,transcriber's note3 ,minor spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been harmonized4 ,italic text has been marked with underscores4 ,obvious typos have been corrected4 ,,companion ,,volume ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,furniture ,illustrated by #gb ,full-page ,plates4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,on ,,the ,,continent ,,ii4 ,,the ,,english ,,renaissance ,,iii4 ,,stuart ,,or ,,jacobean 7,early ,seventeenth ,century7 ,,iv4 ,,stuart ,,or ,,jacobean 7,late ,seventeenth ,century7 ,v4 ,,queen ,,anne ,,and ,,early ,,georgian ,,styles ,,vi4 ,,french ,,furniture3 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,louis ,,xiv4 ,,vii4 ,,french ,,furniture3 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,louis ,,xv4 ,,viii4 ,,french ,,furniture3 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,louis ,,xvi4 ,,ix4 ,,french ,,furniture3 ,,the ,,first ,,empire ,,style ,x4 ,,chippendale ,,and ,,his ,,style ,,xi4 ,,adam1 ,,hepplewhite1 ,,and ,,sheraton ,,styles ,,xii4 ,,hints ,,to ,,collectors ,,chats ,,on ,,cottage ,,and ,,farmhouse ,,furniture ,,books ,,for ,,collectors ,with ,coloured ,frontispieces and many ,illustrations4 ,large ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,,chats ,,on ,,english ,,china4 ,by ,,arthur ,,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,furniture4 ,by ,,arthur ,,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,prints4 ,by ,,arthur ,,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,costume4 ,by ,g4 ,,woolliscroft ,,rhead4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,lace ,,and ,,needlework4 ,by ,e4 ,l4 ,,lowes4 ,,chats ,,on ,,oriental ,,china4 ,by ,j4 ,f4 ,,blacker4 ,,chats ,,on ,,miniatures4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,,foster4 ,,chats ,,on ,,english ,,earthenware4 ,by ,,arthur ,,hayden4 7,companion ,volume to ,chats on ,english ,china47 ,,chats ,,on ,,autographs4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,broadley4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,pewter4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,j4 ,,mass1 ,m4,a4 ,,chats ,,on ,,postage ,,stamps4 ,by ,,fred ,j4 ,,melville4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,jewellery ,,and ,,trinkets4 ,by ,,maciver ,,percival4 ,,chats ,,on ,,cottage ,,and ,,farmhouse ,,furniture4 ,by ,,arthur ,,hayden4 7,companion ,volume to ,chats on ,old ,furniture47 ,,london3 ,t4 ,,fisher ,,unwin4 ,,new ,,york3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company4 ,illustration3 ,,sideboard ,,of ,,carved ,,oak4 ,,english1 ,,seventeenth ,,century4 7,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,frontispiece4 ,,chats ,,on ,,cottage ,,and ,,farmhouse ,,furniture ,,by ,,arthur ,,hayden ,,author ,,of ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,furniture1 ,,etc4 ,,with ,a ,,chapter ,,on ,,old ,,english ,,chintzes ,,by ,,hugh ,,phillips ,,and ,,seventy-,,three ,,full-,,page ,,illustrations ,,new ,,york ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,,publishers 7,all rights reserved47 ,,to ,,my ,,old ,,friend ,,frederic ,,arup ,i ,,dedicate ,,this ,,volume ,,in ,,memory ,,of ,a ,,happy ,,labour ,,of ,,love ,,completed ,,preface ,the number of works dealing with old ,english furniture has grown rapidly during the last ten years4 ,not only has the subject been broadly treated from the historic or from the collector's point of view1 but latterly everything has been scientifically reduced into departments of knowledge1 and individual periods have received detailed treatment at the hands of specialists4 ,museums and well-known collections1 noblemen's seats and country houses have furnished photographs of the finest examples1 and these1 now well-known1 pieces have appeared again and again as illustrations to volumes by various hands4 ,it is obviously essential in the study of the history and evolution of furniture-making in this country that superlative specimens be selected as ideal types for the student of design or for the collector1 but such pieces must always be beyond the means of the average collector4 ,the present volume has been written for that large class of collectors1 who1 while appreciating the beauty and the subtlety of great masterpieces of ,english furniture1 have not long enough purses to pay the prices such examples bring after fierce competition in the auction-room4 ,the field of minor work affords peculiar pleasure and demands especial study4 ,the character of the cottage and farmhouse furniture is as sturdy and independent as that of the persons for whom it was made4 ,for three centuries unknown cabinet-makers in towns and in villages produced work unaffected by any foreign influences4 ,linen-chests1 bacon-cupboards1 ,bible-boxes1 gate tables1 and other tables1 dressers1 and chairs possess particular styles of treatment in different districts4 ,the eighteenth-century cabinet-makers scattered up and down the three kingdoms and in ,america found in ,chippendale's ,director a design-book which stimulated them to produce furniture of compelling interest to the collector4 ,the examples of such work illustrated in this volume have been taken from a wide area and are such as may come under the hand of the diligent collector in various parts of the country4 ,in view of the increased love of collecting homely furniture suitable for modern use1 it is my hope that this book may find a ready welcome1 especially nowadays1 when so many of the picturesque architectural details of old homesteads are being reproduced in the garden suburbs of great cities4 ,it is possible that the authorities of local museums may find in this class of furniture a field for special research1 as undoubtedly specimens of local work should be secured for permanent exhibition before they are dispersed far and wide and their identity with particular districts lost for ever4 ,in regard to the scientific study of farmhouse and cottage furniture1 the ideal arrangement is that followed at ,skansen1 ,stockholm1 and at ,lyngby1 near ,copenhagen4 ,in the former a series of buildings have been erected in the open air1 in connection with the ,northern ,museum1 gathered from every part of ,sweden1 retaining their exterior character and fitted with the furniture of their former occupants4 ,it was the desire of the founder1 ,dr4 ,hazelius1 to present an epitome of the national life4 ,similarly at ,lyngby1 an adjunct of the ,dansk ,folkemuseum at ,copenhagen1 the life-work of ,hr4 ,olsen has been given to gathering together and re-erecting a large number of old cottages and farmhouses from various districts in ,denmark1 from ,iceland1 the ,faroe ,islands1 and from ,norway and ,sweden4 ,these have their obsolete agricultural implements1 and old methods of fencing and quaint styles of storage4 ,the furniture stands in these specimen homes exactly as if they were occupied4 ,it is a remarkable open-air museum1 and the idea is worthy of serious consideration in this country4 ,old cottages and farmhouses are fast disappearing1 and the preservation of these beauties of village and country life should appeal to all lovers of national monuments4#a #a ,those interested in the method pursued in ,sweden and ,denmark and the grave necessity for speedy measures to preserve our national cottages and farmhouses from effacement will find illuminating articles on the subject from the pen of ,home ,counties in the ,world's ,work1 ,august1 ,october1 and ,november1 #aiaj1 and in the ,american ,educational ,review1 ,february1 #aiaa1 in an article by ,lucy ,m4 ,salmon4 ,old ,west ,surrey1 by ,gertrude ,jekyll 7,longmans ,co471 #aijd1 contains a wealth of suggestive material relating to cottage furniture and articles of daily use of old-style country life now passing away4 ,in connexion with farmhouse furniture1 old chintzes is a subject never before written upon4 ,a chapter in this volume is contributed by ,mr4 ,hugh ,phillips1 whose special studies concerning this little known field enable him to present much valuable information which has never before been in print1 together with illustrations of chintzes actually taken from authentic examples of old furniture4 ,a brief survey is made of miscellaneous articles associated with cottage and farmhouse furniture4 ,some specimens of ,sussex firebacks are illustrated1 together with fenders1 firedogs1 pot-hooks1 candle-holders1 and brass and copper candlesticks4 ,the illustrations have been selected in order to convey a broad outline of the subject4 ,my especial thanks are due to ,messrs4 ,phillips1 of the ,manor ,house1 ,hitchin1 for placing at my disposal the practical experience of many years' collecting in various parts of the country1 and by enriching the volume with illustrations of many fine examples of great importance and rarity never before photographed4 ,to ,messrs4 ,a4 ,b4 ,daniell ,sons ,i am indebted for photographs of specimens in their galleries4 ,in presenting this volume it is my intention that it should be a companion volume to my ,chats on ,old ,furniture1 which records the history and evolution of the finer styles of ,english furniture1 showing the various foreign influences on ,english craftsmen who made furniture for the wealthy classes4 ,,arthur ,,hayden4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,introductory ,,note #be ,the minor collector--,the originality of the village cabinet-maker--,his freedom from foreign influences--,the traditional character of his work--,difficult to establish dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture--,oak the chief wood employed--,beech1 elm1 and ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood--,village craftsmanship not debased by early-,victorian art--,its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--,the conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in ,sweden and in ,denmark--,the need for the preservation and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in ,great ,britain4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,seventeenth-,,century ,,styles #dc ,typical ,jacobean furniture--,solidity of ,english joiners' work--,oak general in its use--,the oak forests of ,england--,sturdy independence of country furniture--,chests of drawers--,the slow assimilation of foreign styles--,the changing habits of the people4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,gate-,,leg ,,table #hc ,its early form--,transitional and experimental stages--,its establishment as a permanent popular type--,the gate-leg table in the ,jacobean period--,walnut and mahogany varieties--,its utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--,its adoption in modern days4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,farmhouse ,,dresser #aac ,the days of the late ,stuarts--,its early table form with drawers--,the decorated type with shelves--,william and ,mary style with double cupboards--,the ,queen ,anne cabriole leg--,mid-eighteenth-century types4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,bible-,,box1 ,,the ,,cradle1 ,,the ,,spinning-,,wheel1 ,,and ,,the ,,bacon-,,cupboard #acg ,the ,puritan days of the seventeenth century--,the ,protestant ,bible in every home--,the variety of carving found in ,bible-boxes--,the ,jacobean cradle and its forms--,the spinning-wheel--,the bacon-cupboard4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,styles #aee ,the advent of the cabriole leg--,the so-called ,queen ,anne style--,the survival of oak in the provinces--,the influence of walnut on cabinet-making--,the early-,georgian types--,chippendale and his contemporaries4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,chair #ahi ,early days--,the typical ,jacobean oak chair--,the evolution of the stretcher--,the chair-back and its development--,transition between ,jacobean and ,william and ,mary forms--,farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--,the ,queen ,anne splat--,country ,chippendale1 ,hepplewhite1 and ,sheraton--,the grandfather chair--,ladder-back types--,the spindle-back chair--,corner chairs4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,windsor ,,chair #bdc ,early types--,the stick legs without stretcher--,the tavern chair--,eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--,the rail-back variety--,chippendale style ,windsor chairs--,the survival of the ,windsor chair4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,local ,,types #bfe ,welsh carving--,scottish types--,lancashire dressers1 wardrobes1 and chairs--,hertfordshire1 ,bedfordshire1 ,cambridge1 and ,essex tables--,isle of ,man tables4 ,,chapter ,x ,,miscellaneous ,,ironwork1 ,,etc4 #bhe ,the rushlight-holder--,the dipper--,the chimney crane--,the ,scottish crusie--,firedogs--,the warming-pan--,sussex firebacks--,grandfather clocks4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,old ,,english ,,chintzes4 7,by ,hugh ,phillips7 #cae ,the charm of old ,english chintz--,huguenot cloth-printers settle in ,england--,jacob ,stampe at the sign of the ,calico ,printer--,the ,queen ,anne period--,the ,chippendale period--,the age of machinery4 ,,index #cdc ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,sideboard ,,of ,,carved ,,oak 7,,english1 ,,seventeenth-,,century7 ,frontispiece ,,chapter ,i--,,introductory ,,note ,,page ,,chests 7,,sixteenth ,,century7 #bi ,,elizabethan ,,chair #ce ,,chest 7,,seventeenth ,,century7 #ce ,,interior ,,of ,,farmhouse ,,parlour #ci ,,interior ,,of ,,cottage #ci ,,chapter ,,ii ,,monk',s ,,bench #ec ,,oak ,,chest ,,with ,,drawers ,,underneath #ec ,,joint ,,stools #eg ,,oak ,,table #eg ,,chest 7,,restoration ,,period7 #fc ,,early ,,oak ,,table 7,,middle ,,seventeenth-,,century7 #fc ,,small ,,oak ,,table 7c4 #afhj7 #fe ,,jacobean ,,chest ,,of ,,drawers 7c4 #affj7 #fe ,,chests ,,of ,,drawers #fi ,,chest ,,of ,,drawers 7,,cabriole ,,feet7 #gc ,,william ,,and ,,mary ,,table 7c4 #afgj7 #gc ,,children',s ,,stools #gg ,,rare ,,bedstead 7c4 #agjj7 #gg ,,chapter ,,iii ,,triangular ,,gate ,,table #hg ,,oak ,,side-,,table #hg ,,small ,,gate ,,table 7,,very ,,early ,,type7 #ia ,,gate ,,table 7,,middle ,,seventeenth-,,century7 #ia ,,rare ,,table ,,with ,,double ,,gates #ic ,,rare ,,table ,,with ,,double ,,gates ,,and ,,only ,,one ,,flap #ic ,,gate-,,leg ,,table 7,,restoration ,,period7 #ig ,,gate-,,leg ,,table 7,,yorkshire ,,type7 #ig ,,gate-,,leg ,,table ,,with ,,six ,,legs 7,,barley-,,sugar ,,turning7 #ii ,,gate-,,leg ,,table 7,,ball ,,turning7 #ii ,,collapsible ,,table ,,with ,,rare ,x ,,stretcher #aja ,,primitive ,,gate-,,leg ,,table #aja ,,william ,,and ,,mary ,,gate-,,leg ,,table #aje ,,square-,,top ,,gate-,,leg ,,tables #aje ,,mahogany ,,gate-,,leg ,,tables #aji ,,chapter ,,iv ,,oak ,,dresser 7,,about #afhj7 #aag ,,oak ,,dresser 7,,period ,,of ,,james ,,ii47 #aag ,,oak ,,dresser 7,,early ,,eighteenth ,,century7 #aai ,,oak ,,dresser1 ,,urn-,,shaped ,,legs 7,,restoration ,,period7 #aai ,,middle-,,jacobean ,,dresser #abc ,,william ,,and ,,mary ,,oak ,,dresser #abg ,,oak ,,dresser4 ,,square-,,leg ,,type #abg ,,unique ,,dresser ,,and ,,clock ,,combined #aca ,,oak ,,dresser4 ,,queen ,,anne ,,cabriole ,,legs #ace ,,lancashire ,,oak ,,dresser #ace ,,chapter ,v ,,bible-,,boxes4 ,,early ,,examples #adc ,,bible-,,boxes 7,,middle ,,seventeenth-,,century ,,and ,,ordinary ,,type7 #ade ,,oak ,,cradles #adi ,,yarn-,,winder ,,and ,,spinning-,,wheel #aea ,,buckinghamshire ,,bobbins #aea ,,chapter ,,vi ,,lancashire ,,oak ,,settles #aei ,,cupboard ,,with ,,drawers #afc ,,queen ,,anne ,,bureau ,,bookcase #afc ,,oak ,,tables 7,,early ,,eighteenth ,,century7 #afe ,,queen ,,anne ,,glass- ,,or ,,china-,,cupboard #aga ,,georgian ,,corner-,,cupboard #aga ,,oak ,,tables #agc ,,oak ,,tables1 ,,with ,,typical ,,country ,,cabriole ,,legs #agg ,,queen ,,anne ,,tea-,,table #aha ,,oak ,,revolving ,,book-,,stand #aha ,,country ,,chippendale ,,table #aha ,,square ,,mahogany ,,flap-,,table #ahc ,,tripod ,,table 7c4 #agfj7 #ahc ,,country ,,chippendale ,,and ,,country ,,adam ,,tables #ahg ,,chapter ,,vii ,,oak ,,arm-,,chairs 7,,one ,,dated #afej7 #aia ,,chestnut ,,arm-,,chair ,,and ,,oak ,,arm-,,chair 7c4 #afij7 #aia ,,yorkshire ,,chair 7,,restoration ,,period7 #aig ,,cromwellian ,,chairs #aig ,,oak ,,settle 7c4 #afge7 #bja ,,oak ,,arm-,,chairs 7,,one ,,dated #aggg7 #bja ,,oak ,,chairs 7c4 #afhj7 ,,in ,,walnut ,,styles #bje ,,oak ,,chairs1 ,,showing ,,various ,,transitional ,,stages #bji ,,chairs ,,in ,,queen ,,anne ,,style #bac ,,country ,,chippendale ,,and ,,hepplewhite ,,chairs #bae ,,oak ,,settees ,,in ,,chippendale ,,style #bai ,,country ,,chairs ,,in ,,chippendale ,,and ,,sheraton ,,styles #bbe ,,grandfather ,,chair #bca ,,arm-,,chair ,,and ,,bacon-,,cupboard #bca ,,spindle-,,back ,,and ,,ladder-,,back ,,chairs #bce ,,corner ,,chairs #bcg ,,chapter ,,viii ,,chairs ,,of ,,earliest ,,form ,,with ,,stick ,,legs #bdg ,,oliver ,,goldsmith',s ,,chair #bea ,,chairs ,,with ,,fiddle-,,splat ,,and ,,cabriole ,,legs #bee ,,chippendale ,,and ,,hepplewhite ,,windsor ,,chairs #beg ,,sheraton ,,style ,,windsor ,,chairs #bfa ,,chapter ,,ix ,,chest1 ,,dated #afcf 7,,welsh7 #bfi ,,cupboard1 ,,dated #agaj 7,,welsh7 #bfi ,,elm ,,wardrobe 7,,welsh74 ,,oak ,,dresser 7,,lancashire7 #bgc ,,flap-,,top ,,table 7,,hertfordshire ,,type7 #bge ,,spindle-,,back ,,chairs 7,,lancashire7 #bge ,,oak ,,chest ,,of ,,drawers 7,,yorkshire ,,type7 #bgi ,,lancashire ,,oak ,,settle 7c4 #affj7 #bgi ,,three-,,legged ,,table 7,,isle ,,of ,,man7 #bha ,,cricket ,,tables 7,,hertfordshire1 ,,south ,,beds1 ,,cambridge1 ,,and ,,essex7 #bha ,,chapter ,x ,,rushlight-,,holders1 ,,scotch ,,crusie1 ,,candle-,,dipper1 ,,pipe ,,cleaner1 ,,etc4 #bhi ,,queen ,,anne ,,pot-,,hanger1 ,,with ,,original ,,grate #bia ,,kettle ,,trivet #bia ,,country ,,firedogs ,,and ,,fire-,,grate 7,,eighteenth ,,century7 #big ,,sussex ,,iron ,,firebacks #cja ,,sussex ,,iron ,,firebacks ,,and ,,original ,,wood ,,pattern #cjc ,,grandfather ,,clock ,,and ,,warming-,,pans #cjg ,,brass ,,dial ,,of ,,thirty-,,hour ,,clock #cji ,,chapter ,,xi--,,old ,,english ,,chintzes ,,old ,,trade ,,card ,,showing ,,calico ,,printers ,,at ,,work #cai ,,huguenot ,,printed ,,chintz ,,with ,,portraits #cai ,,hand-,,printed ,,chintzes4 ,,queen ,,anne ,,period ,,and ,,chinese ,,style #cbc ,,exotic ,,bird ,,and ,,gothic ,,styles 7,,eighteenth ,,century7 #cbg ,,hand-,,printed ,,chintz ,,by ,r4 ,,jones 7,,old ,,ford7 #cca ,,hepplewhite ,,period ,,and ,,victorian ,,period ,,designs #cce ,,victorian ,,chintz 7,,in ,,the ,,collection ,,of ,,mrs4 ,,cobden ,,unwin7 #cci ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,,note ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,,note ,the minor collector--,the originality of the village cabinet-maker--,his freedom from foreign influences--,the traditional character of his work--,difficulty to establish dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture--,oak the chief wood employed--,beech1 elm1 and ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood--,village craftsmanship not debased by early ,victorian art--,its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--,the conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in ,sweden and in ,denmark--,the need for the preservation and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in ,great ,britain4 ,in regard to launching another volume on the market dealing with old furniture1 a word of explanation is desirable1 for nowadays of making books there is no end1 and much study is a weariness to the collector4 ,in the present volume attention has been especially given to that class of furniture known as ,cottage or ,farmhouse4 ,there is no volume dealing with this phase of collecting4 ,prices for old furniture of the finest quality have gone up by leaps and bounds1 and for those not possessed of ample means the collection of superlative styles is at an end4 ,singularly enough1 the most native furniture and that most typically racy of the soil has not hitherto attracted the attention of wealthy collectors4 ,the plutocrats who buy only the finest creations of ,chippendale1 who have immediate private information when an exquisitely designed ,sheraton piece is found1 who amass a mighty hoard of gilt ,stuart furniture1 or who boast of an unrivalled collection of ,elizabethan oak1 do not touch the minor furniture made during a period of three hundred years for the common people4 ,the finest classes of ,english furniture made by skilful craftsmen for wealthy patrons must always be beyond the range of the minor collector4 ,every year brings keener zest among those interested in furniture of a bygone day1 and it is therefore increasingly difficult for persons of taste and judgment who cannot afford high prices to satisfy their longings4 ,it is obvious that specimens of massive appearance finely carved in oak of the ,tudor age1 or of elegantly turned work in walnut of ,jacobean days1 must be readily recognised as valuable4 ,sumptuous furniture tells its own story4 ,it is unlikely nowadays that such wonderful finds1 concerning which imaginative writers are always telling us1 will occur again--except on paper4 ,popular enthusiasm has been awakened1 and more often than not the possessor of some mediocre piece of furniture or china attaches a value to it which is absurd4 ,the publication of prices realised at auction has whetted the cupidity of would-be sellers who convert early nineteenth-century chairs by a nod of the head into ,queen ,anne1 and who aver with equal veracity that ordinary blue transfer printed ware has been in the family a hundred years4 ,illustration3 ,,chest4 ,,middle ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,gothic carving4 ,solid wood ends1 forming feet4 ,made from six boards2 with hand-forged nails and large lock1 characteristic of ,gothic chests4 ,illustration3 ,,chest4 ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,lozenge panels1 disc turning1 and ,gothic brackets 7rare74 7,by the courtesy of ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be in somewhat parallel case to ,english earthenware4 ,a quarter of a century ago1 or even ten years ago1 collectors in general confined their attention mainly to porcelain4 ,the rage was for ,worcester1 ,chelsea1 ,derby1 or ,bow4 ,with the exception of ,wedgwood and ,turner1 the ,staffordshire potters had not found favour with the fashionable collector4 ,nowadays ,toft dishes1 ,staffordshire figures by ,enoch ,wood1 vases by ,neale and ,palmer1 and the entire school of lustre ware1 have received attention from the specialist1 and scientific classification has brought prices within measurable distance of those paid for porcelain4 ,what earthenware is to porcelain1 so cottage and farmhouse furniture are to the elaborate styles made for the use of the richer classes4 ,the ,french insipidities and rococo ornament of ,chelsea and ,derby and the oriental echoes of ,worcester and of ,bow are as little typical of national eighteenth-century sentiment as the ribbon-back chair and the ,chinese fretwork of ,chippendale or the satinwood elegances of ,sheraton4 ,to ,staffordshire and to local potteries scattered all over the country from ,sunderland to ,bristol1 from ,lambeth to ,nottingham1 from ,liverpool to ,rye1 one instinctively turns for real individuality and native tradition4 ,similarly farmhouse furniture exhibits the work of the local cabinet-maker in various districts1 strongly marked by an adherence to traditional forms and intensely insular in its disregard of prevailing fashions4 ,it is as ,english as the leather black-jack and the home-brewed ale4 ,contemporaneous with the great cabinet-makers who drew their inspiration from foreign sources--from ,italy1 from ,france1 from ,holland1 and from ,spain--small jobbing cabinet-makers in every village and town had their patrons1 and when not making wagons or farm implements1 produced furniture for everyday use4 ,as may readily be supposed1 there is in these results a blind navet which characterises a design handed down from generation to generation4 ,this is one of the surprising features of the village cabinet-maker's work--its curious anachronism4 ,the sublime indifference to passing fashions is astonishingly delightful to the student and to the collector4 ,there is nothing more uncertain than to attempt with exactitude to place a date upon cottage or farmhouse furniture4 ,the bacon-cupboard1 the linen-chest1 the gate-table1 the ladder-back chair and the windsor chair1 were made through successive generations down to fifty years ago without departing from the original pattern of the ,charles ,i4 or the ,queen ,anne period4 ,oak chests are found carved with the ,gothic linen-fold pattern4 ,they might be of the sixteenth century except for the fact that dates of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century are carved upon them4 ,whole districts have retained similar styles for centuries1 and the fondness for clearly defined types is almost as pronounced as that of the ,asiatic rug-weaver1 who makes the same patterns as his remote ancestors sold to the ancient ,greeks4 ,the village cabinet-maker's work knows no sequence of ages of oak1 walnut1 mahogany1 and satinwood4 ,his wood is from his native trees4 ,his chairs come straight from the hedgerows4 ,his history can be spanned in one long age of oak1 intermingled here and there with elm and yew-tree and beech4 ,the early days of primitive work go back to the marked class distinction between gentles and simples1 and the end came only in the last decades of the nineteenth century1 when the village craftsman was obliterated by the rapid advance of factory and machine made furniture4 ,it may at first be assumed by the beginner that cottage and farmhouse furniture is throughout a weak and feeble imitation of finer pieces4 ,but this is not so4 ,the craftsmen who made this class of furniture formed for themselves special types which were never made by the ,london cabinet-makers4 ,for instance1 the ,jacobean gate-table1 the ,lancashire wardrobe1 the dresser1 and the windsor chair1 have styles peculiarly their own4 ,in many of the specimens found it will be seen that the village cabinet-maker displayed very fine workmanship1 and there are clever touches and delightful mannerisms which make such pieces of interest to the collector4 ,in early days of the villeins1 furniture was limited to a stool1 a table1 and perhaps a chest4 ,nor was the use of much furniture at the farm or in the cottage a feature in ,tudor and early ,stuart days4 ,gorgeously carved oak and richly turned walnut filled the mansions of the wealthy1 but one does not find its simpler counterpart made for cottages till nearly #affj4 ,the few pieces essential to every dwelling-house may be placed not earlier than the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century--the chest1 the table1 the form1 and the ,protestant ,bible-box4 ,chests with scratched ,gothic mouldings1 tables of the trestle type as used to-day1 forms of the most simple construction1 exist1 and may be said to belong to the sixteenth century4 ,bible-boxes became common during the early seventeenth century1 and without change in their style were made till the late eighteenth century4 ,in mid-seventeenth-century days the well-known gate-table was introduced4 ,of early pieces we illustrate a few examples1 though in connection with farmhouse and cottage1 the early days afford a poor field1 as the furniture of those days now remaining was mostly made for great families4 ,the two sixteenth-century chests illustrated 7p4 #bi7 are interesting as showing the early styles4 ,the upper photograph is of a middle sixteenth-century chest1 with ,gothic carving and solid wood ends forming feet4 ,this type of chest is made from six boards4 ,the hand-forged nails show the rough joinery1 and the large lock is characteristic of such ,gothic chests4 ,the lower chest is also of the sixteenth century4 ,it has lozenge panels1 and is further ornamented by disc turning4 ,the ,gothic brackets at the base are rare1 and it is an interesting example4 ,illustration3 ,,elizabethan ,,chair4 ,this is of ,scandinavian origin1 and was known in ,england before the ,roman ,conquest1 being shown in medival ,,mss4 ,such designs survived the ,gothic styles4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,chest4 ,,seventeenth ,,century4 ,panels with early scratched mouldings 7i4e41 not mitred74 ,mitreing came into general use about #afjj4 ,that the chest remained in somewhat primitive form is shown by the illustration of a seventeenth-century specimen 7p4 #ce74 ,it will be observed that the panels have early scratched mouldings1 that is to say they are not mitred4 ,the fashion of mitreing in cabinet-work came into general use about the year #afjj1 but minor examples of country furniture often possess scratched moulding at a much later date4 ,on the same page is an ,elizabethan chair4 ,this type is of exceptional interest4 ,it has a long and proud history4 ,they are1 according to ,mr4 ,percy ,macquoid1 of ,byzantine origin2 their pattern was introduced by the ,varangian ,guard into ,scandinavia1 and from there doubtless brought to ,england by the ,normans4 ,they continued to be made until the end of the sixteenth century4 ,these turned chairs are interesting as having spindles1 which came into use at a much later period in the spindle-back chair4 ,with the growth of prosperity and the increased use of domestic comforts1 cottage furniture becomes a wider subject4 ,carved oak bedsteads1 simple four-posters1 bacon-cupboards1 linen-chests became more common4 ,in eighteenth-century days there was quite an outburst of enthusiasm1 and the small cabinet-maker gained knowledge of his craft and became ambitious4 ,on the promulgation of ,chippendale's designs he made copies in elm and oak and beech for village patrons and essayed to follow ,hepplewhite and even ,sheraton4 ,but this wave of success was followed by the competitive inroad made by factory-made cabinet-work1 and during these last days the local cabinet-maker adhered closer than ever to the early oak examples of his forefathers4 ,the village craft practically came to an end in the fifties1 but it was a glorious end1 and it is happy that it did not survive to produce bad work of atrocious design4 ,the passing of cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be like the disappearance of dialect4 ,the modern spirit has entered into village life1 the town newspaper has permeated the country-side and disturbed the old-world repose4 ,the lover of ,english folk-ways and the simplicity of rural life may echo the line of ,wordsworth1 ,the things that ,i have seen ,i now can see no more4 ,in the illustrations of two interiors shown on p4 #ci it will be seen how happily placed the furniture becomes when in its old home4 ,the atmosphere of these rural homesteads is at once soothing and restful1 and the pieces of furniture had an added dignity4 ,it seems almost sacrilege to tear such relics of bygone days from their ancient resting-place4 ,but the collector is abroad1 and few sanctuaries have escaped his assiduous attention4 ,the lower illustration shows the interior of a cottage with its original panelled walls4 ,this cottage actually has ,tudor frescoes4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,farmhouse ,,parlour4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,cottage4 ,with original panelled walls4 ,this cottage has ,tudor frescoes4 ,the study of old farmhouse and cottage furniture has not been pursued in this country in so scientific a manner as in ,sweden and in ,denmark4 ,the conservation of national heirlooms is a matter which must be speedily dealt with before they become scattered4 ,it is a point which cannot be repeated too often4 ,at ,skansen1 ,stockholm1 old buildings have1 under ,state supervision1 been re-erected1 and with their furniture they afford a practical illustration of the particular type of life of the district of their origin4 ,at ,lyngby1 near ,copenhagen1 a series of farmhouses similarly illustrate old types of homesteads from various localities in ,denmark1 and from ,iceland and the ,faroe ,islands4 ,by such a systematic and permanent record of farm and cottage life and the everyday art of the people it is possible to impart vitality to the study of the subject4 ,the ,english method of museum arrangement in dry-as-dust manner1 with rows of furniture and cases of china1 is a valley of dry bones compared with such a fresh and vigorous handling and method of exposition as is followed in ,scandinavia4 ,if old ,english furniture is worth the preservation for the benefit of students of craftsmanship or as a relic of bygone customs1 there is undoubted room for due consideration of the best means of exhibiting it4 ,a series of representative farmhouses could be re-erected at some convenient spot4 ,there are many parks around ,london and other great cities which would be benefited by such picturesque buildings4 ,before it is too late1 and many of these beautiful structures have been destroyed to make room for modern improvements1 and village life has become absorbed by the growing towns1 it should be possible to step in and preserve some of the most typical examples for the enjoyment of the nation4 ,the real interest shown by the public in out-of-door object-lessons of this nature is indicated by the great crowds at ,exhibitions at ,earl's ,court and the like1 which flocked to ,tudor houses replete with old furniture1 and villages transplanted in lath and plaster to simulate the real thing1 which seemingly has been neglected from an educational point of view4 ,the mountain farms and the homesteads of the men of the dales1 fen farms1 and stone cottages from the ,cotswolds1 half-timbered farms from ,surrey1 from ,cheshire1 and from ,hampshire1 dating back to early ,stuart days--are not these worthy of preservation8 ,in the ,welsh hills1 and nestling in the dips of the ,grampians and the ,cheviots1 from ,wessex to ,northumbria1 from the ,border country to the extremity of ,cornwall1 from ,east ,anglia to the ,lakes1 are treasures upon which the ruthless hand of destruction must shortly fall4 ,or far afield in ,harris and in ,skye1 or remote ,connemara1 there are types which should find a permanent abiding place as national records of the homes of the men of the island kingdom4 ,this should not be an impossible nor unthinkable problem to solve before such are allowed to pass away4 ,the intense value of such a faithful record is worthy of careful consideration by the authorities1 either as a national undertaking or under the auspices of one of the learned societies1 such as the ,society of ,antiquaries1 or the ,society for the ,protection of ,ancient ,buildings and ,monuments1 interested in the safeguarding of the national heritage bequeathed us by our forefathers4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,seventeenth-,,century ,,styles ,,chronology ,,james ,i4 7#afjc-be7 #afjf ,second colonisation of ,virginia begun2 ,raleigh's first colony in ,virginia was founded in #aehe4 #afaa ,the colonisation of ,ulster begun4 ,publication of the ,authorised version of the ,bible4 #afbj ,the sailing of the ,mayflower and the foundation of ,new ,england by the ,puritans4 ,,charles ,i4 7#afbe-di7 #afcj ,john ,winthrop and a number of ,puritans settle in ,massachusetts4 #afcc ,reclamation of forest lands4 #afcd ,wentworth introduces flax cultivation into ,ireland4 #afce ,taxes for ,ship ,money levied on inland counties4 #afcg ,john ,hampden1 a country gentleman1 refuses to pay ,ship ,money4 ,,civil ,,war 7#afdb-di7 #afdb ,battle of ,edgehill4 ,formation of ,eastern ,association4 ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 ,essex1 ,cambridge1 and ,hertford unite for purpose of defence against the ,royalists4 #afdc ,battles of ,reading1 ,grantham1 ,stratton1 ,chalgrove ,field1 ,adwalton ,moor 7near ,bradford71 ,lansdown1 ,roundway ,down1 ,bristol1 ,gloucester1 ,newbury1 ,winceby1 ,hull4 #afdd ,battles of ,nantwich1 ,copredy ,bridge1 ,marston ,moor1 ,tippermuir1 ,lostwithiel1 ,newbury4 #afde ,battles of ,inverlochy1 ,naseby1 ,langport1 ,kilsyth1 ,bristol1 ,philiphaugh1 ,rowton ,heath4 #afdh ,battles of ,maidstone1 ,pembroke1 ,preston1 ,colchester4 ,,the ,,commonwealth 7#afdb-eh7 #afdi ,battle of ,rathmines4 ,storming of ,drogheda and ,wexford by ,cromwell4 #afej ,montrose defeated at ,corbiesdale and executed4 ,battle of ,dunbar4 #afea ,battle of ,worcester4 #afeb ,war with ,holland4 #afef ,war with ,spain4 #afeg ,destruction of ,spanish fleet by ,blake4 #afeh ,battle of the ,dunes4 ,victory of ,english and ,french fleet over ,spain4 ,,interregnum 7#afeh-fj7 #afei ,rising in ,cheshire for ,charles4 ,,charles ,,ii4 7#affj-he7 #afgb ,the stop of the ,exchequer4 ,charles refuses to repay the principal of the sums he had borrowed and reduces interest from #ab per cent4 to #f per cent4 ,this resulted in great distress1 felt in various parts of the country4 ,,james ,,ii4 7#afhe-hh7 #afhe ,insurrection of ,argyll in ,scotland4 ,monmouth rising in ,west of ,england4 ,revocation of ,edict of ,nantes4 ,the expulsion of a large number of ,french ,protestant artisans4 ,settlement of skilled silk-weavers and others in ,england4 ,,william ,,iii4 ,,and ,,mary 7#afhi-id7 ,,william ,,iii4 7#afhi-agjb7 #afhi ,siege of ,londonderry4 #afij ,battle of the ,boyne4 ,william defeats ,james1 who flees to ,france4 #afia ,capitulation of ,limerick2 #aj1jjj ,irish soldiers and officers joined the service of the ,french ,king4 #afib ,battle of ,la ,hogue1 ,french fleet destroyed4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,seventeenth-,,century ,,styles ,typical ,jacobean furniture--,solidity of ,english joiners' work--,oak general in its use--,the oak forests of ,england--,sturdy independence of country furniture--,chests of drawers--,the slow assimilation of foreign styles--,the changing habits of the people4 ,to the lover of old oak1 varied in character and essentially ,english in its practical realisation of the exact needs of its users1 the seventeenth century provides an exceptionally fine field4 ,the chairs1 the tables1 the dower-chests and the four-post bedsteads of the farmhouse were sturdy reflections of sumptuous furniture made for the nobility and gentry in ,jacobean and ,elizabethan times4 ,the designs may have been suggested by finer and early models1 but the balance1 the sense of proportion1 and the carving1 were the result of the village carpenter's own individual ideas as to the requirements of the furniture for use in the farmhouse4 ,obviously strength and stability were important factors1 and ornament1 as such1 took a subsidiary place in his scheme4 ,but1 although coarse and possessing a leaning towards the unwieldy1 and often massive without the accompanying grandeur of the highly-trained craftsman's work1 there is a breadth of treatment in such pieces which is at once recognisable4 ,they were made for use and no little thought was bestowed on their lines1 and1 rightly appreciated1 they possess a considerable beauty4 ,there is nothing finicking about this seventeenth-century farmhouse furniture4 ,there is no meaningless ornament4 ,produced in conditions suitable for quiet and restrained craftsmanship1 contemplative cabinet-makers began to evolve styles that are far removed from the average design of furniture made to-day under more pretentious surroundings4 ,the gate table1 with its long history and its amplification of structure and ornament1 to which a separate chapter is devoted 7,chapter ,,iii71 is a case in point4 ,it was extensively used in inns and in farmhouses and found itself in set definite types spread over a wide area from one end of the country to the other4 ,its practicability caught the taste of lovers of utility4 ,its added gracefulness of form1 in combination with its adaptability to modern needs1 has recaptured the fancy of housewives to-day4 ,it is the happy survival of a beautiful and useful piece of ingenious cabinet-work4 ,to-day one finds unexpectedly a ,london fashion lingering in the provinces years afterwards4 ,a stray air from a light opera or some catch-phrase of town slang is gaily bandied about as current coin in bucolic jest long after its circulation in the metropolis has ceased4 ,the fashions in provincial furniture moved as slowly4 ,half a century after certain styles were the vogue they crept imperceptibly into country use4 ,in speech and song the transplantation is more rapid1 but in craftsmanship1 the studied work of men's hands1 the use of novelty is against the grain of the conservative mind of the country cabinet-maker4 ,therefore throughout the entire field of this minor furniture it must be borne in mind that it is quite usual to find examples of one century reflecting the glories of the period long since gone4 ,solidity of ,english ,joiners' ,work4--,the love of old country furniture of the seventeenth century is hardly an acquired taste4 ,old oak is at once a jarring note in a ,sheraton drawing-room with delicate colour scheme of dainty wallpaper and satin coverings4 ,but as a general rule1 when it is first seen in its proper environment1 in an old-world farmhouse with panelled walls1 and mullioned windows1 set squarely on an oak floor and beneath blackened oak beams ripe with age1 it wins immediate recognition as representative of a fine period of furniture4 ,it is admitted by experts1 and it is the proud boast of possessors of old oak1 that the joiner's work of this style--the seventeenth century at its best--stands unequalled for its solidity and sound practical adhesion to fixed principles governing sturdy furniture fashioned for hard and continued usage4 ,of course1 there were no screws used in those days1 and little glue4 ,the joints dovetailed into each other with great exactness and were fastened by the wooden pins so often visible in old examples4 ,the modern copyist has a fine regard for these wooden pegs4 ,he knows that his clients set store by them1 and he accordingly sees to it that they are well in evidence in his replicas4 ,but there is yet a distinction which may be noticed between his pegs and the originals4 ,his are accurately round1 turned by machinery to fit an equally circular machine-turned hole4 ,they tell their own story instantly to a trained eye1 to say nothing of the piece of furniture as a whole1 which always has little conflicting touches to denote its modernity4 ,as an instance of the form of the sixteenth century continuing in use until mid-seventeenth-century days the illustration of an oak table 7p4 #fc7 brings out this point4 ,the heavy baluster-like legs1 only just removed from the earlier bulbous types1 and the massive treatment belong to the days of ,james ,i41 and yet such pieces really were made in ,cromwellian days4 ,the rude simplicity of much of the farmhouse furniture is indicated by the ,monk's ,bench illustrated 7p4 #ec74 ,the back is convertible into a table top4 ,the early plainness of style for so late a piece as #afej is particularly noteworthy4 ,this specimen is interesting by reason of its exceptionally large back4 ,on the same page is illustrated a chest with two drawers underneath4 ,this form is termed a ,mule ,chest1 and is the earliest form of the chest of drawers4 ,these ,cromwellian chests with drawers continued to be made in the country for a hundred years1 but in more fashionable circles they soon developed into the well-known ,jacobean chest of drawers1 the prototype of the form in use to-day4 ,as an instance of this lingering of fashion the chest illustrated is dated #agja1 quite fifty years after its first appearance as a new style4 ,illustration3 ,,monk',s ,,bench4 ,c4 #afej4 ,with back convertible into table top4 ,exceptionally large back4 7,note early plainness of style47 7,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,a4 ,b4 ,daniell ,sons47 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,chest ,,with ,,drawers ,,underneath4 ,termed a ,mule ,chest4 ,the earliest form of chest of drawers4 ,this piece in style is ,middle ,seventeenth ,century1 but is dated #agja4 ,oak ,general in its ,use4--,the oak as a wood was in general use both in the furniture of the richer classes and in the farmhouse furniture of seventeenth-century days and earlier4 ,inlaid work is unknown in furniture of this type4 ,it was sparingly used in pieces of more important origin4 ,the room shown at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum from ,sizergh ,castle has inlays of holly and bog oak4 ,and the suite of furniture at ,hardwicke ,hall made for ,bess of ,hardwicke was made by ,english workmen who had been in ,italy1 the same persons who produced similar work at ,longleat4 ,small panels with rough inlaid work are not uncommon in the seventeenth century in chests1 bedsteads1 and drawers4 ,but the prevailing types of oak without the added inlays of other woods were rigidly adhered to in cabinet-makers' work for the farmhouse4 ,the great oak forests1 such as ,sherwood1 furnished an abundance of timber for all domestic purposes1 and up to the seventeenth century little other wood was used for any structural or artistic purpose4 ,practically oak may be considered as the national wood4 ,from the ,harry ,grce ,dieu of ,henry ,,viii4 and the ,golden ,hind of ,drake to the ,victory of ,nelson1 the great ships were of ,english oak4 ,the magnificent hammer-beam roof of ,westminster ,hall is of the same wonderful wood4 ,all over the country are scattered buildings timbered with oak beams1 from cathedrals and ancient churches to farmhouses and mills4 ,the oak piles of old ,london ,bridge were taken up after six centuries and a half and found to be still sound at the heart4 ,the mass of furniture of nearly three centuries ago has survived owing to the durability of its wood4 ,to this day ,english oak commands great esteem1 although foreign oak has taken its place in the general timber trade1 yet there is none which possesses such strong and lasting qualities4 ,it will stand a strain of #a1ijj lbs4 per square inch transversely to its fibres4 ,sturdy ,independence of ,country ,furniture4--,the hardness of the oak as a wood is one of the factors which determined the styles of decoration of the furniture into which it was fashioned4 ,it was not easily capable of intricate carved work1 even in the hands of accomplished craftsmen4 ,the fantastic flower and fruit pieces of ,grinling ,gibbons and other carvers were in lime or chestnut1 and the age of walnut1 a more pliant and softer wood to work in than oak1 was yet to come4 ,the country maker1 little versed in the subtleties of cabinet-work1 contented himself with a narrow range of types1 which lasted over a considerable period4 ,this is especially noticeable in his chairs1 and specimens are found of the same form as the middle seventeenth century belonging to the last decade of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,oak ,,table4 ,c4 #afdj4 ,retaining ,elizabethan bulbous form of leg and having ,cromwellian style feet4 ,brass handles added later4 ,illustration3 ,,joint ,,stools4 ,height1 #a ft4 #aj-a_/b ins4 ,height1 #a ft4 #h-a_/b ins4 ,height1 #a ft4 #e ins4 7,about #afdj47 7,about #affj47 ,the typical sideboard of the seventeenth century only varies slightly in form according to the part of the country from which it comes4 ,the general design is always permanent4 ,a large cupboard below1 two smaller ones above1 set somewhat back from the front of the lower one1 the sides of the upper ones sometimes canted off1 leaving two triangular spaces of flat top at the ends of the bottom one4 ,the whole is surmounted by a top shelf1 supported by the upper cupboards and two boldly turned pillars4 ,this is usually the design4 ,the decoration is of the simplest1 and presents nothing beyond the powers of the village carpenter4 ,the mouldings are simple2 there is slight conventional carving1 frequently consisting of hollow flutings1 and the pillars1 boldly turned1 are very rarely enriched by any ornament4 ,a careful examination of such pieces is always interesting from a technical point of view4 ,the framing of the panels is seen to be worked out by the plane1 but the panels themselves more often than not have been reduced to approximate flatness with an adze4 ,if viewed in a side light the surface is thus slightly varied1 showing the differences in the planes of the various facets produced by the adze and giving an effect entirely different from the mechanical smoothing of a surface by the use of a plane4 ,the framing of the front and ends of these sideboards is in detail exactly like the ordinary ,jacobean wall panelling or wainscot4 ,the mouldings are all worked on the rails or styles1 not mitred and glued on1 no mitred mouldings being used except occasionally in the centre panel between the doors4 ,the framing is mortised together and pinned with oak pins4 ,the doors are usually hung on iron strap hinges1 and the handles of the doors are of wrought iron4 ,frequently the doors of the upper cupboards are hung on pivots1 not hinges4 ,such a sideboard belongs to the middle period of the seventeenth century1 and is representative of a wide class used in farmhouses4 ,it is easier to follow the various movements in the design of the seventeenth-century table than a century later1 when more complex circumstances governed its use4 ,the illustrations on p4 #eg give early forms1 with some suggestion as to the progression in design4 ,the early oak ,table is a curious compound of design4 ,it has retained the ,elizabethan bulbous form of leg and has the ,cromwellian foot4 ,in date the piece is about #afdj4 ,the brass handle has been added later4 ,the ,joint ,stools on the lower half of the page afford a picture of slowly advancing invention in turned work4 ,the one on the left of the group is the earliest1 and is about #afdj in date4 ,its legs are seen to be of coarser work1 roughly turned1 but typically early ,jacobean in breadth of treatment4 ,the two on the right are about #affj in date4 ,the left-hand one shows the urn-shaped leg of the strong1 broad treatment 7as in the ,table illustrated p4 #fc71 brought into subjection and exhibiting a gracefulness of form and balance that make furniture of this type so lovable4 ,the smaller stool shows the ball-carving associated with the ,restoration period1 and found in gate tables4 ,a combination of these styles of turning is shown in the graceful oak ,table illustrated p4 #fe1 in date about #afhj4 ,chests of ,drawers4--,the conservative spirit of the minor craftsmen is especially noticeable in the articles of everyday use4 ,the merchant's account ledger with its green back and cross-stitched pattern in vellum strips1 still in use1 is to be found in the same style in ,holbein pictures of the days of the ,hanseatic ,league4 ,brass and copper candlesticks have a long lineage1 and their form is only a slight variant from very early examples4 ,the evolution of ornament is especially interesting2 the old stoneware ,bellarmine form still remains in the bearded mask at the lip of china jugs at the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,the two buttons at the back of the coattails continue long after their primary use to loop up the sword-belt has vanished4 ,in ,america the early carved chests of the ,puritan colonists were followed by similar designs contemporary with our own ,jacobean style for a period well towards the end of the seventeenth century4 ,the panels on chairs and chests have the same arcaded designs as found in ,elizabethan bedsteads and fireplaces4 ,these become gradually crystallised in conventional form1 and ,lockwood1 the ,american writer on old colonial furniture1 has reduced the types coincident with our own ,jacobean styles into ten distinct patterns1 until the advent of the well-known chests of drawers with geometric raised ornament laid on1 which pieces of furniture in ,restoration days were set upon a stand4 ,we have shown in the illustration 7p4 #ec7 the earliest form of the chest with drawers underneath4 ,the stage transitional between this and the multifarious designs with bevelled panels in geometric design is exemplified by the chest1 in date about #affj1 illustrated 7p4 #fc71 having two drawers and a centre bevelled panel1 and with two arcaded panels on each side of this and also arcaded panels at the ends of the chest4 ,this form was rapidly succeeded by the well-known chests of drawers on ball feet or on stand so much appreciated by collectors4 ,we illustrate a sufficient number of pieces to cover the usual styles and to assist the beginner to identify examples coming under his observation4 ,although it should be noted that as these chests of drawers are so much sought after they are manufactured nowadays by the hundred and out of old wood1 so that great care should be exercised in paying big prices for them unless under expert guidance4 ,the specimen appearing on p4 #fe is a fine example1 in date #affj1 and when the ball feet are original1 as in this example1 the genuineness of the chest of drawers is undoubted4 ,too often stands or feet are added1 and it is exceedingly rare to find that the brass handles are original4 ,quite an industry is carried on in reproducing old brass escutcheons and handles from rare designs and carefully imparting to them signs of age1 so that they may be used in made-up chests of drawers and tables4 ,of types of stands1 the two chests of drawers illustrated p4 #fi are fair examples4 ,the upper chest is a curious ,jacobean type with sunk panels and having an unusually high stand4 ,there is a suggestion that this has been added later1 as the foot is eighteenth-century in character4 ,the lower chest is of the ,charles ,,ii4 type with sunk panels and having the arcaded foot of that period4 ,it will be observed that in addition to the four drawers it has a drawer at the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,table4 ,c4 #afej4 ,illustration3 ,,chest4 ,,about #affj4 ,with bevelled panels and drawers and arcaded panels and ends4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,small ,,oak ,,table4 ,c4 #afhj4 ,showing two forms of mouldings in legs and stretcher4 7,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,a4 ,b4 ,daniell ,sons47 ,illustration3 ,,jacobean ,,chest ,,of ,,drawers4 ,c4 #affj4 ,height1 #b ft4 #aa-c_/d ins42 depth1 #a ft4 #aa ins42 width1 #c ft4 #c-a_/b ins4 ,the ball foot1 not always present1 indicates genuine example4 ,the treatment of the stand or legs of these chests exercised the ingenuity of various generations of cabinet-makers4 ,in the specimen illustrated p4 #fi1 the eighteenth century is reached4 ,the transition from passing ,jacobean styles into those of ,queen ,anne is clearly seen4 ,the bevelled panels still remain1 with added geometric intricacies of design1 and a new feature appears in the fluted sides4 ,but the most interesting feature is the cabriole leg1 so definitely indicative of the eighteenth century4 ,the ,slow ,assimilation of ,foreign ,styles in ,furniture4--,farmhouse furniture almost eschewed fashion4 ,in seventeenth-century days it pursued the even tenor of its way untrammelled by town influences4 ,england in those days was not traversed by roads that lent themselves to neighbourly communication4 ,a hundred years later ,wedgwood found the wretched roads in ,staffordshire1 where waggons sunk axle-deep in ruts and pits1 a hindrance to his business1 and ,william ,cobbett in his ,rural ,rides leaves a record of ,surrey woefully primitive at ,hindhead1 with dangerous hills and bogs1 where the horses took the lead and crept down1 partly upon their feet and partly upon their hocks4 ,from the days of ,james ,i4 to those of ,james ,,ii41 from the first ,stuart ,sovereign to the last of that ill-starred house1 the country passed through rapid stages of volcanic history4 ,the opening years of the century saw the colonisation of ,ulster by the ,scots and the ,english settlers1 and the sailing of the ,mayflower and the foundation of ,new ,england by the ,puritans1 nine years after the publication of the ,authorised version of the ,bible4 ,under ,charles ,i4 came the struggle between the despotic power of the ,crown and the newly awakened will of the people4 ,parliamentary right came into conflict with royal prerogative4 ,the smouldering fire burst into flame when ,john ,hampden1 a country gentleman1 refused to pay ,ship ,money1 which was levied on the inland counties in #afcg1 and the arrest of five members of ,parliament in #afdb--;,hampden1 ,pym1 ,holles1 ,haselrig1 and ,strode--precipitated the country into civil war4 ,for seven years a continual series of battles were waged by the contending forces4 ,the ,eastern ,counties formed themselves into a martial association1 and the ,king set up his standard at ,nottingham4 ,from ,bristol to ,hull and from ,nantwich to ,newbury fierce engagements tore the country asunder4 ,an ,irish army was raised for the ,king1 and the ,scots under ,leslie crossed the border in the ,parliamentarian cause4 ,with the execution of ,charles ,i4 came other dangers2 the sword was not sheathed1 nor had revolution left a contented country-side4 ,cromwell divided the kingdom into eleven military districts1 and under his rule ,england took her place at the head of the ,protestant ,states in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,chest ,,of ,,drawers4 ,curious ,jacobean type1 with sunk panels and unusually high stand4 ,this stand is the well-known eighteenth-century foot4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,chest ,,of ,,drawers4 ,charles ,,ii4 type1 with sunk panels and arcaded stand and feet typical of the period4 ,with the death of the ,protector and the restoration of the ,stuarts1 when ,charles ,,ii4 returned home1 came an influx of foreign customs and foreign arts learned by expelled royalists in their enforced sojourn on the ,continent4 ,london and the ,court instantly became the centre of voluptuous fashion4 ,the pages of ,pepys's ,diary afford instructive pictures of the last quarter of the century at ,whitehall with the ,merry ,monarch exhibited in vivid colours1 and more intimate still are the word-portraits cleverly etched by the ,count de ,grammont in his ,memoirs of the gay circle at ,court4 ,and after ,charles came his brother ,james1 nor were civil strife and ,court intrigue memories of the past4 ,restlessness still characterises the closing years of the century4 ,the insurrection of ,monmouth in the ,west of ,england was followed by the ,bloody ,assize of ,judge ,jeffreys4 ,the air is filled with trouble1 and blundering statecraft brings fresh disaster1 culminating in the ignominious flight of the ,king4 ,nor does this complete the changing scenes of the seventeenth century4 ,a new era under ,william the ,dutchman brought new and permanent influences1 and religious toleration and constitutional government became firmly rooted as the heritage of the people of this country4 ,it is essential that a rough idea of the period be gained in order to appreciate the kaleidoscopic character of the events that rapidly succeeded each other4 ,the paralysis of the arts during the civil war had not a little influence on the furniture of the period belonging to the class of which we treat in this volume4 ,the wealth of noble and patrician families had been scattered1 estates had been confiscated1 and sumptuous furniture and appointments pillaged and destroyed1 especially when it offended the narrow tastes of the ,puritan soldiery4 ,some of the minor pieces no doubt found their way into humbler homes and served as models for simpler folk4 ,with a dearth of aristocratic patrons there were no new art impulses to stir craftsmen to their highest moods1 but in spite of war and disturbances affecting all classes1 furniture for common use had to be made1 and the ready-found types exercised a continued influence on all the earlier work4 ,in regard to farmhouse furniture the following types represent in the main the seventeenth-century styles3 the bedstead1 the sideboard or dresser1 the table and the chair in its various forms1 the ,bible-box and the cradle4 ,the ,jacobean chest of drawers1 a development of the dower-chest1 came in mid-seventeenth-century days1 and prior to the ,william and ,mary styles4 ,the sideboard1 a development of the bacon-cupboard1 came into fashion in the middle of the century4 ,it was a reflex of the grander furniture of the manor house and the nobleman's mansion4 ,it is difficult to fix exact dates to ,jacobean furniture of this character4 ,as a general rule it is safer to place it at a later date than is the usual custom4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,chest ,,of ,,drawers4 ,showing transition to ,queen ,anne type4 ,cabriole feet1 bevelled panels1 and fluted sides4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,,and ,,mary ,,table4 ,c4 #afgj4 ,with finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,the ,changing ,habits of the ,people4--,the shifting phases of the restless seventeenth century make it exceedingly difficult1 in spite of experts1 to decide definitely as to the exact date of furniture4 ,the country being in such an unsettled state obviously influenced the manufacture of domestic furniture4 ,its natural evolution was broken and the restraint of the ,jacobean forms was in the main due to the conditions prevailing in regard to their manufacture4 ,the long list of battles given in the chronological table at the commencement of this chapter is advisedly recorded to show the intense upheaval which was caused by the civil wars which raged from north to south1 from east to west1 and convulsed any artistic impulses which may have been in process of materialisation4 ,it is obvious the class of ,table of the ,william and ,mary period1 in date about #afgj1 illustrated 7p4 #gc71 with finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork1 belongs to a period far more advanced in comfort than the days when such a table as that illustrated p4 #fc was the ordinary type4 ,by the end of the century the growth of sea power and the astonishing development of trade brought corresponding domestic luxuries4 ,the two children's stools illustrated 7p4 #gg7 must have come from a country squire's or wealthy provincial merchant's house4 ,their upholstered seats emulate the grandeur of finer types4 ,the rare form of oak bedstead illustrated on the same page is a survival of the early type4 ,in date this is about #agjj2 not too often are such examples found1 for enterprising restorers and makers have seized these old ,jacobean bedsteads and converted them into so-called ,jacobean sideboards1 wherein nothing is old except the wood4 ,it requires some little imagination to conjure up what the daily meals were in the days of the early ,stuarts4 ,there was the leather jack1 the horn mug1 and the long table in the hall where the farmer and his servants ate together4 ,an old black-letter song1 entitled ,when this old cap was new1 in date #afff1 in the ,roxburgh ,songs and ,ballads1 has two verses which paint a lively picture3-- ,black-jacks to every man ,were fill'd with wine and beer2 ,no pewter pot nor can ,in those days did appear2 ,good cheer in a nobleman's house ,was counted a seemly show2 ,we wanted not brawn nor souse ,when this old cap was new4 ,we took not such delight ,in cups of silver fine2 ,none under the degree of knight ,in plate drank beer or wine2 ,now each mechanical man ,hath a cupboard of plate for show1 ,which was a rare thing then ,when this old cap was new4 ,the mechanical man is a delightful touch of the old song-writer4 ,we fear he would have been shocked at the degeneracy of a later day1 when in place of the mug that was handed round came the effeminate teacups4 ,the change from ale1 at breakfast and dinner and supper1 to tea the beverage of the poor1 would be a sad awakening from the ideals set up by the rollicking song-writer of ,restoration days4 ,but such innovations must needs be closely regarded by the student of furniture4 ,we wish sometimes that historians had spared a few pages from military evolutions and ,court intrigues to let us know what the parlours and bedrooms of our ancestors looked like4 ,a rough rsum from ,macaulay's ,state of ,england in #afhe1 wherein he quotes authority by authority1 holds a mirror to seventeenth-century life4 ,illustration3 ,,children',s ,,stools1 ,c4 #afij4 ,illustration3 ,,rare ,,bedstead4 ,c4 #agjj4 ,survival of early type4 ,at ,enfield1 hardly out of sight of the smoke of the capital1 was a region of five-and-twenty miles in circumference1 which contained only three houses and scarcely any enclosed fields1 where deer wandered free in thousands4 ,red deer were as common in ,gloucestershire and ,hampshire as they are now in the ,grampians4 ,queen ,anne1 travelling to ,portsmouth1 on one occasion1 saw a herd of no less than five hundred4 ,agriculture was not a greatly known science4 ,the rotation of crops was imperfectly understood4 ,the turnip had just been introduced to this country1 but it was not the practice to feed sheep and oxen with this in the winter4 ,they were killed and salted at the beginning of the cold weather1 and during several months even the gentry tasted little fresh animal food except game and river fish4 ,in the days of ,charles ,,ii4 it was at the beginning of ,november that families laid in their stock of salt provisions1 then called ,martinmas beef4 ,the state of the roads in those days was somewhat barbarous4 ,ruts were deep1 descents precipitous1 and the way often difficult to distinguish in the dusk from the unenclosed fen and heath on each side4 ,pepys and his wife1 travelling in their own coach1 lost their way between ,newbury and ,reading4#b ,in some parts of ,kent and ,sussex none but the strongest horses could1 in winter1 get through the bog in which they sank deep at every step4 ,the coaches were often pulled by oxen4#c ,when ,prince ,george of ,denmark visited the mansion of ,petworth he was six hours travelling nine miles4 ,throughout the country north of ,york and west of ,exeter goods were carried by long trains of packhorses4 #b ,pepys's ,diary1 ,june #ab1 #af #h4 #c ,postlethwaite's ,dictionary of ,roads4 ,the capital was a place far removed from the country4 ,it was seldom that the country squire paid a visit thither4 ,towards ,london and ,londoners he felt an aversion that more than once produced important political effects 7,macaulay74 ,apart from the country gentlemen were the petty proprietors who cultivated their own fields with their own hands and enjoyed a modest competence without affecting to have scutcheons and crests4 ,this great class of yeomanry formed a much more important part of the nation than now4 ,according to the most reliable statistics of the seventeenth century1 there were no less than a hundred and sixty thousand proprietors1 who with their families made a seventh of the population of those days1 and these derived their livelihood from small freehold estates4 ,such1 then1 were the chief differences dividing the life of the country from the life of the town4 ,the ,london merchants had town mansions hardly less inferior to the nobility4 ,chelsea was a quiet village with a thousand inhabitants1 and sportsmen with dog and gun wandered over ,marylebone4 ,general ,oglethorpe1 who died in #aghe1 used to boast that he had shot a woodcock in what is now ,regent ,street1 in ,queen ,anne's reign4 ,the days of the ,stuarts were not so rosy as writers of romance have chosen to have us believe4 ,at ,norwich1 the centre of the cloth industry1 children of the tender age of six were engaged in labour4 ,at ,bristol a labyrinth of narrow lanes1 too narrow for cart traffic1 was built over vaults4 ,goods were conveyed across the city in trucks drawn by dogs4 ,meat was so dear that ,king1 in his ,natural and ,political ,conclusions1 estimates that half the population of the country only ate animal food twice a week1 and the other half only once a week or not at all4 ,bread such as is now given to the inmates of a workhouse was then seldom seen even on the trencher of a yeoman or a shopkeeper4 ,the majority of the nation lived almost entirely on rye1 barley1 and oats4 ,the change from these conditions to those we associate with the eighteenth century was not a sudden but a slow one4 ,with the increase of average prosperity came the additional requirements in household furniture4 ,it is impossible now to state accurately what the exact furniture was of the various classes of the community4 ,many of the seventeenth-century pieces now remaining have been treasured in great houses and belong to a variety which in those days was regarded as sumptuous4 ,now and again we catch glimpses of the former life of the men and women of those days4 ,little pieces of conclusive evidence are brought to light which enable safe conclusions to be drawn4 ,but the everyday normal character has too often gone unrecorded4 ,we are left with ,court memoirs1 diaries of the great1 literary proofs of the more scholarly1 but the simple annals of the poor are1 in the main1 unrecorded4 ,in view of this series of queer and remarkable facts strung together to afford the reader a rough and ready picture of those dim days1 one comes to believe that much of the ordinary seventeenth-century furniture must be regarded as having belonged to the great yeoman class of the community4 ,with this belief the collector very rightly regards it of sterling worth1 as reminiscent of the men from whose sturdy stock has sprung a great race4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,gate-,,leg ,,table ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,gate-,,leg ,,table ,its early form--,transitional and experimental stages--,its establishment as a permanent popular type--,the gate-leg table in the ,jacobean period--,walnut and mahogany varieties--,its utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--,its adoption in modern days4 ,the gate-leg table is always regarded with veneration by collectors4 ,it has a charm of style and beauty of construction which afford never-ending delight to possessors of old examples4 ,it is an inspired piece of cabinet-work which belongs to the middle of the seventeenth century1 and exhibits the supreme effort of the early ,jacobean craftsmen to break away from the square massive tables1 the lineal descendants of the great bulbous-legged table of the ,elizabethan hall4 ,dining-tables with the device of slides to draw out when occasion required1 even in early days became a necessity4 ,it is a note indicating the changing habits of the people4 ,a table was no longer used for one purpose4 ,the large table required a permanent place in a large room4 ,but smaller houses fitted with minor furniture had their limitations of space1 and so the ingenuity of a table that would close together and stand against a wall1 or could be used as a round table for dining1 was a welcome innovation4 ,its ,early ,form4--,the series of illustrations in this chapter afford a fairly comprehensive survey of the progress and differing character of the gate-leg table during the hundred years that it held a place in domestic furniture4 ,it is difficult to say with exactitude which are the earliest forms1 or whether the round table without the moving gates was a sort of transitional form prior to the use of the movable legs4 ,it is quite possible that in his attempt to invent something more convenient than the heavy square dining-table the progressive cabinet-maker of the middle seventeenth century did strike the half-way form4 ,but on the other hand it must be admitted that there is the possibility that the gate-leg table came first1 and that the types with three legs and half circular tops stand by themselves as later types4 ,on the whole1 one is inclined to the belief1 especially as it prettily illustrates forms of natural evolution1 that the three-legged table with fixed legs and half round top came first4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,side ,,table4 ,c4 #affj4 ,plain style4 ,the precursor of the gate-leg table4 ,illustration3 ,,triangular ,,gate-,,leg ,,table4 ,c4 #afdj4 ,fine example4 ,with arcaded spandrils and gate4 ,this is the next stage of development to above table4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,the two tables illustrated on p4 #hg belong to this three-legged type4 ,the upper one is half circular at the top and the three legs are stationary4 ,this particular table is in date about #affj1 and although in this instance it is obviously later than other forms we illustrate having gate-legs1 yet by the theory we have advanced above1 it belongs to a type prior to the use of a gate4 ,the lower one is a fine example1 in date about #afdj1 of a triangular gate-leg table4 ,the top is round1 and the illustration shows the gate open at right angles to the stretcher4 ,the arcaded spandrils are an interesting and rare feature4 ,transitional ,types4--,not only is the feeling towards the gradual establishment of this new form of table shown in its construction1 first with four legs until it developed into a table with twelve legs and double gates1 but the styles of ornament used in the turning differ greatly in character4 ,the leg is capable of wide and differing treatment4 ,there is the urn leg1 a rare and early type1 the ball turned leg1 egg-and-reel turned leg1 and the straight leg4 ,in regard to the stretcher similar varieties occur4 ,sometimes it is entirely plain1 and when it is decoratively turned it varies from the early survival of the ,gothic trestle to the rare cross stretcher of the late collapsible table4 ,in some types of ,yorkshire tables the stretchers are splat-form1 like a ladder-back chair4 ,the feet differ in no less degree from the usual ,jacobean type to the scroll or ,spanish foot at a later date4 ,in the early eighteenth century there is the interesting series of ,queen ,anne flap tables which have gate-legs4 ,some have the bottom stretcher to the gate-leg4 ,these belong to the walnut period1 when a greater vivacity became noticeable in ,english cabinet work4 ,it is this picturesque and endless stream of designs which appeals to the collector4 ,it is quite worthy of study to follow the difference in the cabinet-work of these gate tables4 ,the long line of craftsmen who fashioned them added here and there not only touches of ornament that were personal1 but invented details of construction as improvements to existing forms4 ,a very early type with urn legs and having plain gates is that illustrated p4 #ia4 ,it is small in size and belongs to the first half of the seventeenth century4 ,the survival of the ,gothic trestle feet of an earlier type is noteworthy4 ,the table on the same page has the trestle ends still retained4 ,there is still the single leg at each end1 as in the example above4 ,the gates are square and plain and the legs are ball turned1 a combination representing an early type4 ,the size of this piece is small and its date is about #afej or somewhat later4 ,its ,establishment as a ,popular ,type4--,the varied improvements and the slightly differing characteristics make it perfectly clear1 when examined in detail1 that the gate table in various parts of the country had firmly established itself and had won popular approval as a permanent type4 ,in the search for tables of this form1 however wide the net is spread by those indefatigable seekers in out-of-the-way places1 and by the small army of trade collectors who scour the country for the purpose of unearthing something rare and unique1 the story is always the same4 ,in the most remote districts such tables are still found3 the growth of the use of this gate-leg form permeated every part of the country4 ,it was copied and recopied1 native touches were added1 and the old leading lines followed by generation after generation of craftsmen4 ,it had as great a vogue during the long period of its history as the styles of ,chippendale chairs had at a later date1 when every country cabinet-maker was seized with the desire to produce minor ,chippendale in oak or beech or elm4 ,illustration3 ,,small ,,gate ,,table4 ,,very ,,early ,,type4 ,length1 #c ft42 breadth1 #b ft4 #d ins42 height1 #b ft4 #c ins4 ,urn legs with plain gates with survival of ,gothic trestle feet4 ,illustration3 ,,gate ,,table4 ,,middle ,,seventeenth ,,century4 ,early example4 ,height1 #b ft42 top1 #b ft4 #i ins4 #b ft4 #c ins4 ,square gates and turned leg indicate early type4 ,trestle ends still retained4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,rare ,,table4 ,with double gates4 ,egg and reel turning4 ,turned stretchers4 7,examples such as this are worth #ah to #ce owing to rare form47 ,illustration3 ,,rare ,,gate ,,table4 ,with double gates with only one flap and having turned stretchers4 ,tables with one flap are rare and usually have two gates4 ,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,the ,jacobean ,period4--,essentially the flower of the popular creations of the ,jacobean furniture-designer1 the gate table must always stand as reminiscent of the days of ,charles ,i4 and ,charles ,,ii4 ,no picture of this period is considered artistically complete unless there be a gate-leg table with its picturesque lines adding a technical touch of correctness to interiors4 ,the portrait of ,herrick1 the parson-poet of ,devon1 imaginative though it be1 whenever it appears on canvas or illustrating his lyrics1 shows the poet beside a fine gate-leg table4 ,stage tradition is equally sure on the same point4 ,a company of swaggering cavaliers at an inn is not complete without a group arranged at one of these tables quaffing wine from flagons4 ,without doubt the finest examples are to be found from the year #affj to the end of the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,a new impetus had been given to furniture-making in ,restoration days4 ,the country had settled down in tranquillity and the domestic arts began again to thrive in natural manner following the earlier motives of the days of ,charles ,i4 ,the recent civil wars had arrested their development1 and now they burst forth again with renewed youth4 ,ripe examples of the best period may be assigned to the last three or four decades of the seventeenth century4 ,these1 it should be explained1 are in oak4 ,we illustrate 7p4 #ic7 a particularly pleasing specimen with double gates which belongs to this finest period4 ,there are1 it will be observed1 twelve legs1 and the stretchers are finely turned with what is known as the egg-and-reel pattern4 ,as a matter of fact pieces such as this1 on account of the rare form1 bring from #ae to #ce1 and they are rapidly being gathered into the folds of collectors4 ,another rare form is shown on the same page4 ,this1 too1 has double gates1 and the stretchers are similarly turned4 ,there is only one flap to this table1 and it will be observed that it makes another variation from accepted styles in having a rectangular instead of a circular top4 ,tables with one flap are always rare1 and when found they usually have two gates4 ,it will be seen that there are pleasant surprises in following changing forms all through the period4 ,on p4 #ig a table is illustrated with two gates on one stretcher4 ,this in date is about #affj4 ,the table below1 on the same page1 exhibits florid turning in the legs4 ,the stretchers across the two legs are half way up and are the ,yorkshire form of splat stretcher4 ,this type is found as early as #affj and as late as #agej4 ,the difference in structure is noticeable in two tables shown on p4 #ii4 ,the one has six legs and the other eight legs4 ,the first has finely turned legs and stretchers in what is familiarly known as the barley-sugar pattern4 ,among its exceptional features are the legs being only six in number1 the gates being hinged to stretcher1 two legs thus being dispensed with1 and the additional bar across the two central stretchers4 ,this is a rare piece and in date is about #afgj4 ,the ,gate ,table on the same page with eight legs is a good example of ball turning4 ,this is a type which survived well into the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,gate ,,table4 ,c4 #affj4 ,rare form4 ,two gates on one stretcher4 ,length1 #c ft4 #aj ins42 width1 #c ft4 ,illustration3 ,,gate ,,table4 ,exhibiting florid turning and ,yorkshire type of splat stretchers4 ,examples are found as early as #affj and as late as #agej4 ,length1 #d ft4 #g-a_/b ins42 width1 #c ft4 #c-a_/b ins4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,gate ,,table4 ,fine barley sugar turned legs and stretchers4 ,exceptional features3 ,only six legs 7gates hinged to stretcher1 two legs thus dispensed with74 ,additional bar across two central stretchers4 ,rare example4 ,date #afgj4 ,illustration3 ,,gate ,,table4 ,good example of ball turning4 ,a type which survived well into the eighteenth century4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,collapsible ,,table ,,with ,,rare ,x ,,stretcher4 ,c4 #affj4 ,the top folds over4 ,fine example4 7,in the collection of ,lady ,mary ,holland47 ,illustration3 ,,primitive ,,gate-,,leg ,,table4 ,,seventeenth ,,or ,,early ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,gates at one end4 ,made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant with turning4 ,as exhibiting two types as wide asunder as the poles1 and yet not far removed in point of time1 the two tables illustrated1 p4 #aja1 make a curious contrast4 ,the upper one1 in date about #affj1 is a slender1 graceful example1 with the unusual ,x-shaped stretcher4 ,it will be seen from the illustration that the two stretchers when closed fit flat with the legs and the top flaps over1 thus making the table practically collapsible4 ,the lower ,table1 of late seventeenth or early eighteenth century1 is a somewhat primitive form1 with the gates at one end4 ,this has obviously been made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant with turning1 as the shaping of the legs is strongly suggestive of the rude fashioning of the shafts of a farm wagon4 ,walnut and ,mahogany ,varieties4--,as the mid-,jacobean period is left behind1 and walnut is the chief wood used in ornamental turned work1 so the character of the gate table begins to incline towards the technique more suitable to walnut than to oak4 ,the turning1 more easily done in the former wood1 becomes more intricate4 ,hence some examples appear which are practically types of the walnut age4 ,but1 in general1 the old gate-leg table is a survival throughout the ,william and ,mary and ,queen ,anne periods1 wherein country makers clung to the oak form and employed oak still in its manufacture4 ,the ,william and ,mary ,gate ,table illustrated 7p4 #aje7 is constructed with one gate4 ,it is small in size1 practically being an ornamental or occasional table4 ,it has a fine character1 and the barley sugar pattern is deeply turned4 ,side by side with this is a small square-topped ,gate ,table with the pillar-leg1 denoting a reversion to early type4 ,the stretcher is of the old trestle form4 ,both these pieces1 on account of their small size and well-balanced construction1 show that considerable attention was being paid to symmetry4 ,such specimens can readily be transplanted to more modern surroundings1 and yet in some subtle manner harmonise with later furniture4 ,they share this peculiarity with objects of ,oriental art of the highest type4 ,old blue ,nankin and old lac cabinets1 although anachronisms amid furniture of a later date1 possess the property of being in sympathy with their new environment1 much in the same manner as an old ,persian rug becomes a restful acquisition in a luxurious ,western home4 ,some of the forms are so rare as to be almost unique4 ,it is seldom that so interesting a piece is found as the ,table illustrated 7p4 #aje7 with the scroll feet in ,spanish style4 ,it has only one gate1 and the top of the table lifts up1 forming a box4 ,the lock is shown at the front in the photograph4 ,the adjacent table has a corrupted form of the ,spanish foot1 doubled under in cramped fashion like the flapper of a seal4 ,this also has one gate2 in date this piece is about #afhj4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,gate ,,table4 ,with square top and pillar leg4 ,stretcher3 ,old trestle form4 ,top1 #b ft4 #d ins4 #a ft4 #aj ins4 ,,william ,,and ,,mary ,,gate ,,table4 ,fine character deep-turning barley sugar pattern with only one gate4 ,top1 #b ft4 #f ins4 #b ft4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,a4 ,b4 ,daniell ,sons47 ,illustration3 ,,gate ,,table ,,with ,,square ,,top4 ,c4 #afhj ,having one gate and corrupted form of carved ,spanish foot4 ,illustration3 ,,gate-,,leg ,,table4 ,c4 #affj4 ,with one gate4 ,top lifts up to form box4 ,the feet are in ,spanish style4 ,the days of mahogany1 with ,chippendale in his prime and ,hepplewhite1 ,ince and ,mayhew1 ,robert ,manwaring1 ,matthias ,lock1 ,william ,shearer1 and a crowd of others1 brought intricate carving in mahogany into intense prominence4 ,this was the golden age of furniture design4 ,an outburst of enthusiasm1 following the architectural triumphs of the ,brothers ,adam1 wherein they raised interior decoration to a level as high as that in ,france1 had swept over the country4 ,in spite of the rich profusion of new design being poured out in illustrated volumes and in executed furniture1 the old gate-leg table still survived4 ,in form it was the same1 but the richness of the new wood was too enticing for the cabinet-maker not to employ4 ,accordingly we find examples in mahogany4 ,in the ,chippendale period ,x-shaped1 cluster-leg1 gate tables are found1 and turning was used in this cluster-leg form4 ,the ripe inventiveness of such a design as the gate-leg table was too evident to escape the adoption by famous makers4 ,when ingenuity of construction was at its zenith the gate-leg was not likely to be discarded in fashionable furniture4 ,on p4 #aji two specimens of this period are shown4 ,the upper one is of somewhat unusual type1 having a ,cupid's bow underframing4 ,it is seen that the ,spanish foot has still survived into the eighteenth century4 ,the lower table is again a rare form4 ,it is probably early in date for mahogany1 being about #agdj4 ,the ,spanish foot is employed1 but in a coarsened form1 unusually inelegant1 and suggestive of a golf club4 ,its ,utility and ,beauty4--,it is a natural question that one may ask as to the reason that the gate table had such a prolonged life4 ,it passed through several strong periods of fashionable styles that were overthrown in turn by newer designs4 ,the reason is not far to seek4 ,it survived because the public could not do without it4 ,there must have been a continuous demand1 unchecked by the excitements of contemporary substitutes4 ,but apparently there was nothing to take its place1 or which could permanently supplant it4 ,its utility is undoubtedly one of its most marked features4 ,this alone affected its stability as a possession with which the farmer's wife and the cottager would not part4 ,customs long established in the country were not easily discontinued4 ,mother1 daughter1 and granddaughter clung to the old and practical form of table4 ,nowadays there are families in the shires whom nothing would induce to sell their old gate tables4 ,partly this is for love of the old home1 but mainly is it the common-sense attitude which rebels against the sale of any piece of furniture which is in constant use4 ,many objects long gone into disuse1 but really valuable from an artistic point of view1 are readily dispensed with4 ,the cottager imagines that if he disposes of a mere ornament for a sum of money with which he can buy something useful he has effected a good deal4 ,illustration3 ,,mahogany ,,gate ,,table4 ,unusual type4 ,with ,cupid's bow underframing4 ,spanish foot surviving into eighteenth century4 ,height1 #b ft4 #e ins43 diameter of top1 #c ft4 #f ins42 width1 #d ft4 ,illustration3 ,,mahogany ,,gate ,,table4 ,rare form4 ,probably made of the new fashionable wood about #agdj4 ,use of ,spanish foot dying out4 ,diameter of top1 #d ft4 #e-a_/b ins4 #d ft4 #d ins4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,so much for its utility4 ,its beauty is a quality which has appealed to persons of higher artistic instincts4 ,it is not the quaintness1 because there are scores of other objects equally quaint1 nor is it altogether the antiquity1 though1 of course1 nowadays that is a determining factor1 but it is the actual symmetry of form and ingenious form of construction1 enhanced by the wide range of decorative treatment1 which irresistibly appeal to the lover of the beautiful4 ,these manifold reasons1 therefore1 endowed the gate-leg table with great vitality4 ,its hold of the people was not relaxed till the age of the factory-made furniture4 ,the banalities of the early-,victorian period1 which destroyed taste in persons of finer susceptibilities than the common folk1 supplanted the old historic form1 and it was made no more4 ,its ,adoption in ,modern ,days4--,after ,william ,morris and his school had preached the revival of taste and the return to the simple and the beautiful1 and ,ruskin with flowing rhetoric had instilled a love for homespun into men's minds1 there came newer ideals which1 with gradual dissemination1 have grown into a great modern movement which has become so overwhelmingly popular that the pendulum has almost swung the other way4 ,it has now become almost a truism that the person of taste to-day sees nothing good in anything that is not old4 ,with this in view1 artists and persons of advanced notions1 if they could not procure the old1 had copies made for them of some of the most beautiful styles suitable for modern requirements4 ,in this there was always the great ,morrisian principle in view that the highest art must show a full utilitarian purpose2 so it came about that the gate table was revived and came gloriously into its own again4 ,to-day1 as in the seventeenth century1 there is no more popular form of table1 and the modern cabinet-maker is manufacturing hundreds of these tables4 ,the life-history of the gate-leg table is1 therefore1 shown to be an interesting one4 ,it is one of our oldest forms1 and its construction nowadays1 save that it is now produced in a factory1 is singularly similar to that in the days when ,oliver ,cromwell was establishing our power as a voice in ,europe1 when ,james ,,ii4 had an eye towards the supremacy of our navy1 and when later our troops fought in ,flanders4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,farmhouse ,,dresser ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,farmhouse ,,dresser ,the days of the late ,stuarts--,its early table form with drawers--,the decorated type with shelves--,william and ,mary style with double cupboards--,the ,queen ,anne cabriole leg--,mid-eighteenth-century types4 ,the various types of dresser associated with farmhouse use are interesting as being apart from the sideboard1 a later fashion belonging to furniture of a higher type4 ,it was not until the late days of ,chippendale1 and after1 that the ,side ,table began to be designated a ,sideboard1 which later became a receptacle for wine1 with a cellaret1 and had a drawer for table-linen4 ,the sideboard is not a modern term1 for the word is found in ,dryden and in ,milton4 ,in the late eighteenth-century days the sideboard had a brass rail at the back1 and was ornamented by two mahogany urns of massive proportions4 ,usually these were used for iced water and for hot water1 the latter for washing the knives and forks4 ,the ,adam sideboard with its severe classical lines1 and ,sheraton's elegant bow fronts and satinwood panels decorated with painting1 belong to the later developments of the sideboard as now known4 ,the dresser is something more homely4 ,it is indissolubly connected with homeliness and with the farmhouse and the country-side4 ,in its various forms it has appealed to lovers of simple furniture1 and farmhouse examples have found their way into surroundings more or less incongruous4 ,the dresser in its more primitive form requires the necessary environment4 ,it loses its charm when placed in proximity to pieces of more pretentious character4 ,the cupboard dresser1 or the type with open shelves1 is less decorative than some of the forms without the back4 ,that is to say1 it requires the exactly suitable accompaniment to prevent its simple lines from being eclipsed by furniture of a higher grade4 ,the dresser is1 therefore1 especially desirable to the collector furnishing a country cottage in harmonious character2 but its inclusion in the modern drawing-room is an incongruity and its presence in the dining-room is more often than not an unwarrantable intrusion4 ,the ,days of the ,late ,stuarts4--,it will be seen that the early types have fronts finely decorated with geometric designs panelled in the same fashion as the ,jacobean chests of drawers1 such as that illustrated p4 #fi4 ,the split baluster ornament is a noticeable feature in this style1 and the fine graceful balance of the panels with the drawers with drop brass handles is an attractive feature beloved by connoisseurs of the late ,stuart period4 ,the decoration in the fronts of these early dressers is as diverse in character as the fronts of the contemporary chests of drawers4 ,this variety is indicative of the personal character imparted to the work of the old designers4 ,it is rare to find two examples exactly alike4 ,they differ in details1 much in the same manner as the brass candlesticks of the same period1 which possess the same charm of individuality4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,dresser4 ,,about #afhj4 ,with finely decorated front4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,a4 ,b4 ,daniell ,sons47 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,dresser4 ,fine example of the period of ,james ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,dresser ,,of ,,unusual ,,type4 ,,early ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,with arched formation below and serpentine outline at sides4 ,height1 #f ft4 #h-a_/b ins42 depth1 #a ft4 #f ins42 width1 #f ft4 #b ins4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,oak ,,dresser4 ,,about #affj4 ,with urn-shaped legs4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,of this particular type of oak ,dresser the two examples illustrated 7p4 #aag7 have characteristics which are common to the class4 ,the geometric front panels1 the laid-on moulding1 and the ,jacobean leg--in most cases the back legs of these side dressers are square--should be intently noticed4 ,in regard to the number of the legs1 this is governed by the length of the dresser4 ,in the lower example it will be seen that there are six legs and that the stretcher is continued round three sides4 ,in this example the legs begin to show indications of the late-,jacobean style of more delicate turning4 ,in the upper example the legs are bolder4 ,these are oak specimens2 the walnut varieties of similar design offer more sumptuous decoration and belong to furniture more suitable for the manor house than for the farm or cottage4 ,an earlier type1 in date about #affj1 illustrated p4 #aai1 exhibits a less ornate appearance and has the split urn-shaped legs in front and flat legs at the back4 ,the split legs are found sometimes in gate tables1 but when such is the case it may safely be conjectured that these tables are not of ,english origin1 as the split leg did not find great favour with the ,english cabinet-makers4 ,before passing to later examples it should be observed that this particular form of dresser is most frequently found without a top with shelves4 ,examples there are which1 as we shall show1 have the original top1 but as a rule it is advisable to note this feature in examining these ,jacobean dressers1 for there are a great number in the market to which later tops have been added1 as suitable to more modern requirements1 or as likely to prove more attractive to those collectors not familiar with the dresser in its earlier form4 ,originally in early dressers with shelves there is no back1 that is to say1 the shelves showed the wall behind them4 ,this deficiency has been obligingly supplied by later hands4 ,the dresser1 as it found itself after certain transitional stages had been passed through1 is shown in the early eighteenth-century piece illustrated 7p4 #aai74 ,this is of the early days of the eighteenth century1 that is to say1 in the reign of ,queen ,anne4 ,it is here seen that the dresser is a set piece of furniture possessing attributes instantly marking it as having been carefully designed with a due observance as to the purpose to which it was to be put4 ,the shelf at the bottom was evidently intended for use2 the arched formation below the drawers has been planned in that manner to admit of utensils placed there being taken out and replaced with ease4 ,one can only conjecture what may have stood there1 maybe a barrel of cider1 or perhaps only a breadpan4 ,the ,decorated ,type with ,shelves4--,the back with shelves was a useful addition1 which1 as will be seen in the earlier examples leading up to this later development1 had borne several experiments in the way of cupboards4 ,in this particular specimen the broken or serpentine outline at sides of shelves is a noticeable feature1 and always adds a grace and charm to the dresser when employed by the cabinet-maker4 ,another example in which this is effectively used is illustrated on p4 #abc4 ,illustration3 ,,dresser4 ,,early ,,jacobean4 ,length1 #f ft4 #e ins42 height1 #g ft4 #c ins42 depth1 #a ft4 #h-a_/b ins4 ,,dresser4 ,,earliest ,,decorated ,,type4 ,date about #afgj4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,to return to the early-,jacobean types3 two interesting pieces are illustrated together 7p4 #abc74 ,that on the left1 with four legs and stretcher1 has three drawers1 and the upper portion or back is ornamented by a primitive scalloped design suggestive of the country hand4 ,the other1 on the right1 has six legs and four drawers1 and the upper portion is beginning to receive detailed treatment in regard to spacing of the shelves1 and a small cupboard on each side fills the growing need of cupboards and drawers1 a rapidly growing taste in ,english furniture for domestic use as the home-life began to be more complex4 ,about this time nests of boxes and drawers in lac work from the ,east began to be imported into this country in the better houses1 first as articles of great luxury and beauty1 on account of their colour and fine gold work1 and later as being something new and essentially utilitarian in regard to the accommodation they afforded for the treasures the housewife wished to put away from the prying eyes of her curious neighbours4 ,as time went on1 the art of the cabinet-maker became more intricate4 ,it is not the place here to enter into the minuti of the development of drawers and bureaus and cabinets1 but the late eighteenth century brought such furniture1 apart from points in relation to beauty of design1 to great constructive skill4 ,the age was one of hidden contrivances and intricately cunning mechanism concealing secret drawers or receptacles4 ,such pieces were never made for farmhouse use2 but the germ of the idea is ever present in all furniture with indications of locked drawers and cupboards4 ,this is the note of intense civilisation as against the simpler modes of primitive folk who have no bolt to their door and no lock to guard their possessions4 ,william and ,mary ,style with ,double ,cupboards4--,the variety with double cupboards are interesting as giving a date to the dressers in which they are found4 ,it is usually accurate to place such pieces in the ,william and ,mary period1 that is to say from the year #afhi to the end of the seventeenth century4 ,the tendency in this class of furniture is to cling tenaciously to older forms1 especially in certain portions of the cabinet-work which presented difficulties to the local cabinet-maker4 ,the legs retained their early-,jacobean character even when associated with much later styles4 ,this is noticeable in the ,william and ,mary example illustrated 7p4 #abg74 ,the arcaded doors are inlaid1 the canopy is decorated1 the underwork beneath the drawers belongs essentially to the ,orange period of design in its feeling4 ,that the dresser could be made an ornamental piece of furniture and found its place as an important possession in the farmhouse1 bright with an array of china1 or pewter1 or even silver1 is amply shown by the two examples illustrated together of which the foregoing is one4 ,the other oak dresser has at the top1 where the mugs are hanging1 the original mug-hooks4 ,it is of the square-leg type and the arcaded work below the drawers gives distinction to its lines2 it possesses also the broken or serpentine ends to the shelves4 ,these curves and simple touches of ornament all contribute to make such dressers pleasing in character and representative of native work attempting with strong endeavour to produce artistic results suitable to their environment4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,,and ,,mary ,,oak ,,dresser4 ,,date ,c4 #afhi4 ,decorated canopy1 arcaded doors1 inlaid and turned legs4 ,height1 #f ft4 #h-a_/b ins42 length1 #f ft4 #d ins42 depth1 #a ft4 #h ins4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,dresser4 ,square leg type2 with original mug hooks4 ,height1 #f ft42 length1 #d ft4 #c ins42 depth1 #a ft4 #e ins4 ,the ,queen ,anne ,cabriole ,leg4--,it is not to be expected that the long-continued triumph of the cabriole leg of the eighteenth century would leave the dresser without making its mark thereon4 ,the exact curve of the cabriole leg is dangerous in the hands of a novice1 who rarely if ever gets the correct balance in conjunction with the rest of the construction4 ,accordingly1 in farmhouse pieces this tells its own story4 ,it is as though the cabriole leg were a sudden afterthought4 ,this touch of representative want of repose is shown in the specimen illustrated 7p4 #ace74 ,in date this is about #agdj1 and is a somewhat rare form1 having double cupboards4 ,a unique ,dresser and ,clock combined is illustrated 7p4 #aca74 ,the form of the dresser1 it will be seen1 is quite different from other specimens4 ,the back is only sufficiently high to carry a row of small drawers4 ,the legs are circular and tapered1 terminating in circular feet4 ,in the centre of the dresser is a clock of the familiar grandfather form in miniature4 ,this clock is not an addition to the dresser1 but is a portion of the dresser and was made with it4 ,the illustration shows the size of the door of the clock-case1 with its hinges not cut down or in any way interfered with1 and the lock on the other side is in the centre of the panel4 ,it is obvious that no later hand has tampered with this fine example1 and it stands as a remarkable dresser and unique in form in its construction with this clock4 ,mid-eighteenth-century ,types4--,in the ,lancashire ,dresser illustrated 7p4 #ace7 the top is reminiscent of early types4 ,the cupboard has removed its position to the middle1 a departure from all earlier forms4 ,this is a very characteristic example1 and the ample drawer accommodation shows the speedy transition from the old form of dresser through its varied stages to the later modern variety of the kitchen dresser1 devoid of poetry and lacking interest to the collector1 and yet to the student having traces of its ancient lineage4 ,the eighteenth-century farmhouse varieties offer no great departure4 ,they aim at being capacious and massive4 ,they make no pretensions to approach the niceties of the sideboard in use in the better houses4 ,they supply an undoubted want in the farmhouse for storage4 ,there were cordials and home-made wines and much prized linen and a bright array of silver and ,sheffield plate and pewter1 and no doubt tea services or porcelain from the new ,english factories of ,worcester1 ,derby1 ,bow1 or maybe ,plymouth or ,bristol1 to be shielded from breakage4 ,the farmer's wife and the farmer's daughters were less than human if they did not follow the new fashions in some degree1 more or less1 in tea-drinking and in becoming the proud possessors of tea services and dinner services somewhat more delicate than the old delft and coarse ,staffordshire ware4 ,the cupboards had ample accommodation for these more valuable accessories of the farmhouse parlour4 ,the cabinet-maker therefore developed on lines exactly suitable for the country clients whom he served4 ,illustration3 ,,unique ,,dresser ,,and ,,clock ,,combined4 ,the clock is not an addition1 but is a portion of the dresser1 and was made for it4 7,in the collection of ,d4 ,a4 ,bevan1 ,esq47 ,the late forms show this marked tendency to provide innumerable drawers and cupboards1 in the farmhouse dressers contemporary with ,chippendale4 ,many examples are found which are practically elongated chests of drawers2 the old characteristics of the dresser are absent1 the back has disappeared altogether4 ,there is no top with shelves4 ,eight large drawers and two capacious cupboards give great storage room in a piece often #i feet in length4 ,there is nothing finicking in this type of furniture4 ,it stands for homely comfort and love of domestic order4 ,we may be sure that the good dame who used this lower piece1 with its eight solid drawers with sound locks1 was a person of frugal habits and love of the old farmstead4 ,we may safely assume that she had a well-filled stocking hidden away somewhere in this old-fashioned repository1 put by for the rainy day4 ,in conclusion it may be said that a good deal has been talked about ,welsh dressers1 as though they were a type absolutely apart from any other4 ,the differences are not great1 as the carving1 in which the ,welsh craftsman offers characteristics of his own1 is absent in pieces of furniture such as the dresser4 ,then there is the ,normandy dresser1 a much-abused term3 a considerable number of these1 and others1 too1 from ,brittany1 have been imported and the terms have become trade descriptions4 ,but in the main the ,english dresser has passed through the phases we have described1 and the outlines herein suggested may be filled in by the painstaking collector4 ,in the chapter dealing with local types there is an illustration of a ,lancashire dresser 7p4 #bgc7 which adds one more example to the gallery of dressers we give as types in this chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,dresser4 ,,date ,,about #agdj4 ,with early double cupboards4 ,legs in ,queen ,anne style4 ,height1 #f ft4 #g ins42 width1 #i ft4 #e-a_/b ins42 depth1 #b ft4 #b-a_/b ins4 ,illustration3 ,,lancashire ,,dresser4 ,,middle ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,top reminiscent of early types4 ,ample drawer accommodation4 ,transition to modern dresser4 ,deeply cut panels4 ,cupboard in middle as distinct from earlier forms at sides4 ,height1 #g ft4 #b ins42 width1 #f ft4 #g ins42 depth1 #b ft4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,bible-,,box1 ,,the ,,cradle1 ,,the ,,spinning-,,wheel1 ,,and ,,the ,,bacon-,,cupboard ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,bible-,,box1 ,,the ,,cradle1 ,,the ,,spinning-,,wheel1 ,,and ,,the ,,bacon-,,cupboard ,the ,puritan days of the seventeenth century--,the ,protestant ,bible in every home--,the variety of carving found in ,bible-boxes--,the ,jacobean cradle and its forms--,the spinning-wheel--,the bacon-cupboard4 ,the ,authorised version of the ,holy ,bible1 translated out of the original tongues and with the former translations diligently compared and revised1 by ,his ,majesty's command1 found a place in every household in ,stuart days4 ,the letter of the learned translators ,to the most ,high and ,mighty ,prince ,james1 by the ,grace of ,god1 ,king of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,ireland1 ,defender of the ,faith1 c41 retains its place in modern editions4 ,it is an historic document worthy of preservation1 and perhaps those who have forgotten its terms may be glad to have their memory refreshed4 ,it is of surpassing moment to all who recognise the ,protestant derivation of the ,bible as we now know it1 and the sectarian feelings which inspired the translators under ,king ,james in their fulsome dedication to the ,modern ,solomon4 ,great and manifold were the blessings1 most dread ,sovereign1 which ,almighty ,god the ,father of all mercies bestowed upon us the people of ,england1 when first he sent your ,majesty's ,royal ,person to rule and reign over us4 ,for whereas it was the expectation of many1 who wished not well unto our ,sion1 that upon the setting of that bright ,occidental ,star1 ,queen ,elizabeth1 of most happy memory1 some thick and palpable clouds of darkness would so have overshadowed this land1 that men should have been in doubt which way they were to walk2 and that it should hardly be known who was to direct the unsettled ,state2 the appearance of your ,majesty1 as the ,sun in its strength1 instantly dispelled those supposed and surmised mists1 and gave unto all that were well affected exceeding cause of comfort2 especially when we beheld the ,government established in ,your ,highness and your hopeful seed1 by an undoubted title1 and this also accompanied by peace and tranquillity at home and abroad4 ,it is1 as we affirm1 an interesting document as showing the ,puritan tendencies at a time when much was in the melting-pot and the first of the ,stuarts1 with his broad ,scots accent and his ungainly ways1 came down to ,st4 ,james's from the ,north4 ,compare the above literary dedication to ,james the ,first with the word-portrait painted by ,green the historian1 and one may draw one's own inferences4 ,his big head1 his slobbering tongue1 his quilted clothes1 his rickety legs1 stood out in as grotesque a contrast with all that men recalled of ,henry or of ,elizabeth as his gabble and rodomontade1 his want of personal dignity1 his buffoonery1 his coarseness of speech1 his pedantry1 his contemptible cowardice4 ,under this ridiculous exterior1 however1 lay a man of much natural ability1 a ripe scholar with a considerable fund of shrewdness1 of mother-wit1 and ready repartee4 ,the ,protestant ,bible in every ,home4--,himself a theologian1 ,james influenced his contemporaries4 ,theology rules there1 said ,grotius of ,england only two years after ,elizabeth's death4 ,there was an indifference to pure letters and persons were counted fine scholars who were diligent in the study of the ,bible4 ,the language of the people became enriched with this study1 which extended to all classes4 ,john ,bunyan1 the son of a tinker at ,elstow1 learned his intense prose from the ,bible4 ,the peasant absorbed the ,bible till its words became his own4 ,with the ,puritan movement came the production of men of serious type1 and with it too came the disappearance of the richer and brighter life and humour of ,elizabethan days4 ,it was a literary movement and a religious movement which penetrated to the lower classes and often left the upper classes and gentry unmoved4 ,in dealing with this and its reflex upon the domestic habits of the people1 the visible effects in regard to furniture are strikingly evident in the plethora of ,bible-boxes belonging to those in this period of ,biblical study1 to whom ,shakespeare and ,ben ,jonson were unknown and ,spenser's ,faerie ,queene and ,milton's ,comus were sealed books4 ,it would almost seem that in many cases the ,bible was the only book which was read and treasured4 ,it was incorporated in the home life4 ,it served as a register to record the names and dates of birth and death or marriage of members of the family4 ,some of these family registers have been most valuable in tracing details in biography where parish registers have failed to supply the necessary information4 ,the ,variety of ,carving found in ,bible-boxes4--,we give a series of illustrations indicating some of the interesting details of carving to be found on such boxes1 where1 as in work intended for a treasure-chest to preserve a sacred book1 considerable zeal has gone to the elaboration of ornament4 ,these seventeenth-century relics of a wave of religious enthusiasm are the crude ,puritan likenesses1 belonging to a less innately artistic race1 of the tabernacles and ivory carved ,madonnas and saints of the ,italian renaissance4 ,they both1 though poles asunder in realisation1 represent the instinctive love of man for ornament in connection with his religious emotions4 ,savage races with another ritual produce religious and ceremonial woodcarving representative of their best4 ,here1 then1 is the ,puritan craftsmanship1 mainly of provincial origin and found scattered over various parts of the country1 following motifs executed by the same hands as ,jacobean chairs and dressers1 but bearing rich touches of ornament1 betraying much originality1 within the limited scope of ,jacobean design4 ,the carving has nothing of the humour or strong bold relief of the miserere seats of the palmy days of the woodcarver in the fifteenth and early sixteenth century in details that might well have been applied to the ,bible-box4 ,the ambition of the ,puritan woodcarver never reached figure-work1 or he might have represented ,biblical scenes if his abhorrence of graven images had not demoralised his fancy4 ,some of the early boxes have bold carving4 ,we illustrate a fine example 7p4 #adc7 of the time of ,james ,i41 about #afjj4 ,the design is floral1 which embodies the well-known conventional rose4 ,illustrated on the same page is another carved box of unusual pattern with floriated design4 ,it was a frequent practice to treat the front of the box as though it were continuous and the pattern leaves off at the ends much in the same manner as modern wallpaper4 ,in the box above it will be seen that the front is panelled and the design is confined to the circumscribed area4 ,illustration3 ,,carved ,,oak ,,bible-,,box4 ,,fine ,,example4 ,,time ,,of ,,james ,i4 ,,about #afjj4 ,length1 #b ft4 #d ins42 width1 #a ft4 #d ins42 height1 #aa-a_/b ins4 ,illustration3 ,,carved ,,bible-,,box ,,of ,,unusual ,,pattern4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,bible-,,box ,,of ,,very ,,rare ,,pattern4 ,,about #afej4 ,this type always had the same kind of clasp4 ,illustration3 ,,bible-,,box ,,of ,,usual ,,pattern ,,commonly ,,found4 ,another piece with very rare pattern1 in date about #afej1 has a bold type of carving in the two semicircles stretched across the front4 ,this use of semicircles occurs in types usually found4 ,the example illustrated 7p4 #ade7 has incised carving or scratch4 ,it will be seen that there is never an attempt at inlay or any of the delicacies of the refined craftsman4 ,among the various types of scratch boxes the use of circles and heart-shaped ornament is constant4 ,the locks found on this type of box are always of the class as shown in the illustration1 and the clasp is well known4 ,in the collection of ,bible-boxes the novice must carefully learn the exact limitations of the school of woodworkers in this minor field4 ,the touch of the foreign craftsman should be easily recognisable1 with its piquancy and real artistic feeling4 ,these ,puritan ,bible-boxes have flat lids1 and in order to give some touch of romance to them or whet the appetite of the collector they are frequently described as lace-boxes1 though it is very doubtful if such boxes were ever used for storing lace4 ,sometimes similar boxes with sloping lids were used as early forms of writing-desks4 ,the ,jacobean ,cradle4--,the specimens of this type of furniture always exhibit1 in the oak variety associated with farmhouse use1 a plainness as a noticeable factor4 ,they are usually panelled1 but the panel has received no carved ornament and is especially simple4 ,of course they always have rockers4 ,in the examples illustrated the slight variation in these rockers will be observed4 ,sometimes they are plain and sometimes they have slight ornamental curves4 ,the only other ornament may be found in the turned knobs at the foot and sometimes at the head4 ,sometimes there are fine knobs on the hood4 ,the hood is sometimes shaped and exhibits a nave attempt at symmetrical design4 ,these cradles have long been familiar objects in cottagers' homes1 but are now being displaced by modern wicker cradles4 ,the picture ,a ,flood 7#ahgj71 by ,sir ,john ,e4 ,millais1 shows one of these cradles floating in a flooded meadow4 ,the baby is crowing with delight1 and a black cat sits at the foot of the cradle4 ,the holes in the example illustrated 7p4 #adi7 are intended to receive a cord stretched across the cradle to protect the occupant4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,cradle4 ,with shaped hood and turned knobs at head and foot4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,cradle4 ,with shaped hood with turned ball ornaments4 ,holes on each side to fasten rope to protect occupant4 ,illustration3 ,,yarn-,,winder ,,and ,,spinning-,,wheel4 ,illustration3 ,,buckinghamshire ,,bobbin',s4 ,turned wood bobbins with coloured beads to identify the bobbins from each other4 7,in the collection of the author47 ,the ,spinning-wheel4--,to this day the spinning-wheel is used in ,scotland1 in the ,highlands4 ,the wool or yarn winders are usually in windlass form with six spokes4 ,the turning upon these winders and spinning wheels resembles the spindles on the spindle-back chairs4 ,there is in ,buckinghamshire bobbins a similar turning1 individual in character and exhibiting considerable artistic beauty4 ,in spinning-wheels there is considerable scope for the use of fine touches of ornament1 in such practical objects dear to the housewife4 ,bone sometimes was used in the turned knobs4 ,the making of these spinning-wheels was undertaken by persons desirous of winning the esteem of those who used them4 ,many of them have come down as heirlooms in families and have not been held as objects of art1 to be regarded as curiosities1 but as articles of everyday use4 ,the use of the spinning-wheel was not confined exclusively to the farmer's wife4 ,in early days great ladies were adepts at spinning4 ,by the time of ,george ,,iii4 it was employed by the ladies of titled families4 ,mrs4 ,delany1 when staying with the ,duchess of ,portland at ,bulstrode1 writes3 ,the ,queen came about twelve o'clock1 and caught me at my spinning-wheel1 and made me spin on and give her a lesson afterwards2 and ,i must say she did it tolerably for a queen4 ,this letter1 dated #agha1 goes to prove two things1 that spinning was a real task still undertaken by great ladies1 and not a fashionable amusement4 ,had it been the latter ,mrs4 ,delany would not have used the expression caught me at my spinning-wheel1 wherein she indicates that the occupation was somewhat of a menial one4 ,in regard to the ,buckinghamshire bobbins1 sometimes finely carved in bone1 those illustrated 7p #aea47 indicate the character of the cottagers' treasures in the pillow-lace-making districts4 ,the patterns of these bobbins are not repeated4 ,individual touches are given to these bobbins by the village turners which are not duplicated4 ,in use1 the bobbin has to be identified by some mark1 and beads of different colours are employed1 which are affixed by means of a wire to the bobbin1 as is shown in the illustration4 ,the ,bacon-cupboard4--,another class which it is convenient to place among miscellaneous objects is the bacon-cupboard4 ,the illustration 7p4 #bca7 shows the type of bacon-cupboard with seat and arms and drawers beneath4 ,the position held by the bacon-cupboard in the farmhouse is shown by the growing dignity in the character of these cupboards4 ,the gradual growth and development are shown in many specimens of the ,queen ,anne period1 frequently of ,lancashire origin4 ,such pieces1 with classic pilasters1 broken cornice1 and bevelled panels and drawers beneath1 are typified in wardrobes and dressers belonging to eighteenth-century farmhouse furniture4 ,the development of capacious cupboards for various domestic uses is noticeable in this class of furniture up to early nineteenth-century days4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,styles ,,chapter ,,vi ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,styles ,the advent of the cabriole leg--,the so-called ,queen ,anne style--,the survival of oak in the provinces--,the influence of walnut on cabinet-making--,the early-,georgian types--,chippendale and his contemporaries4 ,the dawn of the eighteenth century practically commenced with the reign of ,queen ,anne4 ,the times were troublous4 ,as princess1 in the days of ,william the ,dutchman and her sister ,mary1 she was forbidden the ,court as ,john ,churchill1 then ,earl of ,marlborough1 designed to overthrow ,william and place ,anne on the throne4 ,were ,i and my ,lord ,marlborough private persons1 ,william exclaimed1 the sword would have to settle between us4 ,at the death of ,mary the ,princess ,anne1 together with the ,marlboroughs1 was recalled to ,st4 ,james's4 ,at the death of ,william1 in #agjb1 ,anne came to the throne4 ,only just in her thirty-seventh year1 she was so corpulent and gouty that she could not walk from ,westminster ,hall to the ,abbey1 and was carried in an open chair4 ,during the ,coronation ceremony she was too infirm to support herself in a standing position without assistance4 ,the age of ,anne is remarkable for its restless intrigues4 ,court plots were rife when ,queen ,anne ,mrs4 ,morley in her private letters to the ,duchess of ,marlborough1 who was ,mrs4 ,freeman1 finally broke with the overbearing ,duchess and made ,abigail ,hill1 one of the ,marlborough creatures1 her chief confidant4 ,the ,protestant ,whig party favoured the long war in the ,low ,countries and in ,spain1 although conducted by a ,tory general1 ,marlborough1 who1 by the way1 did not take the field in ,flanders till he was fifty-two1 a remarkable achievement for so great a military career1 wherein he never fought a battle in which he was not victorious4 ,the greatness of ,marlborough is indisputable4 ,his fond love for his wife runs like a gold thread through the dark web of his life4 ,his wife had1 during a large part of ,anne's reign1 despotic empire over ,anne's feeble mind4 ,history exhibits to us few spectacles more remarkable1 says ,lord ,macaulay1 than that of a great and wise man who1 when he had contrived vast and profound schemes of policy1 could carry them into effect only by inducing one foolish woman1 who was often unmanageable1 to manage another woman who was more foolish still4 ,illustration3 ,,lancashire ,,oak ,,settle4 ,c4 #agfj4 ,length1 #f ft42 depth1 #b ft4 #a in4 ,illustration3 ,,lancashire ,,queen ,,anne ,,settle4 ,showing transition into later type of modern settee4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,to us now1 with the secret springs of history laid bare1 there is much to marvel at1 much to deplore as trivial4 ,in regard to matters of high state and the suppleness of time-servers1 memoirs and private journals have exposed many a skeleton carefully hidden from public gaze4 ,but of the life of the people1 especially the life in the country districts1 the picture is somewhat blurred4 ,men of letters flocked to the town--the town was ,london4 ,provincial life lies behind a curtain4 ,there were ,spanish doubloons coming up from ,bristol and prize-money from the wars was scattered inland from the ports4 ,scotland was united to ,england by the ,act of ,union4 ,i desire1 said the ,queen1 and expect from my subjects of both nations that from henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness to one another1 and so that it may appear to all the world they have hearts disposed to become one people4 ,this wish has been amply fulfilled and the union has become something more than a name4 ,never have two peoples different in thought1 in tradition1 and in established law become so completely welded together4 ,but the war of the ,spanish ,succession must have drained ,english blood as it taxed ,english pockets4 ,six millions of supplies and almost fifty millions of debt1 wrote ,swift bitterly4 ,the tide of ,marlborough's success was undoubtedly secured by the outpouring of ,english lives4 ,stalwart levies of men from the shires went to join the strange medley of the forces of the ,allies commanded by ,marlborough4 ,dutchmen1 ,danes1 ,hanoverians1 ,wrtembergers1 and ,austrians jostled shoulders with each other in his troops4 ,he launched them with calm imperturbability against his opponents at ,malplaquet1 for example1 where with a ,pyrrhic triumph he lost twenty-four thousand men against half that number of the ,french behind their entrenchments4 ,it is little wonder that the war was unpopular in the country1 where the ,spanish ,succession and the balance of power were only symbols for so much pressure on the needs of the labouring classes4 ,bonfires might be lit for ,blenheim1 but many a village mourned those who would never return4 ,in spite of this intermingling of ,england with ,european politics1 the general life of the people remained untouched from outside influence in regard to arts and manufacture4 ,cut off from intercourse with ,france1 the grandeur of the art of ,louis ,quatorze was as far removed from early eighteenth-century ,england as though ,boulle and ,jean ,brain and ,lepaute were in another continent and the chteau of ,versailles in the fastnesses of the ,urals4 ,it is true that ,louis ,,xiv4 presented two wonderful cabinets to the ,duke of ,monmouth1 exquisite examples of metal inlay and coloured marquetry1 but such pieces were beyond the capabilities of any ,english craftsman to emulate4 ,the chief innovations of the early eighteenth century followed the ,dutch lines familiarised in the preceding days of ,william and ,mary4 ,oak remained in farmhouse and country furniture1 but in the fashionable world walnut was extensively used1 and occasionally mahogany4 ,corner cupboards were introduced early in the reign of ,anne1 and hooped chairs1 familiar in engravings of ,flemish interiors1 came into general use4 ,fiddle-splat chairs were also common in the first half of the eighteenth century4 ,in regard to feet1 the ball-and-claw1 and club foot were introduced4 ,caning of chairs went out of fashion till the end of the century4 ,shell and pendant ornament on knees of chair-legs became marked features1 and1 above all1 the cabriole leg to chairs and tables is associated with the early years of the reign1 and the term ,queen ,anne is always applied to such pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,cupboard ,,with ,,drawers4 ,c4 #agjj4 ,with swan head pediment4 ,pedestal at top for delft or china4 ,round beadings to drawers4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,anne ,,bureau ,,bookcase4 ,farmhouse oak variety4 ,emulating a finer walnut or mahogany piece4 ,illustration3 ,,fine ,,example ,,oak ,,table4 ,c4 #agbj4 ,well-proportioned legs1 club feet1 original undercutting4 ,exemplary of professional country cabinet-maker's highest work4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,table4 ,c4 #agbj4 ,with hoof feet and knee1 possibly copied from a fine ,queen ,anne piece1 exemplifying the best work of country cabinet-maker4 ,height1 #b ft4 #g ins42 top1 #a ft4 #g-a_/b ins4 #b ft4 #c ins4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,the ,cabriole ,leg4--,this form of leg1 swelling into massive proportions where it joins the seat1 and curving outwards and tapering to a ball-and-claw foot or a club foot1 lasted till end of ,chippendale period1 roughly1 for nearly half a century4 ,it assumed various forms until it was supplanted by the straight leg1 and the stretcher1 which had disappeared with the use of the cabriole leg1 again came into use4 ,examples of the cabriole leg appear as illustrations to various types of furniture in this chapter4 ,at first its use did not interfere with the employment of the stretcher1 but about #agaj the stretcher disappeared4 ,the ,lancashire ,queen ,anne settle illustrated 7p4 #aei7 shows the stretcher joining the front leg to the back4 ,in the settle illustrated above1 in date #agfj1 it will be seen the stretchers have vanished4 ,the ,so-called ,queen ,anne ,style4--,fashions slowly adopted in cabinet design do not readily arrange themselves in exact periods coinciding with the reigns of individual sovereigns4 ,but it is convenient to affix a label to certain marked changes and attribute their general use to a particular reign4 ,the innovation of the square panel with broken corners and ornamental curves at top is found in ,queen ,anne settles4 ,the departure from the square panel and line of the curved and broken top is exhibited in the second ,great ,seal of ,anne1 commemorating the ,union with ,scotland4 ,it is reminiscent of the ,dutch influence1 and is found in ,sussex firebacks of an earlier period4 ,the straight lines of early-,jacobean cabinet-work were rapidly undergoing a change2 the square wooden back of the chair was shortly to be replaced by fiddle splats1 which in their turn1 in late-,georgian days1 became pierced and fretted and carved under the genius of ,chippendale's hand4 ,the two settles illustrated 7p4 #aei7 show several interesting points4 ,the panels are typical of the love of the curved line1 which ,hogarth defined as the line of beauty4 ,in the upper one the arms still retain the old ,jacobean form in this farmhouse example4 ,the ball foot still clings to the earlier form4 ,the seat is sunk to receive a long cushion4 ,in the adjacent specimen the seat with its cushion and the curved ,s arms upholstered show the transition into the later type of modern settee4 ,the curved outline finds similar expression in the hood of grandfather clock-cases and in the shape of metal dials4 ,a cupboard with drawers illustrated 7p4 #afc7 has what is known as a swan head4 ,the panels to the doors have similarly novel features in their structure4 ,it will be observed that there is a square pedestal at the top of this piece1 which was intended as a stand for a delft or ,chinese jar4 ,the drawers of this cupboard have round beadings4 ,the typical instance of curved design with not a single straight line1 not even the back legs1 which are bowed1 is the grandfather chair with the high back1 upholstered all over4 ,the cabriole legs with ball-and claw-feet1 the ,c-shaped arms1 the scroll upholstered wings1 and the oval back1 depart from the rectilinear2 even the underframing of the seat is bow-shaped4 ,similarly1 the walnut arm-chairs of the period from #afij to #agae had bold curves4 ,the arms always possessed a curious scroll1 the backs had broad splats with curling shoulders1 and often a broad bold ribbon pattern making two loops to fill up the top of the hoop at the back1 with a carved shell at the point of intersection4 ,big pieces of furniture1 such as bureaus1 had the broken arch pediment1 and smaller objects1 such as mirrors1 had the arched or broken top2 and when these dressing mirrors had small drawers1 these disdained the straight front and became convex4 ,under the ,dutch influence1 in the first period of ,english veneer work1 from about #afge to #agae1 very fine cabinets and bureaus and chests of drawers were made4 ,walnut was the wood employed1 with the panels inlaid with pollard elm1 boxwood1 ebony1 mahogany1 sycamore1 and other coloured woods4 ,figured walnut was beloved by the cabinet-maker beginning to feel his way in colour schemes of decoration4 ,bandings of herring-bone inlay and rounded mouldings to drawers are very characteristic4 ,bureaus and important pieces had birds and flowers and trees or feather marquetry after fine ,dutch models4 ,picked walnut1 especially exhibiting a fine feathered figure1 was used as veneer1 and with these and other glorious creations of the walnut school of cabinet-workers the age of walnut may be said to have been in full swing4 ,the ,survival of ,oak in the ,provinces4--,the foregoing descriptions apply to fashionable folks' furniture4 ,such fashions did not come into usage in the farmhouses and in the cottages4 ,oak was still employed without being displaced by the walnut of the town maker4 ,oak was in the main more suitable for the particular class of furniture which was likely to receive less delicate care than the writing-cabinets and bureaus and the china-cupboards of more fastidious people4 ,tea-drinking had become the luxury of the great world of society1 and had hardly come into general use in the country till late in the reign of ,anne1 though by #afij it had gained considerable favour in ,london4 ,coffee was introduced slightly earlier1 and many invectives in broadsides and in poetical satires appear in the late seventeenth century against coffee and coffee-houses4 ,in #afgd the ,women's ,petition against ,coffee complained that it made men as unfruitful as the deserts whence that unhappy berry is said to be brought2 that the offspring of our mighty ancestors would dwindle into a succession of apes and pigmies1 and on a domestic message a husband would stop by the way to drink a couple of cups of coffee4 ,the prejudice against coffee1 and especially against coffee-houses1 was lasting1 and coffee failed to establish itself as a national beverage4 ,the labouring classes declined to be weaned from their ale and other stronger drinks4 ,the ,spaniards brought chocolate from ,mexico2 ,roger ,north1 ,attorney-,general to ,james ,,ii41 uttered a violent polemic against chocolate houses1 perhaps more on account of the political clubs gathered there than against the beverage itself4 ,the use of coffee-houses1 says he1 seems much improved by a new invention called chocolate-houses1 for the benefit of rooks and cullies of quality1 where gaming is added to the rest1 as if the ,devil had erected a new university1 and those were the colleges of its professors4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,anne ,,glass- ,,or ,,china-,,cupboard4 ,spun glass doors4 ,heavy bars mark early type prior to tracery4 ,,georgian ,,corner ,,cupboard4 ,,late ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,broken architraves and cushion top4 ,having original hinges4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,small ,,oak ,,table4 #agjj-agbj4 ,height1 #b ft4 #d-c_/d ins42 width1 #b ft4 #c ins42 depth1 #a ft4 #i-c_/d ins4 ,graceful proportion with cabriole leg4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,table4 ,showing at a later period the last traces of the cabriole leg4 ,the varying phases of town life1 of which the above quotations give a passing glimpse1 found little reflex in the sturdy unchanging life of the provinces4 ,generation after generation1 men farmed the same lands and their dependents lived in cottages adjacent2 tillers of the ground1 herdsmen1 toilers in the fields1 living by the sweat of their brow4 ,they were content with simpler pleasures1 which centred round the alehouse and the village green1 or maybe the village church1 if the hunting rector and the studious vicar were not too heedless of the fate of their flock4 ,but other influences were soon to be at work to break the lethargy of those of the clergy who slumbered4 ,wesley founded the ,methodist movement4 ,whitefield began his sermons in the fields and looked down from a green slope on several thousand colliers grimy from the coalpits near ,bristol to see1 as he preached1 tears making white channels down their blackened cheeks4 ,later again1 ,hannah ,more drew sympathy to the poverty and crime of the agricultural classes4 ,the ,influence of ,walnut on ,cabinet-making4--,if oak was the wood which the country joiner loved best1 he was not without some sympathetic leaning towards the effects which could be produced in the softer walnut4 ,such styles accordingly began slowly to have a marked influence upon the farmhouse furniture in early-,georgian days4 ,it was not easy to produce curved lines in the refractory oak1 tough and brittle1 but the village craftsman essayed his best to please his patrons whose taste had been caught by the newer fashions observed in the squire's parlour when paying rare visits4 ,in the two examples illustrated of farmhouse cupboard and bureau bookcase 7p4 #afc7 it will be seen that here is the country maker definitely trying his skill in his native wood to emulate the finer walnut examples of town cabinet-makers4 ,this is even more noticeable in regard to some of the tables actually found in farmhouses belonging to as early as the first quarter of the eighteenth century4 ,the two specimens illustrated 7p4 #afe7 exemplify this tendency to imitate the designs of trained workers4 ,the country touch always betrays itself in the cabriole leg1 whether in chair or in table4 ,the upper table has less navet than most examples found4 ,there is a balance in its construction rarely found in provincial work4 ,the legs1 always the stumbling-block to the less experienced artificer1 are here of exceptionally fine proportions1 terminating in club feet4 ,the lower table shows a less capable treatment of the cabriole leg4 ,the hoof foot and the carved knee have obviously been copied from a fine ,queen ,anne model4 ,in the underframing of both tables there is an experiment in ornament and form rarely attempted except in the highest flights of the country maker1 and as such these two fine examples must be regarded4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,table4 ,showing clumsy corners and indicating the navet of the country cabinet-maker4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,table4 ,showing transition from cabriole leg to straight leg of #agfj4 ,the ,early ,georgian ,types4--,treating of the early-,hanoverian period from the death of ,queen ,anne in #agad1 and including the reigns of ,george ,i4 from #agad to #agbg and ,george ,,ii4 from #agbg to #agfj1 furniture of all types begins to assume a complexity of construction4 ,at the final outburst the fine masterpieces of creation of the great schools of design during the last half of the eighteenth century1 embodied the life-work of ,chippendale1 the brothers ,adam1 ,hepplewhite1 ,sheraton1 and many others4 ,this period from #agej to #ahjj was the golden age of design in ,england4 ,it has had a far-reaching effect1 and still casts its glory upon the present-day schools of designers1 whose adaptations and lines of progress are based upon the finest flower of the eighteenth-century styles4 ,the massive walnut chairs with deep underframing and broad hoop backs departed from the solid splats of the ,anne style and endeavoured to become less squat by the employment of banded ribbon-work1 coarse1 heavy1 and ponderous in style4 ,settees1 arm-chairs and single chairs in this style came as the final efforts of the walnut school4 ,the graceful ribbon designs interlacing each other in knots1 and the flowing carving in mahogany of ,chippendale1 put a period to all dullness and heavy design4 ,with the new style and the new wood a splendid field was opened to cabinet-makers1 and the quick appreciation of these opportunities signalised their work as of permanent artistic value4 ,among more important pieces1 though still falling under the category of farmhouse styles1 may be mentioned the ,queen ,anne glass or china cupboard1 and the ,georgian corner cupboard1 illustrated p4 #aga4 ,the former has heavy bars1 which mark the early type prior to tracery1 and it has spun-glass doors4 ,porcelain factories at ,bow1 ,worcester1 and ,derby brought such cupboards into more general use after the middle of the century4 ,staffordshire earthenware tea and coffee services were found in great numbers in farmhouses and cottages4 ,after the days of delft and stoneware came the prized china services of the housewife4 ,pewter was largely used1 but the number of ale-jugs of ,toby form1 or cider-mugs with rural subjects to suit the tastes of the users1 indicate that more modern ideas and taste1 once exclusive to the world of fashion1 had penetrated the country districts4 ,the ,georgian corner cupboard shows the broken architraves and cushion top4 ,the hinges should be noticed as being original4 ,chippendale and his ,contemporaries4--,at first using the cabriole leg with ball-and-claw foot1 not quite as he found it1 but reduced to slightly more slender proportions to be in symmetry with his less massive backs to chairs1 ,chippendale came to the straight line4 ,he employed it in the legs of tables and in the seats of chairs1 in the bracket supports1 and in the top rail of his chairs4 ,chippendale in his day1 made the first straight top rail to the chair4 ,it is interesting to note the phases of changing design in country-made furniture prior to his time1 and the sudden mastery of form which became the common inheritance of all after his and other contemporary design-books were promulgated broadcast4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,anne ,,tea ,,table4 ,c4 #agaj4 ,with scalloped edge for cups4 ,height1 #b ft4 #d ins42 depth1 #a ft4 #i ins42 length1 #b ft4 #h ins4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,revolving ,,book-,,stand4 ,c4 #agbj4 ,rare form4 ,diameter of top1 #b ft42 height1 #b ft4 #h ins4 7,in the collection of ,miss ,holland47 ,illustration3 ,,country ,,chippendale ,,table4 ,leg with exaggerated knee1 claw1 and ball foot4 ,accuracy in straight joinery4 ,failure in curved work4 ,top1 #b ft4 #g ins4 #a ft4 #c ins42 height1 #b ft4 #d ins4 ,illustration3 ,,square ,,mahogany ,,flap ,,table4 ,c4 #agcj4 ,height1 #b ft4 #d ins42 length1 #c ft4 #aj-a_/b ins42 width1 #b ft4 #a in4 ,round cross stretcher4 ,rare form4 ,illustration3 ,,tripod ,,table4 ,c4 #agfj4 ,chippendale style1 probably unique4 ,elaborate rococo work4 7,in the collection of ,harold ,bendixon1 ,esq47 ,in the table the cabriole leg showed early signs of passing away4 ,the two examples illustrated 7p4 #agc7 clearly indicate this4 ,the upper one1 of the time of ,queen ,anne1 shows the cabriole leg in fine proportion under due subjection1 and is a delicate example of fine cabinet-work4 ,the lower one sees the leg losing its cabriole curve1 but still rounded and still possessing the club foot4 ,even more interesting are the two tables illustrated 7p4 #agg74 ,the country maker was slow to adopt the cabriole leg when it was fashionable1 but when it became unfashionable he was equally loth to depart from his accustomed style4 ,these clearly point to the transition between the cabriole leg and the straight leg of ,chippendale1 and are about #agfj in date4 ,the forms of design of tables of eighteenth-century date are extremely varied in character1 denoting the rapidly changing habits of the people4 ,the ,queen ,anne tea-table1 with scalloped edges for cups1 marks the note of preciosity creeping into country life4 ,a revolving bookstand in table form1 of about #agbj in date1 is another rare piece4 ,the adjacent table 7p4 #aha7 is country ,chippendale4 ,the exaggerated knee and the feeble ball-and-claw foot mark the failure of the provincial hand at curved work1 accurate though he might be in straight joinery4 ,the ,cupid's bow underframing is interesting in combination with the rest of the design4 ,the tripod table offered difficulties of construction and is not often found4 ,the example illustrated is probably unique in form4 ,in date it is about #agfj1 and is remarkable for the attempt at elaborate rococo work4 ,sometimes1 though not often1 mahogany was used in farmhouse examples4 ,the table illustrated 7p4 #ahc7 is an instance of the use of this wood instead of oak4 ,it is about #agcj in date1 and exhibits an unusual form in the round cross stretcher1 a touch of originality by the maker4 ,it is1 as will be seen1 a square-topped table with flaps4 ,elaboration of a high order was happily not often attempted by the country workman1 or the results with his limited experience would have been disastrous4 ,instead of a fine series of really good1 solid1 and well-constructed furniture made for practical use we should have had a wilderness of failures at attempting the impossible4 ,a copy of a fine ,chippendale side-table illustrated 7p4 #ahg7 is a case in point4 ,there is the usual want of balance in the poise of the leg1 but the carving is of exceptional character4 ,the table beneath1 with its long and tapering legs1 has all the characteristics of the ,adam style4 ,the beaded decoration on the legs1 the classic fluting and the carved rosette claim distant relationship with the classic inventions of ,robert ,adam4 ,the wood is pinewood1 and as an example it is of singular interest4 ,the rapid survey of eighteenth-century influences bearing on the class of furniture of which this volume treats will perhaps induce the collector to scrutinise more carefully all pieces coming under his notice1 with a view to arriving at their salient features in connection with the native design of more or less untutored craftsmen4 ,illustration3 ,,elaborate ,,table4 ,country attempt to imitate fine ,chippendale side table4 ,note the want of balance in leg4 ,illustration3 ,,pinewood ,,country-,,made ,,adam ,,table4 ,note the unusually long leg4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,chair ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,arm-,,chair4 ,,date ,c4 #afge4 ,with elaborate scroll back4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,arm-,,chair4 ,,date #afej4 ,with scratched lozenge4 ,illustration3 ,,chestnut ,,arm-,,chair4 ,,date #afij4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,arm-,,chair4 ,,date #afij4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,chair ,early days--,the typical ,jacobean oak chair--,the evolution of the stretcher--,the chair-back and its development--,transition between ,jacobean and ,william and ,mary forms--,farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--,the ,queen ,anne splat--,country ,chippendale1 ,hepplewhite1 and ,sheraton--,the grandfather chair--,ladder-back types--,the spindle-back chair--,corner chairs4 ,in order to deal exhaustively with the evolution of the chair from its earliest forms to the latest developments in sumptuous upholstery1 it would be necessary to make an extended survey of furniture1 dating back to early classic days4 ,to enumerate the manifold varieties belonging to various countries and to trace the gradual progress in form1 which kept pace with the advance in civilisation1 would be of sufficient interest to occupy a whole volume4 ,man1 as a sitting or lounging animal1 has grown to require more elaborate forms of chair1 or settee1 or sofa1 and the modern tendency has been towards comfort and luxury4 ,in regard to ,english furniture the intense contrast between the days of ,elizabeth and those of ,victoria is at once noticeable4 ,according to ,lord ,macaulay in his comparison between the manners of his day and those of the past1 the furniture of a middle-class dwelling-house of the nineteenth century was equal to that of a rich merchant in the time of ,elizabeth4 ,in general this may be true1 though not as regards the spacious structure and the massive grandeur of the ,tudor house4 ,in many details the differences are most noteworthy4 ,the wide gulf dividing the modern world from the days of the ,armada may be realised by reflecting on such an astounding fact that ,queen ,elizabeth possessed at one time the only pair of silk stockings in her realm1 which were presented to her by ,mistress ,montague1 which pleased her so well that she would never wear any cloth hose afterwards4 ,the sturdy character of the yeomen of the days of the ,tudors is exhibited in their furniture4 ,the illustrations of this chapter in regard to the chair and its structural development indicate the slowly acquired tastes1 running some decades behind the fashionable furniture1 strong with foreign influences1 which had come into more or less general use4 ,england no longer sent her fleeces to be woven in ,flanders and to be dyed in ,florence4 ,the spinning of yarn1 the weaving1 fulling1 and dyeing of cloth1 was spreading rapidly from the towns to the country-side4 ,the worsted trade1 of which ,norwich was the centre1 extended over the whole of the ,eastern ,counties4 ,farmers' wives everywhere began to spin their wool from their own sheep's backs into a coarse homespun4 ,the rough and wattled farmhouses were being replaced by dwellings of brick and stone4 ,the disuse of salt fish and the greater consumption of meat marked the improvement which was taking place among the countryfolk4 ,the wooden trenchers in the farmhouses were supplanted by pewter1 and there were yeomen who could boast of their silver4 ,carpets in richer dwelling-houses superseded the wretched flooring of rushes4 ,even pillows1 now in common usage1 were articles of luxury in the sixteenth century4 ,the farmer and the trader deemed them as only fit for women in child-bed4 ,the chimney-corner came into usage in ,elizabethan days with the general use of chimneys4 ,the medival fortress had given place to the grandeur of the ,elizabethan hall in the houses of the wealthy merchants4 ,the rise of the middle classes brought with it in its wake the corresponding advance of the yeomen and their dependents4 ,visions of the ,new ,world threw a haze of prodigality and profusion over the imagination of the meanest seaman4 ,early ,days4--,of farmhouse types that can authoritatively be attributed to ,tudor days there are few1 but the succeeding age of the ,stuarts is rich with examples of undoubted authenticity4 ,many of them are dated1 and they all bear a strong family resemblance to each other1 owing to the narrow range of motifs in the carved panels4 ,there is a fixed insularity in these early examples1 and the same traditional patterns in scrollwork or in conventional lozenge design retained their hold for many generations4 ,the oak arm-chair of a farmhouse kitchen made in the days of ,charles ,i4 was still followed in close detail in the days of ,george ,,iii41 as dated examples testify1 and it would puzzle an expert1 without the date to guide him1 to say whether the piece was eighteenth or seventeenth century work4 ,it may be added that as a general rule there is a marked leaning towards generosity in imparting age to old furniture4 ,it is now very generally recognised that1 like wine1 it gains prestige with length of years4 ,it therefore grows in antiquity according to the fancy of the owner or the imagination of the collector4 ,among the early forms of chairs falling under the category of farmhouse furniture may be noticed examples of rough and massive build1 eminently fit to serve the purpose for which they were designed4 ,ornament is reduced to a minimum1 and they stand as rude monuments to the cabinet-maker's craft in fashioning them and following tradition to suit his client's tastes4 ,in regard to the sixteenth century there cannot be said to be any type falling under the heading of cottage or farmhouse chairs4 ,we have already illustrated 7p4 #ce7 an early form of ,elizabethan days1 but such examples are rare4 ,practically cottagers had only stools in common use4 ,it was not until about #afej that a simplified form of the well-known variety of the chairs of the ,jacobean oak period came into general use4 ,illustration3 ,,yorkshire ,,chair4 ,,date #affj4 ,late example1 with ball turning in stretcher4 ,illustration3 ,,cromwellian ,,chairs4 ,,date #affj4 ,with indication of transition to ,charles ,,ii4 period4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,the ,typical ,jacobean ,oak ,chair4--,the seventeenth century offers a wide field of selection1 and many examples exist which undoubtedly were in use in farmhouses at that period4 ,the arm-chair illustrated p4 #aia1 with the initials ,w4,i ,a41 is evidently made for the farmhouse4 ,it is noticeable for its complete absence of ornamental carving except a thinly scratched lozenge4 ,in date this is from #afej to #agjj1 and if made for a wealthier person at that date it would be richly carved4 ,the adjacent chair shows the next advance in type4 ,it is a superior farmhouse chair of the period4 ,it has a carved top with scroll cresting4 ,the holes in the seat1 it should be observed1 originally held ropes1 upon which a cushion was supported4 ,the wooden seat is an addition made in the eighteenth century4 ,the two other chairs illustrated on the same page are later examples1 in date about #afij4 ,one of these is fashioned of chestnut4 ,the form of these backs is related to the contemporary high-back cane chairs of the time of ,charles ,,ii4 and ,james ,,ii4 ,but these fashions influenced the proportions only of farmhouse chairs4 ,in arriving at the date of such specimens as these the bevelled panel is an important factor in determining the late period4 ,cushions had no place in the effects of the farmhouse in early days1 although ropes were sometimes used to support cushions1 as we have shown4 ,but as a general rule the wooden seats show tangible signs of rough usage of centuries1 and the stretcher has its worn surface marked by generations of owners who found it protective against the cold flagged or rush-strewn floor and the draughts in days prior to carpets and rugs4 ,the ,evolution of the ,stretcher4--,in making a study of the evolution of the chair the stretcher is an important factor4 ,for obvious reasons1 as explained above1 no early chairs were made without the stretcher across the front1 a good sound serviceable piece of ,british oak to stand rough wear and tear4 ,gradually1 keeping time with the march of comfort1 the front stretcher begins to leave its old position near the floor1 and in later examples it is half-way up the front legs4 ,it still had a use1 and a very important one3 it added considerable strength and solidity to the chair1 and is nearly always found in chairs intended for use4 ,in the series illustrated herein there are only few examples without the front stretcher4 ,later it took another form1 as the illustrated specimens in this chapter show3 it united the two side stretchers1 and crossed the chair underneath in the centre at right angles to the side stretchers4 ,its purpose in adding stability to this class of furniture was evidently never lost sight of4 ,at first strictly utilitarian1 the stretcher was a solid foot-rest2 later1 when partly utilitarian in adding to the strength1 it became suitable for ornamentation1 ,although in the class of furniture here under review such ornament never took an elaborate form1 there are examples slightly differing in character from chairs intended for the use of the wealthier classes1 and these are evidently a local effort to keep in touch with prevailing taste4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,settle4 ,with back panel under seat made from older ,oak ,chest4 ,date #afge4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,arm ,,chair4 ,,date #afge4 ,with ,bevelled ,panels4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,arm ,,chair4 ,,date #aggg4 ,with initials ,a4,s4 ,c4,b4 ,finely turned stretchers1 such as are found in gate tables1 are a feature of a certain class of local chairs1 such as those illustrated on p4 #aig4 ,this kind of chair without arms is rather more decorated and conforms more to the styles of furniture made for higher spheres than the farmhouse4 ,the upper chair with its light open back and ornate decoration is a ,yorkshire type1 and the ball turning in the stretcher shows the transition period to ,charles ,,ii4 ,the other two are ,cromwellian chairs1 but showing indications of the next period4 ,in date they are all three about #affj4 ,the ,chair-back and its ,development4--,another point in connection with the ordered progress of the chair-maker is the gradual development of the back of the chair4 ,at first it was straight upright1 and no attempt was made to impart an angle to rest the back of the sitter4 ,types such as the arm-chair with square panel 7p4 #aia7 and the upright settle with the five panels illustrated on p4 #bja indicate this feature of discomfort4 ,the next stage is a slight inclination in the back1 still possessing a flat panel4 ,this angle1 while not conforming to modern notions of ease1 was an attempt to offer greater comfort than before4 ,this style1 in a hundred forms1 with the minimum of inclination in the back1 continued for a very considerable period4 ,it is found in the nearly straight-backed chairs of ,derbyshire and ,yorkshire origin1 with the turned stretchers1 and it actually in later days became almost upright in the series of chairs following the later ,stuart types with cane back and cane seat1 noticeable for their tall narrow backs with a resemblance to the prie-dieu chair of continental usage4 ,the settle illustrated is a plainer variety of the settle made for use by fashionable folk with delicately panelled back4 ,very often1 in cottage furniture1 chests and other pieces are broken up to make into smaller furniture or to be incorporated into furniture of a later design4 ,often it is found that the underframing of an old gate table made in the seventeenth or eighteenth century is from an earlier chest4 ,in the present instance it will be seen that the back panels of the settle have been made from an older chest1 which bears the inscribed initials1 still visible1 ,i4,e4 ,in date this settle is about #afge1 and is contemporary with the square-backed chair illustrated on the same page4 ,here the panel in back projects1 that is1 it is slightly bevelled forward4 ,the bevelling of the panel is always a sign that a chair is later in date than the year #afgj4 ,illustrated on the same page is a remarkable chair having the initials ,a4,s4,c4,b4 and the date #aggg carved on it4 ,it is a striking instance of the adherence to old time-honoured form by the local cabinet-maker1 with touches that1 even although the date were not present1 would tell their own story4 ,this dull wood proclaims a message in accents no less sure than the sturdy yeoman's to ,lady ,clara ,vere de ,vere1 and as a chair in date anno ,domini #aggg may afford to smile at the claims of long descent of more pretentious and fashionable furniture4 ,it is like a rich vein of dialect running in some old country song ripe with phrase of ,saxon days4 ,it seems incredible that this survival of early-,jacobean days should have been put together by a village craftsman true to convention and exact in seat and arms and stretcher4 ,but it was not done unthinkingly4 ,here is a chair1 astounding to note1 made when ,sheraton was creating his new styles to supplant ,chippendale1 and when ,hepplewhite stood between the two masters as a via media4 ,and the back of this village chair has two distinct features translated from ,hepplewhite's school--the wheatear crest and the panel with its broken corner6 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,chairs4 ,,date ,,about #afhj4 ,showing the inclination of the craftsmen to assimilate designs then being fashioned in walnut4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,transition between ,jacobean and ,william and ,mary ,forms4--,the rapid growth of the finer specimens of furniture made in walnut brought a new note into the farmhouse variety4 ,the elegance and grace of the newer styles were at once evident4 ,in the same manner as the grandiose splendour of ,elizabethan woodcarving was succeeded by a less massive style in oak1 degenerating into a rude simplicity in farmhouse examples1 so in turn ,jacobean lost favour4 ,walnut lent itself to more intricate turning1 and lightness and greater delicacy claimed the popular favour of fashionable folk4 ,the cane seat and the cane back at once indicate this new taste4 ,the use of cushions became general and the sunk seat for the squab cushion is a feature in the later years of the seventeenth century4 ,oak still remained the favourite wood of the country craftsman1 in spite of its more refractory qualities4 ,but when the walnut styles became so firmly established that clients demanded furniture in this fashion1 elm and beech and yew were found pliable enough to conform to the more slender touches and the finer turning considered desirable4 ,walnut was in its turn supplanted by mahogany1 and it will be shown later how farmhouse furniture followed the dictates of fashion in days when the outburst of splendid design by ,chippendale1 ,hepplewhite1 and ,sheraton1 together with a crowd of lesser known men1 spread far and wide new principles in the art of furniture-making and brought country furniture another stage in its evolution4 ,farmhouse furniture slowly assimilated the technique and design of the walnut age4 ,the love for the native oak was so pronounced that country makers did not desert this wood and essayed to produce effects by its employment that were exceedingly difficult and oftentimes unsuccessful4 ,the three chairs illustrated p4 #bje show this transition style1 about the year #afhj1 struggling with technical difficulties and affording a fine series of points in the evolution of design4 ,farmhouse ,styles contemporary with the ,cane-back ,chair4--,farmhouse furniture rarely1 if ever1 had cane-work in the back or in the seat4 ,but the craftsman1 while appreciating the delicacy of the cane back in adding lightness to the chair1 circumvented his inability to work in cane by substituting thin vertical splats to give the necessary effect of transparency4 ,the three chairs illustrated show each in varying degree the quaint compromise made between the technique of oak and the technique of walnut1 and the attempt to reproduce the walnut designs4 ,the arm-chair exhibits strong relationship with the older ,jacobean chair in its turned legs and uprights1 but these have assumed a more slender proportion4 ,the front stretcher is in the newer manner4 ,the sunk seat is intended to receive a cushion4 ,there should be no difficulty for the amateur correctly to assign a date to such a piece4 ,the process of reasoning would be somewhat as follows3--,the lower half of the chair is ,jacobean1 but the front stretcher suggests the ,charles ,,ii4 period1 borne out by the open back1 which removes it from the ,cromwellian period1 and the details of the top rail with its curved top indicate that the country maker had seen the tall straight-back chairs of the ,william and ,mary period with the cane-work panel4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,chairs4 ,with cresting rail1 of ,charles ,,ii4 period1 retained and perforated arch centre peculiar to walnut designs4 ,with elaboration in turned legs1 and uprights1 of ,william and ,mary period retained1 and having ,queen ,anne splat of #agaj4 ,with sunk seat for squab cushion1 turned uprights and legs and curious back1 showing transition from lath back to splat back4 ,the middle chair more closely approaches the upright chair of the ,charles ,,ii4 period4 ,there is a straight top-rail1 supplemented by a lunette1 giving the top a character of its own4 ,this specimen is exceptionally interesting4 ,the right-hand chair in its seat and legs is pronouncedly ,jacobean4 ,but the back with the three splats and the coarsely carved top-rail betray the hand of the country craftsman following in oak the more graceful curves of the worker in walnut of the days of ,charles ,,ii4 ,it will be seen that these three chairs1 each in varying manner1 evade the difficulties of the light cane-back by the substitution of thin rails1 and1 as will be seen from the illustration of three other chairs 7p4 #bji71 the next stage of walnut design with fiddle-shaped splat offered equal problems to the makers of cottage furniture4 ,sometimes they eliminated the splat altogether1 while adopting other points of design found in chairs with the ,queen ,anne splat of #agaj4 ,in every case the fondness for old established styles is exhibited in the fact that the country cabinet-maker clings doggedly to these and appears too conservative or too timid to break wholly away from tradition4 ,in consequence1 his work1 with patches of newer design welded on to the old1 is quaintly incongruous4 ,there is thus an absence of thinking out the design as a whole4 ,the minor maker thought out the parts as he went along4 ,some of his results are extraordinary in their characteristics3 they resemble that freak of fashion termed harlequin tea services1 where the cups are of one pattern and the saucers of another4 ,bearing in mind these unfailing proclivities of the maker of cottage and farmhouse furniture1 the collector should not find it difficult to recognise the country hand at once4 ,now and again one is struck with the extraordinary ingenuity of some of the work1 or one is charmed with the faithfulness with which designs have been translated from the golden bowl to the silver1 or1 to be literal1 from walnut and mahogany to oak and elm and beech4 ,but one is never amazed at the delicacy of proportion1 the balanced symmetry1 or the fertility of invention--these attributes belong to cabinet-makers on a higher plane4 ,of three chairs illustrated on p4 #bji1 that on the left in the legs and seat shows the moribund ,jacobean style4 ,the stretcher indicates the oncoming of the newer styles1 and the back with its cresting rail is of the ,charles ,,ii4 period4 ,its retention is curious1 and the perforated arched centre is peculiar to designs found in walnut2 its use in oak by the maker of this chair was a blunder1 as oak is too hard a wood to employ for such a design4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,anne ,,chair4 ,entirely oak form except back and splat4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,anne ,,chair4 ,in oak1 with strong inclinations towards walnut styles4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,anne ,,chair4 ,walnut design made in oak for farmhouse use4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,anne ,,arm-,,chair4 ,with shaped front1 walnut design executed in oak4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,country ,,chippendale ,,chair1 ,,style ,,merging ,,into ,,hepplewhite4 ,less pronounced ,cupid's bow top4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,chairs ,,country ,,hepplewhite ,,style ,,made ,,entirely ,,in ,,oak4 ,left-hand chair with ,prince of ,wales's feathers4 ,illustration3 ,,types ,,of ,,cottage ,,chairs ,,in ,,oak4 ,having features of the three styles--,queen ,anne1 ,chippendale1 and ,sheraton4 ,two chairs ,queen ,anne style4 ,chair ,country ,chippendale style4 ,the middle chair shows an equal admixture of styles4 ,the elaboration in the turned legs and uprights belongs to the ,william and ,mary period and the splat is the ,queen ,anne fiddle pattern of #agaj4 ,the seat begins to show another form in having the middle sunk for the use of a squab cushion4 ,the right-hand chair parts with the underframing below the seat1 which gives a touch of lightness to the construction4 ,the turned legs and uprights have departed from the coarse early-,jacobean style and perceptibly depend on walnut prototypes for their character4 ,the back shows the transition from the lath back 7such as in the chairs simulating the cane-work7 to the splat back4 ,it is an interesting and rare example1 marking the slow assimilation of new forms by isolated makers4 ,this specimen came from ,ireland and evidently possesses native touches of originality which defy the connoisseur to determine its exact date4 ,the ,queen ,anne ,splat4--,the fiddle-shaped splat of #agaj marks a turning-point in the construction of the chair4 ,the walnut chairs with caned backs of the time of ,james ,,ii4 and the early days of ,william ,,iii4 were carved richly1 and sometimes there was a splat dividing the caning at the back1 which later1 also in caned-back examples1 is curved and plain4 ,the general tendency in the reigns of ,william and ,mary1 especially towards the close of the period1 was one of economy1 and elaborate carving began to disappear4 ,the ,queen ,anne smooth splat of fiddle form rapidly became popular4 ,this ,anglo-,dutch style became acclimatised here1 and is characteristic of the homely examples of the ,queen ,anne period4 ,in walnut it was comparatively easy to carry out carving4 ,in oak such elaboration was well-nigh impossible4 ,it was therefore natural that in the farmhouse examples the plain ,dutch splat would readily find favour as more easily executed4 ,by the time that the fiddle splat had become popular the stretcher joining the cabriole legs commenced to disappear4 ,the splat plays an important part as indicating sharp variations in design--walnut with open carving1 intricate and floriated2 walnut with the plain fiddle splat1 with its corresponding minor form in oak2 mahogany1 with the advent of ,chippendale1 with the splat again open1 carved with graceful ribbon-work4 ,the arm-chair illustrated p4 #bac is a remarkable instance of intermingling of styles4 ,the front legs are in ,jacobean style1 and are continued in the same manner as the usual type of oak chair as supports for the arms1 but an original touch and nave departure is in the curve given to this upright from the seat upwards4 ,the seat is shaped like that of the ,windsor chair4 ,the arms are somewhat stiff for the back with its ,cupid's-bow design1 which has a sprightliness and grace making it a thing apart4 ,the whole is not unpleasing4 ,it is a remarkable instance of the attempted assimilation of several diverse styles by an undeveloped cabinet-maker with strong ideas of his own4 ,the oak form is rigidly retained in all except the back and splat of ,queen ,anne days4 ,illustration3 ,,country-,,made ,,oak ,,settee ,,with ,,double ,,back ,,in ,,chippendale ,,style4 ,the shaped underframing is a feature only found in farmhouse varieties4 ,illustration3 ,,country-,,made ,,oak ,,settee ,,in ,,chinese ,,chippendale ,,style4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,the adjacent chair1 with its tall back with curved splat and its cabriole legs1 marks the transition between ,william and ,mary and ,queen ,anne4 ,the top rail indicates by its clumsy joinery the touch of the immature country cabinet-maker4 ,it is an attempt to approach a fine model with insufficiency of skill by the maker4 ,the use of the cabriole leg either in chairs or in dressers in homely furniture has always proved a stumbling-block to the minor craftsman4 ,the delicacy of balance required in order to preserve the harmony of the whole has proved too subtle a problem for him to handle1 and to the practised eye these farmhouse pieces at once proclaim their origin4 ,the broad splat and the straight square front and the bold cabriole leg of the ,queen ,anne type in walnut were often copied in oak4 ,the example of the chair with the later tapestry covering1 illustrated p4 #bac1 is a case where the local cabinet-maker has faithfully copied detail for detail from some fine original in walnut4 ,his is in oak for more strenuous usage4 ,the adjacent arm-chair is of the ,queen ,anne style1 with a shaped front that is very rarely found in such pieces4 ,the maker here has not been so successful in catching the bold lines of his original4 ,there is a sense of something lacking in the curves of the back4 ,the touches of his own that he has added in the arms1 reverting to an earlier ,jacobean type1 reveal the unpractised hand4 ,country ,chippendale1 ,hepplewhite1 and ,sheraton4--,a word in passing may be said in regard to the unique character of furniture of these types4 ,it is obvious that factory-made furniture turned out by the hundred pieces can offer nothing personal1 whatever its merits or demerits of design or workmanship4 ,it is this personal note1 the love of a craftsman in his creation1 that appeals to the collector1 whether it be of ,persian rugs or of old brass candlesticks4 ,it is absent in art produced in a wholesale manner4 ,blunderingly as the village craftsmen went to work1 they often stumbled into great things1 and they always produced original results4 ,prior to the publication of the design-books of the great eighteenth-century masters of cabinet-making1 the furniture of certain localities began to assume a character of its own1 the result of long tradition1 and designs such as the dragon found in ,welsh carving became established4 ,the term unique is peculiarly appropriate to furniture of this calibre1 for rarely are two pieces found to be exactly alike4 ,not only did different makers add novel features1 but the same craftsman apparently did not repeat himself4 ,the permutations of form governing furniture are illimitable1 associated as they are with so many details of construction4 ,to take the chair--the leg1 its shape1 and the design of its turning2 the style and character of the work on the stretcher2 the form of the seat2 the decoration and formation of the front2 the back1 its length1 and the variety of splats and panels2 and the top rail with its variations--these are only the salient features in which differences appear4 ,such modifications of design and piquant touches of personal character appeal to the collector1 who loves the foibles and fanciful moods of the native craftsman1 be he ever so humble4 ,chippendale published his ,director in #aged1 and it became a working guide to all ambitious craftsmen4 ,ince and ,mayhew1 cabinet-makers of ,broad ,street1 ,golden ,square1 had issued ,household ,furniture in #agdh1 and ,hepplewhite ,co4 followed later with the ,cabinet ,maker and ,upholsterer's ,guide in #aghh1 where the delicacies of ornament were related to the chaster classic models1 and in #agid came ,sheraton with his ,drawing ,book1 rich with subtle suggestiveness4 ,a rough generalisation shows the ,chippendale school holding sway from #agcj to #aghj1 the ,hepplewhite school from #agge to #agie1 and the ,sheraton school from #agij to #ahje3 and behind all1 the strong influence of the ,brothers ,adam in their classic revival4 ,what had previously been tradition came very speedily into line with current modes4 ,fashion1 as we have shown1 had a slow and impermanent effect upon village ideals4 ,but the output of these great illustrated volumes1 with working drawings1 undoubtedly had a wide-reaching influence4 ,the last quarter of the eighteenth century saw an intense outburst of interest in the arts of interior decoration4 ,a great amount of finely designed and beautifully executed furniture belongs to those days1 and the echo of the splendid achievements in mahogany and in satinwood is seen in the farmhouse and cottage furniture1 which came singularly close upon the heels of fashion4 ,chippendale furniture in oak1 elm1 or beech is being largely collected4 ,we illustrate a sufficient number of types to show that this class of design known as ,cottage ,chippendale1 has peculiar charms of its own4 ,the arm-chair illustrated p4 #bbe is in elm1 and is in the style ,chippendale employed in his rich mahogany creations in #agfj4 ,the fine interlaced carving of the back is graceful and well proportioned4 ,the adjacent chair1 in elm1 still follows the ,chippendale style4 ,the seat is rush1 and the maker has confined himself to his own limitations and avoided in the splat the too intricate work of more sumptuous models4 ,he has arrived at a very finely balanced result4 ,the heart cut out of the splat is frequently found in cottage examples1 suggesting that some of the more ornate examples may have been made as wedding presents for young couples just setting up housekeeping1 or possibly the village cabinet-maker himself had thoughts in that direction1 and such work was destined to equip his own home4 ,the illustration of a chair1 in beech1 with a plain wooden seat1 has a somewhat intricate ribbon-like pattern terminating in the ,prince of ,wales's feathers4 ,the heart is present in the design at the base of the splat1 cut out in fretwork4 ,the arm-chair on the right1 with its dipped seat1 is in oak1 and is an instance representing the adaptations of ,sheraton styles in the provinces4 ,another page of chairs in oak 7p4 #bae7 shows the influences at work in moulding the character of the styles of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century farmhouse furniture4 ,of the three chairs at top of p4 #bae1 the left-hand one is in ,chippendale style merging into ,hepplewhite4 ,the ,cupid's bow at the top rail has become less pronounced4 ,the other two chairs on right are typically ,hepplewhite in character4 ,the ,prince of ,wales's feathers1 so often associated with ,hepplewhite's own work1 are embodied in the splat of one4 ,illustration3 ,,elm ,,chair4 ,,country ,,chippendale ,,style4 #agfj4 ,illustration3 ,,elm ,,chair1 ,,country ,,chippendale ,,style4 ,illustration3 ,,beech ,,chair4 ,,country ,,chippendale ,,style4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,chair1 ,,country ,,chippendale ,,style4 ,,with ,,dropped ,,seat4 ,in the lower group1 the right-hand chair is of the ,chippendale type4 ,the other two chairs have features of three styles--the ,queen ,anne1 the ,chippendale1 and the ,sheraton4 ,it is this piquancy and incongruous combination of styles adjacent to each other in point of time1 but having little other relationship1 which make the provincialisms of the cabinet-maker of exceptional interest4 ,at times more ambitious attempts were made in oak1 following the lines of the ,chippendale style in mahogany4 ,these have pronounced features always recognisable as belonging to the farmhouse variety of furniture4 ,two examples are illustrated1 p4 #bai4 ,the upper example of country-made oak settee1 with double back1 at once indicates that it is provincial by the shaped underframing1 which is never found in other classes of furniture4 ,the lower example of farmhouse oak settee is clearly in ,chippendale's ,chinese style4 ,a reference to the ,gentleman and ,cabinet ,maker's ,directory1 published by ,thomas ,chippendale in #aged1 shows that this ,chinese style adopted by the local maker is very far removed from the series of delicate fretwork designs illustrated by ,chippendale in his volume4 ,it is true that the old designer of ,st4 ,martin's ,lane sent forth his work with the sub-title stating that it was calculated to improve and refine the present ,taste1 and suited to the ,fancy and ,circumstances of ,persons in all ,degrees of ,life4 ,the great master cabinet-maker1 in scattering his designs far and wide1 evidently had in mind the formation of a new style4 ,he builded better than he knew4 ,the importance of his book of designs cannot be overrated4 ,it was subscribed for in ,yorkshire1 in ,devon1 in ,westmorland1 and in ,ireland1 and straightway minor men looked upon these delightful inventions and began to follow to the best of their ability the ideals set forth by ,chippendale the dreamer4 ,that he was an idealist in this book of designs is navely explained in his ,preface3 ,i frankly confess that in the executing many of the drawings my pencil has but faintly copied out those images that my fancy suggested1 and had they not been published till ,i could have pronounced them perfect1 perhaps they had never seen the light4 ,but ,chippendale was also a practical cabinet-maker as well as a designer4 ,he has a lingering doubt that after all1 perhaps1 the country cabinet-maker and those who bought the book for use might not be able to carry out his designs4 ,evidently this had struck others too4 ,perhaps he was accused of fobbing-off in a design-book mere fanciful work that was too far above the plane of ordinary cabinet-work4 ,he meets this objection with a declaration1 so to speak1 upon honour1 with which he winds up his ,preface1 which is a pretty piece of eighteenth-century advertising3-- ,upon the whole1 ,i have given no design but what may be executed with advantage by the hands of a skilful workman1 though some of the profession have been diligent enough to represent them 7especially those after the ,gothic and ,chinese manner7 as so many specious drawings1 impossible to be worked off by any mechanic whatsoever4 ,i will not scruple to attribute this to malice1 ignorance1 and inability1 and ,i am confident ,i can convince all noblemen1 gentlemen1 or others1 who will honour me with their commands1 that every design in the book can be improved1 both as to beauty and enrichment1 in the execution of it1 by--,their ,most ,obedient ,servant1 ,thomas ,chippendale4 ,enough has been said to prove that country ,chippendale is not a misnomer4 ,it is equally true that the ,hepplewhite style was disseminated in like fashion in the provinces4 ,it must be remembered that these trade catalogues1 as they really were1 brought out somewhat in rivalry with each other by the great ,london designers and cabinet-makers1 were the only literature the country makers had to indicate town fashions4 ,these volumes therefore served a double purpose in procuring clients for the firm and in stimulating the art of the country designer4 ,that they were in part intended to be educational is shown by the ,preface to the ,cabinet ,maker and ,upholsterer's ,guide1 published by ,a4 ,hepplewhite ,co41 ,cabinet-makers4 ,we quote from the ,preface of the third edition1 improved1 #agid4 ,the ,preface opens with a lament that owing to the mutability of all things1 but more especially of fashions1 foreigners who seek a knowledge of ,english taste and workmanship may be misled by the labours of our predecessors in this line of little use4 ,the same reason in favour of this work will apply also to many of our own countrymen and artisans1 whose distance from the metropolis makes even an imperfect knowledge of its improvements acquired with much trouble and expense4 ,in this instance we hope for reward2 and though we lay no claim to extraordinary merit in our designs1 we flatter ourselves they will be found serviceable to young workmen in general1 and occasionally to more experienced ones4 ,in view1 therefore1 of the books of design we have enumerated1 it is obvious that the country designer had a new field open to him1 and now and again he made ample use of his opportunities4 ,during the last quarter of the eighteenth century there was quite an outburst of literature on furniture1 much of it forgotten and much of it waiting to be disinterred by patient research2 and with the dissemination of these fine designs some of the most perfect examples of country-made furniture began to exhibit touches of skill of the practised hand4 ,the ,grandfather ,chair4--,from the illustration given on p4 #bca it will be seen that the type known as the grandfather has a humble lineage4 ,it will be found with the same wings and curved arms and plain wooden seat in the alehouse or in the ingle nook of the farmhouse4 ,the specimen we illustrate does duty as a bacon-cupboard as well as a chair4 ,usually such pieces have the cupboard opening at the back1 but in this instance the cupboard opens in front4 ,illustration3 ,,country ,,grandfather ,,chair4 ,illustration3 ,,arm-,,chair ,,and ,,bacon-,,cupboard4 ,opens at foot4 ,this type usually opens at back4 ,as early as the opening years of the eighteenth century there were upholstered chairs of a somewhat similar type to the so-called grandfather with scrolled arms or wings4 ,the example we illustrate is representative of those which may be met with in the country farmhouse4 ,ladder-back ,types4--,the ladder-back chair belongs to the northern half of ,england1 and similarly the spindle-back chair is found in the same locality4 ,the ,windsor chair1 on the other hand1 is mainly confined to the southern half of the country4 ,these are points which become noticeable after years of systematised research1 and although nowadays these three varieties of chair may still be found1 somewhat scattered1 their real home and place of origin is as indicated4 ,another feature of interest is that both ladder-back and spindle-back varieties1 with but slight differences1 are found on the ,continent4 ,it will be observed that this class of chair has a rush seat4 ,this feature it has in common with the spindle-back chair4 ,the rush-bottom chair covers a wide area4 ,it comes with an air of navet and rustic simplicity4 ,one recalls the long lines of green rushes by the river-bank and the rush-gatherers in idyllic placidity slowly trimming the banks1 disturbing coot and moorhen with their punt1 and adding another human touch to the lonely angler4 ,they are pursuing a calling as old as the river itself1 and the use of rush for floor1 for lighting1 or for seating furniture1 found occupation for generations of men plying curious trades1 of which the plaiting of osiers into baskets and the thatching of cottage roofs may be numbered among the decaying industries4 ,indeed1 this latter art and the making of birch and heath brooms may be almost said to be extinct4 ,a good artisan who can thatch in the old artistic style is much sought after4 ,of course ricks have still to be thatched1 but the picturesque skill of masters of this old-world craft is absent1 and corrugated iron sheets have found favour in lieu of the old style4 ,the ladder-back chair is1 as its name denotes1 decorated with horizontal supports1 ladder fashion4 ,these are capable of the most pleasing variation4 ,the perfection of form of this type is seen in the arm-chair illustrated p4 #bcg4 ,the well-balanced proportion of the ladder rails is a test as to the excellence of the design4 ,they are not meaningless ornaments put in place1 unthinkingly1 to create a new style4 ,the two examples illustrated on page #bce show other types of the ladder-back chair4 ,the left-hand one shows the later stages in the development of the design1 and its top rail is of the ,sheraton period4 ,the right-hand one1 with arms1 is composite in its character1 and is in date about #ahbj1 and exhibits a touch of the ,sheraton slenderness of style in the splats and the round turning of arms4 ,both examples show the quaint survival of the ,queen ,anne foot4 ,the ladder-back form survived the eighteenth century and lasted down to within fifty years ago1 when it became merged into that of the ,windsor chair4 ,illustration3 ,,ladder-,,back ,,type ,,of ,,chair4 ,showing ,empire influence in curved back4 ,dated #ahbj-ahcj4 ,illustration3 ,,spindle-,,back ,,nursing ,,chair ,,with ,,rocker4 ,three rows of spindles4 ,illustration3 ,,spindle-,,back ,,chair4 ,two rows of spindles4 ,illustration3 ,,ladder-,,back ,,chairs ,,with ,,rush ,,seat4 ,both chairs showing quaint survival of the ,queen ,anne feet4 ,late ,eighteenth ,century1 with top rail in ,sheraton style4 ,later form of splat with turned ends4 ,dated #ahbj4 ,illustration3 ,,country ,,barber',s ,,chair4 ,illustration3 ,,ladder-,,back ,,chair4 ,perfect specimen in regard to style4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,corner ,,chair4 ,illustration3 ,,ladder-,,back ,,form ,,of ,,corner ,,chair ,,with ,,rush ,,seat4 ,probably ,lancashire4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,the ,spindle-back ,chair4--,the spindle-back chair is of long lineage4 ,as early as the reign of ,charles ,i4 this type was known4 ,there is still treasured in ,america the chair of ,governor ,carver1 with simple turning in legs and back1 which practically consisted of upright posts rounded and having slight ornament4 ,the back was set with spindles4 ,the older types of these chairs had thick upright posts1 the back and back legs being two posts and the front legs1 continued upward beyond the seat1 forming supports for the arms4 ,these posts are often six or seven inches in circumference1 and belong to early-,jacobean days4 ,the type found its way to ,america in ,puritan days and has continued to be a favourite4 ,hickory wood was used for ,american specimens1 and considerable attention has been paid to this form of chair and its varieties1 the differing heights of the posts and the number of the spindles and their character1 by ,american collectors4 ,in ,england examples are not easily found of early date4 ,the examples illustrated 7p4 #bce71 a ,nursing ,chair on rockers and an ordinary ,spindle-,back ,chair1 are of eighteenth-century days1 and are sufficient to indicate the type of chair1 but these two represent the style when it had become of more general use4 ,practically it was not until the eighteenth century that such types were commonly used in cottages and farmhouses4 ,these turned chairs1 turned in every portion but the rush seat1 lend themselves to the above-mentioned two styles of treatment4 ,their upright posts forming the open back can be treated with vertical splats divided by horizontal divisions1 or they can1 as in the ladder form1 receive horizontal splats4 ,the complete simplicity of this attitude towards the back absolved the homely cabinet-maker from dangerous experiments4 ,avoiding curved backs1 he had not to face the intricacies of the nicety of balance in the splat4 ,altogether it was a very satisfactory solution1 and in practice resulted in the production of a wide range of chairs1 differing in slight details but well within the range of the local workman's art4 ,the unassuming simplicity of this class of chair made its appeal to ,madox-,brown1 who held that simplicity and utility were the two desiderata1 united with soundness of construction1 for domestic furniture4 ,veneer was as abhorrent to him as to all genuine lovers of the artistic4 ,let us be honest1 let us be genuine in furniture as in aught else1 were his words4 ,if we must needs make our chairs and tables of cheap wood1 do not let them masquerade as mahogany or rosewood2 let the thing appear that which it is2 it will not lack dignity if it be good of its kind and well made4 ,accordingly he put his theories into practice and designed some furniture4 ,in a chair in the possession of ,mr4 ,harold ,rathbone he has employed the rush seat and used spindles to decorate the back1 and in another chair in the same collection he has adhered to the horizontal ladder-back style1 coupled with the rush seat1 with pleasing effect4 ,corner ,chairs4--,among interesting types of chairs often with lingering traces of the ,jacobean style and additional features of splats that may be regarded as standing on the threshold of the ,chippendale period1 corner chairs stand in a class alone4 ,the illustrations on p4 #bcg show some typical examples4 ,the chair with the double tier is the oak adaptation of ,chippendale with the retention of the old ,jacobean form of support for the arm4 ,these chairs with this added tier are often used as country barber's chairs4 ,the rush-seated corner chair on the same page1 probably made in ,lancashire1 is suggestive of the ladder-back form1 and there are indications in its construction that it is subsequent to the ,hepplewhite period4 ,with these notes relative to the evolution of the chair1 and with carefully selected illustrations of types likely to be of use to the collector1 enough has been said to whet the curiosity of the reader to study the matter for himself4 ,it requires keen and discriminating judgment to allocate specimens with passing exactitude as to time and place4 ,the taste for the subject must be natural and not acquired4 ,training alone will give the eye the readiness to detect false touches and modern additions4 ,the search for bargains goes on apace1 and those who enjoy stalking their quarry in out-of-the-way places have an exciting quest nowadays for fine pieces4 ,to those with endless patience1 forbearing under disappointment1 and having plenty of leisure1 the search will offer abundant delight1 if1 to quote ,mrs4 ,battle1 they enjoy the rigour of the game4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,windsor ,,chair ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,windsor ,,chair ,early types--,the stick legs without stretcher--,the tavern chair--,eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--,the rail-back variety--,chippendale style ,windsor chairs--,the survival of the ,windsor chair4 ,the ,windsor chair in its early form is coincident with the early years of the eighteenth century4 ,its history and development therefore exhibit traces of the various styles in furniture which ran their courses throughout the century4 ,it is essentially a chair which belongs to minor furniture1 and in its use it is bound up with the country farmhouse1 the country inn1 or in the metropolis with the chocolate-houses and taverns1 and later with the innumerable pleasure gardens which sprang up around the metropolis in the eighteenth century4 ,there is more than a strong suggestion that the type originated in the country4 ,the first forms have a similarity to the easily made three-legged stools4 ,the seat is one piece of wood into which holes are bored to admit the legs4 ,the origin of the term ,windsor chair1 according to a story largely current in ,america1 is that ,george ,,iii41 the ,farmer ,king1 saw a chair of this design in a humble cottage near ,windsor1 and was so enamoured of it that he ordered some to be made for the royal use4 ,the chair had a singular vogue in ,america1 and it is stated that ,george ,washington had a row of ,windsor chairs at his house at ,mount ,vernon1 and ,jefferson sat in a ,windsor chair when he signed the ,declaration of ,independence in #aggf4 ,the ,stick ,legs without ,stretcher4--,obviously this is the earliest type1 and the illustrations of these primitive forms 7p4 #bdg7 show the simplicity of the joinery4 ,the chair on the left with its almost straight top rail suggests a probable date4 ,it was not till #agfh that ,chippendale made the first straight top rail in ,english furniture4 ,the seat is of the saddle-form4 ,the spindles at the back in the lower row taper at each end4 ,it will be observed in all the types we illustrate in this chapter that the arms extend in one piece around the chair4 ,nor has every example the saddle seat4 ,on the same page is illustrated one with a plain seat1 but still having the stick legs set at an angle towards the centre of the chair4 ,whatever interest attaches to this early type1 from a collecting point of view1 they cannot compare in beauty with the finer varieties of a later period1 with cabriole leg and with pierced splat1 displaying a pleasing diversity of patterns in pierced work1 no two of which are always quite alike4 ,illustration3 ,,windsor ,,chairs4 ,earliest form2 stick legs with no stretcher4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,the ,tavern ,chair4--,it was ,dr4 ,johnson who declared that a tavern chair was the throne of human felicity4 ,undoubtedly the eighteenth century found the need of a comfortable chair for club meetings at taverns and alehouses4 ,the country inn to-day has its ,windsor chairs1 many of them of great age4 ,nor were chairs of this type always with arms4 ,there are many plainer chairs without arms and having what is termed fiddle-string backs2 more often than not across this back there is a rail put transversely to strengthen it4 ,many of these chairs were made by local carpenters and wheelwrights4 ,they employed any wood that happened to be in their workshop at the time2 in consequence the variety of woods in which these chairs are found is great4 ,sometimes the seat is made from beech or elm and the arms are fashioned from the wood of the pear-tree4 ,the curved horseshoe rails and back are more often than not constructed from the ash4 ,eighteenth ,century ,pleasure ,gardens4--,there is no doubt that we owe the considerable output of ,windsor chairs in the middle of the eighteenth century to the growth of coffee-houses1 and especially the numerous tea and pleasure gardens on the outskirts of ,london and other great towns4 ,these semi-rural resorts began to be in great demand as a recreation for jaded eighteenth-century town-dwellers4 ,the nobility and persons of fashion had ,bath and ,tunbridge ,wells to fly to for country air and open-air recreation4 ,the citizen and mechanic1 the society beau1 and the politician1 crowded to ,ranelagh ,gardens1 to ,vauxhall1 to ,sadler's ,wells1 and to ,hampstead1 to enjoy sunny afternoons and summer evenings in the open air1 or to spend ,sundays4 ,it was the eighteenth-century diversion similar to the nineteenth-century ,crystal ,palace and the twentieth-century ,earl's ,court4 ,to quote ,mr4 ,percy ,macquoid in his lordly work on ,english furniture1 ,so great were the numbers of visitors to these places that attention was called to their increase in one of the contemporary weekly journals1 where a calculation was made that on ,sundays alone two hundred thousand people visited the tea-gardens situated on the northern side of ,london2 and as half-a-crown per head was probably the least sum expended by them1 it can be no exaggeration to state that #bj1jjj on a fine ,sunday was taken at these places of amusement4 ,many cheap chairs must have been required at such places of entertainment4 ,between the year #agfj and the end of the century the ,windsor chair was being made for general country use4 ,the backs and arms of these1 continues ,mr4 ,macquoid1 are made of hoops of yew1 held together by a number of slender uprights and a perforated splat of the same tough and pliant wood2 the seats were generally invariably of elm1 as yew cut into a superficies of any size is liable to split2 the legs and stretchers were generally of yew4 ,illustration3 ,,oliver ,,goldsmith',s ,,chair4 ,wood1 painted green1 with circular seat1 curved arms1 and high back4 ,bequeathed by ,oliver ,goldsmith in #aggd to his friend1 ,dr4 ,hawes4 7,bethnal ,green ,museum47 ,the ,rail-back ,variety4--,we have alluded to the use of the rail placed across the back from the top rail to the seat1 crossing the uprights4 ,it is not an elegant device1 but it was used as a means of strengthening the back4 ,it seems almost unnecessary1 although possibly these chairs received a good deal of rough usage4 ,later1 when the fiddle splat began to be employed1 this transverse rail--sometimes there were two used--was discontinued4 ,an historic example of the chair with transverse rails is that which was once in the possession of ,oliver ,goldsmith4 ,there is no doubt about the authenticity of this1 as it was bequeathed by the poet to his medical attendant1 ,dr4 ,hawes1 who1 by the way1 was the founder of the ,royal ,humane ,society4 ,goldsmith told his farmer friends at his cottage at ,edgware that he should never in future spend more than two months a year in ,london1 and at the time of his death in #aggd he was negotiating the sale of the lease of his ,temple chambers4 ,this chair 7illustrated p4 #bea7 has a rather small shaped seat1 curved arms1 a top rail that is of exceptional interest considering the date1 which is1 say1 from #aggj to #aggd1 perhaps a little earlier4 ,this was at the commencement of the ,hepplewhite period1 which lasted till #agij4 ,the year #agfh was1 as we have already said1 the date at which chairs with straight top rails1 designed by ,adam and executed by ,chippendale1 were first made4 ,the turned legs are interesting1 showing the hoofed foot1 and the turned stretcher retains an earlier form4 ,the chair is of soft wood1 probably beech1 and is painted green4 ,it is preserved at the ,bethnal ,green ,museum1 with the distinctive label on the stand3 ,oliver ,goldsmith's ,chair4 ,the ,splat ,back and the ,cabriole ,leg4--,it is here that the ,windsor chair assumes a character essentially charming and attracts the admiration of connoisseurs of styles that are peculiarly ,english4 ,the splat back is a feature only found in ,english varieties of the ,windsor chair4 ,in ,america a great deal of attention has been paid to old types1 and there the pliant hickory wood is used in the making of chairs of this form2 but the splat back is never used in ,america1 and when found by collectors there the piece is attributed to ,english manufacture4 ,the splat1 with its varying forms1 denotes the date of the chair4 ,from #agdj to #aggj the form with cabriole legs and with finely ornamented fiddle splat was at its best4 ,we illustrate a sufficient number of specimens to show how graceful and perfectly well balanced these chairs had become4 ,in contemplating pieces remarkable for the highest style1 it must be admitted that their artistry and their simple unaffected sense of comfort do make a direct appeal to those who are willing to recognise fine qualities in minor furniture4 ,the two chairs illustrated 7p4 #bee7 differ slightly in details of construction4 ,that on the left has the plain urn splat1 a survival of the ,queen ,anne type4 ,the seat is finely shaped and the legs are cabriole form4 ,the top rail is almost straight1 and is ornamented at the two ends with turned discs4 ,the three stretchers are turned1 and in the adjacent chair the stretchers are similar1 save in a slight variation in the pattern of the turning4 ,but here the splat is perforated with an intricate design suggestive of the lines of ,chippendale2 the top rail is a departure in form1 imparting a distinctiveness which lifts the chair from the ordinary type4 ,illustration3 ,,windsor ,,chair4 ,with plain fiddle splat of ,queen ,anne type1 ,chippendale top rail and cabriole legs1 and three turned stretchers4 ,illustration3 ,,windsor ,,chair4 ,with pierced fiddle splat1 shaped arms1 cabriole legs1 and three turned stretchers4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,chippendale ,,windsor ,,chairs4 ,chippendale splats4 ,the type of splat indicates the date of ,windsor chairs4 ,illustration3 ,,hepplewhite ,,windsor ,,chair4 ,exceptionally fine legs back and front4 ,urn back4 ,probably ,welsh carving4 ,illustration3 ,,hepplewhite ,,period ,,windsor ,,chair4 ,with wheel back1 in yew4 7,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,a4 ,b4 ,daniell ,sons47 ,chippendale ,style ,windsor ,chairs4--,the page of chairs 7p4 #beg7 tells its own story4 ,the beautiful sweep of the curved back is always a sign of the old and true form4 ,later imitations or replicas seem somehow to lose this effect4 ,it has been suggested that the back of this style was produced by the village wheelwright in horseshoe form1 but possibly that is a conjecture which is more fanciful than real4 ,it has also--collectors are often fond of inventing theories to fit little-known facts--been asserted that the wheel-back variety1 which is of somewhat more modern growth1 is due to the same origin4 ,this wheel is fretted with six triangular openings4 ,one chair on this page has the wheel unperforated4 ,in the examination of the details of the four examples there is nothing of great importance to differentiate them from each other in construction4 ,the two at the top are suggestive of ,chippendale in the ornament employed in the splat4 ,the lower two incline more to the slightly later ,hepplewhite period4 ,of these the one on the left has only fourteen upright rails at the lower portion and six in the upper portion of the back1 in comparison with sixteen and eight in the other chairs4 ,the legs of this chair are exceptionally fine both back and front4 ,the work in the splat is slightly suggestive of ,welsh carving1 especially that style associated with ,welsh love-spoons4 ,following the influence of ,chippendale and ,hepplewhite came the style of ,sheraton1 which after #agij began to affect the character of some forms of minor furniture4 ,that this was a very real factor is often shown most unexpectedly in cottage and farmhouse pieces4 ,the satinwood and the painted panel1 and the intricacies and subtleties of his employment of colour1 were of course too far removed from the simple cabinet-work of the country maker to have the least effect upon him1 even if he ever saw them4 ,but the slenderness and elegance of the ,sheraton styles did in a small degree have weight with cabinet-makers as a whole in the provinces4 ,so that it is quite within reasonable surmise to attribute certain forms to the ,sheraton school1 or rather to the oncoming of the early nineteenth-century mannerisms4 ,on p4 #bfa two examples are illustrated showing this influence4 ,the one with the horseshoe back is devoid of the splat1 which had now disappeared4 ,the turned legs begin to show signs of modernity4 ,the other has the top-rail familiar in later forms of cottage chair4 ,the turned rails for the arms and the type of turning in the legs show signs of decadence4 ,the fine days of the old ,windsor chair were coming to an end4 ,illustration3 ,,windsor ,,chair4 ,horseshoe back1 saddle seat1 turned legs1 with stretcher4 ,sheraton style4 ,illustration3 ,,windsor ,,chair4 ,curved top rail1 turned arms1 legs1 and stretcher4 ,sheraton style1 pierced fiddle splat4 ,the ,survival of the ,windsor ,chair ,type4--,apart from the love of the simple form and especially well-conceived design of the ,windsor chair1 which have made it at once the especial favourite of artists and lovers of simplicity and utility1 it has won the practical approval of generations of innkeepers1 who to this day store hundreds of chairs for use at village festivals4 ,what we have said in regard to the popularity of the gate-leg table applies in greater degree to the ,windsor chair4 ,the industry of turning the legs and rails of this type of chair is still carried on in ,buckinghamshire4 ,until recent years much of this turning was done by hand by villagers in the district surrounding ,high ,wycombe1 where the parts are sent to be finished and made up4 ,to this day some of the old chair-makers use the antiquated pole lathe4 ,but the chairs have departed from their old stateliness4 ,it is true that they have survived1 almost in spite of themselves4 ,they are not now the objects of beauty they once were4 ,but they have1 by reason of modern requirements1 found a fresh field of usefulness4 ,will it be supposed that the modern office chair is in reality a ,windsor8 ,an examination will at once show this1 even in the latest ,american types4 ,the saddle-shaped seat is there1 the straight turned legs1 and the back is the same except that the upper extension has disappeared and the old centre rail has become broader as a properly-formed rest for the tired clerk's back4 ,a perusal of a few catalogues of up-to-date office furniture will establish this4 ,here1 then1 is the last stage of the country ,windsor chair4 ,the twentieth-century ,windsor has come to town and graces the head cashier's private office in a bank or the senior partner's room of a firm of stockbrokers4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,local ,,types ,,chapter ,,ix ,,local ,,types ,welsh carving--,scottish types--,lancashire dressers1 wardrobes1 and chairs--,hertfordshire1 ,bedfordshire1 ,cambridge1 and ,essex tables--,isle of ,man tables4 ,the charm of collecting cottage and farmhouse furniture lies in the wide area over which it is found4 ,those who have given especial attention to collecting it have learned instinctively to differentiate between the work of various localities4 ,some well-defined types of cottage furniture are only to be found in certain counties1 and nowhere else4 ,take for example the ladder-back and the spindle chairs4 ,the latter are usually found in the northern half and the former in the southern half of ,england4 ,it is obvious that craftsmen developing on original lines1 or on lines more or less apart from outside influence1 must establish designs peculiarly identified with their field of labours4 ,the sturdy insularity of the ,british peasant1 and his uneasy reception of foreign suggestion1 have had a very pronounced influence upon his methods of work4 ,he has the defects of his qualities1 the stern1 almost uncompromising conservatism in habit of mind and in his daily pursuits4 ,a close study of the thoughts1 and as far as is recorded the written ideals1 of the rural labouring population exhibit an extraordinary fixity of purpose in clinging tenaciously to old customs4 ,the country songs more often than not express disapproval of innovations and call up the memories of slowly vanishing customs4 ,the farm hands recall wistfully the old style of ,shearers' feasts and ,harvest homes1 when great festivities with song and dance and old country sports enlivened the company4 ,in ,yorkshire this was termed the ,mel ,supper1 in ,kent the ,kern ,supper1 and in parts of the ,north of ,england it was called the ,churn ,supper4 ,annual feasts were given to labourers such as the ,wayzgoose or ,bean feast1 which later name remains to this day4 ,the good old days is a refrain not confined to the cottager in his relation with the farmer4 ,the farmer1 imbued with the same wistful regard for the vanished past1 bewails the ,may ,day tenants' feast of the eighteenth-century ,english squire4 ,we get touches of disdain for the oncoming fashion of seclusion which invaded the farmhouse in ,a ,farmer's ,boy1 by ,robert ,bloomfield4 ,he laments that the annual feast of the harvest home had lost its former joviality4 ,this was written in #agih4 ,the aspect only with the substance gone4 ,evidently the mug that passed around was becoming a thing of the past4 ,the self-same ,horn is still at our command1 ,but serves none now but the plebeian hand4 ,the picture he draws of the farmer who1 in face of prevailing fashion1 yields up the custom that he dearly loves is pathetic4 ,the long table and dining in common together had seemingly vanished4 ,the separate table and the costly bowl touch the rustic poet's pride4 ,he italicises the word separate4 ,illustration3 ,,chest4 ,,dated #afcf4 ,with ,welsh inscription on lid4 7,standing on table of later date47 ,illustration3 ,,welsh ,,cupboard4 ,with typical coarse style of carving4 ,should be #afej at latest4 ,inscribed ,i4,s4 #agaj4 ,this loving regard for the past is natural at a time when the rural population jealously feared the oncoming of the age of machinery1 which threatened to supersede many of their local industries and finally succeeded in so doing4 ,the obstinate adherence to old forms was possibly part of a nervous fear of the unknown future4 ,the love for existing forms of furniture was therefore part of this apprehensive retention of tradition4 ,not only was the resistance of town fashions a strong feature1 but local prejudices prevailed against the adoption of designs belonging to rival counties4 ,to this day the ,staffordshire clothes-horse1 carried on pulleys to the ceiling when not in use1 differs from the clothes-horse of the cottager in the ,south with no such mechanical device4 ,in ,edinburgh1 in the narrow closes1 there is a kind of gallows projecting from the windows4 ,these apparently minor details which find their embodiment in articles of everyday use1 fascinate and hold the attention of the acute collector of cottage furniture4 ,the same local types apply to the art of the potter and are well known to collectors4 ,there are ,sussex tygs and ,nottingham bears and ,sunderland and ,newcastle jugs and mugs4 ,bristol had its characteristic earthenware1 and the ,lowestoft china factory was strongly ,suffolk in its homely inscriptions with a touch of dialect4 ,welsh ,carving4--,wales is famous for the abundance of the oak farmhouse furniture proudly kept to this day in families who have held the same homestead sometimes for centuries4 ,one of the most noticeable features is the elaboration of the carving and its native representation1 coarsely carved1 without foreign influence1 of birds and beasts and heraldic monsters which largely figure in the decorative panels of chests1 and especially dressers4 ,so popular was oak that it might almost be advanced that there never was any mahogany in ,wales4 ,but it is indisputable that the great outburst in carved mahogany chairbacks coincident with the advent of ,chippendale and the publication of his ,director1 never penetrated ,wales1 although it led to the foundation of a remarkable school of woodcarving on the new lines in ,ireland1 known as ,irish ,chippendale1 a study of which can be made in ,mr4 ,owen ,wheeler's volume on old furniture4 ,the intense love of the ,welsh woodcarver for intricacy is hardly less than that of the sturdy ,swiss craftsmen environed by mountains4 ,perhaps the long winters and the solitary life influence the development of individual character in the applied arts4 ,the ,welsh love-spoons of wood1 linked together and exhibiting delicate pierced work and minute carving of no mean order1 are among other attractive specimens of native art4 ,ironwork of fine quality is also to be found in ,wales4 ,illustration3 ,,lancashire ,,dresser4 ,,about #agcj-agej4 ,oak inlaid with mahogany4 ,illustration3 ,,elm ,,wardrobe 7,,welsh74 ,,about #afgj4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,flap-,,top ,,table4 ,rare ,hertfordshire ,example4 ,diameter of top1 #b ft4 #f ins4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,a4 ,b4 ,daniell ,sons47 ,illustration3 ,,lancashire ,,spindle-,,back ,,chairs4 ,a carved oak chest of ,welsh origin1 dated #afcf1 with ,welsh inscription on lid1 is illustrated 7p4 #bfi74 ,the table on which it stands is of a later date4 ,the carving in this piece is delicate and the middle panel is typical of the representation of birds and foliage4 ,the ,welsh cupboard on the same page typifies the coarse woodcarving associated with ,welsh farmhouse art4 ,in style this really belongs to a date not later than #afej4 ,but it is dated #agaj and bears the initials ,i4,s4 ,this is an interesting example1 showing how middle-,jacobean styles lingered in country districts remote from outside influence until the early eighteenth century4 ,an elm wardrobe1 probably about #afgj in date1 shows another type1 but still retaining the coarse character of its carving and its well-filled panels and uprights 7illustrated p4 #bgc74 ,scottish ,types4--,scotland has antiquities of her own which are closely allied to those of all the ,gaelic races4 ,as with ,welsh carved farmhouse furniture1 there is a marked leaning towards coarse style4 ,as a rule it is too utilitarian in appearance to display much carving4 ,the spinning-wheel is still found in farmhouses1 and is still used in ,harris and the outlying islands4 ,sometimes these old ,highland spinning-wheels come into the market with the smooth surface worn by generations of workers1 a surface impossible to reproduce4 ,the ,scottish ironwork is especially interesting4 ,perhaps the most curious of the ,scottish antiquities is the crusie4 ,this is undoubtedly a survival of the classic oil lamp4 ,it consists of a shallow trough with a spout in which the wick stands1 the oil being contained in the trough 7see illustration1 p4 #bhi74 ,lancashire ,furniture4--,the especial characteristics of ,lancashire-made furniture are a strong leaning to solid structure and a very noticeable reticence in carving4 ,well-balanced as a rule1 and possessing good joinery1 they have been favourites with collectors of furniture designed for modern use4 ,a ,queen ,anne oak dresser illustrated 7p4 #ace7 shows this ,lancashire sturdiness at its best4 ,this style of large dresser with cabriole legs is associated with ,lancashire cabinet work4 ,a ,lancashire dresser1 the date of which is from about #agcj to #agej1 shows the oak dresser inlaid with mahogany4 ,the carved pediment and the carved underwork beneath the drawers mark this as an unusual specimen 7p4 #bgc74 ,a typical ,lancashire oak settle is illustrated 7p4 #bgi71 showing the ,jacobean style in the carved work and in the arms4 ,in date this is about #affj4 ,it will be noticed that the front of the seat has a row of holes1 which1 prior to the upholstered cushion1 a later addition1 were intended for ropes to support a cushion1 much in the same manner as the iron laths of a modern bedstead4 ,on the same page is illustrated an oak chest of drawers of ,yorkshire origin1 in date about #aggj4 ,its plain lines suggest the ,hepplewhite types of subdued character4 ,in regard to spindle-back chairs1 ,lancashire offers distinctive varieties4 ,two examples are illustrated 7p4 #bge7 as indicating this local type4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,chest ,,of ,,drawers4 ,c4 #aggj4 ,yorkshire type4 ,height1 #c ft4 #c ins42 width1 #c ft4 #a in42 depth1 #a ft4 #e-a_/b ins4 ,illustration3 ,,lancashire ,,oak ,,settle4 ,c4 #affj4 ,illustration3 ,,isle ,,of ,,man ,,table4 ,showing three legs with knee breeches and buckle shoes4 ,illustration3 ,,cricket ,,table4 ,c4 #agjj4 ,illustration3 ,,cricket4 ,c4 #agej4 7,these types are found in ,hertfordshire1 ,south ,bedfordshire1 ,south ,cambridge1 and ,essex47 ,three ,legged ,tables4--,hertfordshire1 ,bedfordshire1 ,cambridge1 and ,essex have produced a type of tables termed colloquially cricket tables1 possibly because the three legs are suggestive of three stumps4 ,the term is a foolish one and not very appropriate4 ,a very interesting flap-top table with the three flaps to turn down1 illustrated 7p4 #bge71 is a very rare ,hertfordshire example4 ,this is small in size1 having only a diameter of two and a half feet4 ,two other tables1 one in date about #agjj and the other1 of slender form1 in date about #agej1 are typical of this class of table4 ,a very interesting table is a specimen from the ,isle of ,man having three carved legs with knee-breeches and buckle shoes4 ,sussex is also well-known for her ironwork 7see ,chapter ,x474 ,norfolk and ,suffolk used to have a class of oak furniture of quaint type1 less cumbersome than the ,welsh4 ,a type of ,sheraton ,windsor chair1 often inlaid with brass1 used also to be found there4 ,on the whole1 those localities which are removed from important towns are the richest in cottage furniture1 for example1 ,wales1 ,devonshire1 ,cumberland1 ,northumberland1 and parts of ,yorkshire4 ,in places1 where the prosperity of the peasants is of long standing1 the cottage furniture has been maintained whole almost until the present day4 ,altogether the study of local types affords considerable scope for critical study4 ,it is essential that such pieces should be identified and classified before it is too late4 ,rapidly all cottage and farmhouse furniture is being scattered over all parts of ,england4 ,collectors transfer furniture from the ,north to the ,south1 and the rural treasures of the peasant have been brought to towns and dispersed to alien districts4 ,the ,education ,act of #ahgj and the halfpenny newspaper have brought town fashions to the door of the cottager1 and the motor has laid a heavy tribute on rustic seclusion4 ,,chapter ,x ,,miscellaneous ,,ironwork1 ,etc4 ,,chapter ,x ,,miscellaneous ,,ironwork1 ,,etc4 ,the rushlight-holder--,the dipper--,the chimney crane--,the ,scottish crusie--,firedogs--,the ,warming-pan--,sussex firebacks--,grandfather clocks4 ,the everyday iron utensils and implements of the cottages were simple4 ,it is one of the curious features of the ,english peasantry that just as they clung to their oak of generations back when mahogany was in vogue1 so they adhered tenaciously to ironwork of almost medival character when other metals were in fashionable everyday use4 ,thus the cottager did not feel the oncoming desire for the brass1 or later silver and plated candlesticks1 but remained firm in his affection for the rushlight-holders in iron1 the same types which his ancestors had used1 and the firedogs and firebacks of earlier type remained to decorate his hearth4 ,thus ironwork and rarely brasswork form the sum total of the metal portion of cottage furniture4 ,we will deal with these various utilitarian objects one by one4 ,it must be remembered that the country farmer was not familiar with ready-made candles1 and it probably no more entered his head to purchase candles in a town than it occurred to him to do other than bake his own bread4 ,the cottager therefore made his candles for himself4 ,if he were well-to-do and could afford to entertain his friends in modest fashion1 he would doubtless like to illuminate his table with candles of symmetrical form4 ,in which case he would use a candle-mould1 and the wax bought in towns would serve for this purpose4 ,but he was not always so rich1 and perhaps he was happiest of all with the faintly glimmering rush dips which his forbears used4 ,these afforded a rough-and-ready form of lighting4 ,they burned and spluttered like a torch or flickered faintly as the tallow grew thin4 ,their form closely resembled an amateur's first attempt at making a cigarette4 ,they were made in the following manner3 the thin wirelike rushes which grew by the water's edge were gathered and stripped of their green surface till only the soft white pith remained4 ,this served as a wick4 ,the wax was then melted over a fire in a trough or candle-dipper1 of which an illustration appears 7p4 #bhi74 ,across this long receptacle the pith wicks were laid till the wax soaked into them4 ,they were then taken out for the wax to cool and were dipped once or twice afterwards in order to form their outer coating4 ,by such a primitive process a kind of thin taper was formed4 ,it was not parallel along its sides1 but bulged and narrowed throughout its length in primitive manner4 ,illustration3 ,,rushlight ,,holders4 ,showing rush fixed ready for lighting4 ,,scotch ,,crusie4 ,with holder4 ,,rushlight ,,holders4 ,showing forceps for holding rushlight4 ,illustration3 ,,suffolk ,,pipe ,,cleaner4 ,the long clay churchwarden pipes were placed in this iron rack and put into the fire1 after which they came out perfectly cleaned4 ,,candle-,,dipper4 7,in the collection of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,anne ,,pot-,,hanger4 ,with original grate4 ,same date4 7,by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,phillips1 ,hitchin47 ,illustration3 ,,kettle ,,trivet4 ,brass and ,iron4 ,dated about #aggj4 ,such a taper1 from its uneven thickness1 would naturally not fit the socket of a candlestick1 and the only receptacle would be a scissor-like mechanism with jaws capable of clasping it at any point4 ,thus we find the rushlight-holder of common use1 as illustrated 7p4 #bhi74 ,the illustrations show two rush-holders with the rushlights affixed in position ready for lighting1 and one showing how the jaws or forceps clip the rushlight4 ,in practice about an inch or an inch and a half was above the clip and the rest below4 ,a rushlight some twelve to fifteen inches long would burn half an hour1 and it had to receive constant attention1 being pushed upwards every five minutes4 ,but it must be remembered that the persons who used this primitive form of light did not use it for reading nor for a long period at a time4 ,they usually went to bed early after sunset4 ,in regard to rushlight-holders the earliest form was without the accompanying candle-socket1 but when the use of tallow dip candles became prevalent1 later forms are found1 as illustrated1 with the candle-socket in addition to the holder for the rushlight4 ,the ,scottish crusie is an iron trough of dimensions like a small sauceboat1 which was used for lighting purposes1 and was often suspended1 as in the one illustrated 7p4 #bhi71 from a crane or hanger4 ,this crusie was filled with oil and the illumination given by a floating wick1 much in the same manner as classic examples1 to which the shape bears a distant resemblance4 ,the firedogs were always simple1 doubtless the product of the local blacksmith4 ,where they had hooks along the backs they held crossbars to prevent the logs falling into the room4 ,the dates of these1 as of all cottage ironwork1 are almost impossible to fix1 owing to the survival of the earlier types even so late as the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,the ,chimney ,crane4--,a most important part of the cottager's fireplace was his chimney crane4 ,these were of two kinds1 the pot-hook and the swing-arm variety4 ,the pot-hook hung in the chimney from a chain1 and from its teeth was fixed a catch which might be lowered or raised to keep the cauldron at a level with the flames4 ,the swing-arm type is more elaborate1 and was made to fit very large fireplaces1 where the fire might not invariably be in the same spot on the hearth4 ,this type was used in the kitchens of the better farmhouses4 ,its end was fixed to the wall of the hearth1 and the pot could be swung backwards and forwards and sideways1 besides being raised or lowered to the fire4 ,the pot-hook is of great antiquity1 and belongs to days when man first learned to cook his food4 ,frequently in this country early examples are dug up4 ,there are fine specimens to be seen of the late ,celtic period at the ,owens ,college ,museum1 at the ,northampton ,museum1 at the ,liverpool ,museum1 at the ,pitt ,rivers ,museum at ,farnham1 at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 and elsewhere4 ,pot-hooks and hangers is an ,english phrase denoting the beginning of things academic1 and the ,french phrase pendre la crmaillre 7literally to hang the pot-hook7 is used to-day in reference to what we term a house-warming party on settling in a new abode4 ,another interesting cottage treasure is the cake-baker4 ,this was a kind of thick frying-pan having a lid1 which protected the dough from the heat when it was held over the smouldering ashes4 ,the tops of these are often incised with quaint patterns1 the impress of which appears on the cake4 ,kettle-trivets are sometimes found in cottages1 possibly relics from better houses or having belonged to the more prosperous farmer4 ,they are not wholly of iron1 being partly of brass4 ,the specimen illustrated 7p4 #bia7 is of late eighteenth-century days4 ,the ,warming-pan4--,there is an especial charm in the old brass warming-pan of the farmhouse and the treasured highly-polished ornament of many a proud cottager to-day4 ,many modern-made warming-pans from ,holland and elsewhere have found their way into the possession of unsuspecting collectors4 ,but fine old ,english warming-pans are interesting1 and summon up memories of careful housewives and well-aired lavender-smelling sheets in ancient old-world inns4 ,on fine examples inscriptions may be found1 and the incised work of the pattern on the brass covers is often individual in character4 ,of the examples illustrated 7p4 #cjg7 one has an incised inscription around the edge1 ,the ,lord only is my portion4 ,the other has a dotted geometrical pattern with a star-like design of conventional floral incised work4 ,it is unfortunate that the diligence of the housewife has often obliterated much of the fine work of some of these designs4 ,the warming-pan offers in itself a complete field for the collector4 ,he can compare the work of seventeenth-century ,dutch examples1 with their quaint religious inscriptions and their finely embossed and engraved ornamentation1 with ,english specimens of the same date4 ,that the warming-pan was in use in ,elizabethan days is proved by references in ,shakespeare4 ,it has a long history1 from ,sir ,john ,falstaff1 when ,bardolph was bidden to put his face between the sheets and do the office of a warming-pan1 to ,mr4 ,pickwick--to quote ,sergeant ,buzfuz1 ,don't trouble yourself about the warming-pan--the warming-pan6 ,why1 gentlemen1 who does trouble himself about a warming-pan8 ,sussex ,firebacks4--,the fireback was usually part of the cottager's belongings1 though perhaps only one would figure in his house1 where possibly his only hearth was in his living-room4 ,these were cast and forged in various parts of the country1 and large numbers appear to have been made in ,sussex1 which is1 or rather was1 the greatest hunting-ground for good specimens of cottagers' ironwork4 ,some highly interesting specimens of these are to be herein illustrated4 ,the records of the ,sussex iron industry go back to a very early date1 and the town of ,lewes1 in the thirteenth century1 raised taxes by charging a toll on every cartload of iron admitted4 ,under ,edward ,,iii4 the ,sussex ironworks provided three thousand horseshoes and twenty-nine thousand nails for the ,english army in its campaign in ,scotland4 ,the local rhyme-- ,master ,hogge and his man ,john ,they did cast the first cannon-- is not without reason1 as in ,bodiam ,castle and elsewhere are mortars of ,sussex work of fifteenth-century style4 ,in the sixteenth century a considerable number of firebacks was made1 some with the royal arms and with the royal cipher1 ,e4,r41 and bearing dates and sometimes makers' names4 ,illustration3 ,,country ,,firedogs4 ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,illustration3 ,,fire ,,grate4 ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,the earliest form was stamped with the fleur-de-lys or with portions of twisted cable to form some sort of symmetrical design4 ,we are enabled1 by the kindness of ,mr4 ,c4 ,dawson1 ,f4,s4,a41 of ,lewes1 to reproduce some ,sussex firebacks from his collection4 ,an example of the first half of the sixteenth century1 illustrated 7p4 #cja71 shows the rope-like border impressed on the sand mould1 and the field impressed with repetitions of a fleur-de-lys from a single stamp4 ,another interesting fireback is the ,royal ,oak design1 with the initials ,c4,r4 ,this is commemorative of the escape of ,charles ,,ii4 from pursuit by ,cromwell's ,ironsides and his refuge in the oak-tree4 ,it will be observed that this specimen has a moulded edge1 which is from a single wood pattern carved in one piece4 ,amidst the oak foliage will be seen three crowns1 and this exuberance of loyalty bears a resemblance to certain chairs of the period 7copied by the score nowadays71 in which the crown finds a place in the stretcher4 ,one fireback illustrated 7p4 #cjc7 shows an ironmaster with his hammer at his forge4 ,the adjacent piece has the ,tudor rose surmounted by the royal crown1 and bears the date #afej1 slightly earlier than the ,royal ,oak example4 ,all the foregoing specimens are native in their conception of design4 ,they approximate closely to the ,jacobean carved panel with its narrow range of subjects1 and have a relationship to ,stuart needlework with its royal symbolism4 ,later came the ,dutch influence1 most marked in its effect upon the shape1 height1 and character of these firebacks4 ,this became especially noticeable in the eighteenth century1 and in the illustrations 7p4 #cjc7 of two wooden patterns from which the firebacks were made at ,ashburnham1 ,sussex1 this is clearly shown4 ,the designs are ornate and represent either some scriptural or mythological subject4 ,the woodcarving is of a style strongly under ,dutch influence1 and the tall proportions suggest gravestones 7indeed1 in ,sussex there are headstones made of iron1 with pictures and inscriptions74 ,the mode of casting these iron firebacks in sand and the employment of wooden patterns to form the mould into which the molten metal was to run is familiar to any foundry in casting iron4 ,in regard to the early examples with the twisted cable rim1 it is conjectured that pieces of twisted rope were actually laid on the wet sand to produce this pattern--that is1 before the use of carved wooden patterns such as are illustrated4 ,in regard to the bolder cable twist pattern1 it is believed this was produced by impression of pieces of rope stiffened with glue1 and twisted around iron rods4 ,illustration3 ,,sussex ,,iron ,,fireback4 ,,first ,,half ,,of ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,rope-like border impressed on sand mould4 ,the field impressed with repetitions from a single fleur-de-lys stamp4 ,illustration3 ,,sussex ,,iron ,,fireback4 ,the ,royal ,oak ,design1 commemorative of the ,restoration4 ,late ,seventeenth ,century4 ,moulded edge and carved in one piece from a single pattern4 7,in the collection of ,charles ,dawson1 ,esq41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,lewes47 ,illustration3 ,,sussex ,,firebacks4 ,tudor ,rose surmounted by ,royal ,crown4 ,dated #afej4 ,depicting ,ironmaster at his ,forge4 7,very rusty and worn47 ,illustration3 ,,original ,,wooden ,,patterns4 ,dutch influence4 ,eighteenth ,century4 ,from which firebacks were made at ,ashburnham1 ,sussex4 7,by the courtesy of ,charles ,dawson1 ,esq41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,lewes47 ,the size of the wooden pattern is slightly larger than the resultant fireback1 owing to the shrinkage of the metal on cooling4 ,this diminution in design is a factor in the potter's art1 when figures in some cases lose nearly a third of their original proportions when moulded in the clay prior to firing4 ,firebacks have attracted a considerable amount of interest4 ,there are many collectors1 and a great deal of close study has been applied to the subject4 ,country museums in the vicinity of the ,weald of ,sussex and ,kent contain many notable examples1 especially those of ,lewes1 ,hastings1 ,brighton1 ,rochester1 ,maidstone1 and ,guildford4 ,in the first mentioned there are some very rare and beautiful examples of ,sussex firebacks4 ,especially interesting in connection with the ,sussex ironworks is the illustration 7p4 #cji7 of a clock face made by a local maker1 ,beeching of ,ashburnham1 in the late seventeenth century4 ,this brass dial of a thirty-hour clock1 with single hand and alarum1 is ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron industry as carried on in ,sussex4 ,there is a cannon with diminutive figures holding the match4 ,there are cannon-balls1 and a liliputian fireback with a crown on it4 ,men with pickaxes1 men felling trees1 and others tending the furnaces1 symbolise the business of a foundry4 ,it was not until #afij that the minute numerals were placed outside the minute divisions in clock faces1 so that this face1 having the minute numerals absent and the minute divisions in the inner circle1 presumably belongs to the late seventeenth century4 ,grandfather ,clocks4--,a volume on cottage and farmhouse furniture would be incomplete without some reference to grandfather clocks4 ,at the beginning of the eighteenth century this type of clock had become popular4 ,the early brass-bracket clock known as ,cromwellian1 varying from six to ten inches in height1 had a spring4 ,with the use of the long pendulum and revolving drums1 around which catgut is wound to support the heavy weights1 these unprotected parts required a wooden case4 ,the lantern or bird-cage clocks 7wallclocks from which the pendulum and weights hung unprotected7 lasted till about #afhj1 when the first grandfather type with wood case came into use4 ,the early examples with cases exhibiting fine marquetry are outside the scope of the class of furniture now under consideration4 ,in such specimens there is frequently a round or oval opening covered with glass in the centre of the panel4 ,in earlier types the metal dial is square1 and later it became lunetted at top1 and the wood case had a corresponding curve4 ,in clocks made for great houses there were chimes1 and their works were by well-known town makers4 ,but in cottage examples1 instead of the eight-day movement1 more often than not the clock only ran for twenty-four hours4 ,there is little attempt at ornament in these plain oak varieties4 ,the case is soundly constructed1 and sometimes1 in exceptional examples1 the head is surmounted by brass ball finials1 as in the finer examples4 ,as a rule the country cabinet-maker confined himself to an ornamental scrolled head4 ,in later examples the metal dial--and these come at the beginning of the nineteenth century--is painted with some rustic scene with figures1 and frequently there is a revolving dial showing the days of the month4 ,illustration3 ,,warming-,,pans4 ,finely decorated with incised work4 ,one with inscription1 ,the ,lord only is my portion4 7,by the courtesy of ,mr4 ,s4 ,g4 ,fenton47 ,illustration3 ,,grandfather ,,clock4 ,with ,oak ,case4 ,made by ,j4 ,paxton1 ,st4 ,neots4 ,height1 #f ft4 #aj ins4 ,illustration3 ,,brass ,,dial ,,of ,,thirty-,,hour ,,clock4 ,single ,hand and ,alarum4 ,late ,seventeenth ,century4 ,ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron industry1 as carried on at ,ashburnham1 ,sussex4 7,in the collection of ,charles ,dawson1 ,esq41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,lewes47 ,the entire head covering the dial is often removable in old clocks to which there is no hinged door1 as in later made examples4 ,these country grandfather clocks are much treasured by their owners1 and have been handed down in families for generations4 ,owing to the indefatigability of collectors and their persistent and tempting offers1 many have left their old homes4 ,the demand has been great1 and thousands of grandfather clocks have been made during the last twenty years and sold as antique1 or old cases with plain panels have received the unwelcome attention of the modern restorer and have been carved to please a popular whim for carved oak panels4 ,in regard to dates of grandfather clocks the records of the ,clockmakers' ,company give a list of makers of the eighteenth century1 enabling the period to be fairly accurately fixed4 ,the walnut cases inlaid with floral marquetry1 often attributed to the period #afij-agbe1 that is ,william and ,mary and ,queen ,anne1 frequently belong to a quarter of a century later4 ,the case-makers clung more closely to old designs than did the clockmakers4 ,hence the case very often is of apparently older style than the works1 though both were made contemporaneously4 ,in addition to this1 new clocks were put in older cases1 or vice versa1 which1 like putting new pictures in old frames1 adds to the gaiety of collecting4 ,in general the ,london clock-cases are only roughly indicative1 in comparison with the ,company records1 of contemporary styles of furniture4 ,in country-made pieces the wood cases are anything from twenty to forty years behind ,london fashions4 ,for example1 the arched top occurs after #agbj in ,london1 and after #agce in the provinces4 ,in the ,director of ,chippendale and in ,sheraton's and ,hepplewhite's books of designs there are illustrations of clock cases4 ,the progression of styles of eighteenth-century grandfather clock cases is from plain oak to figured walnut1 black and red lacquer1 floral1 seaweed1 or mosaic marquetry1 and in the latter decades of the eighteenth century inlaid mahogany cases1 and many of these have finely veneered panels4 ,in many country clocks oak cases are veneered in mahogany1 but as a rule country made grandfather cases are plain oak4 ,the example illustrated 7p4 #cjg7 indicates the plain type of solidly made provincial piece4 ,the clock was made by ,j4 ,paxton at ,st4 ,neots4 ,the mahogany-cased grandfather clock is never found in cottages4 ,there are no ,chippendale styles in this field for the collector to search for4 ,the plainness of the country style has happily in many instances preserved them from alien hands4 ,an interesting revival1 chiefly on account of expense1 is found in the ,dutch clock1 with china face painted with flowers1 which the cottager bought in early and middle nineteenth-century days4 ,this form of clock reverted to the unprotected pendulum and weights1 and is an object-lesson in what the style of ,english clock was before the use of a long wooden case4 ,but these ,dutch clocks are interesting rather than valuable1 and have not yet claimed the attention of collectors4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,old ,,english ,,chintzes ,,chapter ,,xi ,,old ,,english ,,chintzes ,,by ,,hugh ,,phillips ,the charm of old ,english chintz--,huguenot cloth-printers settle in ,england--,jacob ,stampe at the sign of the ,calico ,printer--,the ,queen ,anne period--,the ,chippendale period--,the age of machinery4 ,the present chapter has been added with perhaps some justification1 since it seemed to the writer that such a subject as old ,english chintzes might appropriately take its place beside the equally homely craft of the rural cabinet-maker4 ,for the chintz is the tapisserie d'aubusson of the peasant--it covers his chairs and drapes his windows1 giving warmth and wealth of colour to the otherwise barren appearance of his cottage4 ,further1 it reflects his simple horticultural tastes1 for the brilliantly coloured roses1 pansies1 and convolvuluses which shine prominently on the glazed surface of the cloth are those flowers which are always to be found in his garden4 ,chintz or printed cotton is the only decorative fabric known to the village upholsterer4 ,when persons of wealth hung their windows with silk brocades and covered their chairs with costly needlework and damasks1 the rural cabinet-maker was supplying his modest clientle with these homely patterns printed upon common cloth4 ,these unassuming fabrics were as much cherished by the cottagers as anything which they possessed4 ,the classical ornament of expensive silks they did not understand1 and the freely treated birds and flowers which figured on chintz represented the ,alpha and ,omega of beauty in textile design4 ,so great1 indeed1 is the fascination of these for the cottagers that to-day1 in districts less penetrated by modern advance1 the rural populace will not extend their affections to the up-to-date designs of upholsterers1 but insist upon the old spot and sprig patterns of their ancestors4 ,there is much wisdom in the conservative taste of the peasant1 for the old chintz of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was of the highest artistic merit4 ,in the heyday of its fame the fabric was exceedingly fashionable amongst the richest persons1 and there are abundant records of the popularity of old ,english chintzes upon the ,continent4 ,for1 at its best periods1 the chintz was not a base imitation of more expensive fabrics2 it did not1 for instance1 occupy the relationship of pewter to silver or moulded composition to genuine woodcarving4 ,on the contrary1 the designing of chintzes is an art of distinction1 governed by canons which bear little relationship to other decorative textile crafts4 ,for where the silk-weaver is confined to solid patterns which will appear in his transverse threads1 the printer of cloths can wander unrestrained into designs of wonderful intricacy and beauty3 every colour in nature he can imitate1 and no object is too delicate or too rich to stamp upon his cotton4 ,indeed1 his art stops little short of that of the painter of pictures4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,trade ,,card ,,showing ,,calico ,,printers ,,at ,,work4 ,jacob ,stampe living at ye ,sighn of the ,callico ,printer in ,hounsditch ,prints all sorts of ,callicoes ,lineings ,silkes ,stuffs ,new or ,ould at ,reasonable ,rates4 7,from old print at ,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,,english ,,printed ,,calico4 ,,about #afij4 ,with contemporary portraits4 7,by courtesy of ,mr4 ,t4 ,d4 ,phillips47 ,a glance at the illustrations will more closely confirm this1 for such designs could not be imitated by any other textile process1 the multitudinous twists and curves and the delicate shades and patches of colour being only possible to the printer4 ,interesting as is the study of old chintzes1 the history of the art in ,england is even more fascinating4 ,from the obscurity of a small local craft it became one of our great national industries4 ,of its earliest history in ,england we know nothing1 and a search among old documents fails to reveal any traces of chintz-printing before the ,renaissance4 ,there are several vague references to the subject in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 but none of them disclose any solid information4 ,thus the question of who was the first chintz-printer remains an unsolved riddle4 ,it appears1 however1 that in the seventeenth century there was a gradual immigration of foreign workmen of ,dutch and ,french nationalities who were well versed in the art of cotton-printing--then well established upon the ,continent4 ,these people came over in gradually increasing numbers1 their arrival culminating in the huge influx of foreigners about #afej to #agjj4 ,the majority of them were by trade silk-weavers and printers4 ,their departure was a serious blow to ,france1 for they transferred to ,england what had been great national industries in ,france4 ,settling in and about ,london1 the refugees peaceably recommenced their work1 and soon the weaving of silks in ,spitalfields and the printing of chintzes in ,richmond1 ,bow1 and ,old ,ford became a source of great prosperity to this country4 ,on p4 #cai is an illustration of a seventeenth-century trade card of one of the chintz-printers1 or1 as they were then called1 calico-printers4 ,here we see in a most lucid manner the process by which chintzes were produced in the time of ,james ,,ii4 ,the inscription runs3 ,jacob ,stampe living at ,ye ,sighn of the ,callico ,printer in ,hounsditch ,prints all sorts of ,callicoes ,lineings ,silkes ,stuffs1 ,new or ,ould1 at ,reasonable ,rates4 ,a printer is standing at a table upon which is stretched a length of cloth1 which falls in folds on the floor4 ,he holds in his hand a wooden block1 which he is applying at intervals to the cloth4 ,the other hand contains a mallet1 which is about to strike the wooden block and stamp the colour firmly into the threads of the material4 ,behind him is an apprentice boy1 standing over a tub of colour1 preparing the blocks for his master to use4 ,illustration3 ,,hand-,,printed ,,chintz4 ,queen ,anne ,period4 ,illustration3 ,,hand-,,printed ,,chintz4 ,chinese style4 ,middle ,eighteenth ,century4 ,by so clumsy a process very delicate work could not be produced1 and1 indeed1 the few examples of this period which remain are very heavy in character4 ,one of these1 which has been lent by ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,phillips1 the owner1 is illustrated on p4 #cai4 ,it belongs to the end of the seventeenth century and corresponds to the ,william and ,mary period of ,english furniture1 being contemporary with the pieces illustrated on pp4 #gg1 #aag in the earlier chapters4 ,it will be seen that this example contains two portraits in costume of the late ,stuart period1 possibly intended for portraits of ,william and ,mary4 ,their portraits are of frequent occurrence on ,lambeth delft of this period4 ,the printer has only produced the outline1 the colour being added by hand with a brush1 for at this date the printing of colour by the successive application of blocks had not been mastered4 ,the black ink to-day lies thick upon the cloth1 as coarsely as though it had been dabbed on with a stencil4 ,the material is a rough hand-woven canvas4 ,printed cloths of the period of ,charles ,,ii4 and ,james ,,ii4 and ,william and ,mary are exceedingly rare and seldom met with1 as1 owing to their roughness1 they have been destroyed by subsequent owners4 ,a few1 however1 are to be found on walnut chairs under the coverings of later date4 ,often1 indeed1 one meets a chair covered in ,victorian horsehair which will reveal underneath the successive coverings of many generations of owners1 including perhaps the material in which it was first upholstered4 ,as the seventeenth century wore on and we enter upon the early years of the eighteenth century--the days of ,queen ,anne--the chintz-printers became more prosperous4 ,their work1 owing to its increasing delicacy1 met with great public approval1 and it began to supplant woven silks for the purposes of curtains1 coverings1 and dresses4 ,thus the silk-weavers of ,spitalfields found a declining market for their goods and soon came into friction with the printers4 ,much bad feeling ensued1 and eventually their quarrels resulted in the distribution of defamatory literature which is to-day most amusing4 ,the weavers circulated the curious ,spittlefields ,ballad against ,calico ,madams1 or the ladies who wore chintz dresses4 ,,the ,,spittlefields ,,ballads ,,or ,,the ,,weaver',s ,,complaint ,,against ,,the ,,callico ,,madams ,our trade is so bad ,that the weavers run mad ,through the want of both work and provisions1 ,that some hungry poor rogues ,feed on grains like our hogs1 ,they're reduced to such wretched conditions1 ,then well may they tayre ,what our ladies now wear ,and as foes to our country upbraid 'em1 ,till none shall be thought ,a more scandalous slut ,than a tawdry ,callico ,madam4 ,when our trade was in wealth ,our women had health1 ,we silks1 rich embroideries and satins1 ,fine stuffs and good crapes ,for each ord'nary trapes ,that is destin'd to hobble in pattins2 ,but now we've a ,chince ,for the wife of a prince1 ,and a butterfly gown for a gay dame1 ,thin painted old sheets ,for each trull in the streets ,to appear like a ,callico ,madam4 ,illustration3 ,,hand-,,printed ,,chintz4 ,exotic-,bird style4 ,middle ,eighteenth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,,hand-,,printed ,,chintz4 ,gothic style4 ,late ,eighteenth ,century4 ,the poet in several long stanzas warms in his indignation1 and finally directs his verse against the male friends of all fair wearers of chintzes1 suggesting that-- ,it's no matter at all ,if the ,prince of ,iniquity had 'em1 ,or that each for a bride ,should be cursedly tied ,to some damn'd ,callico ,madam4 ,it is not surprising that the weavers should find it difficult to set their productions against those of the cloth-printers1 for the chintzes of this period are surpassingly beautiful4 ,one of them is illustrated on p4 #cbc4 ,here the material is no longer a rough canvas1 but is now a light dress cambric1 similar to the thin smooth chintz cloth which has survived till to-day4 ,a delicate pattern of intertwining stems winds upwards1 the stalks having blossoms of finely cut outline and brilliant colours4 ,old chintzes of this period may be recognised by their lightness and by the long thin designs of intermingling flowers of ,indian type4 ,these were all more or less borrowed from the ,marsupalitan printed cloths brought over by the ,india trading companies1 and the flowers and colourings of this date are nearly always very closely copied from ,eastern originals1 the cornflower and carnation being among those most frequently met with4 ,the ill-feeling between the printers and weavers was of long duration1 and eventually took the form of open riots and street demonstrations similar to those of to-day4 ,on one occasion1 in #agai1 they went from ,spitalfields to ,westminster and protested against the popularity of chintzes and suggested that their use be forbidden4 ,on the return journey they manifested their feelings by tearing off the chintz gowns of various ladies whom they met upon the route4 ,evidently ,parliament pandered to these labour riots1 for in #agcf printed cloths were forbidden by ,act of ,parliament1 but this legislation was of short duration2 the ,act was soon repealed and the fascinating material became the rage once more4 ,the next stage at which we look upon chintz-printing is about #agfj1 in the middle of the period of ,chippendale furniture4 ,this is the golden period of its printing4 ,technically and artistically the hand-printed chintz now reached its climax4 ,colour-work by superimposed blocks was in full swing1 and the designer had1 in the works of contemporary artists1 a wider field for the selection of subjects suitable for his fabric4 ,among the many varieties of chintzes which we find at this date the most prominent are the ,gothic and ,chinese designs to suit the current taste in furniture1 and the exotic bird patterns1 which are perhaps the finest of all4 ,illustration3 ,,hand-,,printed ,,chintz4 ,,about #agfj4 ,by ,r4 ,jones1 of ,old ,ford1 ,london4 ,the formation of the designs has changed considerably by this time and we no longer find the intertwining or serpentine form as in the ,queen ,anne chintzes4 ,the flowers and objects to be printed are now massed together and represented as little disjointed islands floating in mid-air4 ,by this distinctive feature they may easily be recognised4 ,one of these charming exotic bird chintzes is illustrated on p4 #cbg4 ,here a pheasant is resting under a palm-tree upon a small island of densely packed foliage4 ,the whole idea of the design is taken from the ,chinese porcelain of the period4 ,the bird1 the flowers1 and every object portrayed come from the ,east and are drawn in the manner constantly seen upon the ,famille ,rose dishes and vases of the period4 ,these exotic bird patterns are not exclusively found upon chintzes1 for the collector of ,english porcelain will be familiar with them in the early productions of the ,bow and ,worcester factories4 ,another feature which one notices in printed fabrics at this date is the buff ground4 ,the cloth is white1 and the pattern is printed upon it in this state so that the pinks1 blues1 and greens of the flowers may have every advantage of transparency4 ,the buff background is then printed in afterwards1 leaving a thin margin around the design4 ,in this manner great richness and depth is given to the colours without undue harshness1 which would be the result if they were exhibited upon a white background4 ,the illustration on p4 #cbc shows a chintz in the ,chinese manner1 designed to conform with the oriental furniture of ,chippendale4 ,here again we see the detached islets of vegetation1 but instead of exotic birds we have ,chinese vases containing flowers1 and in the foreground a rococo shell1 one of the then little-known species from the ,east greatly treasured in ,england4 ,the carnations and foliage will be readily recognised as copies from ,chinese paintings4 ,one might illustrate a very large number of these ,chinese chintzes1 but space will only permit one example4 ,this particular specimen is probably unique2 it is taken from an old roll of chintz printed about #agfj and left over after the owner had curtained his house4 ,the roll 7about twenty yards long7 has been carefully preserved and handed down from generation to generation1 so that its original colours and soft glaze remain intact4 ,a chintz in the ,gothic manner is illustrated on p4 #cbg4 ,it differs slightly from the others in that the island formation is combined with serpentine foliage4 ,in the centre is a patch of ground upon which are the ruins of a ,gothic church4 ,the artist1 however1 has not forgotten to please those patrons who might prefer the ,chinese style1 and therefore he has quietly added the incongruous elements of prunus flowers in the foreground and palm-trees in the background4 ,at first this quaint admixture may appear a bad art1 but it must be remembered that at this quaint period the whole principle of decorative design was upset by the rococo school1 and quaintness and delicacy of detail outweighed the greater considerations of line and proportion4 ,we find a similar treatment of design later on in many ,spode plates1 especially in blue transfer-printed subjects4 ,illustration3 ,,printed ,,chintz4 ,hepplewhite ,period4 ,illustration3 ,,printed ,,chintz4 ,victorian ,period4 ,in the third quarter of the eighteenth century we enter upon a new era in the history of chintzes4 ,we may appropriately call it the age of machinery1 for from this date the mechanical processes came in whereby chintz-printing was raised from the position of a comparatively small craft to that of a huge national industry4 ,the great manufacturing towns in the ,north1 such as ,manchester1 were rising in importance1 and ,lancashire was forming the basis of its gigantic cotton trade4 ,following these trade movements1 the old industry of cloth-printing gradually left its centre in ,london and was developed on a larger scale in the ,north of ,england4 ,in spite of this great commercial spirit which seized the printing of textiles1 hand-block printing did not pass away1 for it has survived till to-day as the best method for fine artistic work2 cretonnes and chintzes produced in this manner1 even during the nineteenth century1 are always good4 ,mechanical roller work1 however1 was responsible for a large output of work which is little worthy of preservation1 and in the nineteenth century we find much machine-printed chintz which1 to say the least1 is not reminiscent of the fine handwork which preceded it in the mid-eighteenth century4 ,the earliest machine-work was carried out by means of engraved copper plates applied to the cloth in a printer's press4 ,one of these is illustrated on p4 #cca4 ,it is exceedingly fine in its details1 and very few old specimens of this pattern are in existence4 ,in several places are inserted the printer's name and date1 ,r4 ,jones1 ,old ,ford1 #agfa4 ,the design is doubtless borrowed from the ,toiles de ,jouy1 printed by a ,bavarian at ,jouay1 near ,versailles1 about this time4 ,the drawing1 however1 is finer than any specimens of his work which have come to the author's notice4 ,a shepherdess is tending to her flock amid a classical ruin while she is listening to the music of a flute4 ,in another portion of the design1 a cock and hen are mourning for the loss of one of their brood which has been carried off by an eagle4 ,this design is worthy of interest for its superior quality1 as it must have been produced for some very fine house4 ,there is another specimen printed in red in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,the one which is illustrated here was found upon an exceedingly fine ,chippendale bedstead4 ,during the ,hepplewhite and ,sheraton periods of furniture the chintz ceases to have its pattern detached and grouped4 ,architectural details with figures disappear1 and once more the designer returns to flowers as his subject for illustration4 ,the foliage1 however1 now takes the form of vertical stripes1 being contained within lace-like ribands placed at even distances4 ,on p4 #cce is an illustration of a chintz about #agij in which these features will be noticed4 ,in the nineteenth century we find the chintz covered with disjointed sprigs1 as though the flowers had been plucked and cast upon the cloth4 ,their outline is softened by a margin of dots4 ,an illustration of this style is shown on p4 #cce4 ,illustration3 ,,printed ,,chintz4 ,from the ,calico ,printing ,factory at ,sobden1 in ,lancashire4 ,printed in #ahca under the direction of ,richard ,cobden4 7,in the collection of ,mrs4 ,cobden ,unwin47 ,one need not pursue the history of chintzes further1 for to do so would entail a discussion of modern methods4 ,suffice it to say that in the nineteenth century we come across the hideous black grounds1 the base imitation of woven designs1 leopard skins1 and other inartistic perversions4 ,we must rather bid adieu to this beautiful art ere it has begun to decline4 ,it will afford the reader much pleasure if he should form a collection of old specimens and frame them around his walls1 for then he will fully appreciate their charm4 ,in examining his own collection the author has spent many a pleasant hour1 for these gaily coloured chintzes are among the most articulate relics which have come down to us4 ,they breathe the spirit1 the feelings1 and the ideals of the periods wherein they were made4 ,they show lucidly the various changes in fashion and the rise and wane in the popularity of certain forms of decoration4 ,so delectable are their soft1 faded colours1 so fascinating are the designs1 and above all1 so enchanting is the old-world musty scent which always clings to them1 that it would be hard indeed to withhold one's affection from them4 ,,index ,adam style table1 #ahf ,america1 the ,windsor chair acclimatised in1 #bdf ,america1 spindle-back chairs1 #bci ,america1 carved chests of ,puritan colonists1 #fj ,america1 types coincident with ,jacobean1 #fj ,anachronism in country makers' work1 #bjd ,anne1 ,queen1 chintz printing in time of1 #cbe ,anne1 ,queen1 style--cabriole leg1 advent of1 #afg ,anne1 ,queen1 chests of drawers1 #fg ,anne1 ,queen1 scandal at ,court of1 #aeh ,anne1 ,queen1 so-called style1 #afg ,back--the chair1 and its development1 #bjc ,bacon cupboards1 #aed ,ball and claw foot1 introduction of1 #afb ,barley sugar turning1 illustrated1 #aje ,bedfordshire tables1 #bhc ,bedstead1 ,jacobean1 illustrated1 #gg ,bevel of panel indicating date1 #bjd ,bible-boxes1 #cd1 #aci-aed ,bloomfield1 ,robert1 quoted1 #bfh ,bobbins1 ,buckinghamshire1 #aec ,brittany dressers1 #acd ,broken corners1 ,queen ,anne style1 #afg1 #afi ,buckinghamshire bobbins1 #aec ,bureau bookcase and cupboard1 #agf ,bureaus1 marquetry in coloured woods1 #afi ,byzantine types of furniture existent in ,elizabethan days1 #cg ,cabriole leg1 advent of the1 #afg ,cabriole leg 7,queen ,anne period71 #abi ,cambridge tables1 #bhc ,candle dipper1 the1 #bhh ,cane-back chairs1 #bjc1 #bjg ,cane-back chairs1 late ,stuart1 #aii ,cane-back chair1 its influence on farmhouse styles1 #bjh ,caning in chairs out of fashion1 #afb ,chairs-- ,america1 ,windsor chair1 types of1 #bdf ,back1 the1 its development1 #bjc ,caned-back chair1 its influence on farmhouse styles1 #bjh ,caned chairs1 late ,stuart1 #aii1 #bjc1 #bjg ,caning out of fashion1 #afb ,charles ,,ii4 period styles1 #baa ,chippendale styles1 #agi ,chippendale1 ,windsor styles1 #bed ,corner chairs1 #bdj ,country ,chippendale1 ,hepplewhite and ,sheraton1 #bba ,cupid's bow top rail1 #bah ,cushions1 their use with1 #aii1 #bjg ,derbyshire chairs1 #bjc ,elizabethan turned chairs1 #cg ,evolution of the chair1 #ahi-bda ,fiddle splat chairs1 introduction of1 #afb ,fiddle splat1 ,queen ,anne style1 #bag ,fiddle splat1 ,windsor1 at its best1 #bed ,fiddle-string backs1 #bdi ,goldsmith1 ,oliver1 his chair1 #bec ,grandfather variety1 #afh1 #bcj ,hepplewhite country styles1 #bba ,hepplewhite ,windsor chairs1 #bed ,horseshoe back1 ,windsor1 #bei1 #bfj ,jacobean1 typical form1 #aif ,ladder-back chairs1 #bcc ,lancashire rush-bottom chairs1 #bda ,lancashire spindle back chairs1 #bgh ,modern office-chair1 derivation of1 #bfj ,prince of ,wales's feathers in back1 #bbg ,ribbon-back1 introduction of1 #agi ,rush-bottomed chairs1 #bcc ,shell ornament employed1 #afg ,sheraton country styles1 #bba ,sheraton ,windsor chairs1 #bei1 #bfj ,spindle-back chairs1 #bcd ,splat1 ,queen ,anne1 the1 #bag ,straight-backed chairs1 #bjc ,stretcher1 evolution of the1 #bjj ,tavern chairs1 #bdi ,wheel-back ,windsor chairs1 #bei ,woods used1 ,windsor chairs1 #bdi1 #bej ,charles ,,ii4 chests of drawers1 #fb ,charles ,,ii4 period1 impetus given to furniture design1 #ie ,charles ,,ii4 period1 styles of chairs1 #baa ,chests1 ,gothic1 #cd ,chests1 sixteenth century1 #cd ,chests1 ,welsh carving1 #bgg ,chests of drawers1 #fj ,chests of drawers1 ,charles ,,ii4 period1 #fb ,chests of drawers1 ,queen ,anne style1 #fg ,children's stools1 ,jacobean1 illustrated1 #gg ,chimney crane1 the1 #bid ,china and glass cupboards1 #ahj ,chinese designs in chintzes1 #ccc ,chinese style of ,chippendale1 #bbg ,chintz printing becomes a national industry1 #cba ,chintzes1 old ,english1 #cag-cda ,chippendale and his contemporaries1 #ahj ,chippendale clock cases1 #cab ,chippendale quoted1 #bbg1 #bbh ,chippendale1 ribbon designs of1 #agi ,chippendale style1 provincial1 #bba ,chippendale style ,windsor chairs1 #bed ,chocolate houses1 polemic against1 #agj ,chronology1 seventeenth-century1 #de-dh ,claw-and-ball foot1 introduction of1 #afb ,clock and dresser combined1 #abi ,clocks1 grandfather1 #cjf ,club foot1 introduction of1 #afb ,cobbett1 ,william1 quoted1 #fg ,coffee-drinking and coffee-houses1 #agj ,coffee1 women's petition against1 #agj ,corner chairs1 #bdj ,cottage furniture and earthenware compared1 #ca ,country cabinet-maker1 his mixture of styles1 #baa ,country ,chippendale1 ,hepplewhite and ,sheraton1 #bba ,country furniture1 its sturdy independence1 #bd ,country makers little influenced by contemporary fashion1 #ej ,cradles1 #adh ,cromwellian chests with drawers1 #eb ,crusie1 the ,scottish1 #bgg1 #bic ,cupboard1 the bacon1 #aed ,cupboard1 ,welsh carving1 #bgg ,cupboards1 corner1 introduction of1 #afb ,cupboards and drawers1 taste for1 #abe ,cupid's bow underframing1 #ajg1 #ahe ,cupid's bow top rail of chair1 #bah ,cushions1 their use with chairs1 #aii1 #bjg ,delany1 ,mrs41 quoted1 #aec ,denmark1 the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in1 #ch ,derbyshire chairs1 #bjc ,design books1 eighteenth-century1 publication of1 #bbb ,director1 by ,chippendale1 a working guide1 #bbc ,drawer accommodation a feature in late dressers1 #acj ,drawers1 chests of1 #fj ,drawers1 chests of1 ,charles ,,ii4 period1 #fb ,drawers1 chests of1 ,queen ,anne style1 #fg ,dresser and clock combined1 #abi ,dressers1 farmhouse1 #aae-ace ,dressers-- ,brittany1 #acd ,lancashire1 #acd ,normandy1 #acd ,welsh1 #acc ,dutch artisans print early ,english chintzes1 #cba ,dutch influence early eighteenth century1 #afh1 #agj ,earthenware and cottage furniture compared1 #ca ,eighteenth-century dressers1 #acj ,eighteenth-century pleasure gardens1 #bdi ,eighteenth-century styles1 #aeg-ahg ,elizabethan turned chairs1 #cg ,english chintzes1 old1 #cag-cda ,english farmhouse furniture1 desirability of its preservation1 #db ,english joiners' work1 its solidity1 #ea ,essex tables1 #bhc ,exotic bird patterns in chintzes1 #ccc ,farmer's ,boy 7,robert ,bloomfield7 quoted1 #bfh ,farmhouse furniture 7,english71 desirability of its preservation1 #db ,farmhouse furniture influenced by walnut styles1 #bjh ,farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair1 #bjh ,feet-- ,arcaded foot1 ,charles ,,ii4 period1 #fb ,ball1 #fb2 illustrated1 #fe ,claw-and-ball foot1 introduction of the1 #afb ,club foot1 its introduction1 #afb ,hoof foot1 the1 #agf ,scroll or ,spanish foot1 #ajd1 #bjc ,spanish foot1 the1 #ajd1 #bjc ,spanish foot1 in corrupted form1 illustrated1 #aje1 #aji ,trestle1 in ,gothic style1 #ij ,fiddle splat chairs1 introduction of1 #afb ,fiddle splat1 ,queen ,anne style1 #bag ,fiddle splat ,windsor chair at its best1 #bed ,fiddle-string backs1 #bdi ,firebacks1 ,sussex1 #bif ,firebacks1 ,sussex1 fine examples exhibited1 #cje ,firedogs1 cottage and farmhouse1 #bid ,food of country population1 seventeenth century1 #ha ,foreign styles1 slow assimilation of1 #fg ,french artisans print early ,english chintzes1 #cba ,gate-leg tables1 #he-aab ,gate-leg table1 double gates1 #if2 illustrated1 #ic ,gate-leg table1 established as a popular type1 #ij ,gate-leg table1 square top1 illustrated1 #aje ,geometric panels1 chests of drawers1 #fa2 dressers1 #aba ,georgian styles1 early types1 #agi ,gibbons1 ,grinling1 the style of1 #ef ,goldsmith1 ,oliver1 his chair1 #bec ,gothic brackets to chests1 #cd ,gothic chests1 #cd ,gothic trestle1 gate-leg table1 #hi ,grandfather chair1 the1 #bcj ,grandfather chair1 curved lines of1 #afh ,grandfather clocks1 #cjf ,grandfather clock combined with dresser1 #abi ,great ,seal of ,queen ,anne1 showing style of ornament1 #afh ,hardwick ,hall1 suite at1 #ee ,hepplewhite clock cases1 #cab ,hepplewhite influence on village work1 #bjg ,hepplewhite quoted1 #bbi1 #bcj ,hepplewhite style1 provincial1 #bba ,hertfordshire tables1 #bhc ,hogarth1 the line of beauty the curve1 #afh ,hoof foot1 the1 #agf ,horseshoe-back ,windsor chairs1 #acj1 #beg1 #bfj ,incongruity of provincial cabinet-maker1 #baa ,inlaid work rarely employed1 #ee ,inlaid work with walnut1 #afi ,inlaid work1 woods used1 #afi ,irish ,chippendale1 #bgb ,ironwork1 miscellaneous1 #bhg-cac ,ironwork1 ,scottish1 #bgg ,isle of ,man tables1 #bhc ,jacobean cradles1 #adh ,jacobean dressers with geometric panels1 #aba ,jacobean furniture1 typical styles1 #di ,jacobean oak chair1 typical form1 #aif ,jacobean period1 its characteristics1 #ie ,jacobean period1 late styles of1 #aae ,jacobean style1 its transition to ,william and ,mary1 #bjg ,jacobean ,sussex firebacks1 #bii1 #cjj ,joinery1 the solidity of ,english1 #ea ,jones1 ,r41 of ,old ,ford1 chintz printer1 #ccg ,kettle trivet1 the cottager's1 #bie ,lacquer employed in clock-cases1 #cab ,ladder-back chair1 the1 #bcc ,lancashire chintzes1 #ccg ,lancashire dressers1 #acd ,lancashire furniture1 #bgh ,lancashire ,queen ,anne settle1 #afg ,lancashire rush-bottom chair1 #bda ,legs-- ,barley sugar turning illustrated1 #aje ,cabriole leg1 introduction of the1 #afg ,egg and reel turning1 #dc2 illustrated1 #ic ,eight legs 7gate table71 #ii ,elizabethan bulbous leg1 #fj ,jacobean straight-turned leg1 #fj ,jacobean1 various forms of turning1 #hi ,queen ,anne cabriole leg1 #abi ,six legs1 gate table1 illustrated1 #ii ,split urn leg1 illustrated1 #ia1 #aai ,straight leg again in vogue1 #ahj ,urn-shaped leg1 #fj ,urn-shaped splat1 #aba2 illustrated1 #ia1 #aai ,linen-fold pattern on chests1 #cb ,local types1 #cc ,local types of furniture1 #bfg-bhd ,london and the vicinity1 chintz printed in1 #cbb ,longleat1 oak furniture at1 #ee ,lyngby 7near ,copenhagen71 collection of old farmhouse furniture at1 #da ,macaulay quoted1 #aeh ,macaulay1 ,state of ,england in #afhe quoted1 #gf ,mahogany gate-leg tables1 #ajc ,mahogany styles1 their gracefulness1 #agi ,mahogany1 the chief designers of1 of the golden age1 #ajd ,marlborough1 ,duchess of1 and her intrigues1 #aeh ,marquetry bureaus in coloured woods1 #afi ,marquetry1 woods used in1 #afi ,minor cabinet-makers' work lacking harmony1 #bab ,modern office-chair1 derivation from ,windsor type1 #bfc ,more1 ,hannah1 and the agricultural classes1 #age ,morris1 ,william1 his influence on furniture1 #aaa ,mule chests1 #eb ,norfolk1 oak furniture1 #bhc ,normandy dressers1 #acd ,normans1 furniture1 styles of1 introduced by1 #cg ,north1 ,roger1 quoted1 #agj ,oak1 erroneously used to carry out walnut designs1 #bab ,oak1 general in its use1 #ee ,oak supplanted by walnut in fashionable furniture1 #bjg ,oak the chief wood employed1 #cc ,office-chair1 derivation from ,windsor type1 #bfc ,oriental patterns in chintzes1 #ccc ,panelling1 bevel of1 indicating date of1 #bjd ,panels1 sunk1 ,jacobean style1 #fb ,patterns1 wood1 used for firebacks1 #cjj ,people1 changing habits of the1 in seventeenth century1 #gb ,pepys's ,diary1 quoted1 #gi ,pleasure gardens1 eighteenth-century1 #bdi ,pot-hook1 the1 #bid ,pot-hooks1 fine examples1 where exhibited1 #bid ,prince of ,wales's feathers1 #bbg ,provincial furniture many decades behind fashion1 #ej ,queen ,anne1 cabriole leg1 #abi ,queen ,anne dressers1 #abb ,queen ,anne flap tables1 #hi ,queen ,anne period1 the splat of the1 #bag ,restoration period1 chests of drawers1 #fb ,ribbon designs1 introduction of1 #agi ,roads in provinces1 bad state of1 #gi ,rush-bottom chair1 the1 #bcc ,rushlight holder1 the1 #bhh ,scandinavian origin of ,elizabethan chair1 #cg ,scotland1 ,union with1 proclamation by ,queen ,anne1 #afa ,scottish types of ironwork1 #bgg ,seaweed marquetry in clock-cases1 #cab ,settle1 ,lancashire form1 #bgh ,settle1 ,queen ,anne style1 #afg ,seventeenth-century1 chronology of1 #de-dh ,seventeenth-century settle 7,lancashire71 #bgh ,seventeenth-century sideboard1 typical style1 #ef ,seventeenth-century styles1 #di-hb ,seventeenth-century styles1 types of1 #gb ,shell ornament1 early eighteenth-century1 #afg ,sheraton clock-cases1 #cab ,sheraton influence on country makers1 #bcd ,sheraton influence in ,windsor chairs1 #bei ,sheraton style1 provincial1 #bba ,sideboard1 typical seventeenth-century style1 #ef ,sixteenth-century chests1 #cd ,sizergh ,castle1 oak room at1 #ee ,spanish foot1 its use1 #ajd1 #ajg ,spanish ,succession1 ,war of the1 #afa ,spindle-back chair1 the1 #bcd ,spindle-back chairs 7,lancashire71 #bgh ,spinning-wheels1 #aec ,spitalfields weavers1 complaint as to chintz fashions1 #cbf1 #ccj ,splat1 the ,queen ,anne1 #bag ,staffordshire pottery and cottage furniture compared1 #ca ,stands for chests of drawers1 #fg ,stockholm1 collection of farmhouse furniture at1 #ch ,stools1 children's ,jacobean1 illustrated1 #gg ,straight-backed chairs1 #bjc ,stretcher1 evolution of the1 #bjj ,stretcher1 ,yorkshire splat form1 #if ,suffolk oak furniture1 #bhc ,sussex firebacks1 #bif ,sussex ironworks1 the1 #bie1 #bif ,swan head to cupboard1 #afh ,sweden1 the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in1 #ch ,swift quoted1 #afa ,tables-- ,adam style1 #ahf ,arcaded spandrils1 illustrated1 #agi ,bedfordshire types1 #bhc ,cambridge types1 #bhc ,collapsible form 7,charles ,,ii471 #ajc ,cross stretcher1 ,x form1 #ajc ,cupid's bow underframing1 #ajg2 illustrated1 #aji ,elizabethan bulbous-leg form1 #fj ,essex types1 #bhc ,flap tables 7,queen ,anne71 #hi2 7,georgian71 illustrated1 #ahc ,gate-leg1 #he-aab ,gothic trestle1 gate-leg table1 #hi ,hertfordshire types1 #bhc ,isle of ,man table1 #bhc ,scalloped-edge tea-table1 illustrated1 #aha ,scalloped underframing1 illustrated1 #gc ,sixteenth-century style1 #eb ,spandrils1 arcaded1 illustrated1 #agi ,stretchers1 splat form1 #hi2 illustrated1 #ig ,tea-table1 ,queen ,anne style1 #ahe ,three-legged1 #bhc ,underframing1 ,cupid's bow1 illustrated1 #aji ,various local types1 #bhc ,yorkshire type1 #hi ,tapers1 how made by cottagers1 #bhh ,tavern chair1 the1 #bdi ,tea-drinking becomes national1 #agj ,tea-gardens1 eighteenth-century1 #bdi ,tea-table1 ,queen ,anne style1 #ahe ,three-legged tables1 #bhc ,transition from ,jacobean to ,william and ,mary styles1 #bjg ,trestle in gate-leg table1 #hi ,triangular gate form1 #hf2 illustrated1 #hg ,tripod tables1 #ahe ,turning1 various patterns in ,jacobean leg1 #hi ,union with ,scotland1 #afa ,varangian ,guard introduce ,byzantine furniture into ,scandinavia1 #cg ,veneer1 in walnut1 early eighteenth-century1 #afi ,village cabinet-maker1 originality of1 #cb ,wales1 ,prince of1 feathers in chair back1 #bbg ,walnut gate-leg tables1 #ajc ,walnut in general use1 #bjg ,walnut styles1 early eighteenth-century1 #afi ,walnut supplanted by mahogany1 #bjg ,warming-pan1 the1 #bie ,wardrobe1 ,lancashire type1 #bgh ,welsh carving1 #bgb ,welsh dressers1 #acc ,wesley and the ,methodist movement1 #age ,whitefield and the colliers1 #age ,wheel-back ,windsor chairs1 #beg ,william and ,mary dressers1 #abf ,william and ,mary gate-leg tables1 #ajd ,william and ,mary period1 finely turned work1 #ge ,william and ,mary style1 its development from ,jacobean1 #bjg ,windsor chair1 the1 #bdc-bfc ,windsor chair1 the1 ,sheraton influence1 #bei ,windsor chair1 its survival1 #bfj ,windsor chairs1 ,chippendale style1 #bed ,wood patterns used for firebacks1 #cjj ,woods employed in farmhouse furniture1 #cc ,woods used in ,windsor chairs1 #bdi1 #bej ,woods used in walnut marquetry1 #afi ,women's petition against coffee1 #agj ,yorkshire chairs1 #bjc ,yorkshire splat stretcher to tables1 #if ,,unwin ,,brothers1 ,,limited1 ,,the ,,gresham ,,press1 ,,woking ,,and ,,london4 ,,volumes ,,for ,,collectors ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,furniture ,companion volume to ,chats on ,cottage and ,farmhouse ,furniture ,press ,notices1 ,first ,edition ,mr4 ,hayden knows his subject intimately4--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,the hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen2 so that altogether this is a model book of its kind4--,athenum4 ,a useful and instructive volume4--,spectator4 ,an abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and well-constructed history4--,daily ,news4 ,mr4 ,hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough4--,scotsman4 ,a book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than usual merit4--,vanity ,fair4 ,mr4 ,hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines1 and has made his book what it purports to be--a practical guide for the collector4--,saturday ,review4 ,,chats ,,on ,,english ,,china ,press ,notices1 ,first ,edition ,a handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful1 and the china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations1 and for the author's obvious love and understanding of his subject4--,st4 ,james's ,gazette4 ,all lovers of china will find much entertainment in this volume4--,daily ,news4 ,it gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to know about the principal varieties of ,english ware4 ,we can warmly commend the book to the china collector4--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,one of the best points about the book is the clear way in which the characteristics of each factory are noted down separately1 so that the veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a piece or pieces which would come under this heading1 and the marks are very accurately given4--,queen4 ,,chats ,,on ,,english ,,earthenware 7,companion volume to ,chats on ,english ,china7 ,complementary to the useful companion volume1 in this ',chats' ,series1 on ,english ,china which ,mr4 ,hayden issued five years ago4--,times4 ,is a compendious account of our native ,english faence1 abundantly illustrated and accurately written4--,guardian4 ,a thoroughly trustworthy working handbook4--,truth4 ,it is a mine of knowledge1 gathered from all quarters1 and the outcome of personal experience and research1 and it is written with no little charm of style4--,lady's ,pictorial4 ,mr4 ,hayden knows and writes exactly what is needed to help the amateur to become an intelligent collector1 while his painstaking care in verifying facts renders his work a stable book of reference4--,connoisseur4 ,the volume has been written as a companion to ,mr4 ,hayden's ',chats on ,english ,china' in the same series1 and those who recall the admirable character of that book will find this to be in no way inferior4--,nation4 ,the illustrations are profuse and excellent1 and the author and the publishers must be commended for offering us so many reproductions of typical specimens that have not appeared in any previous handbook4 ,the illustrations alone are worth the cost of the book4--,manchester ,guardian4 ,mr4 ,hayden's book is filled to overflowing with beautiful and most instructive and helpful illustrations1 and altogether it is one that will give immense pleasure to collectors1 and much information to the admiring but ignorant4--,liverpool ,courier4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,prints ,a ,practical ,guide to ,collecting and ,identifying ,old ,engravings4 ,mr4 ,hayden writes at once with enthusiasm and discrimination on his theme4--,daily ,telegraph4 ,any one who1 having an initial interest in matters of art1 wants to form sound and intelligent opinions about engravings1 will find this book the very thing for him4--,literary ,world4 ,these ',chats' comprise a full and admirably lucid description of every branch of the engraver's art1 with copious and suggestive illustrations4--,morning ,leader4