,,the ,,mosaic ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,creation ,,of ,,the ,,world2 ,,illustrated ,,by ,,discoveries ,,and ,,experiments ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,present ,,enlightened ,,state ,,of ,,science2 ,,with ,,reflections1 ,,intended ,,to ,,promote ,,vital ,,and ,,practical ,,religion4 ,,by ,,thomas ,,wood1 ,a4 ,m4 ,,revised ,,and ,,improved ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,j4 ,p4 ,,durbin1 ,a4 ,m4 ,,professor ,,of ,,languages1 ,,augusta ,,college1 ,,kentucky4 8,every man has a particular train of thought into which his mind falls1 when at leisure1 from the impressions and ideas which occasionally excite it2 and if one train of thinking be more desirable than another1 it is surely that which regards the phenomena of nature with a constant reference to a supreme intelligent author40--,bacon4 ,,first ,,american1 ,,from ,,the ,,second ,,london ,,edition4 ,,new-,,york4--,m,c,,elrath ,,bangs4 #ahca4 ,entered1 according to the ,act of ,congress1 ,july #bg1 in the year #ahca1 by ,mc,elrath ,bangs1 in the ,office of the ,clerk of the ,southern ,district of ,new-,york4 ,,john ,t4 ,,west ,,co41 ,,printers4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,london ,,edition4 ,as ,god made man with a capacity susceptible of knowledge1 so has he furnished him with the means of acquiring it4 ,the ,divine ,being is incomprehensible to all but himself3 for a finite capacity can never fully grasp an infinite object4 ,neither can he be perceived at all1 only so far as he is pleased to reveal himself4 ,he has given us a revelation of his nature1 perfections1 and will2 which could never have been discovered by reasoning and conjecture4 ,he has also favored us with a revelation of his works1 without which the origin1 constitution1 and nature of the universe1 could never have been adequately known4 ,the origin1 duty1 and interest of man1 are matters in which we are greatly concerned4 ,how valuable then are the ,sacred ,scriptures6 ,the heathen world by wisdom knew not ,god4 ,on theological subjects1 the greatest ,philosophers and ,poets of whom antiquity could boast1 were puerile in their opinions1 and absurd and contradictory in their literary productions4 ,their progress in many of the sciences1 and the polite arts1 was considerable2 but in religion they made none3 not because they neglected to investigate the nature of it1 as one observes2 for there was not a subject they thought on1 nor discoursed about1 more than the nature and existence of the gods2 neither was it for want of natural abilities1 nor of learning2 for persons who formed the brightest constellation of geniuses that ever illuminated the republic of letters1 were devoted to the investigation of the principles and causes of things4 ,moses1 the sacred historian1 had access to the ,fountain of knowledge1 and has revealed the mystery that lay hid for ages1 because he was taught it by the inspiration of the ,almighty4 ,by the ,hebrew ,lawgiver we are instructed concerning the ,creation of the ,world2 an illustration of whose account is attempted in the following pages4 ,the attention of the reader is called to that era when the elementary principles of matter were first produced1 and the formation of creatures took place2 when vitality was given to a vast variety of animals1 and mind was infused into ,man as the peculiar offspring of ,god3 when motion was impressed on the universe1 and the various ,planets began their orbicular revolutions3 when ,time commenced1 and 8,history1 not wanted yet1 ,lean'd on her elbow watching ,time1 whose course ,eventful should supply her with a theme40 ,what a stupendous fabric is ,creation6 a marvellous display of omnipotence6 ,it is infinitely diversified1 and magnificently grand4 ,ten thousand objects strike the attentive eye1 and afford inexpressible delight to a contemplative mind4 ,the blue ethereal arch is highly illuminated1 and richly adorned with sparkling globes of light--whose number1 distances1 magnitudes1 motions1 and influences1 elude the most diligent research3 these millions of suns1 the glory of other worlds1 are equally the works of the ,creator1 and1 with rays of dazzling splendor1 irradiate the peculiar systems to which they belong3 and1 while they celebrate his wisdom and power1 form a brilliant canopy over our heads4 ,that golden globe of light1 which is the center of our planetary system1 shines forth in his glory1 and spreads abroad the lucid day3 he does not only emit his cheering rays to surrounding orbs1 some of which revolve at immense distances1 but1 in running his prescribed course1 measures out our time1 renders our hours joyful1 and without whose reviving beams we should dwell in perpetual darkness4 ,the pale silver ,moon gilds the shadows of the evening1 and directs the feet of the benighted and lonely traveller in safety to his abode4 ,in the lower walks of ,nature1 we perceive numerous assemblages of creatures1 which1 calling forth the exercise of our understanding1 raise our admiration4 ,the vapors arise1 unite in the aerial regions1 and descend in rain1 snow1 or hail1 according to the different temperature of the climates2 and thus the valleys are watered1 the green carpet is spread under our feet1 delightfully adorned with fruitful trees and variegated flowers4 ,the vast collections of water1 called seas1 are stored with innumerable finny inhabitants1 both small and great1 which are amply supplied with necessary food4 ,on earth1 there are the wild beasts of the forest1 the roaming cattle of the desert1 the domestic animals of the field1 the feathered tribes with their glossy plumage and delightful notes1 beside an incredible number of living creatures that escape the utmost vigilance of the unassisted eye3 which are all effects of infinite skill1 omnipotent energy1 ,divine munificence1 and conspire to utter his praise4 ,the sultry regions are fanned with cooling breezes1 which revive the numerous classes of creatures1 and without which they would otherwise faint4 ,but of all the visible effects of omnific power and uncreated goodness1 ,man has a claim to the first rank1 for in his composition are mysteriously joined both matter and spirit4 ,how wonderfully has ,god displayed his wisdom1 power1 and goodness1 in the creation of the ,universe6 ,what are the most labored and diversified works of ,art1 when compared with the majestic grandeur and sublimity of those of ,nature6 ,the things on which the fertile imagination of man has long been employed1 when considered in a detached point of view1 gratify our curiosity1 raise our admiration1 and gain our applause2 but when compared with the productions of the ,divine ,hand1 they sink and are deprived of their lustre1 like the sparkling glow-worm in the copse1 when the ,sun shines forth with the refulgence of his meridian splendor4 ,religious instruction is here mixed with philosophical discoveries4 ,the works of ,nature conduct an enlightened mind to the great ,creator4 ,the celebrated ,dr4 ,watts1 with this point in view1 says1 8,part of thy name divinely stands1 ,on all thy creatures writ1 ,they show the labor of thy hands1 ,or impress of thy feet40 ,mr4 ,adams1 in his ,lectures1 says1 8,the two kingdoms of nature and grace1 as two parallel lines1 correspond to each other1 follow a like course1 but can never be made to touch4 ,an adequate understanding of this distinction in all its branches1 would be the consummation of knowledge40 ,stephens1 in his ,human ,nature ,delineated1 says1 8,the man who would seek after knowledge in this world1 and happiness in the world of spirits1 ,i would advise to pursue his studies without any other guides than the ,word and the ,works of ,god40 ,and ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 on ,john iv1 #c1 affirms1 that1 8properly understood1 earthly substances are the types1 representatives1 and shadows of heavenly things40 ,st4 ,paul appears to inculcate this idea where he says1 8,now we see as through a glass1 darkly3 but then face to face40 ,the word 1 rendered darkly1 is peculiarly important1 and the right knowledge of which will assist us to understand his meaning4 ,parkhurst gives the following definition of the term and the thing4 8 from 1 the perfect passive1 of 1 to hint1 intimate1 signify with some degree of obscurity2 an enigma1 in which one thing answers or stands in correspondence to1 or as the representative of another2 which is1 in some respects1 similar to it1 occurs #a ,cor4 xiii1 #ab4 ,now1 in this life1 we see by means of a mirror reflecting the images of heavenly and spiritual things1 1 in an enigmatical manner1 invisible things being represented by visible2 spiritual1 by natural2 eternal1 by temporal2 but then1 in the eternal world1 face to face2 every thing being seen in itself1 and not by means of a representative or similitude40 ,the idea thus suggested1 induced the author to engage in the following work3 he thought that if the ,mosaic account of the ,creation were given in detail1 each day apart1 using the aid afforded by the present enlightened state of science1 and directing the reader to look 8,through ,nature1 up to ,nature's ,god40 the work would be instructive1 and might tend to cultivate the mind and amend the heart4 ,and he is happy that he has it in his power to say1 that the plan has obtained not only the general approbation of orthodox and pious ,christians1 but the warm encomiums of many ,ministers of the ,gospel1 both of the ,establishment and among the ,dissenters4 ,he has received very flattering ,epistolary ,communications from persons of piety1 literature1 and science4 ,the author has availed himself of various sources of information3 some of the best works published on different illustrative subjects have been consulted3 and those on ,natural ,history and ,chemical ,science were found of considerable service4 ,that part which treats on the ,anatomical structure of ,man1 the reader will perceive is written by a gentleman deeply versed in ,physiological science4 ,it is from the pen of the late ,benjamin ,gibson1 ,esq4 who filled the important situations of ,vice-,president of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,society of ,manchester1 and ,surgeon to the ,infirmary of that town3 and who1 unexpectedly1 and in the most obliging manner1 offered to prepare a ,manuscript for this work1 which gives it a peculiar excellence it otherwise would not have had4 ,the favorable reception which the former large edition has met with from the public1 and the consequent demand there was upon the author to prepare a new one1 produced a considerable excitement in his mind2 and1 under these circumstances1 it was not less his wish1 than it has been his endeavor1 to make the second edition more worthy to meet the public eye1 as well as more extensively useful4 ,the whole of the work1 with the exception of that part by ,mr4 ,gibson1 therefore1 has been written anew1 and such important additions and arrangements made1 as will1 he trusts1 meet the approbation of his readers4 ,he has received assistance from a writer of eminence1 whose name1 were he at liberty to mention it1 would do honor to his work1 and whose corrections have increased its value4 ,the ,religious ,improvements he believes to be natural and scriptural1 and hopes they may be read with advantage by all ,christians who have received the truth as it is in ,christ4 ,he can say1 that he has endeavored to make the whole work both instructive and useful1 so far as his leisure from arduous ministerial duties would allow him3 by directing the attention of the reader to ,god1 through the medium of his visible works1 and by that means to inculcate true religion and genuine piety4 ,may the ,divine blessing render this additional effort successful6 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,american ,,edition4 ,this work1 which is now presented to the public1 has not been reprinted in ,america heretofore1 notwithstanding it passed through two editions in ,england1 with honorable approbation1 in a short space of time4 ,this first ,american edition1 it is confidently believed1 will be received with approbation2 because the work will be found1 on perusal1 to answer to its title2 and surely no subject can interest the ,christian and intelligent reader more deeply1 than the illustration of the creation of the world1 as recorded by ,moses1 the servant of ,god4 ,this volume inspires a deeper interest when the reader is promised that the illustration of this splendid subject shall be by means of the discoveries drawn from the present enlightened state of science4 ,thus the reader will see clearly confirmed this glorious truth3 ,religion and ,literature are mutual helpmates to the knowledge1 love1 and glory of ,god4 ,this important truth has been strangely obscured for several ages2 but is now emerging to light with increased splendor4 ,nor is it important to inquire1 at this stage of mental improvement throughout the civilized world1 the cause of its obscuration1 but rather to rejoice1 that it is now assuming its place as a fundamental principle in sound philosophy4 ,it is the duty of every benevolent individual to contribute according to his ability1 to an inseparable union of sound literature and vital religion4 ,the one will secure the interests and success of the other1 and both combined1 the glory of ,god4 ,our author1 in this respect1 has been very happily successful4 ,he has1 generally1 illustrated the various parts of the ,mosaic ,creation1 with perspicuity and precision1 and then applied the whole to the production and support of vital piety in the heart of the reader4 ,so that while the astonishing magnificence1 glory1 and wisdom of creation1 fills the contemplative mind with admiration1 the heart also is fired with an ardent and rational devotion4 ,the character of this volume is1 therefore1 neither purely scientific1 nor purely devotional2 but both wisely and happily combined1 under the high and direct sanction of revelation4 ,it will be apparent to every person1 by a mere glance at the size of the volume1 that it is not intended to contain all the minuti connected with the ,mosaic ,creation1 but the principal1 and most important facts1 so as to make the work suitable to the great mass of intelligent and thoughtful readers4 ,this object it will be found to have well accomplished4 ,the improvements1 which are mentioned in the title-page1 have been added to the ,american edition1 with design to adapt the work more nearly to the wants of the ,american public4 ,they are found incorporated in the body of the volume1 in smaller type1 and enclosed in brackets2 which was judged to be the best method4 ,these additional papers are written at some length1 principally on topics which have become more prominent since our author finished his work1 and which are now exciting intense interest in this country4 ,they are1 therefore1 considered to be real and interesting improvements to the ,american edition4 ,finally1 the author of these additional papers1 would respectfully commend this ,american edition of the ,mosaic ,creation1 illustrated by means of the present enlightened state of science1 to the friends of ,,literature ,,and ,,religion ,,combined for the instruction and salvation of mankind1 and for the glory of ,god4 ,j4 ,p4 ,,durbin4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,creator ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,distinguished by his name ,jehovah -- ,his essence and self-existence expressed by the words ,i ,,am --,his attribute of goodness the glory of all his other perfections -- ,elohim signifying a ,trinity of ,persons in a ,unity of ,essence -- ,the ,creation ascribed to one ,god1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit -- ,the first production of matter -- ,the creatures made for the manifesting of ,god's attributes1 that he might impart happiness to them4 p4 #ac-dj4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,first ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,chaos4 ,inquiry into the origin of things natural to man -- ,character of ,moses as a sacred historian important -- ,explanation of the term ,created -- ,chaotic state of the elementary principles of matter -- ,influence of the ,spirit of ,god upon the chaotic mass -- ,opinions of the ancients -- ,similitude between the first and second creation -- ,agency of the ,holy ,spirit in the work of regeneration asserted and proved4 p4 #da-ea4 ,section ,,ii4--,,fire4 ,omnific word -- ,moving principles in ,nature -- ,criticism on the original word aur -- ,creation of ,fire -- ,its nature -- ,friction exciting the action of fire -- ,fire attracted by bodies -- ,fire conducted -- ,fire in a state of combination -- ,fire elastic -- ,expansive force of fire -- ,subterraneous fires -- ,earthquakes and volcanic ,eruptions -- ,air a storehouse of fire -- ,general and final dissolution of nature by fire -- ,fire a symbol of the ,deity1 in his gracious presence1 vital influence1 transforming energy1 and destructive operation4 p4 #ea-gd4 ,section ,,iii4--,,light4 ,motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause of light -- ,light the most simple body -- ,velocity of light -- ,light diffusive -- ,light the medium through which objects become visible -- ,light beautiful1 or its rays of different colors -- ,light a visible resemblance of its ,divine ,author1 in his spirituality1 simplicity1 purity1 energy1 goodness1 manifestation1 glory4 p4 #ge-hi4 ,section ,,iv4--,,day ,,and ,,night4 ,original terms of ,day and ,night -- ,motion the effect of a ,divine power -- ,commencement of ,time -- ,utility of ,day and ,night -- ,religious ,improvement of ,time -- ,sin moral ,darkness -- ,the ,gospel a ,light to dispel it -- ,a ,christian the subject of a transition from the one state to the other4 p4 #hi-ie4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,second ,,day4 ,,on ,,the ,,atmosphere4 ,composition of ,atmospheric ,air -- ,atmosphere divided into three regions -- ,air a fluid -- ,its compressibility and elasticity -- ,weight and pressure -- ,equilibrium -- ,transparency -- ,wind -- ,causes of ,wind -- ,variety of ,winds -- ,velocity of ,winds -- ,destructive ,winds -- ,wind under the control of ,god -- ,wind a similitude of the ,holy ,spirit's operations4 p4 #ie-aad4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,third ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,the ,,sea4 ,water and ,land separated -- ,formation of the ,sea -- ,its restrictions -- ,extent -- ,depth -- ,composition -- ,saltiness -- ,motion -- ,tides -- ,four states of water -- ,circulation -- ,religious ,improvement4 p4 #aad-ace4 ,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,earth4 ,surface of the ,earth -- ,mountains -- ,fertility of ,plants -- ,dissemination of seeds -- ,preservation of ,plants -- ,adaptation to different ,climates -- ,number of ,vegetables -- ,succession of ,vegetables -- ,remarkable ,trees -- ,sensitive ,plants -- ,kitchen ,vegetables -- ,garden ,flowers -- ,religious ,improvement4 p4 #acf-afe4 ,section ,,iii4--,,minerals4 ,gold -- ,silver -- ,platina -- ,mercury -- ,copper -- ,iron -- ,tin -- ,lead --,nickel -- ,zinc -- ,palladium -- ,bismuth -- ,antimony -- ,tellurium --,arsenic -- ,cobalt -- ,manganese -- ,tungsten -- ,molybdenum --,uranium -- ,titanium -- ,chromium -- ,columbium or ,tantalium -- ,cerium -- ,oxmium -- ,rodium -- ,iridium -- ,religious ,improvement4 p4 #afe-ahc4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,fourth ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,the ,,sun4 ,signs -- ,names -- ,nature -- ,motions -- ,form -- ,magnitude -- ,distance -- ,suspension -- ,idolatrous worship of the ,sun -- ,the ,sun an emblem of ,christ4 p4 #ahc-aih4 ,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,moon4 ,names -- ,dimensions -- ,motions -- ,seasons -- ,phases -- ,harvest ,moon -- ,moon's ,surface -- ,aerial ,stones -- ,eclipses -- ,moonlight -- ,epithets -- ,religious ,improvement4 p4 #aih-bad4 ,section ,,iii4--,,the ,,seasons4 ,seasons3 ,spring1 ,summer1 ,autumn1 ,winter -- ,displaying ,divine ,power1 ,wisdom1 ,goodness1 ,faithfulness -- ,religious ,improvement4 p4 #bad-bbc4 ,section ,,iv4--,,the ,,planets ,,and ,,fixed ,,stars4 ,mercury -- ,venus -- ,the ,earth -- ,mars -- ,ceres -- ,pallas -- ,juno --,vesta -- ,jupiter -- ,saturn -- ,georgium ,sidus -- ,comets -- ,fixed ,stars -- ,religious ,improvement4 p4 #bbc-bgh4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,fifth ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,fishes4 ,of ,fishes in general -- ,the ,cetaceous kind -- ,cartilaginous -- ,spinous -- ,crustaceous -- and ,testaceous -- ,animalcules -- ,religious ,improvement4 p4 #bgi-bif4 ,section ,,ii4--,,on ,,fowls4 ,number of ,species -- ,superiority and peculiar construction -- ,skill in building their ,nests -- ,power and ,season of ,propagation -- ,dexterity in providing ,food -- ,instinct -- ,migrations -- ,insects -- ,religious ,improvement4 p4 #bif-cag4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,sixth ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,on ,,quadrupeds ,,and ,,reptiles4 ,quadrupeds in general -- ,motion -- ,habits -- ,rumination -- ,proportion -- ,tastes -- ,clothing -- ,weapons -- ,proportionate ,number -- ,faculties -- ,reptiles -- ,religious ,improvement4 p4 #cah-cdd4 ,section ,,ii4--,,man4 ,body3 -- ,its ,creator -- ,formation -- ,vitality -- ,blood -- ,heart -- ,arteries and ,veins -- ,digestion -- ,respiration -- ,glands -- ,absorbents -- ,nervous ,system -- ,organs of ,sense -- ,bones -- ,sinovia -- ,muscles -- ,tendons -- ,cellular ,membrane -- ,skin4 ,soul3 ,its ,immateriality -- ,freedom -- ,immortality -- ,moral ,image -- ,adam's dominion over the ,creatures -- ,woman -- ,paradise4 p4 #cdd-cih4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,seventh ,,day4 ,,on ,,the ,,sabbath4 ,sabbath instituted -- ,blessed and sanctified -- ,given to ,adam as a ,general ,precept for his ,posterity -- ,renewed before and at the giving of the ,law -- ,a sign between ,god and his people -- ,worldly ,business prohibited -- ,works of ,necessity and ,mercy excepted --,advantages resulting from observing it -- ,a ,seventh ,day regarded by the ,heathens -- ,the ,sabbath of universal and perpetual obligation -- ,the ,lord's ,day4 p4 #cii-daj4 ,,the ,,mosaic ,,history1 c4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,creator ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,distinguished by his name ,,jehovah -- ,his essence and self-existence expressed by the words ,i ,,am -- ,his attribute of goodness the glory of all his other perfections -- ,elohim signifying a ,trinity of ,persons in a ,unity of ,essence -- ,the ,creation ascribed to one ,god1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit -- ,the first production of matter -- ,the creatures made for the manifesting of ,god's attributes1 and that he might impart happiness to them4 ,as it is proposed1 in the following pages to give the ,mosaic account of the creation of the world1 it is very natural that the mind should come to the meditation of this interesting subject1 by contemplating the character of the ,great ,creator1 according to his own revelations4 ,it is evident that ,god made himself gradually known1 as the state and condition of mankind required4 ,in the earlier ages of the world1 while revelation was but dawning on the human race1 he was but little known1 in comparison of the subsequent diffusion of his glory and perfections4 ,when he1 according to his promise1 came to deliver the children of ,israel out of ,egypt1 he revealed himself to them by his name ,,jehovah4 ,he had before declared himself by this name to ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob2 but not as it imports the performance of his promises2 in which sense1 their posterity afterwards1 in the time of ,moses1 well understood it4 ,of all the names which the ,divine ,being has been pleased to designate himself by1 that of ,,jehovah is the greatest4 ,it comes from a root which imports his eternity1 independency1 efficacy1 and truth4 ,in the ,hebrew it is written with four letters1 yod1 he1 vau1 he1 thus i4e4 ,,jhvh3#a the points used in that language1 make our ,english word consist of seven letters1 ,je,ho,va,h4 ,god himself gives the interpretation of this name4 8,and the ,lord passed by before him1 and proclaimed ,,yehovah1 the ,,lord ,,god1 merciful and gracious1 long-suffering1 and abundant in goodness and truth1 keeping mercy for thousands1 forgiving iniquity1 and transgression1 and sin1 and that will by no means clear the guilty40 ,these different names have been considered as so many attributes of the ,divine ,nature4 ,commentators divide them into eleven1 thus3 #a4 ,,jehovah4 #b4 ,,el1 the strong or mighty ,god4 #c4 ,,rachum1 the merciful ,being1 who is full of tenderness and compassion4 #d4 ,,chanun1 the gracious ,one3 ,he1 whose nature is goodness itself--the loving ,god4 #e4 ,,erec ,,apayim1 long-suffering1 the ,being who1 because of his goodness and tenderness1 is not easily irritated1 but suffers long and is kind4 #f4 ,,rab1 the great or mighty ,one4 #g4 ,,chesed1 the bountiful ,being3 ,he who is exuberant in his beneficence4 #h4 ,,emeth1 the ,truth1 or true ,one3 ,he alone who can neither deceive nor be deceived--who is the ,fountain of truth1 and from whom all wisdom and knowledge must be derived4 #i4 ,,notser ,,chesed the preserver of bountifulness3 ,he whose beneficence never ends1 keeping mercy for thousands of generations--showing compassion and mercy while the world endures4 #aj4 ,,nose von vapesh vechataah3 ,he who bears away iniquity and transgression and sin2 properly the ,,redeemer1 the ,pardoner1 the ,forgiver1 the ,being whose prerogative alone it is to forgive sin1 and save the soul4 77 ,,nakeh lo yinnakeh1 the righteous ,judge1 who distributes justice with an impartial hand2 with whom no innocent person can ever be condemned4 #aa4 ,and ,,paked von1 c4 ,he who visits iniquity2 he who punishes transgressors1 and from whose justice no sinner can escape4 ,the ,god of retributive and vindictive justice4 ,these eleven attributes1 as they have been termed1 are all included in the name ,jehovah2 and are the proper interpretation of it4#b ,the ,jews had a superstitious respect for this name2 and1 after the ,babylonian captivity1 discontinued the use of it1 which caused them soon to forget its true pronunciation4 ,they called it the ,tetragrammaton1 or four-lettered name of ,god1 which1 to the present day1 the ,jews will neither write nor pronounce4 ,they deemed it to be ineffable2 and therefore when it occurred in reading the ,scriptures2 substituted ,adonai4 ,the ,jews tell us that the woman's son1 mentioned in ,lev4 xxxiv1 #aa1 was accused of blasphemy and stoned to death1 because he pronounced the name ,jehovah4 ,but ,i conceive1 that he had spoken contemptuously of ,god4 ,we read1 verse #aj1 that he and a man of ,israel strove together1 and it is probable that the ,israelite1 in the heat of contention1 would deny his being a member of the church of ,god1 because he was the son of an ,egyptian father who was an idolater2 whereupon1 no doubt1 the son of the ,israelitish woman spoke scornfully and opprobriously of the ,god of ,israel1 despising the privilege of being one of his people4 ,this1 ,i imagine1 was the blasphemy of which he was accused1 and for which he was condemned and stoned to death2 and not for pronouncing the name of ,jehovah only4 ,the ,seventy who translated the ,old ,testament into ,greek1 at the desire of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 ,king of ,egypt1 about the #abdth ,olympiad1 were also very sparing in the use of this name ,jehovah2 and therefore did not render it according to the sacred import of the ,hebrew1 but changed it into the word 1 ,lord1 which is of the same signification with ,adonai in the ,hebrew4 ,origen1 ,jerome1 and ,eusebius1 testify1 that1 in their time1 the ,jews left the name ,jehovah written in their copies with ,samaritan characters1 instead of the common ,chaldee or ,hebrew characters4 ,and those divines1 who at the command of ,king ,james translated the ,scriptures anew into ,english1 have very rarely used the word ,jehovah1 but rendered it ,lord4 ,yet we may observe1 that when this word ,lord is substituted for ,jehovah1 it is printed in large ,roman letters4 ,it is to be wished1 that the name ,jehovah had been preserved in the ,english translation of the ,scriptures1 and especially in those passages whose sense entirely depends on the meaning of the word4 ,after the appointment of ,moses1 by ,jehovah1 to deliver the children of ,israel from the tyranny and oppression under which they groaned1 and to conduct them from ,egypt to worship ,god at ,horeb1 he was anxious to obtain a particular revelation of the ,divine nature and attributes1 that he might be able to regulate1 direct1 and superintend their worship2 and this he deemed necessary on account of the ,israelites having been long conversant among the ,egyptians1 who were idolaters and polytheists1 and called their gods by a variety of names4 ,hereupon he said to ,god1 8,behold1 when ,i come unto the children of ,israel1 and shall say unto them1 ,the ,god of your fathers hath sent me unto you2 and they shall say unto me1 ,what is his name8 what shall ,i say unto them80 ,intimating1 that it was expedient ,god should call himself by an appropriate name1 to distinguish himself from all the gods of the heathen4 ,for men did not1 at this time1 as ,dr4 ,shuckford observes1 know the works of creation well enough to demonstrate from them the attributes of ,god2 nor could they1 by speculation1 form proper and just notions of his nature4 ,though he had revealed himself to ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 by the name ,ani ,el shaday1 8,i am ,god all-sufficient10 and likewise that of ,jehovah2 yet a further knowledge of him was sincerely desired and earnestly requested4#c ,whereupon1 says ,god to ,moses1 ,i ,,am that ,i ,,am1 ,,eheyeh asher ,,eheyeh4 ,the ,vulgate translates these words--,,ego ,,sum ,,qui ,,sum1 ,i am who am4 ,the ,septuagint-- 1 ,i am he who exists4 ,the ,arabic paraphrases them--,the ,eternal1 who passes not away4 ,not ,i was1 but ,i ,,am and ,,will ,,be3 a name that expresses his own essence1 and signifies independency1 immutability1 and necessary existence4 ,as if he had said1 ,you may inquire who ,i am1 and by what name ,i would be distinguished3 know then that ,i ,,am ,,he who has being from himself1 and has no dependence on any other4#d ,this contains in it the whole plenitude and possibility of being1 all that is1 or can be1 or1 as the ,apostle expresses it1 8all the fulness of the ,godhead40 ,by this name he is distinguished not only from all false gods1 but from all other beings whatsoever2 implying1 that he exists after some very eminent and peculiar manner1 and that nothing else besides him truly and essentially is4#e ,the self-existence of ,god proves that he always was1 and evidently shows that he cannot cease to be4 8,he is1 and was1 and is to come40 ,his necessary existence comprehends a duration which has neither beginning1 succession1 nor end4 ,he can have no succession in his duration1 because wherever this is there must be priority1 and wherever there is a priority there must be a beginning4 ,he is in the complete possession of an endless life1 all at once4 ,he exists in one eternal now4 ,he is unchangeable in his essence or manner of existence1 so that no perfection can be added to him1 nor any excellency taken from him1 but he remains invariably the same4 ,all natural perfections are essential to him as an infinite being1 such as eternity1 omnipotence1 immensity1 omniscience1 spirituality1 and immutability2 and all moral perfections belong to him as a good ,being1 such as wisdom1 holiness1 justice1 goodness1 truth1 faithfulness4 ,these latter are communicable1 because there are some rays of them in his creatures1 but none of them in that transcendent degree that are in him1 nor ever can be4 ,the former we call his natural and incommunicable perfections1 for the sake of distinction2 though it is certain the latter are equally as natural to him1 and incommunicable1 in that infinite degree possessed by himself4 ,god being unchangeable in his essence1 must also be so in all his perfections1 because they are no other than his essence1 and are not distinguished in him1 either from his essence1 or from one another2 but are one and the same ,being1 revealed and manifested to us1 under various notions1 which we call attributes1 to help us the better to conceive of him1 who are not able to apprehend what may be known of him1 under any one name1 or by any one act of our understanding4 ,the combination of all his perfections renders him a glorious ,being2 and that fixed and invariable state of contentment and satisfaction1 complacency and delight1 which result from the secure possession and enjoyment of all that is good and desirable1 or1 in other words1 of all possible excellencies and perfections in the highest degree1 constitutes him infinitely blessed4 ,moses was favored with another remarkable and interesting manifestation of the ,divine ,being2 for perceiving ,god's merciful condescension in answer to his prayers offered up for his people1 he persevered in the holy exercise1 and even asked him for a manifestation of his glory3 8,show me10 said he1 8,i beseech thee1 thy glory10 or1 according to the original1 8make me see it40 ,he could not mean an open view of the unclouded majesty of ,god1 but only such a display of the ,divine glory as a mortal is capable of beholding4 ,god answered1 8,i will make all my goodness to pass before thee30 intimating1 that his goodness is his glory1 and that he could not bear the infinite splendor of his holiness and justice4 ,goodness is the true and genuine character of ,god1 and the glory of all his other perfections1 and by it they are all rendered engaging4 ,without this they would be terrible3 for wisdom without goodness degenerates into insidious cunning2 and power without it is the character of a tyrant4 ,were ,god destitute of this amiable perfection1 he would have such a defect in his nature1 as infinite perfection itself1 in every other attribute1 could not sufficiently compensate4 ,all nations have acknowledged this perfection of the ,divine ,being4 ,plato calls him the 1 the idea or essence of goodness4 ,in the three principles of the ,platonic ,trinity-- goodness1 intelligence1 and vitality4--,the first place is assigned to the goodness1 which the ,platonists conceive to be like an immense and most pure light1 continually diffusing and communicating its invigorating beams4 ,to this the ,platonist ,boctius alludes1 in that celebrated description of ,god1 where he calls him ,fons ,boni ,lucidus1 the lucid fountain of goodness4--,there is an ancient cabalistical table1 supposed to be borrowed from the ,pythagoreans1 which represents1 in a visible scheme1 the order of the ,divine perfections3 wherein it is observable that goodness presides over1 and gives laws and measures to all the other attributes of ,god4 ,philo says1 ,god is the name of goodness2 and our ,english word1 adds a late author1 seems to be a contraction of the word good2 or1 however1 is the same with the ,german ,got1 or ,godt1 which came1 as is thought1 from the ,arabic word ,gada1 of the same signification4 ,so that the ,german and the ,english name of the ,supreme ,being1 in common use1 is taken from the attribute of his goodness4 8,the word itself is pure ,anglo-saxon10 says ,dr4 ,adam ,clarke1 8and1 among our ancestors1 signified not only the ,divine ,being1 now commonly designated by the word1 but also good2 as in their apprehension it appears1 that ,god and ,good were correlative terms2 and when they thought or spoke of him1 they were ever led from the word itself to consider him as ,,the ,,good ,,being a fountain of infinite benevolence and beneficence towards his creatures40 ,the word ,,god1 expressed in the old ,saxon1 is bona res1 a good thing4 ,that ,god is good1 is the constant language of ,divine revelation2 for this attribute is every where celebrated1 both in the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,it may be distinguished as natural1 moral1 and communicative4 ,the first of these is the absolute perfection of his nature1 which is goodness itself in its very essence4 ,he is originally good1 and that of himself2 which is a property peculiar to no other creature1 for all the goodness of the creature is derived from ,god4 ,he is infinitely and therefore incomprehensively good to men and angels2 hence his goodness knows no limits4 ,we read of the 8riches of his goodness10 which are as 8unsearchable10 as is his 8greatness40 ,he is immutably good1 for 8the goodness of ,god endureth continually40 ,and as his dependence on no one admits not of his being changed by others1 so neither does his immutability admit of it by himself2 for if he alter for the better he was not ,god before1 and if for the worse1 he then would not be ,god4 ,thus he is essentially1 originally1 infinitely1 incomprehensibly1 and unchangeably good4 ,the moral goodness of ,god is his perfect purity or holiness2 therefore his goodness and holiness are united--8good and upright is the ,lord40 ,according to any rational opinion we can form of him1 he is a ,being possessed1 not only of every natural power and perfection1 but of every moral excellence4 ,the holiness of his nature removes him to the greatest possible distance from all moral evil1 and makes him necessarily approve of moral good4 ,all his designs are pure and upright1 and worthy of himself3 he always acts according to the perfect rectitude of his own nature4 ,though he is not under the direction of any superior1 yet his own rectitude always determines him to pursue what is right to be done towards his creatures4 ,this property of the ,divine ,being greatly heightens our idea of his excellence1 and naturally points him out as the ,governor of mankind4 ,and as he adheres to it in his own conduct and administration1 and likewise approves and loves it in his rational creatures1 whom he governs2 so he disapproves and hates the reverse in them1 and will most certainly animadvert upon the temper and behavior of those who act contrary to his divine admonitions1 and make them most sensibly feel the effects of their wickedness4 ,the communicative1 or relative goodness of ,god1 or his goodness to his creatures1 is his inclination or self-propension to deal well and bountifully with them4 ,as the notion of ,god includes goodness1 so the idea of goodness implies holy diffusiveness4 ,therefore1 says the ,psalmist1 8,thou art good1 and doest good40 ,all that we are1 have1 or hope for1 that is good1 proceeds from ,god as its fountain2 hence he is called1 8the fountain of living waters40 ,this communicative goodness implies1 that1 from his all-sufficiency1 he is ready to impart to his creatures whatever their necessities require4 ,this attribute is universal3 8he is good to all0 his creatures from the highest angel to the meanest reptile2 especially1 to his people1 8,truly10 says the ,psalmist1 8,god is good to ,israel1 even to such as are of a clean heart40 ,but1 though ,god is good to all his creatures1 yet he is not equally so in the same kind and degree of blessings4 ,his munificence is regulated by his wisdom1 and the different capacities with which he has formed his creatures makes this inequality necessary4 ,there is one vast and awful question which must occur to every reflecting mind--,what is ,god8 ,as it regards his ,nature1 the ,scriptures say1 ,he is a ,spirit4 ,we must therefore1 conceive the ,creator to be1 a ,living1 ,rational1 ,benevolent1 and ,spiritual ,,essence2 absolutely1 necessarily1 and naturally perfect1 and1 therefore1 immaterial1 uncompounded1 indivisible1 and eternal4 ,it is necessarily understood that this essence is peculiar3 that there is nothing in its nature which has any resemblance to created substances1 whether material or spiritual2 and that it is underived1 and consequently1 independent4 ,this ,divine ,essence being immaterial1 impalpable1 simple and indivisible1 cannot have body or parts3 nor can it be said to be a whole1 for this would imply an aggregation of parts3 but is itself a perfect1 absolute1 single1 and eternal ,,individuality1 incapable of self-multiplication1 or increase2 or of diminishing itself1 or endangering its existence4 ,this essence is a living essence2 and1 therefore1 has inherently the power and principles of action3 ,it is a rational essence1 and therefore1 must act according to the eternal principles of reason and right3 ,it is a benevolent essence1 and therefore1 all its actions must be infinitely good and kind4 ,absolute perfection1 infinitude1 and sovereignty in all these respects1 constitute the ,being we call ,god4 ,as ,god is a single1 indivisible1 independent1 and eternal ,,unit1 we cannot ascribe different perfections1 or attributes to him1 so as to suppose one attribute separate from1 and independent of another1 capable of acting per se1 or participating conjunctively with other attributes as an integer4 ,nor can we suppose this eternal1 and independent ,unit to act by being operated upon in any degree1 by other agents1 nor can he operate on himself4 ,all his actions1 therefore1 spring from himself1 and are performed without excitement1 effort1 means1 or previous ratiocination4 ,it will follow from the preceding reasoning1 that every action of the ,divine ,being1 in regard to himself1 is precisely the same in nature3 so that we cannot say of one act it is an effort of his power to the exclusion of his wisdom3 nor of his wisdom to the exclusion of his goodness3 nor of his goodness to the exclusion of his holiness3 and so of the rest4 ,strictly speaking we cannot say the power of ,god2 the wisdom of ,god2 the goodness of ,god1 c42 because the power of ,god is ,god2 the wisdom of ,god is ,god2 the goodness of ,god is ,god4 ,in contemplating this awful subject abstractly1 we should say there are no such things as attributes in the ,divine ,being1 as they are commonly understood4 ,what we call his attributes1 are only different modes of the operations of the same eternal1 undivided1 and independent ,unit4 ,indeed1 ,god is one entire perfection which exerts itself in different ways and actions4 ,but as we cannot comprehend this single entire perfection2 nor understand how it exerts the whole of itself1 as a single indivisible agent1 in each particular act1 as it really does1 mankind have always been in the habit of assisting their contemplations by regarding the nature of the acts of this single1 indivisible1 and eternal agent1 and thus infering the nature of the ,divine ,being4 ,and as these acts appear to differ in quality1 we infer a quality in the agent1 corresponding with the quality of the actions which we see3 we call this quality by a name1 and thus derive the doctrine of attributes4 ,for example3 ,when we see this single1 indivisible agent manifesting himself in such a manner as to give us the idea of unlimited power1 we ascribe omnipotence to him1 as an attribute4 ,when we see a manifestation indicating infinite wisdom1 we ascribe omniscience to him as an attribute4 ,in the same manner in reference to the manifestations which indicate justice1 goodness1 mercy1 truth1 holiness1 faithfulness1 righteousness1 kindness1 c1 all of which we ascribe to him upon such indications4 ,although this rationale1 in contemplating the ,divine ,being1 is necessary to creatures1 yet it is calculated to lead the mind into error4 ,we am insensibly inclined to ascribe the divine actions to those attributes exclusively which we suppose they indicate4 ,this1 probably1 has been the most fatal error of mankind1 and1 doubtless1 laid the foundation of darkness and idolatry4 ,we must never conceive that any act of the ,divine ,being proceeds from one or more attributes to the exclusion of others2 or that one attribute participates more in one act than another4 ,this is the fatal mistake4 ,hence theologians have become blind and foolish1 bewildering the multitude by building up theories on the consideration of a single attribute2 thus making the ,divine ,being to consist of parts1 and these parts independent too4 ,instances of this awful mistake might be given1 but it scarcely comes within the design of this paper4 ,it is sufficient to say2 if we conceive correctly of the divine acts1 we will ascribe each equally to all the ,divine ,attributes4 ,as we conceive this single1 indivisible1 underived1 independent1 and eternal agent1 or perfection to be absolutely infinite1 and illimitable in all possible ways1 or manner1 of exerting ,himself1 we1 of course1 conceive all the qualities1 indicated by the divine acts1 which we call attributes1 to be absolutely infinite1 perfect1 and eternal3 and thus we derive the doctrine of the absolute perfection1 and infinitude of all1 and each of the ,divine ,attributes4 ,from the foregoing reflections1 the reader will readily conceive of the ,divine ,being1 as a ,living1 ,rational1 ,benevolent1 and ,spiritual ,essence1 existing as a single1 underived1 independent1 ,unit3 a ,unit1 not in reality consisting of attributes1 or perfections1 but itself one single1 entire perfection3 exerting itself not by attributes1 but as an individual ,unit or ,agent1 in such a manner that each action is the action of the ,divine ,being1 and not of one or more of his attributes3 that the existence of this single1 underived1 independent1 and eternal ,agent1 was1 and is necessary1 and1 therefore1 he could not but have existed1 and cannot cease to be2 that ,he is absolute1 and infinite in all possible ways and manner of acting1 and consequently we conceive ,him possessed of all possible perfections in an infinite degree4 ,by the assistance of ,divine revelation we are enabled further to pursue our inquiries concerning this very important subject2 and without which1 we should be involved in great darkness and uncertainty1 not only respecting his moral perfections1 but the mode of his existence4 ,and this must be a matter of superior interest to mankind1 or our adorable ,creator would not have communicated it1 which he evidently has done through the medium of the ,scriptures1 written by ,divine inspiration4 ,moses1 having received by ,divine revelation instruction concerning the origin and formation of the world1 conducts us at once to its great and adorable ,architect4 8,in the beginning ,,god created the heavens and the earth40 ,here he adopts a phraseology to express the supreme ,being1 which is generally used in the ,old ,testament for the same purpose1 and is very important and necessary to be understood1 as it gives us information after what manner he exists4 #8,the original word ,elohim1 ,god1' says a great linguist1 #8is certainly the plural form of el1 or eloah1 and has long been supposed1 by the most eminently learned and pious men1 to imply a plurality of persons in the divine nature4' ,as this plurality appears in so many parts of the sacred writings to be confined to three ,persons1 namely1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit1 hence the doctrine of the ,,trinity4 ,it is very remarkable that we no sooner open the ,bible1 than this doctrine is presented to our view4 ,the laws and ordinances established among the ,jews were designed to guard that people from idolatry1 which in ,abraham's time had become very general4 ,on the recollection of this circumstance it appears extraordinary that ,moses1 when he is describing the creation of the world1 should1 in order to express his conceptions of the ,divine ,being1 introduce a term which implies plurality2 and1 frequently connecting it with verbs and persons singular1 should use that term thirty times in the short account of the creation1 when the language afforded other words in the singular number that would have answered his purpose equally well2 nay1 if he did not wish to express a plurality1 that grammatical accuracy should have led him to adopt4 ,when he made use of a plural noun for the name of ,god1 which he has done1 perhaps1 five hundred times more in one form or other in the five books of his writings1 this plurality1 ,i apprehend1 was the idea he meant to convey to mankind4 ,he1 or rather the ,,holy ,,spirit1 by whom he was inspired to write his history1 meant to give some hints and intimations of a doctrine more clearly to be revealed in future ages4#f ,the ancient ,jews understood ,elohim as conveying the idea of a plurality in the ,godhead4 8,come10 says one of them1 8and see the mystery of the word ,elohim3 there are three degrees1 and each degree by itself alone1 and yet notwithstanding they are all one1 and joined together in one1 and are not divided from each other40#g ,r4 ,bechai1 a celebrated author among the ,jews1 discoursing of the word ,elohim1 and of the import and signification of it1 adds these words3--8,according to the cabalistical way1 this name ,elohim is two words1 namely1 ,el him1 that is1 they are ,god4 ,but the explanation of the ,yod is to be fetched from ,eccles4 xii1 #a1 ,remember thy ,,creators4 ,he that is prudent will understand it40 ,these words do sufficiently prove the ,cabala among the ,jews1 says ,bishop ,kidder1 that though the ,divine ,nature was but one1 yet there was some kind of plurality in this ,divine ,nature2 and this is fairly insinuated in the ,bara ,elohim1 which we find in the beginning of ,genesis4#h ,john ,xeres1 a ,jew converted in ,england some years ago1 published a sensible and affectionate address to his unbelieving brethren1 wherein he says1 that 8the word ,elohim1 which we render ,,god in ,gen4 i1 #a1 is of the plural number1 though annexed to a verb of the singular number2 which10 says he1 8demonstrates as evidently as may be1 that there are several persons partaking of the same ,divine nature and essence40#i ,it is clear too1 how sensible the ,jews have been that there is a notion of plurality plainly imported in the ,hebrew text1 since they have forbidden their common people the reading of the history of the creation1 lest1 understanding it literally1 they should be led unto heresy4#aj ,when the ,scriptures are suppressed1 or the common people denied the use of them1 it may with propriety be presumed that their superiors1 who act in an arbitrary and unjust manner1 have embraced anti-scriptural notions1 and1 in order to prevent detection1 lay aside the only infallible test of truth2 and1 to conceal their base motives1 and make their deleterious conduct appear not only plausible1 but necessary and proper1 they boldly assert the incompetency of the people to judge of scripture doctrines for themselves1 and wish to be considered compassionate and friendly in judging and deciding for them4 ,the fact is1 the common people are denied the use of the ,scripture1 lest understanding it in a certain sense1 which their superiors call heresy1 it should lead them into the understanding of plain and unequivocal facts stated therein1 and which are of the utmost importance for them to know4 ,it may be observed here likewise1 that the ,hebrew doctors always supposed the first verse of ,genesis to contain some latent mystery4 ,the ,rabbi ,ibba indeed expressly says it does1 and adds1 8,this mystery is not to be revealed1 till the coming of the ,messiah40 ,mr4 ,parkhurst1 who has greatly distinguished himself in ,hebrew literature1 and to whose pious and learned labors most ,biblical students are indebted1 says1 8,let those who have any doubt whether ,elohim1 when meaning the true ,god1 ,jehovah1 be plural or not1 consult the following passages1 where they will find it joined with adjectives1 pronouns1 and verbs plural30 he refers to twenty-five texts in the ,old ,testament on this occasion4#aa ,if ,moses and the ,jews held the doctrine of the ,trinity1 and the word ,elohim imports plurality1 it is natural to ask1 ,how comes it to pass that the ,septuagint version renders the plural name ,elohim1 when used for the true ,god1 by the singular one 1 and never by the plural 8 ,the learned ,ridley1#ab after ,allix1 has answered this question4 ,he says1 8,the ,talmudists own that the ,,lxxii ,interpreters did purposely change the notion of plurality implied in the ,hebrew ,elohim into the ,greek singular1 lest ,ptolemy ,philadelphus should conclude that the ,jews1 as well as himself1 had a belief of ,polytheism40 ,and ,bishop ,huntingford adds1 8,of all the ,greek appellations of ,divinity1 was the only simple and direct term which they could adopt1 to counteract idolatrous misconceptions40 ,this phraseology1 as to its signification1 is not peculiar to ,moses1 but is used by the other sacred writers also1 and exactly accords with the whole tenor of ,divine revelation4 ,the creation of the world is ascribed to the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit1 as joint1 concurring1 equal1 and efficient causes thereof1 in the ,scriptures4 ,it will not surely be presuming too much1 says ,bishop ,huntingford1 if we suppose ,joshua and ,solomon to be more deeply instructed in the ,jewish ,religion1 than to be capable of using improper language respecting the ,deity4 ,yet the former says1 8,ye cannot serve the ,lord3 for he is the ,holy ,gods20 and the latter says1 8,the fear of ,jehovah is the beginning of wisdom2 and the knowledge of the ,holies is understanding40#ac ,such is the phraseology of the ,hebrew text4 ,in these passages1 and others that might be produced1 the word in the ,hebrew is in the plural number1 because of the plurality of persons in the ,godhead2 but in our translation it is in the singular number1 because of the unity of their essence4 ,but more particularly4 ,the creation of the world is ascribed to ,,jehovah3 8,i have made the earth1 and created man upon it3 ,i1 even my hands1 have stretched out the heavens1 and all their host have ,i commanded4 ,i am the ,lord that maketh all things1 that stretcheth forth the heavens alone1 that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself40 ,he had no moving causes exciting him to create matter and produce a universe1 but his own will1 goodness1 wisdom1 and power4 ,he created all things himself1 without the assistance of any instruments4 ,the prophet ascribes to ,god alone the framing and stretching out of the heavens and the earth without the counsel1 direction1 or ministry of any subordinate agency4 8,who hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand1 and meted out heaven with a span1 and comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure1 and weighed the mountains in scales1 and the hills in a balance8 ,with whom took he counsel1 and who instructed him1 and taught him in the path of judgment1 and taught him knowledge1 and showed to him the way of understanding80 ,he created all things without any toil1 labor1 change1 or alteration in himself4 ,there was not in him any transition from rest to labor1 from idleness to business1 from strength to weariness4 ,though 8every good and perfect gift is from above1 and cometh down from the ,father of lights10 yet 8with him there is no variableness1 neither shadow of turning40 ,the ,prophet says1 8,hast thou not known8 hast thou not heard1 that the everlasting ,god1 the ,lord1 the ,creator of the ends of the earth1 fainteth not1 neither is weary80 ,and he proceeded in the work of creation without any delay3 it was not a successive forming of things by alteration1 which required much time to render them perfect1 but was as in a moment1 as quickly and readily as a word is spoken1 produced in the rapid succession as recorded by ,moses4 ,this work then ,god is said to have done alone1 to the exclusion1 not of the ,son and the ,spirit1 but of all that are not ,god by nature2 and by himself1 to the exclusion of all second causes or inferior agents4 ,it is ascribed also to the ,,son of ,god4 ,the evangelist ,john asserts in very express terms the ,divinity of ,jesus ,christ1 of the truth of which he designed his whole ,gospel should be a proof4 8,in the beginning was the ,word40 ,by the beginning1 here1 we are to understand the beginning of the creation1 not the beginning of the gospel state1 as the ,socinians say4 ,we have the authority of ,grotius1 that is taken from ,bereshith1 ,gen4 i1 #a1 translated by the ,septuagint 1 and consequently must signify1 from the beginning of the creation of ,god4 ,it is not said1 that he was made in the beginning1 but that he was in the beginning1 did exist when the world began1 which is of the same import as if he said1 he was from eternity2 for he that did exist in the beginning1 never did himself begin to be4 ,the personal ,wisdom of ,god says1 8,the ,lord possessed me in the beginning of his way1 before his works of old40--8,and the ,logos10 or 8,word1 was with ,god40 ,he could be with no creature1 because there was no creature in being2 and therefore it is very properly said1 that he 8was with ,god10 the ,father2 and his being with him shows1 that he is a distinct person or subsistence from the ,father4--8,and the ,logos10 or 8,word was ,god40 ,though he is a person distinct from that of the ,father1 yet he is of the very same essence with him4 ,he that was with ,god1 was ,god2 and if he was ,god in the beginning1 that is from eternity1 he is the same still1 he cannot cease to be what he was4 ,here then the evangelist asserts the eternal existence of ,christ1 his personal co-existence with the ,father1 and that he is of the very same undivided nature and essence with him4 ,though he is a person distinct from the ,father1 yet he is of the same substance1 equal with him in all divine perfections2 not a secondary ,god1 inferior to the ,father1 as the ,arians assert4 8,all things were made by him40 ,all things1 from the highest angel to the meanest worm1 were made by him1 not as a subordinate instrument1 but as a co-ordinate agent1 as a joint efficient cause1 co-operating with the ,father in this work4 #8,to say that ,christ made all things by a delegated power from ,god1 is absurd2 because the thing is impossible4 ,creation means1 causing that to exist that had no previous being3 this is evidently a work which can be effected only by omnipotence4 ,now ,god cannot delegate his omnipotence to another3 were this possible1 he to whom this omnipotence was delegated1 would1 in consequence1 become ,god2 and he from whom it was delegated1 would cease to be such3 for it is impossible that there should be two omnipotent beings4' 8,and without him was not any thing made that was made40 ,this is added for the more certainty1 it being usual with the ,hebrews1 when they would affirm that a thing is so indeed1 to confirm by a particular negative what they had before affirmed4 ,our ,lord said to the ,jews1 8,my ,father worketh hitherto1 and ,i work40 ,the phrase signifies 8to this time10 8to the present10 that is1 in all works whatever4 ,hence he is no creature1 or he must have created himself2 and if he created himself1 he must have been in existence and not in existence at the very same time1 which is both contradictory and absurd4 ,and if every work performed by the ,father was equally performed by the ,son1 the ,son must1 in all respects1 be equal to the ,father1 in nature and perfections4 ,this our ,lord's words signify and imply1 and in this sense the ,jews understood him--as 8making himself equal with ,god40#ad 8,he is the image of ,god10 the 8,,first ,,producer of every creature3 for by him were all things created1 that are in heaven1 and that are in earth1 visible and invisible1 whether they be thrones1 or dominions1 or principalities1 or powers30 all the angels1 however diversified in rank or employment in the heavenly world2 and all the rational1 animal1 vegetable1 and inanimate creatures1 belonging to this terrestrial abode3 8all things were made by him10 as the efficient cause1 8and for him10 as the last end4--8,god hath in these last days spoken unto us by his ,son1 whom he hath appointed heir of all things1 by whom also he made the worlds10 i4e4 the heavens and the earth4 ,the ,father does all by the ,son1 and the ,son does all from the ,father4 ,whatsoever the ,father does1 that also does the ,son likewise4 8,unto the ,son he saith1 ,thy throne1 oh ,god1 is for ever and ever2 a sceptre of righteousness is the sceptre of thy kingdom4 ,thou1 ,lord1 in the beginning hast laid the foundation of the earth2 and the heavens are the works of thy hands40 ,in these passages the ,divinity of ,christ is plainly asserted1 and the operations of his power are proofs of his ,godhead4 ,he that is the ,creator of all things is ,god3 but ,christ is the ,creator of all things2 therefore ,christ is ,god4 ,he calls himself 8the ,beginning of the creation of ,god10 where the word means the ,creator1 the efficient ,cause of all things1 he by whose power the creation had its beginning and perfection4 ,and 8he that built all things is ,god40 ,the learned ,jacob ,bryant wrote a very valuable ,tract entitled1 ,the sentiments of ,philo ,judus concerning the 1 or ,word of ,god2 from which the following are quotations4 8,philo ,judus speaks at large in many places of the ,word of ,god1 the second person1 which he mentions as the second ,divinity1 the great ,cause of all things1 and styles him as ,plato1 as well as the ,jews1 had done before1 the ,,logos4 ,of the ,divine ,logos or ,word he speaks in many places1 and maintains at large the ,divinity of the second ,person1 and describes his attributes in a very precise and copious manner1 styling him the second ,deity1 who is the ,word of the supreme ,god1 his first-begotten ,son2 and the image of ,god4 ,in his treatise upon creation1 he speaks of the ,word as the ,divine operator by whom all things were disposed3 and mentions him as superior to the angels and all created beings1 and the image and likeness of ,god1 and says1 that this image of the true ,god was esteemed the same as ,god4 ,this ,,logos1 the ,,word of ,,god1 says he1 is superior to all the world1 and more ancient2 being the productor of all that was produced4 ,the eternal ,word of the everlasting ,god is the sure and fixed foundation upon which all things depend40 ,creation is moreover ascribed to the ,,holy ,,spirit4 ,that the ,holy ,spirit has a personality distinct from that of the ,father1 and also that of the ,son1 and a real and proper ,divinity1 is a doctrine of ,divine revelation4 ,in his personal capacity1 he is not the ,father1 nor the ,son4 ,he neither is nor can be divided either from the ,divine essence1 nor from the other two persons1 but yet is personally distinct from them4 ,his relation to1 and mission by1 the ,father and the ,son1 clearly evince his personal distinction4 ,he is called the ,spirit of the ,father1 and the ,spirit of the ,son4 ,he is represented as sent by the ,father1 and also as sent by the ,son4 ,these things show that he is a ,divine person1 and has a distinct personality4 ,the ,holy ,spirit is the last in the order of subsistence3 the ,father is the first1 the ,son is the second1 and the ,holy ,spirit is the third4 ,yet we should know1 that the ,father is not before the ,son1 nor the ,son before the ,holy ,spirit1 by a priority of time1 nor of dignity and perfections2 for the three persons in the ,divine essence are co-eternal4 ,the ,holy ,spirit was equally concerned with the ,father and the ,son in the work of ,creation4 8,by the ,word of the ,lord were the heavens made1 and all the host of them by the breath 7,heb4 ,spirit7 of his mouth40 ,the breath or spirit of the ,lord's mouth1 says an excellent author1 does undoubtedly mean the third person of the ,trinity2 who is called1 8,the ,spirit of ,god1 and the ,breath of the ,almighty40--8,they lift up their voice to ,god with one accord1 and said1 ,,lord1 thou art ,,god1 which hast made heaven and earth1 and the sea1 and all that therein is4 ,,who1 by the mouth of thy servant ,david1 hast said10 c4 ,the terms ,,lord and ,,god are here used to express the ,divinity of him1 says the same able writer1 who spake by the mouth of his servant ,david4 ,but it was the ,,holy ,,ghost who spake by the mouth of his servant ,david--for1 saith ,st4 ,peter1 8,this ,scripture must needs have been fulfilled1 which the ,,holy ,,ghost10 by the mouth of ,david1 8spake10 c4 ,therefore the terms ,,lord and ,,god are certainly used to express the ,divinity of the ,,holy ,,ghost4#ae ,in the work of creation1 the 8,,spirit of ,,god moved upon the face of the waters10 by an infinite vitality infusing life1 and with a formative energy giving form4 8,by his ,,spirit he hath garnished the heavens0 with an incalculable number of luminous stars2 all those glittering worlds1 which serve for use as well as beauty1 were formed by the ,spirit of ,god4 ,as none but the third ,person in the ,godhead is ever so much as once in the ,scriptures called the ,spirit of ,god2 so the ,holy ,spirit's agency in the work of creation evinces his distinct personality1 and is a confirmation of his proper ,divinity4 ,a cause must be equal to the effect it produces3 but no finite spirit could be a joint1 concurring1 efficient cause in the work of the creation3 therefore the ,holy ,spirit is ,god4 ,supposing the matter of which the worlds were made to be called into being out of nothing by the ,almighty power of the ,father1 or by the fiat of the ,son2 yet the animating of the whole lifeless mass1 the putting of every part into motion1 the assortment of all the particles1 the assigning of them their proper places1 and the completing of the whole with such astonishing beauty and harmony1 which was the peculiar work of the ,holy ,spirit1 required no less than an almighty power1 which clearly demonstrates that he is ,god4 ,thus we see that the creation of the world is ascribed to one ,god1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the ,son and the ,holy ,spirit were joint ,creators1 of equal power1 and equal efficiency with the ,father4 ,there is no where to be found in the ,scriptures the least hint of different degrees of creating energy1 nor of sole efficiency in one of the ,persons in the ,godhead1 and a bare instrumental compliance in the other4 ,the creation was the common effect of their joint acting3 nor is it ever said1 nor so much as hinted or implied1 that the distinct ,persons in the ,godhead had different provinces1 nor that one creature was made by one1 and another creature was the workmanship of another4 ,the ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,spirit1 are never represented as acting separately1 but always in conjunction4 ,the sacred historian assures us1 that1 at the commencement of time1 ,elohim1 the triune ,god1 caused matter to exist1 which1 previous to this astonishing display of his creating energy1 had no being4 ,moses1 as an inspired author1 is the only one who could instruct us in the formation and unfolding of the world4 ,he is not an ,epicurus1 who has recourse to atoms2 a ,lucretius1 who believes matter to be eternal2 a ,spinoza1 who admits a material ,god2 a ,descartes1 who prates about the laws of motion2 but a legislator1 who announces to all men without hesitation1 without fear of being mistaken1 how the world was created4 ,nothing can be more simple1 nor more sublime than his opening3 8,in the beginning ,god created the heaven and the earth40 ,he could not have spoken more assuredly1 if he had been a spectator2 and by these words1 mythology1 systems1 and absurdities1 shrink to nought1 and are mere chimeras in the eyes of reason4#af ,had ,moses been a fictitious writer1 how natural and how easy would it have been for him to have filled up the first part of his history with marvellous relations about the creation8 ,with what pomp of language1 with what waste of rhetoric1 could he probably have embellished that surprising scene8 ,with what a grand apparatus of celestial machinery might he have made the omnipotent ,architect come forth to build a universe8 ,how many sub-agents and subalterns would a fabulous poet or historian have employed in this stupendous and multifarious work8 ,with what solemnity would every part have been gone about1 and with how many episodes1 digressions1 and reflections1 would the story have been filled1 in order to give it an air of the marvellous8 ,but read the beginning of ,genesis1 and observe how differently ,moses writes4 ,no scope is given to fancy or invention4 ,all is narrated with an ease1 plainness1 and simplicity1 which evidently shows that he kept close to truth1 and laid down the facts just as they were presented to his mind2 a manner of writing rarely1 if at all1 to be found in any other historians1 but such as had the honor of being the amanuensis of the ,,spirit of truth4#ag ,the description which ,moses furnishes concerning the creation1 as relating to circumstances previous to the existence of mankind1 could be derived only from immediate revelation4 ,it was received by the ,jews with full conviction of its truth1 on the authority of that inspiration under which ,moses was known to act4#ah ,and when the creation of the world began1 by the lapse of time1 to be removed to a remote distance1 ,god was pleased thus to provide a contemporary historian1 and appoint a whole nation to be the guardians of his history2 as well that this register might be the most authentic1 as that all mankind might hence be instructed in the knowledge of a fact1 which was so necessary for them to know1 and yet so impossible to be otherwise ascertained4#ai ,it may be proper to notice1 that some futile objections have been made to the period which is assigned by ,moses to the creation1 as though it were too recent to be reconciled with reason and philosophical inquiry4 ,how long matter remained in a quiescent state after its creation1 we have no data to enable us to determine3 but1 as its resting in an animate state1 so far as we know1 could answer no valuable purpose1 we may reasonably conjecture the time would not be long4 ,the creation of the world began1 according to ,usher1 before the ,christian era #djjd years1 if we follow the ,hebrew text4 ,the ,septuagint version places it #ehgb1 and the ,samaritan #dgjj before the vulgar era4--,sanchoniathon1 the first ,phenician historian1 according to the most extended accounts of ,porphyry1 flourished long after ,moses1 probably not less than two hundred years4 ,manetho1 high-priest of ,heliopolis1 wrote the ,egyptian history only in the time of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 not more than #cjj years before ,christ1 and professes to have transcribed his ,dynasties from some pillars of ,hermes ,trismegistus1 written in the ,hebrew dialect4--,berosus was the first noted ,chaldean historian1 and he was contemporary with ,manetho4--,the ,chinese have not any work in an intelligible character above #bbjj years old4 ,one of the ,chinese emperors1 about #bac years before the ,christian era1 ordered all their historical records to be destroyed4--,the ,greeks could produce no dates beyond #eej years before ,christ1 and but little historical information prior to the ,olympiads1 which began #gge years before the ,christian era4 ,orpheus and ,museus1 fabulous poets1 were not so remote as ,moses2 for it is supposed they lived about #bjj years after him1 in the days of ,gideon4 ,daries ,phrygius and ,dystys ,cretensis1 fabulous poets1 wrote the history of the ,trojan war1 about #djj years after ,moses4 ,homer wrote his poems after ,david's time1 and about #eej years after ,moses4 ,herodotus1 called the father of history1 who flourished about #dej years before the ,christian era1 was the first ,grecian historian that deserves the name2 yet he begins with fable4 ,thucydides rejects1 as uncertain1 all that preceded the ,peloponnesian war2 and ,plutarch1 not one of the least historians among the ,grecians1 ventured not beyond the time of ,theseus1 who lived a little before the ministry of ,samuel4#bj ,so that all these poets and historians flourished long after the time of ,moses1 some of them nearly a thousand years2 for he wrote about ,a4 ,m4 #bdfj4 ,the works of the ,jewish lawgiver are not only the most ancient1 but also the most authentic1 of all the monuments of antiquity4 ,if the world were some thousands of years older1 it must be much better peopled than it is at present4 ,population has always increased since the deluge1 and yet there might be three times as many more inhabitants on the earth than it at present contains4 ,it has been computed that at least #ejjj millions of men might live at once on our globe3 and yet it does not appear that there are really more than #ajhj millions4 ,in ,asia are reckoned #fej millions2 in ,africa and ,america1 #cjj millions2 and in ,europe1 #acj millions4 ,if we consider the arts invented by men1 we shall find that few or none of them have been discovered more than two or three thousand years4 ,man owes not only to his nature and reason the aptitude he has for acquiring arts and sciences1 but he is also led to this by necessity2 by the desire he has to procure himself conveniences and pleasures2 by vanity and ambition2 and by luxury1 the child of abundance1 which creates new wants4 ,this propensity is evident among all men1 in all ages4 ,history carries us back to the time when men had scarcely invented the most necessary arts2 when those arts which were known were but very imperfectly understood2 and in which they scarcely knew any thing of the first principles of the sciences4 ,about four thousand years ago1 men were still in a state of great ignorance concerning most subjects2 and if we calculate according to the progress which they made since that time1 and afterwards go back to the remotest periods1 we may with tolerable exactness fix the era when men knew nothing2 which is1 in other words1 that of the infancy of the human race4 ,were their existence to be carried higher1 it is utterly improbable that the most useful and necessary arts should have continued unknown to them through such a long series of ages4 ,on the contrary1 all that can be discovered by the human mind must have been known a long time ago4 ,from this circumstance therefore we must conclude1 that the origin of the human race can have no other era than that which ,moses has assigned it in his history of the creation4#ba ,if it be asked1 ,what6 was ,god a solitary ,being8 ,did he exist alone1 before this exertion of his glorious power8 ,formed as we are for society1 we have no conception of any satisfaction arising from a state of absolute loneliness2 nor can we conceive that the ,deity should rest inactive from eternity1 and not exert those amazing powers of which the stupendous creation proves he is amply possessed8 ,there are some particulars naturally deducible from questions like these1 which we cannot solve4 ,we have no adequate apprehension of eternity2 we are lost in the idea4 ,and when we attempt to contemplate ,god existing from eternity without cause or as beginning to exist1 we are utterly lost in the speculation2 for among all the objects that come within the reach of our senses1 we see nothing existing that has not had a cause to produce it4 ,we frequently smile at children1 when they ask their little simple questions1 as we deem them2 but we are mere children ourselves1 in this profound ocean of wonder4 ,but something very observable strikes an attentive reader in the ,mosaic account of the creation1 which suggests that the ,deity is not a solitary ,being1 existing in such an absolute unity as to exclude all degree of personality or communion4 ,for ,elohim1 as we have already observed1 the very first name by which ,moses calls ,god1 being plural1 shows that though he exists in an undivided unity of nature1 yet in a ,trinity of ,persons4 ,and this notion of a plurality1 so far from being contrary to reason1 is more agreeable to it than any opinion of the absolute unity of the ,divine nature4 ,for conceive we only three ,divine persons mutually to partake of the ,divine essence or nature1 to be united by the same perfect will1 and to possess the same infinite powers and perfections2 and all our apprehensions of the loneliness of solitary existence immediately subside2 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost1 consummately happy in each other1 have been from eternity reciprocal objects of complacence1 and will remain such for ever4 ,let this argument be fairly and impartially considered1 and the notion of a ,trinity of ,subsistences in a ,unity of the ,divine ,nature1 will appear far more consonant to reason1 and liable to less objections1 than that of mere solitary and absolute unity4#bb ,a further consideration of the suggestion in the close of the last paragraph4 ,although nothing can be clearer than that the ,divine ,essence is one1 simple1 and indivisible2 yet this does not prevent it from subsisting in personality1 i4e4 in a plurality of persons4 ,it must be carefully observed1 that the plurality has regard to the persons1 not to the ,essence4 ,we cannot say there is a plurality of ,essences2 but we can say1 the ,living1 ,rational1 ,benevolent1 and ,spiritual ,essence subsists in three persons4 ,this then is the ,,modus ,,existendi of the ,divine ,being4 ,although we are assured this is his mode of existence1 we do not pretend to comprehend the nature of it4 ,we may1 without any injury to the proposition1 affirm1 the nature of the fact is incomprehensible by created intellect4 ,yet the fact itself is sufficiently well attested1 and is not repugnant to reason1 though it is above the comprehension of reason4 ,it is believed by many very learned1 pious1 and eminent men1 that the doctrine of a plurality of persons in the ,godhead1 can be established by an argumentation founded solely on the acknowledged nature of the ,divine ,being4 ,the ,rev4 ,,james ,,kidd1 ,prof4 of ,oriental ,languages1 ,marischal ,college and ,university1 ,aberdeen1 with the approbation of many learned men in ,england1 among whom is ,dr4 ,adam ,clarke1 in whose house he delivered private lectures on his manuscript1 has published a very able and satisfactory essay on this plan1 of which a brief clue to the mode of argumentation is here attempted4 ,a4 ,the ,divine ,being is a necessarily existent1 and an eternally1 immensely1 and immutably ,living1 ,intelligent1 ,rational1 ,moral1 ,benevolent1 and ,spiritual ,essence4 ,b4 ,the very ,,law of the nature of such a being1 is eternal1 immense1 and immutable ,,activity1 ,,energy1 and ,,efficiency1 exercised eternally1 immensely1 and immutably1 ,,according ,,to ,,his ,,own ,,nature4 ,c4 ,that such a being ,,was as necessarily existent1 perfect1 and happy1 ,,before creation1 and providence as since2 and would forever continue as necessarily existent1 perfect1 and happy1 if creation and providence should cease to be4 ,these three propositions are so obviously true1 every reader will readily and cordially grant them4 ,it is proposed1 therefore1 to show1 from the nature of the ,divine ,being1 that his ,essence ,,must subsist in a plurality of persons4 ,the proposition does not contemplate an explanation of the manner of this subsistence2 nor1 at present1 the number of persons2 but the simple fact1 ,that ,,from ,,the ,,very ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,divine ,,being1 ,,his ,,essence ,,must ,,subsist ,,in ,,plural ,,personality4 ,the existence of a being1 or the possession1 or exercise of any principle1 passion or attribute1 implies personality1 or individual identity1 which is the same thing4 ,the mind cannot conceive of existence1 passion1 principle1 or action1 without conceiving of them inhering in actually existing ,essence1 which must assume in the mind the idea of personality4 ,therefore1 personality is strictly1 and properly applicable to the ,divine ,essence4 ,but the doctrine of a plural personality is to be established at present4 ,it will be easily conceived1 and readily granted1 that a being which exists necessarily1 eternally1 immensely1 and immutably1 as a ,living1 ,intelligent1 ,rational1 ,moral1 ,benevolent1 and ,spiritual ,essence1 must have exercised ,himself1 and his perfections1 necessarily1 eternally1 immensely1 and immutably4 ,this then is granted4 ,but the mind will readily and easily perceive1 that the ,divine ,being could not have exercised ,himself ,,thus1 in the works of ,creation and ,providence4 ,because1 it is readily admitted1 there was a time when ,creation and ,providence began3 during a whole eternity beyond this period1 there was no existence except ,god ,himself4 ,consequently1 ,he cannot have been exercised according to his own nature and perfections1 eternally1 in reference to ,creation and ,providence4 ,again3 ,he cannot have exercised his perfections immensely1 in reference to ,creation and ,providence3 because1 however extensive we may conceive the empire of ,creation and ,providence to be1 it is not immense2 it is actually limited1 and1 therefore1 could not admit of an immense exercise of his nature and perfections4 ,it is readily granted1 that the ,divine ,being was as necessarily1 and perfectly happy before ,creation and ,providence as since2 and if ,creation and ,providence should cease1 his happiness would continue the same3 hence1 it follows1 necessarily1 that the happiness of the ,divine ,being was1 is1 and ever will be entirely independent of ,creation and ,providence4 ,but the happiness of any being consists1 essentially1 in the exercise of its powers and perfections according to the law of its own nature4 ,and as it has been shown1 that the happiness of the ,divine ,being is eternal1 immense1 and immutable1 it follows1 ,he must have exercised ,himself eternally1 immensely1 and immutably4 ,as it has been granted1 ,that from the very nature of the ,divine ,being1 ,he must have been eternally1 immensely1 and immutably active and happy1 according to the law of his own nature3 and it has been proven1 ,that ,he could not have been eternally1 immensely1 and immutably active and happy1 in reference to ,creation and ,providence1 it follows1 necessarily1 that the means and principles of these eternal1 immense1 and immutable activity and happiness1 must exist ,,in ,,his ,,own ,,constitution1 and be exercised entirely ,,within ,himself4 ,this conclusion cannot be denied1 granting the premises in the propositions ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 in reference to the ,divine ,being4 ,it remains to be proven1 ,that such principles1 and means of eternal1 immense and immutable activity and happiness cannot be conceived of in the constitution of the ,divine ,being1 without conceiving his essence to subsist in plural personality4 ,the consideration simply of the nature and eternal activity of the ,divine ,being would establish the idea of plural personality in his ,essence3 because the mind cannot conceive1 that the same single being can be both agent and object1 in reference to the same action4 ,and as it has been proven1 that previous to the existence of ,creation and ,providence1 ,god existed eternally alone1 consequently1 no possible form of existence but ,himself1 and yet he was eternally1 immensely1 and immutably active and happy2 it will follow irresistibly1 that there must be a plurality in his single ,essence2 and the mind naturally assumes1 this plurality is personal2 as it cannot conceive of activity1 and happiness without conceiving them to belong to person1 or persons4 ,and as action implies both agent1 and an object distinct from the agent2 and there being no such agent1 or object existing without the ,divine ,being1 it must be infered1 that these agent and object1 concerned in the eternal activity and happiness of his nature1 must exist inherently1 eternally1 immensely1 and immutably ,,within ,himself4 ,thus we are ,,compelled to admit a plurality of persons in the ,divine ,essence4 ,it will be recollected1 the ,divine ,being has not only exercised ,himself eternally1 but also immensely1 according to the law of his own nature and perfections3 i4e4 ,he has necessarily1 and eternally exercised ,himself to the extent of his nature and perfections4 ,this will be readily admitted when we reflect1 that unless we admit the exercise of the nature and perfections of ,god to their full extent1 we must admit a redundancy in the ,divine ,nature1 and perfections1 which would be manifestly absurd1 as it would imply imperfection4 ,for it would imply 7if we may dare say so7 that there is an efficiency1 or ability in the ,divine ,being1 which ,he has never exercised to its full extent2 and in proportion to the deficiency in the exercise1 we must conclude this efficiency or ability is useless1 which would be repugnant to the true idea of the ,divine ,being4 ,it is therefore1 proven1 ,that the ,divine ,being necessarily exercised ,himself immensely1 because his nature1 and perfections are immense4 ,but it will be readily perceived1 this could not be done in the works of ,creation and ,providence3 because1 however vast they may be1 they are not immense3 and1 therefore1 could not admit of the immense exercise of his nature and perfections to their full extent3 from which it must follow1 inevitably1 ,that the immense exercise of his own nature and perfections must be ,,within ,himself4 ,as it has already been proven above1 that this internal exercise in the ,divine ,essence necessarily implies plurality in the ,godhead2 so now also1 is it proven1 that the admission of such plurality is the only view competent to show ,,how the ,divine ,being could have exercised his own nature and perfections immensely1 as the attribute of immensity appertains to ,god only4 ,as it is granted1 that the ,divine ,being was necessarily as happy before ,creation and ,providence as since1 and would continue so1 should ,creation and ,providence cease2 of course his happiness consists in the exercise of his own nature and perfections according to their own law4 ,but1 in order that the ,divine ,being should be eternally1 immensely1 and immutably happy1 the ,,whole of the ,divine ,nature and perfections must be exercised eternally1 immensely1 and immutably4 ,but if we divest the ,divine ,essence of its plural personality1 we cannot conceive that some of the divine perfections can be exercised at all4 ,for example3 the divine goodness1 love1 wisdom1 intelligence1 and all his moral perfections4 ,we surely cannot say1 ,he manifests his goodness to ,himself2 or exercises his love towards ,himself2 or employs his wisdom in understanding ,himself2 all of which ideas are obviously absurd4 ,but so soon as we admit the idea of a plural personality1 or the subsistence of the ,divine ,essence in a plurality of persons1 we can conceive the moral perfections exercised in ,himself1 between the persons of the ,godhead4 ,this is the only ground on which we can conceive of his eternal1 immense1 and immutable happiness4 ,for we can readily conceive of the distinct persons in the ,divine ,essence1 communicating mutually to each other the whole of the divine moral perfections2 and thus conceive of the perfect and independent happiness of ,god4 ,the only remaining view of this subject would be this3 the activity1 energy1 and influence of the ,divine ,being can only regard ,creation and ,providence4 ,but as there was a past eternity before ,creation and ,providence began1 in which the ,divine ,being existed1 ,he must be considered as having been inactive1 solitary1 and unconscious2 7because there cannot be consciousness where there is not action17 the whole and every part of which view is derogatory to the acknowledged character of ,god4 ,how much more reasonable is it to conceive the ,divine ,essence to subsist in a plurality of persons1 and thus to conceive1 consistently1 of the eternal1 immense1 and immutable activity and happiness of the ,divine ,being8 ,thus we see1 that what the ,scriptures declare concerning the plurality of persons in the ,divine ,essence1 ,,cannot ,,be ,,otherwise1 ,,as ,,is ,,demonstrated ,,above1 ,,from ,,the ,,necessary ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,glorious ,,divinity4 ,the demonstration might be extended to each of the divine perfections1 and the same result would be obtained4 ,the above remarks are a mere clue to the argument which is possible1 and satisfactory2 founded on the necessary nature of ,jehovah4 ,the key to the whole demonstration is this3 #a4 ,the ,divine ,being1 from his very and necessary nature1 must be eternally1 immensely1 and immutably active4 #b4 ,he must be eternally1 immensely1 and immutably happy4 #c4 ,in order to be eternally1 immensely1 and immutably active and happy1 ,he must be exercised to the whole extent of his nature and perfections1 eternally1 immensely1 and immutably4 #d4 ,that such an exercise of his nature and perfections1 in an eternal1 immense1 and immutable manner1 cannot be1 in regard to ,creation and ,providence2 because1 ,creation and ,providence are not eternal1 immense1 and immutable4 #e4 ,as there was not any thing before ,creation and ,providence1 but ,god ,himself1 it must follow1 necessarily1 that the eternal1 immense1 and immutable activity and happiness of the ,divine ,being were ,,within ,himself entirely4 #f4 ,as it is impossible for the human intellect to conceive1 that a being can be both agent and object1 in the same action1 and the activity of the ,divine ,being has been shown to have been within ,himself entirely2 it follows1 ,,that ,,the ,,divine ,,essence ,,must ,,have ,,subsisted ,,eternally1 ,,immensely1 ,,and ,,immutably ,,in ,a ,,plurality4 #g4 ,and as the mind is forced to admit a plurality in the ,divine ,essence1 it naturally1 and necessarily assumes ,,persons for this plurality2 and thus concludes1 ,there must be a plurality of persons in the ,godhead as the ,scriptures declare4 ,from the foregoing elements of the argument1 it will be very easy to observe1 if a plurality must be admitted1 there is no objection in the mind to admit it is triple2 and hence1 as the substance of the ,divine ,essence has been shown to exist necessarily in a plurality1 the mind conceives a triple plurality1 as easy as any other1 and thus conceives the reasonableness of the doctrine of the ,trinity in ,unity4 ,the most successful argument against this conclusion is this3 ,it is impossible to conceive how three can be one4 ,this is admitted1 when the objects designated by 8three0 are the same as the object designated by 8one40 ,but this is not the case in the doctrine of the ,trinity in ,unity4 ,the term ,trinity applies to the persons in which the ,divine ,essence subsists1 and not to the essence itself4 ,so the term ,unity applies to the ,essence only1 and not to the persons4 ,this simple distinction removes the whole force of the objection4 ,the ,unitarians1 therefore1 do us wrong when they say1 we believe three are one4 ,and ,trinitarians do themselves wrong when they say1 to the three one ,god3 because1 it is not true that there is a 8three one ,god40 ,but it is a glorious truth1 ,,that ,,the ,,divine ,,essence ,,subsists ,,in ,,three ,,persons1 ,,eternally1 ,,immensely1 ,,and ,,immutably4 ,it is very natural to suppose1 that ,god imparted a knowledge of ,himself to our first parents in ,paradise4 ,the ,scriptures clearly support this supposition4 ,this knowledge would1 of course1 include the doctrine of the ,trinity2 and we cannot admit for a moment1 that so important a doctrine as the plurality of persons in the ,godhead1 could have been wholly lost by mankind1 though it might become obscured4 ,accordingly we find the traditionary remains of this doctrine throughout the ,old ,world4 8,the ,hindoos0 says ,m4 ,sonerat1 8adore three principal ,deities1 ,brouma1 ,schiven1 and ,vichenou1 who are still but one2 which kind of ,trinity is there called ,trimurti1 and signifies the re-union of those powers4 ,the generality of ,indians at present1 adore only one of these three divinities2 but some learned men1 beside this worship1 also address their prayers to the three united4 ,the representation of them is to be seen in many pagodas1 under that of human figures with three heads1 which on the coast of ,orissa1 they call ,sariharabrama1 on the ,coromandel coast1 ,trimourti10 c4 ,this account of ,m4 ,sonerat is very pertinent1 and is confirmed by ,dr4 ,buchanan who made extensive researches in that country4 ,see his ,star in the ,east4 ,the same tradition is found in ,china4 8,among the ancient ,chinese characters0 says ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 8which have been preserved1 we find the following like the ,greek delta4 ,according to the ,chinese dictionary ,kang-hi1 this character signifies union4 ,according to ,choueouen1 a celebrated work1 is three united in one4 ,the ,lieou-chou-tsing-hoen1 which is a rational and learned explanation of ancient characters1 says2 8 signifies intimate union1 harmony1 the chief good of man1 of the heaven1 and of the earth2 it is the union of three40 ,lao-tse says2 8,he who is as visible1 and yet cannot be seen1 is denominated lieou2 he who can be heard1 and yet speaks not to the ears1 hi2 he who is tangible1 and yet cannot be felt1 is named ouei3 in vain do you consult your senses about these three2 your reason alone can discourse of them1 and it will tell you they are but one10 c4 ,one of the missionaries at ,peking1 who wrote the letters from which ,i have made the above extracts1 takes it for granted1 8that the mystery of the ,trinity was known among the ancient ,chinese1 and that the character was its symbol40 ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 on the #ast chap4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,the existence of this same tradition in ,china is conveyed to us through another channel4 8,it was the leading feature in ,lao-,kiun's system of philosophical theology1 and a sentence which he continually repeated as the foundation of all true wisdom1 that ,,tao1 the eternal reason1 produced ,,one2 one produced ,,two2 two produced ,,three2 and ,,three produced all things40 ,le ,compt's ,memoirs of ,china4 ,traditions of this doctrine are found also in ,chaldea and ,persia indeed throughout the ,east2 from whence all agree they were imported1 through ,phnicia1 into ,egypt1 and thence into ,greece4 ,the great and original sources of information being in the neighborhood of the ,euphrates1 where the first post-diluvian families resided2 and the mighty intellects which were to influence the world1 by the materials which were drawn from thence1 being in ,greece1 the consequence was1 we find the ,grecian philosophers travelling up the streams of knowledge to the fountains1 and thence returning to enlighten the world by the results of their researches4 ,for example3 ,pythagoras1 ,plato1 and others visited ,egypt first1 thence to ,phnicia1 and thence to ,chaldea1 and the ,east1 from whence they undoubtedly drew their theology4 7,nor should it be forgotten that their philosophy was theological47 ,the concurrent testimony of history establishes this fact4 ,the consequence of all this is1 the doctrine of the ,trinity was known to the ,greek philosophers1 who preserved it to the world in their incomparable writings1 a collateral testimony of the authenticity of the ,scripture doctrine4 ,for this opinion we have the highest authority in the republic of letters4 8,it is said that the first ,christians borrowed their notion of a ,triune ,god from the later ,platonists2 and that we hear not of a ,trinity in the church till converts were made from the school of ,alexandria4 ,but if this be the case we may properly ask1 ,whence had those ,platonists the doctrine8 8,it is not surely so simple1 or so obvious as to have occurred to the reasoning mind of a pagan philosopher2 or if it be1 why do ,unitarians suppose it to involve a contradiction8--,the ,platonic and ,pythagorean ,trinities never could have occurred to the mind of him1 who1 merely from the works of creation1 endeavored to discover the being and attributes of ,god2 and therefore as those philosophers travelled into ,egypt and the ,east in quest of knowledge1 it appears to us in the highest degree probable1 that they picked up this mysterious and sublime doctrine in those regions where it had been handed down as a dogma from the remotest ages1 and where we know science was not taught systematically1 but detailed in collections of sententious maxims1 and traditionary opinions4 ,if this be so we cannot doubt but that the pagan trinities had their origin in some primeval revelation4 ,nothing else indeed can account for a doctrine so remote from human imagination1 and of which we find vestiges in the sacred books of almost every civilized people of antiquity4 ,the corrupt state in which it is viewed in the writings of ,plato and others1 is the natural consequence of its descent through a long course of oral tradition4 ,the ,trinity of ,platonism therefore1 instead of being an objection1 lends1 in our opinion1 no feeble support to the ,christian doctrine1 since it affords almost a complete proof of that doctrine having made a part of the first revelation to man40 ,ency4 ,brit4 ,art4 ,,theology4 8,some have indeed pretended1 that the ,trinity1 which is commonly called ,platonic1 was a fiction of the later ,platonists1 unknown to the founder of the school3 but any person who will take the trouble to study the writings of ,plato will find abundant evidence that he really asserted ,a ,,triad ,,of ,,divine ,,hypostases1 all concerned in the formation1 and government of the world40 ,ency4 ,brit4 ,art4 ,,platonism4 8,pythagoras1 though inferior to ,plato in reputation1 and lived before him1 held the same doctrine1 and derived it from the same sources4 ,he visited ,egypt1 ,persia1 ,chaldea1 c1 and thence returned to ,greece40 ,ency4 ,brit4 ,art4 ,,pythagoras4 ,these quotations are directly from the ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 than which no authority can be better4 ,i might increase the quotations to the same effect from ,dr4 ,oglevie1 the learned ,cudworth and others1 were it necessary4 ,the above is thought sufficient to establish the fact1 ,that the doctrine of a ,trinity in ,unity was once prevalent in the ,pagan world1 and that remains and traditions of it are yet abundant through all the ,east1 where the revelations of ,god were made to mankind4 ,if it be asked1 8,why did ,god conceal himself from eternity till within six thousand years2 for1 according to ,divine revelation1 it is not yet so long since the world was made80 ,i answer1 ,god is at perfect liberty to do what he pleases1 to do it when he pleases1 and to give no account of the reasons of his conduct4 ,if he had pleased to create the world as many millions of years sooner1 as there have been days since its creation1 the same question might have been asked1 ,why did he not create the world sooner1 and thereby discover himself8 ,for the longest time that can be imagined is just as nothing in comparison with eternity4 ,if ,god had pleased1 he might have concealed his existence and perfections to all eternity1 or1 in other words1 never have made any thing4 ,seeing therefore it was only of his sovereign pleasure that he made creatures1 to whom he might manifest himself1 surely he had a right to fix on the time for doing it4 ,we are sure he is infinitely wise1 and consequently all his works are done in the fittest time1 and best manner4 ,god made the world1 not because he needed the praise or service of creatures to add to his blessedness2 for he who is self-existent must necessarily be infinitely perfect and absolutely independent2 and would always have remained the same happy ,being1 enjoying his own excellencies and perfections1 had no creature ever been made4 ,but it was for the manifesting of his own glorious attributes1 and communicating happiness to creatures capable of it1 that he1 in the beginning1 created this magnificent fabric of the heavens and the earth1 with all things therein1 whether visible or invisible1 animate or inanimate1 material substances or immaterial spirits4 ,for he created beings of different ranks and powers1 to whom he might manifest himself1 or communicate his goodness4 ,some of these were pure intellectual spirits1 fit for the felicity and employments of the heavenly state1 to stand in his immediate presence1 and execute his righteous commands3 but these were created before the solar system2 for the angels1 those 8sons of ,god10 called 8morning stars10 were present1 and sung together for joy1 when 8the foundations0 of this world were laid4 ,others he formed out of the earth1 with life1 sense1 and instinct1 but destitute of reason1 designing them to be subservient to the necessities or conveniences of a higher order of beings4 ,besides these he created other beings of a middle rank1 partaking of an earthly part1 fashioned with infinite skill and art1 of exquisite symmetry1 and adorned with great external beauty2 and of a spiritual part akin to angels1 and but little inferior to them1 being in their constitution a compound of the animal and angelic natures4 ,it is not by reason alone then1 or the light of heathen philosophy1 but 8through faith10 in the infallible testimony of ,divine revelation1 8we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of ,god1 so that things which are seen were not made of things which do appear40 ,the sun1 moon1 stars1 and earth1 which we see1 were not made of matter which had existed from eternity1 as some of the heathen philosophers supposed1 but of what ,god created anterior to the formation of those wonderful orbs4 ,the word 1 framed1 signifies not only to make or produce simply1 but properly to place or set in joint the parts of any body or machine in their right order4 ,accordingly ,plato says1 that in making the world1 ,god proceeded with the exactness of a geometrician1 arranging every thing in complete symmetry4 ,all this was done by the word of ,god1 which is not to be understood of any articulate sound1 but of the simple act of his own will2 he willed the universe1 with all its variety of furniture1 into existence4 ,and this is a matter of faith1 to be believed2 not to be known by mere reason2 for reason1 without faith1 can apprehend a formation of things from matter previously made ready4 ,a pious expositor very justly observes1 ,by faith assenting to ,divine revelation1 and not by reason we understand the truth and wonders1 the reasons and causes1 the manner and end1 of the creation of the world4 ,reason indeed tells us that there was a creation1 consequently a ,creator2 but reason without ,divine revelation could never have discovered the circumstances and manner of the creation1 which wholly depended upon the will of ,god4 ,reason could never have known them1 if ,god had not in his word first revealed them4 ,reason may propound the question1 ,how was the world made1 and all things therein8 ,but revelation must resolve it4 8,oh ,lord my ,god1 thou art very great2 thou art clothed with honor and majesty4 ,who coverest thyself with light as with a garment3 who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain3 who layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters3 who maketh the clouds his chariot3 who walketh upon the wings of the wind3 who maketh his angels spirits2 his ministers a flaming fire3 who laid the foundations of the earth1 that it should not be moved for ever4 ,thou coveredst it with a garment3 the waters stood above the mountains4 ,at thy rebuke they fled2 at the voice of thy thunder they hasted away4 ,they go up by the mountains2 they go down by the valleys unto the place which thou hast founded for them4 ,thou hast set a bound that they may not pass over2 that they turn not again to cover the earth40 ,such is the sublime language of ,divine revelation6 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnotes - ,chapter ,i #a ,as the name ,jehovah1 in the ,hebrew consists of four letters1 so for the most part the name of the supreme ,being does in all languages4 ,thus among the ,persians1 the name is 2 among the ,arabians1 ,alla2 among the ,assyrians1 ,adad2 among the ,egyptians1 or with the ,grecians1 2 the ,latins1 ,deus2 the ,french1 ,dieu2 the ,spaniards1 ,dios2 the ,italians1 ,idio2 and with the ,germans1 ,gott4 ,the name ,jehovah is written differently4 ,sanchoniathon writes it ,jevo2 ,diodorus the ,sicilian1 ,macrobius1 ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 ,jerome1 and ,origen1 ,jao2 ,epiphanius1 ,theodoret1 and the ,samaritans1 ,jab or ,jave3 we find likewise ,jahoh1 ,javo1 ,jaou1 ,jaod4 ,lewis ,capellus is for ,javo2 ,drusius for ,jav2 ,mercer for ,jehevah3 ,hottinger ,jehra4 ,the ,moors call their ,god ,juba1 whom some believe to be ,jehovah4 ,the ,latins probably took their ,juvis or ,jovis ,pater from ,jehovah4 ,it is certain that these four letters may likewise be expressed by ,javo1 ,jaho1 ,jaon1 ,jevo1 ,jav1 ,jehvah1 c4 ,mussulmen frequently use the name ,hu1 or ,hou1 which has almost the same signification as ,jehovah1 i4e4 ,he who is4 ,but the great name of ,god is ,allah1 which they pronounce often1 and have great confidence in4 ,among the ,arabians1 and all ,mahometans the name ,allah corresponds with the ,elohim and ,adonai of the ,hebrews1 and even that of ,jehovah4 ,see ,calmet's ,dictionary4 #b ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke on ,exod4 xxxiv1 #f1 #g4 #c ,philo-,biblius seems to intimate1 that the ,god of the ,phnicians was anciently called by the name ,jehovah2 and that ,jevo1 ,javo1 more recently used by them1 is a corruption of it2 for it is said1 that ,jerombalus who supplied ,sanchoniathon with materials for his ,phnician history1 was a priest of the ,god ,jevo4 ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,evang4 lib4 i4 c4 #i4 #d 8,on the front of the famous temple of ,apollo1 at ,delphos1 was graven the ,greek word 7which signifies thou art1 being the second person singular of the verb 47 ,the learned among the ,philosophers labored long to discover its meaning1 each giving his own opinion2 but could not find it out1 until ,plutarch 7who travelled into ,egypt and ,greece for instruction in ancient sciences and other things7 meeting with that passage in the writings of ,moses1 where ,god manifested himself by saying1 ,i ,,am ,,that ,i ,,am2 he was struck with it1 and having it explained to him1 he then conceived the true and exalted sense of the word 1 engraved on the front of the temple4 ,it implied1 as it were1 an admonition to those who were about to enter the temple1 to worship ,god1 who is the only self-existent ,being in the universe40 ,creighton's ,enquiry into the ,origin of ,true ,religion1 p4 #ba4 ,second ,edition4 ,on a temple dedicated to ,neitha1 at ,sais1 the chief town in ,lower ,egypt1 was this inscription3 8,i am whatever is1 or has been1 or will be1 and no mortal has hitherto drawn aside my veil2 my offspring is the sun40 ,it appears highly probable that the ancient ,egyptians acknowledged an active as well as a passive principle in nature1 and1 as ,plutarch asserts1 worshipped 1 the supreme ,deity4 ,enfield's ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #gf1 #gg4 #e ,norris on ,reason and ,religion4 ,contemp4 i4 #f ,allix's ,judgment of the ,jewish ,church against the ,unitarians1 p4 #aaf4 ,edit4 #afii4 ,see also p4 #aai4 ,simpson's ,apology for the ,doctrine of the ,trinity1 p4 #cgi1 #chj4 #g ,rabbi ,simeon ,ben ,jochai1 in ,zoar1 on the sixth section of ,leviticus4 ,see ,ainsworth's ,annotations on the place4 #h ,demonstration of the ,messias1 ,part iii4 p1 #agj1 #aga4 ,edit4 #agjj4 #i ,jones on the ,trinity1 chap4 iii4 sect4 #a4 #aj ,allix4 p4 #acb4 #aa ,gen4 i1 #bf2 iii1 #bb2 xi1 #g2 xx1 #ac2 xxxi1 #ec2 xxxv1 #g2 ,deut4 iv1 #g2 v1 #bc2 ,josh4 xxiv1 #ai2 #a ,sam4 iv1 #h2 #b ,sam4 vii1 #bc2 ,psal4 lviii1 #ab2 ,isai4 vi1 #h2 ,jer4 x1 #aj2 xxiii1 #cf2 ,see ,prov4 ix1 #aj2 xxx1 #c2 ,psal4 cxlix1 #b2 ,eccl4 v1 #g2 xii1 #a3 ,job v1 #a2 ,isai4 vi1 #c2 liv1 #e2 ,hos4 xi1 #ab1 or xii1 #a2 ,mal4 i1#f2 ,dan4 vii1 #ah1 #bb1 #be2 ,hebrew ,lexicon1 p4 #ai4 ,edit4 #ahaa4 ,see also ,mr4 ,parkhurst's pamphlet against ,dr4 ,priestly and ,mr4 ,wakefield1 p4 #c-i1 and p4 #adh1 c4 #ab ,ridley's ,eight ,discourses1 p4 #gi4 #ac ,see ,allix's ,judgment of the ,jewish ,church1 p4 #aah4 #ad ,professor ,kidd's ,essay on the ,doctrine of the ,trinity1 p4 #deb4 #ae ,jones on the ,trinity4 #af ,ganganelli's ,letters4 #ag ,rev4 ,hugh ,knox's ,sermons4 #ah ,gray's ,key to the ,old ,testament4 #ai ,m4 ,pascal's ,thoughts4 #bj ,see ,gray's ,key1 ,notes1 p4 #hb-hc4 #ba ,see ,sturm4 vol4 iv4 p4 #bff4 #bb ,christian's ,magazine1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ig1 #ih4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,first ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,chaos4 ,inquiry into the origin of things natural to man -- ,character of ,moses as a sacred historian important -- ,explanation of the term ,created -- ,chaotic state of the elementary principles of matter -- ,influence of the ,spirit of ,god upon the chaotic mass -- ,opinions of the ancients -- ,similitude between the first and second creation -- ,agency of the ,holy ,spirit in the work of regeneration asserted and proved4 ,as creatures possessed of conscious existence1 and furnished with both intellectual and moral powers1 it is very natural for us to inquire into the origin and first state of things2 and1 when difficulties present themselves1 to meet with clear and satisfactory solutions of them1 removing the darkness in which they were enveloped1 affords to reflecting minds a high gratification4 ,without the aid of divine revelation1 the creation of the world would have been involved in uncertainty1 and our unassisted reason left to speculate in fields of wide conjecture4 ,but in following the luminous torch of sacred communication1 we are safely conducted to the first great ,cause1 by whose almighty fiat matter was called into existence1 and afterwards disposed and modified according to the plan devised by the eternal ,mind4 ,moses1 considered as a man of scientific habits1 being well versed in all the 8wisdom of the ,egyptians0--mathematical1 physical1 moral1 and divine2 could not but know that his cosmogony would have to pass the ordeal of critical investigation1 and undergo the best of philosophical inquiry3 that contemporaries1 as well as future and remote nations and generations1 would minutely examine his historical record2 and science1 in its progressive state of improvement1 try the validity of his system3 that it would meet the inquisitive eye of genius and learning1 and fall into the hands of both sincere friends and insidious enemies to religious truth3 that candor would patiently search into its pretensions1 impartially weigh its evidence1 and sober inquiry respect its claims3 while narrow prejudice1 blind bigotry1 or superstitious enthusiasm1 would dispute its authority1 deny its veracity1 and disdainfully reject its aid4 ,but listening to an all-wise ,instructor1 following a ,guide that could not deceive him2 and disregarding the envenomed tongue of calumny1 the lampooning pen of the satirist1 the surly frown of literary pride1 and the imperious authority of exalted rank2 he committed to writing a true account of the creation of the world1 for the information and religious improvement of mankind to the latest generation4 ,viewed as the ground-work of all future revelations1 if any defect or false position were discovered in his relation of things1 that would deprive his history of credibility1 and decisively prove him to have been led by the sallies of a vain and heated imagination1 and not the ,spirit of the living ,god4 ,but of this there was no danger2 and1 as a distinguished author pertinently observes1 8from the book of ,genesis1 almost all the ancient philosophers1 astronomers1 chronologists1 and historians1 have taken their respective data3 and all the modern improvements and accurate discoveries in different arts and sciences have only served to confirm the facts detailed by ,moses1 and to show1 that all the ancient writers on these subjects1 have approached to1 or receded from truth1 and the phenomena of nature1 in the exact proportion as they have followed the ,mosaic history40 ,as a writer1 ,moses does not attack other systems1 formed on this or that hypothesis2 but in a simple and incontrovertible narrative1 acquaints us with the origin of matter1 and the progressive formation and completion of the solar system4 ,the ,scriptures inform us1 that ,moses was privileged to converse with ,god 8face to face1 as a man speaketh unto his friend10 and from him received clear and manifest revelations1 not by visions1 ecstasies1 dreams1 inward inspirations1 or the mediation of angels1 but familiarly and with confidence1 by articulate sounds1 in his own language4 ,the ,lord said1 8,with him will ,i speak mouth to mouth1 even apparently1 and not in dark speeches2 and the similitude of the ,lord shall he behold40 ,god being a ,spirit1 has neither shape nor parts1 consequently is invisible1 and cannot be seen by eyes of flesh3 he is the most simple essence4 ,when he speaks of himself as having a face1 mouth1 eyes1 hands1 c1 he adapts his language to our capacities1 designing to express by these figures the perfections of his nature2 but he is really one undivided essence4 ,that which ,moses saw1 was only the ,shekinah1 a glorious brightness1 the symbol of the ,divine presence1 and not the essence1 which is invisible4 ,in giving an account of the true origin of things1 he attends particularly to the mode1 agent1 and time of their being produced4 ,his history commences with the creation of matter1 8,in the beginning40 ,before the creative acts mentioned by him1 all was eternity4 ,time signifies duration measured by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies2 but prior to the creation of these bodies1 there could be no measurement of duration1 and consequently no time2 therefore1 8,in the beginning10 must necessarily mean the commencement of time which followed1 or rather was produced by ,god's creative acts1 as an effect follows1 or is produced by a cause4 ,from several expressions in this chapter1 it is obvious that ,mr4 ,wood considered the account given by ,moses1 in the first chapter of ,genesis1 to apply to universal creation1 and not to be restricted to our ,solar ,system4 ,it is also plainly inferable1 that he considered this the first exercise of ,god's creative energy in any way4 ,this view is entirely too contracted1 is not clearly warranted by the text of the sacred historian1 and is unnecessary4 ,there are no passages of ,scripture which say distinctly1 the ,mosaic creation is the first or only acts of creative energy3 but there are several which intimate the previous existence of creatures1 and of course imply a previous exercise of creative power4 ,it is sufficiently clear that there were intelligent beings existing at the creation of this world4 ,hence it is said1 8the morning stars sang together1 and the sons of ,god shouted for joy10 in view of the rising creation4 ,since1 therefore1 the previous existence of intelligent beings is established1 we must1 of course1 assign to them some mode of subsistence2 and this will compel us to assign at least what must be necessary to every creature1 a place of abode1 suited to his wants and conditions1 without which he cannot subsist4 ,thus we establish even a material creation1 anterior to the creation mentioned by ,moses4 ,after weighing the account which ,moses gives in the first chapter of ,genesis1 together with the facts and analogies in ,nature1 the conclusion seems irresistible1 that he describes only our ,solar ,system2 which includes the seven primary planets1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,earth1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 and ,herschel3 the four asteroides1 ,vesta1 ,juno1 ,ceres1 and ,pallas3 and the eighteen moons which attend the primary planets4 ,because1 #a4 ,as this account forms the introduction to a revelation designed for the human family only1 it is reasonable to conclude it would have reference to those bodies only which operate materially to their benefit or injury4 ,but there are no such bodies except in the ,solar ,system4 #b4 ,moses in describing the formation of the heavenly bodies1 mentions only the sun and moon in a conspicuous manner3 because1 these are the only luminaries which contribute essentially to our comfort3 and then1 lest a beholder might imagine ,god did not also make the other suns and stars1 says incidentally1 8,he made the stars also40 #c4 ,the conclusion is clear from the fact1 that the ,solar ,system is complete in itself3 forming a perfect whole1 which could exist were all other stars and suns destroyed1 and vice vers1 all other systems could exist were the ,solar ,system destroyed4 #d4 ,it does not well comport with the character of the ,divine ,being1 when we consider his eternal power1 infinite wisdom1 and boundless goodness1 to suppose ,he never exercised his creative energies but once1 and that not until a few thousand years since4 ,yet we are compelled to this conclusion1 however reluctantly1 unless we restrict the ,mosaic account of the creation to our ,solar ,system4 ,this argument will derive additional weight1 when we recollect the immensity of ,god's works taken together1 and the illimitable space in which he has1 and may1 exercise his creative energy4 ,we may approximate towards a very faint idea of their immensity1 by calling to mind the immense number of fixed stars4 ,all astronomers admit their number to be very great indeed1 but how many cannot be correctly known4 ,there may be millions whose light has not reached us yet4 ,of those which may be detected1 ,professor ,vince1 says1 there are at least seventy-five millions2 and each the centre of a system as large1 possibly much larger than our own4 ,indeed we can scarcely approach towards a competent idea of illimitable space4 ,the nearest fixed star is supposed to be ,sirius1 or the dog-star1 at the lowest calculation twenty-two billions of miles distant4 ,if we compute according to this analogy1 and say there are seventy-five millions of fixed stars1 each the centre of a system1 perfect1 and independent3 what mind can conceive the illimitable space through which these worlds must lie8 ,yet this would scarcely be an approximation towards the true extent4 ,beyond this there is still unoccupied space1 8where existence sleeps in the wide abyss of possibility40 ,it may1 therefore1 be asked with justice1 whether a being capable of creating1 even in this limited view1 would have exercised his creative powers but once1 and that not until a few thousands years since8 ,credat qui posset1 non ego4 ,who can tell what may have been the successive creations1 durations1 and1 possibly1 destructions of those worlds which we see1 and of others1 of which the inhabitants of this earth have never heard1 whose light has not yet reached us since their creation1 though coming at the rate of nearly twelve millions of miles in a minute8 ,finally3 ,a succession of creative acts1 whose commencement runs back almost parallel with eternity1 and will extend forward almost ad infinitum1 seems to comport best with the eternal1 immense1 and immutable activity1 energy1 and goodness of the ,divine ,being4 ,the word created means1 that ,god caused that to exist which1 previously to this moment1 had no being4 ,the ,rabbins1 who are legitimate judges in a case of verbal criticism on their own language1 are unanimous in asserting1 that the word bara expresses the commencement of the existence of a thing1 or its egression from nonentity to entity4 ,it does not1 in its primary meaning1 denote the preserving or new forming things that had previously existed1 as some imagine2 but creation1 in the proper sense of the term1 though it has some other acceptations in other places4 ,the supposition that ,god formed all things out of a pre-existing eternal nature1 is certainly absurd3 for1 if there was an eternal nature besides an eternal ,god1 there must have been two self-existing1 independent1 and eternal ,beings1 which is a most palpable contradiction4 ,ex nihilo nihil fit1 8,that out of nothing1 nothing is produced0 is a maxim that applies itself in every case where ,deity is not concerned2 it was the main argument used by ,aristotle and his followers1 but is completely refuted by the authority of ,divine revelation4 ,god created eth hashamayim veet haarets1 8the heavens and the earth40 ,the word eth1 which is generally considered as a particle1 simply denoting that the word following is in the accusative or oblique case1 is often understood by the ,rabbins in a much more extensive sense1 8,the particle eth10 says ,aben ,ezra1 8signifies the substance of the thing40 ,the like definition is given by ,kimchi in his ,book of ,roots4 8,this particle10 says ,mr4 ,ainsworth1 8having the first and last letters of the ,hebrew alphabet in it1 is supposed to comprise the sum and substance of all things40 8,the particle eth10 says ,buxtorf1 ,talmudic ,lexicon sub voce1 8with the ,cabalists1 is often mystically put for the beginning and the end1 as alpha and omega are in the ,apocalypse40 ,on this ground1 these words should be translated1 8,god in the beginning created the substance of the heavens1 and the substance of the earth3 i4e4 the prima materia1 or first elements1 out of which the heavens and the earth were successively formed40#bc ,during the first state of things1 ,moses informs us1 that 8the earth was without form and void2 and darkness was upon the face of the deep40 ,the original terms tohoo1 and bohoo1 translated1 8without form and void10 convey the idea of confusion and disorder4 ,the translation by ,paginus1 is desert and emptiness2 in the ,vulgate1 it is empty and void2 in the ,septuagint1 invisible and incomposed2 from the ,syriac1 desert and uncultivated2 the ,samaritan is the same as the ,vulgate2 the ,arabic1 covered with abysses3 these translations are allowed by the learned ,walton4 ,there is but little difference in their real meaning1 and all the ,versions express the first state of things4#bd ,the whole collection of matter1 created in a fluid state1 was a crude1 indigested chaos3 all belonging to our system1 as the sun1 moon1 stars1 earth1 and seas1 lay blended together in one vast1 confused mass1 without any arrangement of their constituent particles1 heavy and light1 dense and rare1 fluid and solid1 being all mixed together2 air1 water1 and earth1 7which have since obtained the name of elements17 were promiscuously scattered throughout4 ,the chaotic mass remained in this primitive state1 till ,god was pleased to assimilate1 assort1 and arrange the materials1--out of which he built up1 in the space of six days1 the whole of creation4#be ,the ,spirit of ,god1 represented us sitting upon the vast abyss1 like a bird1 while either in the act of incubation or fostering its young1 moved or brooded upon the face of the waters1 communicating1 by his vital energy1 life and motion to the unformed chaos4 ,some writers understand by the ,spirit of ,god1 a 8mighty sweeping wind10 a 8tremendous tempest10 separating diversified particles of the elementary principles of matter1 and combining those of the same kind together4 ,but this is making an effect to be produced by a cause1 which1 as yet1 had no existence2 nor1 as a cause1 is it sufficient to produce so great an effect4 ,to make an effect superior to its cause1 is as absurd and contradictory as to say1 a long line and a short one are equal4 ,that the single ,hebrew word ruach1 the ,greek pneuma1 the ,latin spiritus1 and the ancient ,saxon ghost or gast1 signifies wind1 as well as the vital breath1 the soul of man1 a created spirit good or evil1 is readily admitted4 ,but concerning the phrase 1 the ,spirit of ,god1 so frequently used in the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament1 there is not one instance that it signifies wind1 and to attempt to force such meaning upon it1 is a most manifest violation done to the text4 ,by the ,spirit of ,god1 is meant the third subsistence in the ,divine essence1 distinguished from the person of the ,father1 and that of the ,son2 he is called a ,spirit1 to signify his spiritual and immaterial nature1 as well as to express his mighty agency2 and the works of which he is the author can only be effected by an omnipotent power4 ,milton1 who was well versed in the ,hebrew language1 in his address to the ,holy ,spirit1 says1 8,thou from the first ,wast present1 and with mighty wings outspread1 ,dove-like1 sat'st brooding on the vast abyss1 ,and mad'st it pregnant40 ,the ,holy ,spirit1 by his vital influence1 infused that efficient power into the great mass of matter1 which was necessary for the assumption of different forms1 and the discharge of the assigned functions of selecting and arranging the materials out of which the world is formed4 ,by brooding over the mingled earth and water1 says ,dr4 ,owen1 8he communicated a prolific virtue2 and inlaid them with the seeds of animal life2 and therefore the earth and the water brought forth all sorts of creatures in abundance1 according to the seeds and principles communicated to them by the cherishing motion of the ,spirit of ,god40 ,as several of the ancients have described the elementary principles of all things to be a gloomy chaos1 consisting of darkness and water1 we may easily infer from what source they derived this notion4 ,aristotle observes1 the theologists and natural philosophers agreed1 that all things were produced1 as the former said1 8out of night20 or1 as the latter1 8out of a confused mixture40 ,whatever knowledge the inhabitants of ,chaldea had of the creation of the world1 they ascribe to the teaching of an amphibious monster denominated ,oannes4 ,he taught his auditors1 that there was a time when all things were darkness and water1 in the midst of which various monsters of horrible forms received life and light4 ,over this chaotic mass presided the demon ,omoroca1 a mythological personification of the ocean4 ,at length arrived the destined hour of the creation4 ,the monster ,omoroca fell subdued beneath the victorious arm of ,belus2 the animals which composed her empire were annihilated2 and the world was formed out of her substance4 ,oannes1 however1 taught1 that this physiological description was to be taken merely in an allegorical sense1 and that the whole fable alluded to the aqueous origin of the universe4 ,matter having been thus created1 ,belus divided the darkness from the light1 separated the earth from the heavens1 disposed the world in order1 and called the starry host into existence4 ,according to the ,phnician system1 the principle of the universe was a dark air1 and a turbulent evening chaos2 an opinion not very dissimilar to that given by ,moses4 ,sanchoniathon afterward ascribes to material operation the origin of that which may be denominated the will or desire of ,god1 when in his great wisdom he thought fit to create the world out of nothing4 ,from this personification of ,divine love1 a chaotic mixture was produced1 and within it were comprehended the rudiments of all things4 ,the cosmogony of the ancient ,egyptians1 though more obscure1 is given by ,diodorus ,siculus4 8,damascius having inquired about what was the first principle in the world1 gives this as an ancient ,egyptian doctrine4 ,the ,egyptians have chosen to celebrate the first cause as unspeakable4 ,they accordingly style it darkness unknown and mention it with a three-fold acclamation4 ,again4 ,in this manner the ,egyptians styled the first principle an inconceivable darkness2 night and darkness past all imagination40 ,this is perfectly consonant to passages from the same author1 quoted by ,dr4 ,cudworth4 8,there is one origin of all things1 celebrated by the name of unknown 7incomprehensible7 darkness40 ,again4 8,they hold1 that the first beginning or cause of things was darkness beyond all conception2 an unknown darkness40 ,hesiod mentions1 8,a chaos as first existing4 ,next was produced the spacious earth1 the seat of the immortals2 ,tartarus hid within the recesses of the ample globe2 and divine love1 the most beautiful of the deities4 ,from chaos sprung ,erebus1 and black night2 and from the union of night and ,erebus were born ether and the day40#bf ,zeno1 of ,cittium1 the founder of the ,stoics1 said1 ,hesiod meant by the chaos1 8,water1 out of which all things were formed1 which by concretion became firm earth40 ,in the work of ,aristophanes1 we meet with a similar passage4 8,chaos1 and night1 and black ,erebus1 and wide ,tartarus1 first existed2 at that time1 there was neither earth1 air1 nor heaven4 ,but in the bosom of ,erebus1 black-winged night produced an arial egg2 from which1 in due season1 beautiful ,love1 decked with golden wings1 was born4 ,out of dark chaos1 in the midst of wide-spreading ,tartarus1 he begot our race1 and called us forth into the light40#bg ,it is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove1 that the ancients were not only acquainted with the cosmogony of ,moses1 but received it as true2 to which they added their own coloring4 ,it is now generally agreed by cosmogonists1 commentators1 biblical critics1 and natural philosophers1 that the substance of the earth certainly1 and probably the materials of the ,solar ,system1 was first created in a chaotic state1 and subsequently arranged in order4 ,this opinion is very ancient and almost universal1 found in all nations4 ,ovid1 an ancient heathen poet1 has well described this chaos3 ,ante mare et terras1 et1 quod teget omnia1 ,clum1 ,unus erat toto natur vultus in orbe1 ,quem dixre ,chaos2 rudis indigestaque moles1 ,nec quicquam nisi pondus iners2 congestaque eodem4 ,non bene junctarum discordia semina rerum4 ,before the seas1 and this terrestrial ball1 ,and heaven's high canopy that covers all3 ,one was the face of nature if a face3 ,rather a rude and indigested mass3 ,a lifeless lump1 unfashioned and unframed1 ,of jarring seeds1 and justly ,,chaos named4--,dryden4 ,notwithstanding the general prevalence of this opinion1 and the high authorities which support it1 the reader must not imagine it is absolutely universal4 ,some eminent men have suggested1 that the earth1 and matter generally1 was created in a solid state at first4 ,this is the view taken by ,mr4 ,ure1 of the ,andersonian ,university4 ,he supposes the earth was created a solid ball1 or spheroid1 regular on its surface1 without hills and vallies1 and immersed in a crust of ice1 which completely and uniformly surrounded it3 that it was a cold lifeless lump2 heat not yet having pervaded it4 ,the first1 and all quickening operation of heat he supposes to be indicated by these words of ,moses3 8,and the ,spirit of ,god moved on the face of the waters40 ,he supposes1 all the matter of our earth is in the same relative position1 in which it was when it first existed at the command of ,god2 except such cases in which some subsequent force has disarranged it4 ,these cases he supposes to have been many1 and to have operated to the upheaving the mountains1 and hollowing out the beds of the sea1 c4 ,he says of the earth3 8,the central mass composed1 most probably1 of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalies1 as volcanic phenomena seem to attest1 would fuse1 when first the calorific energy was made to actuate the body of the earth1 and the exterior parts would oxydize into the crust of mineral strata1 and the outermost coat of all1 the fixed ice1 would melt into the moveable waters40 ,new ,syst4 of ,geol4 ,b4 #a4 chap4 #a4 p4 #g4 ,perhaps ,mr4 ,ure's view might be improved1 and made to approximate much nearer the common opinion1 possibly identified with it1 by supposing the mass of matter composing our earth1 was confusedly mixed1--and of course chaotic--but was in a frozen1 hard1 inactive state3 that the quickening energy1 which softened and fused it1 was simultaneous with its revolution on its axis4 ,the consequence then would be precisely what we find it to be2 viz3 an enlargement of the equatorial diameter1 and a flattening of the poles4 ,this ,i conceive to be the true theory in this case4 ,mr4 ,ure confirms his view by a quotation from ,sir ,isaac ,newton2 ,optics1 ,book #c4 towards the conclusion4 8,it seems probable to me that ,god in the beginning formed matter in solid1 massy1 hard1 impenetrable1 movable particles1 of such sizes and figures1 and with such other properties1 and in such proportions to space1 as most conduced to the end for which he formed them4 ,all material things seem to have been composed of the hard and solid particles above mentioned1 variously associated in the first creation by the counsels of an intelligent agent4 ,for it became him who created them to set them in order2 and if he did so1 it is unphilosophical to seek for any other origin of this world1 or to pretend that it might rise out of chaos by the mere laws of ,nature2 though being once formed1 it may continue by those laws for many ages40 ,i have given this quotation precisely as ,i found it in ,mr4 ,ure's ,new ,system of ,geology1 ,b4 #a4 chap4 #a4 p4 #aj4 ,considering the well founded reputation of ,newton1 it adds very much to the probability of the above theory3 yet it seems to me to be at variance with the commonly received impression of ,newton's opinion on this subject4 ,i have not his work at hand to examine it4 ,the ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 ,article ,earth1 seems to favor this view4 ,it says1 8,the common notion of the earth's being originally a chaos1 seems neither to have a foundation in reason1 nor in the ,mosaic account of the creation40 ,the reader will here perceive high authorities on both sides1 and all claiming to agree with ,moses4 ,the weight of evidence seems to be in favor of a chaotic creation1 which does not necessarily imply that the mass was created in a soft state4 ,but the configuration1 and internal structure of the earth abundantly prove it was in a soft1 or compressible state when it was assuming its present form and structure4 ,this condition was the effect of the quickening energy of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,the difference between the equatorial and polar diameters of the earth1 which is now well established1 and is about twenty-seven miles1 can scarcely be accounted for1 without supposing the substance of the earth1 at least to a great depth1 to have been partially or wholly fluid2 in which case1 by turning round rapidly on its own axis1 it would assume the shape it is known to possess4 ,it may1 indeed1 be said1 the ,almighty could give it any shape and qualities he pleased1 and we cannot well object to it4 ,as it regards the interior1 or central parts of our planet1 our author has said nothing1 and possibly he would give this very good reason for his silence--we can know nothing certainly4 ,still1 however1 we may subjoin the conjectures of some eminent philosophers4 ,some suppose the central parts of our globe to be cavernous or hollow4 ,the principal argument for this theory is the transmission of sound and motion through vast extents of country1 in case of volcanoes and earthquakes4 ,it is supposed this could not be done so perfectly and extensively1 unless we suppose some ariform1 or gaseous body within the earth1 by means of which it might be transmitted3 which would be to suppose it cavernous or hollow4 ,dr4 ,halley supposes the earth is a hollow sphere1 in which there is inclosed a central magnetic globe1 and by the motions of this globe the variations of the magnetic needle are produced4 ,our own ingenious1 but unfortunate countryman1 ,symms1 supposed the earth to be hollow1 and inhabited within1 and its interior accessible to us4 ,he argues1 there is no necessity1 for the purposes of gravitation1 or for any other purposes1 to suppose the earth solid to the centre3 ,and it is inconsistent with the divine beneficence to suppose such an amount of matter as this globe would be1 if solid1 should have been created to afford so small a portion1 scarcely one-fourth1 fit for the actual habitation of man1 for whom principally it was created4 ,he1 therefore1 supported1 that the interior of the earth was an immense cavern blessed with changes of season1 succession of day and night1 cold and heat1 and inhabited by human beings1 and other animals4 ,he supposed the poles of the earth were hollow1 and this hollow entrance gradually verged round towards the equator2 and ships have1 without knowing it1 been within the verge1 from whence they found no difficulty of returning4 ,others have supposed the central parts of our globe are solid4 ,this is the common supposition1 and is principally supported by these two arguments3--,as the attraction of gravitation depends on the quantity of matter1 as well as the distance2 unless we suppose the earth a solid body it will not be able to exert a sufficient attractive influence on the moon to keep her in her orbit4 ,again3 it is ascertained by actual experiment1 that the mean density of the earth is about five times that of water3 from which it is infered it is solid1 and must increase in density from the surface to the centre1 in order to give this high mean proportion over the bodies at its surface4 ,the increasing density of the earth1 from the surface to the centre is owing to compression in part1 and partly to the supposed fact1 that the heavier substances are placed nearer the centre4 ,thus we find the different strata of rocks indicate the same4 ,granite is the heaviest and lowest rock in situ4 ,some have supposed that iron1 probably nearly in a metallic state1 constitutes the nucleus of our earth4 ,this idea seems to have been suggested to account for the influence of the earth on a magnetic needle4 ,but the most splendid1 and very probable conjecture is founded on the experiments of ,berzelius1 and ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 on the earths1 which experiments prove them to have metallic bases universally3 hence all our earths are metallic oxides4 ,from these circumstances it is conjectured1 that the nucleus of our globe is constituted of the metals in a pure1 or nearly pure state1 which are the bases of our earths1 alkalis1 and alkaline earths4 ,it would almost seem a legitimate conjecture to suppose the substances of our globe were1 at first1 metals and gases3 that the oxygen1 combining with the metals formed earths1 and alkalis2 and the gases combining among themselves formed air1 water1 c4 ,this would be a chemical process1 and necessarily fuse and soften the earth1 and introduce the process of cooling1 which would proceed from the surface towards the centre4 ,hence some eminent philosophers have conjectured that there is a great degree of heat in the interior of the earth yet3 probably the central parts are in a state of igneous fusion4 ,some recent researches of ,cordier tend to establish this opinion4 ,the amount of evidence in favor of this conjecture is increasing annually1 and probably will prevail4 ,see the additional paper on volcanos in this volume4 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,ii4--,fire4 ,omnific word -- ,moving principles in ,nature -- ,criticism on the original word aur -- ,creation of fire -- ,its nature -- ,friction exciting the action of fire -- ,fire attracted by bodies -- ,fire conducted -- ,fire in a state of combination -- ,fire elastic -- ,expansive force of fire -- ,subterraneous fires -- ,earthquakes and ,volcanic ,eruptions -- ,air a storehouse of fire -- ,general and final ,dissolution of ,nature by fire -- ,fire a symbol of the ,deity1 in his gracious presence1 vital influence1 transforming energy1 and destructive operation4 ,the sacred historian here informs us of the first regular production reduced from the chaotic mass4 ,with an astonishing majesty of expression1 ,god said1 ,,yehi ,,aur1 vayehi aur1 ,let there be light3 and there was light4 ,or1 more literally1 ,be light3 and light was4 ,pagninus translates the words ,,yehi ,,aur1 literally1 ,sit lux1 ,be light4 ,in the ,greek it is 1 ,be light made1 or generated4 ,in the ,vulgate1 ,fiat lux1 which is much the same as the ,greek4 ,the celebrated ,dionysius ,longinus1 meeting with this passage in the ,septuagint1 considered it as a specimen of the true sublime4 ,though a heathen1 he thus expresses himself3 8,so likewise the ,jewish lawgiver1 7who was no ordinary man7 having conceived a just idea of the divine power1 he expressed it in a dignified manner2 for at the beginning of his laws he thus speaks3 ,,god ,,said--,what8 ,,let ,,there ,,be ,,light6 and there was light4 ,,let ,,there ,,be ,,earth6 and there was earth40#bh ,here we may inquire1 ,whether this was a word uttered with a sound1 like that which ,god spake from mount ,sinai in giving the ,law2 or only the exercise of the inward faculty of reason or understanding8 ,it could not be a word spoken with a sound1 for that requires air as its medium1 and none as yet existed2 neither was there any ear to hear1 nor any use of such words4 ,nor could it be any exercise of the ,divine ,mind1 now beginning to think of the creation and formation of things2 for this purpose was in his thoughts from eternity4 ,the meaning therefore is1 that ,god did1 without any instruments1 toil1 labor1 alteration1 or delay1 for the manifestation of his own infinite goodness1 wisdom1 power1 and will1 actually working like a powerful word or command1 instantaneously produce light4#bi ,thus 8,dark ,chaos heard his voice40 ,the ,psalmist1 touching on the subject of creation1 says1 8,he spake1 and it was done3 he commanded1 and it stood fast0-- jagnamad1 it stood forth1 as a servant at his master's command1 prepared to do his will1 and to execute his pleasure4#cj ,the divine commandment which produced light1 says an intelligent writer1 must be considered as operating on the properties of matter already created2 and as light is found to proceed from the motion of luminous particles1 we must conceive some central force1 or attracting power1 to be the instrument of producing this phenomenon of light1 by its attractive or propelling properties4 ,there seem to be moving principles in all nature1 which1 when put in action by the first ,cause1 produce natural effects according to established laws1 which cannot be altered unless by the first ,mover4 ,as the ,hebrew word tehom1 abyss1 translated deep1 signifies also to move with a sort of confused motion2 we may justly conclude that the chaotic mass had some gravitating powers in it1 before the forming of the system2 and that attracting and repelling force was naturally and originally in the universe2 and that the first ,mover gave them in a regular course1 the specifical direction1 and systematical attractions4 ,what our distinguished philosopher1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 has suggested concerning attraction and gravitation1 even in point of philosophy1 appears to agree with the ,principia of ,moses4 ,another author writes1 ,whether ,moses intended a philosophical account of light in this place1 ,i will not pretend to say2 but one thing is certain1 that he makes use of a word which points out some of the principal properties of light4 ,the original word aur signifies that body which renders objects visible1 which we call light2 it also signifies fire1 and perhaps ,moses intended to point out in one word1 what in our language requires two1 light and fire4 ,when we consider the words of ,moses1 it appears evident that what is in our version called light1 is in the ,hebrew rather something that sends forth light4 ,the original word aur may signify any thing that makes things visible by emitting particles of light4 ,when the ,almighty said1 8,let there be aur1 light10 it is not certain that he meant elementary fire1 or original unpropagated light4 ,it is more probable that he intended by that word1 a body that sent forth light by means of the motion of similar particles of luminous and igneous matter4 ,whatever may be the philosophic differences between these two1 light and fire1 continues the same author1 we are certain that they are seldom separated4 ,the origin of that light which now renders bodies visible to us1 seems chiefly to be fire1 though light and fire are not inseparably connected2 for light may be propagated where there is no fire1 as from putrid bodies1 c1 and fire may be where there is no light1 as in iron1 sulphur1 c4 ,the ,hebrew word aur1 signifies not only light1 but fire4 ,god created this powerful agent on the first day1 and diffused it through every part of nature2 because without it no operation could be carried on and perfected4 ,t4 ,bartholine quotes ,aristotle as saying1 8,that fire is the efficient cause of all things40 ,robison says1 8,heat is susceptible of fixation--of being accumulated in bodies1 and1 as it were1 laid up till we have occasion for it2 and we are as certain of getting the stored-up heat1 as we are sure of obtaining from our drawers the things we put in them40#ca ,it pervades all bodies3 this is not the case with any other substance we know of--not even light4 ,it lies hid in every thing around us4 ,it is a substance which we are ever in want of2 it is therefore deposited on every side1 and is ready for every exigency4 ,caloric is the name given by modern chemists1 to that substance by whose influence the phenomena of heat are produced1 and which had before been distinguished by the terms igneous fluid1 matter of heat1 and other analogous denominations4 ,in order to give precision to chemical language1 it was necessary to adopt a word by which to distinguish between the substance which produces the sensation we call heat1 and the sensation itself2 these being connected as cause and effect2 for whenever caloric becomes fixed in a body1 it loses its property of affording heat4 ,whatever is the nature of that quality in bodies called heat1 we are assured it does resemble the sensation of heat4 ,a man whose mind is destitute of the cultivation of science1 if endued with common sense1 never imagines the sensation of heat to be in the fire2 he only imagines that there is something in fire which occasions this sensation4 ,though we are well acquainted with the effects of fire1 we know but little of its nature4 ,it is so active1 as well as powerful a principle1 that it eludes all our researches4 ,we may1 however1 define it to be the phlogiston or inflammable principle1 which pervades in a greater or less degree all substances4 ,boerhaave thinks it is a fluid of a nature peculiar to itself2 that it was created such as it is1 and cannot be altered in its nature or its properties2 that it naturally exists in equal quantities in all places2 and that it is wholly imperceptible to our senses1 being only discoverable by such effects as in its operation it produces4#cb ,that fire is really a substance1 and not a quality1 appears from its acting upon other substances1 the reality of which has never been doubted4 ,charcoal1 in its natural state1 contains within its pores a large quantity of air2 but if charcoal is heated1 this air is expelled by the fire1 which assumes its place1 and occupies the pores of the charcoal4 ,the burning of lime also1 which deprives it of a great part of its weight by expelling the fixable air1 demonstrates that fire1 as a substance1 enters into the pores of the lime1 and forces out those other substances which are least intimately combined with it4 ,collision or friction of solid bodies1 is the means most generally used for exciting the action of fire4 ,the vacuities of all solid bodies are replete with fire1 so that it is impossible to agitate or separate their parts swiftly1 without giving the same rapid motion to the element contained within them4 ,when a piece of hardened steel is struck with a flint1 some particles of the metal are scraped away from the mass1 and so violent is the fire which follows the stroke1 that it melts and vitrifies them4 ,if the fragments of steel are catched upon paper1 and viewed with a microscope1 you will find most of them perfect spherules1 and very highly polished4 ,their sphericity demonstrates that they have been in a fluid state1 and the polish upon their surface shows them to be vitrified2 the fire being disengaged with violence1 disposes the particles of the substance to combine with the vital air1 while this air accelerates the combustion4 ,the whole of the heat produced is not afforded by the body itself1 because in proportion as the interior fire is disengaged1 the external air acts upon the body and gives out fire4 ,if the irons at the axis of a coach-wheel are applied to each other1 without the interposition of some unctuous matter to keep them from immediate contact1 they will become so hot when the carriage runs swiftly along1 as to set the wood on fire2 and the fore wheels being smallest1 and making more revolutions1 will be most in danger4 ,the same will happen to mill-work1 or any other machinery1 if the necessary precautions are neglected4 ,it is no uncommon practice with a blacksmith to use a plate of iron as an extemporaneous tinder-box2 for it may be hammered on an anvil till it becomes red hot1 and will fire a match of brimstone4 ,a strong man who strikes quick1 and keeps turning the iron1 so that both sides may be equally exposed to the force of the hammer1 will perform this in less time than would be expected4 ,if in the coldest season you lay one dense iron plate upon another1 and press the upper one1 by a weight1 on the lower one1 and then rub the one over the other2 by reciprocal motions1 they will first grow warm1 and at length so hot1 as in a short time to emit sparks1 and at last grow red hot1 as if taken out of a vehement fire4 ,it is not necessary that the substance should be very hard2 a cord rubbed backwards and forwards swiftly against a post or a tree will take fire2 a stick of wood pressed against another which is turned swiftly about in a lathe1 will soon make it turn black and emit smoke4 ,even the palms of your hands1 if you rub them briskly together1 when they are dry1 will smell as if they were scorched4 ,the method of exciting fire by rubbing two sticks of wood together1 was anciently practised by country people1 and is still retained in some parts of the world4 ,the manner is exactly described in ,captain ,cook's voyage4 ,the inhabitants of ,new-,holland are there said to produce fire with great facility1 and spread it in a wonderful manner4 ,to produce it1 they take two pieces of soft dry wood2 one is a stick about eight or nine inches long1 the other piece is flat4 ,the stick they shape into an obtuse point at one end1 and pressing it upon the other1 turn it nimbly by holding it between both their hands1 as we do a chocolate mill1 often shifting their hands up and down1 and then moving them down upon it to increase the pressure as much as possible4 ,by this method they get fire in less than two minutes1 and from the smallest spark they increase it with speed and dexterity4 ,the matter of fire is attracted more or less by all bodies4 ,when any heated body comes in contact with a cold one1 the former loses a part of its heat1 and both of them become equally warm4 ,if heated iron is laid upon a stone1 its heat will flow into the stone2 if thrown into the water1 the heat will be diffused through the water4 ,if a number of different substances1 as metals1 wood1 wool1 c1 are brought together into a place where there is not a fire1 if they are of different temperatures1 that is of different degrees of heat1 the fire will be attracted from the hottest to those that are colder1 till a perfect equilibrium is produced1 or till they have all acquired the same temperature1 as may be proved by applying the thermometer successively to each of them4 ,it does not appear1 however1 that all bodies have an equal attraction for the matter of fire4 ,if a rod of iron is put into the fire for a short time1 the end which is at a moderate distance from the fire will almost burn the hand2 but a rod of wood1 of the same length will be consumed to ashes at the end which is in the fire1 before the other end is sufficiently heated to burn the hand4 ,a ball of lead1 and a ball of wool1 may be of exactly the same temperature by the thermometer1 but they will not appear of the same degree of heat on applying the hand4 ,if they are of a temperature below that of our bodies1 the lead will appear much colder than the wool1 because it attracts the heat more rapidly from the hand2 if they are of a higher temperature1 the lead will appear much hotter1 from the facility with which it parts with its heat4 ,this property in bodies is called their conducting power2 and those bodies through which the element of fire most rapidly circulates1 are called good conductors4 ,the power of conducting the matter of fire seems to depend upon the texture of bodies1 that is1 upon the contact of their parts2 hence the excessive slowness with which heat is communicated to bodies of a rare and spongy texture4 ,thus flannel1 wool1 and feathers1 are considered as warm coverings1 not because they possess more heat in themselves--for they serve to preserve any cold body in a cool state better than other substances--but because they prevent the escape of the animal heat from our bodies4 ,the matter of fire will exist in a state of combination1 in a latent state1 so as not to be perceptible to our senses4 ,it will be found by observation1 that every body which exists contains a quantity of the matter of fire in a fixed or neutralized state1 disarmed of all its active1 penetrating1 and destructive qualities1 like an acid and an alkali in combination4 ,fluids1 from their very nature and constitution1 contain a greater quantity of caloric in a latent state than solid bodies3 indeed it is now universally admitted1 and may be easily proved1 that the fluidity of all bodies is altogether owing to the quantity of fire which they retain in this latent or combined state1 the elasticity of which keeps their particles remote from each other1 and prevents their fixing into a solid mass4 ,all bodies1 therefore1 in passing from a fluid to a solid state1 emit a quantity of fire or heat4 ,when water is thrown upon quick lime1 it is absorbed by the lime1 and in this state it is capable of retaining a much smaller quantity of caloric than in its natural state2 on the slacking of lime1 therefore1 a very intense heat is produced1 the matter of fire which preserved the water fluid being disengaged and detached4 ,if spirit of vitriol is added to strong oil of turpentine1 they will condense into a solid mass1 and a great quantity of heat will be sensibly emitted4 ,upon the same principle it will be found1 on the other hand1 that when any body passes from a solid to a fluid state1 the adjacent bodies will be deprived of a quantity of their natural heat4 ,this theory of what is called burning lime1 is not sufficiently clear4 ,fire does not enter into the pores of the lime by burning4 ,the mineral commonly used for procuring quick lime is the carbonate of lime1 or common limestone1 which is composed of carbonic acid with a small quantity of water1 #dc1 and lime #eg1 in #ajj parts4 ,by submiting it to a strong heat1 the carbonic acid is driven off1 and the quick or pure lime remains1 which is an oxide of calcium4 ,the loss in weight is owing to the expulsion of the carbonic acid1 with the small portion of water4 ,by adding water to the quick lime1 it is dissolved1 and falls into a powder4 ,this process is called slacking lime1 and the product1 slack-lime4 ,during the process a large quantity of heat is disengaged2 and if the slacking be done in the dark1 light is also observed to be thrown out4 ,this heat is given out by the water1 not the lime4 ,the lime having a greater affinity for the hydrogen of the water than exists between the hydrogen and oxygen in water1 seizes upon it1 and the oxygen passes off1 together with the latent caloric of the water1 and thus the heat is produced which is observed in slacking lime4 ,the hydrogen of the water combines with the lime and becomes solid1 forming an hydrate of lime1 which is the common slacked lime used in mortar4 ,the matter of fire is elastic1 as is proved evidently from all its effects4 ,there is indeed reason to believe1 that caloric is the only fluid in nature which is permanently elastic1 and that it is the cause of the elasticity of all fluids which are esteemed so4 ,from the elasticity of this element it results1 that all natural bodies can only retain a certain quantity of it1 without undergoing an alteration in their state and form4 ,thus a moderate quantity of fire admitted into a solid body expands it2 a still larger quantity renders it fluid2 and if the quantity is still increased1 it will be converted into vapor4 ,caloric expands all bodies which it penetrates1 more or less1 in proportion to its quantity1 and to the nature of those bodies4 ,the expansion of water1 even previous to its assuming the form of vapor1 may be seen in an easy experiment4 ,if a quantity of cold water1 contained in a clear flask1 is immersed in a vessel of boiling water2 as the heat enters1 the water in the flask will be seen to rise in the neck till it overflows4 ,an iron rod a foot long being heated red hot1 became #a-fj longer than before2 and a glass cylinder1 a fathom long1 under the same circumstances1 gained #a-ej in length4 ,a metalline ring thus heated was increased #i-ajj in its diameter2 and a glass globe became extended #a-ajj part by the heat of the hand only applied to its surface4#cc ,the general effects of caloric are to increase the bulk of the substances with which it unites1 and to render them specifically lighter than they were before2 but in whatever quantity it is accumulated in bodies1 it never adds to their absolute weight4 ,caloric favors the solution of salts1 and promotes the union of many substances4 ,in other cases it serves to separate bodies already united2 so that in the hands of chemists it is the most useful and powerful agent with which they are acquainted4 ,it is the cause of fluidity in all substances which are capable of becoming fluid1 from the heaviest metal to the lightest gas4 ,let it be remembered that all fluids are formed from solids by an addition of caloric2 and that1 by abstracting this caloric1 solids would be reproduced4 ,it insinuates itself among their particles1 and invariably separates them in some measure from each other4 ,we have reason to believe that every solid substance on the face of the earth might be converted to a fluid1 or even a gas1 were it submitted to the action of a very high temperature in peculiar circumstances4#cd ,the general and aggregate bearing of the facts and experiments which are now known1 render the statement here made by ,mr4 ,wood extremely probable1 viz2 ,that caloric is a very subtle fluid which pervades in large quantities every particle of matter in the universe--that it is the agent which regulates the densities of all bodies1 and by consequence1 regulates in some measure their weight and dimensions4 ,it is considered as an almost settled question1 that a stratum of caloric surrounds each ultimate particle of every body1 so that the ultimate particles of bodies do not1 and cannot be made to touch each other4 ,their inherent inclination to come into actual contact is called their attraction of cohesion3 the power of this attraction is in proportion to the distance at which they are kept from each other by the atmosphere of caloric which intervenes between them4 ,this atmosphere of caloric is idio-repulsive3 of course the particles of caloric have an inherent repulsion among themselves1 and are ever struggling to get further asunder4 ,this idio-repulsive nature of caloric is the great1 and constant antagonist power to the attraction of cohesion4 ,caloric has a tendency to drive the particles of matter further from each other1 and these particles have a mutual tendency to approach4 ,hence these two principles are ever in conflict4 ,as a general rule we may say1 when the attraction of cohesion prevails greatly1 the body becomes solid3 when the two forces are pretty nearly balanced1 the body becomes liquid3 when the caloric prevails greatly1 the body becomes gaseous4 ,there is sufficient reason to believe1 that every body in nature might be raised to a gaseous state by the addition or action of a sufficient quantity of caloric3 and there is1 probably1 a sufficient quantity in nature1 to render the whole universe gaseous1 were it sufficiently excited to a state of freedom4 ,it is a well known fact1 that all the metals are fusible by heat1 and many of them have been volatalized1 and it is extremely probable all of them may be4 ,as caloric regulates the density of bodies1 by resisting and modifying the influence of the attraction of cohesion3 if it were entirely withdrawn from nature1 or the whole of it rendered perfectly latent1 all matter would become perfectly ,,solid and ,,fixed3 even water and air would assume the solidity of the diamond4 ,we must1 therefore1 regard caloric as the great conservative principle of the ,universe1 and yet capable1 if called into action1 of destroying it instantly4 ,these views strongly corroborate our paper on chaos4 ,from the experiments of ,general ,roy1 in the #geth volume of the ,philosophical ,transactions1 it appears that the expansion of a steel pendulum of a clock is such1 that every four degrees of the thermometer will cause a variation of a second per day2 and that the difference between the going of a clock in summer and winter will be about six seconds per day1 or one minute in ten days1 owing to the metallic pendulum varying in length with every change of temperature4 ,a knowledge of this circumstance gave rise to ,harrison's self-regulating time-piece1 which1 by the different expansion of different metals1 accommodates its movements to every change of seasons or climate4 ,the fire deposited below the surface of the earth is peculiarly important1 having produced earthquakes and volcanic eruptions4 ,dr4 ,watson1 late ,bishop of ,llandaff1 in his ,chemical ,essays1 says1 ,the most remarkable changes which have taken place in the form and constitution of the earth1 since the deluge1 have probably been produced by subterraneous fires2 for it is to their agency that philosophers ascribe volcanos and earthquakes2 those tremendous instruments of nature1 by which she converts plains into mountains1 the ocean into islands1 and dry land into stagnant pools4 ,mr4 ,lemery1 as far as ,i have been able to learn1 adds the learned ,bishop1 was the first person who illustrated1 by actual experiment1 the origin of subterraneous fires4 ,he mixed twenty-five pounds of powdered sulphur with an equal weight of iron filings2 and having kneaded the mixture together1 by means of a little water1 into the consistency of a paste1 he put it into an iron pot1 covered it with a cloth1 and buried the whole a foot under ground4 ,in about eight or nine hours time the earth swelled1 grew warm1 and cracked3 hot sulphureous vapors were perceived3 a flame which dilated the cracks was observed2 the superincumbent earth was covered with a yellow and black powder3 in short1 a subterraneous fire1 producing a volcano in miniature1 was spontaneously lighted up from the reciprocal actions of sulphur1 iron1 and water4 ,volcanic eruptions are awfully terrific1 and sometimes extensively destructive4 ,the violent eruption of ,vesuvius1 in #agfg1 is reckoned the #bgth since that which destroyed the cities of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 in the reign of the ,emperor ,titus2 and this eruption of #agfg1 has been succeeded by several others4 ,of the eruptions of tna1 ,mr4 ,oldenburg has given a historical account in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,no4 xlviii4 p4 #ifg4 ,a very great eruption of this mountain was in the year #affi4 ,the progress of the lava1 or fiery deluge1 was at the rate of a furlong a day4 ,it advanced into the sea #fjj yards1 and was then a mile in breadth4 ,it had destroyed1 in forty days1 the habitations of #bg1jjj persons2 and of #bj1jjj inhabitants of the city of ,catanea1 only #c1jjj escaped4 ,this inundation of liquid fire1 in its progress1 met with a lake four miles in compass1 and not only filled it up1 although it was four fathoms deep1 but raised it into a mountain4 ,borelli1 an ingenious ,neapolitan1 has calculated1 that the matter discharged at this eruption was sufficient to fill a space of #ic1hch1gej cubic spaces4 ,the lava which ran from it is fourteen miles in length1 and1 in many parts1 six in breadth4 ,there have been no such eruptions since1 although there have been signs of many1 more terrible1 that preceded it4#ce ,the principal volcanos in ,europe are ,mount ,vesuvius1 near ,naples1 in ,italy2 ,mount tna1 in ,sicily2 ,mount ,hecla1 in ,iceland2 and ,stromboli1 the most northern of the ,lipari islands1 north of ,sicily4 ,of all the volcanos recorded in history1 ,stromboli seems to be the only one that burns incessantly4 tna and ,vesuvius are sometimes many months1 and even years1 without the least emission of fire2 but this is ever at work1 and1 for ages past1 has been considered as the light-house of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,it is very probable1 that ,mount ,vesuvius and ,mount tna form but different portions of one chain of mountains that passes under the sea1 and the isle of ,lipari2 for whenever one of the volcanos has a great eruption1 it is observed that the other1 and the volcano in the isle of ,lipari1 throw out more flames than ordinary4 ,this remark was made by ,huet1 ,bishop of ,avranches1 in ,france1 a celebrated philosophical1 historical1 and commercial writer4 ,the force of volcanos is supposed to be the greatest of any thing yet known in nature4 ,in the great eruption of ,vesuvius1 in #aggi1 a stream of lava1 of an immense magnitude1 is said to have been projected to the height of at least #aj1jjj feet above the top of the mountain4 ,the present state of chemical science1 and the geological discoveries of the last ten or fifteen years1 seem to discountenance the theory1 that volcanic action1 and earthquakes result from sulphur1 iron1 and water1 as ,mr4 ,lemery's experiment seems to indicate4 ,the vast extent of volcanic action1 as indicated by extinct and active volcanos1 would require a greater amount of these materials1 than can be supposed to exist in the composition of the earth4 ,thus1 according to the ,newtonian test of a correct theory1 the means1 if true1 would not be sufficient4 ,again3 ,if sulphur and iron were the principal agents in producing volcanic action1 and earthquakes1 volcanic products would give evidence of it1 by being1 principally1 sulphate of iron4 ,so far is this from being the fact1 that in #ajj parts1 volcanic product1 ,dr4 ,kennedy found1 in reference to two volcanos1 not exceeding #ad4be oxide of iron1 and no sulphur at all4 ,volcanic products are generally1 8mixtures of the earth in an oxidated and fused state1 under intense ignition2 water and saline substances1 such as might be furnished by the sea and air1 altered as might be expected from the formation of fixed oxidated matter40 ,,ure4 ,these two simple considerations must set aside the theory mentioned in the text4 ,other valid objections might be urged4 ,as this theory is inadmissible1 because1 neither true in application to volcanic action and product1 nor sufficient in force1 it is proper to supply the deficiency4 ,by a careful inspection of the phenomena attending volcanic action1 as well as an examination of its products1 we are clearly convinced1 the agents are ariform2 chiefly steam and the gases1 and they act with an expansive force from beneath4 ,mouna ,roa1 in the island ,owhyhee1 rises #ae1jjj feet1 and has on its top a crater eight miles in circumference1 containing a vast lake of molten lava4 ,mr4 ,goodrich visited it in #ahbd4 ,he says1 8exhalations escape from all the fissures of the lava crust1 producing here and there a blast like strong vapor blowing out of a steam boiler40 ,subsequently1 a party from the ,blonde frigate visited it1 and the ,rev4 ,charles ,stewart1 who accompanied the party1 has given a description of the crater4 ,he says1 8its surface had all the agitation of the ocean4 ,billow after billow tossed its monstrous bosom into the air1 and occasionally the waves from apposite directions met with such violence1 as to dash the fiery spray1 in the concussion1 forty or fifty feet high40 ,ure's ,new ,syst4 ,geol4 pp4 #cha-b4 ,in both these accounts we clearly see ariform agents acting from beneath4 ,the hissing noise of steam escaping from a boiler1 convinces of the nature of the body escaping4 ,the upheaving of the melted lava proves1 not only1 that the agent acts from beneath by expansion1 but also1 by its resemblance to the common phenomenon observed in boiling liquids1 that the agent is formed below1 and rises through the melted lava1 heaving it up in swells and waves1 until it escapes in a gaseous state1 like vapor from boiling liquids4 ,we must come to the same conclusion from the experiments1 observations1 and reports of the celebrated1 and intrepid ,spallanzani1 who visited and examined the crater of the ever-burning ,stromboli4 ,his words are nearly these3 ,fluid lava1 resembling melted brass red-hot1 and liquid filled the crater to a certain height1 and this matter appeared to be influenced by two distinct impelling powers2 the one whirling and agitated2 and the other upwards1 terminating in an explosion like a short clap of thunder4 ,immediately before the explosion occurred1 the lava appeared inflated1 and large bubbles1 some several feet in diameter1 rose and burst1 the detonation followed and the lava sunk4 ,during the rising1 a sound issued from the crater like that produced by a liquid boiling violently in a caldron4 ,in this case we have every evidence of an ariform agent acting from beneath4 ,an ariform agent is detected also by examining the structure of volcanic products1 which have been ejected in a melted state4 ,they are found to be vesicular1 cellular1 and porous4 ,this structure proves1 incontestibly1 that these cavities and cells were filled with an ariform body1 which escaped upon cooling4 ,this position might be sustained by other proofs1 but it is unnecessary4 ,it remains only to ask1 whether these elastic agents are sufficient to produce the astonishing amount and products of volcanic action and earthquakes8 ,the force which elastic agents are known to possess1 when generated suddenly1 and raised to a high temperature1 answers this question promptly in the affirmative4 ,a very few grains of gunpowder1 when converted into gas by sudden ignition in a gun-barrel1 by their expansive force drive a bullet with astonishing power and velocity4 ,a few cubic feet of water converted into steam1 will burst the strongest metallic barrier which man can construct1 unless it find vent4 ,as we have seen sufficiently clearly that ariform bodies1 as steam and gases1 are the elastic agents in producing earthquakes and volcanos1 it remains to inquire into the production and action of those agents4 ,as it regards their production1 the present state of geological and chemical science suggests three theories1 each of which would be adequate to the object4 ,it is necessary to premise that water is a common agent in each of the three theories4 #a4 ,the splendid discoveries of ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 in regard to the bases of the earths1 demonstrating them to be metallic1 and the earths merely oxides of those metals1 have led to the conjecture1 that these metals exist in nearly a pure state in the interior of the earth2 of course the crust of the earth is composed of the various metallic oxides4 ,it is well known that many of these metals take fire on coming into contact with water1 as potassium1 sodium1 c2 and all of them oxidize rapidly on meeting with water and air1 and thus large quantities of hydrogen gas would be evolved4 ,this theory is so reasonable1 in view of the combustibility of metals1 and so conformable to science1 that we almost decide it is true1 without further examination4 ,but1 in order that its demonstration should be clear1 it must first be shown1 that the metals do exist in nearly a pure state in the interior of the earth3 and then1 that they are accessible by water1 or air1 or both4 ,the first point can only be rendered probable by analogy4 ,we know that the earths which are found in the crust of our planet are metallic oxides4 ,it is very natural to suppose these metals existed in a pure metallic state at the creation1 as well at the surface as at the centre2 as all other bodies most probably existed in an elementary and uncombined state when ,god first produced them4 ,from this supposition it is easy to see1 that when water and air came into action1 which would be at the earth's surface1 these metals would be rapidly oxidized1 thus forming the earths4 ,but as this process would commence at the surface of the earth1 and tend towards the centre1 it is evident its progress would be arrested by its own action4 ,for the accumulation of the earths1 by the oxidation of the metals1 would gradually form the superincumbent crust1 which would act as a barrier to the water and air1 preventing their contact with the metals in the interior1 which1 of course1 would not be oxidized4 ,in this state they would remain buried deep under the superincumbent oxidated crust of the earth1 until water and air should find access to them4 ,when this should take place a rapid1 and extensive chemical action would commence1 generating immense quantities of hydrogen gas1 the metals decomposing the air and water1 in the process of oxidation1 and setting the hydrogen of the water1 and nitrogen of the air free4 ,thus a large amount of the most inflammable of all gases would be disengaged4 ,the rapid chemical action would raise the temperature of these gases1 and thus increase their bulk immensely1 which would produce an irresistible expansive force1 which would increase the pressure against the sides of the cavern in which the gases were generated1 and the ,,ignition of the hydrogen would be a necessary consequence4 ,such an immense volume of gas being ignited1 and confined1 would produce such a degree of heat1 as rapidly to decompose or melt the substances in its neighborhood1 and set at liberty a vast quantity of other gases2 all of which being ignited1 and of course expanded immeasurably1 would not only shake a given section of the earth1 but1 if placed in its centre1 would shake the solid globe throughout1 and rend it into ten thousand pieces1 if it did not find means to escape4 ,if it found means of escape by some opening forced from its seat to the surface of the earth1 that opening would ,,constitute ,a ,,volcano2 from which the gases would escape1 and throw out before them the vast amount of volcanic products which are known to come forth of the craters4 ,it now remains to inquire1 whether a sufficient quantity of water can be supposed to have access to these metals8 ,from what we know of the distribution of water generally in the bowels of the earth1 we should have no difficulty in admitting the affirmative4 ,but this question may be clearly answered by two circumstances4 ,first3 ,large quantities of boiling water and mud1 are frequently ejected from volcanos4 ,this proves an excess of water at1 or near the seat of action1 which could not be decomposed1 before the amount of gases generated1 and acting with incredible force1 drove it out of the crater4 ,this fact is true in some measure of all volcanos1 but eminently so of those in ,south ,america4 8,bouguer and ,condamine saw these formidable torrents tear up the surface of a whole country4 ,six hours after an explosion of ,cotopaxi1 a village nearly eighty miles distant in a straight line1 and probably one hundred and forty by the winding channel1 was entirely swept away by the flood40 ,ure's ,new ,sys4 ,geol4 p4 #chf4 ,secondly3 ,the position of volcanos1 always near the sea1 together with the agitations of the sea1 previous to1 and during an eruption1 as well as the saline matter in the ejected substances1 render it very clear1 that the sea1 by subterranean communication1 supplies water at the seat of volcanic action4 8,the sea seems to sympathise with the agitations of the adjoining volcanos1 rising and falling with rapid alternation--caused by the sudden deflux of a great body of water into the vast volcanic caverns40 ,ure's ,new ,sys4 ,geol4 p4 #chh4 ,this fact is so well known in the history of volcanos1 that it needs no further proof4 ,it has1 however1 led to the remark1 that volcanos are generally situated in islands1 or near the sea coast4 ,indeed many of them are submarine1 and have actually been seen in operation1 throwing up vast columns of water to an immense height1 until the edge of the crater appeared above the surface of the sea1 and increased into islands1 which have become permanent4 ,at such times the water of the sea for a great distance round became hot1 fishes died2 and even the pitch melted from the hulks of the vessels in the neighborhood4 #b4 ,another theory has been proposed which does not differ from the first1 in regard to the materials employed at the seat of volcanic action1 nor in the manner of the process2 but in regard to the condition of those materials when they begin to operate in the production of the elastic agents4 ,these materials may be in a state of igneous fusion in the interior of the earth4 ,this state is supposed to have resulted thus3 ,when ,god created the substances of the earth1 they were in an elementary and uncombined state1 promiscuously mixed through each other from the surface to the centre4 ,by his ,spirit brooding over the great deep1 caloric and light1 which were in a latent state1 were called into action1 which gave impulse and motion to every particle of matter1 thus quickening the whole mass by producing intense heat4 ,this would cause the aqueous and gaseous particles to rise through the mass1 and collect at the surface4 ,this would bring them in contact with the metals in a pure state1 which would of course oxidize1 and become earths4 ,this action would go on until it arrested its own progress1 by forming and consolidating the oxidated crust of the earth inclosing all the interior substances in a state of igneous fusion1 which have been gradually cooling ever since4 ,the primitive rocks1 which have a crystalline structure1 are supposed to have been deposited during this process1 as it is evident they could not have crystallized under any other circumstances1 and they are well known to be composed of the earths which are only metals in a state of oxidation4 ,it is now only necessary to introduce the water to this mass of melted matter1 or any part of it1 as in the first theory to the metals in their pure state1 and we have the same results in all respects4 ,this theory has two advantages over the first4 ,it agrees best with the crystalline structure which primitive rocks are known to possess1 and which must result from chemical action on the materials in a state of solution4 ,it also seems to accord best with the ,mosaic account of the action of heat and light1 in assimilating1 arranging and settling the materials of the earth4 ,moreover1 it is confirmed by experiments made on the temperature of the earth at different depths4 ,the following tables are extracted from ,mr4 ,ure's ,new ,system of ,geology1 pp4 #dbf-g4 ,they accord1 in their tendency1 with the opinions of other eminent philosophers than those whose names appear in the tables4 ,observations on the temperature of the earth4 ,in the mines of ,giro-,magny1 three leagues from ,befort1 ,m4 ,gensanne found3 ,at #ccc feet1 #ed ,fahr4 #fhj 8 #fb #ajaf 8 #ff #adbi 8 #gc ,in the mines of ,freyberg1 ,m4 ,d',aubuisson found ,external air #da ,in the galleries #ej #ebh feet1 water pool #eb #heh water of a spring #eg ,at ,junghohebirke1 external thermometer #cb #ajdj feet1 water was #fc ,observations by ,captain ,lean in the mines of ,cornwall4 ,at surface1 in ,june1 #ei #aah feet deep #fd #dhj 8 #fh #hdj 8 #fi #aadd 8 #gi ,december4 ,at the surface air #ej #abj feet air #eg #fjj 8 air #ff ---- 8 water #fd #ifb 8 air #gj ---- 8 water #gd #abjj 8 air #gh ---- 8 water #gh ,m4 ,humboldt obtained analogous results in many mines in ,south ,america4 ,the evidence in favor of a perpetually increasing temperature as you descend into the earth1 and a higher temperature formerly at the surface of the earth1 is increasing daily4 ,see the conclusion of this paper4 #c4 ,there is yet a third theory1 founded on voltaic energy1 or galvanism and electricity4 ,the application of these agents to the production of volcanic action1 had occurred to me1 before ,i met with the 8,outline of the course of ,geological ,lectures1 given in ,yale ,college10 by ,professor ,silliman1 from which the following extract is made4 ,i had not regarded their application in the same manner as he has explained it4 ,indeed1 my thoughts on the subject had not assumed any definite direction4 ,i shall transcribe from his 8,outline10 pp4 #aah-ai1 inserted in 8,bakewell's ,introduction to ,geology1 first ,american ,edition40 8,whatever we may think of the hypothesis now detailed1 may we not suppose1 with sufficient probability1 that those voltaic powers which we know to exist--whose action we can command1 and whose effects having been first observed within the memory of the present generation1 now fill us with astonishment1 are constantly active in producing the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos8 8,arrangements of metals and fluids are the common means by which we evolve this wonderful power1 in our laboratories2 and it would seem that nothing more than juxta-position1 in a certain order1 is necessary to the effect4 ,even substances apparently dry and inert1 with respect to each other1 will produce a permanent1 and in proportion to the means employed1 a powerful effect1 as in the columns of ,de ,luc and ,zamboui4 ,it would seem indeed that metals and fluids are not necessary to the effect4 ,arrangements of almost any substances that are of different natures1 will cause the evolution of this power4 ,whoever has witnessed the overwhelming brilliancy and intense energy of the great galvanic combinations1 especially the deflagrator of ,dr4 ,hare1 and considers how very trifling1 in extent1 are our largest combinations of apparatus1 compared with those natural arrangements of earths1 salts1 metals1 and fluids1 which we know to exist in the earth1 in circumstances similar to those which1 in our laboratories1 are effectual in causing this power to appear1 will not be slow to believe that it may be in the earth perpetually evolved1 and perpetually renewed2 and now mitigated1 suppressed1 or revived1 according to circumstances influencing the particular state of things at particular places4 8,in our laboratories we see emanating from this source1 intense light1 irresistible heat1 magnetism in great energy1 and above all1 a decomposing power1 which commands equally all the elements1 and the proximate principles in all their combinations4 8,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 after discovering that the supporters of combustion and the acids1 were all evolved at the positive pole1 and the combustibles and metals1 and their oxidated products1 at the negative--proved that even the firmest rocks and stones could not resist this power2 their immediate principles and elements being separated by its energy4 ,the decomposition of the alkalies1 earths1 and other metallic oxides being a direct and now familiar effect of voltaic energy--their metals being set at liberty1 and being combustible both in air and water--elastic agents produced by this power1 and rarified by heat1 being also attendant on these decompositions1 it would seem that the first principles are fully established by experiment1 and that nothing is hypothetical1 but the application to the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos40 ,the reader will perceive that all of the above theories agree in one respect1 viz2 in the agency of elastic bodies1 as steam and gases1 produced by the decomposition of substances2 and that the same substances are supposed to be employed1 though not precisely in the same manner1 nor in the same condition4 ,further ,geological and ,chemical experiments may1 hereafter1 settle the question between these theories4 ,they are all scientific in their principles1 and fully competent to the object1 and it is not impossible but that they may all be true in part or in whole1 acting separately in some instances1 and combined in others4 ,under the agency of either of them the products would be the same4 ,dr4 ,kennedy has made experiments on the composition of volcanic products1 and found1 ,silex1 #ea--;,alumina1 #ai--,lime1 #i4e--,oxide of iron1 #ad4e--,soda1 #d--,muriatic acid1 #a--;in #ajj parts4 ,as it regards the extent of volcanic action and earthquakes1 the two first theories agree best with actual appearances4 ,they would lead us to conclude that volcanic action was necessarily more extensive in the earlier ages of the world than now4 ,because1 every action would oxidize the crust of the earth deeper1 and increase the superincumbent strata1 and render the access of water and air more difficult4 ,this is found to be the fact by observation in different countries4 ,in some parts of ,france1 in which kingdom there is not1 and has not been for the last two thousand years1 any active volcano1 there are ranges of extinct volcanos1 in which may be counted from seventy to one hundred craters4 ,they are so close their bases touch in many instances4 ,the same fact is observed along the ,rhine1 and in ,hungary1 and other countries4 ,see ,ure's ,new ,syst4 ,geol4 and ,bakewell's ,geology4 ,mr4 ,ure reckons up two hundred and five active volcanos at this time4 ,one hundred and seven in islands1 and ninety-eight on continents4 ,it is very evident that the seat of volcanic action is vastly below the surface of the earth4 ,the extent of country which is shaken by the effort of the gases to escape1 will prove this4 ,the agitations have been felt over all ,europe1 and even across the ,atlantic6 ,again3 ,if the action were not situated far below the surface of the earth1 the mountains1 which only serve as chimnies1 and which have been formed by the action of the volcanos1 would sink in4 ,this has been the case in a few instances4 ,this will appear more clearly if we consider the amount of matter ejected4 ,did it not come from an immeasurable distance beneath1 the accumulated mass at the surface of the earth would break down the substrata which lie over the immense caverns formed by the ejection4 ,the dimensions of those caverns1 situated under the volcanic mountains1 are far greater than one would suppose at first consideration4 ,the internal caverns must be as large as the ejected masses1 which came out of them4 tna is known to have thrown out matter sufficient to form twenty such mountains as it is4 ,it is strongly probable that the whole island of ,sicily is of volcanic origin4 ,humboldt says the dome-shaped craters of volcanos rise from six hundred to eighteen thousand feet in height4 ,he considers the whole mountainous district of ,quito as one immense volcano4 ,indeed1 from a close survey of the geological features of the earth1 there is reason to believe1 that at very remote periods almost the whole surface of our globe has been the theatre of volcanic action4 ,it is a matter of gratitude that its amount is growing less every year1 of course the destructions by earthquakes are more limited4 ,in process of time1 it may be hoped1 the earth may become permanently tranquil1 nor flame1 nor shake1 until the final catastrophe1 which ,god has ordained to destroy our planet1 by a general and simultaneous action of all the fires of the earth4 ,p4,s4 ,it may be of advantage to recollect1 that the expansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as #adj to #e4 ,according to ,vauban1 #adj pounds of water converted into vapor would produce an explosion capable of blowing up #gg1jjj pounds1 while #adj pounds of gunpowder could only blow up a mass of #cj1jjj4 ,see the text under the head1 8,,salutary ,,effects ,,of ,,water40 ,,appendix4 ,on the temperature of the earth anciently4 ,that the temperature of the earth's surface was much higher in the first ages of its existence1 than since the period of authentic history1 seems now to be nearly established1 in the opinion of the learned1 and only requires time to have the weight of evidence produce its proper effect on the great mass of community4 ,though this fact would be apprehended from what is said above1 it may be desirable to the reader to see a concise view of the reasons which induce this opinion4 #a4 ,it may be inferred from the original constitution of the globe1 and the chemical action consequent upon it4 ,it has been seen above that the natural condition of matter is cold1 frozen1 inactive1 and solid3 and that the elements of this globe were created in a simple1 uncombined state4 ,if this mass of elements received a quickening impulse1 the chemical laws of affinity and attraction1 and also the natural law of gravitation1 would commence exerting their influence4 ,this we know would create a rise in the temperature of the whole mass1 in proportion to the amount of matter acted on1 and the force of the different principles and agents which were in operation4 ,upon consideration of these points in regard to our earth1 no one can doubt but that they would raise the temperature to an inconceivable height4 ,refrigeration would commence at the surface as soon as the first violent action was abated1 and the water and air began to assume their relative places1 through which the heat would escape into celestial space4 ,this refrigeration would be increased by the oxidation of the metals forming the crust of the earth1 which would confine the interior heat more effectually1 because1 the earths are almost complete non-conductors of caloric4 ,thus the crust of the earth would continue to cool1 and the oxidation would thicken it1 and1 of course1 contribute to the reduction of its temperature4 ,from this natural process it is very evident that the earth was much warmer during its first periods2 earthquakes1 and volcanos much more common than now1 and a general instability in the condition of our globe4 ,the deluge was the climax of its alternations1 and settled1 in some measure1 its constitution by a sudden and great reduction of temperature4 #b4 ,it may be inferred from the vast extent of volcanic action1 as indicated by the remains of extinct volcanos1 and their effects on the earth4 ,this argument is merely called up here1 not to be discussed at length1 but to be referred to1 as it has been mentioned in a preceding part of this paper4 ,it is almost impossible for the ordinary reader1 who has not closely studied the geological phenomena which present themselves to the close observer1 to conceive of the extent to which volcanic action operated anciently4 ,it would not be exaggeration to say1 there was a remote period when our globe was a single volcano3 the whole surface of it being subject to its action4 ,though we may ascribe something of the formation of hills and vallies to the action of water1 yet1 doubtless1 the most effectual agent in upheaving the mountains1 and even continents1 possibly1 was volcanic force4 8,those ranges of volcanos10 says the celebrated ,humboldt1 8those eruptions through vast chasms1 those subterranean thunders1 that roll under the transition rocks of porphyry and slate in the new world1 remind us of the present activity of subterranean fire1 of the power1 which in remote ages1 has raised up chains of mountains1 broke the surface of the globe1 and poured torrents of liquid earth in the midst of the most ancient strata40 ,from this constant and extensive volcanic action we may safely infer the high temperature of our earth anciently4 #c4 ,it may be inferred from the origin of primitive1 trapean1 and basaltic rocks4 ,the primitive rocks1 as granite1 gneiss1 mica slate1 c1 give evidence on this consideration2 they must have been deposited when their substance was in solution1 admitting of chemical mobility1 in order that they might assume a crystalline form which they are known to have4 ,it is not easy to conceive how the substances of the primitive rocks could be solved1 except by heat1 as a principal solvent4 ,the acids1 and water also1 may have contributed to their solution1 but would not be competent of themselves4 ,this consideration would give a high temperature for the earth anciently4 ,it is now generally admitted that the trap1 and basaltic rocks are of igneous origin4 ,when we consider the magnitude of the trap and basalt formations1 the extent of surface which they cover1 the hills1 and even elevated and lofty mountains which they form1 we shall not hesitate to assign a higher temperature to our earth at the period when fires1 so immense as to effect the upheaving and ejection of all these1 actually burned in the bowels of the earth4 #d4 ,it may be inferred from the well preserved remains of vegetables and animals of warm equatorial climates1 in high northern latitudes where they have not been found since the memory of man4 ,this is a conclusive argument if its data be well established4 ,because1 if tropical and equatorial animals and fruits are now found buried and fossilized in ,siberia1 and the islands of the arctic sea1 in such a state of preservation as to forbid the supposition they were transported thither1 it will follow inevitably1 that they grew there1 and there flourished1 died1 and were buried4 ,moreover1 if herbivorous animals are found fossilized in those high northern latitudes1 under such circumstances as forbid the supposition1 that they were transported thither1 it will doubtless1 follow1 that not only they lived there1 but also luxuriant vegetation must at the same time have covered the plains where their remains are entombed4 ,the inference which we are forced to draw from these data1 is this3 ,as no such tropical and equatorial animals or plants have been known to exist there1 nor even herbage of any kind1 on which such animals might subsist1 since the memory of man1 there was a time anciently when the climate suited their growth1 and of course was very much warmer than it is known to be now1 its temperature then corresponding to the temperature of the present equatorial regions1 as it produced and subsisted anciently the animals and plants which the tropical regions produce and subsist at the present time1 and which cannot subsist in any other climates4 ,in proof of the above position1 it is well known that animals and plants have their peculiar climates1 in which they are indigenous1 and out of which they cannot thrive1 or even live1 if too far removed4 ,it is also well known1 that the warmer1 and more moist the climate is1 the more luxuriant the vegetation1 and the more huge the animals4 ,hence we are in the habit of denominating animals and plants by the climates in which they are indigenous1 as arctic1 or northern2 tropical1 or southern4 ,let us now see if the tropical animals and plants once lived and flourished in high northern latitudes4 ,the best authorities follow4 8,we proceed now to examine the remains of quadrupeds3 these are found accumulated in regions where similar animals do not ,,now exist4 ,some are buried deep in gypsum4--,some present themselves to view1 accumulated in vast caverns1 and destitute of any envelope4 ,the islands of ,lachof1 situated to the ,,north of ,siberia1 are1 according to a modern traveller1 only heaps of sand1 ice1 and bones of elephants and rhinoceros1 mixed with those of great cetaceous animals1 and even1 agreeably to the latest accounts1 with the remains of gigantic birds4 8,there have been found in ,siberia1 whole carcases of the elephant1 covered with their ,,flesh and ,,skin1 preserved by the frosts which prevail in those regions4--,germany has furnished the greatest number 7of bones37--,in ,france a great many bones of the elephant have been met with4 8,these discoveries1 though as yet scarcely commenced1 have thrown already a new light upon the revolutions which our globe must have undergone1 and upon the ,,states ,,which ,,must ,,have ,,preceded ,,the ,,present ,,course ,,and ,,constitution ,,of ,,nature4 8,these bones1 presenting no trace of having been rolled up and down1 occurring only fractured as we find those of our domestic animals1 and sometimes joined together in the form of skeletons1 often even as it were heaped up in common cemeteries1 clearly demonstrate1 that the catastrophe which has destroyed the living beings to which they belonged must have overtaken them in the ,,same ,,climates ,,where ,,we ,,meet ,,with ,,these ,,records ,,of ,,their ,,former ,,existence4 8,the quantity of nourishment which such huge animated masses required1 and their numbers1 proved by the existence of the carnivorous kinds1 render it probable that the countries where we find their remains ,,once enjoyed a temperature1 if not warmer1 at least more favorable to vegetation40 ,,malte ,,brun1 ,physical ,geography1 ,book #ab4 ,in the above quotations1 the data on which our argument rests are so clearly sustained there needs no comment4 ,the authority given is unquestionable1 and could be corroborated by scores of weighty names1 and in reference to all the northern countries of ,asia1 ,europe1 and ,america4 ,it is impossible to read the above extracts without being convinced that those tropical and equatorial animals lived1 flourished1 and died where their remains are now found4 ,and it is equally impossible to avoid another conclusion2 viz3 that there must have been a heavy vegetation on those plains1 where now the rein-deer can scarcely pick up a blade of grass4 ,from these convictions no other inference can be drawn1 but that the temperature of the frigid zones1 was anciently much higher than at present2 and of course the general temperature of the earth also4 ,from the perfect preservation of these fossil remains2 from the fact that they are found in their relative position1 bone to bone1 and1 in some instances1 with their hair1 skin1 and flesh undecayed1 it is obvious1 the animals must have perished by a catastrophe which overwhelmed them suddenly1 and was1 instantaneously followed by a freezing of the overwhelming waters4 ,such was the catastrophe of the scripture deluge1 which physically was competent to perform the phenomena1 as shall be shown presently4 ,let us now see if we do not arrive at the same conclusion by examining the fossil ,,vegetables4 ,at ,portland1 ,england1 the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,buckland finds fossil plants akin to the cycas family of ,malabar1 from which he concludes1 8it is probable that the climate of these regions1 at the time when the oolites 7a series of rocky strata7 were deposited1 was of the same warm temperature with that 7the tropical7 which produces a large proportion of the existing cycade40 ,,ure1 ,new ,syst4 ,geol4 p4 #dcc4 8,the remarkable development of these vegetables 7equisetums7 during the first 7or coal measure7 period of vegetation1 and their size in the second 7or oolitic7 period1 smaller than before1 but still far greater than our existing equisetums1 accord with many other facts1 furnished by fossil vegetables of many other families1 to lead us to regard the climate of the earth1 at these remote epochs1 to have been hotter than the hottest of modern climates40 ,ibid1 p4 #ddc4 8,there is no doubt1 however1 that palms with fan-shaped leaves covered ,europe with their lofty vegetation at this remote period1 in regions where no species of these plants could ,,now grow60 ,ibid1 p4 #deb4 ,the palm is well known to be a tropical plant1 and cannot thrive1 except in a warm climate4 ,the climate of ,europe1 when it grew in the north1 must have been tropical4 ,indeed1 in all parts of northern ,europe tropical flowers1 leaves1 and fruits are found in such a state of preservation as to convince the most incredulous1 that they must have grown on the spot2 which would be to convince him of the high temperature1 anciently1 of those regions4 8,professor ,kounizin describes in the ,isis for #ahba1 immense beds of fossil wood in several localities of the governments of ,novogorod and ,twer in the north of ,russia1 where no such trees are now found to grow4 8,near ,constand on the river ,necker1 ,m4 ,autenrieth found an entire forest of the trunks of palm trees1 buried along with the remains of elephants40 ,ure1 ,ibid1 p4 #dee4 8,the fossil shells found in the strata of ,england1 and ,france1 and the contiguous countries1 having for the most part1 no antitypes alive except in equatorial regions1 harmonize with the preceding details40 ,ibid1 p4 #def4 ,to the above testimony might be added the caves in ,germany1 ,england1 and ,france1 in which great quantities of bones are found in such a state of preservation1 and under such circumstances as to show that the animals whose bones are found were in the habit of frequenting these caves1 and perished in them suddenly1 as their remains are found mixed with sand and gravel1 but not water-worn4 ,of these bones1 the great majority are those of the hyna2 hence these dens1 specially in ,england1 are called hyna dens4 ,in them are also found the bones of other animals gnawed by the hynas4 ,from these facts there can be no doubt but the hyna inhabited ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 and dwelt in these caves1 and here perished when the sudden catastrophe of the flood overtook him4 ,this argues beyond doubt that these countries were once warm1 when these tropical animals lived in them4 #e4 ,the same fact may be inferred from the immense amount of vegetable matter which was necessary to supply the materials for the coal measures4 ,this is an irresistible argument in view of the immense amount of coal in the bowels of the earth1 which must be of vegetable origin4 ,because at the ratio of vegetable product of our age1 the earth would not produce a sufficient amount to form the coalbeds1 short of millions of years4 ,the vegetative power of the earth1 therefore1 must have been anciently very much greater than at present1 which could only be on the supposition of a warmer and more moist climate4 ,moreover1 the fact that tropical plants are known to have contributed almost entirely to the formation of coal measures in the northern latitudes1 is proof direct4 ,this is clear from the fact that their roots1 stems1 leaves1 flowers1 and fruits are found impressed on the coal1 in such a manner that there can be no mistake2 and the perfection of the impression forbids the supposition that they were transported thither from tropical climates4 8,brown coal and black coal1 the former sometimes called wood coal1 is found chiefly in diluvial or alluvial ground4 ,it contains1 besides charcoal and bitumen1 various vegetable principles1 and the branches or trunks of trees partially decomposed1 which mark the origin of this kind of coal40 ,bakewell's ,geology1 p4 #aaa4 8,wood coal1 or brown coal1 is found in low situations and appears to have been formed of heaps of trees buried by inundations under beds of clay1 sand1 or gravel4--,in some specimens of this coal the vegetable fibre1 or grain1 is perceptible in one part1 and the other part is reduced to coal40 ,ibid1 p4 #aba4 8,in wood coal we may almost seize nature in the fact of making coal1 before the process is completed4 ,these formations of coal are of far more recent date than that of common coal1 though their origin must be referred to a former condition of our globe1 when the vegetable productions of tropical climates flourished in northern latitudes4 ,the vegetable origin of common mineral coal appears to be established by its association with strata abounding in vegetable impressions1 by its close similarity to wood coal1 7which is undoubtedly a vegetable product7 and lastly by the decisive fact1 that some mineral coal in the ,dudley coal-field is entirely composed of the layers of mineralized plants40 ,ibid1 p4 #abb4 8,when we see the multitude of reeds filled and surrounded with sandstone1 having their thin scaly bark converted into a true coal1 it is impossible to doubt of its vegetable origin40 ,ure's ,new ,system ,geol4 p4 #aff4 ,quotations from the best authorities might be multiplied to the same effect1 but it is deemed unnecessary4 ,it remains to repeat the question1 ,could such an amount of vegetable matter have been accumulated1 short of millions of years1 at the ratio of the present vegetative powers of the earth8 ,it is impossible4 ,the only remaining conclusion is1 the vegetative power of the earth anciently was much greater than at present1 which could not have been except its temperature was much higher also4 ,in conclusion on this question1 it is necessary to say1 that the reduction of the earth's temperature would be gradual1 in a natural way1 by the heat flying off into celestial spaces1 until the crust became so thick and compact as to prove a perfect non-conductor of caloric4 ,then the surface of the earth would depend on the heating power of the sun altogether4 ,the thickening of the crust of the earth would be attended with earthquakes1 volcanos1 and partial deluges1 the natural and necessary results of the oxidations of the metals4 ,hence we would have different strata of rocks1 sand1 gravel1 c1 deposited at different times1 and over different sections of the country4 ,hence also forests would be overthrown1 and the vegetation of years be thrown together in the nearest lakes or seas2 which explains the origin of coal-basins4 ,this state of things also well explains the alternations of strata of different kinds1 as sand1 gravel1 chalk1 fresh and salt water deposites1 c1 as well as the dislocations1 fractures1 contortions1 and confusions observable in the structure of the earth's crust4 ,there are however various phenomena which indicate clearly that there was a general and sudden reduction of temperature4 ,the state of preservation1 in which those animals in ,siberia are found1 proves this4 ,the vestigia of the last great revolution in our globe clearly indicate the ,,deluge to have been the cause of this general and sudden reduction of temperature4 ,this would be the natural consequence of submerging the earth in water3 and the suddenness of the event is well attested both by the scriptures1 and the physical history of our earth4 ,the action of the deluge does not come within the contemplation of this volume1 and therefore will not be noticed here4 ,the air is another storehouse of fire4 ,when lucid igneous particles are strongly attracted to one another in great quantities1 their heat becomes intolerable1 and is capable of destroying the most solid bodies4 ,it is well known1 that when converged in the focus of one of ,hartsocker's burning-glasses1 they will produce wonderful effects3 tin1 lead1 or any soft metal1 will dissolve at the first touch2 and iron1 which requires a very strong fire for liquefaction1 will melt before one of these glasses almost as soon as applied4 ,they will consume wood1 though wet1 in a moment2 vitrify bricks and pumice stones1 and dissolve earthen vessels full of water2 and plume-allum1 which will resist the fire of the hottest glass-houses1 without alteration1 is instantly melted4 ,even gold1 that resists the force of common fire1 is soon liquefied by their powerful agency4 ,this plainly shows us that1 provided there were not a wise and almighty ,providence1 superintending all his works1 those materials which are of the greatest utility to the harmony and order of things1 would have a direct tendency to destroy the whole4 ,if lucid igneous particles were to form solid bodies1 and depart from their state of fluidity1 they would1 in an instant1 reduce this globe to ashes1 or render it liquid fire4 ,were they all of one kind1 it is probable they might unite in solid bodies2 but the wisdom of ,providence has formed them of various colors1 and of different reflections and refrangibility4 ,this prevents them from associating in such a manner as to do harm1 which can only be produced by converging them with some instrument which prevents their flying off4 ,as all these have not the same degree of reflexibility and refrangibility1 but as some are capable of greater reflections and refractions than others1 they cannot1 without force1 be united in one solid body1 yet they are all serviceable for important purposes1 contributing to the happiness of man1 and the welfare of all living creatures4 ,considering the extent of fire1 and that its property is1 when put into motion1 to consume all combustible substances within its reach1 it is astonishing that the world has not long since been destroyed6 ,this terrible element is at present restrained and directed by its almighty ,creator2 but divine revelation informs us1 that a period will arrive when its utmost energies shall be called into action4 ,the apostle ,peter asserts1 that 8the heavens and earth1 which are now1 by the same word are kept in store1 reserved unto fire against the day of judgment and perdition of ungodly men2--in the which the heavens shall pass away with a great noise1 and the elements shall melt with fervent heat2 the earth also1 and the works that are therein shall be burnt up40 ,again he says1 8looking for and hasting unto the coming of the day of ,god1 wherein the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved1 and the elements shall melt with fervent heat40 ,the passing away of the heavens means the same as their being dissolved by fire4 ,the word signifies with a very loud and terrible noise3 with a sound resembling that of a great storm4 ,in this place it more particularly denotes the horrid crackling noise of a wide-spreading fire4 8,the cloud-capp'd towers1 the gorgeous palaces1 ,the solemn temples1 the great globe itself ,yea1 all which it inherit1 shall dissolve2 ,and1 like the baseless fabric of a vision1 ,leave not a wreck behind40 ,the word rendered melt1 is a metaphor taken from metals1 dissolving in the fire1 or wax before the flame2 so will the fierce and spreading fire of the last day melt down this globe1 and its surrounding atmosphere4#cf ,that the world was to be dissolved by fire was the opinion of ,anaximander1 ,anaxiphanes1 ,anaxagoras1 ,archelaus1 ,diogenes1 and ,leucippus4#cg ,the inference which the apostle deduces from this view of the general and final conflagration of the world1 is highly impressive4 8,seeing then that all these things shall be dissolved1 what manner of persons ought ye to be in all holy conversation and godliness40 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,iii4--,,light4 ,motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause of light -- ,light the most simple body --,velocity of light -- ,light diffusive -- ,light the medium through which objects become visible -- ,light beautiful1 or its rays of different colors -- ,light a visible resemblance of its ,divine ,author1 in his spirituality1 simplicity1 purity1 energy1 goodness1 manifestation1 glory4 ,moses1 in the original word aur1 seems plainly to hint at the operation of a principle in the universe which1 as a second cause1 produced the phenomenon of light4 ,this1 most probably1 was the motion of the luminous and fiery particles in the chaotic mass which1 at the ,divine command1 separated themselves from the other gross materials of the miscellaneous composition1 and by an attractive sympathy associated in one body4 ,it is conjectured1 that light was at first impressed on some part of the heavens1 or collected in some lucid body4 ,dr4 ,wall says1 ,though the sun was not yet formed into a compact body1 yet the most subtile and active particles had already begun to fly together to the centre of the solar system1 which gave some light2 though probably not so great as when afterward they made the compact body of the sun4 ,and the earth1 which was then only a round lump of mud1 or muddy salt-water1 being turned1 as it has been ever since1 upon its own axis1 receiving that light on its several hemispheres successively1 made night and day1 or evening and morning4 ,milton gives his opinion in the following lines3 8,let there be light6 said ,,god2 and forthwith light ,ethereal1 first of things1 quintessence pure1 ,sprung from the deep2 and from her native east ,to journey through the aery gloom began1 ,spher'd in a radiant cloud2 7for yet the sun ,was not27 she in a cloudy tabernacle ,sojourn'd the while40 ,light1 after a short progression1 concentrated in the sun1 the common centre of our system2 the various parts of this system1 by his central light or fire1 are balanced1 and1 by mutual attraction1 move in the expanse1 according to fixed laws1 or determined distances4#ch ,light was once considered to be a property or quality of matter only2 but more recently it has been discovered to be a body1 a very subtile fluid1 consisting of minute particles4 ,we have no certain knowledge of its nature2 though a collection of its rays make other things visible1 yet its constituent parts themselves are most exquisitely small1 and quite imperceptible2 and therefore it approaches the nearest to the nature of spirit4#ci ,of all material bodies1 light is the most simple4 ,most others are compounded of several parts1 not only of different1 but sometimes of contrary natures3 but light is an unmixed body4 ,it is also a most pure matter2 ,it has no defilement in itself1 neither is it capable of contracting pollution from other objects4 ,when it shines upon a dunghill or sepulchre1 which sends forth the most offensive effluvia1 it still remains uncontaminated4 ,the author is undoubtedly mistaken when he considers light 8of all material bodies--the most simple10 and 8an unmixed body40 ,it is well known that a beam1 or pencil1 of light1 as emitted from the sun1 is not a simple body1 but is capable of being divided into seven prismatic colors4 ,the image which is formed by the refraction of the pencil1 by means of a prism1 is called a ,spectrum1 and clearly exhibits the compound nature of light4 ,the refracted rays of the ,spectrum may be collected and made to constitute a pencil of light again1 which will be white1 or colorless as before4 ,if this prismatic ,spectrum be examined closely1 it will be found that the different colored rays differ very much in their heating1 illuminating1 and chemical powers4 ,dr4 ,herschell1 and other experimenters1 have found that the orange rays possess a greater illuminating power than the red2 and the yellow more than the orange3 but the maximums of illumination lies in the brightest yellow or palest green4 ,there is also a very sensible difference in the heating power of these colored rays4 ,by passing the bulb of a delicate air thermometer through the different colored rays1 it indicates the greatest heat in the red rays2 next in the green1 and so on diminishing to the violet4 ,but the maximum of heat has been ascertained to be immediately beyond the red rays1 and of course out of the ,spectrum1 in an unilluminated spot3 thus indicating that there are invisible rays possessing a greater heating power than any of the seven colored rays4 ,these are called calorific rays4 ,by the experiments of ,ritter and ,wallaston it is now satisfactorily ascertained that there are also chemical rays which excite neither heat nor light1 and lie on the other side of the ,spectrum from the invisible calorific rays1 just without the violet4 ,it is true1 the chemical effect can be distinguished even to the green rays1 but this seems to be by diffusion1 or a species of sympathy4 ,the sensible chemical power is exerted just without the violet rays4 ,this fact is established more clearly by ,berard4 ,he concentrated1 by a lens1 all the portion of the ,spectrum from the green to the red rays1 and made them act on muriate of silver two hours without effect4 ,he then concentrated all the portion of the ,spectrum from the green to the violet rays1 and made them act on muriate of silver1 and they blackened it in less than six minutes4 ,thus1 evidently1 are detected very different properties in the different portions of the prismatic ,spectrum4 ,instead1 therefore1 of light being a 8simple substance10 and 8unmixed0 it is found to be decidedly compound4 ,it is capable of being divided into seven differently colored rays1 and these rays1 according to their natural properties1 into three classes3 the illuminating rays1 calorific rays1 and chemical rays4 ,the rays of light always proceed in straight lines1 unless diverted by some intervening body4 ,they are subject to the laws of attraction like other small bodies4 ,if a stream of light be admitted through a small hole into a dark room1 and the edge of a knife be applied1 it will be diverted from its natural course1 and inflected towards it4 ,when the rays of light are thrown back by any opposing body1 they are said to be reflected4 ,when in passing from one medium to another1 they are inflected or diverted from their rectilineal course1 they are said to be refracted2 and this property of light is called its refrangibility4 ,refraction arises from this1 that the rays are more attracted by a dense1 than by a rare medium4 ,the velocity of light is prodigious1 and almost incredible2 it moves at the rate of near #bjj1jjj miles in a second of time6 ,roemer1 a ,danish philosopher1 was the first who found the means of determining the velocity of light1 by the difference of time in the eclipses of ,jupiter's satellites1 when the earth was on the same1 or on the contrary side of the sun1 with that planet4 ,this point may be easily proved2 for when the earth is between the sun and this planet1 those eclipses will happen about #h minutes sooner1 than according to the tables2 but when the earth is in the contrary position1 the eclipses happen about #h minutes later than they are predicted by the tables4 ,hence1 therefore1 light takes up about #h minutes in passing from the sun to the earth1 a distance of #ie1eac1gid miles2 and it takes about #af minutes of time to go through a space equal to the diameter of the earth's orbit1 which is at least #aij millions of miles in length2 which is near a million of miles swifter than the motion of a cannon-ball1 which flies with the velocity of about a mile in eight seconds4#dj ,in comparing this velocity of light with that of a cannon-ball1 it has been observed1 that light passes through a space in about eight minutes1 which a cannon-ball with its ordinary velocity1 could not traverse in less than thirty-two years6 ,the velocity of sound bears a very small proportion to that of light4 ,light travels1 in the space of eight minutes1 a distance in which sound could not be communicated in seventeen years2 and even our senses may convince us1 if we attend to the explosion of gunpowder1 c1 of the almost infinite velocity of the one compared with that of the other4#da ,were the propagation of the rays of light less rapid1 the darkness would be very slowly dissipated1 and great inconveniences would result to the inhabitants of the earth4 ,the divisibility of the parts of matter is no where more apparent than in the minuteness of the particles of light4 ,the unobstructed rays of light which proceed from a candle1 will1 almost instantaneously1 fill a space of two miles2 and it has been computed1 says ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory1 that there fly out of the end of the flame of a burning candle1 in a second of time1 ten thousand millions of times more such particles than there are visible grains of sand in the whole earth4 ,dr4 ,nieuwentyt has computed1 that an inch of candle1 when converted to light1 becomes divided into #bfi1fag1jdj parts1 with #dj ciphers annexed2 at which rate there must issue out of it1 when burning1 #dah1ffj1 with #ci ciphers more1 particles in the second of a minute2 vastly more than a thousand times a thousand million of times the number of sands the whole earth can contain2 reckoning ten inches to one foot1 and that #ajj sands are equal to one inch4#db ,as sound is propagated only at the rate of #a1adb feet in a second1 a particle of light must be #ghf1jjj times more subtile than a particle of air4 ,if the particles of light were not extremely small1 their velocity would be highly destructive4 ,indeed1 were they equal in bulk to the two millionth part of a grain of sand1 this impulse would not be less than sand shot from the mouth of a cannon4 ,if the particles of light had more density1 they would not only dazzle us by their splendor1 but injure us by their heat4 ,there is no creature of ,god that diffuses itself1 and whose influence reaches so far and wide1 and fills so large a vacuum1 as light4 ,all that inconceivable space between this globe and the fixed stars1 a distance which numbers cannot reach1 is replete with light4 ,nay1 the space in which it is diffused is not less than the universe itself2 the immensity of which exceeds the conception of human understanding4 ,it is from this almost unlimited diffusion of light that the very remotest of the heavenly bodies in the solar system become discernible1 either by the naked eye or by telescopes4 ,and had we instruments that could carry our sight as far as the light is extended1 we should discover those bodies which are placed at the very extremity of the universe4#dc ,light is the medium through which objects become visible to us4 ,it is owing to it1 that we are enabled to behold and contemplate the wonderful works of the great ,creator2 to discover unexplored systems in the trackless regions of unbounded space1 to imbibe knowledge from things created1 to hold intercourse with each other1 to steer the hollow bark to distant climes1 and to investigate the records of all science4 ,without its aid1 the world would have been an inhospitable wilderness1 involved in sable shades of perpetual night4 8,truly the light is sweet1 and a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold it40 ,light beautifies every delightful object which comes within the reach of its rays4 8,nature's resplendent robe6 ,without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt ,in unessential gloom40 ,all colors are rays of light differently reflected4 ,the cause of their diversity was first rationally accounted for by ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,he has shown that color is not a specific property of bodies1 but is caused by the different rays of light being reflected from the surface of the body2 the rest of the rays passing into or through the body4 ,he discovered that in the rays of light are all the colors in nature2 and the primary colors he considered to be seven in number1 namely1 red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 indigo and violet2 and that bodies appear of different colors1 as they have the property of reflecting some rays more powerfully than others4 ,these colors are poetically enumerated by ,thomson4 8,first the flaming red ,sprung vivid forth2 the tawny orange next2 ,and next delicious yellow2 by whose side ,fell the kind beams of all-refreshing green3 ,then the pure blue1 that swells autumnal skies1 ,ethereal play'd2 and then1 of sadder hue1 ,emerg'd the deepen'd indigo1 as when ,the heavy-skirted evening droops with frost2 ,while the last gleamings of refracted light ,dy'd in the fainting violet away40 ,since the time of this justly celebrated philosopher1 it has been objected1 that the seven colors above mentioned are not primitive4 ,it seems very obvious that there can be only three primitive colors1 namely1 red1 yellow1 and blue2 since all the colors can be made by means of these4 ,it has lately been advanced by ,prieur1 that the primitive colors are violet1 green1 and red2 that the yellow is formed with red and green1 the latter being in excess2 and that when the red is in excess1 they form orange2 the green and violet form blue4 ,the colors excited by the different refrangible rays do not appear to determine what are the primitive colors1 since we find that different rays are capable of producing the same color1 as a mixture of the yellow with the red produces orange4 ,and it must be admitted1 that the violet rays excite1 in some degree1 the idea of red along with the blue2 as in the green1 the yellow and blue may be discerned1 but none of the red4 ,when the different colored rays are mixed together1 either by recomposition1 or by getting each color by a separate ,spectrum1 the result will be white light4 ,hence ,sir ,isaac ,newton concluded1 that when the rays are promiscuously reflected from any surface it will appear white4 ,he also found1 and the discovery has since been confirmed by the experiments of ,dr4 ,herschell1 that the different colored rays have not by any means the same illuminating power4 ,the violet rays appear to have the least luminous effect1 the indigo more1 the blue a little more1 the green very great1 between the green and the yellow the greatest of all1 the yellow the same as the green1 and the red less than the yellow4#dd ,from experiments it is found1 that those rays of light are of the largest quantity that paint the brightest colors2 and of all these1 the red rays have the least refrangibility4 ,without light vegetables would have no color1 but would appear white2 this has been remarkably illustrated by ,professor ,robison4 ,some bodies absorb one colored ray1 others another1 while they reflect the rest4 ,this is the cause of color in bodies4 ,a red body1 for instance1 reflects the red rays and absorbs the rest4 ,a white body reflects all the rays1 and absorbs none2 while a black body1 on the contrary1 absorbs all the rays1 and reflects none3#de this shows1 that black colored apparel is very improper during the heat of summer1 or in tropical climates4 ,there is one difficulty scarcely mentioned1 and surely not accounted for1 in the preceding chapter3 i4e4 ,how are we to reconcile the creation of light on the first day1 and the creation of the sun not until the fourth8 ,this has been a standing proposition since the revival of learning4 ,there can be no doubt but the account of the creation1 arrangement and nature of the world1 as given by ,moses1 is correct2 and would so appear to the most philosophically scientific1 could we ascertain certainly the meaning of the sacred historian1 and did we understand perfectly the phenomena of nature4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that the discoveries in natural philosophy would tend to influence the explanations of ,moses' account4 ,this is the fact4 ,these discoveries have produced two theories in regard to light3 ,the vibratory1 or ,cartesian2 and the corpuscular1 or ,newtonian4 ,the ,newtonian theory supposes the sun to be the original and principal source of light2 and that light is emitted from the sun's surface in inconceivably small corpuscles1 in such rapid succession1 and in straight lines1 as to seem a continuous ray1 though1 in reality1 the particles are a thousand miles apart in their approach to the earth4 ,this is the most popular of modern theories1 and the only one1 as ,i recollect1 employed by commentators in illustrating the account of ,moses2 or rather in solving the difficulty by reconciling this theory with his account4 ,some have supposed the sun was created long before1 our earth1 and that his beams took effect on our earth1 as now1 on the fourth day from his creation4 ,others have supposed that the sun and earth were created simultaneously1 but that the sun's beams did not fully penetrate our atmosphere1 so as to make himself distinctly visible as now1 until the fourth day4 ,in both these cases it is supposed that the words of ,moses1 in regard to the creation of the sun on the fourth day1 are to be interpreted of his appearance1 and influence on the earth1 by dispensing light4 ,but this does not account for the existence of light from the first to the fourth day4 ,this is an insuperable objection here4 ,finding the foregoing theories pressed with this insurmountable difficulty1 other commentators have supposed1 ,light was a real substance1 created simultaneously1 and in conjunction with the original chaotic mass of our earth2 and when ,god said 8,let there be light1 and there was light10 ,he1 by his divine power1 caused the chaotic light to separate itself from the earth1 and1 departing1 to condense in the body of the sun2 or1 as some would probably say1 in view of ,dr4 ,herschell's solar discoveries1 in the phosphoric clouds which surround the real body of the sun4 ,in this case1 if the light concentrated in the body of the sun1 then that luminary must be a body of condensed light3 if in the solar phosphoric clouds of ,dr4 ,herschell1 then those clouds would be condensed light4 ,this body of condensed light is considered the source of our solar light1 which flies off from it in the form of rays or beams4 ,,dr4 ,,ure1 in his ,chemical ,dictionary1 article ,,light1 takes this view4 ,he says1 8,we learn from scripture1 that light pre-existed before this luminary 7the sun7 and that its subsequent condensation in his orb was a particular act of ,almighty ,power4 ,the phosphorescence of minerals1 buried since the origin of things in the bowels of the earth1 coincides strictly with the ,mosaic account of the creation4 ,we shall therefore regard light as the first born element of chaos1 as an independent essence1 universally distributed through the mineral1 vegetable1 and animal world1 capable of being disengaged from its latent state by various natural and artificial operations40 ,this theory1 as ,i understand ,dr4 ,ure's view1 has two advantages1 and three disadvantages4 ,it accounts for the production of light on the first day1 as ,moses says4 ,it also accounts for the artificial production of light by friction between bodies which have never been exposed to solar light1 by combustion1 compression1 c4 ,for though it supposes light 8subsequently condensed0 in the sun1 ,i presume it does not suppose all the light thus transferred from the earth1 and condensed3 much of it is latent1 and combined with other substances1 from which it is evolved by friction1 combustion1 compression1 c4 ,but this ingenious theory1 which is mentioned by our author1 and attributed to ,dr4 ,wall1 is pressed with three difficulties3 #a4 ,it does not suppose the existence of the sun until the fourth day1 and of course no common centre of attraction to the earth and other planets4 ,but it is impossible to conceive of the safe existence of the planets previous to the existence of their common center1 which now regulates their order and motion4 ,this is an insuperable difficulty1 unless we resort to a 8particular act of ,almighty ,power40 #b4 ,if the body of the sun be 8condensed light10 abstracted from the earth1 the scene of its creation1 then we must suppose that a body more than a million times greater than the earth was drawn off from it1 which indeed would require an 8act of ,almighty ,power10 and is utterly irreconcilable to the laws of attraction4 #c4 ,this view also destroys the idea of the sun's being an opake and habitable globe1 unless we could conceive the inhabitants capable of dwelling in 8condensed light20 which supposition is at variance with all our ideas of rational existence4 ,hence it robs the mind of the pleasing and almost intuitively correct idea of the sun's being a habitable globe4 ,these difficulties appeared so great that others1 and particularly ,dr4 ,adam ,clarke1 have offered a new mode of interpretation1 founded on the ,newtonian theory as improved by ,dr4 ,herschell4 ,dr4 ,clarke supposes that caloric1 or latent heat1 was produced on the first day1 when ,god said1 8let there be light2 and there was light40 ,in this case he considers that latent heat and latent light are1 probably1 the same3 or that it is the same subtile substance diffused throughout creation1 which is capable of producing heat and light1 when properly excited4 ,yet1 in his remarks on the sun1 he embraces ,dr4 ,herschell's ideas of the sun's real body being opake and habitable1 surrounded by phosphoric clouds which are the source of our solar light4 ,of course the ,doctor only transfers the source of light from the real body of the sun to these phosphoric clouds with which he is invested4 ,our solar light then comes by impulsion from these clouds1 and not from the sun's real body4 ,these clouds are supposed to give light to the ,solar inhabitants also1 the intensity of which is regulated by a stratum of clouds placed below the outer phosphoric clouds1 and which defends the sun's real body from too great degree of light4 ,this is ,dr4 ,herschell's supposition1 and seems to be pretty well established4 ,this ingenious theory solves the difficulty under notice1 by supposing that caloric1 and not light1 is intended in the third verse1 where ,god said1 8,let there be light40 ,and by supposing latent light1 as well as latent heat1 it seems to provide for the well known existence of light in combination with many1 if not all1 terrestrial substances2 and yet it refers to the sun as the principal source of light1 which according to this interpretation1 was not necessary to the existence of the substance intended in the third verse--8,let there be light1 and there was light40 ,this theory has another most excellent suggestion1 viz3 that the heat excited by the sun at the earth's surface1 is produced by the luminous rays of the sun combining with the caloric in the atmosphere1 and other substances at the surface of the earth4 ,this suggestion supposes a very close affinity1 if not identity in the matter of light and heat4 ,although this explanation approaches much nearer a satisfactory solution of the difficulty in question1 yet it is by no means unembarrassed4 ,in the first place it is built upon a singular translation of a word4 ,the text1 according to this theory1 should be1 8,and ,god said let there be caloric1 and there was caloric40 ,this may be the text2 but ,i cannot help thinking1 that a bias to a system of philosophy1 and a strong desire to cut the difficulty rather than solve it1 suggested this translation4 ,the text seems to have been so generally and uniformly understood of light1 it would be difficult to alter it4 ,it would be better to suspect a defect in our knowledge of the source and nature of light4 ,again3 this view seems to suppose a consecutive creation1 which is at variance with a seemingly well settled opinion1 in regard to the ,solar ,system1 and even at variance with ,dr4 ,clarke's own remarks on ,gen4 chap4 i1 v4 #b4 ,on this verse he says3 8,god seems at first to have created the elementary principles of all things40 ,finally3 as his view is ,newtonian1 it is liable to all the objections to which that theory is liable3 such as the diminution which would take place at the source from whence the light came2 and the destructive force with which it would fall at the surface of the earth4 ,these considerations1 with others1 have influenced many of the most learned and acute philosophers to look for another theory4 ,our own countryman1 ,dr4 ,franklin1 felt them4 ,he says1 in a letter dated ,april #bc1 #ageb1 in reference to the theory1 of light being particles of matter driven off from the sun's surface2 8,must not the smallest portion conceivable have1 with such a motion1 a force exceeding that of a twenty-four pounder discharged from a cannon8 ,must not the sun diminish exceedingly by such a waste of matter1 and the planets1 instead of drawing near to him1 as some have feared1 recede to greater distances1 through the lessoned attraction8 ,yet these particles with this amazing motion1 will not drive before them1 or remove the least1 and slightest dust they meet with1 and the sun appears to continue of his ancient dimensions1 and his attendants move in their ancient orbits40 ,he then supposes the phenomena of light may be more satisfactorily solved by supposing a subtle fluid1 universally diffused1 which is invisible when at rest1 but becomes visible when put in motion1 by affecting the nerves of the eye1 as the vibrations of the air affect the ear1 and produce the sensation of sound2 and that the different degrees of intensity in the vibrations1 will account for the different colors4 ,see ,nicholson's ,encyclopedia1 ,,light4 ,this is the vibratory or ,cartesian system of light4 ,as already suggested1 it supposes the existence of a subtle1 luminiferous ether1 diffused throughout the universe1 pervading every particle of matter1 and is capable of being put in motion1 so as to become visible1 by the sun1 as the grand natural excitant1 friction1 combustion1 compression1 c4 ,the laws of the vibrations of this luminiferous fluid1 are precisely the same with those ascertained1 and determined1 in regard to light as commonly understood4 ,this luminiferous fluid is to be considered an elementary substance1 and was created when the different substances composing the chaotic mass were created4 ,at its first creation1 like caloric1 it was in a latent state1 as no excitant as yet had put it in motion4 ,it is to be understood1 therefore1 that the substances of each planet in the ,solar ,system1 as well as the sun himself1 were created simultaneously in a chaotic state1 at their proper relative distances from each other3 that the requisite quantity of each elementary substance was present in each mass3 but as caloric1 and this luminiferous ether were latent1 these masses were solid1 frozen lumps2 inactive and lifeless2 and darkness necessarily prevailed4 ,this then was the original condition of the elements of our ,solar ,system1 according to the scriptures4 8,and the earth was without form and void2 and darkness was upon the face of the deep40 ,gen4 i1 #b4 ,in order1 therefore1 to produce a quickening in these masses1 which rendered them soft1 it was only necessary to call the latent caloric1 and this luminiferous ether into action1 which would agitate1 and bring to light the whole mass1 and thus commence the arrangement and organization of the ,solar ,system4 ,however1 as there was no exciting cause then in operation1 it is evident the ,almighty must have given the first impulse to these elements4 ,this he did1 and the important fact is recorded by ,moses in these words3 8,,and ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,god ,,moved ,,upon ,,the ,,face ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,deep10 ,jehovah saying at the same time1 8,,let ,,there ,,be ,,light40 ,here is the ,mosaic account of the production of light1 and possibly heat also1 which took place on the first day4 ,the same process went on simultaneously in the sun and planets1 and the continued action cleared up their respective atmospheres1 and the sun became visible at the earth's surface on the fourth day4 ,hence1 the sun was said to have been made on the fourth day4 ,this solution of the difficulty is consistent with the account of ,moses2 and also all the well ascertained phenomena of light can be satisfactorily explained by it4 ,it will naturally lead the mind to observe the resemblance between the phenomena of light and heat1 and impel us to the conclusion1 that light1 or vision1 is the effect of a material cause1 as heat is of caloric3 and it is natural to suppose this cause is in the same relation to light1 that caloric is to heat4 ,of course we should conclude that light1 or the luminiferous ether in a latent state1 enters into combination with all substances1 as does caloric2 and at the same time a large proportion of it is free1 or in motion1 and of course sensible to the eye1 as free caloric is to the sense of feeling4 ,moreover we must conclude that this latent light is capable of being set free or evolved by the exciting influence of the sun1 as also by friction1 compression1 combustion1 chemical action1 c4 ,it will be of advantage1 therefore1 to establish the fact of the existence of latent light1 in combination with terrestrial substances4 ,that this is the fact may be proven by a single reflection on the process of combustion4 ,it is a daily observation that light is produced by burning bodies4 ,let us suppose these bodies burnt at midnight in a close room2 still light will be given out copiously and constantly4 ,whence this light8 ,the natural and obvious answer is1 it was in combination in a latent state with the burning bodies1 and by combustion it was set free1 and thrown out1 and thus put the surrounding luminiferous ether in motion4 ,it is said by some1 the light evolved in this case is not from the burning bodies1 but from the oxygen which is supplied by the air to support the combustion4 ,this does not alter the case at all3 for then the light was in combination with the oxygen1 and was invisible1 being in a latent state1 until it was set free from the oxygen by combustion4 ,the same conclusion is obtained in the process of compression and expansion4 ,if atmospheric air1 or oxygen be suddenly compressed in a glass syringe2 or if a glass ball1 filled with the latter1 be suddenly broke in vacuo1 a flash of light is instantly perceived4 ,in this case the light suddenly becomes visible1 which was invisible before1 being latent in combination with the air4 7,,ure47 ,we arrive at the same conclusion in case of friction4 ,it is well known that pieces of wood can be made to blaze by rubbing them together4 ,but it is not so well known1 that two pieces of rock crystal1 or quartz1 taken from any depth in the earth1 and which cannot be supposed to have ever been in the light of the sun1 when rubbed quickly together1 even under water1 will give out volumes of light4 ,whence this light8 from the quartz doubtless4 ,of course it must have been in a latent state1 and was set free by friction4 ,let it be strictly observed1 the crystals never were exposed to the light of the sun1 of course could not have derived this light from that luminary4 ,we must come to the same conclusion1 in regard to the light given out by animal substances4 ,many insects are known to have the power of evolving light1 or putting the surrounding luminiferous ether in motion1 which is the same4 ,putrescent animal matter has been observed to possess it1 in some cases1 in a very great degree2 sufficiently to illuminate a room1 or pantry1 for hours together4 ,in some instances the fingers of those who touched the luminous flesh1 became luminous4 ,this is eminently the case in regard to some fishes4 ,a species of fish called ,,pholas1 has the power of evolving a large quantity of light4 ,this power is greater when the fish is sound and fresh4 ,pliny mentions this fish1 and says it rendered the hands and clothes of persons luminous4 ,when put in water1 under proper circumstances1 it renders the water luminous4 ,but when put in milk1 a single pholas made seven ounces of it so luminous as to enable one to distinguish the faces of persons present4 ,ency4 ,brit4 ,art4 ,,light4 ,the evolution of light from the sea in the night1 is a fact of common observation1 and is sometimes so great as to enable one to read large print on a ship's deck4 ,ency4 ,brit4 ,art4 ,,light4 ,in all the above instances1 and many more might be added1 the light evolved1 or1 7which is the same thing in this investigation17 the luminiferous ether put in motion1 must have been in a state of combination with the substances from which it was evolved4 ,the only question which remains is this3 ,was all this light transmitted from the sun1 and become latent and combined at the earth's surface by absorption8 ,it would certainly be hazardous to answer this question in the affirmative4 ,for how could we account for the evolution of light from those bodies which have never been subject to the sun's influence8 ,again3 ,if all this light had been transmitted from the sun1 it will inevitably follow1 that there was a time when the quantity of light at the surface of the earth1 and in combination with terrestrial bodies1 was very small1 and of course combustion1 friction1 and compression of bodies produced anciently a much smaller quantity of light than now2 because there was a smaller quantity in combination4 ,it is evident that this supposition would come to this conclusion3 ,the quantity of light1 in combination at the earth's surface1 has increased in the same ratio as the increase of the duration of the influence of the sun on the earth3 and1 by consequence1 the quantity of light produced by artificial means has increased in the same proportion4 ,of course1 fires and candles burn more brightly now than they did five thousand years since4 ,though this conclusion is legitimate from the foregoing supposition1 yet it is at war with common sense1 and the current observations of the world4 ,we are therefore compelled to conclude that the ,,matter of light is diffused throughout the universe1 as is caloric1 and that it is evolved1 or put in motion by the influence of the sun2 as also by artificial and chemical means2 as combustion1 compression1 friction1 chemical action1 c4 ,this conclusion is much strengthened by the fact1 that the existence of caloric is well ascertained1 not as proceeding from the sun1 but in combination with all terrestrial substances2 and also by the fact of the constant analogy between the phenomena of light and heat4 ,this analogy is so strong and striking that we are compelled to conclude1 if heat be the effect of a real substance1 light must be also4 ,indeed the analogy is so strong that it almost convinces us of the identity of the matter of heat1 light1 electricity1 and galvanism4 ,notwithstanding the amount of evidence is against this supposition at present1 yet there is a strong tendency in recent philosophical experiments to confirm it2 and ,i am inclined to believe that future discoveries will confirm this identity4 ,some of the most obvious evidences in favor of it may be introduced here4 #a4 ,almost all the celebrated authors and experimenters have occasionally suggested the probability of this identity4 ,mr4 ,turner1 ,elements of ,chemistry1 p4 #fg1 says1 in reference to heat and light3 8,it has been supposed that they are modifications of the ,,same ,,agent2 and though most persons regard them as independent principles1 yet they are certainly allied in a way which at present is inexplicable40 ,again1 p4 #ga4 8,mr4 ,leslie conceives that light when absorbed1 is converted into heat40 ,dr4 ,henry 7,art4 ,light17 says1 8,a new fact has been lately ascertained by ,dr4 ,delaroche1 which seems to point out a close connection between heat and light1 and a gradual passage of the one into the other4 ,the rays of invisible heat pass through glass with difficulty at a temperature below that of boiling water2 but they traverse it with a facility always increasing with the temperature1 as it approaches the point at which bodies become luminous40 8,the general facts1 says ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 of the refraction and effects of the solar beam1 offer an analogy to the agencies of electricity40 7,ure1 ,chemical ,dictionary1 ,article ,light47 ,it is well known that this view pressed itself strongly on the attention of ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 during his philosophical investigation4 ,see ,ure1 ,chem4 ,dic4 ,art4 ,light4 #b4 ,this identity is strongly suggested by the constant and striking analogy between the laws of heat and light4 ,first3 ,the color of surfaces has an influence on the passage of light and heat4 ,secondly3 ,the power of light1 heat1 and electricity diminishes as the squares of their distances4 ,thirdly3 ,the particles of heat1 light1 and electricity1 are idio-repulsive4 ,fourthly3 ,the passage of the electric spark is generally attended with the production of light and heat4 ,fifthly3 ,heat is emitted in all directions from the surface of an ignited body3 so is light from the surface of a burning body4 ,sixthly3 ,the laws of reflection are the same in light and heat4 ,other coincidences might be established1 and other celebrated names added4 ,if this identity should be established finally1 it would not effect the doctrine of the foregoing pages in the least4 ,it would only be necessary to say1 the luminiferous fluid of this essay is the well established substance now called caloric4 ,addenda on ,light4 #a4 ,it is now generally admitted that the real body of the sun is surrounded with a peculiar set of clouds1 phosphorescent in their nature4 ,it is also allowed that these clouds do not emit heat4 ,and as it is well known that no one of the planets has such clouds1 but receive their light from the sun1 it is extremely probable that these phosphorescent clouds are intended by the ,creator1 to be the great dispenser of light to the solar system1 by operating as the exciting cause to put the luminiferous ether in motion throughout the solar system4 ,by a parity of reasoning1 each centre of a system may be invested with similar clouds1 which operate in the same way in reference to the planets which belong to it4 #b4 ,if light were a real substance1 as commonly understood1 solar light must proceed from the sun by impulsion1 and artificial light from burning bodies by evolution4 ,take the case of burning bodies4 ,a single candle placed two miles above the surface of the earth in the air1 and lighted up in that position1 will instantly illuminate a space of two miles in every direction from itself1 or a spherical space four miles in diameter4 ,in this case a sufficient quantity of light is instantly evolved to fill this space1 and the evolution continues as long as the candle burns4 ,the question upon this fact is this3 ,can it be supposed that there is a sufficient quantity of light1 in combination with a single candle1 or the oxygen necessary to keep up its combustion1 to fill a spherical space four miles in diameter for several hours together8 ,this would indeed be almost incredible in view of the space filled by light evolved from a single candle4 ,but this difficulty would be satisfactorily solved upon the supposition that light is the effect1 produced by a luminiferous ether1 universally diffused1 and put in motion1 by which it becomes visible1 by the sun1 burning bodies1 c4 ,because1 the motion which renders the luminiferous ether visible1 commences instantly upon the commencement of combustion1 and is propagated from the point of combustion in right lines1 under the appearance of rays of light3 but the motion ceases instantly on the cessation of combustion1 and of course darkness instantly ensues4 ,after having attended to the production of light1 and noticed some of its properties1 it is a paramount duty to contemplate its glorious ,author2 especially as by this mysterious production he himself has chosen to be represented4 ,if creatures be excellent1 what must be the ,creator8 and to admire the former without adoring the latter1 would be profane and atheistical4 8,the ,deity10 says ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 8in infinite space1 as in his own sensorium1 has an intimate perception of all things30 so we1 possessing intellect1 should 8look through nature up to nature's ,,god40 ,then matter1 however rarefied or diversified1 would serve as his minister to introduce us into his presence4 ,a pious ancient1 on being asked by a profane philosopher1 ,how he could contemplate high things1 since he had no books8 answered1 ,that he had the whole world for his book1 ready open at all times1 and in all places1 and that he could therein read things heavenly and divine4 ,as the visible creation is the outward expression of the existence of ,god1 and displays several of his infinite perfections2 so we should study him in the works of nature1 and trace him in the operation of his hands4 ,the late excellent and pious ,bishop ,horne very beautifully observes1--8,when the angels beheld the dark and disordered state of created nature upon its first production1 they were1 doubtless1 thrown into some perplexity to conceive how it should ever be made a means of manifesting forth the glory of the ,creator4 ,but when they saw the light spring up1 at the ,divine command1 from that blackness of darkness1 and fix its residence in its tabernacle the sun1 illuminating and adorning the firmament of heaven with its glorious show1 and the earth with its beautiful furniture1 all formed out of rudeness and confusion1 then they confessed that the difficulty of the work served only to display the skill of the workmaster1 which is proportionally estimated by the unpromising nature of the materials4 ,in like manner1 whoever views the chaos to which the infinite wisdom of a presiding ,providence sometimes permits the moral world to be reduced by the prevailing power of the prince of darkness1 and the agency of his instruments1 will scarce be able1 at first1 to discern any traces of the ,divine counsels in a mirror so sullied and clouded over by the enormities of sinful men4 ,yet let him wait with patience for a little season1 and those clouds shall pass away2 a light shall shine1 and some great end present itself to sight1 so worthy of ,god1 so beneficial to man1 that standing amazed at a power able to bring the greatest good out of the greatest evil1 he will be forced to cry out concerning the economy of the spiritual system1 as ,david did concerning the operations of the natural--#8,oh ,lord1 how manifold are thy works6 ,in wisdom hast thou made them all4'0#df 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,iv4--,,day ,,and ,,night4 ,original terms of ,day and ,night -- ,motion the effect of a ,divine power -- ,commencement of ,time -- ,utility of ,day and ,night -- ,religious improvement of ,time -- ,sin moral darkness -- ,the ,gospel a ,light to dispel it -- ,a ,christian the subject of a transition from the one state to the other4 ,the separation of light from the darkness1 was the work of the first day4 ,this was an arrangement made by infinite ,wisdom1 as well as a display of almighty power4 ,when this took place1 it is highly probable that ,god gave to the earth its rotation upon its own axis1 to produce the necessary succession of day and night4 8,the word reb1 which we translate evening1 comes from the root rab1 to mingle1 and properly signifies that state in which neither absolute darkness1 nor full light1 prevails4 ,it has nearly the same grammatical signification with our twilight1 the time that elapses from the setting of the sun till he is eighteen degrees below the horizon1 and eighteen degrees before he arises4 ,thus we have the morning and evening twilight1 or mixture of light and darkness1 in which neither prevails2 because1 while the sun is within eighteen degrees of the horizon1 either after his setting1 or before his rising1 the atmosphere has power to refract the rays of light1 and send them back to the earth4 ,the ,hebrews extended the meaning of this term to the whole duration of night1 because it was ever a mingled state2 the moon1 the planets1 or the stars1 tempering the darkness with some rays of light4 ,from the ereb of ,moses came the ,erebus of ,hesiod1 ,aristophanes1 and other heathens1 which they deified1 and made with nox1 or night1 the parent of all things4 ,the word boquer1 which we translate morning1 from boquar1 he looked out1 is a beautiful figure1 which represents the morning as looking out at the east1 and illuminating the whole of the upper hemisphere40#dg ,all bodies continue in a state of rest1 till they are put into motion by some external force impressed on them4 ,motion is the removal of a body from one place to another1 or a continual change of place4#dh ,any force acting on a body to move it1 is called a power4 ,the momentum1 or quantity of motion1 is in proportion to the force impressed4 ,the heavier any body is1 the greater is the power required to move it4 ,there are but three possible ways of accounting for motion3--either by supposing that there has been an infinite succession of impulses communicated from one body to another from eternity1 without any active principle either in matter or without it3 or1 that there is an active principle in matter that renders it self-active1 and motion essential to it3 or1 else1 that there is a ,being distinct from matter1 and is the cause of its motion4 ,an infinite succession of impulses1 without an active or moving principle1 will never give birth to motion1 because this would be to produce an effect without the assistance of a cause4 ,this absurdity was asserted by ,spinosa2 yet when urged by his friends to explain how matter could ever come into motion1 if motion was neither essential to matter1 nor proceeded from any external cause1 he always avoided giving a direct answer4 ,this conduct makes it reasonable to believe1 that he himself would have given up his account of motion1 if he could have saved his atheistical scheme and his reputation4 ,that motion is essential to all matter1 and action as much an attribute of matter1 as extension or solidity2 and1 consequently1 every atom of matter is necessarily self-moving1 or active from the necessity of its own nature1 is asserted by ,toland4 ,though he thought fit to reject the hypothesis of ,spinosa as indefensible1 yet he believed in the atheistic notion1 that motion is essential to matter1 and thinks it will be sufficient without troubling the ,supreme ,being4 ,the reason which has always determined mankind to look out for a cause of motion extrinsical to matter1 was this3 though they could easily conceive it capable of being moved and divided2 yet the conceiving of it to be undivided1 and unmoved1 was a more simple notion of matter1 than the conceiving it divided and moved4 ,this being first in order of nature1 and an adequate conception of it too1 they thought it necessary to inquire1 how it came out of this state1 and by what causes motion1 from whence this diversity in matter arose1 could come into the world8 ,descartes1 though he allowed the infinity of matter1 as well as ,toland1 was yet sensible that even this would not alter the nature of matter1 nor the idea that every person had of its inactivity1 and therefore could see no way of altering its primitive idea1 and reconciling it with the motion of matter1 but by introducing an infinite ,being1 who had sufficient power to rouse matter out of that sleepy state in which its original idea had represented it4#di ,that such a circumstance exists1 and what it is1 a ,french author very clearly states4 ,he says1 ,the universe is composed of matter1 and1 as a system1 is sustained by motion4 ,motion is not a property of matter1 and without this motion the solar system could not exist4 ,were motion a property of matter1 that undiscovered and undiscoverable thing1 called perpetual motion1 would establish itself4 ,it is because motion is not a property of matter1 that perpetual motion is an impossibility in the hand of every being but that of the ,creator of motion4 ,when the pretenders to atheism can produce perpetual motion1 and not till then1 they may expect to be credited4 ,the natural state of matter1 as to place1 is a state of rest4 ,motion1 or change of place1 is the effect of an external cause acting upon matter4 ,as to that faculty of matter called gravitation1 it is the influence which two or more bodies have reciprocally on each other to unite and be at rest4 ,every thing which has hitherto been discovered with respect to the motion of the planets in the system1 relates only to the laws by which motion acts1 and not to the cause of motion4 ,gravitation1 so far from being the cause of motion to the planets that compose the solar system1 would be the destruction of the solar system1 were revolutionary motion to cease2 for as the action of spinning upholds a top1 the revolutionary motion upholds the planets in their orbits1 and prevents them from gravitating and forming one mass with the sun4 8,by ceaseless action all that is subsists2 ,constant rotation of the unwearied wheel ,that nature rides upon1 maintains her health1 ,her beauty1 her fertility4 ,she dreads ,an instant's pause1 and lives but while she moves4 ,its own revolvency upholds the world40 ,in one sense of the word1 philosophy knows1 and atheism says1 that matter is in perpetual motion4 ,but the motion here meant refers to the state of matter1 and that only on the surface of the earth4 ,it is either decomposition1 which is continually destroying the form of the bodies of matter1 or recomposition1 which renews that matter in the same or another form1 as the decomposition of animal or vegetable substances enter into the composition of other bodies4 ,but the motion that upholds the solar system is of an entirely different kind1 and is not a property of matter4 ,it operates also to an entirely different effect4 ,it operates also to perpetual preservation1 and to prevent any change in the state of the system4 ,giving then to matter all the properties which philosophy knows it has1 or all that atheism ascribes to it1 and can prove1 and even supposing matter to be eternal1 it will not account for the system of the universe1 or of the solar system1 because it will not account for motion1 and it is motion that preserves it4 ,when1 therefore1 we discover a circumstance of such immense importance1 that without it the universe could not exist1 and for which neither matter1 nor any1 nor all1 the properties of matter can account1 we are by necessity forced into the rational and comfortable belief of the existence of a cause superior to matter1 and that cause is ,,god4 ,the motion of the earth1 therefore1 is an effect of ,divine power1 because there is none other equal to it2 and the constant operation of the same cause is requisite to perpetuate its progress4 ,how amazing it is that this globe1 so large in circumference1 should move at all6 ,plato attributes motion to the power of ,god1 8,how is it possible10 he argues1 8for so prodigious a mass to be carried round for so long a time1 by any natural cause8 ,for which reason10 he says1 8,i assert ,god to be the cause1 and that it is impossible it should be otherwise40#ej 8,every thing that is moved10 adds ,aristotle1 8must of necessity be moved by some other thing2 and that thing must be moved1 either by another1 or not by another thing4 ,if it be moved by that which is moved by another1 we must of necessity come to some ,prime ,mover that is not moved by another4 ,for it is impossible that what moves1 and is moved by another1 shall proceed ad infinitum40#ea ,since motion then is not a property of matter1 but an effect produced by the power of a ,divine agent1 what a constant display we have of this efficient energy1 in moving this earth1 and with such a surprising1 swiftness6 ,surely all men should fear and reverence a ,being1 who possesses and exercises such a power6 ,he who created all things out of nothing1 could1 if he pleased1 extinguish the light1 and shake the solid earth into atoms6 ,when the ponderous wheel of nature first began to move1 time1 consisting of days1 months1 years1 and ages1 and measured by the duration and revolutions of the heavenly bodies1 commenced4 ,time 7in eternity parenthesis7 ,is measur'd by successive days and months1 ,seasons and years2 which closely like the links ,of an extended chain progressive join3 ,or as a clock1 with all its hidden springs ,and constant motions1 wound up to the top1 ,begins its course1 revolving until down4 ,the distinction between day and night is a wise and gracious provision for man4 ,in the morning1 after the weary limbs have repaired their exhausted vigor by the indulgence of soft repose1 we are pleased with the blessing of light2 and1 after a few fleeting hours engaged in our diversified pursuits of the day1 we begin to court the evening shades1 pleased again to enjoy that balmy retreat which alone refits us for the fatigues of the ensuing day4 ,when a few fleeting hours are spent1 the day is no longer gratifying2 but its light becomes burdensome1 and we wish for the shadows of the evening to be stretched over us4 ,this sable period is scarcely gone1 when we welcome the dawning day1 and leave the place of our rest with gladness4 ,day and night1 and their alternate changes1 are adapted to suggest useful thoughts1 and calculated to employ our serious meditation4 8,from night to day1 from day to night1 ,the dawning and the dying light ,lectures of heavenly wisdom read2 ,with silent eloquence they raise ,our thoughts to the ,creator's praise4 ,and neither sound nor language need40 ,a force continually impressed by the supreme ,being produces and preserves these different and useful motions1 which measure out that portion of time assigned us1 for the performance of his work1 and the securing of our own salvation4 ,we are directed in his word how to employ this important talent lent to us2 also warned to guard against a misapplication of it1 and told that a day will come when we shall have to give an account of our stewardship4 ,as day is afforded for the management of those employments which could not be done in the night1 how unwise would it be to postpone such concerns till the approach of darkness8 ,so the short period of life is given us that we may 8work out our own salvation40 ,we are favored with the light of ,divine truth to illuminate our understandings2 the operation of the ,holy ,spirit to influence our wills2 and our pressing necessities should impel us to perform what ,god requires4 ,the ,greeks have two words for time1 and 3 the former signifies time in general2 and the latter that part of it which is proper for doing a thing--the present season in which any thing to be done may be done fitly and to advantage4 ,accordingly ,solomon says1 8,to every thing there is a season1 and a time to every purpose under heaven40 ,what the apostle says to the ,christians at ,ephesus is equally applicable and interesting to persons in succeeding ages of the world2 giving a view of the importance of time1 and directing to a right improvement of it4 8,see that ye walk circumspectly1 not as fools1 but as wise1 redeeming the time1 because the days are evil40 ,walking1 in the ,scripture style1 is a word frequently used to denote the whole course of a man's life and conversation1 including all his thoughts1 words and actions4 ,walking circumspectly1 1 signifies correctly1 accurately1 consistently1 or perfectly4 ,in another place the same word is rendered diligently4 ,herod said to the wise men come from the east1 ,go to ,bethlehem1 and search 1 diligently1 narrowly1 for the young child ,jesus4 ,but the word circumspect is from the ,latin circumspicio1 and signifies to look round about1 on all hands1 to be every way watchful1 wary1 and cautious1 in order to avoid danger1 discern enemies before they come too nigh1 and secure a man's interest by every possible and lawful means4#eb ,the necessity of this duty is suggested in the ,greek text1 see then or therefore1 take care of this as a matter of the highest concern and greatest importance2 it is that on which your all depends4 ,he adduces a cogent reason for this--8,not as fools1 but as wise40 ,as if he should say1 ,it is your wisdom to walk circumspectly1 and not to walk so would be your folly3 to walk circumspectly is the wisdom that ,god recommends to you1 and which is adapted to make you truly wise1 both in this world and in that which is to come4 ,the word redeeming1 1 literally signifies buying time4 ,the term buying is proper in reference to civil contracts1 but it is here applied morally4 ,properly speaking1 time cannot be bought3 it is a commodity for which all the treasures in the world would not be an equivalent4 ,its price is above rubies4 ,but the term imports the great value of time1 and intimates that we should be willing to suffer any privation or inconveniences1 rather than lose it4 ,redeeming properly implies the laying down a price for re-purchasing or recovering that which was ours1 but which has fallen into the possession of another4 ,a captive sometimes is redeemed out of the hand of an enemy4 ,now1 in this sense1 to redeem time already past is impossible1 for when once gone it is irrecoverable4 ,so that by redeeming time1 nothing else can be understood but a diligent and prudent improvement of it1 which is the only way in our power to counterbalance the loss we have sustained by our former neglect4 ,the effects of our past negligence should be counteracted by double diligence in future3 we should do much work in a little time4 ,this is to redeem that time1 concerning which we have allowed worldly business1 unprofitable visits1 sensual indulgence1 carnal recreations1 and vain thoughts1 to rob us1 and1 as it were1 to take and keep us captive4 ,to redeem time then is to be diligent in future1 wisely improving it so as may make amends for our very culpable remissness4 ,future diligence is1 as it were1 the price of redemption paid down for what we had mortgaged into the hands of those things which we have suffered to deprive us of it4 ,the argument used to enforce the practice of this duty is1 8because the days are evil40 ,time1 in itself1 properly speaking1 is neither good nor evil2 but in regard to the moral state of mankind may be so called4 ,the days here primarily intended by the apostle1 denominated evil1 were those of his own time1 in which he himself and his contemporaries lived1 and which abounded with trouble and danger1 by reason of the opposition made by unbelieving ,jews and ,gentiles against ,christianity4 ,but all our days1 as well as those1 may be called evil1 because of the prevalence of sin1 ,satanic delusion1 and hostility of the ungodly against real religion4 ,many persons can adopt the language of the patriarch ,jacob1 8,few and evil have the days of the years of my life been40 ,job gives a similar testimony1 8,man that is born of a woman1 is of few days1 and full of evil40 ,the whole argument runs thus3 seeing that you cannot enjoy true quiet and substantial comfort in this terrestrial abode1 and are in danger of being quickly deprived of all opportunity of getting and doing good1 fail not to improve the present time to the best advantage1 in reference to the future state1 that you may secure for yourselves a happy and glorious eternity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnotes - ,chapter ,,ii #bc ,see ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke on ,gen4 i4 #a4 #bd ,barington's ,dissertations1 c1 p4 #hb4 #be ,an eminent chemist and philosopher1 ,dr4 ,priestley1 has very properly observed1 that it seems plain that ,moses considered the whole terraqueous globe as being created in a fluid state1 the earthly and other particles of matter being mingled with the water4 ,the present form of the earth demonstrates the truth of the ,mosaic account1 for it is well known1 that1 if a soft or elastic globular body be rapidly whirled round on its axis1 the parts at the poles will be flattened1 and the parts on the equator1 midway between the north and the south poles will be raised up4 ,this is precisely the shape of our earth2 it has the figure of an oblate spheroid1 a figure pretty much resembling the shape of an orange4 ,it has been demonstrated by admeasurement1 that the earth is flatted at the poles1 and raised at the equator4 ,this was first conjectured by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 and afterwards confirmed by ,m4 ,cassini1 and others1 who measured several degrees of latitude at the equator and near the north pole1 and found that the difference perfectly justified ,sir ,isaac ,newton's conjecture1 and consequently confirmed the ,mosaic account4 ,the result of the experiments instituted to determine this point1 proved1 that the diameter of the earth at the equator is greater by more than twenty-three and a half miles than it is at the poles1 allowing the polar diameter to be #a-ccd part shorter than the equatorial1 according to the recent admeasurements of several degrees of latitude made by ,messrs4 ,mechain and ,delambre4 ,l',histoire des ,mathem4 par ,m4 de la ,lande1 tom4 iv1 part v1 liv4 vi3 and ,dr4 ,adam ,clarke1 on ,gen4 i4 #aj4 #bf ,hesiod4 ,theog4 #aaf4 #bg ,aristoph4 ,aves1 #fid4 #bh ,longin1 sect4 ix1 ,edit4 ,pearce4 #bi ,walker's ,history of the ,creation1 p4 #h1 #i4 #cj ,benson on the ,text4 #ca ,preface to ,dr4 ,black's ,lectures1 by ,robison4 #cb ,carpenter's ,lectures on the ,works of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #hg4 #cc ,boerhaave's ,chem4 by ,shaw1 vol4 i4 p4 #bii4 #cd ,parkes's ,chemical ,catechism1 or ,rudiments of ,chemistry1 chap4 ii4 #ce ,contemplative ,philosopher1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adi1 #aej4 #cf ,see ,dr4 ,burnet's ,theory1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cj4 #cg ,apud ,stob4 ,eclog4 ,phys4 p4 #dd4 #ch ,that light is a fluid which encompasses the earth1 and requires only to be agitated by some other inflamed body1 in order to render it perceptible1 is an hypothesis1 says a celebrated ,german divine1 that has been adopted by the most eminent philosophers4 8,it is certain1 at least1 that there is a great difference between fire and light4 ,the latter is incomparably more subtile than the former4 ,it penetrates glass1 and other transparent bodies1 in a moment2 whereas fire does it very slowly4 ,the pores of glass are consequently large enough to give a free passage to the light1 while the fire meets with more resistance1 because it is less subtile4 ,fire moves more slowly than light4 ,let burning coals be brought into a room1 the heat diffuses itself very slowly1 and the air becomes warm by degrees2 but the moment a candle is brought into an apartment1 the whole is suddenly illuminated2 and wherever the rays can reach the parts become more visible4 ,from these facts1 and some others1 it is concluded1 that fire and light are different substances2 although we generally see them both together1 and find that one may produce the other4 ,but the consequence drawn from this is possibly false40 #ci ,a new material has recently been introduced in this country1 for the purpose of lighting houses1 streets1 manufactories1 c1 namely1 the inflammable gas of coals4 ,when coals are burning in a common fire-place1 a flame more or less luminous1 according as it is more or less encumbered with incombustible smoke and vapor1 issues from them2 and very frequently emit some very beautiful streams of a flame remarkably bright4 ,all this arises from the gases which are extricated from the coal by the heat4 ,it was natural to imagine that such gas might be received in proper reservoirs1 and1 on being forced out of small apertures1 and lighted1 would serve1 as the flames of candles1 to illuminate rooms or other places4 ,the trial was easily made1 and has been attended with the desired effect4 #dj ,dr4 ,rees's ,new ,cyclopdia1 ,art4 ,light2 and ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory's ,lessons1 ,astronomical and ,philosophical p4 #aeg4 #da ,gregory's ,economy of ,nature1 vol4 i1 p4 #agc4 #db ,see ,relig4 ,philos4 vol4 iii1 pp4 #hfi1 #hgj1 ,fourth ,edition4 #dc ,sturm's ,reflections1 vol4 iii1 p4 #ahd4 #dd ,dr4 ,rees's ,cyclopdia1 ,art4 ,light4 #de ,parkes's ,rudiments of ,chemistry1 chap4 xii4 #df ,sermon on #a ,pet4 ii1 #ba4 #dg ,dr4 ,adam ,clarke on ,gen4 i1 #ca4 #dh ,when ,zeno1 the ,prince of the ,stoics1 was endeavoring to prove1 by a sophistical argument1 that there was no motion1 ,diogenes1 the cynic1 who had come into his school to hear him1 quickly started up and walked3 which was an ocular demonstration of motion1 and sufficient to refute all his sophisms adduced to the contrary4 #di ,see ,gurdon's ,sixth ,sermon at ,boyle's ,lecture4 #ej ,plato in ,epinom4 #ea ,aristot4 ,physic4 lib4 vii1 c4 #e4 #eb ,dr ,a4 ,clarke on ,eph4 v1 #ae4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,second ,,day4 ,,on ,,the ,,atmosphere4 ,composition of ,atmospheric ,air -- ,atmosphere divided into three regions -- ,air a fluid -- ,its compressibility and elasticity -- ,weight and pressure -- ,equilibrium -- ,transparency -- ,wind -- ,causes of ,wind -- ,variety of ,winds -- ,velocity of ,winds -- ,destructive ,winds -- ,wind under the control of ,god -- ,wind a similitude of the ,holy ,spirit's operations4 ,on the second day ,god made a space or expansion1 surrounding the solid earth to a certain height1 called the atmosphere4 ,this word is derived from and 1 and signifies a body of vapor in a spherical form4 ,by this name we understand the 8entire mass of air which encircles all parts of the terrestrial globe1 which moves with it round the sun1 which touches it in all parts1 ascending to the tops of its mountains1 penetrating into its cavities1 and incessantly floating on its waters4 ,it is a fluid which we inhale from the first to the last moment of our existence40 ,the ,hebrew word raki1 from rak1 used by ,moses1 7and which our translators1 by following the firmamentum of the ,vulgate1 which is a translation of the 1 of the ,septuagint1 have improperly rendered firmament17 signifies to spread out as the curtains of a tent or pavilion4#ec ,it corresponds with those beautiful words of ,isaiah1 8,it is he that ,,stretcheth ,,out the heavens as a curtain1 and ,,spreadeth ,,them out as a tent to dwell in40 8,thus10 as a learned and pious author justly observes1 8the second great production of the ,almighty was the element which is next in simplicity1 purity1 activity1 and power1 to the light1 7or1 rather fire17 and no doubt was also used by him as an agent in producing some subsequent effects40#ed ,it is particularly deserving notice1 that1 after the creation of caloric1 the atmosphere was the next regular production4 ,if heat had not previously existed1 could the atmosphere have been formed8 ,the ,creator1 having first impressed certain principles on matter1 impregnating it with repelling forces and systematical attractions1 proceeded with his work according to these radical and fixed laws4 ,one of the general laws discovered by ,dr4 ,black1 and which is laid down as a chemical axiom1 is1 that 8,whenever a body changes its state1 it either combines with caloric1 or separates from caloric40 8,the most probable opinion concerning the nature of caloric10 says ,mr4 ,dalton1 8is that of its being an elastic fluid of great subtlety1 whose particles repel one another1 but are attracted by all other bodies4 ,every kind of matter has its peculiar affinity to heat1 by which it requires a certain portion of the fluid1 in order to be in equilibrium with other bodies at a certain temperature40#ee ,it is now generally supposed1 adds ,mr4 ,parkes1 that the air owes its elasticity to the caloric which it contains2 and1 that if it could be deprived entirely of this1 it would lose its elastic form4 ,the expansibility of the air is effected by the operation of caloric3 for being rarefied by heat1 it occupies a larger space than otherwise it would4 ,it is extremely probable1 says ,lavoisier1 that air is a fluid naturally existing in a state of vapor2 or1 as we may better express it1 that our atmosphere is a compound of all the fluids which are susceptible of the vaporous or permanently elastic state1 in the usual temperature1 and under the common pressure4#ef ,for the discovery of the composition of atmospheric air1 we are indebted to ,scheele1 an able chemist1 born #agdb1 at ,stralsund1 in ,germany1 who was a member of the ,academy of ,stockholm1 and one of the ,royal ,society of ,medicine at ,paris1 and whose laborious investigations of nature have perpetuated his memory4 ,when the nature of atmospheric air began to be understood1 it was imagined that it was a mere mixture of oxygen gas and nitrogen gas2 and ,mr4 ,dalton is still of this opinion3 but1 says ,mr4 ,parkes1 we have now abundant reason to believe that it is a mere chemical compound2 that is1 that the oxygen and nitrogen form atmospheric air by a chemical union4 ,atmospheric air is a chemical mixture of oxygen and nitrogen rendered arial by the expansive power of caloric3 it likewise contains a portion of carbonic acid gas1 which was formerly calculated at one per cent42 but ,mr4 ,dalton has lately demonstrated that it does not amount to more than one part in a thousand4#eg ,carbonic acid gas is nearly twice as heavy as common air2 hence it is evident that it must combine chemically with the atmosphere1 or it would be found only near the surface of the earth4 ,if it were merely mixed with atmospheric air1 its gravity would prevent it from ascending to any great height3 but it is found to exist in the atmosphere at the greatest heights1 7though probably not in the same proportion7 as well as near the surface of the earth2 which is a proof that it is not a mere mixture1 but that it is chemically combined with the air4 ,there are about #bb parts of oxygen1 and #gh of nitrogen1 in every #ajj measures of atmospheric air1 or #bc of the former and #gg of the latter1 if the calculation be made by weight4#eh ,antony de ,marti observes1 ,if a few hundredth parts of oxygen only were wanting in atmospheric air1 fire would lose its strength1 candles would not diffuse such complete light1 and animals would with difficulty separate the necessary quantity of the vivifying oxygen4 ,on the other hand1 if the atmosphere were more charged with oxygen than nitrogen1 animals indeed would acquire a more free respiration2 but1 let us consider the activity which fire would acquire by air of superior purity4 ,we know that1 on some occasions1 the least spark excites the strongest flame in a combustible body1 and which increases so much as to consume it in a few moments3 candles then would be no sooner lighted than they would be destroyed1 without answering any other purpose than that of dazzling us for a few moments3 iron would be calcined1 instead of acquiring from the fire that softness necessary for transforming it into its various instruments1 and which it cannot receive in a more moderate heat4 ,nothing would be capable of checking the progress of this destructive element1 which is nourished by vital air1 if this ariform substance were not abundantly mixed with mephitic air1 which serves to restrain it4 ,pure atmospheric air is composed of three gaseous substances only1 but is perpetually contaminated by a variety of exhalations from the earth4 8,the atmosphere is a vast laboratory10 says ,fourcroy1 8in which nature operates immense analyses1 solutions1 precipitations1 and combinations3 it is a grand reservoir1 in which all the attenuated and volatilized productions of terrestrial bodies are received1 mingled1 agitated1 combined1 and separated4 ,notwithstanding this mixture1 of which it seems impossible for us to ascertain the nature1 atmospheric air is sensibly the same1 with regard to its intimate qualities1 wherever we examine it40 ,hence1 whatever may be the nature of the arial fluid1 when absolutely pure1 that which we breathe1 and which commonly goes under the name of air1 must be considered as an exceedingly heterogeneous mixture1 various at various times1 and which it is by no means possible to analyze with accuracy4 ,the whole mass of it contains a great deal of water1 together with the vast collection of particles raised from all bodies of matter on the surface of the earth by effluvia1 exhalations1 c1 so that it may be termed a chaos of the particles of all sorts of matter confusedly mingled together4 ,and hence it has been considered as a large chemical vessel1 in which the matter of all kinds of bodies is copiously floating2 and thus exposed to the continual action of that immense surface1 the sun1 from whence proceed innumerable operations1 sublimations1 separations1 compositions1 digestions1 fermentations1 putrefications1 c4 ,though1 in this view1 the atmosphere seems to be a kind of sink or common sewer1 where all the poisonous effluvia arising from putrid and corrupted matter is deposited2 yet it has a wonderful facility of purifying itself1 and one way or other1 of depositing those vapors contained in it2 so that it never becomes noxious1 except in particular places1 and for a short time2 the general mass remaining1 upon all occasions1 pretty much the same4#ei ,the way in which this purification is effected1 is different according to the nature of the vapor with which the air is loaded4 ,aqueous vapor ascends2 and also much of that vapor arising from decayed and putrid animal and vegetable substances1 7and which1 by some modern philosophers1 is called phlogiston1 attaching itself to the aqueous vapor17 ascends along with it2 and probably descends again with the rain2 whence the fertilizing qualities of rain-water above those of any other3 while another part is absorbed by vegetables2 for the phlogistic vapor is probably the food for plants4 ,but sulphureous1 acid1 and metalline exhalations1 produced principally by volcanos2 vapors1 arising from houses where lead and other metals are smelted2 descend1 in consequence of their specific gravity1 and suffocate and spread destruction around them1 poisoning not only animals1 but vegetables also4 ,from all these1 the air seems not capable of purifying itself1 otherwise than by winds1 or by letting them subside by their superior gravity1 till they are absorbed either by the earth or water1 according as it is their nature to unite with one or other of these elements4 ,of this kind also seem to be the vapors which are properly called pestilential4 ,the contagion of the plague itself seems to be of a heavy1 sluggish nature1 incapable of rising in the air1 but attaching itself to the walls of houses1 bed-clothes1 and wearing apparel4 ,hence1 scarcely any constitution of the atmosphere can dispel these noxious effluvia2 nor does it seem probable that pestilential distempers ever cease until the contagion has operated so long1 and been so frequently communicated from one to another1 that1 like a ferment much exposed to the air1 it becomes vapid1 communicates a milder infection1 and at last loses its strength altogether4 ,the atmosphere1 or body of air encompassing the earth on all sides1 is generally divided into three regions4 ,the lowest region extends from the earth to the place where the air is no longer heated by the rays which the earth reflects3 this region is the wannest4 ,the middle region begins where the preceding one ends1 and goes to the summit of the highest mountains1 or even the highest clouds2 this is the space where rain1 hail1 and snow are engendered3 this region is much colder than the preceding one4 ,the third region extends from the middle one to the utmost height of the atmosphere2 whose limits have not been ascertained4#fj ,if the air were of an equal density throughout1 the height of the atmosphere might be determined3 but since the density of the air decreases with the pressure1 it will be more rarefied and expanded the higher we go2 and by this means the altitude of the atmosphere becomes indefinite1 and terminates in pure ether4 ,but though we cannot assign its real height1 it is certain1 from observations and experiments1 that a distance of #de or #ej miles is the utmost limit where the density is sufficient to refract the rays of light4 ,for the beginning and ending of twilight show1 that the height at which the atmosphere begins to refract the sun's light is about #de ,english miles2 and therefore that may be reckoned the altitude of the air to the least degree of density4 ,the air is justly reckoned among the number of fluids1 because it has all the properties by which a fluid is distinguished4 ,it requires but little attention to be convinced of this4 ,the air yields to the smallest force impressed on it2 its parts are easily moved among themselves2 it presses according to its perpendicular height1 and its pressure is every where equal4 ,that the air is a fluid consisting of such particles as have no cohesion among themselves1 but easily glide over one another1 and yield to the smallest impression1 appears from the ease and freedom with which animals breathe in it1 and move through it without any difficulty or sensible resistance4 ,the ease with which it is penetrated1 and driven about in every direction1 and the motion of it in pipes and channels1 however crooked and intricate1 demonstrate its fluidity4 ,it is also known to be a fluid1 by the easy conveyance which it affords to sound4 ,compressibility and elasticity are evident properties of air4 ,its elasticity was first ascertained by some experiments of ,lord ,bacon4 ,the air nearest the earth is in a state of compression1 occupying a smaller space than it otherwise would do1 were it not compressed by the superincumbent air4 ,it must therefore be in a state something resembling that of a quantity of fine carded wool thrown loosely into a deep pit2 the lower strata supporting the weight of the upper strata1 and being compressed by them2 and so much the more compressed as they are further down1 while the upper stratum only is in its unconstrained and most expanded state4 ,if we should suppose this wool thrown in by a hundred weight at a time1 it will be divided into strata of equal weights1 but of unequal thickness1 the lowest being the thinnest1 and the superior strata gradually increasing in thickness4#fa ,when the air is in a state of compression1 we find that the same force with which we compressed it is necessary to keep it in its bulk2 and that if we cease to press it together1 it will swell out and regain its natural dimensions1 which shows its elasticity4 ,this distinguishes it essentially from such a body as a mass of flour1 salt1 and such like1 which remains in the compressed state to which we reduce it4 ,there is something therefore which opposes the compression of air1 different from its simple impenetrability1 and produces motion1 by repelling the compressing body4 ,as an arrow is gradually accelerated by the bow-string pressing it forward1 and at the moment of its discharge is brought to a state of rapid motion2 so the ball from a pop-gun or wind-gun is gradually accelerated along the barrel by the pressure of the air during its expansion from its compressed state1 and finally quits it with an accumulated velocity4 ,these two motions are indications perfectly similar to the elasticity of the bow and of the air4 ,mr4 ,parkes observes1 that atmospheric air in all states1 and in all seasons1 is permanently elastic4 ,this elasticity arises from caloric being chemically combined with the solid substances of which it is composed4 ,i say solid1 because we have abundant evidence that oxygen and nitrogen are both capable of taking a solid form1 and actually do1 in many instances1 exist in a state of solidity4 ,nitrogen is a component part of all animal substances1 and exists in a solid state in all the ammoniacal salts4 ,oxygen takes the same state when it combines with metals and other combustibles2 and in the composition of the nitrous salts they both take the same state of solidity4 ,these facts surely evince that atmospheric air owes its fluidity to caloric4 ,dr4 ,hales1 by means of a press1 condensed the air #cc times2 and1 afterwards1 by forcing water in an iron globe1 into #a1eea times less space than it naturally occupies4 ,the dilation of the air1 by virtue of its elastic force1 is found to be very surprising4 ,in experiments made by ,mr4 ,boyle1 it dilated to #aj1jjj1 and even1 at last1 in #ac1fgi times its space2 and this altogether by its own expansive force1 without the help of fire4 ,in fact1 it appears that the air we breathe is compressed by its own weight into at least the #ac1fgith part of the space it would occupy in vacuo4 ,but if the same air be condensed by art1 the space it would take up when most dilated1 will be1 according to the same author's experiments1 as #eej1jjj to #a4 ,it is only by means of the experiments made with pumps1#fb and the barometrical tube1 by ,galileo and ,torricelli1 that we came to the proof1 not only that the atmosphere is endued with weight and pressure1 but also of the measure and quantity of that pressure4 ,the rise of water in a pump was formerly attributed to the horror that nature had of a vacuum4 ,this absurd notion was refuted about the middle of the seventeenth century1 by the following occurrence4 ,the ,duke of ,florence1 having occasion to raise water to the height of #ej or #fj feet1 ordered a common pump to be made for that purpose2 but when it was completed1 the workmen were astonished to find that it would not work4 ,the matter was referred to ,galileo1 but he was unable to account for it in any way4 ,all they were able to determine was1 that water would not rise in a common pump more than #cb or #ce feet4 ,the fact remained inexplicable till philosophers caught the idea of atmospheric pressure2 since when1 the suspension of mercury in the barometer1 and water in a pump1 have been well understood4#fc ,that the air is a heavy body1 has been demonstrated by a variety of experiments4 ,the air next the earth is more dense than that at a distance1 because1 as it is of an elastic or springy nature1 it is pressed down by the whole weight of the superincumbent air4 ,its general force of gravity appears1 from its surrounding the earth1 and always accompanying it in its orbit round the sun4 ,as the matter of which the air is composed is always variable1 so likewise will its weight or gravity be1 as barometers of various kinds and structure evince4 ,the weight of the air at the earth's surface1 is found by the quantity of mercury that the atmosphere balances in the barometer2 in which1 at a mean state1 the mercury stands #bi inches high4 ,and if the tube were a square inch wide1 it would at that height contain #bi cubic inches of mercury1 which is just #ae pounds weight2 and so much weight of air every square inch of the earth's surface sustains2 and every square foot1 as containing #add inches1 must sustain a pressure of #b1afj4 ,at this rate1 a middle-sized man1 whose surface is about #ae square feet1 must sustain a weight of #cb1djj pounds1 or #af tons2 for the air1 like other fluids1 presses equally upwards1 downwards1 and sideways1 in every direction4 ,but because this enormous weight bears equally on all sides1 and is counterbalanced by the spring of air diffused through all parts of the body1 it is not in the least felt by us4#fd ,by this enormous pressure we should undoubtedly be crushed in a moment were not all parts of our bodies filled either with air or some other elastic fluid1 whose spring is just sufficient to counterbalance the weight of the atmosphere4 ,the human body is a bundle of solids1 hard or soft1 filled or mixed with fluids1 and there are few or no parts of it which are empty4 ,all communicate either by vessels or pores2 and the whole surface is a sieve through which the insensible perspiration is performed4 ,the whole extended surface of the lungs is open to the pressure of the atmosphere2 every thing therefore is in equilibrio3 and if free or speedy access be given to every part1 the body will not be damaged by the pressure1 however great1 any more than a wet sponge would be deranged by plunging it any depth in water4 ,the pressure is instantaneously diffused by means of the incompressible fluids with which the parts are filled3 and if any parts are filled with air or other compressible fluids1 these are compressed till their elasticity balances the pressure4 ,besides1 all our fluids are acquired slowly1 and gradually mixed with that proportion of air which they can dissolve or contain4 ,the whole animal has grown up in this manner from the first vital atom of the embryo4 ,for such reasons the pressure can occasion no change of shape by squeezing together the flexible parts2 nor any obstruction by compressing the vessels or pores4 ,sometimes the air is so heavy and elastic as to support the mercury in the tube at the height of #ca inches nearly2 at other times it is so light and unelastic1 as to suffer it to fall as low as #bh inches4 ,the difference between these two altitudes is three inches1 that is1 about #a-ith of the whole weight of the atmosphere4 ,our bodies1 therefore1 are sometimes pressed with a weight one-ninth more than at other times1 that is1 with about #c1cfj pounds more weight at one time than another4 ,this has considerable effect on our feelings1 and consequently on our health1 but we are apt to ascribe this effect to a wrong cause4 ,when we feel ourselves dull and languid1 we think it is owing to the air being too thick and heavy about us4 ,but it is just the reverse3 the air is then too light and thin1 as is evident from the mercury's sinking in the barometer1 and its not bearing up the clouds3 it is seldom dense enough at two miles height to bear them up4#fe ,the weight of the air is proved by its supporting the clouds and vapors which we so frequently see floating in it2 in the same manner that the swimming of a piece of wood indicates the weight of the water which supports it4 ,it may be remarked1 says ,mr4 ,parkes1 that the ,creator has endowed atmospheric air with the property of preserving its own equilibrium at all times and in all places4 ,its elasticity is such1 that1 however it may be consumed by respiration or combustion1 its place is immediately supplied with a new portion2 and though by a mistaken policy the doors and windows of our habitations may be constructed so as to exclude it as much as possible1 it will have admission2 it forces its way through every crevice1 and performs the most important office assigned it1 in defiance of all our exertions4 ,if the properties which are given to the different substances in nature1 and the laws by which they are governed1 be thus examined1 we shall find them all tending to promote the welfare and felicity of every species of animated beings4 ,the transparency of the air is a very beneficial property it possesses4 ,according to ,dr4 ,keill1 and other writers on astronomy1 it is entirely owing to the atmosphere that the heavens appear bright in the day-time4 ,for1 without an atmosphere1 that part of the heavens only would shine in which the sun is placed3 and if we could exist without air1 and should turn our backs toward the sun1 the whole heavens would appear as dark as in the night1 and the stars would be seen as clear as in the nocturnal sky4 ,in this case we should have no twilight2 but a sudden transition from the brightest sunshine to the blackest darkness immediately after sunset2 and from the blackest darkness to the brightest sunshine at sun-rising2 which would be extremely inconvenient1 if not fatal to the sight of men4 ,but1 by means of the atmosphere1 we enjoy the sun's light1 reflected from the arial particles1 for some time before he rises1 and after he sets4 ,for1 when the earth by its rotation has prevented us from seeing the sun1 the atmosphere1 being still higher than we1 has the sun's light imparted to it1 which gradually decreases until he has descended #ah degrees below the horizon2 and then1 all that part of the atmosphere which is above us becomes dark4 ,the atmosphere refracts the sun's rays so1 as to bring him in sight every clear day1 before he rises in the horizon2 and to keep him in view for some minutes after he is really set below it4 ,for1 at some times of the year1 we see the sun ten minutes longer above the horizon1 than he would be if there were no refractions2 and about six minutes every day at a mean rate4 ,we cannot but perceive the wisdom of ,god displayed in this contrivance1 to prevent the sudden transition from light to extreme darkness1 and his goodness manifested therein to man4 ,besides these1 there are many other advantages we derive from the atmosphere4 ,were it not for the atmospheric air1 which is the vehicle of light and sound1 our eyes would be useless1 and the pleasures which arise from the variegated prospects that now surround us1 unknown4 ,sound would never strike our ears1 nor convey the charms of language from one person to another2 all the delights of mutual converse would be lost4 ,the sense of smell would never be regaled with odoriferous sweets2 nor annoyed with exhalations from putrid and morbid substances4 ,in short1 life would become extinct1 and a chaos of darkness and emptiness ensue4 ,it has been well remarked1 that1 if the ,deity had intended only to give us existence1 and had been indifferent about our happiness or misery1 all the necessary purposes of hearing might have been answered without harmony2 of smell1 without fragrance2 of vision without beauty4 ,the consideration of the various uses to which the different substances in nature may be applied1 gives so satisfactory an assurance of the goodness of the ,almighty1 as is calculated to produce in us gratitude and obedience4 ,with this view1 an elegant ,french writer has said on this necessary fluid1 8,in the use of atmospheric air1 man is the only being who gives to it all the modulations of which it is susceptible4 ,with his voice alone1 he imitates the hissing1 the cries1 and the melody of all animals2 while he enjoys the gift of speech denied to every other4 ,to the air he also communicates sensibility2 he makes it sigh in the pipe1 lament in the flute1 threaten in the trumpet1 and animates to the tone of his passions even the solid brass1 the box tree1 and the reed4 ,sometimes he makes it his slave3 he forces it to grind1 to bruise1 and to move for his advantage an endless variety of machines4 ,in a word1 he harnesses it to his ear1 and obliges it to waft him over the stormy billows of the ocean40 ,wind is air in motion4 ,as the air is a fluid1 its natural state is that of rest1 which it cannot have but by an universal equilibrium of all its parts4 ,when1 therefore1 this natural equipoise of the atmosphere is destroyed in any part1 the circumjacent air necessarily moves towards that part1 to restore it2 and this motion of the air is called wind4 ,hence1 where the equilibrium of the air is disturbed1 the wind may blow from every point of the compass at the same time3 those who live northward of that point have a north wind2 those who live southward have a south wind2 and so on of the rest3 but those who live on the spot1 where all those winds meet and rush together1 will have turbulent and boisterous weather1 such as whirlwinds and hurricanes1 accompanied with rain1 lightning1 and thunder4 ,for sulphureous exhalations from the south1 torrents of nitre from the north1 and aqueous vapors from every part1 are there violently blended together1 and seldom fail to produce these phenomena4 ,the causes of wind augment or diminish the gravity or elasticity of the atmosphere2 for two portions of air1 which are equal in elasticity or gravity1 remain mutually immoveable4 ,we must look for the causes of wind in the variation of heat and cold1 the position of the sun1 the nature of the soil1 the inflammation of meteors1 the condensation of the vapors into rain1 and other similar circumstances3 but the most general causes are heat and cold4 ,fire1 which expands and rarefies the air1 diminishes its elasticity1 and1 consequently1 makes it lighter in some places than in others2 hence the pressure of the ambient air is greater than that of the rarefied1 whence a motion arises2 and thus several winds blow towards the part where the air is rarefied by the heat2 which currents of air1 if strong1 are called winds1 if gentle1 breezes or gales4 ,thus the air is constantly carried from the polar regions towards the torrid zone1 where it is also affected by the diurnal motion of the sun from east to west4 8,when we reflect attentively upon the nature of winds in general10 says ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory1 8considering all the causes which disturb the equilibrium of the atmosphere1 the great mobility due to its fluidity and its elasticity1 the influence of heat and cold upon the latter1 the immense quantity of vapor with which it is charged and discharged alternately1 the mutual effect of contiguous air and water in motion1 the varied attractions of the sun and moon1 upon the arial fluid1 and finally the changes produced by the earth's rotation in the velocity of the atmospherical molecul at different parallels of latitude2 we shall no longer be astonished at the inconstancy and variety which infringe upon the regularity of some of our winds1 nor of the extreme difficulty of reducing the whole to laws wearing the semblance of certainty40#ff ,there is a great variety of winds4 ,the ancients observed only four1 called venti cardinales1 because they blow from the four cardinal points4 ,homer mentions no more than eurus1 the east2 notus1 the south2 zephyrus1 the west2 and boreas1 the north wind4#fg ,in imitation of him1 others do the same4 ,afterwards intermediate winds were added1 first one1 then two1 between each of these4 ,most writers1 make only eight winds1 and ,vitruvius#fh informs us that the ,athenians built a marble tower in the form of an octagon with eight winds marked1 every one on that side which faced it4 ,the moderns make #cb winds1 the four cardinal winds #ij degrees distant1 and #bh collateral or intermediate1 #aa degrees and #ae minutes distant from each other1 of which those in the middle between two cardinals1 are #de degrees distant from each cardinal4#fi ,but some make as many points on the compass1 and as many winds1 as there are degrees on the horizon1 namely1 #cfj4 ,the winds for a considerable space north of the equator1 about #cj degrees in the open sea1 blow from the north-east1 and as far south of the equator1 from the south-east4 ,these are called trade-winds1 from their facilitating trading voyages4 ,in the ,indian ocean1 from its particular situation1 and that of the lands which surround it1 from ,april or ,may1 to ,october or ,november1 the wind blows from south-east to north-west2 and during the rest of the year from the opposite quarters3 these winds are called monsoons4 ,in ,jamaica and the ,caribbee islands1 in the months of ,july1 ,august1 or ,september1 there are usually violent storms of wind1 called hurricanes2 the wind during the hurricane frequently veering1 and blowing in every direction4 8,winds from all quarters agitate the air ,and fit the limpid element for use1 ,else noxious4 ,oceans1 rivers1 lakes1 and streams1 ,all feel the fresh'ning impulse1 and are cleansed ,by restless undulation4 ,e'en the oak thrives by the rude concussion of the storm4 ,he seems indeed indignant1 and to feel ,the impression of the blast with proud disdain1 ,frowning1 as if in his unconscious arm ,he held the thunder4 ,but the monarch owes ,his firm stability to what he scorns1 ,more fixed below1 the more disturbed above40 ,winds have been measured1 and their velocity calculated4 ,the following is ,mr4 ,john ,smeaton's table of the rate at which the wind travels3 ,wind4 ,miles in ,feet in an ,hour4 a ,sec4 ,hardly perceptible #a #a1dg ,just perceptible #b #b1ih #c #d1dj ,gentle1 pleasant #d #e1hg #e #g1ce ,pleasant brisk gale #aj #ad1fg #ae #bb1jj ,very brisk #bj #bi1cd #be #cf1fg ,high winds #cj #dd1ja #ce #ea1cd ,very high #dj #eh1fh #de #ff1ja ,storm1 tempest #ej #gc1ce ,great storm #fj #hh1jb ,hurricane #hj #aag1cf ---- that tears up trees1 destroys buildings c4 c4 #ajj #adf1gjgj ,there are some winds that are awfully destructive4 ,in the ,gulf of ,persia1 particularly at ,ormus1 during the months of ,june and ,july1 a hot suffocating wind sometimes blows from the west1 for a day or two together1 which scorches up and destroys any animal exposed to it4 ,on this account the people of ,ormus then leave their habitations1 and retire to the mountains4 ,winds similar to this in kind1 but not in degree1 are sometimes felt on the coast of ,coromandel1 where they are called terrenos2 and likewise on the ,malabar coast4 ,on the coast of ,africa1 north of ,cape ,verd1 during the months of ,december1 ,january1 and ,february1 an easterly wind sometimes blows for a day or two1 called by sailors harmattan1 so intensely cold1 as to be almost as destructive as the west winds at ,ormus4 ,the simoon is a hot wind which blows occasionally in the deserts of ,arabia1 parched by a vertical sun4 ,if inhaled in any quantity1 it produces instant suffocation1 or at least leaves the unhappy sufferer oppressed with an asthma and lowness of spirits4 ,its approach is perceived by a redness in the air1 well understood by those who are accustomed to journey through the desert2 and the only refuge which they have from it1 is to fall down with their faces close to the ground1 and to continue as long as possible without respiration4#ga ,sirocco is a periodical wind which generally blows in ,italy and ,dalmatia every year about ,easter4 ,it blows from the south-east by south2 it is attended with heat1 but not rain2 its ordinary period is twenty days1 and it usually ceases at sunset4 ,when the sirocco does not blow in this manner1 the summer is almost free from easterly winds1 whirlwinds1 and storms4 ,this wind is prejudicial to plants1 drying and burning up the buds2 though it hurts not man any otherwise than by causing in him an extraordinary weakness and lassitude2 inconveniences that are fully compensated by a plentiful fishing1 and a good crop on the mountains4 ,in the summer time1 when the westerly wind ceases for a day1 it is a sign that the sirroco will blow the day following1 which usually begins with a sort of whirlwind4 ,when ,st4 ,paul was sailing close to the shore at ,crete1 there arose in the north-east1 a tempestuous wind1 called by the sacred historian1 euroclydon2 by ,pliny1 the mariner's plague2 and in modern language1 a levanter1 which drove the ship from the coast3 this not being a point wind1 but rather a kind of hurricane1 often shifting its quarter1 tossed them backward and forward in the ,adriatic4 ,on ,saturday1 ,november #bg1 #agjc1 a tremendous storm shook all ,europe1 which has been considered the most dreadful tempest that has ever taken place since the deluge4 ,this storm commenced three days before it arrived at its height4 ,a strong west wind set in about the middle of the month1 the force of which was increased every day till the #bgth4 ,great damage was sustained1 and much alarm excited1 both by sea and land4 ,the late ,rev4 ,dr4 ,stennett1 in endeavoring to account for it1 observes1 that 8having most probably taken its rise in ,america1 it made its way across the western ocean1 and collecting confederate matter in its passage over the seas1 spent its fury on those parts of the world1 whither this army of terrors was principally commissioned40 ,the violence of the wind produced a hoarse1 dreadful noise1 like one continued peal of thunder2 whilst the excessive darkness of the night added to the horror of the scene4 ,some accounts say1 that it lightened2 but it is probable1 that this apprehension arose from there being1 at times1 many meteors and vapors in the air2 the hurry and agitation of nature being too great to admit of thunder and lightning1 in their usual course4 ,great loss of property was sustained2 many painful accidents happened to those who escaped with their lives2 and not a few had all their apprehensions realized1 as they met death in some of its most dreadful forms4 ,in the city of ,london and its vicinity1 more than #hjj dwelling-houses were laid in ruins1 and above #b1jjj stacks of chimnies were precipitated to the ground4 ,as a further proof of its strength and fury1 we are informed1 that the lead which covered the roof of #ajj churches1 was rolled up1 and hurled1 in prodigious quantities1 to great distances4 ,but the dreadful devastation spread throughout the country4 ,in one extensive plain1 on the banks of the ,severn1 not less than #ae1jjj sheep1 being unable to resist its violence1 were driven into the river and drowned4 ,such was the quantity of trees torn up by their roots1 that a person anxious to ascertain the number1 had proceeded through but a part of the county of ,kent1 when1 arriving at the prodigious amount of #bej1jjj1 he relinquished the undertaking4 ,if such were the dreadful ravages of this storm by land1 it will be anticipated they were still more disastrous on the water4 ,accordingly we are informed1 that the best part of our navy being then at sea1 if it had been at any other than a full flood and spring tide1 the loss might have proved fatal to the nation4 ,it was computed that not less than #cjj ships were utterly destroyed by this tempest2 among which were #ae of the royal navy1 containing upwards of #b1jjj seamen1 who 8sunk as lead in the mighty waters40 ,the whole loss of property was estimated at four millions of money--of lives1 about eight thousand--and cattle without number4 ,towards the evening of the #bgth1 it pleased ,him1 8who gathereth the wind in his fists10 gradually to suppress the storm1 till there was a perfect calm4 ,men were encouraged to leave the retreats in which they had taken refuge1 and view the 8desolations which ,god had made in the earth40#gb ,though the winds are produced by the operation of natural causes1 and seem to move in natural courses1 yet there is a first ,cause1 whose efficiency is necessary to their existence1 motions1 and continuance4 ,we shall select the following remarkable instance as an illustration of the truth of this assertion4 ,the disciples of ,christ were once in imminent danger from a storm at the sea of ,tiberias1 which is also called the ,sea of ,galilee1 and the ,lake of ,gennesaret1 and1 according to ,pliny1 is sixteen miles long1 and six broad4 ,it is said1 8,behold1 there arose a great tempest in the sea10 1 a great concussion or shaking4 ,the same expression is frequently used1 both in the ,scripture and in other writings1 for an earthquake2 but here it is applied to the sea4 ,luke calls this tempest 8a storm of wind20 ,mark1 8a great storm of wind20 and both of them use the word 1 which the philosopher says is a particular kind of wind1 or rather a conflict of many winds4 ,the most probable derivation1 says ,mr4 ,parkhurst1 seems to be from or 1 very much1 and 1 to lick or lap up1 as wolves do water in drinking2 for a whirlwind violently licks up1 as it were1 the dust of all light bodies in its way4 ,hence is a wind that is suddenly whirled and rolled about downwards and upwards4 ,aristotle explains the word by a violent whirlwind1 moving from beneath upwards4 ,hesychius1 a learned ,grecian1 defines it to be a storm or tempest of wind1 with rain4 ,it seems to have been a whirlwind and hurricane in which the disciples then were4 ,luke says1 that this storm of wind came down2 it descended with great force into the sea1 and lifted up its waves1 which beat into the ship1 and pressed it much1 so that it was in great danger of being swallowed up and sunk by them4 ,all the views given us of this tempest show the disciples to have been in imminent danger4 ,it is said1 8that the ship was covered with the waves10 which 8beat into it1 so that it was now full of water10 as ,mark expresses it4 ,nay1 ,luke says1 8they were filled with water1 and were in jeopardy10 or in great danger4 ,the ship was immersed1 or just sinking into the deep4 ,so that the disciples were brought to the utmost extremity4 ,the great distress they were in is expressed in these words1 8,we perish1 1 we are lost40#gc ,this way of speaking is still in use among sea-faring men1 and indeed among others4 ,nothing is more common than for men to say1 ,such a vessel1 or such a ship's crew1 or such a person1 was lost at sea1 in such a place1 and at such a time4 ,it is also to be observed1 they do not say1 ,we are in danger of being lost1 or we are ready to be lost1 or we shall be lost1 but1 we are lost4 ,which shows what apprehension they had of their condition2 they saw no probability of escaping by any naturally rational method2 they looked on themselves as lost4 ,all the ,evangelists agree in this1 though they do not use the same word4 ,mark mentions the place where he was asleep1 in the hinder part of the ship1 or stern1 where he1 as ,lord and ,master1 should be4 ,but to the great concern of the disciples1 he was there in a deep or sound sleep1 as the word 1 which ,luke uses1 signifies1 and is confirmed by the loud cry1 and repeated call of the disciples to him1 saying1 8,master1 ,master1 we perish60 ,this sleep1 doubtless1 was brought on him through his great fatigue in preaching all the preceding day1 and from the great concourse of people resorting to him1 to have the sick healed1 and devils cast out4 ,he seems to have signified that he was very weary1 just before he entered into the ship1 to a man who said to him1 8,master1 ,i will follow thee whithersoever thou goest30 the answer he returned was1 8,the foxes have holes1 and the birds of the air have nests2 but the ,son of ,man hath not where to lay his head40 ,intimating as though he wanted an opportunity to lie down1 and take some rest3 and accordingly1 when he was come into the ship1 placing himself at the stern1 he lay down1 and fell fast asleep4 ,christ was their last resource1 but he was asleep in the same ship4 ,however1 they resolved to apply to him1 and in so doing were certainly right4 ,they used this language1 8,lord1 save us20 which implies that they believed he was able to save them2 and indeed the considerable miracles which had been so lately wrought in their presence1 were sufficient to convince them of his ability to deliver them in their greatest extremity4 ,our ,lord indeed blamed them for their incredulity and want of faith4 ,the question he put to them1 as related by ,luke1 is 8,where is your faith80 ,you professed to have faith in me1 and doubtless had a little while ago2 where is it now8 ,mark expresses himself1 8,why are ye so fearful8 how is it that ye have no faith80 that is1 none in exercise1 none sufficient to suppress your alarming fears8 ,matthew says1 8,why are ye fearful1 ,oh ye of little faith80 ,it would seem they had no faith in ,christ when sleeping1 though not destitute of it when awake2 but for this he justly reprimanded them4 ,for though1 as the ,son of ,man1 he was asleep1 yet as the ,son of ,god1 by nature1 he neither sleeps nor slumbers4 ,he was equally able to save them when sleeping as well as when waking4 ,it is not only certain that he was able to save them1 but it is matter of fact that he in reality did so4 ,being awaked by his disciples1 he rises up1 and1 with a majestic voice1 and in an authoritative manner1 showing1 as it were1 some kind of resentment at the wind and sea1 as if they had exceeded their commission1 and the one had blown and the other raged too much1 and too long1 rebukes them1 saying1 8,peace1 be still30 1 1 be silent1 hold thy peace1 stop thy mouth1 put a bridle on it1 7as the last ,greek word signifies27 go on no longer to threaten with shipwreck1 and loss of lives4 ,on this the wind ceased1 and the sea became calm and smooth4 ,the ship now moved quietly on1 and they all arrived safe at the land of the ,gadarenes1 which is opposite to ,galilee4 ,this had a very considerable effect both on the mariners and disciples1 who rightly concluded from hence that their deliverer was more than a man4 ,there was such a display of majesty1 such a lustre of ,divine power appeared in this behest1 as filled them with astonishment and fear4 ,they marvelled greatly1 and feared exceedingly4 ,matthew seems to relate this1 as though the mariners were the only persons who were affected with their deliverance3 the men said one to another1 8,what manner of man is this1 that even the winds and the sea obey him80 ,but ,mark and ,luke represent it as a question of the disciples to one another1 8,what manner of man is this80 of what qualities1 powers1 and perfections8 ,he must be more than a mere man1 he can be no other than the mighty ,god1 8whom the winds and the sea obey40 ,it is to be observed1 that the word man1 inserted in our translation1 is not in the question1 as expressed by any of the ,evangelists1 in the original1 but 8,who is this80 ,the disciples were sufficiently convinced by this miracle1 which so nearly concerned themselves1 that their ,master must be ,god over all1 blessed forever4 ,this amazing instance of the power of ,christ1 shows clearly his ,deity4 ,since he has such authority over the wind and seas1 it must unavoidably follow that he is truly and properly ,god4 ,it is said1 8he rebuked the wind and the sea10 a phrase that is used only of the ,most ,high ,god1 who stands distinguished from all other beings by this1 that 8he stilleth the noise of the seas1 the noise of their waves1 and the tumult of the people40 ,the ,messiah makes use of this as an argument to prove1 that he is able to redeem1 because he can rebuke the sea1 dry it up1 and cover the heavens with clouds4 8,is my hand shortened at all1 that it cannot redeem8 or have ,i no power to deliver8 behold1 at my rebuke ,i dry up the sea3 ,i make the rivers a wilderness4 ,i clothe the heavens with blackness1 and ,i make sackcloth their covering40 ,that it is the ,messiah who here speaks1 the following words abundantly declare3 8,the ,lord ,god hath given me the tongue of the learned1 that ,i should know how to speak a word in season to him that is weary3 he wakeneth morning by morning2 he wakeneth mine ear to hear as the learned4 ,the ,lord ,god hath opened mine ear1 and ,i was not rebellious1 neither turned away back4 ,i gave my back to the smiters1 and my cheeks to them that plucked off the hair3 ,i hid not my face from shame and spitting40 ,now on our ,lord rebuking the wind and the sea1 the one ceased1 and the other became calm2 this was done by speaking a word only1 in an authoritative manner4 ,moses divided the waters of the ,red ,sea with a rod2 ,joshua1 the waters of ,jordan with the ark of the covenant2 ,elisha1 with the ,prophet's mantle3 but here ,christ calmed the raging billows with a word4 ,when he rebuked the wind and the sea1 not only the former instantly ceased to rage1 but the sea immediately became calm1 which was very unusual and extraordinary2 for after the wind has ceased1 and the storm is over1 the waters of the sea commonly continue raging1 and in a violent motion for a considerable time4 ,must not that man be an infidel1 who can read this account1 and deny the ,deity of ,jesus ,christ8 ,or1 must he not be forced to one or other of these two conclusions1 either to deny the truth of the fact1 or to believe that ,jesus ,christ is truly and properly ,god8 ,addenda on ,atmosphere4 #a4 ,by more recent and accurate experiments it is established1 that the relative proportions of oxygen and hydrogen in air1 are not precisely as given by ,mr4 ,wood2 but are #ba of oxygen1 and #gi of hydrogen in #ajj parts4 #b4 ,experiments on the compressibility of the atmosphere have been carried to a much greater extent than stated in the text1 and since our author wrote4 ,it was generally believed that air might be made to assume a liquid form by pressure2 and it has been recently accomplished by ,mr4 ,perkins1 as he states1 by a pressure of #b1jjj atmospheres4 #c4 ,our author very justly states1 that the gaseous state of the atmosphere is owing to the quantity of caloric in combination1 the entire abstraction of which would render our atmosphere a body as solid as the diamond4 ,this caloric is not imparted to it by the beams of the sun passing through it2 because1 radiant matter does not warm gaseous bodies by passing through them4 ,this caloric is chiefly supplied from the earth1 by the lowest stratum of air coming in contact with it1 and when heated ascends1 and thus gives place to a colder stratum4 ,hence the air is much warmer at the surface of the earth1 than in its higher regions4 #d4 ,our author inclines to the opinion that the atmosphere is the product of a chemical combination of the gases1 yet great names1 and weighty arguments are in favor of the opposite theory of a mere mixture of gases4 #e4 ,there is one point not presented in the preceding section4 ,it is well known that oxygen is abstracted from the air by combustion1 and the breathing of animals4 ,this abstraction is very large4 ,from whence then comes the supply of oxygen sufficient to keep up the constitutional quantity of this gas in the atmosphere8 ,the only answer ,i have met with to this difficult question is this3 ,the growing of vegetables is supposed to supply it1 as it is well known that they absorb carbonic acid during the day1 and evolve oxygen4 ,but it is also well known that this process is reversed during the night4 ,hence it would appear that this is not a sufficient cause4 ,still it would seem there must be a sufficient supply from some source1 as chemists have not been able to detect any change in the constitution of the air4 ,may not the oxygen be restored back again by evolution from those bodies which have absorbed it1 upon their decomposition8 ,thus there would be a successive absorption and evolution as the process of nature went on2 which would tend to keep up an equal distribution of oxygen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnotes - ,chapter ,,iii #ec ,dr4 ,clarke on ,gen4 i1 #f4 #ed ,benson on ,gen4 i1 #f4 #ee ,dalton's ,new ,system of ,chemical ,philosophy1 part #a1 p4 #a4 #ef ,lavoisier's ,elements of ,chemistry1 p4 #gh4 #eg ,manchester ,memoirs1 ,new ,series1 vol4 i1 p4 #bed4 #eh ,when solid substances are rendered permanently ariform by heat1 the air thus produced is called a gas4 ,john ,baptist van ,helmont1 a physician and chemist1 born at ,brussels1 in #aegg1 and educated at ,louvain1 was the first chemist who made use of this term to denote an elastic fluid4 ,he gave fixed air the name of gas4 ,the oxygen gas in atmospheric air is the principle of combustion1 as the vehicle of heat2 and is absolutely necessary for the support of animal life4 ,pure oxygen gas has the property of accelerating the circulation of all the animal fluids1 and occasions the most rapid combustion of all combustible substances2 so that it is the most energetic and powerful agent that chemists are acquainted with4 ,oxygen gas is a little heavier than atmospheric air1 and #gdj times lighter than water4 ,nitrogen gas is chiefly distinguished by certain negative qualities1 such as being incapable of supporting combustion and animal life4 ,it is uninflammable1 and somewhat lighter than atmospheric air4 ,nitrogen gas has the effect of neutralizing1 in some measure1 the properties of oxygen gas1 and rendering it fit for respiration and combustion4 ,by the union of nitrogen gas with the oxygen gas this change is effected3 the latter1 which would burn every thing within its reach with an unparalleled activity1 is1 as it were1 dissolved and diluted2 and the nature of the former is so much enveloped by the latter1 that the compound possesses properties different from either of these gasses1 so as to be fitted for every purpose for which it was designed4 ,though nitrogen gas is1 by itself1 so noxious to animals1 it answers an important end when mixed with oxygen gas in atmospheric air4 ,were it not for this large quantity of nitrogen in the atmosphere1 the blood would flow with too great rapidity through the vessels1 and all animals would have too great spirits2 the consequence of which would be1 that the life of man would not be protracted to the length that it now is4 8,if the proportions of oxygen and nitrogen were reversed in the atmospheric air1 says ,dr4 ,lambe1 the air taken in by respiration would be more stimulant1 the circulation would become accelerated1 and all the secretions would be increased3 but the tone of the vessels1 thus stimulated to increased action1 would be destroyed by over-excitement2 and1 if the supply from the stomach were not equal to the consumption1 the body must inevitably waste and decay40 ,hence the wisdom of ,god is remarkably displayed in the constitution of the atmospheric air6 ,see ,parke's ,chemical ,catechism1 chap4 ii4 #ei 8,mr4 ,cavendish10 says ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory1 8is the first who endeavored to establish that the proportions of the two principal elements of the atmospheric air were constant4 ,the observations since made by ,m4 de ,mairy in ,spain1 ,m4 ,berthollet1 in ,egypt and in ,france2 ,mr4 ,davy1 in ,england2 and by ,dr4 ,beddoes on the air brought from the coast of ,guinea1 seem to have confirmed this grand result4 ,but one of the finest experiments made on this subject is that of ,gay ,lussac1 in ,france1 who1 having been elevated alone in a balloon to the height of #f1ijj metres1 the greatest ever attained by any person1 brought some atmospheric air from these regions4 ,this air1 being analysed at his return1 comparatively with that on the surface of the earth1 gave the same principles in the same proportions2 a proof that the chemical constitution of the atmosphere at these great heights1 is the same as at the surface of the earth4 ,this result has been since confirmed by the experiments made by ,messrs4 ,humboldt and ,gay ,lussac on eudiometry4 ,the air of the surface of the earth1 analysed at different days1 at various hours and temperatures1 presented no change in its composition3 it always contained #j4ba of oxygen in volume1 #j4ghc of azote1 #j4jjc of hydrogen1 and #j4jjd of carbonic acid4 ,biot and ,arrago have also lately verified this grand result4 ,the atmospheric air1 analysed in places the most distant from each other1 in deep valleys1 on high mountains1 on banks of lakes1 and in the glaciers of ,chamouny1 always presented to them the same composition40 ,hay's ,natural ,philosophy1 ,note1 vol4 i4 p4 #bah4 #fj ,sturm's ,reflections1 vol4 iv4 p4 #di4 #fa 8,galileo1 to whom was reserved the glory of preparing1 long before1 the way for the theory of ,newton1 by the discovery of the law to which the acceleration of heavy bodies is subjected1 having let fall from a great height different balls of gold1 of lead1 of copper1 or porphyry1 with a ball of wax1 observed that all these bodies employed nearly the same time in falling to the earth4 ,the ball of wax1 the only one that was sensibly retarded1 was no more than four inches from the earth at the end of the fall of the other bodies4 ,galileo1 considering that this difference was very far from being proportional to that of the weights1 concluded that it depended solely on the resistance of the air4 ,this conjecture has been since verified by direct experiments1 consisting in letting fall from the top of a tube1 within which the vacuum has been made the most perfect possible1 bodies of different materials1 such as lead1 iron1 wood1 cork1 feathers1 wool1 c1 and it has been found that none of these bodies will then permit of our perceiving any sensible difference in the duration of their fall4 ,as to bodies which raise themselves in air1 such as smoke1 it is known that their ascension is occasioned by the circumstance of their being specifically lighter than air3 they are with respect to this fluid1 situated as a piece of cork is with respect to water1 which when immersed in that water to a certain depth1 and then left to itself1 rises again to the surface4 ,the vulgar regard all as being without gravity which rises instead of falling3 whence ,newton remarked that the weight of the vulgar was the excess of the absolute weight of a body above the weight of the air4 ,the ascent of air-balloons in the midst of the air is well calculated to undeceive the partisans of this theory of bodies without heaviness40 ,hay's ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #dh4 #fb ,to ,otto ,guericke1 a burgo-master of ,magdeburgh1 we are indebted for the invention of the pneumatic machine1 or air-pump4 #fc ,the atmosphere presses equally on the whole surface of the water in the well1 until the rod of the pump is moved2 but1 by forcing the rod down1 the bucket compresses the air in the lower part of the pump tree1 which being elastic1 forces its way out of the tree through the valve2 so that when the bucket is again raised1 that part of the pump tree under the bucket is void of air2 and the weight of the atmosphere1 pressing on the body of water in the well1 forces up a column of water to supply its place2 the next stroke of the pump rod causes another column of water to rise2 and as long as the bucket fits the pump tree close enough to produce a vacuum1 a constant stream of water may be drawn from below4 ,parkes's ,chemical ,catechism1 pp4 #dg1 #dah4 #fd ,as the earth's surface contains1 observes ,mr4 ,ferguson1 in round numbers1 #bjj1jjj1jjj square miles1 must contain no less than #e1ege1fhj1jjj1jjj1jjj square feet2 which being multiplied by #b1afj1 the numbers of pounds on each square foot1 amounts to #ab1jdc1dfh1hjj1jjj1jjj1jjj pounds1 for the weight of the whole atmosphere4 ,mr4 ,coates computed that the weight of the air which pressed upon the whole surface of the earth1 is equal to that of a globe of lead sixty miles in diameter4 ,the following simple experiments within the reach of every one's observation1 show clearly the weight or gravitating power of the air4 ,let any one lay his hand on the top of a long perpendicular pipe1 such as a pump filled to the brim with water1 which is at first prevented from running out by the valve below3 then let the valve be opened1 so that the water may descend1 and he will find his hand so hard pressed to the top of the pipe that he cannot draw it away4 ,the prop is now gone2 he has no pressure under his hand2 a column of air1 #de miles high forces it down by its weight2 and he must let in the air under it before the hand can be withdrawn4--,if we shut the nozzle and valve-hole of a pair of bellows after having squeezed the air out of them1 we shall find that a very great force1 even some hundred pounds1 is necessary for separating the boards2 they being kept together by the pressure of the air which surrounds them4--,if any one will apply the open end of a syringe to his hand1 and then draw up the piston1 he will find his hand sucked into the syringe with great force1 and it will give pain1 and the soft part of the hand will swell into it1 being pressed in by the neighboring parts1 which are subject to the action of the external air4 #fe ,a heavy air is more favorable to health than a light one1 because it promotes the circulation of the blood1 and insensible perspiration4 ,when the air is heavy1 it is generally clear2 whereas a light air is generally accompanied with clouds1 rain1 or snow1 which render it damp4 ,too great a dryness of the air is very injurious to the human body2 but this seldom happens for any length of time1 except in sandy countries4 ,a damp air is very unwholesome1 because it relaxes the fibres1 obstructs insensible perspiration1 and if heat accompany the dampness1 it disposes the humors to putrefy4 ,an air too hot dilates all the fluids of the body1 and occasions sweatings1 which bring on weakness and oppression4 ,on the other hand1 when the air is to cold1 the solid parts contract excessively1 and the fluids are condensed2 hence result obstructions and inflammations4 ,the best air is that which is neither too heavy nor too light1 too moist nor too dry1 and which is not impregnated with noxious vapors4 ,sturm's ,reflections1 vol4 iv1 p4 #ej4 #ff 8,the most ingenious theories of the periodical winds we recollect1 are those of ,mr4 ,hadley1 first proposed in ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 xxxix1 p4 #eh1 and lately revised by ,mr4 ,dalton1 in his ,meteorological ,essays1--and of ,dr4 ,halley1 first published in ,phil4 ,transac4 vol4 xvi1 p4 #aec1 and recently defended by ,dr4 ,kirwan1 in his paper1 #8,on the ,variations of the ,atmosphere4' ,in the latter mentioned paper ,kirwan has given some interesting information relative to variable winds1 as westerly1 easterly1 southerly1 northerly1 and opposite concomitant winds2 also relative to the succession of winds1 and the ,sirocco4 ,see likewise the ,philosophical ,magazine1 ,no4 #fj4 ,some curious facts respecting winds1 and waves on the surface of the sea1 are related by ,mr4 ,horsburg in the ,philosophical ,journal1 ,no4 #fj40 ,hay's ,nat4 ,phil4 vol4 i1 pp4 #bhe1bhf4 #fg ,odyss4 v4 #bie4 #fh ,a celebrated architect1 born at ,formio1 in ,italy4 ,he was greatly esteemed by ,julius ,csar1 and employed by ,augustus in constructing public buildings and warlike machines4 ,he wrote a valuable ,treatise on ,architecture4 #fi ,this division1 with the several names on each point1 was made by the ,germans1 as most commodious2 but these names are not easily expressed in other languages4 ,they are thus marked in ,english3 ,north4 ,east4 ,south4 ,west4 ,n and by ,e ,e and by ,s ,s and by ,w ,w and by ,n ,n ,n ,e ,e ,s ,e ,s ,s ,w ,w ,n ,w ,n ,e and by ,n ,s ,e and by ,e ,s ,w and by ,s ,n ,w and by ,w ,n ,e ,s ,e ,s ,w ,n ,w ,n ,e and by ,e ,s ,e and by ,s ,s ,w and by ,w ,n ,w and by ,n ,e ,n ,e ,s ,s ,e ,w ,s ,w ,n ,n ,w ,e and by ,n ,s and by ,e ,w and by ,s ,n and by ,w #gj 8,the most decisive circumstance tending to show the great velocity of brisk winds10 says ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory1 8is that of the rapid passage of the celebrated aronaut ,m4 ,garnerin1 from ,london to ,colchester4 ,on the #cjth of ,june1 #ahjb1 the wind being strong1 though not impetuous1 ,m4 ,garnerin and another gentleman ascended with an inflammable air-balloon from ,ranelagh ,gardens1 on the south-west of ,london1 between four and five o'clock in the afternoon2 and in exactly three-quarters of an hour they descended near the sea1 at the distance of four miles from ,colchester4 ,the distance of the places of ascent and descent is at least #fj miles2 so that1 allowing no time for the elevation and depression of the balloon1 but1 supposing the whole period occupied in transferring it in a path nearly parallel to the earth's surface1 its velocity must have been at the rate of #hj miles per hour4 ,if1 therefore1 the wind moved no faster than the balloon1 its velocity was then #hj miles per hour1 or #aag feet per second2 a celerity but little less than the greatest assigned by ,kraaft3 and hence it is probable1 that the velocity of very impetuous winds is not less than #acj or #adj feet per second40 ,hay's ,nat4 ,phil4 vol4 i1 p4 #bhb4 #ga ,mr4 ,bruce1 who1 in his journey through the desert1 suffered from the simoon1 gives of it the following graphical description4 8,at eleven o'clock1 while we contemplated with great pleasure the rugged top of ,chiggre1 to which we were fast approaching1 and where we were to solace ourselves with plenty of good water1 ,idris1 our guide1 cried out1 with a loud voice1 #8,fall on your faces1 for here is the simoon4' ,i saw from the south-east a haze come1 in color like the purple part of the rainbow1 but not so compressed or thick4 ,it did not occupy twenty yards in breadth1 and was about twelve feet high from the ground4 ,it was a kind of blush on the air1 and it moved very rapidly3 for ,i scarce could turn to fall on the ground with my head to the northward1 when ,i felt the heat of its current on my face4 ,we all lay flat on the ground as if dead1 till ,idris told us it was blown over4 ,the meteor or purple-haze which ,i saw1 was indeed passed1 but the light air that still blew was of heat sufficient to threaten suffocation4 ,for my part1 ,i found distinctly in my breast that ,i had imbibed a part of it1 nor was ,i free of an asthmatic sensation1 till ,i had been some months in ,italy1 at the baths of ,poretta1 near two years afterwards40 ,though the severity of this blast seems to have passed over them almost instantaneously1 it continued to blow so as to exhaust them till twenty minutes before five in the afternoon1 lasting through all its stages very near six hours1 and leaving them in a state of the utmost despondency4 ,fatal ,simoon4--,extract of a letter from ,smyrna3--,we have received intelligence of a dreadful calamity having overtaken the largest caravan of the season1 on its route from ,mecca to ,aleppo4 ,the caravan consisted of #b1jjj souls1 merchants and travellers from the ,red ,sea and ,persian ,gulf1 pilgrims returning from ,mecca1 and a numerous train of attendants2 the whole escorted by #djj military4 ,the march was in three columns4 ,on the #aeth of ,august last1 they entered the great ,arabian ,desert1 in which they journeyed seven days1 and were already approaching its edge4 ,a few hours more would have placed them beyond danger2 but on the morning of the #bc;d1 just as they had struck their tents1 and commenced their march1 a wind arose from the north-east1 and blew with tremendous violence4 ,they increased the rapidity of their march to escape the threatening danger2 but the fatal ,kamsin had set in4 ,on a sudden dense clouds were observed1 whose extremity obscured the horizon1 and swept the face of the desert4 ,they approached the columns1 and obscured the line of march4 ,both men and beast1 struck with a sense of common danger1 uttered loud cries4 ,the next moment they fell beneath its pestiferous influence lifeless corpses4 ,of #b1hjj souls1 composing the caravan1 not more than #bj escaped this calamity2 they owed their safety to the swiftness of their dromedaries4 ,literary ,panorama1 for ,january1 #ahad4 #gb ,see ,baptist ,magazine1 for ,december1 #ahaf4 #gc ,so the word is translated ,luke xix1 #aj2 #b ,cor4 iv1 #c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,third ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,the ,,sea4 ,water and land separated -- ,formation of the sea -- ,its restrictions -- ,extent -- ,depth -- ,composition -- ,saltness -- ,motion -- ,tides -- ,four states of water -- ,circulation -- ,religious improvement4 ,on the third day1 the earth was drained1 and the waters1 which before covered its surface1 were gathered into copious receptacles1 and called seas4 ,god said1 8,let the waters under the heaven be gathered into one place1 and let the dry land appear2 and it was so4 ,and ,god called the dry land ,earth2 and the gathering together of the waters called he ,seas40 ,the almighty ,creator proceeds to separate1 put in order1 and control the element nearest to light and air in quality and use1 and1 although not elastic1 yet of great power4 ,probably the air was used by him as the great agent in gathering the waters into one place4 ,thus1 instead of the confusion1 which existed when the earth and the water were mixed in one great mass1 there is now order2 and by their separation each is rendered useful3 the earth affording a habitation and support for man and the various orders of land animals2 and the water forming an abode for the numerous tribes of living creatures adapted to subsist in that liquid element4#gd ,previous to this arrangement1 the water1 being a pure element1 was above the earth4 ,thus the ,psalmist1 8,thou coveredst it with the deep as with a garment3 the waters stood above the mountains10 so that they did not appear4 8,at thy rebuke they fled2 at the voice of thy thunder they hasted away40 ,at the omnipotent word they started back1 and shrunk away1 says ,bishop ,patrick2 like an affrighted slave at the thunder of his master's threatenings1 if his commands are not obeyed4 ,they gathered themselves in those places where they now are1 which by ,moses are called seas2 and there ,god shut them up1 confining them that they might not return to cover the earth4 ,god 8brake up10 for the reception of the waters1 his 8decreed place10 that vast concave or hollow in the earth2 8and set bars and doors10 banks and shores1 the weak sand to control this element1 which1 however it roar and struggle1 it cannot pass4 ,it is wonderful that the sea1 which has a natural disposition1 from its being a purer and lighter element1 to be above the earth1 should not overflow it2 but the amazing power of ,omnipotence retains it within its prescribed limits4 ,for he has pronounced1 8,hitherto shalt thou come1 but no further2 and here shall thy proud waves be stayed40 ,as if he had said1 ,though thy tides flow with mighty strength1 though the swelling billows of thy pride 7so the original7 rise high in a storm1 and dash against the shore with impetuous force and overwhelming rage1 yet here shall they stop3 though they roar and foam1 as if irritated at the opposing strand1 yet dare not to approach beyond those limits to thee assigned2 but1 obedient to thy ,lord and ,master1 submissively retire4 ,here we see the power and dominion of the supreme ,being in the kingdom of nature1 whose sway the sea is subject to6 ,our preservation from its threatening destruction1 by the continual restrictions it is under1 is a perpetual expression of ,divine goodness and mercy1 and should induce all men to live always in the reverential fear of ,god4 8,fear ye not me8 saith the ,lord3 will ye not tremble at my presence1 which have placed the sand for the bound of the sea1 by a perpetual decree1 that it cannot pass2 and though the waters thereof toss themselves1 yet they cannot pass over it40 ,if we look upon the map of the world1 we shall find that the ocean occupies a considerably greater surface of the globe than the land is found to do4 ,although the ocean1 properly speaking1 is but one extensive sheet of water1 continued over every part of the globe without interruption2 and although no part is divided from the rest1 yet geographers have distinguished it by different names1 as the ,atlantic or ,western ,ocean2 the ,northern1 ,southern1 ,pacific1 ,indian1 and ,german ,oceans4 ,in this vast receptacle1 almost all the rivers of the earth ultimately terminate4 ,and yet these vast and inexhaustable supplies do not seem to increase its stores2 for it is neither apparently swelled by their tribute1 nor diminished by their failure2 it continues constantly the same4 ,indeed1 the quantity of water of all the rivers and lakes in the world is nothing compared to that contained in this prodigious reservoir4 ,and some natural philosophers have carried their ideas on this subject so far as to assert1 in consequence of certain calculations1 that1 if the bed of the sea were empty1 all the rivers of the world flowing into it with a continuance of their present stores1 would take up at least #hjj years to fill it again to its present height4#ge ,to ascertain the depth of the sea has been found impracticable1 both on account of the numerous experiments which it would be found necessary to make1 and the want of proper instruments for that purpose4 ,beyond a certain depth the sea has hitherto been found unfathomable2 and though several methods have been contrived to obviate this difficulty1 none of them has completely answered the purpose4 ,we know in general that the depth of the sea increases gradually as we leave the shore2 but if this continued beyond a certain distance1 the depth in the middle of the ocean would be prodigious4 ,indeed1 the numerous islands every where scattered in the sea demonstrate the contrary1 by showing us that the bottom of the water is unequal like the land1 and that so far from uniformly sinking1 it sometimes rises into lofty mountains4 ,if the depth of the sea be in proportion to the elevation of the land1 as has been generally supposed1 its greatest depth will not exceed five or six miles2 for there is no mountain six miles perpendicular above the level of the sea4 ,the sea has never been actually sounded to a greater depth than a mile and #ff feet2 every thing beyond that1 therefore1 rests entirely upon conjecture and analogical reasoning1 which1 in this case1 are in no wise conclusive4 ,along the coasts1 where the depth of the sea is generally well known1 it has always been found proportioned to the height of the shore2 when the coast is high and mountainous1 the sea that washes it is deep2 when1 on the contrary1 the coast is low1 the water is shallow4 ,whether this analogy holds at a distance from the shore1 experiments alone can determine4 ,water is an uninflammable fluid1 says ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory1 and1 when pure1 is transparent1 colorless1 and void of taste and smell4 ,mr4 ,cavendish made a discovery that it is formed by the union of hydrogen and oxygen4 ,it may1 therefore1 be considered as oxide of hydrogen3 oxygen and hydrogen appearing to unite1 only in that certain proportion of which water is the result4 ,in #agih1 7observes ,mr4 ,parkes7 ,mr4 ,sequin made a grand experiment for the composition of water4 ,he expended no less than #be1ehb cubic inches 7or nearly two hogsheads7 of inflammable air1 and #ab1deg of vital air4 ,the first weighed #a1jci grains1 and the second #f1baj1 amounting to #g1bdi grains1 and the water obtained amounted to #g1bde grains1 or about three-fourths of a wine pint4 ,the loss was only four grains4 ,another experiment was afterwards made by ,le ,fevre1 in which nearly two pounds and a quarter of water was produced4 ,the sea water contains a quantity of salt1 but not in the same proportions every where4 ,in the torrid zone1 where otherwise1 from the excessive heat1 it would be in danger of putrefaction1 the water is found most salt2 as we advance northward its briny quality diminishes1 till at the poles it is nearly gone altogether4 ,under the line1 ,lucas found that the sea comprised a seventh part of solid contents1 consisting chiefly of sea-salt4 ,at ,harwich1 he found it yielded #a-be of the same matter4 ,at ,carlscroon1 in ,sweden1 it contains #a-cj part1 and on the coast of ,greenland a great deal less4 ,this gradual diminution of saltness from the equator to the pole1 is not1 however1 without particular exceptions4 ,the ,mediterranean sea contain #a-bb of the sea-salt1 which is less than the ,german sea contains4 ,the saltness of some seas1 or of particular parts of the same seas1 may be increased1 as ,mr4 ,boyle intimates1 from rocks and other masses of salt1 either at the bottom of the sea1 or dispersed near their shores4 ,this phenomenon of the sea perplexed the philosophers before the time of ,aristotle1 and surpassed even the great genius of that philosopher4 ,father ,kircher1 after having consulted three and thirty authors upon the subject1 could not help remarking1 that the fluctuations of the ocean itself were scarcely more various than the opinions concerning the origin of its saline impregnation4 ,bernadine ,gomesins1 7observes ,bishop ,watson7 about #bjj years ago1 published an ingenious treatise on salt3 in this treatise1 after reciting and refuting the opinions of ,empedocles1 ,anaxagoras1 and ,aristotle1 on the subject in question1 he proposes his own2 wherein he maintains1 that the sea was originally created in the same state in which we at present find it1 and impregnated1 from the very first1 with the salt which it contains4 ,indeed1 we cannot account for the general saltness of the sea from second causes2 hence we must suppose it has had this property from the creation4 ,naturalists assure us1 that1 though some few species of fishes thrive in fresh water1 and some others live alternately in fresh and salt1 yet by far the greatest number cannot exist out of the sea2 which is a proof that the sea was at the creation impregnated with salt4 ,the saltness of the sea has been considered by some as a peculiar blessing from ,providence1 in order to keep so great an element pure and wholesome3 but facts prove that this property is not capable of preserving it from putrefaction4 ,sir ,robert ,hawkins1 one of our most enlightened navigators1 gives an account of a calm1 in which the sea continuing for some time without its usual motion1 began to assume a very formidable appearance4 8,were it not 7says he7 for the moving of the sea1 by the force of winds1 tides1 and currents1 it would corrupt all the world4 ,the experiment of this ,i saw in the year #aeij1 lying with a fleet about the islands of ,azores1 almost six months2 the greatest part of the which time we were becalmed4 ,upon which all the sea became so replenished with various sorts of gelies1 and forms of serpents1 adders1 and snakes1 as seemed wonderful2 some green1 some black1 some yellow1 some white1 some of divers colors1 and many of them had life2 and some there were a yard and a half and two yards long2 which had ,i not seen1 ,i could hardly have believed4 ,and hereof are witnesses all the companies of the ships which were then present2 so that hardly a man could draw a bucket of water clear of some corruption4 ,in which voyage1 towards the end thereof1 many of every ship fell sick1 and began to die apace4 ,but the speedy passage into our country was a remedy to the crazed1 and a preservative for those that were not touched40#gf ,mr4 ,boyle informs us1 that he once kept a quantity of sea water1 taken from the ,english channel1 for some time barrelled up2 and1 in a few weeks1 it began to acquire a fetid smell4 ,he was also assured by one of his acquaintance1 who had been becalmed for about fourteen days in the ,indian ocean1 that the water1 for want of motion1 began to stink2 and1 that had the calm continued much longer1 the stench would probably have poisoned him4 ,it is the motion1 therefore1 and not the saltness of the sea1 that preserves it in its present state of salubrity4#gg ,the sea has three kinds of motion3 the first is that undulation which is occasioned by the wind4 ,this motion is evidently confined to the surface2 the bottom1 even during the most violent storms1 remains perfectly calm4 ,mr4 ,boyle has remarked1 from the testimony of several divers1 that the sea is affected by the winds to the depth only of six feet4 ,it would follow from this1 that the height of the waves above the surface does not exceed six feet2 and that this holds1 in the ,mediterranean sea at least1 we are informed by the ,compte de ,marsigli2 though he also sometimes observed them1 during a very violent tempest1 rise two feet higher4 ,the second kind of motion is that continual tendency which the whole water in the sea has towards the west4 ,it is greater near the equator than about the poles2 and1 indeed1 cannot be said to take place at all in the northern hemisphere beyond the tropic4 ,it begins on the west side of ,america1 where it is moderate2 hence that part of the ocean has been called ,pacific4 ,as the waters advance westward1 their motion is accelerated2 so that1 after having traversed the globe1 they strike with great violence on the eastern shore of ,america4 ,being stopped by that continent1 they turn northward1 and run with considerable impetuosity in the ,gulf of ,mexico2 from thence they proceed along the coast of ,north ,america1 till they come to the south side of the great bank of ,newfoundland1 when they turn off1 and run down to the ,western ,isles4 ,this current is called the ,gulf stream4 ,it was first accurately described by ,dr4 ,franklin1 who remarked also1 that the water in it having been originally heated in the torrid zone1 cools so gradually in its passage northward1 that even the latitude might be found in any part of the stream by means of a thermometer4 ,this motion of the sea westward has never been explained3 it seems to have some connection with the trade-winds1 and the diurnal revolution of the earth upon its axis4 ,the third1 and most remarkable motion of the sea1 is the tide2 which is a regular swell of the ocean every #ab hours1 accounted for from the principal of gravitation4 ,the sagacious ,kepler long ago conjectured1 that the earth and moon1 and every particle of them1 mutually gravitate towards each other1 and are the cause of the tides4 ,if1 says he1 the earth ceased to attract its waters towards itself1 all the water in the ocean would rise and flow into the moon3 the sphere of the moon's attraction extends to our earth1 and draws up the water4 ,this1 at that time1 was mere conjecture2 for ,sir ,isaac ,newton was the first who clearly pointed out the cause of this phenomenon4 ,on the shores of the ocean1 and in bays1 creeks1 and harbors1 which communicate freely with it1 the waters rise above their mean height twice a day1 and as often sink below it1 forming what is called a flood and an ebb1 a high and low water4 ,it has been stated1 that in the middle of the sea the tide seldom rises higher than one or two feet2 but1 on the coast1 it frequently reaches to the height of #de feet1 and1 in some places1 even to more4 ,at ,plymouth1 it is sometimes #ba feet between the greatest and least depth of the water in the same day1 and sometimes only #ab feet4 ,when the sun and moon act conjointly on the tides1 which is at the change and full of the moon1 they are stronger and run higher than at other times1 and are called spring tides2 but when the sun and moon are #ij degrees apart1 their attractive powers1 being in opposition to each other1 occasion the tides to be weaker and lower than at other times1 and these are called neap tides4 ,the word neap is derived from the ,saxon2 it signifies low1 decrescent1 and is used only of the tide4 ,these different heights of tide are observed to succeed each other in a regular series1 diminishing from the greatest to the least1 and then increasing from the least to the greatest1 according to the age and situation of the moon4 8,the moon turns ocean in his bed1 ,from side to side1 in constant ebb and flow1 ,and purifies from stench his watery realms40 ,sir ,isaac ,newton calculated the attractive powers of the sun and moon on the tides1 and found the attraction of the latter to be about three times greater than that of the former4 ,water is found to exist in four states3 namely1 solid1 or ice2 liquid1 or water2 vapor1 or steam2 and in a state of composition in other bodies4 ,the younger ,lemery observes1 that ice is only the re-establishment of the parts of water in their natural state2 that the mere absence of fire is sufficient to account for this re-establishment2 and that the fluidity of water is a real fusion1 like metals exposed to the fire2 differing only in this1 that a greater quantity of fire is necessary to the one than the other4 ,underneath the poles1 water is always solid2 there it is similar to the hardest rocks1 and may be formed by the chisel of the statuary like a stone4 ,the following circumstance1 noticed by ,bishop ,watson1 will show the solidity that water is capable of acquiring when divested of a large portion of caloric4 ,it is related that at the whimsical marriage of ,prince ,gallitzen1 in #agci1 the ,russians applied ice to the same purposes as stone4 ,a house1 consisting of two apartments1 was built with large blocks of ice2 and the icy cannon1 which were fired in honor of the day1 performed their office more than once without bursting4 ,during the severe winter of #agdj1 observes ,m4 de ,bomare1 a palace of ice1 #eb feet long1 #af wide1 and #bj high1 was built at ,petersburgh1 according to the most elegant rules of art4 ,the river ,neva afforded the ice1 which was from two to three feet thick1 blocks of which were cut and embellished with various ornaments4 ,when built up1 the different parts were colored by sprinkling them over with water of various tints4 ,six cannons1 made of and mounted with ice1 with wheels of the same matter1 were placed before the palace2 and a hempen bullet was driven by one of these cannons1 in the presence of the whole court1 through a board two inches thick1 at the distance of sixty paces4 ,cowper remarks1-- 8,no forest fell1 ,imperial mistress of the fur-clad ,russ1 ,when thou wouldst build--no quarry sent its stores ,t' enrich thy walls2 but thou didst hew the floods1 ,and make thy marble of the glassy wave4 ,silently as a dream the fabric rose1 ,ice upon ice2 the well-adjusted parts ,were soon conjoin'd2 nor other cement ask'd ,than water interfused to make them one4 ,lamps gracefully disposed1 and of all hues1 ,illumin'd ev'ry side4 ,long wavy wreaths ,of flowers1 that feared no enemy but warmth1 ,blush'd on the pannels1 which were once a stream1 ,and soon to slide into a stream again40 ,in the most northern part of the ,russian territory1 the cold is sometimes sufficient to freeze mercury1 or #gb degrees below the freezing point of water4#gh ,it is so intense in some seasons1 that the poor inhabitants cannot venture out of their miserable huts but at the hazard of their lives4 8,there1 through the prison of unbounded wilds1 ,barr'd by the hand of nature from escape1 ,wide roams the ,russian exile4 ,nought around ,strikes his sad eye but deserts lost in snow1 ,and heavy loaded groves1 and solid floods1 ,that stretch athwart the solitary vast ,their icy horrors to the frozen main40 ,in ,iceland and ,germany the thermometer frequently falls to zero1 which is #cb degrees below the freezing point4 ,at ,hudson's ,bay it has been known to sink even #ej degrees lower4 ,when stones or metals1 which have been exposed to such degrees of cold1 are touched by the tongue1 or the softer parts of the human body1 they absorb the heat from those parts with such rapidity1 that the flesh becomes instantly frozen and mortified1 and the principle of life in them is extinguished4 ,some ,french academicians1 who made a journey to the northern end of the ,baltic1 and wintered under the polar circle1 found it necessary to use all possible precautions to secure themselves from the dreadful cold which prevailed4 ,they prevented1 as much as possible1 the entrance of the external air into their apartments2 and if at any time they had occasion to open a window or a door1 the humidity of their breath1 confined in the air of the house1 was condensed and frozen into a shower of snow2 their lungs1 when they ventured to breathe the cold air1 felt as if they were torn asunder2 and they often heard the rending of the timber around them by the expansive power of the frost on the fluid in its pores4 ,in this terrible cold the thermometer fell to #cc below zero4#gi ,the most intense cold ever known in the neighborhood of ,london was on ,december #beth1 #agif1 when the thermometer indicated #b below zero4 ,the ice at each pole of the earth forms an immense cupola1 the arch of which extends some thousand miles over the continents2 the thickness of which1 beyond the #fjth degree of latitude1 is several hundred feet4 ,navigators have assigned to detached masses1 which are met with floating at sea1 an elevation of from #a1ejj to #a1hjj feet4#hj ,there can be no doubt but that the thickness of these cupolas of ice is much greater nearer the poles2 for astronomy sometimes presents in the heavens so vast an image of them1 that the rotundity of the earth seems to be considerably affected thereby4 ,captain ,cook could never approach nearer the south pole1 where there is no land1 than the #gjth degree of latitude2 that is1 no nearer than #a1ejj miles2 and it was only under the favor of a bay1 that he was permitted to advance even so far4#ha ,all the results of observations made by navigators1 concur in proving that the temperature of the sea decreases according to the depth2 and that the deepest gulfs are continually covered with ice1 even under the equator4 ,from a late memoir by ,m4 ,perron1 some say1 there is reason to believe that these mountains of ice at the poles1 which have hitherto impeded the progress of ,european navigators1 have been detached from the depths of the sea to float at the surface4#hb ,when water is converted into ice1 it is lighter#hc than when in a fluid state1 which is a circumstance of great importance4 ,galileo was the first who observed this4 ,ice consequently floats upon water1 its specific gravity being to that of water as eight to nine4 ,this rarefaction seems to be owing to the air-bubbles produced in water by freezing2 and which1 being considerably larger in proportion to the water frozen1 render the body so much specifically lighter3 these air-bubbles1 during their production1 acquire a great expansive power1 so as to burst the containing vessels though ever so strong4 ,the specific weight of ice is known to be less than that of water4 ,our author assigns a reason not entirely satisfactory4 ,we must admit that the freezing of the upper stratum of water1 although it may include the air which was in the water frozen1 yet1 it does not expel the air from the subjacent volumes of water4 ,hence the air in the water below will balance the effects of the air included in the ice4 ,it is a singular fact1 and is regarded as a deviation from the general rule1 that water expands in volume in proportion as its temperature is reduced below #dj ,fahrenheit4 ,it also expands by raising its temperature above this degree4 ,the expansion of the volume then1 and not the enclosed air bubbles1 is the cause of water being specifically lighter when converted into ice4 ,but it remains to account for its expansion by a reduction of temperature4 ,this is a difficult question4 ,it seems most probable that this expansion is owing to a peculiar arrangement1 of the particles of water1 in the act of crystallization1 i4e4 freezing4 ,m4 ,mairan found that the particles of water1 in the act of freezing1 arranged themselves constantly at an angle of #fj1 and by this arrangement increased the bulk of the water thus crystallized4 ,it is obviously a mistake to attribute the 8expansive power0 of freezing to the force of the inclosed air-bubbles3 because the reduction of temperature would reduce this supposed expansion of the inclosed air4 ,the true cause of the expansion of ice is supposed above1 in the arrangements of the particles of water in the process of crystallization4 ,the power which disposes these particles to arrange1 increases with the reduction of temperature1 until the disposing power becomes sufficiently great to force every impediment to the inclination to arrange4 ,hence the strongest vessels burst in the process of freezing4 ,the impediments may restrain the accomplishment of the arrangement of the particles for a time1 but the disposing power will overcome them1 if the reduction of temperature go on2 and when they are overcome suddenly1 the crystallization will take place instantly4 ,hence the sudden rending of vessels1 trees1 mountain rocks1 c1 upon the sudden congelation of water4 ,even when there is no cause to impede crystallization1 it is well known that the preparation to crystallize1 or freeze1 may be observed in the liquid2 the particles seeming to be preparing to arrange themselves2 and then1 at a given stage of the preparation1 they take their places suddenly1 and thus we have ice4 ,this consummation may be retarded1 or hastened by artificial means4 ,water may be reduced to a lower temperature by being kept still1 than when agitated4 ,and if it be cooled down to the lowest possible temperature1 without congealing1 it may remain fluid at that temperature for a long time4 ,but if the vessel be suddenly struck2 or the surface of the water touched with a piece of ice2 or a large piece of cold metal be brought in contact with the outside of the vessel2 the water will instantly crystallize or freeze in beautiful crystals4 ,these facts establish the above theory4 ,because1 #a4 there is no increased reduction of temperature effected1 by striking the vessel1 touching the surface of the water with ice1 or the outside of the vessel with cold metal4 #b4 ,there is every reason to conclude these things commence the motion in the water1 which is at rest1 balanced between an inclination to be at rest1 and an inclination to move in arranging the particles2 the motion communicated overcomes this balance in favor of the disposition to crystallize1 and hence the water freezes instantly1 with an expansion of volume4 ,it is owing to the expansion of water in freezing1 that rocks and trees are often split during intense frosts4 ,according to the calculations of the ,florentine academicians1 a spherule of water1 only one inch in diameter1 expands in freezing with a force superior to the resistance of #ac tons weight4 ,major ,williams also attempted to prevent this expansion2 but during the operation the iron plug which stopped the orifice of the bomb-shell containing the freezing water1 and which was more than two pounds weight1 was projected several hundred feet with great velocity2 and in another experiment the shell burst4 ,this property of water is taken advantage of in splitting slate4 ,at ,colly ,western1 the slate is dug from the quarries in large blocks3 these are placed in an opposite direction to what they had in the quarry1 and the rain is allowed to fall on them3 it penetrates their fissures1 and the sharp frost freezes the water1 which1 expanding with its usual force1 splits the slate into thin layers4#hd ,m4 ,mairan1 in a dissertation on ice1 attributes the increase of its bulk chiefly to a different arrangement of the parts of the water from which it is formed2 the icy skin on the water being composed of filaments1 which according to him1 are found to be constantly and regularly joined at an angle of #fj2 and which1 by this angular disposition1 occupy a greater volume than if they were parallel4 ,he found the augmentation of the volume of water by freezing1 in different trials1 a #adth1 an #ahth1 a #aith1 and when the water was previously purged of air1 only a #bb;d part3 that ice1 after its formation1 continues to expand by cold2 for1 after water had been frozen to some thickness1 the fluid part being let out by a hole in the bottom of the vessel1 a continuance of the cold made the ice convex2 and a piece of ice1 which was at first only a #adth part specifically lighter than water1 on being exposed some days to the frost1 became a #abth part lighter4 ,to this cause he attributes the bursting of ice on ponds4 ,several philosophers have been very desirous to experience how far the expansive force of freezing water might be carried4 8,an iron gun of an inch thickness10 says ,m4 ,hay1 8filled with water and exactly closed1 having been exposed by ,buot to a strong frost1 was found to be burst in two places at the end of twelve hours4 ,the ,florentine philosophers were able1 by means of the same cause1 to burst a sphere of very thick copper2 and ,musschenbroek1 having calculated the effort which would occasion the rupture1 found that it would be capable of raising a weight of #bg1gbj pounds40 8,colonel ,e4 ,williams1 of the ,royal ,artillery1 when at ,quebec1 in the years #agid and #agie10 says ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory1 8made many experiments4 ,he filled all sizes of iron bomb-shells with water1 then plugged the fusee-hole close up1 and exposed them to the strong freezing air of the winter in that climate2 sometimes driving in the iron plugs as hard as possible with a sledge-hammer3 and yet1 though they weighed near three pounds1 they were always forced out by a sudden expansion of the water in the act of freezing1 like a ball impelled by gunpowder1 sometimes to the distance of between #djj and #ejj feet3 and when the plugs were screwed in1 or furnished with hooks and barbs1 by which to lay hold of the inside of the shell1 so that they could not possibly be forced out2 in that case the shell was always split in two1 though its thickness of metal was about an inch and three quarters4 ,it is further remarkable1 that through the circular crack1 round about the shells where they burst1 there stood out a thin film or sheet of ice1 like a fin2 and in the cases where the plugs were projected by freezing water1 there suddenly issued from the fusee-hole a bolt of ice of the same diameter1 and stood over it sometimes to the height of eight inches and a half4 ,hence we need not be surprised that excessive frost should cause the ice to split rocks1 and other solid substances40#he ,it was necessary for the preservation of the world1 that water should in this instance be subjected to a law different from that of other substances which change from fluid to solid4 ,the wisdom and goodness of the great ,,artificer of the world will manifest itself in this arrangement1 if we consider what would have been the consequences had water been subject to the general law1 and like other fluids1 become specifically heavier by the loss of its caloric4 ,in winter1 when the atmosphere became reduced to #cb1 the water on the surface of our rivers would have sunk as it froze2 another sheet of water would have frozen immediately1 and sunk also2 the ultimate consequence of which would have been1 that the beds of our rivers would have become repositories of immense masses of ice1 which no subsequent summer could unbind2 and the world would shortly have been converted into a frozen chaos4 ,how admirable the wisdom1 how skilful the contrivance1 that by subjecting water to a law contrary to what is observed by other fluids1 as it freezes it becomes specifically lighter1 and1 swimming upon the surface1 performs an important service by preserving a vast body of caloric in the subjacent fluid from the effects of the surrounding cold1 ready to receive its own accustomed quantity on the first change of the atmosphere8#hf ,owing to the distance of this globe from the sun1 and to the vast mountains of ice at the poles1 the atmosphere over a large portion of the earth is at times reduced to so low a temperature1 that1 if it were not for a wise provision of nature1 all vegetable life must be destroyed4 ,caloric has always a tendency to equilibrium2 therefore1 if the temperature of the air be lowered1 the earth cools in proportion3 but when the atmosphere is reduced to #cb1 the water which it held in solution becomes frozen1 and precipitates in the form of snow on the earth1 covering it as with a carpet1 and thereby preventing the escape of that caloric which is necessary for the preservation of those families of vegetables that depend on it for their support and maturity4 ,be the air ever so cold1 the ground1 thus covered1 is seldom reduced below #cb1 but is maintained equably at that temperature for the purpose above mentioned4#hg ,homer has described a shower of snow1 and its extensive effects1 in a fine strain of poetry4 8,in ,winter's bleak uncomfortable reign1 ,a snowy inundation hides the plain3 ,jove stills the winds1 and bids the skies to sleep2 ,then pours the silent tempest thick and deep3 ,and first the mountain tops are covered o'er1 ,then the green fields1 and then the sandy shore2 ,bent with the weight the nodding woods are seen1 ,and one bright waste hides all the works of men3 ,the circling seas alone1 absorbing all1 ,drink the dissolving fleeces as they fall0--,,pope4 ,snow is furnished with the power of absorbing and combining with a large portion of oxygen1 which gives it its fertilizing property4 ,the snow melting and penetrating into the softened earth communicates to it oxygen1 and this oxygen promotes the germination of seeds4 ,the carbon of the earth combining with the oxygen1 is converted into carbonic acid1 and thereby acquires more solubility2 while the water contributes to excite that activity which had been rendered dormant in the roots by the cold4 ,it is this property of carbon which deprives water of the superabundant oxygen that would render it prejudicial to health1 and unfit for the purposes of life4 ,thus what would otherwise be injurious to us is improved by the ground1 and gives at the same time power and activity to the mould4 ,how multiplied are those means which infinite wisdom and goodness employ for the preservation of the productions of ,nature6#hh ,ice at #cb must absorb #adj of caloric before it can become a fluid2 or such a quantity as would raise a body of water of equal bulk with itself from #cb to #agb4 ,for instance3 8,take any quantity by weight of ice or snow at #cb1 and mix it with an equal weight of water heated exactly to #agb4 ,the snow instantly melts1 and the temperature of the mixture is still only at thirty-two degrees4 ,here the water is cooled #adj1 while the temperature of the snow is not increased at all2 so that #adj of caloric have disappeared4 ,they must have combined with the snow2 but they have only melted it1 without increasing its temperature4 ,hence it follows irresistibly that ice1 when converted into water1 absorbs and combines with #adj of caloric4 ,water then1 after being cooled down to #cb1 cannot freeze till it has parted with #adj of caloric2 and ice1 after being heated to #cb1 7which is the exact freezing point71 cannot melt till it has absorbed #adj more of caloric4 ,this is the cause of the extreme slowness of these operations4 ,there can be no doubt1 then1 but water owes its fluidity to its latent caloric1 and that its caloric of fluidity is #adj40hi ,and all this arrangement in nature1 connected with the operation of these elements1 is immediately under the control and direction of the infinitely wise and almighty ,creator of the universe4 8,he sendeth forth his commandment upon earth3 his word runneth very swiftly4 ,he giveth snow like wool3 he scattereth the hoar-frost like ashes4 ,he casteth forth his ice like morsels3 who can stand before his cold8 ,he sendeth out his word1 and melteth them3 he causeth his wind to blow1 and the waters flow40 ,drops of rain1 falling through a cold region of the atmosphere1 are frozen and converted into hail2 and thus the hail is produced by rain4 ,when it begins to fall1 it is rain2 when it is falling1 it is converted into hail2 so that it is literally true1 that it rains hail4 ,the further a hail-stone falls1 the larger it generally is2 because1 in its descent1 meeting with innumerable particles of water1 they become attached to it1 are also frozen1 and thus its bulk is continually increasing till it reaches the earth4#ij ,a storm of hail fell near ,liverpool1 in ,lancashire1 in the year #agie1 which greatly damaged the vegetation1 broke windows1 c1 c4 ,many of the stones measured five inches in circumference4 ,dr4 ,halley mentions a similar storm of hail in ,lancashire1 ,cheshire1 c1 ,april #bi1 #afig1 that for sixty miles in length1 and two miles in breadth1 did immense damage1 by splitting trees1 killing fowls and all small animals1 knocking down men and horses1 c1 c4 ,mezeray1 in his ,history of ,france1 says1 that in ,italy1 in #aeaj1 there was for some time a horrible darkness1 thicker than that of night2 after which the clouds broke into thunder and lightning1 and there fell a shower of hail-stones which destroyed all the beasts1 birds1 and even fish of the country4 ,it was attended with a strong smell of sulphur1 and the stones were of a blueish color1 some of them weighing one hundred pounds weight4 ,the ,almighty says to ,job--8,hast thou seen the treasures of the hail1 which ,i have reserved against the time of trouble1 against the day of battle and war40 ,while ,god has such artillery at his command1 how soon may he desolate a country1 or a world6#ia ,the aqueous fluid is in continual circulation4 ,the constant round which it travels1 says ,dr4 ,paley1 and by which1 7without suffering either adulteration or waste17 it is continually offering itself to the wants of the habitable globe1 is much to be admired4 ,from the sea are exhaled1 by the heat of the sun1 into the air1 those vapors which are there condensed into clouds3 these clouds are dissolved into rain and dew1 or into snow and hail1 which are but rain congealed1 by the coldness of the air1 and descend in showers1 which1 penetrating into the crevices of the hills1 supply the springs3 which springs flow in little streams into the valleys2 and there uniting1 become rivers1 which rivers1 in return1 feed the ocean4 ,so there is an incessant circulation of the same fluid2 and not one drop probably more or less now than there was at the creation4 ,a particle of water takes its departure from the surface of the sea1 in order to discharge certain important offices to the earth3 and1 having executed the service which was assigned to it1 returns to the bosom which it left4#ib ,thus1 as one of the greatest of naturalists says1 8,all the rivers run into the sea2 yet the sea is not full3 unto the place from whence the rivers come1 thither they return again40 ,water1 when taken up by the atmosphere1 is not in an aqueous state1 but is converted into vapor by the efficiency of heat1 and then combines with more than five times the quantity of caloric than is required to bring ice-cold water to a boiling heat1 and occupies a space #hjj times greater than it does when in the form of water4 ,a large portion of the matter of heat combining chemically with water1 renders it specifically lighter2 which is the cause of its rising and mixing with the atmosphere4 ,the waters on the face of the earth would be dissipated in vapor by a small degree of heat1 if we had no atmosphere4 ,under the pressure of the atmosphere water boils at #bab1 but in vacuo it boils when heated only to #fg4 ,on the contrary1 if additional pressure be given to water by a ,papin's digester1 it may be heated to #djj1 without producing ebullition4 ,however long we boil a fluid1 in an open vessel1 we cannot make it in the smallest degree hotter than the boiling point4#ic ,when arrived at this point1 the vapor absorbs the heat1 and carries it off as fast as it is generated4 ,when water is received into the atmosphere1 if the air be warm1 it becomes so far changed by its union with the matter of heat as to be perfectly invisible4 ,in this state it occupies a space #a1djj times greater than its ordinary liquid state4 ,after vapor has remained some time in the atmosphere1 it becomes in a measure condensed2 and the particles of water of which it is composed unite1 and form hollow vesicles1 which accumulate together and produce clouds4 ,how this is effected1 those who have attentively considered the subject are not agreed4 ,dr4 ,thomson1 after well investigating the matter1 concludes1 from all the facts1 that 8the formation of clouds and rain cannot be accounted for by a single principle with which we are acquainted40 ,it is1 however1 says ,mr4 ,parkes1 probable that electricity alone is the primary cause4 ,saussure conjectures that it is the electrical fluid which surrounds these vesicles1 and prevents them from dissolving in the air4 ,and the idea of the formation of clouds by the agency of electricity was mentioned by ,volta1 and also by ,dr4 ,franklin4 ,it is allowed by all1 that clouds are formed by the aqueous vapors which are held suspended1 or in solution1 by the atmosphere4 ,it is not a settled question1 whether the air holds these vapors in solution1 or merely suspended2 and thus1 keeping the particles asunder1 prevents their condensation4 ,this aqueous vapor is invisible when perfectly in union with the air4 ,when it begins to separate from the air1 it becomes visible by condensation1 in the form of clouds1 mists1 and fogs4 ,when it is perfectly separated and sufficiently condensed it becomes rain1 and when the temperature is sufficiently low to freeze the condensed drops1 they become snow1 or hail4 ,the above process is quite intelligible1 but the agent of this condensation is1 perhaps1 inexplicable4 ,it is impossible to solve all the phenomena of the formation of clouds1 by supposing the vapors condensed by a reduction of temperature1 produced by the warmer volumes of clouds rising into the regions of colder ones4 ,for we know the natural tendency of the warmer strata of air1 from the neighborhood of the earth1 is to rise1 with its watery particles1 to colder regions4 ,hence there would be a constant condensation1 which would seem to require a constant deposition of rain1 or mist2 or1 at least1 a constant accumulation of clouds4 ,again3 ,on this theory1 the nights would be cloudy and rainy3 as the vapors raised during the day would be condensed by the superior coldness of the night succeeding4 ,moreover1 it is well known that great rains fall in very warm weather1 and when a rise of temperature is observed4 ,these1 and other considerations1 have induced many persons to have recourse to electricity to solve this difficult question1 and various observations seem to countenance the idea that it may be the remote agent of the formation of clouds1 by producing a sudden rarefaction of the air1 which would1 of course1 produce a sudden reduction of temperature2 the consequence of which would be a rapid condensation of the watery particles in combination with the air4 ,this condensation would form clouds1 and if sufficiently rapid and extensive1 a fall of rain would ensue4 ,this supposition is much strengthened by a fact of common observation1 viz3 when clouds are impending over us1 but no rain falling1 a sudden shower comes down instantly upon a flash of lightning4 ,in this case it is so obvious that the lightning had an immediate agency1 that none can doubt1 who ever observed the phenomenon4 ,the electrified state of clouds1 fogs1 and mists1 is considered strong proof in favor of this theory4 ,clouds are almost always highly charged with electricity1 and sometimes so highly charged as to become luminous1 and very destructive4 ,on the #aath of ,august1 #aggb1 about midnight1 a bright cloud was observed covering a mountain in the district of ,cheribon1 in the island of ,java1 at the same time several reports were heard like those of a gun4 ,the people who dwelt upon the upper parts of the mountain not being able to fly fast enough1 a great part of the cloud1 almost three leagues in circumference1 detached itself under them1 and was seen at a distance rising and falling like the waves of the sea1 and emitting globes of fire so luminous1 that the night became as clear as day4 ,the effects of it were astonishing2 every thing was destroyed for seven leagues round2 the houses were demolished2 plantations were buried in the earth1 and #b1adj people lost their lives4 ,ency4 ,brit4 ,article1 ,,clouds4 ,in another case1 ,october #bith1 #ageg1 in the island of ,malta1 a little after midnight1 there was seen to the ,south west of the city ,melita1 a great black cloud1 which1 as it approached1 changed its color1 till at last it became like a flame of fire mixed with smoke4 ,a dreadful noise was heard on its approach1 which alarmed the whole city4 ,it passed over the port1 and came first on an ,english ship1 which in an instant was torn to pieces1 and nothing left but the hulk2 part of the masts1 sails1 and cordage were carried to a considerable distance along with the cloud4 ,the small craft were sunk instantly4 ,it demolished a part of the city1 and passed over to ,sicily1 but did no injury there as it was previously exhausted4 ,several hundred were killed4 ,ency4 ,brit4 ,article1 ,,cloud4 ,the principle of evaporation is the primary cause of all rain1 mist1 dew1 c4 ,the ocean loses many millions of gallons of water hourly by evaporation4 ,the ,mediterranean alone is said to lose more by it1 than it receives from the ,nile1 the ,tiber1 the ,rhone1 the ,po1 and all the other rivers that fall into it4 ,when ,dr4 ,halley made his celestial observations upon the tops of the mountains at ,st4 ,helena1 he found that the quantity of vapor which fell there 7even when the sky was clear7 was so great1 that his observations were thereby much impeded3 his glasses were so covered with water through the condensation of the vapors1 that he was obliged to wipe them every ten minutes4 ,in order to determine1 with some degree of accuracy1 how much water would be raised in vapor in any space of time1 he took a vessel of water salted to the same degree with that of sea-water1 in which he placed a thermometer1 and by means of a pan of coals brought the water to the same degree of heat as would be produced by the sun in summer3 he then affixed the vessel of water with the thermometer in it1 to one end of a pair of scales1 and exactly counterpoised it with weights on the other4 ,then1 at the end of two hours1 he found by the alteration in the weight of the vessel1 that a sixtieth part of an inch in the depth of the water was gone off in vapor2 and therefore1 in twelve hours1 one-tenth of an inch would have gone off4 ,from this experiment the ,doctor calculates 7in as accurate a manner as the subject will admit of7 the quantity of water raised by evaporation from the ,mediterranean ,sea1 to be at least five thousand two hundred and eighty millions of tons of water in a day2 and from the river ,thames twenty millions three hundred thousand tons per day1 on the average4 ,this water is conveyed by the winds to every part of the continents3 these it fertilizes in the form of rain1 and afterwards supplies the rivers1 which flow again into the sea4 ,in our climate1 evaporation is found to be about four times as much from the vernal to the autumnal equinox1 as from the autumnal to the vernal4 ,heat facilitates all solutions2 and the greater the difference between the temperature of the air and the evaporating surface1 the greater will be the evaporation4 ,bishop ,watson found that1 even when there had been no rain for a considerable time1 and the earth had been dried by the parching heat of summer1 an acre of ground dispersed into the air above #a1fjj gallons of water in the space of twelve hours of a summer's day4 ,a little reflection would convince any one of the importance of the principle of evaporation4 ,innumerable instances of its use might be adduced2 suffice to add1 that without it neither grass nor corn could be sufficiently void of moisture to lay up for use4 ,our clothes when washed could not be dried2 neither could a variety of the most common operations1 which conduce much to our comfort and convenience1 be performed without it4 ,it is evident that water exists in the atmosphere in abundance1 even in the driest seasons1 and under the clearest sky4 ,by the experiments of ,saussure1 it appears1 that a cubic foot of atmospheric air will hold eleven grains of water in solution4 ,from this property of the air we derive many advantages4 ,it has a tendency to preserve every thing on the face of the earth in a proper degree of moisture4 ,it appears1 from the experiments of some aronauts1 that the air is much drier in the higher regions than it is near the surface of the earth4 ,when two opposite currents of air meet1 of different temperatures1 the vapors are sometimes condensed thereby1 and rain ensues4 ,it may be remarked1 that if the temperature of our atmosphere had been #bab1 or upwards1 rain could never have fallen on the earth2 for the water taken up by evaporation would have been converted into a permanently elastic fluid4 ,such is the necessity of rain1 that it alone not only affords a proper degree of moisture to the vegetable creation1 but is of service in bringing the soils into a fit state to perform their office4 ,dry earth of itself is ineffective2 but when moistened it has the property of decomposing atmospheric air1 and of conveying its oxygen to the roots of those plants which vegetate within it4 ,we are indebted to ,humboldt for the knowledge of this fact4 ,it is impossible ever to contemplate the various ways in which the different operations of nature are made to correct and balance each other1 without being struck with the infinite comprehension of the ,divine ,mind1 which could thus foresee the tendency of every law which it was about to establish4 ,how many cases are there in which the slightest oversight would have produced the destruction of the world6 ,the effects of vapor have furnished a new moving force to mechanics1 says ,hay1 which it required no ordinary genius to have created1 and to have measured its energy4 ,this science1 during a long time1 had only employed water as a moving force1 by availing itself of its natural course1 or by judiciously managing its fall1 so as to subject it to the operation of machines which is regulated by an impulsion continually renewed4 ,the experiments made upon the force of water reduced to vapor1 gave birth to the idea of applying that vapor so much the more advantageously to the same purpose1 because independently of its great energy1 it may be transported wherever it is called for by the interests of commerce and industry4 ,the execution of steam-engines has had1 like that of all other machines1 its different epochs1 to which successively corresponded new degrees of perfection4 ,to diminish1 as far as possible1 the quantity of vaporisation requisite for the effect in contemplation1 and to make a moderate use of the combustible2 to combine with this chief economy that of substance and of workmanship1 by contracting the dimensions of the pieces without diminishing their utility2 to prevent explosions1 by the wisest precautions adopted in the management of an agent whose power becomes destructive when it is not limited3 these are in general the objects which have fixed the attention of engineers1 and have excited among them a laudable kind of rivalship4#id ,in no invention1 either for ingenuity or utility1 has modern genius been more conspicuous than in the invention of the steam-engine4 ,the amazing power wielded by man1 by this means1 is just matter of astonishment and wonder4 ,in no part of the kingdom have these stupendous machines been brought to greater perfection1 either in size or principle1 than in the mining counties of ,cornwall and ,devon4 ,the largest ever built has lately been erected at ,chacewater mine1 in the county of ,cornwall1 by ,mr4 ,s4 ,moyle1 of that place1 and is for size and efficiency1 as well as neatness1 without a parallel4 ,this stupendous machine is equal to #a1jaj horses2 it works day and night in pumping dry a mine of #ajj fathoms deep1 and of a large extent3 and the quantity of water pumped out in one minute1 and the column consequently lifted1 is greater than any other machine of the kind ever erected4 ,the whole reflects the greatest credit on the abilities of the engineer1 and forms an interesting object to all those who are curious in mechanism1 or who may visit the mines of ,cornwall4#ie ,a very ingenious naturalist suggests the idea1 that subterraneous fire1 and steam generated from it1 are the true and real causes of earthquakes4 ,and he thinks the elasticity of steam and its expansive force1 are every way capable of producing the stupendous effects attributed to earthquakes1 when it is considered that this expansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as #adj to #e4 ,he also apprehends that subterraneous fire must1 at different times1 have existed universally in the bowels of the earth1 and that in union with water1 or by the expansive power of steam1 it has produced the immense continents1 as well as the mountains of our globe4#if ,there are1 in the ,memoirs of the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences for the year #agjg1 some observations communicated by ,vauban1 from which it results that #adj pounds of water converted into vapor1 would produce an explosion capable of blowing up a mass of #gg1jjj pounds1 while #adj pounds of powder could only produce a similar effect upon a mass of #cj1jjj4 ,water would be the purest of all drinks1 says ,sturm1 were it as absolutely simple body2 but on the other hand1 its medicinal virtue would be reduced to nothing4 ,if we consider the manner in which water nourishes plants1 it is easy to presume that it communicates the nutritious juices which it contains1 to men and animals in the same way4 ,water is not very nutritive by itself1 but being very subtile1 it dissolves the nutritious parts of aliments1 is a vehicle for them1 and carries them along into the minutest vessels4 ,it is consequently the most wholesome drink2 and is essentially necessary to men and animals2 and its salutary effects are felt1 where all other liquids are found hurtful to health4 8,the water of ,egypt10 says the ,abb ,mascrier1 8is so delicious1 that one would not wish the heat to be less1 or to be delivered from the sensation of thirst4 ,the ,turks find it so exquisite1 that they excite themselves to drink of it by eating salt4 ,it is a common saying among them1 that if ,mahomed had drank of it1 he would have besought ,god that he might never die1 in order to have had this continual gratification4 ,when the ,egyptians undertake the pilgrimage of ,mecca1 or go out of their country on any other account1 they speak of nothing but the pleasure they shall have1 at their return1 in drinking of the waters of the ,nile4 ,there is no gratification to be compared to this3 it surpasses1 in their esteem1 that of seeing their relations and families4 ,all those who have tasted of this water1 allow that they never met with the like in any other place4 ,when a person drinks of it for the first time1 he can scarcely be persuaded that it is not a water prepared by art3 for it has something in it inexpressibly agreeable and pleasing to the taste2 and it should have the same rank among waters1 that champaigne has among wines4 ,but its most valuable quality is1 that it is exceedingly salutary4 ,it never incommodes1 let it be drank in what quantity it may3 this is so true1 that it is no uncommon thing to see some persons drink three buckets full of it in a day1 without the least inconvenience6 ,when ,i pass such encomiums on the water of ,egypt1 it is right to observe1 that ,i speak only of that of the ,nile1 which indeed is the only water1 drinkable1 for their well-water is detestable and unwholesome4 ,fountains are so rare1 that they are a kind of prodigy in that country2 and as to rain-water1 that is out of the question1 as scarcely any falls in ,egypt40 99 99 99 99 99 ,having attended to the situation and properties of water in the world of nature1 we shall now show that by this element is represented the blessings of ,divine grace in the moral or spiritual world4 ,god is the fountain of living waters1 ever-living1 all-sufficient1 and incessantly flowing2 like waters1 arising and issuing from a spring1 which continue during the whole year3 not like waters that proceed only from some excess of rain1 such as land-floods1 or those flowing down from hills1 which in the winter season run in torrents1 but in the heat of summer are dried up and fail4 ,such uncertain waters are well expressed by ,job--8,my brethren have dealt deceitfully as a brook1 and as the stream of brooks they pass away2 which are blackish by reason of the ice1 and wherein the snow is hid3 what time they wax warm they vanish3 when it is hot they are consumed out of their place4 ,the paths of their way are turned aside2 they go to nothing1 and perish4 ,the troops of ,tema looked1 the companies of ,sheba waited for them4 ,they are confounded because they had hoped2 they came thither1 and were ashamed40 ,he alludes to those merchants who travelled in companies or caravans1 with beasts of burden1 through the deserts of ,arabia2 who1 having in the winter observed and marked out in certain places on the road great pools of water1 or copious streams locked up in the valleys by severe frosts2 so that1 when travelling the same road in summer1 they expected finding water there still to refresh themselves and their thirsty camels2 but1 to their great grief and consternation1 instead of pools or brooks of water1 found heaps of dry sand1 occasioned by intense heat4 ,but ,god is a fountain which sends forth streams of blessings in all seasons1 and never fails4 ,the living waters which proceed from him as their fountain1 are not stagnant1 or dead1 but running1 like those that issue from springs which are never dry1 and possess the most refreshing and invigorating properties4 ,the element of water is used for washing and purifying the body2 so the operation of ,divine grace on the soul removes its moral defilement4 ,all the purifications by water under the law1 were outward expressions of this inward cleansing4 ,thus those important words by the prophet ,ezekiel1 8,i will sprinkle clean water upon you1 and ye shall be clean2 from all your filthiness1 and from all your idols1 will ,i cleanse you3 a new heart also will ,i give you1 and a new spirit will ,i put within you40 ,accordingly the ,psalmist says1 8,thou shalt wash me1 and ,i shall be whiter than snow40 ,he also prays1 8,create in me a clean heart1 oh ,god2 and renew a right spirit within me40 ,as purity is necessary for enjoying communion with ,god in all his instituted ordinances1 he says1 8,i will wash mine hands in innocency3 so will ,i compass thine altar1 oh ,lord40 ,similar language is used in the ,new ,testament4 ,our ,lord said to ,peter1 8,if ,i wash thee not1 thou hast no part in me40 ,the apostle ,paul1 after mentioning several immoral characters to the ,christians at ,corinth1 says1 8,and such were some of you3 but ye are washed1 but ye are sanctified1 but ye are justified in the name of the ,lord ,jesus1 and by the ,spirit of our ,god40 ,our ,lord gave himself for us1 not only that he might redeem us from all iniquity1 but also that he might purify us unto himself a peculiar people4 ,this cleansing1 washing1 and purifying the soul from sin1 is1 in the ,holy ,scripture1 attributed to the virtual efficacy of his blood4 8,the blood of ,jesus ,christ his ,son cleanseth us from all sin40 8,unto him that loved us1 and washed us from our sins in his own blood40 ,the primary effect of his blood is the expiation of sin2 and1 as a consequence thereof1 the remission of it4 8,this is my blood which is shed for the remission of sins40 8,in whom we have redemption through his blood1 the forgiveness of sins40 ,now by the blood of ,christ in these places we are to understand his sufferings1 which were completed in the shedding of his blood on the cross4 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,earth4 ,surface of the ,earth -- ,mountains -- ,fertility of ,plants -- ,dissemination of ,seeds -- ,preservation of ,plants -- ,adaptation to different ,climates -- ,number of vegetables -- ,succession of vegetables -- ,remarkable ,trees -- ,sensitive ,plants -- ,kitchen vegetables -- ,garden flowers -- ,religious ,improvement4 ,the dry land and the seas constitute what is called the terraqueous globe2 what proportion the superficies of the sea bears to that of the land1 cannot be easily ascertained2 but1 as one observes1 the earth and the water exist in a most judicious proportion to each other4 ,according to the most exact calculations1 the surface of the earth is #aii1eab1eie square miles2 and that of the sea is to the land as three to one4 ,there is no certain measurement of the proportion of land and water which the parts within the polar circles contain4 ,the superficies of the sea appearing so large1 may lead some persons to suppose1 that the proportions between the land and water are not wisely adjusted2 and that had there been less sea and more dry land1 this would have been more adapted to the accommodation and service of mankind4 ,as such a supposition as this tends to arraign the wisdom of ,god1 so it proceeds from ignorance of natural philosophy4 ,for1 as ,dr4 ,keill asserts1 8if there were but half the sea that now is1 there would be also only half the quantity of vapors2 and1 consequently1 we could have no more than half so many rivers as there now are1 to supply not only all the dry land we have at present1 but half as much more2 for the quantity of vapors which are raised1 bears a proportion to the surface whence they are raised1 as well as the heat which raised them4 ,the wise ,creator so prudently ordered it1 that the sea should be large enough to supply vapors sufficient for all the land1 which it would not do if it were less than it now is40#ig ,the ,scriptures speak of ,god as making all things in number1 weight1 and measure2 as proceeding in his works with the greatest exactness4 8,he hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand1 and meted out heaven with a span1 and comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure1 and weighed the mountains in scales1 and the hills in a balance40 ,those who wish to see this further illustrated1 would do well to consult ,ray's 8,wisdom of ,god manifested in the works of the ,creation10 and his 8,physico-theological ,discourses40 ,the stately mountains1 that lift their lofty heads above the clouds1 serve for very beneficial purposes4 ,does the bold atheist call them blemishes1 and irregularities in the formation of the earth8 ,surely he never considered how necessary they are1 for arresting the clouds in their flight1 and conveying their waters through imperceptible channels1 till they meet in some common receptacle1 whence they burst out in springs to fertilize the lower grounds1 and afford refreshing streams for man and beast4 8,this10 says ,mr4 ,halley1 8seems to be the design of the hills1 that their ridges1 being placed through the midst of the continents1 might serve as it were for alembics1 to distil fresh water for the use of man and beast2 and that their heights might give a descent to those streams to run gently1 like so many veins of the microcosm1 to be more beneficial to the creation40 ,they are1 says ,mr4 ,ray1 8for the generation and maintenance of rivers and fountains1 which--on the hypothesis that all proceed from rain water--could not subsist without them1 or but rarely4 ,so we should have only torrents1 which would fail in summer1 or in any dry season1 and nothing to trust to1 but stagnating water1 reserved in pools and cisterns4 ,the great inconvenience resulting from this ,i need not take pains to show4 ,i say that fountains and rivers would be but rare1 were there no mountains4 ,for the whole dry land being but one continued mountain1 and ascending all along from the sea to the mid-land1 as is undeniably proved by the descent of rivers even in plain countries2 the water sinking into the earth1 may run under ground1 and1 according as the vein leads it1 break out in the side of this mountain1 though the place1 as to outward appearance1 be a plain4 ,there are huge ridges and extended chains of mountains directed for the most part to run east and west2 by which means they give admittance and passage to the vapors1 brought by the winds from the ,atlantic and ,pacific oceans2 but stop and inhibit their excursions to the north and south1 either condensing them on their sides into water1 by a kind of external distillation2 or by straitening and constipating them1 compelling them to gather into drops1 or descend down in the rain40 ,after the waters had subsided1 the land appeared1 dry and fit for vegetation4 8,and ,god said1 ,let the earth bring forth grass1 the herb yielding seed1 and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind1 whose seed is in itself upon the earth3 and it was so4 ,and the earth brought forth grass1 and herb yielding seed after his kind1 and the tree yielding fruit1 whose seed was in itself1 after his kind40 ,here we rise to organized and vegetative bodies4 ,at the ,divine command1 herbs1 plants1 trees1 and all the almost endless varieties of the vegetable world1 bearing their several seeds and fruits1 according to their different kinds1 immediately began to appear4 ,thus before ,god formed any living creature to dwell upon the earth1 he provided abundantly for its sustenance4 8,now as ,god delights to manifest himself in the little as well as the great10 says a celebrated commentator1 8he has shown his consummate wisdom in every part of the vegetable creation4 ,who can account for1 or comprehend1 the structure of a single tree or plant8 ,the roots1 the stem1 the woody fibres1 the bark1 the rind1 the air-vessels1 the sap-vessels1 the leaves1 the flowers1 and the fruits1 are so many mysteries4 ,all the skill1 wisdom1 and power of men and angels1 could not produce a single grain of wheat60 ,dr4 ,hales1 in his ,statistical ,essays1 has observed1 that the substances of vegetables appear1 by a chemical analysis1 to be composed of sulphur1 volatile salt1 water1 and earth1 which are all endued with mutually attracting powers2 and also of a large portion of air1 which has a wonderful power of strongly attracting in a fixed state1 or of repelling in an elastic state1 with a power which is superior to great compressive forces4#ih ,by the infinite combinations1 action1 and reaction of these principles1 all the operations in animal and vegetable bodies are effected4 ,these active arial principles are very serviceable in carrying on the work of vegetation to its perfection and maturity2 not only in helping1 by their elasticity1 to distend each ductile part1 but1 also1 by enlivening and invigorating their sap1 where1 mixing with the other mutually attracting principles1 they are1 by gentle heat and motion1 set at liberty to assimilate into the nourishment of the respective parts4 ,the sum of the attracting powers of these mutually acting and re-acting principles1 is1 while in this nutritive state1 superior to their repelling power2 by which the work of nutrition is gradually advanced by the nearer and nearer union of these principles from a less to a greater degree of consistency1 till they are advanced to that viscid1 ductile state1 whence the several parts of vegetables are formed2 and are1 at length1 firmly compacted into hard substances1 by the flying off of the watery diluting vehicle3 but when they are again disunited by the watery particles1 their repelling power is thereby become superior to their attracting power1 and the union of the parts of vegetables is so thoroughly dissolved1 that putrefaction commences4 ,god has endued the vegetable creation with the astonishing power of multiplying itself by seeds1 slips1 roots4 c4 ad infinitum3 it contains in itself all the rudiments of the future plants through their endless generations4 ,the celebrated ,linnus1 in an 8oration concerning the augmentation of the habitable earth10 which proceeds on the supposition of the existence of a sexual system in the vegetable world1 shows how from one plant of each species the immense number of individuals now existing might arise4 ,he gives some instances of the surprising fertility of certain plants2 as1 of the elecampane1 one plant of which produced #c1jjj seeds2 of spelt1 #b1jjj2 of the sun-flower1 #d1jjj2 of the poppy1 #c1bjj2 of tobacco1 #dj1cbj3 and one grain of ,turkey-corn produces #b1jjj others6 ,but supposing any annual plant producing yearly only two seeds1 even of these1 after #bj years1 there would be #a1jdh1egf individuals4 ,for they would increase yearly in a double proportion1 viz4 #b1 #d1 #h1 #af1 #cb1 c4 ,the seed of the elm1 as a learned author observes1 affords a remarkable instance of the prolific power with which the vegetable creation is endued1 to multiply its different species4 8,this tree produces one thousand five hundred and eighty-four millions of seeds2 and each of these seeds has the power of producing the same number4 ,how astonishing is this produce6 ,at first one seed is deposited in the earth2 from this one a tree springs1 which in the course of its vegetative life produces one thousand five hundred and eighty-four millions of seeds4 ,this is the first generation4 ,the second generation will amount to two trillions1 five hundred and ten thousand and fifty-six billions4 ,the third generation will amount to fourteen thousand six hundred and fifty-eight quadrillions1 seven hundred and twenty-seven thousand and forty trillions6 ,and the fourth generation from these would amount to fifty one sextillions1 four hundred and eighty-one thousand three hundred and eighty-one quintillions1 one hundred and twenty-three thousand one hundred and thirty-six quadrillions6 ,sums too immense for the human mind to conceive2 and when we allow the most confined space in which a tree can grow1 it appears that the seeds of the third generation from one elm would be many myriads of times more than sufficient to stock the whole superficies of all the planets in the solar system60 ,while many plants and trees may be propagated by branches1 buds1 suckers1 and leaves fixed in the ground2 so concerning the dissemination of seeds after they come to maturity1 the ,author of nature has wisely provided in various ways2 this being absolutely necessary1 since without it no crop could follow4 ,the stalks and stems favor this purpose2 for these raise the fruit above the ground1 so that the winds1 shaking them to and fro1 widely disperse the ripe seeds4 ,the pericarpium1 a pellicle or thin membrane encompassing the fruit or grain of a plant1 is generally shut at the top1 that the seeds may not fall before they are shaken out by stormy winds4 ,wings are given to many seeds1 by the help of which they fly far from the mother plant1 and frequently spread over a large tract of country4 ,these wings consist either of down1 as in most of the composite-flowered plants2 or of a membrane1 as in birch1 alder1 ash1 c4 ,several kinds of fruits are endued with a remarkable elasticity1 by the force of which the ripe pericarpies throw the seeds to a great distance2 as wood-sorrel1 spurge1 phyllanthus1 and dittany4 ,other seeds or pericarpies are rough1 or provided with hooks1 as hounds-tongue1 agrimony1 c2 so that they are apt to stick to animals which pass by them1 and by this means are carried to their holes1 where they are both sown and manured4 ,berries1 as well as other pericarpies1 are by nature allotted for aliment to animals2 but1 with this condition1 that while they eat the pulp1 they shall sow the seeds3 for when they feed on it1 they either disperse them at the same time2 or1 if they swallow them1 they are returned unhurt4 ,the mistletoe always grows on other trees1 because the thrush eating its seeds1 casts them forth with its dung4 ,the cross-bill living on fircones1 and the haw-finch feeding on pinecones1 sow many of their seeds4 ,the structure of plants contributes essentially both to their own preservation1 and that of others4 ,but the wisdom of the ,creator appears very remarkable in the manner of the growth of trees4 ,for as their roots descend deeper than those of other plants1 provision is thereby made that they shall not rob them too much of nourishment2#ii and what is still more1 a stem1 not above a span in diameter1 often shoots its branches very high2 these bear perhaps many thousand buds1 each of which is a plant1 with its leaves1 flowers1 and stipul4 ,now if all these grew on the plain1 they would take up a thousand times as much space as trees do2 and1 in this case1 there would scarcely be room in all the earth for so many plants as at present trees alone afford4 ,besides1 plants that shoot up in this way are more easily preserved from cattle by a natural defence3 their leaves also1 falling in autumn1 cover the plants growing about them against the rigor of the winter2 and1 in the summer1 they afford a pleasing shade1 not only to animals1 but to plants1 against the intense heat of the sun4 ,we may add1 that trees1 like all other vegetables1 imbibe water from the earth3 which does not circulate again to the root1 but being dispersed like small rain1 by the transpiration of the leaves1 moistens the plants that grow around4 ,many plants and shrubs are armed with thorns1 as the buckthorn1 sloe1 carduus1 cotton-thistle1 c3 these serve to keep off animals1 which otherwise would destroy their fruit4 ,at the same time1 they cover many other plants1 especially of the annual kind1 under their branches4 ,nay it has frequently been observed on commons where furze grows1 that wherever a bush was left untouched for some years by the inhabitants a tree has sprung up1 being secured by the prickles of that shrub from the bite of cattle4 ,so that while adjacent grounds are robbed of plants by voracious animals1 some may be preserved to ripen flowers and fruit1 and stock the surrounding parts with seeds which otherwise would be quite extirpated4 ,all herbs cover the ground with their leaves1 and by their shade hinder it from being totally deprived of that moisture which is necessary to their nourishment4 ,mosses1 which adorn the most barren places1 do1 at the same time1 preserve lesser plants when they begin to shoot1 from cold and drought2 as is evident in gardens1 where plants are preserved in the same way4 ,they also hinder the fermenting earth from forcing the roots of plants upwards in the spring2 like what happens annually to trunks of trees1 and other things put into the ground4 ,hence very few mosses grow in warm climates1 the same necessity not existing in those places4 ,the great ,author of all things intended that the whole earth should be covered with plants1 and that no place should be void or barren4 ,but since all countries have not the same changes of seasons1 and every soil is not equally adapted to every plant2 therefore1 that no place should be without some1 he gave to each of them such a nature as might be chiefly accommodated to their own climate3 so that some of them can bear intense cold1 others an equal degree of heat2 some delight in dry ground1 others in moist1 c4 ,hence plants grow where the seasons of the year and the soil are friendly to their constitution4 ,grasses1 the most common of all plants1 can bear almost any temperature of air3 in this the good providence of the ,creator particularly appears2 for all over the globe they are necessary for the nourishment of cattle4 ,the same is observed in relation to our most common grains4 ,thus neither the scorching sun1 nor the pinching cold1 hinders any country from having vegetables4 ,nor is there any soil which does not bring forth many kinds of plants4 ,deserts and sandy places are adorned with trees and plants4 ,if we connect the vast fecundity of vegetables with their number1 how bountiful will the great ,author of nature appear6 ,solomon had a comprehensive knowledge of the different species of plants1 for he 8spake of trees1 from the cedar-tree that is in ,lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall20 but his writings on this subject1 not being quoted by any ancient author1 nor the least fragment remaining1 are entirely lost4 ,theophrastus1 a ,greek philosopher1 who succeeded ,aristotle in his school at ,athens1 where his name became so celebrated that he was attended by two thousand pupils1 wrote a work entitled 8,the ,history of ,plants10 in which above #ejj different plants are described4 ,dioscorides1 a ,grecian by birth1 but under the ,roman empire1 a physician and botanist in the time of ,nero1 being near #cjj years posterior to ,theophrastus1 describes about #fjj plants4 ,pliny the elder1#ajj in his voluminous work entitled 8,the ,history of the ,world10 gives descriptions of above #a1jjj different species of plants4 ,hieronymus ,bock1 or ,bouc1 a ,german1 generally known by the name of ,tragus1 in #aecb1 published a ,history of ,plants1 in which he describes #hjj species4 ,from later botanical researches1 we learn1 that the bountiful ,creator has enriched the earth with about #bj1jjj different species of vegetables4 ,the following statement of the progress of botanical knowledge has recently been given to the public4 ,messrs4 ,humboldt and ,boupland1 the celebrated travellers1 have collected in their five years' travels through ,south ,america1 #c1hjj species of plants1 of which upwards of #c1jjj were new1 and absolutely unknown before to the botanists of ,europe4 ,we are at present acquainted altogether with #dd1jjj species of plants2 while the whole number mentioned by the ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,arabians1 does not exceed #a1djj4 ,it is worth remarking1 that the vegetable productions of the new world seem to have been in an inverse ratio1 both in point of number and luxuriance1 to those of the animal kingdom4 ,in ,north ,america1 for instance1 the number of lofty trees is far greater than in ,europe4 ,in the former country1 there are found #acg species of trees1 whose trunks exceed the height of #cj feet2 while in ,europe there are scarcely #de species4 ,but it is singular there are no firs to be found on any part of the mountains of ,south ,america1 between the tropics1 though they are very abundant in ,north ,america4 ,the reason why ,magnolias1 and other equinoxial plants1 appear so far north in ,america1 is1 that as far as lat4 #dh deg4 the summers are #i degrees 7of ,fahrenheit7 hotter than in the corresponding ,european latitudes4 ,the winters1 however1 are more than proportionably colder4 ,at ,philadelphia the summer is as hot as at ,rome2 while the winter corresponds with that of ,vienna4 ,at ,quebec1 the summer is warmer than at ,paris2 the winter colder than at ,st4 ,petersburgh4 ,beyond ,lake ,superior1 and at ,hudson's ,bay1 it is said that the earth is perpetually frozen at the depth of three feet from the surface1 which prevents the inhabitants from digging wells4 ,the same thing happens in ,siberia1 on the banks of the ,lena2 while in ,south ,america there are cities at a greater height than the highest summit of the ,pyrenees1 and houses more elevated than the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 the region1 in ,europe1 of perpetual congelation4 ,to this we may add1 that ,linnus1 the celebrated botanist1 divided all plants into classes1 the classes into orders1 the orders into genera1 and the genera into species3 and the species1 we are told1 amount perhaps to #dj1jjj1 or #ej1jjj1 or more6 ,the fertility of the earth has been continued from the creation1 through every successive period1 to the present time4 ,plants spring up1 grow1 flourish1 ripen their fruit1 wither1 and at last1 having finished their course1 die1 and return to the dust again1 from whence they first took their rise4 ,thus black mould1 which covers the earth1 is generally owing to dead vegetables4 ,for all roots descend into the sand by their branches1 and after a plant has lost its stem1 the root remains2 but this too rots at last1 and changes into mould4 ,thus this kind of earth is mixed with sand1 by the arrangement of nature1 nearly in the same way as dung thrown on fields is wrought into the earth by the industry of the husbandman4 ,but the earth offers again to plants from its bosom what it has thus received4 ,for when seeds are committed to the earth1 they draw to themselves1 accommodate to their nature1 and turn into plants1 the more subtile parts of this mould by the co-operation of the sun1 air1 and rain2 so that the tallest tree is1 properly speaking1 nothing but mould wonderfully compounded with air and water1 and modified by a virtue communicated to a small seed by the ,creator4 ,from these plants1 when they die1 just the same kind of mould is formed as gave birth to them originally2 whence fertility remains continually uninterrupted4 ,whereas the earth could not make good its annual consumption1 unless it were constantly recruited by new supplies4 ,that the ,author of nature had so constituted the world that none of the elements should be subject to destruction1 might have been supposed by the ancients2 but1 till the present advanced state of the science of chemistry1 no proof of this interesting fact could have been adduced4 ,of the indestructibility of matter it may be remarked1 that provision has been made even for the restoration of the fallen leaves of vegetables1 which rot on the ground1 and1 to a careless observer1 would appear to be lost for ever4 ,berthollet has shown by experiment1 that1 whenever the soil becomes charged with such matter1 the oxygen of the atmosphere combines with it1 and converts it into carbonic acid gas4 ,the consequence of this is1 that this same carbon in process of time is absorbed by a new race of vegetables1 which it clothes with a new foliage1 and which is itself destined to undergo similar putrefaction and renovation to the end of time4 ,the selection of a few remarkable trees and plants will serve to impress the reader with a sense of the wisdom and power of ,god1 as displayed in the vegetable kingdom4 ,as rivers and brooks are very seldom found in deserts and sandy places1 many of the trees growing there distil water2 and1 by that means1 afford great comfort both to man and beast4 ,thus the ,tillandsia1 which is a parasitical plant1 growing on the tops of trees in the deserts of ,america1 has its leaves turned at the base into the shape of a pitcher1 with the extremity expanded2 in these the rain is collected1 and preserved for the use of men1 beasts1 and birds4 ,the water-tree in ,ceylon produces cylindrical bladders1 covered with a lid2 into these is secreted a most pure and refreshing water4 ,there is a kind of cuckow-pint in ,new ,france1 of which1 if a person break a branch1 it will afford him a pint of excellent water4 ,how wise1 how beneficial is the adaptation of plants to the inhabitants of those countries where they grow6 ,on the top of a rock1 in one of the ,canary ,islands1 says ,glass1 in his ,history1 grows the ,fountain ,tree1 called1 in the language of the ancient inhabitants1 ,garse1 7sacred or holy tree17 which for many years has been preserved sound1 entire1 and fresh4 ,its leaves constantly distil such a quantity of water as is sufficient to furnish drink to every living creature in ,hierro2 nature having provided this remedy for the drought of the island4 ,it is situated about a league and a half from the sea4 ,nobody knows of what species it is1 only that it is called ,til4 ,it is distinct from other trees1 and stands by itself4 ,the circumference of its trunk is about twelve spans1 the diameter four1 and in height from the ground to the top of the highest branch forty spans3 the circumference of all the branches together1 is one hundred and twenty feet4 ,the branches are thick and extended3 the lowest commence an ell from the ground4 ,its fruit resembles the acorn1 and tastes something like the kernel of a pine-apple1 but is softer and more aromatic4 ,the leaves of this tree resemble those of the laurel1 but are larger1 wider1 and more curved2 they come forth in perpetual succession1 so that the tree always remains green4 ,on the north side of the trunk1 are two large tanks1 or cisterns1 of rough stone1 or rather one cistern divided1 each half being twenty feet square1 and sixteen spans in depth4 ,one of these contains water for the drinking of the inhabitants2 and the other that which they use for their cattle1 washing1 and such like purposes4 ,every morning1 near this part of the island1 a cloud or mist arises from the sea1 which the south and easterly winds force against the fore-mentioned steep cliff1 so that the cloud1 having no vent but by the gutter1 gradually ascends it1 and from thence advances slowly to the extremity of the valley1 where it is stopped and checked by the front of the rock1 which terminates the valley1 and then rests upon the thick leaves and wide-spreading branches of the tree1 from whence it distils in drops1 during the remainder of the day1 until it is at length exhausted1 in the same manner that we see water drip from the leaves of trees after a heavy shower of rain4 ,this tree yields most water in those years when the ,levant or easterly winds have prevailed for a continuance1 for by these winds only the clouds or mists are drawn hither from the sea4 ,a person lives on the spot near where this tree grows1 who is appointed by the council to take care of it1 and its water2 and is allowed a house to live in1 with a certain salary4 ,he every day distributes to each family of the district1 seven pots or vessels full of water1 besides what he gives to the principal people in the island4 ,in ,cockburn's ,voyages we find the following account of the ,dropping ,tree1 near the mountains of ,vera ,paz1 in ,america4 8,on the morning of the fourth day we came out on a large plain where were numbers of fine deer1 and in the middle stood a tree of an unusual size1 spreading its branches over a vast compass of ground4 ,curiosity led us up to it2 we had perceived1 at some distance1 the ground about it to be wet1 at which we began to be somewhat surprised1 as well knowing there had no rain fallen for near six months past1 according to the certain course of the season in that latitude2 that it was impossible to be occasioned by the fall of dew on the tree1 we were convinced1 by the sun having power to exhale all moisture of that nature a few minutes after his rising4 ,at last1 to our great amazement1 as well as joy1 we saw water dropping1 or1 as it were1 distilling fast from the end of every leaf of this wonderful 7nor had it been amiss1 if ,i had said miraculous7 tree2 at least it was so with respect to us1 who had been laboring four days through extreme heat without receiving the least moisture1 and were now almost expiring for the want of it4 ,we could not help looking on this as liquor sent from heaven to comfort us under our great extremity4 ,we catched what we could of it in our hands1 and drank very plentifully of it1 liking it so well1 that we could hardly prevail with ourselves to give it over4 ,a matter of this nature could not but excite us to make the strictest observations concerning it2 and accordingly we staid under the tree near three hours3 we found that we could not clasp its body by five times4 ,we observed the soil where it grew to be very stony2 and upon the nicest inquiry we could afterwards make1 both of the natives of the country1 and the ,spanish inhabitants1 we could not learn that there was any such tree known throughout ,new ,spain1 nor perhaps all ,america over40 ,the ,tallow ,tree1 mentioned by ,du ,halde in his ,history of ,china1 grows in great plenty in that country1 producing a substance much like our tallow1 and serving for the same purposes4 ,it is about the height of a cherry tree2 its leaves are in form of a heart1 of a deep shining red color1 and its bark very smooth4 ,its fruit is enclosed in a kind of pod or cover1 like a chestnut1 and consists of three round white grains1 of the size and form of a small nut1 each having its peculiar capsule1 and within that a little stone4 ,this stone is encompassed with a white pulp1 which has all the properties of true tallow1 as to consistence1 color1 and even smell2 and accordingly the ,chinese make their candles of it1 which doubtless would be as good as those in ,europe1 if they knew how to purify this vegetable as we do the animal tallow1 and make their wicks as fine4 ,all the preparation they give it1 is to melt it down1 and mix a little oil with it1 to make it softer and more pliant4 ,it is true1 their candles made of it yield a thicker smoke1 and give a dimmer light than those of ours2 but these defects are owing in a great measure to the wicks1 which are not of cotton1 but only a little rod or switch of dry light wood1 covered with the pith of a rush1 wound round it1 which1 being very porous1 serves to filtrate the minute parts of the tallow1 attracted by the burning stick1 and which by this means is kept burning4 ,the ,tea ,tree is a native of ,china1 of very slow growth2 it has a black1 woody1 irregular1 branched root1 and rises to a fathom high1 or rather more4 ,its leaves are very thick set1 without any regularity1 and are1 in substance1 like those of the morella cherry tree2 but1 when young1 they resemble1 except in color1 the spindle tree1 with red berries1 called euonymus4 ,the larger leaves are about two inches long1 and one broad4 ,the method of gathering them is one by one1 lest they should be torn4 ,the first gathering begins at the middle of the first moon1 immediately before the vernal equinox2 these leaves are scarcely full opened1 being only of two or three days growth2 but they are accounted the best1 fetch the best price1 and are called the flower of the tea2 but1 by the ,chinese1 veui boui1 or bohea tea4 ,the second gathering begins about a month after1 and the last gathering is in ,june2 the leaves of the gatherings are sorted into three several classes1 according to their size and goodness1 and sold accordingly4 ,after the leaves are gathered1 they are the same day carried to the work-house1 and roasted over a slow fire in an iron pan2 and1 that they may be thoroughly and equally dried1 the roaster keeps them continually stirring with his hands1 then takes them out1 with a shovel like a fan1 and commits them to the rollers1 who roll them with the palms of their hands in small parcels1 till they are equally cooled1 and the sharp yellow and greenish juice is quite discharged4 ,they are then poured upon a mat1 and sorted a second time into different classes according to their goodness1 and those that are less curled or burnt are taken out4--,it is said that the ,dutch were the first importers of tea into ,europe1 about the year #afjf1 for which they exchanged dried sage with the ,chinese3 and though the ,english did certainly about the same time gain a knowledge of this plant1 we do not find that the government took any cognizance of it till the ,restoration1 when in #affj1 a duty of eight-pence per gallon was laid on the liquor made1 and sold in all coffee-houses4 ,the ,coffee ,tree is a native of the ,indies1 grows surprisingly quick1 and its body is naturally of an upright form2 its leaves are something like those of the common bay1 but curl at the end and hang downwards4 ,the blossoms first appear in ,july1 when they show themselves in bunches at the joints1 near the ends of the branches2 they are much like the flowers of the jessamine1 but have the addition of some yellow apices1 which are loose on the top of the blossom1 and a style which shoots out near half an inch above it4 ,the fruit appears about ,october1 which hangs on the tree till the next ,july before it is ripe3 it is then gathered and prepared for the market1 or for propagating other plants4 ,coffee is1 perhaps1 one of the greatest blessings1 among those that are not really necessaries of life1 that ,providence has granted to mankind2 and1 considering its beneficial qualities as well as its agreeable properties1 it should be ranked among the most elegant plants1 in foliage1 blossom1 and fruit4 ,it is a wholesome1 pleasant1 and cheap beverage1 and of great use in many disorders4 ,the origin of the use of coffee is stated to be as follows4 ,a prior of a monastery in the part of ,arabia where this berry grows1 having remarked that the goats which eat of it became extremely brisk and alert1 resolved to try the experiment on his monks1 of whom he so continually complained for their lethargic propensities4 ,the experiment turned out successful2 and1 it is said1 it was owing to this circumstance that the use of this ,arabian berry came to be so universal4 ,the ,banian ,tree is a native of several parts of the ,east ,indies4 ,it has a woody stem1 branching to a great height and vast extent1 with heart-shaped entire leaves1 ending in acute points4 ,of this tree the following lines of ,milton contain a description equally beautiful and just4 8,there soon they chose ,the fig tree2 not that tree for fruit renown'd1 ,but such as at this day to ,indians known ,in ,malabar or ,decan1 spreads her arms1 ,branching so broad and long1 that in the ground ,the bended twigs take root and daughters grow ,about the mother tree1 a pillar'd shade1 ,high over arch'd and echoing walks between2 ,there oft the ,indian herdsman1 shunning heat1 ,shelters in cool1 and tends his pasturing herds ,at loop-holes cut through thickest shade40 ,the banian tree1 or ,indian fig1 is perhaps the most beautiful of nature's productions in that genial climate1 where her luxuriance is displayed with the greatest profusion and variety4 ,some of these trees1 as they are continually increasing1 and1 contrary to most other things in animal and vegetable life1 seem to be exempted from decay1 grow to an amazing size4 ,every branch projecting from the main body throws out its own roots1 at first in small tender fibres1 several yards from the ground2 these continually grow thicker till they reach the surface2 and there striking in1 they increase to large trunks1 and become parent trees1 shooting out new branches from the top2 these at length suspend their roots1 which1 swelling into trunks1 produce other branches3 thus continuing in a state of progression as long as the earth1 the first parent of them all1 contributes her sustenance4 ,the ,hindoos are peculiarly fond of this tree2 they view it as an emblem of the ,deity1 from its long duration1 outstretching arms1 and overshadowing beneficence2 they almost pay it divine honors1 and 8,find a fane in every sacred grove40 ,near these trees the most esteemed pagodas are generally erected2 under their shade the brahmins spend their lives in religious solitude2 and the natives of all casts and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool recesses1 beautiful walks1 and lovely vistas of this umbrageous canopy1 impervious to the hottest beams of a tropical sun4 ,a description of a tree in the island of ,java1 called the ,upas1 or ,poison ,tree1 is given to the public by a surgeon belonging to the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company1 of the name of ,foersch1 who was stationed at ,batavia1 in the year #aggd4 ,surprising its this account may be1 it is accompanied by so many public facts1 and names of persons and places1 that it is somewhat difficult to conceive it fabulous4 ,the ,upas grows about seven leagues from ,batavia1 in a plain surrounded by rocky mountains1 the whole of which plain1 containing a circle of ten or twelve miles round the tree1 is totally barren4 ,nothing that breathes or vegetates can live within its influence4 ,the bird that flies over it drops down dead4 ,the beast that wanders into it expires4 ,the whole dreadful area is covered with sand1 over which lie scattered loose flints and whitened bones1 ,thus1 8,fierce in dread silence on the blasted heath1 ,fell ,upas sits60 ,this tree may be called the emperor's great military magazine4 ,in a solution of the poisonous gum which exudes from it1 his arrows and offensive weapons are dipped2 the procuring1 therefore1 of this poisonous gum1 is a matter of as much attention as of difficulty4 ,criminals are only employed in this dreadful service4 ,of these1 several every year are sent with a promise of pardon and reward if they procure it4 ,hooded in leather cases1 with glass eyelet-holes1 and secured as much as possible from the foul effluvia of the air they are to breathe1 they undertake this melancholy journey1 travelling always with the wind4 ,about one in ten escapes1 and brings away a little box of this direful commodity6 ,every one skilled in natural history knows1 that the mimos1 or sensitive plants1 close their leaves1 and bend their joints1 on the least touch4 ,this is truly astonishing3 but hitherto no end or design of nature has appeared from these motions2 they soon recover themselves1 and the leaves are expanded as before4 ,dion ,muscipula1 or ,venus's ,fly ,trap1 is a newly discovered sensitive plant2 and shows that nature may have some view towards its nourishment1 in forming the upper joint of its leaf like a machine to catch food4 ,upon the middle of this lies the bait for the unhappy insect that becomes its prey4 ,many minute red glands1 that cover its inner surface1 and which1 perhaps1 discharge some sweet liquor1 tempt the poor animal to taste them2 and the instant these tender plants are irritated by its feet1 the two lobes rise up1 grasp it fast1 lock the two rows of spines together1 and squeeze it to death4 ,further1 lest the strong efforts for life1 in the creature thus taken1 should serve to disengage it1 three small erect spines are fixed near the middle of each lobe among the glands1 that effectually put an end to all its struggles4 ,nor do the lobes ever open again1 while the dead animal continues there4 ,but it is nevertheless certain that the plant cannot distinguish between an animal and a mineral substance2 for if we introduce a straw1 or a pin1 between the lobes1 it will grasp it full as fast as if it were an insect4 ,this plant grows in ,america1 in wet shady places1 and flowers in ,july and ,august4 ,the largest leaves are about three inches long1 and an inch and a half across the lobes3 the glands of those exposed to the sun are of a beautiful red color2 but those in the shade are pale1 and inclining to green4 ,the roots are squamous1 sending forth few fibres1 and are perennial4 ,the leaves are numerous1 inclining to bend downwards1 and are placed in a circular order2 they are jointed and succulent2 the lower joint1 which is a kind of stalk1 is flat1 longish1 two-edged1 and inclining to heart-shaped4 ,in some varieties1 they are serrated on the edges near the top4 ,the upper joint consists of two lobes1 each lobe is of a semi-oval form1 with their margins furnished with stiff hairs1 like eye-brows1 which embrace or lock in each other when they are inwardly irritated4 ,the upper surfaces of these lobes are covered with small red glands1 each of which appears1 when highly magnified1 like a compressed arbutus berry4 ,among the glands1 about the middle of each lobe1 are three very small erect spines4 ,when the lobes enclose any substance1 they never open again while it continues there4 ,if it can be shoved out1 so as not to strain the lobes1 they expand again2 but if force is used to open them1 so strong has nature formed the spring of their fibres1 that one of the lobes will generally snap off1 rather than yield4 ,the stalk is about six inches high1 round1 smooth1 and without leaves1 ending in a spike of flowers4 ,the flowers are milk-white1 and stand1 on foot stalks1 at the bottom of which is a little painted bractea1 or flower-leaf4 ,there is not an article in botany more admirable than a contrivance1 visible in many plants1 to take advantage of good weather1 and to protect themselves against bad4 ,they open and close their flowers and leaves in different circumstances2 some close before sun-set1 some after2 some open to receive rain1 some close to avoid it4 ,the petals of many flowers expand in the sun2 but contract at night1 or on the approach of rain4 ,after the seeds are fecundated1 the petals no longer contract4 ,all the trefoils may serve as a barometer to the husbandman2 they always contract their leaves on an impending storm4 ,some plants follow the sun1 others turn from it4 ,many plants1 on the sun's recess1 vary the position of their leaves1 which is styled1 the sleep of plants4 ,a singular plant was lately discovered in ,bengal4 ,its leaves are in continual motion all day long2 but when night approaches2 they fall down from an erect posture to rest4#aja ,a plant has a power of directing its roots for procuring food4 ,the red whortle-berry1 a low evergreen plant1 grows naturally on the tops of our highest hills1 among stones and gravel4 ,this shrub was planted in an edging to a rich border1 under a fruit wall4 ,in two or three years it over-ran the adjoining deep-laid gravel walk1 and seemed to fly from the border1 in which not a runner appeared4 ,an effort to come at food1 in a bad situation1 is extremely remarkable1 in the following instance4 ,among the ruins of ,new ,abbey1 formerly a monastery in ,galloway1 there grows on the top of a wall1 a plane tree1 about twenty feet high4 ,straitened for nourishment in that barren situation1 it several years ago directed roots down the side of the wall1 till they reached the ground ten feet below2 and now the nourishment it afforded to those roots during the time of their descending1 is amply repaid1 having every year1 since that time1 made vigorous shoots4 ,from the top of the wall to the surface of the earth these roots have not thrown out a single fibre1 but are now united in a single root4 ,plants1 when forced from their natural position1 are endowed with the power to restore themselves4 ,a hop-plant1 twisting round a stick1 directs its course from south to west1 as the sun does4 ,untwist it1 and tie it in the opposite direction1 it dies4 ,leave it loose in the wrong direction1 it recovers its natural direction in a single night4 ,twist the branch of a tree1 so as to invert its leaves1 and fix it in that position1 if left in any degree loose1 it untwists itself gradually1 till the leaves be restored to their natural position4 ,what better can an animal do for its welfare8 ,a root of a tree meeting with a ditch in its progress1 is laid open to the air4 ,what follows8 ,it alters its course1 like a rational being1 dips into the ground1 surrounds the ditch1 rises on the opposite side to its wonted distance from the surface1 and then proceeds in its original direction4 ,lay a wet sponge near a root laid open to the air2 the root will direct its course to the sponge4 ,change the place of the sponge2 the root varies its direction4 ,thrust a pole into the ground at a moderate distance from a climbing plant2 the plant directs its course to the pole1 lays hold of it1 and rises on it to its natural height4 ,a honeysuckle proceeds in its course till it be too long for supporting its weight2 and then strengthens itself by shooting into a spiral4 ,if it meet with another plant of the same kind1 they coalesce for mutual support1 the one screwing to the right1 the other to the left4 ,the claspers of briony shoot into a spiral1 and lay hold of whatever comes in their way for support4 ,if1 after completing a spiral of three rounds1 they meet with nothing1 they try again1 by altering their course4 ,by comparing these and other instances of seeming voluntary motion in plants1 with that share of life wherewith some of the inferior kind of animals are endowed1 we can scarce hesitate at ascribing the superiority to the former3 that is1 putting sensation out of the question4 ,muscles1 for instance1 are fixed to one place as much as plants are2 nor have they any power of motion1 besides that of opening and shutting their shells2 and in this respect1 they have no superiority over the motion of the sensitive plant3 nor does their action discover more sagacity1 or even so much1 as the roots of the plane tree1 mentioned by ,lord ,kames4#ajb ,beckmann's ,history of ,inventions and ,discoveries presents us with an interesting account of ,kitchen ,vegetables and ,garden ,flowers1 collected from numerous authorities2 some parts of which ,i shall now transcribe1 and incorporate with information derived from other sources4 ,our foreign kitchen vegetables have1 for the most part1 been procured from the southern countries1 but chiefly from ,italy2 and the number of them has rapidly increased1 in the course of the last two centuries4 ,many of them require laborious attention to make them thrive in our climate4 ,on the other hand1 some grow so readily1 and increase so much without culture1 even in the open fields1 that they have become like indigenous weeds1 as is the case with hops1 which at present abound in our hedges4 ,some plants1 however1 both indigenous and foreign1 which were formerly raised by art and used at the table1 are no longer cultivated1 because we have become acquainted with others more beneficial4 ,among many which were formerly cultivated1 but at present are no longer esteemed1 are the following4 ,winter-cresses1 erysimum barbarea2 common alexander1 smyrnium olosatrum1 which in the seventeenth century was used instead of celery2 bulbous chrophyllum1 the roots of which are still brought to market at ,vienna1 where they are boiled and eaten as salad4 ,rampion1 phyteuma spicata1 was formerly used in like manner4 ,the earth nut1 the tuberous roots of the lathyrus tuberosus1 which grows wild in many parts of ,germany1 is still cultivated in ,holland and in some districts on the ,rhine4 ,rocket1 brassica eruca1 in ,italian1 ruchette1 the young leaves of which were eaten by our forefathers as salad1 and is still retained in ,italy4 ,and there are several others either but imperfectly known or little regarded4 ,among the kitchen vegetables of which no certain traces are to be found in the works of the ancients1 is spinage1 spinacea oleracea4 ,its native country is unknown2 but the name is new1 and certainly derived from the nature of its prickly seeds4 ,as far as ,i know1 it first occurs in the year #acea1 among the food used by the monks on fast-days2 and at that time it was written spinagium or spinachium4 ,the ancients were acquainted with curled cabbages1 and even with some of those kinds which we call broccoli4 ,under this term is understood all those species1 the numerous young flower heads of which1 particularly in spring and autumn1 can be used like cauliflowers4 ,the broccoli used at present was however first brought from ,italy to ,france1 together with the name1 about the end of the sixteenth century4 ,our cauliflower1 about the same time1 was first brought from the ,levant to ,italy2 and in the end of the seventeenth century was transplanted thence to ,germany4 ,for a long time the seeds were procured annually from ,cyprus1 ,candia1 and ,constantinople1 by the ,venetians and ,genoese1 who sent them to every part of ,europe1 because at that time the art of raising seed was not understood4 ,the seeds of cauliflowers were brought from ,italy to ,antwerp1 where no seed was raised1 or such only as produced degenerate plants4 ,prosper ,alpinus1 in the year #aehh1 found abundance of this vegetable in ,egypt1 and from his account there is reason to conjecture it was then very little known in ,europe4 ,conrad ,gesner seems not to have been acquainted with it2 at any rate it is not mentioned by him in a list of the cabbage kind of plants4 ,even in the time of ,bauhin1 it must have belonged to those vegetables which were scarce2 because he has been so particular in naming the garden in which he saw it4 ,von ,hohberg1 who wrote about #afhb1 says that cauliflower1 a few years before1 had been brought to ,germany for the first time4--,it would be difficult to define all the species of the cabbage kind1 the leaves and flowers of which were used by the ancients as food2 but it would be a task still more arduous to determine those that have esculent roots4 ,potatoes were first imported into ,europe1 in the year #aefe1 by ,hawkins1 from ,santa-,fe1 ,new ,mexico1 ,spanish ,america4 ,they were planted for the first time in ,ireland1 by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 who had an estate in that kingdom4 ,the natural history of the potatoe was so little understood1 that a total ignorance which part of the plant was the proper food1 had nearly ruined any further attention towards its cultivation4 ,for perceiving green apples appear on the stems1 these were first supposed to be the fruit2 but on being boiled1 and finding them unpalatable1 or rather nauseous1 ,raleigh was disgusted with his acquisition1 nor thought any more of cultivating this plant4 ,accident1 however1 discovered the real fruit1 owing to the ground being turned over1 through necessity1 that very season2 and to his surprise1 a plentiful crop was found under ground1 which being boiled1 proved nourishing to the stomach1 and grateful to the taste4 ,on its utility being known1 its cultivation became general through ,ireland4 ,it found its way to this kingdom1 and was first planted on the western coast1 in consequence of a vessel containing some potatoes1 being wrecked at the village of ,formby1 in ,lancashire2 a place still famed for this excellent vegetable4 ,asparagus was first planted in ,england in the year #affb1 in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,artichokes were first introduced about the same time4 ,cos lettuces were originally brought from the island of ,cos1 near ,rhodes1 in the ,mediterranean4 ,turnips were brought into this country from ,hanover4 ,in the time of ,henry ,,viii1 several kinds of fruits and plants were cultivated in ,england1 as apricots1 and a fine gooseberry from ,flanders2 also salads1 carrots1 and other edible roots4 ,these vegetables were before this period imported from ,holland and ,flanders4 ,so that ,queen ,catherine1 to procure a salad1 had to dispatch a messenger to fetch it from those countries4 ,fruit seems to have been scarce in the time of ,henry ,,vii4 ,in an original manuscript1 signed by himself1 and kept in the ,remembrance office1 it appears that apples were not less than one or two shillings each1 and that a red one cost two shillings4 ,the great plenty and variety of vegetables displayed upon modern tables1 through every month in the year1 evidently shows what superior blessings we enjoy1 in this respect1 compared with those of our forefathers4 ,some of the flowers introduced into our gardens1 and now cultivated either on account of their beauty1 or the pleasantness of their smell1 have been procured from plants which grew wild1 and which have been changed1 or1 according to the opinion of florists1 improved by the art of the gardener4 ,the greater part of them however came originally from distant countries1 where they grow in as great perfection as ours1 without the assistance of man4 ,it is probable that the modern taste for flowers came from ,persia to ,constantinople1 and was imported thence to ,europe for the first time1 in the sixteenth century4 ,at any rate1 many of the productions of our flower-gardens were conveyed to us by that channel4 ,clusius and his friends1 in particular1 contributed very much to excite this taste2 and the new plants brought from both the ,indies by travellers who frequently visited these countries1 tended to increase it4 ,that period also produced some skilful gardeners1 who carried on a considerable trade in the roots and seeds of flowers2 and these1 likewise assisted to render it more general4 ,among these were ,john and ,vespasian ,robin1 gardeners to ,henry ,,iv1 of ,france1 and ,emanuel ,sweert1 gardener to the emperor ,rodolphus ,,ii1 from whom the botanists of that time procured many rarities1 as appears from different passages of their works4 ,simon de ,tovar1 a ,spanish physician1 brought the tuberose to ,europe before the year #aeid from the ,east ,indies1 where it grows wild in ,java and ,ceylon1 and sent some roots of it to ,barnard ,paludanus1 who first made this flower publicly known1 in his annotations on ,linschoten's voyage4 ,the full tuberoses were first procured from seed by one ,le ,cour1 at ,leyden1 who kept them scarce for some years1 by destroying the roots4 ,the propagation of them in most countries is attended with difficulties3 but in ,italy1 ,sicily1 and ,spain1 it requires no trouble2 and at present the ,genoese send a great many roots to ,england1 ,holland1 and ,germany4 ,the oldest botanists classed them among the hyacinths1 and their modern name polianthes tuberose was given them by ,linnus in his ,hortus ,cliffortianus4 ,the auricula1 primula auricula1 grows wild among the long moss covered with snow1 on the confines of ,switzerland and ,steyermark1 whence it was brought to our gardens1 where1 by art and accident1 it has produced more varieties than any other species of flower4 ,i do not know who first transplanted it from its native soil4 ,pluche says only that some roots were pulled up by ,walloon merchants1 and carried to ,brussels4 ,however1 this is certain1 that it was first cultivated with care by the ,flemings1 who were very successful in propagating it4 ,in the time of ,clusius1 most of the varieties of the auricula were scarce4 ,the common fritillary1 or chequered lily1 fritillaria meleagris1 was first observed in some parts of ,france1 ,hungary1 ,italy1 and other warm countries1 and introduced into gardens about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,at first it was called lilium variegatum2 but ,noel ,capperon1 an apothecary at ,orleans1 who collected a great many scarce plants1 gave it the name of fritillaria1 because the red or reddish-brown spots of the flower form regular squares4 ,it was first called meleagris by ,dodonus1 because the feathers of that fowl are variegated almost in the same manner4 ,the roots of the magnificent crown imperial1 fritillaria imperialis1 were about the middle of the sixteenth century brought from ,persia to ,constantinople1 and were carried thence to the ,emperor's garden at ,vienna1 from which they were dispersed all over ,europe4 ,this flower was first known by the ,persian name tusac1 until the ,italians gave it that of corona imperialis1 or crown imperial4 ,it has been imagined that the figure of it is to be found represented on the coins of ,herod1 and that1 on this account1 it has been considered as the lily so much celebrated in the ,scripture4 ,the ,persian lily1 fritillaria ,persica1 which is nearly related to it1 was made known almost about the same time4 ,the bulbs or roots were brought from ,susa to ,constantinople1 and for that reason it was formerly called lilium ,susianum4 ,african and ,french marigolds1 tagetes erecta and patula1 are indigenous in ,south ,america1 and were known to botanists under the name of caryophillus ,indicus1 from which is derived the ,french appellation illet d' ,inde4 ,cordus calls them1 from their native country1 tanacetum ,peruvianum4 ,among the most beautiful ornaments of our gardens1 is the bella-donna lily1 amaryllis formosissima1 the flower of which1 composed of six petals1 is of a deep red color1 and in a strong light1 or when the sun shines upon it1 has an agreeable yellow lustre like gold4 ,the first roots of it ever seen in ,europe were procured in #aeic1 on board a ship which had returned from ,south ,america1 by ,simon de ,tovar1 a physician at ,seville4 ,in the year following1 he sent a description of this flower to ,clusius2 and as he had at the same time transmitted some roots to ,bernard ,paludanus1 and count d',aremberg1 the former sent a dried flower1 and the latter an accurate drawing of it1 to ,clusius1 who published it in #afja4 ,one of the ,robins gave1 in #afjh1 a larger and more correct figure1 which was afterwards copied by ,bry1 ,parkinson1 and ,rudbeck2 but a complete description1 with a good engraving1 was published in #agdb1 by ,linnus1 who in #agcg gave to that genus the name by which they are known at present4 ,tovar received it from ,south ,america1 where it was found by ,plumier and ,barrere1 and at a later period by ,thiery de ,menonville4 ,at first it was classed with the narcissus1 and it was afterwards called lilio-narcissus1 because its flower resembled that of the lily1 and its roots those of the narcissus4 ,it was named flos-,jacobus1 because some imagined that they discovered in it a likeness to the badge of the knights of the order of ,st4 ,james in ,spain1 whose founder1 in the fourteenth century1 could not indeed have been acquainted with this beautiful amaryllis4 ,another species of this genus is the ,guernsey lily1 amaryllis ,sarniensis1 which in the magnificence of its flower is not inferior to the former4 ,this plant was brought from ,japan1 where it was found by ,kmpfer1 and also by ,thunberg1 during his travels some years ago in that country4 ,it was first cultivated in the beginning of the seventeenth century1 in the garden of ,john ,morin1 at ,paris1 where it flowered1 for the first time1 on the #gth of ,october1 #afcd4 ,it was then made known by ,jacob ,cornutus1 under the name of narcissus ,japonicus flore rutilo4 ,after this it was again noticed by ,john ,ray1 an ,englishman1 in #affe1 who called it the ,guernsey lily1 which name it still very properly bears4 ,a ship returning from ,japan was wrecked on the coast of ,guernsey1 and a number of the bulbs of this plant1 which were on board1 being cast on shore1 took root in that sandy soil4 ,as they soon increased1 and produced beautiful flowers1 they were observed by the inhabitants1 and engaged the attention of ,mr4 ,hatton1 the governor's son1 whose botanical knowledge is highly spoken of by ,ray1 and who sent roots of them to several of his friends who were fond of cultivating curious plants4 ,of this elegant flower ,dr4 ,douglass gave a description and figure in a small treatise published in #agbe1 which is quoted by ,linnus in his ,bibliotheca1 but not by ,haller4 ,of the numerous genus of the ranunculus1 florists1 to speak in a botanical sense1 have obtained a thousand different kinds2 for1 according to the manner in which they are distinguished by gardeners1 the varieties increase almost every summer4 ,the principal part of them1 however1 and those most esteemed1 were brought to us from the ,levant4 ,some were carried from that part of the world so early as in the time of the crusades2 but most of them have been introduced into ,europe from ,constantinople since the end of the sixteenth century1 particularly the ,persian ranunculus1 the varieties of which1 if ,i am not mistaken1 hold at present the first rank4 ,clusius describes both the single and the full flowers as new rarities4 ,this flower was in the highest repute during the time of ,mahomet ,,iv4 ,his ,grand ,vizir1 ,cara ,mustapha1 well known by his hatred against the ,christians and the siege of ,vienna1 in #afhc1 wishing to turn the ,sultan's thoughts to some milder amusement than that of the chase1 for which he had a strong passion1 diverted his attention to flowers2 and1 as he remarked that the ,emperor preferred the ranunculus to all others1 he wrote to the different ,pachas throughout the whole kingdom to send him seeds or roots of the most beautiful kinds4 ,the ,pachas of ,candia1 ,cyprus1 ,aleppo1 and ,rhodes1 paid most regard to this request2 and the elegant flowers which they transmitted to court were shut up in the seraglio as unfortunate offerings to the voluptuousness of the ,sultan1 till some of them1 by the force of money1 were at length freed from their imprisonment4 ,the ambassadors from the ,european courts1 in particular1 made it their business to procure roots of as many kinds as they could1 which they sent to their different sovereigns4 ,marseilles1 which at that period carried on the greatest trade to the ,levant1 received on this account these flowers very early2 and a person there1 of the name of ,malaval is said to have contributed very much to disperse them all over ,europe4 ,some of our most common flowering shrubs have been long introduced into the gardens3 the bay-tree has been cultivated more than two centuries2 it is mentioned by ,tusser1 in the list of garden plants inserted in his work called1 8,five ,hundred ,points of ,good ,husbandry10 printed in #aegc4 ,the laurel was introduced by ,cole1 a merchant at ,hampstead1 some years before #afbi1 when ,parkinson published his ,paradisus ,terrestris1 and at that time we had in our gardens oranges1 myrtles of three sorts1 lauristinus1 cypress1 phyllyrea1 alaternus1 arbuttus2 a cactus1 brought from ,bermuda1 and the passion-flower1 which last had flowered here1 and showed a remarkable peculiarity1 by rising from the ground near a month sooner1 if a seedling plant1 than if it grew from roots brought from ,virginia4 ,crust of the ,earth4 ,in the preceding section the ,author has noticed the superficies of the earth principally2 as its inequalities because of seas1 lakes1 rivers1 mountains1 vallies1 c4 ,the rocky1 and earthy masses and strata1 which cover the nucleus of our globe1 are scarcely mentioned at all4 ,whether the central parts of the earth be solid1 soft1 or hollow1 and filled with gaseous matter1 is not the subject of enquiry here3 but the composition and arrangement of the solid crust of the planet come under consideration4 ,as it regards the composition of the crust of the earth considered principally1 it consists of metallic oxides4 ,the bases of the different earths are well known to be metals4 ,the metal called ,silicon1 is the base of silex or flint--,aluminum is the metallic base of pure clay--,calcium1 of lime--,magnesium1 of magnesia--,potasium1 of potash1 c4 ,iron1 also1 enters largely into the composition2 and soda1 whose metallic base is sodium1 forms a considerable portion4 ,these bases1 at their creation1 existed in an uncombined state1 as did all the elementary substances4 ,when they entered into combination with oxygen they became earths1 which are simple metallic oxides1 which readily combine with the acids1 in which combination they are generally seen1 though not always1 at the earth's surface2 as carbonate of lime1 or common limestone2 the composition of which is calcium1 oxygen1 and carbonic acid4 ,rocks of the silicious family are not considered earthy salts1 though1 occasionally1 they may contain a small per cent4 of acid4 ,they are called earthy compounds4 ,granite is an instance2 composed of feldspar1 quartz1 and mica4 ,gneiss1 and mica slate are of similar composition1 though in different proportions1 and under different arrangements4 ,it will readily occur to the reader that there are some other earths1 and other substances also1 as the acids1 and gases1 which enter into the composition of the earth's crust1 though in small proportions1 and1 therefore1 are not considered principal ingredients1 and hence not noticed in this general sketch4 ,the rocky1 or stony substances1 composed of the above elements1 under the influence of chemical affinities1 and other principles1 are found in crystalline1 stratified1 amorphous1 and aggregate masses4 ,the position1 structure1 and contents of these masses will develope the natural history of the solid crust of our ,earth4 ,in order to facilitate this development1 the rocks have been divided1 according to their age into1 #a4 ,primitive ,rocks4 ,these were deposited first1 as is evident from their position1 being the lowest of all the rocks4 ,their name indicates their relative age4 #b4 ,transition ,rocks4 ,these rocks are deposited immediately above the primitive1 of course subsequently to them4 ,they are called transition rocks1 because they were deposited as the earth was passing from an uninhabitable to a habitable state1 as is evident from the fact that they contain the first traces of organized being imbedded in them4 #c4 ,secondary ,rocks4 ,these are deposited next in succession to the transition rocks1 and mark a third grand geological epoch1 by being almost altogether a mechanical deposition1 and lie horizontally when in situ1 and contain an increase of organic remains1 both in quantity and variety4 #d4 ,tertiary ,rocks4 ,these derive their name from their succession to the secondary1 and of course mark the fourth geological epoch in the history of the arrangement of the earth's crust1 which completed its redemption from the abyss of waters1 and fitted it for the habitation of man4 ,this division of the rocks designates the order of time in which they were successively deposited1 as is evident from their position4 ,considering these rocks in situ1 they may be reckoned general formations1 extended all around the globe in concentric circles1 as the coats of an onion around its centre1 in the order above stated1 beginning with the primitive rocks4 ,it is1 however1 well known that fractures and dislocations prevail to a great extent1 the result of violence subsequently to the deposition of these rocks1 removing large portions of them out of place4 ,but this circumstance need not interrupt the grand natural order of the construction of the earth's crust4 ,there is also a class of stony substances which follow no general laws1 either in regard to position1 form1 or age4 ,these are volcanic and igneous productions of every kind2 as basalt1 lava1 c4 ,these shall be mentioned subsequently4 ,in the above remarks we have an outline of the structure of the crust of the earth2 but in order to have a more satisfactory development1 the principal and distinctive features of the leading rock formations must be stated in order4 ,primitive ,rocks4 #a4 ,this class occupies the lowest position as a class1 yet the individual rocks of this class have a general order of position among themselves4 ,granite is lowest2 then ,gneiss--,mica ,slate--,clay ,slate--,primitive ,limestone--,porphyry--,sienite--and ,greenstone4 ,these rocks are sometimes observed alternating with each other1 and sometimes passing into each other4 ,but these circumstances do not effect the general order4 ,when the formations are undisturbed1 in penetrating them we should come to granite last2 and it is universally the lowest of all observed rock formations4 #b4 ,this class is generally1 indeed we may say1 universally1 crystalline in its structure4 ,each integrant particle is not a perfect crystal2 but throughout the mass there is a partial crystallization1 such as would be the result of an effort to crystallize perfectly1 under a great pressure2 in which case the particles would mutually interfere with each other4 ,the very fact of this crystallization implies first2 a prevailing state of unagitated solution of the crystallizing materials3 secondly3 that their crystallization was the effect of chemical action4 #c4 ,the primitive rocks contain no fragments1 either angular1 or rounded by attrition1 imbedded in them2 simply because no rocks preceded them1 and of course could not be broken up4 ,it is1 however1 to be carefully observed1 that perfect crystals of different kinds are found imbedded in primitive rocks4 ,when they prevail to a great extent they constitute porphyritic rocks4 ,it is evident that these crystals must have been formed before the consolidation of the including rock1 and must have been suspended in the solution which formed the rock upon crystallization4 #d4 ,the primitive rocks contain no traces of organized bodies4 ,this is an universal characteristic1 and proves incontestibly that they were formed previous to the existence of organized beings4 #e4 ,the primitive rocks are usually inclined at a high angle to the horizon1 and frequently are vertical4 ,this seems to be the result of crystallization1 as mechanical deposition would place them horizontally1 having the general bearing of the curve of the earth4 #f4 ,the principal primitive rocks are granite1 gneiss1 and mica slate4 ,they are composed of the same materials1 in different proportions2 viz2 feldspar1 quartz1 and mica4 ,these three minerals constitute granite1 when feldspar is the base1 and the quartz is embedded in a crystalline state1 and the mica interspersed generally4 ,they constitute gneiss1 when the feldspar decreases1 and the mica increases1 and is arranged in layers4 ,they compose mica slate1 when the feldspar almost disappears1 and the mica and quartz are intimately united4 #g4 ,though the primitive rocks occupy the lowest position in situ1 yet they sometimes form1 not only the summits of lofty mountains1 but sometimes the mountain mass itself1 and appear at the surface4 ,in these cases it is evident that they have been upheaved by a force acting beneath1 and forcing them through the superincumbent rocks1 which were rent1 and glided down the sides of the rising mass of primitive rocks1 leaving them bare and visible at the summit4 ,in this case the rocks which were uppermost before the mountain mass began to rise1 would be found at the foot of the mountain2 and the rocks which were next to the uppermost1 would be found immediately above them1 reclining on the side of the mountain2 and thus ascending through the ages of the rocks to the summit of the mountain1 where we find the primitive rock formations constituting its apex4 ,this phenomena of primitive rocks forming the apices of mountains may be explained differently4 ,the primitive rocks1 and other classes in succession1 may have been deposited in mountain masses1 and the upper rocks being softer and more exposed1 have yielded to the ravages of the elements1 and to the demolishing force of the deluge1 and thus laid the primitive rocks bare4 ,the first seems to be the most probable supposition4 #h4 ,it is beyond a doubt1 that in some instances1 an upheaving force has operated1 and elevated the granitic summits of mountains2 and so powerful was the upheaving force that the blocks of granite have broke at the apex of the elevation1 and some of them hang over perpendicularly in awful grandeur2 and others have rolled down the sides far into the plains below4 ,this theory of the formations of some of the principal mountains would be firmly established in every mind1 if every one could have an opportunity of inspecting them without prejudice4 ,the primitive rocks would be seen shooting up from the centre of the mountain1 into lofty pyramidal elevations1 resembling1 sometimes1 lofty spires1 or cupolas2 and sometimes the summit is rounded off as a dome4 ,the rocks are in a verticle position1 which proves they could not have been deposited there from a state of quiet repose4 ,sometimes two summits project from the same common base1 having an intervening valley or depression between them4 ,in this case1 the rocks which lay uppermost before the mass was upheaved1 upon upheaving1 broke and glided down the sides1 on which they depend in magnificent drapery2 but the portion of them which was situated between the uprising summits1 not being able to escape1 is found in the valley which is formed between the peaks4 ,in some instances1 as the mass is elevating itself it bears up upon it a large mass of the over-laying rock1 which forms the apex of the mountain1 crowning it as a stately castle crowns the summit of the hill on which it is built4 ,in this case the crowning mass is entirely different1 and perfectly distinct from the subjacent materials4 ,for some further remarks on the structure1 and formation of mountains1 and mountain masses1 and the deluge1 see ,theory of the ,earth1 end of ,sect4 #b1 chap4 iv4 #i4 ,as there was a rapid and irresistible chemical action1 at a very high temperature1 going on during this first great geological period1 and the whole globe in almost omnipotent fermentation1 there is no difficulty in accounting for the irregularities1 contortions1 dislocations and fractures which we observe in the earth4 ,this whole process was anterior to the existence of organized being4 ,transition ,rocks4 #a4 ,this class was deposited subsequently to the primitive rocks1 and after they had consolidated4 ,this is evident from the fact that1 in their natural order1 they overlay the primitive1 which could not be the case1 unless they were deposited subsequently1 any more than the roof of the house could be put on before the foundation was laid4 #b4 ,their structure is evidently the result both of chemical action1 and mechanical deposition4 ,these principles appear to have acted sometimes conjointly2 and at other times to have alternated4 ,hence the crystallization is more imperfect than in the primitive1 and occasionally seems to disappear4 #c4 ,from the complex action under which they were deposited1 they are generally1 neither verticle nor horizontal1 but inclined about between these two positions4 #d4 ,they were deposited as the primitive chaotic ocean was subsiding1 and the elevations of the new-born earth had recently emerged4 ,hence they are found next to the summits of the primitive mountains1 on their flanks4 #e4 ,the transition rocks contain some fragments of all the primitive class4 ,this would be the natural consequence of the summits of primitive rock formations being exposed to the fury of the elements2 which would rend portions of them1 and thus deposit the fragments mechanically in the floods subsiding below on the flanks of the mountains4 #f4 ,in these rocks we meet with the first traces of organized being4 7,,silliman47 ,this fact is irresistible proof that these rocks were deposited subsequently to the existence of the enclosed remains4 ,the probability is1 that the animals and vegetables found in transition rocks1 were created at the commencement of the transition period1 and their remains deposited as the rocks were successively deposited4 ,it is remarkable that these organized beings belonged to genera now extinct4 ,they were of an inferior class1 having neither the delicacy1 complexity1 or sensibility of those which we now see4 ,they were crude1 and gross1 corresponding to the condition of the earth at the time of their existence4 ,it is also evident that they lived1 and died1 and were inhumed in the same places2 as they present1 generally1 no marks of violence1 and their most delicate parts are well preserved4 ,these organic remains occupy vast districts of country1 and constitute1 principally1 large masses of marbles1 sometimes many hundreds of feet in the interior of mountains4 ,they are identified with the rock1 and frequently impart to it its beauty4 #g4 ,the reader will readily perceive that this class of rocks marks the commencement of sensitive existence4 ,and it would seem1 from an examination of fossil remains generally1 that the creation of animals and vegetables was progressive1 produced with structures and functions adapted to the condition of the globe1 at the time of their creation4 ,secondary ,rocks4 #a4 ,these rocks are so called1 because they are the second great deposit1 after the grand foundation of the primitive rocks were laid4 ,of course they point out the third great geological period4 #b4 ,their position is horizontal1 corresponding to the general curve of the earth4 ,this regards their natural position4 ,they are found1 under particular circumstances1 inclined to the horizon4 ,they occupy a lower position on the sides of mountains1 resting on the transition class1 which is immediately subjacent in natural order4 #c4 ,this class is much less chemical1 indeed very little so1 in its structure4 ,it is the result of mechanical deposition1 after the chemical action had nearly ceased in the great primitive and retiring abyss4 #d4 ,these rocks abound more in fragments of other rocks1 and in the remains of organized beings1 than the preceding class4 ,this would be natural1 as a greater extent of the earth's surface would be exposed to the elements1 and thus the destruction would be greater3 and as the condition of the earth was better for sustaining sensitive beings1 these would of course be more abundant both in kind and number4 ,it is also well ascertained1 from the fossil remains found in this class of rocks1 that during their deposition1 there existed many species of animals and plants which do not now exist3 that many of the animals were monsters of incredible size and voracity2 of such hugeness1 grossness1 and ferocity as were suitable to the then prevailing condition of the earth4 ,the researches of the last ten or fifteen years1 in ,england1 have brought to light the skeletons of animals1 approaching the lizard genus1 from sixty to seventy feet long66 ,they are abundant in ,england1 and occasionally found on the continent4 ,who can say1 but that the other genera of animals then existing1 were also as much more vast1 and misshapen than their present existing types8 ,a single glance at the geological reminiscences of this ancient period must convince any observer1 that the vegetable1 and specially the animal genera then existing were really astonishing both in size1 shape1 and nature4 ,it becomes a question of some interest1 whether these huge animals ceased to exist1 having found their graves in this secondary class of rocks1 before the existence of man8 ,there are many reasons which induce a supposition they did cease to exist4 ,man could scarcely have been safe in the land of these wonderful creatures4 ,moreover1 it is probable their constitutions were adapted to the condition of the world at this period1 which we suppose to have been more gross in its air1 and water1 and more ardent in its climate2 as it had not yet settled1 and dried2 and the waters had not yet sufficiently subsided1 to render the earth the abode of the more delicate land-animals1 birds1 and specially man4 ,it is probable the earth was marshy1 with numerous inland lakes1 to a considerable extent2 the waters still somewhat turbid2 the air gross and moist2 and the temperature still very high4 ,such a state of the planet would suit the constitutions of such monsters as the ichthyosaurus1 and plesiosaurus1 which would perish as the condition of the globe became more pure1 and its temperature reduced4 ,tertiary ,rocks4 #a4 ,these rocks were deposited as the earth was actually1 and finally redeemed from water1 and became fit for the abode of the more delicate and gentle land-animals and birds4 ,hence1 it is very rare1 if ever1 the fossil remains of animals which live wholly on land1 are found below this class of rocks4 ,but man's companion animals are found1 as elephants1 deer1 horse1 sheep1 c4 #b4 ,this class is not so extensively spread as the preceding classes4 ,it includes the diluvial and alluvial formations1 and indicate an alternation of fresh and sea waters in its deposition4 ,this class covers the low countries as they slope from primitive districts towards the sea4 ,such grand vallies are called diluvial1 because deposited chiefly by the great primitive ocean1 as it retired through its last stages to its resting beds4 ,the deposites at the mouths of rivers1 or any other deposites from causes now in operation1 are called alluvial4 #c4 ,some of the principal members of this class are3 #a4 ,argillaceous1 and sandy depositions from the sea4 #b4 ,marl1 and gypsum1 from fresh water4 #c4 ,sand1 and sandstone1 with or without shells1 from sea water4 #d4 ,limestone1 and silicious millstone grit1 from fresh water4 ,conclusion4 ,from what has been said above we may clearly deduce the following particulars4 #a4 ,the crust of the earth is constructed of four great general classes of rocks3 the primitive at the foundation2 the transition1 laying immediately over the primitive2 the secondary immediately above these2 and the tertiary at the surface4 ,in this arrangement we consider the rocks in their natural position4 #b4 ,the position1 structure1 and organic remains of these classes1 clearly point out a grand geological epoch1 corresponding to the time of the deposition of each class1 and thus indicate their relative ages4 ,they indicate also the successive conditions of the globe as it passed from its gross chaotic state1 to a state suitable for the habitation of man1 and his companion animals4 #c4 ,the natural history of the ,,primitive ,,world1 as deduced from ,,geological ,,facts1 ,,corresponds expressly in the ,,order and ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,events1 ,,with ,,the ,,account ,,given ,,by ,,moses4 #d4 ,the gradual retiring of the primitive chaotic ocean1 would give sufficient time for the production of those immense beds of marine animals which are found in the most solid and elevated mountains4 ,during the prevalence of the sea1 these beds would form at the bottom1 and when it retired they would consolidate1 with the mineral deposites1 into rocks4 ,in this case the process is supposed to go on in a quiet ocean1 peaceably retiring1 and leaving the deposition in layers4 ,but we must not suppose the waters were always still1 and peacefully retiring4 ,if so1 there could not have been such distinct and different deposites1 in which different substances sometimes alternate4 ,moreover1 in this case there would have been but one deposition1 which would have been regular and continuous1 changing its character simply by almost imperceptible degrees1 and extending all round the globe1 as the globe was at first wholly immersed in water4 ,but this is not the case4 ,there is every reason to believe there were violent agitations1 earthquakes1 volcanos1 tempests1 deluges1 c1 occasionally1 during the subsidence of the primitive waters4 ,hence the dislocations1 contortions1 protrusions of lower rocks through upper ones1 and the upheaving of the bottom of the seas in various places into ridges1 and mountains1 producing a tremendous deflux of waters frequently1 which would wash out channels and vallies1 and carry off fragments of rocks1 c1 into the waters below4 ,hence it is evident that the elevations on the earth's surface have been partly caused by subterranean force upheaving them2 and partly by currents of water wearing away channels1 defiles1 vallies1 c4 ,the natural result of upheaving1 in mass1 the bed of the ocean1 would be to protrude a body in which were embedded the marine exuvi throughout the whole depth of the marine deposites4 ,hence mountain masses are sometimes composed of limestone1 in which are found immense quantities of sea shells1 throughout the mass1 and entering intimately into the composition of the rock4 ,this1 without doubt1 is the true origin of these marine mountain remains4 ,some have been disposed to attribute them to the deluge in the days of ,noah2 but this is impossible for two reasons4 #a4 ,the deluge did not continue a sufficient length of time to allow these animals to be produced in such quantities1 or to bury them so deeply in the earth4 #b4 ,the rising waters could not have carried them to their present places2 because1 in that case they would be found at the surface of the earth1 or near it exclusively2 whereas they are found buried thousands of feet in mountains1 and embedded in solid rocks4 ,they could not have been transported by the waters1 because they would have suffered violence1 and been fractured1 and compressed2 which is not generally the case4 ,they are found perfectly preserved1 though of such delicate structure as would seem to have been destroyed by the least violence4 ,hence it is evident they are buried where they lived and died in perfect tranquillity4 ,it is true1 there are instances in which the position and nature of the animals clearly prove that they were inhumed by some sudden catastrophe4 ,for instance3 when we see the fossil remains of delicate1 and very active fish so placed as to indicate they were caught1 we are convinced they perished suddenly4 ,but this case is always local1 and may have been produced by an earthquake1 or volcanic action4 ,that the primitive chaotic ocean occupied the earth a long time1 generally in a state of tranquillity1 though occasionally1 strongly agitated1 and rising into overwhelming deluges and gradually retired1 is evident also1 from the fact1 that the most delicate plants1 leaves1 and flowers are found inhumed1 as the marine animals above1 in a state of perfect preservation4 ,all the above phenomena took place prior to the creation of man4 ,appendix4 ,there is another class of rocky substances which obey no settled laws1 and1 therefore1 are noticed here in an appendix3 ,they are rocks and substances of evident igneous origin3 as basalt1 obsidium1 lavas of all textures1 and trap rocks frequently1 perhaps generally4 ,these have one common origin3 they are also of similar composition generally2 and in this approach the composition of primitive rocks4 ,they have been evidently ejected from the bowels of the earth in a melted state4 ,they are found in almost all countries2 and in some cases form mountains1 and cover the surfaces of large districts to an astonishing depth3 as in the north of ,ireland1 more than #ejj feet thick1 and over an area of #hjj square miles4 7,,ure47 ,being protruded from beneath in a melted state they are found injected through the superincumbent rocks in shafts or veins of various sizes1 from several inches to several feet4 ,sometimes being unable to rend the solid rocks above they are injected between their strata4 ,they are generally somewhat crystalline in structure1 because deposited on the same principles as granite1 when undisturbed4 ,from their position1 superficial extent1 and quantity1 we infer they are the products of all ages1 and of immense igneous action1 seated at an unknown distance beneath the surface of the earth4 ,hence we may have some idea of the vast amount of igneous action which operated in the early ages of our planet4 ,it must have been violently shaken from the centre to the surface4 ,we may well ask1 in the language of a ,german philosopher1 ,who can enumerate all the blessings which the vegetable kingdom affords8 ,it is at least manifest that all the arrangements of ,providence1 in this respect1 have for their grand object the advantage of the creatures4 ,god has provided for the wants of each individual4 ,he has assigned to each that plant1 which is most proper for its nourishment and support4 ,there is not a plant on the earth1 but what has its particular destination and use4 ,what sentiments of veneration and gratitude should we feel1 at the sight of lawns1 gardens1 fields1 and meadows6 ,here his beneficent care has collected all that is necessary for the comfort and preservation of the inhabitants of the earth4 ,here1 oh ,god6 thou openest thy hand1 and satisfiest the desire of every living creature6 ,here every herb1 ear of corn1 flower1 and tree1 proclaims thy goodness6 ,how closely might our modern geologists walk with ,god1 if1 like a ,boyle1 and a ,ray1 every new discovery led them to an increasing admiration of ,divine wisdom and omnipotent power6#ajc for 8,philosophy1 baptiz'd ,in the pure fountain of eternal love1 ,has eyes indeed2 and viewing all she sees ,as meant to indicate a ,god to man1 ,gives him his praise1 and forfeits not her own40 ,to meet ,god in the immensity of his works1 and trace him in the operations of his hand1 gives expansion to intellect1 opens new sources of enjoyment1 and greatly exalts the character of man4 ,the sacred writers conduct us to the forest1 and1 after selecting particular trees1 press on our attention their emblematical uses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,iii4--,,minerals4 ,gold -- ,silver -- ,platina -- ,mercury -- ,copper -- ,iron -- ,tin -- ,lead -- ,nickel -- ,zinc -- ,palladium -- ,bismuth -- ,antimony -- ,tellurium -- ,arsenic -- ,cobalt -- ,manganese -- ,tungsten -- ,molybdenum -- ,uranium -- ,titanium -- ,chromium -- ,columbium or ,tantalium -- ,cerium -- ,oxmium -- ,rodium -- ,iridium -- ,religious ,improvement4 ,some parts of the earth's surface are barren and unfruitful1 yielding no pleasant herb for cattle1 nor vegetable for the service of man4 ,but the bowels of the earth in such places are commonly stored with rich mines1 and useful minerals4 ,without these what could we do in the field1 the house1 the market1 or crossing the seas8 ,surely1 the infinitely wise ,architect has not made any thing in vain6 ,it is deserving of notice1 says ,mr4 ,parkes1 that if minerals had been placed on the surface of the globe1 they would have occupied the greatest part of the earth1 and prevented its cultivation4 ,their being deposited below1 is a proof of management and design worthy of that ,being who could furnish so great a variety of this class of bodies4 ,there are twenty-seven distinct metals1 which possess properties very different and distinct from each other4 ,for a knowledge of most of these1 we are indebted to the more perfect modes of analysis1 which modern chemistry has afforded4 ,the ancients were acquainted with only seven4 ,the properties of these were tolerably well known to the early chemists1 who acquired their knowledge from the alchemists4 ,metals are divided into two classes1 by modern chemists4 ,the one contains the malleable1 and the other the brittle metals4 ,this last class is sometimes subdivided into those which are easily1 and those which are difficultly fused4 ,the malleable metals are eleven1 namely1 ,gold1 ,silver1 ,platina1 ,mercury1 ,copper1 ,iron1 ,tin1 ,lead1 ,nickel1 ,zinc1 and ,palladium4 ,the brittle metals are ,bismuth1 ,antimony1 ,tellurium1 ,arsenic1 ,cobalt1 ,manganese1 ,tungsten1 ,molybdenum1 ,uranium1 ,titanium1 ,chromium1 ,columbium or ,tantalium1 ,cerium1 ,oxmium1 ,rodium1 and ,iridium4 ,gold is the heaviest of all metals excepting platina2 it is neither very elastic nor hard2 but so malleable and ductile1 that it may be drawn into very fine wire1 or beaten into leaves so thin as to be carried away by the slightest wind4 ,dr4 ,black has calculated1 that it would take fourteen millions of films of gold1 such as is on some fine gilt wire1 to make the thickness of one inch3 whereas fourteen million leaves of common printing paper make near three quarters of a mile4 ,according to ,fourcroy1 the ductility of gold is such1 that one ounce of it is sufficient to gild a silver wire more than thirteen hundred miles long4 ,such is the tenacity of gold1 that a wire #a-afth of an inch in diameter will support a weight of #ejj pounds without breaking4 ,gold may be known from all other metals by its bright yellow color1 and its weight4 ,its specific gravity is #ai4c2 when heavier1 it must be combined with platina2 when lighter1 and of a deep yellow color1 it is alloyed with copper2 and if of a pale color1 with silver4 ,arabia had formerly its gold mines4 ,the gold of ,ophir1 so often mentioned in ,scripture1 must be that which was procured in ,arabia1 on the coast of the ,red ,sea4 ,we are assured by ,sanchoniathon1 and by ,herodotus1 quoted by ,eusebius1 that the ,phnicians carried on a considerable traffic in gold1 even before the days of ,job1 who thus speaks of it1 8,then shall thou lay up gold as dust1 and the gold of ,ophir as stones of the brooks40 ,gold is found in ,peru1 as well as in several other parts of the world4 ,it generally occurs in a metallic state1 and most commonly in the form of grains4 ,it frequently is met with in the ores of other metals1 but is chiefly found in the warmer regions of the earth4 ,it abounds in the sands of many ,african rivers1 in ,south ,america1 and in ,india4 ,several rivers in ,france contain gold in their sands4 ,it has also been discovered in ,hungary1 ,sweden1 ,norway and ,ireland4 ,near ,pamplona1 in ,south ,america1 single laborers have collected upwards of #bjj worth of wash-gold in a day4 ,in the province of ,sonora1 the ,spaniards discovered a plain1 fourteen leagues in extent1 in which they found wash-gold at the depth of only #af inches2 the grains were of such a size that some of them weighed #gb ounces1 and in such quantities1 that in a short time1 with a few laborers1 they collected #a1jjj marks1 7equal in value to #ca1bai #ajs4 sterling17 even without taking time to wash the earth which had been dug4 ,they found one grain which weighed #acb ounces2 this is deposited in the royal cabinet at ,madrid1 and is worth #ejj4ajd ,the native gold found in ,ireland was in grains1 from the smallest size to upwards of two ounces4 ,only two grains were found of greater weight1 one of which weighed #e1 and the other #bb ounces4#aje ,gold mines were formerly worked in ,scotland2 and indeed now1 grains of this metal are often found in brooks after a great flood4 ,it has been said1 that at the nuptials of ,james ,v1 covered dishes filled with coins of ,scotch gold were presented to the guests by way of dessert4 ,standard gold of ,great ,britain is twenty-two parts pure gold1 and two parts copper2 it is therefore called gold of 8twenty-two carots fine40 ,some have thought that ,moses made use of sulphuret of potass to render the calf of gold adored by the ,israelites soluble in water4 ,stahl wrote a long dissertation to prove that this was the case4 ,silver is a heavy1 sonorous1 brilliant1 white metal2 exceedingly ductile1 and of great malleability and tenacity4 ,it possesses these latter properties in so great a decree1 that it may be beaten into leaves much thinner than any paper1 or drawn into wire as fine as a hair without breaking4 ,fifty square inches of silver leaf weigh not more than a grain4 ,the specific gravity of silver is #aj4ejj4 ,when perfectly pure1 it is a very soft metal4 ,to know when it is pure1 heat it in a common fire1 or in the flame of a candle3 if it be alloyed1 it will become tarnished2 but if it be pure1 it will remain perfectly white4 ,our standard silver is formed with fifteen parts pure silver1 and one part copper4 ,silver is found in various parts of the world in a metallic state2 also in the states of a sulphuret1 a salt1 and an oxide4 ,native silver is found chiefly in the mines of ,potosi4 ,sulphuret of silver occurs in the silver mines of ,germany1 ,hungary1 ,saxony and ,siberia4 ,oxides of silver are also common in some of the silver mines in ,germany4 ,silver has lately been found in a copper-mine in ,cornwall4#ajf ,most of our lead mines also afford it1 particularly some in ,scotland4 ,in the county of ,antrim1 in ,ireland1 there is a mine so rich1 that every thirty pounds of lead ore is said to produce one pound of silver4 ,by the silver which was produced from the lead mines in ,cardiganshire1 ,sir ,hugh ,middleton is said to have cleared two thousand pounds a month1 and that this enabled him to undertake the great work of bringing the ,new ,river from ,ware to ,london4 ,silver was used in commerce eleven hundred years before the foundation of ,rome4 ,moses1 says1 8,and ,abraham weighed to ,ephron the silver1 which he had named in the audience of the sons of ,heth1 four hundred shekels of silver1 current money with the merchant40 ,at this period silver was not coined1 but being only in bars1 or ingots1 in commerce was always weighed4 ,in the museum of the ,academy of ,sciences at ,st4 ,petersburgh1 is a piece of native silver from ,china of such firmness1 that coins have been struck from it without its having passed through the crucible4#ajg ,platina1 the heaviest of all metals1 is nearly as white as silver1 and difficultly fusible1 though by great labor may be rendered malleable1 so as to be wrought into utensils like other metals4 ,it will resist the strongest heat of our fires without melting1 and1 like iron1 is capable of being welded when properly heated4 ,it is found in grains1 in a metallic state1 at ,st4 ,domingo3 and also at ,santa ,fe1 in ,peru1 in the language of whose inhabitants it means little silver4 ,it has recently been discovered in an ore of silver found in ,estremadura1 existing in its metallic form4 ,this metal was first introduced into ,england by ,charles ,wood1 who brought it from ,jamaica in the year #agda4 ,it has been drawn into wire less than the two thousandth part of an inch in diameter4 ,the specific gravity of hammered platina is #bc4ff1 which is more than double that of lead4 ,mercury1 in the temperature of our atmosphere1 is a fluid metal1 having the appearance of melted silver3 in this state it is neither ductile nor malleable2 very volatile when heated2 extremely divisible2 and is the heaviest of all metals except platina and gold4 ,we see it always in a fluid state1 because it is so fusible that a small portion of caloric will keep it in a state of fluidity2 but when submitted to a sufficient degree of cold1 is similar to other metals1 and may be beaten into plates4 ,it has been determined1 that at #ci degrees below zero of ,fahrenheit's thermometer is the point at which the congelation of mercury takes place4 ,in the winter of #agii1 ,mr4 ,pepys froze #ef pounds of it into a solid and malleable mass4 ,at ,hudson's ,bay1 frozen mercury has lately been reduced to sheets as thin as paper1 by beating it upon an anvil that had previously been reduced to the same temperature4 ,it is a substance so volatile that it may be distilled like water2 and is sometimes purified in this way from mixture with other metals1 being often adulterated with lead and bismuth4 ,it is also so elastic when in a state of vapor1 that it is capable of bursting the strongest vessels4 ,according to ,mr4 ,biddle1 its specific gravity at #dg degrees above zero is #ac4ede2 but when frozen into a solid at #dj below zero1 #ae4fab4 ,this metal is brought to ,europe from the ,east ,indies and ,peru2 but is found in greater abundance at ,almaden in ,spain1 where it is extracted from the ore by distillation4 ,the quicksilver mine of ,guanca ,velica1 in ,peru1 is #agj fathoms in circumference1 and #dhj deep4 ,in this profound abyss are streets1 squares1 and a chapel where religious mysteries on all festival occasions are celebrated4 ,millions of flambeaux are continually burning to enlighten this subterranean abode4 ,this mine generally affects those who work in it with convulsions4 ,notwithstanding this1 the unfortunate victims of an insatiable avarice are crowded all together1 and plunged naked into this abyss4 ,tyranny has invented this refinement in cruelty1 to render it impossible for any thing to escape its restless vigilance4 8,thus in the dark ,peruvian mine confin'd1 ,lost to the cheerful commerce of mankind1 ,the groaning captive wastes his life away1 ,for ever exil'd from the realms of day2 ,while1 all forlorn and sad1 he pines in vain ,for scenes he never shall possess again40 ,mercury is raised in such abundance in ,spain1 that in the year #agag there remained above #a1bjj tons of it in the magazines at ,almaden1 after the necessary quantity had been exported to ,peru for the use of the silver mines there4 ,the quicksilver mines of ,idria1 a town in the circle of ,lower ,austria1 have been wrought constantly for #cjj years1 and are thought on the average to yield above #ajj tons of quicksilver annually4 ,mercury is found also in ,hungary and ,china2 it occurs most commonly in argillaceous schistus1 lime-stones1 and sand-stones4 ,it is likewise found in ,sweden1 amalgamated with silver1 and frequently combined with sulphur4 ,running mercury is seen in globules1 in some earths and stones in ,america1 and is collected from the clefts of rocks4 ,cinnabar1 or sulphuret of mercury1 is also generally found in those countries which produce the fluid metal4#ajh ,copper is of a red color1 very sonorous and elastic1 and the most ductile of all metals1 except gold4 ,a wire #a-ajth of an inch will support near #cjj pounds4 ,its specific gravity is #h4ff4 ,it will not burn so easily as iron2 which is evident from its not striking fire by collision4 ,copper-mines have been worked in ,china1 ,japan1 ,sumatra1 and in the north of ,africa4 ,native copper is generally found in ,siberia1 ,sweden1 ,hungary1 and some parts of ,france4 ,copper is found in several parts of ,england and ,wales1 particularly in ,cornwall1 and the ,isles of ,man and ,anglesea4 ,the copper pyrites found in ,cornwall are sulphuret of copper4 ,anglesea formerly yielded more than twenty thousand tons of copper annually3 the vein of metal was originally more than seventy feet thick4 ,copper mines have not been worked in ,england above #afj years4 ,before that period1 whenever the workmen met with copper ore in the tin mines of ,cornwall1 they threw it aside as useless1 no ,english miner at that time knowing how to reduce it to a metallic state4 ,to chemical science1 therefore1 we are indebted for such an ample supply of this valuable metal4 ,it is asserted1 that a large copper mine has been worked for some time in the state of ,new-,jersey in ,america1 and that the ore raised there is brought to this country to be smelted4 ,native oxides of copper are found in ,cornwall and in ,south ,america4 ,carbonate of copper occurs as a natural production in two varieties1 called malachite and mountain green4 ,sulphate of copper1 of a very rich quality1 is also found in the state of ,connecticut4 ,the stream in its course destroys vegetation2 and where it settles in places near the spring1 large lumps of metallic salt are collected4 ,bishop ,watson relates1 that the waters which issue from the copper mines in the county of ,wicklow1 in ,ireland1 are so impregnated with sulphate of copper1 that one of the workmen having accidentally left a shovel in this water1 found it some weeks after so incrusted with copper1 that he imagined it was changed into copper4 ,the proprietors of the mines1 in pursuance of this hint1 made proper receptacles for the water1 and now find these streams of as much interest to them as the mines4 ,when miners wish to know whether an ore contains copper1 they drop a little nitric acid upon it2 after a short time they dip a feather into the acid1 and then wipe it over the polished blade of a knife2 and if there be the smallest quantity of copper in it1 the copper will be precipitated on the knife4#aji ,a mass of native copper has been found in a valley in the ,brazils1 containing #b1fff pounds weight4 ,the description of it in the ,memoirs of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences at ,lisbon is said to be very interesting1 as the largest specimen ever found before this weighs only ten pounds4 ,in the museum of the ,academy of ,sciences at ,st4 ,petersburgh1 is a piece of native malleable copper of extraordinary magnitude1 found on the copper island lying to the east of ,kamschatka4#aaj ,the ,romans were acquainted with this metal2 for the only money used by that people1 till the #dheth year of their city1 was made of it1 when silver began to be coined4 ,in ,sweden1 houses are covered with copper4#aaa ,iron is of a livid blueish color1 and one of the hardest and most elastic of all metals4 ,when dissolved1 it has a nauseous styptic taste1 and being strongly rubbed emits a peculiar smell4 ,it is attracted by the magnet1 and has the property of becoming itself magnetic4 ,it is fused with great difficulty1 but gives fire by collision with flint4 ,an iron wire only one-tenth of an inch in diameter1 will carry a weight of #dej pounds without breaking2 and a wire of tempered steel1 of the same size1 will carry one of about #ijj pounds4 ,iron becomes softer by heat1 and has capability of being welded to another piece of the same metal so as to form one entire mass2 and this may be done without melting either of the pieces4 ,no other metal1 except platina1 possesses this singular properly1 which renders it most suitable for every common purpose4 ,its specific gravity varies from #g4f to #g4h4 ,this valuable metal is plentifully diffused throughout nature1 pervading almost every thing1 so as to be detected even in plants and animal fluids1 and is the chief cause of color in earths and stones4 ,it is found in large masses1 and in various states1 in the bowels of the earth4 ,in the museum of the ,academy of ,sciences at ,petersburgh is a mass of native iron twelve hundred pounds weight4 ,in the northern parts of the world whole mountains are formed of iron ore1 and many of these ores are magnetic4 ,of the ,english ores1 the common ,lancashire hematite produces the best iron4 ,this metal is found in solution in many natural springs1 and gives the character to all our chalybeate waters3 besides which1 there are some springs which contain iron in combination with sulphuric acid4 ,these are called vitriolated waters4 ,there are several in this land2 but those at ,chadwell near ,london1 and at ,swansea in ,glamorganshire1 are probably the most important4 ,as this metal possesses so many properties1 exists in so many different states1 and is capable of being applied to such a variety of excellent purposes1 it is certainly the most useful of all the products of the mineral kingdom4 ,it was used in the time of ,moses1 in whose writings ,canaan is mentioned as 8a land whose stones were iron40 ,the ,greeks understood the method of tempering it4 ,homer1 in the ninth book of his ,odyssey1 describes the fire-brand driven into the eye of ,polyphemus1 as hissing like hot iron immersed in water4 ,the advantages which we derive from the magnetic property of iron are incalculable4 ,to this we are indebted for the mariner's compass1 by which man is enabled to traverse the ocean1 open a friendly or commercial intercourse with every quarter of the globe1 and to steer his course with the utmost accuracy4 8,tall navies hence their doubtful way explore1 ,and ev'ry product waft from ev'ry shore2 ,hence meagre want expell'd1 and sanguine strife1 ,for the mild charms of cultivated life40 ,iron may be moulded by the hammer into any form1 and united into as many parts as the workman pleases1 without rivets or solder4 ,were it not for this peculiar quality1 many works of great importance could never have been executed4 ,a most stupendous fabric1 achieved by means of welded iron is the ,chinese bridge of chains1 hung over a dreadful precipice in the neighborhood of ,kingtung1 to connect two high mountains4 ,the chains are twenty-one in number1 stretched over the valley1 and bound together by other cross chains1 so as to form a perfect road from the summit of one immense mountain to that of the other4 ,some idea of the extent and importance of the iron trade may be conceived from the following account1 abridged from ,malkin's ,scenery1 c1 of ,south ,wales4 8,merthyr ,tydvill was a very inconsiderable village till the year #agee1 when the late ,mr4 ,bacon obtained a lease of the iron and coal-mines of a district at least eight miles long1 and four wide1 for #ii years4 ,since then these mines have been leased by him to four distinct companies1 and produce to the heirs of ,mr4 ,bacon a clear annual income of ten thousand pounds4 ,the part occupied by ,mr4 ,crawshay contains now the largest set of iron works in the kingdom4 ,he constantly employs more than two thousand workmen1 and pays weekly for wages1 coal1 and other expenses of the works1 twenty-five thousand pounds4 ,the number of smelting furnaces belonging to the different companies at ,merthyr is about sixteen4 ,around each of these furnaces are erected forges and rolling-mills1 for converting pig into plate and bar-iron4 ,these works have conferred so much importance on the neighborhood1 that the obscure village of ,merthyr ,tydvill has become the largest town in ,wales1 and contains more than twelve thousand inhabitants40 ,tin is white1 a little elastic1 and so exceedingly soft and ductile1 that it may be beaten out into leaves thinner than paper4 ,it is much more combustible than many of the metals2 and is soluble in all the mineral acids4 ,its specific gravity is #g4bia1 or about #eaf pounds to the cubic foot4 ,this metal is found in ,germany1 ,saxony1 ,south ,america1 the ,east ,indies1 and in ,england1 chiefly in ,cornwall and ,devonshire4 ,it must have been known very early1 as it is mentioned in the books of ,moses4 ,homer in his ,iliad mentions the use of tin4 ,pliny says1 that the ,romans learned the method of tinning their culinary vessels from the ,gauls4 ,they used tin to alloy copper1 for making those elastic plates which they employ in shooting darts from their warlike machines4 ,the addition of tin to copper renders that metal more fluid1 and disposes it to assume all the impressions of the mould4 ,it was probably with a view to this1 that it was used by the ancient ,romans in their coinage4 ,many of the imperial large brass1 as they are called1 are found to consist of copper and tin alone4 ,antique coins frequently occur1 made by forgers in the different reigns1 in imitation of the silver currency1 which contain a very large proportion of tin4 ,there are coins of ,nero which are of a most debased and brittle brass4 ,according to ,aristotle1 the tin mines of ,cornwall were known and worked in his time4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 who wrote about forty years before the ,christian era1 gives an account of working these mines3 he says1 that their produce was conveyed to ,gaul1 and thence to different parts of ,italy4 ,the miners of ,cornwall were so celebrated for their knowledge of working metals1 that1 about the middle of the seventeenth century1 the renowned ,becher1 a physician of ,spire1 and tutor of ,stahl1 came over to this country on purpose to visit them2 and it is reported of him1 that1 when he had seen them1 he exclaimed1 ,he who was a teacher at home1 was a learner when he came there4 ,about #c1jjj tons of tin are furnished annually in ,cornwall1 two-fifths of which are usually exported to ,india by the ,east ,india ,company4 ,there are two kinds of tin known in commerce1 namely1 block tin1 and grain tin4 ,block tin is procured from the common tin ore1 and usually cast in blocks of about #cbj pounds weight4 ,it is taken to the proper offices to be assayed1 where it receives the impression of a lion rampant1 being the arms of the ,duke of ,cornwall1 pays a duty of four shillings per hundred weight to the ,duke1 and then becomes legally salable4 ,grain tin is found in small particles1 in what is called the stream tin ore4 ,it appears to have been washed from its original bed in remote ages4 ,this kind of tin owes its superiority1 not only to the purity of the ore1 but to the care with which it is washed and refined4 ,lead is of a blueish white color1 scarcely sonorous1 unelastic1 and1 being the softest of all metals1 yields readily to the hammer4 ,it generally contains a small quantity of silver4 ,an alloy of this metal with tin forms pewter1 and in different proportions soft solder4 ,its specific gravity is #aa4ce4 ,lead ore is very abundant in ,scotland1 the western parts of ,northumberland and ,durham1 ,derbyshire1 and many other parts of the world4 ,the lead found in these counties occurs on the estates of ,colonel ,beaumont1 and of those of the late ,lord ,derwentwater3 the last of these were forfeited to ,government2 and are now in the possession of ,greenwich ,hospital4 ,lead was known in the time of ,moses1 and was in common use among the ancients4 ,the ,romans sheathed the bottoms of their ships with it1 fastened by nails made with bronze4 ,during the first century1 at ,rome1 it was twenty-four times the price it is now in ,europe2 whereas tin was only eight times its present price4 ,nickel is white1 ductile and malleable1 but of difficult fusion4 ,it is attracted by the magnet1 and has itself the property of attracting iron3 but as the nickel of commerce always contains iron1 this may disguise its properties1 and prevent its nature being exactly known1 ,richter1 in his ,annales de ,chimie1 asserts1 that this metal1 in its pure state1 is nearly as brilliant as silver1 and more attractable by the loadstone than iron2 that it is not liable to be altered by the atmosphere2 and that its specific gravity when forged is #h4fff4 ,the ore of nickel is procured from various parts of ,germany1 and is often found with cobalt4 ,it is chiefly used in ,china2 and it is said1 that the manufacturers of ,birmingham combine it with iron1 and melt it with brass1 with great advantage4 ,zinc possesses but a small degree of malleability and ductility1 except under certain circumstances4 ,when broken1 it appears of a shining blueish white2 and when exposed to the air1 becomes covered with a pellicle which reflects various colors4 ,if beaten out into thin leaves1 it will take fire from the flame of a common taper4 ,its filings are mixed with gunpowder1 to produce those brilliant stars and spangles which are seen in the best artificial fire-works4 ,it is also one of the metals employed to form ,galvanic batteries4 ,it is the most combustible metal we have4 ,it will decompose water without the assistance of heat4 ,next to manganese1 it has the strongest affinity for oxygen of all the metals4 ,its specific gravity is #f4hfa4 ,its nature is such1 that it seems to form the link between brittle and malleable metals4 ,some mineralogists consider zinc to be the most abundant metal in nature1 excepting iron4 ,calamine1 or lapis calaminaris1 which is a native oxide of zinc1 combined with carbonic acid1 is found both in masses and in a crystallized state1 and is generally combined with a large portion of silex4 ,zinc is also found in an ore called blend1 in which state it is mineralized by sulphur4 ,the miners call it ,black ,jack--a mineral employed till lately in ,wales for mending the roads4 ,zinc is generally called by our artists spelter2 and in ,england and elsewhere it is extracted from calamine1 and other ores1 by distillation4 ,this metal abounds in ,china1 where it is used for current coin1 and for that purpose is employed in the utmost purity4 ,these coins have frequently ,tartar characters on one side1 and ,chinese on the other4 ,they have generally a square hole in the centre1 that they may be carried on strings1 and more readily counted4 ,antimony is of a dusky white color1 brilliant1 brittle1 and destitute of ductility4 ,though seemingly hard1 it may be cut with a knife4 ,its specific gravity1 according to ,bergman1 is #f4hf4 ,it is procured from an ore which is found chiefly in ,hungary and ,norway4 ,native antimony1 alloyed with a small portion of silver and iron1 has been found in ,sweden4 ,and it is said1 that it has been found in the state of ,connecticut1 in ,america1 nearly in a pure metallic form4 ,there are five distinct ores of antimony1 but the grey is the only one found in sufficient quantity for the manufacturer2 it is a sulphuret of antimony4 ,perhaps we have no metal more valuable as a medicine than this1 or one which is applied in such various ways4 ,bismuth is of a yellowish white color1 lamellated texture1 and moderately hard1 but not malleable4 ,it is so brittle that it breaks readily under the hammer1 and may be reduced to powder4 ,it has the singular property of expanding as it cools4 ,hence1 probably1 its use in the metallic composition for printers' types2 as from this expansive property are obtained the most perfect impressions of the moulds in which the letters are cast4 ,in manufactories this metal is known to the workmen by the name of tin glass4 ,it is one of the metals which will inflame when suspended in oxymuriatic acid gas4 ,it is generally found with cobalt in the cobaltic ores of ,saxony and ,england4 ,native bismuth1 and sulphuret of bismuth1 are found on the continent2 and a sulphuret of bismuth has been discovered in ,cornwall2 but this is not an abundant metal4 ,if #h parts of bismuth1 #e of lead1 and #c of tin1 be melted together1 the mixed metal will fuse at a heat no greater than #bab4 ,tea-spoons made of this alloy are sold in ,london1 to surprise those who are unacquainted with their nature4 ,they have the appearance of common tea-spoons1 but melt as soon as they are put into hot tea4 ,arsenic1 when reduced to its pure metallic state1 is a friable brilliant metal1 of a blueish white color1 easily tarnishing1 or oxidizing1 by exposure to the air4 ,in all its states it is extremely poisonous4 ,it may be known by the smell of garlic1 and by the white fumes which it exhales when thrown upon a piece of red-hot coal4 ,its specific gravity is #h4caj4 ,it is found in ,bohemia1 ,hungary1 ,saxony1 and other places on the continent2 and in combination with acids1 sulphur1 or oxygen4 ,the arsenic of commerce is prepared in ,saxony1 in the operation of roasting the cobalt ores for the manufacture of zaffre4 ,the reverberatory furnace in which the ores are roasted terminates in a long horizontal chimney2 and in this chimney the arsenical vapors are condensed1 forming a crust1 which at stated times is cleared off by criminals1 who are condemned to this work4 ,cobalt is a whitish-grey1 brittle metal1 nearly resembling fine hardened steel2 is difficult of fusion1 but obedient to the magnet4 ,according to ,bergman1 its specific gravity is about #g4gjj2 though ,tassaret makes it #h4ech4 ,formerly all our cobalt came from ,saxony4 ,the cobalt ores of ,hesse produce a nett profit of #ad1jjj a year1 as stated in ,born's ,travels2 though once they were used for no other purpose than to repair the roads4 ,but now cobalt is found abundantly in the ,mendip hills in ,somersetshire1 and in a mine near ,penzance in ,cornwall4 ,zaffre is now made from the cobalt ores found in these hills4 ,had it not been for the rapid promulgation of chemical science in these kingdoms1 this important metal might have lain in the bowels of the earth undiscovered for ages yet to come4 ,formerly miners not only threw cobalt aside as useless1 but they considered it so troublesome when they found it among other ores1 that1 as stated in ,beckmann's ,history of ,inventions1 a prayer was used in the ,german church1 that ,god would preserve miners from cobalt and from spirits4 ,it is now very valuable to the manufacturers of porcelain4 ,manganese is of a dark grey color1 brilliant1 very brittle1 of considerable hardness1 and difficult fusibility4 ,its specific gravity has been estimated by ,bergman at #f4hej1 and by ,hielm #g4jj4 ,it is never found native4 ,it was first procured in its pure metallic form by ,kaim and ,gahn between #aggj and #agge4 ,it abounds in ,america1 and in various parts of the continent4 ,the manganese which is used in ,england1 is obtained in a state of black oxide from ,somersetshire and ,devon4 ,it is found either in the state of an oxide or a salt4 ,but the discovery of mines of it in this country is a new acquisition1 owing to the spirit of chemical research4 ,dr4 ,william ,dyce1 of ,aberdeen1 has lately communicated to the ,society for the ,promotion of ,arts1 c1 the discovery of a mine of great extent1 and very fine quality1 in the vicinity of that town3 for which the gold medal of the ,society was sent him4 ,professor ,beattie1 of the same place1 has also discovered manganese in his neighborhood1 on the river ,don1 of good quality4 ,scheele discovered this metal in the ashes of burnt vegetables4 ,proust has lately announced the discovery of a native sulphuret of manganese4 ,that from the ,bristol and the ,mendip hills generally contains lead4 ,tungsten is a heavy metal1 but its properties are not much known4 ,it is procured from a mineral found in ,sweden1 and from an ore called wolfram1 found in ,cornwall1 ,germany1 c4 ,it has been used in ,france for making vegetable lakes2 but is not used here4 ,though it has been recommended as a proper basis for colors1 it shows in some instances a strange fugacious disposition4 ,its specific gravity is #ag4fj4 ,the same may be said of the other metals1 their properties not being much known4 ,molybdenum was first procured in a metallic state by ,hielm1 in the year #aghb2 and1 it is believed1 has been employed in some processes of dyeing in ,germany4 ,as the ore may be had in great plenty1 it will probably1 some time hence1 come into general use here4 ,at present it is not used in any of the arts4 ,its specific gravity is #h4fa4 ,uranium was discovered by ,klaproth in #aghi1 in a mineral called pechblend2 and has since been found combined with carbonic acid1 in the common green mica4 ,titanium was first noticed in the year #agha1 by ,mr4 ,macgregor1 in a greyish black sand1 found in the vale of ,menachan in ,cornwall2 but has since been discovered by ,klaproth in several other minerals4 ,an ore of it occurs in ,transylvania1 which very much resembles yellow sand4 ,this metal has been used in ,france for painting porcelain4 ,tellurium was discovered by ,klaproth in the year #agih1 in a particular kind of gold ore4 ,it has hitherto been found in quantities too small to allow of its being employed in the arts4 ,its specific gravity is only #f4aae4 ,chromium received its name from a property it has of imparting a lively color to a variety of other bodies4 ,the emerald is colored by an oxide of this metal4 ,columbium was discovered in a mineral sent from ,massachusetts in ,north ,america4 ,tantalium was found in an ore from ,swedish ,lapland3 but ,dr4 ,woollaston has lately discovered that this and columbium are identically the same metal4 ,cerium had not been seen in a metallic form till ,sir ,humphrey ,davy procured it from some oxide discovered by ,hissinger and ,berzelius in #ahjd4 ,its scarcity will prevent its being applied to any useful purpose4 ,the metals are simple substances1 distinguishable from all other bodies by their lustre1 great specific gravity1 perfect opacity1 and superior power of conducting electricity4 ,they are the great agents by which we are enabled to explore the bowels of the earth1 and examine the recesses of nature4 ,their uses are so multiplied1 that they are become of prime importance in every occupation of life4 ,the reason why one metal possesses such opposite and specific differences from those of another1 is not to be attributed to chance1 but must certainly be the effect of consummate wisdom and contrivance4 ,these metals differ so much from each other in their degrees of hardness1 lustre1 color1 elasticity1 fusibility1 weight1 malleability1 ductility1 and tenacity1 that the ,author of nature appears to have had in view all the necessities of man coming within the range of their operation4#aab ,it is now generally admitted that there are ,,forty distinct metals4 ,some of these metals are the bases of the alkalis1 alkaline earths1 and earths4 ,and as this class of metals is but little known to the great mass of readers1 some remarks will be acceptable3 they are recommended to his special attention1 as they form the base of the only satisfactory theory of volcanos and earthquakes4 ,the number of metals in this class are twelve4 #a4 ,the bases of the three alkalis1 potash1 soda1 and lithia4 ,the base of potash is ,,potasium4 ,this metal was discovered in #ahjg by ,sir ,h4 ,davy4 ,its texture is crystalline2 color and lustre similar to mercury4 ,it is solid at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere2 somewhat fluid at #gj1 melts at #aej4 ,its affinity for oxygen is so great that it oxidizes rapidly in the air2 and decomposes water instantly upon contact1 emitting heat1 flame1 and light1 as it swims on the surface of the water1 being the lighter substance4 ,in these cases it oxidizes and becomes potash1 by abstracting oxygen from the air and water4 ,the base of soda is ,,sodium4 ,this metal was discovered by the same chemist the same year4 ,it has the strong metallic lustre of silver4 ,it fuses at #bjj1 and evaporates at a full red heat4 ,it decomposes both air and water1 but not so rapidly as potasium4 ,when thrown on water it effervesces strongly2 and inflames with light1 when thrown on boiling water4 ,in these cases soda results1 which is the oxide of sodium4 ,this metal is the base of common salt4 ,the base of lithia is ,,lithium4 ,this metal was discovered in ,sweden in #ahah1 by ,arfwedson4 ,it is of a white color1 like sodium2 but oxidizes so rapidly as not to be kept in its pure metallic state4 ,its peculiar properties are1 therefore1 not so certainly known4 ,its alkaline quality is well ascertained1 when in combination with oxygen1 in which form it commonly appears4 #b4 ,the bases of the four alkaline earths1 baryta1 strontia1 lime and magnesia4 ,the base of baryta is ,,barium4 ,this metal was discovered by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 in #ahjh4 ,it is of a dark gray color1 very heavy1 and attracts oxygen very strongly from the air1 and from water1 with effervescence1 caused by the escape of hydrogen gas1 and thus becomes an oxide which is the pure earth baryta1 of a white color1 and very heavy4 ,its intimate properties are not yet well known4 ,the base of strontia1 is ,,strontium4 ,this metal is very much like barium1 in color1 weight1 and power of decomposing air and water1 and thus becoming an oxide1 which is the earth strontia4 ,yet it is satisfactorily distinguished from barium4 ,the base of lime is ,,calcium4 ,this metal was satisfactorily obtained first by ,sir ,h4 ,davy4 ,it is of a whiter color than the two last mentioned metals2 and like them decomposes the air and water1 and thus becomes lime1 which is an oxide of calcium4 ,the base of common limestone is1 of course1 a metal4 ,the base of magnesia is ,,magnesium4 ,this metal was discovered by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 but in very small quantities2 sufficient1 however1 to determine its strong affinity for oxygen1 so as to decompose water1 and thus oxidize1 and become the earth magnesia1 which is a metallic oxide4 ,the base of common magnesia is1 of course1 a metal4 #c4 ,the bases of the five earths1 alumina1 glucina1 yttria1 zirconia1 and silica4 ,the base of alumina is ,,aluminium4 ,the existence of this metal was pretty satisfactorily ascertained by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 and subsequently established by ,whler4 ,it is very difficult to obtain it1 as the preparation is attended with intense heat and light4 ,when obtained it is generally in small scales of a metallic lustre4 ,it requires a great heat to fuse it2 and when heated to redness in the open air1 it burns with a bright light1 and the product is an oxide of aluminium1 which is pure clay1 of a white color1 and quite hard4 ,this oxide1 or pure clay1 is very abundant in the composition of the earth1 though generally very much adulterated4 ,it is found in all countries and used for making bricks1 porcelain ware1 pipes1 c4 ,when pure it sometimes crystallizes4 ,hence it is capable of forming some of the most beautiful gems3 as the sapphire and ruby1 which are pure crystallized clay4 ,clay1 then1 has a metallic base4 ,the base of glucina1 is ,,glucinium4 ,glucina was first discovered by ,vauquelin in #agih1 and by analogy its base was supposed to be metallic1 which has since been confirmed by ,dr4 ,whler1 who has obtained the base in the form of a metal4 ,an4 de ch4 et de ph4 ,sept4 #ahbh1 as quoted by ,dr4 ,bache1 ,turner's ,chem4 p4 #cjc4 ,the base of yttria is ,,yttrium4 ,this metal was obtained in a separate state by ,dr4 ,whler1 7,see last quoted authority17 though its existence was inferred by ,godolin who discovered the earth which is an oxide of this metal4 ,the base of zirconia is ,,zirconium4 ,the earth was discovered by ,klaproth in #aghi1 and its metallic base clearly established by ,berzelius #ahbd4 ,the base of silica is ,,silicium4 ,there exists some doubts among chemists whether this base is indeed a metal2 but there is no doubt but that it is combustible1 and that the earth silica1 7or silex17 is an oxide4 ,from analogy it would be inferred this base is metallic1 and the evidence preponderates on this side4 ,this oxide1 or earth1 is very abundant4 ,it is more commonly called silex4 ,it is the base of the whole class of primitive rocks1 and almost altogether constitutes quartz1 flint1 c4 ,the reader is now desired to recollect that this class of metals constitutes the bases of the alkalis1 and earths2 which are simply metallic oxides or a combination of oxygen with the metals4 ,recollect also that all these metals are inflammable1 and some of them simply upon exposure to air and water4 ,now as the earths at the surface of our globe are the results of chemical action1 in which the oxygen combined with the metals1 it is beyond a doubt that these substances were created in their elementary and uncombined state2 and that the act of combining would produce an inconceivable amount of heat1 so as to fuse completely the whole mass of our earth2 and in this state of fusion the oxides would commence forming at the surface chiefly2 and thus by oxidizing the metals would form the earths1 rocks1 c1 which constitute1 principally1 the crust of our globe4 ,when this crust became sufficiently thick it would protect the interior parts of the earth from oxidation1 by preventing the access of air and water2 and they would of course remain in a pure metallic state4 ,but1 7as is most probable17 if the materials1 being promiscuously mixed throughout the mass at the commencement of the chemical action1 should oxidize throughout1 then the indurating of the crust1 by cooling1 would inclose the interior parts in a state of fusion1 and in that state they remain to the present time4 ,nor is this astonishing when we recollect the earths are almost perfect non-conductors of caloric3 of course it could not escape at all through the crust of the earth1 formed of many strata of earths1 in the shape of rocks1 which1 taken together1 may be about eight miles thick4 ,if1 by any concussion1 or by percolation1 water1 or air should reach these metals in the interior1 or these fused masses of matter1 the consequence would be decomposition1 and the production of a great amount of gas1 and heat1 which operating conjointly1 first produce earthquakes by struggling to escape from the caverns in which they are generated2 and when they find a passage1 they would break forth into volcanos4 ,this is the only true and satisfactory theory of earthquakes and volcanos4 ,it may be added1 that this action would naturally bring to its aid the astonishing powers of electricity and galvanism4 ,the forty metals mentioned above1 may be classed scientifically into two classes4 #a4 ,the bases of the alkalis1 alkaline earths1 and earths4 ,these are twelve3 potasium1 sodium1 and lithium2 bases of the alkalis--barium1 strontium1 calcium1 and magnesia2 bases of the alkaline earths--aluminium1 glucinium1 yttrium1 zirconium1 and silicium2 bases of the earths4 #b4 ,metals1 the oxides of which are neither alkalis1 or earths4 ,these are twenty-eight in number1 and may be set down in the following order3 gold1 silver1 iron1 copper1 mercury1 lead1 tin1 antimony1 zinc1 bismuth1 arsenic1 cobalt1 platinum1 nickel1 manganese1 tungsten1 tellurium1 molybdenum1 uranium1 titanium1 chromium1 columbium1 palladium1 rhodium1 iridium1 osmium1 cereum1 and cadmium4 ,not only the first class of metals are combustible1 but the last also4 ,all the metals are now well known to be combustible bodies1 and may be made to burn as really as wood4 ,gems are of a higher order than metals1 of a more refined nature1 and consist of two classes1 the pellucid and semi-pellucid4 ,those of the first class are bright1 elegant1 and beautiful fossils1 naturally and essentially compound1 ever found in small detached masses1 extremely hard1 and of great lustre4 ,those composing the second class are stones naturally and essentially compound1 not inflammable nor soluble in water1 found in detached masses1 and composed of crystalline matter debased by earth3 however1 they are but slightly debased1 are of great beauty and brightness1 of a moderate degree of transparency1 and usually found in small masses4 ,the knowledge of the gems depends principally on observing their hardness and color4 ,their hardness is commonly allowed to stand in the following order3 the diamond1 ruby1 sapphire1 jacinth1 emerald1 amethyst1 garnet1 carneol1 chalcedony1 onyx1 jasper1 agate1 porphyry1 and marble4 ,this difference1 however1 is not regular and constant1 but frequently varies4 ,in point of color1 the diamond is valued for its transparency1 the ruby for its deep red1 the sapphire for its blue1 the emerald for its green1 the jacinth for its orange1 the amethyst for its purple1 the carneol for its carnation1 the onyx for its tawny1 the jasper1 agate1 and porphyry1 for their vermillion1 green1 and variegated colors1 and the garnet for its transparent blood-red4 ,there is not a unity of opinion concerning the cause of this difference4 8,their colors10 says ,cronstedt1 8are commonly supposed to depend upon metallic vapors2 but may they not more justly be supposed to arise from a phlogiston united with a metallic or some other earth8 because we find that metallic earths which are perfectly well calcined give no color to any glass2 and that the manganese1 on the other hand1 gives more color than can be ascribed to the small quantity of metal which is to be extracted from it40 ,m4 ,magellan is of opinion1 that their color is owing chiefly to the mixture of iron which enters their composition2 but approves the sentiment of ,cronstedt1 that phlogiston has a share in their production1 it being well known that the calces of iron when dephlogisticated1 produce the red and yellow colors of marble1 and when phlogisticated to a certain degree produce the blue or green colors4 ,with regard to the texture of gems1 ,m4 ,magellan observes1 that all of them are foliated or laminated1 and of various degrees of hardness4 ,whenever the edges of these lamin are sensible to the eye1 they have a fibrous appearance1 and reflect various shades of color1 which change successively according to their angular position to the eye4 ,these are called by the ,french chatorantes2 and what is a blemish in their transparency1 often enhances their value on account of their scarcity4 ,but when the substance of a gem is composed of a broken texture1 consisting of various sets of lamin differently inclined to each other1 it emits at the same time various irradiations of different colors1 which succeed one another according to their angle of position4 ,this kind of gems has obtained the name of opals1 which are valued in proportion to the brilliancy1 beauty1 and variety of their colors4 ,their crystallization1 no doubt1 depends on the same cause which produces that of salts1 earths1 and metals3 but as to the particular configuration of each species of gems1 we can hardly depend upon any individual form as a criterion to ascertain each kind2 and when we have attended with the utmost care to all that has been written on the subject1 we are at last obliged to appeal to chemical analysis1 because it very often assumes various forms4#aac 99 99 99 99 99 ,the rich treasures of the earth are within it1 observes a worthy author1 so that they cannot be discovered and brought to the surface without the labor of man2 yet they are not placed so deep1 as to render his exertion ineffectual4 ,thus nothing but what is comparatively worthless is to be found by the indolent on the surface of life4 ,every thing valuable must be obtained by diligent research and sedulous effort4 ,all wisdom1 science1 art and experience1 are hidden at a proper depth for the exercise of intellect1 and they who bend their attention to any of these objects shall not be disappointed in their pursuit4 ,the treasures of wisdom1 which are displayed in the redemption of mankind by ,jesus ,christ1 and recorded in the ,divine ,oracles1 do not lie upon the surface of the letter1 for every superficial reader to observe them3 therefore our ,lord says1 8,search the ,scriptures40 ,the word 1 compounded of 1 ,i seek1 and 1 a bed1 is1 says ,st4 ,chrysostom1 8a metaphor taken from those who dig deep and search for metals in the bowels of the earth4 ,they look for the bed where the metal lies1 and break every clod1 and sift and examine the whole1 in order to discover the ore40 ,in ,leigh's ,critica ,sacra1 we meet with these observations1 illustrative of the ,greek word--8,search2 that is1 shake and sift them1 as the word signifies3 search narrowly1 till the true force and meaning of every sentence1 yea1 of every word and syllable1 nay1 of every letter and yod therein1 be known and understood4 ,confer place with place2 the scope of one place with that of another2 things going before with things coming after3 compare word with word1 letter with letter1 and search it thoroughly40 ,the ,holy ,scriptures contain the most invaluable treasures1 a complete collection of doctrines1 precepts1 and promises1 necessary to everlasting happiness4 ,in this respect they have a peculiar advantage above all the writings of the most distinguished philosophers in the heathen world4 ,the ,bible presents an exact model of religion1 for the instruction and common benefit of mankind4 ,here we have1 in a narrow compass1 all the things necessary to be known1 believed1 and practised1 in order to our salvation2 for it is1 8a lamp to our feet1 and a light to our path40 ,we are taught the knowledge of the only living and true ,god1 his spiritual nature1 adorable perfections1 and endearing relations to his rational creatures3 so that the meanest ,christian who can read1 may arrive at more true and just notions of him1 than the wisest heathen sages could attain1 who as the ,apostle intimates1 did only grope after him in the dark4--,we are informed how ,adam was created1 how he fell1 and what is the consequence of his transgression to all his posterity3 the most celebrated heathens were not able to account for the origin of moral evil1 as affecting the human race4 ,the glorious plan of redemption by ,jesus ,christ is set before us1 in its commencement1 progress1 and completion2 which is the highest display of the moral perfections of ,god1 and attended with the most beneficial advantages to man4--,the rules of duty1 all the agenda of religion1 or things to be done1 are plainly stated1 and properly enforced4 ,promises1 containing pardon1 adoption1 sanctification1 and eternal life1 are every where interspersed1 and are 8yea1 and amen1 in ,christ40 ,our obligation to search the ,scriptures1 and by that means acquaint ourselves with their valuable contents1 appears from the necessity and design of committing them to writing4 ,st4 ,paul says1 8,all scripture is given by inspiration of ,god1 and is profitable for doctrine1 for reproof1 for correction1 for instruction in righteousness3 that the man of ,god may be perfect1 thoroughly furnished unto all good works40 ,but how can they contribute to these important ends without being read8 ,what effect could the mere writing of them have on mankind1 to inform the judgment and regulate the life8 ,how could ,christian motives have proper influence1 if the ,sacred ,volume were neglected8 ,is it not an insult to common sense1 to assert that the ,scriptures were written for our instruction and admonition1 but it is not necessary to peruse them to learn what they teach8 ,to have a ,bible1 and not to read it1 for direction in the way of truth and holiness1 would not be attended with any peculiar advantage4 ,precious metals1 deposited in the earth1 must be procured to be rendered beneficial4 ,the ,holy ,scriptures contain the revelation of ,god to mankind1 declare his will with certainty1 and are the prescribed means of salvation3 the ,apostle says1 8they are able to make us wise unto salvation1 through faith that is in ,christ ,jesus40 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnotes - ,chapter ,,iv #gd ,benson on ,gen4 i1 #i1 #aj4 #ge ,contemplative ,philosopher1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #agg-agi4 #gf ,m4 ,savary1 in his instructive and entertaining ,letters on ,greece1 has the following pertinent reflections3 8,we enjoy the finest weather imaginable2 not a cloud obscures the sky1 and a south-east wind wafts us directly towards the port to which our wishes tend4 ,we have now entirely lost sight of land1 and1 as far as the eye can reach1 only view the immense abyss of the waters1 and the vast expanse of the heavens4 ,how awful is this sight6 ,how does it inspire the mind with great ideas6 ,how adventurous is man1 who trusts his fortune and his life to this frail vessel he has built1 which a worm may pierce1 or a single blast dash to pieces against a rock4 ,yet in this he braves the fury of the ocean6 ,but how admirable is his ingenuity6 ,he commands the winds1 enchains them in the canvas1 and forces them to conduct him where he pleases4 ,he sails from one end of the world to the other1 and traverses the immense liquid plains without any signals to direct him4 ,he reads his course in the heavens4 ,a needle1 which wonderfully points perpetually to the pole1 and the observation of the stars1 inform him where he is4 ,a few lines and points mark out to him the islands1 coasts1 and shoals1 which his skill enables him to approach or avoid at pleasure4 ,yet has he cause to tremble1 notwithstanding all his science and all his genius6 ,the fire of the clouds is kindling over his head1 and may consume his dwelling4 ,unfathomable gulfs are yawning beneath his feet1 and he is separated from them only by a single plank4 ,his confidence might make us imagine he knew himself immortal2 yet he must die--die never to revive again1 except in another state of being40 #gg ,as it is sometimes necessary to preserve sea water in casks for bathing and other purposes1 it is of importance to know how to keep it from putrefaction4 ,dr4 ,henry from many experiments made by him for the preservation of sea water from putrefaction1 has concluded1 that two scruples of quick-lime are sufficient to preserve a quart of sea water4 ,the proportions1 however1 may vary a little according to the strength of quick-lime employed4 #gh 8,frosts often occasion a scantiness of water in our fountains and wells4 ,this is sometimes erroneously accounted for by supposing that the water freezes in the bowels of the earth4 ,but this1 as ,dr4 ,robison remarks1 is a great mistake3 the most intense cold of a ,siberian winter would not freeze the ground two feet deep2 but a very moderate frost will consolidate the whole surface of a country1 and make it impervious to the air2 especially if the frost have been preceded by rain1 which has soaked the surface4 ,when this happens1 the water which was flittering through the ground is all arrested1 and kept suspended in its capillary tubes by the pressure of the air40 ,hay's ,nat4 ,phil4 p4 #aih4 #gi ,dr4 ,black's ,lectures1 vol4 i4 p4 #fi4 #hj ,see ,ellis's voyage to ,hudson's ,bay4 #ha ,st4 ,pierre's ,studies1 vol4 i1 pp4 #abi-acb4 #hb ,see #bast volume of the ,philosophical ,magazine4 #hc ,the specific gravity of water is as follows2 a wine-pint measure weighs one pound2 consequently a cubic foot of water weighs about #a1jjj ounces1 or #fb pounds1 avoirdupois4 ,it is #haf times heavier than atmospheric air4 #hd ,parkes's ,chemical ,catechism1 p4 #ajh4 #he ,hay's ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aig1 #aih4 #hf ,parkes's ,chemical ,catechism1 pp4 #id1 #ie4 #hg ,parkes's ,chemical ,catechism1 p4 #ib4 #hh ,driessen on the ,nature of ,snow4 #hi ,thomson's ,chemistry1 vol4 i1 p4 #cfe4 #ij 8,the ,english word hail1 in ,latin grando1 in ,greek 1 gives us no information about the nature of the thing3 but1 if we take the word ,be,re,d in ,hebrew1 it resolves itself into 441 which signifies in descensu1 and so describes to us the physiological formation of hail3 which1 as philosophers agree1 is first formed into drops of rain1 and1 as it falls1 is frozen into hail40 ,jones's ,letter on the ,use of the ,hebrew ,language4 #ia ,dr4 ,clarke on ,exod4 ix1 #ah4 #ib ,see ,dr4 ,paley's ,natural ,theology1 p4 #djg4 #ic ,there are hot spouting springs of water in ,iceland1 of which a traveller says1 8,near ,laugervatan1 a small lake about two days' journey distant from ,mount ,hecla1 we beheld the steam of the hot springs rising in eight different places1 one of which of which continually threw up into the air a column of water from eighteen to twenty-four feet high4 ,the water was extremely hot1 so that a piece of mutton and some salmon trouts were almost boiled to pieces in it in six minutes4 ,at ,gyser1 not far from ,skallholt1 one of the ,episcopal sees in ,iceland1 within the circumference of three ,english miles1 forty or fifty boiling springs are seen together2 and the largest1 which is in the middle1 particularly engaged our attention the whole of the day that we spent here4 ,the aperture through which the water arose is nineteen feet in diameter2 and round the top is a basin nine feet higher than the conduit4 ,here the water does not continually1 but only by intervals several times a day2 and1 as ,i was informed by the ,icelanders1 in wet weather higher then at other times4 ,on the day we were there the water spouted ten different times1 between the hours of six and eleven in the morning1 each time the height of fifty or sixty feet4 ,before1 the water had not risen above the margin of the pipe2 but now it began by degrees to fill the upper basin1 and at last to run over4 ,our guides told us that the water would soon spout up much higher than it had done4 ,soon after four o'clock we observed that the earth began to tremble in three different places2 as well as the top of a mountain which was about three hundred fathoms distant from the mouth of the spring4 ,we also frequently heard a subterraneous noise1 like the discharge of a cannon2 and immediately afterwards a column of water spouted from the opening1 which at a great height divided itself into several rays1 and according to our observation was ninety-two feet high4 ,our great surprise at this uncommon force of the air and fire was increased1 when many stones which we had flung into the aperture wore thrown up again with the spouting water40 ,troil4 #id ,savary1 ,newcomen1 ,cawley1 ,watt1 and ,boulton1 ,englishmen2 and ,betancourt and the brothers ,perrier1 ,frenchmen2 are names well known in the history of steam-engines4 ,and those persons who wish to acquaint themselves with the principles and manner of operation of this most important class of machines1 says ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory1 may be referred to the following work3--,the ,repertory of ,arts and ,manufactures1 the ,philosophical ,journal1 and the ,philosophical ,magazine1 in various places2 the second volume of ,mr4 ,brewster's edition of ,ferguson's ,select ,lectures1 the second volume of ,gregory's ,mechanics1 and the second volume of ,prony's treatise entitled ,nouvelle ,architecture ,hydraulique4 #ie ,plymouth ,chronicle4 #if ,whitehurst's ,inquiry into the ,original ,state and ,formation of the ,earth4 #ig ,examination of ,dr4 ,burnet's ,theory of the ,earth1 pp4 #ib1 #ic4 #ih ,the substances of which vegetables are composed1 now amount to fifteen in number2 but almost the whole of vegetable substances are composed of four ingredients1 namely1 carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and azote4 ,of these1 the last1 namely1 azote1 forms but a small proportion even of those vegetable substances of which it is a constituent part1 while1 into many1 it does not enter at all4--,contemplative ,philosopher1 vol4 i4 p4 #aej4 #ii ,of the efficacy of water in vegetation1 we have on record some remarkable instances4 ,that vegetables will grow in woollen cloth1 moss1 and in other insoluble media1 besides soils provided they be supplied with water1 has been repeatedly shown since the days of ,van ,helmont and ,boyle3 but the experiments of a modern author1 says ,mr4 ,parkes1 from their apparent correctness1 seem more highly interesting and conclusive4 ,seeds of plants were sown in pure river-sand1 in litharge1 in flowers of sulphur1 and even among metal1 or common leaden shot2 and in every instance nothing employed for their nourishment but distilled water4 ,the plants throve1 and passed through all the usual gradations of growth to perfect maturity4 ,the author then proceeded to gather the entire produce1 the roots1 stems1 leaves1 pods1 seeds1 c4 ,these were accurately weighed1 dried1 and again weighed1 then submitted to distillation1 incineration1 lixivation1 and the other ordinary means used in a careful analysis4 ,thus he obtained from these vegetables all the materials peculiar to each individual species1 precisely as if it had been cultivated in a natural soil--viz4 the various earths1 the alkalies1 acids1 metals1 carbon1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 nitrogen1 c4 ,he concludes this very important paper nearly in these extraordinary words3 8,oxygen and hydrogen1 with the assistance of solar light1 appear to be the only elementary substances employed in the constitution of the whole universe2 and ,nature1 in her simple progress works the most infinitely diversified effects by the slightest modifications in the means she employs40--,see ,recherches sur la ,force assimilatrice dans les ,vgtaux1 par ,m4 ,henri ,braconnot1 ,annales de ,chimie1 ,fev4 et ,mars1 #ahjh4 #ajj ,he was born at ,verona1 of an illustrious family2 and at the foot of ,vesuvius1 while attempting to ascertain the cause of an extraordinary cloud issuing therefrom1 was1 by the sulphureous exhalation from the burning lava1 suffocated1 ,a4,d4 #gi4 #aja ,the ,tabacum1 or common ,tobacco plant1 was first discovered in ,america1 by the ,spaniards1 about the year #aefj1 and by them imported into ,europe4 ,it had been used by the inhabitants of ,america long before2 and was called by the inhabitants of the islands1 yoli1 and by those of the continent1 ptux4 ,it was sent into ,spain from ,tabaco1 a province of ,yucatan1 where it was first discovered1 and from whence it takes its common name4 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh is generally said to have been the first who introduced it into ,england1 about the year #aehe1 in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 and who taught his countrymen how to smoke it4 ,the following anecdote is related of him4 ,he having imitated the ,indians in smoking this plant1 at length so much delighted in it1 that he was unwilling to disuse it on his return to ,england2 and therefore supplied himself with several hogsheads1 which he placed in his own study1 and generally indulged himself with smoking secretly two or three pipes a day4 ,he had a simple man1 who waited at his study door1 to bring him up daily a tankard of old ale and nutmeg1 and he always laid aside his pipe when he heard him approaching4 ,one day1 being earnestly engaged in reading some book which amused him1 the man abruptly entered1 and1 surprised at seeing his master enveloped in smoke1 7a sight perfectly new to him7 the smoke ascending in thick vapors from his mouth and the bowl of the tobacco-pipe1 immediately threw the ale in his master's face1 ran down stairs1 and alarmed the family with repeated exclamations1 that his master was on fire in the inside1 and that if they did not make haste1 before they could get up stairs1 he would be burned to ashes4 #ajb ,taylor on remarkable ,trees1 ,plants1 and ,shrubs4 #ajc ,evangelical ,magazine1 ,january1 #ahad4 #ajd ,dr4 ,black1 ii4 #fid4 #aje ,phil4 ,trans4 for #agif4 #ajf ,see ,mr4 ,hitchen's ,paper1 in ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 xci4 p4 #aei4 #ajg ,storch's ,picture of ,petersburgh1 p4 #ccj4 #ajh ,several salts are formed by art with this metal for medicinal purposes4 ,one of the most valuable is calomel1 which is made by triturating fluid mercury with corrosive sublimate1 and then submitting the mixture to sublimation4 ,as this medicine is much used in private families1 and as dreadful consequences might ensue if it were improperly prepared1 it ought to be generally known1 says ,mr4 ,parkes1 that if it be not perfectly insipid to the taste1 and indissoluble by long boiling in water1 it contains a portion of oxymuriate of mercury1 or corrosive sublimate1 and consequently is poisonous4 #aji ,monthly ,review1 ,appendix1 vol4 xxvii4 ,n4,s4 p4 #eea4 #aaj ,storch's ,picture of ,petersburgh1 p4 #cai4 #aaa ,in domestic economy1 the necessity of keeping copper vessels always clean is generally acknowledged2 but it may not perhaps be so well known1 that fat and oily substances1 and vegetable acids1 do not attack copper while hot2 and1 therefore1 if no liquor be ever suffered to grow cold in these utensils1 they may be used for every culinary purpose with perfect safety4--,dr4 ,percival gives an account of a young lady who amused herself1 while her hair was dressing1 with eating samphire pickle impregnated with copper4 ,she soon complained of pain in the stomach1 and in five days vomiting commenced1 which was incessant for two days4 ,after this her stomach became prodigiously distended3 and in nine days after eating the pickle1 death relieved her from her sufferings4 ,medical ,transactions1 vol4 iii1 p4 #hj4 #aab ,the materials forming nearly the whole of this ,section have been selected and arranged from the seventh ,edition of ,parkes's ,chemical ,catechism3 a work of peculiar interest1 and which was confidently recommended to the ,author by a physician and chemist of distinguished celebrity4 #aac ,see ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,fourth ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,the ,,sun4 ,signs -- ,names -- ,nature -- ,motions -- ,form -- ,magnitude -- ,distance -- ,suspension -- ,idolatrous worship of the ,sun -- ,the ,sun an ,emblem of ,christ4 ,on the fourth day1 8,god said1 ,let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day from the night1 and let them be for signs1 and for seasons1 and for days1 and years3 and let them be for lights in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth3 and it was so4 ,and ,god made two great lights2 the greater light to rule the day1 and the lesser light to rule the night3 he made the stars also4 ,and ,god set them in the firmament of the heaven1 to give light upon the earth1 and to rule over the day and over the night1 and to divide the light from the darkness40 ,the light which had hitherto been scattered and confused1 was now collected and formed into several luminaries1 and so rendered more glorious and of greater utility4 ,a sensible and pious author observes1 that not only the two great lights1 which were made after a special manner to rule the day and the night1 but1 in general1 all the lights in the firmament of the heaven1 are said to be for signs and for seasons2 or1 as some render the words1 8for signs of the seasons40 ,and indeed this seems to be the meaning of the inspired writer4 ,as for the manner of expression1 8for signs and for seasons10 it is very common in the ,hebrew1 as well as in many other languages1 and is a figurative way of speech1 expressing those things disjunctively1 which must by the understanding be joined together4 ,first1 these lights are said to be for signs1 and then the things are mentioned which they are to signify1 namely1 the seasons1 the days1 and the years3 whereas1 if we understand the word signs in an indefinite sense1 and not confined to what follows1 we are through the whole text left in great uncertainty2 seeing that there are signs appointed in the heaven for some purpose or other1 but not knowing for what4 ,besides1 if we must take all the parts of the text disjunctively1 then 8the lights in the firmament0 must be taken for seasons1 and for days1 and for years1 as well as for signs4 ,but we know1 that the celestial bodies are not themselves seasons1 and days1 and years1 but only signs of them1 by such particular motions and aspects1 as ,god1 according to the laws of nature1 has ordained them4 ,neither can ,i see reason to believe1 that every motion or position of the heavenly bodies has a special signification in it3 though serving in general to display the wisdom and power of ,god1 in their regular courses4 ,the sun1 indeed1 which is called the greater light1 is said to rule the day1 as it is by the appearance of his light1 increasing and decreasing1 that we measure the length of the day2 and the moon likewise to rule the night1 partly on the like account4 ,thus likewise the sun's course 7if we may so call it7 is a determining sign of the beginning and ending of the year1 and of its various seasons4 ,and in general1 the sun1 the moon1 and the other lights1 are necessary signs of the seasons of sowing1 reaping1 planting1 and are useful in navigation1 as well as other arts4 ,costard1 in his ,history of ,astronomy1 makes some critical remarks on the name of this greater light4 ,he says1 ,the sun is1 by the ,greeks1 called 3 which is nothing more than the ,hebrew word ,el1 modelled after the ,greek manner of pronunciation1 and signifies ,lord2 the first idolatrous worship being paid to this planet4 ,in the ,hebrew language it is called ,shemesh1 and in the ,chaldee ,shimsha1 from ,shamesh1 to minister1 on account of its administering light and heat to this world4 ,from this property of communicating heat1 it is also called ,hammah4 ,by the ,phnician idolaters it seems to have been called ,baal1 or ,baal-,shamim1 the ,lord of ,heaven4 ,and on account of the supposed swiftness of its diurnal motion from east to west1 it had a chariot dedicated to it at ,sidon1 an ancient town of ,phnicia4 ,such a chariot is still seen on the coins of that place4 ,this superstition was likewise imitated by the idolatrous ,jews3 for we read of the horses which the kings of ,judah had given1 or dedicated1 to the sun4 ,by the ,chaldeans it seems to have been called ,bel1 and by the ,assyrians ,pul2 and1 with the addition1 sometimes of ab1 or ap1 i4e4 father1 - ,ap-,pul1 or ,father-,lord2 from whence the ,greeks formed their 1 another name given by them to the sun4 ,the name of this luminary1 among the ,romans1 was sol2 given more probably1 on account of his scorching heat in the summer1 or from his determining the length of the year by his course1 than because he appeared solus1 alone1 according to the derivation given by ,macrobius4 ,the nature of the sun is a subject which has not only excited the most diligent inquiry among men of scientific knowledge1 but the opinions concerning it have passed through a variety of vicissitudes4 ,the sun being evidently the source of light and heat1 was by the ancients considered to be a globe of fire4 ,but ,dr4 ,herschell's discoveries1 by means of his immensely large telescopes1 tend to prove1 that what we call the sun is only the atmosphere of that luminary3 8that this atmosphere consists of various elastic fluids1 which are more or less transparent2 that as the clouds surrounding our earth are probably decompositions of some of the elastic fluids belonging to the atmosphere itself1 so we may suppose that in the vast atmosphere of the sun similar decompositions may take place1 but with this difference1 that the decompositions of the elastic fluids of the sun are of a phosphoric nature1 and are attended by lucid appearances1 by giving out light40 ,the body of the sun this celebrated astronomer considers as hidden generally from us1 by means of this luminous atmosphere2 that what are called macul1 or spots on the sun1 are real openings in this atmosphere1 through which the opaque body of the sun becomes visible2 that this atmosphere itself is not fiery nor hot1 but is the instrument which ,god designed to act on the caloric or latent heat2 and that heat is only produced by the solar light acting on and combining with the caloric or matter of fire contained in the air1 and other substances which are heated by it4 ,this indefatigable investigator of the heavenly phenomena shows1 by many substantial proofs1 drawn from natural philosophy1 that heat is produced by the sun's rays only when they act on a calorific medium2 and that they cause the production of heat by uniting with the matter of fire which is contained in the substances that are heated1--as the collision of flint and steel will inflame a magazine of gunpowder1 by uniting with its latent fire1 and bring the whole into action4 ,this point is capable of a very clear elucidation4 8,on the tops of mountains1 and at heights to which the clouds seldom reach to shelter them from the direct rays of the sun1 we always find regions of ice and snow4 ,now if the sun's rays themselves conveyed all the heat we find on the earth1 it would of course be hottest in situations similar to the tops of mountains1 where their course is least interrupted4 ,but all those who have ascended in balloons confirm the coldness of the upper regions of the atmosphere2 and1 therefore1 since even on the earth the heat of the situation depends on the facility with which the medium yields to the impression of the sun's rays1 we have only to admit1 that1 on the sun itself1 the fluids composing its atmosphere1 and the matter on its surface1 are of such a nature as not to be capable of any excessive heat from its own rays4 ,it is also a well known fact1 that the focus of the largest burning lens thrown into the air1 will occasion no heat in the place where it has been kept for a considerable time1 although its powers of exciting heat1 when proper bodies are exposed to it1 should be sufficient to melt or fuse the most refractory metals40 ,that the sun is a luminous1 and not an igneous body1 has met with the general consent of modern philosophers2 an opinion to which every new discovery in philosophy gives additional support4 ,the telescope1 said to have been invented by the children of a spectacle-maker at ,middleburgh1 in the year #aeij1 but first brought to such a degree of perfection by ,galileo as to make any considerable discoveries in the celestial regions1 has led to the most important results in the science of astronomy4 ,among which are the spots in the sun's disk1 by whose motion from west to east the sun is perceived to revolve upon his own axis in #be days1 #ad hours1 #h minutes4 ,this revolution of the sun round his own axis is probably not the only motion which this luminary experiences4 ,there is great reason to believe that he has another motion1 either rectilinear1 or round some indefinitely remote centre of attraction4 ,in this last course1 he carries along with him1 through space1 the entire system of planets1 satellites1 and comets2 in the same manner in which each planet draws his satellites along with him in his motion round the sun4 ,he communicates light and heat to at least twenty opaque bodies1 which revolve round him1 at different distances1 in ellipses that differ but little from circles4 ,from the motion of the spots1 which is sometimes straight and sometimes curved1 we learn that the sun's axis is not perpendicular to the plane of his ecliptic1 but inclined to it1 or the plane of the earth's annual orbit1 so as to form an angle of about #hc degrees4 ,christopher ,scheiner1 a most diligent observer of these spot's in the sun's disk1 published a treatise concerning them in ,a4,d4 #afbf4 ,these spots are sometimes seen to increase to a very large size1 and to continue for a considerable time4 ,in the year #aggi1 there was a spot on the sun's disk which was large enough to be seen with the naked eye3 it was divided into two parts1 and must have been #ej1jjj miles in diameter3 this1 and other phenomena of the same kind1 may be accounted for from some natural change of the atmosphere4 ,for if some of the fluids which enter into its composition be of a shining brilliancy1 while others are merely transparent1 then any temporary cause removing the lucid fluid1 will permit us to see the body of the sun through the transparent ones4 ,dr4 ,herschell supposes that the spots in the sun are mountains on its surface1 which1 considering the great attraction exerted by this luminary upon bodies placed at its surface1 and the slow revolution it has about its axis1 he thinks may be more than #cjj miles in height1 and yet not be rendered unstable by the centrifugal force4 ,there appears to be a discrepancy between this last statement--8,dr4 ,herschell supposes that the spots in the sun are mountains on his surface20--and the statement made a few paragraphs preceding--8that what are called macul1 or spots on the sun1 ,dr4 ,herschell thought to be real openings in his atmosphere1 through which the opake body of the sun becomes visible40 ,these statements must have been made at different periods of his observations on the sun1 which continued about fifteen years4 ,the last statement was1 doubtless1 ,dr4 ,herschell's mature opinion4 ,as this seems to be a settled question among philosophers2 and as it has induced the enlightened world to regard the sun as a habitable globe1 it will not be out of place to enlarge a little on this point4 ,the spots on the sun's surface has led to the conclusion above1 and also to a determination of the motion of the sun around his own axis4 ,they appear to have been observed1 for the first time1 in ,a4,d4 #afaj1 by ,fabricius and ,harriot2 the first in ,germany1 the second in ,england4 ,it is uncertain which noticed them first2 but it is certain the discovery was original with both4 ,after the observations of these two fortunate persons were known1 the attention of the scientific was directed to this phenomenon4 ,scheiner supposed the spots to be planets which revolved very near the sun4 ,in process of unwearied observations1 it was ascertained that these spots changed their positions4 ,sometimes two would blend together1 and thus run into each other4 ,sometimes one large one would divide into two or three smaller ones4 ,they were observed to dilate1 and contract2 and to have umbr1 or shades attending them4 ,from these phenomena ,galileo and others supposed the solar spots were schoria floating on the burning liquid matter1 of which they supposed the sun composed4 ,m4 de la ,hire1 and ,la ,lande supposed them to be eminences which occasionally rose above the rolling tides of fire1 as islands rise above the sea4 ,all these theories were on the supposition that the sun was an igneous body1 in a high state of combustion1 by which means he dispenses heat and light to the surrounding planets4 ,dr4 ,,wilson1 ,professor of practical astronomy in the ,university of ,glasgow1 was the first to conjecture that these spots were depressions rather than elevations4 ,this was about the year #agfi4 ,the ,doctor rendered this conjecture very probable1 by his close and lucid observations and illustrations4 ,these spots attracted the attention of the celebrated ,dr4 ,herschell in #aggi1 who continued to observe them closely until #agid1 and by means of his immensely large and powerful telescopes1 he clearly established ,dr4 ,wilson's conjectures1 that these spots are openings in the luminous surface of the sun1 through which his opake body appears4 ,dr4 ,herschell regards the real body of the sun to be an opake nucleus1 fit for the habitation of intellectual creatures3 that he has an atmosphere suited in density and height to his own magnitude3 that in the higher regions of this atmosphere there are two sets of clouds surrounding the sun1 which are permanently and essentially luminous1 being phosphoric in their nature4 ,the lower set of these clouds1 which are next the sun1 are less bright1 and more dense than the upper set4 ,they are designed to serve as a curtain to the sun's body1 to prevent a too great intensity of light at his real surface2 the higher set of clouds1 which are visible to us1 being the principal source1 or rather agent1 of light4 ,it is plain from the foregoing theory1 that we never see the real body of the sun1 except when we see the spots on his surface3 that what we commonly call the sun1 are only those bright1 luminous phosphorescent clouds1 which permanently surround his body1 and which give light outwards to the planets1 and also inwards to his own inhabitants4 ,it will be obvious also to any one1 that the inhabitants of the sun cannot see any heavenly body1 as the stars1 and planets2 because they are inclosed by those clouds1 which are impenetrable to vision4 ,they may catch a glimpse of a passing star through these openings as we do of the sun's body4 ,it is highly probable 7see our paper on light1 attached to our author's chapter on the same17 that these luminous phosphoric clouds do not actually emit light1 or heat2 but only excite them at the surfaces of the different planets4 ,that is3 it is very probable there is a matter of light or a luminiferous ether1 diffused through all existing matter1 as caloric is1 which is excited by these clouds1 and thus becomes visible1 which is light1 as latent caloric is excited1 and becomes sensible1 by becoming free4 ,indeed it is very probable that the matter of heat and light is the same1 and that heat and light are only different modifications of the action of the same substance1 excited in a different1 or higher degree4 ,the sun has two apparent motions1 namely1 the diurnal and annual4 ,by the former he appears to move round the earth in twenty-four hours3 and by the latter he appears to traverse that circle in the heavens1 called the ecliptic1 in the course of a year4 ,these motions1 are1 however1 only apparent3 the sun does not travel round the earth in twenty four hours3 he does not change his place in the heavens at different seasons of the year4 ,his apparent motions are occasioned by the earth's real motions4 ,the sun's apparent diurnal motion is occasioned by the earth's real rotation about its axis3 and the sun's apparent annual motion is caused by the earth's real motion in her orbit1 through the whole of which she travels in a little less than #cfe days1 and #f hours4 ,the fixed stars appear every twenty-four hours to make an entire revolution about the earth4 ,the sun makes the same apparent circuit2 but the apparent diurnal motion of the sun is evidently slower than that of the fixed stars4 ,this appearance is occasioned by the daily rotation of the earth on its axis2 for while it is turning once on its axis it advances in its orbit a whole degree2 therefore it must make more than a complete rotation before it can come into the same position with the sun that it had the preceding day4 ,in the same way1 as when both hands of a watch set off together at any hour1 as twelve o'clock1 the minute hand must travel more than the whole circle before it can overtake the hour hand3 hence the difference between solar and sidereal days1 which it is important to understand in explaining the equation of time4 ,though the sun appears to us merely as a circular disk1 yet he is a spheroid1 higher under his equator than about his poles4 ,the deception arises from this2 that all the parts of his surface are equally luminous1 and consequently there is nothing which can suggest to us1 at the great distance he is from the earth1 that the central parts are more prominent than the sides1 although in reality1 they are nearer by half a million of miles4 ,this luminous body is supposed to be #hhf1dgc ,english miles in diameter1 about #b1gjj1jjj in circumference1 in solid bulk #bd1jjj1jjj times as big as the moon1 and #a1chd1dfb times as big as the earth1 and its superficies in square miles1 about #b1bcf1fjc1jjj1jjj4 ,this magnitude of the sun may appear exaggerated2 for our eyes can discover nothing so large as the earth which we inhabit2 and as to this alone we compare the sun1 so we are tempted to believe the testimony of sense rather than our reason4 ,but what confirms this prodigious size1 is his visible magnitude1 notwithstanding the vastly remote point which he occupies in space4 ,and1 concerning this subject1 no doubt can remain1 if we admit the calculations of astronomers1 which are made on principles indubitably correct4 ,the sun does not appear large2 but this is owing to his distance from the earth1 which is #ie1eac1gid miles3 this is so prodigious1 that a cannon-ball1 which is known to move at the rate of eight miles in a minute1 would be something more than twenty-two years in going from the earth to the sun4 ,if a spectator were placed as near to any of the fixed stars as we are to our sun1 he would see our sun as small as we see a common star1 divested of its circumvolving planets2 and in numbering the stars he would reckon it one of them4 ,but the earth's orbit being an ellipse1 the sun is not always at an equal distance from it4 ,when he is in his apogee1 that is1 furthest from the earth1 the sun is full two millions of miles further from us than when he is in his perigee1 or nearest the earth3 nevertheless1 we feel greater heat than when he is in our winter4 ,the difference of temperature between summer and winter does not depend chiefly upon our nearness to the sun1 but upon the following causes4 #a4 ,in summer1 the solar rays strike upon the earth more perpendicularly than in winter1 and therefore they act with greater force than when they strike it obliquely4 #b4 ,the rays of the sun coming more perpendicularly in summer than in winter1 have less of the atmosphere to pass through4 #c4 ,in the summer1 the sun continues a longer time above the horizon than below it2 and consequently there is time for the earth to accumulate a greater portion of heat than in the days of winter4 ,we know1 in the longest days1 that the sun to us is above the horizon #af hours2 whereas1 in the shortest days1 it is not more than #h hours visible4#aad ,the miraculous suspension of the natural powers of the heavenly bodies1 as recorded in the book of ,joshua1 shows that they are upheld1 controlled1 and directed in their operations1 by a ,being who is infinitely wise and powerful4 ,to account for this miracle1 and to ascertain the manner in which it was wrought1 has employed the pens of the ablest divines and astronomers1 especially of the last two centuries4 ,for the elucidation of this important fact1 ,i shall transcribe the view which ,dr4 ,adam ,clarke has given of it1 which he considers to be strictly philosophical1 consonant to the ,pythagorean1 ,copernican1 or ,newtonian system1 which is the system of the universe1 laid down in the writings of ,moses4 ,he assumes1 as a thoroughly demonstrated truth1 that the sun is in the centre of the system1 moving only round his own axis1 and the common centre of the gravity of the planetary system1 while all the planets revolve round him2 and that his influence is the cause of the diurnal and annual revolutions of the earth4 8,joshua's address is in a poetic form in the original1 and makes the two following hemistichs3 ,shemesh1 be-,gibon dom3 ,vyareach1 bemek ,aiyalon4 ,sun6 upon ,gibon be dumb3 ,and the moon on the vale of ,aiyalon4 8,the effect of this command is related in the following words3 vayiddom ha-,,shemesh ve-,,yareach mad2 ,and the sun was dumb1 or silent1 and the moon stood still4 ,and it is added1 ,and the sun stood still in the midst of heaven1 and hasted not to go down about a whole day4 8,i consider1 that the word dom1 refers to the withholding or restraining this influence1 so that the cessation of the earth's motion might immediately take place4 ,the desire of ,joshua was1 that the sun might not sink below the horizon2 but as it appeared now to be over ,gibeon1 and the moon to be over the valley of ,ajalon1 he prayed that they might continue in these positions till the battle should be ended2 or1 in other words1 that the day should be miraculously lengthened out4#aae 8,whether ,joshua had a correct philosophical notion of the true system of the universe1 is a subject that need not come into the present inquiry2 but whether he spoke with strict propriety on this occasion1 is a matter of importance1 because he must be considered as acting under the ,divine influence1 in requesting the performance of such a stupendous miracle3 and we may safely assert1 that no man in his right mind would have thought of offering such a petition1 had he not felt himself under some ,divine afflatus4 ,leaving1 therefore1 his philosophical knowledge out of the question1 he certainly spoke as if he had known that the solar influence was the cause of the earth's rotation1 and therefore1 with the strictest philosophic propriety1 he requested1 that that influence might be for a time restrained1 that the diurnal motion of the earth might be arrested1 through which alone1 the sun could be kept above the horizon1 and the day be prolonged4 ,his mode of expression evidently considers the sun as the great ruler or master in the system2 and all the planets1 7or at least the earth7 moving in their respective orbits at his command4 ,he therefore desires him1 7in the name and by the authority of his ,creator7 to suspend his mandate with respect to the earth's motion1 and that of his satellite1 the moon4 ,had he said1 ,earth1 stand thou still--the cessation of whose diurnal motion was the effect of his command1 it could not have obeyed him2 as it is not even the secondary cause either of its annual motion round the sun1 or its diurnal motion round its own axis4 ,instead of doing so1 he speaks to the sun1 the cause 7under ,god7 of all these motions1 as his great archetype did1 when1 in the storm on the sea of ,tiberias1 he rebuked the wind first1 and then said to the waves1 ,peace1 be still6 1 1 be silent6 be dumb6 ,and the effect of this command was1 a cessation of the agitation in the sea1 because the wind ceased to command it1 that is1 to exert its influence upon the waters4 8,the terms in this command are worthy of particular note3 ,joshua does not say to the sun1 ,stand still1 as if he had conceived him to be running his race round the earth2 but1 be silent1 or inactive2 that is1 as ,i understand it1 restrain thy influence2 no longer act upon the earth1 to cause it to revolve round its axis2 a mode of speech which is certainly consistent with the strictest astronomical knowledge3 and the writer of the account1 whether ,joshua himself1 or the author of the ,book of ,jasher1 in relating the consequence of this command1 is equally accurate1 using a word widely different1 when he speaks of the effect1 the retention of the solar influence had on the moon3 in the first case1 the sun was silent1 or inactive1 dom2 in the latter1 the moon stood still1 mad4 ,the standing still of the moon1 or its continuance above the horizon1 would be the natural effect of the cessation of the solar influence1 which obliged the earth to discontinue her diurnal rotation1 which1 of course1 would arrest the moon2 and thus both it and the sun were kept above the horizon1 probably for the space of a whole day4 ,as to the address to the moon1 it is not conceived in the same terms as that to the sun1 and for the most obvious philosophical reason3 all that is said is simply1 and the moon on the vale of ,ajalon1 which may be thus understood3 #8,let the sun restrain his influence1 or be inactive1 as he appears now upon ,gibeon1 that the moon may continue as she appears now over the vale of ,ajalon4' ,it is worthy of remark1 that every word in this poetic address is apparently selected with the greatest caution and precision4 8,at the conclusion of the #acth verse1 a different expression is used when it is said1 ,so1 the sun stood still1 it is not dom1 but mad2 vai-yamod ha-shemesh1 which expression1 thus varying from that in the command of ,joshua1 may be considered as implying1 that in order to restrain his influence1 which ,i have assumed to be the cause of the earth's motion1 the sun himself became inactive1 that is1 ceased to revolve round his own axis2 which revolution is1 probably1 one cause1 not only of the revolution of the earth1 but of all the other planetary bodies in our system1 and might have effected all the planets at the time in question3 but this neither could1 nor did produce any disorder in nature2 and the delay of a few hours in the whole planetary motions1 dwindles away into an imperceptible point in the thousands of years of their revolutions4 ,i need scarcely add1 that the command of ,joshua to the sun1 is to be understood as a prayer to ,god 7from whom the sun derived his being and continuance7 that the effect might be what is expressed in the command2 and therefore it is said1 verse #ad1 #8that the ,,lord ,,hearkened ,,unto ,,the ,,voice ,,of ,a ,,man1 for the ,lord fought for ,israel4'0 ,how glorious an object is the sun6 too dazzling for mortal eye long to gaze on3 the brightest visible emblem of its adorable ,creator4 ,this luminary rejoices to run his prescribed course1 makes our day joyful1 and without his reviving beams we should dwell in perpetual darkness4 ,he1 as the great source of day1 distributes light and life through all nature4 ,seeds1 in the bosom of the earth1 feel his vegetative presence1 and unfold themselves4 ,by his diffusive influence he causes the vital juice to ascend in the tubes of trees1 plants1 and vegetables2 and clothes them with their various and beautiful foliage4 ,he nourishes the young fruits1 gives them their fine tints1 and brings them to maturity4 ,at his approach1 millions of insects awake into life1 shine1 collect themselves1 and sport in his rays4 ,animals partake of his benefits1 and without his animating beams they would sink into insensibility and death3 even in caves and dens of the earth1 his visitation gives life4 ,his heat has a pleasing effect on all the juices and fluids in the human body1 which1 without his directive or impulsive energy1 would soon become stagnant and useless4 ,he is1 by the ,divine wisdom and goodness1 placed at such a proper distance from us1 that1 were he much nearer1 the blood would boil in our veins1 and our bodies soon be either dissolved or calcined3 or1 were he at a much greater distance1 we should become torpid1 and presently be congealed to statues of ice4 ,the very bowels of the earth partake of his influence1 thus producing many valuable and useful metals4 ,he penetrates the highest mountains1 though composed of stones and rocks4 ,he darts his beams even into the depths of the ocean1 where the watery tribes live and play at his command4 8---- ,o ,,sun2 ,soul of surrounding worlds6 in whom best seen ,shines out thy ,maker6---- ',tis by thy secret1 strong1 attractive force1 ,as with a chain indissoluble bound1 ,thy system rolls entire4---- ,,informer of the planetary train6 ,without whose quick'ning glance their cumbrous orbs ,were brute unlovely mass1 inert1 and dead1 ,and not1 as now1 the green abodes of life6 99 99 99 99 99 ,as the sun is the greatest visible glory in the natural world1 so it is selected by the pen of ,divine inspiration as the brightest emblem of the ,supreme ,being--8,the ,lord ,god is a sun40 ,this great luminary has been considered by the ,heathen as the representative of the ,deity1 and as such received religious adoration4 ,according to ,mr4 ,bryant's system of ,ancient ,mythology1 the worship of fire is nearly as old as the flood1 having been propagated by the posterity of ,ham1 in ,egypt1 who called themselves ,ammonians1 and carried this worship with them wherever they went1 erecting their puratheia1 or fire-temples1 in all their settlements4 ,it is stated1 that fire was the primitive1 or at least the principal object of idolatrous worship1 and common to all idolaters from the first apostasy at ,babel4 ,for the original institution of this sacred fire among the ,chaldeans1 we must go back to ,nimrod1 concerning whom the ,alexandrian ,chronicon asserts1 that 8the ,assyrians called ,nimrod1 ,ninus2 this man taught the ,assyrians to worship fire40 ,from the ,greeks we may trace it backwards to the ,ur of the ,chaldeans2 on which the learned ,classius remarks1 that 8,ur is the name of a city wherein the sacred fire was conserved and worshipped by the ,chaldeans1 whence it was called ,ur1 which otherwise signifies fire40 ,plutarch confesses that the ,romans1 in the days of ,numa1 borrowed their worship of fire from the ,greeks at ,athens and ,delphi4 ,numa built a temple of an orbicular form1 to represent1 as ,plutarch interprets1 the system of the heavens2 which temple was the conservatory of a holy and perpetual fire1 kindled at first by the reflections of the sun-beams1 and placed in the centre of the building2 the astronomy of that early period placing the sun in the centre of the world4 ,fire has such an affinity to light1 that the same word has sometimes comprehended them both4 ,the ,ur of the ,chaldeans was fire2 the ,horus of the ,egyptians was light3 and the reason is plain1 because fire and light are united at the body of the sun1 and by him diffused over the world4 ,if1 therefore1 we consider fire as called into action by the sun1 and bear in mind that the ancient ,pythagoreans used the same term to denote both fire and the sun1#aaf we shall get at the root of most of the heathen mythologic divinity4 ,so universal was the attachment to this fire1 that ,macrobius undertook to reduce the names of all the heathen deities to the one object of the sun and its attributes4 ,he says1 8,the ,egyptians consecrated a lion in that part of the heavens where the heat of the sun is most powerful1 because that animal seems to derive his nature from the sun1 excelling all other creatures in fire and force1 as the sun exceeds the other lights of heaven4 ,his eyes1 likewise1 are bright and fiery1 as the sun with a bright and fiery aspect surveys the world4 ,the ,lybians represented their ,jupiter ,hammon1 which was the setting sun1 with the horns of a ram1 with which that animal exerts its strength1 as the sun acts by its rays4 ,the worship of ,egypt abundantly shows1 that the bull is to be referred to the sun2 which is plain from the worship of a bull at ,heliopolis1 the city of the sun2 and of the bull ,apis at ,memphis1 where it was an emblem of the sun2 and of the other bull called ,pacis1 consecrated in the magnificent temple of ,apollo at ,hermunthis40#aag ,wheresoever fire was worshipped in the puratheia of antiquity after the manner of ,numa1 we may suppose that there the true solar system prevailed1 which places the solar fire in the centre2 and that this was really the universal opinion of the most ancient ,heathens4 ,this doctrine agrees with the name which they gave to the sun in his physical capacity1 calling him cor cli1 the heart of the heaven2#aah which illustration and allusion is probably of very great antiquity1 because it cannot with any propriety be applied to the more modern ,ptolemaic hypothesis4 ,the analogy is very striking2 for as the heart is the centre of the animal system1 so is the sun in the centre of our world3 as the heart is the fountain of the blood1 so is the sun the source of light and fire3 as the heart is the life of the body1 so is the sun the life and heat of animated nature1 and the first mover of the mundane system3 when the heart ceases to beat1 the circuit of life is at an end2 and if the sun should cease to act1 a total stagnation would take place throughout the whole frame of nature4 ,macrobius1 pursuing this analogy1 says1 8,we have before observed1 that the sun is called the fountain of the ethereal fire2 therefore the sun is in the heavens1 what the heart is in animals40 ,since the circulation of the blood has been known1 this analogy has been taken up with advantage by the celebrated ,hervey himself1 who1 first of all the moderns1 explained to us with sufficient accuracy this branch of natural philosophy4 ,he observes1 that the heart of animals is the foundation of life1 the chief ruler of all things in the animal system1 the sun of the microcosm1 from which flows all its strength and vigor4 ,the philosophers of antiquity called the sun the heart of the microcosm2 the moderns call the heart the sun of the microcosm4 ,there must be something very striking in the analogy which is thus convertible1 and has been taken up at both ends by such different persons1 at such remote periods of time4 ,the savage philosophy of ,america seems to have comprehended in it the relation1 which we have already noticed1 between the animal system and the frame of nature4 ,acosta1 in his ,history of the ,indies1 reports1 that in the human sacrifices of the ,mexicans1 the high priest pulled out the heart with his hands1 which he showed smoking to the sun1 to whom he offered this heat and fume of the heart1 and presently he turned towards the idol1 and cast the heart at his face4 ,a very highly esteemed correspondent in ,ceylon writes1 ,there is a cast of people inhabiting this island who live wild in the woods1 and worship fire as an emblem of purity2 they are called ,vandals1 and several ,english officers have met a premature death by intruding near the holy fire1 which is under a tamarind tree4 ,with the ,persians fire was an object of worship from the earliest times1 under the name of ,amanus1 and ,mithas2 and it is retained as such at this day by the ,geberrs1 ,gaurs1 ,guebres1 or ,ghebers1 a sect of ,indian philosophers4 ,pottinger says1 8,at the city of ,yezd1 in ,persia1 which is distinguished by the appellation of the ,darb ,abadut1 or seat of ,religion1 the ,guebres are permitted to have an ,atush ,kudu1 or ,fire ,temple 7which1 they assert1 has had the sacred fire in it since the days of ,zoroaster71 in their own compartment of the city2 but for this indulgence they are indebted to the avarice1 not the tolerance of the ,persian government1 which taxes them at twenty-five rupees each man40 ,hanway informs us1 that the ,ghebers suppose the throne of the ,almighty is seated in the sun1 and hence their worship of that luminary4 8,as to fire10 says ,grose1 8the ,ghebers place the spring-head of it in that globe of fire1 the sun1 by them called ,mithras1 or ,mihir1 to which they pay the highest reverence1 in gratitude for the manifold benefits flowing from his ministerial omniscience4 ,but they are so far from confounding the subordination of the servant with the majesty of the ,creator1 that they not only attribute no sort of sense or reasoning to the sun or fire1 in any of its operations1 but consider it as a purely passive blind instrument1 directed and governed by the immediate impression on it of the will of ,god2 but they do not even give that luminary1 all glorious as it is1 more than the second rank among his works1 reserving the first for the stupendous production of the ,divine power1 the mind of man40 ,the temples are generally built over subterraneous fires4 ,rabbi ,benjamin observes1 8,early in the morning1 they 7the ,parsees or ,ghebers of ,ouham7 go in crowds to pay their devotions to the sun1 to whom upon all the altars are spheres consecrated1 made by magic1 resembling the circles of the sun2 and1 when the sun rises1 these orbs seem to be inflamed1 and turn round with a great noise4 ,every one has a censer in his hands1 and offers incense to the sun40 ,it is not a little surprising that the descendants of faithful ,abraham1 taken into covenant with ,god1 should fall under the influence of this idolatrous worship6 ,the apostasy of the ,israelites in the wilderness from the true ,god to the golden calf1 was occasioned by a previous attachment to the sacred rites of the ,egyptian idolatry4 ,and the calves which were afterwards set up in ,dan and ,bethel1 were probably derived from the same source4 ,the ,israelites were not only cautioned against this worship1 but1 if the charge of idolatry brought against an ,israelite was proved by unequivocal facts and competent witnesses1 it affected his life4 ,such was the progress of this idolatrous worship among this people at one period1 that ,josiah1 king of ,judah1 took away out of the temple of the ,lord the horses1 and burned the chariots1 which the kings1 his predecessors1 had consecrated to the sun4 ,job1 in allusion to this vile worship1 says1 8,if ,i beheld the sun when it shined1 or the moon walking in brightness2 if my heart hath been secretly enticed1 or my mouth hath kissed my hand3#aai this also were an iniquity to be punished by the judge3 for ,i should have denied the ,god that is above40 ,ezekiel1 in a vision1 saw 8at the door of the temple of the ,lord1 between the porch and the altar1 about five and twenty men1 with their backs toward the temple of the ,lord1 and their faces toward the east3 and they worshipped the sun toward the east10 in imitation of the ,egyptians1 ,persians1 and other ,eastern nations4 ,while the heathen have thus paid idolatrous worship to the sun1 some persons1 believing in the truth of revealed religion1 have entertained strange notions concerning this luminary4 ,it is remarkable1 observes a polite writer1 that whilst some of the ancients imagined the sun to be the seat of future blessedness1 from ,psal4 xix1 #ad1 8,he set his tabernacle in the sun10 a ,mr4 ,swinden1 among the moderns1 endeavors to prove that hell is seated in the sun1 chiefly pleading that this is the grand repository of fire2 that its horrible face1 viewed by a telescope1 suits the description given of the burning lake2 and that being in the centre of the system1 it might be properly said that wicked men were cast down into it4 ,but these are mere hypotheses1 and unworthy of serious consideration4 ,notwithstanding this idolatrous worship of the sun1 there is a sober and religious use to be made of this luminary2 for being the greatest visible glory in the natural world it is selected as the brightest emblem of the ,supreme ,being--8,the ,lord ,god is a sun40 ,an object thus illustrious and useful in the regular and wise economy of nature1 is mentioned in the sacred volume as a metaphor fraught with truths of infinite moment1 imparting wisdom to the simple1 and instruction to the ignorant4 ,he admirably represents the unity1 glory1 and bounty of ,god4 ,viewing our sun in all his paramount qualities to every material object in nature1 how is he eclipsed and surpassed by the ,sun of ,righteousness1 of whose splendor1 grace1 and energy this is but a faint emblem1 and from whom issues1 in bright and gentle beams1 all the light1 life1 joy1 and hope received and enjoyed in the ,christian world4 ,the one is the most magnificent creature among the vast variety of objects which surround us1 but the other is the source of all that is excellent1 attractive1 and beneficial1 in the whole range of material causes and effects1 as well as in the nature1 extent1 and perpetuity of the kingdom of grace4 ,the material sun runs its course from day to day1 with unwearied regularity1 activity1 and ardor1 and thus completes its circuit according to its original destination4 ,and did not our adorable ,saviour also finish the great career of our redemption1 after he held performed all those miracles1 and published his own everlasting gospel1 which are the sublime and interesting themes of the sacred writers1 by offering himself on the consecrated altar a sacrifice for the sins of mankind8 ,the former diffuses light1 vitality1 vegetation1 and felicity through the whole mass of animated nature in our planetary system4 ,and does not the other likewise dissipate the ignorance which darkens the intellectual regions1 enlighten our minds in all saving knowledge1 and produce in the human heart every grace and virtue8 ,were our natural sun to withdraw his beams1 or absent himself from the centre of our system for any given time1 the planets would start out of their orbits2 darkness1 black as night1 would instantly spread itself over the whole mass1 and 8chaos come again40 ,and if the glorious ,luminary of the moral world were to hide his face behind a thick cloud of gathering vengeance and judicial desertion1 this would introduce into the soul alarming fears and tumultuous passions1 which would exist in a state of opposition and conflict4 ,those who have been brought out of the darkness of ignorance1 wickedness and misery1 into the light of knowledge1 holiness and happiness1 by ,christ1 who is the light of the world1 should be careful to walk in the light of his countenance all the days of their life4 ,does not the earth return the fructifying warmth of the sun1 and all his genial effects1 in a profusion of verdure1 foliage1 and flowers8 ,do not all the irrational tribes joyfully greet his rising every morning1 and bask in his presence through the day with great delight8 ,all the orbs which revolve round him1 and are preserved and cherished in their respective spheres by his ministry1 pay him perpetual homage by maintaining invariable harmony and order4 ,and being thus taught by natural objects1 what is due for the reception of so many mercies1 surely it is an unquestionable duty that we guard against every thing which would prevent us doing the will of our best benefactor4 ,christian believers1 rich in the bloom of holiness1 and ripening for the harvest of glory1 are said to be 8clothed with the sun40 ,it is the gracious promise1 on which all their hopes and wishes confidently rely1 that the 8righteous shall0 ultimately 8shine as the sun in the kingdom of their ,father40#abj ,thus it is written1 8,the path of the just is as the shining light1 that shines more and more unto the perfect day40 ,in the path of the just there is a progress from a less to a greater light3 it does not only grow clearer1 but increases in clearness till it is light in perfection2 advancing from the break of day to the sun rising1 and then to the brightness of noon-day4 8,,jesus1 let all thy lovers shine1 illustrious as the sun1 ,and bright with borrow'd rays divine1 ,their glorious circuit run4 ,beyond the reach of mortals1 spread ,their light where'er they go2 ,and heavenly influences shed1 ,on all the world below4 ,as giants1 may they run their race1 ,exulting in their might3 ,as burning luminaries1 chase ,the gloom of hellish night4 ,as the bright ,sun of ,righteousness1 ,their healing wings display2 ,and let their lustre still increase ,unto the perfect day40 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,moon4 ,names -- ,dimensions -- ,motions -- ,seasons -- ,phases -- ,harvest ,moon -- ,moon's ,surface -- ,arial ,stones -- ,eclipses -- ,moonlight -- ,epithets -- ,religious ,improvement4 ,the moon is called a great light1 but less than the sun4 ,moses does not here speak philosophically1 according to her bulk1 but to the proportion of light she affords us1 which is more than all the planets in the solar system and all the fixed stars put together4 8,he smooth'd the rough-cast moon's imperfect mould1 ,and comb'd her beamy locks with sacred gold2 ,be thou1 said he1 ,queen of the mournful night1-- ,and as he spoke1 she rose o'erclad wish light1 ,with thousand stars attending on her train40 ,the moon is not a primary planet1 but only a satellite1 or secondary planet1 attendant on our earth1 round which she revolves1 and along with which she is carried round the sun4 8,the moon10 says ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory1 8is a dark1 or opake body1 shining principally with the light she receives from the sun4 ,if she shone by a light of her own1 we should feel a sensible warmth from her rays2 but it is a light reflected from the sun with which she shines1 and is so exceedingly weak and languid1 that the greatest burning glass will not collect enough to make any sensible degree of heat4 ,this has been accounted for1 and those who have gone through the computation assert that the light of the full moon is ninety thousand times less than day-light40 ,the ancients early discovered1 that the moon had no light of its own1 but shone with that which it reflected from the sun4 ,this1 after ,thales1 was the sentiment of ,anaxagoras and ,empedocles1 who thence accounted not only for the mildness of its splendor1 but the imperceptibility of its heat1 which our experiments confirm4 ,in the ,hebrew language the moon is called ,yarah1 or1 more strictly speaking1 says ,parkhurst1 the lunar light1 or flux of light1 reflected from the moon's body1 or orb4 ,that this is the true sense of the word is evident from several passages of ,scripture1 one of which is1 8,for the precious 7produce7 put forth by--what8 ,not the orbs of the moon surely 7for the orb is but one71 but by the fluxes or streams of light reflected from it1 which are not only several but various1 according to the moon's different phases and aspects in regard to the sun and the earth4 ,and this may lead us to the radical idea of the word 2 for as and 1 and c41 are very nearly related to each other respectively1 so likewise ,i conjecture that is to 1 in sense as well as in sound1 and consequently that it signifies to go in a track or in a constant customary road or way2 and this affords us a good descriptive name of the lunar light2 for1 ,behold1 says ,bildad in ,job1 chap4 xxv1 #e1 even to the or lunar light and he 7,god7 hath not pitched a tent 7for it72 as he has for the or solar light4 ,no6 ,the lunar stream has fixed station from whence it issues1 but together with the orb which reflects it1 and which like a human traveller moves now a quicker1 now a slower pace1 is continually performing its appointed journey1 and proceeding in a constant1 though regularly irregular track40 ,the ,greeks called the moon 1 which may be considered as a derivative from 4 ,parkhurst says1 ,this word may be derived either from 1 the moon1 by the phases of which the month is reckoned1 or else it may be deduced from the ,hebrew manah1 to number1 compute1 as being computed by the lunar phases4 ,and it is probable that the first computations of time were made by the revolutions of the moon4 ,it is obvious to remark1 that not only these two ,greek words1 but also the ,latin mensis1 a month1 and the ,english moon1 month1 are ultimately derived from the same ,hebrew 4 ,leigh observes1 that 8the ,hebrews call the moon and a month by the same name1 because the moon is renewed every month4 ,the ,greeks also call 1 from 1 because it every day renews its light40 ,parkhurst on the word says1 8,the ,greek etymologists1 and particularly ,plato1 deduce it from 1 new light1 because its light is continually renewed40 ,but the learned ,goguet says2 8,the ,greeks gave to the moon the name selene1 which comes from the ,phnician word 7 or namely7 which signifies to pass the night2 whence also we may observe is plainly derived the ,latin name of the moon1 luna40 ,from lun with the termination a1 comes luna1 and this name is given to the planet from her changing or appearing under different phases4 ,as to the dimensions of the moon1 according to the most accurate calculations1 her diameter is #b1age miles1 the circumference #f1hca miles1 the surface contains #ad1hih1gej square miles1 and its solidity #e1djh1bdf1jjj cubical ones4 ,her bulk is equal to about a fiftieth part of our earth1 and her mean distance from the earth is about #bdj1jjj miles4 ,the motions of the moon are most of them very irregular4 ,the only equable motion she has1 is her revolution on her own axis4 ,the time in which she moves round her axis is about #bg days1 #g hours1 #dc minutes1 #e seconds2 and her revolution through an elliptical orbit is performed in the same time as her rotation on her axis1 moving about #b1bij miles every hour4 ,her revolution round her axis exactly in the same time that she goes round the earth1 is the reason she always turns the same face towards us3 she has only one day and one night in the course of a month4 ,from a long series of observations1 it has been ascertained that the moon makes a complete revolution in #bg days1 #g hours1 #dc minutes1 #e seconds2 this is called the periodical month2 but1 if we refer to the time passed from new moon to new moon again1 the month consists of #bi days1 #ab hours1 and #dd minutes1 which is called the synodical month4 ,this difference is occasioned by the earth's annual motion in its orbit4 ,thus1 if the earth had no motion1 the moon would make a complete round in #bg days1 #g hours1 #dc minutes1 and #e seconds2 but while the moon is describing her journey the earth has passed through nearly a twelfth part of its orbit1 which the moon must also describe before the two bodies come again into the same position that they before held with respect to the sun3 this takes up so much more time as to make her synodical month equal to #bi days1 #ab hours1 and #dd minutes4 ,the motions of the hour and minute hands of a watch may serve to give some idea of the periodical and synodical revolutions of the moon2 for when the minute hand has performed a complete revolution1 it has yet some distance to go to obtain a coincidence with the hour hand1 similar to that which it had the preceding hour4 ,we have observed that the same face is turned towards us during the whole of the moon's revolution1 and that the other half of her surface is never visible to us4 ,this arises from the two motions we have noticed1 which1 with regard to our view of the moon1 appear to counteract each other4 ,her revolution round the earth is performed towards the east2 while the revolution upon her own axis is performed towards the west3 so that1 one of these motions turns as much of her face from us1 as the other turns towards us4 ,and from the moon's axis being inclined to the plane of her orbit1 sometimes one of her poles is inclined towards the earth1 and sometimes the other3 in consequence of which1 we see more or less of her polar regions in different periods of her revolution4 ,when the moon is in perigee1 or nearest distance from the earth1 her motion is quickest2 and when in apogee1 or most remote distance1 her motion is slowest4 ,the length of the day is equal to our lunar month1 for all that time is included in one revolution round her axis4 ,her days and nights1 therefore1 will constantly be of the same length1 or almost fifteen of our days each4 ,the year will be exactly the same with our year2 because1 being an attendant on the earth1 she must go round the sun in the same time as that does4 ,her difference of seasons will be much less than on our earth1 having only a small inclination of her axis of six degrees and a half2 so that the variation between her summer's heat and her winter's cold must be comparatively inconsiderable4 ,hence there will be only thirteen degrees of ,torrid ,zone1 on some parts most opposite the sun1 and thirteen degrees of ,frigid ,zone on those contiguous to her poles2 which consequently must leave seventy-seven degrees for what we should call her ,temperate ,zones1 both in the north and south parts from her ,equator4 ,our earth1 unquestionably1 performs the office of a moon to the moon1 waxing and waning regularly1 but appearing thirteen times as large1 and1 of course1 affording her thirteen times as much light as she does to us4 ,when she changes to us1 the earth appears full to her2 when she is in her first quarter to us1 the earth is in its third quarter to her2 and vice vers4 ,to the moon the earth seems to be the largest body in the universe1 and must indeed be a most magnificent sight4 ,on the supposition that the moon is inhabited1 it may be observed1 that those who are placed about the middle of the surface1 or face next to us1 will constantly see our earth over their heads1 and increasing and decreasing in light1 like as the moon itself appears to us4 ,those who are situated near the borders1 whether on the right or left1 or upon the top or bottom1 will also constantly have the same appearance in the opposite part of the horizon4 ,but those who live on the side of the moon which is not presented to us1 will know nothing of our earth1 or at least1 they will never have an opportunity of seeing this large and wonderful moon1 without travelling perhaps more than #a1ejj of our miles on the surface of that luminary4 ,to those who live on this side of the moon1 or travel to it on any account1 as we may pass from the northern into the southern hemisphere of our globe1 the earth1 indeed1 when at full to them1 will appear to be more than three times as broad as the moon does to us1 and to communicate1 as has been already mentioned1 about thirteen times as much light to her1 as she does to us when at the full4 ,the moon1 possessing no native light1 shines entirely by light received from the sun1 and which is reflected to us from her surface4 ,that half of her which is towards the sun is enlightened1 and the other half is dark and invisible3 hence1 when she is between us and the sun1 she disappears1 because her dark side is then towards us4 ,whilst making her revolution round the heavens1 she undergoes a continual change of appearance4 ,she is sometimes on our meridian at midnight1 and therefore in that part of the heavens which is opposite to the sun2 when she appears with a face completely circular1 which is called a full moon4 ,as she moves eastward1 a part of her dark side comes forward on the western side1 and1 in a little more than seven days1 reaches to the meridian1 at about six in the morning1 having the appearance of a semi-circle1 with the convex side turned towards the sun3 this crescent gradually becomes more slender1 till1 about fourteen days after the full moon1 being so near the sun1 and in a line between that luminary and our earth1 she is rendered invisible to us1 from the superior splendor of that orb of light4 ,about four days after this disappearance1 she may be seen in the evening1 a little to the eastward of the sun1 in the form of a fine crescent1#aba as before1 but having her convex side turned from the sun4 ,travelling still towards the east1 the crescent becomes wider2 and when advanced to the meridian1 about six in the evening1 she again bears the appearance of a bright semi-circle1 with the same difference that we observed of the crescent1 that is1 its convex side is now turned from the sun4 ,advancing still more eastward1 the semi-circular moon widens into an oval shape1 till at last1 in about twenty-nine days and a half from the last opposition to the sun1 she is again in the same situation1 and appears a full moon4 ,the following account of the harvest moon1 so called1 taken from the ,pantalogia1 will no doubt be acceptable to the reader4--,it is remarkable that the moon1 during the week in which she is full about the time of harvest1 rises sooner after sun-setting than she does in any other full moon week in the year4 ,by this means1 she affords an immediate supply of light after sun-set1 which is very beneficial for the harvest and gathering in the fruits of the earth2 and hence this full moon is distinguished from all the others in the year1 by calling it the harvest-moon4 ,to conceive the reason of this phenomenon1 it may first be considered1 that the moon is always opposite to the sun when she is full2 that she is full in the signs ,pisces and ,aries in our harvest months1 those being the signs opposite to ,virgo and ,libra1 the signs occupied by the sun about the same season2 and because those parts of the ecliptic rise in a shorter space of time than others1 as may easily be shown and illustrated by the celestial globe3 consequently1 when the moon is about her full in harvest1 she rises with less difference of time1 or more immediately after sun-set1 than when she is full at other seasons of the year4 ,in our winter1 the moon is in ,pisces and ,aries about the time of her first quarter1 when she rises about noon2 but her rising is not then noticed1 because the sun is above the horizon4 ,in spring1 the moon is in ,pisces and ,aries about the time of her change2 at which time1 as she gives no light1 and rises with the sun1 her rising cannot be perceived4 ,in summer1 the moon is in ,pisces and ,aries about the time of her last quarter2 and then1 as she is on the decrease1 and rises not till midnight1 her rising usually passes unobserved4 ,but in autumn1 the moon is in ,pisces and ,aries at the time of her full1 and rises soon after sun-set for several evenings successively2 which makes her regular rising very conspicuous at that time of the year4 ,and this would always be the case1 if the moon's orbit lay in the plane of the ecliptic4 ,but as her orbit makes an angle of #e #ah with the ecliptic1 and crosses it only in the two opposite points called the nodes1 her rising when in ,pisces and ,aries will sometimes not differ above #a;h4 #djmin4 through the whole of seven days2 and at other times1 in the same two signs1 she will differ three hours and a half in the time of her rising in a week1 according to the different positions of the nodes with respect to these signs2 which positions are constantly changing1 because the nodes go backward through the whole ecliptic in #ah years #bbe days4 ,this revolution of the nodes will cause the harvest moons to go through a whole course of the most and least beneficial states1 with respect to the harvest1 every nineteen years4 ,the following table shows in what years the harvest-moons are least beneficial as to the times of their rising1 and in what years they are most beneficial1 from the year #agij to #ahfa3 the column of years under the letter ,l are those in which the harvest-moons are least of all beneficial1 because they fall about the descending node2 and those under the letter ,m are the most of all beneficial1 because they fall about the ascending node4 ,,harvest ,,moons4 ,l ,m ,l ,m ,l ,m ,l ,m #agij #agih #ahjg #ahaf #ahbf #ahce #ahdd #ahec #agia #agii #ahjh #ahag #ahbg #ahcf #ahde #ahed #agib #ahjj #ahji #ahah #ahbh #ahcg #ahdf #ahee #agic #ahja #ahaj #ahai #ahbi #ahch #ahdg #ahef #agid #ahjb #ahaa #ahbj #ahcj #ahci #ahdh #aheg #agie #ahjc #ahab #ahba #ahca #ahdj #ahdi #aheh #agif #ahjd #ahac #ahbb #ahcb #ahda #ahej #ahei #agig #ahje #ahad #ahbc #ahcc #ahdb #ahea #ahfj #ahjf #ahae #ahbd #ahcd #ahdc #aheb #ahfa #ahbe ,when the moon is viewed through a good telescope1 there appear vast cavities and asperities on various parts of her face1 some of them extremely resembling deep caverns and vallies1 and others mountains4 8,turn'd to the sun direct1 her spotted disk ,shows mountains rise1 umbrageous vales descend1 ,and caverns deep1 as optic tube descries40 ,the cavities1 it is conjectured1 do not contain water2 hence it is concluded that there can be no extensive seas and oceans1 like those which cover a great part of our earth4 ,it is1 however1 imagined that there may be springs and ,,rivers4 ,the moon seems1 as a learned author has observed1 in almost every respect to be a body similar to our earth1 to have its surface diversified by hill and dale1 mountains and vallies1 rivers and lakes4 ,with regard to a lunar atmosphere1 the existence of which has long been a subject of much dispute1 it is now generally admitted4#abb ,the irregularity of the moon's surface1 arising from hills and vallies1 renders her more capable of reflecting the sun's rays to us4 ,though philosophers have differed widely in their ideas concerning the materials of the moon's mountains1 some from their brilliancy even supposing them to be rocks of diamonds1 there is no diversity of opinion as to their use4 ,if smooth and polished1 like a mirror1 or covered with water1 she would not reflect and distribute the light received from the sun4 ,in some positions she would show us his image no larger than a single point1 and with a lustre that would injure our sight3 but roughened by these hills and vallies1 her surface returns the sun's light to us in an equable and pleasant manner1 and enables us to examine her with ease and precision4 ,that the moon is a planet similar to our earth1 is a sentiment very early adopted4 ,orpheus is the most ancient author1 whose opinion on this subject has come down to us4 ,proclus presents us with three verses of that philosopher1 wherein he positively asserts1 that the moon was another earth1 having in it mountains1 vallies1 c4 ,pythagoras1 who followed ,orpheus in many of his opinions1 taught likewise1 that the moon was an earth like ours1 replete with animals1 whose nature he presumed not to describe1 though he was persuaded they were of a more noble and elegant kind than ours1 and not liable to the same infirmities4 ,stobus gives us the opinion of ,democritus about the nature of the moon1 and the cause of those spots which we see upon its disk4 ,that great philosopher imagined1 that 8those spots were no other than shades1 formed by the excessive height of the lunar mountains10 which intercepted the light from the lower parts of that planet1 where the valleys formed themselves into what appeared to us as shades or spots4 ,plutarch went further1 alleging1 that there were embosomed in the moon1 vast seas and profound caverns3 he says1 those deep and extensive shades which appear upon the disk of that planet1 must be occasioned by the vast seas it contains1 which are incapable of reflecting so vivid a light1 as the more solid and opake parts2 8or by caverns extremely wide and deep1 wherein the rays of the sun are absorbed10 whence those shades and that obscurity which we call the spots of the moon4 ,and ,zenophanes said1 that those immense cavities were inhabited by another race of men1 who lived there just as we do upon earth4 8,and oft ,i think1 fair planet of the night1 ,that in thy orb the wretched may have rest40 ,the height of the moon's atmosphere is supposed to be #a4fbb miles2 or a little more than a mile and a half4 ,the observations on the moon have been so accurate1 and so often repeated1 by means of the best glasses1 that the map of the moon is now considered nearly perfect4 ,on this map is laid down the position of spots1 cavities1 and mountains1 representing their size1 height1 depth1 and peculiarities4 ,they are very numerous4 ,some of these mountains are full five miles high4 ,they descend in height1 from the highest to small elevations4 ,several astronomers1 particularly ,herschell1 has distinctly observed and described volcanos in the moon1 actually flaming2 and others in an expiring state4 ,craters of extinct volcanos are visible1 and so numerous as to indicate very clearly1 that volcanic action was once very extensive and powerful in the moon4 ,some of the cavities are more than three miles and a half deep1 and sixteen broad at the surface4 ,ferguson's ,astronomy1 additional chapters by ,dr4 ,brewster4 ,that stones have fallen from the clouds or from much higher regions1 is a fact which has recently been very closely investigated1 and also fully demonstrated4 ,a table1 constructed by ,m4 ,izarn1 a foreign chemist1 exhibits a variety of facts of this kind1 from which the following is an extract4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,places where ,period of ,substances4 they fell4 their fall4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,shower of stones4 ,at ,rome4 ,under ,tullus ,hostilius4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,shower of stones4 ,at ,rome4 ,consuls1 ,c4 ,martius1 and ,m4 ,torquatus4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a very large stone4 ,near the river ,second year of ,negos1 ,thrace4 the #ghth ,olympiad4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,three large stones4 ,in ,thrace4 ,year before ,j4,c4 #deb4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,stone of #gb lbs4 ,near ,larissa1 ,january1 #agjf4 ,macedonia4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,about #a1bjj stones2 ,near ,padua1 ,in #aeaj4 one #abj lbs4 in ,italy4 ,another of #fj lbs4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,another of #ei lbs4 ,on ,mount ,vasier1 ,november #bg1 #afbg4 ,provence4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,two large stones1 ,liponas1 ,september1 #agec4 weighing #bj lbs4 in ,bresse4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a stony mass4 ,niort1 ,normandy4 ,in #agej4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a stone of #g lbs4 ,at ,luce1 in ,le ,maine4 ,september #ac1 #agfh4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a stone4 ,at ,aire1 in ,artois4 ,in #agfh4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a stone4 ,in ,le ,contenin4 ,in #agfh4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,extensive shower ,environs of ,agen4 ,july #bd1 #agij4 of stones4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,about #ab stones4 ,sienna1 ,tuscany4 ,july1 #agid4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a large stone ,wold ,cottage1 ,december #ac1 #agie4 of #ef lbs4 ,yorkshire4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a stone of #aj lbs4 ,in ,portugal4 ,february #ai1 #agif4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a stone of #abj lbs4 ,sal1 ,department ,march #ag1 #agih4 of the ,rhone4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,shower of stones4 ,benares1 ,east ,indies4 ,december #ai1 #agih4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,shower of stones4 ,at ,plann1 near ,july #c1 #agec4 ,tabor1 ,bohemia4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,mass of iron1 ,america4 ,april #e1 #ahjj4 #gj cubic feet4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,mass of do4 ,abakauk1 ,siberia4 ,very old4 #ad quintals4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,shower of stones4 ,barboutan1 ,july1 #aghi4 near ,roquefort4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,large stone1 ,ensisheim1 ,november #g1 #adib4 #bfj lbs4 ,upper ,rhine4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,two stones1 ,near ,verona4 ,in #agfb4 #bjj and #cjj lbs4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a stone of #bj lbs4 ,sales1 near ,march #ab1 #agih4 ,ville ,franche4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,several do4 ,near ,l',aigle1 ,april #bf1 #ahjc4 from #aj to #ag lbs4 ,normandy4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the stones generally appear luminous in their descent1 moving in oblique directions1 with very great velocities1 and commonly with a hissing noise4 ,they are frequently heard to explode1 or burst1 and seem to fly in pieces1 the larger parts falling first4 ,they often strike the earth with such force1 as to sink several inches below the surface4 ,they are always different from the surrounding bodies1 but is every case are similar to one another1 being semi-metallic1 coated with a thin black encrustation4 ,they bear strong marks of recent fusion4 ,chemists have found1 on examining these stones1 that they very nearly agree in their nature and composition1 and in the proportions of their component parts4 ,their specific gravities are generally about three or four times that of water1 being heavier than common stones4 ,from the above account1 it is reasonable to conclude1 that they have all the same origin4 ,i believe it is generally agreed among philosophers1 that all these arial stones1 chemically analysed1 evince the same properties2 and that no stone1 found on our earth1 possesses exactly similar properties1 nor in the same proportions3 this is an extraordinary circumstance1 and deserves particular notice4 ,at the sitting of the ,society of ,natural ,history at ,halle1 ,july #f1 #ahaf1 ,m4 ,chladni submitted to the inspection of the members present1 a collection of meteoric stones1 or stones fallen from the atmosphere2 and to the exhibition1 he added his own observations on their nature and formation4 ,dr4 ,kstner1 taking up the subject in the same point of view which ,m4 ,chladni had given of it1 admitted that these stones are not natives of this earth1 but of other celestial bodies2 to which he added1 that the chemical analysis of them proves1 that many of the same substances as are found in our mountains1 and among the solids of our globe1 are also component parts of the solids and mountains of other globes2 certainly of those celestial bodies which are nearest to us2 and probably of the others which form our planetary system4 ,that these stones are projected from lunar volcanos1 very strong reasons have been assigned to prove4 ,as #a4 ,volcanos in the moon have been observed by means of the telescope4 #b4 ,the lunar volcanos are very high1 and the surface of that globe suffers frequent changes1 as appears by the late observations of ,schroter4 #c4 ,if a body be projected from the moon to a distance greater than that of the point of equilibrium1 between the attraction of the earth and the moon1 it will1 on the known principles of gravitation1 fall to the earth4 #d4 ,that a body may be projected from the lunar volcanos beyond the moon's influence1 is not only possible1 but very probable2 for on calculation it is found1 that four times the force usually given to a twelve pounder1 will be quite sufficient for this purpose3 it is to be observed1 that the point of equilibrium is much nearer2 and that a projectile from the moon will not be so much retarded as one from the earth1 both on account of the moon's rarer atmosphere1 and its less attractive force4#abc ,of all the phenomena of the heavens1 there are none which engage the attention of mankind more than eclipses of the sun and moon2 and to those who are unacquainted with the principles1 nothing can appear more extraordinary than the accuracy1 even to a second of time1 with which they are predicted4 ,eclipses of the sun are occasioned by the shadow of the intervening new moon falling on the earth1 and those of the moon are caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the full moon1 the earth at the full moon being always in a direction between the sun and moon4 ,it is ascertained that1 for an eclipse of the sun to be annular1 the most favorable circumstances will be when the sun is in perigee1 and the moon in apogee2 and1 for an eclipse to be total1 the most favorable case is when the sun is in apogee1 and the moon in perigee4 ,the motion of the moon being much swifter than that of the earth1 and the motions of both being directed from west to east1 an eclipse of the sun must always begin in the western edge of the sun2 and as the moon is a great deal less than the earth1 her shadow forms a cone1 the section of which is much less than the earth1 so that a small portion of the earth only can1 at any time1 be involved in the shadow at one time4 ,hence it is1 that an eclipse of the sun is not perceived1 at the same instant1 in every part of the hemisphere that is turned towards the sun1 and that1 in some parts1 it will not be seen at all4 ,for instance1 a friend of mine1 writing from ,ceylon in the month of ,may1 7#ahag17 says1 8,on the #afth of this month1 we had a fine sight of an eclipse of the sun about noon3 ,i think about #c-dths of the surface were covered40 ,but in this country we had no solar eclipse at the same time4 ,again1 in different situations1 different parts of the sun's disk will appear eclipsed2 but1 on the contrary1 an eclipse of the moon is perceived1 at the same moment1 in every part of the earth where this planet is visible1 and appears every where to occupy the same portion of her disk4 ,hence1 eclipses of the sun are much less frequent in any particular place than eclipses of the moon4 ,if the nodes of the moon constantly corresponded with the same points in the heavens1 the eclipses of the sun or moon might be expected in the same months1 and even on the same days2 but as the nodes shift backwards1 or contrary to the earth's annual motion1 about #ai degrees in a year1 the same node will come round about nineteen days sooner every year than in the preceding4 ,from the time1 therefore1 when the ascending node passes by the sun1 as seen from the earth1 there will be only #agc days before the descending node passes by him4 ,if1 then1 at any time of the year1 we have eclipses about either of the nodes1 their return may be expected in about #agc days1 in or near the other4 ,it may be further observed1 that1 after the sun1 moon1 and nodes1 have been once in a line of conjunction1 they will return nearly to the same state again in #bbh lunations1 or eighteen years and ten days2 so that the same node which was in conjunction with the sun and moon at the beginning of the first of these lunations1 will be within less than half a degree of the line of conjunction with the sun and moon again1 when the last of these lunations is completed4 ,in that time1 therefore1 there will be a regular period of eclipses for many ages4 ,these things being properly considered1 it will not be difficult to conceive how astronomers are able to foretell the exact time when any phenomenon of this kind will happen2 for1 as an eclipse can only take place at the time of a new or full moon1 the principal requisites are1 to determine the number of mean conjunctions and oppositions that will happen every year1 and the true places of the sun and moon in their orbits at each of those times4 ,and1 if from this1 when proper calculations have been made1 it appears that the two luminaries are within the proper limits of the node1 there will be an eclipse4 ,to facilitate these operations1 we have astronomical tables ready computed1 by which the places of the heavenly bodies1 and every other particular required1 may be easily found for any given instant of time4#abd ,with delight we reflect on the invaluable benefits which this lesser light confers on our globe4 ,she sometimes appears visible in the presence of the sun2 but how faint and pale is her shining6 ,god has appointed her to rule the night1 and give light to men4 ,how cheerless and uncomfortable would our nights be1 were we destitute of the light which this faithful and inseparable companion of our earth dispenses6 ,how strange are her eclipses1 occasioned by the earth interposing and shading her face6 but1 they are highly useful in astronomical1 geographical1 and chronological calculations4 ,how salutary1 too1 is her attractive influence1 which sways the ocean1 and actuates the world of waters2 causing the swelling of the tides1 and perpetuating the regular returns of ebb and flow2 by which the liquid element itself is preserved from putrefaction1 and the surrounding continents from infection and disease4 ,a moonlight night has led the greatest poets in every age to vie with each other in attempting to describe its beauty and use4 ,among all the treasures of modern poetry1 ,i know not one superior1 for pleasing imagery1 and variety of numbers1 to that of ,milton3 8,now came still evening on1 and twilight grey ,had in her sober livery all things clad4 ,now glowed the firmament ,with living sapphires3 ,hesperus1 that led ,the starry host1 rode brightest1 till the ,moon1 ,rising in clouded majesty1 at length1 ,apparent queen1 unveiled her peerless light4 ,and o'er the dark her silver mantle threw40 ,homer1 in the eighth book of the ,iliad1 gives us a description of a fine moonlight night1 which is esteemed a master-piece of nocturnal painting4 ,milton's pencil leaves off where that of ,homer begins3 8,as when the ,moon1 refulgent lamp of night1 ,o'er heaven's clear azure sheds her sacred light2 ,when not a breath disturbs the deep serene1 ,and not a cloud o'ercasts the solemn scene2 ,around her throne the vivid planets roll1 ,and stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole2 ,o'er the dark trees a yellower verdure shed1 ,and tip with silver every mountain's head2 ,then shine the vales2 the rocks in prospect rise2 ,a flood of glory bursts from all the skies2 ,the conscious swains rejoicing in the sight1 ,eye the blue vault1 and bless the useful light40 ,the wise ,son of ,sirach1 although his writings are not admitted into the sacred canon1 deserves to be heard on this subject4 ,he says1 8,the ,lord made the moon also to serve in her season1 for a declaration of times1 and a sign of the world4 ,from the moon is the sign of feasts1 a light decreaseth in her perfection4 ,the month is called after her name1 increasing wonderfully in her changing1 being an instrument of the armies above1 shining in the firmament of heaven2 the beauty of heaven1 the glory of the stars1 an ornament giving light to the highest places of the ,lord4 ,at the commandment of the ,holy ,one they will stand in their order1 and never faint in their watches40 ,this is paraphrased with great elegance and spirit by ,mr4 ,broome3 8,by thy command the moon1 as day-light fades1 ,lifts her broad circle in the deep'ning shades2 ,arrayed in glory1 and enthroned in light1 ,she breaks the solemn terrors of the night2 ,sweetly inconstant in her varying flame1 ,she changes still1 another1 yet the same6 ,now in decrease1 by slow degrees she shrouds ,her fading lustre in a vale of clouds2 ,now of increase1 her gathering beams display ,a blaze of light1 and give a paler day2 ,ten thousand stars adorn her glittering train1 ,fall when she falls1 and rise with her again2 ,and o'er the deserts of the sky unfold ,their burning spangles of sidereal gold3 ,through the wide heavens she moves serenely bright1 ,queen of the gay attendants of the night3 ,orb above orb in sweet confusion lies1 ,and with a bright disorder paints the skies40 ,many striking epithets have been given to this refulgent lamp of the night1 some of which are noticed by ,nichols in his ,conference with a ,theist4 ,tully asserts1 that the moon was called ,diana1 because she made a day of the night1 whilst all other stars did not make a twilight4 schylus1 a tragic poet1 born at ,athens #cig before the ,christian era1 calls her 1 the ancient1 the governess1 or mother of the stars4 ,apollinaris1 bishop of ,hierapolis1 in ,phrygia1 about ,a4,d4 #aga1 denominates her1 1 the queen of the nightly paths4 ,tynesius1 who flourished ,a4,c4 #djj1 styles her1 1 the princess of the nocturnal gods3 which is consonant to ,horace's lucidum cli decus--syderum regina4 ,virgil likewise calls her1 astrorum decus1 the ornament of the stars4 ,seneca terms her1 obscuri dea clara mundi1 the bright goddess of the obscure world2 and also clarumque cli sydus et noctis decus1 the bright star of heaven1 and the grace of the night4 ,statius1 who lived at ,rome in the reign of ,domitian1 in his ,thebais1 terms her1 arcan moderatrix ,cynthia noctis1 the moon the governess of silent night4 8,fair as the moon10 was an ancient manner of describing beauty1 and1 it is said1 still prevails in the ,east4 ,among the ancients1 observes ,mr4 ,butler1 the moon was an object of prime respect4 ,by the ,hebrews1 she was more regarded than the sun1 and they were more inclined to worship her as a deity4 ,the new moons1 or first days of every month1 were observed as festivals among them1 which were celebrated with sound of trumpets1 entertainments1 and sacrifice4 ,the moon was the goddess of the ,phnicians1 whom they worshipped under the name ,ashtoreth1 or ,astarte4 ,the moon is sometimes in ,scripture styled1 the 8queen of heaven40 ,she is likewise styled1 8the goddess of the ,zidonians10 and 8the abomination of the ,zidonians10 as she was worshipped very much in ,zidon1 or ,sidon1 a famous city of the ,phnicians1 situated upon the eastern coast of the ,mediterranean4 ,solomon1 who had many wives that were foreigners1 was prevailed upon by them to introduce the worship of this goddess into ,israel1 and he built her a temple on the mount of ,olives1 which1 on account of this and other idols1 is called 8the mount of corruption40#abe ,milton says1 8,there stood ,her temple on th' offensive mountain1 built ,by that uxorious king1 whose heart1 though large1 ,beguil'd by fair idolatresses1 fell1 ,to idols foul40 ,the full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the ,spartans2 and no motives could induce them to enter upon an expedition1 march an army1 or attack an enemy1 till the full of the moon4 ,it is usual with the modern ,arabians to begin their journeys at the new moon2 a practice which1 indeed1 appears to be very ancient4 ,when the ,shunammite proposed going to ,elisha1 her husband dissuaded her by observing that it was neither new moon nor sabbath4 #a4 ,the moon is an emblem of the church of ,god1 which receives its light from ,christ as the moon does from the sun4 ,especially1 of the ,jewish dispensation1 which consisted much in the observation of new moons1 its solemn feasts being governed by them4 ,the ,jewish dispensation was a veiled and shadowy one3 ,christ and the blessings of the covenant of grace were revealed in dark promises1 obscure prophecies1 types and ceremonies1 which were all significant figures of that grace which should be displayed1 with fulness and evidence1 under the ,christian dispensation4 ,the ,jewish economy exhibits such marks of imperfection1 as show the necessity of some new revelation to supply its defects4 ,its rites and precepts seem to be particularly suited to the condition1 capacity1 temper and genius of that particular people1 for whom they were first formed1 but not to be calculated for general use4 ,it consisted chiefly of external performances1 such as washings1 sacrifices1 and oblations1 which could not purify the conscience1 nor1 indeed1 satisfy the reason of man4 ,the provision for sin1 by way of atonement1 was partial1 and not thoroughly effectual3 for some sins no sacrifice was admitted2 and though sacrifice1 where it was appointed1 might atone for ceremonial impurity1 yet the inward guilt and defilement still remained1 and the justice of ,god was not satisfied4 ,yet the observance of these was enjoined in a very awful manner4 ,the omission of what was prescribed by these laws1 or even a defect in observing the minute circumstances of them1 was made a capital crime1 or rendered the delinquents liable to be cut off from the congregation4 ,the ,apostle styles the whole code of these laws1 8a yoke of bondage20 and says1 that1 previous to the coming of ,christ1 the ,jews were in bondage under what he terms 8the beggarly elements of the world40 ,there were indeed wise reasons for such a dispensation3 to keep the ,jews a distinct people1 and preserve them from idolatry1 while they were continually employed in the service of ,god2 to remind them of their obligations to purity1 inward and outward holiness2 and1 as a schoolmaster1 to bring them to ,christ2 the law being a type and shadow of that 8truth and grace which came by ,jesus ,christ10 who was 8the end of the law for righteousness40 ,on which account1 the law of ,moses was not perpetual1 but a temporary institution3 thus the ,apostle reasons1 8,there is verily a disannulling of the commandment going before for the weakness and unprofitableness thereof2 for10 as he says in another place1 8the law could not in any wise make the comers thereunto perfect40 ,he calls the law1 8a shadow of good things to come40 ,the ,levitical ceremonies led the ,jewish church into the knowledge of the promised ,messiah1 and what he was to do1 suffer1 purchase1 and apply4 ,hence the words of ,st4 ,peter1 8,of which salvation the prophets have inquired and searched diligently1 who prophesied of the grace that should come unto you3 searching what or what manner of time the ,spirit of ,christ which was in them did signify1 when it testified beforehand the sufferings of ,christ1 and the glory that should follow4 ,unto whom it was revealed1 that not to themselves1 but unto us they did minister the things which are now reported unto you by them that have preached the gospel unto you1 with the ,holy ,ghost sent down from heaven40 ,the ,christian dispensation is attended with greater clearness4 ,we have a far more comprehensive knowledge of the glorious ,redeemer1 in his person1 natures1 offices1 and blessings2 of the spiritual nature of his kingdom1 and the way of salvation through faith in him1 than what the ,jews had4 ,thus the ,apostle says1 8,but we all with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of the ,lord1 are changed into the same image1 from glory to glory1 even as by the ,spirit of the ,lord40 ,in the ,revelation1 we have this representation given of the ,christian church3 8,and there appeared a great wonder in heaven2 a woman clothed with the sun1 and the moon under her feet1 and upon her head a crown of twelve stars40 ,an author1 quoted by ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 gives the following elucidation of this passage4--,that the woman here represents the true church of ,christ1 most commentators are agreed4 ,in other parts of the ,apocalypse1 the pure church of ,christ is evidently pourtrayed by a woman4 ,in chapter xix1 verse #g1 a great multitude are represented as saying1 8,let us be glad and rejoice1 and give honor to him2 for the marriage of the ,lamb is come1 and his wife hath made herself ready40 ,in chapter xxi1 #i1 an angel talks with ,st4 ,john1 saying1 8,come hither1 ,i will show thee the bride1 the ,lamb's wife40 ,that the ,christian ,church is meant will appear also from her being 8clothed with the sun10 a striking emblem of ,jesus ,christ1 the ,sun of ,righteousness1 the light and glory of the ,church2 for the countenance of the ,son of ,god is1 as 8the sun shineth in his strength40 ,the woman has the 8moon under her feet40 ,bishop ,newton understands this of the ,jewish typical worship2 and1 indeed1 the ,mosaic system of rites and ceremonies could not have been better represented4 ,the moon is the less light1 ruling over the night1 and deriving all its illumination from the sun3 in like manner1 the ,jewish dispensation was the bright moonlight night of the world1 and possessed a portion of the glorious light of the gospel4 ,at the rising of the sun the night is ended1 and the lunar light no longer necessary as the sun which enlightens her shines full upon the earth3 exactly in the same way has the whole ,jewish system of types and shadows been superseded by the birth1 life1 crucifixion1 death1 resurrection1 ascension1 and intercession of ,jesus ,christ4 ,upon the head of the woman is 8a crown of twelve stars20 a very significant representation of the twelve apostles1 who were the first founders of the ,christian church2 and by whom the gospel was preached in a great part of the ,roman empire with astonishing success4 #b4 ,the phenomenon of the moon is mutability4 ,this beautiful luminary1 whose gentle beams render the summer evenings still more agreeable1 and in the winter nights cheer the abodes of solitude1 and aid the midnight traveller1 is perpetually changing4 ,in this1 and in nothing but this1 observes ,mr4 ,basely1 she is invariable1 and a perfect index to all within her orbit4 ,this should teach us1 says ,mr4 ,browne1 that there is not any thing permanent in the present scene4 ,mutability is engraved in legible characters upon every earthly object4 ,every thing is in motion1 and assuming a different appearance1 whilst vicissitude and change wait on the affairs of mortals4 ,such is the fluctuating state of the present world1 whether we view kingdoms in general1 or the personal concerns of men in particular4 ,but while these things are fortuitous as to man1 we should reflect that they are under the direction and control of a ,divine providence4 ,the prosperous issue of all our designs and enterprises depends entirely on the sovereign disposer of events4 8,except the ,lord build the house1 they labor in vain that build it2 except the ,lord keep the city1 the watchman waketh but in vain40 8,a man's heart deviseth his way2 but the ,lord directeth his steps20 the result of his designs and projects being under the dominion and direction of ,god4 ,whether his undertaking shall succeed or fail1 belongs alone to the ,most ,high to determine4 ,let as arrange our worldly concerns in the most prudent and politic manner1 so that there shall appear the greatest probability of success1 yet ,god has the ordering of the event4 ,solomon has long since observed1 that1 amongst the many vanities under the sun1 one is1 8the race is not to the swift1 nor the battle to the strong1 neither yet bread to the wise1 nor yet riches to men of understanding1 nor yet favor to men of skill3 but time and chance happeneth to them all40 ,some unforeseen circumstance may interrupt our pursuit1 and disappoint our expectation4 ,so great is the uncertainty which attends all human affairs1 and all future events are concealed in such thick darkness1 that we can never positively affirm that this or the other scheme1 however wisely laid1 cannot be frustrated1 or that it is impossible the success should be otherwise than as we calculate4 ,no man knows what shall be on the morrow2 the only thing we know previously is1 that every event shall be as ,god is pleased to settle it4 ,this consideration1 that it is not by our own choice and foresight1 but the will and wisdom of ,god1 our affairs are directed and determined1 we should apply to ourselves4 ,we are not competent to mark out our own ways1 nor can we seriously imagine that matters should be arranged exactly according to our imperfect views and secret inclinations2 but we should refer ourselves to his guidance who cannot err1 and willingly acquiesce in his providential decisions3 saying1 8,i know1 oh ,lord1 that the way of man is not in himself3 it is not in man that walketh to direct his own steps40 ,we are commanded by the ,apostle ,james to say1 8,if the ,lord will1 we shall live1 and do this1 or that40 ,and ,solomon's advice is1 8,trust in the ,lord with all thine heart2 and lean not unto thine own understanding4 ,in all thy ways acknowledge him1 and he shall direct thy paths40 ,concerning all our lawful designs1 enterprises1 and projects1 we may pray1 8,establish thou the work of our hands upon us2 yea1 the work of our hands establish thou it40 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,iii4--,,the ,,seasons4 ,seasons3 ,spring1 ,summer1 ,autumn1 ,winter -- ,displaying ,divine ,power1 ,wisdom1 ,goodness1 ,faithfulness -- ,religious ,improvement4 ,the ,divine ,architect appointed the sun and moon the places of their rising1 the circuits they were to run1 and where they were to go down3 he marked out the line in which they were to move through all the different climates of the earth4 ,they instantly obeyed his all-powerful word1 and have ever since acted faithfully to his command4 ,in their operations1 they measure out our days and nights1 distinguish between different periods of time1 and produce the several seasons of the year4 8,with what an awful world-revolving power ,were first th' unwieldy planets launched along ,th' illimitable void6 ,thus to remain ,amid the flux of many thousand years1 ,that oft has swept the toiling race of men ,and all their labored monuments away1 ,firm1 unremitting1 matchless in their course2 ,to the kind tempered change of night and day1 ,and of the seasons ever stealing round1 ,minutely faithful40 ,god is the supreme ruler in the kingdom of nature1 and the constant changes of day and night1 summer and winter1 seed-time and harvest1 are appointed and regulated by his providential influence4 ,this wonderful and stupendous system1 consisting of matter1 is preserved by motion4 ,deprive it of motion1 and1 as a system1 it must expire4 ,who1 then1 breathed into this amazing combination of things acting together1 the life of motion8 ,what power impelled the planets to move1 since motion is not a property of the matter of which they are composed8 ,did not annual observation familiarize it to us 7to speak unphilosophically71 who that observes the sun going in appearance further from us during six months in succession1 and all that time decreasing in light and heat1 could ever think that he would again return to us8 ,what hinders his projection into boundless space1 till he should appear no larger than a star1 or get beyond the reach of our powers of vision8 ,what1 but the immediate control of ,god6 for this is a work superior to all created strength1 and only to be effected by almighty energy4#abf ,when we have seen that glorious lamp of heaven1 the great ruler of the day1 gone so far from us that we scarcely knew how to stand before the cold1 how has his return revived and cheered us1 visiting the frozen earth with his friendly beams1 infusing a genial warmth into every creature1 and inspiring us with the pleasing hope of once more enjoying those various fruits of the earth1 which are the liberal gifts of an indulgent ,providence6 ,it is the ,divine ,being who commands the sun to rise1 who1 8coming out of his chamber0 in the east1 rejoices as a strong man to run a race4 ,again1 he bids this glorious orb to withdraw1 and obscure his beauty behind thick clouds1 or sink below the western ocean2 when1 behold1 the day is covered with darkness1 and night succeeds4 ,at his sovereign command1 the glowing summer recedes1 and winter approaches with chilling aspect4 8,he sends his snow like wool1 and scattereth his hoar frost like ashes4 ,he casteth forth his ice like morsels3 who can stand before his cold80 ,he then recalls the solar influence1 scatters the inauspicious clouds1 thaws the frozen ridges of the field2 the corn springs up and flourishes1 and the heart of man rejoices with the pleasing hope of a plenteous harvest4 ,thus does the almighty ,creator1 and beneficent ,governor of the world1 order and regulate the constant succession of the seasons2 his ,providence over-rules and directs the whole movement1 and nothing can come to pass without his superintendence4 ,reason1 as well as supernatural revelation1 asserts the reality of a ,divine providence4 ,the happiest inquirers into the phenomena of nature have discovered that every thing is made with the justest proportion1 and that the whole machine is directed according to the most exact rules3 but they have also perceived a power above and beyond the energy of natural principles1 and which could not possibly be accounted for any other way than by admitting an immediate act or influence of the supreme ,being4 ,in the revolving of the celestial orbs1 we observe an exact agreement with the established laws of mechanism3 but1 yet1 there is a force demonstrable in them which is altogether immechanical2 and1 consequently1 immediately issuing from ,god himself4 ,the remarks made by ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke on this point1 will1 it is presumed1 gratify the intelligent reader4 8,the double motion of a primary planet1 namely1 its annual revolution and diurnal rotation1 is one of the greatest wonders the science of astronomy presents to our view4--,the laws which regulate the latter of these motions are so completely hid from man1 notwithstanding his present great extension of philosophic research1 that the times which the planets employ in their rotations can only be determined by observation4 ,how is it that two motions1 so essentially different from each other1 should be in the same body1 at the same time1 without one interfering at all with the other8--,no astronomer1 since the foundation of the world1 has been able to demonstrate that the earth's motion in the heavens is at all accelerated or retarded by the diurnal rotation2 or1 on the other hand1 that the earth's motion on its axis experiences the least irregularity from the annual revolution40 ,the rotation of the earth round its own axis1 from west to east1 once in #bc hours1 #ef minutes1 #d seconds1 is the cause of the distinction between day and night1 by bringing the different parts of the earth's surface successively into1 and from under the solar rays4 ,and the revolution of the earth round the sun1 from any equinox or solstice to the same point again1 in #cfe days1 #dh minutes1 #dh seconds1 produces the agreeable vicissitudes of the seasons1 and measures the length of our year4 ,for though the revolution is that of the earth1 yet both the hours of the day and night1 the different lengths of the days and nights1 and the seasons of the year1 cannot be determined but by the heavenly bodies4 ,thus the earth has a two-fold motion1 like a chariot-wheel2 for while it goes forward on its annual journey1 it is still in its diurnal motion turning upon its own centre4 ,but it differs from the motion of a chariot-wheel in this3 that its hourly motion in its orbit is #ge1bbb miles2 and that by the motion upon its axis1 the inhabitants on the equator are carried after the rate of #a1jdb miles an hour1 and those upon the parallel of ,london #ehj miles4 ,the ,dr4 proceeds1 8,how wonderful is this contrivance6 and what incalculable benefits result from it6 ,the uninterrupted and equable diurnal rotation of the earth gives us day and night in their succession1 and the annual revolution causes all the varied scenery of the year4 ,if one motion interfered with the other1 the return of the day and night would be irregular2 and the change of seasons attended with uncertainty to the husbandman4 ,these two motions are1 therefore1 harmoniously impressed upon the earth1 that the gracious promise of the great ,creator might be fulfilled1 #8,while the earth remaineth1 seed-time and harvest1 and cold and heat1 and summer and winter1 and day and night1 shall not cease4' 8,the double motion of a secondary planet is still more singular than that of its primary2 for 7taking the moon for an example7 besides its particular revolution round the earth1 which is performed in #bg days1 #g hours1 #dc minutes1 #d seconds2 it is carried round the sun with the earth once a year4 ,of all the planetary motions1 with which we have a tolerable acquaintance1 that of the moon is the most intricate3 upwards of twenty equations are necessary1 in the great majority of cases1 to reduce her mean to her true place2 yet not one of them is derivable from the circumstance that she accompanies the earth in its revolution round the sun4 ,they depend on the different distances of the earth from the sun in its annual revolution1 the position of the lunar nodes1 and various other causes1 and not on the annual revolution itself1 a motion which1 of all others1 might be expected to cause greater irregularities in her revolution round the earth than could be produced on that of the latter by the planetary attractions4 ,who can form an adequate conception of that influence of the earth which thus draws the moon with it round the sun1 precisely in the same manner as if it were a part of the earth's surface1 notwithstanding the intervening distance of about #bdj1jjj miles2 and1 at the same time1 leaves undisturbed the moon's proper motion round the earth8 ,and what beneficent purposes are subserved by this harmony8 ,in consequence of it1 we have the periodical returns of new and full moon2 and the ebbing and flowing of the sea1 which depend on the various lunar phases1 with respect to the sun and earth1 7as if demonstrable from each of these phases being continually contemporaneous with the particular phenomenon of the tides17 always succeed each other with a regularity necessarily equal to that of the causes which produce them4 ,thus we see that ,god is continually present1 supporting all things by his energy1 and that1 while his working is manifest1 his ways are past finding out40 ,thomson1 in his descriptive1 philosophical1 moral1 and religious poem1 admirably well delineates the revolving seasons4 8,these1 as they change1 ,,almighty ,,father1 these ,are but the varied ,god4 ,the rolling year ,is full of thee4 ,forth in the pleasing spring ,,thy beauty walks4 ,,thy tenderness and love ,wide flush the fields2 the softening air is balm2 ,echo the mountains round2 the forest smiles2 ,and every sense1 and every heart is joy4 ,then comes ,,thy glory in the summer-months1 ,with light and heat refulgent4 ,then ,,thy sun ,shoots full perfection through the swelling year3 ,and oft ,,thy voice in dreadful thunder speaks2 ,and oft at dawn1 deep noon1 or falling eve1 ,by brooks and groves1 in hollow-whispering gales4 ,,thy bounty shines in ,autumn unconfin'd1 ,and spreads a common feast for all that lives4 ,in ,winter awful ,,thou6 with clouds and storms ,around ,,thee thrown1 tempest o'er tempest roll'd4 ,majestic darkness6 on the whirlwind's wing1 ,riding sublime1 ,,thou bidst the world adore1 ,and humblest nature with ,,thy northern blast4 ,mysterious round6 what skill1 what force divine1 ,deep felt1 in these appear6 a simple train1 ,yet so delightful mix'd1 with such kind art1 ,such beauty and beneficence combin'd2 ,shade1 unperceiv'd1 so softening into shade2 ,and all so forming an harmonious whole2 ,that1 as they still succeed1 they ravish still40 ,he who governs the whole frame of nature1 and directs and regulates these successive changes1 must possess almighty power1 without which1 he would be infinitely inadequate to the task4 ,he who made the celestial orbs of such a prodigious bulk1 and whirls them round with an almost incredible swiftness1 causing the regular return of day and night1 summer and winter1 what can he not do8 ,none among the mighty host of heaven1 or among the inhabitants of the earth1 can resist his power1 or stay his arm when lifted up4 ,he who created all things out of nothing1 could1 if he pleased1 extinguish the lights of heaven1 and shake the solid earth to atoms4 ,how easily1 then1 can he stop our breath1 break the slender thread of life1 dissolve our feeble frame1 or hurl guilty and impenitent sinners into the pit of destruction6 ,he who brought darkness for the space of three days upon the ,egyptians1 and a dreadful tempest of forty days and forty nights upon the inhabitants of the old world1 can make the days of the ungodly darkness1 and their nights full of horror4 ,he can strike them with 8the arrow that flieth by day10 his swift pointed lightning2 or with the pestilential vapors of the night1 which 8walk in darkness10 and give the deadly stroke unseen4 8,lord1 when my thoughtful soul surveys ,fire1 air1 and earth1 and stars and seas1 ,i call them all thy slaves2 ,commissioned by my father's will1 ,poison shall cure1 or balm shall kill2 ,vernal suns or zephyr's breath1 ,may burn or blast the plants to death1 ,that sharp ,december saves4 ,what can winds or planets boast ,but a precarious power8 ,the sun is all in darkness lost1 ,frost shall be fire1 and fire be frost1 ,when he appoints the hour40 ,shall not1 then1 such a frail creature as man1 think and speak of this omnipotent ,being with the greatest reverence and profound humility8 ,oh ,god1 fill the minds of all men with just and enlarged views of thy majesty and greatness6 for thou killest1 and thou makest alive2 thou woundest1 and thou healest3 neither is there any that can deliver out of thy hand4 ,divine wisdom also shines forth in the regular and uninterrupted succession of the seasons4 8,the ,lord by wisdom hath founded the earth1 and by understanding established the heavens40 ,not only the different magnitudes of the heavenly orbs1 but their particular distances1 and the harmonious laws by which they move1 do loudly proclaim1 that he who formed1 ranges1 and actuates them all1 must be infinitely wise4 ,without looking into boundless space1 where shine many thousand globes of light1 or fixed stars1 supposed to be suns like our own1 and to have planets revolving round them1 we may discover luminous displays of ,divine wisdom in our own system1 in the constant succession of the seasons1 that may justly excite our wonder and adoration4 ,how wise must he be who has so exactly proportioned the different magnitudes of the earth and the sun1 and placed them at a proper distance from each other6 ,is not equal wisdom discovered in that equable1 steady1 swift1 and complicate motion of the earth1 by which the delightful and necessary succession of the seasons return8 ,it is the wisdom of ,god that at first arranged the motion of the celestial bodies1 and that preserves them in their rapid and yet regular progressions and rotations1 with so much order and harmony4 8,how manifold1 oh ,lord1 are thy works6 in wisdom hast thou made them all4 ,thy understanding is infinite1 for thou tellest the number of the stars1 and callest them all by their names40 ,the goodness of ,god to the inhabitants of the earth1 is also displayed in the revolving seasons4 ,when the almighty ,creator took a survey of all the works his hands had made1 he saw that they were good2 not only conformable to eternal reason1 but proper to answer the end for which he designed them4 ,and this goodness manifested in the formation of the world1 is not more clearly discovered in any thing than in the return of day and night1 heat and cold1 summer and winter4 ,we are pleased with the light in the morning1 but it is after we have rested well in the night3 when a few hours are spent1 we grow weary of the light1 and wish for the return of the silence and darkness of the nocturnal season4 ,after a long cold winter1 we joyfully welcome the approach of summer2 but when scorched a few months with its heat1 and ready to faint1 the return of winter is not so unpleasant to us as it appeared more early in the spring4 ,but whatever effect these successions may have upon us1 it is certain they are very beneficial4 ,the light of the day is advantageous for managing the toils and business of life2 and the coolness and stillness of the night are as suitable for rest and sleep4 ,the summer's heat is necessary for ripening the fruits of the earth1 and hastening the harvest3 but the winter's cold and hoary frost are subservient to prepare the earth for the seed1 and render it fertile4 ,nay1 this dreary season is serviceable both to man and beast2 it tends to remove distempers contracted in the summer's unwholesome air1 and gives a new spring and vigor to nature4 ,how great1 then1 is the ,divine goodness in preserving the constant and regular revolution of these seasons1 so pleasant and beneficial to mankind6 8,oh that men would praise the ,lord for his goodness1 and for his wonderful works to the children of men40 ,we cannot but perceive the faithfulness of ,god in continuing these seasons1 according to his promise1 to this period4 ,we still see day succeeding day1 and year succeeding year3 this covenant made with mankind is inviolably kept4 ,the husbandman cultivates his land1 ploughs up the furrows1 casts in the seeds1 in hope of the ensuing harvest1 when he expects that his expense1 labor1 and patience1 will be recompensed with a rich and large increase4 ,but should ,god1 in anger1 open the bottles of heaven1 pour down the rain in torrents1 cause swelling floods to arise1 and1 rolling with alarming impetuosity forward1 to sweep away at once the fruit of all his toil1 how great must be his grief and astonishment6 ,such were the consternation and confusion that seized mankind at the time of the flood4 ,the husbandman had tilled his land1 thrown his seed into the ground2 he saw it with pleasure springing up1 and promised himself a plentiful harvest3 when quickly1 all the flood-gates of heaven were opened1 all the fountains of the great deep were broken up1 and a rapid current overflowed the springing corn1 swept away numerous flocks of cattle1 overthrew the habitations of the people1 and drowned man and beast to the very tops of the mountains6 ,but in this general ruin1 ,noah found favor with ,god1 and he and his family were preserved in the ,ark4 ,when the waters had abated1 and the earth became dry1 this pious patriarch1 being much affected with the awful judgment inflicted upon mankind1 especially with the distinguishing mercies conferred upon himself and family1 offered sacrifice1 in testimony of his gratitude1 to his great ,deliverer1 who was well-pleased with it4 ,and on this1 he made a covenant with him1 and with all his posterity1 in which he promises that he will not again curse the ground for man's sake1 nor any more smite every living thing1 but that1 8while the earth remaineth10 the successive seasons of the year shall be continued4 ,the awful disobedience of the inhabitants of the old world rendered it necessary to inflict so dreadful a judgment2 but as soon as it had subsided1 ,god promised never to punish mankind again so universally4 ,and1 in token of his faithfulness1 he set the rainbow in the cloud1 to be a sign of his covenant1 which has not been broken1 but faithfully kept even to this day4 ,however the ,almighty may contend in anger with particular nations or provinces1 he will no more do so with mankind in general4 ,how happy is the situation of our native isle6 ,there are few countries1 if any1 that exceed it4 ,the climate is temperate2 neither days nor nights are ever of immoderate length2 the summer and winter are neither extremely hot1 nor excessively cold2 the seed-time and harvest are generally favorable1 and the produce of the land is plenteous4 ,the inhabitants of some countries endure a long and severe winter1 seeing not the sun for many weeks3 nay1 there are some places where it rises not for several months2 but these parts are not inhabited in the winter season4 ,in other countries1 the inhabitants are scorched with the rays of a vertical sun1 and wish in vain for the cooling winter's snow4 ,some know not what is meant by the heat of summer1 and others are as ignorant of the cold of winter4 ,some see the sun1 but comparatively feel not his warming influence2 while others are penetrated with his burning rays all the year4 ,but the people of this country have moderate summer1 heat sufficient for ripening the most useful fruits1 and winter that may be well endured4 ,the days are not so hot in the summer1 but the nights are sufficiently cool for allaying the heat2 and they are long enough in winter for managing the business that is requisite to be done4 ,some warmer climates produce more delicious fruits3 but no country under the canopy of the heavens does more abound with all the substantial supports of life2 not only equal to our own consumption1 but frequently to enable us to assist our neighbors4 ,happy are the people that are in such a case3 yea1 thrice happy are they whose ,god is ,jehovah4 ,all his works praise him3 may we join the grand chorus1 and bless his holy name4 ,surely1 if the works of creation were attentively viewed1 and seriously considered1 they would not only be truly admired1 but their glorious ,author would be sincerely regarded1 diligently worshipped1 and practically obeyed4 ,the following table has been ascribed to the illustrious astronomer1 ,dr4 ,herschell4 ,it is constructed upon a philosophical consideration of the attraction of the sun and moon in their several positions respecting the earth1 and confirmed by the experience of many years3 actual observation will1 without trouble1 suggest to the observer what kind of weather will most probably follow the moon's entrance into any of her quarters2 and that so near the truth1 that in very few instances will it be found to fail4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,new or ,full ,moon4 ,summer4 ,winter4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,if it be new or full moon1 ,very rainy4 ,snow and rain4 or the moon enters into the first or last quarters at the hour of #ab ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,between hours of #b and #d ,changeable4 ,fair and mild4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #d - #f ,fair4 ,fair4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #f - #h ,fair1 if wind ,n4,w4 ,fair and frosty1 ,rainy1 if ,s4 or ,s4,w4 if ,n4 or ,n4,e4 ,rainy1 if ,s4 or ,s4,w4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #h - #aj ,ditto4 ,ditto4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aj and ,midnight ,fair4 ,fair and frosty4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,midnight and #b ,ditto4 ,hard frost1 unless wind ,s4 or ,s4,w4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #b - #d ,cold1 with ,snow and ,stormy4 frequent showers4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #d - #f ,rain4 ,ditto4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #f - #h ,wind and rain4 ,stormy4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #h - #aj ,changeable4 ,cold1 rain if ,w4 snow if ,e4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aj and ,noon ,frequent showers4 ,cold with high wind4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,hence1 the nearer the time of the moon's entrance1 at full and change1 or quarters1 is to midnight 7that is1 within two hours before or after midnight71 the more fair weather is in summer1 but the nearer to noon the less fair4 ,also1 the moon's entrance1 at full1 change1 and quarters1 during six of the afternoon hours1 viz4 from four to ten1 may be followed by fair weather2 but this is mostly dependant on the wind4 ,the same entrance1 during all the hours after midnight except the two first1 is unfavorable to fair weather2 the like1 nearly1 may be observed in winter4#abg 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is an easy and excellent method of conveying instruction1 and impressing it upon the heart1 to take occasion from natural objects to raise the mind to things spiritual and divine4 ,the day and night1 and their alternate changes1 may suggest such thoughts as the following1 to a serious mind engaged in meditation4 ,what a glorious creature is light6 ,how beneficial to this world6 ,how useful1 nay1 how necessary for managing those employments which could not be done in the night6 ,how unwise1 then1 is he who postpones the necessary business of the day till night overtake him8--,so beneficial1 so requisite1 is the light of life in the important work of human salvation4 ,does ,god allow men a day1 a gracious season1 and the light of his word1 for the good of their souls8 ,of what extreme folly shall they be guilty1 if they neglect the necessary business till the night of death come1 and they drop into the grave1 where there is neither work1 nor wisdom1 nor device6 ,now is the day of grace1 and ,god is favoring them with the light of reason and revelation4 ,may he give them wisdom to improve these advantages1 to his glory1 and their own happiness6 ,they know not how soon their sun may set1 and the night of death come upon them4 ,if it should be before their everlasting interest is secured1 they will be lost for ever4 ,oh ,lord1 teach us so to number our days1 that we may apply our hearts to wisdom6 ,night comes on apace2 ,i must soon undress1 and lie down to sleep4 ,and it cannot be long before ,i must put off this body1 lie down in the grave and sleep in the dust4 ,what shall ,i do that my soul may not be found naked1 but be clothed and adorned with the glorious robes of righteousness8 ,jesus1 to whom shall ,i go but to thee1 for thou hast the words of eternal life6--,how awful1 and full of horror1 is this approaching darkness6 ,if the imperfection of man did not require the rest of sleep1 surely it would be a pleasant thing always to dwell in the light4 ,will it not then1 be unspeakably delightful to abide in the light of ,god's countenance1 to see the ,divine ,majesty with a strong and open eye8 and to behold his unutterable glories without any fear of being deprived of the beatific vision1 or of returning night8 ,but oh6 how dismal must that place of darkness be where the light never shines6 where the miserable inhabitants never see one beam of ,divine light1 one ray from ,god's reconciled face6 where the grossest darkness reigns for ever1 without the least hope of returning day6 and where nothing remains for them1 but a black1 a horrible1 an eternal night6 8,is light so grateful to the human sense8 ,created light8 a faint1 refracted ray8 ,one1 distant sun8 the shadow1 but1 of ,god6 ,dark adumbration of the ,,deity8 ,oh6 what is heav'n6 that day of endless light8 ,where saints shall from th' essential fountain drink ,of radiance6 in ,god's full1 paternal shine8 ,ah6 what is ,hell8 of ever-absent day1 ,a night all hopeless6--and all endless too60 ,the successive changes of day and night may suggest what is frequently the condition of good people in this world4 ,their day of prosperity is sometimes followed with a night of adversity2 and then1 when sorrow and weeping have endured for a night1 light and joy spring up in the morning4--,is the light of the day pleasing8 rejoice in it with trembling1 for the night is advancing4 ,is the darkness of the night solemn and awful8 rejoice in hope that the day is approaching4 ,hence be instructed1 oh my soul1 in the concerns of thy eternal welfare4 ,are prosperity1 health1 and relatives1 agreeable8 rejoice in them as one that rejoices not3 these must have an end2 and adversity1 sickness1 and death1 will come4 ,are losses1 affliction1 and pain1 not joyous1 but grievous8 mourn as one that weeps not3 ease1 health1 and gladness1 are in prospect1 and will continue for ever4 ,and how happy and glorious will that world be1 where light and joy shall never cease6 ,but how dreadful is that abode where darkness1 despair1 and anguish shall never end6 ,the succession of cold and heat1 winter and summer1 will always suggest pious and useful reflections in retirement4 ,how pleasing it is to see the sun return1 and to feel his cheering rays1 after a long1 cold1 and tempestuous winter6 ,so it is delightful to the humble penitent sinner1 after a long season of darkness and sorrow1 when the ,sun of ,righteousness arises with his reviving influences1 and ,god lifts upon him the smiles of his reconciled countenance4 ,all misery1 and clouds of doubt and fear1 are then dispersed1 and heavenly light breaks into the soul1 and fills it with gladness4 ,and does the want of the light of ,god cause the serious ,christian to mourn and weep1 and taste no sweetness in any of the comforts of life8 ,how extremely miserable1 then1 must a person be1 who is driven to an everlasting distance from the presence of ,god1 and from the glorious ,sun of ,righteousness2 only to see his glory very remote1 but never to feel the reviving beams of his love2 and to be punished in hell1 far 8from the presence of the ,lord1 and the glory of his power40 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,iv4--,,the ,,planets ,,and ,,fixed ,,stars4 ,mercury -- ,venus -- ,the ,earth -- ,mars -- ,ceres -- ,pallas -- ,juno -- ,vesta -- ,jupiter -- ,saturn -- ,georgium ,sidus -- ,comets -- ,fixed ,stars -- ,religious ,improvement4 ,moses1 after stating that ,god created the sun and the moon1 says1 8he made the stars also40 ,a learned author explains it1 8he made the lesser light1 with the stars1 to rule the night40 ,it is very probable that the whole solar system was created in six days3 but as the design of the sacred historian was to relate what especially belongs to our globe and its inhabitants1 he therefore passes by the planetary system1 leaving it simply included in the plural word1 shamayim1 heavens4 ,in a work of this nature1 it is proper to take a concise view of all the planets1 their number1 distances1 magnitudes1 revolutions1 c4 ,wandering ,stars1 says ,baseley1 is one of the many appellations by which our solar system has been sometimes designated4 ,and the figure it makes in the heavens is not unaptly expressed by the phraseology4 ,for we distinguish the planets from the fixed stars by the lustre of the former1 which is only from that side which faces the sun1 and by their motion1 which is seldom1 and then but apparently1 interrupted4 ,their brightness seems more uniform1 has the cast of reflected rather than direct illumination1 and is altogether free from scintillation or twinkling4 ,their connection with the globe we inhabit is more perceptible1 and their relative situation to one another less stationary4 ,their distance from us is not so remote1 and more susceptible of calculation4 ,the latter occupy a certain region situated in our neighborhood between us and the former4 ,the planets are opake bodies1 and nearly spherical4 ,being opake in themselves1 they become visible only by reflecting the light1 which they receive from the sun4 ,the laws by which they are governed were discovered by ,kepler1 who demonstrated that they must necessarily revolve in elliptical1 and not in circular orbits4 ,astronomers have divided them into classes3 the primary planets are ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 ,mars1 ,ceres1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 ,vesta1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 and the ,georgium ,sidus2 and the second class includes the satellites which belong to some of the primary planets1 such as the ,moon1 the attendant on the ,earth1 the four moons or satellites that revolve about ,jupiter1 the seven that attend ,saturn1 and the six that wait on the ,georgium ,sidus4 ,mercury is the smallest of the seven primary planets1 and nearest to the sun2 he appears as a small star1 and emits a very vivid white light4 ,he was called by the ,greeks 1 plainly alluding to his brightness4 ,costard observes1 8 ,bark-oor1 ,bark-oori1 or1 changing the letter into as letters of the same organ frequently are1 ,mark-oori1 we have in another dialect1 with a ,latin termination us1 another name of this planet1 ,mercurius2 and from whence comes ,mercury1 as he is called by us40 ,this planet never goes to a greater distance from the sun than about #bg #ej2 so that he appears only a little after sunset1 and again a little before sunrise2 he is never longer in setting after the sun than an hour and fifty minutes nor does he ever rise more than an hour and fifty minutes before that luminary3 he is then about as far as the moon appears to be from the sun on the second day after the change4 ,his mean distance from the sun says ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory1 is to that of the earth from the sun as #chg to #a1jjj3 hence his distance is about thirty-seven millions of miles4 ,to an inhabitant of ,mercury1 the sun appears almost three times broader than we see him from the earth2 because the planet is almost three times nearer to the sun than the earth4 ,whence also the solar disk1 seen from ,mercury1 is seven times greater than the disk as it appears to us1 and ,mercury has seven times more light than the earth4 8---- ,mercury the first1 ,near bordering on the day1 with speedy wheel ,flies swifter on1 inflaming where he comes ,with seven-fold splendor40 ,the diameter of this planet is more than one-third of the diameter of the earth1 or #c1ahj miles4 ,hence his surface is about #a_/gth2 and his magnitude #a_/afth of that of the earth4 ,his period of revolution round the sun is #hg days1 #bc hours1 #ad minutes1 #cc seconds1 which is his year1 and falls short of three of our months3 hence he moves in his orbit round the sun at the rate of more than #ie1jjj miles in an hour4 ,according to some astronomers1 it has not been ascertained by observation1 whether ,mercury turns upon his own axis1 and therefore it cannot be certainly affirmed that he has the vicissitude of day and night1 neither the return of summer and winter3 because they depend upon the inclination of the axis of his rotation1 which is unknown1 to the plane of the orbit which he describes about the sun2 though there is very little doubt entertained on the subject4 ,but ,schroter affirms that he 8has distinguished spots and mountains1 which he has assiduously followed1 till he has arrived at the subsequent conclusions3 that the apparent diameter of the planet is about #f2 that it does not present any sensible ellipticity2 that the mountains it contains are proportionably larger than those of ,venus and the ,earth2 that the highest are1 as in these two bodies1 in the southern hemisphere2 that the angle which the equator makes with its orbit is very considerable2 that the difference of days and seasons ought to be much greater in ,mercury than it is on the earth2 that its atmosphere1 like that of ,venus1 is very dense2 and lastly1 that its rotation about its axis is #bd hours1 #e minutes1 #cj seconds40 ,when examined by means of a telescope magnifying about #bjj or #cjj times1 he appears equally luminous throughout his whole surface1 without the least dark spot4 ,he exhibits the same difference of phases with the moon1 being alternately horned1 gibbous1 and shining almost with a round face1 though not entirely full because his enlightened side is never turned directly toward us2 but at all times perfectly well defined without any ragged edge1 and completely bright2 and1 like the moon1 the crescent is always turned toward the sun4 ,mercury has no inferior planet known to us1 and if that be actually the case1 a spectator on his body will want the argument taken from the horned phases of the planets1 to establish the true system of the world4 ,but though we do not see any planets inferior to ,mercury1 it does by no means follow that there are none3 for we seldom see ,mercury himself1 he being buried in the rays of the sun2 and a planet much nearer the sun could never be seen from the earth4 ,the first observation that was ever made of a transit1 was by ,gassendi1 who saw ,mercury on the sun1 ,a4,m4 ,november #g1 #afca4 ,since his time there have occurred seventeen other transits of this planet1 the last of which was at his ascending node on the #ith of ,november1 #ahjb4 ,the ascending and descending nodes are in the #af of ,taurus1 and #af of ,scorpio4 ,other transits are expected in the years #ahbb1 #ahcb1 #ahce1 #ahde1 and #ahdh4 ,venus1 the second planet from the sun in the order of the system1 is the most beautiful star in the heavens1 being easily distinguished by her brightness and whiteness1 which exceeds that of all the other planets1 and is so considerable1 that in a dusky night she projects a sensible shadow4 ,concerning her name1 ,costard remarks1 8,from the ,chaldee ,han1 or ,hen1 which signifies gratia1 decor1 elegantia1 with the olic digamma 1 comes ,fen1 or ,ven1 and with the additional termination us1 ,venus2 the name by which this planet was known among the ,romans1 and by which1 from them1 it has been transmitted to us40 ,the mean distance of ,venus from the sun is about #fi1jjj1jjj miles2 her diameter is #g1fcj miles2 she performs her revolution round the sun in #bbd days1 #af hours1 #da minutes1 #bg seconds2 her diurnal motion on her axis1 according to some observations accurately made by ,schroter1 is performed in #bc hours1 #ba minutes2 and she moves at the rate of #ha1cih miles an hour4 ,this planet constantly attends the sun1 and never departs from him more than forty-seven degrees1 and consequently is never seen at midnight1 nor in opposition to that luminary2 being visible only for three or four hours in a morning or evening1 according as she is before or after the sun4 ,venus is a morning star when she appears westward of the sun1 for she then rises before him1 and is among poets called ,phosphorus or ,lucifer-- 8----,fair morning star1 ,that leads on dawning day to yonder world1 ,the seat of man40 but when eastward of the sun1 she is an evening star1 shining after he is set1 and then the poets give her the name ,hesperus or ,vesper4 8---- ,her lovely beams adorn ,as well the dewy eve1 as opening morn40 ,she is in each situation1 alternately1 between nine and ten months1 or about #bij days4 ,pythagoras is said to have first discovered that ,hesperus and ,phosphorus were one and the same star4 8,from the name ,phosphorus10 says ,costard1 8it seems as if this is the same star that in ,isaiah is called ,helal-ben-shahar1 or ,helal1 son of the morning2 a name given it on account of its remarkable brightness4 ,if so1 that is the oldest record of a planet that occurs in any author whatever now extant3 this was about the year before ,christ #gaj40 ,venus is frequently seen in the day-time1 when in the inferior part of her orbit1 at about forty degrees distant from the sun4 8,no stars besides their radiance can display ,in ,phbus' presence the dread ,lord of day2 ,ev'n ,cynthia's self1 though regent of the night1 ,is quite obscur'd by his emergent light2 ,but ,,venus only1 as if more divine1 ,with ,phbus dares in partnership to shine40 ,to quiet the minds of some superstitious people1 greatly alarmed at the appearance of ,venus in the day-time1 ,dr4 ,halley wrote a small piece1 published in the ,philosophical ,transactions 7,no4 #cdi7 to show that this was nothing extraordinary1 and might be expected every eight years4 ,venus1 when viewed through a good telescope1 is rarely seen to shine with a full face1 but has phases just like those of the moon1 being now gibbous1 now horned1 c1 and her illuminated part constantly turned towards the sun1 looking toward the east when a morning star1 and toward the west when an evening star4 ,m4 de la ,hire1 in #agjj1 through a telescope of sixteen feet1 discovered mountains in ,venus1 which he found to be larger than those in the moon4 ,these observations have recently been confirmed by ,m4 ,schroter1 who1 in the year #aghj1 commenced a course of observations on this planet1 the results of which were published in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #agib4 ,venus1 as well as ,mercury1 is sometimes seen to transit the sun's disk1 in form of a dark round spot2 but these transits seldom happen4 ,the first that was ever observed1 was seen by our countryman ,jeremiah ,horrox1 at ,hool1 an obscure village fifteen miles north of ,liverpool3 his account of which was published by ,hevelius at ,dantzic in #affa1 under the title1 8,venus in sole visa1 anno #afca1 ,november #bd40 ,mr4 ,horrox's friend1 ,william ,crabtree1 according to his direction1 saw this transit at the same time1 at ,manchester4 ,two have occurred in the last century1 namely1 one ,june #fth1 #agfa1 seen by many astronomers1 which excited particular attention by a dissertation published by ,dr4 ,halley in the ,philosophical ,transactions 7,no4 #cdh7 in which he proposed finding1 from that transit1 the sun's parallax1 and thence the distance of the earth from the sun3 and the other1 ,june #c;d1 #agfi1 at #aj;h4 #aj1 according to ,m4 de la ,lande1 and consequently invisible at ,paris and ,london2 but by comparing together two observations made1 one at ,mexico1 and the other to the north of ,petersburgh1 we perceive the sun's parallax1 was determined with great precision4 ,the transits of ,venus1 occurring between the years #afca and #baaj1 according to the calculations of persons most eminent in astronomical science1 are as follow3 #afca ,december #f #afci ,december #d #agfa ,june #e #agfi ,june #c #ahgd ,december #h #ahhb ,december #f #bjjd ,june #g #baji ,december #aj ,the ,earth is the next planet in order2 called by the ,greeks 1 and by the poets 1 from to generate1 produce1 which1 says ,parkhurst1 is from the ,hebrew1 to grow as a plant1 because it produces1 or is the mother of all terrestrial things2 or in the poetic language of the ,orphic hymn to the earth1 8---- ,brings forth her various fruits1 ,with throes maternal40 ,the word used by ,moses is haarets1 translated earth1 whence in the ,anglo-,saxon1 eard and eord2 ,danish jord1 jorden2 ,dutch erd and aerd2 and ,teutonic erd1 erde4 ,the distance of the earth from the sun is about #ie1jjj1jjj miles3 her orbit round the sun is #eig1jjj1jjj miles1 and she performs her revolution round the sun1 from any equinox or solstice to the same point again1 in #cfe days1 #e hours1 #di minutes1 #eg seconds2 of course1 her hourly motion in her orbit is #fh1jjj miles4 ,her diameter is #g1ifd miles1 her circumference is #be1jjj miles1 and the time of rotation upon her axis1 from west to east1 is #bc hours1 #ef minutes1 #d seconds3 by which the inhabitants upon the equator are carried after the rate of #a1jdb miles an hour1 and those upon the parallel of ,london1 #ehj miles1 as we have already noticed4 ,the annual and diurnal motion of the earth is thus described by ,milton3 8,she from the ,west her silent course advances ,with inoffensive pace1 that spinning sleeps ,on her soft axle1 while she paces even1 ,and bears us soft with the smooth air along40 ,from this circumstance arises the apparent diurnal revolution of all the heavenly bodies from east to west4 8,the motion of the earth10 says an intelligent writer1 8has so long ceased to be a disputed question1 that the arguments on each side are nearly forgotten2 and those who do not scruple to adopt the hypothesis of the earth's motions1 are often less acquainted with the arguments on which it is supported1 than they would have been in former times1 when their opinions must have been the subjects of fierce contention40 ,la ,place observes1 8that if the earth be at rest1 and the stars move1 the velocity of these latter must be immense2 and yet all the purposes thereof might have been answered by a moderate motion of the earth alone4 ,the moon's distance from the earth is #bdj1jjj miles2 of course1 the length of the tract which it traverses1 if it moves round the earth in #bd hours1 is about #a1ejj1jjj2 that is1 at the rate of #fb1ejj miles an hour1 instead of #b1bij miles1 which is really the case3 consequently1 in each second of time1 the moon1 known to be the slowest of all the heavenly bodies1 must move more than seventeen miles4 ,again1 the sun's mean distance from the earth is about #ie1jjj1jjj miles2 consequently1 the diurnal path of that luminary1 if it revolve about our globe in twenty-four hours1 must be #ehj1jjj1jjj3 and therefore1 in a single second1 the beat of a clock1 he must move nearly #g1jjj miles4 ,upon the same principle2 that is1 supposing the earth to be the centre of the system1 and not the sun1 the planet ,mars1 in a second of time1 must travel at the rate of more than #aj1jjj miles1 ,jupiter #cf1jjj1 and ,saturn #fb1jjj4 ,and1 lastly1 the fixed stars being yet indefinitely more remote from the earth than the sun or ,saturn1 their motion in or near the equator must be vastly swifter than this4 ,if the earth does not move round the sun1 the sun must move with the moon round the earth2 now2 the distance of the sun to that of the moon is nearly #djj to #a1 and the period of the moon being about twenty-eight days1 the sun's period should be1 by the law above mentioned1 full #fjj years1 whereas1 it is1 in fact1 but a single year4 ,this consideration was1 of itself1 thought of weight enough to determine the controversy between the two opinions1 and to establish the motion of the earth in its orbit for ever40 ,that the shape of the earth was an extended plane1 and the visible horizon its utmost bounds1 was the opinion of the ancients4 ,but that it is globular1 a little raised at the equator1 and flattened at the poles1 being about thirty-seven miles shorter than at the equator1 so as nearly to resemble an orange1 is demonstrable on the most evident and unquestionable principles4 #a4 ,all the appearances of the heavens1 both at land and at sea1 are the same as they would be if the earth were a globe4 ,mariners first begin to lose sight of the lower parts of objects1 and then gradually of the higher parts2 also1 persons on shore first discover the masts before the hull of approaching vessels1 and on leaving a port the masts are seen when the hull is out of sight1 which must be owing to the convexity of the water between the eye and the object1 otherwise the largest and most conspicuous parts would have been visible the longest4 8,behold1 when the glad ship shoots from the port ,upon full sail1 the hulk first disappears1 ,and then the lower1 then the higher sails2 ,at length the summit of the towering mast ,alone is seen2 nor less1 when from the ship ,the longing sailor's eye in hope of shore3 ,for then1 from the top-mast1 though more remote ,than either deck1 the shore is first beheld40#abh #b4 ,navigators sailing round the globe1 as ,magellan1 ,drake1 ,lord ,anson1 ,cook1 and others1 have steered their course directly south and west till they came to the ,magellanic sea1 and from thence to the north and west1 till they returned to their port from the east2 and all the phenomena which should naturally arise from the earth's rotundity1 happened to them4 ,beside1 their method of sailing was also founded upon this hypothesis1 which could not have succeeded so happily1 if the earth had been of any other figure4 #c4 ,in all lunar eclipses1 the shadow of the earth falling upon the moon is always circular2 and a body can be no other than a globe1 which in all situations casts a circular shadow4 ,it is true1 the surface of the earth is not an exact geometrical globe3 but what the earth loses of its sphericity by its inequalities1 as writers on this subject have remarked1 is very inconsiderable3 the highest mountains bearing so little proportion to its bulk1 as scarcely to be equivalent to the minutest protuberance on the surface of an orange1 or a grain of dust to a common globe4 8,these inequalities to us seem great2 ,but to an eye that comprehends the whole1 ,the tumor1 which to us so monstrous seems1 ,is as a grain of sparkling sand that clings ,to the smooth surface of a sphere of glass2 ,or as a fly upon the convex dome ,of a sublime1 stupendous edifice40 ,it is not so easy as some imagine1 says a ,german philosopher and divine1 to determine exactly the size of the earth4 ,it is true1 there is but one longitude2 but there are two latitudes1 the north and the south4 ,both of these begin at the equator2 the one extends northward1 the other southward1 as far as the arctic and antarctic poles4 ,but1 no one has yet been able to reach either pole4 ,the mountains of ice in ,greenland and the ,northern ,sea1 have always obstructed the passage to the north pole3 and immense fields1 mountains1 and islands of ice1 have rendered the passage to the south pole impossible4 ,thanks1 however1 to the geometricians1 we can at present know very nearly the size of our globe4 ,according to the most exact calculations1 the surface of the earth is #aii1eab1eie square miles4 ,the seas and unknown parts of the earth1 by a measurement of the best maps1 contain #afj1ebb1jbf square miles4 ,the inhabited parts contain about #ch1iij1eei square miles1 in the following proportion3 ,europe--#d1def1jfe2 ,asia--#aj1gfh1hbc2 ,africa--#i1fed1hjg2 ,america--#ad1aaj1hgd3 ,hence it appears that scarcely one-third of the globe is habitable4 ,it has been calculated1 that there might be at least three thousand millions of men upon the earth at once3 but in reality there are no more than about a thousand and eighty millions3 of which there are1 in ,asia--#fej millions2 in ,africa--#aej2 in ,america--#aej2 in ,europe--#acj4 ,the path traversed by the earth1 which1 in astronomical language1 is called its orbit1 is the apparent path of the sun3 it is called the ecliptic1 because eclipses1 both solar and lunar1 always happen in this circle--also via solis1 or the sun's path1 because the sun never departs from it2 and1 therefore1 at any time to denote the sun's place in the heavens1 astronomers have divided the whole circle of the earth's motion in #cfj equal parts1 which they term degrees1 and every thirty of these a sign1 of which there are twelve4 ,in this circle the sun advances nearly one degree every twenty-four hours1 and thirty degrees every month2 thus passing through the whole #cfj degrees in a year4 ,the signs are called by different names1 and1 with regard to their situations and corresponding seasons and months1 they stand in the following order3 ,northern ,signs2 so denominated as being north of the ,equator4 ,aries 1 the ,ram1 part of ,march and ,april4 ,spring4 ,taurus 1 the ,bull1 ,april and ,may4 ,gemini 1 the ,twins1 ,may and ,june4 ,cancer 1 the ,crab1 ,june and ,july4 ,summer4 ,leo 1 the ,lion1 ,july and ,august4 ,virgo 1 the ,virgin1 ,august and ,september4 ,southern ,signs2 so called as being south of the ,equator4 ,libra 1 the ,balance1 ,september and ,october4 ,autumn4 ,scorpio 1 the ,scorpion1 ,october and ,november4 ,sagittarius 1 the ,archer1 ,november and ,december4 ,capricornus 1 the ,goat1 ,december and ,january4 ,winter4 ,aquarius 1 the ,water-bearer1 ,january and ,february4 ,pisces 1 the ,fishes1 ,february and ,march4 ,the order of the signs is thus poetically described by ,dr4 ,watts4 8,the ,ram1 the ,bull1 the heavenly ,twins1 ,and next the ,crab the ,lion shines1 ,the ,virgin and the ,scales3 ,the ,scorpion1 ,archer1 and ,sea-goat1 ,the ,man that holds the ,water-pot1 ,and ,fish with glittering tails40 ,dr4 ,long observes1 that represents the horns of the ram2 the head and horns of the bull2 the figure of gemini1 the twins joining hands and feet2 the character cancer represents the changes of the sun's declination from north to south1 by two lines or figures drawn so as to point two contrary ways2 is the tail of the lion2 was originally the three ears of corn which ,virgo held2 is the beam of the balance2 was at first the picture of the scorpion2 the arrow of the ,archer2 represents capricorn1 the goat-fish2 is a natural representation of the water's undulating surface2 is the picture of two fishes tied together back to back4 ,the figures of the twelve signs are supposed by ,dr4 ,jennings1 and other astronomers1 to be ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 by which they designed to exhibit some remarkable natural occurrence in each month1 as the sun passed through these signs4 ,thus the first three months1 beginning from the vernal equinox1 were remarkable for the production of those animals which they most valued1 namely1 sheep1 kine1 and goats4 ,the lambs came first1 which are represented by their parent1 the ,ram2 next the calves1 represented by the ,bull2 and the kids1 which commonly come in pairs1 and which1 therefore1 gave the name to ,gemini1 the third constellation2 which was not at first represented by ,two ,boys1 but by ,two ,beasts2 as referring to the fruitfulness of goats1 in producing twin kids about the time when the sun was in that constellation4 ,when1 in the fourth month1 the sun is arrived at the summer solstice1 he discontinues his progress towards the north pole1 and begins to go back again to the southward2 this retrograde motion the ,egyptians expressed by the ,crab1 which is said to go backwards4 ,the excessive heat that usually follows in the next month1 is signified by the ,lion2 an animal remarkable for his strength and fierceness2 or1 as others observe1 when that animal1 driven by thirst from the desert1 made his appearance on the banks of the ,nile4 ,nothing could be more proper than the symbol for the harvest3 namely1 the ,virgin reaper or gleaner with an ear of corn in her hand4 ,the seventh constellation1 when the sun arrives at the autumnal equinox1 is expressed by the ,balance or ,scales1 in equilibrio1 because the days and nights1 being then of the same length1 seemed to indicate an equilibrium like that instrument4 ,october is often a sickly season1 when the surfeits acquired in the hot months of the summer produce their fatal effects2 the symbol is therefore the ,scorpion1 who wounds with a sting in his tail1 as he recedes2 or1 according to others1 when certain regular winds brought forth a burning vapor like the poison of the scorpion4 ,the diversion of hunting1 which is chiefly followed after the fall of the leaf1 is designated by ,sagittarius1 or the archer4 ,the ,goat1 which is an animal that delights to browse up hill and to climb the highest rocks1 is the emblem of the winter solstice1 when the sun begins to ascend from the southern tropic1 and is continually mounting higher and higher for the ensuing half year4 ,aquarius1 or the ,water-bearer1 fitly represents the rains1 or snows1 of the winter4 ,and the ,two ,fishes in a band1 had1 it is imagined1 reference to the prime fishing season1 which began in ,february4 ,the names given to our months originated as follows3 ,the name given to the month of ,january by the ,romans was taken from ,janus1 one of their divinities1 to whom they gave two faces2 because on the one side1 the first day of this month looked towards the new year1 and on the other towards the old one4 ,it was called wolf-monat by our ,saxon ancestors1 on account of the danger they then experienced from wolves4 ,some etymologists derive ,february from ,februa1 an epithet given to ,juno1 as the goddess of purification2 while others attribute the origin of the name to ,februa1 a feast held by the ,romans in this month1 in behalf of the manes of the deceased4 ,the ,saxons named ,february sprout kele1 on account of the sprouts of the cole-wort which began to appear in this month4 ,among the ,romans1 ,march1 from ,mars1 was the first month1 and marriages made in this month were accounted unhappy4 ,the ,saxons called ,march lent-monat1 or length-moneth1 8because the days did first begin1 in length1 to exceed the nights40--,april is derived from ,aprilis1 of aperio1 ,i open2 because the earth1 in this month1 begins to open her bosom for the production of vegetables4 ,the ,saxons called this month oster-monat1 from the goddess ,eoster1 or because the winds were found to blow generally from the east in this month4--,may is so called from ,maia1 the mother of ,mercury1 to whom sacrifices were offered by the ,romans on the first of this month2 or1 according to some1 from respect to the senators and nobles of ,rome1 who were named ,majores1 as the following month was termed ,junius1 in honor of the youth of ,rome4 ,the ,saxons called ,may1 tri-milki1 because1 in that month1 they began to milk their kine three times in the day4--,the ,saxons called ,june weyd-monat1 because their beasts did then weyd or feed in the meadows4--,the word ,july is derived from the ,latin ,julius1 the surname of ,c4 ,csar1 the dictator1 who was born in it4 ,mark ,antony first gave to this month the name of ,july1 which was before called ,quintilis1 as being the fifth month in the year1 in the old ,roman calender established by ,romulus4 ,july was called by the ,saxons1 hew-monat1 or hey-monat1 because therein they usually mowed1 and made their hay-harvest4--,sextilis was the ancient ,roman name for ,september1 it being the sixth month from ,march4 ,the ,emperor ,augustus changed this name1 and gave it his own1 because in this month ,csar ,augustus took possession of his first consulship1 celebrated three triumphs1 reduced ,egypt under the power of the ,roman people1 and put an end to all civil wars4 8,the ,saxons called ,august arn-monat 7more rightly barn-monat17 intending thereby the then filling of their barnes with corne40 ,september is composed of septem1 seven1 and the termination ber1 like lis in ,aprilis1 ,quintilis1 ,sextilis4 ,this rule will also apply to the three following months1 ,octo-ber4 ,novem-ber1 ,decem-ber4 ,our ,saxon ancestors called it ,gerst-monat1 8for that barley which that moneth commonly yielded was anciently called gerst40--,october was called ,domitianus in the time of ,domitian3 but1 after his death1 by the decree of the senate1 it took the name of ,october1 every one hating the name and memory of so detestable a tyrant4 ,it was called wyn-monat1 or wine month1 by the ,saxons--,the ,saxons called ,november wint-monat1 or wind-month1 on account of the prevalence of high winds in this month4--,december was called winter-monat by the ,saxons2 but1 after they were converted to ,christianity1 it received the name of heligh-monat1 or holy month4#abi ,the names of our days are of ,heathen origin4 ,the seven planets were anciently looked on as presiding over the affairs of the world1 and to take it by turns each one hour at a time1 according to the following order3 ,saturn first1 then ,jupiter1 ,mars1 the ,sun1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 and last of all1 the ,moon4 ,hence they denominated each day of the week from the planet whose turn it was to preside the first hour of the nychthemeron1 a term compounded of 1 night1 and 1 day1 which implies both night and day1 and is divided into twenty-four parts1 called hours4 ,thus1 assigning the first hour of ,saturday to ,saturn1 the second will fall to ,jupiter1 the third to ,mars1 and so the twenty-second of the same nychthemeron will fall to ,saturn again1 and therefore the twenty-third to ,jupiter1 and the last to ,mars3 so that on the first hour of the next day1 it will fall to the ,sun to preside2 and by the like manner of reckoning1 the first hour of the next will fall to the ,moon1 of the next to ,mars1 of the next to ,mercury1 of the next to ,jupiter1 and the next to ,venus3 hence the days of the week came to be distinguished by the ,latin names of ,dies ,saturni1 ,solis1 ,lun1 ,martis1 ,mercurii1 ,jovis1 and ,veneris4 ,the ancient ,saxons had a great many idols1 seven of which were appropriated to the seven days of the week1 because of some worship that was offered to each idol on its respective day4 ,the northern nations substituted1 for the ,roman ,divinities1 such of their own as most nearly resembled them in their peculiar attributes1 and hence the derivation of the names now in use4 ,these were ,seater1 the ,sun1 the ,moon1 ,tuisco1 ,woden1 ,thor1 ,friga3 hence among us the names of ,saturday1 ,sunday1 ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 ,thursday1 and ,friday4 ,for1 as ,saturday1 ,sunday1 and ,monday1 plainly denote the day of ,saturn1 the ,sun1 and the ,moon2 so ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 ,thursday1 and ,friday1 denote the day of ,tuisco1 ,woden1 ,thor1 and ,friga1 which are the ,saxon names respectively answering to ,mars1 ,mercury1 ,jupiter1 and ,venus4 ,verstegan1 in his 8,restitution of ,decayed ,intelligence10 describes the ,saxon deities who presided over each day of the week1 and gives plates of the idols1 pp4 #gd-he4 ,how amazing it is that this ponderous globe should be suspended in the fluid air1 without any visible support1 and upheld only by the sovereign will of its almighty ,creator6 ,his power1 who 8hangeth the earth upon nothing10 is inconceivably great2 and the revolutions of this globe produce the most beneficial effects4 ,the daily rotation of the earth causes the uniform succession of light and darkness2 and its annual motion occasions the difference of the length of the days and nights1 and the beautiful diversity of the seasons4 ,many pious ,christians1 who read the ,scriptures to great personal advantage1 but who are unacquainted with the science of astronomy1 are apt to doubt the truth of the astronomical principles concerning the shape and motion of the earth1 because1 as ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory judiciously observes1 they think them contrary to divine revelation4 ,such persons would do well to consider for what purpose the ,holy ,scriptures were written1 whether as a measure of faith1 or as a rule to regulate our philosophical notions8 ,gassendus1 though he does not give a direct answer to the question1 has made the following very pertinent observations on the subject4 8,there are10 says he1 8two sacred volumes1 the one written1 called the ,bible2 the other ,nature1 or the ,world2 ,god having manifested himself by two lights1 the one of revelation1 and the other of demonstration2 accordingly the interpreters of the former are divines2 of the latter mathematicians4 ,as to matters of natural knowledge1 the mathematicians are to be consulted2 and as to objects of faith1 the prophets2 the former being no less interpreters1 or apostles1 from ,god to men than the latter4 ,and as the mathematician would be judged to wander out of his province1 if he should pretend to controvert1 or set aside any article of faith from principles of geometry2 so it must be granted1 the divines are no less out of their limits1 when they venture to pronounce on a point of natural knowledge1 beyond the reach of any not versed in geometry and optics1 merely from ,holy ,scripture1 which does not pretend to teach any thing of the matter40 ,mars is the first of the four superior planets in order from the sun1 his orbit being immediately beyond that of the earth4 ,he was called by the ,greeks 1 the supposed god of war1 which1 says ,parkhurst1 comes from the ,hebrew violent1 destructive4 ,costard remarks1 8,this planet1 ,i suppose1 was called ,ara1 ,aretz1 1 and1 in another dialect1 ,ma-aretz1 or ,mars1 in a softer pronunciation1 from his strong glowing brightness40 ,he is distinguished from the other planets by the red and fiery appearance1 of his disk3 whether his ruddy troubled color arises from a natural disposition to reflect the red rays of light best1 or from a thick atmosphere attending it1 is rather uncertain2 but it is generally attributed to the density of his atmosphere4 8,in larger circuit rolls the orb of ,mars1 ,guiltless of stern debate1 and wasteful wars1 ,as some have erring taught3 he journies on1 ,impell'd and nourish'd by the attractive sun2 ,like us1 his seasons and his days he owes ,to the vast bounty which from ,phbus flows40 ,his figure1 like that of the earth1 is an oblate spheroid4 ,his mean distance from the sun is #ade1jjj1jjj miles1 and he travels round that common centre of gravity in about #fhg of our days1 or #a year1 #cba days1 #bb hours1 #ah minutes1 #bg seconds1 which is nearly equal to two of our years2 and therefore his velocity in his orbit is at the rate of #ee1jjj miles an hour4 ,he has likewise a rotation upon his axis1 which is performed in #a day1 #ci minutes1 #bb seconds4 ,this was discovered by means of spots seen on his surface4 ,dr4 ,hook1 in #affe1 observed several spots1 which1 having a motion1 he concluded that the planet revolved upon its axis4 ,in #afff1 ,m4 ,cassini saw several spots in the two hemispheres of ,mars1 which1 by continuing his observations very diligently1 he found to move from east to west1 and to return in the space of #bd hours1 #dj minutes1 to their former situation4 ,whence both the motion and period1 or natural day of this planet1 were determined4 ,in #agha1 ,dr4 ,herschell observed the spots of ,mars very minutely1 from the motion of which he has found his rotation upon his axis to be performed in #bd hours1 #ci minutes1 #ba-b_/c seconds2 and he says that there cannot be more than two seconds of uncertainty in this result4 ,the different seasons will take place on this planet very much like what they are known to do upon our earth1 with this difference1 that the seasons there will be almost as long again as with us1 on account of the time he takes in moving round the sun being nearly twice as long as our year4 ,the diameter of ,mars being #d1ace miles1 he is about #b_/aa1 or less than a fifth1 and more than a sixth part as large as the earth2 and if any moon attend him1 she must be very small1 for it has not yet been discovered by the best telescopes of our most eminent astronomers2 if without a moon1 walking his round in perpetual solitude1 he must consequently want that division of time1 which1 from the moon's revolution round the earth1 is called a month4 ,from the greater distance of ,mars in his orbit than our earth is1 the inhabitants there will scarcely see ,mercury1 unless it be when he appears on the sun's face1 and passes over him like a dark spot1 in the same manner as he sometimes does to us4 ,venus will to them appear somewhat similar to the appearances of ,mercury to our earth1 the apparent distance from the sun being nearly the same to them as ,mercury is to us4 ,our earth to them1 also1 will be an inferior planet1 or within his orbit1 being nearer to the sun1 in a way similar to what ,venus appears to us1 and will alternately be a morning or evening star2 and our moon1 which will always be seen to accompany her1 when in a position to have the benefit of the sun's light1 will not be seen at a greater distance1 than about a semi-diameter of the sun or moon from it4 ,this planet being half as far again from the sun as our earth is1 his light and heat are not half so much as our own4 ,when in opposition to the sun1 he is found to be five times nearer to us than when in conjunction2 and1 therefore1 he appears so much bigger and brighter at one time than another4 ,in #agai1 his apparent magnitude and brightness were so much increased1 that1 by the uninformed1 he was taken for a new star4 ,the telescopic appearance of ,mars is very variable4 ,this planet exhibits larger and more remarkable spots than any of the others4 ,the belts and cloudy appearances are found to change their shape and arrangement frequently4 ,the predominant brightness of the polar regions leads to the supposition that those parts of his surface1 like the poles of the earth1 are intensely frozen1 or always covered with snow2 and ,dr4 ,herschell imagines that the changes in brightness are connected with the summer and winter seasons on that planet4 ,the phases of ,mars were first discovered by ,galileo4 ,having his light from the sun1 and revolving round it1 he has an increase and decrease like the moon4 ,at his quadratures1 he appears gibbous1 but never horned1 like ,venus1 ,mercury1 and the ,moon2 which shows1 that his orbit includes that of the earth1 and that it is from the sun that he receives his light4 ,between the orbit of ,mars and that of ,jupiter1 the smaller planetary bodies1 lately discovered1 revolve4 ,ceres was discovered on the #ast of ,january1 #ahja1 by ,m4 ,piazzi1 astronomer at ,palermo1 in the island of ,sicily4 ,when viewed through a good telescope1 it is of a ruddy color1 appears to be of the size of a star of the eighth magnitude1 and surrounded with a dense atmosphere4 ,her mean distance from the sun is #bfj1jjj1jjj miles2 and her revolution is performed in #d years1 #g months1 #aj days4 ,dr4 ,herschell and ,schroter differ very much as to the magnitude of this planet2 the former says the diameter is only #afj miles1 but the latter makes it more than ten times greater1 or #a1fbd miles4 ,pallas was discovered on the #bhth of ,march1 #ahjb1 by ,dr4 ,olbers1 of ,bremen4 ,its mean distance from the sun #bgj1jjj1jjj miles2 its diameter #hj miles2 and it performs its revolution in about #d years1 #bhj days4 ,juno was discovered on the #ast of ,september1 #ahjd1 by ,m4 ,harding1 of ,lilienthal4 ,its mean distance from the sun is #bij1jjj1jjj miles2 and its diameter is #aai miles1 and the time of revolution round the sun #e years1 #aha days4 ,vesta was discovered by ,dr4 ,olbers1 on the #bith of ,march1 #ahjg4 ,it is nearer to ,mars than either of the other newly discovered planets2 and the revolution through its orbit is performed in less time4 ,the size of this planet is not known4 ,its light is more intense1 pure1 and white1 than any of the other three4 ,a century and half ago it was conjectured1 says a very intelligent author1 that there must be a planet between the orbits of ,jupiter and ,mars1 on account of the distance subsisting between those two planets4 ,the discovery of ,ceres confirmed this happy conjecture2 but the opinion which it seemed to establish respecting the harmony of the solar system1 appeared to be completely overturned by the discovery of ,pallas and ,juno4 ,dr4 ,olbers1 willing to find a theory that should account for the facts newly ascertained1 imagined that these small celestial bodies were merely the fragments of a larger planet1 which had burst asunder by some internal convulsion1 and that several more might yet be discovered between the orbits of ,mars and ,jupiter4 ,he therefore concluded1 that though the orbits of all these fragments might be differently inclined to the ecliptic1 yet1 as they must have all diverged from the same point1 they ought to have two common points of re-union1 or two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens1 through which all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass4 ,one of these nodes ,dr4 ,olbers found to be in ,virgo1 and the other in the ,whale2 and it was actually in the latter of these regions that ,m4 ,harding discovered the planet ,juno4 ,with the intention1 therefore1 of detecting other fragments of the supposed planet1 ,dr4 ,olbers examined1 thrice every year1 all the little stars in the opposite constellation of the ,virgin and the ,whale1 till his labors were crowned with success1 by the discovery of a new planet in the constellation of ,virgo1 to which he gave the name of ,vesta4 ,the existence of four planets between the orbits of ,mars and ,jupiter1 7continues the same author17 revolving round the sun at nearly the same distances1 and differing from all the other planets in their diminutive size1 and in the form and position of their orbits1 is acknowledged to be one of the most singular phenomena in the history of astronomy4 ,the discordance of these phenomena with the regularity of the planetary distances1 and with the general harmony of the system1 naturally suggests the opinion1 that the inequalities in this part of the system were produced by some great convulsion1 and that the four planets1 as we have already hinted1 are the fragments of a large celestial body1 which once existed between ,mars and ,jupiter4 ,to suppose them independent planets1 as they must necessarily be if they did not originally form one1 their diminutive size1 the great eccentricity and inclination of their orbits1 and their numerous intersections1 when projected on the plane of the ecliptic1 are phenomena absolutely inexplicable on every principle of science1 and subversive of that harmony and order which before the discovery of these bodies1 seemed to pervade the planetary system4 ,admitting1 however1 the hypothesis that these planetary bodies1 are the remains of a larger body1 which circulated round the sun1 nearly in the orbit of the greatest fragment1 the system resumes its order1 and we discover a regular procession in the distances of the planets1 and a general harmony in the form and position of their orbits4 ,but1 independently of analogical reasoning1 the elements of the new planets furnish several direct arguments1 drawn from the eccentricity and inclination of their orbits1 and from the position of their perihelia and nodes2 and all concurring to show1 that the four new planets have diverged from one point1 and have1 therefore1 been originally combined in a larger body4 ,jupiter is the largest of all the planetary bodies1 and1 next to ,venus the brightest4 ,he was called by the ,greeks 1 which is from 1 to be hot1 or1 says ,parkhurst1 immediately from the ,hebrew to shine1 compounded1 perhaps1 with substance1 q4d4 the shining substance2 a name very justly given to this planet1 on account of his strong and clear light4 ----8,in distant skies ,revolves the mighty magnitude of ,jove1 ,with kingly state1 the rival of the sun40 ,his mean distance from the sun is #dij1jjj1jjj miles1 and his diameter is #hi1agj miles1 or more than #aa times that of the earth1 and therefore his magnitude is #a1djj times greater than our earth2 of course1 as the surface of a globe increases according to the square of its diameter1 our earth will1 to the inhabitants of ,jupiter1 appear #aba times less than this noble planet appears to us4 ,his revolution round the sun1 from east to west1 is performed in #aa years1 #cae days1 #ad hours1 #ci minutes1 #b seconds1 which is nearly twelve of our years2 and his motion in his orbit is #bi1jjj miles an hour4 ,he performs his diurnal rotation upon his axis in #i hours1 #ee minutes1 #cc seconds1 by which motion his equatorial parts are carried round at the amazing rate of #bf1jjj miles an hour1 which is about twenty-five times the velocity of the like parts of our earth4 ,he has1 of course1 a rapid succession of days1 as the poet observes1 8,in ample compass ,jove conducts his sphere1 ,and later finishes his tedious year2 ,yet swiftly on his axle turn'd1 regains ,the frequent aid of day to warm his plains40 ,the axis of ,jupiter is nearly perpendicular to his orbit1 so that he has no sensible change of seasons4 ,this is not the work of chance1 as ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory observes1 but wisely ordered by the ,divine ,architect2 for if the axis of this planet were inclined any considerable number of degrees1 so many degrees round each pole would be almost six years together in darkness4 ,and as each degree of a great circle on this planet contains more than #gjj miles1 it is natural to conceive1 that vast tracts of land would be rendered uninhabitable by any considerable inclination of his axis4 ,the appearance of this planet1 through a telescope1 opens a vast field for interesting inquiry4 ,his surface is not equally bright1 but variegated with certain bands1 or belts1 of a dusky appearance3 they run parallel to each other1 and are continued round the body of the planet4 ,they are not regular or constant in their appearance3 sometimes only one is seen2 at other times six or eight4 ,the breadth of them is likewise variable2 one belt is sometimes becoming narrow1 while another1 in its neighborhood1 grows broader as if one had flowed into the other3 in these cases1 an oblique belt has been observed to be between them1 as if for the purpose of establishing a communication4 ,sometimes1 one or more spots are formed between the belts1 which increase till the whole is united in a large dusky belt4 ,there are also bright spots to be discovered on ,jupiter's surface2 these are rather more permanent than the belts1 and re-appear after unequal intervals of time4 ,the remarkable spot1 by whose motion the rotation of ,jupiter upon his own axis was first ascertained1 disappeared in the year #afid1 and was not seen again till #agjh1 when it re-appeared exactly in the same place1 and has been occasionally seen ever since4 ,jupiter is enlightened by four moons1 or satellites1 each of them larger than that with which we are supplied1 and which revolve at different distances from that planet4 ,in the solar system the moons1 or satellites1 revolve round their respective primary planets as centres1 in the same manner as the primary planets revolve round the sun4 ,by means of ,jupiter's satellites1 a method has been obtained for demonstrating that the motion of light is progressive1 and not instantaneous1 as was formerly supposed2 which discovery is important to the interests of science4 ,m4 ,huygens1 in his ,treatise on ,light1 concludes from these eclipses1 that light transmits itself about #fjj1jjj times faster than sound4 ,distances and ,revolutions of ,jupiter's ,satellites4 ,revolution4 ,distance4 d4 h4 m4 #ast ,satellite #bej1jjj #a #ah #cf #b;d #dja1jjj #c #ac #ae #c;d #fdh1jjj #g #c #ei #dth #a1abh1jjj #af #ah #cj ,they are thus referred to by ,mallet3 8,about him round four planetary moons1 ,on earth with wonder all night long beheld1 ,moon above moon1 his fair attendants dance40 ,to a spectator placed on the surface of ,jupiter1 each of the satellites would put on the phases of the moon2 but as the distance of any of them from ,jupiter is but small1 when compared with the distance of that planet from the sun1 the satellites are therefore illuminated by the sun very nearly in the same manner with the primary itself2 hence they appear to us always round1 having constantly the greatest part of their enlightened half turned towards the earth3 and indeed they are so small1 that were they to put on the phases of the moon1 these phases could scarcely be discerned through the best telescopes4 ,when the satellites pass through their inferior semicircles1 they may cast a shadow upon their primary1 and thus cause an eclipse of the sun to his inhabitants2 and in some situations this shadow may be observed going before or following the satellite4 ,on the other hand1 in passing through their superior semicircles1 the satellites may be eclipsed in the same manner as our moon by passing through the shadow of ,jupiter3 and this is actually the case with the first1 second1 and third2 but the fourth1 by reason of the extent of its orbit1 passes sometimes above or below the shadow1 as is the case with our moon4 ,these satellites were first discovered on the #gth of ,january1 #afaj1 by the celebrated ,galileo1 who called them ,medician ,stars1 in honor of the family of the ,medici1 dukes of ,tuscany1 his patrons4 ,these satellites1 revolving about ,jupiter at different distances1 from west to east1 when viewed through a telescope1 make a beautiful appearance4 ,as our moon revolves round the earth1 enlightening the nights1 by reflecting the light she receives from the sun2 so these satellites1 revolving round ,jupiter1 may also be supposed to enlighten the nights of that planet4 ,saturn is a very conspicuous planet1 though he shines with a pale and feeble light1 very unlike that of ,jupiter and the other planets4 ,he was called by the ,greeks 4 8,from the account given by ,diodorus ,siculus10 says ,costard1 8it seems as if the ,chaldeans called this planet by some name not widely different from this of the ,greeks4 ,in the language of ,chaldea1 the verb phana1 or phanah1 signifies convertere se1 divertere se1 declinare4 ,and whatever vanishes1 or disappears1 very properly declines1 or turns aside1 from our view4 ,this planet1 therefore1 was most probably called phen1 or phain1 and1 with a ,greek termination1 1 on account of his withdrawing himself1 by reason of his distance4 ,and this conjecture is yet further confirmed from his name in another dialect1 or among another people4 ,for from sater1 latuit1 abscondit se1 with the paragogic nun which is not unusual in the formation of ,eastern words1 comes the word ,saturn1 and with the ,latin termination us1 ,saturnus40 ,his mean distance from the sun is #ijj1jjj1jjj miles1 consequently his motion in his orbit is proportionably slow2 and his annual revolution round the sun1 from west to east1 being so much longer likewise than that of the other planets1 he takes #bi years1 #afd days1 #g hours1 #ba minutes1 #ej seconds1 which is almost thirty of our years1 to accomplish it1 in his orbit travelling with a velocity of #bb1jjj miles an hour4 ,his diameter is #gi1jjj miles2 and his magnitude is about #a1jjj times that of the earth4 ,the time of rotation upon his axis is #aj hours1 #ag minutes4 8,still further off1 scarce warm'd by ,phbus' ray1 ,through his wide orbit1 ,saturn wheels away2 ,how great the change1 could we be wafted there6 ,how slow the seasons6 and how long the year60 ,there is a singular and curious appendage to ,saturn1 namely1 a thin1 broad1 opake ring1 encompassing the body of the planet1 without touching it2 like the horizon of an artificial globe2 it appears to be suspended round the planet1 and to keep its place without any immediate connection with it4 ,the distance of this prodigious circle from the body of the planet is usually stated to be about #ba1jjj miles4 ,the dimensions of the ring1 or of the two rings with the space between them1 ,dr4 ,herschell has given as follows3 ,miles4 ,inner diameter of the smaller ring #adf1cde ,outside diameter of ditto #ahd1cic ,inner diameter of the larger ring #aij1bdh ,outside diameter of ditto #bjd1hhc ,breadth of the inner ring #bj1jjj ,breadth of the outer ring #g1bjj ,breadth of the vacant space1 or dark zone #b1hci ,it puts on different appearances to us1 sometimes being seen quite open1 or as a wide oval1 and at others1 only as a single line4 ,when our eye is in the plane of the ring1 or looking at it directly on the edge1 it is invisible to us2 and it is in this situation twice in each revolution of the planet2 that is1 once in about fifteen years3 at these times1 he appears quite round1 for nine or ten months together4 ,the ring was invisible to us on the #aeth of ,june1 #ahjc1 and1 since that time1 gradually increased in light and breadth for about seven years3 and1 after which1 has again decreased1 till1 as before1 after an interval of fifteen years1 in the present year #ahah1 the ring is again edgewise to us1 and invisible4 ,with telescopes of great magnifying power1 two belts or stripes have been discovered on ,saturn2 they appear parallel to the ring1 and are supposed to be permanent4 ,of what component materials this ring is composed1 or by what means it is suspended1 we as yet remain ignorant3 but of its use1 it is supposed to supply light and heat to the planet1 agreeably to the observation of a poet who has evinced an extensive acquaintance with philosophy4 8,muse6 raise thy voice1 mysterious truth to sing1 ,how o'er the copious orb a lucid ring1 ,opake and broad1 is seen its arch to spread1 ,round the big globe at stated periods led2 ,perhaps 7its use unknown7 with gather'd heat ,to aid the regions of that gelid seat1 ,the want of nearer ,phbus to supply1 ,and warm with reflex beams his summer sky2 ,else might the high-plac'd world1 expos'd to frost1 ,lie waste1 in one eternal winter lost40 ,besides the ring1 ,saturn is also furnished with seven attendant moons1 or satellites1 which move around him at different distances1 in a way similar to those of ,jupiter4 ,distances and ,revolutions of ,saturn's ,satellites4 ,revolution4 ,distance4 d4 h4 m4 s4 #ast ,satellite #agb1jjj #a #ba #ah #bf #b;d #bag1jjj #b #ag #dd #ea #c;d #cae1jjj #d #ab #be #aa #dth #gje1jjj #ae #bb #da #ad #eth #b1abf1jjj #gi #g #ec #db #fth #acg1jjj #a #h #ec #i #gth #ajg1jjj #j #bb #cg #cj ,the sixth and seventh satellites were discovered by ,dr4 ,herschell in #aghg and #aghh3 they are nearer to ,saturn than any of the other five2 but1 to prevent confusion1 they have been called the #fth and #gth4 ,the #eth satellite has been observed by ,dr4 ,herschell to turn once round its axis1 exactly in the time in which it revolves round ,saturn3 in this respect it resembles our moon4 ,their distance from us is so far1 as not to be easily visible1 even with a good telescope1 unless the air be exceedingly clear4 ,it was for ages that astronomical science limited the solar system to six planets1 and ,saturn was considered as its utmost extent4 ,vitruvius1 speaking of the planet ,saturn1 says1 that star 8is near the extremity of the world1 and touches the frozen regions of heaven40 ,he did not understand the extent of our planetary system4 ,it is to the indefatigable application of ,dr4 ,herschell that we are indebted for the discovery of a new planet1 which is the fourth of the superior ones then known1 and1 being at twice the distance of ,saturn from the sun1 has quadrupled the bounds formerly assigned to the solar system4 ,this planet was discovered on the #acth of ,march1 #agha1 and is called by different names3 the discoverer bestowed upon it that of ,georgium ,sidus1 in honor of our present venerable and beloved sovereign2 by the ,french it is called ,herschell1 and by the ,italians1 ,uranus4 ,this important discovery is very deservedly noticed by the ,poet ,laureat1 in his ,ode entitled 8,carmen ,seculare for the year #ahjj40 8,mathesis with uplifted eye1 ,tracing the wonders of the sky1 ,beholds new constellations rise1 ,new systems crown the argent skies2 ,views with new lustre round the glowing pole1 ,wide his stupendous orb the ,georgian ,planet roll40 ,on the #aath ,january1 #aghg1 ,dr4 ,herschell discovered the second and fourth satellites which attend his own planet the ,georgium ,sidus2 and in the following years1 previously to #agia1 he observed four others revolving round the same body4 ,though this celebrated astronomer was the first who discovered the ,georgium ,sidus to be one of the planets of the solar system1 yet no doubt can be entertained of its having been before observed and considered as a fixed star4 ,flamsteed in #afij1 ,mayer in #agef1 and ,monnier in #agfi1 determined the places of three stars which cannot now be found4 ,and ,m4 ,la ,place1 according to his theory of ,jupiter and ,saturn1 has found that the ,georgium ,sidus was exactly in those three points at those very times4 ,these truly singular occurrences leave no doubt of the identity of these three stars with the new planet4 ,the lines which ,mallet applied to ,saturn are now1 with a little alteration1 more applicable to the ,georgium ,sidus1 or ,herschell planet4 8,last1 outmost ,herschell walks his frontier round1 ,the boundary of worlds2 with his pale moons1 ,faint-glimmering through the darkness night has thrown1 ,deep-dy'd and dead1 o'er this chill globe forlorn3 ,an endless desert1 where extreme of cold ,eternal sits1 as in his native seat1 ,on wintry hills of never-thawing ice2 ,such ,herschell's earth40 ,his mean distance from the sun is about #a1hjj1jjj1jjj miles1 and he performs his revolution from west to east round the sun in #hc years1 #bid days1 #h hours1 #ci minutes2 and in his orbit he moves with a velocity of #ae1hdf miles an hour4 ,his diameter is #d times larger than that of the earth1 being more than #ce1jjj miles2 and his magnitude is #hj times larger than that of the earth4 ,the orbit in which he revolves is nineteen times further from the sun than the earth's orbit2 consequently he has #cfa times less light and heat from the sun than we have4 ,notwithstanding this1 his proportion of light is considerable2 for having been calculated1 it is found to be equal to the effect of #bhd of our full moons4 ,when the sky is very serene and clear1 and the moon absent1 this planet may be perceived with the naked eye1 unassisted by a telescope3 and it appears as a star of the fifth magnitude1 with a blueish white light1 and a brilliancy between that of ,venus and the ,moon4 ,the want of light arising from the great distance of this planet from the sun1 is supplied by six satellites1 which revolve at different distances round their primary4 ,distances and ,revolutions of the ,satellites of the ,georgium ,sidus4 ,revolution4 ,distance4 d4 h4 m4 s4 #ast ,satellite #bbf1dej #e #ba #be #j #b;d #bic1jec #h #ag #j #j #c;d #cdb1ghd #aj #bc #j #j #dth #cib1ead #ac #aa #j #j #eth #ghe1jbh #ch #a #di #j #fth #a1egj1jeg #ajg #g #ce #aj ,all these satellites1 it has been said1 perform their revolutions in their orbits contrary to the order of the signs2 that is1 their real motion is retrograde1 but probably1 as suggested by ,dr4 ,hutton1 this is an optical illusion4#acj ,as the indefatigable ,dr4 ,herschell has already discovered six satellites belonging to this planet1 does not its immense distance from the sun leave some ground for conjecture1 that there may remain some undiscovered1 and that his attendants are as numerous1 if not more so1 than those of ,saturn8 ,characters used for the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,planets4 ,the ,sun ,the ,moon ,mercury ,venus ,the ,earth ,mars ,jupiter ,saturn ,herschell1 or ,georgium ,sidus4 ,the mark which characterises the planet ,herschell is the initial of the discoverer's name1 intersected by a cross bar to represent a cross1 by which to denote that the discovery of the planet took place after the birth of ,christ4 ,astronomy produces calculations concerning the magnitudes1 distances1 and revolutions of the planets1 and their respective satellites1 which1 to the uninformed1 appear absurd1 chimerical1 and presumptuous2 while1 probably1 they laugh at such notions as were received among men1 when even the wisest of them were weak enough to believe1 that the earth was an immense plain1 situated in the centre of the universe2 that the vault of heaven was of crystal2 and that the sun was no other than a plate of red hot iron1 about as large as the ,peloponnessus4 ,the following thoughts1 communicated by my much esteemed friend ,thomas ,exley1 ,a4 ,m4 may assist such persons to entertain more favorable sentiments of the science of astronomy1 and also serve to enlarge their views of the ,supreme ,being4 8,many persons who have not had the advantages of proper instruction in mathematical science1 cannot be persuaded that it is in the power of man to ascertain the distances of the sun1 moon1 and planets1 and1 of course1 pay little regard to the assertions of astronomers on this subject4 ,sometimes1 they are bold enough to say the thing is impossible1 because no one has ever been to any of those bodies4 ,let such persons consider1 that it is not necessary to go to a remote object in order to measure its distance2 for that purpose1 it will be sufficient to know the length of a line at the place of the spectator1 and the inclination of this line to two others directed from its extremities to the object2 for1 on the length of this line1 and the position of the two others1 depends the distance of the object from the ends of that line4 8,thus1 if ,i wish to know the distance of a neighboring tower1 or other object beyond a river1 or in some other way inaccessible2 ,i measure any convenient line terminating in my station1 and by some instrument proper for measuring angles1 ,i ascertain the position of my measured line to the lines connecting its extreme points and the object4 ,on these data depends the distance1 and from this line and these angles accurately measured1 the exact distance may be with great ease truly found4 ,it is on similar principles that astronomers investigate the distances of the heavenly bodies4 ,they take as the given or measured line1 which may be called the base1 some line on the earth1 the semi-diameter for instance1 as being the most convenient4 ,the angle formed1 or rather contained by two lines drawn from the sun or planet to the ends of the semi-diameter of the earth1 is called the parallax1 because it shows the difference of the apparent situation of the object as seen from the extremities of the semi-diameter1 that is1 it measures the arc of a great circle in the heavens contained between its two apparent places4 ,hence to ascertain its parallax1 or difference of the apparent place when the object is viewed from the other end of the semi-diameter1 becomes a problem of great importance in astronomy2 for this being truly discovered1 the distance of the planet will be obtained with the utmost exactitude4 ,if any other line besides the semi-diameter of the earth1 whose length and position are known1 be used as a base1 and the parallax in respect of this line be found1 the same conclusions will follow4 ,the chief difficulty in this affair arises from the smallness of the angle to be measured1 which is a consequence of the greatness of the distance in respect of the earth's semi-diameter4 ,several ingenious methods have been proposed and employed by astronomers to discover the distances of the sun and planets1 but nothing serves this purpose so well as the transits of ,venus over the sun's disk4 ,at certain periods1 which can be foretold by astronomers1 this planet passes exactly between us and the sun1 and is seen as a dark round spot for some hours1 moving in a line across the sun's face or disk4 ,the observer should be furnished with a good chronometer1 or pendulum clock with seconds1 to note the time of the transit2 and good instruments1 to take the apparent diameters of the sun and ,venus1 and her greatest distance from the sun's limb while passing over his disk3 from these observations1 and the known phenomena of the motions of the earth and ,venus1 the parallax may be found4 ,but if two observers1 at very distant places of the earth properly chosen1 make these observations1 the parallax may be obtained with much greater ease and nicety2 because the distance of the apparent tracks of ,venus across the sun as seen from the two places1 and also the difference of the time of the passage1 arises from the parallax of ,venus and that of the sun4 ,the two last transits1 which happened in the years #agfa and #agfi1 were carefully observed for this purpose2 and it is to the results of these observations that the present astronomers are indebted for their more accurate knowledge of the distances of the planets1 and the dimensions of the solar system4 8,it should be observed1 that if the parallax1 and consequently the distance of any one of the planets by any means becomes known1 the same is easily obtained for each of the other planets1 from the relation which has been clearly discovered to subsist between the periodical times of revolution of the planets round the sun1 and their distances from that central luminary4 ,astronomers have most decidedly proved that the square of the time in which any planet revolves is to the square of the time in which any other revolves1 as the cube of the distance of the first1 is to the cube of the distance of the other2 and since all the times are known from observation1 if the distance of any one be determined1 there is no difficulty at all to find the distances of all the other planets from the sun4 8,it has also been matter of great surprise to the unlearned1 that astronomers should pretend to tell the magnitudes of the sun and planets4 ,but this is no difficult problem when the distance is known4 ,the apparent diameter is readily found from observation1 and on this and the distance depends the true diameter4 ,if the apparent diameters of two objects be equal1 the true diameter of the one will be greater as it is more remote2 and the apparent diameter of any object will increase as the distance of it from the observer diminishes4 ,from this every one sees1 that a knowledge of the distance of the object is an indispensible element for finding its bulk2 and1 according to the accuracy of the measure of the distance1 will be that of the measure of the magnitude1 provided the apparent distance be truly taken2 and this1 in the present improved state of our instruments1 presents no obstacle4 ,there can be no doubt but that astronomers are very near the truth in the numbers which they now give us for expressing the distances and magnitudes of the sun and planets4 8,the telescope has been of singular use to the astronomer2 it has shown him many phenomena of the heavenly bodies1 concerning which he would otherwise have been totally ignorant4 ,it is by the assistance of this noble instrument that we have attained to the knowledge of the rotations of the sun and planets1 the phases of ,venus and ,mercury1 ,saturn's ring1 and many other particulars exceedingly interesting4 ,the telescope has discovered several planets which otherwise would have revolved in their courses unknown and unnoticed by the inhabitants of this globe2 it has informed us that several of the planets have moons moving round them1 as our moon revolves round the earth2 besides1 it has presented to our view an innumerable multitude of fixed stars which without this assistance we should never have seen4 8,it is no wonder that great efforts have been made to improve this excellent instrument2 these efforts have been attended with great success1 and what may be further done in this respect we cannot tell2 however1 there is a limit to the improvements of the telescope1 for after it has attained a certain degree of magnifying power1 the motes and vapors in the atmosphere would be so magnified as to occupy its whole field of view1 and thus render it a useless incumbrance40 ,who can contemplate the power which produced the solar system1 at once so magnificent1 beautiful1 and delightful1 without astonishment and admiration8 ,the planets are kept in a regular motion1 and retained in an invariable course round the sun1 by the power of this luminary's attraction or gravity4 ,these bodies have a projectile force1 being propelled forwards in a right line1 which is the nature of all simple motion2 but the sun's attraction combining with their own projectile force1 withdraws them from their rectilineal courses1 and preserves the most perfect harmony in the system4 ,this wonderful mechanism was originally impressed on the system by its infinitely wise and omnipotent ,creator2 to which primary impulse it has with undeviating uniformity adhered1 having never suffered in its operations from the greatest distance of space1 or intervals of time6 ,surely no power less than that which at first gave existence and modification to matter1 is equal to the government of the world4 ,the solar orb and the planetary bodies could no more subsist in their present form and order1 without a ,divine1 supporting1 and directing hand1 than they could at the beginning make themselves4 ,what is that general law or force called gravitation1 without which the whole frame of nature would soon be dissolved8 ,is it not a power constantly issuing from the ,deity1 and which if he should suspend but for one moment1 the whole creation would sink into ruins8 ,how inconceivably great and operative must that power be1 that is present throughout the universe1 with all the heavenly orbs to preserve them in their courses2 and on this earth1 with every creature1 and every particle of matter1 to preserve its present form6 ,in addition to the planets and their satellites1 there are ,comets1 which revolve round the sun1 and1 consequently1 are a part of the solar system4 ,they have often a long tail1 in appearance resembling hair1 issuing from that side which is turned away from the sun4 ,comets are popularly divided into three kinds1 namely1 bearded1 tailed1 and hairy3 but this arrangement seems to apply rather to the different circumstances of the same comet1 than to the phenomena of several4 ,thus1 when a comet is eastward of the sun1 and moves with him1 it is said to be bearded1 because the light precedes it in the manner of a beard3 but when it is westward of him1 it is said to be tailed1 because the train of light follows it in the manner of a tail3 and1 lastly1 when the sun and comet are diametrically opposite1 the earth being between them1 the train is hid behind the body of the comet1 excepting the extremities1 which being broader than the body of the comet1 appear round it like a border of hair 7coma71 from which circumstance it is said to be hairy1 and is denominated a comet4 ,without attending to the variety of opinions which philosophers and astronomers have entertained concerning the nature and use of comets1 we may affirm1 that they have been considered as alarming phenomena1 displayed by the ,divine ,being to warn mankind of the near approach of some dreadful calamity1 such as wars1 pestilence1 and famine4 ,this opinion prevailed during the dark ages between the decline of the ,roman empire1 and the dawn of the ,reformation4 ,to this apprehension some of our modern poets have alluded in strong and descriptive language4 ,young says1 8,hast thou ne'er seen the comet's flaming light8 ,th' illustrious stranger passing1 terror sheds ,on gazing nations1 from his fiery train ,of length enormous2 takes his ample round ,through depths of ether2 coasts unnumber'd worlds ,of more than solar glory2 doubles wide ,heaven's mighty cape2 and then revisits earth1 ,from the long travel of a thousand years40 ,milton uses still greater strength of language when he compares his hero to a comet3 8,incensed with indignation1 ,satan stood ,unterrified1 and like a comet burn'd ,that fines the length of ,ophiucus huge ,in the arctic sky1 and from his horrid hair ,shakes pestilence and war40 ,similar ideas are finely expressed by ,savage3 8,in fancy's eye encount'ring armies glare1 ,and sanguine ensigns wave unfurled in air6 ,hence the deep vulgar deem impending fate1 ,a monarch ruined1 or unpeopled state4 ,thus comets1 dreadful visitants6 arise1 ,to them wild omens1 science to the wise1 ,these mark the comet to the sun incline1 ,while deep red flames around its centre shine6 ,while its fierce rear a winding trail displays1 ,and lights all ether with a sweeping blaze6 ,or when1 compell'd1 it flies the torrid zone1 ,and shoots by worlds unnumbered and unknown2 ,by worlds1 whose people1 all aghast with fear1 ,may view that minister of vengeance near40 ,notwithstanding the present improved state of astronomical science1 it is evident that the philosophy of comets is very imperfect4 ,kepler1 though in other respects a very great genius1 and to whose useful labors astronomy is deeply indebted1 indulged in the most extravagant conjectures2 he imagined that the planets were large animals1 swimming round the sun3 and that the comets were animals still more huge and monstrous1 which had been generated in the celestial spaces4 ,jean ,bodin1 a learned ,frenchman of the #afth century1 entertained an opinion1 if possible1 still more absurd and ridiculous4 ,he maintained that the comets are spirits1 which having lived on the earth innumerable ages1 and being at last arrived on the confines of death1 celebrated their last triumph1 or are recalled to the firmament like shining stars6 ,mr4 ,whiston was of opinion1 that comets are so many hells1 appointed in their orbits alternately to carry the damned into the confines of the sun1 there to be scorched by its violent heat1 and then to return with them beyond the orb of ,saturn1 there to starve them in those cold and dismal regions4 ,thus 8,born in an age more curious than devout2 ,more fond to fix the place of heaven or hell1 ,than studious this to shun1 or that secure40#aca ,james ,bernoulli1 in his ,systema ,cometarum1 says1 that comets are no other than the satellites of some very distant planet1 which is itself invisible to us on account of its vast distance1 as are also the satellites1 unless when they are in that part of their orbits which is nearest the earth4 ,comets1 according to ,des ,cartes1 were formerly fixed stars3 but which becoming gradually covered with macul1 and at length wholly deprived of their light1 cannot keep their places1 but are carried off by the vortices of the circumjacent stars2 and in proportion to their magnitude and solidity1 moved in such a manner as to be brought nearer the orb of ,saturn2 and thus1 coming within reach of the sun's light1 are rendered visible4 ,aristotle1 ,seneca1 ,plutarch1 and others1 testify1 that the ,pythagoreans1 and the whole ,italian sect1 maintained1 that a comet was a kind of planet or wandering star1 which appeared again after a long interval of time4 ,hippocrates ,chius was of the same opinion as ,aristotle informs us4 ,democritus held also the same opinion1 as ,seneca tells us in his 8,natural ,questions20 book vii1 chap4 #c1 8,for10 says he1 8,democritus1 the most curious and subtle of all the ancients1 suspected that there were many more stars which moved1 meaning by this expression the comets2 but he neither established their number1 or their names1 the courses of the five planets not having as yet been discovered40 ,again1 ,seneca assures us1 that ,apollonius ,myndius1 one of the most skilful philosophers in the search of natural causes1 asserted1 that the ,chaldeans reckoned comets among the other wandering stars1 and that they knew their courses4 ,apollonius himself maintained1 that a comet was a star of its own kind1 as the sun and moon are1 but that its course was not yet known2 that by its motions it mounts very high in the heavens1 and only appears when it descends into the lower part of its orbit4 ,and ,seneca himself embraces this opinion in the following truly philosophical words3 8,i cannot believe10 says he1 8that a comet is a fire suddenly kindled1 but that it ought to be ranked among the eternal works of nature4 ,a comet has its proper place1 and is not easily moved from thence2 it goes its course1 and is not extinguished1 but runs off from us4 ,but you will say1 if it were a wandering star it would keep in the zodiac4 ,but who can set one boundary to all the stars8 ,who can restrain the works of the ,divinity to a narrow compass8 ,for each of those bodies1 which you imagine to be the only ones that have motion1 have very different circles2 why1 therefore1 may there not be some that have peculiar ways of their own1 wherein they recede far from the rest8 ,but that their courses may be known1 it is necessary to have a collection of all the ancient observations about comets2 for their appearances are so rare1 that their orbits are not yet determined2 nor can we as yet find whether they have their periods1 or whether they return again in a certain order40--8,the time will come10 continues he1 8wherein these things which are now hid from us will be discovered2 which observation1 and the diligence of after ages1 will find out4 ,for it is not one age that is sufficient for so great matters3 the time will be when posterity will wonder that we were ignorant of things so plain2 one will arise who will demonstrate in what regions of space the comets wander1 why they recede so far from the other planets2 how great and what sort of bodies they are40#acb ,the period1 predicted by ,seneca1 in the first century of the ,christian era1 is not yet arrived4 8,after all that has been done and written on the subject of comets10 says a late writer1 8we must confess1 that our knowledge of these wandering bodies is still very imperfect40 8,it appears to me10 says ,la ,lande1 8that almost every thing depends on comets4 ,the only thing that ,i recommend to my correspondents1 is to look after and attend to comets3 the knowledge of comets is alone wanting to complete the science of astronomy40 ,several ages elapsed before this prediction of ,seneca seemed likely to be fulfilled4 ,tycho ,brah was the first who attempted to restore the comets to their proper rank in creation4 ,having diligently observed the comet of #aegg1 and finding that it had no sensible diurnal parallax1 he very properly determined its true place to be among the other revolving bodies in the planetary regions1 as appears by his book ,de ,cometa1 #aegg4 ,and ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 from his amazing discoveries1 gives the following theory of comets3 8,they are10 says he1 8compact1 solid1 fixed1 and durable bodies2 in fact1 a kind of planets1 which move in very oblique and eccentric orbits1 every way with the greatest freedom2 persevering in their motions even against the course and direction of the planets3 and their tail is a very thin and slender vapor1 emitted by the head or nucleus of the comet1 ignited or heated by the sun40 ,various conjectures have been formed concerning the nature of the tails of comets4 ,dr4 ,hamilton1 of ,dublin1 in the second of his ,philosophical ,essays1 urges several objections against the ,newtonian hypothesis3 he remarks1 that1 since the tail of a comet1 though exceedingly rare1 meets with no resistance in its rapid motion round the sun 7except so slight a one as can only cause a very small condensation on that side of it which moves foremost1 and thereby may make it a little brighter than the other side71 it cannot possibly move in a medium denser and heavier than itself1 and therefore cannot be raised up from the sun by the superior gravity of such a medium4 ,and since the stars seen through all parts of a comet's tail appear in their proper places1 and with their usual colors1 he infers that the rays of light suffer no refraction in passing through the tail2 therefore1 since bodies reflect and refract light by one and the same power1 he concludes that the matter of a comet's tail has not the power of refracting or reflecting light1 and is1 of consequence1 a lucid or self shining substance4 ,also from what astronomers say of the splendor of comets' tails1 it is manifest they do not shine with such a dull light as would be reflected to us by the clouds or vapors at so great a distance1 but with a brisker though a glimmering light1 such as would arise from a very thin1 volatile1 burning matter4 ,dr4 ,halley1 speaking of the great streams of light in the remarkable aurora borealis seen in #agaf1 says1 8they so much resembled the long tails of comets1 that at first sight they might be taken for such30 and afterwards1 8this light seems to have a great affinity to that which the effluvia of electric bodies emit in the dark40 ,dr4 ,hamilton improves upon these hints3 and since1 as he shows1 the tails of comets1 the aurora borealis1 and the electric fluid1 agree remarkably1 not only in their appearance1 but also in such properties as we can observe of each of them1 he concludes that they are substances of the same nature4 ,and1 because the electric matter1 from its vast subtility and velocity1 seems capable of making great excursions from the planetary system1 he imagines that the several comets1 in their long excursions from the sun in all directions1 may overtake this matter2 and by attracting it to themselves may come back replete with it1 and being again heated by the sun1 may disperse it among the planets1 and so keep up a circulation of this matter1 which there is reason to think is necessary in our system4#acc ,comets1 descending from the remote parts of the system with great rapidity become visible to us in the lower parts of their orbits2 and after a short stay1 go off again to vast distances1 and disappear4 ,they move about the sun in very eccentric ellipses2 and the velocity with which they seem to move is variable in every part of their path round the sun2 when near to which they appear to move with great swiftness1 and1 when very remote1 their motion is slow4 ,they are opake bodies1 but of a much greater density than the earth2 for some of them are heated in every period to such a degree1 as would vitrify or dissipate any substance known to us4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton computed the heat of the comet1 which appeared in the year #afhj1 when nearest the sun1 to be #b1jjj times hotter than red hot iron1 and that1 being thus heated1 it must retain its heat till it comes round again1 although its period should be more than #bj1jjj years2 and it is computed to be only #ege4 ,the number of the comets is much greater than that of the planets belonging to our system4 ,from the beginning of the ,christian era1 till now1 there have appeared about five hundred4 ,before that time1 we have accounts of about one hundred others4 ,but1 when it is considered that there may have been many that have not been seen1 from being too near the sun1 from appearing in moon-light1 from being in the other hemisphere1 or from being too small1 or from not being recorded1 the number is probably much greater4 ,miss ,herschell1 by means of the telescope1 has1 within the last twenty years1 discovered several comets4 ,the orbits of about one hundred comets have been calculated with sufficient accuracy for ascertaining their identity on any future appearance4 ,many of these orbits are inclined to the plane of the ecliptic in large angles1 and many of them approach much nearer the sun than the earth does4 ,their motions are also different from those of the planets1 some of them being direct and others retrograde1 nearly half the number moving each way4 ,the different motions of the comets1 and the various inclinations of their orbits to the plane of the ecliptic1 must not be regarded as the work of chance1 but as calculated to answer beneficial purposes1 or avoid baneful consequences2 for if these orbits had been nearly coincident with that of the earth1 both bodies might have arrived at the common point of intersection of their orbits at the same time2 in which case a derangement of both motions must1 at least1 have been the necessary result4#acd ,but1 according to all the observations that have been made respecting their present distribution and direction1 there is not the least reason to apprehend any such consequence4 ,the following table contains a list of the last twenty-three of the principal comets that have been observed1 with the time of passing their perihelia1 and their nearest approach to the sun4 ,nearest distance ,passage of the from the ,sun in ,direction of ,years4 ,perihelion4 ,english ,miles4 their ,motion4 ------ -------------- ---------------- ------------- #agij ,january #ae #ga millions ,retrograde4 #agij ,january #bh #aja ,direct4 #agij ,may #ba #ge ,retrograde4 #agib ,january #ac #abb ,retrograde4 #agib ,december #bg #ia ,retrograde4 #agic ,november #d #ch ,retrograde4 #agic ,november #ah #adb ,direct4 #agie ,december #ae #bc ,direct4 #agif ,april #b #adi ,retrograde4 #agig ,july #i #ej ,retrograde4 #agih ,april #d #df ,direct4 #agih ,december #ca #gc ,retrograde4 #agii ,september #g #gi ,retrograde4 #agii ,december #be #be ,retrograde4 #ahja ,august #h #bb ,retrograde4 #ahjb ,september #i #ajc ,direct4 #ahjd ,february #ac #aja ,direct4 #ahje ,november #ah #ce ,direct4 #ahje ,december #ca #hd ,direct4 #ahjf ,december #bh #ajb ,retrograde4 #ahjg ,september #ah #fa ,direct4 #ahaa ,august #bj #be ,direct4 #ahae ,april #bf #aba ,direct4 ,but of all the comets1 the periods of three only are known with any degree of certainty1 being found to return at intervals of #ge1 #abi1 and #ege years2 and of these1 that which appeared in #afhj is the most remarkable4 ,this comet1 at its greatest distance1 is about #aa1bjj millions of miles from the sun1 while its least distance from the centre of the sun is about #dij1jjj miles2 being less than one third part of the sun's semi-diameter from his surface4 ,in that part of its orbit which is nearest the sun1 it flies with the amazing velocity of #hhj1jjj miles in an hour2 and the sun1 as seen from it1 appears #ajj degrees in breadth1 consequently #dj1jjj times as large as he appears to us4 ,the astonishing distance that this comet runs out into empty space1 naturally suggests to our imagination the vast distance between our sun and the nearest of the fixed stars1 of whose attractions all the comets must keep clear1 to return periodically and go round the sun4 ,how wonderful that1 though this body travelled almost two thousand times faster than a cannon ball1 yet it drew after it a tail of fire1 or of phosphoric gas1 eight millions of miles in length6 ,how amazing to consider1 that this stupendous body1 traversing the immensity of the creation with such rapidity1 and at the same time wheeling about in that line which its great ,creator prescribed to it1 should move with such inconceivable velocity1 and at the same time with such exact regularity6 ,how spacious must the universe be1 that1 gives such bodies as these full play1 without suffering the least disorder or confusion by it6 ,with what a glorious exhibition must those beings be entertained1 who can look into this great theatre of nature1 and see myriads of these tremendous objects wandering through those immeasurable depths of ther1 and running their appointed courses6 ,our eyes may hereafter be strong enough to command this magnificent prospect1 and our understandings able to find out the several uses of these immense parts of the universe4 ,in the mean time1 they are most suitable objects for our imagination to contemplate1 that we may form more extensive notions of infinite wisdom and power1 and learn to think humbly of ourselves1 and of all the little works of human invention4#ace ,the ,fixed ,stars are objects of peculiar interest1 and are so denominated1 because they are observed always to preserve the same distance from each other2 and are distinguished from the planets by their twinkling1 which seems to depend on the atmosphere2 for we are assured1 that where the air is exceedingly pure and dry1 the stars appear with a light altogether free from scintillation4 ,all the heavenly bodies1 the sun1 moon1 and stars1 appear to move round the earth1 in circles parallel to the equinoctial1 once in the compass of twenty-four hours2 though these apparent motions are almost entirety to be accounted for by the real motions of the earth3 but by far the greater number of them never change their relative situations1 each 7so long as an observer continues in the same place7 rising and setting at the same interval of time1 and at the same points of the horizon2--these are called the fixed stars4 ,the fixed stars1 as appears from several considerations1 are placed at immense distances from us4 ,mr4 ,exley1 in a friendly communication1 says1 8,it should be noticed1 that the distances of the fixed stars have never yet been discovered2 not indeed so much for want of a method1 as for want of a base line sufficiently large for this admeasurement4 ,the diameter of the earth's orbit is about one hundred and ninety millions of miles2 and the fixed stars1 viewed from the opposite ends of this extensive base line or diameter1 have no sensible parallax1 but all appear in the very same situations1 and of the same magnitudes2 and as this is the greatest line to the extremities of which we can have access1 it is very probable we shall ever remain in ignorance of the true distances of the fixed stars4 ,one thing1 however1 is fully ascertained by the observations which have been made to find the parallax of the stars1 which is1 that they are so immensely distant from our planetary regions1 that the whole solar system1 consisting of the sun and planets1 with their satellites1 and the comets1 would1 if viewed from the nearest fixed star1 appear as crowded into one single point of space1 which is also known from other observations4 ,how astonishingly extensive is the view of the universe which such observations furnish60 ,our earth is at so great a distance from the sun1 that if seen from thence1 it would appear no bigger than a point1 although its diameter is #g1ied miles4 ,yet that distance is so small1 compared with the earth's remote situation from the fixed stars1 that if the orbit in which the earth moves round the sun were the circumference of a globe1 that globe1 seen from the nearest star1 would likewise appear no bigger than a point1 although1 it is at least #aij1jjj1jjj miles in diameter4 ,for the earth in going round the sun is #aij1jjj1jjj miles nearer to some of the stars at one time of the year than at another1 and yet their apparent magnitudes1 situations1 and distances from one another still remain the same2 and being viewed through a telescope which magnifies above #bjj times1 they still appear as mere points3 which proves them to be at least #djj1jjj times further from us than we are from the sun4 ,it is not to be imagined1 that all the stars are placed in one concave surface1 so as to be equally distant from us2 but that they are scattered at immense distances from one another through unlimited space4 ,so that there may be as great a distance between any two neighboring stars1 as between our sun and those which are nearest to him4 ,therefore an observer1 who is nearest any fixed star1 will look on it alone as a real sun2 and consider the rest as so many shining points1 placed apparently at equal distances from him in the firmament4 ,the star nearest to us1 or the largest in appearance1 is ,sirius1 or the ,dog ,star1 and astronomers have calculated from indubitable principles1 that its distance from us is considerably more than two millions of millions of miles6 ,the apparent magnitude of ,sirius has been computed at #bg1jjj times less than the sun1 and1 therefore1 supposing their magnitudes equal1 is #bg1jjj times more distant4 ,if so1 as our earth is ninety-five millions of miles from the sun1 that multiplied by twenty-seven thousand1 will give two millions of millions1 and an addition of #efe thousand millions1 for the distance of this star from the sun4#acf ,our earth1 in moving round the sun1 is #aie1jjj1jjj miles nearer to this star in one part of its orbit1 than in the opposite one2 and yet the magnitude of the star appears not to be in the least altered or affected by it4 ,a cannon-ball flying from thence at the rate of #djj miles in an hour1 would not reach us in #gcb1jjj years6 ,the distance of the star ,draconis appears1 by ,dr4 ,bradley's observations1 to be at least #djj1jjj times that of the sun1 and the distance of the nearest fixed star not less than #hj1jjj diameters of the earth's annual orbit2 that is1 the distance of the earth from the former is to #djj1jjj #ie1jjj1jjj #ch1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 and the latter not less than #g1fjj1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,as these distances are much too great to be comprehended by the human imagination1 we shall1 perhaps1 obtain a better idea of them by comparing them with the velocity of some moving body1 by which they may1 in some way1 be estimated4 ,the swiftest motion we know of is that of light1 which passes from the sun to the earth in about eight minutes1 or1 at the rate of #bjj1jjj miles nearly in a second of time3 and yet even light would be more than six years in traversing the first space1 and a year and a quarter nearly1 in passing from the nearest fixed star to the earth4 ,again1 a cannon ball1 moving with its initial or greatest velocity of about ten miles in a minute1 would be more than seven millions of years in passing from the star ,draconis to the earth4 ,the celebrated ,m4 ,huygens carried his thoughts so far upon this subject1 as to believe that there might be stars at such inconceivable distances from our earth1 that their light1 though it is known to travel at the rate of #ab1jjj1jjj miles in a minute1 has not yet reached us1 since the creation of the world6 8,how distant some of the nocturnal suns6 ,so distant1 says the sage1 'twere not absurd ,to doubt1 if beams1 set out at nature's birth1 ,are yet arrived at this so foreign world2 ,though nothing half so rapid as their flight40 ,and ,mr4 ,addison observes1 that this thought of ,mr4 ,huygens is far from being extravagant1 when we consider that the universe is the work of infinite power1 prompted by infinite goodness1 having an infinite space wherein to exert itself1 so that our imaginations can set no bounds to it4 ,the magnitudes of the stars appear to be very different from one another2 which difference may probably arise1 partly from a diversity in their real magnitude1 but chiefly1 no doubt1 from their different distances4 ,hence it is1 that the fixed stars have been divided1 for the sake of distinction1 into six orders or classes4 ,those which appear largest1 are considered as stars of the first magnitude2 the next to them in lustre1 stars of the second magnitude2 and so on1 through the different gradations1 to the smallest that are visible to the naked eye1 which are said to be of the sixth magnitude4 ,this distribution having been made long before the invention of telescopes1 the stars which cannot be seen without the assistance of these instruments1 are distinguished by the name of telescopic stars4 ,bayer1 besides accurately distinguishing the relative size and situation of each star1 marked the stars in each constellation with the letters of the ,greek and ,roman alphabets1 setting the first ,greek letter to the first or principal star in each constellation1 to the second in order2 then1 when the ,greek alphabet was gone over1 he passed to a1 b1 c1 of the ,roman1 and so on4 ,this useful method of noting and describing the stars has been adopted by all astronomers since the time of ,bayer2 and they have further enlarged it1 by adding the ordinal numbers #a1 #b1 #c1 c1 when any constellation contains more stars than can be marked by the two alphabets4 ,as it would be impossible to furnish names for all the fixed stars1 and retain those names in the memory2 it became necessary not only to ascertain their exact relative situations1 but to invent some method by which the principal part of the stars which can be seen may be known1 without having recourse to a separate name for each4 ,ancient astronomers formed a commodious plan of arranging the fixed stars in constellations under names and figures of various personages1 celebrated in antiquity1 and even of birds1 beasts1 fishes1 c4 ,this division of the heavens into constellations is obviously very ancient2 for some of them are mentioned by ,hesiod and ,homer1 both of whom probably flourished nearly #ajjj years before the ,christian era4 ,arcturus1 ,orion1 and the ,pleiades1 are twice mentioned in the book of ,job3 and in the prophecy of ,amos1 composed about #djj years before ,christ1 the seven stars and ,orion are mentioned4 ,as the knowledge of the stars became more extensive1 the number of the constellations was increased2 and at the same time more stars were introduced into each constellation4 ,such of the stars as were not comprehended under any constellations1 were by the ancient astronomers1 called unformed stars4 ,the modern astronomers have reduced not these unformed stars only1 but many other stars1 into new figures2 and it is probable that other constellations will still continue to be invented4#acg ,with respect to the number of fixed stars1 there have been several accounts1 given by different persons1 at various times4 ,the celebrated ,hipparchus1 of ,rhodes1 #abj years before ,christ1 formed a catalogue of #a1jbb stars2 to which ,ptolemy added four more4 ,ulug ,beigh1 the grandson of ,tamerlane1 formed a catalogue of #a1jag stars4 ,tycho ,brah's catalogue only extended to #ggg2 but he took care to ascertain all their places4 ,kepler's catalogue amounted to #a1afc1 which ,ricciolus enlarged to #a1dfh4 ,bayerus extended his catalogue further than any of his predecessors1 having described the places of #a1gbe4 ,hevelius increased the catalogue to #a1hhh4 ,flamsteed enlarged these catalogues to the number of about #c1jjj4 ,but by means of the telescope1 which affords us a glimpse of infinite space1 and presents to our view myriads of worlds1 and systems of worlds1 by which it is filled1 the number of the stars is astonishingly increased4 ,galileo found eighty stars in the space of the belt of ,orion's sword1 and ,f4 de ,rheita observed more than #b1jjj in the whole constellation of ,orion1 of which not more than seventy or eighty can ever be seen without glasses4 ,dr4 ,hook reckoned seventy-eight stars in the single constellation of the ,pleiades2 and ,f4 de ,rheita1 with a better telescope1 discovered #ahh3 whereas we cannot reckon above seven or eight seen by the naked eye4 ,at the present period1 the positions of #fj1jjj fixed stars have been exactly recorded1 and they are generally arranged according to the size they appear2 #bj of the largest are called stars of the first magnitude2 #fe are of the second magnitude2 #bje of the third2 #dhe of the fourth2 #fdh of the fifth2 and about #a1ejj of the sixth magnitude2 the remainder1 being invisible to the naked eye1 are called telescopic stars4 ,where the stars are in great abundance1 ,dr4 ,herschell supposes they form primaries and secondaries1 that is1 suns revolving about suns1 as planets revolve about the sun in our system4 ,he considers that this must be the case in what is called the milky way1 the stars being there in prodigious quantity4 ,of this he gives the following proof3 on ,august #bb1 #agib1 he found that in forty-one minutes of time1 not less than #beh1jjj stars had passed through the field of view in his telescope6 ,dr4 ,chalmers observes1 ,if we ask the number of suns and of systems--the unassisted eye of man can take in a thousand1 and the best telescope which the genius of man has constructed can take in eighty millions4 ,thus1 by the help of telescopes1 we discover a vast multitude of stars which are invisible to the naked eye2 and the better the glasses are1 still the more become visible2 so that we can set no limits either to their number1 or to their distances4 8,myriads beyond with blended rays inflame ,the milky way1 whose stream of vivid light1 ,poured from innumerable fountains round1 ,flows trembling1 wave on wave1 from sun to sun1 ,and whitens the long path to heaven's extreme3 ,distinguished tract60 ,from an attentive examination of the stars with good telescopes1 many that appear only single to the naked eye1 are found to consist of two1 three1 or more stars4 ,the late ,dr4 ,maskelyne observed the ,herculis to be a double star1 and other astronomers have discovered many more to be double4 ,dr4 ,herschell has found #gjj2 of these about forty had been observed before4 ,the following will serve as a specimen1 and afford the observer a few objects for his attention4 ,herculis is a beautiful double star3 the two bodies are apparently unequal3 the largest is red1 and the smallest of a blueish color inclining to green4 ,andromed1 double1 very unequal3 the larger of a reddish white color2 the smaller a fine bright sky blue1 inclining to green4 ,lyr1 quadruple1 unequal white1 but three out of the four inclined to red4 ,bootis1 double1 very unequal1 larger1 of a reddish color2 the smaller is blue1 or of a faint lilac color4 ,lyr1 double1 very unequal2 the larger is a fine brilliant white1 the smaller dusky4 ,new stars sometimes appear1 while others disappear4 ,several stars mentioned by ancient astronomers are not now to be found3 several are now visible to the naked eye1 which are not mentioned in ancient catalogues2 and some stars have suddenly appeared1 and again after a considerable interval vanished4 ,fortunio ,liceti1 a celebrated physician1 who died in #afef1 in ,padua1 published a treatise1 entitled1 8,de novis ,astris et ,cometis40 ,in it he gives us an ample account of the several new stars spoken of by the ancients1 among which he mentions that remarkable one which appeared ,a4,d4 #chi1 near the ,eagle4 ,it was as bright as the planet ,venus1 for the space of three weeks1 but afterwards entirely disappeared4 ,in the ninth century1 the ,arabian astronomers1 ,massahala1 ,haly1 and ,albumazar1 observed a new star in the #aeth degree of ,scorpio1 whose light equalled that of the moon in her first octant3 it was visible for four months4 ,cyprianus ,leovitius relates1 that in the reign of the emperor ,otho1 ,a4,d4 #idf1 a new star was seen between the constellations of ,cepheus and ,cassiopeia2 and also that another was seen ,a4,d4 #abfd1 very near the same part of the heavens1 which had no proper motion4 ,one of the most celebrated of the new stars is that discovered by ,cornelius ,jansen1 ,november #h1 #aegb1 in the chair of ,cassiopeia3 it exceeded ,sirius in brilliancy1 and ,jupiter in apparent magnitude2 it gradually decayed2 and1 after sixteen months1 disappeared4 ,on the #acth of ,august1 #aeif1 ,david ,fabricius observed a new star in the neck of the ,whale1 and it disappeared after ,october in the same year1 but was supposed to be again discovered in the year #afcg4 ,in the year #afjj1 ,william ,jansen discovered a changeable star in the neck of the ,swan4 ,it was seen by ,kepler1 who wrote a treatise upon it1 and determined its place to be #af #ah 1 and #ee #cj or #cb north latitude4 ,ricciolus saw it in #afaf1 #afba1 and #afbd4 ,cassini saw it again in #afee2 it increased till #affj2 then decreased1 and at the end of #affa it disappeared4 ,in ,november1 #affe1 it appeared again1 and disappeared in #afha4 ,in #agae it appeared1 as it does at present1 and is of the sixth magnitude4 ,in #afhf1 ,kircher observed in the ,swan1 to be a changeable star in the neck of that constellation2 and1 from twenty years' observations1 the period of the return of the same phases was found to be #dje days4 ,in #afjd1 ,kepler discovered a new star near the heel of ,serpentarius1 so very brilliant that it exceeded every fixed star1 and even ,jupiter1 in apparent magnitude4 ,for more recent discoveries1 see ,dr4 ,herschell's paper1 8,on the proper ,motion of the ,sun and the ,solar ,system1 with an account of the several changes that have happened among the fixed stars since the time of ,mr4 ,flamsteed10 vol4 lxxiii1 of the ,philosophical ,transactions1 or the fifteenth of the ,abridgment4 ,all the stars seem to have a common and general motion about the pole of the ecliptic1 at the rate of a degree in seventy-two years2 this is occasioned by the precession of the equinoctial points4 ,in consequence of this apparent motion1 the constellations change their positions in regard to the equinoctial points4 ,hence it is1 that the constellation ,aries now is in the sign ,taurus1 and ,taurus occupies the sign ,gemini4 ,it has been the common opinion that the fixed stars have no real motion1 but the accurate observations of modern astronomers show1 that some of them have a motion peculiar to themselves1 by which they slowly change their places4 ,thus ,arcturus is found to approach the ecliptic about four minutes in #ajj years2 and its distance from a small star near it has been sensibly changed during the last century4 ,sirius seems to recede from the ecliptic about two minutes per century4 ,similar motions have been observed in ,aldebaran1 ,rigel1 the eastern shoulder of ,orion1 the ,goat1 the ,eagle1 c4 ,other stars have been observed to have a motion in different directions4 ,perhaps all the stars have similar motions1 which are performed by certain fixed laws in spaces1 which1 though very large in reality1 yet1 because of their immense distance1 subtend at the earth angles so very small1 as in some cases to be quite imperceptible1 while in other cases they may be observed1 as in the stars above-mentioned2 and on this rational supposition the appearance and disappearance1 and variations in magnitude1 of some stars may be accounted for4 ,the fixed stars do not appear to be all regularly disseminated through the heavens1 but the greater part of them are collected into clusters2 and it requires a large magnifying power1 with a great quantity of light1 to distinguish separately the stars which compose these clusters4 ,with a small magnifying power1 and small quantity of light1 they only appear as minute whitish spots1 much like small light clouds1 and thence they are called nebul4 ,the number of nebul was formerly imagined to be about #ajc2 but ,dr4 ,herschell1 early in the year #aghd1 had discovered #dfi more1 and since then has given a catalogue of #b1jjj nebul which he has discovered4 ,the most careful and accurate observations give great reason to conclude1 that they all consist of large masses or clusters of stars at prodigious distances from our system4 ,dr4 ,herschell is of opinion the starry heaven is replete with these nebul1 and that each of them is a distinct and separate system independent of the rest4 ,the milky way he supposes to be that particular nebul in which our sun is placed2 and1 in order to account for the appearance it exhibits1 he supposes its figure to be much more extended towards the apparent zone of illumination1 than in any other direction2 which is a supposition that he thinks allowable1 from the observations he has made on the figures of other nebul4 ,that there are other worlds1 beside our earth1 inhabited by rational beings1 endued with bodily constitutions adapted to the nature and economy of the respective planets for which they are destined1 is a conjecture that approaches the nearest to certainty4 ,there is scarcely any doubt now remaining amongst philosophers1 that our moon is a habitable globe4 ,the most accurate observations that have been made with the most powerful telescopes1 have confirmed the opinion4 ,the surface of the moon seems to be diversified by high mountains1 large valleys1 and small and larger collections of water2 consequently she resembles our earth2 and there can be no doubt that our earth serves as a moon to the moon1 whose inhabitants1 comparing it with the sun1 may well say1 ----8gives us his blaze again ,void of its flame1 and sheds a softer day20 which similarity existing between them1 is a presumptive proof that the moon1 like our earth1 is a commodious habitation for creatures endowed with capacity for knowing and adoring their beneficent ,creator4 ,by a very correct analogy we are led to infer1 says a learned author1 that all the planets and their satellites or attendant moons1 are inhabited2 for matter seems only to exist for the sake of intelligent beings4 ,and ,dr4 ,herschell's discoveries have1 by the general consent of philosophers1 added1 besides the ,georgian planet1 a new habitable world to our system1 which is the ,,sun4 ,to an attentive mind it will appear highly probable1 that the planets of our system1 and their moons1 are much of the same nature with our earth1 and destined for the like purposes2 for they are solid opaque globes1 capable of supporting animals and vegetables4 ,some of them are bigger1 some less1 and others about the size of our earth4 ,they move round the sun1 as the earth does1 in a shorter or longer time1 according to their respective distances from him3 and have1 where it would not be inconvenient1 regular returns of summer and winter1 spring and autumn4 ,they have warmer and colder climates1 as the various productions of our earth require3 and1 in such as afford a possibility of discovering it1 we observe a regular motion round their axis like that of our earth1 causing an alternate return of day and night2 which is necessary for labor1 rest1 and vegetation1 and that all their surfaces may be exposed to the rays of the sun4 ,can a person who attends to the vast magnitude of the three planets1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 and ,herschell or the ,georgium ,sidus1 and compares the systems of moons together which belong to them1 bring himself to think1 that an infinitely wise ,creator should dispose of all his animals and vegetables here1 leaving the other planets destitute of living and rational creatures8 ,to suppose that he had any view to our benefit in creating these moons1 and giving them their motions round their respective primaries2 to imagine1 that he intended these vast bodies for any advantage to us1 when he well knew1 that they could not be seen but by a few astronomers looking through telescopes2 and that he gave to the planets regular returns of day and night1 and different seasons to all where they would be convenient1 but of no manner of service to us1 except only what immediately concerns our own planet1 the earth2 to imagine1 ,i say1 that1 he did all this on our account1 would1 ,i presume1 be charging him with having done much in vain3 and be as absurd1 as to fancy that he has created a little sun1 and a planetary system within the shell of our earth1 and intended them for our use4 8,as well might the minutest emmet say1 ,that ,caucasus was raised to pave his way ,the snail1 that ,lebanon's extended wood ,was destin'd only for his walk and food4 ,the vilest cockle1 gaping on the coast1 ,that rounds the ample seas1 as well may boast1 ,the craggy rock projects above the sky1 ,that he in safety at its foot may lie2 ,and the whole ocean's confluent waters swell1 ,only to quench his thirst1 and move and blanch his shell40 ,these considerations amount to little less than a positive proof1 that all the planets are inhabited3 for if they are not1 why all this care in furnishing them with so many moons1 to supply those with light which are at the greater distances from the sun8 ,do we not see1 that the further a planet is from the sun1 the greater apparatus it has for that purpose8 ,such of the planets as are most remote from the sun1 and therefore enjoy least of his light1 have that deficiency made up by several moons1 which constantly accompany1 and revolve about them1 as our moon revolves round our earth4 ,so that if the more distant planets have the sun's light in less proportion by day than we1 they have an addition made to it morning and evening by one or more of their moons1 and a greater proportion of light during the night4 ,we know that the earth goes round the sun1 and turns round upon its own axis1 to produce the vicissitudes of summer and winter by the former1 and of day and night by the latter motion1 for the benefit of its inhabitants3 may we not then fairly conclude1 by parity of reason1 that the end or design of all the other planets is the same8 ,and is not this agreeable to the beautiful harmony which exists throughout the works of nature8 ,surely it is6 and it raises in us the most magnificent ideas of the supreme ,being1 who is every where1 and at all times present2 displaying his power1 wisdom1 and goodness1 among all his creatures2 and distributing happiness to innumerable beings of various ranks6 ,when we consider the infinite power and goodness of ,god2 the latter inclining1 the former enabling him to make creatures suited to all states and circumstances2 that matter exists only for the sake of intelligent beings2 and that wherever we see it1 we always find it pregnant with life1 or necessarily subservient thereto2 the numberless species1 the astonishing diversity of animals in earth1 air1 water1 and even on other animals2 every blade of grass1 every tender leaf1 every natural fluid1 swarming with life2 and every one of these enjoying such gratifications as the nature and state of each requires3 when we reflect also1 that some centuries ago1 till experience undeceived us1 a great part of the earth was judged uninhabitable2 the ,torrid ,zone1 by reason of excessive heat1 and the two ,frigid ,zones because of their intolerable cold2 it seems highly probable1 that these numerous and large masses of the planets are not destitute of beings capable of contemplating with wonder1 and acknowledging with gratitude1 the wisdom1 symmetry1 and beauty of the creation4 ,it is an undoubted truth1 that wherever ,god exerts his power1 there also he manifests his wisdom and goodness4 ,from what we know of our own system1 it may be reasonably concluded1 that all the rest are with equal wisdom contrived1 situated1 and provided with accommodations for rational inhabitants4 ,taking a survey of the system to which we belong2 the only one accessible to us2 from thence we are the better enabled to judge of the nature and end of the other systems of the universe4 ,for although there is almost an infinite variety in the parts of the creation which we have opportunities of examining1 yet there is a general analogy running through and connecting all the parts into one scheme1 one design1 one whole6 ,the stars1 being at such immense distances from the sun1 cannot possibly receive from him so strong a light as they seem to have2 nor any brightness sufficient to make them visible to us4 ,for the sun's rays must be scattered and dissipated before they reach such remote objects1 that they can never be transmitted back to our eyes1 so as to render these objects visible by reflection4 8,i launch into the trackless deeps of space1 ,where1 burning round1 ten thousand suns appear ,of elder beam1 which ask no leave to shine ,of our terrestrial star1 nor borrow light ,from the proud regent of our scanty day40 ,the stars1 therefore1 shine with their own native and unborrowed lustre1 as the sun does2 and since each particular star1 as well as the sun1 is confined to a particular portion of space1 it is plain1 that the stars are of the same nature with the sun4 ,it is not probable that the ,almighty1 who always acts with infinite wisdom1 and does nothing in vain1 should create so many suns1 fit for so many important purposes1 and place them at such distances from one another1 without proper objects near enough to be benefited by their influences4 ,whoever imagines they were created only to give a faint glimmering light to the inhabitants of this globe1 must have a very superficial knowledge of astronomy1 and a mean opinion of the ,divine wisdom3 since1 by a much less exertion of creating power1 ,god could have given to our earth considerably more light by one single additional moon4 ,since the fixed stars are prodigious globes of light and heat1 like our sun1 and at inconceivable distances from one another1 as well as from us1 it is reasonable to conclude they are made for the same purposes that the sun is2 each to bestow light1 heat1 and produce vegetation1 on a certain number of inhabited planets1 kept by gravitation within the sphere of its activity4 ,instead then of one sun1 and one world only1 in the universe1 as the unskilful in astronomy imagine1 that science discovers to us such an inconceivable number of suns1 systems1 and worlds1 dispersed through boundless space1 that if our sun1 with all the planets1 moons1 and comets belonging to it1 were annihilated1 they would with difficulty be missed1 by an eye that could take in the whole creation2 the space they possess being comparatively so small that it would scarce be a sensible blank in the universe1 although ,herschell1 or the ,georgium ,sidus1 the most remote of our planets1 revolves about the sun in an orbit whose mean distance from the sun is #a1hbb1ege1bbh miles1 and some of our comets make excursions to an amazing distance beyond the bounds of that planet3 and yet1 they are incomparably nearer to the sun than to any of the stars2 as is evident from their keeping clear of the attractive power of all the stars1 and returning periodically by the virtue of the sun's attraction4 8,in the immensity of ,god's creation10 says a learned author1 8we may readily conceive one system of heavenly bodies1 and others beyond them1 and others still in endless progression1 through the whole vortex of space6 ,every star in the vast abyss of nature being a sun1 with its peculiar and numerous attendant worlds4 ,thus there may be systems of systems1 in endless gradation1 up to the throne of ,god60 8,oh1 for a telescope ,,his ,,throne to reach6 ,tell me ye learn'd on earth1 or blest above6 ,where your great ,master's orb8 ,his planets where8 ,on nature's ,alps ,i stand ,and see a thousand firmaments beneath6 ,a thousand systems as a thousand grains6 ,each of these ,,stars is a religious house2 ,i saw their altars smoke1 their incense rise1 ,and heard ,hosannas ring through ev'ry sphere2 ,a seminary fraught with future gods6 ,oh1 what a root6 ,oh1 what a branch is here6 ,oh1 what a ,father6 ,what a family6 ,worlds1 systems1 and creations6---- ,and creations ,in one agglomerated cluster hung1 ,great ,vine6 on ,,thee2 on ,,thee the cluster hangs2 ,the filial cluster6 infinitely spread ,in glowing globes1 with various being fraught2 ,and drinks 7nectareous draught67 immortal life60 ,what an august6 what an amazing conception1 if human imagination can conceive it1 does this give of the works of the ,creator6 ,thousands of thousands of suns1 multiplied without end1 and ranged all around us1 at immense distances from each other1 attended by ten thousand times ten thousand worlds1 all in rapid motion1 yet calm1 regular1 and harmonious1 invariably keeping the paths prescribed them2 and these worlds peopled with myriads of intelligent creatures1 formed for endless progression in perfection and felicity4 ,if so much power1 wisdom1 goodness1 and magnificence1 is displayed in the material creation1 which is the least considerable part of the universe1 how great1 how wise1 how good must ,he be1 who made and governs the whole6#ach ,the persuasion that rational beings inhabit other worlds1 has a powerful tendency to excite our curiosity4 8,ye sparkling isles of light that stud the sea ,of empyrean ether6 ,ye abodes ,of unknown myriads1 spirits1 or in bands ,held of corporeal frame6 ,fain would my soul ,a thirst for knowledge unreveal'd to man1 ,question your habitants1 and fain would hear ,a voice responsive from your distant bourn4 ,tell1 tell me who possess your radiant climes2 ,what are their forms1 their faculties1 their hopes1 ,their fears1 if subject or to hope or fear8 ,what fond pursuits1 what animating toils ,diversify existence with delight8 ,rove they in course arial unconfined ,from sphere to sphere1 with interchange of joy ,heightening their mutual bliss2 or dwell they fix'd1 ,each in his native solitary orb1 ,unconscious of the lot of neighboring worlds8 ,what homage1 what returns of grateful love ,yield they to ,him who made them8 ,stand they fast ,in undecaying blessedness1 secure ,from risk of loss3 or tread they yet the stage ,of perilous probation8 ,hath sin won ,conquests through disobedience o'er those hosts ,in your bright regions yawn the gates of ,death8 ,falls he1 who falls1 for ever8--,power supreme ,pardon the aspiring thoughts that would presume ,to pierce the veil which shrowds from mortal eye ,the wonders of thy realms6 ,enough1 to know ,that ,thou art ,lord6 ,thy universal love ,pervades ,creation2 on each living form ,showers down its proper happiness2 and1 when guilt ,wakes thy reluctant vengeance1 stays the bolt ,of wrath1 and pales its mitigated fire60#aci 99 99 99 99 99 ,stars are the hieroglyphics used to express both rulers and teachers2 therefore they may with great propriety be applied to the pastors of the church4 ,the ,jews1 says ,dr4 ,doddridge1 are said to have called their teachers stars4 ,they are represented under that emblem in the ,revelation1 where ,st4 ,john1 speaking of our ,lord1 says1 8,he had in his right hand seven stars20 and the allegorical explanation is1 8,the seven stars which thou sawest in my right hand are the angels 7or ministers7 of the seven churches10 namely1 in ,ephesus1 ,smyrna1 ,pergamos1 ,thyatira1 ,sardis1 ,philadelphia1 ,laodicea4 ,by 1 angels1 we are to understand the messengers or persons whom ,god sent to preside over these churches4 8,angel of the church10 in this place1 says a learned author1 answers exactly to that officer of the synagogue among the ,jews1 called sheliach tsibbor1 the messenger of the church1 whose business it was to read1 pray1 and teach1 in the synagogue4 ,the ministers of the gospel bear this allegorical designation4 #a4 ,because1 like stars in the firmament1 they are placed in a high situation in the church4 ,eliphaz says1 8,behold the height of the stars1 how high they are60 ,the sacred office is the highest that men can occupy1 both in point of rank and importance2 and therefore the views1 dispositions1 and deportment of ministers1 should accord with it4 ,they should not be sordid in their attachments1 nor grovelling in their pursuits4 ,a predilection for lucrative places1 and worldly honors1 is inconsistent with the sanctity of their character1 and the design of their profession4 ,as they are in a station above others1 so their minds should have a high elevation1 contemplating spiritual and divine things1 with intense application1 and holy delight4 ,the glories of the new ,jerusalem1 and the felicities of the celestial ,paradise1 are subjects which should engross their thoughts1 and be exhibited in their official ministrations4 ,they should look on all debasing pleasures1 fleeting honors1 and perishing riches1 as things vastly below the dignity of their character1 and contrary to the objects of their professional engagements4 ,they have higher considerations to excite their solicitude1 and more important affairs to employ their powers1 than to spend their time in things1 which neither can afford them any rational satisfaction1 nor are of long duration4 ,st4 ,james calls their attention to what is of most interest to them1 where he says1 that 8he who converteth a sinner from the error of his way shall save a soul from death1 and shall hide a multitude of sins40 ,success is the most valuable remuneration1 and should actuate ministers both in their private studies1 and their public labors4 #b4 ,because of the beneficial effects of their ministerial labors1 being useful to men1 in affording them light1 direction1 and comfort2 and1 consequently1 the need the church has of them4 ,gospel ministers are as necessary to the moral world1 during the present state of things1 as the sun1 moon1 and stars are in the universe4 ,a church without such helps1 would be like a firmament deprived of globular lights4 ,ministers1 with the bright rays of heavenly doctrine1 dispel the darkness of ignorance1 chase away the clouds of error1 scatter the mists of prejudice1 disperse the fogs of vice1 from the human mind4 ,as stars engage the attention1 and draw the eyes of persons toward heaven1 presenting in themselves astonishing displays of the infinite perfections of wisdom1 power1 and goodness3 so it is the work of ministers to endeavor to excite people to the contemplation of ,divine things--to behold through the medium of the sacred ,writings1 the mediatorial character of ,christ1 the results of his passion1 the prevalence of his intercession1 the happiness of his subjects1 and the glories of his kingdom4 ,as the stars serve for guides to seafaring men1 while traversing the untrodden paths of the swelling ocean2 so these symbolical stars are guides to those who embark in the vessel of the church1 directing her course1 through the inconstant sea of this tumultuous and fluctuating world1 to the harbor of everlasting rest4 ,and as an extraordinary star in the east directed the wise men to ,bethlehem1 where ,christ was born2 so it devolves upon ministers1 as stars of the church1 to conduct inquiring sinners to ,jesus1 who is able and willing to save them from their sins1 and bless them with holiness and eternal life4 ,they may with propriety adopt the language of an old poet3-- 8,oh that his light and influence ,would work effectually in me ,another new ,epiphany1 ,exhale and elevate me hence3 ,that as my calling doth require1 ,star-like ,i may to others shine2 ,and guide them to that ,sun divine1 ,whose day-light never shall expire40 #c4 ,all the light that ministers communicate to mankind1 or to the members of the church1 is derived from ,christ1 the ,sun of ,righteousness1 as the light of the planets is from the natural sun4 ,the pastors of the church have neither light nor grace of themselves3 they receive all from the 8,father of lights10 in whose light only they can see light2 and it pleased him that in ,christ should 8all fulness dwell40 ,both ministers and people must be enlightened with emanations from him1 or remain in darkness4 ,st4 ,paul frankly acknowledges1 8,by the grace of ,god ,i am what ,i am40 ,without him1 the most eminent minister would be like a dark lamp4 ,hence they have no reason to be proud of their qualifications2 for they have received all their gifts and graces from ,christ4 ,their fitness for the ministerial work is not to be ascribed either to their natural powers1 the force of a superior genius1 a liberal education1 intense study1 or even to goodness and piety1 but to the gratuitous bounty of ,god only4 ,so likewise1 whatever success in the exercise of those gifts and graces they may have had1 it flowed not from such sources1 but from ,christ4 8,i have planted10 says ,st4 ,paul1 8and ,apollos watered2 but ,god gave the increase40 ,the largest planets are inconsiderable in comparison of the sun1 which is the great natural fountain of light and heat4 ,the holy prophets are nothing when brought into contrast with ,jesus ,christ4 ,and ,john the ,baptist1 though superior to all his predecessors1 conscious of his own vast inferiority1 confessed1 8,he it is who coming after me is preferred before me1 whose shoe's latchet ,i am not worthy to unloose40--,as the planets shine with no other light than that derived from the sun2 so ministers are to be resplendent only with the radiance of ,divine truth1 received from the eternal ,fountain of illumination4 ,they are not to shine with the glimmering light of fallable reason1 the sparks of human wisdom1 the glow-worm rays of vain philosophy2 not with the subtlety of ,aristotle1 the penetration of ,cartes1 the eloquence of ,cicero1 the speculations of ,plato1 the propositions of ,euclid2 but with the correct and comprehensive knowledge of the ,scripture1 which is 8given by inspiration of ,god1 and is profitable for doctrine1 for reproof1 for correction1 and for instruction in righteousness2 that the man of ,god may be perfect1 thoroughly furnished unto all good works40 ,in a lower sense1 it must be acknowledged1 that human learning is of considerable use1 affording ministers certain qualifications for their work4 ,the knowledge of the languages1 moral and natural philosophy1 sacred and profane history1 mathematical science1 the art of speaking1 particularly those branches of logic which teach us to range our thoughts in a right method1 to form propositions distinctly1 and to draw just conclusions from acknowledged premises3 ,i say1 the knowledge of these different branches of literature and science1 may very much assist ministers to discover and defend the truth1 and refute its adversaries with their own weapons4 ,but they must derive all their peculiar lustre and excellence from the volume of ,divine inspiration1 whence1 as chosen instruments1 they can make people wise to salvation4 #d4 ,ministers are like the stars of heaven1 because of the difference that is among them1 in respect of gifts and ability4 ,the stars differ from one another in situation1 magnitude1 influence1 and glory4 8,there is one glory of the sun1 another glory of the moon1 and another glory of the stars3 for one star differeth from another star in glory40 ,the gradation extends from stars of the first to those of the sixth magnitude4 ,some are so dazzling1 that they appear with a peculiar splendor among the shining beauties of the night3 others are obscure and nebulous2 and there are many which can only be seen with the help of telescopes4 ,the stars of the moral hemisphere are not all enlightened1 8by the ,day-spring from on high10 with the same degree of intellectual and ,divine radiance4 ,they have not all the same gifts1 nor gifts in the same measure4 ,profound knowledge1 excellency of speech1 solidity and firmness of judgment1 prudence and dexterity of conduct1 are not usually the portion of one1 but distributed among several ministers4 ,one excels in a talent for preaching1 another is eminent for utterance and power in prayer1 and another is distinguished by wisdom and stability for government4 ,paul was sublime and cogent in reasoning2 ,apollos was copious1 eloquent1 and mighty in the ,scriptures2 ,john soars high in mysteries1 and yet excels in sweetness2 ,isaiah is pompous and magnificent in his style2 ,david charms and surprises us at the same time1 with his ecstatic raptures and poetic strains4 ,in the largest assembly of ministers there are not two alike1 far less equal in all things4 ,some1 like stars of the first magnitude1 shine with great brilliancy3 others have rays which are weak and obscure4 ,some are prudent1 but not eloquent4 ,some have the gift of preaching1 but are not remarkable for prudence and moderating their passions4 ,some have the art of affecting the passions3 others have the skill of enlightening the mind1 and informing the judgment4 ,some1 appearing as if formed in a finer mould1 have a talent of politeness and address1 in their intercourse with people of character4 ,some1 like skillful physicians1 know how to deal with afflicted souls1 and relieve wounded consciences4 ,some are sons of thunder1 while others are sons of consolation4 ,though every minister should have a competency of each of these gifts1 yet some excel in one1 and some in another4 ,thus 8there are diversities of gifts1 but the same ,spirit20 and ,god1 in diversifying his gifts1 makes his manifold wisdom appear4 ,the ,christians at ,corinth not understanding this1 or too emulous for the first-rate talent1 without sufficiently regarding ,divine agency1 which can render the meanest useful1 became clamorous1 and their indecorous conduct is held up to all succeeding ages1 with the censure they deservedly merited4 ,however1 to calm their perturbation1 he says1 8,therefore let no man glory in men4 ,for all things are yours2 whether ,paul1 or ,apollos1 or ,cephas2 and ye are ,christ's2 and ,christ is ,god's40 #e4 ,while some stars disappear1 others arise that were not previously observed4 8,your fathers1 where are they8 and the prophets1 do they live forever80 ,many1 8of whom the world was not worthy10 who were bold to suffer for the name of ,christ1 not only the spoiling of their goods1 the loss of liberty1 and banishment from their native country1 but even death itself1 have rested from their labors and afflictions1 and are now enjoying a glorious reward4 ,the ,lord also sometimes raises up extraordinary lights1 for asserting and propagating the truth1 when his church is overwhelmed with the dark clouds of heresy and superstition4 ,of this ,moses1 ,joshua1 ,elijah1 and ,elisha1 as well as many other prophets1 whom the ,lord called in an extraordinary manner1 were remarkable instances1 in the ,old ,testament3 and1 in the ,new ,testament1 ,john the ,baptist1 and the apostles of ,christ1 whose voices were heard1 and whose rays extended to the ends of the earth4 ,when the ,christian church was covered with the dark superstition and idolatry of antichrist1 ,god raised up some eminent lights1 from time to time1 to diffuse the pure doctrines of the ,gospel1 and lead the people out of mystic ,babylon4 ,such were ,john ,wickliffe in ,england1 ,john ,huss and ,jerome of ,prague in ,bohemia2 and1 a hundred years afterwards1 ,luther in ,germany1 ,zuinglius in ,switzerland1 ,calvin in ,france and ,geneva1 and ,john ,knox in ,scotland1 whom ,beza calls the apostle of the ,scots4 ,then did the ,gospel run1 and was glorified1 like a mighty torrent carrying before it not only cities and provinces1 but whole nations and kingdoms4#adj ,actuated by zeal for religion1 says a clergyman of the ,establishment1 8,wickliffe1 ,jerome1 and ,huss1 roused the slumbering clergy to opposition4 ,the zeal of ,luther and his associates alarmed all ,germany1 and shook the ,papal throne itself4 ,gilpin alone1 in a dark period1 evangelized a large part of the northern counties of ,england4 ,cranmer1 ,latimer1 and ,ridley1 by their steady perseverance unto death1 illuminated the ,british ,isles4 ,the zeal of ,whitefield and the two ,wesleys has1 even in our day1 made ,england1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 and ,america1 experience very important consequences40 ,missionaries actuated by primitive zeal1 and sent out by different societies to preach the ,gospel among ,heathen nations1 like burning luminaries are chasing away the darkness of ignorance1 gross superstition1 and degrading idolatry1 and1 on their ruins1 establishing the kingdom of ,christ1 and the reign of truth1 peace1 righteousness1 and benevolence1 in the earth4 #f4 ,ministers1 considered as stars placed in the moral firmament1 should shine with purity of doctrine1 fervency of zeal1 and holiness of life1 both in the summer of prosperity1 and in the winter of adversity4 #ast4 ,in the solemn assemblies of ,god's people4 ,jerome says1 ,our pulpit should be as ,mount ,tabor1 where we should converse with ,moses and the ,prophets1 ,christ and his ,apostles1 minding that we have to do with a holy ,god1 and with the immortal souls of people1 which must be shortly either in heaven or hell4 #b;d4 ,amongst their flocks1 by an innocent1 instructive1 and pious conversation1 giving them no encouragement1 by their example1 to sin2 but alluring them to better worlds1 and pointing out the way thither4 ,their whole life should be a transcript of the holy life of the blessed ,jesus1 a living epistle in which the people may read the way wherein they ought to walk4 #c;d4 ,in their families4 ,a minister should be 8one that ruleth well his own house10 properly presiding over and governing his own family3 8for if a man know not how to rule his own house1 how shall he take care of the church of ,god80 ,eli's conduct brought heavy judgments on himself and family1 and a great scandal on the church4 ,theory of the earth4 ,such intimations and analogies as can be drawn from nature may1 with propriety1 be applied to the explanation of natural phenomena1 in the absence of direct and satisfactory proof4 ,allowing this assumption1 we conclude that the intimations and analogies in nature are sufficiently strong and clear to authorize a belief1 that all heavenly bodies are similar in their great constitutional principles1 and designs1 and that our earth may be taken as a fair and satisfactory sample of them all4 ,the only probable departure from this strong analogy in the heavenly bodies1 seems to be this3 the suns1 or centres of systems1 have a peculiar collection of phosphorescent clouds1 which are designed to be the great exciting causes1 or dispensers1 of light to the planets which move round them4 ,the planets have not these phosphorescent clouds4 ,this does not interfere with the general analogies between the heavenly bodies2 and establishes the strict analogies between the planets of all systems2 and the suns1 or centres of all systems4 ,from all this we conclude1 that a theory of our earth which is satisfactory1 will also be deemed satisfactory in regard to the other heavenly bodies4 ,we therefore lay down1 as authorized by the intimations and analogies of nature1 the following positions4 #a4 ,there is a general analogy between the constitutional principles and designs of the heavenly bodies2 i4e4 the suns and their planets4 #b4 ,that the sun1 or center of each system1 with all the planets and satellites revolving about it1 were created simultaneously1 as it regards their substances4 #c4 ,that they were created at their relative distances from the centre which they now preserve4 #d4 ,that they were stationary when first created1 having no motion either on their axis1 or in their orbits4 #e4 ,that the materials of each body1 when first created1 were solid1 frozen1 and lifeless4 #f4 ,that the materials of each body were created in their simple1 uncombined1 or elementary states4 #g4 ,that it is most probable these elementary materials were promiscuous in the mass1 without regard to specific gravity1 or any other principle or law4 #h4 ,that the arrangement of the materials of which our earth is composed was effected by the operation of the laws of nature1 as they are called1 which were simultaneously impressed upon the matter of the ,solar ,system1 and is continued impressed1 by the direct agency of the ,divine ,being4 #i4 ,that this reference of the commencement1 and continuance of the energies of the laws of nature1 directly to the ,almighty1 is both philosophical and scriptural2 and is noted by ,moses in these words3 8,and the spirit of ,god moved upon the face of the waters 7or deep407 ,reasoning from these data1 let us now see whether the phenomena of the structure and arrangement of our planet are explicable to a satisfactory degree4 #a4 ,immediately upon the impress of the laws of nature1 by the direct effort of the ,divine ,being1 the whole mass would commence revolving on its own axis1 and moving around its centre in its orbit4 ,at the same time a quickening impulse would be felt1 from the operation of the laws of nature1 which would impart life and animation to the mass4 ,the first effect of this impulse would be to call the caloric1 light1 and electricity into action throughout the body4 ,this would raise its temperature instantly1 and call into action all the other powerful agents1 as soon as formed3 such as the acids1 alkalis1 c4 #b4 ,there will be no difficulty1 to those who know the power of these agents1 in believing that the consequence of their united action would be an immediate fusion of the whole mass4 ,this would establish a state of chemical mobility2 i4e4 the various materials1 owing to their fusion1 would be at liberty to combine1 according to the laws of chemical affinity2 and to take their relative positions1 according to the laws of gravitation4 #c4 ,the result of this process would be binary1 and ternary1 and other combinations4 ,oxygen would enter into combination with the bases of the various acids1 and thus form the acids2 and with the various metals and thus form oxides2 and the acids and oxides would unite and thus form other compounds1 commonly called salts4 #d4 ,as such combinations as these would commence forming first1 water and air would be gradually and subsequently formed1 by the three gasses1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen1 escaping from the mass and rising to the surface1 where the oxygen combining with the hydrogen would form water2 and with the nitrogen would form air4 #e4 ,it is evident that the very small specific gravity of the gases would cause them to escape from the interior parts of the earth1 rapidly1 and to accumulate at the surface in immense quantities4 ,the consequence of this would be1 an immense amount of water would be generated at the earth's surface2 but the oxidizable bodies in the interior of the mass would not1 all of them1 be completely saturated with oxygen4 #f4 ,the condition of the earth1 at this stage of the action1 would be an inconceivably high state of ignition1 specially in the interior1 and a rapid chemical action still going on2 the combinations still forming1 and the bodies thus formed arranging themselves4 ,in a very little time the various classes of bodies would have obtained1 generally1 their natural relative positions1 according to their specific gravities2 and all the combinable elements1 in the same neighborhood1 having combined1 a state of comparative rest would ensue of course4 #g4 ,in the mean time1 large quantities of different substances would be held in solution by the acids1 alkalis1 and water1 whose solvent powers would be very much increased by the presence of intense heat4 #h4 ,if we examine the whole mass at this stage of the natural process1 we will find it is in a condition to crystallize whenever it can be reduced to a sufficiently low temperature to admit of crystallization4 ,we know that the reduction of temperature would commence at the surface1 where the caloric would be conducted upwards through the waters1 and would fly off into the celestial spaces4 ,of course1 the first crystallized depositions would take place at the junction of the waters with the oxides or earths1 in a state of fusion1 on which the lower stratum of water was resting4 #i4 ,this first deposition would extend all around the globe1 as the waters entirely invested the earth1 and would lay the foundation of the primitive family of rocks1 which are well known to be crystalline in their structure1 and the result of chemical action4 ,it is1 however1 evident that there were occasional tremendous agitations1 and concussions during the deposition of the primitive rocks1 which altered the state of the fluids1 and caused successive1 and1 sometimes1 alternating strata to deposit4 #aj4 ,the period of the deposition of the primitive rocks continued until the elevations on the earth's surface were uncovered1 became dry1 and were subject to the disintegrating1 and rending powers of the elements3 at which time some marine animals1 and some vegetables1 adapted to warm and moist climates1 were created4 ,the consequence of this state of things would be that fragments of rocks1 and marine animal and vegetable remains would be found in the composition of the strata deposited at this period1 and subsequently4 ,the family of rocks thus deposited is called transition rocks4 #aa4 ,this is the proper place to institute an inquiry into the origin of these primitive elevations or mountains4 #ab4 ,it will be very obvious1 that a mass of materials thrown into chemical action1 and raised to a very high temperature1 as explained above1 would naturally1 and necessarily be upheaved at different points on its surface1 by the gases1 and other bodies escaping from the interior4 ,and though the general softness of the mass would cause these elevations to sink back again at first1 upon the escape of the gaseous bodies upheaving them2 yet1 when the surface of the earth1 which would cool by coming into contact with the water1 would thus begin to become solid1 the elevations would maintain themselves1 and consolidate1 and thus lay the foundations of the irregularities which1 subsequently1 would rise into mountains1 and mountain chains1 and sink into vallies1 by the combined action of the internal heat1 and the occasional rapid rise and subsidence of the waters1 which would alter the shape and appearance of the mountains1 and deepen the vallies4 #ac4 ,but it becomes very natural to inquire into the cause of the rapid rise1 and subsidence of the waters at particular times2 which will also explain the cause of the distinctions so obvious in the nature and ages of the different families of rocks4 #ad4 ,it will be recollected that the interior parts of the earth are in a state of high ignition1 and an immense quantity of water surrounds the globe1 the crust of which is consolidating4 ,by the natural pressure of the water1 by an occasional eruption of gas from the interior1 and by percolation1 c1 the water would have access to the interior materials in a heated state4 ,in this case there would be an immense production of steam1 and decomposition of water1 which would of course produce an earthquake1 until it broke forth in a volcano under the waters4 ,in this case an elevation would be produced on the surface1 and1 in all probability1 a cavity in the interior from whence the elevated materials came4 #ae4 ,these phenomena would happen in quick succession1 and very extensively in the first period of the world2 and every time they happened1 they would reduce the quantity of water at the surface1 by admitting some into the interior cavities2 and by decomposing much2 the oxygen and hydrogen of which would enter into other combinations4 #af4 ,this will account for the rise and subsidence of the waters1 the formation of vallies1 and mountains1 and the alterations in the fluids1 so as to deposit the different strata in succession4 #ag4 ,during this process above1 cavities sufficiently numerous and capacious1 filled with water1 would be formed in the earth to relieve the surface1 in a great measure4 ,but it seems pretty evident that the waters thus retired into those cavities were occasionally thrown back on the earth1 by the same means with which earthquakes and volcanos are produced2 and thus tremendous currents would ensue1 which would successively bury the vegetable materials in the adjoining lakes1 out of which the coal basins are formed2 and also bury those immense forests of trees1 with the bones of animals1 and fishes also1 which have been so clearly and satisfactorily described by geologists4 #ah4 ,each successive deluge1 in proportion to its power and extent1 would alter the quantity and quality of the materials held in solution1 and thus cause a corresponding deposition subsequently4 ,hence1 as remarked above1 the distinction in the strata1 and the alternations of different substances successively4 #ai4 ,it may not be amiss here to say1 it is very probable1 that many deluges preceded the formation of man1 produced on the same principles as the deluge of ,noah1 though for different purposes1 according to the wishes of the ,divine ,being4 #bj4 ,to what has been said above1 it is only necessary to add1 that all depositions1 or formations of rocks took place at the bottom of the ocean1 or waters which held the materials in solution1 or suspended2 and that this ocean maintained its dominion for long periods together1 in comparative tranquility1 and during such times the different rock formations were deposited4 ,the marine animals would multiply1 die1 and their exuvi quietly fall to the bottom3 at the same time carbonate of lime would be copiously deposited from the sea waters1 and thus would consolidate into a stratum of rock1 the thickness of which would bear some proportion to the length of the period of its deposition4 ,if this stratum remained in its place1 upon the retiring of the sea1 it would appear at the surface at first2 until it was covered with mould1 and the ruins of other rocks disintegrated into earth1 or soil4 ,but if it were upheaved by the force of the internal fire1 it would become a limestone mountain1 containing the organic remains as they were first quietly deposited4 ,the same may be said of primitive mountains1 or any other kind4 #ba4 ,the transition rocks1 the formation of which was barely noticed above1 7,no4 #aj7 were deposited successively in strata1 indicating their relative ages by the increase of rocky fragments1 and fossil remains in their composition1 from the oldest of the family to the newest3 and also by the gradual change in their structure1 which is more crystalline in the oldest1 and becomes less so in the newest1 owing to the decrease of chemical action1 and the increase of mechanical deposition4 #bb4 ,from the fossil remains in the different strata of the transition rocks1 we have good evidence of successive deluges1 which swept away the animals existing at the time1 and buried their remains which are now found in a fossil state2 and others succeeded them4 ,this will account for particular animals being peculiar to particular strata of rocks4 #bc4 ,during the transition period the chemical action ceased almost entirely1 and the succeeding family of rocks1 i4e4 the secondary1 was deposited mechanically1 their materials being merely suspended in the waters4 ,this class1 therefore1 is not crystalline in its structure1 and is nearly horizontal in position and contains greater quantities of fossil remains1 both of animals and vegetables4 ,these remains are1 also1 the relics of beings more delicately organized1 and approach much nearer to the genera and species of animals now existing4 #bd4 ,during the deposition of this class of rocks1 and also of the tertiary class which succeeded it1 the sea retired far from the up-lands1 and well nigh into its permanent beds4 ,the up-lands would1 by the disintegrating power of the elements1 be worn away at their surface1 and thus afford the matter of soil1 which would naturally be carried down towards the final retreat of the sea1 by the waters1 and be deposited in the vallies1 and low countries4 ,the same process would furnish fragments of rocks in abundance1 and of all kinds1 which would be rolled down the declivities of the up-lands1 and become more or less rounded1 and thus be found entering into the rocks of the secondary and tertiary classes2 or in beds of sand and gravel1 or in the channels of rivers in the form of pebbles4 ,if these fragments were thrown together in sufficient quantities1 and a suitable cement deposited among them they would consolidate and form pudding-stone1 or breccia marble2 such as the ,potomac marble1 of which the columns in the ,capitol at ,washington ,city are made4 #be4 ,it is very evident that this process would deposit the heavier fragments1 and materials nearest the highlands whence they originated2 and carry the finer and richer matter further away towards the sea1 and deposit it nearer the mouths of the rivers4 ,this is well known to be the case1 as in the ,mississippi4 ,here the phenomena are doubtless1 from the mouth1 along all its tributaries to their sources4 #bf4 ,while these successive depositions were making1 modified by tremendous eruptions from the force of subterranean fire1 the same agent of these modifications would produce another very striking phenomena4 ,the immense quantity of matter thrown from the interior to the surface in a melted state1 would either shoot up in the form of cones1 or columns1 and by cooling crystallize and consolidate2 or would flow in its melted state over the surface of the upper rocks1 and thus cover them4 ,this is the case with a class of rocky substances which may be called by the general name of basalt4 ,sometimes when the force below was not sufficient to protrude the melted matter through the superincumbent rocks1 it drove it in between the strata1 or shot it up through some of the strata2 frequently upheaving the rocks on one side of the protruding body1 or depressing them on the other4 ,in this case the injected matter constitutes what is called a fault1 shaft1 or dike1 by miners4 #bg4 ,it is not improbable1 nay1 it is pretty certain1 that many of these basaltic ejections took place under the ancient chaotic abyss of waters1 and have become visible by the retiring of the sea4 #bh4 ,in this theory we have a satisfactory explanation of the formation of metallic veins1 and the dispersion of metallic grains in sands1 and soil4 ,the metals being in a pure state1 or nearly so1 in the bowels of the earth when projected upwards by the force of subterranean power1 would be injected into the rocks in the direction of the operating force4 ,hence they are found in veins in solid rocks1 running in all directions1 and descending to unknown depths4 ,sometimes the whole of the vein appears to be insulated by the rock4 ,in this case1 the whole mass was fused1 at least partly1 and when the force ceased to act1 it would consolidate around the injected metal1 leaving no trace of its injection4 ,sometimes the metallic vein evidently entered the rock from above4 ,in this case the metal in a melted state was thrown to the surface1 and meeting with a chasm1 ran into it and consolidated into a vein4 ,when the metal was raised from below in a state of fusion in conjunction with an immense mass of rocky matter in a state of fusion1 they would appear at the surface mixed throughout4 ,when this rocky mass yielded to the disintegrating power of the elements1 the particles of the metal and rock would be carried off together into the lower positions1 and be found in the form of dust1 in the secondary1 or lower countries4 #bi4 ,the shape of the earth1 in regard to which it is said the polar diameter is less than the equatorial1 would be the same on the above theory1 as it has been shown to be1 on the supposition that the earth was in a soft state by the solvent powers of water1 as commonly supposed4 #cj4 ,it is a matter of peculiar pleasure to the ,christian philosopher1 to observe the strong tendency in the ,science of ,geology1 to confirm the account of the creation of the world1 as given by ,moses in the ,bible4 ,by a careful comparison of the account of ,moses with well established geological positions1 it will be found that they agree expressly1 in the ,,order and ,,nature of the events4 ,this is a splendid evidence in favor of revelation4 ,there can be no doubt1 but1 that if the phenomena of nature1 and the teachings of the ,bible were better understood1 more striking and unexpected agreements would be found4 ,religion and ,science will one day be inseparable4 ,remarks4 #a4 ,it will be necessary for the reader to peruse the above theory very attentively1 in order to form a correct judgment of it1 as it is merely an outline1 very briefly drawn up1 yet it is hoped1 pretty clearly4 ,whether it be well calculated to explain the great leading geological phenomena which we observe1 the reader will determine for himself4 ,it was not drawn up in view of such explanation1 but was constructed by induction from those well ascertained phenomena4 ,it was drawn up out of view of any ultimate object1 or system1 previously embraced1 and is even different from the writer's previous opinions1 before he had diligently compared all the facts within his reach4 ,it is therefore entitled to the merit of having been drawn up with a sincere desire to attain to truth on this interesting subject1 and not to support a favorite theory4 #b4 ,upon examination it will be found to reconcile1 in a great measure1 the ,vulcanian and ,neptunian theories which have so long divided the principal writers on ,geology4 ,it will be found that both fire and water were concerned in producing the great geological phenomena4 ,it cannot be doubted but that subterranean force commenced the irregularities on our earth's surface1 and continued the action1 probably with occasional intermissions1 in upheaving the mountains1 and mountain chains3 but as this was commenced1 and principally accomplished1 under the ancient sea1 there can be no doubt but that the water has had a powerful and extensive agency in modifying the structure and composition of mountain1 and moderate elevations4 ,and while we have every reason to believe the force of subterranean fire was the principal agent in rending1 dislocating1 and confusing the rock formations of the crust of our earth2 we have no less reason to acknowledge the agency of water in depositing the various strata2 contributing to the disintegration of the exposed uplands2 and carrying down the alluvion which form the fertile tracts of vallies1 and low countries2 and the sand bars1 and banks at the outlets1 of rivers1 bays1 gulfs1 c4 #c4 ,this view will be more clearly explained by examining the shape of continents1 islands1 and countries1 which will be found to correspond1 pretty nearly with the shape of the mountain ranges in each4 ,that is3 the length of a continent1 island1 or country will be found to be in the direction of the mountain range2 and the breadth across the mountain range4 #d4 ,this would be the shape which would naturally result from the transition1 secondary1 and tertiary formations arising principally from the disintegration of the materials of the mountain range4 ,this is evident from a single reflection3 if a conical body stood in the midst of a plain1 and was equally exposed to a power which wore it away1 the portions thus torn from the body would roll down the declivity towards the base of the cone1 and would occupy a circle1 generally speaking1 of the plane at the base equidistant from the body4 ,in the same manner the wasting away of the primitive elevations would deposit the detritus equidistant from the foot of the range4 #e4 ,it will be obvious1 however1 that the conformity of a country1 in shape1 to the mountain ranges which run through it1 will be more or less modified by adventitious circumstances4 ,if one side of the mountain range was originally more precipitous than the other3 or if some tremendous collection or current of water lashed or swept one side1 and not the other1 the shape of the country would be modified2 but not so much as to destroy the general conformity in shape4 ,the above remarks will be confirmed by an inspection of accurately drawn maps4 #f4 ,finally3 ,some formations are entirely owing to the agency of water2 as sand banks1 bars1 shoals1 c1 and some entirely owing to the action of fire1 as the deposites of lava2 the upheaving of volcanic mountains1 even in the memory of man4 ,these are adventitious formations1 and do not even modify a general theory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnotes - ,chapter ,v #aad ,time's ,telescope for #ahae1 ,introduction4 #aae ,dr4 ,robert ,wittie1 in his ,survey of the ,heavens1 makes the following observations concerning this miraculous interposition of ,divine providence4 8,we read that ,joshua1 in his zeal against the enemies of ,god and his people1 in the heat of battle1 called to the sun and moon to stand still1 c4 ,the design was that the light might be lengthened1 till he might destroy the army of the ,amorites1 and the day was accordingly prolonged1 as the sun went not down for the whole day1 and the moon also staid4--,but why should ,joshua call to the moon to stand still1 as well as the sun1 which ,i could be of no use to him1 while the sun was up8 ,to this ,i answer with all due modesty2 ,i do believe ,joshua did call thus by inspiration1 and a special impulse from ,god upon his spirit3 for that which would make the sun stand still1 would stay the moon4 ,he that from the hasty zealous call of this great general1 shall think to form an argument to prove the philosophical notion of the sun's diurnal motion about the earth1 by taking the words in a proper literal sense1 may as well go on1 and eke it out a little further1 and then he may prove the sun to have been in the next great town1 ,gibeon1 and the moon in the valley2 but if to all men this latter shall be judged a weak inference1 ,i dare say1 to many wise men1 so will the former40 ,p4 #ab1 #ac4 #aaf ,aristotle de ,cl4 lib4 ii1 cap4 #ac4 #aag ,macrob4 ,sat4 lib4 i1 cap4 #ba4 #aah ,macrob4 in ,somn4 ,scip4 lib4 i1 cap4 #bj4 #aai ,that is1 in adoration2 from ad ore1 to the mouth1 i4e4 hand to the mouth4 #abj ,baseley's ,glory of the ,heavens1 pp4 #gc-gf4 #aba ,the new moon is often styled a crescent2 a word formed from the ,latin crescere1 to grow2 and though it is used from the same figure of the moon in her wane or decrease1 when her horns are turned towards the west1 yet these horns always point to the east in the just crescent4 #abb ,m4 ,schroter1 of the ,royal ,society of ,gottingen1 has recently published a very curious and elaborate work in ,german1 entitled1 ,selenotographische ,fragmente1 c1 or ,selenotopographical ,fragments1 intended to promote a more accurate knowledge of the moon's surface3 a valuable extract from which may be seen in the ,pantologia1 article ,moon4 #abc ,see ,mr4 ,howard's valuable paper on the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahjb1 ,dr4 ,hutton's ,dissertation in the ,new ,abridgment1 part xxi1 and ,dr4 ,adam ,clarke on ,josh4 x1 #aa4 #abd ,the principal eclipse of the sun1 for the present century1 has been already calculated1 and it is fully determined that it will take place in the year #ahdg4 ,it will be annular in this country1 and several other places4 ,time's ,telescope for #ahae4 ,the ,athenians1 according to ,plutarch1 entertained very terrific ideas of eclipses of the moon4 ,nicias and his army1 when they were on the point of withdrawing secretly from ,sicily1 without being observed or suspected by the enemy1 refused to embark1 because the moon became suddenly eclipsed2 this ignorant and superstitious conduct proved fatal1 for they were all1 shortly after1 either slain or taken prisoners4 #abe ,a valuable correspondent writing from ,matura1 in ,ceylon1 ,may #g1 #ahag1 says1 8,a festival was lately celebrated here1 principally on the river4 ,a large boat was rigged for the purpose1 somewhat after the manner of a ship1 which carried a number of dancers and other persons in disguise1 accompanied with the music of pipes and drums4 ,i particularly inquired into the meaning of the ceremonies2 and1 as far as ,i could learn1 it was a celebration of the birth of the sun and moon4 ,the world is believed to have been once inhabited by holy brahmins1 whose bodies were transparent1 and afforded sufficient light4 ,when these fell into sin1 they lost their splendor1 and other lights became necessary40 ,the ,african negroes1 in the ,west ,indies1 on seeing the new moon1 take out of their pocket a piece of whatever money they have1 and1 holding it up in their hand1 say1 8,god bless the new moon1 this is all ,i can give you2 take this1 and give me good luck30 and then throw it up toward it4 ,after this action1 they believe that prosperity will attend them during the time that moon continues4 ,on embracing the ,christian religion1 they lay aside this heathenish practice4 #abf ,on the dial of the cathedral at ,bruges1 the sun is represented directing the hours1 with this motto1 ,non rego1 nisi regar3 signifying1 that the sun could not rule the day1 if it was not first ruled itself4 ,had the ,pagan world known this truth1 the greatest part of it had not fallen into idolatry4 #abg ,literary ,panorama1 for ,january1 #ahad1 pp4 #ied1 #iee4 #abh 8,at what time the earth began to be considered1 or rather suspected1 to be spherical10 says ,costard1 8is uncertain1 but probably not before the undertaking long voyages2 the first of which1 it may be1 were down the ,arabian ,gulf1 and out of the ,straits of ,bab-,al-mandub1 by ,europeans corruptly called ,babelmandel4 ,what opinion was commonly entertained of those who undertook those long voyages1 may be learned1 in some measure1 from this word4 ,for ,mandub is one that is lamented at his funeral2 therefore ,bab-al-mandub is the gate1 or strait1 of one lamented at his funeral2 as if a person sailing beyond that point1 was considered as going to certain death1 or never to return40 #abi ,see ,verstigan's 8,restitution of ,decayed ,intelligence10 ,edit4 #afgc1 pp4 #fd-fh2 and ,time's ,telescope4 #acj ,on ,june #ad1 #ahae1 was published the following astronomical notice4 ,the ,georgium ,sidus is now visible to the naked eye any clear night4 ,it souths now a little before midnight1 is paler and less vivid than the fixed stars near it in ,scorpio2 it will remain in company with ,arcturus for two or three years1 passing north of it about the middle of the year #ahaf1 and veering to the east1 or left hand1 at the rate of #d #ah annually1 being near seven years in passing one sign1 and near #hd in making an entire revolution4 ,dr4 ,herschell assumes1 that the eclipses of the satellites of the ,georgium ,sidus will1 in the year #ahah1 be visible to those who possess telescopes of high magnifying powers1 when they will appear to ascend through the shadow of the planet in the direction almost perpendicular to the ecliptic4 #aca ,in the year #agab1 ,mr4 ,whiston having calculated the return of a comet1 which was to make its appearance on ,wednesday1 the #adth of ,october1 at five minutes after five in the morning2 he gave notice to the public accordingly1 with this terrifying addition1 that a total dissolution of the world by fire was to take place on the ,friday following4 ,the reputation ,mr4 ,whiston had long maintained1 both as a divine and a philosopher1 left little or no doubt with the populace of the truth of his prediction4 ,several ludicrous events took place in consequence4 ,a number of persons in and about ,london seized all the barges and boats they could lay their hands on in the ,thames1 very rationally concluding1 that when the conflagration took place1 there would be the most safety on the water4 ,a gentleman who had neglected family prayer for longer than five years1 informed his wife that it was his determination to resume that laudable practice the same evening2 but his wife having engaged a ball at her house1 persuaded her husband to put it off till they saw whether the comet appeared or not4 ,the ,south-sea stock immediately fell to five per cent41 and ,india stock to eleven4 ,the captain of a ,dutch ship threw all his powder into the river1 that the ship might not be endangered4 ,the next morning the comet appeared according to the prediction1 and before noon the belief was universal1 that the day of judgment was at hand4 ,about this time of the day #abc clergymen were ferried over to ,lambeth1 it was said1 to petition that a short prayer might be penned and ordered1 there being none in the church service on that occasion4 ,three maids of honor burnt their collections of novels and plays1 and sent to a bookseller's to buy each of them a ,bible1 and ,bishop ,taylor's ,holy ,living and ,dying4 ,the run upon the ,bank was so prodigious1 that all hands were employed from morning till night in discounting notes1 and handing out specie4 ,on ,thursday1 considerably more than seven thousand kept mistresses were legally married6 in the face of several congregations4 ,and to crown the whole1 ,sir ,gilbert ,heathcote1 at that time head director of the ,bank1 issued orders to all the fire-offices in ,london1 requiring them 8to keep a good look out1 and have a particular eye upon the ,bank of ,england40 ,the comet which might have put the earth in most hazard1 was that of #afhj4 ,by ,halley's calculation it passed1 ,november #aa1 within #fj semi-diameters of the earth's orbit3 and if1 at that time1 the earth had been in that part of her orbit1 there is no conjecturing at the consequences4--,literary ,panorama1 for ,december1 #ahaa4--,probably the above was only a hoax upon ,mr4 ,whiston on account of the singularity of his opinion concerning comets4 #acb ,dr4 ,keill's ,astronomy1 #eth ,edit4 pp4 #ahi1 #aij4 #acc ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory's ,treatise on ,astronomy1 p4 #dac4 #acd ,the celebrated ,buffon supposed1 that our earth was originally formed by a comet's sweeping off and receiving in his train a portion of the exterior part of the sun2 which1 after having been sufficiently cooled1 in the lapse of time1 perhaps hundreds of thousands of years1 had gradually assumed its present form6 ,when we reflect that this eminent ,french naturalist was an infidel and a libertine1 his many strange theories confirm the remark of the ,poet1 8,an undevout astronomer is mad40 ,when a person through the pride of intellect1 will not submit his fallible understanding to the sure light of ,divine revelation1 he is liable to embrace the greatest absurdities1 which a sober and well-regulated mind would prevent4 #ace ,guardian1 ,no4 #ajc4 #acf ,the distances of the fixed stars have never been absolutely determined1 and what is here stated is not given as the true distance of ,sirius2 but from what has been ascertained1 the distance cannot be less than as above4 ,dr4 ,bradley1 after another method of calculation1 makes it to be more than ten times greater1 or twenty-five millions of millions1 and #fej thousand of millions4 #acg ,in #afbg1 ,schiller published a work1 entitled ,clum ,stellatum ,christianum1 containing the ancient catalogue1 with new constellations4 ,in this work he rejected the old designations1 and substituted new figures for the constellations1 and names taken from the sacred ,scriptures2 thus ,aries he changed into ,st4 ,peter2 ,taurus1 into ,st4 ,andrew2 ,andromeda1 into the holy sepulchre2 ,lyra1 into the manger of ,christ2 ,hercules1 into the wise men of the east2 ,canis ,major1 into ,david2 and so on4 ,this he is said to have done in imitation of the venerable ,bede1 who1 instead of the profane names and figures adopted by pagans1 substituted the names of the twelve apostles for those of the twelve constellations in the zodiac3 but these innovations were disregarded by astronomers4 ,weigelius1 professor of mathematics at ,jena1 attempted to make an innovation of another kind2 he wished to change the starry heavens into a kind of ,clum ,heraldicum1 by introducing the arms of all the princes and states of ,europe1 by way of constellations2 but his project experienced the same fate as those of ,bede and ,schiller4 #ach ,see ,ferguson's ,astronomy4 #aci ,gisborne's ,walks in a ,forest1 sixth edit4 pp4 #dd1 #de1 #df4 #adj ,the author thankfully acknowledges his obligations for many of the above thoughts to an old sermon preached 8at the opening of the ,synod of ,lothian and ,tweeddale20 but cannot say of what date1 or by whom delivered1 as his copy of it is without title-page4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,fifth ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,fishes4 ,of ,fishes in general -- ,the ,cetaceous kind -- ,cartilaginous -- ,spinous -- ,crustaceous -- and ,testaceous4 -- ,animalcules4 -- ,religious ,improvement4 ,on the fifth day were created fishes1 and the fowls of heaven1 whatsoever flies in the expansion above us1 or swims in the watery element3 these were produced from the waters4 8,god said1 ,let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life1 and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven4 ,and ,god created great whales1 and every living creature that moveth1 which the waters brought forth abundantly1 after their kind1 and every winged fowl after his kind3 and ,god saw that it was good4 ,and ,god blessed them1 saying1 ,be fruitful and multiply1 and fill the waters in the seas1 and let the fowl multiply in the earth40 8,see through this air1 this ocean1 and this earth1 ,all matter quick1 and bursting into birth2 ,above how high progressive life may go1 ,around how wide1 how deep extend below6 ,vast chain of being1 which from ,god began1 ,nature's ethereal1 human1 angel1 man1 ,beast1 bird1 fish1 insect1 what no eye can see1 ,no glass can reach2 from infinite to ,,thee1 from ,,thee to nothing60 ,it is generally granted that life is the highest perfection of corporeal beings1 the most inestimable jewel of the creation4 ,life1 though but in an insect1 is more glorious than the sun4 ,solomon1 making a comparison between living and lifeless things1 prefers the meanest of living creatures before the best and noblest of dead things1 8,a living dog is better than a dead lion40 ,how much soever we may be astonished at the stupendous mass of inactive matter1 yet the least animated particle is still an object of greater admiration4 ,god1 in creating the first individual of each species of living creatures1 not only gave a form to matter1 but also a principle of life2 inclosing in each a greater or less quantity of organical particles1 indestructible and common to all organized beings4 ,these pass from body to body1 perpetuating this life1 and ministering to the nutrition and growth of each4 ,thus every production1 or increase by generation1 is a continuance of this life1 of which every succession of creatures is always full4 ,the total quantity of life remains the same2 for whatever death seems to destroy1 it does not affect that primitive life1 which is diffused through all organized beings4 ,however much the nature of life may perplex the most able1 acute1 and diligent inquirers into the subject1 or exceed the utmost reach of human comprehension2 yet we see that it enables creatures to act1 as it were1 of themselves1 and to seek and obtain such enjoyments as give them a sensible pleasure4 ,the creatures on which this amazing property has been conferred1 have also an inclination and ability to communicate it to their own species1 which will succeed one another till time shall be no more6 ,if we exercise our understanding on this remarkable instance of creating energy1 it will tend to excite in us the most august thoughts of that almighty ,being1 who is the boundless source of existence1 vitality1 and motion to all his creatures6 ,in the work of creation1 observes a learned author1 after the formation of light1 air1 water1 and earth1 the originals of all material objects1 ,god proceeded from creatures less excellent to those of a superior order4 ,such was his progress in the work of creation4 ,fish and fowl were both formed out of the water4 ,hence there is a nearer alliance and greater resemblance between the form and motions of creatures that swim and those that fly1 than between such as creep and those that walk on the earth2 and their bodies being intended to be lighter1 and their motion swifter1 the wise ,creator saw fit to form them from a light and fluid element4 ,the number of the different species of fish to which names are given1 and with whose figure at least we are a little acquainted1 is1 according to ,linnus1 above four hundred4 ,the majority of these are confined to the sea1 and would expire in the fresh water1 though there are a few which annually swim up the rivers1 to deposit their spawn4 ,among the various sizes1 some have monstrous shapes1 and amazing qualities4 ,fishes are usually classed into three general divisions3 the cetaceous1 or those of the whale kind2 the cartilaginous1 or those which have gristles instead of bones2 and the spinous1 or bony kind1 called so from their bones resembling the sharpness of thorns4 ,in the cetaceous species are included all the various kinds of ,whales1 the ,norwhal1 or ,sea-,unicorn1 the ,dolphin1 the ,grampus1 and the ,porpoise4 ,though 8,god created great whales10#ada the words of ,moses1 according to the original1 ha-tan-neenin ha-gedoleen1 says ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 must be understood rather as a general than a particular term1 comprising all the great aquatic animals1 such as these now mentioned4 ,all these resemble quadrupeds in their internal structure1 and in some of their appetites and affections4 ,like quadrupeds1 they have lungs1 a midriff1 a stomach1 intestines1 liver1 spleen1 bladder1 and parts of generation2 their heart also resembles that of quadrupeds1 with its partitions closed up as in them1 and driving red and warm blood in circulation through the body2 and to keep these parts warm1 the whole kind are also covered between the skin and the muscles with a thicker coat of fat or blubber4 ,the aorta1 or principal artery1 in that stupendous animal the whale1 measures about a foot in diameter2 and it is computed that the quantity of blood thrown into it1 at every pulsation of the heart1 is not less than from ten to fifteen gallons4 8,nature's strange work1 vast ,whales of differing form1 ,toss up the troubled floods and are themselves a storm2 ,uncouth the sight1 when they1 in dreadful play ,discharge their nostrils1 and refund a sea2 ,or angry lash the foam with hideous sound1 ,and scatter all the watery dust around4 ,fearless the fierce destructive monsters roll1 ,ingulph the fish1 and drive the flying shoal4 ,in deepest seas these living isles appear1 ,and deepest seas can scarce their pressure bear3 ,their bulk would more than fill the shelvy strait1 ,and fathom'd depths would yield beneath their weight40 ,these animals possessing finer organs and higher sensations than others1 show an eminent superiority4 ,they have all the tenderness of birds or quadrupeds for their young1 nurse them with constant care1 and protect them from every injury4 ,the female never produces more than one young1 or two at the most2 and this she suckles entirely in the manner of quadrupeds1 her breasts being placed1 as in the human kind1 above the navel4 ,the ends of these she protrudes at pleasure1 to afford nutriment to her offspring4 ,perhaps the prophet ,jeremiah has an eye to this when he says1 8,the sea-monsters draw out the breast1 they give suck to their young ones40 ,those of the cartilaginous kind1 though not capable of nursing their young1 yet bring them alive into the world1 and defend them with courage and activity2 while the spinous kind1 a fierce1 unmindful tribe1 deposit their spawn1 and leave the success to accident1 without affording any protection4 ,as this first class of sea animals breathe the air1 it is obvious they cannot bear to be a long time at once under water4 ,they necessarily1 every two or three minutes1 emerge to the surface to take breath1 as well as to spout out through their nostril 7for they have but one71 that water which they sucked in while gaping for their prey4 8,hugest of living creatures1 on the deep1 ,stretched like a promontory1 sleeps or swims1 ,and seems a moving land1 and at his gills ,draws in1 and at his trunk spouts out1 a sea40 ,their tails therefore are different from those of all other fish3 they are placed so as to lie flat upon the surface of the water2 while the other kinds have their tails1 as we frequently see1 upright or edge-ways4 ,this position of the tail enables them to force themselves suddenly to the surface of the water1 at pleasure4 ,how well is it that animals of this enormous size do not approach our shores1 for their presence would fright the other valuable fish from our coasts3 they are therefore kept in the abysses of the ocean3 just as wild beasts1 impelled by the same over-ruling ,power1 which hide themselves in the recesses of the forest4#adb ,the cartilaginous tribe1 which have gristles instead of bones1 unite the principal of both the other classes in their conformation3 like the cetaceous1 they have organs of hearing1 and lungs3 like the spinous1 they have gills1 and a heart without a partition4 ,from the structure of their gills1 these animals are enabled to live a longer time out of water than other fishes4 ,the cartilaginous ,shark1 or ,ray1 lives some hours after it is taken2 while the spinous ,herring1 or ,mackarel1 expires a few minutes after it is brought on shore4 ,some of this class bring forth their young alive2 and others produce them by eggs1 which are afterwards brought to maturity4 ,most fishes having cold blood1 have not heat sufficient to produce the ftus4 ,the all-wise ,creator therefore has ordained1 that many of them shall propagate their species by eggs1 and this they do near the shore2 where1 by means of the solar rays1 the water is warmer1 and fitter for that purpose2 and also because water-insects abound more there1 which afford the young fry nourishment4 ,to the fish of the ocean1 which cannot reach the shores by reason of the distance1 the ,creator has given eggs that swim1 and these are hatched amidst the floating fucus1 called sargazo4 ,in all1 however1 the manner of gestation is nearly the same3 for1 on dissection1 it is ever found1 that the young1 while in the body1 continue in the egg till a very little time before they are brought forth2 and as soon as they leave the shell1 they also begin to quit the womb4 ,it is confidently asserted1 that the young of the several species of the ,shark1 when pursued1 will take refuge in the belly of its mother1 by swimming in at her mouth4 ,of the same class of fishes are the ,ray1 the ,torpedo1#adc the ,lamprey1 the ,sturgeon1 the ,diodon1 the ,angler1 the ,lump-,sucker1 the ,pipe ,fish1 the ,hippocampus1 or ,sea ,horse1 the ,sea ,porcupine1 and the ,galley ,fish4 ,of the spinous1 or bony kind of fishes1 these are obviously distinguished from the rest1 by having a complete bony covering to their gills2 by their being furnished with no other method of breathing than through the gills only2 by their bones which are sharp and thorny2 and by their tails1 which are placed in a situation perpendicular to the body4 ,the history of any one of this order very much resembles that of all the rest4 ,they propagate not by bringing forth their young alive1 as do the cetaceous tribes1 nor by distinct eggs1 as do the generality of the cartilaginous tribes1 but by spawn1 or pease1 as they are generally called1 which they produce by hundreds of thousands4 ,the bones of this order of fishes1 when examined slightly1 appear to be entirely solid2 yet1 when viewed more closely1 every bone is seen to be hollow1 and filled with a substance less rancid and oily than marrow4 ,these bones are very numerous1 and pointed2 and1 as in quadrupeds1 are the props or stays to which the muscles are fixed1 which move the different parts of the body4 ,the number of bones in all spinous fishes of the same kind is always the same4 ,as this species partake less of the quadruped in their formation than any other1 so they can bear to live out of their own element a shorter time4 ,some1 indeed1 are more vivacious in air than others3 the eel will live several hours out of water2 and the carp has been known to be fattened in a damp cellar4 ,the method is1 by placing the fish in a net well wrapped up in wet moss1 the mouth only out1 and hung up in a vault2 then fed with white bread and milk1 and the net sometimes plunged into the water4 ,the spinous class of fishes is more prolific than any other animal4 ,although their usual way of propagation is by spawn1 yet there are some1 such as the eel and the blenney1 which produce their young alive4 ,their power of increasing is such1 that if they were suffered to multiply unmolested1 and remain undiminished for only a few years1 the progeny of an individual would far exceed all human calculation4 ,it is asserted1 that a single herring1 in the space of twenty years1 would yield an offspring greater in bulk than ten such globes as this we inhabit4 ,a female herring deposits at least #aj1jjj eggs1 in the sea near to ,great ,britain6#add ,a tench lays #a1jjj eggs4 ,there have been #bjj1jjj ova or eggs found in a carp2 and in one of eighteen inches1 #cdb1add3 in a perch1 weighing one pound two ounces1 #fi1baf2 and in a sturgeon of one hundred and sixty pounds1 there was the enormous number of #a1dfg1ejj4 ,leewenhoeck counted in a middling-sized cod1 nine million #chd1jjj4 ,this multiplication of fishes is very astonishing2 but the fact is1 as they are obliged to devour one another for necessary subsistence1 the whole natives of the deep without these extraordinary supplies1 would soon be totally extinct4 ,were they to bring forth no more at a birth than land animals1 the increase would be far too small for the consumption4 ,the weaker species would soon be destroyed by the stronger1 and the latter would soon after perish4 ,therefore to supply millions of animals with food1 and yet not depopulate the watery realms1 the issue produced by some of their species is almost incredible4 ,the spawn is not by scores1 but by millions3 and by this amazing expedient1 constant reparation is made proportionable to the immense havoc4 ,as the different species of fishes are designed to occupy the waters1 and range to and fro in that element1 so they are wonderfully formed for that purpose4 ,the chief instruments of the motion of a fish are the fins1 which in some fishes are more numerous than in others4 ,the fish in a state of repose1 spreads all its fins1 and seems to rest on its pectoral and ventral fins near the bottom3 on folding the right pectoral fin1 its body inclines to the right side2 and on folding the left fin1 it inclines to that side4--,when the fish desires to have a retrograde motion1 striking with the pectoral fins1 in a contrary direction1 effectually produces it4 ,when the fish desires to turn1 a blow from the tail sends it round2 but if the tail strike both ways1 then the motion is progressive4 ,if the dorsal and ventral fins be cut off1 the fish reels both to the right and left1 and endeavors to supply its loss by keeping the rest of the fins in constant action4 ,if the right pectoral fin be cut off1 the fish leans to that side2 if the ventral fin on the same side be cut off1 then it loses its equilibrium entirely4 ,when the tail is cut off1 the fish loses all motion1 and is carried wherever the water impels it4 ,in addition to the fins1 an aquatic animal is furnished with an air bladder1 a philosophical apparatus in its body2 this sustains and enables it1 at will to raise itself to the surface of the water1 or1 otherwise1 to descend4 ,when any accident has burst this air bladder1 or it has been punctured by way of experiment1 the fish remains at the bottom of the vessel or river1 totally unable to ascend4 ,flounders1 ,soles and ,skates1 which are without this appendage1 seldom rise in the water1 and when they do1 require a great effort4 ,the simple action of the fins is not sufficient to raise the fish1 its specific gravity being greater than the fluid in which it is immersed4 ,the bag containing the air is supposed to be muscular1 and when the air is compressed into a smaller compass by the action of this muscular power1 the bulk of the fish is contracted with it2 whereby1 since the absolute weight remains the same1 the specific gravity1 which is the sinking force1 is increased1 and the fish sinks2 when1 on the contrary1 this compression is removed1 the air bladder expands1 the fish is specifically lighter1 and it ascends4 ,in fish1 we find the arrangement of the teeth nicely adapted to the habits of the different species4 ,for instance1 in the ,pike1 the teeth are placed with their points projecting backwards towards the throat1 by which an easy ingress is afforded1 but which at the same time prevents all egress1 and retains most effectually the prey when seized4 ,the alarm excited among smaller fishes at the approach of the ,pike1 is thus poetically expressed3 8,beware1 ye harmless tribes1 the tyrant comes1 ,exclaims the silver mantled naiad of the pond2 ,beware1 ye flirting gudgeons1 barbles fair1 ,and ye1 quick-swimming minnows1 gliding eels1 ,and all who breathe the lucid crystal of the lake1 ,or lively sport between the dashing wheels ,of river mills1 beware2 the tyrant comes6 ,grim death awaits you in his gaping jaws1 ,and lurks behind his hungry fangs--beware60 ,the ,sword-,fish is distinguished by the upper jaw1 which runs out in the figure of a strong and sharp sword1 sometimes to the length of three feet1 with which he scruples not to engage the whale himself4#ade ,the ,sun-,fish is one round mass of flesh2 only it has two fins1 which act the part of oars4 ,the great ,creator has beautified the innumerable myriads that swim in the vast ocean1 giving the greatest proportion to their shapes1 the gayest colors to their skins1 and a polished surface to their scales4 ,the eyes of some are surrounded with a scarlet circle2 while the backs of others are diversified with crimson stains4 ,view them when they glance along the stream1 or when they are fresh from their native brine2 the silver is not more bright1 nor the rainbow more glowing than their vivid1 glossy hues6 ,but we are lost in wonder at the exquisite contrivance and delicate formation of their gills3 by which they are accommodated1 even in that dense medium1 with the benefits of respiration6 ,a piece of mechanism this1 possessed by the meanest of the watery tribe2 yet infinitely surpassing1 in the fineness of the structure of its operation1 whatever is curious in the works of art1 or commodious in the palaces of princes4 ,as the spinous order of fishes is extremely numerous1 various modes of classing them have been followed by different naturalists4 ,the simplest is that of ,linnus1 who ranks them in four divisions1 according to the positions of the fins4 ,the #ast division is what that celebrated naturalist terms ,apodal2 and includes the most imperfect of the order1 namely1 those which want the ventral or belly fins1 and it consists of the following genera3--,the ,eel1 the ,wolf-,fish1 the ,launce1 or ,sand-,eel1 and ,the ,sword ,fish4--,the #b;d division consists of the ,jugular fishes1 or those which have ventral fins before the pectoral1 or nearer to the gills2 and includes the ,dragonet1 the ,weever1 the ,cod1 and the ,blenny4 ,the #c;d division is called the ,thoracic1 or those fishes which have the belly fins immediately under the pectoral2 and includes the ,goby1 or ,roch-,fish1 the ,bull-head1 the ,doree1 the ,flounder1 the ,wrasse1 the ,perch1 the ,stickleback1 the ,mackerel1 the ,surmulet1 and the ,gurnard4 ,the #dth division consists of the ,abdominal1 or those which have the ventral fins behind the pectoral1 nearer the tail1 and includes the ,loach1 the ,salmon1 the ,pike1 the ,argentine1 the ,atherine1 the ,mullet1 the ,flying-,fish1 the ,herring1 the ,carp1 c4 ,to the fishes1 included in these four divisions1 must be added1 all the several species belonging to each1 some of which are numerous4 ,there are two classes of animals inhabiting the water1 which commonly receive the name of fishes1 entirely different from the preceding ones1 and also very distinct from each other4 ,they are divided by naturalists into crustaceous and testaceous3 both of which1 being totally unlike fishes in appearance1 seem to invert the order of nature4 ,as those of the cetaceous1 cartilaginous1 and spinous orders1 have their bones on the inside1 and their muscles externally placed for the purpose of life and motion2 so these1 on the contrary1 have all their bony parts on the outside1 and their muscles within4 ,for instance1 persons who have seen a ,lobster1 or an ,oyster1 perceive that their shells bear a strong analogy to the bones of other aquatic animals2 and that by these coverings they are sustained and defended4 ,crustaceous fishes1 such as the ,crab and ,lobster1 have shells resembling a firm crust1 and in some measure capable of yielding to pressure or strength4 ,testaceous fishes1 such as the ,oyster or ,cockle1 are furnished with shells of considerable hardness1 very brittle1 and susceptible of yielding to compressure like the others4 ,of the crustaceous kinds1 are the ,lobster1 the ,crab1 and the ,turtle3#adf and the testaceous1 includes the numerous tribes of ,oysters1 ,muscles1 ,cockles1 and ,sea ,snails4 ,some of these are extremely prolific4 ,under the tail of a ,lobster1 ,dr4 ,baster says1 he counted #ab1ddd eggs1 besides those that remained in the body unprotruded4 ,the female ,turtle lays about eighty or ninety eggs at a time1 each the size of a pigeon's egg1 in a hole prepared with her fore feet in the sand1 a little above the high-water mark1 which she covers so dexterously1 that it is no easy task to find the place2 and then returns to the sea1 leaving them to be hatched by the solar rays4 ,at the end of fifteen days1 she deposits about the same number of eggs again3 and in fifteen days more1 repeats the same2 three times in all1 using the same precautions every time for their safety4 ,among shell-fish1 how various is their figures8 ,the shells of some seem to be the rude production of chance1 rather than of skill or design4 ,yet1 even in these1 we find the nicest dispositions4 ,though uncouth1 they are exactly suited to the exigencies of their respective tenants4 ,some1 on the other hand1 are extremely neat2 their structure is all symmetry and elegance2 no enamel is comparable to their polish4 ,not a room in all the palaces of ,europe is so adorned as the tenement of the little fish that dwells in ,mother of ,pearl4 ,where else is such a mixture of red1 blue1 and green1 so delightfully staining the most clear and glittering ground8 ,but what is more admirable than all their beauty1 is the provision made for their safety4 ,as they have no speed to escape1 so they have no dexterity to elude their foe3 so that1 were they naked1 they must be an easy prey to every free-booter4 ,to prevent this1 what is only clothing to other animals1 is to them clothing1 habitation1 and castle4 ,they have a fortification which grows with them1 and is part of themselves4 ,and by means of this1 they live secure amidst millions of ravenous jaws4 ,the dark inky fluid1 which the ,cuttle-,fish emits when alarmed1 not only tinges the water1 but1 at the same time1 is so bitter1 as immediately to drive off its enemies4 8,th' endangered cuttle thus evades his fears1 ,and native hoards of fluid safely bears4 ,a pitchy ink peculiar glands supply1 ,whose shades the sharpest beams of light defy4 ,pursued he bids the sable fountain flow1 ,and1 wrapt in clouds1 eludes th' impending foe4 ,the fish retreats unseen1 while self-born night1 ,with pious shade1 befriends her parent's flight40 ,the ,nautilus1 when he means to sail1 discharges a quantity of water from his shell1 by which it is rendered lighter than the surrounding medium1 and1 of course1 rises to the surface4 ,the shell forms a kind of boat1 and he extends two of his arms upward1 which are each furnished at their extremity with an oval membrane1 that he unfurls to the wind for a sail4 ,the other six arms hang over the sides of the shell1 and supply the place of either oars or rudder1 with which he rows himself along4 ,when disposed to dive1 he strikes sail1 and at once sinks to the bottom4 ,when the weather is calm1 he ascends again1 and performs his voyage without chart or compass4 8,two feet they upwards raise1 and steady keep2 ,these are the masts and rigging of the ship4 ,a membrane stretched between supplies the sail1 ,bends from the masts1 and swells before the gale4 ,the other feet hang paddling on each side1 ,and serve for oars to row1 and helm to guide4 ',tis thus they sail1 pleased with the wanton game1 ,the fish1 the sailor1 and the ship the same4 ,but1 when the swimmers dread some danger near1 ,the sportive pleasure yields to stronger fear3 ,no more they wanton drive before the blasts1 ,but strike the sails1 and bring down all the masts4 ,the rolling waves their sinking shells o'erflow1 ,and dash them down again to sands below40 ,thus1 we see1 according to the beneficent purpose and blessing of ,god1 the 8waters bring forth abundantly40 ,the finny tribes are numerous beyond all calculation2 they crowd to our shores in vast abundance1 from which our markets are regularly and plentifully supplied4 ,and1 as one judiciously observes1 what a merciful provision is this for the necessities of man6 ,many hundreds of thousands of mankind live1 during a great part of the year1 on fish only4 ,fishes1 which are liable to few diseases1 afford not only a wholesome1 but a very nutritive diet2 and generally come in vast quantities to our shores1 when in their greatest perfection4 ,in this also we may perceive that the kind providence of ,god goes hand in hand with his creating energy2 for1 while manifesting his wisdom and power1 he is making a permanent provision for the sustenance of man through all his generations4 ,the ,mackerel1 the ,herring1 and various other kinds1 when lean1 wander up and down the ocean3 but when fat they throng our creeks and bays1 or haunt the running streams4 ,who bids these creatures leave our shores when they become unfit for our service8 ,who rallies and recalls the undisciplined vagrants1 as soon as they are improved into desirable food8 ,surely the furlough is signed1 the summons issued1 and the point of re-union settled1 by a ,providence ever indulgent to mankind1 and loading us with benefits4 ,by the invention and assistance of magnifying glasses1 the two extremes of the creation1 as ,mr4 ,baker intimates1 which were out of the reach of former ages1 have been brought under our observation3 the telescope is directed to the heavenly bodies1 and the microscope to unknown species of animals1 c4 ,the first appearance of the microscope was about the year #afba2 since which period it has been very much improved4 ,it is to this valuable optical instrument that we are indebted for a great part of our present philosophy3 we are brought into a kind of new world4 ,numberless animals are discovered1 which1 from their minuteness1 must otherwise for ever have escaped our observation4 ,how many kinds of these invisibles there may be1 says ,mr4 ,adams1 is still unknown2 as they are discerned of all sizes1 from those which are barely invisible to the naked eye1 to such as resist the action of the microscope1 as the fixed stars do that of the telescope1 and with the greatest powers hitherto invented appear only as so many moving points4 ,the smallest living creatures our instruments can show1 are those which inhabit the waters2 for though animalcules1 equally minute1 may fly in the air1 or creep upon the earth1 it is scarcely possible to get a view of them2 but as water is transparent1 and confines the creatures in it1 we are able1 by applying a drop of it to our glasses1 to discover1 to a certain degree of smallness1 all that it contains4 8,where the pool ,stands mantled o'er with green1 invisible1 ,amid the floating verdure millions stray4 ,each liquid1 too1 whether it pierces1 soothes1 ,inflames1 refreshes1 or exalts the taste1 ,with various forms abounds4 ,nor is the stream ,of purest crystal1 nor the livid air1 ,though one transparent vacancy it seem1 ,void of their unseen people4 ,these1 concealed ,by the kind art of forming ,heaven1 escape ,the grosser eye of man3 for1 if the worlds ,in worlds inclosed should on his senses burst1 ,from cates ambrosial and the nectared bowl1 ,he would abhorrent turn2 and in dead night1 ,when silence sleeps o'er all1 be stunned with noise40 ,leewenhoeck calculates1 that a thousand millions of animalcules1 which may be discovered in common water1 are not altogether so large as a common grain of sand6 ,eminent naturalists have discovered not less than #cj1jjj in a single drop of water6 ,what a display is this of the manifold wisdom of ,god6 ,while he makes some of the aquatic tribes so large1 that they seem to require almost a whole sea to float in1 he forms others so astonishingly minute1 that several thousands will adhere to the point of a needle4#adg ,every animalcule being an organized body1 how delicate and subtile must the parts be that are necessary to constitute it1 and to preserve its vital actions6 ,how inconceivably small must it be1 and yet a perfect animal4 ,in animalcules1 we discover the same multiplication of parts1 diversity of figures1 and variety of motions1 as in the largest animals4 ,how amazingly curious must be the internal structure of these creatures6 how minute the bones1 joints1 muscles1 tendons6 how exquisitely delicate the veins1 arteries1 nerves6 ,what a number of vessels and different circulations must be contained in one of these little creatures1 and yet all have sufficient room for the performance of their several functions1 without interfering with each other6 ,it is difficult to conceive how in so narrow a compass1 there should be contained a heart as the fountain of life propelling the circulating fluid1 veins and arteries as the conductors of the blood1 a brain to supply nerves in every part of the minute structure1 muscles necessary to its motions1 glands for the secretion of its fluids1 stomach1 and bowels to digest its food1 eyes to direct its progress1 a mouth to take in its nourishment1 and organs of generation to propagate its kind6 8,how sweet to muse upon ,his skill display'd 7,infinite skill67 in all that he has made4 ,to trace in ,nature's most minute design1 ,the signature and stamp of ,power ,divine2 ,contrivance exquisite expressed with ease1 ,where unassisted sight no beauty sees2 ,the shapely limb and lubricated joint1 ,within the small dimensions of a point2 ,muscle and nerve miraculously spun2 ,his mighty work1 who speaks1 and it is done2 ,th' invisible in things scarce seen revealed2 ,to whom an atom is an ample field40 ,animalcules in general1 continues ,mr4 ,adams1 are observed to move in all directions with equal ease and rapidity1 sometimes obliquely1 sometimes straight forward2 sometimes moving in a circular direction1 or rolling upon one another1 running backwards and forwards through the whole extent of the drop1 as if diverting themselves2 at other times greedily attacking the little parcels of matter they meet with4 ,notwithstanding their extreme minuteness1 they know how to avoid obstacles1 or to prevent any interference with one another in their motions3 sometimes they will suddenly change the direction in which they move1 and take an opposite one2 and1 by inclining the glass on which the drop of water is1 as it can be made to move in any direction1 so the animalcules appear to move as easily against the stream as with it4 ,when the water begins to evaporate1 they flock towards the place where the fluid is1 and show a great anxiety and uncommon agitation of the organs with which they draw in the water4 ,these motions grow languid as the water fails1 and at last cease altogether1 without a possibility of renewal if they be left dry for a short time4 ,they sustain a great degree of cold as well as insects1 and will perish in much the same degree of heat that destroys insects4 ,some animalcules are produced in water at the freezing point1 and some insects live in snow4 ,in the ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts for ,april1 #ahcj1 there is a letter to the editor1 from ,dr4 ,joseph ,e4 ,muse1 from which the following is an extract3 8,when the winter had made considerable progress1 without much frost1 there happened a heavy fall of snow2 apprehending that ,i might not have an opportunity of filling my ice house with ice1 ,i threw in snow1 perhaps enough to fill it2 there was afterwards severely cold weather1 and ,i filled the remainder with ice2 about ,august the waste and consumption of ice1 brought us down to the snow2 when it was discovered that a glass of water which was cooled with it1 contained hundreds of animalcules1 ,i then examined another glass of water1 out of the same pitcher1 and with the aid of a microscope1 before the snow was put in it1 found it perfectly clear and pure2 the snow was then thrown into it1 and on solution the water again exhibited the same phenomenon2 hundreds of animalcules1 visible to the naked eye with acute attention1 and when viewed through the microscope resembling most diminutive shrimps2 and wholly unlike the eels discovered in the acetous acid1 were seen in the full enjoyment of animated nature4 8,i caused holes to be dug in several parts of the mass of snow in the ice house1 and to the centre of it2 and in the most unequivocal and repeated experiments had similar results40 ,there is one remarkable circumstance1 says ,mr4 ,lobb1 that we must not pass over in our contemplation of these minute animals3 which is1 that they are found proportionably much stronger1 more active and vivacious1 than large ones4 ,the spring of a flea in its first leap1 how vastly does it outstrip any thing of which animals are capable6 ,a mite1 how vastly swifter does it run than a racehorse6 ,m4 de ,l',isle has given the computation of the velocity of a little creature scarcely visible by its smallness1 which he found to run three inches in half a second3 now1 supposing its feet to be the fiftieth part of a line1 it must make #ejj steps in the space of three inches2 that is1 it must shift its legs #ejj times in a second1 or in the ordinary pulsation of an artery6 ,the modes of propagation among these animalcules are various1 and the observation of them is extremely curious4 ,some multiply by a transverse division2 and it is remarkable1 that though in general they avoid one another1 it is not uncommon1 when one is nearly divided1 to see another push itself upon the small neck which joins the two bodies in order to accelerate the separation4 ,others1 when about to multiply1 fix themselves to the bottom of the water2 then becoming first oblong1 and afterwards round1 turn rapidly as on a centre1 but perpetually varying the direction of their rotatory motion4 ,in a little time1 two lines forming a cross are perceived3 after which the spherule divides into four1 which grow1 and are again divided as before4#adh ,a third kind multiply by a longitudinal division1 which in some begins in the fore part1 in others in the hind part2 and from others a small fragment detaches itself1 which in a short time assumes the shape of the parent animalcule4 ,lastly1 others propagate in the same manner as the more perfect animals4 ,the same rule seems to hold good in these minute creatures1 which is observable in the larger animals1 namely1 that the larger kinds are less numerous than such as are smaller1 while the smallest of all are found in such multitudes1 that there seem to be myriads for one of the others4 ,they increase in size1 like other animals1 from their birth1 till they have attained their full growth3 and when deprived of proper nourishment1 they in like manner grow thin and perish4 ,and1 if the extreme minuteness of the parts of animalcules is not merely surprising1 but far above our utmost conception1 what shall we say to those various species1 to which the mite itself1 in point of size1 is1 as it were1 an elephant8 ,naturalists suppose another species1 or order1 of invisible animalcules2 namely1 such as escape the cognizance even of the best microscopes1 and give many probable conjectures concerning them4 ,reason and analogy give some support to the existence of an infinite number of these imperceptible creatures4 ,the naked eye1 say some1 takes in from the ,elephant to the ,mite2 but there commences a new order1 reserved only for the microscope1 which comprehends all these from the ,mite to those twenty-seven millions of times smaller2 and this order cannot be said to be exhausted1 if the microscope be not arrived at its last degree of perfection4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the ,egyptians1 all the natives of the water were in some degree esteemed sacred4 ,in many parts the people did not feed upon them4 ,the priests in particular never tasted this kind of food2 and the reason why they abstained from it1 was the sanctity imputed to this class of creatures4 ,for they were sometimes considered as sacred emblems3 at other times worshipped as real deities4 ,one species of fish called ,oxurunchus1 had1 according to ,strabo1 a temple1 and divine honors paid to it4 ,a fish called ,phagrus1 was1 according to ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 worshipped at ,syene4 ,the ,lepidotus and ,eel1 were1 as we find from ,herodotus1 objects of adoration2 being each1 sacred to the god ,nilus4 ,this is ridiculed by ,antiphanes1 who says1 that an ,eel among the ,egyptians was reverenced equally with their gods4 ,the ,jews were under a divine prohibition not to make an idolatrous graven image or likeness of any aquatic animals4 ,however strange this idolatry may appear1 yet1 such was its extent1 that it prevailed not only in ,syria1 but in the borders of ,lebanon1 also at1 ,ascalon1 ,ashdod1 and ,joppa1 cities within the precincts of the tribes of ,dan and ,judah4 ,hence we see the propriety of the judgments inflicted upon the ,egyptians4 8,and the ,lord spake unto ,moses1 ,say unto ,aaron1 ,take thy rod1 and stretch out thine hand upon the waters of ,egypt1 upon their streams1 upon their rivers1 and upon their ponds1 and upon all their pools of water1 that they may become blood4--,against all the gods of ,egypt ,i will execute judgment4--,and the fish that was in the river died3 and the river stunk40 ,this was a punishment particularly well adapted to the state of that blinded and infatuated people3 as it showed them the baseness of those elements which they reverenced1 and the insufficiency of the gods in which they trusted4 ,and this remarkable display of the ,divine displeasure was the means of affording knowledge very salutary to the ,israelites2 as it served to warn them not to fall into the same or any similar act of idolatry1 when they had seen it thus debased and exposed1 and attended with such instances of accumulated evil4#adi ,father ,lamy remarks1 that the principal parts of ,fishes are the gills1 scales1 and fins4 ,some have scales1 and no fins2 others have neither scales nor fins4 ,upon which is founded the distinction which ,moses makes of clean and unclean fishes4 ,such as have neither scales nor fins are thought unclean4 ,the authority for this is what the ,lord commanded ,moses to communicate to the children of ,israel4 8,these shall ye eat of all that are in the waters3 whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters1 in the seas1 and in the rivers1 them shall ye eat4 ,and all that have not fins and scales in the seas1 and in the rivers1 of all that move in the waters1 and of any living thing which is in the waters1 they shall be an abomination unto you3 they shall be even an abomination unto you2 ye shall not eat of their flesh1 but you shall have their carcases in abomination40 ,the physical reason for this distinction may be1 because those which have fins and scales are the most nourishing2 and the others1 which are without fins and scales1 being1 in general1 very difficult of digestion1--such as the ,conger1 ,eel1 c1 which are too gross and fat for many stomachs4 ,among the ,romans1 no fishes were suffered to be offered up in sacrifice1 or served up to the table of the gods1 but such as were scaly4 ,in this distinction1 direction1 and prohibition1 concerning fishes1 there is a further meaning4 ,dr4 ,spencer says1 8,god ordained this distinction of meats1 that the puerile nation of the ,hebrews might be led by an application of this law to the first elements of sanctity and actual purity4 ,and this conjecture is founded upon the reason ,god himself has assigned for this institution2 for after he had delivered the law about separating the clean from the unclean animal1 he immediately adds1 #8,be ye holy1 for ,i the ,lord your ,god am holy4' ,which words ,st4 ,peter applies not to legal but to evangelical sanctity1 such as we should aspire to through the whole course of our lives4 ,i must not deny that the text of ,leviticus1 in the outward letter1 requires only a sort of legal sanctity1 extending merely to corporeal purification3 but it is agreeable to the umbratic nature of that law1 that we should believe those words to have contained a more sacred meaning at the bottom1 and to have directed the ,jews to a sort of purity properly so called1 and conformable to that of the ,divine nature itself1 under the figure of external purification40 ,indeed without a view to the moral purification of the soul1 an institution merely affecting the body would be but of minor importance4 ,this distinction then being founded upon the moral principles of good and evil1 no doubt the peculiarities of the animals themselves will serve to furnish instruction4 ,a celebrated writer on this subject remarks3--,the progressive motion of fishes is owing to the tail3 for so may a boat be driven forward by the agitation of a single oar from the stern4 ,the fins serve to keep a fish upright1 and support it while it is stationary in any part of the water4 ,the centre of gravity being above the middle region of the body1 a fish floats unnaturally with its back downwards1 when the fins are taken off4 ,the scales of fishes1 which are very hard1 bright1 and radiated1 compose a sort of armor1 which serves for their defence1 and adds at the same time an appearance of light and purity4 ,the fishes thus distinguished differ as much in their way of life from the smooth and slimy inhabitants of the waters1 as in their color and appearance2 for they are generally disposed to raise themselves from the bottom1 and swim about with agility in the superior regions of the water2 while the ,eel buries itself in the mire1 and all the crustaceous tribe lie scrabbling upon the ground4 ,fishes of the ,eel or snake kind are disturbed by thunder and storms1 and swim about when the waters are thick and turbulent3 but as soon as the elements are at rest again1 they presently slide down to their native mud4 ,thus the mind1 when polluted with impiety1 and bowed down with unbelief1 cannot be raised to the contemplation of evangelical truth1 unless it is alarmed by the fear of ,divine judgments2 on which occasion profligate sinners are sometimes most violently agitated1 hurrying themselves as fast as they can into a state of repentance4 ,but as this is a temporary repentance1 excited merely by a fear of suffering1 the effect abides no longer than the cause continues to operate2 and so their terrors and their penitence vanish together4 ,when there was alarming thunder and destructive hail in the land of ,egypt1 and fire from the ,lord ran along the ground1 even ,pharaoh could recollect himself1 and say1 8,i have sinned this time3 the ,lord is righteous1 and ,i and my people are wicked4 ,but when he saw that the rain1 and the hail1 and the thunders were ceased1 he sinned yet more1 and hardened his heart1 he and his servants40 ,such is the fruitless issue of that involuntary repentance1 which has no principle of ,divine grace to support it4 ,the moral of this distinction is obvious3 the whole being a figurative monition1 that a sordid and groveling way of life was to be abhorred by those who professed to serve ,god2 whose mind being under the direction of revealed truth1 and influence of the ,holy ,spirit1 their affections were to be raised from vice to virtue1 from pollution to purity1 from things temporal to things eternal4 ,there are many persons who bury themselves in the mud like the ,eel1 drown their senses in eating and drinking1 or waste their precious time in sleep and idleness2#aej utterly disregarding all serious reflection1 devotional elevation1 holy rectitude1 and spiritual enjoyment4 ,our ,saviour1 who spake many things to the ,jews in parables1 says1 8,the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was cast into the sea1 and gathered of every kind3 which1 when it was full1 they drew to shore1 and sat down1 and gathered the good into vessels1 but cast the bad away40 ,this was spoken to fishermen1 who had been called from their employment by our ,lord1 and to whom he said1 8,i will make you fishers of men40 ,they had hitherto been laboring to catch fish1 but hereafter they were to catch men3 thus their secular calling is turned into a spiritual channel4 ,the word is said to mean a drag-net1 the particular use of which is to drag fishes up from the bottom of the water4 ,the similitude between that occupation from which1 and that employment to which our ,saviour called them1 consists in these particulars3--the sea in which they were now to fish is the world1 the fishes they were to catch are ,jews and ,gentiles1 the net with which they were to catch them is the ,gospel1 and they themselves were to be fishermen4 ,or thus3--by the net may be understood the ,gospel2 by the sea into which it is cast1 the unconverted world2 by casting the net into the sea1 the preaching of the ,gospel2 by those that cast the net into the sea1 ministers2 by the fishes enclosed1 the hearers2 by the net gathering of every kind of fishes1 profane persons as well as sincere ,christians2 by the net being full and drawn to shore1 a set time coming when the ,gospel shall have fulfilled that for which it was sent1 the mystery of ,god being finished2 by the good being gathered into vessels as valuable and precious1 and the bad cast away as vile and contemptible1 that separation which shall be made at the final close of time between merely nominal and real ,christians1 casting the former into hell1 and bringing the latter to heaven4 ,this parabolical method of conveying important instruction1 by which heavenly things are represented and set forth by expressions borrowed from earthly things which are familiar to us1 was very ancient1 as appears from ,jotham's parable1 and much in use among the ,jews4 ,it engaged the attention1 because it was pleasant2 it assisted the memory1 which is apt to retain what is conveyed in this form2 it excited inquiry after the meaning of what was thereby intended3 and1 consequently1 was likely to be rendered beneficial to the hearers4 ,father ,quesnel remarks1 ,the net of ,god's word1 animated by his ,spirit1 draws souls out of the abyss of sin and error1 to ,christian faith and piety4 ,the net and vessel of the visible church receives both the good and bad fishes1 true ,christians and hypocrites4 ,this is neither the time1 nor the place of distinction2 all must continue mixed together till the great day of separation4 ,a man's being in the church will not infallibly assure him of salvation3 as yet there is time to become such as we ought to be4 ,but the moment will come1 when all desires and endeavors to this purpose will be attended only with despair4 ,and who knows but this moment may be just at hand4 ,our faith is very weak if we can think of being separated from the righteous without shuddering4 ,our love of salvation is very faint1 if we do not endeavor earnestly to separate ourselves in this world from the wicked1 by the holiness of our lives and conversation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,ii4--,,on ,,fowls4 ,number of ,species -- ,superiority and peculiar ,construction -- ,skill in building their ,nests -- ,power and season of ,propagation -- ,dexterity in providing ,food -- ,instinct -- ,migrations -- ,insects -- ,religious ,improvement4 ,not any part of nature is destitute of inhabitants4 ,the woods1 the waters1 the depths of the earth1 have their respective tenants2 while the transparent and elastic air1 and those regions where man can never soar1 but with much art and at considerable risk1 are occupied with the most beautiful creatures4 ,every order of animals is fitted for its situation in life2 but none more apparently so than birds4 ,though inferior to beasts in the scale of nature1 yet they hold the next rank1 and far surpass fishes and insects1 both in the structure of their bodies1 and in their sagacity4 ,the number of species in this order of animals is very numerous1 amounting to above eight hundred4 ,as some degree of classification appears necessary1 they have therefore been arranged into eight orders4 ,the #ast is the ,struthious1 or ,ostrich order1 or those which never rise from the earth4 ,this includes the ,ostrich1 the ,cassowary1 the ,dodo1 the ,solitary1 and the ,nazarene4 ,the #b;d is the ,rapacious order4 ,this includes the ,eagle1 the ,condor1 the ,vulture1 the ,falcon1 the ,shrike1 or ,butcher-,bird1 and the ,owl4 ,the #c;d is the ,gallinaceous1 or ,poultry order1 which is without both the talons and the hooked bill of the rapacious kind4 ,this includes the ,bustard1 the ,cock1 the ,turkey1 the ,pintada1 or ,guinea-,hen1 the ,grous1 the ,peacock1 the ,pheasant1 the ,curassow1 the ,partridge1 and the ,quail4 ,the #dth is what some authors have termed the ,columbine order4 ,this includes the ,dove1 or ,pigeon1 with its varieties4 ,the #eth is the order of ,pies4 ,this includes the ,crow1 the ,roller1 the ,king-,fisher1 the ,cuckoo1 the ,wood-,pecker1 the ,oriole1 the ,nuthatch1 the ,bee-,eater1 the ,wryneck1 the ,creeper1 the ,hornbill1 the ,parrot1 the ,ani1 the ,wattle ,bird1 the ,grackel1 the ,bird of ,paradise1 the ,beef-,eater1 the ,curucui1 the ,barbets1 the ,jacamer1 the ,tody1 and the ,humming ,bird4 ,the #fth is the ,passerine1 or ,sparrow kind4 ,this includes the ,starling1 the ,thrush1 the ,chatterers1 the ,grosbeaks1 the ,bunting1 the ,finch1 the ,fly-,catchers1 the ,lark1 the ,wagtail1 the ,warblers1#aea the ,titmouse1 the ,swallow1 the ,goatsucker1 the ,coly1 the ,tanager1 and the ,manakins4 ,the #gth is the ,cloven-footed ,water-,fowl1 including those with pinnated feet4 ,this includes the ,heron1 the ,ibis1 the ,curlow1 the ,snipe1 the ,sandpiper1 the ,plover1 the ,oyster-,catcher1 the ,pratincole1 the ,rail1 the ,gallinule1 the ,boatbill1 the ,umbre1 the ,jacana1 the ,sheathbill2 and with pinnated1 or finned feet1 the ,phalarope1 the ,coot1 and the ,grebe4 ,and the #hth is the ,web-footed ,water-,fowl4 ,this includes the ,avoset1 the ,courier1 the ,flamingo1 the ,auk1 the ,guillemot1 the ,diver1 the ,tern1 the ,petrels1 the ,gull1 the ,mersanger1 the ,duck1 the ,pelican1 the ,albatross1 the ,skimmer1 the ,penguin1 the ,tropic ,bird1 and the ,darter4 ,these eight orders take in the several species belonging to each1 some of which are very numerous2 the ,duck genus alone embraces one hundred species1 differing much both in size and plumage4 ,thus we see in birds also1 that ,god has shown his wisdom and his power1 in the gradation from the vast ,ostrich1 and ,cassowary1 to the ,humming-,bird1 which1 in size is not much larger than the ,bee4 8,the ourissia1 bee-like in its size1 ,humming from flower to flower delighted flies1 ,and in a wondrous living rainbow drest1 ,shifts all its colors on its wings and breast40 ,of all animated beings1 this little bird is the most elegant in form1 and superb in colors4 ,the emerald1 the ruby1 and the topaz1 sparkle in its plumage1 which is never soiled by the dust of the ground4 ,in ,mr4 ,bullock's ,museum1 ,piccadilly1 there is a case containing more than one hundred ,humming-birds2 and in the 8,companion0 to this delightfull repository of natural history1 an interesting account is given of this little creature1 that flutters from flower to flower1 breathes their freshness1 wantons on the wings of the cooling zephyrs1 sips the nectar of a thousand sweets1 and resides in climes where reigns the beauty of eternal spring4 ,the legs1 the wings1 the bones1 even all parts of their bodies1 are much lighter1 firmer1 and more compact in birds than in other animals4 ,their lungs are extended over all the cavities of their bodies4 ,carniverous birds1 like carniverous quadrupeds1 have but one stomach1 where their food is moistened or swelled2 a gizzard1 which is a very hard muscle1 almost cartilaginous1 and which they commonly fill with small stones1 where the food is afterwards ground1 in order to facilitate its complete digestion4 ,in birds there is no ruminating3 but in such as are not carniverous1 the food is immediately swallowed into the crop1 or anti-stomach 7which is observed in many1 especially piscivorous birds17 where it is moistened by some proper juice1 and then transferred to the gizzard1 by the working of whose muscles1 assisted by small pebbles1 swallowed for that purpose1 it is ground small1 and so transmitted to the intestines4 ,birds we find supplied with a corney substance1 instead of teeth and lips4 ,their bills are cut into various shapes1 adapted to their different habits4 ,the sharp edge and tempered point of the ,sparrow's beak1 enables it to pick every seed from its concealment2 breaking the grain to obtain the kernel4 ,the hooked beak of the ,hawk separates1 like a dissector's knife1 the flesh from the bones of the animals on which it preys4 ,the spoon-bill of the ,goose enables her to graze1 and collect food from the bottoms of the pools4 ,birds of the ,crane kind1 which seek their food among the waters1 having no web-feet1 are supplied with long legs for wading1 or long bills for groping1 and usually both3 these are admirably adapted to the shallow pools of water1 or sides of rivers1 which they frequent4 ,but in birds living by suction1 they are serrated1 or tooth-like2 these do not serve the purpose of teeth1 but act as a sieve1 or strainer1 separating nicely from mud some nutriment conducive to the preservation of life4 ,the sense of seeing in birds is remarkably acute2 and though their want of external ears is supplied by only two small orifices or ear-holes1 yet they do not appear deficient in hearing4 ,the scent of some species is exquisitely delicate4 ,men who attend decoys where ducks are caught1 generally keep a piece of turf lighted1 on which they breathe1 lest the fowls should smell them and fly away4 ,the voice of birds is much louder in proportion to their size1 than that of other animals2 for in fact1 the bellowing of an ,ox is not heard at a much greater distance than the scream of a ,peacock4 ,the covering of birds is perhaps one of the most beautiful4 ,their feathers are light1 smooth1 and warm1 inclining backward1 downy at the stem1 overlapping at their tips1 beautifully variegated1 and forming a raiment1 varying in circumstances1 so as always to suit the habits of the bird4 ,the construction of a single feather is 8a mechanical wonder40 ,we see at the stem1 a tough1 light1 pliant1 and elastic material1 only found in feathers2 also the pith1 which feeds the feathers1 a substance peculiar to that purpose2 likewise the beard1 which grows on each side of the stem1 and is stripped off when making pens1 the separate threads of which are called filaments1 or rays4 ,these appear stronger when pressed perpendicularly to their plane1 than when rubbed either up or down in the line of the stem2 and this arises from the lamin1 of which these beards are composed1 being flat1 and placed with their flat sides towards each other4 ,hence1 though they are easily made to approximate each other1 yet they require more force in a contrary direction1 having to encounter the impulse of the air1 which requires more strength4 ,we find also1 that these threads1 in their natural state1 unite2 and cannot1 be parted without force1 although not joined by any glutinous adhesion1 but by a mechanical contrivance4 ,and1 if separated by force or accident1 when brought together they immediately reclasp1 resuming their former smoothness4 ,these threads are interlaced with each other1 by means of a vast number of fibres1 or teeth1 which they protrude on each side2 fifty of these have been counted in #a-bjth of an inch3 they are curved after a different manner from the filaments on which they grow4 ,those which proceed from the side toward the beginning of the quill-end1 are shorter1 firmer1 and turn upward4 ,those on the side toward the extremity of the feather1 are longer1 more flexible1 and bent downward4 ,they therefore act thus2 when the two lamin are pressed together1 so that the long fibres are forced far enough over the short ones1 their crooked parts fall into the cavity made by the crooked parts of the others1 just as a latch enters the cavity of a catch on the door post4 ,all this beautiful structure may be seen by the microscope4 ,in the ,ostrich1 whose feathers1 or other filaments1 hang loose like down1 this mechanism is wanting4 ,but as this bird does not fly1 and requires assistance only in running1 perhaps this formation is best adapted for that purpose4 ,small birds1 which do not migrate in the winter season1 have the inner side of their feathers black1 because this is the warmest color3 hence the heat of the bird is prevented from escaping4 ,the feathers of birds appear to be nourished and preserved in a remarkable manner2 especially those that much frequent waters1 for they have a larger supply of oily substance1 with which to trim them4 ,lest the feathers should be injured by exposure to the air1 every bird is furnished with a gland situated on the rump1 containing a proper quantity of oil1 which it presses out with its beak1 and with which it occasionally anoints them4 ,in water fowls1 this oil is so plentiful1 that it even imparts a degree of rancidity to the flesh2 and by it1 their plumy coat is rendered completely waterproof4 ,as ,god made the fowls 8that they might fly in the firmament of heaven10 so has he adapted the form of their bodies1 and the structure and disposition of their plumage1 for that very purpose4 ,the head and neck in flying1 are drawn principally within the breastbone1 so that the whole underpart exhibits the appearance of a ship's hull4 ,the wings are used as sails1 or rather oars1 and the tail as a helm or rudder4 ,by means of these1 the creature is not only able to preserve the centre of gravity1 but also to accelerate its speed through the air1 either straight forward1 circularly in any kind of angle1 as well as upward or downward4 ,though the greatest part of the arial creation are adorned with feathers1 yet has the ,deity enabled several to fly without them2 such as the ,bat1 one species of ,lizard1 two sorts of fishes1 and numberless kinds of insects4 ,the skill with which birds erect their houses1 and adjust their apartments1 is inimitable4 ,the caution with which they conceal them from the searching eye1 or intruding hand1 is admirable4 ,they fix their nests on the pliant branches that wave aloft in the air1 or are suspended over the flowing stream3 by these means the vernal gales rock their cradle1 and the murmuring waters lull their young2 while both concur to terrify their enemies1 and have a tendency to prohibit their approach4 ,some hide their downy offspring from view1 amidst the shelter of entangled furze4 ,others1 with wary solicitude1 place them in the centre of a thorny thicket4 ,and thus1 by a variety of expedients1 they are generally as secure1 as if intrenched behind an impregnable mound4 8,some to the holly-hedge ,nestling repair1 and to the thicket some2 ,some to the rude protection of the thorn ,commit their feeble offspring3 the cleft tree ,offers its kind concealment to a few1 ,their food its insects1 and its moss their nests4 ,others apart1 far in the grassy dale1 ,or roughening waste1 their humble texture weave4 ,but most in woodland solitudes delight1 ,in unfrequented glooms1 or shaggy banks1 ,steep1 and divided by a babbling brook1 ,whose murmurs soothe them all the live-long day1 ,when by kind duty fixed4 ,among the roots ,of hazel1 pendent o'er the plaintive stream1 ,they frame the first foundation of their domes2 ,dry sprigs of trees1 in artful fabric laid1 ,and bound with clay together4 ,now 'tis nought ,but restless hurry through the busy air1 ,beat by unnumbered wings4 ,the ,swallow sweeps ,the slimy pool1 to build his hanging house ,intent4 ,and often1 from the careless back ,of herds and flocks1 a thousand tugging bills ,pluck hair and wool2 and oft1 when unobserved1 ,steal from the barn a straw3 till soft and warm ,clean and complete1 their habitation grows40 ,if the ,swan has large sweeping wings1 and a copious stock of feathers1 to spread over his callow young2 the ,wren supplies by contrivance what is wanting in her bulk4 ,though small1 she has to nurse a very numerous issue2 therefore with surprising sagacity designs1 and with wonderful diligence finishes her nest1 being a neat oval1 bottomed and vaulted over with a regular concave1 within made soft with down1 without thatched with moss1 and having only a small aperture left for her entrance4 8,it wins my admiration1 ,to view the structure of that little work1 ,a bird's nest4 ,mark it well within1 without4 ,no tool had he that wrought1 no knife to cut1 ,no nail to fix1 no bodkin to insert1 ,no glue to join3 his little beak was all1 ,and yet how neatly finished60 ,by this means1 the animating heat of her body is greatly increased during the time of incubation4 ,and her young no sooner burst the shell1 than they find themselves screened from the annoyance of weather1 and comfortably reposed1 till they gather sufficient strength and plumage in their warm recess1 to make their first essay into the wide expanse4 ,as to the succession of this class of animals1 some are endued with a remarkable power of propagating1 while others are confined within narrow limits4 ,in general1 the least animals1 and those which are useful and serve for nourishment to the greatest number of other animals1 are the most prolific4 ,the ,hawk kind generally lay not more than two eggs1 or at most four2 while the ,poultry species produce from #ej to #ajj4 ,the ,diver1 or ,loon1 which is eaten by a few animals1 lays also two eggs2 but the ,duck kind1 the ,moorgame1 ,partridges1 c1 and small birds1 lay a very great number4 ,if we suppose two pigeons to hatch nine times a year1 they may produce in four years #ad1gfj young6 ,birds generate in that particular season which supplies them with a stock of provisions1 sufficient1 not only for themselves1 but for their increasing families4 ,they hatch their young when new-born insects swarm on every side4 ,so that the caterer1 whether it be the male or female parent1 needs only alight on the ground1 or make a short excursion into the air1 to find a repast ready dressed for the tender charge at home4 ,the love they have for their offspring1 while helpless1 is invincibly strong4#aeb ,they nurse them with the greatest care1 caress them with affectionate notes1 put food into their mouths1 cherish and keep them warm1 teach them to pick1 eat1 and gather food3 whereas1 the moment they are able to provide for themselves1 this anxious care vanishes as though it had never been4 ,the ,hen1 while catering for her little brood1 would fly at a mastiff in their defence3 yet1 in a few weeks1 leaves them to their own protection1 not regarding them any more than others of the same species4 ,they also provide their food with admirable art1 which dexterity they bring into the world with them4 ,some birds1 though not aquatic1 live on fish3 and must necessarily find it more difficult to seize their prey than ,water-fowl4 ,from whence do they derive this natural instinct8 ,they stand on the brink of the liquid element1 and when a shoal of fish comes 7which they can discover at a distance17 they pursue them1 skim along the surface1 suddenly dive into the water1 and carry off a fish4#aec ,who gave the birds of prey their piercing sight1 undaunted courage1 and the destructive weapons1 without which they could not possibly subsist8 ,who points out to the ,stork the place where she may find frogs#aed and insects for her support8 ,in order to procure these1 she must seek them not only in meadows1 but also in the furrows of fields2 and continue her search till the approach of morning1 when the other birds awake and begin to quit their places of retreat4 ,what amazing strength must the ,condor have1 seeing it can carry away a sheep1 a deer1 and even prey on the ox itself6 ,how can we reconcile that maternal instinct which causes the quail to adopt little birds of every species1 which she not only takes under her protection1 but bestows on them her tenderest cares6 ,what cunning does the ,crow use to secure the prey1 which she cannot devour at once8 ,she hides it in places such as other ,crows do not frequent1 and when hungry again1 how well does she know where she has deposited it6#aee ,there are also several birds1 which1 when food begins to fail1 hide themselves in the earth1 or in caves1 in a torpid state1 during the winter4 ,we are assured1 at least1 that before the approach of this season1 the ,strand-,swallows conceal themselves in the earth2 the ,wall-,swallows repair to the holes of trees and old buildings2 and the ,house1 or ,common ,swallows seek for ponds1 where they fasten themselves in pairs1 cling to roots or weeds1 continue without motion1 and apparently without life1 till the return of spring1 when they are re-animated1 and return from that state of torpidity4 ,the infinitely wise ,creator has given different instincts to birds2 none of which is superfluous1 or useless1 but each is indispensably necessary to the preservation and well-being of the animal4 ,the motion of birds not only requires strength and well-formed pliant limbs1 but also instinct to direct their movements4 ,they have each two feet2 but their bodies do not rest perpendicularly on them1 for they project both before and behind2 and yet a chick will stand upright and run about almost as soon as it leaves the shell4 ,young ,ducks1 just hatched by a ,hen1 know their own element1 and swim about in the water without example or instruction4 ,other birds know how to rise up from their nests into the air1 balance themselves1 pursue their course1 make equal strokes with their wings in true time1 stretch out their feet to equipoise their bodies1 use their tails like an oar or rudder1 to direct their flight1 and make long journeys from their native country to unknown regions4 ,the migration of birds is truly astonishing6 ,very few spend the winter with us3 the ,yellow-,hammer1 the ,chaffinch1 the ,crow1 the ,raven1 the ,sparrow1 the ,wren1 the ,partridge1 the ,robin1 and the ,fieldfare1 are the principal4 ,most of the others either retire to some invisible resort1 or leave us entirely4 ,some kinds of birds1 without taking any high flight1 or setting off in troops1 draw gradually towards the south1 to seek those seeds and fruits which are most congenial to their taste2 but they speedily return4 ,others1 which are termed 8birds of passage10 collect at certain seasons in large flocks1 and fly off to other climates2 they even cross the seas1 and make excursions of a surprising length4 ,the best known birds of this description are1 the ,quail1 the ,swallow1 the ,wild-,duck1 the ,plover1 the ,snipe1 and the ,crane1 with some others1 which subsist on worms4 ,in spring1 the ,cranes pass from ,africa into ,europe1 in order to enjoy a more temperate climate4 ,they migrate in flocks like clouds2 and sometimes1 their strength being nearly exhausted1 alight on ships1 and are taken without any difficulty4 ,swallows act in a different way3 while some continue in ,europe1 and seclude themselves from our view as already observed1 others cross the seas4 ,wild-,ducks and ,cranes also repair at the approach of winter to milder climates4 ,they all assemble on a certain day1 and take their flight together4 ,they commonly arrange themselves in two lines1 united in one point like an inverted 1 with a bird at the head1 and others following in the lines3 whose beaks always rest on the tails of those preceding4 ,the leader holds only a temporary commission3 and having relinquished his charge1 rests himself1 and is replaced by another4 ,but all birds of passage do not take their departure in flocks3 for there are some which travel alone2 and others with their females and young4 ,it has been computed that they may easily go #bjj miles in six hours each day1 supposing they can take rest at intervals1 or during the night4 ,according to this calculation1 they may pass from our climates to the ,equinoctial line in seven or eight days6 ,this conjecture has been verified2 for ,swallows have been seen on the coast of ,senegal on the #ith of ,october1 which was eight or nine days after their leaving ,europe4 ,these migrations are wonderful in every point of view6 ,doubtless the difference of heat and cold1 and want of food1 apprize them of the necessity of changing their abode4 ,but what reason can be assigned for their departure at the appointed time1 when the season is sufficiently mild1 and food still in abundance1 to invite their continuance among us8 ,how do they know that other climates will afford them necessary food and warmth8 ,by what operative power are they impelled to make this exit at the same period1 as if preconcerted by mutual agreement8 ,how can they1 notwithstanding the darkness of the nights1 the perplexity of the road1 and the remoteness of the countries to which they are destined1 still hold on in a direct course8 ,nature does not teach them all this art1 industry1 and penetration1 which so much surprise us3 if we separate nature from its great ,author1 it is then a word destitute of meaning4 8,nature is but a name for an effect1 ,whose cause is ,god40 ,it is ,he alone who gives wisdom to the fowls of the air4 ,god's superintendence over birds is particularly noticed by our ,saviour4 8,behold the fowls of the air2 for they sow not1 neither do they reap1 nor gather into barns2 yet your heavenly ,father feedeth them40 ,god extends his providential care to all his creatures1 not only to those which are domesticated and receive their supplies from men1 but also to the fowls of the air4 ,by a natural instinct they know how to select that kind of food which is suitable for aliment1 and where to procure it2 but they are without any particular solicitude and forecast3 nor have they need of these1 because ,god takes care to provide for them4 ,st4 ,luke mentions the ,ravens1 which are carniverous creatures4 8,consider10 says he1 8the ravens3 for they neither sow nor reap2 which neither have storehouse nor barn3 and ,god feedeth them40 ,god asks ,job1 8,who provideth for the raven his food80 ,there are but three things which concern such creatures2 how their craving appetites may be satiated1 where they may repose1 and by what means they may be protected from the incursions of their enemies3 and for all these ,god has amply provided4 ,he takes care of their food3 8he giveth food to the young ravens which cry10 and are the most helpless of all creatures4 ,naturalists observe1 that the ,raven exposes her young ones as soon as they are hatched1 leaves them to provide for themselves1 and struggle with hunger as soon as they emerge into life2 so they certainly would perish1 if ,providence did not interfere in their behalf4 ,but ,god makes them his charge1 and supplies their voracious cravings in due time1 whether by the insect1 the reptile1 or the dew from heaven4 ,he protects their rest1 and renders their habitations places of refuge and safety4 8,the trees of the ,lord are full of sap3 the cedars of ,lebanon which he hath planted2 where the birds make their nests3 as for the ,stork1 the fir-trees are her house40 ,the meanest classes of sensitive beings are endued with the faculty of instinct3 a sagacity which is neither derived from observation1 nor awaits the finishing hand of experience2 which without a tutor teaches them all necessary skill1 and enables them1 without a pattern1 to perform every needful operation4 ,and what is more remarkable1 it never misleads them1 either into erroneous principles1 or pernicious practices3 nor ever fails to aid them in the most nice and difficult of their undertakings4--,the inhabitants of the hive subsist as a regular community4 ----8,as bees ,in ,spring-time1 when the sun with ,taurus rides1 ,pour fourth their populous youth about the hive ,in clusters2 they among fresh dews and flowers ,fly to and fro1 or on the smoothed plank1 ,the suburb of their straw-built citadel1 ,new rubbed with balm1 expatiate and confer ,their state affairs3 so thick the ary crowd ,swarmed and were straitened40 ,their indulgent ,creator has given them all implements necessary either for constructing combs1 or composing honey4 ,bees have each a portable vessel1 in which they bring home their collected sweets3 and have the most commodious storehouses1 wherein to deposit them4 ,they readily distinguish every plant1 which affords materials for their business2 and are complete practitioners in the arts of separation and refinement4 ,aware that the vernal bloom and summer sun are but for a season1 they improve to the utmost every shining hour1 and lay up a stock sufficient to supply the whole society1 till their flowery harvest shall return4 ,insects1 which some persons may consider as so many rude scraps of creation1 ought to be classed among the most polished pieces of ,divine workmanship4 ----8,in the vast and the minute ,the unambiguous footsteps of the ,god1 ,who gives its lustre to an insect's wing1 ,and wheels his throne upon the rolling worlds40 8,the first state in which insects appear1 is that of the ovum or egg2 from the egg is hatched the insect in its larva or caterpillar state4 ,the larva1 or maggot1 crawls on many feet1 and is extremely voracious1 devouring the herbage1 and stripping trees of their leaves4 ,when the time arrives in which the larva or caterpillar is to change into the next state1 namely1 that of chrysalis1 or pupa1 it ceases to feed2 and having placed itself in some quiet situation for the purpose1 lies still for several hours2 and then by a kind of laborious effort1 frequently repeated1 divests itself of its external skin1 or larva coat1 and immediately appears in the very different form of a chrysalis or pupa4 ,from this state emerges1 at length1 the insect1 in its complete or ultimate form1 from which it can never change2 nor can it receive any further increase of growth4 ,this last stage is denominated imago40 8,waked by his warmer ray1 the reptile young ,come winged abroad2 by the light air upborne1 ,lighter1 and full of soul4 ,from every chink1 ,and secret corner1 where they slept away ,the wintery storms2 or rising from their tombs1 ,to higher life2 by myriads1 forth at once1 ,swarming they pour2 of all the varied hues ,their beauty-beaming parent can disclose4 ,ten thousand forms6 ten thousand different tribes6 ,people the blaze40 ,many of them are decked with the richest finery4 ,their eyes are an assemblage of microscopes4 ,the common ,fly1 for instance1 perpetually surrounded with enemies1 having neither strength to resist1 nor a retreat to secure herself1 has need to be very vigilant1 and always on her guard3 but her head is so fixed that she cannot turn it to see her danger2 ,providence1 therefore1 to supply this apparent defect1 has given her more than a legion of eyes1 insomuch that a single ,fly is supposed to have no less than eight thousand4 ,nay1 it is asserted that the common ,dragon-fly is furnished with #be1jjj of these diminutive lenses6 ,by the help of this truly amazing apparatus1 she sees on every side1 with the utmost ease and speed1 though without any motion of the eye1 or inflection of the neck4 ,the dress of insects is a vesture of resplendent colors1 bespangled with an arrangement of the brightest gems4 8,the little gnat1 in beauties1 may compare ,with all his rival brothers of the air2 ,transparent feathers1 purple1 green and gold1 ,his wings1 small feet1 and gay-fringed tail enfold4 ,four sharpened spears his head with weapons arm1 ,and his pearled eyes with liveliest graces charm4 ,in down of ev'ry variegated dye ,shines1 fluttering soft1 the gaudy butterfly1 ,that powder which thy spoiling hand disdains1 ,the forms of quills and painted plumes contains2 ,nor courts can more magnificence express1 ,in all their blaze of gems and pomp of dress40 ,the expansion of their wings displays the finest texture imaginable1 compared to which lawn is as course as sackcloth4 ,the cases1 which inclose their wings1 glitter with the finest varnish1 are scooped into ornamental flutings1 studded with radiant spots1 or pinked with elegant holes4 ,not one but is endued with weapons to seize his prey1 and dexterity to escape his foe1 to despatch the business of his station1 and enjoy the pleasure of his condition4 ,it is affirmed that the female of the common house-fly is capable of producing #bj millions #hj thousand #cbj2 hence we cannot wonder at their swarming so much in autumn4 ,our author has devoted very few remarks indeed to insects2 yet the history of this class of creatures is as interesting as any other1 and is attracting considerable attention4 ,their history is very far from being complete3 their number is not known4 ,they inhabit the air1 water1 and earth4 ,this family of creatures is called insects1 because of the articulations of the body1 so as to appear notched1 or intersected4 ,a brief notice of some of their principal parts follows1 which is chiefly taken from ,no4 ,,viii1 of the ,family ,library1 published by ,j4 ,j4 ,harper1 ,new-,york4 ,mouth4--,all insects either divide their food1 or suck it4 ,in those which divide their food1 the parts of the mouth are1 an upper lip1 and an under lip fixed to a piece called the chin2 between these two there are four lateral pieces1 two on each side2 the two upper are called mandibles1 the two lower1 jaws4 ,the mandibles1 or upper jaws cut the food3 the lower jaws divide and masticate it4 ,the mouth of those insects which suck their food1 is elongated into a tongue or proboscis4 ,this is a tube attached to the head4 ,in some it is composed of two pieces connected by a joint2 for if it were constantly extended it would be too much exposed to accidental injuries3 therefore1 in its indolent state it is securely doubled up by means of this joint4 ,in some species1 as the butterfly1 the proboscis1 when not in use1 is coiled up like a watch-spring4 ,in some it is shut up in a sharp-pointed sheath1 which is of firmer texture than the proboscis1 and by which the insect pierces the food1 and then opens it within the wound to allow the proboscis to perform its office by extracting the juice4 ,antenn4--,these are very slender arms resembling hairs1 which project from the heads of almost all insects4 ,there are generally two to each insect1 which diverge somewhat4 ,the insects can move them in all directions1 and when they are seen doing this it commonly suggests the idea that these antenn are feelers4 ,however1 their functions are not certainly known3 some suppose them to be organs of sense4 ,eyes4--,these are generally found in the head of insects4 ,their real number is1 usually1 two3 the surfaces of which are cut into many small faces2 more than seventeen thousand have been counted in the butterfly4 ,each face on the insect's eye is considered as a crystalline lens1 concave within1 and convex without4 ,they have no eye-lids4 ,thorax1 or throat4--,this is the second division of the body1 and is placed directly behind the head4 ,to the thorax are attached the wings and legs3 commonly three legs on each side4 ,two membranes compose the wing1 placed one above the other4 ,cords1 or small nerves1 are found in the upper one4 ,the expansion of the wing is owing1 as is supposed1 to the introduction of a fluid1 at the will of the insect1 into hollow vessels which are detected in the composition of the wing4 ,abdomen4--,this is the third division of the insect1 and is immediately connected with the thorax by articulation3 it is composed of rings from one to fifteen4 ,most of these rings have an open pore placed laterally1 through which air has access to the fluids in the body4 ,in some insects the last ring contains the anus2 in others1 the organs of generation2 or the means of defence1 as a sting4 ,muscles4--,these are said to be disposed in bundles1 the fibres of which are not connected by a cellular membrane3 they are fixed to the hard parts1 which are to be moved by horny tendons4 ,the thorax contains the muscles which move the head up or down1 and those also which move the wings and the feet4 ,in some the muscles amount to four thousand4 ,the muscular power of some of these insects is astonishing1 as may be known by the distance they can leap3 as the flea1 and others1 which leap two hundred times their own length4 ,if man could do this he would leap at a single effort1 more than one thousand feet4 ,all insects are supposed to have a knotted nervous system4 ,the knot nearest the head is composed of two lobes1 from which nerves pass to the eyes1 antenn1 and mouth4 ,these are the principal common parts of insects4 ,it would be a delightful task to enter into a minute description of their genera1 species1 habits1 modes of life1 subsistence1 defence1 attack1 c4 ,only two or three can be noticed1 which must be taken as a specimen of the whole4 ,the ,,bee4--,this insect has attracted the attention of the observing in all ages4 ,on a pleasant summer's day the hive presents the appearance of a busy1 and populous city--the gates appear to be crowded with many workmen--some going to search for food1 and others returning with it--some building--some tending the young--some cleansing the dwelling1 and others carrying out the dead1 and1 apparently1 performing some honorable sepulchral rites1 c4 ,the hive4--,the interior of a bee-hive is itself a world of wonders4 ,it is not1 as is commonly supposed1 the same in the form of its construction in all hives1 it varies according to circumstances4 ,yet there are some general principles which seem to be common to all honeycombs3 they do not touch each other1 but always are sufficiently far apart to allow room to work on the opposite faces of each comb4 ,the combs are placed vertically in the hive1 and each complete comb is composed of two layers of six-sided cells1 united by a common base4 ,these two layers of six-sided cells are not united by a common base with a flat bottom to each cell3 but the hexagonal tube terminates at the bottom in a three-sided pyramidal cavity4 ,the angle1 formed at the apex of this pyramidal cavity1 is #gj #cb--;and the angle formed at the base of the hexagonal tube1 or cell1 is #aji #bh4 ,by this construction ,reaumur has demonstrated1 that the bee has formed his comb on the only plan which could produce cells of a determinate size1 equal and similar1 in the strongest manner1 occupying the least space1 and requiring the least quantity of matter4 ,the wax1 out of which the cells are formed1 is not the same simple substance as honey1 extracted from the flowers3 it seems to be elaborated by the bees in their bodies1 and deposited under their bellies in the form of scales4 ,it is produced from a nectar obtained from flowers1 which is swallowed by the bee in the greatest possible quantity1 after which the bee hangs motionless in the hive for twenty-four hours1 during which time the wax is elaborated and deposited under the belly in thin scales resembling talc4 ,some of the cells are filled with honey1 and some are found to contain the young bee in the condition of larva4 ,the bees which inhabit a hive may be regarded as a community1 which is found to be divided into three classes3 the queen--the males--and the workers1 which are of no sex4 ,the ,queen4--,she is the common mother of the hive1 and deposits all the eggs from which the young ones come3 she appears to be in size between the males and workers1 but longer than either4 ,the attention or reverence1 with which the queen-bee is regarded1 is very remarkable4 ,upon withdrawing the queen from a hive the workers are thrown into the greatest consternation2 they desist from work1 run wildly through the hive1 and refuse all nourishment4 ,this they do for twenty-four hours1 after which time a new queen will be received kindly1 if offered them2 but previously1 they pay no attention to a strange queen1 though introduced among them4 ,if no queen can be found1 ,schirach discovered1 and ,huber has confirmed it1 that the bees have power to create a queen1 in the following manner4 ,they build some royal cells 7for there are different kinds7 into which they put the common worker-worm1 i4e4 the grub which produces the work-bee1 and feed the insect with royal food1 which is more pungent than the common bee-food2 and in a few days they have a queen-bee produced1 instead of a work-bee2 then all is well4 ,the queen is always attended with a train1 which wait upon her1 do her homage1 caress and feed her1 by presenting her with honey4 ,if they lose their own queen1 and a stranger queen is introduced1 after twenty-four hours1 they commence their reverence for the new sovereign by surrounding her1 caressing her1 feeding her1 and opening a way for her when she moves4 ,their devotions to their queen do not cease if she become sterile1 or die4 ,their veneration and tender attentions appear to increase towards the dead body of their queen4 ,it is a well known fact1 that the community perishes if they cannot procure a queen by any means4 ,the combats of the queens4--,the bees seem to be purely monarchial in their constitution of government4 ,this will appear from the following extraordinary facts3 ,if a strange queen be introduced into the hive where there is a queen1 the working-bees immediately seize upon her1 and detain her a prisoner3 as soon as this is done1 another party hastens away to the reigning queen and surround her4 ,they then force the queens towards each other1 in order to make them decide the sovereignty of the hive in mortal combat4 ,the conquerer is cheerfully taken for the reigning sovereign4 ,nor is it difficult to bring the rival queens to an engagement3 so soon as they recognize each other they rush furiously to the combat1 and the one or the other quickly inflicts a mortal wound by piercing the belly of the antagonist between the rings1 by means of the sting4 ,so exclusive is the passion of the queen for sovereignty1 that she puts to death the young queens1 so soon as she ascertains them to be such4 ,this she does even in the cells1 before they have come forth4 ,the male bees4--,these seem not to have attracted much interest4 ,they are not very numerous in the hive2 generally not exceeding an hundred or two4 ,they are the largest in size1 and live perfectly idle4 ,the working bees4--,these1 as their name imports1 perform the labors of the hive4 ,the details of their labors cannot be admitted here4 ,there is one question1 in regard to bees1 which is difficult and curious3 their senses4 ,from the best observations1 and experiments1 it would seem as if the antenn1 or feelers1 were the principal organs of sense4 ,upon taking away the queen1 in about an hour some one bee discovers it1 and becomes instantly agitated1 and runs furiously about the hive3 the first companion he meets they cross their feelers mutually1 the discoverer giving his neighbor a gentle tap with the feeler1 and he in turn commences running furiously about the hive1 communicating the intelligence in a similar manner2 until the whole hive is in an uproar4 ,huber introduced a queen to a hive1 after twenty-four hours absence of their own queen4 ,the working bees which were nearest immediately approached and touched her with their feelers1 and passing their trunks over every part of her body1 gave her honey4 ,then these gave place to others which treated her in a similar manner2 and all1 with a vibration of their wings1 arranged themselves around their new sovereign4 ,from some experiments of ,huber1 it seems that the antenn1 or feelers of bees are the organs of communication4 ,he thinks they have no organ for hearing4 ,their power of vision is very clear and strong4 ,anciently1 in ,new-,england1 the honey-hunters are said to have found the nest of wild bees in the following manner3 they placed a plate of honey in the woods1 and when the bees came to get it1 they caught two or three of them1 the bee-hunter would let one go1 and observe his course1 by a pocket compass1 as he flew to the nest3 he would then walk off at a right angle a few hundred yards1 and let another bee go1 and observe the course3 the angle1 or point at which these two lines1 described by the flights of the bees1 met1 the hunter knew to be the place where the bee-nest was4 ,the manner in which bees take their rest is a matter of curiosity4 ,some attach themselves to a part of the hive1 by their fore-feet1 and extend their hind-feet down3 the next bee by his fore-feet takes hold of the hind-feet of the first bee1 and thus suspends himself2 others attach themselves in like manner1 until they form clusters1 or festoons4 ,in this condition they take their rest4 ,it will be interesting to learn something of the sting of the bee4 ,it is situated in the lower end of the ringed-body3 it is composed of three parts3 the sheath1 and two darts which are enclosed in it1 very small and penetrating4 ,the darts are barbed4 ,when the bee strikes with its sting1 the sharp and hard point of the hollow sheath strikes and penetrates first1 and the two darts are immediately thrust into the incision made by the sheath2 and at the same time the bee injects a poisonous liquor into the wound1 which causes the pain and inflammation4 ,in some instances the sting is struck in so deeply the bee cannot extricate it3 in that case the wound is more painful1 but the loss proves fatal to the bee4 ,destructive combats frequently take place between different hives2 and many perish on both sides4 ,occasionally single combats1 or duels1 take place1 which always prove fatal to one or the other4 ,instances are known1 in which the bees of one hive plunder the bees of another4 ,in this case a battle generally ensues4 ,and what is more astonishing still1 sometimes the hive-bees will1 five or six of them1 surround an humble-bee1 and rob him of his honey1 as he is returning home of an evening4 ,indeed a whole volume might be written1 and the natural history of the bee not be exhausted4 ,,ants4--,this insect has justly rivalled the bee in the admiration of the philosopher1 and1 on some accounts1 is considered a more interesting creature4 ,the instinct of this creature does not appear so strikingly as that of the bee3 but it exhibits other and higher qualities1 approaching to the cardinal virtues of man3 such as love1 courage1 patience1 perseverance1 c4 ,the proof of all these will be found in the few brief remarks which follow4 ,there are various kinds of ants3 the fallow ant2 the sanguine ant2 the legionary ant2 the white ant1 c4 ,there are some traits common to all3 ,they live in communities2 build cities1 or ant-hills2 and are divided into general classes1 with their appropriate grades and employments1 somewhat similar to bees2 there are males1 females1 and neuters1 or workers4 ,they also resemble the bees in their respect for their matrons or queens2 though they differ in this respect2 they admit of the presence of an indefinite number of queens1 which produces no ill consequences whatever4 ,they all are equally caressed1 and attended4 ,there is a very marked difference between the ant and bee4 ,the queens1 or matrons of the bees remain in their respective hives1 and their presence is necessary to the industry and contentment of the communities4 ,but the matrons or queens of the ants act differently4 ,the male and female ants have wings2 the neuters or workers have not4 ,these generally swarm together between ,july and ,september4 ,they rise from the ant-hill together1 in immense numbers2 sometimes the ants of a whole district collect together and rise in the air1 and seem only to be sporting2 but at this time the females become fecundated4 ,the quantity of ants with wings is so great sometimes1 as1 says ,dr4 ,bromley1 to form a column on the water five or six miles long1 eight or ten feet broad1 and six inches deep1 when they happened to fall into the river4 ,in this general destruction of the winged ants1 some females escape1 which quickly divest themselves of their wings1 form an ant-hill1 and found a new colony by depositing their eggs in it4 ,it is also well ascertained that the working ants do not permit all the females or queens to escape1 but detain some as prisoners1 by cropping their wings4 ,they pay every attention to these royal prisoners guarding them diligently1 and feeding them liberally4 ,when these females drop their eggs1 the workers take them up carefully1 and deposit them in their proper places4 ,these are some of the principal traits common to the ant tribe4 ,a few brief remarks may be made on the principal species4 ,the fallow ant4--,the wars of this insect is the principal thing which can be noticed here4 ,we have a minute detail1 of one long and disastrous battle1 by ,huber4 ,this battle took place between the inhabitants of two neighboring ant-hills3 they met half way3 the battle was commenced by single combatants2 then they fought in pairs on elevated ground2 and finally the battle became general4 ,the attack is generally made by seizing each other by the mandibles1 and rearing up on their hind feet so as to bring their abdomens forward1 from which they eject a pungent poison upon their adversaries1 in order to destroy them4 ,this circumstance gives rise to a pungent smell on the spot4 ,during the combat they are frequently grappled so closely together as to fall on their sides2 and others coming to their assistance the group is locked fast in the struggle4 ,during the action some are found leading away prisoners2 others going as couriers to bring fresh troops to the fight1 and some in the immediate vicinity of the hills keeping guard1 and transacting the common business of the community4 ,the battle occupied a space of about three feet square1 and lasted until the approach of night3 then each party retired2 but was on the spot next morning at dawn of day1 and re-commenced the battle with greater fury1 and carnage4 ,it finally terminated without subverting either republic4 ,it was very remarkable1 says ,huber1 that these ants1 in promiscuous combat1 should know their own party4 ,in a few cases1 for a moment1 friends assailed1 but rectified the error1 instantly1 by caressing4 ,the legionary ant4 ,though the natural history of this insect1 throughout1 is very interesting1 there is place for but one principal fact3 i4e4 their practice of making the formica fusca1 or negro ant1 a slave4 ,this curious fact was first discovered by ,huber1 and has since been confirmed by ,latreille1 and is now admitted readily by naturalists4 ,a campaign1 for the purpose of procuring slaves1 was observed closely by ,huber on the #agth of ,june1 #ahjd4 ,the column was first seen crossing the road1 being about ten inches long and four broad4 ,he followed them until they approached the nest of the negro ant4 ,the centinels on duty gave the alarm1 and the ants rushed out1 and made a spirited resistance to the invaders1 but were finally driven into their house4 ,the legionary ants then rushed forward1 attacked the hill1 and took the little city by assault4 ,they remained in it but a few minutes1 and returned1 each one carrying in his mouth a larva1 or young negro ant1 and scampered home in confusion4 ,they never take the old ants captive1 but the young1 in a state of infancy1 and thus raise them in a state of slavery4 ,the consequence is that they are submissive and affectionate1 and perform with cheerfulness and fidelity all the domestic duties of a legionary city4 ,they provide house and food for their masters1 attend them1 and serve them in every possible way4 ,the sanguine ant is also a slave dealer1 and in the same manner as the legionary4 ,nor is the negro ant the only victim3 the mining ant is also reduced to a state of slavery by the legionary1 and sanguine ants4 ,there remains to be stated another circumstance connected with the natural history of ants1 which would scarcely be credited1 were it not tested by such names as ,linnus1 ,huber1 and ,latreille3 that is1 they keep milch-cows4 ,there are certain insects1 from which they extract a sweet saccharine fluid for food1 as we do milk from cows4 ,the principal insects which are thus used1 are the plant-louse1 and the gall-insect4 ,linnus1 and after him other naturalists1 call these insects the milch-cows of the ants4 ,the fluid issues from the body of the insect through little tubes placed above the abdomen on either side4 ,when no ants are present the plant-lice emit this liquor from their bodies by a jerking motion3 when they are in attendance they suck the juice with great avidity4 ,but what is still more astonishing1 the ants compel their milch-cattle to yield their milk1 by gently patting them on each side with their antenn1 or feelers4 ,this is properly milking them4 ,in addition to this the ants take care to appropriate these milch-cattle to themselves1 by collecting them in herds1 guarding and feeding them4 ,they sometimes make an enclosure around them1 or around the tree or plant on which they find them1 and thus secure them4 ,some herds are owned in common by the ant-hill2 and others appear to belong to individuals4 ,the yellow ant is known to remove these plant-lice from the plants1 and domesticate them in their hillocks for service in winter4 ,in conclusion1 in regard to ants we may mention their ravages committed on property4 ,in the ,east and ,west ,indies they are very destructive4 ,they undermine houses in such a manner as to cause them to fall4 ,some species will devour the wood of a building of small size1 in a single night4 ,and it is remarkable that they make their ravages internally4 ,one would not observe that they had assailed a beam of timber1 unless he should take means to examine its interior4 ,they will devour even the exterior of the timber when they have first coated it over with mud or clay in order to conceal their work4 ,they devour furniture of all kinds1 and completely consume the trees which fall in some countries4 ,the extent of the damage which they can do1 is incalculable4 ,these remarks will show what interest the natural history of insects can inspire4 ,it is not permitted to extend the subject further in a note4 ,the distinction between clean and unclean ,fowls1 made in the ,scriptures1 serves to point out the difference between the two classes of saints and sinners among the human race4 ,those ,fowls were accounted clean1 which are gentle in their nature1 as the ,dove1 and musical in their notes1 as the ,lark2 which qualifications are not to be found among birds of prey1 as the ,ostrich1 ,eagle1 ,vulture1 ,hawk1 ,cormorant1 ,raven1 ,owl1 ,bat1 c4 ,all these1 so far as their instincts and properties are discovered to us1 agree so well with the different characters of men1 to whom in ,scripture they have a symbolical allusion1 that none but the infinitely wise ,creator could have distinguished and applied their several peculiarities with so much simplicity1 brevity1 and propriety4 ,several of the unclean ,fowls feed on filth and dead carcases2 whose 8young ones0 also 8suck up blood1 and where the slain are1 there are they40 ,dr4 ,buchanan1 when at the distance of fifty miles from ,juggernaut1 says1 8,we know that we are approaching ,juggernaut1 by the human bones which we have seen for several days strewed by the way4 ,the ,vultures seem to live here on human prey3 they exhibit a shocking tameness4 ,the obscene animals will not leave the body sometimes till we come close to them4 ,yesterday a woman devoted herself to the idol3 this morning1 as ,i passed the place of skulls1 nothing remained of her but her bones40 ,the unrenewed nature of man is no more offended with evil1 than a vulture is with human flesh1 or a crow is with carrion1 on which it feeds with delight4 ,the unclean ,fowls persecute and devour those of a more gentle nature4 ,the ,eagle1 nesher1 is from nasher to lacerate1 cut1 or tear to pieces2 hence the ,eagle1 a most rapacious bird of prey1 has its name from tearing the flesh of animals it feeds on3 and for this purpose1 birds of prey have1 in general1 strong crooked talons and a hooked beak4 ,the ,eagle is a cruel bird1 exceedingly ravenous1 and almost insatiable4 ,this propensity in birds of prey to seize1 tear1 and devour1 is expressive of the violent and malevolent dispositions of some persons1 who hate and endeavor to injure those who live in the fear of ,god1 and keep his commandments4 ,such were the heathens1 whom ,st4 ,paul has described as 8cruel0 and 8unmerciful1 full of envy1 murder1 and debate10 given up to the vilest passions1 and all the uncleanness of 8dead works40 ,the want of natural affection1 and a right understanding of ,divine things1 among ungodly persons1 is strikingly exhibited in the character of the ,ostrich4 ,this foolish bird1 though it has wings1 is not able to raise itself from the earth1 and is void of that instinctive tenderness1 which other creatures feel for their offspring3 8which leaveth her eggs in the earth1 and warmeth them in the dust1 and forgetteth that the foot may crash them1 or that the wild beast1 may break them4 ,she is hardened against her young ones1 as though they were not hers2 her labor is in vain without fear2 because ,god hath deprived her of wisdom1 neither hath he imparted to her understanding40 ,the ,ostrich lays from thirty to fifty eggs1 not placed1 like those of some other birds1 upon trees1 or in the clefts of rocks1 but in the sand1 forgetting the danger to which they are exposed from the feet of travellers or wild beasts4 ,on the most trivial occasion1 she forsakes her eggs1 or her young ones1 to which1 perhaps1 she never returns2 or1 if she does1 it may be too late1 either to restore life to the one1 or preserve the lives of the other4 ,the prophet1 applying this want of affection1 says1 8,the daughter of my people is cruel1 like the ,ostriches in the wilderness40 ,she is likewise inconsiderate and foolish in her private capacity1 says ,dr4 ,shaw1 particularly in her choice of food1 which is frequently highly detrimental and pernicious to her2 for she swallows every thing greedily and indiscriminately1 whether it be pieces of rags1 leather1 wood1 stone1 or even iron4 ,to secure herself1 she will thrust her head into the shrubs1 though her body1 which1 when standing upright1 is from six to eight feet in height1 from the top of the head to the ground1 be exposed4 ,she has a little head1 and scarcely any brain3 hence historians tell us1 that the emperor ,heliogabalus1 to gratify his luxurious taste1 together with other delicacies1 such as the combs of ,cocks1 the tongues of ,pheasants and ,nightingales1 the eggs of ,partridges1 the heads of ,parrots and ,peacocks1 the brains of ,thrushes1 had likewise served up to him1 at one entertainment1 the heads of six hundred ,ostriches for the sake of the brains2 because1 being so very small1 a less number would not have been sufficient to make a dish4 ,what an affecting emblematical representation is this singular bird of the moral qualifications and habits of ignorant and wicked men6 not to mention the superstitious practice of offering children to ,moloch and other diabolical deities2 the custom of exposing new-born infants in the woods to perish with hunger1 or be devoured by wild beasts2 a practice still tolerated among the idolaters of ,china4 ,the heathen1 who 8did not like to retain ,god in their knowledge1 but became vain in their imaginations1 and their foolish heart was darkened10 were in this respect1 symbolically represented by the tribe of ,owls and ,bats1 and other birds of night1 all of which the law pronounced to be unclean4 ,in the ,owl we have a striking image of the sceptic1 who loves darkness rather than light1 and is more proud of his artificial ignorance than any man ought to be of the most useful knowledge3 who could never find ,divine truth1 because he never loved it2 as the ,owl is offended with that glory which the sun diffuses over the natural creation4 ,as the day has no charms for the ,owl1 so revealed religion has nothing wise or wonderful in its nature and design with the unbelieving philosopher2 who brings with him to the word of ,god all that prejudice with which the ,owl flies out of its retreat into the sun-shine4 ,yet he has his admirers2 as the hooting of the ,owl is music in the ears of another of the same species4 ,this emblematical bird1 when exposed to the light of the sun against his will1 lets down a conspicuous membrane over his eyes1 to guard them from the inconvenient splendor of the orb of day2 as the infidel draws a dark veil of evil reasonings and blasphemous objections over his heart1 to intercept and weaken the effulgent rays of heavenly truth4 ,the ,owl has a natural aversion from the light2 and if he breaks through his ordinary rule1 and settled habit1 so as to appear in the day-time1 he is pursued and reprimanded by other birds1 as one that is a disgrace to their kind4 ,but the birds which thus express their indignation against the ,owl1 never kill him1 being unarmed and inoffensive in their nature4#aef ,so an infidel should not be put to death for his detestable and demoralizing principles2 but all ,christians should agree in giving public notice of him1 and showing the world what he is4 ,for internal realities do not always comport with external appearances4 ,the outward appearance of the ,owl seems to promise a great degree of gravity and wisdom1 while its principles and manners are opposite to the common sense of other birds1 and its office in the creation reduces it to the rank of a common mouse-trap4 ,so the philosophers it represented made a pompous display of reason and learning1 all of which1 so far as they applied these to divinity1 were no better than ignorance and folly4 8,professing themselves to be wise1 they became fools20 and by an unaccountable fatality chose this very bird as the emblem of their wisdom2 which was accordingly held in great veneration at ,athens1 the principal seat of heathen learning1 as the symbol of ,minerva1 the tutelar goddess of that city4 ,the ,bat is a sort of monster1 partaking of the nature of both a bird and a beast1 having feet or claws growing out of its pinions1 and contradicts the general order of nature by creeping with the instruments of its flight4 ,what a contrast between this creature and the ,lark6 8,up-springs the ,lark1 ,shrill-voiced and loud1 the messenger of morn2 ,ere yet the shadows fly1 he1 mounted1 sings ,amid the dawning clouds1 and from their haunts ,calls up the tuneful nations40 ,nothing can be more pleasing1 observes ,goldsmith1 than to see the ,lark warbling upon the wing2 raising its note as it soars1 till it seems lost in the immense heights above us2 the note continuing1 the bird itself unseen2 to see it then descending with a swell as it comes from the clouds1 yet sinking by degrees as it approaches its nest1 the spot where all its affections are centered--the spot which has prompted all this joy4 ,while the ,lark thus mounts on triumphant wings1 soaring up into the heavens with a song of praise to its ,creator1 this little black animal lies sleeping in holes and cracks of decayed edifices2 and if disturbed by any accident1 drops down and crawls upon the earth4 ,when darkness prevails1 it comes forth from its concealment to haunt the cemeteries of the dead1 and desolate places2 as if it purposely avoided the society of all cheerful birds1 and took a delight in associating with ,owls and ,beetles in dark and solitary abodes4 8,the bat is called talaph10 according to ,parkhurst1 8from t to fly1 and laph1 darkness or obscurity1 because it flies about in the dusk of the evening1 and in the night2 so the ,septuagint 1 from 1 the night1 and the ,vulgate1 vespertilio1 from vesper1 the evening40 ,these birds of the night but too appropriately symbolize with persons who love darkness rather than light1 because their deeds are evil4 ,dr4 ,shaw1 speaking of ,ostriches1 says1 8,in the lonesome part of the night they frequently make a very doleful and hideous noise1 sometimes resembling the roar of the ,lion2 at other times the hoarser voices of other quadrupeds1 particularly the ,bull or ,ox40 ,he adds1 8,i have often heard them groan as if in the greatest agonies40 ,thus-- 8,the slaves of excess1 ,their senses to please1 ,whole nights can bestow1 ,and on in a circle of riot they go2 ,poor prodigals1 they ,the night into day ,by revellings turn1 ,and all the restraints of sobriety scorn4 ,the drunkards proclaim ,at midnight their shame1 ,their sacrifice bring1 ,and loud to the praise of their master they sing3 ,the hellish desires ,which satan inspires1 ,in sonnets they breathe1 ,and shouting descend to the regions of death40 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnotes - ,chapter ,,vi #ada ,the great ,greenland ,whale is a large1 heavy animal1 usually found from sixty to seventy feet long4 ,the head alone is equal to a third of its bulk2 and the cleft of the mouth is above twenty feet long4 ,the upper jaw is furnished with barbs1 that lie like the pipes of an organ1 the greatest in the middle1 and the smallest on the sides2 these compose the whale-bone1 the longest spars of which are found to be not less than eighteen feet4 ,the fins on each side are from five to eight feet1 consisting of bones and muscles1 and sufficiently strong to give speed and activity to the great mass of body which they move4 ,the tail is about twenty-four feet broad2 and1 when the fish is on one side1 its blow is tremendous4 ,the skin is smooth and black1 and in some places dappled with white and yellow3 which1 running over the surface1 have a very beautiful effect4 ,the outward or scarf skin is no thicker than parchment2 but this removed1 the real skin appears of about an inch thick1 and covers the fat or blubber that lies beneath3 this is from eight to twelve inches in thickness2 and1 when the fish is in health1 of a beautiful yellow4 ,the muscles lie beneath3 and these1 like the flesh of quadrupeds1 are very red and tough4 #adb ,a variety of opinions we meet with concerning the whale which swallowed ,jonah1 and in whose belly he was three days and three nights4 ,the following is offered by ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke4 8,that a fish of the shark kind1 and not a whale1 is here meant1 ,bochart has abundantly proved1 vol4 iii1 col4 #gdb1 c1 edit1 ,leyd4 #afib4 ,it is well known1 that the throat of a whale is capable of admitting little more than the arm of an ordinary man2 but many of the shark species can swallow a whole man2 and men have been found whole in the stomachs of several4 ,every natural history abounds with facts of this kind4 ,besides1 the shark is a native of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 in which ,jonah was sailing1 when swallowed by what the ,hebrew terms dog gadol1 a great fish2 but every body knows that whales are no produce of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 though some have been by accident found there1 as in most parts of the maritime world3 but let them be found where they may1 there is none of them found capable of swallowing a man40 #adc ,the ,torpedo is formidable1 being well known by the effect it produces when touched3 but the manner of its operating is to this hour a mystery to mankind4 ,such is the unaccountable power it possesses1 that1 the instant it is touched1 it benumbs not only the hand and arm1 but sometimes also the whole body4 ,the shock received1 by all accounts1 much resembles the stroke of an electrical machine2 being sudden1 tingling1 and painful4 8,the instant10 says ,kemfer1 8,i touched it with my hand1 ,i felt a terrible numbness in my arm1 and as far up as the shoulder4 ,even if one tread on it with the shoe on1 it affects not only the leg1 but the whole thigh4 ,those who touch it with the foot1 are seized with a stronger palpitation than even those who touch it with the hand4 ,this numbness bears no resemblance to that which we feel when a nerve is a long time pressed1 and the foot is said to be asleep3 it rather appears like a sudden vapor1 which1 passing through the pores in an instant1 penetrates to the very springs of life2 whence it diffuses itself over the whole body1 and gives real pain4 ,the nerves are so affected1 that the person struck imagines all the bones of his body1 and particularly those of the limb that received the blow1 are driven out of joint4 ,all this is accompanied with an universal tremor1 a sickness of the stomach1 a general convulsion1 and a total suspension of the faculties of the mind40 ,we are in possession of some facts which relate to the manner of its acting4 ,reaumur1 who made several trials on this animal1 has at least convinced the world that it is not necessarily1 but by an effort1 that the ,torpedo benumbs the hand of him that touches it4 ,he tried several times1 and could easily tell when the fish intended the stroke1 and when it would continue harmless4 ,always before the fish meditated the stroke1 it flattened the back1 raised the head and the tail2 and then by a violent contraction in the opposite side1 struck with its back against the pressing finger2 while the body1 which before was flat1 became humped and round4 ,the most probable solution of this phenomenon is1 that it depends on electricity4 ,when the fish is dead1 the whole power is destroyed1 and it may be handled1 or eaten with perfect security4 #add ,a large herring-fishery is carried on at ,douglas1 in the ,isle of ,man4 ,herrings are so abundant in the neighborhood of ,gottenburgh1 that #bjj1jjj barrels1 on an average1 are salted there every year1 and about #djj1jjj are employed in making train oil4 ,besides these1 #ej1jjj barrels are consumed fresh in the country1 or sent to ,denmark4 ,allowing #a1bjj fish to each barrel1 in this district alone1 about #ghj1jjj1jjj of herrings are caught in a season4 ,in the year #aggf1 #ef1jjj barrels were sent to ,ireland1 and thence exported to the ,west ,indies4 #ade ,the ,indians of ,jamaica and ,cuba 7says ,oviedo7 go a fishing with the ,remora1 or ,sucking-,fish1 which they employ as falconers employ hawks4--,this fish1 which is not above a span long1 is kept for the purpose1 and regularly fed4 ,the owner1 on a calm morning1 carries it out to sea1 secured to his canoe by a small but strong line1 many fathoms in length2 and the moment the creature sees a fish in the water1 though at a great distance1 it darts away with the swiftness of an arrow1 and soon fastens upon it4 ,the ,indian1 in the mean time1 loosens and lets go the line1 which is provided with a buoy that keeps on the surface of the sea1 and serves to mark the course which the ,remora has taken1 and pursues it in his canoe until he conceives his game to be nearly exhausted and run down3 he then1 taking up the buoy1 gradually draws the line towards the shore2 the ,remora still adhering with inflexible tenacity to its prey2 and it is with great difficulty that he is made to quit this hold4 ,by this method 7adds ,oviedo7 ,i have known a turtle caught1 of a bulk and weight which no single man could support4--,edward's ,west ,indies1 vol4 i4 p4 #ajj4 #adf ,a species of sea turtle1 weighing #hdj lb4 was harpooned and caught on the #bgth of ,september1 #ahaa1 off ,sandy ,hook1 near ,new-,york4 ,it measured three feet two inches round the neck1 was seven feet long1 eight feet in circumference1 and seven feet and a half from the extremity of one fin to the other3 of a coal black color1 with five black ridges on the back resembling the sturgeon4 ,it is said to be a trunk turtle1 a native of the ,east ,indies1 and was the first ever seen in the ,american seas4 ,the proprietor of a museum purchased it for fifty dollars4 #adg ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 when in ,india1 formed en acquaintance with an intelligent and respectable ,brahmin4 ,the religion of these men permits them not to destroy life1 nor to swallow any creature which has possessed it2 and so strict are some1 that in the season when insects abound1 they cover their mouths and nostrils1 and sweep the ground on which they walk with a soft broom1 that they may not tread on them4 ,sir ,william had a solar microscope sent from ,england1 and showing it to his ,hindoo friend1 demonstrated the impossibility of his eating even fruit and vegetables without swallowing the animalcules which adhere to them4 ,the ,brahmin was astonished and seemed gratified2 but begged importunately for the microscope1 so importunately1 that1 at length1 ,sir ,william reluctantly resigned it to him4 ,a momentary gleam of joy flashed across the ,brahmin's countenance2 and1 grasping the instrument1 he immediately descended from the viranda1 where they were conversing1 into the garden1 when1 seizing a stone1 he instantly smashed it to pieces4 ,on assigning his reason for this act1 which he did a few days afterwards1 when his friend's anger had subsided1 he said1 8,oh that ,i had remained in that happy state of ignorance wherein you first found me6 ,yet will ,i confess1 that1 as my knowledge increased1 so did my pleasure1 until ,i beheld the last wonders of the microscope4 ,from that moment ,i have been tormented by doubt1 and perplexed by mystery3 my mind1 overwhelmed by chaotic confusion1 knows not where to rest1 nor how to extricate itself from such a maze4 ,i am miserable1 and must continue so to be1 until ,i enter on another stage of existence4 ,i am a solitary individual1 among fifty millions of people1 all educated in the same belief with myself1 all happy in their ignorance6 ,so may they ever remain6 ,i shall keep the secret within my own bosom1 where it will corrode my peace1 and break my rest2 but ,i shall have some satisfaction in knowing that ,i alone feel those pangs which1 had ,i not destroyed the instrument1 might have been extensively communicated1 and rendered thousands miserable6 ,forgive me1 my valuable friend1 and1 oh1 convey no more implements of knowledge and destruction60 ,these religious prejudices1 which cannot bear the light of sound philosophy1 we perceive to be the results of lamentable ignorance and degrading superstitions1 and it may be hoped will soon be removed by the cultivation of science1 and especially the dissemination of the ,scriptures4 ,the missionaries now in the ,east will certainly be of very singular use to the natives4 #adh ,m4 de ,saussure1 in a letter to ,bonnet1 says1 8,infusion-animalcules multiply by continued divisions and sub-divisions4 ,those roundish or oval animalcules that have no beak or hook on the fore part of their bodies1 divide transversely4 ,a kind of stricture of strangulation begins about the middle of the body1 which gradually increases1 till the two parts adhere by a small thread only4 ,then both parts make repeated efforts1 till the division is completed4 ,for some time after separation1 the two animals remain in seemingly torpid state4 ,they afterwards begin to swim about briskly4 ,each part is only one half the size of the whole3 but they soon acquire the magnitude peculiar to the species1 and multiply by similar divisions4 ,to obviate every doubt1 ,i put a single animalcule into a drop of water1 which split before my eyes4 ,next day1 ,i had five2 the day after1 sixty2 and1 on the third day1 their number was so great1 that it was impossible to count them40--,la ,palingenesie ,philosophique1 par ,c4 ,bonnet1 tom4 i4 pp4 #dbh1 #dbi4 #adi ,see ,bryant's ,observations upon the ,plagues inflicted upon the ,egyptians1 ,part ,i4 #aej ,see ,jones's ,disquisition concerning clean and unclean ,animals4 #aea ,nicholas1 in his voyage to ,new-,zealand1 vol4 i1 p4 #ccd1 says1 8,the morning of the #ajth of ,january1 #ahae1 was announced to our enraptured ears by the swelling notes of the woodland choristers1 and never either before or since did ,i hear such delightful harmony4 ,rising together at an early hour1 we fancied ourselves for the moment in some enchanted ground1 while the forest seemed to ring with the mellow warblings of nature1 and a thousand feathered songsters poured their soft throats in responsive melody4 ,there was1 however1 one bird that was distinguished from all the rest1 as well by the compass and variety of its notes1 as by their incomparable sweetness4 ,this bird1 which has been brought to ,port ,jackson1 and highly prized there1 is called by the colonists the organ-bird1 and is1 ,i believe1 peculiar to ,new-,zealand3 the notes of the ,nightingale1 however exquisite1 are1 in my opinion1 much inferior to the song of this bird2 and ,i never thought before that either the grove or forest could boast of such a vocal treasure40 #aeb ,a ,martin recently fixed her nest directly over the window of the ,inn at ,rampside1 in ,low ,farnes4 ,after her young were hatched1 she became a very troublesome visitant1 by throwing the cleansing of her nest upon the window4 ,the servant-maid1 with more attention to cleanliness than humanity1 removed the little inconvenience by destroying the nest with a broom4 ,the young birds of course fell to the ground2 in the mean time the parents collected a great number of their own species1 who quickly built a second nest1 sufficiently commodious for the reception of the distressed family1 and the young were safely conveyed to their new lodgings by the parents and their assistants4 #aec ,dr4 ,edmonston1 in his view of the ,zetland islands1 says1 8,the white-tailed ,eagle1 or ,erne1 boldly attacks fishes of the largest size4 ,several desperate combats have been witnessed between this bird and the ,halibut4 ,the former strikes his claws into the fish with all his force1 determined not to relinquish his hold1 and1 although but rarely1 is sometimes drowned in the attempt to carry off his prize4 ,when he has overcome the ,halibut1 he raises one of his wings1 which serves as a sail1 and if favored by the wind1 in that attitude drifts towards the land4 ,the moment he touches the shore1 he begins to eat out and disengage his claws2 but if discovered before this can be effected he falls an easy prey to the first assailant40 #aed ,bellonius says1 8,the ,storks come to ,egypt in such abundance1 that the fields and meadows1 are white with them4 ,yet the ,egyptians are not displeased with this sight2 as frogs are generated in such numbers there1 that did not the ,storks devour them1 they would over-run every thing4 ,besides1 they also catch and eat ,serpents4 ,between ,belha and ,gaza1 the fields of ,palestine are often desert on account of the abundance of ,mice and ,rats2 and were they not destroyed by the ,falcons that come here by instinct1 the inhabitants could have no harvest40 #aee ,dr4 ,edmonston says3--8,the crows generally appear in pairs1 even during winter1 except when attracted to a spot in search of food1 or when they assemble for the purpose of holding what is called the ,crow's court4 ,this latter institution exhibits a curious fact in their history4 ,numbers are seen to assemble on a particular hill or field1 from many different points4 ,on some occasions the meeting does not appear to be complete before the expiration of a day or two4 ,as soon as all the deputies have arrived1 a very general noise and croaking ensue1 and1 shortly after1 the whole fall upon one or two individuals1 whom they persecute and beat until they kill them4 ,when this has been accomplished1 they quietly disperse40 ,on the subject of ,gulls1 ,dr4 ,edmonston says3--8,in the affectionate care of their offspring1 these ,gulls display great sagacity and even foresight4 ,when the cradle at ,noss is about to be slung1 the gulls1 aware of the approaching capture of their young1 are unremitting in their efforts to carry them off4 ,from the first moment that they observe preparations making to enter the holm1 they become noisy and restless1 ---- #8and chide1 exhort1 command1 ,or push them off1' so that if bad weather delay the arranging of the cradle1 but for a few days1 scarcely any are left to be taken away4 8,this bird is a great enemy to the fowler1 by intimating to other birds his approach4 ,one of them is an inseparable attendant on the ,scarfs1 when they assemble on the rocks for the purpose of drying and resting themselves2 and they seem sensible of the good offices of this voluntary guardian1 by quietly receiving it among them1 and obeying its friendly admonitions4--,on the approach of a person from the shore1 or of a boat1 the ,gull having first testified marks of anxiety and apprehension1 flies off before either have approached within gunshot1 and all the ,scarfs1 except those who are young and inexperienced1 follow4 ,it not merely contents itself with giving them warning in due time1 but urges their departure by repeated calls1 and sits down in the water1 at a considerable distance from the spot from which it fled1 as if intending to point out the place where they may consider themselves in safety2 and they generally all repair to the same place4 ,to the ,seal this bird is of essential service4 ,these animals frequently lie upon the rocks for hours in succession1 and so well acquainted are some sportsmen with their haunts1 that they raise small bulwarks1 or rests1 to conceal their approach1 or wait their arrival behind a rock4 ,the ,gull1 however1 frustrates all these precautions1 by first flying over the head of the hunter1 and then screaming close to the ,seal2 and1 when the latter is not disposed to avail himself at once of this friendly intimation1 ,i have known them strike him on the head with their feet4 ,as soon as he slips into the water they appear to be perfectly satisfied1 as if they then conceived him in a situation to protect himself4 8,the ,gull seems to consider itself the natural guardian of the coast4 ,if it spies a person at a distance1 walking in a cautious manner1 in the neighborhood of any bird1 it instantly repairs to the spot1 and by a keen acute cry1 different from the common note1 endeavors to inform it of the approaching danger4 ,ducks and ,curlews know the hint quite well1 and almost always take advantage of it1 and fly off long before the fowler can arrive within gun-shot of them4 ,on these occasions it often comes with a sweep1 as if intending to strike the person1 who by that means is kept in a state of constant alarm and irritation2 but if it do not immediately fly off1 after having succeeded in accomplishing the object of its mission1 this officious interference not unfrequently draws the vengeance of the fowler on itself1 and it falls the victim of its own good intentions4 ,this ,gull is not satisfied with having alarmed birds on any particular occasion4 ,it does indeed fly to a distance and sit down1 but after its anxiety has been once roused1 it never loses sight of the fowler1 but follows him at a distance wherever he goes1 and unless by pretended inactivity the sportsman can quiet the apprehension of his enemy1 it is in vain to think of getting within reach of any bird that is naturally shy and of a timid disposition4 ,the scream of this bird is peculiarly wild1 and indicative of anxious impatience40 #aef ,hasselquist1 speaking of the ,strix ,orientalis1 or ,oriental ,owl1 says1 8,it is of the size of the common owl1 living in the ruins of old deserted houses of ,egypt and ,syria2 and sometimes in inhabited houses4 ,the ,arab in ,egypt calls it ,massasa1 the ,syrians ,bana4 ,it is very ravenous in ,syria1 and in the evenings1 if the windows be left open1 it flies into houses1 and kills infants1 unless they are carefully watched2 wherefore the women are much afraid of it40--,travels1 p4 #aif4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,sixth ,,day4 ,section ,i4--,,on ,,quadrupeds ,,and ,,reptiles4 ,quadrupeds in general -- ,motion -- ,habits -- ,rumination -- ,proportion -- ,tastes -- ,clothing -- ,weapons -- ,proportionate ,number -- ,faculties -- ,reptiles -- ,religious ,improvement4 ,on the sixth day all terrestrial animals were formed4 8,and ,god said1 ,let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind1 cattle1 and creeping thing1 and beast of the earth after his kind1 and it was so4 ,and ,god made the beast of the earth after his kind1 and cattle after their kind1 and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind40 ,according to ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 the words nephesh chaiyah1 translated living creature1 are a general term used to express all creatures endued with animal life1 in any of its infinitely varied gradations2 from the half-reasoning elephant down to the stupid potto1 or lower still1 even to the polype1#aeg which seems equally to share the vegetable and animal life4 ,the word chaiyeto1 translated beast1 and by ,mr4 ,parkhurst1 rendered wild beasts1 seems to signify all wild animals1 as the ,lion1 the ,tiger1 the ,panther1 the ,lynx1 the ,hyna1 c1 and especially such as are carnivorous1 or subsist on flesh4 behemah1 which we translate cattle1 probably means those of the domestic species1 such as are graminivorous1 or live on grass and other vegetables2 and are capable of being tamed1 and applied to domestic purposes4 ,the word properly means beasts1 and is so understood by the ,seventy1 whose interpretation of the words of ,job is1 8,behold the beasts with thee1 they eat grass like oxen40 ,according to ,ab1 ,ezra1 and the ,targum1 it is the 8name of any great beast40 ,but ,r4 ,levi says1 that it is 8an animal peculiarly called by that name40 ,the ,hebrew behemah1 says ,buxtorf1 is taken in the singular number for the ,elephant1 because of its vast greatness4 ,ainsworth says1 the word generally implies all large beasts2 and of this classification the ,elephant is called ,behemoth4 8,behold now ,behemoth1 which ,i made with thee2 he eateth grass as an ox40 ,the word here is plural1 and signifies beasts2 but in this passage one particular beast is meant1 for it is usual with the ,hebrews or ,jews to express great and excellent things by words in the plural number4 ,though some later and very learned men take the ,leviathan to be the ,crocodile1 and the ,behemoth to be a creature called the ,hippopotamus1 or river-horse1 yet says ,henry1 8,i confess ,i see no reason to depart from the opinion1 that it is the ,elephant that is here described1 which is a very strong1 stately creature1 of a very large stature1 above any other1 and of wonderful sagacity1 and of such reputation in the animal kingdom1 that1 among so many four-footed beasts as we have had the natural history of1 ,job chap4 xxxviii1 xxxix1 we can scarce suppose this should be omitted40#aeh ,the ,elephant may be thus denominated from its great bulk and strength4 ,he is the largest of all land animals4 ,pliny tells us1 that the ,elephants in ,india are thirteen feet and a half high1 and have two teeth of such enormous size that the ,indians use them for posts to their houses3 those of the male being six or seven feet long1 while those of the female do not exceed one foot4 8,peaceful1 beneath primeval trees that cast ,their ample shade o'er ,niger's yellow stream1 ,and where the ,ganges rolls his sacred wave1 ,or mid the central depth of blackening woods1 ,high rais'd in solemn theatre around1 ,leans the ,,huge ,,elephant40 ,his strength is also equal to that of many beasts4 8,his bones are as strong as pieces of brass2 his bones are like bars of iron40 ,some historians say1 that in time of war people used to erect wooden towers on the backs of ,elephants1 and from these elevated forts men combated with their enemies4 ,it is said that ,antiochus had a great number of these huge animals with towers constructed upon them1 in each of which were thirty-two men armed4 8,he is the chief of the ways of ,god30 that is1 a signal instance of ,divine power and wisdom1 the most excellent of all mere animals1 in size1 strength1 understanding1 and sagacity4 ,none of the beasts is more prudent1 says ,strabo3 none of them approaches nearer to man in his capacity1 says ,pliny4 8,he moveth his tail like a cedar40 ,as his tail is not proportional to the bulk of his body1 many understand by this term his proboscis or trunk4 ,the original word here rendered tail1 signifies properly the extreme part of a thing2 hence it is as applicable to his trunk1 which hangs like a tail1 though placed at the opposite extremity of his body4 ,this he 8moveth0 with amazing dexterity1 and1 at pleasure1 can stretch it out1 and erect it like a 8cedar0 growing out of a mountain4--8,behold1 he drinketh up a river1 and hasteth not3 he trusteth that he can drink up ,jordan into his mouth40 ,he being naturally of a hot constitution1 and generally inhabiting hot climates1 requires much liquid4 ,his 8drinking up a river10 is a hyperbolical expression implying his ardent thirst3 and 8hasteth not10 signifies his reluctance to quit the stream till his parching desire be fully satiated4 ,his 8trusting0 that he can drink the river 8,jordan0 dry1 is also an hyperbolical term to express his copious draughts4 8,he eateth grass as an ox1 the mountains bring him forth food20 which he gathers1 collects1 and conveys to his mouth with his long trunk4 ,he resides 8where all the beasts of the field play40 ,so harmless is this strong animal1 that the inferior part of the brute creation are not intimidated at his presence1 but graze with him upon the mountains1 and sport themselves about him in the plain1 apprehending no danger from him4 ,how wondrous are the works of ,god6 in which are no less evinced the effects of his power1 than the displays of his wisdom4 ,the word cattle1 also includes ,horses1 ,kine1 ,sheep1 ,dogs1 c4 ,quadrupeds enjoy many advantages above the lower tribes of the animal creation4 ,they rank higher than the class of ,birds1 by bringing forth their young alive2 they are superior to that of ,fishes1 by respiration through their lungs2 they are exalted above the order of ,insects1 by a circulation of red blood through their veins2 and they differ almost from every other description of creatures1 being either wholly or in part covered with hair4 ,what admirable wisdom is displayed in the motion of animals1 suited to their various occasions6 ,reptiles1 to which a clod1 a plant1 a tree1 or a hole1 will afford the means of supporting life1 and which protracted privations of food do not materially affect1 require no legs to make extensive excursions1 but their vermicular motion is adequate to every essential purpose4 ,beasts1 whose necessities call for a larger sphere1 possess accordingly a swifter motion2 and this is imparted in various degrees1 suitable to their range for food1 and adapted to accelerate their speed in escaping from their enemies4 ,in the motion of animals1 from the largest ,elephant to the smallest ,mite1 the whole body is exactly balanced4 ,the head is not too heavy1 nor too light for its kindred parts1 nor they for it4 ,the bowels hang not loose1 nor are so placed as to over-balance1 or upset the system2 but well-braced1 and accurately distributed to maintain an equipoise4 ,the most active members also are admirably well fixed1 in respect to the centre of gravity1 being placed in the very point which best serves to support and convey the body4 ,every leg bears its share of the weight4 ,the mouths of animals are nicely adapted to their different habits of life4 ,the ,ox1 the ,deer1 the ,horse1 and the ,sheep1 have full lips1 rough tongues1 broad cutting teeth1 corrugated cartilaginous palates1 which qualify them for browsing1 either by gathering large mouthfuls where the grass is long1 or biting close where it is short4 ,in those which subsist on flesh1 the teeth are sharp1 and calculated to hold and divide their food4 ,the bore of the gullet in animals is answerable to their necessities4 ,in a ,fox1 which feeds on bones1 it is very large4 ,but in a ,squirrel it is exceedingly small1 which prevents him from disgorging his meat in his descending leaps3 and it is equally contracted in ,rats and ,mice1 which run along walls with their heads downward4 ,in all animals1 the strength and size of their stomachs are proportioned to the nature and quantity of their food4 ,those whose aliment is more tender and nutritive1 have them smaller1 thinner1 and weaker3 whereas they are large and strong in those whose food is less nutritive1 and whose bodies require greater supplies4 ,carnivorous beasts have their stomachs small and glandular1 as flesh is the most nutritious4 ,those that derive their support from fruits and roots have them of a middle size3 while on the contrary1 ,sheep and ,oxen1 which feed on grass1 have the largest stomachs2 and those which ruminate have in general no less than four2 in ,africa1 where the plants are nutritive1 some of this class have only two4 ,yet the ,horse1 ,hare1 and ,rabbit1 though graminivorous1 have comparatively small stomachs4 ,the ,horse is made for labor1 and both he and the ,hare are constructed for quick and continued motion2 for these the most easy respiration1 also the freest action of the diaphragm1 is requisite4 ,but this could not be1 did the stomach lie heavy and cumbersome upon it1 as in ,sheep and ,oxen4 ,another very remarkable circumstance is1 that those animals which have teeth on both jaws1 possess but one stomach2 whereas most of those which have no upper teeth1 or no teeth at all1 have three stomachs4 ,for the meat which is first chewed1 is easily digested2 but that which it swallowed whole1 requires a stronger concoctive power4 ,the ,horse eats night and day1 slowly1 but almost continually3 whereas the ,ox eats quickly1 and takes1 in a short time1 all the food nature requires2 and then lies down to ruminate4 ,this difference arises from the different conformation of these animals4 ,the ,ox1 of whose stomachs the first two form but one capacious bag1 can1 at the same time1 receive grass into both of them1 without inconvenience1 which he afterwards ruminates and digests at leisure4 ,the ,horse1 whose stomach is small1 and can receive but a small quantity of grass1 is filled successively in proportion as he digests it2 and it passes into the intestines1 where is performed the principal decomposition of the food4 ,chewing the cud is but a vomiting without straining1 occasioned by a re-action of the first stomach on the food which it contains4 ,the ,ox fills the first two stomachs1 the paunch1 and the bag1 which is but a portion of the paunch4 ,this membrane acts with force on the grass it contains2 it is chewed but a little1 and its quantity is greatly increased by fermentation4 ,were the food liquid1 this force of contraction would occasion it to pass by the third stomach1 which only communicates with the other by a narrow conveyance1 and cannot admit such dry food1 or1 at least1 can only admit the moistened parts4 ,the food must1 therefore1 necessarily pass up again into the sophagus1 the orifice of which is larger than the orifice of the conduit1 and the animal again chews and macerates it1 and moistens it afresh with its saliva3 he reduces it to a paste1 sufficiently liquid to enter into this conduit1 through which it passes into the third stomach1 where it is again macerated before it goes into the fourth2 and it is in this last receptacle that the decomposition of the hay is finished1 which is reduced to a perfect mucilage4 ,what chiefly confirms this explication is1 that as long as the animals suck1 and are fed with milk and other liquid aliments1 they do not chew the cud2 and that they chew the cud much more in winter1 when they are fed with dry food1 than in summer1 when they eat tender grass4 ,all the parts of the same animal are adopted to each other4 ,so1 for instance1 the length of the neck is always proportioned to that of the legs4 ,though the ,elephant has a short neck1 because the weight of his head and teeth would otherwise have been insupportable2 but1 then1 he is provided with a trunk1 which abundantly supplies the defect4 ,in other beasts1 the neck is always commensurate to the legs2 so that they which have long legs have necks proportioned2 and so vice versa1 as is observable in ,lizards of all kinds1 even from the ,eft to the ,crocodile4 ,and creatures that have no legs1 as they want no necks1 so they have none4 ,this equality between the length of the neck and legs is peculiarly seen in beasts that feed on grass1 in which these are very nearly equal2 because the neck must necessarily have some advantage1 for it cannot hang perpendicularly1 but must incline a little4 ,these creatures1 while feeding1 bend their heads downward for a considerable time1 which would be very laborious and painful to the muscles1 were it not for a very stiff1 strong cartilage1 placed on each side of the neck1 capable of stretching and shrinking again as need requires1 which butchers call pax-wax4 ,the one end of this is attached to the head1 and the next vertebr of the neck2 and the other is knit to the middle vertebr of the back3 and by the assistance of this1 animals are able to hold the head in that inclining posture all day long4 ,the head being placed at the end of a long lever1 in a direction nearly perpendicular to the joints of the neck1 would be in constant danger of dislocation from its own weight1 had not such a substance been added1 which1 by its great strength and toughness1 retains the parts together1 while1 by its pliancy1 it offers no obstruction to the free motion of the neck and head4 ,the members of animals are exactly adapted to their manner of living4 ,a ,swine1 whose natural food is chiefly the roots of plants1 is provided with a snout2 long1 that he may thrust it to a convenient depth in the ground without injuring his eyes2 and strong and suitably formed1 for rooting and turning up the earth3 therefore the retiring under-jaw works after the manner of a plough-share1 and makes its way to the food3 and besides1 his scent is extremely acute in discovering such roots as are fit for him4 ,hence in ,italy1 the usual way of finding truffles1 or subterraneous mushrooms1 is by tying a cord to the hind leg of a pig1 and driving him into pastures4 ,they who attend then mark where he stops and begins to root1 and digging there1 are sure to find a truffle4 ,so in pastures where there are earth-nuts1 though their roots are deep in the ground1 and the leaves are quite gone1 the ,swine will find them by their scent1 and root only in the places where they grow4#aei ,in some animals the head is long1 in order to give room for the olfactory nerves1 as in ,dogs1 which hunt by scent4 ,in others1 it is short1 as in the ,lion1 to give him the greater strength4 ,in beasts of prey1 as ,lions1 ,tigers1 ,wolves1 they have the trumpet-part or concavity of the ear standing forward1 to meet the sound of the animals before them1 which they pursue or watch4 ,the ears of animals of flight are turned backward1 to apprize them of the approach of the pursuing enemy1 lest he should assail them unseen4 ,beasts of prey have their feet armed with claws1 which some can sheath and unsheath at pleasure4 ,the ,babyrouessa1 or ,indian ,stag1 a species of ,wild-,boar1 found in the ,east ,indies1 has two bent teeth more than half a yard long1 growing upward1 and1 which is very singular1 from the upper jaw4 ,these instruments are not wanted for defence1 that service being provided for by two tusks issuing from the under jaw1 and resembling those of the common ,boar3 nor does the animal thus use them4 ,they might seem therefore both superfluous and cumbersome3 however1 they have their utility2 for this animal sleeps standing1 and1 in order to support its head1 hooks its upper tusks upon the branches of trees4 ,in the ,mole we find a most scrupulous attention to the habits of the animal4 ,it has short legs1 feet armed with sharp nails1 a pig-like nose1 a velvet coat1 a small external ear1 a sunk protracted eye1 all which are conducing to utility and safety4 ,its feet are like so many shovels1 placed in so peculiar a manner as to enable the animal to remove the earth on each side1 and throw it backwards4 ,the cylindrical figure of the ,mole1 as well as the compactness of its form1 arising from the terseness of its limbs1 proportionably lessen its labor2 because its bulk requires the least possible quantity of earth to facilitate its progress4 ,the structure of its face and jaws is similar to those of a ,swine1 and equally adapted to work in the ground4 ,the nose is sharp1 slender1 tendinous1 and strong4 ,the plush covering1 which1 by the smoothness1 closeness1 and polish of the short piles that compose it1 rejects the cohesion of almost every species of earth1 defends the animal from cold and wet1 and from the impediment which it would otherwise experience by the adhesion of mould to its body4 ,being subterraneous1 of all animals it comes out from soils of all kinds the brightest and cleanest4 ,but its eyes are most to be admired4 ,this animal occasionally visiting the surface of the earth1 self-security required a perception of light4 ,the ,mole did not need large eyes to compass a great range of vision2 and prominent eyes would have been less easily defended1 whilst working under ground4 ,to reconcile these inconveniences1 these eyes are scarcely larger than the head of a corking pin2 and these globules are so sunk in the skull1 and sheltered with the velvet of their covering1 that any contraction of the eye-brows1 not only closes up the apertures1 but offers a cushion to prevent any sharp or protruding substance from injuring them4 ,these apertures in their open state1 are like pin-holes in velvet1 scarcely pervious to loose pieces of earth4#afj ,the different tastes of animals show the wise economy of nature4 ,oxen delight in low grounds1 because they afford the most palatable food4 ,sheep prefer barren hills1 on which is produced a particular kind of grass called festuca1 which they highly relish4 ,goats climb up the precipices of mountains1 that they may browse on the tender shrubs2 and accordingly have their feet constructed for jumping4 ,horses1 not in a state of domestication1 chiefly resort to woods1 and feed on leafy plants4 ,nay1 so various are the appetites of animals1 that there is scarcely any plant which is not chosen by some1 and left untouched by others4 ,the ,horse resigns the ,water-,hemlock to the ,goat2 the ,cow gives up the ,monks-,hood to the ,horse2 for that on which some animals grow fat1 others abhor as poison4--,hence no plant is absolutely poisonous1 but only respectively4 ,thus the ,spurge1 that is noxious to man1 is a most wholesome nourishment to the ,caterpillar4 ,that animals may not destroy themselves for want of knowing this law of nature1 they are guarded by such a delicacy of taste and smell1 that thus they can easily distinguish what is pernicious from what is wholesome2 and when different animals subsist on the same plants1 one kind always leaves something for the other1 as the mouths of all are not equally adapted to lay hold on the grass2 hence there is sufficient food for all4#afa ,the leaves and fruits of trees are intended as food for some animals1 such as the ,sloth and ,squirrel2 the latter of which has feet adapted for climbing4 ,the ,camel frequents the sandy and burning deserts1 in order to obtain the barren produce of those soils4 ,how wisely has the ,creator provided for him6 he is obliged to traverse those trackless wastes where frequently no water is found for many miles4 ,other animals1 so circumstanced1 would perish with thirst3 but he can endure it without much inconvenience2 his belly being full of cells1 where he reserves water for many days4#afb ,quadrupeds are furnished with such clothing as is suitable to their various offices4 ,to beasts1 hair is a commodious covering1 which1 together with the texture of their skins1 fits them in all sorts of weather to lie on the ground1 and to render service to man4 ,the thick and warm fleeces of others are a good defence against the cold and wet1 and also a soft bed2 and to many1 a comfortable shelter for their tender young4 ,all the animals near ,hudson's ,bay are covered with a close1 soft1 warm fur2 and1 what is very surprising1 and shows the wisdom and goodness of ,divine providence1 the ,dogs and ,cats which are taken thither from ,england1 on the approach of winter1 change their appearance1 and acquire a much longer1 softer1 and thicker coat of hair than they originally had4 ,many animals are armed with weapons of self-defence1 some of which are used for the destruction of others4 ,nay1 we scarcely know an animal which has not some enemy to contend with4 ,wild beasts are the most pernicious and dangerous enemies4 ,but1 that they may not1 by too atrocious a butchery1 destroy a whole species1 even these are circumscribed within certain bounds4 ,as to the most fierce of all1 it deserves to be noted1 how few they are in proportion to other animals4 ,the number of them is not equal in all countries4 ,these fierce animals sometimes destroy one another4 ,thus the ,wolf devours the ,fox4 ,the ,dog infests both the ,wolf and ,fox4 ,the ,tiger often kills its own male whelps4 ,and wild beasts seldom arrive at so great an age1 as animals which live on vegetables4 ,for they are subject1 from their alkaline diet1 to various diseases1 which tend to accelerate their death3 while the ,elephant1 which feeds on vegetables1 is fifty or sixty years before he attains his full strength1 is in the highest state of vigor at about a hundred1 and lives two or three hundred years4 ,but1 though animals are infested by their peculiar enemies1 yet they frequently elude their violence by stratagems and force4 ,thus the ,hare1 by her doublings1 often confounds the ,dog4 ,when the ,bear attacks ,sheep and ,cattle1 these flock together for mutual defence4 ,horses join heads together1 and fight with their heels4 ,oxen join tails1 and fight with their horns4 ,swine unite in herds1 and boldly oppose themselves to any attack1 so that they are not easily overcome3 and1 what is remarkable1 all of them place their young1 as less able to defend themselves1 in the middle1 that they may remain safe during the battle4 ,some animals consult their safety by night4 ,when ,horses sleep in woods1 one by turn remains awake1 and1 as it were1 keeps watch4 ,when ,monkeys1 in ,brazil1 sleep on trees1 one of them keeps awake1 in order to give the sign when the ,tiger creeps toward them2 and in case the guard should be caught asleep1 the rest tear him in pieces4 ,divine ,providence is evidently displayed in keeping a just proportion amongst all the different species of animals3 this prevents any one of them from increasing too rapidly1 to the detriment of others4 ,for the produce of the ground would be insufficient for the support of the animal creation1 were their increase not regulated and limited by the over-ruling power of ,god4 ,to which we may add1 that1 if some animals did not feed on others1 the earth would be annoyed with putrified bodies4 ,therefore1 when an animal dies1 ,bears1 ,wolves1 ,foxes1 c1 expeditiously take the whole of it away4 ,but if a horse die near a public road1 in a few days he is swoln1 burst1 and at last filled with innumerable grubs of carnivorous ,flies1 by which his flesh is soon entirely consumed1 and so does not become a nuisance to passengers by his poisonous stench4 ,thus the earth is not only kept clean from the putrefaction of dead carcases1 but at the same time1 by this economy of nature1 the necessaries of life are provided for many animals4 ,though animals should not die a violent death1 still their powers only continue for a limited time3 they have their determinate periods of growth1 perfection1 and decay3 hence it becomes necessary that one race should succeed and replace another1 and for this purpose they are endowed with a power of procreation4 ,the formation of the ftus1 the manner of its existence1 and the growth of its parts1 are great secrets of nature2 and in all viviparous animals1 the milk found in the female parent is a maintenance ready for the young animal1 the moment it enters the world4 ,we have here1 the nutritious quality of the fluid--the organ for its reception and retention--the excretory duct1 annexed to that organ--and the determination of the milk to the breast1 at the particular juncture when it is about to be wanted4 ,the advanced pregnancy of the female has no intelligible tendency to fill the breasts with milk4 ,the lacteal system is a constant wonder3 and it adds to other causes of our admiration1 that the number of the teats or paps in each species is found to bear a proportion to the number of the young4 ,in the ,sow1 the ,bitch1 the ,rabbit1 the ,cat1 the ,rat1 which have numerous litters1 the paps are numerous1 and are disposed along the whole length of the belly3 in the ,cow and ,mare1 they are few4#afc ,and the teats of animals which give suck are exactly adapted to the mouth1 particularly to the lips and tongue1 of the suckling progeny4 ,herodotus observes1 that the most useful animals are the most fruitful in their generation3 whereas the species of those beasts that are fierce and mischievous to mankind are but scarcely continued4 ,the historian instances in a ,hare1 which is always either breeding or bringing forth2 and a ,lioness1 which bears but once and then loses all power of conception4 ,it is evident that animals have not only a principle of self-motion1 but are endued with a degree of understanding2 and have a will1 including various passions4 ,what then produces the disparity between men and brutes1 the line which they cannot pass8 ,it is not understanding3 who can say that brutes have not this8 ,we may as well assert that they have not sight1 nor hearing4 ,but the difference consists in this3 man is capable of knowing and enjoying ,god2 the inferior creatures are not4 ,this is the specific difference between the two3 the great gulf which the brute cannot pass over4 ,we meet with a striking instance not only of industry1 but understanding in ,beavers4 ,in the northern parts of ,america1 during the months of ,june and ,july1 they assemble1 and form a society1 which generally consists of more than two hundred4 ,they always fix their abode by the side of a lake or river2 and in order to make a stagnant water above and below1 they erect1 with incredible labor1 a dam or pier1 perhaps fourscore or a hundred feet long1 and ten or twelve feet thick at the base4 ,when this dyke is completed1 they build their several apartments1 which are divided into three stories4 ,the first is beneath the level of the mole1 and is for the most part full of water4 ,the walls of their habitations are perpendicular1 and about two feet thick4 ,if any wood project from them1 they cut it off with their teeth1 which are more serviceable than saws3 and by the help of their tails1 they plaster all their works with a kind of mortar1 which they prepare of dry grass and clay1 mixed together4 ,in ,august or ,september1 they begin to lay up their stores of food2 which consist of the wood of the birch1 the plane1 and of some other trees4 ,thus they pass the winter1 in the enjoyment of ease and plenty4#afd ,in the ,dog we perceive evident marks of sagacity1 recollection1 affection1 and revenge4 ,sagacity3--,in the year #agfj1 whilst one ,richardson1 a waterman of ,hammersmith1 was sleeping in his boat1 the vessel broke from her moorings1 and was carried by the current under a west country barge4 ,fortunately1 the man's dog happened to be present2 and the sagacious animal awaked him1 by pawing his face1 and pulling the collar of his coat1 at the instant when the boat was filled with water1 and on the point of sinking2 by which means he had an opportunity of saving himself from inevitable death4#afe ,recollection3--,a ,dog1 which had been the favorite of an elderly gentlewoman1 some time after her death1 on seeing her picture1 when taken down from the wall1 and laid on the floor to be cleaned1 discovered the strongest emotions4 ,he had never been observed1 ,dr4 ,percival believed1 to notice the picture previously to this incident4 ,here was evidently a case of remembrance1 or of the renewal of former impressions4 ,affection3--,a few miles from ,aberdeen1 as a gentleman was walking across the ,dee1 when it was frozen1 the ice gave way in the middle of the river1 and he sunk2 but1 by grasping his gun1 which had fallen athwart the opening1 kept himself from being carried away by the current4 ,a dog1 who attended him1 after many fruitless attempts to rescue his master1 ran to a neighboring village1 and took hold of the first person he met4 ,the man was alarmed1 and would have disengaged himself3 but the ,dog regarded him with a look so kind and significant1 and endeavored to pull him along with so gentle a violence1 that he began to think there might be something extraordinary in the case1 and suffered himself to be conducted by the animal2 who brought him to his master in time to save his life4#aff ,revenge3--,a pack of ravenous ,fox-,hounds were half starved in their kennel1 to render them more furious and eager in the chace3 and were severely lashed every day by a merciless keeper1 that they might be disciplined to the strictest observance of his looks and commands4 ,it happened that this petty tyrant entered the kennel without his scourge4 ,the dogs observed his defenceless state2 and1 instantly seizing him1 at once satisfied their hunger and revenge by tearing him to pieces4#afg ,the ,monkey tribe is very numerous1 and usually divided by naturalists into three classes4 ,those which have no tails are termed ,apes1 and such as have very short ones1 ,baboons2 but by far the most numerous class consists of those which have long tails1 and are known by the general name of ,monkeys4 ,were we to dissect and examine the several component parts of any one creature which ,god has made1 we should find a perfection among its several powers1 and an adaptation of its construction to its situation in the grand scale of existence1 far surpassing human wisdom4 ,at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,baboons are under a sort of natural discipline1 and go about whatever they undertake with surprising skill and regularity4 ,when they undertake to rob an orchard or vineyard 7for they are extremely fond of grapes and apples17 they go in large companies1 and with preconcerted deliberation4 ,part of them enter the inclosure1 while one is set to watch3 the rest stand without the fence1 and form a line reaching all the way from their fellows within to their rendezvous without1 which is generally in some craggy mountain4 ,every thing being thus disposed1 the plunderers within the orchard throw the fruit to those that are without as fast as they can gather it2 or1 if the wall or hedge be high1 to those that sit on the top2 and these hand the plunder to those next them on the other side4 ,thus the fruit is pitched from one to another all along the line1 till it is safely deposited at their head-quarters4 ,they catch it with amazing dexterity2 and while the business is going forward1 a profound silence is observed4 ,their sentinel1 during the whole time1 continues on the watch1 and when he perceives any one coming1 instantly sets up a loud cry1 on which signal the whole company scamper away4 ,nor are they willing to go empty-handed2 for if they are plundering a bed of melons1 for instance1 they go off with one in their mouths1 one in their hands1 and one under their arms4 ,if the pursuit be vigorous and close1 they drop first that from under their arms1 then that from their hands2 and if it be continued1 they at last let fall that which they had kept in their mouth4#afh ,there is another species of ,monkey in the ,west ,indies1 of the size of a ,fox4 ,these are in great numbers in the woods1 and make aloud and frightful noise4 ,but it is common for one only to make a noise1 and the rest to form a mute assembly round him4 ,marcgrave says1 8,i have frequently seen great numbers of them meeting about noon3 at which time they formed a large circle1 and one placing himself above the rest1 began to make a loud noise4 ,when he had sung thus by himself for some time1 the rest all remaining silent1 he lifted up his hand1 and they all instantly joined in the chorus4 ,this intolerable yell continued1 till the same ,monkey1 who gave the signal for the beginning1 lifted up his hand a second time4 ,on this they were all silent again1 and so finished the business of the assembly40 ,thus we see1 wherever we turn our eyes1 the various species of creatures which ,god has made4 ,every element is stocked with inhabitants1 the sea with fishes1 the air with fowls1 and the earth with quadrupeds and creeping things4 ,all these different provinces are richly replenished with food for the support of all the innumerable creatures that live in them4 ,and what surprising skill and sagacity do some in the brute creation discover2 such as might make many1 who pride themselves in their reason1 to blush and be confounded6 ,who does not admire the exquisite contrivance of birds in building their nests8 the subtlety of several creatures in seeking their proper food8 and of others in securing and defending themselves8 ,the art of the ,spider in weaving and spreading her nets1 to ensnare and entangle her prey8 the sapience and industry of the ,bee in building her combs1 and filling them with pleasant food8 and the care and foresight of the ,ant1 in laying up her store against winter8 ,in the meanest reptile1 the ,divine wisdom and power are conspicuously displayed4 ,the word remes1 translated creeping thing1 and rendered reptile by ,parkhurst1 includes all the different genera of serpents1 worms1 and such animals as are not pedaneous4 ,what a disparity among animals6 ,while some are of an enormous size1 and stalk about in the greatness of their strength1 others are of a delicate and diminutive appearance1 bordering on comparative insignificance4 ,but ,divine 8skill and power are not less displayed in the beautiful ,chevrotin1 or ,tragulus1 a creature of the ,antelope kind1 and smallest of all bifed or cloven-footed animals1 whose delicate limbs are scarcely as large as an ordinary goose quill2 nor the ,shrew ,mouse1 perhaps the smallest of the many-toed quadrupeds4 ,in the reptile race we see also the same skill and power2 not only in the immense snake called ,boa ,constrictor1 the mortal foe and conqueror of the ,royal ,tiger1 but also in the ,cobra de ,manille1 a venomous serpent1 not much larger than a common sewing needle40 ,the ,lizard tribe are distinguishable at first sight from other oviparous animals4 ,they have no shields1 like the ,tortoises1 and are furnished with tails1 which are wanting in ,toads and ,frogs4 ,they are covered with scales1 of greater or less rigidity1 or with a kind of warts or tubercles4 ,some of the species are scarcely more than two inches in length1 whilst others extend even the length of twenty-six feet4 ,the larger ones live on animals1 which they seize by stratagem1 and the smaller ones on insects4 ,the aquatic species undergo a metamorphosis1 from a tadpole to a perfect state4 ,most of them are produced from eggs1 but some are brought forth alive4 ,in many of the species the color and form are exceedingly beautiful4 ,they principally inhabit the warmer regions of the globe1 and many of them serve mankind for food4 ,as according to the economy of nature1 the ,lion seems appointed to the dominion of the immense deserts of the torrid zone1 the ,eagle to rule as sovereign of the air1 and the ,whale to have the pre-eminence in the seas2 so the ,crocodile#afi and the ,alligator appear to rule over the shores of the large rivers of tropical climates4 ,all the rivers of ,guinea are pestered with vast shoals of the former1 ,m4 ,adanson having seen in the great river ,senegal more than two hundred swimming together2 and the latter are natives of the warmer parts of ,america4--,the ,guana1 which grows to the length of four or five feet1 is very common in ,surinam1 the woods of ,guiana1 ,cayenne and ,mexico1 and in many parts both of ,africa and ,asia2 but is now become scarce in the ,west ,indies1 in consequence of being much sought after for the table4--,the ,nimble ,lizard1 measuring from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail about six inches1 is known in almost every part of the temperate regions of ,europe4 ,the ,green ,lizard and the ,nimble ,lizard1 are considered by ,dr4 ,shaw as varieties of the same species4 ,the ,green ,lizards are considered by the inhabitants of ,carolina as very useful animals1 in consequence of destroying flies1 and other troublesome and noxious insects4 ,they will sometimes remain motionless for half a day1 waiting for insects2 and when one appears1 they spring at it with the swiftness of an arrow4 ,they are so familiar as to enter the houses without fear1 and1 in pursuit of prey1 ascend the tables whilst families are eating1 and even leap on their clothes4 ,they are so beautiful and cleanly1 as to be suffered to run across the tables1 and even the plates1 without exciting the least alarm or disgust4 ,the ,chameleon is a native of ,india1 the ,indian ,islands1 ,africa1 some of the warmer parts of ,spain and ,portugal1 and several of the countries of ,south ,america4 ,its usual length is about ten inches1 and the tail nearly the same4 ,all the motions of this creature are extremely slow1 so that when travelling from one branch of a tree to another in pursuit of food1 it may rather be said to lie in ambush among the leaves1 in order to catch such insects as may come within the reach of its long adhesive tongue1 than go in search of prey4 ,when walking on the ground1 it steps forward in a cautious1 groping manner1 seeming never to lift one foot till it is well assured of the firmness of the rest4 ,from these precautions1 its motions have a singular appearance of gravity1 when contrasted with its diminutive size1 and the activity that might be expected in an animal so nearly allied to some of the most active in the creation4 ,each of its eyes is covered with a rough membrane1 which is divided by a narrow horizontal slit1 through which the bright pupil1 as if bordered with burnished gold1 is seen4 ,the eyes have this singular property1 of looking at the same instant in different directions4 ,one of them may frequently be seen to move when the other is at rest2 or one will be directed forward1 whilst the other is attending to some object behind2 or in the same manner upward and downward4 ,the property of changing its color is singular1 and has led to various conjectures as to the cause4 ,serpents are distinguishable from those already mentioned1 by their total want of feet4 ,the banded ,rattle-,snake1 found both in ,north and ,south ,america1 is the most dreaded of all serpents4 ,providence has given to man a security against its bite2 for it generally warns the passenger by the rattling of its tail1 as well as by its odor1 which is extremely fetid4 ,when it has been irritated1 or the weather is very hot1 its poison being introduced into a wound1 often proves fatal in a short time4 ,if not provoked1 it is inoffensive1 being so much alarmed at the sight of men1 as always1 if possible1 to avoid them1 and never commencing an attack4 ,the ,great ,boa1 which is the largest of all the serpent tribe1 is frequently from thirty to forty feet in length1 and of a proportional thickness4 ,it is a native of ,africa1 ,india1 the largest ,indian ,islands1 and ,south ,america1 where it chiefly resides in the most retired situations in woods and marshy retreats4 ,we are assured1 that one of these serpents killed and devoured a buffalo1 in the island of ,java4 ,it is happy for mankind that their rapacity is often the means of their own punishment2 for whenever they have gorged themselves in this manner1 they seek a retreat where they may lurk for several days and digest their meal1 become unwieldy1 stupid1 helpless1 sleepy1 and may be approached and destroyed with safety4#agj ,the snake tribe comprises nearly two hundred species1 which differ from each other both in size and habit1 and about one-fifth of the whole have been discovered to be poisonous4 8,the deserts of ,arabia10 says ,adanson1 8are entirely barren1 except where they are found to produce serpents2 and in such quantities1 that some extensive plains are almost entirely covered with them40 ,the apparatus of poison in the ,viper is very similar to that of the ,rattle-,snake1 and all the other poisonous serpents4 ,the fang of a ,viper is a wonderful instance of contrivance4 ,it is a perforated tooth1 loose at the root3 in its quiet state1 lying down flat on the jaw1 but furnished with a muscle1 which with a jerk1 and by the pluck1 as it were1 of a string1 suddenly erects it4 ,under the tooth1 close to its root1 and communicating with the perforation1 lies a small bag containing the venom4 ,when the fang is raised1 the closing of the jaw presses its roots against the bag underneath2 and the force of this compression sends out the fluid1 with a considerable impetus1 through the tube in the middle of the tooth4 ,by this singular apparatus1 the animal is enabled to inflict on its enemies a most deadly bite1 and infuse into the wound the most deleterious liquid4 ,yet1 though in the mouth1 this1 in the quiescent state of the reptile1 does not interfere with its ordinary office in taking its food4#aga ,no less curious is the clothing of ,reptiles4 ,how well adapted are the rings of some1 and the contortions of the skins of others1 not only to guard the body sufficiently1 but enable them to creep1 perforate the earth1 and perform all the functions of their stations1 better than any other covering6 ,virgil gives the following description of a ,sicilian serpent3 8,scarce had he finish'd1 when1 with speckled pride1 ,a serpent from the tomb began to glide2 ,his hugy bulk on sev'n high volumes roll'd2 ,blue was his breadth of back1 but streak'd with scaly gold2 ,thus riding on his curls1 he seem'd to pass ,a rolling fire along1 and singe the grass4 ,more various colors through his body run1 ,than ,iris1 when her bow imbibes the sun40 ,even the tegument of the ,earthworms is made in the completest manner1 for effecting a passage in the earth1 wherever instinct directs their motions4 ,their bodies are composed of small rings1 and have a curious apparatus of muscles1 which enables them with great strength to extend or contract the whole body4 ,each ring is likewise armed with stiff1 sharp prickles1 which they can open or close at pleasure4 ,and under their skins is a shining juice1 which they emit1 as occasion requires1 to lubricate their bodies1 and facilitate their passage into the earth4 ,by all these means they are enabled1 with ease and speed1 to work themselves into the ground1 which they could not do1 if they were covered with hair1 feathers1 scales1 or such clothing as any of the other creatures4--,one of the most singular properties of the serpent tribe is that of casting their skins from time to time4 ,the beauty and lustre of their colors are then highly augmented4 ,the old skins have a tarnished and withered appearance1 and are forced off by the growth of the new4 ,when this takes place1 so complete is the spoil or coat-skin1 that even the external coat of the eyes themselves make a part of it4 ,among creeping things1 the ,spider engaged the attention of ,solomon who observes1 that he is one of those 8little things on the earth1 that are exceeding wise40 ,this creature subsists on flies1 wasps1 and similar insects1 without having wings to pursue them2 a circumstance apparently of great difficulty1 yet provided for by a resource1 which no stratagem nor effort of his own could have produced1 had not both the external and internal structure of this animal been specifically adapted to the operation4 ,what surprising skill and sagacity does the ,spider discover in weaving and spreading her nets to ensnare and entangle her prey6 ,how wonderfully artificial is her web1 or house6 ,how astonishingly curious its architecture6 ,with the fine and delicate threads she spins out of her bowels1 how thin a web does she weave1 constructed for the purpose of procuring food6 ,it is fastened according to the rules of mathematics1 for its lines are drawn exactly from the centre at parallel distances4#agb ,when this net is spread1 that she may the more effectually secure her prey1 she cunningly conceals herself in her covert1 to evade the discovery of flies4 ,it is from the accuracy of this geometrical workmanship1 that this cunning artist is immediately apprized of the approach of a fly1 or any other insect of the like nature1 when she sallies forth and seizes on her prey4 ,she is furnished with a very sharp hooked forceps1 placed near the mouth4 ,with this weapon she seizes and pierces the flesh of such insects as entangle themselves in her web2 and1 at the same instant1 by means of a small white proboscis1 she infuses a deadly juice into the wound1 which1 in a moment1 kills the animal4 ,this poison must be very deleterious2 for flies1 and many other insects1 may be mutilated by depriving them of their legs1 wings1 and even cutting their bodies through the very middle of their abdomen1 and1 in that condition1 will survive several days4--,the ,centipeds1 the ,scorpion1 and the ,tarantula1 are all provided with poisonous weapons4 ,appendix to the ,chapters on ,plants1 ,fishes1 ,fowls and ,quadrupeds4 ,if we will attentively examine the fossil remains of fishes1 animals1 birds1 and vegetables1 so abundantly preserved entombed in the crust of our earth1 we shall easily see the necessity of looking into the sepulchres of these primitive creatures if we would freely describe the 8,mosaic ,creation40 ,many of their genera and species are now extinct3 and those which remain seem to have dwindled down to mere dwarfs in comparison with their prototypes4 ,it is a matter of great satisfaction1 that these interesting remains of the primordial world are so well preserved4 ,they are called by one the medals of creation3 they reveal the ancient condition of our earth2 the successive events2 and the attending organic appendages of sensitive beings3 and it is a matter of great pleasure to the ,christian1 that what they disclose so clearly on this subject agrees expressly with the ,bible4 ,the class of animated beings called pisces1 or fishes1 is not so well known in regard to their genera1 and species1 as the classes of quadrupeds and birds4 ,from the fossil remains of each1 and their position in the crust of the earth1 it is well ascertained1 that their genera were created successively1 and that the most ancient genera are extinct4 ,the same is true in regard to vegetables4 ,it is equally true1 that1 connected with the successive creation1 was a successive improvement in the delicacy and complexity of their structure and parts4 ,there was also a reduction in the size of fishes1 and quadrupeds1 and a great reduction in the amount of vegetation1 as well as the size of many of the plants4 ,these periodic variations in all early organized bodies1 were evidently owing to the variations of the state of the surface of our earth1 and the surrounding atmosphere4 ,the ,divine ,being appears to have created the different genera suited in constitution to the condition of the world at the time4 ,the cause of their successive extinction appears to have been successive catastrophes1 which altered the constitution of our earth and atmosphere4 ,all these facts taken together indicate1 that1 in the early periods of the earth1 the soil1 water1 and air were better calculated to sustain the simply huge1 and inconceivably powerful and fierce creatures of the animal kingdom1 than the delicate and beautiful beings of the present period4 ,the same is eminently true in regard to vegetables1 specially their quantity4 ,they were of trunks1 and spreading branches so huge as to exceed belief1 did we not see them well preserved in a fossil state4 ,their quantity also was immense2 hence the amount of vegetable coal found in the earth4 ,these facts clearly indicate that1 in the early periods of our earth1 the surface was moist1 perhaps1 marshy for a long time1 gradually drying1 and passing to a habitable state3 the air was very moist and gross1 and the temperature of the earth was much higher than at present4 ,hence the huge and abundant vegetable productions4 ,these general facts shall be confirmed by a few remarks in regard to each class4 ,fishes4--,under this class is included1 here1 testaceous1 and crustaceous creatures1 as well as fishes commonly so called4 ,the most ancient of this family seem to be entirely extinct1 and their remains are found in great abundance in the lower transition rocks4 ,there are many localities where fossil fish1 of various kinds1 are found abundantly4 ,they are sometimes found in the heart of mountains1 thousands of feet above the level of the sea4 ,their localities are so numerous they need not be mentioned4 ,they are found in all possible positions1 and in every degree of preservation--some are contorted1 and crushed2 indicating sudden violence4 ,others are inhumed in the very act of swallowing their prey1 and in every easy and natural position2 indicating that they expired without violence4 ,some of these1 which are thus quietly buried1 are of the most active species2 thus proving the suddenness of the catastrophe4 ,so extensive are the depositions of shell-fish1 that whole beds of rock1 in some cases1 appear to be composed of them2 and1 indeed1 in some instances1 mountains are composed principally of these rocks filled with organic remains4 ,from these facts1 it is allowed by all1 that the sea once covered these localities2 and when it is recollected that some of the rock strata1 composed of the exuvi of these marine creatures1 are hundreds of feet thick1 the conclusion will be irresistible1 that the sea covered them for a long time1 and that these rocks which contain them were deposited at the bottom of the sea1 which have since become dry1 by the retiring of the waters1 or by some subjacent force upheaving the bed of the sea1 and of course these deposits which had been made at its bottom--when these fossil remains are found in mountain masses they have been upheaved--when in low lands1 where the rocks lie in situ1 the sea has exposed them by retiring4 ,amphibious ,creatures4--,there are yet a few animals of this class2 but they can scarcely be called the types of the ancient races1 now extinct1 whose remains have lately been discovered1 and attracted so much attention in ,europe4 ,they are principally of the crocodile1 and saurian 7or lizard7 families4 ,their size1 and indicated power1 ferocity1 and fierceness1 are astonishing beyond measure4 ,their structure clearly indicates their proper element was wet1 marshy1 and reedy places1 such as the crocodile delights in at this time3 thus indicating that they were in the earth as the ancient chaotic seas retired1 and was leaving the earth dry4 ,if a single skeleton only1 of any one of these creatures had been found1 naturalists would have pronounced it a lusus natur4 ,but many have been found1 of different genera and species3 only two or three shall be mentioned here4 ,one of the crocodile family1 as is supposed1 had a spine composed of #acc vertebr1 or joints1 taken together #ba feet in length4 ,the head was nearly #d feet4 ,its species are extinct2 some refer even this huge animal to the lizard family4 ,the ,megalosaurus4 ,the skeleton of this huge creature has been satisfactorily examined1 and ascertained to belong to the lizard family4 ,its thigh bone is #cb inches long4 ,it is said some have been found #d feet4 ,at #cb inches1 the animal must have been #dh feet in length4 ,dr4 ,buckland1 from some fossil remains1 calculates some of them were as high as our largest elephants1 and sixty or seventy feet in length4 ,and yet this was a lizard of the ancient world6 ,the ,pterodactyle4 ,this is a species of the saurian family as those above4 ,its distinctive character is the elongation of its fourth toe1 so as to support a membrane for the purpose of flying3 hence its name1 wing-toed4 ,it is indeed a curiosity4 ,its species is extinct4 ,the ,ichthyosaurus4 ,this is also a reptile of the lizard kind3 but because it so much resembles a fish2 it has this name1 i4e4 fish-lizard4 ,it has a moderate tail--long pointed muzzel armed with sharp pointed teeth2 two huge eyes2 breathed air2 swam in the water2 crawled in marshy1 reedy places1 but could not walk or run on land1 having flat fins1 or bony paddles1 somewhat like seals4 ,the skeletons indicate some of them to have been #be feet long4 ,the ,plesiosaurus4 ,this animal1 as its name imports1 was rather akin to lizards1 than decidedly of the genus4 ,its very peculiar characteristic is the immoderate length of its neck1 and the unexampled number of vertebr of which it is composed4 ,in other respects it approaches the ichthyosaurus4 ,its remains indicate an animal1 according to ,cuvier1 at least #cj feet long4 ,the ,iguanodon1 was of the lizard genus1 three or four times as large as the largest crocodile2 having jaws equal in size to the incisors of the rhinoceros1 and crested with horns4 7,,dr4 ,,buckland47 ,many more creatures of the early periods of our earth might be mentioned1 which would come expressly under the title of this volume2 and the knowledge of which is durably preserved in the fossils of the earth1 all of which would confirm the facts stated in the commencement of this paper1 viz3 that during the first and grossest periods of our earth previously to the creation of man1 great numbers of genera and species of huge and misshapen animals existed1 which are now extinct4 ,for instance3 the skeletons of animals of the frog and toad families1 have been found so large1 as to induce some naturalists at first to call them human remains4 ,a tapir has been found the size of an elephant2 and a species of the sloth tribe as long as a rhinoceros66 ,these things will indeed appear incredible to the reader at first2 but let him recollect that the evidences of these astonishing facts are contained in the solid crust of the earth1 and cannot be deceptive4 ,they may be seen1 measured1 weighed1 and put up so as to form the whole animal1 an object of inspection to thousands4 ,there are but few fossil remains of birds found in the earth1 and these are principally in the upper tertiary strata1 and in company with the fossil remains of such animals as are companionable and serviceable to man4 ,the reason of this is obvious3 the earth was not suitable for the habitation of birds until it had become comparatively dry1 and the seas had retired in a great measure1 and vegetation abundant4 ,the aquatic genera appeared first1 of which there are a few remains4 ,moreover this class of creatures could not be overtaken with any violent catastrophe1 so as to bury them in a body1 or in particular strata4 ,it is1 therefore1 probable that birds1 as a class1 have preserved their genera and species from the first2 and are now nearly the same in this respect1 as well as in size1 as in the earlier periods of the world4 ,vegetables4--,in the vegetable kingdom we are if possible1 more astonished than in the animal1 of the ancient periods of our earth4 ,from their fossil remains1 well and abundantly preserved1 it is very evident that the vegetation of the first periods of our earth was abundant and heavy1 beyond any thing which we can conceive at this time4 ,it cannot be doubted but that the vegetative powers of the earth was very much greater than at this time1 or within the memory of man4 ,this is evident from the immense production of vegetable coal4 ,this statement may be rendered somewhat more credible when it is recollected1 that the earth1 in its first periods1 was of a much higher temperature than now2 and of course not only produced more abundantly1 but all parts of the earth produced vegetation in abundance4 ,this is evident from the fact1 that within the arctic circle1 where now reigns eternal winter1 and no vegetation can be found1 there was anciently successive products of heavy vegetation4 7,see appendix to our paper on volcanos47 ,this is proven by plants being found fossilized on the spot1 and in the position in which they grew2 as also the leaves and fruits of plants1 which are known now to be tropical1 so well preserved1 and in such a natural1 easy position as to prove clearly they grew on the spot on which they were fossilized4 ,the flora of the primordial world was expressly a part of the #8,mosaic creation1' and which is but little understood as yet4 ,some of the principal plants were of the fern and palm genera2 but their size very far exceeded those now found growing4 ,by closely examining these fossil plants1 it will be found1 that they increase in size and quantity as the period of their growth is distant from the time in which man was created3 thus indicating an increasing temperature of the earth as we ascend in time4 ,this also corresponds with the well known fact1 that the size of these plants now increases progressively from the polar regions to the equator4 ,our author has given a concise and edifying description of the principal families and individuals which now exist1 and are found in the earth4 ,the above remarks are intended to direct the attention to those which have long since passed away4 ,the propriety of the distinction between clean and unclean beasts1 mentioned in the ,scripture1 will appear on the first hearing of their names2 for we find amongst the clean creatures1 ,oxen1 ,sheep1 ,goats1 and ,lambs3 and on the other side1 ,lions1 ,tigers1 ,wolves1 ,foxes1 ,swine1 ,moles1 and ,serpents4 ,it is evident that there is a wide difference between these two parties1 with respect to their manners and ways of life4 ,those only are admitted among clean animals1 which 8divide the hoof and chew the cud40 ,animals which divide the hoof are more inoffensive with their feet1 than the several tribes of wild beasts1 whose paws are armed with sharp claws1 to seize their prey4 ,quadrupeds with a divided hoof tread surer than those whose hoof is entire2 there being a plain mechanical reason why a foot1 which presents several angles and edges1 should take faster hold on the ground4 ,they are not only surer footed1 but also more orderly and regular in their progress4 ,sheep have a natural tendency to follow each other's steps4 ,they approach the fold1 or return from it1 in a train2 as well as traverse their pastures in the like order4 ,oxen tread in the very footsteps of their predecessors3 so that a drove of them1 on passing through a deep and narrow road1 leave the surface divided into a regular succession of ridges and furrows1 as if it were the work of art4 ,if animals could reason and dispute as men can1 this plodding practice of the ,ox might possibly be ridiculed by the ,ass2 as the orthodox believer1 who is content to tread in the steps of his forefathers1 is scoffed at by the rambling freethinker1 who uses it as the privilege of his nature1 to deviate into by-ways1 untrodden by those who were much wiser than himself4 ,sure footing is an image not improperly applied to elementary truth and science3 whence it will not be unnatural to suppose1 that this first character of the clean animals was intended to be expressive of rectitude and certainty of principle in moral agents4 ,error is various and changeable in its nature3 but truth1 being uniformly the same in all ages1 will always be productive of sobriety and regularity in those who follow it4 ,the other character of clean animals is that of 8chewing the cud20 a faculty expressive of that act of the mind1 by which it revolves1 meditates1 and discourses on what it has laid up in the memory2 and the word ruminate has the same metaphorical meaning4 ,an animal thus employed has the appearance of abstraction in its countenance1 as if it were engaged in deep meditation2 and it ruminates more particularly when lying in an horizontal position1 for then the food is more easily recalled into the mouth from its temporary lodgment in the stomach4 ,this character then1 is expressive of devout thought and holy conversation3 for the word of ,god is the food of the mind1 which1 being laid up in the heart1 should be frequently revolved2 so that being properly applied to the inward man1 it may contribute to a daily increase in faith1 purity1 and goodness4 ,the clean animals were also sacred2 that is1 set apart by the law for the purpose of sacrifice4 ,the propriety of which is evident3 for if the worshipper1 who offered an animal to ,god1 meant by that act to devote himself1 using the animal as his substitute or proxy2 then certainly it was not fit that he should represent himself by an unclean creature1 whose instincts and habits would convey an odious idea of his own person and character1 and consequently make his devotion appear ridiculous4 ,in order to make a sacrifice acceptable1 it was requisite that the qualifications of the offerer should correspond with those of the offering4 ,the innocent manners of a clean victim1 were a tacit reflection on an unclean offerer4 ,when the worshippers of the true ,god were corrupt in their principles or morals1 their oblations were no longer either proper or acceptable3 which was signified to them in those words of the prophet--8,he that killeth an ox1 as if he slew a man3 he that sacrificeth a lamb1 as if he cut off a dog's neck3 he that offereth an oblation1 as if he offered swine's blood40 ,the reason is added3 8,they have chosen their own ways1 and their soul delighteth in their abominations40 ,but there is another sense in which the institution of sacrifice is to be understood3 for every sacrifice had its prophetic use1 and was prefigurative of the true sacrifice of ,jesus ,christ2 with respect to whom it was necessary that every animal1 preferred to this sacred application1 should be recommended by every possible character of innocence1 purity1 and perfection3 therefore the sacrifices were taken from the tribes of ,sheep1 ,goats1 and ,oxen4 ,the diet of the ,jews being thus immediately connected with the most solemn acts of religious adoration1 the daily course of their living carried with it an exhortation to purity of mind and body1 and directed their faith to its supreme object1 the vicarious sacrifice of the ,messiah4 ,the moral necessities of man can only be supplied by the death and benefits of a propitiatory sacrifice1 the common substitute of all mankind3 whence ,god has mercifully ordained1 as well by the present condition of creation itself1 as by the appointment of revelation1 that the life of his body should be sustained in like manner3 thereby to remind us every day1 that the life of man is in a state of forfeiture2 and that there can be neither the preservation1 nor the remission of sins1 without the shedding of innocent blood4 ,thus does mankind conspire in offering up a daily sacrifice1 and attesting the truth of the ,christian doctrine1 and many persons with the same insensibility that ,caiaphas uttered a similar prophecy in its favor1 8,it is necessary that one man should die1 that the whole people perish not40 ,these clean and unclean animals1 with respect to their several ways of life1 are as opposite as their dispositions4 ,sheep1 ,oxen1 ,goats1 ,deer1 c1 are formed into societies1 they herd peaceably together1 and are subject to the laws of government1 as well for their own advantage as for the service of man4 ,but beasts of prey roam by themselves in forests and deserts1 incapable of entering into any friendly communion4 ,they are so many single tyrants1 who acknowledge no superior1 but fight their way1 and live in a state of hostility with the whole creation4 ,if they ever unite in gangs1 it is with the spirit of thieves and murderers1 who are banded together only that they may plunder the innocent with greater security4 ,and1 like other depredators1 they are all fond of darkness4 ,when the sun goes down1 the ,lion stalks forth from his den3 at which time the ,sheep1 under the direction of the shepherd1 are retiring to their fold4 ,and when the cattle are climbing up the mountains to their pasture1 invited by the reviving rays of the rising sun1 the tyrants of the night are warned back to their hiding-places4#agc ,the blindness of the ,mole1 the petulance and immodesty of the ,dog1 the subtlety of the ,fox1 the poisonous teeth and double tongue of the ,serpent1 afford ample scope for reflection4 ,the ,egyptian hieroglyphics were certain visible representations of creatures1 whose inclinations and actions led to the knowledge of those truths which they intended for instruction4 ,a profane and voluptuous man was represented by a ,swine1 whose filthy disposition caused it to be hated by all the eastern people4 ,a great hypocrite1 or a notorious dissembler of wicked intentions1 was expressed by a ,leopard1 because this animal acts craftily1 concealing his head that he may with less difficulty catch his unwary prey2 for the creatures are as much alarmed at his presence1 as they are pleased with the agreeable scent of his body3 when therefore they approach him1 delighted with the perfume1 he will cover his head with his paws1 till they come within his reach4 ,an incorrigible person was also expressed by a ,leopard's skin1 because its spots no art can remove4 ,a ,chamelion likewise was the hieroglyphic of a hypocrite1 who can accommodate himself to any religion that will serve his turn2 for this animal can change its color4 ,a stupid1 ignorant person1 an enemy to religion1 was signified by an ,ass2 and one that was not acquainted with men and things1 or knew not how to acquit himself with decency and propriety in the world1 was painted with the head and ears of an ,ass4 ,the ,egyptians were accustomed to put the heads of animals on the bodies of men1 to express the dispositions and conduct of those persons they were intended to represent4 ,a ,tiger1 being a most fierce animal1 signified a savage1 cruel1 revengeful disposition1 opposed to all goodness4 ,a ,fox is notorious for his craftiness2 therefore he is an emblem of a subtile person1 under the influence of wicked thoughts and intentions4#agd ,rams1 and ,bullocks of ,bashan1 ,lions1 or any animal of prey1 are figures frequently used by the sacred writers for cruel and oppressive tyrants and conquerors4 8,hear this word1 ye kine of ,bashan1 which oppress the poor40 ,bashan was a very fruitful place1 a fine and fattening pasture1 in which were the best fed and strongest cattle4 ,to these1 the prophet compares the great men among the ,israelites1 especially their judges and magistrates1 who were proud1 insolent1 wanton and mischievous1 like the bulls of ,bashan2 who oppressed the poor1 as high fed cattle push and gore the weaker sort4 8,the ,lion is come up from his thicket1 and the destroyer of the ,gentiles is on his way2 he is gone forth from his place to make thy land desolate3 and thy cities shall be laid waste without an inhabitant40 ,by this animal is meant ,nebuchadnezzar1 the king of ,babylon1 so termed on account of his great power and fierceness2 and as the ,lion is commonly in the forest among the thicket1 so this terrible political ruler had his strong hold and principal seat at ,babylon1 which residence he left to commit awful desolation among the cities of ,judah and ,israel4 ,the prophet ,isaiah1 with a boldness and majesty becoming the herald of the ,most ,high1 begins his prophecy with calling on the whole creation to attend1 when ,jehovah speaks4 8,hear1 oh heavens2 and give ear1 oh earth2 for the ,lord hath spoken2 ,i have nourished and brought up children1 and they have rebelled against me40 ,a charge of gross insensibility and ingratitude is then brought against the ,jews2 by contrasting their conduct with that of the ,ox1 and the ,ass1 which is the most stupid of animals4 8,the ,ox knoweth his owner1 and the ,ass his master's crib3 but ,israel doth not know1 my people do not consider40 ,what a cutting reproof6 what an indelible reproach6 to have been favored with the best means of instruction1 and yet to be exceeded by the herd of the stall6 ,to perish for lack of knowledge1 after having had the best means to acquire it1 evinces the grossest inattention1 and most censurable insensibility4 ,the prophet ,jeremiah lamented the wickedness of the age in which he lived1 and the vice and immorality that every where abounded4 ,he saw with grief of heart the holy ,sabbath profaned1 the worship of ,god neglected1 and his house and ordinances defiled4 ,while a sorrowful witness to their gross abominations1 he saw the punishments that awaited their immorality1 and then wept over what he could not amend4 ,he gave them faithful admonitions from ,god1 but they disregarded them1 and drank in iniquity like water1 and drew sin as with a cart-rope3 because they had been taught to do evil 7for so the margin reads17 trained up in their evil ways1 had learned to sin by precept and example1 and were great proficients in vicious pursuits3 from their youth their natural propensity to evil had increased by continued practice1 till sinning was become habitual1 and there was little hope left of amendment4 ,therefore he exclaims1 8,can the ,ethiopian change his skin1 or the ,leopard his spots8 then may ye also do good1 that are accustomed to do evil40 ,the ,ethiopian's skin is of so sable a hue1 that no water can wash it white4 ,a ,leopard's skin is beautifully spotted1 which is not the result of accident1 but nature1 and cannot be defaced4 ,by these two similes the prophet designs to represent1 not only the natural impossibility without ,divine aid1 but also the extreme difficulty of habitual sinners learning to do well1 after they have long accustomed themselves to do evil4 ,the least sin is to be avoided1 the least growth of sin to be prevented2 for sin indulged in thought will beget desire1 desire will break out into action1 action will grow into custom1 custom will settle into habit1 and then1 there is the utmost danger of both body and soul being irrecoverably lost4 ,when our ,saviour sent forth his apostles to preach the ,gospel1 he informed them of the hardships1 dangers1 and discouragements they would have to encounter1 in the faithful discharge of their ministry2 especially after his resurrection1 when they would be deprived of his personal presence2 for we do not read of any great persecutions they endured while he was with them4 ,these sufferings he foretold1 that they might not be surprised at their approach2 and that1 by the accomplishment of this prediction1 their faith might be confirmed4 8,behold1 ,i send you forth as sheep in the midst of ,wolves40 ,here we have a prediction of their perilous condition2 they were to be as ,sheep in the midst of ,wolves4 ,and what situation more dangerous6 ,what can sheep1 that are feeble creatures1 and destitute of natural armour to defend themselves1 expect1 in the midst of ravenous wolves1 but to be rent and torn to pieces8 ,so those1 amongst whom the apostles were to be sent1 would have as great an inclination1 arising from their malicious dispositions1 to destroy them1 as wolves have from their nature to devour sheep4 ,wicked men are like wolves1 whose nature it is to destroy and devour sheep2 they are of a diabolical disposition towards the ministers of the ,gospel4 ,our ,saviour also gave his apostles advice1 how to conduct themselves in such very unpleasant and dangerous circumstances4 8,be ye therefore wise as serpents10 not cunning as foxes1 whose aim is to deceive others2 but as serpents1 whose policy is only to defend themselves1 when they are in danger4 ,a serpent's wisdom appears in a care to guard and secure its head1 that it may not be hurt2 in stopping its ears against the voice of the charmer1 which it does1 says a certain naturalist1 by laying one ear close to the ground1 and stopping the other with its tail2 and in sheltering itself in the clefts of a rock1 when in danger4 ,so should ,christ's ministers1 in a time of peril1 use all lawful means for their own safety and preservation2 they should be wary and circumspect to keep themselves from harm1 either of body or soul4 8,and harmless as doves40 ,ministers should be meek1 do no person any harm1 bear no ill-will1 be without gall1 as is said of the dove2 though their enemies should be fierce and savage1 like wolves1 yet they must not study how to revenge the injuries done them4 ,it should be their continual care to be inoffensive1 in word and deed3 wisdom and innocence should dwell together4 ,ministers must not be altogether doves1 lest they fall into danger2 nor altogether serpents1 lest they injure others2 but they must be both serpents and doves1 the one for wisdom1 the other for innocence4 8,that thou mayst injure no man1 dove-like be1 ,and serpent-like1 that none may injure thee60 ,our ,saviour likewise cautions his followers against false teachers4 8,beware of false prophets40 ,the term prophet in the ,scripture1 signifies one who foretells things to come2 this is the most proper signification of the word4 ,it also means one who expounds the predictions of the ,old ,testament4 ,and sometimes we are to understand by it1 one employed in the ministry of the ,gospel2 in this sense a prophet and a teacher are reciprocal terms4 ,so that by prophet here our ,saviour means false teachers1 who1 pretending authority from ,god1 exercised themselves in the ministry1 and published false doctrine1 or at least represented truth in a corrupt manner1 with a fraudulent intention1 from base motives1 and for vile ends2 by whose doctrine persons were in no small danger of being seduced from their simplicity1 and drawn away from the truth1 sincerity1 and power of godliness2 into a dead and lifeless formality1 and an empty show of religion and piety4 ,now against such men1 ,christ1 in the days of his public ministry1 warned his hearers1 to prevent their deception1 apprising them that they would 8come in sheep's clothing40 ,they disguised their dangerous principles and base intentions1 under a show of external religion1 and fair professions of love1 that1 thereby they might deceive others4 8,but inwardly they are ravening ,wolves40 ,they were as dangerous to the souls of men1 as ravenous ,wolves are to ,sheep1 which watch for an opportunity to seize their prey1 silently approach the sheep-fold to see whether the dogs be asleep1 or the shepherd be absent3 so false teachers with wretched hypocrisy and sophistry1 counterfeit sincerity1 humility1 and sanctity2 and were it not for this semblance of piety1 their efforts to injure the church of ,god would be ineffectual4 ,he compares these false teachers to ,wolves1 especially on account of their cruelty4 ,these animals are not content to satisfy their hunger1 but will destroy multitudes merely to gratify their voracious nature4 ,so false teachers strive to injure the whole church of ,god1 and thus destroy souls4 ,our ,saviour exhorted his auditory to the exercise of ,christian prudence1 in the dispensing of spiritual things4 8,give not that which is holy unto the ,dogs1 neither cast ye your pearls before ,swine1 lest they trample them under their feet1 and turn again and rend you40 ,the deep things of ,god1 relating to doctrines1 are not to be divulged to those who are wallowing in sin2 neither are the great things he has done in his people to be declared to profane1 furious persecutors3 but both classes of wicked men may be reproved on proper occasions4 ,by ,dogs1 our ,saviour means froward1 perverse1 malicious1 revengeful1 boisterous1 incorrigible1 and irreclaimable sinners1 who scorn holy institutions1 mock at every thing sacred1 scoff at religion1 deride the word of ,god1 and all serious reproofs and admonitions1 whether given by parents1 masters1 ministers1 governors1 and others2 who are ready to persecute those who preach the ,gospel1 and endeavor to promote their salvation4 ,by ,swine1 he means such sinners as are profane and sensual1 and like ,swine wallow in the mud of sin and wickedness2 to whom it is as pleasant to live in their beastly lusts1 as it is for ,swine to wallow in the mire2 and to disregard1 abuse1 and trample on holy things4 ,st4 ,peter1 in showing what all men are in the sight of ,god1 before they receive his grace1 and what those are who turn apostates from the truth1 alludes to two offensive actions of ,dogs and ,swine4 8,it has befallen to them according to the true proverb1 the ,dog is turned to his vomit1 and the ,sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire40 ,blackwall says1 this proverb1 with great propriety and strength1 marks out the sottishness and odious manners of persons enslaved to sensual appetites and carnal lusts2 and the extreme difficulty of reforming vicious and inveterate habits4 ,as a ,dog1 observe ,bishop ,patrick1 when he has vomited up his meat which made him sick1 is no sooner well but he returns to it1 and eats it up again1 forgetting how ill it agreed with him2 so an imprudent person commits the same error over again1 for which he formerly smarted4 ,the evil nature remaining1 and at last gaining the ascendency1 in a man1 who had through grace reformed his life1 renders him like the loathsome and detestable ,sow1 as ,dr4 ,doddridge remarks2 for the ,sow that was washed from the filthiness she had before contracted1 having still the same unclean nature prevailing1 is returned to wallow in the mire1 and so makes herself as filthy as she had ever been before4 ,and1 adds ,dr4 ,whitby1 these two proverbs are expressive of the folly of those men who return to those vices they had formerly renounced4 99 99 99 99 99 ,section ,,ii4--,,man4 ,,body3 -- ,its ,creator -- ,formation -- ,vitality -- ,blood -- ,heart -- ,arteries and ,veins -- ,digestion --,respiration -- ,glands -- ,absorbents -- ,nervous ,system -- ,organs of ,sense -- ,bones -- ,sinovia --,muscles -- ,tendons -- ,cellular ,membrane -- ,skin4 ,,soul3 -- ,its ,immateriality -- ,freedom --,immortality -- ,moral ,image -- ,adam's ,dominion over the ,creatures -- ,woman -- ,paradise4 ,all things necessary1 convenient1 and delightful1 being prepared for the accommodation of ,man3 light1 that he might see2 air1 that he might hear and breathe2 dry land1 on which he might walk2 herbs and fruit-trees1 for his gratification and sustenance2 fish1 fowl1 cattle1 and creeping things1 for his service3 then ,god proceeded to make him1 as the last and greatest display of his wisdom and power1 the master-piece of all sublunary creatures1 whose creation alone is represented in the sacred ,history1 as an effect resulting from a divine consultation4 8,and ,god said1 ,let us make man in our image1 after our likeness4 ,so ,god created man in his own image1 in the image of ,god created he him2 male and female created he them40 ,it appears from the ingenious ,parable of ,protagoras in ,plato1 it was a very ancient opinion that man was last created after the other living creatures4 ,in all the former works1 ,god only said1 ,let such and such things be1 and they were2 he spake the word1 and it was done4 ,but now1 when ,man was to be made1 ,god is spoken of as calling a council1 8,let us make man1 in our image1 after our likeness40 ,this imports that ,man was to be a creature different from all that had been produced1 and far more excellent and wonderful in his constitution2 a compound of flesh and spirit1 heaven and earth1 put together1 the visible image of the ,divine glory1 and dedicated and devoted to his ,creator's service4 ,man was the work of ,,elohim1 the ,divine ,plurality1 marked here more distinctly by the plural pronouns ,,us and ,,our2 all the ,three ,subsistencies in the ,godhead are represented as united in counsel and effort to bring into existence this astonishing creature4 ,aben ,ezra1 a ,jewish ,rabbi1 imagined that the souls of all men were made on the first day of the creation1 and that ,god consulted them to obtain their consent before he would assign them bodies of flesh1 hereafter to be created4 ,this is a groundless hypothesis1 derived from the ,platonic philosophy2 for ,god says1 8,let us make man in our image10 which shows that ,adam's soul had then no existence1 for in that case1 it doubtless would have been in the image of ,god4 ,some other ,jewish ,doctors1 as ,manasseh ben ,israel1 ridiculously conceived that ,god spake to the elements4 ,but this is more absurd than the former2 for the expression1 8,let us make man10 implies capacity of consultation in those spoken to1 and real efficiency4 ,but the elements are not intelligent beings1 neither efficient1 but only material parts of man4 ,nor does ,god here speak to the angels1 as the authority of the ,paraphrase1 which is called ,jonathan's1 suggests4 ,the words of the ,paraphrase are these3 8,god said to the angels1 which ministered before him1 ,let us make man40 ,it is a noted saying of the ,jewish ,rabbis1 that ,god does nothing without consulting his family above3 they mean1 his holy angels4 ,several heretics1 in the first and second centuries of ,christianity1 were of opinion1 that this lower world was made by angels4 ,this notion is likewise erroneous3 ,god here speaks to those in whose image man was to be formed1 but he was not made in the image of angels4 ,it is pretended by those who are enemies to the orthodox doctrine of the ,trinity1 that this is a figurative way of speaking1 only to express the dignity of ,god1 not to denote any plurality in him2 that he here speaks in the plural number after the manner of princes1 who say1 ,we will and require1 or1 ,it is our pleasure4 ,but this is only a far-fetched invention1 to evade the doctrine of the ,trinity1 by persons in latter times1 and no way agreeable to the first ages of the world1 or the ,hebrew style4 ,melchizedeck1 ,abimelech1 ,pharoah1 and ,balak1 all speak in the singular number4 ,the kings of ,israel used the same style1 as did ,saul1 ,david1 and even ,solomon in all his glory4 ,and also the ,eastern monarchs3 8,i 7,darius7 make a decree4 ,i1 even ,i1 ,artaxerxes the king1 do make a decree40 ,nor is there in the ,scriptures one example to the contrary4 ,beside1 how absurd it is to suppose that ,god would borrow his mode of speaking from a practice which did not exist6 ,and even granting this possible1 yet the cases are not parallel4 ,for though a ,king1 or ,governor1 may say us and we1 there is certainly no figure of speech that will allow a single person to say1 one of us1 when he speaks of himself4 ,it is a phrase that can have no meaning1 unless there be more persons than one concerned4 ,yet in addition to ,,us and ,,our1 this we find is the style in which ,god has spoken of himself4 ,there are some persons who maintain1 in opposition to the clear light of revelation1 that there is but one ,subsistence in the ,divine ,nature4 ,this was the opinion of the ,sabellians1 a denomination which arose in the third century2 and1 certain persons1 in modern times1 have embraced the same4 ,these contend that ,god here speaks to himself1 as consulting with himself1 to create man1 and that1 though the words be plural1 yet the sense is singular1 as if he had said1 ,let me make man4 ,one of the ,persons1 or ,subsistencies in the ,godhead1 here speaks to the other ,two1 and who more likely than the ,father1 who is first in the order of arrangement1 as given by the sacred ,writers4 ,the ,father1 not the ,son1 is the first2 the ,son1 not the ,holy ,spirit1 is the second2 and the ,holy ,spirit1 not the ,father1 is the third4 ,hence1 the ,father1 when he said1 8,let us make man10 addressed himself to the ,son1 and to the ,holy ,spirit1 who were therein joint and equal ,creators with him4 8,none saith1 ,where is ,god my ,maker80 in the ,hebrew1 ,makers1 is the language used in the ,book of ,job1 implying a ,plurality of ,persons in a ,unity of ,essence3 a phraseology like that of ,solomon1 8,remember thy ,creator10 in the original1 ,creators4 ,the prophet ,isaiah adopts the same style1 8,thy ,maker is thine husband10 in the ,hebrew1 thy ,makers are thy ,husbands4 ,thus it evidently appears1 that this consultation was among the ,persons in the ,godhead2 that all the ,three1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit1 were concerned in man's creation2 and were therein joint ,creators1 equal in nature1 power1 and efficiency4 ,dr4 ,waterland says1 that this text1 ,let us make man1 has been understood of ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost1 or at least of ,father and ,son1 by the whole succession of ,christian writers1 from the times of the apostles2 which is a circumstance of considerable importance1 and will impress the minds of sincere and impartial men4 ,that the ,christian ,fathers were unanimous in their judgment1 that these words were spoken by the ,father to the ,son1 or ,spirit1 or both1 appears in their works1 from which we shall adduce a few proofs4 ,barnabas says3--8,and for this the ,lord was contented to suffer for our souls1 though he be the ,lord of the world2 to whom ,god said1 the day before the formation of the world1 ,let us make man after our image and similitude40#age ,hermas3--8,he was present in counsel with his ,father for the forming of the creature40#agf ,theophilus of ,antioch3--8,he directed these words1 ,let us make man1 to none other than his own ,word and his own ,wisdom40#agg ,irenus3--8,his ,word and ,wisdom1 his ,son and ,spirit1 are always present with him1 to whom also he spake1 saying1 ,let us make man1 c40#agh ,again3--8,man was fashioned after the image and likeness of the uncreated ,god1 the ,father willing his creation1 the ,son ministering and forming him1 the ,holy ,ghost nourishing and increasing him40#agi ,tertullian3--8,nay1 because his ,son is ever present with him1 the second person1 his ,word2 and the third1 the ,spirit in the ,word2 therefore he spake in the plural1 ,let us make man in our image40#ahj ,novatian3--8,who does not acknowledge the ,son to be the second person after the ,father1 when he reads that it was said to the ,son by the ,father1 ,let us make man40#aha ,origen3--8,to him also spake he 7the ,father17 ,let us make man after our image40#ahb ,athanasius3--8,who is this that ,god converses with here8 ,to whom are these notifications and determinations of his pleasure directed8 ,not to any of the creatures already made2 much less to those things which were not yet created2 but1 undoubtedly to some person1 who was then present with the ,father1 to whom he communicated his councils1 and of whose agency he made use in the creation of them4 ,and who could this be but his eternal ,word8 ,with whom can we conceive the ,father holding his conference1 but with his ,son1 the divine ,,logos1 that ,wisdom of ,god1 that was present with him1 and acted with him1 in the creation of the world1 who was in the beginning with ,god1 and was ,god8 and who saith of himself1 ,when he prepared the heavens1 ,i was there2 when he appointed the foundations of the earth1 then was ,i by him1 as one brought up with him40 ,st4 ,augustine3--8,had ,god said no more than1 ,let us make man1 it might1 with some color1 be understood as spoken to the angels1 whom the ,jews pretend he employed in framing the body of man1 and other creatures2 but seeing it immediately follows1 after our image1 it is highly profane to believe1 that man was made after the similitude of angels2 and that the similitude of ,god and angels is one and the same40 ,st4 ,ambrose speaks to the same purpose3--8,god would not speak thus to his servants1 because it is not to be thought1 that servants were partners with their ,lord1 in his works of creation2 or the works with their ,author4 ,and1 supposing this should be admitted1 that the work was common to ,god and angels1 yet the image was not common40 ,nay1 the second ,council of ,sirmium1 which was held in #cea1 pronounced an anathema on all those who denied this4 ,the words of the ,council are these3--8,if any say1 that the ,father did not speak to the ,son1 when he said1 ,let us make man1 but that he spake to himself1 let him be accursed40#ahc ,epiphanius3--8,this is the language of ,god to his ,word1 and ,only-begotten1 as all the faithful believe40#ahd ,and again he says1 8,adam was formed by the hand of the ,father1 and the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost40#ahe ,i observe more at large from ,irenus1 that he rejects the notion of the ,jews and ,heretics1 who supposed ,god spake to his angels4 ,for disputing against ,heretics1 who attributed the creation of the world to angels1 and powers separate from the one true ,god1 he says thus3--8,angels did not make us1 nor did they form us2 neither was it in their power to make the image of ,god3 none but the ,logos could do this2 no powers distinct from the ,father of all things3 for ,god did not want their assistance in making the things which he had ordained4 ,for his ,word and his ,wisdom1 the ,son and the ,holy ,ghost1 are always with him2 by whom and with whom1 he made all things freely1 and of his own accord2 to whom also he spake in these words1 ,let us make man in our image and likeness40#ahf ,the testimony of ,dr4 ,kennicott will be respected by those who are lovers of the truth4 8,god1 says he1 being about to create man1 is introduced saying--,let ,,us make man in ,,our image1 after our likeness2 in consequence of which the historian tells us--so ,god created man in his own image1 in the image of ,god created he him4 ,it is evident then1 that ,god created man in his own image2 this is mentioned thrice by way of emphasis1 and to prevent1 if possible1 all possibility of misconstruction4 ,now what ,god did1 was certainly what he proposed to do2 ,god created man in his own image1 that is1 in the image of the ,godhead1 and therefore ,god proposed to create him in the image of the ,godhead4 ,but if ,god proposed to create him in the image of the ,godhead1 the proposal must have been made to the ,godhead2 because the words are--,let us make man in ,,our image4 ,and if the proposal be here made by ,god to the ,godhead1 it is absurd to suppose it made to the same ,person that makes it2 and consequently reasonable to think it made to the other two persons in the ,unity of the ,godhead40#ahg ,the creature now to be made is man4#ahh ,and ,god said1 ,let us make man4 ,it is evident that ,god1 by introducing the creation of man with this peculiar phraseology1 intends to impress the mind with a sense of something extraordinary in his formation4 ,the word ,adam1 which is translated man1 is intended to designate the species of animal1 which is vastly superior to all the rest4 ,though the same kind of organization may be found in ,man1 as appears in the lower animals1 yet1 as one observes1 there is a variety and complication in the parts1 a delicacy of structure1 a nice arrangement1 a judicious adaptation of the various members to their great offices and different functions1 a dignity of mien1 and perfection of the whole1 which are sought for in vain in all other creatures4 ,man is a compound creature1 consisting of two distinct essential parts1 body and soul4 ,the union of these constitutes man1 for neither of them when separated can be so denominated4 ,the body was made before the soul1 and formed out of the earth1 or1 as pher implies1 the dust4 8,the ,lord ,god formed man of the dust of the ground40 ,he afterwards pronounced1 ,dust thou art4 ,this led ,solomon to affirm1 8,all are of the dust40 ,the ,apostle adds1 8,the first man was of the earth1 dusty10 as ,ainsworth renders it4 ,and we are said to 8dwell in houses of clay10 and to have our 8foundation in the dust40 ,of the soul it is said1 8,god breathed into his nostrils the breath of life30 ruach chayim1 the breath of ,,lives2 i4e4 animal1 intellectual1 and spiritual4 ,while this breath of ,god expanded the lungs1 and set them to play1 his inspiration gave both spirit1 understanding1 and felicity4 ,thus we see that the soul and the body are not the same thing2 the one is of the earth1 the other is from ,god4 ,the ,rabbins say1 8,the form of the soul is not compounded of the elements1 c1 but is of the ,lord from heaven4 ,therefore when the material body1 which is compounded of the elements1 is separated1 and the breath perishes because it is not found1 but with the body1 and is needful for the body in all its actions2 this form 7i4e4 the soul7 is not destroyed1 c1 but continues for ever4 ,this is that which ,solomon by his wisdom said1 #8,then shall the dust return unto the earth as it was2 and the spirit shall return unto ,god who gave it4'0 ,as the formation of man's body was effected previously to the infusion of his soul1 we shall attend to the same order1 in attempting to elucidate this important and very interesting subject4 ,the word jitzer1 rendered he formed1 observes ,mr4 ,benson1 is not used concerning any other creature1 and implies a gradual process in the work1 with great accuracy and exactness4 ,it is properly used of potters forming vessels on the wheel2 and ,rabbi ,d4 ,kimchi says1 that1 when used concerning the creation of man1 it signifies the formation of his members4 ,bishop ,patrick intimates1 that the body of man was made not of dry1 but moist dust2 and that this agrees with the ,hebrew ,,jitzer1 formed1 which is used concerning potters1 who make their vessels of clay1 not of dry earth4 ,diodorus ,siculus says1 8,man was made out of the slime1 or mud1 of the ,nile40 ,the word of the ,lord once came to ,jeremiah1 saying1 8,arise1 and go down to the potter's house1 and there ,i will cause thee to hear my words4 ,then ,i went down to the potter's house1 and1 behold1 he wrought a work on the wheel4 ,and the word of the ,lord came to me1 saying1 ,behold1 as the clay is in the potter's hand1 so are ye in mine hand60 ,a scene like this is presented to our imagination by the words of ,moses2 the ,lord ,god formed1 moulded1 or modelled man1 as a potter does2 we see the work1 observes ,bishop ,horne1 as it were upon the wheel1 rising and growing under the hands of the ,divine ,artificer6 ,but1 to give the thing a stronger impression on the mind1 we will suppose1 says ,judge ,hale1 that this figure rises by degrees1 and is finished part by part1 in some succession of time2 and that1 when the whole is completed1 the veins and arteries bored1 the sinews and tendons laid1 the joints fitted1 and liquor 7transmutable in blood and juices7 lodged in the ventricles of the heart1 ,god infuses into it a vital principle1 whereupon the liquor in the heart begins to descend1 and thrill along the veins1 and a heavenly blush arises in the countenance1 such as scorns the help of art1 and is above the power of imitation4 ,the image moves1 it walks1 it speaks2 it moves with such a majesty1 as proclaims it the lord of the creation1 and talks with such an accent and sublimity1 as makes every ear attentive1 and even its great ,creator enter into converse with it3 were we to see all this transacted before our eyes1 ,i say1 we could not but stand astonished at the thing2 and yet this is the exact emblem of man's formation4 ,the human body is an excellent piece of workmanship1 the shape and contexture of it admirable1 evidently superior to that of all other animals1 and the brightest visible display of the wisdom of the ,divine ,architect4 ,the erect posture1 figure1 stature1 use of every part1 and symmetry of the whole1 cannot but excite admiration4 ,the fabric of the eye1 the texture of the brain1 the configuration of the muscles1 the disposition of the nerves1 the construction of the bones2 the veins and arteries1 spread throughout the system1 the former to return the blood to the heart1 and keep that mysterious engine playing1 which throws the vital fluid through the latter with prodigious force1 to animate and invigorate every part2 and many other important particulars1 which we shall now proceed to mention and illustrate1 are not only manifest proofs of the great excellence of this system1 but also of the skill1 contrivance1 and consummate wisdom of ,god4 ,when we take a general view of the animal world1 we find the numerous individuals which compose it1 differing considerably in the phenomena which their economy exhibits4 ,man1 and the higher orders of animals1 are characterized by the constant performance of many complex and active functions2 as respiration1 digestion1 circulation1 c4 ,torpid or hibernating animals display this singular peculiarity1 that these functions are performed for several months1 and suspended for several months1 alternately4 ,in another modification of animated matter1 namely the egg1 the evidences of vitality would not be exhibited1 were not certain agents applied to evolve them1 and1 when thus called forth1 they cannot be resumed after long suspension4 ,although we are ignorant of the nature of the cause which regulates the uniform performance of this series of phenomena1 thus more or less extensively displayed in the economy of different animals1 we are nevertheless convinced that such a cause must exist1 and are hence naturally led to distinguish the phenomena by some appropriate term4 ,thus observing that the human body1 and the bodies of animals which bear it resemblance1 possess locomotive powers1 can regulate their actions1 and are capable not only of resisting the laws which govern inanimate substances1 but are enabled to act upon these substances in direct opposition to these laws1 we employ the terms life1 vitality1 and vital power1 to express the phenomena which thus distinguish animate from inanimate matter2 and in order simply to determine the import of those terms1 we may take a general view of those powers which a living animal body possesses1 and which cease with its existence4 ,when we compare the living with the dead body1 the most striking circumstance we observe is1 that the former was surrounded by the same chemical agents which are capable of producing the decomposition and destruction of its soft parts after death2 hence it becomes evident1 that its component elements must have been sustained and preserved by some superior power1 which ceases to act at the moment of its dissolution4 ,of all the phenomena which enter into the general idea of life1 this power of self-preservation1 or the capability of resisting the laws which govern inanimate matter1 appears the most essential4 ,without this principle we can form no conception of life1 since it evidently exists without interruption till the moment of dissolution4 ,it is this principle which1 communicated to an egg1 enables it to resist for a certain period the powers of heat1 cold1 and putrefaction2 a principle of which the addle or barren egg is entirely devoid4 ,thus we find from ,mr4 ,j4 ,hunter's experiments1 that an impregnated egg is longer in freezing than an addle egg1 and every one knows that the former remains sweet or free from putrefaction much longer4 ,this principle1 which we may consider the most simple state of existence1 is limited in its duration2 and for its maintenance1 the performance of no active function is necessary4 ,hence it continues in the egg either quiescent for a certain time1 and is gradually destroyed2 or1 by the agency or stimulus of heat1 it acquires the accession of the power of action1 which assimilates inanimate matter into a living form1 and1 at length1 exhibits in the chick all the phenomena of a more perfect state of existence1 which may be distinguished by the term active life4 ,in this state1 many other phenomena of vitality are exhibited4 ,besides the power of self-preservation1 an internal principle of support and reparation1 and the power of performing the important actions of circulation1 respiration1 digestion1 c1 which are subservient to this principle1 is given to animals4 ,these form the features of what we call life1 as it appears in man1 and the higher orders of animals1 and certainly constitute its most useful1 though not most essential part4 ,for how little superior is an egg1 or a torpid animal1 to vegetable or inanimate matter1 till the former contain a living chick1 the latter become an active animal8 ,thus1 though life may subsist under the quiescent form of self-preservation1 it requires the accession of certain principles1 and a power of performing various important actions1 to display its chief characters4 ,the economy then of an egg1 and of a perfect animal1 such as man1 may be considered as examples of the most simple and extensive phenomena of vitality4 ,these1 however1 are more or less perfectly exhibited in the different orders of animals4 ,it belongs1 for instance1 to the economy of certain animals1 which at one time of the year perform active functions1 to become torpid at the approach of winter4 ,in these creatures1 respiration1 digestion1 and every function which characterizes active life1 is suspended2 as in the egg1 the principle of self-preservation1 that latent spark of vitality1 alone remains1 by which we distinguish torpidity from death4 ,this condition1 however1 is not of long continuance2 at the approach of summer's warmth1 the power of action is again called forth1 active functions are superadded to the principle of self-preservation1 and life1 before quiescent and obscure1 now resumes its most perfect form2 or1 in other words1 the animal just now inert and motionless1 respires again2 its heart beats1 its blood circulates1 its muscles resume their accustomed motions1 and it leaves its winter quarters in search of food4 ,having now assumed the nature of an active animal1 the performance of the functions characteristic of that state 7which we shall now proceed to describe7 becomes requisite2 and1 first1 the circulation of a fluid which we call blood4#ahi ,this fluid differs in its appearance in the different orders of animals1 though1 in its essential properties there is little variety2 the appearance of the blood in man1 and the more perfect animals1 is that of a red fluid1 having a certain degree of viscidity1 not being limpid like common water4 ,though it appears to be a homogenous fluid whilst circulating1 or at the moment it escapes from its vessels1 it is composed of three parts1 essentially differing from each other2 of particles1 upon which the color of the blood depends2 of coagulating lymph1 which has the property of becoming spontaneously solid under certain circumstances1 and from which various structures in the body are formed2 and of a limpid fluid called serum1 which dilutes the coagulating lymph1 and fits it for circulating through blood vessels of a very minute size4 ,in some of the lower orders of animals1 however1 the color of the particles of the blood is green1 in others white1 corresponding with the color of the animal2 in others there is no color whatever in the blood1 so that it is either void of particles1 or they are transparent1 so as not to be seen4 ,but this deficiency must be considered as making no great difference in the blood itself1 as its particles do not appear to be its most essential part4 ,many microscopical observations have been made to determine the size of a single particle of the blood1 and according to the observations of several philosophers1 the diameter of a single particle in man has been computed at the #c1jjjth part of an inch4 ,the size of the particles in red blooded animals1 is found not to correspond with the size of the animal4 ,they are as large in the mouse as the elephant1 larger in some insects than in man1 smaller in the ox4 ,they are in prodigious numbers1 so as to give color to the blood1 and of all its parts appear to be renewed the most slowly2 thus when animals are frequently bled1 the flesh becomes paler and paler4#aij ,the next part of the blood1 or coagulating lymph1 is of the greatest importance4 ,this constituent part becomes apparent1 when blood is drawn from a vein into a cup1 from its power of spontaneously coagulating into a solid mass1 which appears red from a mixture of red particles3 the color of the lymph however is transparent4 ,this coagulation of the blood differs very essentially from the coagulation of inanimate substances1 and is considered by many physiologists to be the last exertion of a living principle1 which the blood is supposed to possess4 ,this opinion1 although not capable of absolute proof1 is rendered extremely probable from a variety of facts1 and by none more than the analogy between the coagulation of the blood1 and the contraction of the muscles at death4 ,these two actions appear to be influenced in some degree by the same causes4 ,thus1 sudden death from lightning1 or a blow upon the stomach1 prevents the muscles from becoming rigid after death1 and prevents also the coagulation of the blood4 ,under these circumstances it remains fluid4 ,besides violent death1 several circumstances influence its tendency to coagulate and become solid1 such as a great loss of blood--inflammation--pregnancy in females1 and other causes4#aia ,the third important part of the blood is the serum4 ,this is limpid like water1 and remains permanently fluid1 unless certain substances are employed to coagulate it1 such as alcohol1 alum1 or a certain degree of heat4 ,it dilutes the other parts of the blood1 so as to reduce the whole to a proper state of fluidity4 ,it is secreted1 or naturally separated from the blood1 and poured out by exhalent vessels in various cavities and parts of the body1 as the chest1 abdomen1 cellular membrane1 c4 ,it facilitates the easy motion of the various organs upon each other1 and1 when accumulated in large quantities1 forms the fluid of dropsies4 ,besides these constituent parts1 a quantity of water always circulates with the blood1 varying according to the quantity of fluids taken in1 and regulated in its proportion by the kidneys4 ,thus if a large quantity of water is taken into the stomach1 particularly if it contain a little spirit in the form of punch1 the kidneys are stimulated to an increased action1 so as to separate from the blood the redundant quantity4 ,a variety of other substances also are occasionally introduced into the blood1 along with the aliment1 alkaline substances producing their effect upon the nature of the urine1 rhubarb on bile giving it a yellow color1 and turpentine or asparagus altering its odor2 all these substances1 before passing off by urine1 must have been mixed with the blood1 from whence the urine is formed1 being in fact its excrementitious part4#aib ,it is necessary for the blood thus formed1 to pass to every part of the body1 that it may be converted into the nature of these parts1 and thus become subservient to their growth2 that fluids1 serving important purposes in animal bodies1 may be separated or secreted from it2 and that the temperature of the body may be equably maintained4 ,the blood1 however1 has no power of motion in itself2 if it be not propelled by certain parts of the body1 it remains quiescent like any extraneous fluid4 ,in two very numerous classes of animals1 insects and zoophites1 the motion of the blood is very simple2 they are nourished like vegetables1 by the absorption of the fluid1 which is prepared in their alimentary canal1 and have no circulation properly so called4 ,but in man1 and the higher orders of animals1 a complex apparatus for the motion of the blood becomes necessary1 consisting of an heart1 arteries1 and veins4 ,the heart may be considered as the chief agent in circulation1 the general reservoir1 and source from whence the blood flows4 ,it is composed of two principles1 one a principle of reception1 the other a principle of propulsion4 ,that cavity of the heart1 which is called its auricle1 receives the blood from the veins2 the cavity called its ventricle1 propels it through the arteries4 ,although the heart in all animals is formed on the same general principle1 and for the same purpose1 yet the economy of some animals admits of a greater simplicity in the conformation of this organ1 than others4 ,the most simple kind of heart is composed of one cavity1 with a tube entering into it1 by which it receives the blood1 and another passing out of it1 by which the blood is conveyed over the body4 ,the next simple heart is composed of two cavities1 an auricle1 which receives the blood1 and propels it into a ventricle1 which diffuses it over the body4 ,another kind of heart is composed of three cavities2 two auricles1 and one ventricle2 one auricle receiving the blood from the lungs1 the other from the body generally2 the blood from these two sources is mixed together in a single ventricle4 ,this structure we find in some amphibious animals1 in which it is not necessary that the blood should circulate with so much influence from the oxygenous part of the atmosphere1 as in other animals4 ,accordingly we find the heart adapted to transmit only one half of the blood through the lungs at each circulation1 whilst in more perfect animals the whole mass passes by this route4 ,the last kind of heart is formed of four cavities1 two auricles and two ventricles1 and is the most perfect apparatus as it is found in man1 and quadrupeds generally4--,it must1 however1 be considered as composed of two distinct parts1 or two simple hearts adhering together1 and performing distinct parts of the circulation2 and one part intended to receive the blood from the body1 and circulate it through the lungs2 the other part to receive the blood from the lungs1 and propel it over the rest of the body4 ,it is better suited to the economy of some animals1 as the cuttle fish1 that these parts should be separated to a considerable distance from each other4 ,the reason why the heart is formed of two parts in most animals is1 that it is necessary that the blood should receive the impulse of the heart twice1 first to propel it through the lungs1 next to propel it over the rest of the body4 ,the blood is conveyed from the heart to every part of the body1 by means of elastic tubes1 called arteries4 ,these arise from the ventricles of the heart by two large trunks1 which branch out in every part of the body1 into arteries of great minuteness1 conveying the blood from the heart to its most distant parts1 so that it is impossible to wound any part of the body with the finest point1 without opening one of these vessels4 ,this gives a good idea of their minuteness4 ,from the minute termination of the arteries1 begins a second set of vessels1 the veins1 which1 having a contrary course1 return the blood from every part of the body into the auricles of the heart4 ,the larger arteries and veins1 near the heart1 differ very much from each other in their structure and action4 ,this difference1 however1 does not descend to their minute ramifications1 which must be considered as having the same structure1 and performing the same office1 the one passing into the other by such imperceptible degrees1 that we cannot mark where the one terminates or the other begins4 ,if we consider these tubes as subservient to the circulation of the blood1 we shall see the necessity of certain principles entering into their structure4 ,as the blood is forcibly thrown from the heart1 these vessels must be distended2 one of their properties therefore1 must be a capability of being distended1 which is given to them by elastic matter entering into their composition4 ,as the vessels1 however1 are not to remain in a distended state1 a power of reaction is added1 which arises also out of their elasticity1 and assists in propelling the blood forwards4 ,thus the elastic matter allows the vessels to be distended to a certain degree1 and also reduces them to a smaller size4 ,but it is necessary that the heart shall be assisted considerably1 in the circulation of the blood1 by a contractile power of the vessels themselves2 and the same quantity of blood is not to circulate in the same body at all times1 for animals are liable to frequent injuries1 by which the quantities of blood in their bodies may be very suddenly reduced4 ,hence the vessels have given to them a further power of contraction to assist the heart1 and accommodate themselves1 under certain circumstances1 to a smaller quantity of blood4 ,for this purpose1 a muscular structure is added to them1 which is present in largest proportion in the smaller arteries2 by this means1 they are enabled so far to withstand the power of the heart1 as to shut their cavities1 and prevent the escape of blood when divided1 forming one of the means by which the effusion of blood is spontaneously checked in living animals4 ,and it may be remarked1 that this power1 for the purpose of self-preservation1 is extended to larger arteries in the brute creation2 for ,mr4 ,hunter found1 that the flow of blood from the large artery in the neck of an ass was checked by an exertion of this power1 whilst every one knows that its division in man is fatal4 ,besides these parts1 arteries have an internal lining1 which is perfectly smooth1 and of considerable density1 that the blood may circulate with as little resistance1 and be contained as completely as possible within its proper channels4 ,the same observations will apply to the veins1 though some of their properties are less strongly marked4 ,they possess an elastic power capable of distension and reaction1 a muscular structure endowed with contractility1 and an internal lining over which the blood circulates with as little resistance as possible4 ,by these powers the blood is circulated through every part of the body with great velocity4 ,according to the best calculations1 the heart alone exerts a power equal to the pressure of #ea pounds1 which propels the blood through the arteries at the velocity of #adi feet in a minute2 in which time it expels from its cavities about #afj ounces4 ,thus all animals are provided with an organ for propelling the blood1 by certain channels1 to the different parts of the body2 but1 as the functions of these parts are various1 they require to be visited by very different proportions of blood1 according to their activity or powers of life4 ,some parts of the body may be said to be inert1 and merely possessed of a principle of life1 to connect them with the other organs of the body1 as parts of a living system1 and to enable them to go through certain processes in their healthy and diseased states4 ,other parts are formed for active functions1 and possess great sensibility4 ,it is accordingly observed1 that a smaller quantity of blood is distributed to bones1 tendons1 and similar inert parts1 than to muscles and glands1 whose exertions are more considerable4 ,this then is the general apparatus in perfect animals1 by which the blood performs its circulation through the various parts of the body1 but during its course it is subject to constant exhaustion from various sources4 ,it is converted in its passage into the nature of all the component parts of the body1 and has the different secreted fluids derived from it1 and these processes go on with more activity in a young1 than an adult person3 hence we see the necessity of a constant supply of materials to the blood1 and this in the greatest proportion at an early period of life4 ,animals are furnished with the means of this supply1 by their power of converting animal and vegetable substances into the nature of blood1 by a process called digestion4 ,some animals are led by their nature to live on vegetable food1 others on animal food only1 whilst others can subsist on either1 or any mixture of both4#aic ,the digestive powers of man fit him for any proportion of animal or vegetable foods1 and are the most perfect of all animals4 ,other creatures may be said to be confined to a certain district1 but the curiosity of man is to lead him over the whole world1 and frequently place him in situations where only one kind of food is attainable4 ,the first change which takes place in the food1 in order that it shall be converted into the nature of the blood1 is its division into smaller parts1 by the teeth or gizzards of animals4 ,it is then passed into the stomach1 where it remains for some time exposed to the action of a fluid1 formed in the stomach1 which is called gastric juice4 ,this possesses a very strong power of coagulating and dissolving various animal and vegetable substances4 ,as far as we know1 it acts on the principle of any other solvent1 for it produces the same change in substances out of the body1 or even within the body after death4 ,it frequently happens1 for instance1 when a person has been killed1 by accident1 in full health1 that1 on inspection1 the stomach is found dissolved1 and reduced to a gelatinous mass in several parts1 arising from the action of the gastric juice1 which had been formed in it before death4 ,the gastric juice1 however1 cannot act upon living substances3 hence the stomach resists its action1 and worms sometimes reside and are even generated in the stomach4 ,every substance capable of being acted upon in the stomach1 is reduced1 by the solvent power of the gastric juice1 into a pulpy mass1 which has been called chyme1 the exact chemical properties of which have not been ascertained2 in this state it is by degrees transferred into the beginning of the small intestines1 where it is mixed with the bile and pancreatic fluid1 and undergoes a change into a milky fluid1 which is called chyle4 ,it is then diffused by an undulating motion of the intestines over their inner surface1 that it may be absorbed1 and carried into the general mass of blood4 ,as far as has yet been ascertained by experiment1 the chyle of animals1 most opposite to each other in their food1 structure1 and habits of life1 is so much alike as to have no distinguishable difference4 ,the chyle of a ,dog1 or ,wolf1 differs in nothing from that of a ,sheep or an ,ox4 ,this would appear surprising1 were it not ascertained that almost every alimentary matter undergoes a chemical change before it is converted into chyle1 and that the ultimate analysis of either animal or vegetable matter presents us with the same elements as those of the blood1 which1 though only three or four in number1 are capable of forming the various substances of which the body is composed1 by combining with each other1 and in different proportions4 ,there is1 however1 this difference observable in the chyle1 that in reptiles and insects it is transparent like lymph4 ,the lacteals are the vessels by which the chyle is absorbed from the intestines3 they form small processes on the internal surface of the intestines like the pile of velvet1 which are hence called villi4 ,a small portion of chyle being received into their open mouths1 is propelled by successive contractions of these vessels into their large trunk1 the thoracic duct1 from whence it is poured into a great vein near the heart1 and1 by circulating through the lungs1 probably receives its final change into blood2 and this change would seem to be easily effected1 as the chyle already possesses the principal properties of blood1 being formed of particles swimming in a thinner fluid1 and having a power of coagulating spontaneously4#aid ,this is the apparatus by which the food is digested in man so as to replenish the blood2 but the digestive organs of different animals exhibit considerable varieties1 some being more simple1 others more complex in their structure1 adapted to the kind of food with which the animal is nourished4 ,ruminating animals1 or animals which chew the cud1 such as the ,cow1 have several stomachs1 and the food undergoes mastication several times1 at each time being passed into a different stomach1 before being finally acted upon by the gastric juice1 after which it is transmitted through a long tract of intestines4 ,this is an example of the most complex digestive organ fitted to act upon hard and fibrous food1 which must be subjected to the action of several menstrua preparatory to its being acted upon by the gastric juice4 ,in birds who live on grain as has been noticed1 we meet with a different apparatus to prepare it to be acted upon by the gastric juice4 ,the food first passes into the crop1 which forms a kind of reservoir from whence it may pass by degrees into the gizzard1 by which the grain is ground into small particles1 before it is transmitted into the stomach3 and it is surprising with how great power the gizzard acts for this purpose4 ,the ,abb ,spallanzani introduced a garnet1 which is a very hard and angular stone1 into the gizzard of a ,wood-,pigeon1 and1 in the course of a day1 it was ground perfectly smooth1 by the action of the gizzard4 ,he also introduced a leaden ball stuck full of tin points1 and another with fine lancets1 into the gizzard of a ,turkey1 and in about #ah hours1 the whole of the points were rubbed down4 ,the gizzard also possesses an amazing power of compression4 ,raumeur introduced into the gizzard of a ,turkey tubes of tinned iron1 seven lines in length1 and two in diameter1 closed with solder at each end2 some were indented by the action of the gizzard1 and others crushed flat4 ,similar tubes1 introduced into the teeth of a vice1 required the weight of about #ddj lb4 to produce the same effect4 ,the gizzard thus reduces into small particles whatever food the animal selects1 that it may be more readily acted upon by the gastric juice in the stomach2 for the gastric juice acts like any other solvent1 and therefore acts most advantageously when the food is reduced into small parts4--,the digestive organs of some of the lower orders of animals form a striking contrast to these4 ,in the most simple apparatus with which we are acquainted1 the stomach and the intestines are composed of a simple bag which has but one opening1 which serves both to receive the food1 and discharge the excrement4 ,it composes in fact the whole bulk of a fresh-water ,polypus4 ,in these animals the chyle is absorbed by small vessels in the sides of the bag1 and is conveyed to every part of the body4 ,thus we find that the supply of materials to the blood is commensurate to its exhaustion1 that in young animals where a more active process of formation is going on1 a larger proportion of food is requisite1 and more chyle formed2 this1 however1 is not all that is necessary to prepare the blood for its important purposes within the body4 ,the blood1 by passing through the various parts of the body1 is so changed by the abstraction of certain properties1 as to render it unfit for circulation1 which implies the necessity of an organ1 which may restore to the blood its requisite qualities4 ,this office is performed by respiration1 that function in animals by which the blood receives the influence of atmospherical air4 ,there is a great variety in the structure of the organ for exposing the blood to the air1 suited to the mode of life in different animals4 ,in man and quadrupeds generally the lungs serve this purpose2 they are composed of a number of blood vessels spread out upon minute air cells1 which communicate with and receive the air by means of the trachea or windpipe1 in consequence of the expansion of the chest by certain muscular powers4 ,these vessels and cells are connected together by cellular membrane1 so as to form a spongy mass called lungs1 which are commonly placed in the chests of animals4--,but besides this kind of organ1 which in birds is very large1 they have air bags1 or appendages to the lungs1 diffused through various parts of the body2 even some of their long bones contain nothing but air1 and communicate with the lungs4 ,it was from a knowledge of this fact that ,mr4 ,j4 ,hunter made a ,turkey breathe by its wings1 by making an opening into their large bones1 and closing the animal's mouth4 ,in ,fish1 the gills serve the purpose of lungs4 ,they are composed of a number of processes arising from cartilages1 having distributed upon them minute blood-vessels1 which receive the influence of air contained in water3 and hence distilled water1 which contains little air1 destroys fish1 in the same manner as the exhausted receiver of an air pump does a breathing animal4 ,there is another mode of conveying air for the use of the blood in many insects1 by means of a number of tubes or spiracula3 these receive the external air1 and1 by ramifying in the body of the animal1 convey its influence to the blood4 ,thus these animals may be said to respire like vegetables1 throughout the whole of their surface1 by vessels which introduce the air at different points into their bodies4 ,in some insects the rectum forms the principal organ of respiration1 and1 in the class of animals called ,zoophites1 there are no visible organs of respiration4 ,these different modifications1 in the respiratory organs of the higher and lower orders of animals1 are all formed with the same intention1 viz4 that the blood may be exposed more or less to atmospherical air4 ,in consequence of this the blood undergoes a process similar to combustion1 which extracts from it a part of its carbon1 in the form of carbonic acid1 and by this means increases the relative proportion of its remaining elements4 ,the inspired air at the same time is deprived of a part of its oxygen1 which is the elastic fluid which commonly supports respiration4 ,all the corresponding effects produced upon the blood are not yet fully explained4 ,but by this means the color of the blood is changed from a dark to a florid red1 it acquires the power of exciting the action of the heart1 and is fitted for its various purposes within the body4#aie ,by these organs1 respiration is performed more or less extensively in the different orders of animals1 corresponding in a great degree1 to their activity1 digestive powers1 and the heat maintained in their bodies4 ,birds1 whose extensive respiratory organs consume a larger quantity of air1 are capable of greater exertion2 make more frequent meals than quadrupeds1 and maintain a superior temperature4 ,quadrupeds hold a middle place between birds and reptiles4 ,respiration appears in the class of reptiles1 as ,frogs and ,toads1 to be a subordinate function only2 they can exist without it nearly as long as they please2 at the same time they make very long fasts1 and the heat of their bodies is more variable and lower than quadrupeds2 hence they are called cold blooded animals4 ,their other habits accord well with their organs of respiration4 ,they generally live in impure air1 their motions are languid1 and they pass a great part of their existence in a state of torpidity4 ,a subordinate use of respiration in most animals1 is the formation of the voice3 for this purpose there are membranes stretched across the narrow part of the windpipe1 which are thrown into a state of vibration by the current of air3 the vibrations thus produced1 being modified by other accessory parts1 produce the voice4 ,in many animals1 however1 it is produced by a very different mechanism4 ,some animals employ the friction of certain elastic parts of the body1 as ,grasshoppers and ,crickets2 others employ the vibration of certain parts in the air1 whilst others impress a rapid motion on portions of air inclosed in certain parts of their bodies4 ,there is a particular part of the heart in man1 intended merely to propel the blood1 which passes through the lungs to receive the influence of the air2 this is the right ventricle2 from whence the blood passes1 by the pulmonary artery1 through the minute vessels expanded on the air cells1 and is changed from a dark to a florid color3 it is then returned back to the left ventricle1 by the pulmonary veins1 and is propelled over the rest of the body1 where it is again changed 7by the abstraction of certain properties7 to the dark color peculiar to venous blood3 the blood is lastly conveyed by the veins to the right side of the heart from whence it set out1 having passed through two circles4 ,the blood thus prepared by the lungs for circulation1 passes in different quantities to different parts of the body1 according to their activity1 and has various fluids formed from it1 which are called secreted fluids1 as gastric juice1 milk1 bile1 c4 ,the parts of the body forming many of these fluids1 are very peculiar in their structure1 and are called glands4 ,they consist in an arrangement of vessels1 endowed with a mode of action1 with which we are unacquainted1 by which the component parts of the blood are disposed to enter into new combinations1 and to form compounds differing from the blood itself4 ,thus the vessels are arranged on the inside of the stomach1 in such a way1 as by their action to form gastric juice from the blood2 on the same principle1 milk is produced from the blood which circulates in the breast1 or bile in the liver4 ,as gastric juice1 milk1 and bile1 differ very much from each other in their properties1 we must infer1 that there is a considerable variety in the action1 by which these vessels form these fluids from the blood2 and this is necessarily connected with a variety in arrangement1 which is the case in all the glands of the body4 ,in one gland1 for example1 the blood-vessels form a minute net-work2 in another1 are convoluted at their extremities2 in a third1 a large branch suddenly divides into a number of small branches1 like the hairs of a painter's brush2 in a fourth1 they are disposed in an arborescent form1 each gland differing from every other in the mode of distribution of its blood-vessels1 and forming different products from the blood4 ,the substances formed by many of the glands of the body1 are applied to useful purposes1 within or without the body4 ,an instance of the former we have in the bile formed by the liver1 or the gastric juice formed by the stomach2 and of the latter1 in the milk4--,other secreted fluids are rejected as excrementitious3 the best example of this is the urine formed by the kidneys4 ,this gland separates from the blood a great variety of substances1 which might otherwise prove noxious by circulating along with it2 many of these have occasionally very curious chemical properties1 and under a certain state of the body1 the altered secretion of this organ is very remarkable1 in as far as it produces a large quantity of a familiar substance1 which in this instance is composed within the body4 ,in the disease called diabetes1 for example1 a patient sometimes makes four or five gallons of urine in the #bd hours1 in which is dissolved a considerable quantity of matter1 like common sugar or treacle1 probably to the amount of two or three pounds4 ,besides these fluids formed from the blood1 each by an appropriate glandular apparatus1 there are watery fluids constantly secreted in various parts of the body2 and1 that these may not accumulate1 or remain after they have performed their office1 it is necessary for the body to be furnished with vessels1 whose powers of removal may keep pace with the deposition of these fluids4 ,this introduces the system of vessels called absorbents1 which are distinct in their office and nature from the blood-vessels1 and are widely diffused over the whole body4 ,in every part of the body a limpid fluid is thrown out for the purpose of easy motion1 moistening the cellular membrane1 which connects the various parts of the body to each other1 and lubricating the contents of all the cavities of the body2 this fluid is thrown out in the form of vapor by the exhalents1 which belong to the arterial system1 whilst the lymphatic absorbent vessels1 by their action1 remove what is not convenient for the function of the part2 and these two actions1 of deposition1 by the exhalents1 and absorption1 by the lymphatics1 go on during health1 so nicely balanced1 that when we open into any of the great cavities of the body1 as the belly or chest1 the quantity of fluid we find is extremely small4 ,when1 however1 the balance between these two orders of vessels is destroyed1 when the exhalents throw out more fluid than usual1 and the lymphatics only absorb their natural quantity2 or the exhalents deposit their natural quantity1 whilst the lymphatics absorb less than natural1 accumulation of water in the cellular membrane1 or great cavities of the body1 takes place1 and produces dropsies4 ,there is another set of vessels1 which have been already mentioned1 a part of the same system of absorbents1 which from their office of absorbing a white fluid1 the chyle1 have been denominated lacteals2 these arise from the inner surface of the intestines1 in great numbers1 and convey the chyle into the general mass of blood4--,whilst the minute beginnings of the lacteal vessels1 from the internal surface of the intestines1 is a matter of ocular demonstration1 we have only presumptive proof of the origin of the lymphatics1 which make the greatest part of the absorbent system4 ,we have1 however1 good grounds for concluding1 that they arise from every external and internal surface of the body4 ,we find1 for example1 that certain remedies1 as mercurial ointment1 or turpentine1 rubbed on the skin of any part of the body1 produce effects on distant parts2 the mercury by removing affections of various parts of the body1 the turpentine increasing the flow of urine1 and giving it a peculiar odor3 these effects are explained by presuming the absorption of these substances1 by the lymphatics1 arising from the surface of the skin4 ,we have further proof of this from the occasional absorption of watery fluids1 under peculiar circumstances4 ,sailors at sea1 in want of fresh water1 have quenched their thirst by dipping their clothes in salt water1 and applying them to the surface of the body1 from which only the elementary part was absorbed by these vessels4 ,a jockey1 after reducing himself to a great degree has become in a short time too heavy to ride his match1 merely by drinking a glass of wine1 which had stimulated the absorbents of the skin to take up a large quantity of aqueous matter from the air4 ,or a person gibbeted alive1 has been observed to make a considerable quantity of urine as long as he lived1 without any liquid being taken by the mouth4 ,these are all considered as evidences that the lymphatic absorbent vessels arise from every external surface of the skin1 and are capable of taking up substances applied to them4 ,we find next that water accumulated in the large cavities of the chest or abdomen1 or underneath the skin in the cellular membrane1 of every part of the body1 is occasionally removed from these situations1 by remedies which have the power of increasing the action of the absorbent vessels4 ,we hence conclude1 that these vessels arise from every internal part1 and are1 in short1 widely diffused over the whole body1 though their beginnings are too minute to be detected by any mode of examination with which we are acquainted4 ,the absorbent vessels1 from whatever part they arise1 terminate in the blood-vessels1 principally by one vessel or trunk1 which is called the thoracic duct4 ,this commences in the cavity of the abdomen1 passes through the chest on the right side of the spine1 and1 at length1 enters a large vein situated on the left side of the neck4 ,through this vessel1 besides the fluids taken up in various parts of the body1 the whole of the nourishment from digested aliment passes into the blood2 it may therefore be said to be the most important vessel in the body1#aif and it is situated in one of the safest positions in the body1 so that an injury done to it is a very rare occurrence4 ,thus the absorbent system is formed of two sets of vessels1 having the same structure1 the same absorbing office1 and the same termination1 but differing in the fluids they convey1 and the parts of the body they occupy4 ,the one widely diffused over the whole body1 and from their office of usually absorbing limpid fluids1 called lymphatics2 the other arising only from the intestines1 and denominated lacteals1 from the milky whiteness of the chyle they absorb4 ,thus far the absorbent vessels have been described1 as employed in taking up fluids only4 ,the action of the absorbent system1 however1 is not considered as confined to the fluid parts of the body2 there are a variety of instances1 in which the most solid parts appear to be removed by the absorbents4 ,thus when a tooth is extracted1 or drops out in old age1 its bony socket is removed by the action of the absorbents4 ,the pressure of a pulsating tumor1 called aneurism1 against the ribs1 or thigh bone1 has produced their removal in the same way4 ,these are considered as instances of solid matter being removed by the absorbent vessels1 from internal parts of the body1 without any external opening4 ,it is1 however1 a matter of doubt1 which we cannot at present discuss1 whether a bone is broken down by the absorbents themselves1 so as to be removed in small particles2 or whether1 as is more probable1 its presence or irritation 7as an extraneous body7 produces the secretion of a fluid1 similar in its properties to the gastric juice1 by which it is first reduced into minute particles1 or entirely dissolved1 so as thus to enter the absorbent vessels4 ,another important part of the office of these vessels1 is to model the shape of the body1 and to concur with the action of the blood-vessels in regulating its growth4 ,for the human body does not1 like a marble statue1 constantly contain the same identical particles in its composition4 ,as the stream of a river is formed of a constant succession of aqueous particles1 sometimes increasing1 sometimes diminishing its natural bulk2 so the human body is constantly undergoing an imperceptible change of parts4 ,the absorbents1 by their action1 remove exhausted particles1 whilst the arteries form from the blood an adequate supply of new parts4 ,when these two powers are equal1 the body continues of the same bulk2 when from disease or contingent circumstances1 the one or the other predominates1 the body increases in growth1 becomes corpulent1 or emaciated4 ,thus we have seen a variety of organs necessary to carry on the functions of perfect animals3 these1 however1 are inert1 and incapable of motion in themselves4 ,hence a nervous system becomes requisite1 which may excite and influence the whole4 ,we find in man1 and quadrupeds generally1 the nervous system placed principally in the brain and spinal marrow2 from these sources1 the nerves are distributed like white cords1 and pass in various proportions to the different parts of the body1 conveying the excitements of the brain4 ,one of the most important excitements conveyed from the brain1 through the medium of the nerves1 is volition2 by this means the muscles become obedient to the will1 and perform the voluntary actions of animals4 ,if1 for instance1 ,i wish to take up a pen1 ,i exert my volition towards the action1 and the consequence of this is1 that the muscles employed in the action1 are stimulated to contract1 from a peculiar excitement being conveyed to them from the brain1 through the medium of the nerves4 ,we are totally ignorant1 however1 of the state of the brain1 whilst giving out the excitement1 or the change which takes place in the nerves whilst conveying it4 ,we know1 however1 that the brain may be rendered incapable of giving rise to the excitement1 and it may be arrested in its progress down the nerves by artificial means4 ,if a ligature be applied upon a nerve by tying a piece of thread round it1 the nerve is rendered incapable of transmitting the excitement1 so as to produce motion in muscles4 ,the same state is frequently produced in the brain and nerves1 by the disease called palsy1 or by fractures of the skull4 ,there are also various excitements passing from the brain to the vital organs of the body1 whose actions are not regulated by the will1 and are therefore called involuntary1 or automatic actions1 as circulation1 parturition1 c4 ,thus if a person have ever so strong a desire1 he cannot make his heart beat more frequently2 nor can he prevent it from beating more frequently1 if any one should put him in bodily fear2 although the heart is formed of muscular flesh1 similar to the muscles1 which he can command in his arm4 ,the reason of this is1 that the nerves of the heart cannot convey the influence of volition2 for the wisest reasons the heart acts without it4 ,it is also necessary for various influences to be communicated from external objects to the brain1 to keep up a correspondence between animals1 and the material world around them1 and to communicate those impressions from which the brain is afterwards to carry on its functions4 ,as the parts formed for this purpose differ from ordinary parts of the body1 in having a larger share of nervous influence given to them1 they have been called the organs of sense1 which in an anatomical point of view1 may be said to be five in number1 the eye1 the ear1 the tongue1 the nose1 and the skin4 ,in the eye1 we discover a most accurate optical instrument1 adapted to converge the rays of light at its posterior part4 ,it is composed of a spherical box1 containing transparent media of different densities1 by which the rays of light are conveyed to a point1 so as to impress a minute image of the visible appearance of external objects upon the retina or expansion of the optic nerve1 by which the impression is conveyed to the brain1 so as to bring us acquainted with external objects4 ,the ear is formed to receive impressions from bodies in a state of vibration1 which are conveyed to the brain by an apparatus composed of various substances1 and eminently calculated to transmit the slightest tremors4 ,the vibrations of the air1 for instance1 first strike the drum of the ear2 are thence communicated to a delicate chain composed of four minute bones4 ,by these the vibration is increased1 and transmitted to a fluid1 contained in several small winding canals1 in which the delicate filaments of the nerves of hearing are arranged1 so as to transmit the impressions they receive from the surrounding fluids1 and produce in the brain the perception of sound2 these two senses1 by the infinitely varied modification of their impressions1 convey a prodigious supply of materials for the action of the mind4 ,the organ of touch is next in point of importance2 it has its seat in the extremities of the nerves distributed over the skin1 and is the only sense which belongs to every class of animals4 ,this organ gives rise to sensations1 which have no natural alliance with each other4 ,by this sense we compare different degrees of temperature with each other2 from this we derive our idea of distance between bodies2 of their tangible figure1 of their roughness1 smoothness1 hardness1 and other qualities1 from the relative position with respect to ourselves1 or the degree or kind of resistance they offer4 ,and1 when man has been deprived of his communication with many external objects1 by the loss of vision1 we find the organ of touch gradually encroaching upon the function of the eye1 and from attention to its finer impressions1 becoming1 through the education of necessity1 a much more extensive source of information4 ,as an instance of this1 ,i may adduce ,mr4 ,gough1 who can accurately distinguish the color and character of flowers1 by the nice sense of touch possessed by the tip of the tongue4 ,the other senses may be said to be of less importance4 ,the nose affords a passage for the air to the lungs1 and is impressed by the odorous particles of bodies diffused through it1 and1 whilst it thus occasionally administers to our gratification1 it gives us notice of the presence of those aeriform fluids which are noxious to respiration4 ,like the organ of taste1 which is impressed by sapid bodies1 it has a peculiar sympathy with the stomach2 thus the taste1 or smell1 of any disagreeable substance1 very commonly excites sickness and vomiting4 ,thus each of the organs of sense are formed in a peculiar manner1 and are supplied with nerves of a peculiar structure1 which are capable of being excited by certain impressions only1 so as to give rise to sensation4 ,the odorous particles of bodies1 for instance1 if applied to the nerves of the nose1 excite an impression1 which1 when conveyed to the brain1 gives rise to the perception of smell2 but1 every one knows that they produce no such effect when applied to the nerves of the skin4 ,in the same way1 the rays of light applied to the nerves of the eye produce vision2 but1 no such effect takes place when they impinge upon the tongue4--,each of the organs of sense then possess a peculiar modification of nerves1 which are excited by appropriate impressions4 ,by these organs we become acquainted with what passes around us2 but the nervous system gives us notice of many changes which take place within our bodies4 ,internal pains point out to us the presence and situation of diseases2 and the disagreeable sensations of hunger1 thirst1 and fatigue1 incline us to give refreshment and repose to the body4 ,it is also by means of the nervous system1 that we experience the passions and emotions of the mind4 ,there are some animals so simple in their structure1 that neither brain1 nor organs of sense have been detected2 yet they are endowed with motion1 and are capable of selecting and swallowing their food1 and expelling their excrement2 and as these acts appear to be voluntary1 we must conclude1 that they possess nervous matter1 though it be so interwoven with the rest of their structure that we cannot exhibit or detect it4 ,all these different structures which have been described as entering into the formation of a perfect animal1 are soft and flexible in themselves1 and1 in order to the right performance of their functions1 require the support of a substance of considerable firmness1 which may preserve them in their relative situations1 and give a general shape to the body4 ,for this purpose1 bones are formed in the higher orders of animals4 ,they consist of a certain portion of animal matter1 on which their powers of life depend1 mixed with a portion of earthy matter1 which gives them a degree of solidity4 ,the firmest substance in the body1 composed entirely of animal matter1 is cartilage1 which possesses1 however1 too little solidity for the support of animals of considerable size1 living in so rare a medium as air4 ,hence it happens that when the earthy part is1 by disease1 abstracted from the bones1 they become bent and deformed by the weight of the body1 or the action of its moving powers4 ,in fishes1 however1 who inhabit a denser medium1 cartilage becomes a convenient structure1 being sufficiently firm for their support1 and1 from its lightness1 better suited to their condition4 ,had the osseous system been merely intended to give shape to animals1 and preserve the relative position of their parts1 it might1 for any useful purpose1 have been as well formed of one piece2 and accordingly1 when almost all the bones of the body have been anchylosed1 or immoveably united to each other by disease1 the functions of life have gone on uniformly to an advanced age4 ,there is a remarkable skeleton of this kind preserved at ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin2 where all the large bones of the body are immoveably united together1 except the lower jaw1 and the joints of the fingers2 every joint in the body was immoveable1 and yet this person lived to an old age4 ,in order1 however1 that animals may enjoy a power of changing their situation1 the osseous system has been composed of a variety of pieces1 and an apparatus added by which this may be easily effected4 ,this is accomplished by adapting the ends of bones to each other so as to form joints1 which vary in different parts of the body according to the motion of the part1 some being formed for strength1 others for extent and variety of motion2 the two being incompatible1 and never found in the same joint4 ,in the formation of a joint1 however1 it appears that two surfaces of bone would move with considerable attrition upon each other1 not being capable of a sufficient degree of smoothness2 it is therefore necessary1 in order to diminish attrition1 that a substance be interposed having a high degree of polish2 this is supplied by cartilage1 with which the ends of all bones1 performing motion1 are covered2 and as animals1 both from the common occurrences of life1 and from accident1 are liable to considerable shocks1 in order to guard the system1 as much as possible1 against injury from these sources1 cartilages are endowed with a considerable degree of elasticity1 and thus by their reaction are capable of evading certain degrees of violence4 ,the smoothness of cartilage1 however1 only prevents attrition to a certain degree2 that joints therefore may move with all possible ease and freedom1 a fluid is interposed called sinovia4 ,this is separated from the blood1 by the vessels distributed to the inner surface of the joint1 and is the most slippery of all fluids4 ,in order that bones may not be separated from each other1 but preserve their relative situations1 with a certain capacity of motion1 it is requisite that they should be joined together2 this is done by the ligaments surrounding a joint1 which are of two kinds4 ,the one adapted to the firm junction of the bones with each other1 upon which the strength of the joint depends2 the other loosely attached round the ends of contiguous bones1 to secrete sinovia1 and retain it in its proper situation2 and hence called capsular or purse-like ligament4 ,this kind of structure1 endowed with a power of secreting sinovia1 is not confined to the joints alone2 for in many parts of the body1 where muscles during their action rub on bones1 or tendon on tendon1 small bags are formed for supplying sinovia1 which are called burs mucos4 ,as all these parts subservient to motion are inert in themselves1 that animals may enjoy the means of changing their situations and attitudes1 a power must be applied to the bones for this purpose1 which is supplied by muscular action4 ,thus we find the bones clothed with muscles1 which give1 in a great measure1 the external shape to the body1 and act in considerable numbers on the joints1 particularly those which possess much motion4 ,all animals have a muscular structure entering into their composition1 with some variety in its appearance4 ,muscles are generally fibrous to the eye1 and in ,man and ,quadrupeds are of a red color2 in some animals1 however1 these circumstances are not at all obvious4 ,thus in many fishes1 the muscles are white1 and put on a flaky appearance2 whilst in the fresh water ,polypus1 which possesses a great degree of contractile power1 no fibres can be seen4 ,so that it is not necessary that these properties should be obvious in the muscles of all animals4 ,thus no person has ever seen the fibres in the muscles of a ,flea1 yet no animal can exert greater muscular power4 ,in the same way1 many parts of the body possess a contractile power1 which have no apparent fibrous structure2 the best example of this1 is the skin of the scrotum4 ,the redness of a muscle1 in fact1 depends in a great measure on the degree of exertion it undergoes2 thus when a limb becomes motionless from palsy1 the muscles uniformly become pale4--,the function of a muscle consists in its contracting or shortening itself1 in consequence of the application of certain stimuli or excitements2 the effect of this contraction is1 that the different bones to which the muscles are attached are moved in various directions4 ,thus 7to give an example7 a muscle affixed to two contiguous bones1 by shortening itself1 brings those points to which it is affixed nearer to each other2 and1 from this mechanism1 arise all the motions of the body4 ,the greatest part of the muscles which put the limbs in motion by their contractions1 are said to act under the excitement of volition1 or1 in other words1 are under the control and influence of the will1 and are therefore called voluntary muscles4 ,there are many muscles1 however1 which are not excited by volition1 and are therefore called involuntary4 ,as these are directed by influences1 and perform the actions on which life immediately depends1 they1 for obvious reasons1 are not only put beyond the powers of the will1 but are enabled to carry on their contractions and motions without interruption or fatigue1 entirely independent of its direction or our consciousness4 ,in this manner the heart performs the circulation of the blood1 and the stomach and intestines give the requisite motion to the food4--,there are many other excitements which produce contraction in muscles1 such as the passions and emotions of the mind1 and various mechanical and chemical stimuli4 ,some of them occasionally excite the voluntary muscles of the body to a degree of action1 over which volition has no control4 ,thus a person in an ordinary state of mind1 can walk more or less quietly as suits his convenience2 but it occasionally happens1 we shall say in the field of battle1 that the passion of fear is excited2 this excitement frequently disregards the power of the will1 and strongly excites the muscles employed in running away4#aig ,in most animals1 there is connected with the muscles another kind of structure called tendon1 which consists in a white substance very different from muscles1 but having a fibrous structure4 ,although tendons are not necessary to the action of muscles1 yet there are several advantages derived from them2 they occupy much less room than muscles1 and can be placed in greater numbers around the joints1 so as to preserve the beauty and uniformity of the limbs4 ,they may be considered as living cords1 joining the muscle to the bone on which it is to act1 and1 being more scantily supplied with blood than muscles1 make a smaller quantity of blood necessary to the system1 which is certainly a convenience4 ,although the different parts of the body vary very much in their functions and degree of motion2 yet1 it is convenient1 that they should be all united together by a substance of considerable elasticity4 ,this is done by the interposition of cellular membrane1 which is the general connecting medium throughout the body1 attaching each organ to its neighbor1 but allowing sufficient play for the performance of its function4 ,it is in the cellular membrane of different parts of the body that fat is deposited2 and from the seeming caprice of nature1 in overloading some animals1 and entirely denying it to others1 its use has been thought inconsiderable in the system4 ,when1 however1 we remark1 that fat is taken up in some diseases where the appetite is impaired2 and that torpid animals1 before hibernation1 have a large quantity of it accumulated1 and come out of that state quite emaciated3 and that bees1 who have no fat in their bodies1 lay up a stock of food1 having the same chemical properties1 against their hibernating season2 it appears very probable1 that one use of fat is to form a reservoir of nutriment1 which supplies the wants of an animal when food is not introduced by the stomach4 ,if we add the skin to the cellular membrane1 we may say1 without these the beauty and symmetry of the exterior would have been much diminished4 ,we should have seen the raw muscles in all their actions1 and the naked nerves exposed to the air and to injury4 ,there would have existed deep fissures between the muscles1 cavities in almost every part1 and the body would have presented the sad appearance it now does in consumption4#aih ,but the cellular substance in some places only separates one part from another1 or affords a slippery surface for one muscle to slide over the other3 in others forming membranes or fascia to hide1 to bind down and strengthen different organs2 while in others admitting into its cells an oily substance1 becomes fat1 and fills up all the interstices1 rounds off all prominences1 softens acute lines1 and gives a graceful softness and contour to the whole4 ,and the skin enveloping in a close case1 keeps all compact1 and hides from the eye whatever might be offensive3 while1 at the same time the cutis or true skin serves for a surface for the nerves and exhalent vessels to terminate1 the cuticle or scarf skin defends them from injury1 and moderates their excessive sensibility4 ,as all animals are to live in media where the heat varies1 it was necessary either to form them in such a way1 that their functions should not be affected by varieties in temperature1 or that they should be enabled to keep up the heat of their bodies at a regular point4 ,animals have been endowed with the latter power1 and can accordingly maintain their heat1 whether exposed to a high or low degree of temperature1 with some exception as to the degree in the lower orders of animals1 in some of which the temperature varies with that of the medium in which they are placed4 ,this is the case with the ,frog4--,this animal1 when placed in warm water1 has the temperature of its body raised several degrees1 and1 on the other hand1 may be reduced to the freezing point1 without producing death4 ,the heat of the human body1 however1 is little changed1 whether it be exposed to intense cold1 or much above the heat of boiling water4 ,in the experiments made in heated rooms by ,dr4 ,fordyce1 and ,sir ,charles ,blagden1 these gentlemen remained several minutes in the heat of #bfj degrees1 nearly #ej degrees more than boiling water4 ,at this heat a beefsteak and eggs were cooked near the stove1 and yet the heated air produced no bad effect upon their bodies3 it raised the temperature of their bodies only a few degrees4--,the lungs are the chief agents by which heat is introduced into animal bodies4 ,by their means1 the blood is exposed to the air1 and consumes its oxygenous part1 which contains the principle of heat in a combined state4 ,this1 during circulation1 is evolved by the minute blood vessels1 so as to become sensible on every part of the body3 and it is an important fact1 that the quantity of oxygen consumed is greater in cold than warm weather2 by this wise provision1 in proportion as the heat is more quickly carried off by the coldness of the surrounding medium1 the animal receives an increased internal supply4 ,many experiments have been instituted to ascertain the quantity of oxygen consumed in a given time by ordinary respiration1 and1 according to the best calculations1 it appears that the consumption amounts to about #cc ounces troy weight1 in #bd hours2 and it has been computed by philosophers1 that the quantity of heat1 which the oxygen consumes and will supply to the body1 is nearly equal to that given out by a common candle4#aii ,i have thus attempted to give a short view of the different structures and functions of the body1 and have briefly pointed out some of their varieties in the different classes of animals4 ,this corporeal system1 which by its uniform and harmonious action contributes so essentially and largely to our terrestrial enjoyment1 exhibits an astonishing display of the infinite wisdom1 almighty power1 and boundless goodness of its glorious ,creator4 ,galen1 an ancient ,pagan physician1 on contemplating the different parts of the human body1 and the disposition of them1 fell on his knees in humble adoration of the wisdom with which the whole is contrived2 and was excited to challenge any one1 after a hundred years' study1 to tell how the least fiber or particle could have been more commodiously placed1 either for use or beauty4 ,his seventeen books on the subject are like so many hymns of praise to the almighty and all-wise ,god1 the ,creator4 ,lactantius calls his writings on the body of man1 a marvellous comment on his creation1 and ,galen himself managed the subject as a full demonstration of a ,deity which every man carries about with him4 ,but what is still more deserving of our attention is the soul of man3 for if the external structure be so admirable a piece of mechanism1 what shall we say of the immaterial and intellectual spirit resident in it8 ,this noble1 constituent1 essential part of man1 is yet a more astonishing production of infinite skill and power4 ,elihu says1 8,the ,spirit of ,god hath made me1 and the breath of the ,almighty hath given me life4 ,there is a spirit in man1 and the inspiration of the ,almighty giveth them understanding40 ,god1 by his creating energy1 called all things out of nothing1 but there was neither order1 light1 nor motion1 till the ,divine ,spirit moved on the lifeless chaos2 so the same all-wise and powerful ,architect formed of clay the wonderful fabric of man's body1 which remained without life and action1 till the ,holy ,spirit infused a vital spirit into him1 thereby enduing him with sense1 motion1 understanding1 will1 and active powers4 ,this soul1 therefore1 became a living principle of intelligence1 consciousness1 and activity1 in man4 ,the great ,creator said1 8,let us make man in our image1 after our likeness40 ,now1 as the ,divine ,being is infinite1 he is neither limited by parts1 nor definable by passions3 therefore he can have no corporeal image after which he formed the body of man4 ,the image and likeness in which he was created must necessarily be intellectual3 his soul must have been formed after the nature and perfections of ,god4 ,the ,creator was now producing a spirit1 formed after himself4 ,he is the fountain whence it issued2 hence the stream must resemble the spring which produced it4 ,the most perfect description of ,god1 given to us in the ,scripture1 is that by our ,saviour3--8,god is a ,spirit40 ,it has been observed by expositors1 that this assertion is no where else to be found in the sacred ,writings4 ,that passage1 8,now the ,lord is that ,spirit10 sounds something like it1 but in meaning is different4 ,the word ,god here is not to be understood personally1 either for the ,father1 or the ,son1 or the ,holy ,ghost1 alone1 but essentially for the ,divine ,nature1 which each of these glorious ,persons possesses4 ,the ,divine ,nature is spirit4 ,this shows1 that1 according to the popular and common use of the word1 he is a ,being entirely separated from matter or body1 in all its properties and affections2 that he is a pure mind1 and possessed of the most excellent powers and perfections1 which belong to spiritual beings4 ,it is difficult1 for persons of a low understanding1 who are unaccustomed to abstract reflections1 and who have imbibed their knowledge by means of the external senses1 employed on material objects1 to raise their minds to the contemplation of the existence of immaterial1 invisible beings4 ,but that there really are such1 and particularly that ,god is such1 admits of the clearest proof1 and will not be called in question by any who on rational grounds acknowledge his existence4 ,it is usually granted1 that it is much more easy to say what a spirit is not1 than to define what it is4 ,it is not in the power of the wisest and most knowing of men1 to declare its nature4 ,nay1 who can explain what the consistence of any piece of matter is1 which we every day see and touch6 ,but as1 notwithstanding our ignorance of the essence of material objects1 we are not only sure of their existence1 but also know many of their properties2 so in like manner1 though we are ignorant of the nature of spirits1 yet from their manifest operations and effects1 we are both convinced that such beings exist1 and have some notion of several of their faculties and powers4 ,the powers and capacities that we observe in all the operations and works of ,god1 are utterly inconsistent with the properties we discern in matter4 ,in the works of creation we perceive evident proofs of thought1 intention1 contrivance1 and design2 which powers1 we are sure1 having no affinity with solidity1 figure1 and a capacity of being moved by the impulse of another1 cannot arise from the composition or mixture of any of the known properties of matter4 ,not only the existence1 but many of the perfections of ,god1 may be discerned in various parts of the universe4 ,in short1 we can say nothing higher of ,god1 than that he is a ,spirit4 ,this notion leads us to conceive of him as a most perfect ,being1 and to reject concerning him whatever would argue any imperfection4 ,it leads us to believe him to be perfectly immaterial1 free from all the imperfections of matter1 and from all the infirmities of corporeal creatures4 ,but though spirit signifies a being of higher rank than body or matter1 yet the word is too low to express the essence of ,god1 any otherwise than analogically1 or metaphorically4 ,he is infinitely more excellent than the highest created spirits1 being eternal1 and immutable4 ,but some may inquire1 if ,god be such a ,spirit1 how is it that in ,scripture we read of his having bodily members1 and natural affections1 like men2 such as head1 eyes1 ears1 mouth1 hands1 and feet2 and the affections1 or passions1 of anger1 grief1 love1 joy1 c8 these are ascribed to him1 or rather assumed by him4 ,i answer2 this is done in condescension to our narrow capacities2 for if ,god should speak to us of himself1 as he is in himself1 our understandings could not comprehend him4 ,as the inconceivable glories of the world to come1 are explained to us by the honors and pleasures of this life2 so the nature of ,god1 by a gracious condescension to our weakness1 is signified to us by a likeness to our own4 ,by human members being ascribed to ,god1 are implied the moral excellencies of his spiritual nature1 or rather his operations1 which are more sensible to us than his invisible nature4 ,his eyes are emblems of his knowledge1 wisdom1 omniscience1 and providence4 ,his face indicates his favor1 and sometimes is expressive of his displeasure1 because both these appear in the countenance of a man4 ,his mouth is the symbol of the revelation of his will4 ,his hand1 or arm1 is indicative of the less or greater exercises of his power4--,such a ,spirit is the ,creator of man1 whom he made in his image or likeness4 ,whoever reflects with attention on the human soul1 may easily perceive it to be of a nature entirely different from the body4 ,being immaterial1 it is not compounded of material principles1 nor consists of innumerable parts which may be separated from each other2 neither is it capable of solidity1 figure1 extension1 and other properties of matter2 but is a simple1 uncompounded substance1 though possessed of various and distinct powers2 and therefore is neither visible nor divisible1 nor has it any dimensions or shape4 ,the soul has a power of thought1 with which mere matter can never be endued4 ,if it pass through all the changes1 and assume all the shapes of which it is capable1 thought will never be the result4 ,it may be differently modified1 framed1 and disposed1 but cannot think4 8,i find in me something that thinks10 says a celebrated author1 8which neither earth1 water1 air1 fire1 nor any mixture of them1 can possibly do4 ,something which sees1 hears1 smells1 tastes1 and feels1 all which are so many modes of thinking40 ,thought is the privilege of immaterial beings4#bjj ,this inward principle is capable not only of thinking1 but of love1 desire1 hope1 joy2 hatred1 fear1 sorrow1 anger1 and a whole train of inward emotions1 which are commonly called passions or affections4 ,a something apprehended to be good in itself1 or calculated to be beneficial to us1 is the object of love4 ,if that good be absent1 it excites desire3 if there be a probability of obtaining it1 that produces hope2 and the possession of the desired object yields delight and joy4 ,evil1 whether real1 or imaginary only1 is the object of dislike and aversion4 ,if there be any probability of this evil coming in contact with us1 it causes fear2 and if it unavoidably come upon us1 it produces sorrow or anger4 ,these passions or affections seem to be the only spring of action in the soul4 ,the soul has received from ,god a principle of motion1 whereby it governs at pleasure every part of the body1 and directs its operations3 only with this exception1 that all the vital motions1 which are absolutely necessary for the continuance of animal life1 are involuntarily going on1 whether we advert to them or not2 which is a marvellous instance of the wisdom and goodness of ,god4 ,with the exception of these1 ,i direct the motion of my whole body4 ,by a single act of my will1 ,i put my head1 eyes1 hands1 or any part into motion3 although the manner of doing this ,i do not comprehend4 ,every one feels that he has an inherent power to move this or that part of his body or not1 and to give it a direction this way or the contrary1 just as he pleases4 ,i can1 as ,i choose1 open or shut my eyes1 speak or be silent1 rise up or sit down1 stretch out my hand or draw it in1 and use any of my limbs according to my pleasure1 as well as my whole body4 ,matter may be moved1 but it can never move itself4 ,the soul is free in its operations2 it possesses this property1 which is capable of being exerted with regard to all its faculties1 as well as all the motions of the body4 ,it is a power of self-determination1 which1 though not affecting all our thoughts and imaginations1 yet extends to our words and actions in general1 with but few exceptions4 ,i am certain1 that ,i am free to speak or not to speak1 to act or not to act1 to do this or to do the contrary1 as ,i am of my own existence4 ,i have not only what is termed a liberty of contradiction1 but what is termed a liberty of contrariety1 a power to act one way1 or the contrary3 to deny this would be to contradict the uniform experience of all human kind4 ,the soul is not necessitated to judge or act by any bodily impulse4 ,let things appear as they may to the senses1 the soul can suspend its judgment1 till it has examined and considered them more thoroughly4 ,let the appetites and inclinations of the body strongly urge their own gratification1 the soul can refuse their solicitations1 and maturely weigh what the consequences would be4 ,let all the allurements of sensible objects1 the assurance of sensual enjoyments1 or the influence of custom and example1 try to corrupt the integrity of the soul1 and lead it astray from the paths of peace and purity2 unless it consent1 the attempts will prove ineffectual4 ,we can reason1 discourse1 study1 contrive1 choose1 and refuse with discretion2 begin a work1 and cease again at pleasure4 ,we can reflect on what we have done1 and either rejoice and delight in it1 or be ashamed and grieved for it4 ,we distinguish truth from error1 moral good and evil2 we fear punishment on having committed evil1 and hope for reward on having done well4 ,and1 through the grace of ,god assisting us1 we have a power to embrace and resolve to do good1 as well as evil4 ,we are free to choose whom we will serve1 and1 if we determine in favor of the better part1 to continue therein4 ,conscience is not a faculty of the soul distinct from the understanding1 memory1 will1 and affections1 but that power by which we are conscious of our own state1 reflect on our actions1 and pronounce them either good or evil4 ,this supposes1 that we are acquainted with the law of ,god1 either natural or written1 which is the rule of our duty4 ,the name is derived from the ,latin word conscientia1 into which the ,greek word is exactly translated4 ,both these words for conscience1 signify1 that the mind is possessed of a consciousness of the actions and thoughts of the man1 and passes a judgment on them1 according to some rule4 ,the ,jews have no proper word in their language for conscience1 and therefore use the term heart2 which is also used in the ,new ,testament4 ,conscience is the journal or diary of the actions of man4 ,its office is1 #a4 ,to call1 urge1 and excite us to duty4 #b4 ,to testify and bear witness either for or against us1 according as we perform or neglect our duty4 #c4 ,either to excuse or acquit1 or accuse and condemn us1 on the evidence it gives of the moral nature and quality of our actions3 if they be conformable to the ,divine rule1 as to matter and manner1 it acquits us2 if they be contrary to it1 conscience accuses1 condemns1 and passes sentence upon us4 #d4 ,and if its sentence be true and just1 conformable to rule1 it is ratified by ,god the ,supreme ,judge1 whose deputy and vicegerent it is in the breast of every man4 ,though the soul is not under the imperious influence of the body1 yet for many ages it has been allowed by sensible men1 that 8there is nothing in the understanding which is not first perceived by some of the senses40 ,the imagination is the place where the images of things are first engendered1 and from which they are transferred to the understanding4 ,and therefore those who want any sense1 cannot have the least knowledge or idea of the objects peculiar to that sense3 as they who never had sight1 have not the least conception of light or colors4 ,but there is a great difference between our senses1 considered as the avenues of knowledge4 ,some of them have a narrow sphere of action3 others a more extensive one4 ,by feeling we discern only those objects which touch some part of our body2 and consequently this sense extends only to a small number of objects4 ,our senses of taste and smell extend to fewer still4 ,but1 on the other hand1 our nobler sense of hearing has a wide sphere of action3 especially in the case of loud sounds1 as thunder1 the roaring of the sea1 or the discharge of cannon3 the last of which sounds has been frequently heard at the distance of near a hundred miles4 ,yet the space to which the hearing itself extends is small1 compared to that through which the sight extends4 ,this sense takes in at one view1 not only the most unbounded prospects on earth1 but also the moon1 and the other planets1 the sun1 yea1 the fixed stars1 though at such an immeasurable distance4 ,but still none of our senses can reach beyond the bounds of this visible world4 ,they supply us with such knowledge of the material world1 as answers all the purposes of life4 ,but as this was the design for which they were given1 beyond this they cannot go4 ,they furnish us with no information at all1 concerning the invisible world4 ,but the wise and gracious ,governor of the worlds1 both visible and invisible1 has prepared a remedy for this defect4 ,he has favored us with a revelation1 concerning himself1 his existence1 perfections1 and will2 and another world1 its nature1 certainty1 and duration3 and this revelation is contained in the ,scriptures4 ,and he has appointed faith to supply the defect of sense2 to take us up where sense sets us down1 and help us over the great gulf4 ,its office begins where that of sense ends4 ,sense is the evidence of things that are seen2 of the visible1 the material world1 and the several parts of it4 ,faith1 on the other hand1 is the 8evidence of things not seen10 of the invisible world3 of all these invisible things1 which are revealed in the ,oracles of ,god4#bja ,though eternal things come not within the reach of sense1 yet1 by faith1 they are as present to the mind1 in their reality1 excellence1 and continuance1 as if they were seen with the eye of the body4 ,the testimony of the ,god of truth1 is the foundation and reason of this faith2 for what he says must be true1 because he cannot lie3 this is a principle concerning which all agree who own his existence4 ,the soul has a vast intellectual capacity2 for the knowledge of ,god1 nature1 providence1 the original and present state of man1 the visible world1 sublime speculations1 and useful discoveries1 come within its comprehension4 ,it can reason1 infer1 reflect1 and carry on a chain of thoughts1 with perspicuity and close connection1 concerning things4 ,its powers take in objects of all dimensions2 yet they are not situated as bodies in a material place1 where the greater occupy more space than the less3 for the thought of a mile1 or ten thousand miles1 does no more fill or stretch the soul1 than that of a foot1 an inch1 or a mathematical point4 ,and whereas all matter has its parts1 and those extended1 one without another1 into length1 breadth1 and thickness1 and so is measurable by inches1 yards1 or solid measures2 there is nothing of measurable extension in any thing belonging to the soul1 neither length1 breadth1 nor thickness2 nor is it possible to form an idea of a foot of thought1 a yard of reason1 a pound of wisdom1 or a quart of virtue4#bjb ,the soul is capable of abstract notions1 mathematical and metaphysical conceptions4 ,its powers are so great1 that we can explore nature1 span the surface of the earth1 dive into its capacious seas1 and there discover the numerous inhabitants of the watery world4 ,we can travel to the sun1 continue our journey through our own spherical system1 from planet to planet1 tell their dimensions1 measure their distances1 and accompany them through their various revolutions4 ,we can pass the boundaries of our own1 and enter into other systems2 and from thence1 into eternity itself3 ascending from region to region1 from world to world1 from the creature till we reach the abode of the great ,creator1 who is the first cause of all things2 and then1 with ravished eyes1 gaze on that glorious ,luminary of the moral world1 till we are amazed1 delighted1 and overpowered1 with the splendor of his infinite perfections4 ,the soul is immortal in its duration3 it once began to be1 but will never cease to exist4 ,when the whole of time is elapsed1 it will live in the vigorous exercise of its active powers1 and its existence run parallel with eternity4 ,the death of the soul cannot be effected by the operation of second causes2 and ,god1 who is the first cause1 will never annihilate it4 ,the ,sadducees denied the immateriality and immortality of the soul1 saying1 that1 except ,god1 there was no spirit3 they were much like the ,epicureans among the ,gentile philosophers4 ,in refutation of this ,sadducean notion1 our ,saviour referred them to the five ,books of ,moses1 which they acknowledged as of ,divine authority1 where ,god says1 8,i am the ,god of ,abraham1 and the ,god of ,isaac1 and the ,god of ,jacob40 ,abraham had been dead upwards of #cjj years when these words were spoken to ,moses4 ,now1 says our ,saviour1 8,god is not the ,god of the dead1 but of the living40 ,though the bodies of these renowned patriarchs had been long dead1 and ceased to exist among mortals1 their souls were still living1 not only in a future state1 but with ,god4 ,he also warned his disciples of the opposition they would meet with1 in the faithful discharge of their religious and ministerial duties1 from the prejudice1 rage1 and fury of men2 but urged them to take courage1 and not suffer themselves to be intimidated1 so as to neglect in any degree the execution of the important commission he had given them1 saying1 8,fear not them which kill the body1 but are not able to kill the soul40 ,hence the soul is a principle distinct from the body1 actually survives it1 and can subsist without it1 not only retaining its vital existence1 but its consciousness1 reflection1 and activity4 ,the following lines of ,addison are strongly and beautifully descriptive of the immortality of the soul3 8,the soul1 secure in her existence1 smiles ,at dissolution1 and defies its power4 ,the stars shall fade away1 the sun himself ,grow dim with age1 and nature sink in years2 ,but thou shalt flourish in immortal youth-- ,unhurt1 amidst the war of elements1 ,the wreck of matter1 and the crash of worlds40 ,in a word1 since the soul is not material1 it can have no parts2 if it have no parts1 then it cannot be separated2 if it cannot be separated1 then it cannot be dissolved2 if it cannot be dissolved1 then it is incorruptible2 and if it be incorruptible1 then it is immortal4 ,thus it is evident1 from all the perceptions of the soul1 that it is not compounded like the body4 ,those powers and affections1 such as thought and reason1 judgment and liberty1 love and hatred1 joy and sorrow1 can never be the properties or effects of matter1 in any possible variation or modification of its parts4 ,nor can matter ever produce those noble and just sentiments1 those sublime and generous affections1 to which the soul sometimes rises in its contemplations of ,god1 the phenomena of the universe1 and the operation of ,providence which sustains and governs all things4 ,all this can never be produced by matter1 which is altogether inactive of itself2 and when motion is impressed on it1 the only change produced is in the situation and contexture of its parts4 ,surely all attempts to account for these things1 by any laws of nature known in the corporeal world1 are absolutely ridiculous4 ,how strange is it then1 that such a spiritual being should be united so closely to flesh and blood1 imprisoned in a tenement of clay1 and use the body as the instrument of active operations4--,several philosophers1 among whom is ,socrates1 have called the body 1 the habitation of the soul2 yea1 1 her moveable prison1 and living sepulchre4 ,these two essential parts of man1 which ,god1 at his creation1 united so closely together1 that both make but one person1 is a great mystery2 considering the different natures that adhere1 soul and body1 matter and spirit4 ,all this is unintelligible to the human intellect1 however improved and capacious4 ,the disputers of this world will find themselves completely perplexed1 in attempting to explain by what ties a spirit is united to a piece of clay2 and what holds it confined to its habitation4 ,the adhesion of the material particles in the human body1 the flame of animal life kindled and burning clear and strong within us1 and the union of spirit and matter1 so that the one is the tenement of the other1 and the instrument of its operations1 are1 as to their manner1 mysterious1 and attended with difficulties that would perplex and confound the most penetrating and sagacious mind4 ,man then was created in the natural image of ,god1 which consisted chiefly in the spiritual nature1 amazing powers1 and immortality of his soul2 like ,god1 it is a spirit1 immaterial1 invisible1 active1 intelligent1 free1 and immortal3 and partly1 in a lower sense1 in the privilege of his body1 which1 in his state of innocence1 was1 by the promise of his ,creator1 entitled to a gratuitous immortality4 ,some make reason or understanding to be the image in which ,god created man3 but1 though this may be included1 yet1 it is not the principal thing intended by the ,divine image3 for if rationality were the image1 it could never be lost4 ,sin1 which defaces this beautiful image1 does not deprive man of intellect3 his nature will for ever continue rational2 he can never1 ,i presume1 be deprived of his reason so as not to possess it any more4 ,thought and consciousness are inseparable from the nature of man1 and therefore this image of ,god in which ,adam was created1 must be something distinct from reason4 ,indeed reasonable creatures only can be the subjects of it1 but reason is not the thing itself4 ,to suppose that mere reason is ,god's image in man1 is an hypothesis unworthy of a reasonable nature2 and with how much confidence soever some assert1 the assertion is reproachful to our ,maker4 ,the chief thing intended by the ,divine image1 is moral rectitude2 man was created in the moral image of ,god2 but that image in man was only a likeness1 it did not equal1 but resembled its high original--a disparity which necessarily exists between a creature and its ,creator4 ,according to any rational opinion we can form of ,god1 we must believe that he is a spiritual ,being2 which includes the simplicity of his nature1 his indivisibility1 and his immortality2 possessed not only of every natural perfection1 but of all moral excellencies4 ,he is not only an intelligent1 omnipresent1 omniscient1 almighty ,being1 but wise1 holy1 righteous1 and good4 ,without moral perfections1 his character would not be very interesting to us4 ,if he had no radical and constitutional principle in his nature that could move him to regard the temper of our minds1 and the complexion of our actions1 or cause him to be either pleased or displeased with our behavior1 however conducted1 we should have no reason to act either from motives of love or fear of him4 ,his natural attributes alone1 are very far from finishing his character2 in conjunction with these1 his moral excellencies complete his glory1 exhibit him as the most perfect ,agent1 and render him in the most exalted sense our ,governor4 ,his holiness1 justice1 goodness1 and truth1 are called moral attributes1 or communicable perfections2 because we can trace some resemblance in angels and men2 though there is an infinite disproportion between these perfections as they exist in ,god1 and are faintly displayed in the creatures3 in him they are infinite1 in the creatures finite and limited4 ,these moral perfections constitute ,god a proper object of religious adoration1 and without which no worship would be due or could be rendered to him4 ,the ,divine ,nature is the foundation of that worship which we1 as rational beings1 are under obligations to perform2 and the revelation of the will of ,god1 with which he has graciously favored us in the ,scripture1 is the constant rule of his worship4 ,on believing his existence1 and cultivating the knowledge of his attributes1 especially those which are so astonishingly displayed and harmonized in the redemption of mankind by ,jesus ,christ1 it very naturally follows1 to every reflecting mind1 that we owe him ourselves1 and are bound by the strongest ties to present to him the most spiritual worship of which our intelligent nature is capable4 ,the moral image of ,god1 after which man was created1 was his greatest excellence4 ,his understanding possessed a large capacity for improvement1 equal to an extensive and accurate acquaintance with things both natural and divine1 the acquisition of which would facilitate his own happiness1 by rendering him more competent to answer the benevolent design which his ,creator projected in calling him into existence4 ,this capacity was amply supplied by his ,creator2 for all divine knowledge is given by revelation2 which he must either communicate to man1 or he must remain ignorant of him4 ,the capacity is one thing1 and its improvement is another2 which1 as it is not naturally inherent in man1 so it must be acquired4 ,the knowledge of the nature1 perfections1 and will of ,god1 can1 in the first instance1 only be made known by himself2 for there is not a correct notion of him in the whole intellectual and moral world1 but what has been received from either ,divine revelation1 or his own immediate influence4 ,adam1 then1 as an intelligent creature1 was endued with the knowledge of ,god1 so far as was necessary to enable him to fear1 love1 and serve him4 ,without a perception of his existence and perfections1 and the knowledge of his will1 he could not perform any acts of adoration1 reverence1 reliance1 regard1 and delight1 toward him4 ,if therefore man1 in his primitive state1 was obliged to worship his ,creator 7of which certainly no one can doubt17 it must be granted that he possessed knowledge equal to the nature and extent of his obligations4 ,in his state of innocence1 he did not perform a blind devotion1 or worship he knew not what4 ,such ignorance is the consequence of sin2 therefore he could not be the unhappy subject of it before he transgressed4 ,some persons have thought that ,adam1 in his primeval state1 understood the doctrine of a ,trinity of ,persons or ,subsistencies in the ,godhead4 ,though the knowledge of this important doctrine cannot be attained by reasoning on the operations of ,divine wisdom1 power1 and goodness1 visibly and conspicuously displayed in the universe2 yet1 as ,adam received by immediate revelation some truths1 why may we not suppose that this mystery was not conveyed to him in the same way1 that his acts of devotion might comport with the honors due to each of the ,sacred ,three8 ,the ,divine ,nature is without multiplicity1 it is one2 but the ,three ,subsistencies in that ,essence are essential to the ,godhead3 this arrangement is radical1 constitutional1 and eternal4 ,therefore why should not ,god be worshipped according to his own natural distinction of ,persons in his undivided ,essence1 by man in his primitive state8 ,a ,trinity in ,unity is the most correct view of ,god2 and1 consequently1 the worship that accords with it1 being the most accurate1 must be acceptable to him4 ,the ,christian religion has not given existence to this doctrine of the ,trinity2 for independently of the mediatorial scheme of redemption and salvation by ,christ1 ,god was from eternity the same ,triune ,being1 and cannot change4 ,it is not improbable that man1 while he retained his pristine state1 worshipped the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit1 in all his acts of religious worship4 ,lord ,bacon1 in his ,confession of ,faith1 says1--8,i believe that nothing is without beginning but ,god2 no nature1 no matter1 no spirit1 but one only1 and the same ,god4 ,that ,god1 as he is eternally almighty1 only wise1 only good1 in his nature2 so he is eternally ,father1 ,son1 and ,spirit1 in ,persons40 ,we cannot rationally suppose that ,adam was a stranger to his duty1 either in its nature1 manner1 or extent4 ,if he had not known what duties his ,creator required him to perform1 it would have been impossible for him to act agreeably to his will4 ,obedience to any authority necessarily supposes a knowledge of what it enjoins3 and1 consequently1 ,adam must have known what he ought to practise1 in what manner1 and with what views2 for1 otherwise1 he could not be obedient to the will of ,god in what he did4 ,hence we must conclude1 that he was acquainted with the whole compass of his duty4 ,as his understanding was not blinded by contracted prejudices1 so it was free from any natural defect4 ,his mind was furnished with correct views of ,god1 his own dependence upon him1 relations and obligations to him1 and the way to please and enjoy him4 ,adam1 in his primitive state1 knew wherein his happiness consisted4 ,if he had been ignorant of that happiness to which he was entitled so long as he preserved his integrity1 how could he have enjoyed it while in his possession2 for a delight in any present good arises from a perception of its nature and value4 ,neither was he ignorant of the misery1 into which an action committed against the will of his ,creator would bring him4 ,he certainly knew that sinning against ,god would inevitably be attended with fatal effects to himself4 ,his unclouded reason could not but discern1 that rebellion against the dignity and sovereignty of his ,maker would unavoidably expose him to his righteous displeasure4 ,as the judgment of ,adam could not but entirely approve of the supreme ,good1 in all the perfections of its nature1 and revelation of the ,divine ,mind2 so his will1 with great freedom following its dictates1 readily embraced what was right1 and exactly harmonized with every requisition4 ,he had a holy disposition1 such as comported with the infinite perfection of holiness1 so resplendent in the ,divine ,nature4 ,some have asserted1 that ,god formed man without any direction in his will either to good or evil4 ,but this imagination is irrational1 for it supposes that he was neither holy nor unholy4 ,it is evident from ,scripture1 that he was created good in an ethical or moral sense1 for he was made in the image of ,god1 which chiefly consisted in a conformity to his moral perfections4 ,he resembled these1 particularly that of holiness2 so that1 though in an infinitely lower degree1 he was holy as ,god is holy2 without the least taint of sin in his nature1 or any inclination to evil1 all his powers and faculties being disposed to comply with his utmost requisition4 ,adam's affections were subordinate and obedient to the higher faculties of his soul1 and moved without the least tumult or disorder4 ,being pure and regular1 there was no depravity or discord among them4 ,no temptation arose from vanity seated in any of the inferior powers3 neither was there a rebellious disposition among the passions directed against his reason4 ,no unlawful love1 delight1 or aversion had any place in his innocent nature1 and therefore the dictates of reason did not meet with any control from corruption in the affections2 and1 consequently1 obedience to his ,creator was not rendered difficult by unruliness in the passions4 ,being thus made after the likeness of ,god1 he had the moral law written on his heart3 that hereby he might have a perfect rule of obedience1 and be easily apprised of his duty to him4 ,and as he was indispensably obliged to yield obedience to this law1 and the consequence of violating it would be endless ruin1 ,god1 as a just and gracious ,sovereign1 gave him ability to keep it4 ,herein he treated him as a rational creature1 and a subject of moral government4 ,the inferior appetites of ,adam were in a state of perfect subjection1 and never indulged to the least excess4 ,the animal structure requiring food for its support1 there was a great variety provided4 ,but while surrounded with plenty1 he was strictly temperate2 his appetite was regular1 consistent with purity1 and in harmony with his devotions4 ,the senses also corresponded to the faculties of the soul1 and were inlets to wisdom and enjoyment4 ,thus1 as one observes1 all his faculties both of body and mind were subservient to the glory of ,god1 and contributed to his own felicity3 a state which we are to regain by ,christ4 8,enslav'd to sense1 to pleasure prone1 ,fond of created good2 ,father1 our helplessness we own1 ,and trembling taste our food4 ,trembling we taste2 for1 ah6 no more ,to thee the creatures lead2 ,chang'd1 they exert a baneful power1 ,and poison1 while they feed4 ,curs'd for the sake of wretched man1 ,they now engross him whole2 ,with pleasing force on earth detain6 ,and sensualize his soul4 ,groveling on earth we still must lie1 ,till ,christ the curse repeal3 ,till ,christ descending from on high ,infected nature heal4 ,come then1 our heavenly ,adam1 come1 ,thy healing influence give2 ,hallow our food1 reverse our doom1 ,and bid us eat1 and live4 ,turn the full stream of nature's tide3 ,let all our actions tend ,to thee their source2 thy love the guide1 ,thy glory be the end4 ,earth then a scale to heaven shall be1 ,sense shall point out the road2 ,the creatures all shall lead to thee1 ,and all we taste be ,god40 ,man was happy in his original state2 he not only was free from pain and misery1 but enjoyed delight4 ,his pleasure was of a pure nature1 not only such as ,god approved1 but derived from a ,divine source4 ,if his mind had not been possessed of correct knowledge1 his will disposed to obedience1 his affections regular and holy1 and his appetites and senses subject to a rational control1 what pleasure could he have taken in the contemplation of infinite perfections1 and in a compliance to the requisitions of the moral law8 ,happiness necessarily supposes delight1 and delight as necessarily supposes a concordance between the disposition of the soul1 and the objects from which its pleasure springs4 ,man was happy while innocent2 he therefore enjoyed pleasure1 which was pure1 arising from positive holiness1 and the presence and blessing of ,god4 ,surely it is reasonable to conclude1 that ,adam performed devotional acts with holy reverence and supreme delight4 ,he could not but give the tribute of praise to his beneficent ,creator1 for his superabundant goodness toward him2 being favored with every thing1 not only necessary to his sustenance1 in the excellent circumstances in which he was placed1 but with whatever he could desire for the entertainment and delight of his innocent and heavenly mind4 ,above all1 his grateful soul most certainly adored his ,creator1 for the glorious and beneficial displays of his wisdom1 power1 and goodness1 and rejoiced in the interest he had in his approbation1 protection1 and kindness4 ,while he retained his integrity1 and enjoyed free access to his ,maker1 intimate communion with him1 and was free from his displeasure1 what serenity1 satisfaction1 and pleasure must fill his soul6 ,he possessed that first and greatest of blessings1 mentioned by ,horace1 mens sana in corpore sano1 a sound mind in a healthy body4 ,notwithstanding the excellent state in which ,adam was created1 and advantageous circumstances in which he was placed1 yet he was liable to fall4 ,by reason of the spiritual and intelligent principle in him1 he became a moral agent1 and a subject of moral government4 ,he knew his duty1 and had the power of determining his own choice and actions4 ,he could choose good1 and refuse evil1 and be influenced by the hope of reward and the fear of punishment4 ,he had no disposition to sin in his nature3 for ,god could not create him in a sinful state1 since that would render him the author of sin4 ,he had full power to stand3 but ,god could not interfere with the freedom of his will2 and herein he acted toward him in a way agreeable to his condition of probation4 ,the mutability of his will was essential to him as a rational creature1 placed in a state of responsibility for his actions to the great ,governor of the world4 ,dr4 ,paley says1 8,free agency in its very essence contains liability to abuse4 ,yet1 if you deprive man of his free agency1 you subvert his nature40 ,god answers for himself in ,milton3-- ----8,man had of me ,all he could have3 ,i made him just and right1 ,sufficient to have stood1 though free to fall40 ,the sentiments of ,faber are very appropriate4 8,when the ,almighty ceased from the work of creation1 he pronounced all that he had made to be very good4 ,the new world was as yet free from the inroads of sin1 and from the curse of sterility4 ---- #8,nature then ,wanton'd as in her prime1 and play'd at will ,her virgin fancies4' 8,the whole creation smiled upon man1 and the golden age of the poets was realized4 ,blessed with perfect health1 both mental and corporeal1 our heaven-born progenitor was equally unconscious of the stings of guilt and the pangs of disease4 ,his understanding was unclouded with the mists of vice1 ignorance1 and error2 his will1 though absolutely free1 was yet entirely devoted to the service of ,god2 and his affections warm1 vigorous1 and undivided1 were ardently bent upon the great ,fountain of existence4 ,though vested in an earthly body1 his soul was as the soul of an angel1 pure1 just1 and upright4 ,he was uncontaminated with the smallest sin1 and free from even the slightest taint of pollution4 ,his passions perfectly under the guidance of his reason1 yielded a ready and cheerful obedience to the dictates of his conscience2 an obedience1 not constrained and irksome1 but full1 unreserved1 and attended with sensations of unmixed delight4 ,such was man when he came forth from the hand of his ,creator1 the image of ,god stamped upon his soul and influencing all his actions40#bjc ,we may add1 the authority and dominion with which ,god invested ,adam4 ,this extended 8over the fish of the sea1 and over the fowl of the air1 and over the cattle1 and over the earth1 and over every living thing that creepeth upon the earth40 ,god constituted him the ruler1 under him1 of all the inferior creatures4 ,he probably inducted him into this office when he caused the creatures to pass in review before him4 8,and the ,lord ,god brought every beast of the field1 and every fowl of the air1 unto ,adam to see what he would call them3 and ,adam gave names to all cattle1 and to the fowl of the air1 and to every beast of the field3 and whatsoever ,adam called every living creature1 that was the name thereof40 ,man alone1 says ,smellie1 enjoys the power of communicating and expressing his ideas by articulate and artificial language4 ,this inestimable prerogative is a great source of improvement to the human intellect4 ,without artificial language1 though the ,author of nature has bestowed on every animal a mode of expressing its wants and desires1 its pleasures and pains1 what a humiliating figure would the human species exhibit8 ,dr4 ,beattie1 in defining the human voice1 says1 it is air sent out from the lungs1 and so agitated1 or modified1 in its passage through the windpipe and larynx1 as to become distinctly audible4 ,the windpipe conveys air into the lungs for the purpose of respiration and speech2 the top or upper part of which is called the larynx1 consisting of four or five cartilages1 that may be expanded or brought together1 by the agency of certain muscles which operate all at the same time4 ,in the middle of the larynx there is a small aperture1 called the glottis1 through which the breath and voice are conveyed1 but which1 when we swallow any thing1 is covered by a lid called the epiglottis4 ,authors have determined that the voice is produced by two semi-circular membranes in the middle of the larynx1 which form by their separation the aperture that is termed the glottis4 ,the space between them is not wider than one-tenth of an inch2 through which the breath transmitted from the lungs must pass with considerable velocity4 ,in its passage it is supposed to give a brisk vibratory motion to the membranous lips of the glottis1 and so to form the sound which we call voice3 in order to the production of which1 it1 however1 seems necessary1 that1 by an energy of the will1 a certain degree of tenseness should be communicated to the larynx1 or at least to the two membranes in the middle of it4 ,the voice1 thus formed1 is strengthened and mellowed by a reverberation from the palate1 and other hollow places in the inside of the mouth and nostrils2 and as these are better or worse shaped for this reverberation1 it is said to be more or less agreeable4 ,the glottis is found to be narrower in women and young persons than in men2 hence the voices of the latter are deeper1 or more grave1 than those of the former4 ,we can at pleasure dilate or contract this aperture1 so as to form the tones of the voice to every variety of the musical scale4 ,if we consider the many variations of sound1 which the same human voice is capable of uttering1 together with the small diameter of the glottis2 and reflect that the same diameter must always produce the same tone1 and1 consequently1 that to every change of tone a correspondent change of diameter is necessary3 we must be astonished at the mechanism of these parts and the fineness of the fibers1 producing effects so minute1 various1 and uniform4 ,for it admits of proof1 that the glottis is capable of at least sixty distinct degrees of contraction and enlargement1 by each of which a different note is produced4#bjd ,concerning the origin of language1 numerous conjectures have been formed4 ,as an instance how far the human mind1 unassisted by a ,divine revelation1 can go1 ,diodorus ,siculus and ,vitruvius have asserted1 8that men at first lived like beasts in woods and caves1 forming only strange and uncouth noises1 till their fears caused them to associate together2 and that on growing acquainted with each other1 they came to correspond about things1 first by signs1 then to make names for them1 and in time1 to frame and perfect a language2 and that the languages of the world are different1 because different companies of men happening thus to come together in different places1 would1 of course1 form different sounds or names of things2 hence would arise the variety observable even in ancient languages40 ,thus we perceive the necessity of the ,scriptures relative even to this subject4 8,the ,mosaic ,history10 observes ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 8represents man as being immediately capable of conversing with his ,maker3 of giving names to the various tribes and classes of animals2 and of reasoning consecutively1 and in perfectly appropriate terms1 concerning his own situation1 and the relation he stood in to the creatures4 ,as in man's first attempt at speech1 according to this account1 there appear no crudeness of conception1 no barrenness of ideas1 and no inexpressive or unappropriate terms1 it is most rational to conclude1 that ,god who made and endued him with corporeal and mental powers1 perfectly suited to his state and condition in life1 endued him also1 not only with the faculty of speech1 but with speech or language itself2 which latter was as necessary to his comfort1 and1 indeed1 to the perfection and end of his being1 as any other power or faculty which his ,creator thought proper to bestow upon him40 ,some assert that ,adam gave names1 from an intimate knowledge of the nature and properties of each creature3 that this shows the perfection of his knowledge1 for the names affixed to the different animals in ,scripture always express some prominent feature and essential characteristic of the creatures to which they are applied2 and that had he not possessed an intuitive knowledge of the grand and distinguishing properties of those animals1 he never could have given them such names4 ,dr4 ,leland states1 that man was immediately endued with the gift of language1 which necessarily supposes that he was furnished with a stock of ideas1 a specimen of which he gave in giving names to the inferior animals1 which were brought to him for that purpose4 ,dr4 ,johnson affirms1 that the origin of language must have come by inspiration4 ,but ,bishop ,warburton conjectures1 that ,god1 in this transaction with ,adam1 taught him language4 ,here1 says he1 by a common figure of speech1 the historian1 instead of directly relating the fact1 that ,god taught man language1 represents it1 by showing ,god in the act of doing it1 in a particular mode of information2 and that the most apposite we can conceive in elementary instruction2 namely1 the giving of names to substances2 things with which ,adam was to be conversant1 and which therefore had need of being distinguished each by its proper name4 ,and what a familiar image do these words give one of a learner of his rudiments8 ,and ,god brought every beast to ,adam to ,,see what he would call them4 ,but though it appears that ,god taught man language1 yet we cannot reasonably suppose it any other than what served his present occasions1 he being now of himself able to improve and enlarge it1 as his future necessities should require4 ,the celebrated ,cowper1 touching this subject says3-- 8,one man alone1 the father of us all1 ,drew not his life from woman2 never gaz'd1 ,with mute unconsciousness of what he saw1 ,on all around him3 learn'd not by degrees1 ,nor aw'd articulation to his ear2 ,but1 moulded by his ,maker into man ,at once1 upstood intelligent1 survey'd ,all creatures1 with precision understood ,their purport1 uses1 properties1 assign'd ,to each his name significant1 and1 fill'd ,with love1 and wisdom1 render'd back to ,heaven ,in praise harmonious the first air he drew4 ,he was excus'd the penalties of dull ,minority4 ,no tutor charg'd his hand ,with the thought-tracing quill1 or task'd his mind ,with problems40 ,however1 by the creatures passing before ,adam1 probably in pairs1 and he giving them names as they passed according to the nature and properties of each1 one thing evidently appears1 namely1 he was convinced that none of these animals could be a suitable companion for him2 for1 among all which he had named1 8there was not a help-meet for him30 one suitable and proper as an intimate companion and friend4 8,he views the vast creation o'er1 ,marks his own structure more than e'er before2 ,sees all the creatures with their co-mates blest1 ,himself left pensive1 far unlike the rest2 ,without compeer with whom his hours to spend1 ,or jointly at the sacred altar bend4 ,religion--sacred to the first great ,cause3 ,philosophy--the voice of ,nature's laws2 ,and social dictates1 all at once combine ,to teach their pupil1 that the whole design ,is not completed1 while his lonely life ,is left without a helper1 friend1 and wife4 ,refulgent ,sol1 while traversing his way1 ,has ,luna shining with her lucid ray2 ,and though her glory is a borrow'd light1 ,she reigns sole empress of the sable night4 ,soft purling streams to rivers speed their course1 ,and blend themselves with their capacious source4 ,the spreading branches of uxorious vines1 ,clasp round each other with encircling twines4 ,the climbing ,ivy does the ,oak embrace1 ,and meets with verdant wreaths his bending face4 ,the feather'd tribes that wing the firmament1 ,by instinct led1 to wedded love consent3 ,they range the neighb'ring meads in quest of food1 ,and guard and cherish their young callow brood4 ,and shall the creatures without just pretence1 ,alone possess this high pre-eminence8 ,though with abounding earthly comforts blest1 ,shall man pre-eminent still want the best3-- ,a bosom friend1 than virgin rose more sweet1 ,and whom he can with heart-felt rapture greet2 ,of pleasing form1 equal and tender mind1 ,to whom he can in closest ties be join'd80 ,god did not approve of this state of solitude3 he said1 8,it is not good that man should be alone10 or only himself4 ,the ,creator had not yet finished his works4 ,he saw it necessary to relieve man in his solitary situation2 and his goodness and power were ready to concur with the dictates of his wisdom4 ,he said1 8,i will make him a help-meet for him20 i4e4 his counterpart1 one like himself in shape1 constitution1 and disposition2 exactly adapted to both his body and mind1 the very image of himself1 a second self4 8,must the fair creature promis'd to be giv'n1 ,be sent to earth from the abode of heav'n8 ,angelic nature could not well supply ,the craving void1 remote1 and far too high4 ,will ,god select amongst the brutal race1 ,one1 and refine it for his fond embrace8 ,nay1 that would be too mean for his respect1 ,beneath his nature1 void of intellect4 ,the wise ,creator1 to complete his plan1 ,resolves to make a help-meet from the ,man1 ,procure the stamina from him alone1 ,thus constitute her 8bone of his own bone40 ,from ,man6 but where8 what part can he forego1 ,from head majestic to the servile toe8 ,the head imperial would be much too high1 ,lest she1 perchance1 should for the mast'ry try4 ,the toilsome feet are base1 of low renown1 ,lest he should trample the fair creature down4 ,in ,man's organic structure1 mark6 the part ,is that which lies contiguous to the heart2 ,main spring of life1 whence all the frame looks gay1 ,centre1 where all the lovely passions play2 ,under the shield of the protecting arm1 ,which can defend her from impending harm40 ,accordingly1 ,god proceeded in his work3 not as before1 when he made man1 and formed his body of the dust of the earth2 but he took of the substance of man1 and of that formed an associate for him4 ,the process is mentioned by ,moses1 8,and the ,lord ,god caused a deep sleep to fall upon ,adam1 and he slept3 and he took one of his ribs1 and closed up the flesh instead thereof2 and the rib1 which the ,lord ,god had taken from man1 made he a woman40 ,the word translated a deep sleep1 signifies such a sleep as renders a man insensible of any thing done to him2 which was not natural but an extraordinary sleep2 not occasioned by any act of violence done to nature1 but the immediate effect of the hand of ,god upon him4 ,sleep1 says a ,german author1 is one of the most remarkable effects of the ,divine goodness4 ,it is certainly a proof of the wisdom of our ,creator1 that we fall asleep imperceptibly4 ,sleep comes unsummoned3 it is the only change in our manner of existence in which reflection bears no part2 and is alike independent of the understanding and the will4 ,our situation1 indeed1 during the time of sleep1 is wonderful4 ,we live1 but without knowing or perceiving it6 ,the palpitations of the heart1 the circulation of the blood1 the process of digestion1 and1 in a word1 all the animal functions continue to be performed without interruption4 ,the mind appears1 as it were1 to suspend its activity1 for a time3 by degrees1 it looses all sensation1 every distinct idea4 ,the senses are deadened1 and stop their wonted operations4 ,the muscles1 by degrees1 are moved more slowly1 till all voluntary motion ceases4 ,this change begins in the forehead3 then the muscles of the eye-lids1 and of the neck1 arms1 and feet1 are so much deprived of their activity1 that the man seems to be metamorphosed into a plant4 ,the situation of the brain becomes such1 that it cannot transmit to the soul the same ideas as when we are awake4 ,the soul perceives no object1 though the nerve of vision is not altered2 and it would see nothing1 were the eyes to be even open4 ,the ears are not shut1 and yet they hear nothing4 ,in a word1 we find an unceasing source of admiration1 in the wonderful preparations1 and the tender care1 which the ,divine ,being has employed1 to procure us the blessings of sleep4 ,the following epigram1 translated from the ,latin by ,dr4 ,wolcott1 is beautiful3-- 8,come1 gentle sleep1 attend thy votary's prayer1 ,and1 though death's image1 to my couch repair6 ,how sweet1 thus lifeless1 yet with life to lie1 ,thus without dying1 oh how sweet to die60 ,the word tsela1 and in the ,septuagint 1 rendered a rib1 most probably means bone1 and flesh1 not a naked bone1 but one with flesh adhering to it4 8,and the rib which the ,lord ,god had taken from man1 made he a woman10 or1 according to the ,hebrew1 builded it up to be a woman2 signifying1 that the human species was perfect when the woman was created1 which before was like an imperfect building4 ,this implies1 an old author intimates1 that as children are derived from their parents to build up the family1 so the woman was derived from ,adam to build up his great family1 mankind1 of his own nature and substance2 and that his posterity might spring wholly from him1 both in respect of himself1 and of his wife1 their common mother1 who was taken out of him4 ,what amazing wisdom is herein displayed2 not only in producing a creature like man1 but out of a part of man himself6 ,god could have animated and organized the dust of the earth1 and of it formed the woman2 but had he done so1 she would have appeared in the eyes of man as a distinct being1 to whom he had no natural relation4#bje 8,her form completed1 lo6 she rises fair1 ,possess'd of beauties far beyond compare6 ,this last production of the ,artist's skill1 ,best effort of his wisdom1 might1 and will1 ,gains science' height3 the high-wrought features shine1 ,her form displays a symmetry divine4 ,her pleasing gesture1 as she walks along1 ,exceeds the powers of harmony and song4 ,her fine exterior1 by her ,maker drest1 ,is but the mansion of a brighter guest1 ,to flesh superior far1 howe'er refin'd2-- ,a pure1 reflective1 comprehensive mind6 ,expression soft sits sparkling in her eyes1 ,while from her bosom heavenly raptures rise2 ,intrinsic worth1 comprising every grace1 ,displays its radiance in her roseate face40 ,when the woman was formed1 8,god brought her unto the man10 i4e4 he presented her to him to be his wife4 ,we are not to imagine1 by bringing her to the man1 is meant1 that ,god merely placed her before his eyes1 and thus exhibited her3 but that he joined the man and the woman together in marriage4 8,attending angels strike the choral lay1 ,and hymn your anthems on this bridal day2 ,while the first ,pair unite their willing hands1 ,whose hearts are join'd in love's eternal bands40 ,on receiving the woman1 ,adam said1 8,this is now bone of my bones1 and flesh of my flesh40 ,adam was the common stock and root of all mankind2 not only all his posterity were wholly contained in him alone1 but also the first woman1 the mother of us all1 had her vital life in him1 and was part of his living flesh and bones3 he saw that she was of the same nature1 the same identical flesh and blood1 the same constitution in all respects1 having the same physical powers1 mental faculties1 and inalienable rights4 ,he added1 8,she shall be called ,woman1 because she was taken out of man20 i4e4 she shall partake of my name as she does of my nature4 ,a literal version of the ,hebrew would appear strange1 says ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 and yet a literal version is the only proper one4 ,ish1 signifies man2 and the word used to express what we term woman1 is the same with feminine termination1 ishah1 and literally means she-man4 ,most of the ancient versions have felt the force of the term1 and have endeavored to express it as literally as possible4 ,the ,vulgate ,latin renders the ,hebrew virago1 which is a feminine form of vir1 a man4 ,symmachus used andris1 a female form of 1 aner1 a man4 ,our own term is equally proper1 when understood3 it is a literal translation of the original2 and we may thank the discernment of our ,anglo-,saxon ancestors for giving it4 ,wombman1 of which woman is a contraction1 means the man with the womb4 ,verstegan1 in his ,restitution of ,decayed ,intelligence1 justifies this sense of the word1 on the ground of antiquity and propriety1 and says it should be so written4 ,the term woman was not peculiar to her1 but common to the sex2 she differing from man in sex only1 not in nature4 ,afterward ,adam called her chavah1 which answers exactly to of the ,septuagint1 both signifying life1 because she was the mother of all living4 8,oh blest existence6 7now the man exclaims1 ,and higher praises of his ,god proclaims47 ,my cup with blessings hast thou amply fill'd1 ,consummate joys for my great portion will'd3 ,no wants are left1 no good hast thou denied1 ,thy lib'ral hand has all ,i wish'd supplied4 ,thou ,fount of being6 source of pure delight6 ,in thee my comforts center and unite3 ,thyself ,i love1 thy vast perfections see1 ,and all thy gifts receiv'd enjoy in ,thee4 ,he turns to ,eve1 whose charms are all in view1 ,the perfect form which highest wisdom drew3 ,her sweet attractions touch his yielding mind1 ,as three-fold cords his willing passions bind4 ,sensations soft with quick transition roll1 ,and raise the transports of his grateful soul3 ,while thrilling raptures through his bosom move1 ,he feels his heart the seat of ,,god--and love4 ,their minds now glowing with celestial fire1 ,they jointly bend before their gracious ,,sire2 ,devotion's flame with greater ardor burns1 ,and both are vocal in his praise by turns4 ,while thus their pow'rs in pleasing acts employ1 ,the social worship much augments their joy3 ,their warm addresses to the sacred throne1 ,ascend as incense1 and bring blessings down40 ,the relation between husband and wife is the strongest union that results from the highest obligations of nature4 8,therefore10 said ,adam1 8shall a man leave his father and mother1 and shall cleave unto his wife3 and they shall be one flesh40 ,here we perceive1 as ,dr4 ,delany intimates1 that ,adam had a perfect idea of father and mother1 before any existed2 that he had clear ideas of the affection arising from that relation1 before any children were born into the world3 and yet perceived that the endearment arising from marriage should be stronger than these ties1 so as to attach a man with warmer affection to his wife1 than to those very parents to whom he was indebted for life4 ,now if the received doctrines of philosophy be true1 that the senses are the inlets of ideas1 and that we can have no ideas without objects3 then we must conclude1 that as he had these ideas1 and had them not from nature1 he must have received them from express revelation4 ,hence our ,saviour1 in his answer to the ,pharisees1 informs us1 that the words pronounced by ,adam on this occasion1 were the declaration of ,god himself4 8,have ye not read that he which made them at the beginning1 made them male and female1 and said1 ,for this cause shall a man leave father and mother1 and shall cleave to his wife3 and they twain shall be one flesh40 ,these two shall be considered as one body1 having no separate or independent interests3 or1 these two shall be for the production of one flesh2 from their union a posterity shall spring1 as exactly resembling themselves as they do each other4 ,the ,greek word 1 translated one flesh1 signifies shall be glued to her4 ,how happy must such a state be1 where the parties married come up to the design of this sacred institution6 ,dr4 ,hunter observes1 8,what an important era in the life of ,adam6 ,what a new display of the ,creator's power1 skill1 and goodness6 ,how must the spirit of devotion be heightened1 now that man could join in social worship6 ,what additional satisfaction in contemplating the frame1 order1 and course of nature1 now that he possessed the most exalted of human joys1 that of conveying knowledge to a beloved object6 ,now he could instruct ,eve in the wonders of creation1 and unfold to her their ,maker's nature1 perfections1 and will60 ,oh happy state6 ,they are happy in the constitution of their nature1--being innocent1 upright creatures2 and in having their pure minds perfectly united in love and kindness to each other4 ,they were happy in all their united acts of adoration and praise to their ,creator1--exact harmony1 unmixed delight1 and untainted piety1 residing in each breast6 ,they lived in communion with ,god1 enjoyed a transporting sense of his favor1 walked in the light of his countenance1 and were raptured in their meditations on the ,divine glory6 ,we have here the first institution of marriage1 and we see in it several things worthy of peculiar attention and regard4 #a4 ,god pronounces the state of celibacy not a good one3 and the ,lord ,god said1 8,it is not good that man should be alone10 lebaddo only himself4 ,it was neither for his comfort1 who was formed for society1 nor for the accomplishment of ,god's purpose in the increase of mankind4 ,though he was created in the image of ,god1 and enjoyed delightful intercourse with him1 his solitary condition required a suitable companion4 #b4 ,god made the woman for the man2 he was not made for her1 but she was made for him1 and derived1 under ,god1 her being from him4 ,the apostle says1 8,neither was the man created for the woman3 but the woman for the man10 to be a suitable helper and comfort to him4 ,and thus ,god has shown us1 that every son of ,adam should be united to a daughter of ,eve to the end of the world4 #c4 ,god made the woman out of the man3 as ,adam was immediately from ,god1 so ,eve was immediately from ,adam2 8the man is not of the woman1 but the woman of the man30 made of a part of his body1 taken out1 not of his head1 to show that she was not to exercise dominion over him2 nor of his foot1 to indicate that she must not be his slave2 but of his side1 to intimate that she needs his counsel and direction2 from under his arm1 to teach him that he must protect her2 and near his heart1 to tell him that he must love her as himself4 ,the closest union1 and the most affectionate attachment1 should subsist in the matrimonial connection4 ,the man should ever consider and treat the woman as a part of himself2 and as no one ever hated his own flesh1 but nourishes and supports it1 so should a husband evince the greatest tenderness and affection for his wife3 and on the other hand1 considering that the woman derived her being from man1 and was made for him1 therefore the wife should 8see that she reverence her husband40 8,for as man is the image and glory of ,god2 so the woman is the glory of the man40 #d4 ,god himself instituted the marriage union1 and being appointed and established by him1 it must be an honorable state4 8,marriage is honorable in all10 being a ,divine institution2 and consequently suitable for persons of any rank1 or employment1 either civil or sacred4 ,the corruption of manners has strangely perverted this original purpose and institution of ,god4 ,however1 he will never accommodate his morality to the times1 nor to the inclinations of men4 ,what was settled at the beginning1 he judged most worthy of his glory1 most profitable for man1 and most suitable to his nature4 #e4 ,marriage was instituted immediately on the creation of man and formation of the woman2 whence it is evident that ,god never designed that mankind should be preserved1 and the earth peopled any other way4 ,and as the marriage union took place while man was in a state of innocence1 upright and pure1 just such as his ,creator made him1 it is therefore suitable to the greatest purity both of heart and life4 #f4 ,the design of this institution was1 that man and woman might be mutually helpful to each other1 in all the necessities and uses of life partaking of the cares and labors of each other1 reciprocally sharing in each other's delights and pleasures1 and combining together to love1 serve1 and please ,god4 ,the situation of ,adam and ,eve is worthy of our attention4 ,the sacred historian says1 8,and the ,lord ,god planted a garden eastward in ,eden2 and there he put the man whom he had formed40 ,the word ,eden1 signifying pleasure or delight1 is expressive of their excellent residence4 ,the ,septuagint render the passage thus3 1 ,god planted a ,paradise in ,eden4 ,the ,fathers of the ,church2 says ,huet1 both ,latin and ,greek1 all the ,interpreters of ,scripture1 ancient and modern1 and all the ,orientals1 do agree1 that ,eden is a local name taken from the beauty of the place4 ,the ,garden or ,paradise was situated in ,eden1 being two different places1 as the whole from its part4 8,and a river went out of ,eden to water the garden2 and from thence it was parted1 and became into four heads4 ,and the name of the first is ,pison2 that is it which compasseth the whole land of ,havilah1 where there is gold2 and the gold of that land is good2 there is bdellium and the onyx stone4 ,and the name of the second river is ,gihon3 the same is it that compasseth the whole land of ,ethiopia4 ,and the name of the third river is ,hiddekel3 that is it which goeth toward the east of ,assyria4 ,and the fourth river is ,euphrates40 ,the most probable account of the situation of the terrestrial ,paradise1 says ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 is that given by ,hadrian ,reland4 ,he supposes it to have been in ,armenia1 near the sources of the great rivers1 ,euphrates1 ,tigris1 ,phasis1 and ,araxes4 ,he thinks ,pison was the ,phasis1 a river of ,cholchis1 emptying itself into the ,euxine ,sea1 where there is a city called ,chabala1 the pronunciation of which is nearly the same with that of ,havilah1 or ,chavilah1 according to the ,hebrew1 the vau being changed in ,greek to beta 4 ,this country was famous for gold1 whence the fable of the ,golden ,fleece1 attempted to be carried away from that country by the heroes of ,greece4 ,the ,gihon he thinks to be the ,araxes1 which runs into the ,caspian ,sea1 both the words having the same signification1 namely1 a rapid motion4 ,the land of ,cush1 washed by the river1 he supposes to be the country of the ,cussi of the ancients2 a nation of ,asia1 destroyed by ,alexander to appease the manes of ,hephstion4 ,the ,hiddekel all agree to be the ,tigris2 and the other river1 ,phrat1 or ,perath1 to be the ,euphrates4 ,all these rivers rise in the same tract of mountainous country1 though they do not proceed from one head4 ,man1 says ,faber1 was placed by the ,deity in the garden of ,paradise4 ,the beauty of its scenery1 the salubrity of its climate1 the variety and excellence of its fruits1 all contributed to the beatitude of the first pair1 and tended to elevate their thoughts to that ,being1 who was the author and contriver of such numerous blessings4 ,trained1 says ,bishop ,horne1 in the school of ,eden by the material elements of a visible world1 to the knowledge of one that is immaterial and invisible1 ,adam found himself excited by the beauty of the picture1 to aspire after the transcendent excellence of the ,divine original4 ,from this1 says ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 the ancient heathens borrowed their ideas of the gardens of ,hesperides1 where the trees bore golden fruit2 the gardens of ,adonis1 a word which is evidently derived from the ,hebrew ,aden2 and hence the origin of sacred gardens1 or inclosures1 dedicated to purposes of devotion1 some comparatively innocent1 others impure4 ,from the holiness of the garden of ,eden1 says ,faber1 the ,pagans probably borrowed their ancient custom of consecrating groves to the worship of their various deities4 ,the description given by ,quintus ,curtius of the sacred grove of ,jupiter ,hammon is singularly beautiful1 and almost presents to the imagination the deep shades and the crystal streams of ,eden4 8,at length10 says he1 8they arrived at the consecrated habitation of the deity1 which1 incredible as it may seem1 was situated in the midst of a desert1 and shaded from the sun by so luxuriant a vegetation1 that its beams could scarcely penetrate through the thickness of the foliage4 ,the groves are watered by the meandering streams of numerous fountains2 and a wonderful temperature of climate1 resembling most of all the delightful season of spring1 prevails through the whole year with an equal degree of salubrity40 ,this golden age is described by ,plato1 in a manner which1 independently of his confession 7namely1 that he gained his information from the ,phnicians1 who received it from their ancestors17 proves him to have derived it1 not from written records1 but from traditional reports4 ,his mansion of primeval bliss was not in this dark1 diminished1 and deformed1 this corrupted globe1 but in a pure1 ethereal1 and lucid orb of unlimited extent1 where men breathed1 not air1 but light1 drank nectar1 and partook of fruits spontaneously produced4 ,the inclement seasons were unknown1 raiment was not yet invented1 and nakedness produced no distress4 ,when weary1 the inhabitants reclined to sleep on soft herbage1 which received the influence of one eternal spring4 ,in these delightful regions no stormy winds interrupted their calm repose2 no evil passion disturbed their serenity of soul2 and reason1 guided by benevolence1 bore a universal sway4 ,whilst this state continued1 man conversed freely with those animals1 which1 now wild1 avoid his presence1 and fly at his approach4 ,virgil was no stranger to a golden age2 and ,seneca has well described the peaceful state whilst ,saturn reigned4 ,but of all the representations1 that which we find in ,ovid is the most beautiful1 and1 allowing for poetic imagery1 is accurately just4 8,the golden age was first2 when man1 yet new1 ,no rule but uncorrupted reason knew1 ,and with a native bent did good pursue4 ,unforc'd by punishment1 unaw'd by fear1 ,his words were simple1 and his soul sincere4 ,needless was written law where none opprest3 ,the law of man was written in his breast4 ,no suppliant crowds before the judge appear'd2 ,no court erected yet1 nor cause was heard2 ,but all was safe1 for conscience was their guard40 ,such notions of the felicity enjoyed by man in a state of innocence1 were not confined to ,italy and ,greece1 but have been discovered equally among the ,persians1 ,indians1 and ,chinese4 ,the ,brahmins say1 that in the beginning of the world1 plenty was every where diffused1 and milk1 with wine and honey1 flowed from fountains4 ,similar images were used by the ,persian magi to convey a notion of primeval happiness4#bjf ,thus ,adam and ,eve were happy in their situation1 being placed in ,paradise1 which was delightful for agreeable and pleasing accommodations of every kind to regale their senses2 it was stored with the utmost profusion of ,divine bounty6 8,o ,jesus6 at thy feet we wait1 ,till thou shalt bid us rise1 ,restor'd to our unsinning state1 ,to love's sweet paradise40 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnotes - ,chapter ,,vii #aeg ,the marine ,polypus is different in form from the fresh-water ,polype2 but is nourished1 increased1 and may be propagated after the same manner4 ,when it produces its young1 they issue from its sides1 as branches from a tree2 these young shoots are no sooner detached from their parents1 than they become separate ,polypuses1 and fish for prey4 ,it seems that every part of this animal possesses a principle of life4 ,if it be cut into three pieces1 it is so far from being destroyed1 that it becomes three polypuses3 the head produces a body and tail2 the body1 a head and tail2 and the tail1 a head and body4 ,when a ,polypus is cut in two lengthways1 these close themselves1 the wounds are healed in a few moments1 and in the course of some hours they will eat greedily4 ,if these ,polypuses be again cut into four1 or six pieces1 these divisions of the animal will also become ,polypuses2 but they will not be matured1 nor capable of eating1 for some days4 ,if this creature be turned like a glove1 by pushing the tail into the body until it come out of the mouth1 after such an operation it will still eat1 and continue to produce young ones2 so strong and vigorous is the principle of life which it possesses4 ,there are other insects which possess similar properties2 and it is certain that nearly all plants which are produced from suckers1 have no part which may not become either a stem or branch1 and which will germinate1 and furnish one1 or even many plants4 #aeh ,for the contrary opinion1 see ,fragments appended to ,calmet's ,dictionary1 pp4 #aad-aag4 #aei 8,some time ago1 a person in the ,isle of ,wight1 digging the ground for the foundation of an out-house1 discovered the nest or magazine of a field-mouse4 ,it was of large dimension1 and was stored with acorns1 which were laid up in the neatest and most compact manner imaginable4 ,these were so numerous that he was induced to count them1 and found1 in the whole1 no fewer than eight hundred and two4 ,how wonderful are those faculties with which the beneficent ,creator of the world has endowed his creatures1 for the purpose of providing for wants which they have no power to foresee1 and yet1 without which provision1 they must1 during the severity of winter1 be inevitably destroyed60--,new ,monthly ,magazine1 ,july1 #ahad1 p4 #eca4 #afj ,see ,dr4 ,paley's ,natural ,theology1 pp4 #bif-bii4 #afa ,to this may be referred an economical experiment well known to the ,dutch1 that when eight ,cows have been in a pasture1 and can no longer get nourishment1 two horses will do very well there for some days2 and when nothing is left for the ,horses1 four ,sheep will live on it4 #afb ,the ,arabians1 when travelling1 and in want of water1 frequently kill their camels to obtain a supply1 which1 though taken out of the animal1 they find perfectly good4 #afc ,dr4 ,paley's ,natural ,theology1 p4 #bgh4 #afd ,dr4 ,percival's ,instructions1 p4 #bc4 #afe ,see ,annual ,register1 vol4 iii1 p4 #ij4 #aff ,dr4 ,beattie's ,dissertations1 ,moral and ,critical4 #afg ,dr4 ,percival's ,instructions1 p4 #h4 ,the ,chinese consider the flesh of this animal as a dainty1 and public shambles are erected for the sale of it4 ,in ,canton particularly1 there is a street appropriated to that purpose2 and1 what is very extraordinary1 whenever a dog-butcher appears1 all the dogs in the place pursue him in full cry4 ,they know their enemy1 and persecute him as far as they are able4--,goldsmith's ,history of the ,earth4 #afh ,wesley's ,philosophy1 vol4 i1 p4 #bcc4 #afi ,for a description of the ,crocodile1 given by ,divine inspiration1 see ,job chap4 xli4 ,it is a great question among learned men1 says ,mr4 ,benson1 what creature is meant by 1 leviathan4 ,our translators were evidently uncertain respecting it1 and therefore have given us the original term untranslated4 ,the ,seventy1 however1 have rendered it 1 the dragon2 but that is far from being correct4 ,the dragon is a genus belonging to the order of amphibia reptilia4 ,there are two species1 #a4 ,the volans1 or flying dragon1 with the wings entirely distinct from the fore-legs1 which is found in ,africa and the ,east ,indies4 #b4 ,the prpos1 with the wings fixed to the fore-legs1 which is a native of ,america4 ,they are both harmless creatures2 and feed on flies1 ants1 and small insects4 ,the word 1 leviathan is supposed to be derived from 1 levi1 joined1 or coupled1 and 1 than1 or thannin1 a dragon1 that is1 a large serpent1 or fish1 the word thannin being used both for a land-serpent1 and a kind of fish4 ,and 8after comparing what ,bochart and others have written on the subject1 it appears to me10 says ,parkhurst1 8that the compound word 1 leviathan1 the coupled dragon1 denotes some animal1 partaking of the nature both of the land serpents1 and fishes1 and1 in this place1 signifies the crocodile1 which lives as well under water as on the shore40 #agj ,bingley's ,animal ,biography1 vol4 ii1 p4 #daj1 c4 #aga ,dr4 ,paley's ,natural ,theology1 p4 #bhf4 #agb ,aristotle asserts that spinning and weaving were first learned from the spider4 ,thence it has its ,greek name 1 ,latin ,aranea1 ,french ,araignce1 from the ,hebrew ,aragnevit1 texuit1 or ,arach1 textura4 ,and it is not improbable that our ,english word ,spider is but a corruption of ,spinner1 for ,spinn is the ,german word for ,spider4 ,with this agrees that poetic fancy1 that ,arachne an excellent spinster1 was by ,pallas turned into a ,spider4 ,pallas was the goddess of wisdom1 war1 weaving1 spinning1 and the liberal arts2 and she was invoked by almost every artist1 particularly such as worked in wool1 embroidery1 painting1 and sculpture4--,edward's ,demonstration1 c4 #agc ,see ,jones's ,disquisition concerning clean and unclean ,animals4 #agd ,see ,d',assigny on the ,hieroglyphics of ,egypt4 #age ,epist4 cap4 v4 #agf ,simil4 ix1 sect4 #ac4 #agg ,ad4 ,autol4 lib4 #b1 p4 #if4 #agh ,lib4 iv1 cap4 #cg1 et lib4 v4 c4 #ae4 #agi ,lib4 iv1 cap4 #ge4 #ahj ,adv4 ,prax4 c4 #ab4 #aha ,cap4 #ba1 #be4 #ahb ,cont4 ,cel4 lib4 i1 p4 #fc4 #ahc ,socrat4 lib4 ii4 c4 #cj1 where the ,creed may be seen at large4 #ahd ,hres4 #bc1 n4 #b4 #ahe ,hres4 #dd1 n4 #d4 ,see ,bibliotheca ,biblica on the place4 #ahf ,lib4 iv1 cap4 #cg4 #ahg ,two ,dissertations1 c4 pp4 #bi1 #cj4 #ahh ,among the numerous traditions of the ,new-,zealanders1 says ,nicholas1 there is one which is very remarkable4 ,it refers to the creation of man1 and has been handed down from father to son1 through all generations4 ,they believe the first man to have been created by three gods1 ,mowheerangaranga1 or ,toopoonah1 or grandfather1 ,mowheermooha1 and ,mowheebotakee2 but give the greatest share in the business to the first-mentioned of these deities4 #ahi ,moses says1 8the life1 nephesh1 of the flesh is in the blood40 ,and ,st4 ,paul affirms1 8,god hath made of one blood all nations of men40 ,this sentence of ,moses1 which1 in conjunction with that of ,st4 ,paul1 contains a most important truth1 had existed in the sacred ,scriptures for #c1fjj years1 before it arrested the attention of any philosopher4 ,this is more surprising1 as the nations in which philosophy flourished1 were those which especially enjoyed the ,divine oracles in their respective languages4 ,that the blood actually possesses a living principle1 and that the life of the whole body is derived from it1 is a doctrine of ,divine revelation1 and which the observations and experiments of the most accurate anatomists have served strongly to confirm4 ,the proper circulation of this important fluid through the whole human system1 was taught by ,solomon in figurative language1 ,eccles4 xii1 #f2 and discovered1 as it is called1 and demonstrated by ,dr4 ,harvey in #afbh2 though some ,italian philosophers had the same notion a little before4 ,this distinguished anatomist was the first who fully revived the ,mosaic notion of the vitality of the blood2 and which correct view was afterwards adopted by the justly celebrated ,mr4 ,john ,hunter1 whose strong reasoning and accurate experiments have served to sanction and give publicity to a fact so long unknown to mankind4 ,the doctrine of ,moses and ,st4 ,paul proves the truth of the doctrine of ,harvey and ,hunter3 and the reasonings and experiments of the latter1 illustrate and confirm the doctrine of the former4--,see ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke on ,lev4 xvii1 #aa4 #aij ,as an instance of this ,i may mention the case of a gentleman who was subject to frequent attacks of asthma1 to such a degree1 that if he were not relieved immediately by bleeding1 he was in danger of suffocation3 by being so frequently bled in that state1 his blood at length became so pale as scarcely to stain a linen cloth1 in consequence of the particles of the blood being so slowly renewed4 #aia ,two of these causes are peculiarly important and interesting4 ,when an animal has lost a considerable quantity of blood1 and faints in consequence1 the power of the blood to coagulate quickly is greatly increased4--,when1 for example1 a sheep is bled to death1 if you receive a cupful of the blood which first issues from the throat1 and a cupful of the last1 you will find that the latter will coagulate sooner1 and become much more solid than the first portion4 ,by way of experiment1 the large artery of the thigh of a dog has been divided and laid open2 the animal bled till he fainted1 and on recovering had no return of the bleeding4 ,on examining the artery1 its divided end was found plugged up by coagulated blood1 and much contracted in its diameter2 this natural means1 however1 of checking hmorrhage1 we shall afterwards find1 is assisted by the contractile power possessed by the vessel from whence it is effused4 ,hence it appears that fainting is favorable to checking hmorrhages1 as far as it puts a temporary check on the circulation1 and should always be encouraged to a certain degree4 ,another cause which influences the coagulation of the blood1 is inflammatory diseases4 ,under such circumstances it remains much longer in a fluid state1 but coagulates at length more firmly4 ,this coagulation of the lymph is the first step towards its conversion into various parts of the body1 or the union of divided parts4 ,when1 for example1 the coagulating lymph is thrown out upon inflamed internal parts of the body which lie in contact1 as the intestines or lungs1 it becomes solid1 and connects them loosely together4 ,blood vessels shoot into it1 and convert it at length into cellular membrane1 forming what are called adhesions1 and in a similar way it is converted into the nature of various parts of the body4 ,we may therefore say1 that the coagulating lymph is the most important part of the blood1 inasmuch as it is subservient to the formation of various organs in the body4 ,many parts1 particularly the muscles1 very nearly resemble it in their nature4 #aib ,substances may even be introduced into the blood directly4 ,by way of experiment1 ,ipecacuanha1 or a small portion of ,emetic ,tartar1 or ,jalap1 have been infused into the veins3 the result of this has been found to be1 that they have produced the same effect as if introduced by the stomach2 the former produced vomiting1 the latter purging4 #aic ,mr4 ,hunter1 however1 found that this natural inclination might be changed by education1 for he taught an ,eagle1 which is a carnivorous animal1 to subsist on farinaceous food alone4 ,the plan he adopted was this3 he began by abstracting the flesh meat1 and substituting bread and butter1 till at length the meat was entirely taken away2 he then by degrees diminished the quantity of butter1 till at length the animal fed on bread alone4 ,it appears1 however1 from experiment1 that this transition cannot be made suddenly1 as the gastric juice of the animal is not adapted to act upon an opposite kind of food4 ,it has been found that a quantity of pear or apple introduced into the stomach of a ,buzzard ,hawk was not digested1 but remained unacted upon when the fowl was killed for inspection many hours afterwards2 yet the stomach of this animal habitually digested bone4 #aid ,dr4 ,a4 ,hunter says1 8,when we consider the delicacy of the internal structure of the stomach1 and the high and essential consequence of its office1 we may truly say1 it is treated with too little tenderness and respect on our parts4 ,the stomach is the chief organ of the human system1 upon the state of which all the powers and feelings of the individual depend4 8,the stomach is the kitchen that prepares our discordant food1 and which1 after due maceration1 it delivers over by a certain undulatory motion1 to the intestines1 where it receives a further concoction4 ,being now reduced into a white balmy fluid1 it is sucked up by a set of small vessels1 called lacteals1 and carried to the thoracic duct4 ,this duct runs up the back-bone1 and is in length about sixteen inches1 but in diameter it hardly exceeds a crow quill4 ,through this small tube1 the greatest part of what is taken in at the mouth passes1 and when it has arrived at its greatest height1 it is discharged into the left subclavian vein2 when mixing with the general mass of blood1 it becomes1 very soon1 blood itself40 #aie ,dr4 ,o4 ,gregory observes1 8,animal heat is preserved entirely by the inspiration of atmospheric air6 ,the lungs which imbibe the oxygen gas from the air1 impart it to the blood2 and the blood1 in its circulation1 gives out the caloric to every part of the body4 ,nothing can afford a more striking proof of creative wisdom1 than this provision for the preservation of an equable animal temperature4 ,by the decomposition of atmospheric air1 caloric is evolved1 and this caloric is taken up by the arterial blood1 without its temperature being at all raised by the addition4 ,when it passes to the veins1 its capacity for caloric is diminished1 as much as it had been before increased in the lungs3 the caloric1 therefore1 which had been absorbed1 is again given out2 and this slow and constant evolution of the caloric in the extreme vessels over the whole body1 is the source of that uniform temperature which we have so much occasion to admire4 ,dr4 ,crawford ascertained1 that whenever an animal is placed in a medium the temperature of which is considerably high1 the usual change of arterial venous blood does not go on2 consequently1 no evolution of caloric will take place1 and the animal heat will not rise much above the natural standard4 ,how pleasing it is to contemplate the arrangements which the ,deity has made for the preservation and felicity of his creatures1 and to observe that he has provided for every possible exigency60--,lessons1 ,astronomical and ,philosophical1 #dth edit4 p4 #hg4 #aif ,a ,london ,alderman1 who had accidentally heard of the thoracic duct1 was so struck with the importance and delicacy of the vessel1 that he became very apprehensive lest it should be in the least obstructed2 and1 being one day caught in a crowd1 from whence he could not extricate himself1 he most earnestly entreated those who pressed on him1 to take care of his thoracic duct4 #aig ,this is a good example of muscles1 which1 under ordinary circumstances1 are directed by the will1 becoming involuntary from an altered excitement4 #aih ,dr4 ,a4 ,hunter remarks1 8,were it possible for us to view through the skin and integuments1 the mechanism of our bodies1 after the manner of a watch-maker when he examines a watch1 we should be struck with an awful astonishment6 ,were we to see the stomach and intestines busily employed in the concoction of our food by a certain undulatory motion2 the heart working1 day and night1 like a forcing pump2 the lungs blowing alternate blasts2 the humors filtrating through innumerable strainers2 together with an incomprehensible assemblage of tubes1 valves1 and currents1 all actively and unceasingly employed in support of our existence1 we could hardly be induced to stir from our places60 #aii ,mr4 ,cruikshank1 late ,professor of ,chemistry at ,woolwich1 judiciously observes1 says ,dr4 ,olinthus ,gregory1 that the size of the body1 the quantity of food taken in1 the vigor with which the system is acting1 the passions of the mind1 and external heat or cold1 are circumstances which will ever occasion considerable variety in the quantity of the insensible perspiration4 ,this gentleman1 assuming that the surface of the hand is to that of the rest of the body as one to sixty 7an assumption which ,mr4 ,abernethy thinks much too small for the body17 and that every part of that surface perspired equally with his hand1 concluded that he lost during an hour1 by insensible perspiration from the skin1 #c ounces1 #f drams2 and in #bd hours1 at that rate1 would have lost #g pounds1 #f ounces4 ,also1 that he lost #abd grains of vapor by respiration1 in an hour2 or #f ounces1 #a dram1 and #cf grains1 in #bd hours2 which1 added to the former cutaneous exhalation1 would make the whole insensible perspiration1 in #bd hours1 equal to #h pounds1 #a dram1 and #cf grains3 the evaporation from the lungs will be little more than one-fifteenth of the whole4 ,mr4 ,cruikshank has not the smallest doubt1 but that electric fluid is also perspired from the pores of the skin3 it appearing to him impossible that an enraged ,lion1 or ,cat1 should erect the hairs of the tail on any other principle3 indeed he strongly suspects that1 as electric fire is now known to be the prime conductor of the variation in the atmosphere1 so it is also the grand conductor of insensible perspiration4 ,he likewise states it as a matter beyond doubt1 that1 independent of aqueous vapor 7of fixed air and phlogiston17 emitted from the skin in insensible perspiration1 there is an odorous effluvia1 which1 though generally insensible to ourselves and the by standers1 is perceptible to other animals4--,hence it happens1 that a ,dog follows the footsteps of his master by the smell2 and1 in like manner1 with regard to other animals3 the ,fox-,hound knows afar the smell of the ,fox2 the ,pointer that of the ,partridge1 the ,snipe1 or the ,pheasant2 and every carnivorous animal that of its prey4--,hay's ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i1 p4 #bg4 #bjj ,dr4 ,priestley has positively asserted1 that the doctrine of the soul has no foundation in reason or the ,scriptures4 ,but ,dr4 ,jortin1 in his sermon on ,john xi1 #be1 vol4 vi1 and ,dean ,sherlock1 in his discourse on the immortality of the soul1 completely refute the ,doctor's arguments4 ,in the fourth volume of the ,memoirs of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,society of ,manchester1 there is a very valuable paper1 by ,dr4 ,ferriar1 proving1 by evidence apparently complete1 that every part of the brain has been injured without affecting the act of thought2 the reasoning of which memoir1 being built on matters of fact and experience1 appears to have shaken the modern theory of the materialists from its very foundation4 #bja ,see ,wesley's ,sermon on ,heb4 xi1 #a4 #bjb ,dr4 ,scott's ,christian ,life1 vol4 v1 p4 #ad4 #bjc ,practical ,treaties on the ,holy ,spirit1 pp4 #g1 #h4 #bjd ,see ,dr4 ,beattie's ,theory of ,language1 chap4 ii4 #bje ,it is very singular1 says ,nicholas1 in his very interesting history of ,new-,zealand1 that the natives believe that the first woman was made of one of man's ribs2 and1 what adds still more to this strange coincidence1 their general term for bone is hevee1 which1 for ought we know1 may be a corruption of the name of our first parent1 communicated to them1 perhaps1 originally1 by some means or other1 and preserved1 without being much disfigured1 among the records of ignorance4 #bjf ,see ,townsend's ,character of ,moses1 pp4 #ff-fh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,seventh ,,day4 ,,on ,,the ,,sabbath4 ,sabbath ,instituted -- ,blessed and ,sanctified -- ,given to ,adam as a ,general ,precept for his ,posterity -- ,renewed before and at the giving of the ,law -- ,a ,sign between ,god and his ,people -- ,worldly ,business prohibited -- ,works of ,necessity and ,mercy excepted -- ,advantages resulting from observing it -- ,a ,seventh ,day regarded by the ,heathens -- ,the ,sabbath of universal and perpetual obligation -- ,the ,lord's ,day4 ,when ,god had made the world1 and furnished it with a variety of creatures1 suited to the different elements of which it is composed2 had created man after his own image1 far superior to all the other species of beings1 endued with rational faculties1 whom he therefore constituted lord over them1 situated in a residence curiously and beautifully adorned1 and plentifully stored with every thing adapted for sustenance and delight2 he exacted a reasonable service1 which consisted in the worship of himself1 the one only true ,god1 in celebrating the expressions of his almighty power1 infinite wisdom1 and boundless goodness1 displayed in his works4 ,and to perpetuate1 as well as give a solemnity to this worship1 he set apart a portion of time for the exercise of it2 by the constant and regular observation of which1 a just sense of his infinite perfections1 the recollection of his wondrous works1 and the true worship of him1 might be retained among men4 ,moses1 the sacred historian1 says1 8,thus the heavens and the earth were finished1 and all the host of them4 ,and ,god rested the seventh day1 and sanctified it3 because that in it he had rested from all his work which ,god created and made40 ,here we have the origin of the ,sabbath1 because that in it he rested1 says ,moses2 shebath1 from shabath1 he rested2 and hence sabbath1 the name of the seventh day1 signifying a day of rest4 ,not that he was weary with working1 but he ceased to work1 or rested from making any more creatures1 or species of beings1 all kinds being already either actually or virtually made4 ,when he had finished the works of creation1 in which he was employed six days1 he rested on the seventh1 and blessed and sanctified it2 consecrated it for man to rest from all secular labors1 and religiously employ this portion of time4 ,this blessing and sanctifying the seventh day has the force of a law or command4 ,god separated it from a common to a religious use1 to be a standing memorial of his works of creation2 and to be a sign to ,adam and his posterity1 who1 by working six days and resting on the seventh1 should show themselves to be the worshippers of that ,being who made the world in six days1 and rested on the seventh4 ,the method pursued in creating the world1 presenting a regular succession of astonishing events1 was doubtless intended to convey useful instruction to mankind4 ,considering the almighty power of the ,creator1 his fiat would have been sufficient instantly to produce the whole apparatus of nature1 in beautiful and regular order4 ,but he proceeded by degrees in this work1 probably to teach us1 that1 after working six days1 we also should rest on the seventh4 ,what other reason can be assigned for his procedure1 when a more expeditious plan would have been as easy to him1 and more consonant to his omnipotence3 but only1 that all mankind from this measure should have a perpetual reason and obligation to consecrate a seventh day1 after six days labor1 to be a holy rest to the ,lord2 and it is reasonable to suppose that ,god expressly declared his will to our first parents as to this matter4 ,as the command for observing the seventh day was given to ,adam1 as a general precept for all his posterity1 no doubt he and his sons regarded it4 ,afterwards1 through the impiety of the ante-deluvians1 it might be obliterated in the earth1 except in the solitary family of ,noah2 who1 being a preacher of righteousness1 cannot be supposed to have neglected the observation of this day1 or to have omitted recommending such an important point of religion to the new world after the ,flood4 ,and though after this1 when men were again multiplied on the earth1 wickedness and idolatry were introduced1 and the lapse of time had effaced from their minds this and other precepts of religion received from ,noah2 yet1 we cannot but suppose that this important institution1 with other things relating to the worship of ,god1 was retained in the family of ,abraham1 and the succeeding ,patriarchs1 till their bondage in ,egypt4 ,but when1 through the iniquity and idolatry of succeeding generations1 the particular time1 at first designed and allotted for this special service1 became forgotten1 and ,divine worship was entirely neglected by the generality of mankind1 ,god then revealed and instituted the ,jewish religion1 prescribed the mode of worship to be used1 and by a special law appointed a certain season for the more solemn exercise of it2 and to be a token of the sincere worshippers of the true ,god1 who created all things3 and the day thus appointed and consecrated to public worship1 was called the ,sabbath1 on account of the rest required to be strictly observed on it1 and a command given to all that they observe and sanctify it4 ,this command originally given to ,adam1 was renewed before the giving of either the moral1 judicial1 or ceremonial law4 ,it is expressly taken notice of at the fall of the manna1 which was granted to the children of ,israel in the wilderness of ,sin1 before they came to ,sinai1 ,exod4 xvi1 #bc-bg4 ,it was afterwards inserted in the body of the moral law4 ,exod4 xx1 #h4 ,it is annexed to the judicial laws2 i4e4 the laws determining right between man and man1 and the punishment of transgressors1 ,exod4 xxiii1 #ab4 ,and it is added to the first part of the ceremonial law1 or ,levitical rites and ceremonies1 ,exod4 xxxi1 #ac-ah2 in which passage it is repeated four times in the compass of four verses4 ,in the fourth command ,god says1 8,remember the ,sabbath-day1 to keep it holy40 ,what day is meant1 the following words determine1 8,six days shall thou labor1 and do all thy work3 but the seventh is the ,sabbath of the ,lord thy ,god3 in it thou shall not do any work40 ,that is after six days of labor1 the seventh shall be a day of holy rest1 set apart for the public worship of ,god4 ,the reason to enforce this is added1 8,because in six days the ,lord made heaven and earth1 the sea1 and all that in them is1 and rested the seventh day40 ,the ,jews1 in many of their feasts1 were commanded to rest from servile labor1 on which account these are sometimes called sabbaths2 but we also read of one day1 which1 by way of eminence1 is styled the ,sabbath1 or day of rest4 ,thus we see1 that the precept which ,god gave the ,jews for the observation of the ,sabbath1 appears to be only the repetition or renewal of the law given to mankind from the beginning of the world1 and not the first publication of it4 ,a new reason indeed is added for the observation of it1 namely1 their redemption from ,egyptian bondage1 which was effected on the seventh day of the week1 when ,god overthrew ,pharaoh and his host in the ,red ,sea1 and thereby delivered them4 8,remember that thou wast a servant in the land of ,egypt1 and that the ,lord thy ,god brought thee out thence through a mighty hand1 and by a stretched out arm3 therefore the ,lord thy ,god commanded thee to keep the ,sabbath-day40 ,and the ,jews kept their ,sabbath on the seventh day of the week1 in remembrance of their redemption from slavery in ,egypt4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that the command for the religious observance of the ,sabbath1 was delivered by ,moses at ,mount ,sinai1 in a way different from all those ordinances which were only ceremonial4 ,it was written by the supreme ,being himself on tables of stone1 on which every other thing written was confessedly moral1 and of perpetual obligation3 but no part of the ceremonial law was written by the finger of ,god4 ,the fourth command was written on tables of stone1 to signify that it was to continue1 as well as the other2 and also it was put into the ,ark1 with the rest of the moral precepts1 and is referred to ,deut4 x1 #d4 as being one of the number4 ,the sanctification of the ,sabbath is considered as a sign between ,god and his people4 8,verily my sabbaths ye shall keep3 for it is a sign between me and you1 throughout your generations2 that ye may know that ,i am the ,lord that doth sanctify you30 or1 as the original may be rendered1 a sign to acknowledge that ,i ,jehovah am your sanctifier4 ,again--8,and hallow my ,sabbaths2 and they shall be a sign between me and you1 that ye may know that ,i am the ,lord your ,god40 ,thus ,god made the sanctification of the ,sabbath a sign by which it might be known who did belong to him4 ,working six days1 and keeping a holy rest on the seventh1 is a sign of being the worshippers of the one living and true ,god1 who made heaven and earth in the space of six days1 and rested the seventh3 consequently1 the neglecting and profaning the ,sabbath is a tacit renouncing of him4 ,therefore the ,jewish ,rabbies have this saying among them1 ,whoever breaks the other commands is a wicked ,israelite2 but he who openly and avowedly profanes the ,sabbath1 is considered as an infidel and idolater4 ,hence we read1 that such were to be cut off from the people1 and put to death3 as they would not comply with this institution1 so ,god would not own them as his people1 but reject them4 ,to those who religiously observe the ,sabbath1 there are many particular promises made4 8,if thou turn thy foot from the ,sabbath1 from doing thy pleasure on my holy day2 and call the ,sabbath a delight1 the ,holy of 7or to7 the ,lord1 honorable2 and shalt honor him1 not doing thine own ways1 not finding thine own pleasure1 nor speaking thine own words3 then shalt thou delight thyself in the ,lord2 and ,i will cause thee to ride upon the high places of the earth1 and feed thee with the heritage of ,jacob thy father3 for the mouth of the ,lord hath spoken it40 ,here ,god secures to such persons the good of the land of ,canaan1 which he has promised as an heritage to ,jacob and his seed4 ,plenty1 honor1 and security in the enjoyment of temporal blessings1 are annexed to a religious performance of the duty2 he will bless the honest labors of those who faithfully serve him1 on the six days of the week1 which he has appointed for secular employments4 ,the more sincere and devout any person is in keeping the ,sabbath1 the more will his business prosper on other days4 ,promises of this nature have been accomplished in all ages1 to those who have sanctified the ,sabbath2 and no doubt they will continue to be so in every subsequent period of time4 ,attending to worldly business on the ,sabbath1 is a profanation of it1 and strictly prohibited4 ,god says1 8,thou shalt not do any work1 thou1 nor thy son1 nor thy daughter1 thy man-servant1 nor thy maid-servant1 nor thy cattle1 nor the stranger that is within thy gates40 ,again3 8,six days shall work be done3 but the seventh day is the ,sabbath of rest2 ye shall do no work therein3 it is the ,sabbath of the ,lord in all your dwellings40 ,the ,sabbath was awfully profaned in the days of ,nehemiah4 ,he says1 8,in those days saw ,i in ,judah some treading wine-presses on the ,sabbath1 and bringing in sheaves1 and leading asses2 as also wine1 grapes1 and figs1 and all manner of burdens1 which they brought into ,jerusalem on the ,sabbath day3 and ,i testified against them in the day wherein they sold victuals4 ,there dwelt men of ,tyre also therein1 which brought fish1 and all manner of ware1 and sold on the ,sabbath unto the children of ,judah and ,jerusalem4 ,then ,i contended with the nobles of ,judah1 and said unto them1 ,what evil thing is this that ye do1 and profane the ,sabbath-day8 ,did not your fathers thus1 and did not our ,god bring all this evil upon us1 and upon this city8 yet ye bring more wrath upon ,israel by profaning the ,sabbath4 ,and it came to pass1 that when the gates of ,jerusalem begun to be dark before the ,sabbath1 ,i commanded that the gates should be shut1 and charged that they should not be opened till after the ,sabbath3 and some of my servants set ,i at the gates1 that there should no burden be brought in on the ,sabbath-day4 ,so the merchants1 and sellers of all sorts of ware1 lodged without ,jerusalem once or twice4 ,then ,i testified against them1 and said unto them1 ,why lodge ye about the wall8 if ye do so again ,i will lay hands on you4 ,from that time forth came they no more on the ,sabbath40 ,this is a noble instance of well-directed zeal1 and successful effort1 in that great and good governor4 ,his example ought to be followed by persons in authority1 filling high official situations4 ,the prophet ,jeremiah speaks to the same purpose1 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,take heed to yourselves1 and bear no burden on the ,sabbath-day1 nor bring it in by the gates of ,jerusalem3 neither carry forth a burden out of your houses on the ,sabbath-day1 neither do ye any work1 but hallow ye the ,sabbath-day1 as ,i commanded your fathers40 ,works of necessity and mercy are here to be excepted3 these may be done consistently with the sanctification of the ,sabbath1 though they are servile and laborious4 ,but great care must be taken1 not to plead necessity where there really is none4 ,by such works are meant things of importance1 which could not be done the day before1 nor postponed till after the ,sabbath4 ,a necessity which is occasioned by negligence1 or want of thought1 or is only necessary to some worldly advantage1 will not be a sufficient excuse in this case4 ,in seasons when people have more than ordinary business in their hands1 and therefore are apt to plead necessity for encroachments on the ,sabbath2 yet1 even then1 ,god has particularly commanded them to rest4 8,six days shalt thou work2 but on the seventh day thou shalt rest3 in earing-time and harvest thou shalt rest40 ,the religious observance of the ,sabbath is adapted to promote the spiritual advantage of ,god's people4 ,its exercises tend to wean them from this present world1 and raise them above the attractions of sense4 ,by this holy rest there is a pause made in their earthly pursuits1 and they are called more solemnly to reflect on the invisible and important realities of a better world1 in order to excite their devout affections4 ,had they no such intervals1 their hearts would soon be overcharged with the labors and cares of this life1 and they would be too regardless of a better state4 ,god has made it even unlawful for them to follow any secular employments on this day1 on purpose to preserve them from the undue influence of the objects of sense1 and that they might with more intenseness pursue spiritual and eternal things4 ,it is certain1 as one judiciously observes1 that much of the power of godliness consists in persons living above the present world1 in being dead to it1 in viewing it with a holy indifference1 and in setting their affections on things above4 ,but this would be very difficult1 or next to impossible1 if they were to be constantly employed in worldly affairs2 and therefore he who best knows the composition and constitution of man1 has wisely and graciously appointed one day in seven1 as a rest from terrestrial pursuits1 and as a season wherein he should set himself more intensely to prepare for the heavenly world4 ,when thus withdrawn from earthly concerns1 persons can more impartially examine1 weigh1 and consider how unsuitable a portion they are for an immaterial soul1 immortal in its duration4 ,they have leisure to meditate with greater freedom on the ,author of their being1 on his end or design in placing them on the earth1 and on the results of their conduct awaiting them in a future state4 ,they1 therefore1 who are duly informed of the worth of the soul1 and suitably impressed with the awfulness of that world to which they are hastening2 who desire the felicity of heaven1 and dread the misery of hell2 will rejoice at the return of the ,sabbath1 wherein they are called diligently to prepare for the one1 and most cautiously to avoid the other4 ,while thus abstracted from all sublunary things1 and engaged in the exercise of devotion1 they gain a more intimate communion with ,god4 8,every one that keepeth the ,sabbath from polluting it1 and taketh hold of my covenant2 even them will ,i bring to my holy mountain1 and make them joyful in my house of prayer2 their burnt-offerings and their sacrifices shall be accepted upon mine altar40 ,when persons are employed on this sacred day1 in meditating on the infinite perfections of ,god displayed in his works2 when the desires of their souls are after him1 and they are engaged in offering up prayers and praises to the glorious ,author of their being and blessings2 then he manifests himself to them in a manner he does not to other men1 sheds abroad his love in their hearts1 accepts their persons and services1 and fills them with joy and peace4 ,this communion is most effectually promoted1 when they are disengaged from earthly things1 and wholly employed in the duties of religion3 according to that very encouraging promise1 8,in all places where ,i record my name1 ,i will come unto thee1 and ,i will bless thee40 ,the seventh day was observed by heathen nations1 as well as the ,jews4 ,josephus ventured to affirm1 8,there is no city1 whether ,grecian or ,barbarian1 there is no nation1 which does not rest on the seventh day40 ,philo ,judus stated many years before1 that the seventh day was a festival1 not to one city or one country1 but to all2 and he1 therefore1 calls it the universal festival4 ,the heathen writers speak of the ,sabbath as a high day among them4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus gives quotations from ,linus1 ,homer1 ,hesiod1 and ,callimachus1 who speak of the seventh day as a day on which the work of the creation was finished1 and call it the holy day1 and the birth day of the world4 ,lucian informs us1 in his ,pseudologista1 that children at school were exempted from study on the seventh day4 ,this day ,suetonius calls a sabbath4 ,if any should say1 that the ,heathen1 from the acquaintance they had with the ,jews and the writings of ,moses1 knew that the seventh day was to be kept holy3 ,i would answer2 that is not probable1 for some of the ,heathen writers who speak of the seventh-day ,sabbath1 lived near the time of ,moses4 ,beside1 the ,greeks were at that time wholly ignorant of his writings3 the ,jews thought it a profanation to communicate any part of them to the ,heathen4 ,nor were the writings of ,moses translated into the ,greek language till several hundred years after ,homer3 the translation was made in the days of ,ptolemy the second1 king of ,egypt1 about three hundred years before the ,christian era4 ,and it is not of the ,jews ,saturday-sabbath that the ,heathen writers speak1 but of another day in the week4 ,it was not the seventh day of the week to which the ancient heathens confined their rest1 but a seventh day1 one day in seven4 ,their ,sabbath or high festival was that day of the week on which they worshipped the sun1 their chief god4 ,it remains then1 that the notice of the seventh day among the ,heathen came to them originally from the ,patriarchs1 whose descendants1 in their several dispersions1 carried along with them some impressions of the true religion1 which partially continued with them afterward1 though awfully corrupted with idolatry4 ,to cure mankind of this idolatry1 and secure the worship of him who made the sun1 and the whole universe1 ,moses1 by ,divine direction1 appointed the last day of the week to be the ,jewish sabbath4 ,we may also state1 that the reason which ,god has assigned for sanctifying the seventh day to be the ,jewish sabbath1 namely1 his creating the world in six days1 and resting the seventh1 not only concerns the ,jews1 but also the ,heathens1 who are equally bound to remember and adore their ,creator4 ,hence the ,strangers1 or ,gentiles1 who sojourned among the ,jews1 and were not obliged to keep the ceremonial law1 were bound to keep holy the ,sabbath4 ,thus we perceive1 that this command is of a moral nature1 and1 therefore1 of universal and perpetual obligation4 ,the ,sabbath was instituted from the beginning of the world1 while all things were perfectly good1 and our first parents were innocent and adorned with the beauty of holiness3 even then the ,creator appointed that the seventh day should be employed in his more immediate service4 ,some have thought1 that there is no express command for the observance of the ,sabbath1 till after the children of ,israel had come out of ,egypt2 and1 therefore1 that all the obligations to observe it must be derived from the law of ,moses4 ,but this command was given before sin had infected human nature1 consequently previous to the ceremonial law1 which1 in all its parts1 was contrived on account of sin1 and intended to point to a ,saviour3 for in a state of innocence1 there could be no propriety in the adoption of such shadows and ceremonies4 ,nay1 as ,archbishop ,usher observes1 the appointment of the ,sabbath was not only before any part of the ceremonial law1 but before any promise or prediction of ,christ1 to whom all the ceremonies of the law had respect4 ,therefore we may conclude1 that a command which was to be observed though man had never sinned1 and which stood in full force from the creation of the world1 cannot be made a part of the ceremonial law1 which was not given till after the expiration of #b1ejj years4 ,this is a duty incumbent on all mankind1 as is evident from the reason and end of its first institution2 all men being alike ,god's creatures1 and as such equally concerned to worship him and commemorate his works4 ,the ,sabbath is as obligatory on all succeeding generations of men1 as it was formerly on the ,jews1 or before the ,mosaic economy1 on the ,patriarchs and their contemporaries4 ,every creature of ,god on earth1 endued with reason1 is obliged to separate this day from his common time1 and to keep it holy to the ,lord4 ,when the ,jewish ceremonial law was abrogated by ,christ1 the fourth command continued in force1 and was observed4 ,speaking of the moral law1 our ,saviour says1 8,think not that ,i am come to destroy the law or the prophets4 ,i am not come to destroy1 but to fulfil4 ,for verily ,i say unto you1 ,till heaven and earth pass1 one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law1 till all be fulfilled40 ,now if not one yod1 the smallest letter in the ,hebrew alphabet1 or tittle1 or point1 1 either meaning those points1 as a learned author remarks1 which serve for vowels in this language1 if they then existed2 or the apices1 or points of certain letters1 such as resh1 or daleth1 he1 or cheth1 as the change of any of these into the other would make a most essential alteration in the sense2 ,i say1 if not one of these was to pass from the law1 surely not the command which is the longest of all the ten1 is the only one to which a memento is prefixed1 and has more reasons to enforce it than any of the other nine6 ,yea1 so far from abolishing this command1 our ,saviour explains it1 in the case of his disciples plucking the ears of corn on the ,sabbath2 which is a manifest proof that he intended it to be continued for the use of the ,christian ,church4 ,he also enjoined his disciples to pray1 when ,jerusalem should be destroyed1 which did not occur till forty years after his death1 and the consequent abolishing of all the ,jewish rites and ceremonies1 that their flight might not be on the ,sabbath-day4 ,from the beginning of the world to the ,christian dispensation1 the seventh day of the week was the ,sabbath3 ever since the resurrection of ,christ from the dead1 the first day of the week is the ,christian ,sabbath4 ,our ,saviour1 who is 8,lord of the ,sabbath10 changed it from the seventh to the first day of the week2 which does not in the least derogate from the honor and glory of ,god4 ,if one ,sabbath had been abolished and not another instituted in the room of it1 then he would lose the honor of public worship1 which he has appointed to be performed on that day4 ,however1 if there be a greater work than that of creation to be remembered and celebrated1 to appoint a day for that special purpose1 tends much more to advance the glory of ,god1 than if it should be wholly neglected4 ,and if 8all men should honor the ,son1 even as they honor the ,father10 then it is expedient that a day should be set apart for this worship1 namely1 the day on which ,christ rested from the work of redemption1 or1 as the apostle expresses it1 8ceased from his own works1 as ,god did from his40 ,in altering the ,sabbath1 from the seventh to the first day of the week1 our ,saviour displayed his sovereign authority2 herein he enjoined what time he would have consecrated for his worship under the ,gospel dispensation1 as well as what worship he would have performed on that day4 ,in observing the ,christian sabbath1 we express our faith in a public manner1 that ,christ is come in the flesh1 and has completed the work of our redemption2 and1 consequently1 that there is a way prepared for our justification1 access to ,god1 and hope of finding pardon1 acceptance1 sanctification1 and eternal life4 ,and as all the ordinances of ,gospel-worship have a peculiar relation to ,christ1 it is proper that the time in which they are performed should likewise have respect to him2 and1 therefore1 the first day of the week is set apart in commemoration of his finishing the work of our redemption4 ,that the ,sabbath was actually changed from the seventh to the first day of the week1 appears from the example of the apostles1 who1 after the resurrection of ,christ1 celebrated that day as a ,sabbath4 ,it was on the first day of the week that the ,holy ,ghost was poured down in a most miraculous manner on the apostles1 to qualify them for the ministry1 and render them fit instruments for propagating ,christianity in the world4 ,while ,st4 ,paul was at ,troas1 we read1 that 8upon the first day of the week1 when the disciples came together to break bread10 i4e4 to receive the ,holy ,sacrament1 8,paul preached unto them40 ,this was not a private1 but a public meeting of the ,church2 nor was it a day occasionally appointed by the apostle1 but the stated time of their meeting2 and it was usual for the ,christians on their ,sabbath to receive the ,lord's ,supper4 ,the apostle had continued at ,troas seven days2 why did they not meet together1 and he preach to them1 on the seventh day of the week8 because it was no longer the ,sabbath1 but changed to the first day4 ,it was on the first day of the week that the primitive ,christians made collections for the poor4--8,now concerning the collection for the saints1 as ,i have given order to the churches of ,galatia1 even so do ye4 ,upon the first day of the week let every one of you lay by him in store as ,god hath prospered him1 that there be no gatherings when ,i come40 ,every man at the conclusion of the week1 was to cast up his weekly earnings1 and see how much ,god had prospered him2 and then to bring a right proportion1 on the first day of the week1 as is most likely1 to the church or assembly1 that it might be put in the common treasury4 ,thus it appears1 as a learned commentator remarks1 that the first day of the week1 which is the ,christian sabbath1 was the day on which their principal religious meetings were held in ,corinth1 and the churches of ,galatia2 and1 consequently1 in all other places where ,christianity had prevailed4 ,the apostle ,john speaks of the ,lord's day1 8,i was in the spirit on the ,lord's day40 ,he calls it the ,lord's day1 because on it ,jesus ,christ rose from the dead1 and had appointed it to be the ,christian sabbath3 thus one ,gospel ordinance is called the ,lord's ,supper1 from its having been instituted by ,christ4--,if any should inquire when it was that ,christ gave instruction to his apostles concerning the change of the ,sabbath2 we may reply1 that it was in that interval of time1 during which he 8showed himself alive after his passion by many infallible proofs1 being seen of them forty days1 and speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of ,god20 of which we may reckon the change of the ,sabbath to have been one4 ,but if this should not be deemed sufficiently satisfactory1 we have the highest reason to conclude1 that information was given to the apostles by the inspiration of the ,holy ,spirit1 whom ,christ had promised to send them1 and that should guide them into all truth4 ,and surely there could not have been a more proper day fixed on for the ,christian sabbath2 and which the ,christian church has ever since continued to observe1 and of which ,god himself has signified his approbation4 ,and as the reason of the change now stands1 we can neither observe the ,jewish seventh-day ,sabbath1 without disowning the redemption which ,christ has accomplished for us2 nor can we refuse to comply with this alteration1 and keep holy the ,lord's day1 without a manifest contempt not only of our ,creator1 but of our gracious and merciful ,redeemer1 who1 on this day of the week1 rose from the dead1 and thereby confirmed our redemption from sin1 ,satan1 spiritual thraldom1 and everlasting misery4 ,as the redemption of the ,jews out of ,egypt was typical of our redemption by ,christ1 and the ,jews on their ,sabbath were to keep their deliverance in remembrance2 so surely ,christians are under the greatest obligations on the first day of the week to remember their redemption by ,christ4 ,on this day our blessed ,saviour rose from the dead1 and his resurrection is a demonstrative evidence that the ,supreme ,judge is fully satisfied1 and become the ,god of peace4 ,there is no dispensing with the honor of the moral law1 no receding from the sacred rights of justice4 ,the obedience and death of ,christ1 as our surety1 were such as the law and justice required2 and by which the honor of ,god is secured1 and of which he has most expressly declared his acceptance4 ,when ,christ had laid down his life1 in as ignominious death1 which was all that the law and justice could insist on1 ,god himself unloosed the fetters of the grave1 threw open the prison door1 and in his resurrection from the dead1 gave an evident and solemn testimony of his approval4 ,this was the accomplishment of the words of the prophet1 8,he was taken from prison1 and from judgment20 released and discharged1 in full evidence that he had made satisfaction1 and that ,god had accepted the payment at his hands4 ,the apostle remarks on this important point1 8,whom ,god hath raised up1 having loosed the pains of death3 because it was not possible that he should be holden of it40 ,not possible1 as it is not just or righteous that a prisoner1 who has satisfied every demand that the law has on him1 should be kept longer in prison4 ,the resurrection of ,christ1 therefore1 was an open and authentic acknowledgment1 that ,god1 considered as the moral ,governor and ,supreme ,judge of mankind1 acquiesced in his death1 as a proper1 full1 and perfect satisfaction to ,divine justice for sin4 ,hence he is represented1 in raising ,christ from the dead1 as acting under the peculiar character of the ,god of peace4 8,now the ,god of peace1 that brought again from the dead our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 that great shepherd of the sheep1 through the blood of the everlasting covenant40 ,what a delightful view does this present of the resurrection of ,christ--a risen ,saviour1 and a reconciled ,god6 ,how safely may men trust in the one1 and with what humble confidence may they apply to the other1 for pardon1 holiness1 and heaven4 ,with what holy joy should they on the ,lord's day call to remembrance his resurrection1 and meditate on the greatness of his love in shedding his blood for 8the remission of sins10 and to secure for them everlasting happiness4 ,the ardent desire he manifested for our welfare was not extinguished1 or even abated1 by the most discouraging considerations3 not by the unworthiness of those who were the objects of his compassion2 not by the thoughts of obscuring his ,divine glory with frail humanity2 not by the prospect of being exposed to the contempt of men and contradiction of sinners2 not by the view of meeting with very ungrateful usage from his friends1 and falling under the most bitter persecutions of his enemies2 not by the necessity1 arising from a covenant engagement1 of suffering the punishment due to sin1 and submitting to a most ignominious and painful death4 ,in opposition to these formidable obstacles1 our blessed ,redeemer resolutely and immoveably persevered in his benevolent design of dying for us1 and thereby effecting our salvation2 and when suspended on the cross1 he cried1 8,it is finished10 and gave up the ghost4 ,for calling this to remembrance1 was the ,christian sabbath instituted2 and if the consideration of the love of ,christ in being 8delivered for our offences1 and rising again for our justification10 will not constrain us to sanctify the ,lord's day1 every other motive or reason will fail4 ,,the ,,end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation has been standardised4 ,italic text has been denoted by underscores4 ,characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps4 ,non-printable superscripts are represented by a caret followed by the character7s7 placed in 1 i4e4 x#bc4 ,this book was written in a period when many words had not become standarized in their spelling4 ,numerous words have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the text4 ,these have been left unchanged while obvious spelling mistakes have been repaired4 ,non-typical corrections are noted below3 ,pg #eg - ,location of footnote #cc was not marked in the original text