,work4 ,it contains fine ,colored ,illustrations4 ,it contains a ,map of the ,bible ,lands4 ,it contains a ,steel ,plate ,engraving after ,rembrandt 7engraved expressly for the ,frontispiece74 ,it is printed on extra heavy paper1 and bound in rich and attractive style4 ,,the ,,home ,,edition of the ,story of the ,bible4 ,gives admirers of the book an opportunity to procure it in a handsomer form1 either for presentation to friends or for use at home4 ,the ,,cover of this edition bears an appropriate and ornamental design in gold and color4 ,the ,,inside is no less attractive than the outside4 ,on opening it1 the ,,illuminated ,,presentation ,,page first meets the eye4 ,this is followed by the beautiful ,,steel ,,plate ,,engraving ,,of ,,jacob',s ,,dream1 as a ,frontispiece4 ,a double page ,,colored ,,map comes next1 showing countries and places mentioned in the ,bible4 ,,six ,,richly ,,colored ,,plates1 with #cjj ,,engravings1 illustrating the principal scenes and events narrated in the book1 are distributed throughout its pages1 from beginning to end4 ,,for ,,sale by the same ,dealer from whom this book is obtained4 ,the ,story of the ,gospel4 ,by ,,charles ,,foster1 ,author of the ,story of the ,bible4 #cfj ,pages4 #afmo4 ,with #aej ,illustrations1 and a ,frontispiece in ,colors4 ,the ,new ,testament in simple form for ,children4 ,written in ,language easy to understand4 ,printed in large1 plain type1 and filled with ,pictures4 #ajjth ,,thousand ,,now ,,selling4 ,the ,author of the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,bible1 after publishing that work1 found that a smaller and still simpler book on the ,new ,testament alone1 was needed4 ,he therefore prepared the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,gospel1 which contains the ,life of ,christ written in a style easily understood by children1 and illustrated by a large number of excellent wood engravings4 ,from ,rev4 ,m4 ,a4 ,,goodell1 ,northwood1 ,iowa4 ,i am much pleased with the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,gospel4 ,the illustrations are excellent4 ,the ,story is told in beautiful language1 and in such a way that very difficult points are made plain even to children4 ,it is also a good commentary on the ,word for older persons1 and should be in every family4 ,i lent my copy of the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,gospel to the teacher of the ,primary ,department in our public school1 who used it instead of the ,bible in opening school1 and after a few days said she could not do without it4 ,,for ,,sale by the same ,dealer from whom this book is obtained4 ,,first ,,steps ,,for ,,little ,,feet ,,in ,,gospel ,,paths4 #cbh ,pages4 #afmo4 ,with ,colored ,frontispiece and #adj ,illustrations4 ,by ,,charles ,,foster1 ,author of the ,story of the ,bible4 ,there still remained one class of learners whose wants were not supplied by either the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,bible or the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,gospel4 ,these were the little ones in the ,nursery1 the ,infant ,school1 and the ,kinder-,garten4 ,for their instruction the author has prepared a third book1 ,,first ,,steps ,,for ,,little ,,feet ,,in ,,gospel ,,paths4 ,this book is arranged on a different plan from either of the preceding4 ,instead of being divided into ,chapters1 it consists of separate passages or ,lessons1 most of them quite short1 and each one complete in itself4 ,each ,lesson is followed by ,questions so simple that the little hearers1 if attentive when the passage is read1 may readily answer them4 ,from ,robert ,w4 ,fenwick1 ,president of the ,washington ,frebel ,society1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,to ,,the ,,publisher3 ,i am the grateful recipient of a nicely-bound1 well-printed and illustrated work entitled ,first ,steps4 ,upon an examination of it1 ,i feel that every ,kinder-,garten teacher should possess this gem of a book for little children4 ,its simple presentation of great truths and facts1 in words as well as in pictures1 should be brought home to the heart of every child by the parent or teacher2 and1 this done1 the coming generation will be wiser and better than the past4 ,i am thankful 7as ,president of the ,washington ,frebel ,society1 having under its care the ,bethany ,free ,kinder-,garten7 that this book has reached me4 ,,for ,,sale by the same ,dealer from whom this book is obtained4 ,,new ,,lights --,,on-- ,,old ,,paths4 ,by ,charles ,foster1 ,author of the ,story of the ,bible1 ,etc4 ,,quarto1 #dif ,,pages4 #cej ,,illustrations4 ,the author of the stories contained in this beautiful book has given life and power of speech to many of the inanimate objects which we meet in every-day life4 ,the ,well in the ,yard1 the ,gate and ,gate-,post1 the ,brook and ,water-,wheel1 with other familiar things1 give their impressions1 in these charming and original tales1 of what takes place around them1 and speak to one another with audible voice4 ,if the reader will listen to what they say1 he will learn some valuable lessons1 and perhaps receive advice that will help him in days to come4 ,many familiar places and oft-trodden paths will be given a new interest by reading some of the stories contained in this book4 ,objects that have been familiar for years1 and which have never caused a moment's reflection as they were carelessly passed by1 will now have a new significance1 and whenever seen will connect themselves with the imaginary parts they play in this volume4 ,in appearance the book is an unusually handsome one1 being ,,tastefully ,,bound ,,and ,,profusely ,,illustrated4 ,it contains #cej ,,pictures which in artistic merit1 interest1 and faithful portrayal of the scenes described in the text1 are unsurpassed by any book of its class4 ,office of ,charles ,foster's ,publications1 #aah ,s4 ,seventh ,st41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,illustration3 cover ,new ,lights on ,old ,paths ,,new ,,lights --,,on-- ,,old ,,paths4 ,by ,,charles ,,foster1 ,author of the ,story of the ,bible1 ,etc4 ,,quarto1 #dif ,,pages4 #cej ,,illustrations4 ,office of ,charles ,foster's ,publications1 #aah ,s4 ,seventh ,st41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,bible ,,pictures --,,and-- ,,what ,,they ,,teach ,,us4 ,containing #cab ,illustrations from the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 ,,with ,,brief ,,descriptions ,by ,,charles ,,foster1 ,author of the ,story of the ,bible4 ,quarto1 #bcb ,pages1 #cab ,engravings1 printed on extra heavy calendered paper1 and bound in ,english cloth1 black side stamp1 gilt title on back4 ,the ,collection of ,bible ,pictures contained in this book is probably one of the most complete that has ever been brought together in one volume4 ,in preparing the work1 the greatest care has been observed to use only such designs as will adequately illustrate the ,bible scenes and fittingly portray the principal events in ,bible history4 ,it has been a matter of great difficulty to obtain so large a number of pictures of the necessary merit1 as illustrations of ,bible subjects present peculiar difficulties to the artist4 ,while preserving the freedom of style and vigor of treatment necessary to give life to his designs and reality to the varied scenes of the ,scripture narrative1 he must preserve for them a feeling of reverence and endow them with a dignity worthy of their sacred character4 ,a large number of the pictures in this book are reproduced from designs by foreign artists who have been celebrated for their skill in this branch of art4 ,others are by artists in this country4 ,all the pictures have been personally selected by1 or else drawn under the direction of1 the author1 who has spent years of labor and thousands of dollars in forming this collection4 ,many of the engravings in ,,bible ,,pictures were first obtained and used for illustrating the ,story of the ,bible and the ,story of the ,gospel1 two former books by the same author4 ,other new engravings have been added1 and the whole set1 ,,three ,,hundred ,,and ,,twelve in number1 are now brought together in this one volume1 in which the broad pages 7#h #i-c_/d inches71 fine1 heavy paper and careful printing1 display their artistic excellence to the best advantage4 ,the book forms a complete pictorial history of the main portion of the ,bible4 ,many parts are so fully illustrated that the narrative can be followed and understood by merely looking at the series of pictures which illustrate them1 so that children unable to read may obtain a fair idea of the nature and sequence of ,bible events1 by simply turning over the pages4 ,the book1 however1 is by no means merely a picture book4 ,a lucid and brief explanation1 written by the author of the ,story of the ,bible1 accompanies each picture1 on the same page1 or on the page immediately facing it1 so that the picture and the explanation appear simultaneously to the eye4 ,,for ,,sale by the same ,dealer from whom this book is obtained4 ,illustration3 cover ,bible ,pictures ,,bible ,,pictures1 ,,and ,,what ,,they ,,teach ,,us4 ,a ,book containing #cab ,illustrations from the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 with brief descriptions4 ,by ,,charles ,,foster1 ,author of the ,story of the ,bible1 etc4 ,quarto1 #bcb ,pages1 #cab ,engravings1 printed on extra heavy calendered paper and bound in ,english cloth1 ornamental side and back stamp4 ,charles ,foster's ,publications1 #aah ,s4 ,seventh ,st41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 --,,the-- ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,bible ,,animals4 #gjd ,pages4 #cjj ,illustrations4 ,this book contains a description of each animal mentioned in the ,bible1 and tells of its appearance1 its habits and the use to which it was put by mankind4 ,the importance of understanding the nature of these animals1 as a means of making clear the ,scriptures1 will be readily seen when it is remembered how frequently they are mentioned in the ,bible1 and how different many of them must be from those which we are accustomed to see4 ,some passages in the ,bible which have formerly possessed little or no meaning to the ordinary reader will have a new significance after the ,story of the ,bible ,animals has been read1 and the descriptions which it contains of the animals of the ,east1 and the habits of ,eastern people1 have become familiar4 ,the book is not only interesting and instructive from the stories which it contains on the ever-popular subject of ,natural ,history1 but it also presents a vivid description of life in the ,bible lands4 ,it describes the appearance at the present time of many of the places mentioned in the ,bible1 as well as the manners and customs of the people who dwell there4 ,adventures of modern travellers in these unfamiliar and seldom-trodden paths form an important part of the book and are of absorbing interest1 presenting to the reader a graphic picture of life in the ,holy ,land as it is to-day4 ,in the never-changing ,east this is in many respects a counterpart of the times in which the ,bible was written4 ,the ,arab as he speeds across the desert upon his swift dromedary1 or sits at the door of his tent watching his flocks and herds1 retains many of the customs which prevailed in the time of ,abraham4 ,the wild animals of these countries still roam through the forests and are hunted and slain by mankind4 ,the crocodile and hippopotamus of the ,nile are yet found in that mighty river1 and yield their lives to the courage and skill of modern hunters as did those of old4 ,these scenes are vividly portrayed in the ,story of the ,bible ,animals by travellers who have taken an active part in the adventures which they narrate1 and who are thus able to adequately describe incidents that will be new and strange to most readers4 ,the book is also a valuable commentary on many portions of the ,bible1 for without some knowledge of the matters upon which it treats1 the point of many passages of ,scripture must either be entirely missed or else wrongly interpreted4 ,office of ,charles ,foster's ,publications1 #aah ,s4 ,seventh ,st41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,minor typographical errors have been corrected without note4 ,irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed4 ,the illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up paragraphs1 thus the page number of the illustration might not match the page number in the ,list of ,illustrations4