,,buddhism ,,in ,,the ,,modern ,,world ,,by ,k4 ,j4 ,,saunders ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,buddhism1 ,,gotama ,,buddha1 ,,etc4 ,,professor ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,religion1 ,,berkeley ,,and ,,lecturer ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,california ,,london ,,society ,,for ,,promoting ,,christian ,,knowledge ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,toronto3 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aibb ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,london ,,and ,,beccles4 ,,preface ,there are many books on ,buddhism1 and to produce a new one almost demands an apology4 ,yet most of them deal with the dead past1 and ,buddhism is a living religion which is showing remarkable powers of revival and adaptation4 ,this is a movement of so great significance that ,i hope this small volume may prove of value1 not only to missionaries but to all sympathetic students of a religion which has played an immense part in the world's history1 and which is still a dominant influence in the lives of scores of millions4 ,during twelve years of somewhat intimate study of ,buddhist countries ,i have found that while there is much that is degenerate there is much that is very noble1 and the object of this little book is to estimate the living forces of the religion rather than to emphasise its weaknesses4 ,it is at once more scientific and more worth while to look at the strong than at the weak points of a religion1 and there is an increasing school of missionary thought which believes in building the ,christian ,church of ,asia upon the great foundations laid through so many centuries4 ,not only is it true that ,god has not left ,himself without a witness amongst these peoples2 it is even truer that during the long and on the whole noble history of the expansion of ,buddhism ,his ,spirit has been at work4 ,i am convinced that any who really study this remarkable chapter in human history will come to this conclusion1 if they have any belief whatsoever in a meaning in history and in a ,divine ,providence4 ,the missionary amongst ,buddhist peoples should aim at studying all that is noble and of good repute1 whilst of course he will not shut his eyes to what is degenerate and unworthy1 and inasmuch as an increasing number of missionary teachers are doing me the honour to consult me as to the method of approach to their ,buddhist friends1 ,i venture to dedicate this small volume to them as a token of hearty sympathy in the noble work that they are doing in seeking to fulfil the age-long purposes of ,god4 ,i think that many of them agree with me that already a nobler form of ,christianity is being produced on ,asiatic soil than that which we have brought thither1 and it may well be in the providence of ,god that a new and splendid era of ,church ,history is opening up as these responsive and religious peoples of the ,orient are captured by the ,gospel of ,christ4 ,in spite of the failures of ,christendom and of our divided ,christianity the whole of ,asia reverences the historic ,jesus1 and from her contact with ,his ,spirit is at once reforming and revivifying her ancient faiths4 ,this process is of immense significance and her best spirits1 even when they do not call themselves ,christian1 are frank to confess how much they owe to ,him and how much there is in their old faiths which will need to die in order that they may live again1 purified and deepened4 ,that ,asia is increasingly becoming ,christian in its standards of thought and conduct is evident to any unbiased observer1 and one of the most remarkable proofs of the authenticity and originality of our faith is this--that it is at once reforming and fulfilling the ancient faiths of ,asia4 ,what it did with the religions of ,rome and ,greece it is already doing with the nobler religions of the ,orient2 and true missionaries of ,christ are at work upon a task of incomparable dignity and significance4 ,these brief sketches are based upon ten years of intimate association with ,buddhists in ,southern and ,eastern ,asia4 ,inasmuch as ,i have only been on the borders of ,tibet ,i have not written here of ,tibetan ,buddhism4 ,it is very degenerate and so mixed with ,tantric ,hinduism as to demand separate and different handling3 it is very clear that missionary work is urgently needed to free the people of ,tibet from a tyranny which is unworthy of the great name of the ,buddha4 ,k4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,berkeley1 ,january1 #aibb4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,preface ,i4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,southern ,,asia ,i4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,burma #a4 ,,at ,,the ,,great ,,pagoda ,,in ,,rangoon 7a7 ,a ,monastic ,school 7b7 ,its ,moral ,teaching 7c7 ,its ,religious ,instruction 7d7 ,the ,importance of the ,monks as a ,class 7e7 ,women at ,worship #b4 ,,the ,,religious ,,values ,,of ,,everyday ,,buddhism 7a7 ,what ,buddhism means for ,burmese ,women 7b7 ,what it means for ,burmese ,men 7c7 ,what it means for ,burmese ,children 7d7 ,the ,attitude of ,burmese ,students 7e7 ,the ,better ,side of ,burmese ,buddhism #c4 ,,christianity',s ,,opportunity ,,in ,,burma 7a7 ,the ,burmese are truly ,religious in ,temperament 7b7 ,they tend to view ,gotama as a ,saviour 7c7 ,the ,christian ,heaven is more attractive than ,nibbna 7d7 ,moral ,conditions demand a ,vital ,christianity 7e7 ,loving ,social ,service finds its own ,way to the ,heart 7f7 ,christianity can dispel the ,fear of the ,demon ,world ,,ii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,ceylon #a4 ,,on ,a ,,hillside ,,near ,,kandy 7a7 ,the ,dullness and ,superstition of ,village ,life in ,southern ,ceylon 7b7 ,the ,themes of the ,hillside ,preacher 7c7 ,the ,stolidity of his ,audience #b4 ,,the ,,hold ,,of ,,buddhism ,,upon ,,the ,,singhalese 7a7 ,the ,appeal of its ,traditions 7b7 ,its ,work of ,reformation 7c7 ,its ,leadership of ,public ,opinion 7d7 ,yet ,ceylon needs ,christianity #c4 ,,two ,,sharply ,,marked ,,attitudes ,,among ,,modern ,,buddhists ,,iii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,siam #a4 ,,siam ,a ,,buddhist ,,kingdom #b4 ,,the ,,thot ,,krathin ,,festival #c4 ,,the ,,king ,,and ,p,,li ,,learning #d4 ,,buddhist ,,education #e4 ,,the ,,temples ,,or ,,wats ,,iv4 ,,contrasted ,,types ,,of ,,buddhist ,,religious ,,life ,,in ,,southern ,,asia #a4 ,,the ,,cremation ,,of ,a ,,singhalese ,,abbot #b4 ,,the ,,funeral ,,rites ,,of ,a ,,burmese ,,monk #c4 ,,those ,,of ,a ,,siamese ,,prince #d4 ,,the ,,secret ,,of ,,buddhism',s ,,influence ,v4 ,,buddhism ,,as ,a ,,living ,,world ,,religion #a4 ,,it ,,attracts ,,those ,,whose ,,faith ,,in ,,christianity ,,has ,,ceased #b4 ,,it ,,deals ,,with ,,human ,,suffering #c4 ,,it ,,offers ,a ,,way ,,of ,,escape ,,from ,,pessimism #d4 ,,its ,,great ,,founder ,,called ,,himself ,a ,,physician ,,of ,,sick ,,souls #e4 ,,it ,,cultivates ,a ,,sense ,,of ,,the ,,worthlessness ,,of ,,temporal ,,things #f4 ,,its ,,conception ,,of ,,bliss ,,is ,,realisable ,,in ,,this ,,life #g4 ,,it ,,is ,a ,,religion ,,of ,,analysis #h4 ,,it ,,has ,,fine ,,ethical ,,teachings1 e4g4 7a7 ,the ,four ,noble ,truths 7b7 ,the ,eight-fold ,path #i4 ,,it ,,now ,,practises ,,prayer #aj4 ,,yet ,,it ,,teaches ,,stoical ,,self-,,mastery ,,rather ,,than ,,dependence ,,on ,,god #aa4 ,,it ,,has ,,two ,,standards ,,of ,,morality3 ,,one ,,for ,,monks1 ,,another ,,for ,,lay ,,folk #ab4 ,,it ,,gives ,,women ,a ,,lower ,,place ,,than ,,men #ac4 ,,summary ,,vi4 ,,the ,,missionary ,,approach ,,to ,,modern ,,buddhism ,,in ,,southern ,,asia #a4 ,,modern ,,buddhism ,,differs ,,from ,,the ,,theoretical ,,buddhism ,,of ,,gotama #b4 ,,the ,,central ,,emphasis ,,of ,,buddhism ,,varies ,,in ,,the ,,three ,,southern ,,countries #c4 ,,some ,,qualities ,,desirable ,,in ,,missionaries ,,to ,,buddhists 7a7 ,a ,genuine ,sympathy 7b7 ,a ,sense of ,beauty and of ,humour 7c7 ,strong ,christian ,convictions 7d7 ,a ,desire to appreciate ,fresh ,truth #d4 ,a ,,great ,,opportunity ,,ii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,eastern ,,asia ,i4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,japan ,k,,ya ,,san ,,hieisan ,,and ,,its ,,sects ,a ,,shinshu ,,temple ,a ,,revival ,,of ,,buddhism ,,christian ,,influence ,,ii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,china ,a ,,chinese ,,temple ,,appendix ,i4 ,,appendix ,,ii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,the ,,modern ,,world ,i4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,southern ,,asia ,i4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,burma #a4 ,at the great ,pagoda in ,rangoon4 ,let us visit the great ,shwe ,dagon pagoda in ,rangoon1 one of the living centres of the ,buddhist world1 where amidst a splendid grove of palms and forest trees the golden spire rises high above a vast platform crowded with shrines and images of the ,buddha4 ,far below is the teeming city bathed in golden light1 and humming with life2 here all is still save for the rustle of leaves and the tinkling of innumerable bells upon the great pagoda pinnacle1 and the shouting of a class of boys in the monastery school near by4 7a7 ,a ,monastic ,school4--,some two score of them are seated round a kindly old monk in his faded yellow robe4 ,and all are shouting at the top of their voices repeating in unison certain words1 of whose meaning they do not seem to think6 7b7 ,its ,moral ,teaching4--,as we draw near we realise that these are phrases from a popular ,buddhist book known as ,mingala ,thot1 a summary of the ,buddhist beatitudes1 which describe the happy life of the ,buddhist layman4 ,first they shout a word of ,pli#a and then a word of ,burmese1 and lastly the whole phrase4 ,there are twelve verses1 of which the following is typical3-- ,tend parents1 cherish wife and child1 ,pursue a blameless life and mild3 ,do good1 shun ill and still beware ,of the red wine's insidious snare2 ,be humble1 with thy lot content1 ,grateful and ever reverent4 ,many times must these phrases be droned through before they are learned by heart1 but gradually their meanings sink in and simple explanations and grammatical notes by the teacher help his class to understand as well as to learn4 ,these moral maxims still exert a powerful influence for good4 7c7 ,its ,religious ,instruction4--,another favourite lesson is a short summary of the excellent qualities of the ,three ,jewels of ,buddhism--the ,buddha1 his ,order of ,monks1 and his ,law or teaching2 and another celebrates eight victories of the ,buddha over enemies temporal and spiritual4 ,having mastered these preliminary books1 the boys will learn the chief ,jtakas1 a strange medley of folklore dressed up in ,buddhist guise1 and purporting to be stories of the various sacrificial existences of the founder of ,buddhism1 ,skyamuni1 before he became a ,buddha4 ,buddhism is not only a body of moral teachings1 but a religion with an elaborate system of beliefs1 which makes very great demands upon the faith of its worshippers1 and some of these beliefs are embodied in these stories of the former lives of the ,buddha4 ,others are conveyed in legends and hymns1 in popular summaries and proverbial sayings universally known and used by the people4 7d7 ,the ,importance of the ,monks4--,this class of boys around the old monk represents an educational system which covers all ,burma and has unbounded influence4 ,it is an amazing fact that there are almost two monasteries to every village4 ,while this constitutes an enormous drain upon the resources of the country1 since all the monks retire from its active industrial life1 and live upon the alms of the laity1 it has1 on the other hand1 made ,burma one of the most literate of all the lands of the ,east1 with a larger percentage of men who can read and write than modern ,italy4 ,so great is the power of the monks that all boys1 before they can be regarded as human beings1 must undergo a form of ordination4 ,it is not strange that some of them are caught by the lure of the monastic life and the glamour of the yellow robe3 yet most of them1 after a short experience1 go back to the world4 ,the young shin or novice1 who chooses to stay in a monastery1 may in due course be admitted to ordination4 ,at that time1 dressed in princely robes1 he celebrates the sacrifice of the founder of ,buddhism1 ,skyamuni1 in leaving his royal state to become a mendicant4 ,his head is shaved1 his gorgeous clothes are taken away1 and henceforward he is clad only in the yellow robe of the ,buddhist monks1 an order older1 more widespread1 and more picturesque than any other religious order in the world4 ,he has taken refuge in the ,three ,jewels1 and now takes up the regular life of the monk4 ,he goes out daily with a group of others to collect food for the monastery2 he attends to the various needs of the older monks and carries on the simple household tasks assigned to him4 ,a large portion of his time must be given to studies1 until he has a good working knowledge of the three ,baskets1#b i4e4 the ,discipline1 the ,narratives or ,dialogues1 and the ,higher ,religion1 which make up the ,buddhist canon4 ,in course of time he may himself become a teacher4 ,let us turn again to the shrine4 ,the great sun is going down and the pagoda1 splendid in the sunset as it changes from gold to purple and from purple to gray1 and then to silver as the glorious moon rises1 is thronged with devout worshippers4 ,the monk prostrates himself before the jewelled alabaster image of ,buddha4 ,he seems unaware of the people around him1 who honour him as a being of a superior order2 or1 if conscious of them1 it is with a sense of his own aloofness4 ,sabb ,dukkh 7all is sorrow7 he is murmuring3 ,sabb ,anatt 7all is without abiding entity74 ,mechanically the lay-folk repeat with him the words which have been for twenty-five centuries the ,buddhist challenge to the world1 calling it away from the lure of the senses and the ties of family and home4 ,do the people really believe it8 ,let us look at this group of women before one of the many shrines on the spacious pagoda platform4 ,are they intent on giving up the world or on making the most of it8 ,are they persuaded that it is all sad and transient8 ,here kneels a young wife offering strands of her hair1 and praying that her child may have hair as long and beautiful4 ,near by is an unhappy wife who prays that her husband may become as pure as the flower which she lays at the feet of the ,buddha4 ,not far away is one very old and trembling woman who1 after bowing to the impassive image and lighting her little candle before it1 has turned back to pat a great old tree lest the nat1 or spirit1 which lives within1 be offended4 ,the spirits are always malignant and have to be propitiated4 ,the world-renowned one1 is he not benign8 ,she must not risk offending this tree-spirit1 in her desire to please the ,buddha4 ,the ,burman tries to keep both in mind and to serve them faithfully1 for both may help to make this life pleasant2 but he is most anxious concerning the demons4 ,whilst in every village in the country there is at least one pagoda and monastery1 there is sure to be a spirit-shrine in every home1 where the spirits are consulted and appeased before homes are built1 marriages arranged1 purchases made1 or journeys undertaken4 ,it is these things1 after all1 that make up life for most of us4 #b4 ,the ,religious ,values of ,everyday ,buddhism4 7a7 ,what ,buddhism means for ,burmese ,women4--,it will be interesting to consider what ,buddhism has to offer to such groups of women4 ,four sorts of appeal may be mentioned4 ,in the first place ,buddhism is a great social force1 providing many festivals and giving much colour to everyday life4 ,in theory it may be sad2 in practice it is very cheerful4 ,even in ,christian lands some women go to church to see the latest fashions2 can we wonder that ,burmese ,buddhist women delight to gather on the platform of the beautiful pagoda for friendly intercourse and gossip8 ,again1 they think of the order of monks as giving them the best chance to gain merit4 ,they recall that the ,master taught that generous offerings to them are potent in bringing all kinds of benefits in this world1 and even in helping the dead in the dim life of the underworld4 ,the monks confer a favour by accepting alms2 it is the donor who says ,thank you4 ,another great source of enjoyment and instruction is the well-known ,buddhist stories1 told over and over again1 often miraculous1 always with a moral4 ,they also reflect on the lives1 which they know by heart1 of certain great ,bodhisattvas1 or ,buddhas in the making1 buds of the lotus1 which later on burst into full bloom4 ,one of the pictures in which they delight is that of ,gotama#c when he was a hare and jumped into the fire to feed a hungry ,brahmin4 ,another picture more familiar and more poignant still1 depicts his appearance as ,prince ,vessantara1 giving away his wife and beloved children to a hunchback beggar4 ,these stories exert an immense influence4 ,and finally1 ,buddhism influences ,burmese women by appealing to their imagination and their love of mystery1 with its solemn chanting1 its myriad shrines1 with their innumerable candles twinkling in the dusk1 and the sexless sanctity of its monks4 ,how wise and good they seem to be6 ,are they not custodians of the truth8 ,here one little woman is lifting a heavy stone weighing forty pounds2 a monk has told her that if it seems heavy her prayer will surely be answered4 ,to make assurance doubly sure1 she may go and consult the soothsayer1 whose little booth is near the shrine--a cheerful rogue1 not without insight and a sense of humour--but she gives to the monk the supreme place1 and pays him more generously6 ,a ,burman acquaintance of mine1 who was converted to ,christianity1 was asked by an old lady why he had deserted the custom of his people4 ,i am sick1 he began1 of all this bowing down to the monks1 and of all these offerings4 ,stop1 stop6 she cried1 aghast4 ,you are destroying the whole religion of our nation6 7b7 ,what it means for ,burmese ,men4--,laymen in ,burma are much like men elsewhere4 ,here is one who between prostrations before the image of ,buddha keeps his long cheroot alive1 and enjoys an occasional puff4 ,he is like many men one meets1 making the best of both worlds4 ,yet to him too ,buddhism makes a strong appeal1 primarily because it is his heritage or1 as he says1 the custom of ,burma4 ,the national feeling1 which is alive in ,burma as well as in all other parts of the ,east1 resents ,western influences1 of which ,christianity seems a part4 ,moreover1 ,buddhism strongly appeals to his habit of mind4 ,he thinks he understands why there is inequality in human lot1 why some are rich and some poor1 some healthy and some diseased4 ,he explains it as the working out of the law of ,kamma4#d ,men suffer now because they have sinned in a former birth4 ,listen to this conversation3 ,old ,u ,hpay is telling a neighbour about a foolish old sister of his who has adopted a calf1 and is petting it because its voice is so like that of her dead husband6 ,while the old men chuckle at this quaint expression of her faith1 yet they do believe that this is the law of life4 ,should you kill a mosquito it may be your mother-in-law in a new body1 and still going strong6 ,but ,buddhism puts forth its greatest appeal at those times when there comes over its votaries a wistful yearning for something which this world has not given them4 ,at these quiet moments1 especially in the evening of life1 when they are no longer concerned with making money or with the raising of a family1 the appeal of ,nibbna#e and its peace comes home to many4 ,they do not feel sure of reaching it1 nor do they fully understand what it means4 ,some of their monkish teachers tell them it will be annihilation1 while others describe it as the extinction of all passion or a great calm4 ,in either way ,nibbna#e has its lure1 especially to the world-weary4 ,i have even known a ,christian missionary who was tempted to long for the quiet and relief from the staleness and hurry of life which annihilation would bring4 ,but he was weary and needed a holiday6 ,missionaries often do4 7c7 ,buddhism and ,children4--,playing around1 while the old people talk or pray1 are always some children4 ,here a fat1 naked baby takes a puff at his grandfather's cigar2 there a little girl1 devoutly imitating what she sees her parents doing before the great image of ,buddha1 also lights her candle and offers her marigolds4 ,the older children quickly begin to take their share in the religious life about them4 ,in some of them is dawning a hero-worship of the great ,buddha who has done so much for the world4 ,this little girl thinks wistfully of her brother1 so recently her playmate1 but now a ,buddhist novice1 with shaven head and yellow robe1 as remote from her and aloof as if he belonged to another world4 ,not much is taught to her and her girl-playmates3 they are only girls6 ,but she is learning by what she sees1 and she too is becoming a staunch ,buddhist4 ,there are some stalwart champions of ,buddhism amongst the children1 and the girls grow up1 less instructed but not less devout than the boys4 7d7 ,the ,attitude of ,burmese ,students4--,every mother desires that one of her sons shall take and keep the yellow robe1 yet the younger among the educated ,burmese are frank in calling the order of monks a yellow peril1 not because they are bad men1 for public opinion in ,burma rarely tolerates immorality in these religious leaders1 but because there are so many of them1 over seventy-five thousand in the whole country4 ,to feed such a horde of mendicants is a costly business1 and the rebuilding and gilding of a pagoda may mean that the inheritance of every one belonging to its village will be decimated4 ,the pagoda is built and the village ruined1 they ruefully repeat4 ,thus there is growing up among those who are in the government schools in contact with the liberal thinking of the ,west a disposition to question the values of the present religious system4 ,possibly not more than ten per cent4 of the students who have ,western training can be called orthodox ,buddhists4 ,thus the old people to whom ,buddhism means so much are anxious1 and the young are restive4 ,burma1 like many other countries1 is going through a period of transition1 the outcome of which is uncertain4 ,yet undoubtedly it is still a strongly ,buddhist country1 and the masses of its people are not much affected by this spirit of scepticism4 ,as1 however1 ,western education is the key to preferment the official classes are apt to sit loose to much that their fathers held sacred4 ,and some few are busy re-thinking their faith and seeking to adapt it to modern needs4 7e7 ,the ,better ,side of ,burmese ,buddhism4--,buddhism is often described as a pessimistic religion4 ,as one sees it in ,burma1 however1 it seems to make the people happy and contented4 ,possibly this is due to their naturally cheerful temperament4 ,whatever the reason1 there is a remarkable joyousness about the gay-robed crowds of happy1 smiling people4 ,again1 while ,buddhism does not give to womanhood nearly so high a place as does the religion of ,jesus1 yet it has granted her a far better standing than she has in any part of ,india under ,hinduism or ,islam4 ,woman is the better half in ,burma and knows it1 even though she may pray to be born next as a man4 ,caste1 moreover1 the great bane of ,india1 is almost unknown to ,buddhist ,burma3 it is a cheerful democratic land4 ,buddhism believes in the education of the masses1 and its schools and monasteries are open to all4 ,it is also very tolerant and kindly4 ,it has not led on any large scale either to religious persecution or to war4 ,these are no small services4 ,moreover1 ,buddhism has in the past been a great bond of union between the peoples of ,asia1 and it is to-day again playing some part in the movement1 ,asia for the ,asiatics--a movement deserving our sympathetic attention4 ,in the great awakening of ,nationalism the ,buddhist ,revival has its share both as cause and as effect4 #c4 ,prospects of ,christianity in ,burma4 ,there are only some twenty thousand ,burmese ,christians as yet1 although1 within the confines of ,burma there is a far larger number of ,christians1 and the ,karens are already a great church4 ,what1 then1 are the reasons for confidence that ,burma will at some time be a ,christian country1 albeit with a ,christianity whose type will differ very greatly from the prevailing types of the ,west8 7a7 ,the ,burmese are truly ,religious in ,temperament4--,the natural instinct of the ,burmese for religion is strong4 ,they are not content with mere ritual and with offerings1 lavish as these are4 ,gratitude to ,gotama1 the great ,teacher and lord of life1 is a real motive to many4 ,not uncommonly are ,christian hymns adapted by modern educated ,buddhists and sung in honour of the ,buddha3 ,glory1 laud and honour ,to our ,lord and ,king1 ,this through countless ages1 ,men and ,devas sing4 ,these ,buddhists have organised ,buddhist ,sunday ,schools4 ,in these the children not only closely imitate ,protestant ,sunday ,schools but sing to a small portable harmonium3 ,buddha loves me1 this ,i know2 ,for the ,scriptures tell me so1 or more usually ,burmese hymns and carols4 7b7 ,they tend to view ,gotama as a ,saviour4--,again many look upon ,gotama as a loving saviour4 ,so strong is this attitude toward him that when a father blesses his child1 he says to him3 ,may you be reborn when the ,loving ,one1 ,metteya#f comes4 ,gotama is reported as having promised the coming of such a redeemer4 ,even in ,southern ,asia1 therefore1 ,buddhism is changing from a way of merit and self-mastery into a way of salvation by faith4 ,may we not reckon this transition as a preparation for the message of ,christianity8 ,buddhism everywhere is to-day almost more like ,christianity than it is like the ,buddhism of ,gotama and the ,elders4 ,the ,buddhism of ,burma is more of a religion and less of a philosophy than that of the ,books4 7c7 ,the ,christian ,heaven is more ,attractive than ,nibbna4--,it is clear again that ,buddhists to-day are much more ready than before to accept the idea of a ,christian heaven4 ,this heaven1 preached as a state of progress1 a meeting-place of friends1 and the beatific vision of ,god1 is very attractive to them4 ,the appeal of ,nibbna is dying3 ,nibbna1 said a monk in ,burma1 is a fearsome thought4 ,i have no hope of attaining it4 ,we are walking in darkness1 said another leader1 without seeing a light1 a person1 or a hope4 ,missionaries both in ,burma and ,ceylon are agreed that the teaching of ,buddhism has changed very greatly during the last few decades1 among those who have come directly or indirectly in touch with ,christianity4 ,formerly ,buddhists preached that there was no supreme god1 that ,nibbna meant total quiescence1 almost total annihilation1 that man is his own saviour1 and that there is no possible escape from the penalty of sin2 now many admit that there must be a ,god1 declare that ,gotama is a saviour1 that sin is forgiven and that there is a heaven in place of ,nibbna4 ,on the other hand1 there is still much work for the ,christian missionary4 ,buddhism in many parts of ,burma seems to be making one great last stand against the gospel of ,christ4 ,its own standard is in many respects so high that our ,christianity is as a whole not loving or sacrificial enough to win its adherents4 ,the ,christianity which is to be an overpowering argument for the efficacy and truth of the ,christian faith is too rare4 ,the ,buddhist ,revival is largely a reaction from our ,western pseudo-,christianity1 and from the shameless aggression of ,christendom4 7d7 ,moral ,conditions ,demand a ,vital ,christianity4--,the moral situation in ,burma clearly demands that either a revivified ,buddhism or ,christianity in its most vital form should come to the rescue4 ,the need is grave4 ,burma is at once the most literate and the most criminal portion of the ,indian ,empire4 ,a government report for #aiab reads3 ,the moral sense of the people is diminishing with a slackening of religious observances4 ,with the decay of ancient beliefs the ,buddhist religion is losing its moral sanction as an inspiring force in the lives of its adherents4 ,drunkenness1 gambling1 drug-taking and vicious habits1 increasing as they all are1 tend to produce a weakening of self-control and a loss of self-respect which in favouring circumstances easily create the criminal4 ,a fair-minded missionary would agree that these deplorable conditions are in large measure chargeable to the impact of ,western civilisation4 ,it is incumbent upon us1 in ordinary justice and fair play1 to see that the ,west is represented by our very best men in missionary service1 in commerce and in government posts4 ,on the other hand1 these deplorable moral conditions are also due to the fact that ,buddhism has not succeeded in its task of building character4 ,a genuine and vital ,christianity has a large and hopeful task in ,burma4 ,these very attractive people need a dynamic and a bond of union in great enterprises4 ,they are seeking such a religion4 7e7 ,loving ,social ,service finds its own ,way to the ,heart4--,when ,christianity is expressed in deeds of loving social service1 such as work for lepers1 for the deaf and the blind1 or for any other needy class in the community1 it touches a responsive chord in every ,buddhist heart4 ,they subscribe to our ,christian mission work for the afflicted4 ,the social appeal of ,christianity will go far toward breaking down all forms of prejudice3 and it is significant that the young ,burmese are organising their own ,y4,m4,b4,a4's and their own social service clubs1 though at present these movements do not exhibit much staying-power4 7f7 ,christianity dispels the ,fear of the ,demon ,world4--,christianity reveals its power by dispelling the terrors of demon-haunted villages1 and lessening the horrors of the slums of the great cities4 ,a country like ,burma is not interested in a new system of ethics4 ,it is wholly satisfied with the admirable system it already possesses4 ,but it does welcome the sense of spiritual freedom and power which ,christianity can impart4 ,the kingdom of ,god is not in word1 but in power4 ,may we not say that ,christ can give strength to follow the ,noble ,path of which ,gotama spoke8 #a ,the ancient and still the classic language of ,s4 ,buddhism in which its scriptures are preserved4 ,it is used religiously1 much as ,latin is used in the ,roman ,catholic services4 #b ,the ,tipitaka 7,sanskrit1 ,tripitika7 7#a7 ,vinaya2 7#b7 ,sutta2 7#c7 ,abhidhamma4 ,the ,pli scriptures were originally written on palm leaves and preserved1 layer upon layer1 in the three baskets4 ,this1 at least1 is one explanation of the use of this term4 #c ,gotama is the ,pli form 7common in ,s4 ,asia7 of the ,sanskrit ,gautama1 more familiar to ,western readers4 #d ,sanskrit1 ,karma4 #e ,sanskrit1 ,nirvna4 #f ,sanskrit1 ,maitri4 ,,ii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,ceylon #a4 ,on a ,hillside near ,kandy4 ,over against this sketch of ,buddhism as it appears in ,burma let us consider a scene in a neighbouring land1 the island of ,ceylon1 where for twenty-five hundred years1 the religion of the yellow robe has held almost undisputed sway4 ,here it has a supreme opportunity1 and has often used it nobly1 building a great civilisation for a thousand years4 ,it is early spring4 ,the rains are over1 and in the brilliant moonlight1 the ,singhalese peasants have gathered from their little malarial villages to listen to bana1 the preaching of the ,buddhist ,law4 7a7 ,the ,dullness and ,superstition of ,village ,life in ,southern ,ceylon4--,life is dull in these villages1 and any incident and any teaching will be welcome4 ,it is a strange world in which these people live1 a world of bare and brutal facts2 of superstition1 of grotesque imagination2 a world of hunger and fear and devils1 where a man is helpless before the unseen1 unintelligible forces surrounding him4 ,as in ,burma1 so in ,ceylon1 demonism is inextricably interwoven with the ,buddhism of the people4 ,in ,ceylon1 however1 it is a darker and more sinister demonism1 blending with a far more sombre and pessimistic ,buddhism4 ,devils and anti-devils1 exorcists and monks1 incantations and prayers to ,buddha mingle in the dim confused minds of these poor ,kandyan villagers4 ,it is not very long since human sacrifices were made to the demons of disease4 7b7 ,the ,themes of the ,hillside ,preacher4--,this darker pessimism speaks through the monotonous sing-song of the yellow-robed monk on the hillside1 as he speaks to the villagers1 urging upon them that life is transient and full of sorrow1 that none the less their chief duty is to avoid taking the life of the meanest animal1 not even killing the malarial mosquito or the plague-bringing rat against which government edicts have gone out4 ,here religion is in conflict with science and with family love3 which is to die1 my child or the rat8 ,there can in the end of the day be but one answer4 7c7 ,the ,stolidity of his ,audience4--,the men listen dully1 chewing their betel-nut4 ,they have not much use for the monks1 who own one-third of the arable land of the country and are a heavy drain upon its resources4 ,except fitfully1 they are not schoolmasters like those of ,burma1 but tend to be drones in the hive4 ,when they do teach the children they only emphasise the doctrines of rebirth and of not-killing2 yet some are kind and teach reading and writing to the little ones4 ,and occasionally one leads a life of such real piety as to justify this division of labour--the people to work1 the monk to meditate4 ,but saints are rare in all lands4 #b4 ,the ,hold of ,buddhism upon the ,singhalese4 ,even in this village audience1 crude as the preaching and dull as the response to it may be1 there is a certain sense of religious peace1 of an otherworldly calm4 ,the ,dharma has not lost its power4 ,what are the deep roots which the great tree of ,buddhism has put out in the island of ,ceylon8 ,of these the more intelligent ,buddhist laity will speak4 ,let us question this young lawyer1 dressed in ,western style1 who stands looking on with some contempt4 7a7 ,appeal of its ,traditions4--,such men are impressed by what they see of a very ancient and very real civilisation1 which ,buddhism undoubtedly built4 ,in the jungles everywhere are the remains of the days when ,buddhism taught the people to irrigate their fields1 to build strong cities1 to write remarkable books1 and to develop a genuine culture4 ,the ruined cities of ,anuradhapura and ,pollanaruwa1 in spite of the incursions of the jungle and of the neglect of centuries1 are still magnificent and eloquent monuments of what was a really great civilisation when ,europe was still barbarian4 ,here the patriot sees the melancholy remnants of a great ,buddhist nation1 great not only in the beauty of its art1 but great in the tanks and irrigation systems now almost hidden by rank undergrowth1 but remaining to prove that the whole of this vast deserted area was once under cultivation4 ,great1 too1 was the spirit of some of these rulers4 ,imagine the emotions which surge in the young patriot's heart as he thinks of all the devastation caused by the great ,european war and then stands before the calm statue of the noble ,dutu ,gemunu who to save his people from war1 sought out the invader and slew him in single combat1 and then in the greatness of his heart put up a splendid monument in his honour6 ,it is on account of such things as these that the young modern ,singhalese is convinced that ,buddhism has still a place in the world4 ,wave after wave of ,european aggression has swept over ,ceylon1 arousing a resentment which leads the ,singhalese even to exaggerate the glories of ancient ,buddhism4 ,it is not strange that they do so4 ,moreover1 although it is fashionable in ,ceylon to despise the mendicants of the yellow robe1 the fact that there are still about eight thousand monks shows that in these days of disillusionment there are many world-weary men1 to whom the traditional attraction of the monastic life is over-poweringly strong and who find under it protection and peace4 ,i have seen strong and true boys being drawn under its spell1 and have known some noble characters among the monks4 7b7 ,its work of ,reformation4--,the intelligent ,buddhist layman emphasises not merely the sense of peace and quiet satisfaction which ,buddhism affords2 he also claims that it has done away with caste and has purified religion4 ,he will often compare the dignity1 the stately beauty1 and the harmlessness of the ,buddhist temple and its surroundings with the incredibly gross indecencies of a ,saivite shrine in ,southern ,india4 ,men must worship something3 in ,buddhism they worship a good and great man deified4 ,in ,saivite ,hinduism they mingle the base passions of a perverted sexuality with their worship4 7c7 ,its ,leadership of ,public ,opinion4--,this apologist argues1 too1 that ,buddhism still retains the power of moulding public opinion4 ,he instances the strenuous appeals which the ,buddhists have made to the ,ceylon government to suppress instead of encourage the liquor traffic3 and points to some of their good schools1 where young ,ceylon is being taught the great moral lessons of their ,faith4 ,and though ,theosophists from the ,west have been most responsible for starting these1 the ,buddhists keep them up and are adding new buildings and improving their quality4 7d7 ,yet ,ceylon needs ,christianity4--,it is clear that much as ,buddhism has done for this lovely land1 it does need ,jesus ,christ as indeed all lands1 not least our own1 need ,him in increasing measure as they face the complexities of the modern world4 ,he is needed in jungle village and in teeming city1 to cast out fear and sin1 and to enable ,his people to live nearer to their ideals4 ,they1 too1 have gifts for ,him6 ,and we and they are partners in a glorious enterprise3 to establish ,his ,kingdom of ,love and ,truth in all the world4 ,their devotion to their ,buddha1 no less than their need and helplessness to-day1 is an inspiring motive to the ,christian missionary to win them to ,christ4 #c4 ,two ,sharply ,marked ,attitudes among ,buddhists4 ,let us return to the hillside preacher4 ,a change has come over his audience4 ,all are now alert and eager4 ,seated around his platform1 they are holding a cord which seems to bind them in some mystic circle4 ,it is ,pirit3 a kind of magic incantation4 ,the preacher is reciting the ancient runes by which evil is averted and demon armies kept at bay4 ,he is telling how the bandit1 ,angulimla1 who had killed nine hundred and ninety-nine victims and wore their fingers as a chaplet1 tried to kill the ,buddha so as to make the full tale of a thousand1 but was converted on the spot4 ,may the merit of this be yours1 he says1 and they all cry1 ,sadhu1 ,amen4 ,all humbug1 grunts the layman4 ,come1 let us go to the ,young ,men's ,buddhist ,association1 where a ,singhalese advocate1 newly returned from ,england1 is going to read a paper on ',buddhism1 a ,gospel for ,europe4' ,leaving the palms and fragrant trees of the jungle silhouetted against the brilliant sky1 and passing the white buildings of the ,buddhist ,high ,school and of the precious and venerated ,temple of the ,tooth1 he talks of this possibility4 ,it seems that a movement is on foot to send a mission to ,europe4 ,we agree that1 if ,christians were real followers of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 such missions would be futile3 and that the spirit of ,gotama is akin to that of ,jesus4 ,we see your ,christ1 he says2 in ,his beauty1 because we have first seen the beauty of our ,buddha4 ,here is a preparation for the gospel indeed4 ,and may not all idealists--,christians1 ,buddhists1 and others--cooperate much more freely than they do in great causes8 ,in a ,league of ,nations1 for example1 and in social programmes8 ,in ,ceylon1 as in ,burma1 ,buddhism is in some degree adapting itself to the new world-environment4 ,its old cry of pain1 ,all is fleeting1 transient1 sorrowful1 is giving place to attempts at social service and positive living4 ,yet as compared with ,burma or with ,christian lands1 the predominating note among ,buddhists in ,ceylon is one of world-weariness and despair4 ,,iii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,siam #a4 ,siam a ,buddhist ,kingdom4 ,ceylon and ,burma were for many centuries ,buddhist kingdoms with a sovereign as patron and supporter of the monks and very often with members of the royal family amongst the great abbots4 ,buddhism has indeed depended much upon royal patronage1 and in these days when kings are rare it is of special interest to get a glimpse of a modern ,buddhist kingdom which is not unlike those of the past4 ,let us study a great festival in ,siam where the king's own brother is ,head of the ,order and where he himself is a staunch patron of ,buddhism4 #b4 ,the ,thot ,krathin ,festival4 ,some time between the eleventh and twelfth moons his majesty visits the temples round ,bangkok which are under his royal patronage4 ,for weeks past every household in ,siam1 from that of the ,king to that of the poorest peasant1 has been busy laying down holy cloth or making patchwork robes for the monks1 that the letter of the old commandment be ye clothed in rags may be observed1 and the monks be supplied with their year's clothing4 ,at the same time offerings of bedding1 furniture1 and food are made and great merit is acquired by the faithful4 ,the ,king in his splendid barge of state1 with its prows shaped like dragons1 its sixty oarsmen1 its canopy of cloth of gold1 sets out for one of the great ,wats or temples2 he is seated on his throne1 and wears a golden crown1 and about him are numerous little princes4 ,arrived at the shrine his retainers carry the bales of cloth and other offerings into the temple1 and then the ,king himself with due ceremony and amidst barbaric music and military salutes1 comes down from the barge and lights five candles which stand upon the table prepared for his offering4 ,then1 burning incense1 he bows to the image of the ,buddha1 to the sacred books written on strips of palm-leaf1 and to the ,order of ,monks2 he is taking refuge in the ,buddhist ,jewels4 ,he then reverently asks the abbot to accept him as a lay-adherent1 and to allow him to keep the ,five ,precepts1 not to kill1 not to steal1 not to commit sexual sin1 not to lie nor to drink strong drink4 ,and if it be a holy day he will also take the vows of a monk1 not to eat after midday1 not to watch theatrical shows1 nor use perfumes1 nor sleep on a high luxurious bed4 ,then as he offers his gifts the monks accept them1 crying ,sadhu 7,amen or well done71 and distribution is made according to their rank4 ,so amidst their blessings he bows again to the ,three ,jewels and makes a solemn departure to another shrine4 #c4 ,the ,king and ,pli ,learning4 ,the present ,king1 whom we may call for short ,king ,mahamongkut 7he has more names than the ,hohenzollerns71 is a graduate of ,oxford1 a man of the world1 and a great patron of ,buddhist scholarship4 ,this has been a tradition of his house for centuries and in no small degree the present interest in ,pli learning in ,western countries is due to the enthusiasm of the ruling house of ,siam1 which has presented splendid libraries of the sacred books to many universities and temples4 ,the ,king summons the monkish candidates for degrees in ,pli learning to undergo examinations every three years2 and for nine days in the comparatively cool weather of the early part of the year makes a royal festival in their honour1 during which they are undergoing an examination which increases every day in stiffness4 ,those who survive to the end are given the degree ,pareean ek1 or first-class honours1 and with it goes a small pension2 those who drop out before the end are given second-1 third-1 or fourth-class degrees4 ,so the knowledge of the sacred books is kept alive and some of these ,siamese scholars reach a remarkable degree of proficiency4 ,their influence has been potent in a renaissance of ,pli learning in ,burma and ,ceylon4 #d4 ,buddhist ,education4 ,in ,siam as in ,burma the monks are the elementary schoolmasters4 ,the boys all spend some time as novices1 during which they not only learn the rudiments of the religion but reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,as in ,burma1 very little is done for the education of the girls1 though this is steadily improving owing to the splendid work done by mission schools4 #e4 ,the ,temples or ,wats4 ,these ,siamese pagodas1 fantastic and gay with gold and sky-blue tiles1 are of four grades1 those built by the ,king and dedicated to him1 those built by the princes1 those built by the nobles1 and lastly those built by the common people1 usually by subscription organised by the monks or by some enthusiastic laymen4 ,merit gained in this and similar ways has been called ,the ,sum and ,substance of ,siamese ,buddhism3 there is some truth in these generalisations as regards the whole of ,southern ,asia4 ,but in ,siam as elsewhere there is genuine devotion to the religion of ,buddha1 and the human heart is not as calculating as this sentence implies4 ,moreover1 there is considerable attempt to modernise the religion to fit the new age1 and many of the people follow the ,king in believing that it can be made the basis for a modern state1 and can unify and uplift the peoples4 ,all that helps to build up a nation is welcomed in ,siam1 and ,christianity therefore has an open door here as in ,ceylon and ,burma4 ,burma is tolerant1 but ,siam desires the friendship of ,western peoples1 and being independent is freer to develop along its own lines4 ,let us now attempt to summarise our impressions of the ,buddhism of these lands of ,southern ,asia by describing other typical scenes in each4 ,,iv4 ,,some ,,types ,,of ,,buddhist ,,religious ,,life #a4 ,the ,cremation of a ,singhalese ,abbot4 ,a great ,singhalese abbot has passed away4 ,it is a national event4 ,the hillside near ,kandy is thronged with great companies of monks in every shade of yellow and brown1 while around them surges a sombre sea of the faithful laity4 ,in the centre of the huge assemblage is the funeral-pyre1 draped in white and red4 ,standing beside it1 a monk is telling in solemn and mournful tones of the greatness and goodness of the departed1 who1 though he had not become worthy of ,nibbna1 had his feet surely set upon the upward path leading to a good rebirth in so-wan1 a heaven4 ,then amidst solemn chanting and the wailing of flutes and throbbing of drums he applies a torch to the pyre4 ,while the people bow their heads and cry sadhu 7,amen71 the body turns to ashes4 ,then solemnly and silently the great throng disperses1 the lay people to take up the ordinary duties of life1 the monks to meditate upon its transient character and unreality4 ,and here a young novice1 to whom the dead man has been very dear1 stays weeping1 until the last embers die down and night comes swiftly on4 #b4 ,the ,funeral ,rites of a ,burmese ,monk4 ,another funeral scene4 ,it is that of a ,buddhist monk in ,burma--a ,hpongyi4 ,the whole countryside is present4 ,in clothing of exquisite silk1 resembling a brilliant swarm of butterflies1 the people surround the great catafalque1 blazing with tinsel and gold leaf1 on which lies the embalmed body of the monk4 ,after a time the coffin is taken down and a programme of merry-making begins4 ,the young bloods of the village to which the monk has belonged1 range themselves in two carefully picked teams on either side of it4 ,then begins a tug-of-war with the body in its coffin1 the victorious team treating the defeated to drinks1 and to side shows at the little booths which cluster round1 awaiting custom4 ,these and other contests make a glad and joyful scene at which all the people rejoice1 for has not the good man been released from this transient life 7which1 nevertheless1 is good and satisfying while blood is hot and youth endures78 ,has he not returned to a life of glory1 and won much merit for his own folk and for all the faithful8 ,in due time the body is restored to its resting place on the funeral pyre1 the fire is lighted1 and the whole mass flares up in flame and smoke1 consuming not only the body1 but along with it the decorations1 including paintings of numerous demons1 among whom may be an ,englishman with a gun6 ,only demons could kill for sport6 ,when it is consumed1 the crowd disperses with shouts of merriment1 well content1 not least among the others the relatives of the departed4 ,a good show has been staged1 the dead has been honoured1 the family name has been distinguished1 and everybody is satisfied4 ,if for the next year or more the family exchequer has been sorely depleted1 still it is the custom1 and every one expects to follow it4 ,some one has well said that ,buddhism in ,burma is a cheery and social affair1 from festive marriages to no less festive funerals4 ,i confess to an admiration for this cheerful view of death1 even if some of its expressions are bizarre6 ,it is less pagan than our blacks1 and funeral obsequies4 #c4 ,a ,similar ,scene in ,siam4 ,the ,funeral of a ,siamese ,prince4--,a nephew of the ,king has died1 and his funeral sermon is being preached by another royal ,prince1 who is also a monk1 and who is true to type and to the orthodox ,buddhism of his race4 ,as kinsmen welcome kinsmen returning after long sojourn in far countries1 so do good deeds welcome the good as they enter the other world4 ,and what are good deeds1 but the unselfish effort to advance the good of others8 ,all must be left behind as we enter the ,gate of ,death2 but as a shadow follows the body so do purity and simplicity of heart and deed steal after us1 and minister to us in that world beyond4 ,as a flame is our mortal life1 and if there be no fuel it burns no more4 ,we know not when it may die down1 for all that has a beginning has also an end1 and transient are all things4 ,and as we may take with us only virtue1 shall we not cherish and ensue it8 ,we are reminded of the picture by ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 ,sic ,transit ,gloria ,mundi1 in which another prince is seen upon the bier1 his crown1 his books1 his winecup laid aside2 and over his bier are the words1 ,what ,i spent ,i had1 what ,i had ,i lost1 what ,i gave ,i have4 ,it is sound ,buddhism1 and every word of this sermon of the royal monk is drawn from the ,dhammapada1 accepted in all ,buddhist lands as the very words of the ,buddha1 himself the prototype of a long line of kings and princes in many lands1 who have been proud to wear the ,yellow ,robe4 #d4 ,the ,secret of ,buddhism's ,influence4 ,which of these funeral scenes 7chosen because ,buddhism plays almost its chief part at such times7 is most true to type8 ,it is a perplexing question4 ,buddhism has from the very beginning been chiefly a religion for monks1 calling men and women to leave the world4 ,it was never exactly optimistic1 and yet another permanent root of its remarkable power over humankind has been that often men and women who obeyed possessed a sense of discovery1 of hopefulness1 of sheer joy2 especially strong in its golden age1 the first five centuries of its existence4 ,there was something vernal in the air4 ,in joy we live1 hating none2 let us live in the midst of those who hate1 unhating2 in the midst of those who ail1 let us live in perfect health2 having nothing1 yet we possess great riches4 ,such is the spirit of the early sangha 7monastic community74 ,and when we turn to the ,buddhism of to-day we find that it retains these two dominant characteristics3 this blending of sadness and quiet joy4 ,even in sunny ,burma the old people and the monks seem sad at times1 and even in ,ceylon and ,siam the ordinary folk are fairly cheerful as they go on pilgrimages or make their offerings to monk or image4 ,v4 ,,buddhism ,,as ,a ,,living ,,religion ,buddhism stands in a different relation to ,christianity from any other world religion1 because it has unquestionably done for ,eastern peoples something of the intellectual1 moral1 and spiritual service which ,christianity has done for ,europe and ,america4 ,moreover1 it is showing a strange power of revival4 ,it also seems to make a real appeal to certain types of mind in the ,west4 ,little groups of ,westerners in ,burma and in ,ceylon1 the former ,scotch1 the latter ,german1 have for some years been promoting the propagation of ,buddhism in ,western lands4 ,they feel convinced that it is the religion of mature minds4 ,one of their number1 a ,scot1 known as ,bhikkhu ,silcra1#g wrote in #aiac3 ,this seems to be the place of honour which ,burma is called upon to fill in the family of the nations of the world--that of being ,dhammadyaka to the world1 giver of the dhamma#h of the ,blessed ,one to all the nations of the earth4 ,what prouder1 what more glorious1 what more merit-bringing position could any people ask for than to be chosen as the bearer of the sublime teaching of the ,blessed ,one8 ,there is a considerable amount of publication of ,buddhist propaganda to-day in ,europe and ,america1 even if few ,eastern ,buddhists are found with the courage to preach ,buddhism in person in ,western cities4 ,in ,germany1 where there are said to be scores of thousands of ,buddhists1 a publishing house has been set up at ,breslau2 and the ,buddhist ,review is published in ,london4 ,in ,north ,america ,buddhism has numerous missions1 especially on the ,pacific ,coast1 where it aims at converting ,americans as well as at ministering to the ,japanese4 ,it is the only non-,christian religion which has this appeal4 ,what gives it this hold1 not only upon great sections of the ,east1 but also upon those who have been born within the range of ,christianity1 is a question which needs a thoughtful answer4 ,it is a question of vital importance to us all4 #a4 ,it takes hold where ,faith in ,christianity has ceased4 ,buddhism makes a strong appeal to minds dissatisfied with ,christianity1 or unwilling to accept the claims of ,christ4 ,it is not difficult to draw analogies between the acts and sayings of ,jesus and those of ,gotama4 ,it is easy to be enthusiastic over the ethical teachings of ,buddhism1 and over its great influence upon ,asia4 ,it has a certain appeal too to the scientific mind1 which is not found in any other non-,christian religion2 and some claim that it is more satisfying to the intellect than ,christianity4 ,the appeal of ,buddhism1 therefore1 is more than a mild satisfaction of curiosity in something novel2 it gives to a mind which denies the fundamentals of ,christianity an apparently good religious substitute4 ,this being true1 no one can question the fact that those who are to go as ,christian missionaries to ,buddhist countries must take the utmost pains to prepare themselves to meet those who believe in ,buddhism1 not merely with friendliness and a sense of sympathy1 but with an adequate background of philosophical1 psychological1 and religious training which enables them adequately to represent the best that is in ,christianity1 and to deal sympathetically and fairly with ,buddhism at its best4 ,missionaries are all too few who can out-think these ,scotch and ,german ,buddhists1 who carry much influence with the peoples among whom they live4 ,some of them are sincere and able men3 and there are also strong native defenders of the ,buddhist ,faith4 ,moreover1 without a deep appreciation of the power of ,buddhism one cannot understand the history and culture of ,asia4 ,and this study becomes daily more important and more interesting4 #b4 ,it faces the ,fact of ,suffering4 ,where shall one begin in his endeavour to grasp the essential teachings of ,buddhism8 ,no one can fully understand ,buddhism without studying ,hinduism as a background and starting point4 ,the student can go far1 however1 by starting from the fact of universal human suffering1 and its relief4 ,one thing only do ,i teach1 said ,buddha1 sorrow and the uprooting of sorrow4 ,he was never weary of bringing home to his disciples the horror of the world's pain1 in order that he might lead them on to what he believed to be the only way of salvation4 ,what think ye1 ,o monks1 which is vaster1 the flood of tears that1 weeping and lamenting1 ye in your past lives have shed1 or the waters of the four great oceans8 ,long time1 ,o monks1 have ye suffered the death of father1 mother1 brothers1 and sisters4 ,long time have ye undergone the loss of your goods2 long time have ye been afflicted with sickness1 old age1 and death4 ,where is the joy1 where is the laughter1 when all is in flames about us8 ,buddhism is often labelled pessimistic1 because its writings are full of attempts1 such as these1 to make men realise the suffering and the worthlessness of the life to which they cling4 ,the critics1 however1 do not realise the hopes which it holds out to a suffering world1 which are just as characteristic of ,buddhistic teaching4 ,the ,buddhist replies1 ,if medical science is pessimistic then ,buddhism is also pessimistic4 ,it diagnoses the disease in order to cure it4 ,like other religions it is a ,way out4 ,it first states the problem3 then offers a solution4 #c4 ,it affords a ,way of ,escape from ,sorrow4 ,in ,india ,gotama had an easier task than he would have faced in the full-blooded and less thoughtful ,west4 ,we ,westerners do not need to be convinced of the pain of life1 we are now wide awake to it2 but to the ,hindu of the sixth century before ,christ a conviction of the emptiness of life was something in the nature of an obsession4 ,the bright1 nave optimism of earlier ages1 revealed1 for example1 in the ,rig-,veda1#i had passed away2 a combination of circumstances1 climate1 speculative activities1 disappointments and other causes1 had combined to make ,india pessimistic4 ,chief of these causes was undoubtedly the belief in transmigration which has come more and more to occupy a central position in ,hinduism4 ,it represents man as doomed to wander from birth to birth1 and to expiate every deed of his past4 ,it is impossible for us in the ,west to realise how firm a hold this thought has upon ,india1 or how great is the longing for a way of escape4 ,gotama's resolute attempt to find such a way of escape1 his assurance that he had discovered it1 and his enthusiastic preaching of the ,way brought ,buddhism into the world as a new religion1 and became a veritable gospel to weary and jaded hearts4 #d4 ,it is a ,practical ,creed3 ,its ,founder called ,himself ,a ,physician of ,sick ,souls4 ,born the son of a chieftain in ,nepal in the foothills of the ,himalayas1 about #efj ,b4,c41 ,gotama1 the great founder of ,buddhism1 was sheltered from the sights and sounds of suffering1 as we are told in the loving stories of ,buddhist lore1 until the gods1 who had a higher destiny in store for him than that of an ,indian princeling1 revealed to him the facts of old age and decay and death4 ,in a series of visions--of the old man tottering down to the grave1 of the leper riddled with foul disease1 of the corpse laid out for the burning1 the great fact of human suffering came home to him4 ,it made so deep an impression that he renounced his royal rights and went out as a mendicant ascetic to discover some way of escape4 ,he was then twenty-nine years old4 ,not until he had reached the age of thirty-eight1 and had honestly tried the various accepted paths for the attainment of holiness and the escape from the burdens of life laid down by ,hindu sages1 did he find what he was seeking4 ,sitting under the ,indian fig-tree in the heat of the day1 he meditated patiently and long until the vision dawned upon him1 or1 as we should say1 until his sub-consciousness1 which had long been working upon the problem presented to it1 sent a complete and satisfying solution into the focus of his conscious mind4 ,his solution1 recognising the fact that ,hindu practices had vainly attempted to drug the aching nerve of pain or to tear it out1 offered a more positive remedy4 ,the present writer believes that the ,spirit of ,god had much to do with this discovery4 ,there are1 however1 among missionaries1 many who feel that this is a grievous heresy1 and are bitterly opposed to any such view4 ,in order to understand the solution which ,gotama offered to the world1 which undoubtedly captured the enthusiasm of unnumbered millions of weary pilgrims in ,india and other lands1 it may be well to consider ,gotama's own description of himself as a physician of sick souls4 ,just as the physician must first diagnose the disease and recognise the germ which is its secret cause1 before he can give the right treatment1 so ,gotama set himself to discover the hidden cause of the world's suffering4 ,he thought that he had found it in that universal clinging to life which he called tanh1 which means a craving for anything less austere than ,nibbna4 ,from tanh springs sorrow2 he that is free from tanh is freed from sorrow and suffering4 ,this is the source of all the world's agony1 says ,gotama3 and if we face the facts we shall see that egoism of men and nations1 a form of tanh1 accounts for most of it6 ,the modern world is full of tanh4 #e4 ,it cultivates a ,sense of the ,worthlessness of ,temporal ,things4 ,it is because man clings to things which cannot fully satisfy him1 such as the love of family1 the desire for wealth and fame1 the wish to be reborn in a heaven 7all of which are classed together in ,buddhism71 that he has to go on being reborn4 ,this is the ,buddhist doctrine of ,kamma4 ,hinduism1 like much orthodox ,christianity1 thinks of a soul which dwells in the body4 ,the ,hindu thinks of it as passing from one body to another in the process of transmigration4 ,the view of ,buddhism is rather that the ego of man is a stream of mental energy1 the direction of which is under his own control4 ,if he dies full of tanh1 cleaving to the things of this world1 he will surely be reborn to some sort of misery4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he dies detached from human interests and open-eyed to the worthlessness of temporal things1 he will eventually be set free from the entanglement of life1 as we know it on earth1 and will pass into ,nibbna4 ,of this goal one can only say with assurance that it is unlike anything known to mortal man1#aj and that its essence is moral purity4 #f4 ,its ,conception of ,bliss is realisable in this ,life4 ,but ,gotama was not concerned with the next life so much as with this4 ,he laid emphasis also upon the wonderful joy and peace which the fixed purpose to achieve ,nibbna had caused him to experience4 ,this was the real relief from suffering1 which he had in mind4 ,whoso is pure from all tanh1 he is in ,nibbna4 ,this he preached with great conviction and enthusiasm1 declaring that men might aim in this life to attain the position of an arhat 7saint7 and actually enter into the preliminary experience of ,nibbna4 ,it is this aspect of ,buddhism which makes it a true religion4 ,its joy and power can be experienced in the midst of the world's pain4 ,so it is called an ,island1 a ,refuge1 where the drowning man may escape1 or a ,cool ,retreat1 whither one may fly from a world in flames4 #g4 ,buddhism is a ,religion of ,enlightenment and ,reason4 ,buddhism exhibits salvation as1 first of all1 a way of understanding4 ,it is a religion of analysis1 which bids man see life steadily and see it whole1 by first taking it to pieces6 ,when one looks at the body1 what is it1 says ,buddhism1 after all1 that we should regard ourselves as attached to it8 ,there are so many bones1 so many tendons1 so much skin1 so many juices4 ,if a man views the body with an anatomical eye1 he will see it as it really is2 disgust will arise in him which will lead him out into detachment4 ,a ,buddhist is sometimes urged to practise the habit of sitting in cemeteries or among reminders of the dead1 or to have a skeleton near at hand1 in order that he may meditate upon the transient nature of all that is mortal4 ,similarly he is to dispel anger or lust by asking1 ,who is it ,i am angry with1 after whom do ,i lust1 but a bag of bones8 ,it seeks to dispel passion by reason4 #h4 ,it has a strong ,moral ,code3 ,the ,four ,noble ,truths1 and the ,eight-fold ,path4 ,as the old ,teacher was passing away he emphasised anew the part which intelligent belief plays in the ,buddhist scheme of religion4 ,it is through not understanding and not grasping four things1 ,o monks1 that we have to abide and wander through this maze of being1 he remarked4 ,the four things which he had in mind were suffering1 its real cause 7tanh71 the cure of suffering1 and the path which leads to ,nibbna4 ,these are the ,four ,noble ,truths of ,buddhism1 driven home to every disciple as the very foundation of his religious life4 ,with reference to the way which leads to ,nibbna ,buddhism has made its most remarkable contribution to human thought4 ,it is called the ,middle ,way1 between the extremes of an austere asceticism and a spirit of worldliness1 a clear-cut and admirably arranged ethical scheme1 which has undoubtedly done much to elevate the nations among whom it has been practised4 ,the eight practices1 urged upon every one who aspires to spiritual growth1 are right thinking 7about the four noble truths1 etc471 right aspirations 7benevolence1 pity1 brotherhood1 etc471 right speech1 right action1 right livelihood 7by industries which are not harmful71 right effort of mind1 right attention 7alertness71 and right contemplation1 or mystic meditation4 ,such a scheme may readily be ritualised and deadened1 but it lends itself no less readily to the cultivation of simple virtues4 ,a popular summary1 universally known1 teaches ,do good1 shun ill1 and cleanse the inmost thoughts1 this is the teaching of ,buddhas4 ,the eight-fold path is usually developed under three main endeavours--enlightenment1 morality1 and concentrated meditation4 ,stage by stage the disciple is led along this path4 ,step by step1 day by day1 one may purify one's heart from defilements by understanding1 even as the smith purifies silver in the fire4 ,the true disciple must avoid the extremes of asceticism1 on the one hand1 or of entanglement with the world on the other4 ,so the noble path claims to be a middle path of sweet reasonableness4 ,the lines are not always clearly drawn between ritual offences or mistakes and moral failures1 and the ideal life often seems to be represented as primarily monastic1 but there is no doubt that one who deliberately sets himself to follow the eight-fold path would be a lovable and strong type of character1 something like the fine old monk from ,tibet in ,kipling's ,kim4 ,and there have been many such1 men not only of his gentle strength1 but men filled with missionary zeal and devotion to noble tasks4 #i4 ,it has come to practise ,prayer4 ,in spite of the protests of ,gotama against attempts to persuade the gods1 this is what most ,buddhists in ,southern ,asia have come to do3 and in ,tibet1 ,china1 and ,japan prayer is multiplied by mechanical devices1 such as prayer-wheels1 prayer-cylinders1 and prayer-flags--a degeneration of mysticism into magic1 not unknown in some ,christian lands4 ,the human heart is hungry and wants to pray6 ,and even this religion of enlightenment and of the fixed causality of the universe has had to find a place for prayer4 ,and ,divine ,beings have been called in to answer the aspiration of the heart4 ,gotama himself is deified3 and folk pray to him in ,burma1 ,siam1 and ,ceylon3 whilst in the other ,buddhist lands they have learnt to love such compassionate beings as ,kwanyin1 and ,amitbha1 ,buddha of eternal ,light who saves men by his grace4 ,that there is mercy in heaven is the hope of every man4 ,it is but a pathetic dream1 until we know that the heavens have spoken and declared that mercy in the ,word made ,flesh4 ,so through the thunder comes a human voice4 #aj4 ,yet it emphasises ,stoical ,self-mastery4 ,on the other hand1 the whole trend of early ,buddhism is stoical4 ,it sets up a lofty moral ideal1 yet offers relatively little assistance in attaining it4 ,admiration for the ,buddha1 faith in the system he preached1 common-sense or enlightened self-interest in accepting the great truth that happiness follows upon goodness--these furnish the motive power of a ,buddhist religious life4 ,in theory1 at least1 there is no god higher than the little local deities who are said to have bowed down before the ,buddha4 ,inasmuch1 moreover1 as they are also subject to kamma1 the gods are less admirable and less helpful than he4 ,to some thinkers this stoical self-mastery is the strongest element of ,buddhism4 ,i am the captain of my soul1 a good ,buddhist would say3 ,i am the master of my fate4 ,but to those who think more deeply1 this will appear an element of weakness1 for everywhere and in all ages the human heart finds no ultimate satisfaction without a belief in some loftier1 purer1 and stronger ,being1 who is ready to hear and to help4 ,and in the more developed ,buddhism of the ,north such theology plays a very great part4 ,the history of ,buddhism is one of the best chapters in ,christian apologetics and deserves close study4 ,as we shall see1 the ,japanese ,buddhist believes in a ,trinitarian theology1 and in an evangelical doctrine of salvation3 and1 in one great sect1 has urged its priests to marry4 #aa4 ,it has ,two ,standards of ,morality4 ,a very serious defect of ,southern ,buddhism is its double standard of morality1 one for the layman and another for the monk4 ,it places the celibate bhikkhu 7mendicant7 on a higher footing than the layman4 ,during the ,buddha's own lifetime he was accused of making many homes desolate1 and this has been a constant criticism in ,china where it is a crime not to beget sons2 and where ,buddhism has been obstinately monastic4 ,there have been great exceptions1 especially where kings have been good ,buddhists1 but it is on the whole a monastic religion1 and has continually reverted to type4 #ab4 ,it rates ,womanhood ,low4 ,another alleged weakness1 which will specially interest those who are entering upon the careful study of non-,christian religions at the present time1 is the relatively low place which the ,buddhist system1 at least in theory1 gives to women4 ,while in practice1 as has been pointed out1 the women of ,burma are the better half of the population1 yet in strict theory they are not human beings at all3 they are less than human3 only he who takes the yellow robe and becomes for a time a monk reaches the status of full humanity4 ,yet ,gotama said equally severe things about men2 the two sexes1 he taught1 are a snare to one another3 but women are the worse6 ,a ,singhalese ,christian pastor praying for power to resist the ,devil added1 and all her works1 and women are in fact so described in many passages of the ,buddhist ,books4 ,love between the sexes and lust are not distinguished4 ,and here1 perhaps1 is the supreme service that ,jesus renders to human society3 he makes family life a sacred thing1 and safeguards women and children from abuse1 bringing them to honour and sanctity4 ,buddhism being concerned chiefly with the monastic life of meditation has not much to say about the family4 ,it does not1 at least in ,southern ,asia1 teach the ,fatherhood of ,god from whom all families are named4 #ac4 ,a ,summary4 ,such1 in bare outline1 is ,southern ,buddhism--in its origin a stoical agnosticism which ignored the gods and bade men rely upon themselves in following the paths of goodness that lead to happiness4 ,because it thus ignored the deepest instincts of humanity1 first by turning the thoughts of men away from ,god1 and again by glorifying celibacy1 these instincts1 refusing to be snubbed1 have taken a revenge1 so that to-day ,buddhism survives1 largely because of the teachings it has been compelled to adopt in the process of moulding itself nearer to the heart's desire4 ,this may be illustrated in two ways4 ,nibbna at best1 originally1 an ideal of negative1 solitary bliss1 has been replaced by an ideal of social life hereafter4 ,moreover1 faith in self-mastery has given place to prayers for help1 or1 among the most conservative1 to the belief that there is a store of merit gained by the sacrificial lives of the ,buddhas throughout the ages1 which may be tapped by the faithful4 ,buddhism has thus passed through an interesting history of adjustment4 ,it is important for the student of religion to give close attention to this history1 one of the most amazing and fascinating chapters in human thought4 #g ,sanskrit1 ,bhikshu4 ,it means mendicant4 #h ,dhamma means law or teaching4 #i ,the ,rig-,veda is a great anthology of religion4 ,the ,vedas are early religious ,books in which a joyous nature-worship predominates4 #aj ,nirvna means to the ,hindu reabsorption into the ,absolute ,brahman4 ,to ,buddhists it is variously expounded by their teachers as either 7a7 annihilation1 or 7b7 a heaven of bliss1 or 7c7 annihilation of evil desire1 i4e4 of all clinging to life4 ,western ,buddhist writers call it usually by some such phrase as ,the great ,peace1 which is vague enough to mean any of the three6 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,missionary ,,approach ,,to ,,modern ,,buddhism ,,in ,,southern ,,asia ,i have tried to show both the good and the bad sides of ,buddhism in ,southern ,asia3 and have laid emphasis upon those characteristics which demonstrate its continuing power4 ,southern ,buddhists1 however1 need earnest and sympathetic missionaries1 with a gospel of abounding life1 of a ,father ,god1 and of communion with ,him in ,christ4 ,let all who contemplate this great service note the following points4 #a4 ,modern ,buddhism differs from the ,theoretical ,buddhism of ,gotama4 ,there is a marked difference between the theoretical ,buddhism of early days1 reflected in the standard literature of ,southern ,buddhism1 and the ,buddhism of the present day in ,southern ,asia4 ,the ,buddhism which ,western enthusiasts are eager to introduce into their own countries is something which they have learnt1 not from the peoples of ,buddhist lands1 but from the ancient literature of ,buddhism4 ,captivated at first1 it may be1 by the beauty of some isolated saying1 or1 possibly1 deeply touched during some moonlight scene at the great golden pagodas of ,burma or on the hillsides of ,ceylon1 they become eager and not infrequently learned students of the ,buddhism of ,gotama4 ,they have to declare with sadness that the great bulk of the people who profess ,buddhism have wandered very far from its true principles and practice1 and that human nature1 for the most part1 needs something less austere4 ,this old ,buddhism of the ,books may be regarded and used as a kind of ,old ,testament for ,buddhists2 already they have passed away from its traditions4 #b4 ,the ,central ,emphasis of ,buddhism varies in the ,three ,southern ,countries4 ,not only does ,buddhism1 as the missionary comes in contact with it1 differ very markedly from theoretical ,buddhism1 but the central emphasis varies in different parts of ,southern ,asia4 ,the student must know his country and his people in order to know their ,buddhism1 as well as vice vers4 ,nothing can be further from the sunny temperament of the ,burmese than the central truth of ,buddhism that all is sorrowful2 and it is a strange perversion of the truth which claims1 as some of these ,western writers have claimed1 that the ,burmese are optimistic because they are free from tanh4 ,the fact that they believe in a good ,buddha as a living god1 however1 has much to do with it3 and temperament has even more4 ,in ,ceylon1 while ,buddhist ideals are better suited to the more melancholic temperament of the people1 yet they are acutely conscious of their powerlessness to gain the victory over sin and sorrow unaided4 ,as in ,japan and ,china1 so in a lesser degree in ,burma and ,ceylon1 ,buddhism has been constrained to die to itself 7to substitute the idea of a saviour for the idea of earning one's own salvation7 in a way that is full of encouragement and suggestion to the ,christian4 ,for1 if the mythical ,kwanyin and the far-off ,metteya can so captivate hungry human hearts1 how shall not the historic and living ,christ be enthroned in their stead8 #c4 ,the ,qualities of ,missionaries to ,buddhists4 ,the life of a missionary to ,buddhist peoples is full of interest4 ,each people has many attractive qualities and the life has much of delight4 ,certain special qualifications may be worth mentioning3-- 7a7 ,a ,genuine ,sympathy4--,a missionary will make very little impression upon the people and especially upon their leaders in ,buddhist countries who is unable to think himself1 to some extent1 sympathetically1 into their point of view1 and to be friendly toward the better aspects of their life and beliefs4 ,there are many things which are lovely and of good report4 ,the spirit of friendliness and of appreciation goes far toward establishing good relations with the people4 7b7 ,a ,sense of ,beauty and of ,humour4--,they are lovers of beauty and enjoy humour1 and respond readily to these qualities in the missionary4 ,more over1 without such gifts life in the tropics is very trying to oneself and to others4 7c7 ,christian ,convictions4--,along with these qualities1 the missionary must have a passionate loyalty to ,christ1 a clear understanding of the essential ,christian message to such a people1 and a firm conviction of the right of ,jesus ,christ to claim these attractive peoples for ,god1 and to make them great4 7d7 ,a willingness to appreciate fresh truth4--,it is very desirable that the young missionary should face such people1 themselves often creative in their thinking1 with a belief that the ,holy ,spirit1 who has guided the nations in their search for truth1 is still seeking to lead them on1 at least into fresh realisations of the power and meaning of the truths which have meant so much in past ages4 ,every such missionary will be thrilled in his contact with the inner soul of the people to whom he goes1 by the hope that they will find in ,christ hitherto undiscovered riches and by the desire on his own part to catch something of a continually enlarging vision of ,christ and ,his ,church4 #d4 ,a ,great ,opportunity4 ,the missionary to ,buddhists may find encouragement and inspiration in the growing conviction that ,oriental ,christianity will definitely add strength to the universal ,church in coming days4 ,god's kingdom will not be complete without the peoples of ,southern ,asia4 ,they are deeply religious4 ,it may be far from being an idle dream that ,god should give to some missionary of to-day the privilege of training a ,st4 ,paul1 an ,origen or an ,augustine of the ,east1 who will give to the ,church other great chapters of ,christian interpretation1 and a truly convincing apologetic of the gospel to the world4 ,,ii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,eastern ,,asia ,i4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,japan ,from the ,buddhism of ,southern ,asia to that of ,china and ,japan is a far cry4 ,it must be remembered that the monastic ,buddhism1 in which the ,arhat seeking his own salvation is the ideal1 gradually gave place before ,buddhism left ,india and entered ,eastern ,asia to the ,mahyna1 or ,great ,vessel1 in which the ,bodhisattva1 or compassionate servant of humanity1 became the ideal4 ,other important changes also took place in the religion of ,gotama during the five or six centuries after his death4 ,in the first place1 in spite of all his teachings that men should not look to him for help the teacher was himself deified3 ,he mounts the empty throne of ,brahm4 ,a little later there appeared a docetic tendency which explained him away1 or attempted to show that he was without human feeling or passion1 a kind of unreal adaptation of the eternal to the needs of time4 ,others conceived of him as an ,eternal ,being carrying on the work he had begun upon earth1 and opening up salvation to all sentient beings1 until finally a trinitarian doctrine was evolved which related the historical ,gotama to the eternal ,buddha1 and conceived of him as having emptied himself of his glory for a season out of compassion for mankind1 but as now enjoying it and manifesting it in pitiful and helpful ministries4 ,it is possible to see in this developing ,buddhology evidence of ,christian influence3 the late ,arthur ,lloyd of ,tokyo is the chief exponent of such a view4 ,to me1 however1 it seems at once more scientific and more interesting to find in these parallels one more evidence alike of the similarity of human nature in all lands and ages1 and of the indwelling ,presence of the one ,father of us all1 guiding the nations in their search for ,truth4 ,the vitality and adaptability of ,buddhism are evidences of ,his ,spirit4 ,this vitality1 even if at times adaptability has degenerated into compromise1 is1 as we have seen1 great in ,southern ,asia1 and amongst the sources of its strength we have noted its great influence as a civilising power and as a bond of social life3 its appeal to the imagination and to the gratitude of the peoples3 its philosophical explanation of the age-old problem of suffering1 and the moderation and sanity of its ethical teachings4 ,all these factors enter in differing degrees into the vitality of ,buddhism in ,china and ,japan3 for it has done much to help the civilisation of these countries also1 and to give them a popular philosophy of life and a pleasant social setting for religious faith4 ,let us consider these facts in more detail as regards the ,buddhism of ,japan2 for she is leading the ,orient not only in matters of material progress1 but in such spiritual things as a revival of the old faith which she is characteristically using to her own advantage4 ,in #aiah1 for instance1 a ,pan-,buddhistic ,league was formed in ,tokyo1 and more remarkable has been the lead taken by the ,buddhists of ,japan in sending strong idealistic appeals to the ,conferences at ,versailles and ,washington4 ,the vital forces of ,buddhism in ,japan1 then1 are as follows3-- #a4 ,buddhism has for twelve centuries rendered a unique service to the culture of the nation4 ,letters1 architecture1 painting1 the discipline of the mind--in fact1 the whole culture of ,japan is shot through and through with ,buddhist influence4 ,it is significant that the two ,western writers who entered most deeply into the spirit of ,japanese culture1 ,lafcadio ,hearn and ,fenollosa1 both became ,buddhists and are buried in ,buddhist cemeteries4 #b4 ,buddhism is again a great bond of social union4 ,its great pilgrimages1 for example1 are the favourite recreation of the people1 and its great festivals such as the ,bon ,matsuri1 in which the spirits of the departed are honoured1 are seasons of great sociability4 ,here1 again1 the pessimistic ,buddhism is a cheerful and a pleasant thing4 #c4 ,its appeal to the imagination is obvious4 ,splendid temples with their dim golden altars1 gorgeous vestments1 sonorous chanting1 and all the splendour of an artistic ritual--all this leaps to the eye of the most casual visitor4 ,what must it not be to the artistic ,japanese worshipper with all its tender associations8 #d4 ,nor does ,japanese ,buddhism appeal less to the mind4 ,its apologists constantly claim for it that it is a more philosophical and more scientific creed than any other4 ,i have been many times impressed with the wide reading of ,japanese ,buddhists1 and with the intellectual tone of ,japanese ,christianity4 ,it is clear that the crude theology of some missionaries will not meet the acid test of modern scholarship1 and is partly responsible for a widespread belief amongst the ,japanese that ,christianity is out of date4 ,the chief ,buddhist sects give their priests a better training in the ,history of ,religion than our missionary societies4 ,a stronger apologetic literature is needed4 #e4 ,the best apologetic1 however1 is in saintly lives2 ,tolstoi and ,francis of ,assisi especially make an immense appeal to the ,japanese2 there are ,tolstoyan colonies1 and a ,buddhist ,franciscan society4 ,yet it must be remembered that they find in the saints of ,buddhism such as ,honen and ,nichiren1 men worthy to compare with these great ,christian souls4 ,mr4 ,takayama1 whose influence on young ,japan has been so great1 was at once an ardent disciple of ,tolstoy and a follower of ,nichiren2 ,dr4 ,anesaki is no less a ,buddhist of the ,nichiren school because he is a devoted admirer of ,st4 ,francis4 ,and these men believe that ,buddhism and ,christianity at their best are closely akin3 ,we see your ,christ1 says ,dr4 ,anesaki1 because we have first seen our ,buddha4 #f4 ,there is much to be said for this view2 for ,buddhism in ,japan has developed a very noble idea of ,god2 he is the ,eternal ,father who has compassion on all his sons2 their salvation is won by faith1 not by merit1 and gratitude is the motive to good living4 ,it is surely a misnomer to call the fair forms of ,amida1 the lord of the ,western paradise1 and of ,kwannon the ,compassionate1 idols4 ,and ,jzo1 the strong ,conqueror of ,death1 the play mate and protector of little children--is he not a noble embodiment of divine strength and gentleness8 ,if the ,christian apologist argues that these are figments of the imagination1 the ,buddhist is right in replying that they owe their inspiration to the historic ,skyamuni and his early followers1 and that there is as much evidence in the vision of a ,buddhist saint as in that of an ,old ,testament prophet for the objective reality of the god who is worshipped4 ,may we not see in the strivings of good and true men everywhere to know ,god a movement of the ,spirit of ,god ,himself8 ,this is my own conviction--that the ,spirit of ,god has been moving for long centuries amongst our ,buddhist brethren and has led them far upon the path to ,truth4 ,it is1 however1 only right to say that this view is shared by comparatively few missionaries in ,japan4 ,though the great ,conference at ,edinburgh in #aiaj accepted it as an axiom that ,god had been at work in these ethnic faiths1 and though it was specifically stated of ,japanese ,buddhism1 yet it is a fact that this view is held at best as one of academic interest1 and without enthusiasm4 ,the leading authority upon the subject amongst the ,protestant missionaries in ,japan sums up his conviction in these weighty words and they are one tenable interpretation3 ,it may be said1 then1 that ,mahyna ,buddhism is a religion with a rather lofty idea of ,god among many conceptions of the divine1 but without a real faith in the living ,god2 a religion with the idea of a saviour1 but without a historical saviour2 a religion with a doctrine of divine grace paralysed by the old karma doctrine2 a religion with a promise of a present salvation and a future life1 which is nevertheless made obscure by the doubts of a recurrent agnostic philosophy that cuts the nerve of all vital ethics and beclouds the hopes of a better future4#aa ,the student must weigh these two interpretations3 and can only do so by a sympathetic and patient study of the facts4 ,and the outstanding fact is that ,buddhism has been the civiliser of ,asia1 and a great bond of union between its peoples4 ,japan is1 in many ways1 the best country for an intelligent study of its achievements4 ,she has been called the custodian of ,asiatic civilisation3 ,india1 ,china1 and ,korea have all poured their rich gifts into her lap1 and she has preserved them with wise discrimination4 ,but she has always assimilated them till they are her own1 and express her own genius4 ,this is perhaps especially true of ,buddhism1 which is a very different thing in ,japan even from what it is in ,china and ,korea4 ,still more does it differ from that which we have studied in ,ceylon and ,burma4 ,to turn away from these monastic expressions of the ancient faith to the elaborate ,buddhism of ,japan is to realise that a development has taken place not unlike that of ,christianity1 in its transition from the simplicity of ,galilean hillsides and the upper chamber at ,jerusalem to the pomp of high mass in ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome or ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice4 ,into each great process there have entered similar elements1 the growth of a theology by which the historic founder is related to the eternal order1 the absorption of ideas and rituals from peoples converted to the new faith and the making over of the faith in each new land till it becomes indigenous1 and racy of the soil4 ,the story of ,buddhism as it developed its philosophical systems and its elaborate pantheon cannot be told here2#ab but we may attempt1 as in the case of ,ceylon and ,burma1 to give a few impressions of the ,buddhism of ,japan1 which will indicate the processes of change and suggest what are the vital forces of this amazingly flexible religion1 whose watchwords have been adaptation and compromise4 ,when ,buddhism entered ,japan in the seventh century ,a4,d4 it was already the religion of all ,asia4 ,it found amidst the semi-barbarous peoples of the islands certain deeply rooted ideas1 such as the worship of heroes and especially of the ,emperor1 who was believed to be descended from the ,sun-goddess ,amaterasu4 ,within three centuries it had civilised the country1 and had triumphantly identified this goddess with its own ,sun-,buddha ,vairochana1 producing a blended faith made up of elements of the old ,shinto 7,shen ,tao or ,way of the ,gods1 ,kami no michi7 and of highly philosophical ,buddhism which saw in the sun the source of all cosmic energy4 ,this new ,buddhism or ,ryobu ,shinto is different indeed from the faith of the founder1 but it claims to be the logical and only legitimate evolution of his teachings4 ,let us glance at it first in its great mountain fastness of ,kya ,san1 where its founder ,kobo ,daishi lived and died1 and where the faithful await with him the coming of ,miroku--or ,maitri--the next ,buddha4 ,koya ,san4 ,like a great lotus of eight petals are the hills of ,kya ,san1 and up their wooded slopes wind the pilgrim roads4 ,it is the season of pilgrimage and they are thronged with pilgrims clad in white2 here is a litter in which some invalid is being borne to the great temple where priests by the performance of mystic ritual and incantations will attempt to restore him to physical as well as spiritual health2 here an aged couple are helping one another over steep parts of the way4 ,as they approach the shrines they say a prayer to the pitiful ,jiz1 that he will be merciful to their dead2 then as they pass the wooden octagonal library they turn it upon its axis in order that the merit of reading its voluminous scriptures may be theirs3 and near by some afflicted person rubs the portion of the wooden figure of ,binzuru which is affected in himself4 ,behind these somewhat childish superstitions is an elaborate philosophy1 and if one is fortunate one may find a monk with leisure and ability to explain the elaborate mandaras1 the pictures of this ,shingon1 or ,trueword2 ,buddhism4 ,founded in the ninth century by the great scholar ,kobo ,daishi1 it is a pantheistic worship of ,dainichi1 the great sun ,buddha1 the indwelling and pervading essence of the world4 ,present in all things1 he is most present where men worship him1 and so by mystic rite and incantation the worshipper is identified with this source of his being1 and lays hold of certain secrets of bodily and spiritual health4 ,japan1 like other countries1 is eagerly looking for a religion which works1 and which has a message for this life as well as for that beyond the grave4 ,amongst the great trees are innumerable tombs of the faithful1 and here in their midst sits ,kobo ,daishi himself awaiting the coming of ,miroku1 the next ,buddha4 ,nor is his spirit of loving-kindness1 which is the essence of ,buddhism1 forgotten4 ,unique amongst the monuments of war stands this seventeenth-century pillar calling down the mercies of heaven upon all who fell in the war with ,korea1 both friend and foe4 ,in these temples1 too1 one will see the simple mirror1 emblem at once of ,amaterasu and of ,dainichi1 of ,shinto and of ,buddhism3 are not the two now reconciled1 and have they not become an integral part of the soul of ,japan1 ,yamato ,damashii8 ,here on ,kyasan mingle ,japanese nature-worship1 ,indian idealistic philosophy1 gods from central ,asia1 and the superstitions of needy human hearts4 ,there is much that is fine as well as much that is corrupt1 and it is noteworthy that the impatient reformer1 ,nichiren1 called ,kbo the prize liar of ,japan1 and abominated the beliefs and practices of ,shingon4 ,yet he was not unbiased in his judgments6 ,hieisan and its ,sects4 ,another great mountain-fastness of ,japanese ,buddhism is ,hieisan4 ,here amidst vast cryptomerias and redwoods a contemporary of ,kbo1 named ,saich or ,dengy1 established just eleven hundred years ago a synthetic ,buddhism1 which strove to reconcile the conflicting schools and to represent at once the founder ,skyamuni as he is revealed in the ,lotus ,scripture1 seated in glory and opening a way for all to become ,buddhas1 and the eternal ,amida ,buddha of the ,western ,paradise4 ,side by side are preaching-halls for these two schools of ,buddhist devotion1 and from the parent stock of ,tendai have sprung the three great sects of ,jdo1 ,shinshu1 and ,nichiren-,shu4 ,the two former are extreme developments of the ,way of ,faith in ,amida1 and the latter is a revolt from their pietism and vain repetitions to the historical ,skyamuni and the famous ,lotus ,scripture1 the ,hokkeky which is found to-day in every ,buddhist temple in ,japan4 ,at the foot of the great mountain clusters the old imperial city of ,kyto1 or ,miyako1 with its thousand temples4 ,let us visit some of them4 ,a ,shinshu ,temple4 ,the great ,hondo or hall of the ,hongwanji temples in ,kyto is a thing of exquisite beauty4 ,how different are these great altars1 these exquisite paintings1 this cave of splendour1 with its dim lights and its fragrant incense1 from the simple rock-hewn shrines of ,ceylon and their barbaric frescoes1 and from the sunny courtyards and massed images of a ,burmese pagoda6 ,very different1 too1 is the worship of this devout crowd of ,japanese men and women1 prostrating themselves before the high altar or joining in antiphonal praises of ,amitbha 7,amida ,nyorai71 the lord of the ,western ,paradise4 ,the influence of the solemn chanting1 the deep notes of gongs1 the incense rising in clouds1 the dim lights1 the burnished gold and lacquer work of screen and altar--all this is almost hypnotic1 and the congregation is borne along on a tide of sombre feeling shot through with gleams of joy and otherworldly enthusiasm4 ,the student who has steeped himself in the simple pithy sayings of the ,dhammapada1 or of the ,amitbha ,books1 and then passes on to study the elaborate apocalypses of the ,lotus ,scripture1 will understand what has taken place in this transition from the simple ethical reform movement of early ,buddhism to the elaborate pietism and cultus of the ,mahyna4 ,the historical ,skyamuni has almost disappeared1 and in his place there are the eternal or semi-eternal ,buddhas1 and the great ,bodhisattvas4 ,let us study the figures in this great ,kyto temple4 ,the central position is given to the ,japanese monk ,shinran1 a ,luther or ,wesley who in the twelfth century popularised in ,japan the ,way of ,salvation by ,faith2 to the left of him are the figures of ,amida ,nyorai1 the chief object of worship in this sect1 ,honen1 the predecessor of ,shinran and his teacher in the way of mystic faith1 and ,shtoku1 the great layman who as ,regent of ,japan espoused ,buddhism in the seventh century ,a4,d41 and laid the foundations of ,japanese civilisation4 ,he is the patron saint of the arts and crafts of ,japan and is given a prominent place in ,shin ,shu ,buddhism 7to which three-quarters of ,japanese ,buddhists belong7 because it claims to be a religion for lay-people and not only for monks4 ,there is a delightful story of ,shinran and of the lady who led him to realise this truth4 ,going up to his monastery on the ,hiei ,san ,shinran met a charming princess1 who took from her long silken sleeve a burning glass2 ,see how this little crystal gathers to a point the scattered rays of the sun1 she cried4 ,cannot you do this for our religion8 ,he replied that it took twenty years to train a monk in the old ,tendai sect to which he belonged1 and she reminded him that women were not allowed to go up to its temples4 ,he went away and meditating upon the essential teachings of ,buddhism came to the conclusion that the real heart of the matter was this1 that it is faith in the eternal ,buddha and gratitude to him which are to be the motives of true living1 that as the ,lotus ,scripture teaches1 all may become ,buddhas1 and that the priests of ,amida should be free to become fathers after the pattern of the ,heavenly ,father4 ,marrying the charming princess this ,japanese ,luther founded a new sect1 and to-day one sees the hereditary abbot1 splendid in purple and scarlet1 accompanied by his son1 a boy of seventeen1 proudly conscious of his destiny as the next head of the great hierarchy1 and taking his place in the elaborate ritual of the service4 ,behind them are the choir in robes of old gold and the priests in black4 ,namu ,amida ,butsu#ac intone the priests1 and alternating with this act of faith they sing to a kind of ,gregorian chant such words as these3 ,eternal ,life1 ,eternal ,light6 ,hail to ,thee1 wisdom infinite4 ,hail to ,thee1 mercy shining clear1 ,and limitless as is the air4 ,thou givest sight unto the blind1 ,thou sheddest mercy on mankind1 ,hail1 gladdening ,light1 ,hail1 generous ,might1 ,whose peace is round us like the sea1 ,and bathes us in infinity4 ,or it may be some patriarch who is being hymned1 such as ,honen himself3 ,what though great teachers lead the way1-- ,genshin and ,zendo of ,cathay1-- ,did ,honen not the truth declare ,how should we far-off sinners fare ,in this degenerate1 evil day8 ,occasionally a hymn1 like the excellent preaching of some of the priests1 strikes a note of moral living whose motive is gratitude to ,amida3 ,eternal ,father on whose breast ,we sinful children find our rest1 ,thy mind in us is perfected ,when on all men thy love we shed2 ,so we in faith repeat thy praise1 ,and gratefully live out our days4#ad ,the ,japanese1 in whom gratitude is a very strong motive1 find in the teachings of ,shinran a ,buddhism which is very ,christian1 and the words attributed to him as he was nearing his journey's end1 are a confession of sin which is only worthy of a saint4 ,that the mass of his followers fall far behind him in this respect is unfortunately true1 as it is true of most of us who call ourselves by a greater name4 ,other founders of ,buddhism are commemorated on the altars and in the hymns of this sect1 especially ,ngrjuna1 the ,indian philosopher of about the second century ,a4,d41 and ,donran1 a ,chinese1 who carried still further the evolution of ,mahyna ,buddhism4 ,a ,revival of ,buddhism4 ,the ,shin ,shu is one of the sects of ,japanese ,buddhism in which a great revival seems to be at work4 ,upwards of five hundred young priests are being trained in its schools in ,kyto1 and it claims to have one hundred and fifty thousand children in its ,sunday ,schools1 an organisation in which it has wisely imitated the missionary methods of the ,christian ,church4 ,this ,buddhist revival in ,japan is well worthy of study4 ,as in ,ceylon and ,burma nationalism has much to do with it4 ,the ,japanese have been reminded by ,lafcadio ,hearn and ,fenollosa and by their own native scholars trained by ,max ,mller at ,oxford1 or in other ,western universities1 how great is the debt which they owe to ,buddhism2 ,there is scarcely one interesting or beautiful thing produced in the country1 wrote ,lafcadio ,hearn1 for which the nation is not in some sort indebted to ,buddhism1 and the ,japanese1 in whom gratitude is a strong motive1 are saying1 ,thank you4 ,moreover1 in the present restless seeking after truth the nation is finding1 in its old religions1 things which it is refusing lightly to cast away1 and in its resentment against some of the nations of ,christendom1 and its conviction that our ,christianity does not go very deep1 it reminds itself that after all ,buddhism was a great international force which helped to establish peace for a thousand years in ,asia4 ,the present revival manifests itself in many ways1 not least in the new intellectual activity which has brought into existence ,buddhist universities1 chairs of religious education1 and a very vigorous output of literature2 and each of the great sects has some outstanding scholar trained in the scientific methods of ,western scholarship1 but proud to call himself a ,buddhist4 ,there are ample signs1 too1 of a quickened interest in social service1 of movements for children and young people1 such as the ,y4,m4,b4,a41 which is now active in all ,buddhist countries4 ,old temples are being repaired and new ones built and there are said to be over a hundred thousand of these in ,japan devoted to ,buddhism alone4 ,amongst the more recent is one in ,kyto which cost nearly a million pounds sterling2 for the transport of its massive timbers hundreds of thousands of women sacrificed their hair4 ,it is interesting and amusing to see ,buddhist priests in bowler hats and gorgeous robes directing the removal of some ancient shrine to a new site and to note the modern ,american methods of engineering employed4 ,all this is symptomatic of a new ,japan which is yet tenaciously loyal to its old past4 ,another symptom is a vigorous attempt at moral reform about which the ,mahynist1 a ,buddhist periodical1 said1 ,whilst formerly the moral sickness was allowed to go on unchecked1 now the coverings are cast aside and the disease laid bare which is the first thing to do if the patient is to be cured4 ,one hears a good deal about misappropriation of temple funds1 and moral laxity in matters of sex4 ,it is not for a visitor to comment on these things4 ,personally ,i believe that ,buddhism is really a power for good3 and ,i am inclined to think that the beautiful courtesy and kindliness one meets everywhere largely spring from it1 and are one of its many noble fruits4 ,we in the ,west have made more of commercial honesty and less of courtesy and forbearance than ,jesus was wont to do3 and there is no more odious type than the self-righteous visitor from ,western lands who comes to the ,east armed with a narrow and negative moral code and a critical spirit4 ,certainly ,buddhism is teaching morals to its children1 and in a thousand ways its influence is felt in that very attractive character so truly described by ,lafcadio ,hearn as peculiar to the ,japanese1 of which the essence is a genuine kindness of heart that is essentially ,buddhist4 ,another proof that the chief sects are now filled with vigorous life is to be found in their missionary activities4 ,the first ,buddhist missionary from ,japan to ,china was sent out by the eastern branch of the ,hongwanji in #ahgf1 a spiritual return for the early ,chinese missions of twelve hundred years ago4 ,missions have also been established in ,honolulu in #ahig and they are numerous on the ,pacific ,coast of ,north ,america4 ,home missionary work1 too1 is being attempted1 owing largely to the influence of a layman2 the ,shin ,shu priests are working in jails1 seeking to arouse a sense of sin in the inmates2 and in ,tokio one may visit a training school where some sixty students are trained in charity organisation and lodging houses for the poor4 ,christian ,influence4 ,all this is very largely the outcome of ,christian activities in ,japan and it is very noteworthy that while the ,christian ,church is numerically small its leadership in liberal politics and in philanthropy is acknowledged all over the ,empire and its pervasive influence upon the thought of modern ,japan is obvious on all sides4 ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi and ,tolstoy are perhaps the ,christian leaders most admired by the ,japanese4 ,they belong to the same spiritual company as the great ,skyamuni1 who1 like them1 embraced poverty and was filled with a tender love and a sane yet passionate enthusiasm of humanity4 ,japan is looking for a great spiritual and moral leader4 ,will he be a ,buddhist like the great ,nichiren who in the thirteenth century came like a strong sea-breeze to revive the soul of his people and preached a religion which was to be a moral guide in national affairs and in the daily life of his people8 ,or will he be a ,christian leader who1 counting all things as dung compared with the ,gospel of ,jesus1 shall answer the cry of the ,japanese patriot who believes that his people are hungry for truth8 ,there is a wealth of liberalism in young ,japan and there are idealists everywhere waiting to rally around a great religious leader4 ,but he will need to know and understand her past and to launch his appeal to that wonderful patriotism which is the essence of the ,japanese character4 ,can ,buddhism produce this moral leadership8 ,let us hear what a ,japanese ,christian of great learning and insight has to say4 ,to ,buddhism ,japan owes a great debt for certain elements of her faith which would scarcely have developed without its aid2 but those germinal elements have taken on a form and colouring1 a personal vitality not gained elsewhere4 ,important as are those elements of faith1 they still lack the final necessary reality4 ,buddhism is incomplete in the god whom it presents as an object of worship4 ,in place of the ,supreme ,being1 spiritual and personal1 ,buddhism offers a reality of which nothing can be affirmed1 or1 at best1 a ,great ,buddha among many4 ,buddhism is incomplete in the consciousness of sin which it awakens within the soul of man4 ,instead of the sense of having violated an eternal law of righteous love by personal antagonism1 ,buddhism deepens the consciousness of human misery by an unbreakable bond of suffering2 and the salvation1 therefore1 which ,buddhism offers is deliverance from misery1 not from the power of personal sin4 ,in its idea of self-sacrifice1 ,buddhism affords an element of faith much more nearly allied to that of the ,christian believer4 ,in both the offering of self is for the sake of the multitude1 the world-brotherhood2 but in the one pity1 often acquiescent and helpless1 predominates1 whereas in the other loyalty to a divine ideal finds expression in the obligation to active service4 ,and yet let us note that ,buddhism has undoubtedly nerved men of action1 and inspired saints1 and that its call to meditation and to quiet strength is one that our age needs to regard4 ,not far from the great ,pietist temples of ,hongwanji1 ,i found a veritable haven of peace--the courtyard and simple buildings of a ,zenshu sect4 ,how different from the ,buddhism of the ,amida sects is that of ,zenshu6 ,seated in his exquisite retreat one may visit an abbot or teacher of this school4 ,the orderliness and quiet of his temple courts1 the stillness of his posture1 the repose of his face--all alike tell one of spiritual calm4 ,perhaps one begins to ask him the secret of it4 ,ah1 he may say1 that is not easy4 ,you should go and study one of the simpler sects4 ,then1 if his questioner is persistent1 he will suddenly present him with one of the ,koans1 or dark sayings which have come down for many centuries3 ,listen1 he will say1 to the sound of a single hand4 ,puzzled and disturbed the mind may refuse to deal with this enigma1 or it may learn the great lesson which is intended to be learned1 that intuition is a surer guide to truth than the discursive reason1 or as we should say in our psychological jargon1 the sub-conscious has gifts for us if we will give it a chance4 ,the essence1 in fact1 of this sect is a quiet sense of the presence of eternal truths4 ,the ,buddha is not to be found in images or books1 but in the heart or mind1 and in scores of ,buddhist monasteries ,i have found the spirit of ,wordsworth with its serene sense of a pervasive presence1 ,whose dwelling is the light of setting suns4 #aa ,a4 ,k4 ,reischauer1 ,studies in ,japanese ,buddhism4 #ab ,see ,buddhism as a ,religion1 by ,h4 ,hackmann1 and my ,epochs of ,buddhist ,history4 7,to be published later47 #ac ,praise to ,amida ,buddha4 #ad ,see ,buddhist ,hymns1 tr4 by ,s4 ,yamabe and ,l4 ,adams ,beck4 ,,ii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,china ,the followers of this meditative school are to be found throughout the monasteries of ,china and ,korea where they are known as the ,chan sect2 but here more than in ,japan their quietism is mingled with the devotion to ,amitbha or ,omito-,fo1 and though in many places such as the exquisite island of ,putoshan they are faithful in the practice of meditation1 they seem to have carried it to a far less perfect pitch than the more scholarly followers of the ,japanese school4 ,a ,chinese ,temple4 ,let us get a glimpse of ,chinese ,buddhism in one of these great monasteries4 ,the day is a round of worship#ae and the worship is divided amongst many ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas4 ,here some rich layman is making an offering for masses for his dead2 ,buddhism in ,china has indeed become largely a matter of such masses1 and the filial ,chinese spend yearly scores of millions upon them4#af ,the priests have turned out in force1 and the abbot is reciting the praises now of ,omito-,fo1 now of ,pilochana1 the great sun-,buddha1 now of the merciful ,kwanyin whose ears are ever open to human prayer1 and now of ,titsang1 guardian of the dead4 ,beautiful figures these1 and especially that of this strong conqueror of death so popular amongst the ,japanese as the guardian of the little ones who have gone into the dark under-world4 ,innumerable figures of him adorned with baby garments tell their own pathetic tale1 and he is unimaginative indeed who cannot find here in these ideal figures traces of the ,spirit of ,god at work in human hearts4 ,it is harder to sympathise with and to admire the ,lama ,buddhism which has penetrated ,china from ,tibet1 but even here there are some beautiful figures such as the ,tras1 and amongst the mummery and moral corruption of a ,lama temple one may find some sparks of the divine spirit1 even if one fails to meet the ,lama of ,kim6 ,buddhism in ,china1 decadent though it is in many places1 is reviving itself2 there is great building activity at certain centres such as ,ningpo and ,hangchow2 there are probably nearly half a million monks1 and at one ordination in #aibj a thousand candidates were ordained in ,changchow4 ,many men1 indeed1 disillusioned at the failure of the revolution1 are seeking the quiet otherworldly retreats of ,buddhism1 and others of scholarly bent delight in the classical scriptures which the early missionaries from ,india translated into ,chinese1 and which are still models of beauty4 ,among laymen also there is an increasing interest in the ,buddhist scriptures4 ,turn into this bookstore at ,peking and you will find over a thousand copies of different texts and commentaries1 and there are publishing-houses in most of the great cities4 ,two notable works are the reprint of the whole of the ,scriptures and a new dictionary of ,buddhist terms1 containing over three thousand pages4 ,at ,ningpo one will find a small group of young enthusiasts working for a neo-,buddhism4 ,antipathetic to ,christianity1 and especially to the aggressions of ,christian nations1 these men1 like some of the propagandists in ,ceylon1 use weapons which are two-edged and dangerous to all religion1 not only to ,christianity2 they seem to feed upon the publications of the rationalist press1 and must not be taken too seriously4 ,yet we can sympathise with their resentment of ,western aggression1 which is a large factor in these ,buddhist movements everywhere4 ,buddhism3 the ,religion of ,asia often accompanies and reinforces another cry1 ,asia for the ,asiatics4 ,of great significance are these ,pan-,buddhist movements attempting to unite the ,buddhist peoples in a strong ,eastern civilisation such as that which welded them together for a thousand years in the ,golden ,age of the past4 ,one such movement originates in ,ceylon with the vigorous layman ,dharmapala1 in whom resentment against the ,west blends with a real enthusiasm for ,buddhism4 ,in #ahic he visited ,china1 and stirred up some of the ,chinese monks1 calling upon them to go to ,india as missionaries2 in ,japan he attacked some of the great abbots as wine-drinkers and corrupt1 and every where he is a pungent and provocative influence4 ,in #aiah a ,pan-,buddhist ,association was started in ,tokyo and in the following year a rival one was founded in ,peking4 ,it is1 in fact1 rather pathetic to find ,buddhism being promoted by the ,japanese in ,korea as a part of their propaganda to ,japanise the ,koreans1 and at the same time claiming in ,china to be the religion for democratic nations4 ,in justification of such claims1 however1 ,buddhism is doing some good work in social service1 and in education1 and takes its part in famine relief1 prison visitation1 and the beneficent work of the ,red ,cross4 ,the ,chinese are a religious people1 whatever critics may say4 ,vast armies of monks and innumerable temples and shrines witness to this other-worldly strain1 and though much of their religion is superstitious1 and almost all of it needs moralising1 the sympathetic observer will find on every hand the evidences that these are not a secular-minded people4 ,in almost every house are not only ancestor-tablets1 but images of ,kwanyin and other ,buddhist deities1 and pilgrimages play in ,china as elsewhere in ,asia a great part in the national life4 ,follow this merry throng as it climbs the slopes of some great mountain2 note the groves and the poetical inscriptions on the rocks2 enter this noble group of temples with them and watch their acts of worship4 ,here before ,kwanyin a young apprentice bows3 carelessly he tosses the bamboo strips which will tell him if his prayer is to be answered1 and defiantly he tosses his head as he turns away with a refusal from the goddess3 but here is an old widow1 with sorrowful persistence importuning the ,compassionate ,one1 and in even the most careless is a belief that ,heaven rules in the affairs of men and that ,heaven is just4 ,here prayers are offered for rain and harvest1 for children and wealth1 for release from suffering and demons4 ,as in many ,christian nations the bridge between natural religion and the essential truths of ,christian ,theism is a very shaky one--so here in ,china and ,japan1 whilst there is a widespread belief in ,karma and in ,heaven's laws1 this is but vaguely connected with the polytheistic cults of the masses4 ,and as in some other ,christian lands1 the worship of the saints and local gods--even of the great ,kwanyin--is not always moralised4 ,habitual sinners--opium fiends who1 it may be1 are ruining scores of lives1 prostitutes and murderers--will pay their daily court to the family or local god3 not conscious of any demand from the ,compassionate that they should show compassion1 or from the ,righteous that they should be righteous4 ,buddhism has indeed lost its early salt of morality4 ,it is for these and other reasons that ,china and ,japan urgently need the ,gospel of ,jesus and of ,his ,kingdom4 ,in their own religious development is a noble preparation for this ,new ,order3 and in the ,jesus of ,history they are finding a ,norm and a ,vision of ,god which makes their old ideals real and vital1 and which purifies their idea of ,god4 ,in this faith the ,church is at work in these wonderful lands1 believing that they have rich gifts for the ,kingdom of ,god1 and that it will greatly enrich them and carry to its fulfilment their noble civilisations whilst it emancipates their masses from fear and superstition4 ,with all its achievements ,buddhism has failed because it has had no power to cast out fear1 and its ,confucian critics even accuse it of playing upon the superstition of the people and of letting loose more demons to plague them4 ,yet it has done much for ,china1 not only ennobling her art and culture but giving a new value to the individual1 a new respect for women1 a new love of nature1 and many noble objects of worship to hungry human hearts4 ,whilst then the ,gospel wins its way slowly but surely in ,asia1 leavening and giving new and abundant life1 there are those in ,christendom who hold that it is played out1 and that ,buddhism is destined to supersede it as the religion of the intelligent6 ,the student should investigate their activities in ,london1 ,breslau1 and other ,western cities2 and he may find ,appendix ,i a finger-post to guide him in his quest4 ,appendix ,,ii is offered as a similar guide to a course of reading4 #ae ,the chief services are at #b a4m4 and at #d p4m4 #af ,during the war many such masses were said for the fallen1 whether friend or foe4 ,,appendix ,i#ag ,,some ,,european ,,and ,,american ,,buddhists ,in the year #ahha ,dr4 ,rhys ,davids said1 ,there is not the slightest danger of any ,european ever entering the ,buddhist ,order4#ah ,yet a recent writer was told by a ,buddhist in ,ceylon that his religion was making its converts chiefly amongst the ,tamils and ,germans1 and in each of the ,buddhist countries there is to-day a small but active group of converts from the ,european nations to ,buddhism4 ,it would be difficult to say whether these groups are the product or the cause of the undoubted revival which is taking place in the ,buddhist world3 probably they are part product and part cause4 ,buddhism is certainly in ferment4 ,as ,dr4 ,suzuki has said1 ,it is in a stage of transition from a medival dogmatic and conservative spirit to one of progress1 enlightenment1 and liberalism1#ai and in other ways1 especially in ,japan1 it is approximating to a liberal ,christianity4 ,to this awakening there are several contributory causes1 such as the national spirit which has awakened in recent years1 the works of ,eastern and ,western students of ,buddhism1 the activities of the ,theosophical ,society1 and1 it must be confessed1 and unwise and1 in my opinion1 illiberal and unfair attitude on the part of many missionaries who1 forgetting that they are sent to preach ,christ1 have attacked1 often without adequate knowledge1 the religion of ,gautama4#bj ,from this criticism ,i do not wish to exempt myself2 ,i have gone through the unpleasant but salutary process of having to eat my own words1 and ,i am more anxious than ,i can say to foster a real spirit of love and understanding between the followers of ,gautama and those of ,jesus4 ,of the founder of ,buddhism ,i can honestly say with the great ,danish scholar ,fausboll3 ,the more ,i know of him1 the more ,i love him1 and it is the fact of ,gautama1 emerging more and more clearly as the ,buddhist books are being edited and translated1 which more than any other single cause is responsible for the ,buddhist revival4 ,from such far distances the echo of his words returns that we cannot but rank him amongst the greatest heroes of history1 says the eminent ,belgian scholar de la ,valle ,poussin1 and from him1 as from ,gautama1 we shall all do well to learn the spirit of tolerance and courtesy4 ,yet both of them speak out bluntly and shrewdly enough at times4 ,it is recorded that when the great teacher met men whose doctrines were morally dangerous or intellectually insincere1 he harried them remorselessly till the sweat poured from them and they cried1 ,as well might one meet an infuriated bull or dangerous snake as the ascetic ,gautama6 ,of those whose teachings were sincere and earnest he was wonderfully tolerant1 even advising a soldier disciple to give alms to them and their followers1 no less than to the ,buddhist monks4 ,in this spirit the ,belgian scholar1 probably the greatest living authority upon ,buddhism as a whole1 is lovingly tolerant towards ,buddhism and honest ,buddhists1 but of ,neo-,buddhism he says3 ,it is at once frivolous and detestable--dangerous1 perhaps1 for very feeble intellects4 ,even so1 a vast ,neo-,buddhist ,church is not impossible6 ,european and ,american ,buddhists1 then1 fall into these two classes3 those who are honest and sincere students of ,buddhism and followers of ,gautama1 and those of whom the most charitable thing that can be said is that they lead astray foolish women1 and other sentimentalists4 ,to illustrate the methods of these two schools1 who are unfortunately at present often working in an unnatural alliance1 let me describe two recent experiences4 ,on ,easter ,day ,i went from the simple and exquisite beauty of our ,communion ,service1 in which the glamour of the ,resurrection is ever being renewed1 to a ,buddhist church within a stone's throw1 here in the heart of ,san ,francisco4 ,there1 as in innumerable other centres of ,buddhist life1 the birth of ,gautama was being celebrated2 and ,i could unhesitatingly join in paying reverence to the memory of the great ,indian teacher4 ,but it was certainly amazing and a little staggering to find ,buddhist ,high ,mass being performed1 the celebrant calling himself a bishop and ordaining on his own initiative abbots and abbesses4#ba ,three altar candles representing the ,buddha1 the ,law1 and the ,order being lighted1 the bishop1 preceded by seven or eight ,american and ,british monks in yellow robes1 and by the ,abbess1 known as ,mahadevi1 ascended to the platform1 which contains a beautiful ,japanese shrine of the ,hongwanji sect4 ,several monks from ,japan1 to my surprise1 assisted in the strange service that followed1 which began with the invocation of ,amida ,buddha1 and went on in an astonishing hotch-potch of the cults of the primitive and the later ,buddhism derived indiscriminately from ,ceylon1 ,tibet1 and ,japan4 ,of this strange service1 which the bishop claims to have modelled on that in use in the ,dalai ,lama's palace at ,lhassa1 it must suffice to say that if the ,tibetan ,mantras were as inaccurately rendered as were the five precepts in ,pli which are the ,buddhist pentalogue1 then the general impression of ,buddhism given was as misleading as it is possible to conceive4 ,the service included a processional hymn1 music by an organist announced as late of the ,golden ,temple ,shway ,dagon in ,burma1 and of ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 ,london1 an ,epistle read by an ,american ,buddhist1 a gospel of the day1 read by the ,abbess1 several addresses by ,japanese and ,western ,buddhists1 and a sermon by the bishop1 who claims to be ninety-five years old1 to be the son of a ,persian prince1 to have spent sixteen years at the feet of the late ,dalai ,lama in ,tibet1 to have numerous degrees in arts1 medicine1 science1 and philosophy from ,oxford1 ,london1 ,paris1 and ,heidelberg1 and to have been seventy-five years a monk of the yellow robe4 ,his costume was as amazingly mixed as his liturgy1 consisting of a ,hindu turban1 a yellow ,buddhist overmantle1 a scarlet robe with cincture and maniple of purple1 and a rosary terminating in the ,swastika1 with which sign he blessed the people at the end of the service1 saying3 ,may the face of the ,truth shine upon you1 and the divine ,wisdom of the ,buddhas permeate you1 and remain with you now and throughout eternity4 ,so mote it be4 ,in his sermon he claimed to have founded no less than eighty missions in the past ten years in ,california1 and said some shrewd things in criticism of the ,christian ,church1 of which ,i am persuaded he was himself once a member4 ,for the rest it was a practical discourse enough2 he advised his followers1 if they would live as long as he 7and he announced that he would still be going strong fifty years hence71 they must change their wrinkles into dimples1 and learn the secret of a serene mind4 ,he gave notice that in the evening there would be a banquet and a dance1 in which he would join1 if widows and maidens pressed him1 and immediately after the service he saluted them all with a holy kiss1 which they seemed to enjoy as much as he4 ,there is something really attractive about this jovial monk1 and he has the energy1 the ubiquity and the perseverance of another ,persian prince who is equally opposed to ,christianity6 ,the bishop's disciples are fairly numerous1 though one of his colleagues expressed the conviction1 on the authority of an ,english professor1 that the same wonderful teachings would draw thousands to hear them in ,london1 instead of scores in ,san ,francisco4 ,be that as it may1 they are faithful disciples2 attracted very largely by the fact that he is rather expounding spiritualism1 telling of the wonderful ,mahatmas of ,tibet1 and luring them with the glamour of ,eastern mysticism than teaching ,buddhism4 ,when ,i chuckled at some of his shrewd sallies1 an elegantly dressed woman next to me said1 ,hush6 ,hush6 ,you are not an initiate1 you do not understand2 all that he says has a profound1 inner meaning which only we who are initiated can comprehend4 ,to which ,i could not resist the reply3 ,i may not be initiated into this business1 but ,i know that this is not ,buddhism any more than that the organist who is playing those penny-whistle tunes on the harmonium ever played them on the ,shway ,dagon1 where music is not allowed1 or any more than the old sportsman who is speaking is a bishop4 ,it is not by such means that ,buddhism can be revived4 ,but there are others6 ,some years ago ,i had a delightful talk with one of them in the shadow of the great pagoda from which our organist did not come4 ,he was a ,scot1 a scholar and scrupulously honest1 and his name is already widely known as the translator of both ,german and ,pli works4 ,quite frankly he told me why he had taken the yellow robe1 and how1 having lost his faith in ,christianity1 he found in the ,buddhist books something which saved his reason and probably his life3 then1 turning to me1 he said3 ,how glad you fellows would be if you could get rid of the ,old ,testament4 ,another friend of mine1 an ,englishman1 was formerly trained as a ,roman ,catholic priest1 and is now a ,buddhist missionary in ,california1 having been ordained in ,japan1 and having1 with an ,american scholar1 now a professor in ,london1 been responsible for the production of an admirable and scholarly periodical1 ,the ,mahayanist4 ,its object is to impart an accurate knowledge of the ,buddhism of ,china and ,japan1 and to investigate its history1 doctrines1 and present conditions in an unbiased and scholarly way4 ,such men as these three ought not to be associated with those who claim to teach esoteric ,buddhism4#bb ,there is really no such thing2 ,i have preached the ,law without making any distinction between exoteric and esoteric doctrine1 said ,gautama1 for ,i have no such thing as the closed fist of the teacher who keeps some things in reserve4#bc ,now so long as these unequally yoked teams are drawing the ,buddhist chariot1 there is bound to be a smash2 when one studies1 for instance1 the history of the propagandist literature they have put out1 one finds that it is one long story of fitful beginnings and spasmodic effort1 almost all of them failing to survive for more than a few years4 ,of these periodicals1 ,professor ,poussin writes as follows3 ,propagandist reviews like ,buddhism of ,rangoon and the ,open ,court of ,chicago are useful when ,mrs4 ,rhys ,davids condescends to contribute to them1 but she finds in them strange neighbours indeed1 fully worthy of the indescribable ,mahabodhi ,society6 ,buddhists everywhere are finding new inspiration by going back to the authority of ,gautama2 let the ,christian ,church go back to ,jesus ,christ1 and1 taking ,him as the full and perfect revelation of the nature of ,god and man1 rethink and restate its theology4 ,and secondly1 let its missionaries study the great religion of ,gautama--which is still1 after twenty-five centuries1 a mighty power1 with strong capacity for revival1 and which is still strangely misunderstood2 and let them see to it that they and the ,christian native pastors and catechists are as carefully trained as the ,buddhist monks who each year are receiving a more systematic preparation for the task of defending and propagating the ,dhamma4 #ag ,reprinted from ,the ,east and the ,west4 #ah ,hibbert ,lectures1 #crd edition1 p4 #ahd4 #ai ,the ,zen ,sect of ,buddhism1 p4 #aa4 #bj ,there is fortunately a marked improvement in this respect in missionary methods3 but the old order has not yet given place to the new4 ,the present writer was recently classed1 in a public address in ,rangoon1 with the ,kaiser and ,antichrist--as a ,sign of the ,times4 #ba ,the full form of service and a biographical sketch of its author is published by the ,open ,court1 ,chicago1 ,u4,s4,a4 #bb ,they are1 fortunately1 even now parting company3 the bishop1 for example1 has been obliged to start a rival church in ,san ,francisco4 #bc ,from the ,mahaparinibbana ,sutta1 the oldest and most authentic of the ,buddhist scriptures4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,,how ,,to ,,study ,,buddhism#bd ,the ,christian missionary in ,buddhist lands is faced with a task of infinite fascination4 ,he is dealing1 in the first place1 with remarkable peoples for whom their religion has done much of the great service which ,christianity has done for him and his people4 ,he will find everywhere traces of a mighty ,buddhist civilisation1 and in many places1 if he has the eye to see1 proofs that this venerable religion is still alive and is reforming itself to meet the needs of the modern world4 ,in the second place1 he will find that it is vitally linked up with the intensely interesting and important nationalist movements of ,asia1 and that he cannot understand the political situation in these countries without a close and careful study of the religion4 ,and in the third place1 he will find that it is not only as part and parcel of nationalist movements that ,buddhism is alive1 but that it has an international programme and that it is closely bound up with the movement of ,asia for the ,asiatics--a movement deserving of respectful and sympathetic study4 ,how then will the missionary prepare himself for this absorbing task8 ,nothing can take the place of friendly intercourse with ,buddhists in temple and home1 on pilgrimage and at great times of festival2 it is thus that the religion will become a living reality to him1 full of colour and movement1 giving him at times moments of exquisite pleasure in its artistic pageantry1 and bringing him into sympathetic touch with the soul of the people to whom he is seeking to minister4 ,but to prepare him for this absorbing pursuit1 at once business and pleasure1 study and hobby1 for any one who really enjoys such things1 he can and must do some systematic reading4 ,appended are a course of study for the first two years worked out for ,y4,m4,c4,a4 secretaries in ,india1 and a more advanced and detailed course4 ,the following additional notes may be of service in using these3 #a4 ,clearly the first step is to get a sympathetic and accurate idea of the founder of ,buddhism1 of the essence of his teaching1 and of the secret of his amazing influence4 ,there is1 in human history1 only one figure more significant and more worthy of a study4 ,side by side the student should read ,sir ,edwin ,arnold's ,light of ,asia 7,london3 ,kegan ,paul4 #as4 #f;d4 and #es47 and some good biographical study such as that of ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha 7,london3 ,williams ,norgate4 ,out of print4 #ahhb71 or that by the present writer1 ,gotama ,buddha 7,new ,york3 ,association ,press4 #aibj74 #b4 ,next he will do well to saturate himself in such selections of the moral teachings of ,gautama as are contained in the ,dhammapada or the ,itivuttaka1 both of which contain much very early material1 some of which may be attributed to the founder himself4 #c4 ,for the whole ,buddhist system in its earlier forms ,warren's admirable ,buddhism in ,translations 7,harvard ,oriental ,series4 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 #aijj7 is indispensable1 and should be constantly used for reference4 #d4 ,as an introduction to the history of ,buddhism two elementary books1 attempting to cover the whole field in a rather sketchy way1 are ,saunders' ,the ,story of ,buddhism 7,london3 ,oxford ,university ,press4 #ds41 #f;d4 #aiaf7 and ,hackmann's ,buddhism as a ,religion 7,london3 ,probsthain4 #aes4 #aiaj74 #e4 ,whether the student is going to work in lands devoted to the primitive type of ,buddhism1 such as ,ceylon1 ,siam1 and ,burma1 or in those in which a highly developed ,buddhism prevails1 such as ,japan1 ,china1 and ,korea1 he ought to have a grasp of the essential differences between the two types of ,buddhism known as ,hinayna and ,mahyna2 for an evolution must be read backwards as well as forwards1 and the missionary will look forward to spending a holiday in one of the other ,buddhist lands4 ,if1 for instance1 his lot is cast in ,burma1 he ought to plan to go on a visit to ,japan or to ,china1 and vice vers4 ,to get a grasp of the highly developed ,mahyna he should study especially the famous ,lotus of the ,good ,law translated in vol4 xxi of the ,sacred ,books of the ,east 7,oxford3 ,clarendon ,press4 #aes4 #f;d47 and should carefully compare this with the ,dhammapada4 ,he will find that even in the conservative ,buddhism of ,ceylon and ,burma there are ,mahyna tendencies1 and that everywhere ,gautama ,buddha has become in practice more than a moral teacher and is related1 in the minds of the people1 to an eternal order making for righteousness4 ,in this and in other ways which the student will study for himself1 e4g4 in the idea of a sacrificial life-process culminating in the historical life of ,skyamuni and in the practice of prayer by all ,buddhists1 he will find a wonderful preparation for the gospel of ,christ4 ,i would suggest that he take as his guiding light this saying of a great ,buddhist scholar of ,japan1 ,we see your ,christ1 because we have first seen our ,buddha4 ,the task of the missionary will be to relate ,christianity to this great preparation that has been made for it and to think out with ,eastern scholars the thought bases of a truly ,eastern ,christianity which shall seem to these ,asiatic nations to come with all the authority of their own past behind it1 and with all the glamour of a knowledge that the ,god who has been working with and for them in the past is now bringing them out into a larger and freer life4 ,only so can they be won for ,christ4 #bd ,reprinted by kind permission of the editors and publisher from ,an ,introduction to ,missionary ,service1 ,ed4 by ,g4 ,a4 ,gollock and ,e4 ,g4 ,k4 ,hewat1 ,oxford ,university ,press4 #aiba1 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,i ,the following course of reading--drawn up for ,secretaries of the ,y4,m4,c4,a4 in the ,east by ,dr4 ,j4 ,n4 ,farquhar and the writer--is recommended to those whose leisure is scant3 ,first ,year4 ,general3 ,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhism1 ,life and ,teachings of ,gautama1 the ,buddha 7,london3 ,s4,p4,c4,k4 #cs4 #f;d472 ,v4 ,smith1 ,asoka 7,oxford3 ,clarendon ,press4 #ds4 ,new edition1 #aibj74 ,special3 ,the ,dhammapada4 ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 x 7out of print72 ,the ,mahaparinibbana4 ,s4,b4,e41 vol4 xi 7#abs4 #f;d4 ,see ,introduction74 ,additional3 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha 7see ,introduction72 or ,rhys ,davids1 ,dialogues of the ,buddha 7,london3 ,milford4 #abs4 #f;d4 #crd volume1 #aiba74 ,second ,year4 ,general3 ,copleston1 ,buddhism ,primitive and ,present 7,london3 ,longmans4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,out of print72 ,hackmann1 ,buddhism as a ,religion 7see ,introduction74 ,special3 ,warren1 ,buddhism in ,translations4 ,chaps4 i and iv 7see ,introduction74 ,additional3 ,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhist ,india 7,london3 ,fisher ,unwin4 #gs4 #f;d472 ,the ,questions of ,king ,milinda1 ,s4,b4,e41 vols4 xxxv1 xxxvi4 7#dbs4 for two4 ,see ,introduction47 ,,ii ,for those who desire further and more detailed study the following suggestions1 based upon ,professor ,hume's course at ,union ,theological ,seminary and the present writer's at the ,pacific ,school of ,religion1 are likely to prove helpful3 ,a4 ,the ,life of the ,buddha4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhism1 ,life and ,teachings of ,gautama1 the ,buddha1 chaps4 ii1 iii1 vii 7see ,i1 ,first ,year72 ,kern1 ,manual of ,indian ,buddhism1 part ii 7,london3 ,probsthain4 #aes472 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha1 part i 7see ,introduction72 ,warren1 ,buddhism in ,translations1 chap4 i 7see ,introduction72 ,saunders1 ,gotama ,buddha 7see ,introduction74 ,b4 ,the ,scriptures of ,hinayna ,buddhism4 ,the ,vinaya ,pitaka 7,discipline ,basket71 ,the ,sutta ,pitaka 7,teaching ,basket71 ,the ,abhidhamma ,pitaka 7,higher ,religion1 or ,metaphysical ,basket74 ,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhism1 ,its ,history and ,literature 7,london3 ,putnams4 #ajs4 #f;d4 #aijg72 ,hastings' ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics1 vol4 viii1 pp4 #he-i 7,edinburgh3 ,t4 and ,t4 ,clark4 #ces4 #aiaf72 ,k4 ,j4 ,saunders1 ,heart of ,buddhism 7,london3 ,oxford ,university ,press4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,calcutta3 ,association ,press4 #f;d4 #aiae72 ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vols4 x1 xi1 xvii1 xix1 xx1 xxi1 xxxv1 xxxvi1 xlix 7see ,introduction72 ,rhys ,davids1 ,sacred ,books of the ,buddhists1 vols4 ii1 iii 7,london3 ,milford4 #abs4 #f;d4 each74 ,c4 ,the ,doctrines and ,practices of ,hinayna ,buddhism4 7,the ,hindu ,setting1 ,moral ,teachings1 ,concerning the ,soul1 ,transmigration1 ,karma1 ,nirvana1 ,methods of ,salvation1 ,prayer1 ,miracles1 ,the ,order ,woman47 ,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhism1 ,a ,sketch1 chaps4 iv1 v1 vi 7,london3 ,williams and ,norgate4 #bs4 #f;d4 #aiab72 ,e4 ,w4 ,hopkins1 ,religions of ,india1 chap4 xiii 7,boston3 ,ginn ,co4 #ajs4 #f;d4 #aijb72 ,k4 ,j4 ,saunders1 ,buddhist ,ideals 7,calcutta3 ,y4,m4,c4,a41 #aj annas4 #aiab74 ,d4 ,the ,expansion of ,buddhism4 7,in ,india1 the ,adjacent ,countries1 in ,china and ,korea1 in ,japan47 ,k4 ,j4 ,saunders1 ,story of ,buddhism1 chaps4 iv1 vii 7see ,introduction72 ,hackmann1 ,buddhism as a ,religion1 ,book iii 7see ,introduction72 ,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhism1 ,sketch1 chap4 ix 7see ,c72 ,r4 ,f4 ,johnston1 ,buddhist ,china 7,london3 ,murray4 #ahs4 #aiac72 ,k4 ,reischauer1 ,japanese ,buddhism 7,london and ,new ,york2 ,macmillan4 #ajs4 #f;d4 #b4 #aiag74 ,e4 ,differences between ,hinayna and ,mahyna4 ,suzuki1 ,outlines of ,mahyna 7,london3 ,lusac4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,out of print4 #aijh72 ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics4 ,under headings 7see ,b74 ,f4 ,buddhism and ,christianity4 7,similarities and ,differences47 ,saunders1 ,buddhist ,ideals 7see ,c72 ,carus1 ,buddhism and its ,christian ,critics1 chap4 v 7,chicago3 ,open ,court ,publishing ,co4 #gs4 #f;d472 ,k4 ,j4 ,saunders1 ,story of ,buddhism1 chap4 viii 7see ,introduction74 ,,iii ,for still more detailed work see the excellent booklets prepared by the ,board of ,missionary ,preparation1 #be ,madison ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,city1 ,the ,preparation of ,missionaries to ,buddhist ,lands and ,buddhism and ,buddhists in ,china--both in the press4