,transcriber's ,notes ,typographical features such as italic and bold fonts are indicated as italic and bold4 ,the 'oe' ligature is given as separate characters4 ,text shown in mixed 'small capital' letters has been shifted to all uppercase4 ,superscripted letters are prefixed with a carat 77 character4 ,when multiple letters appear as superscripts1 they are enclosed in brackets 774 ,illustrations appear as ,illustration3 caption in their approximate positions in the text4 ,there are several decorative illustrations which appear merely as ,illustration4 ,two illustrations1 on pp4 #aii and #bjd1 were labelled ,no4 #abg4 ,to resolve this1 the second of them1 and references to it1 were changed to ,no4 #abg;a4 ,footnotes have been moved to the end of the paragraphs where they are referenced4 ,please consult the ,transcriber's ,note at the end of this text for details regarding the resolution of any other textual issues4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,caricature ,,and ,,grotesque4 ,illustration3 ,,aristotle ,,and ,,pytha,s4 ,from an ,engraving by ,burgmair 7#aeth cent47 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,caricature ,,and ,,grotesque ,in ,literature and ,art4 ,,by ,,thomas ,,wright1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,illustration ,,the ,,illustrations ,,drawn ,,and ,,engraved ,,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,fairholt1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,london3 ,,chatto ,,and ,,windus1 ,,piccadilly4 #ahge4 ,,london3 ,,savill1 ,,edwards1 ,,and ,,co41 ,,printers1 ,,chandos ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 ,illustration ,,preface4 ,i have felt some difficulty in selecting a title for the contents of the following pages1 in which it was1 in fact1 my design to give1 as far as may be done within such moderate limits1 and in as popular a manner as such information can easily be imparted1 a general view of the ,history of ,comic ,literature and ,art4 ,yet the word comic seems to me hardly to express all the parts of the subject which ,i have sought to bring together in my book4 ,moreover1 the field of this history is very large1 and1 though ,i have only taken as my theme one part of it1 it was necessary to circumscribe even that1 in some degree2 and my plan1 therefore1 is to follow it chiefly through those branches which have contributed most towards the formation of modern comic and satiric literature and art in our own island4 ,thus1 as the comic literature of the middle ages to a very great extent1 and comic art in a considerable degree also1 were founded upon1 or rather arose out of1 those of the ,romans which had preceded them1 it seemed desirable to give a comprehensive history of this branch of literature and art as it was cultivated among the peoples of antiquity4 ,literature and art in the middle ages presented a certain unity of general character1 arising1 probably1 from the uniformity of the influence of the ,roman element of society1 modified only by its lower degree of intensity at a greater distance from the centre1 and by secondary causes attendant upon it4 ,to understand the literature of any one country in ,western ,europe1 especially during what we may term the feudal period--and the remark applies to art equally--it is necessary to make ourselves acquainted with the whole history of literature in ,western ,europe during that time4 ,the peculiarities in different countries naturally became more marked in the progress of society1 and more strongly individualised2 but it was not till towards the close of the feudal period that the literature of each of these different countries was becoming more entirely its own4 ,at that period the plan ,i have formed restricts itself1 according to the view stated above4 ,thus1 the satirical literature of the ,reformation and pictorial caricature had their cradle in ,germany1 and1 in the earlier half of the sixteenth century1 carried their influence largely into ,france and ,england2 but from that time any influence of ,german literature on these two countries ceases4 ,modern satirical literature has its models in ,france during the sixteenth century1 and the direct influence of this literature in ,france upon ,english literature continued during that and the succeeding century1 but no further4 ,political caricature rose to importance in ,france in the sixteenth century1 and was transplanted to ,holland in the seventeenth century1 and until the beginning of the eighteenth century ,england owed its caricature1 indirectly or directly1 to the ,french and the ,dutch2 but after that time a purely ,english school of caricature was formed1 which was entirely independent of ,continental caricaturists4 ,there are two senses in which the word history may be taken in regard to literature and art4 ,it has been usually employed to signify a chronological account of authors or artists and their works1 though this comes more properly under the title of biography and bibliography4 ,but there is another and a very different application of the word1 and this is the meaning which ,i attach to it in the present volume4 ,during the middle ages1 and for some period after 7in special branches71 literature--,i mean poetry1 satire1 and popular literature of all kinds--belonged to society1 and not to the individual authors1 who were but workmen who gained a living by satisfying society's wants2 and its changes in form or character depended all upon the varying progress1 and therefore changing necessities1 of society itself4 ,this is the reason why1 especially in the earlier periods1 nearly the whole mass of the popular--,i may1 perhaps1 be allowed to call it the social literature of the middle ages1 is anonymous2 and it was only at rare intervals that some individual rose and made himself a great name by the superiority of his talents4 ,a certain number of writers of fabliaux put their names to their compositions1 probably because they were names of writers who had gained the reputation of telling better or racier stories than many of their fellows4 ,in some branches of literature--as in the satirical literature of the sixteenth century--society still exercised this kind of influence over it2 and although its great monuments owe everything to the peculiar genius of their authors1 they were produced under the pressure of social circumstances4 ,to trace all these variations in literature connected with society1 to describe the influences of society upon literature and of literature upon society1 during the progress of the latter1 appears to me to be the true meaning of the word history1 and it is in this sense that ,i take it4 ,this will explain why my history of the different branches of popular literature and art ends at very different periods4 ,the grotesque and satirical sculpture1 which adorned the ecclesiastical buildings1 ceased with the middle ages4 ,the story-books1 as a part of this social literature1 came down to the sixteenth century1 and the history of the jest-books which arose out of them cannot be considered to extend further than the beginning of the seventeenth2 for1 to give a list of jest-books since that time would be to compile a catalogue of books made by booksellers for sale1 copied from one another1 and1 till recently1 each more contemptible than its predecessor4 ,the school of satirical literature in ,france1 at all events as far as it had any influence in ,england1 lasted no longer than the earlier part of the seventeenth century4 ,england can hardly be said to have had a school of satirical literature1 with the exception of its comedy1 which belongs properly to the seventeenth century2 and its caricature belongs especially to the last century and to the earlier part of the present1 beyond which it is not a part of my plan to carry it4 ,these few remarks will perhaps serve to explain what some may consider to be defects in my book2 and with them ,i venture to trust it to the indulgence of its readers4 ,it is a subject which will have some novelty for the ,english reader1 for ,i am not aware that we have any previous book devoted to it4 ,at all events1 it is not a mere compilation from other people's labours4 ,,thomas ,,wright4 ,illustration ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,origin ,,of ,,caricature ,,and ,,grotesque--,,spirit ,,of ,,caricature ,,in ,,egypt--,,monsters3 ,,python ,,and ,,gorgon--,,greece--,,the ,,dionysiac ,,ceremonies1 ,,and ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,drama--,,the ,,old ,,comedy--,,love ,,of ,,parody--,,parodies ,,on ,,subjects ,,taken ,,from ,,grecian ,,mythology3 ,,the ,,visit ,,to ,,the ,,lover2 ,,apollo ,,at ,,delphi--,,the ,,partiality ,,for ,,parody ,,continued ,,among ,,the ,,romans3 ,,the ,,flight ,,of ,,neas #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,stage ,,in ,,rome--,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,mask ,,among ,,the ,,romans--,,scenes ,,from ,,roman ,,comedy--,,the ,,sannio ,,and ,,mimus--,,the ,,roman ,,drama--,,the ,,roman ,,satirists--,,caricature--,,animals ,,introduced ,,in ,,the ,,characters ,,of ,,men--,,the ,,pigmies1 ,,and ,,their ,,introduction ,,into ,,caricature2 ,,the ,,farm-,,yard2 ,,the ,,painter',s ,,studio2 ,,the ,,procession--,,political ,,caricature ,,in ,,pompeii2 ,,the ,,graffiti #bc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,transition ,,from ,,antiquity ,,to ,,the ,,middle ,,ages--,,the ,,roman ,,mimi ,,continued ,,to ,,exist--,,the ,,teutonic ,,after-,,dinner ,,entertainments--,,clerical ,,satires3 ,,archbishop ,,heriger ,,and ,,the ,,dreamer2 ,,the ,,supper ,,of ,,the ,,saints--,,transition ,,from ,,ancient ,,to ,,medi,,val ,,art--,,taste ,,for ,,monstrous ,,animals1 ,,dragons1 ,,etc42 ,,church ,,of ,,san ,,fedele1 ,,at ,,como--,,spirit ,,of ,,caricature ,,and ,,love ,,of ,,grotesque ,,among ,,the ,,anglo-,,saxons--,,grotesque ,,figures ,,of ,,demons--,,natural ,,tendency ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,medi,,val ,,artists ,,to ,,draw ,,in ,,caricature--,,examples ,,from ,,early ,,manuscripts ,,and ,,sculptures #dj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,diabolical ,,in ,,caricature--,,medi,,val ,,love ,,of ,,the ,,ludicrous--,,causes ,,which ,,made ,,it ,,influence ,,the ,,notions ,,of ,,demons--,,stories ,,of ,,the ,,pious ,,painter ,,and ,,the ,,erring ,,monk--,,darkness ,,and ,,ugliness ,,caricatured--,,the ,,demons ,,in ,,the ,,miracle ,,plays--,,the ,,demon ,,of ,,notre ,,dame #fa ,,chapter ,v4 ,,employment ,,of ,,animals ,,in ,,medi,,val ,,satire--,,popularity ,,of ,,fables2 ,,odo ,,de ,,cirington--,,reynard ,,the ,,fox--,,burnellus ,,and ,,fauvel--,,the ,,charivari--,,le ,,monde ,,bestorn--,,encaustic ,,tiles--,,shoeing ,,the ,,goose1 ,,and ,,feeding ,,pigs ,,with ,,roses--,,satirical ,,signs2 ,,the ,,mustard ,,maker #ge ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,monkey ,,in ,,burlesque ,,and ,,caricature--,,tournaments ,,and ,,single ,,combats--,,monstrous ,,combinations ,,of ,,animal ,,forms--,,caricatures ,,on ,,costume--,,the ,,hat--,,the ,,helmet--,,ladies' ,,head-,,dresses--,,the ,,gown1 ,,and ,,its ,,long ,,sleeves #ie ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,mimus ,,after ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,empire--,,the ,,minstrel ,,and ,,jogelour--,,history ,,of ,,popular ,,stories--,,the ,,fabliaux--,,account ,,of ,,them--,,the ,,contes ,,devots #ajf ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,caricatures ,,of ,,domestic ,,life--,,state ,,of ,,domestic ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages--,,examples ,,of ,,domestic ,,caricature ,,from ,,the ,,carvings ,,of ,,the ,,misereres--,,kitchen ,,scenes--,,domestic ,,brawls--,,the ,,fight ,,for ,,the ,,breeches--,,the ,,judicial ,,duel ,,between ,,man ,,and ,,wife ,,among ,,the ,,germans--,,allusions ,,to ,,witchcraft--,,satires ,,on ,,the ,,trades3 ,,the ,,baker1 ,,the ,,miller1 ,,the ,,wine-,,pedlar ,,and ,,tavern ,,keeper1 ,,the ,,ale-,,wife1 ,,etc4 #aah ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,grotesque ,,faces ,,and ,,figures--,,prevalence ,,of ,,the ,,taste ,,for ,,ugly ,,and ,,grotesque ,,faces--,,some ,,of ,,the ,,popular ,,forms ,,derived ,,from ,,antiquity3 ,,the ,,tongue ,,lolling ,,out1 ,,and ,,the ,,distorted ,,mouth--,,horrible ,,subjects3 ,,the ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,serpents--,,allegorical ,,figures3 ,,gluttony ,,and ,,luxury--,,other ,,representations ,,of ,,clerical ,,gluttony ,,and ,,drunkenness--,,grotesque ,,figures ,,of ,,individuals1 ,,and ,,grotesque ,,groups--,,ornaments ,,of ,,the ,,borders ,,of ,,books--,,unintentional ,,caricature2 ,,the ,,mote ,,and ,,the ,,beam #add ,,chapter ,x4 ,,satirical ,,literature ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages--,,john ,,de ,,hauteville ,,and ,,alan ,,de ,,lille--,,golias ,,and ,,the ,,goliards--,,the ,,goliardic ,,poetry--,,taste ,,for ,,parody--,,parodies ,,on ,,religious ,,subjects--,,political ,,caricature ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages--,,the ,,jews ,,of ,,norwich--,,caricature ,,representations ,,of ,,countries--,,local ,,satire--,,political ,,songs ,,and ,,poems #aei ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,minstrelsy ,a ,,subject ,,of ,,burlesque ,,and ,,caricature--,,character ,,of ,,the ,,minstrels--,,their ,,jokes ,,upon ,,themselves ,,and ,,upon ,,one ,,another--,,various ,,musical ,,instruments ,,represented ,,in ,,the ,,sculptures ,,of ,,the ,,medi,,val ,,artists--,,sir ,,matthew ,,gournay ,,and ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,portugal--,,discredit ,,of ,,the ,,tabor ,,and ,,bagpipes--,,mermaids #ahh ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,court ,,fool--,,the ,,normans ,,and ,,their ,,gabs--,,early ,,history ,,of ,,court ,,fools--,,their ,,costume--,,carvings ,,in ,,the ,,cornish ,,churches--,,the ,,burlesque ,,societies ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages--,,the ,,feasts ,,of ,,asses1 ,,and ,,of ,,fools--,,their ,,licence--,,the ,,leaden ,,money ,,of ,,the ,,fools--,,the ,,bishop',s ,,blessing #bjj ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,dance ,,of ,,death--,,the ,,paintings ,,in ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,la ,,chaise ,,dieu--,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,folly--,,sebastian ,,brandt2 ,,the ,,ship ,,of ,,fools--,,disturbers ,,of ,,church ,,service--,,troublesome ,,beggars--,,geiler',s ,,sermons--,,badius1 ,,and ,,his ,,ship ,,of ,,foolish ,,women--,,the ,,pleasures ,,of ,,smell--,,erasmus2 ,,the ,,praise ,,of ,,folly #bad ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,popular ,,literature ,,and ,,its ,,heroes2 ,,brother ,,rush1 ,,tyll ,,eulenspiegel1 ,,the ,,wise ,,men ,,of ,,gotham--,,stories ,,and ,,jest-,,books--,,skelton1 ,,scogin1 ,,tarlton1 ,,peele #bbh ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,the ,,reformation--,,thomas ,,murner2 ,,his ,,general ,,satires--,,fruitfulness ,,of ,,folly--,,hans ,,sachs--,,the ,,trap ,,for ,,fools--,,attacks ,,on ,,luther--,,the ,,pope ,,as ,,antichrist--,,the ,,pope-,,ass ,,and ,,the ,,monk-,,calf--,,other ,,caricatures ,,against ,,the ,,pope--,,the ,,good ,,and ,,bad ,,shepherds #bdd ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,origin ,,of ,,medi,,val ,,farce ,,and ,,modern ,,comedy--,,hrotsvitha--,,medi,,val ,,notions ,,of ,,terence--,,the ,,early ,,religious ,,plays--,,mysteries ,,and ,,miracle ,,plays--,,the ,,farces--,,the ,,drama ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century #bfd ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,diablerie ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century--,,early ,,types ,,of ,,the ,,diabolical ,,forms--,,st4 ,,anthony--,,st4 ,,guthlac--,,revival ,,of ,,the ,,taste ,,for ,,such ,,subjects ,,in ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century--,,the ,,flemish ,,school ,,of ,,breughel--,,the ,,french ,,and ,,italian ,,schools--,,callot1 ,,salvator ,,rosa #bhh ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,callot ,,and ,,his ,,school--,,callot',s ,,romantic ,,history--,,his ,,caprici1 ,,and ,,other ,,burlesque ,,works--,,the ,,balli ,,and ,,the ,,beggars--,,imitators ,,of ,,callot2 ,,della ,,bella--,,examples ,,of ,,della ,,bella--,,romain ,,de ,,hooghe #cjj ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,satirical ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century--,,pasquil--,,macaronic ,,poetry--,,the ,,epistol ,,obscurorum ,,virorum--,,rabelais--,,court ,,of ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,navarre1 ,,and ,,its ,,literary ,,circle2 ,,bonaventure ,,des ,,periers--,,henri ,,etienne--,,the ,,ligue1 ,,and ,,its ,,satire3 ,,the ,,satyre ,,menippee #cab ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,political ,,caricature ,,in ,,its ,,infancy--,,the ,,revers ,,du ,,jeu ,,des ,,suysses--,,caricature ,,in ,,france--,,the ,,three ,,orders--,,period ,,of ,,the ,,ligue2 ,,caricatures ,,against ,,henri ,,iii4--,,caricatures ,,against ,,the ,,ligue--,,caricature ,,in ,,france ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century--,,general ,,galas--,,the ,,quarrel ,,of ,,ambassadors--,,caricature ,,against ,,louis ,,xxv42 ,,william ,,of ,,furstemberg #cdg ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,early ,,political ,,caricature ,,in ,,england--,,the ,,satirical ,,writings ,,and ,,pictures ,,of ,,the ,,commonwealth ,,period--,,satires ,,against ,,the ,,bishops2 ,,bishop ,,williams--,,caricatures ,,on ,,the ,,cavaliers2 ,,sir ,,john ,,suckling--,,the ,,roaring ,,boys2 ,,violence ,,of ,,the ,,royalist ,,soldiers--,,contest ,,between ,,the ,,presbyterians ,,and ,,independents--,,grinding ,,the ,,king',s ,,nose--,,playing-,,cards ,,used ,,as ,,the ,,medium ,,for ,,caricature2 ,,haselrigge ,,and ,,lambert--,,shrovetide #cfj ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,english ,,comedy--,,ben ,,jonson--,,the ,,other ,,writers ,,of ,,his ,,school--,,interruption ,,of ,,dramatic ,,performances--,,comedy ,,after ,,the ,,restoration--,,the ,,howards ,,brothers2 ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,buckingham2 ,,the ,,rehearsal--,,writers ,,of ,,comedy ,,in ,,the ,,latter ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century--,,indecency ,,of ,,the ,,stage--,,colley ,,cibber--,,foote #cge ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,caricature ,,in ,,holland--,,romain ,,de ,,hooghe--,,the ,,english ,,revolution--,,caricatures ,,on ,,louis ,,xiv4 ,,and ,,james ,,ii4--,,dr4 ,,sacheverell--,,caricature ,,brought ,,from ,,holland ,,to ,,england--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,word ,,caricature--,,mississippi ,,and ,,the ,,south ,,sea2 ,,the ,,year ,,of ,,bubbles #djf ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,english ,,caricature ,,in ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,george ,,ii4--,,english ,,printsellers--,,artists ,,employed ,,by ,,them--,,sir ,,robert ,,walpole',s ,,long ,,ministry--,,the ,,war ,,with ,,france--,,the ,,newcastle ,,administration--,,opera ,,intrigues--,,accession ,,of ,,george ,,iii41 ,,and ,,lord ,,bute ,,in ,,power #dbj ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,hogarth--,,his ,,early ,,history--,,his ,,sets ,,of ,,pictures--,,the ,,harlot',s ,,progress--,,the ,,rake',s ,,progress--,,the ,,marriage ,a ,,la ,,mode--,,his ,,other ,,prints--,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,beauty1 ,,and ,,the ,,persecution ,,arising ,,out ,,of ,,it--,,his ,,patronage ,,by ,,lord ,,bute--,,caricature ,,of ,,the ,,times--,,attacks ,,to ,,which ,,he ,,was ,,exposed ,,by ,,it1 ,,and ,,which ,,hastened ,,his ,,death #dcd ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,lesser ,,caricaturists ,,of ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,george ,,iii4--,,paul ,,sandby--,,collet3 ,,the ,,disaster1 ,,and ,,father ,,paul ,,in ,,his ,,cups--,,james ,,sayer3 ,,his ,,caricatures ,,in ,,support ,,of ,,pitt1 ,,and ,,his ,,reward--,,carlo ,,khan',s ,,triumph--,,bunbury',s3 ,,his ,,caricatures ,,on ,,horsemanship--,,woodward3 ,,general ,,complaint--,,rowlandson',s ,,influence ,,on ,,the ,,style ,,of ,,those ,,whose ,,designs ,,he ,,etched--,,john ,,kay ,,of ,,edinburgh3 ,,looking ,a ,,rock ,,in ,,the ,,face #dej ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,gillray--,,his ,,first ,,attempts--,,his ,,caricatures ,,begin ,,with ,,the ,,shelburne ,,ministry--,,impeachment ,,of ,,warren ,,hastings--,,caricatures ,,on ,,the ,,king2 ,,new ,,way ,,to ,,pay ,,the ,,national ,,debt--,,alleged ,,reason ,,for ,,gillray',s ,,hostility ,,to ,,the ,,king--,,the ,,king ,,and ,,the ,,apple-,,dumplings--,,gillray',s ,,later ,,labours--,,his ,,idiotcy ,,and ,,death #dfd ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,gillray',s ,,caricatures ,,on ,,social ,,life--,,thomas ,,rowlandson--,,his ,,early ,,life--,,he ,,becomes ,a ,,caricaturist--,,his ,,style ,,and ,,works--,,his ,,drawings--,,the ,,cruikshanks #dhj ,a ,,history ,,of ,,caricature ,,and ,,grotesque4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,origin ,,of ,,caricature ,,and ,,grotesque4--,,spirit ,,of ,,caricature ,,in ,,egypt4--,,monsters3 ,,python ,,and ,,gorgon4--,,greece4--,,the ,,dionysiac ,,ceremonies1 ,,and ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,drama4--,,the ,,old ,,comedy4--,,love ,,of ,,parody4--,,parodies ,,on ,,subjects ,,taken ,,from ,,grecian ,,mythology3 ,,the ,,visit ,,to ,,the ,,lover3 ,,apollo ,,at ,,delphi4--,,the ,,partiality ,,for ,,parody ,,continued ,,among ,,the ,,romans3 ,,the ,,flight ,,of ,,neas4 ,it is not my intention in the following pages to discuss the question what constitutes the comic or the laughable1 or1 in other words1 to enter into the philosophy of the subject2 ,i design only to trace the history of its outward development1 the various forms it has assumed1 and its social influence4 ,laughter appears to be almost a necessity of human nature1 in all conditions of man's existence1 however rude or however cultivated2 and some of the greatest men of all ages1 men of the most refined intellects1 such as ,cicero in the ages of antiquity1 and ,erasmus among the moderns1 have been celebrated for their indulgence in it4 ,the former was sometimes called by his opponents scurra consularis1 the consular jester2 and the latter1 who has been spoken of as the mocking-bird1 is said to have laughed so immoderately over the well-known ,epistol ,obscurorum ,virorum1 that he brought upon himself a serious fit of illness4 ,the greatest of comic writers1 ,aristophanes1 has always been looked upon as a model of literary perfection4 ,an epigram in the ,greek ,anthology1 written by the divine ,plato1 tells us how1 when the ,graces sought a temple which would not fall1 they found the soul of ,aristophanes3-- 1 4 ,on the other hand1 the men who never laughed1 the 1 were looked upon as the least respectable of mortals4 ,a tendency to burlesque and caricature appears1 indeed1 to be a feeling deeply implanted in human nature1 and it is one of the earliest talents displayed by people in a rude state of society4 ,an appreciation of1 and sensitiveness to1 ridicule1 and a love of that which is humorous1 are found even among savages1 and enter largely into their relations with their fellow men4 ,when1 before people cultivated either literature or art1 the chieftain sat in his rude hall surrounded by his warriors1 they amused themselves by turning their enemies and opponents into mockery1 by laughing at their weaknesses1 joking on their defects1 whether physical or mental1 and giving them nicknames in accordance therewith1--in fact1 caricaturing them in words1 or by telling stories which were calculated to excite laughter4 ,when the agricultural slaves 7for the tillers of the land were then slaves7 were indulged with a day of relief from their labours1 they spent it in unrestrained mirth4 ,and when these same people began to erect permanent buildings1 and to ornament them1 the favourite subjects of their ornamentation were such as presented ludicrous ideas4 ,the warrior1 too1 who caricatured his enemy in his speeches over the festive board1 soon sought to give a more permanent form to his ridicule1 which he endeavoured to do by rude delineations on the bare rock1 or on any other convenient surface which presented itself to his hand4 ,thus originated caricature and the grotesque in art4 ,in fact1 art itself1 in its earliest forms1 is caricature2 for it is only by that exaggeration of features which belongs to caricature1 that unskilful draughtsmen could make themselves understood4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #a4 ,an ,egyptian ,lady at a ,feast4 ,although we might1 perhaps1 find in different countries examples of these principles in different states of development1 we cannot in any one country trace the entire course of the development itself3 for in all the highly civilised races of mankind1 we first become acquainted with their history when they had already reached a considerable degree of refinement2 and even at that period of their progress1 our knowledge is almost confined to their religious1 and to their more severely historical1 monuments4 ,such is especially the case with ,egypt1 the history of which country1 as represented by its monuments of art1 carries us back to the remotest ages of antiquity4 ,egyptian art generally presents itself in a sombre and massive character1 with little of gaiety or joviality in its designs or forms4 ,yet1 as ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson has remarked in his valuable work on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 the early ,egyptian artists cannot always conceal their natural tendency to the humorous1 which creeps out in a variety of little incidents4 ,thus1 in a series of grave historical pictures on one of the great monuments at ,thebes1 we find a representation of a wine party1 where the company consists of both sexes1 and which evidently shows that the ladies were not restricted in the use of the juice of the grape in their entertainments2 and1 as he adds1 the painters1 in illustrating this fact1 have sometimes sacrificed their gallantry to a love of caricature4 ,among the females1 evidently of rank1 represented in this scene1 some call the servants to support them as they sit1 others with difficulty prevent themselves from falling on those behind them1 and the faded flower1 which is ready to drop from their heated hands1 is intended to be characteristic of their own sensations4 ,one group1 a lady whose excess has been carried too far1 and her servant who comes to her assistance1 is represented in our cut ,no4 #a4 ,sir ,gardner observes that many similar instances of a talent for caricature are observable in the compositions of the ,egyptian artists1 who executed the paintings of the tombs at ,thebes1 which belong to a very early period of the ,egyptian annals4 ,nor is the application of this talent restricted always to secular subjects1 but we see it at times intruding into the most sacred mysteries of their religion4 ,i give as a curious example1 taken from one of ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson's engravings1 a scene in the representation of a funeral procession crossing the ,lake of the ,dead 7,no4 #b71 that appears in one of these early paintings at ,thebes1 in which the love of caricature common to the ,egyptians is shown to have been indulged even in this serious subject2 and the retrograde movement of the large boat1 which has grounded and is pushed off the bank1 striking the smaller one with its rudder1 has overturned a large table loaded with cakes and other things1 upon the rowers seated below1 in spite of all the efforts of the prowman1 and the earnest vociferations of the alarmed steersman4 ,the accident which thus overthrows and scatters the provisions intended for the funeral feast1 and the confusion attendant upon it1 form a ludicrous scene in the midst of a solemn picture1 that would be worthy of the imagination of a ,rowlandson4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #b4 ,catastrophe in a ,funeral ,procession4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #c4 ,an ,unfortunate ,soul4 ,another cut 7,no4 #c71 taken from one of the same series of paintings1 belongs to a class of caricatures which dates from a very remote period4 ,one of the most natural ideas among all people would be to compare men with the animals whose particular qualities they possessed4 ,thus1 one might be as bold as a lion1 another as faithful as a dog1 or as cunning as a fox1 or as swinish as a hog4 ,the name of the animal would thus often be given as a nickname to the man1 and in the sequel he would be represented pictorially under the form of the animal4 ,it was partly out of this kind of caricature1 no doubt1 that the singular class of apologues which have been since distinguished by the name of fables arose4 ,connected with it was the belief in the metempsychosis1 or transmission of the soul into the bodies of animals after death1 which formed a part of several of the primitive religions4 ,the earliest examples of this class of caricature of mankind are found on the ,egyptian monuments1 as in the instance just referred to1 which represents a soul condemned to return to earth under the form of a pig1 having been weighed in the scales before ,osiris and been found wanting4 ,being placed in a boat1 and accompanied by two monkeys1 it is dismissed the sacred precinct4 ,the latter animals1 it may be remarked1 as they are here represented1 are the cynocephali1 or dog-headed monkeys 7the simia inuus71 which were sacred animals among the ,egyptians1 and the peculiar characteristic of which--the dog-shaped head--is1 as usual1 exaggerated by the artist4 ,the representation of this return of a condemned soul under the repulsive form of a pig1 is painted on the left side wall of the long entrance-gallery to the tomb of ,king ,rameses ,v41 in the valley of royal catacombs known as the ,biban-el-,molook1 at ,thebes4 ,wilkinson gives the date of the accession of this monarch to the throne as #aahe1 ,b4,c4 ,in the original picture1 ,osiris is seated on his throne at some distance from the stern of the boat1 and is dismissing it from his presence by a wave of the hand4 ,this tomb was open in the time of the ,romans1 and termed by them the ,tomb of ,memnon2 it was greatly admired1 and is covered with laudatory inscriptions by ,greek and ,roman visitors4 ,one of the most interesting is placed beneath this picture1 recording the name of a daduchus1 or torch-bearer in the ,eleusinian mysteries1 who visited this tomb in the reign of ,constantine4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #d4 ,the ,cat and the ,geese4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #e4 ,the ,fox turned ,piper4 ,the practice having been once introduced of representing men under the character of animals1 was soon developed into other applications of the same idea--such as that of figuring animals employed in the various occupations of mankind1 and that of reversing the position of man and the inferior animals1 and representing the latter as treating their human tyrant in the same manner as they are usually treated by him4 ,the latter idea became a very favourite one at a later period1 but the other is met with not unfrequently among the works of art which have been saved from the wrecks of antiquity4 ,among the treasures of the ,british ,museum1 there is a long ,egyptian picture on papyrus1 originally forming a roll1 consisting of representations of this description1 from which ,i give three curious examples4 ,the first 7see cut ,no4 #d7 represents a cat in charge of a drove of geese4 ,it will be observed that the cat holds in her hand the same sort of rod1 with a hook at the end1 with which the monkeys are furnished in the preceding picture4 ,the second 7,no4 #e7 represents a fox carrying a basket by means of a pole supported on his shoulder 7a method of carrying burthens frequently represented on the monuments of ancient art71 and playing on the well-known double flute1 or pipe4 ,the fox soon became a favourite personage in this class of caricatures1 and we know what a prominent part he afterwards played in medival satire4 ,perhaps1 however1 the most popular of all animals in this class of drolleries was the monkey1 which appears natural enough when we consider its singular aptitude to mimic the actions of man4 ,the ancient naturalists tell us some curious1 though not very credible1 stories of the manner in which this characteristic of the monkey tribes was taken advantage of to entrap them1 and ,pliny 7,hist4 ,nat4 lib4 viii4 c4 #hj7 quotes an older writer1 who asserted that they had even been taught to play at draughts4 ,our third subject from the ,egyptian papyrus of the ,british ,museum 7,no4 #f7 represents a scene in which the game of draughts--or1 more properly speaking1 the game which the ,romans called the ludus latrunculorum1 and which is believed to have resembled our draughts--is played by two animals well known to modern heraldry1 the lion and the unicorn4 ,the lion has evidently gained the victory1 and is fingering the money2 and his bold air of swaggering superiority1 as well as the look of surprise and disappointment of his vanquished opponent1 are by no means ill pictured4 ,this series of caricatures1 though ,egyptian1 belongs to the ,roman period4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #f4 ,the ,lion and the ,unicorn4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #g4 ,typhon4 ,the monstrous is closely allied to the grotesque1 and both come within the province of caricature1 when we take this term in its widest sense4 ,the ,greeks1 especially1 were partial to representations of monsters1 and monstrous forms are continually met with among their ornaments and works of art4 ,the type of the ,egyptian monster is represented in the accompanying cut 7,no4 #g71 taken from the work of ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson before quoted1 and is said to be the figure of the god ,typhon4 ,it occurs frequently on ,egyptian monuments1 with some variation in its forms1 but always characterised by the broad1 coarse1 and frightful face1 and by the large tongue lolling out4 ,it is interesting to us1 because it is the apparent origin of a long series of faces1 or masks1 of this form and character1 which are continually recurring in the grotesque ornamentation1 not only of the ,greeks and ,romans1 but of the middle ages4 ,it appears to have been sometimes given by the ,romans to the representations of people whom they hated or despised2 and ,pliny1 in a curious passage of his ,natural ,history1#a informs us that at one time1 among the pictures exhibited in the ,forum at ,rome1 there was one in which a ,gaul was represented1 thrusting out his tongue in a very unbecoming manner4 ,the ,egyptian ,typhons had their exact representations in ancient ,greece in a figure of frequent occurrence1 to which antiquaries have1 ,i know not why1 given the name of ,gorgon4 ,the example in our cut ,no4 #h1 is a figure in terra-cotta1 now in the collection of the ,royal ,museum at ,berlin4#b #a ,plin4 ,hist4 ,nat41 lib4 xxxv4 c4 #h4 #b ,panoska ,terracotten des ,museums ,berlin1 pl4 lxi4 p4 #aed4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #h4 ,gorgon4 ,in ,greece1 however1 the spirit of caricature and burlesque representation had assumed a more regular form than in other countries1 for it was inherent in the spirit of ,grecian society4 ,among the population of ,greece1 the worship of ,dionysus1 or ,bacchus1 had taken deep root from a very early period--earlier than we can trace back--and it formed the nucleus of the popular religion and superstitions1 the cradle of poetry and the drama4 ,the most popular celebrations of the people of ,greece1 were the ,dionysiac festivals1 and the phallic rites and processions which accompanied them1 in which the chief actors assumed the disguise of satyrs and fawns1 covering themselves with goat-skins1 and disfiguring their faces by rubbing them over with the lees of wine4 ,thus1 in the guise of noisy bacchanals1 they displayed an unrestrained licentiousness of gesture and language1 uttering indecent jests and abusive speeches1 in which they spared nobody4 ,this portion of the ceremony was the especial attribute of a part of the performers1 who accompanied the procession in waggons1 and acted something like dramatic performances1 in which they uttered an abundance of loose extempore satire on those who passed or who accompanied the procession1 a little in the style of the modern carnivals4 ,it became thus the occasion for an unrestrained publication of coarse pasquinades4 ,in the time of ,pisistratus1 these performances are assumed to have been reduced to a little more order by an individual named ,thespis1 who is said to have invented masks as a better disguise than dirty faces1 and is looked upon as the father of the ,grecian drama4 ,there can be no doubt1 indeed1 that the drama arose out of these popular ceremonies1 and it long bore the unmistakable marks of its origin4 ,even the name of tragedy has nothing tragic in its derivation1 for it is formed from the ,greek word tragos 771 a goat1 in the skins of which animal the satyrs clothed themselves1 and hence the name was given also to those who personated the satyrs in the processions4 ,a tragodus 77 was the singer1 whose words accompanied the movements of a chorus of satyrs1 and the term tragodia was applied to his performance4 ,in the same manner1 a comodus 77 was one who accompanied similarly1 with chants of an abusive or satirical character1 a comus 771 or band of revellers1 in the more riotous and licentious portion of the performances in the ,bacchic festivals4 ,the ,greek drama always betrayed its origin by the circumstance that the performances took place annually1 only at the yearly festivals in honour of ,bacchus1 of which in fact they constituted a part4 ,moreover1 as the ,greek drama became perfected1 it still retained from its origin a triple division1 into tragedy1 comedy1 and the satiric drama2 and1 being still performed at the ,dionysiac festival in ,athens1 each dramatic author was expected to produce what was called a trilogy1 that is1 a tragedy1 a satirical play1 and a comedy4 ,so completely was all this identified in the popular mind with the worship of ,bacchus1 that1 long afterwards1 when even a tragedy did not please the audience by its subject1 the common form of disapproval was1 --,what has this to do with ,bacchus8 and1 --,this has nothing to do with ,bacchus4 ,we have no perfect remains of the ,greek satiric drama1 which was1 perhaps1 of a temporary character1 and less frequently preserved2 but the early ,greek comedy is preserved in a certain number of the plays of ,aristophanes1 in which we can contemplate it in all its freedom of character4 ,it represented the waggon-jesting1 of the age of ,thespis1 in its full development4 ,in its form it was burlesque to a wanton degree of extravagance1 and its essence was personal vilification1 as well as general satire4 ,individuals were not only attacked by the application to them of abusive epithets1 but they were represented personally on the stage as performing every kind of contemptible action1 and as suffering all sorts of ludicrous and disgraceful treatment4 ,the drama thus bore marks of its origin in its extraordinary licentiousness of language and costume1 and in the constant use of the mask4 ,one of its most favourite instruments of satire was parody1 which was employed unsparingly on everything which society in its solemn moments respected--against everything that the satirist considered worthy of being held up to public derision or scorn4 ,religion itself1 philosophy1 social manners and institutions--even poetry--were all parodied in their turn4 ,the comedies of ,aristophanes are full of parodies on the poetry of the tragic and other writers of his age4 ,he is especially happy in parodying the poetry of the tragic dramatist ,euripides4 ,the old comedy of ,greece has thus been correctly described as the comedy of caricature2 and the spirit1 and even the scenes1 of this comedy1 being transferred to pictorial representations1 became entirely identical with that branch of art to which we give the name of caricature in modern times4 ,under the cover of bacchanalian buffoonery1 a serious purpose1 it is true1 was aimed at2 but the general satire was chiefly implied in the violent personal attacks on individuals1 and this became so offensive that when such persons obtained greater power in ,athens than the populace the old comedy was abolished4 ,aristophanes was the greatest and most perfect poet of the ,old ,comedy1 and his remaining comedies are as strongly marked representations of the hostility of political and social parties in his time1 as the caricatures of ,gillray are of party in the reign of our ,george ,,iii41 and1 we may add1 even more minute4 ,they range through the memorable period of the ,peloponnesian war1 and the earlier ones give us the regular annual series of these performances1 as far as ,aristophanes contributed them1 during several years4 ,the first of them1 ,the ,acharnians1 was performed at the ,lenan feast of ,bacchus in the sixth year of the ,peloponnesian war1 the year #dbe ,b4,c41 when it gained the first prize4 ,it is a bold attack on the factious prolongation of the war through the influence of the ,athenian demagogues4 ,the next1 ,the ,knights1 brought out in ,b4,c4 #dbd1 is a direct attack upon ,cleon1 the chief of these demagogues1 although he is not mentioned by name2 and it is recorded that1 finding nobody who had courage enough to make a mask representing ,cleon1 or to play the character1 ,aristophanes was obliged to perform it himself1 and that he smeared his face with lees of wine1 in order to represent the flushed and bloated countenance of the great demagogue1 thus returning to the original mode of acting of the predecessors of ,thespis4 ,this1 too1 was the first of the comedies of ,aristophanes which he published in his own name4 ,the ,clouds1 published in #dbc1 is aimed at ,socrates and the philosophers4 ,the fourth1 ,the ,wasps1 published in ,b4,c4 #dbb1 presents a satire on the litigious spirit of the ,athenians4 ,the fifth1 entitled ,peace 771 appeared in the year following1 at the time of the peace of ,nicias1 and is another satire on the bellicose spirit of the ,athenian democracy4 ,the next in the list of extant plays comes after an interval of several years1 having been published in ,b4,c4 #dad1 the first year of the ,sicilian war1 and relates to an irreligious movement in ,athens1 which had caused a great sensation4 ,two ,athenians are represented as leaving ,athens1 in disgust at the vices and follies of their fellow citizens1 and seeking the kingdom of the birds1 where they form a new state1 by which the communication between the mortals and the immortals is cut off1 and is only opened again by an arrangement between all the parties4 ,in the ,lysistrata1 believed to have been brought out in #daa1 when the war was still at its height1 the women of ,athens are represented as engaging in a cunning and successful plot1 by which they gain possession of the government of the state1 and compel their husbands to make peace4 ,the ,thesmophoriazus1 appears to have been published in ,b4,c4 #daj2 it is a satire upon ,euripides1 whose writings were remarkable for their bitter attacks on the character of the female sex1 who1 in this comedy1 conspire against him to secure his punishment4 ,the comedy of ,the ,frogs was brought out in the year #dje ,b4,c41 and is a satire on the literature of the day2 it is aimed especially at ,euripides1 and was perhaps written soon after his death1 its real subject being the decline of the tragic drama1 which ,euripides was accused of having promoted4 ,it is perhaps the most witty of the plays of ,aristophanes which have been preserved4 ,the ,ecclesiazus1 published in #cib1 is a burlesque upon the theories of republican government1 which were then started among the philosophers1 some of which differed little from our modern communism4 ,the ladies again1 by a clever conspiracy1 gain the mastery in the estate1 and they decree a community of goods and women1 with some laws very peculiar to that state of things4 ,the humour of the piece1 which is extremely broad1 turns upon the disputes and embarrassments resulting from this state of things4 ,the last of his comedies extant1 ,plutus1 appears to be a work of the concluding years of the active life of ,aristophanes2 it is the least striking of them all1 and is rather a moral than a political satire4 ,in a comedy brought out in #dbf1 the year before ,the ,archarnians1 under the title of ,the ,babylonians1 ,aristophanes appears to have given great offence to the democratic party1 a circumstance to which he alludes more than once in the former play4 ,however1 his talents and popularity seem to have carried him over the danger1 and certainly nothing can have exceeded the bitterness of satire employed in his subsequent comedies4 ,those who followed him were less fortunate4 ,one of the latest writers of the ,old ,comedy was ,anaximandrides1 who cast a reflection on the state of ,athens in parodying a line of ,euripides4 ,this poet had said1-- ' 7,nature has commanded1 which cares nothing for the laws72 which ,anaximandrides changed to-- ' 7,the state has commanded1 which cares nothing for the laws74 ,nowhere is oppression exercised with greater harshness than under democratic governments2 and ,anaximandrides was prosecuted for this joke as a crime against the state1 and condemned to death4 ,as may be supposed1 liberty of speech ceased to exist in ,athens4 ,we are well acquainted with the character of the ,old ,comedy1 in its greatest freedom1 through the writings of ,aristophanes4 ,what was called the ,middle ,comedy1 in which political satire was prohibited1 lasted from this time until the age of ,philip of ,macedon1 when the old liberty of ,greece was finally crushed4 ,the last form of ,greek comedy followed1 which is known as the ,new ,comedy1 and was represented by such names as ,epicharmus and ,menander4 ,in the ,new ,comedy all caricature and parody1 and all personal allusions1 were entirely proscribed2 it was changed entirely into a comedy of manners and domestic life1 a picture of contemporary society under conventional names and characters4 ,from this ,new ,comedy was taken the ,roman comedy1 such as we now have it in the plays of ,plautus and ,terence1 who were professed imitators of ,menander and the other writers of the new comedy of the ,greeks4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #i4 ,a ,greek ,parody4 ,pictorial caricature was1 of course1 rarely to be seen on the public monuments of ,greece or ,rome1 but must have been consigned to objects of a more popular character and to articles of common use2 and1 accordingly1 modern antiquarian research has brought it to light somewhat abundantly on the pottery of ,greece and ,etruria1 and on the wall-paintings of domestic buildings in ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,the former contains comic scenes1 especially parodies1 which are evidently transferred to them from the stage1 and which preserve the marks and other attributes--some of which ,i have necessarily omitted--proving the model from which they were taken4 ,the ,greeks1 as we know from many sources1 were extremely fond of parodies of every description1 whether literary or pictorial4 ,the subject of our cut ,no4 #i is a good example of the parodies found on the ,greek pottery2 it is taken from a fine ,etruscan vase1#c and has been supposed to be a parody on the visit of ,jupiter to ,alcmena4 ,this appears rather doubtful1 but there can be no doubt that it is a burlesque representation of the visit of a lover to the object of his aspirations4 ,the lover1 in the comic mask and costume1 mounts by a ladder to the window at which the lady presents herself1 who1 it must be confessed1 presents the appearance of giving her admirer a very cold reception4 ,he tries to conciliate her by a present of what seem to be apples1 instead of gold1 but without much effect4 ,he is attended by his servant with a torch1 to give him light on the way1 which shows that it is a night adventure4 ,both master and servant have wreaths round their heads1 and the latter carries a third in his hand1 which1 with the contents of his basket1 are also probably intended as presents to the lady4 #c ,given in ,panofka1 ,antiques du ,cabinet ,pourtals1 pl4 x4 ,a more unmistakable burlesque on the visit of ,jupiter to ,alcmena is published by ,winckelmann from a vase1 formerly in the library of the ,vatican1 and now at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the treatment of the subject is not unlike the picture just described4 ,alcmena appears just in the same posture at her chamber window1 and ,jupiter is carrying his ladder to mount up to her1 but has not yet placed it against the wall4 ,his companion is identified with ,mercury by the well-known caduceus he carries in his left hand1 while with his right hand he holds a lamp up to the window1 in order to enable ,jupiter to see the object of his amour4 ,it is astonishing with how much boldness the ,greeks parodied and ridiculed sacred subjects4 ,the ,christian father1 ,arnobius1 in writing against his heathen opponents1 reproached them with this circumstance4 ,the laws1 he says1 were made to protect the characters of men from slander and libel1 but there was no such protection for the characters of the gods1 which were treated with the greatest disrespect4#d ,this was especially the case in their pictorial representations4 #d ,arnobius 7contra ,gentes71 lib4 iv4 p4 #aej4 ,carmen malum conscribere1 quo fama alterius coinquinatur et vita1 decemviralibus scitis evadere noluistis impune3 ac ne vestras aures convitio aliquis petulantiore pulsaret1 de atrocibus formulas constituistis injuriis4 ,soli dii sunt apud vos superi inhonorati1 contemtibiles1 viles3 in quos jus est vobis datum qu quisque voluerit dicere turpitudinem1 jacere quas libido confinxerit atque excogitaverit formas4 ,pliny informs us that ,ctesilochus1 a pupil of the celebrated ,apelles1 painted a burlesque picture of ,jupiter giving birth to ,bacchus1 in which the god was represented in a very ridiculous posture4#e ,ancient writers intimate that similar examples were not uncommon1 and mention the names of several comic painters1 whose works of this class were in repute4 ,some of these were bitter personal caricatures1 like a celebrated work of a painter named ,ctesicles1 described also by ,pliny4 ,it appears that ,stratonice1 the queen of ,seleucus ,nicator1 had received this painter ill when he visited her court1 and in revenge he executed a picture in which she was represented1 according to a current scandal1 as engaged in an amour with a common fisherman1 which he exhibited in the harbour of ,ephesus1 and then made his escape on ship-board4 ,pliny adds that the queen admired the beauty and accuracy of the painting more than she felt the insult1 and that she forbade the removal of the picture4#f #e ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat41 lib4 xxxv4 c4 #dj4 #f ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat41 lib4 xxxv4 c4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aj4 ,apollo at ,delphi4 ,the subject of our second example of the ,greek caricature is better known4 ,it is taken from an oxybaphon which was brought from the ,continent to ,england1 where it passed into the collection of ,mr4 ,william ,hope4#g ,the oxybaphon 771 or1 as it was called by the ,romans1 acetabulum1 was a large vessel for holding vinegar1 which formed one of the important ornaments of the table1 and was therefore very susceptible of pictorial embellishment of this description4 ,it is one of the most remarkable ,greek caricatures of this kind yet known1 and represents a parody on one of the most interesting stories of the ,grecian mythology1 that of the arrival of ,apollo at ,delphi4 ,the artist1 in his love of burlesque1 has spared none of the personages who belonged to the story4 ,the ,hyperborean ,apollo himself appears in the character of a quack doctor1 on his temporary stage1 covered by a sort of roof1 and approached by wooden steps4 ,on the stage lies ,apollo's luggage1 consisting of a bag1 a bow1 and his ,scythian cap4 ,chiron 77 is represented as labouring under the effects of age and blindness1 and supporting himself by the aid of a crooked staff1 as he repairs to the ,delphian quack-doctor for relief4 ,the figure of the centaur is made to ascend by the aid of a companion1 both being furnished with the masks and other attributes of the comic performers4 ,above are the mountains1 and on them the nymphs of ,parnassus 771 who1 like all the other actors in the scene1 are disguised with masks1 and those of a very grotesque character4 ,on the right-hand side stands a figure which is considered as representing the epoptes1 the inspector or overseer of the performance1 who alone wears no mask4 ,even a pun is employed to heighten the drollery of the scene1 for instead of 1 the ,pythian1 placed over the head of the burlesque ,apollo1 it seems evident that the artist had written 1 the consoler1 in allusion1 perhaps1 to the consolation which the quack-doctor is administering to his blind and aged visitor4 #g ,engraved by ,ch4 ,lenormant et ,j4 de ,witt1 ,elite des ,monuments ,cramographiques1 pl4 xciv4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aa4 ,the ,flight of neas from ,troy4 ,the ,greek spirit of parody1 applied even to the most sacred subjects1 however it may have declined in ,greece1 was revived at ,rome1 and we find examples of it on the walls of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum4 ,they show the same readiness to turn into burlesque the most sacred and popular legends of the ,roman mythology4 ,the example given 7cut ,no4 #aa71 from one of the wall-paintings1 is peculiarly interesting1 both from circumstances in the drawing itself1 and because it is a parody on one of the favourite national legends of the ,roman people1 who prided themselves on their descent from neas4 ,virgil has told1 with great effect1 the story of his hero's escape from the destruction of ,troy--or rather has put the story into his hero's mouth4 ,when the devoted city was already in flames1 neas took his father1 ,anchises1 on his shoulder1 and his boy1 ,iulus1 or1 as he was otherwise called1 ,ascanius1 by the hand1 and thus fled from his home1 followed by his wife-- ,ergo age1 care pater1 cervici imponere nostr2 ,ipse subibo humeris1 nec me labor iste gravabit4 ,quo res cumque cadent1 unum et commune periclum1 ,una salus ambobus erit4 ,mihi parvus ,iulus ,sit comes1 et longe servat vestigia conjux4 --,virg4 n41 lib4 ii4 l4 #gjg4 ,thus they hurried on1 the child holding by his father's right hand1 and dragging after with unequal steps1-- dextr se parvus ,iulus ,implicuit sequiturque patrem non passibus quis4 --,virg4 n41 lib4 ii4 #a4 #gbc4 ,and thus neas bore away both father and son1 and the penates1 or household gods1 of his family1 which were to be transferred to another country1 and become the future guardians of ,rome-- ,ascanium1 ,anchisemque patrem1 ,tencrosque penates4--,ib41 #a4 #gdg4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ab4 ,the ,flight of neas4 ,in this case we know that the design is intended to be a parody1 or burlesque1 upon a picture which appears to have been celebrated at the time1 and of which at least two different copies are found upon ancient intaglios4 ,it is the only case ,i know in which both the original and the parody have been preserved from this remote period1 and this is so curious a circumstance1 that ,i give in the cut on the preceding page a copy of one of the intaglios4#h ,it represented literally ,virgil's account of the story1 and the only difference between the design on the intaglios and the one given in our first cut is1 that in the latter the personages are represented under the forms of monkeys4 neas1 personified by the strong and vigorous animal1 carrying the old monkey1 ,anchises1 on his left shoulder1 hurries forward1 and at the same time looks back on the burning city4 ,with his right hand he drags along the boy ,iulus1 or ,ascanius1 who is evidently proceeding non passibus quis1 and with difficulty keeps up with his father's pace4 ,the boy wears a ,phrygian bonnet1 and holds in his right hand the instrument of play which we should now call a bandy--the pedun4 ,anchises has charge of the box1 which contains the sacred penates4 ,it is a curious circumstance that the monkeys in this picture are the same dog-headed animals1 or cynocephali1 which are found on the ,egyptian monuments4 #h ,these intaglios are engraved in the ,museum ,florentinum of ,gorius1 vol4 ii4 pl4 #cj4 ,on one of them the figures are reversed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when this chapter was already given for press1 ,i first became acquainted with an interesting paper1 by ,panofka1 on the ,parodieen und ,karikaturen auf ,werken der ,klassischen ,kunst1 in the ,abhandlungen der ,akademie der ,wissenschaften zu ,berlin1 for the year #ahed1 and ,i can only now refer my readers to it4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,stage ,,in ,,rome4--,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,mask ,,among ,,the ,,romans4--,,scenes ,,from ,,roman ,,comedy4--,,the ,,sannio ,,and ,,mimus4--,,the ,,roman ,,drama4--,,the ,,roman ,,satirists4--,,caricature4--,,animals ,,introduced ,,in ,,the ,,characters ,,of ,,men4--,,the ,,pigmies1 ,,and ,,their ,,introduction ,,into ,,caricature2 ,,the ,,farm-,,yard2 ,,the ,,painter',s ,,studio2 ,,the ,,procession4--,,political ,,caricature ,,in ,,pompeii2 ,,the ,,graffiti4 ,the ,romans appear to have never had any real taste for the regular drama1 which they merely copied from the ,greeks1 and from the earliest period of their history we find them borrowing all their arts of this description from their neighbours4 ,in ,italy1 as in ,greece1 the first germs of comic literature may be traced in the religious festivals1 which presented a mixture of religious worship and riotous festivity1 where the feasters danced and sung1 and1 as they became excited with wine and enthusiasm1 indulged in mutual reproaches and abuse4 ,the oldest poetry of the ,romans1 which was composed in irregular measure1 was represented by the versus saturnini1 said to have been so called from their antiquity 7for things of remote antiquity were believed to belong to the age of ,saturn74 ,nvius1 one of the oldest of ,latin poets1 is said to have written in this verse4 ,next in order of time came the ,fescennine verses1 which appear to have been distinguished chiefly by their license1 and received their name because they were brought from ,fescennia1 in ,etruria1 where they were employed originally in the festivals of ,ceres and ,bacchus4 ,in the year #cia of ,rome1 or #cfa ,b4,c41 the city was visited by a dreadful plague1 and the citizens hit upon what will appear to us the rather strange expedient of sending for performers 7ludiones7 from ,etruria1 hoping1 by employing them1 to appease the anger of the gods4 ,any performer of this kind appears to have been so little known to the ,romans before this1 that there was not even a name for him in the language1 and they were obliged to adopt the ,tuscan word1 and call him a histrio1 because hister in that language meant a player or pantomimist4 ,this word1 we know1 remained in the ,latin language4 ,these first ,etrurian performers appear indeed to have been mere pantomimists1 who accompanied the flute with all sorts of mountebank tricks1 gestures1 dances1 gesticulations1 and the like1 mixed with satirical songs1 and sometimes with the performance of coarse farces4 ,the ,romans had also a class of performances rather more dramatic in character1 consisting of stories which were named ,fabul ,atellan1 because these performers were brought from ,atella1 a city of the ,osci4 ,a considerable advance was made in dramatic ,art in ,rome about the middle of the third century before ,christ4 ,it is ascribed to a freedman named ,livius ,andronicus1 a ,greek by birth1 who is said to have brought out1 in the year #bdj ,b4,c41 the first regular comedy ever performed in ,rome4 ,thus we trace not only the ,roman comedy1 but the very rudiments of dramatic art in ,rome1 either direct to the ,greeks1 or to the ,grecian colonies in ,italy4 ,with the ,romans1 as well as with the ,greeks1 the theatre was a popular institution1 open to the public1 and the state or a wealthy individual paid for the performance2 and therefore the building itself was necessarily of very great extent1 and1 in both countries open to the sky1 except that the ,romans provided for throwing an awning over it4 ,as the ,roman comedy was copied from the new comedy of the ,greeks1 and therefore did not admit of the introduction of caricature and burlesque on the stage1 these were left especially to the province of the pantomime and farce1 which the ,romans1 as just stated1 had received from a still earlier period4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ac4 ,a ,scene from ,terence4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ad4 ,geta and ,demea4 ,whether the ,romans borrowed the mask from the ,greeks1 or not1 is rather uncertain1 but it was used as generally in the ,roman theatres1 whether in comedy or tragedy1 as among the ,greeks4 ,the ,greek actors performed upon stilts1 in order to magnify their figures1 as the area of the theatre was very large and uncovered1 and without this help they were not so well seen at a distance2 and one object of utility aimed at by the mask is said to have been to make the head appear proportionate in size to the artificial height of the body4 ,it may be remarked that the mask seems generally to have been made to cover the whole head1 representing the hair as well as the face1 so that the character of age or complexion might be given complete4 ,among the ,romans the stilts were certainly not in general use1 but still the mask1 besides its comic or tragic character1 is supposed to have served useful purposes4 ,the first improvement upon its original structure is said to have been the making it of brass1 or some other sonorous metal1 or at least lining the mouth with it1 so as to reverberate1 and give force to the voice1 and also to the mouth of the mask something of the character of a speaking-trumpet4#i ,all these accessories could not fail to detract much from the effect of the acting1 which must in general have been very measured and formal1 and have received most of its importance from the excellence of the poetry1 and the declamatory talents of the actors4 ,we have pictures in which scenes from the ,roman stage are accurately represented4 ,several rather early manuscripts of ,terence have been preserved1 illustrated with drawings of the scenes as represented on the stage1 and these1 though belonging to a period long subsequent to the age in which the ,roman stage existed in its original character1 are1 no doubt1 copied from drawings of an earlier date4 ,a ,german antiquary of the last century1 ,henry ,berger1 published in a quarto volume a series of such illustrations from a manuscript of ,terence in the library of the ,vatican at ,rome1 from which two examples are selected1 as showing the usual style of ,roman comic acting1 and the use of the mask4 ,the first 7,no4 #ac7 is the opening scene in the ,andria4 ,on the right1 two servants have brought provisions1 and on the left appear ,simo1 the master of the household1 and his freedman1 ,sosia1 who seems to be entrusted with the charge of his domestic affairs4 ,simo tells his servants to go away with the provisions1 while he beckons ,sosia to confer with him in private3-- ,si4 ,vos istc intro auferte2 abite4 ,sosia1 ,adesdum2 paucis te volo4 ,so4 ,dictum puta ,nempe ut curentur recte hc4 ,si4 ,imo aliud4 ,terent4 ,andr41 ,actus i41 ,scena #a4 ,when we compare these words with the picture1 we cannot but feel that in the latter there is an unnecessary degree of energy put into the pose of the figures2 which is perhaps less the case in the other 7,no4 #ad71 an illustration of the sixth scene of the fifth act of the ,adelphi of ,terence4 ,it represents the meeting of ,geta1 a rather talkative and conceited servant1 and ,demea1 a countryfied and churlish old man1 his acquaintance1 and of course superior4 ,to ,geta's salutation1 ,demea asks churlishly1 as not at first knowing him1 ,who are you8 but when he finds that it is ,geta1 he changes suddenly to an almost fawning tone3-- ,g4 444 ,sed eccum ,demeam4 ,salvus fies4 ,d4 ,oh1 qui vocare8 ,g4 ,geta4 ,d4 ,geta1 hominem maximi ,pretii esse te hodie judicavi animo mei4 #i ,it is said to have received its ,latin name from this circumstance1 persona1 a personando4 ,see ,aulus ,gellius1 ,noct4 ,att41 lib4 v4 c4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ae4 ,comic ,scene from ,pompeii4 ,that these representations are truthful1 the scenes in the wall-paintings of ,pompeii leave us no room to doubt4 ,one of these is produced in our cut ,no4 #ae1 which is no doubt taken from a comedy now lost1 and we are ignorant whom the characters are intended to represent4 ,the pose given to the two comic figures1 compared with the example given from ,berger1 would lead us to suppose that this over-energetic action was considered as part of the character of comic acting4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #af4 ,cupids at ,play4 ,the subject of the ,roman masks is the more interesting1 because they were probably the origin of many of the grotesque faces so often met with in medival sculpture4 ,the comic mask was1 indeed1 a very popular object among the ,romans1 and appears to have been taken as symbolical of everything that was droll and burlesque4 ,from the comic scenes of the theatre1 to which it was first appropriated1 it passed to the popular festivals of a public character1 such as the ,lupercalia1 with which1 no doubt1 it was carried into the carnival of the middle ages1 and to our masquerades4 ,among the ,romans1 also1 the use of the mask soon passed from the public festivals to private supper parties4 ,its use was so common that it became a plaything among children1 and was sometimes used as a bugbear to frighten them4 ,our cut ,no4 #af1 taken from a painting at ,resina1 represents two cupids playing with a mask1 and using it for this latter purpose1 that is1 to frighten one another2 and it is curious that the medival gloss of ,ugutio explains larva1 a mask1 as being an image1 which was put over the face to frighten children4#aj ,the mask thus became a favourite ornament1 especially on lamps1 and on the antefixa and gargoyls of ,roman buildings1 to which were often given the form of grotesque masks1 monstrous faces1 with great mouths wide open1 and other figures1 like those of the gargoyls of the medival architects4 #aj ,simulacrum 444 quod opponitur faciei ad terrendos parvos4 7,ugutio1 ap4 ,ducange1 v4 ,masca47 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ag4 ,the ,roman ,sannio1 or ,buffoon4 ,while the comic mask was used generally in the burlesque entertainments1 it also became distinctive of particular characters4 ,one of these was the sannio1 or buffoon1 whose name was derived from the ,greek word 1 a fool1 and who was employed in performing burlesque dances1 making grimaces1 and in other acts calculated to excite the mirth of the spectator4 ,a representation of the sannio is given in our cut ,no4 #ag1 copied from one of the engravings in the ,dissertatio de ,larvis ,scenicis1 by the ,italian antiquary ,ficoroni1 who took it from an engraved gem4 ,the sannio holds in his hand what is supposed to be a brass rod1 and he has probably another in the other hand1 so that he could strike them together4 ,he wears the soccus1 or low shoe peculiar to the comic actors4 ,this buffoon was a favourite character among the ,romans1 who introduced him constantly into their feasts and supper parties4 ,the manducus was another character of this description1 represented with a grotesque mask1 presenting a wide mouth and tongue lolling out1 and said to have been peculiar to the ,atellane plays4 ,a character in ,plautus 7,rud41 ii4 #f1 #ea7 talks of hiring himself as a manducus in the plays4 ,quid si aliquo ad ludos me pro manduco locem8 ,the medival glosses interpret manducus by joculator1 a jogelor1 and add that the characteristic from which he took his name was the practice of making grimaces like a man gobbling up his food in a vulgar and gluttonous manner4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ah4 ,roman ,tom ,fool4 ,ficoroni gives1 from an engraved onyx1 a figure of another burlesque performer1 copied in our cut ,no4 #ah1 and which he compares to the ,catanian dancer of his time 7his book was published in #aged71 who was called a giangurgolo4 ,this is considered to represent the ,roman mimus1 a class of performers who told with mimicry and action scenes taken from common life1 and more especially scandalous and indecent anecdotes1 like the jogelors and performers of farces in the middle ages4 ,the ,romans were very much attached to these performances1 so much so1 that they even had them at their funeral processions and at their funeral feasts4 ,in our figure1 the mimus is represented naked1 masked 7with an exaggerated nose71 and wearing what is perhaps intended as a caricature of the ,phrygian bonnet4 ,in his right hand he holds a bag1 or purse1 full of objects which rattle and make a noise when shaken1 while the other holds the crotalum1 or castanets1 an instrument in common use among the ancients4 ,one of the statues in the ,barberini ,palace represents a youth in a ,phrygian cap playing on the crotalum4 ,we learn1 from an early authority1 that it was an instrument especially used in the satirical and burlesque dances which were so popular among the ,romans4 ,as ,i have remarked before1 the ,romans had no taste for the regular drama1 but they retained to the last their love for the performances of the popular mimi1 or comdi 7as they were often called71 the players of farces1 and the dancers4 ,these performed on the stage1 in the public festivals1 in the streets1 and were usually introduced at private parties4#aa ,suetonius tells us that on one occasion1 the emperor ,caligula ordered a poet who composed the ,atellanes 7,attellan poetam7 to be burnt in the middle of the amphitheatre1 for a pun4 ,a more regular comedy1 however1 did flourish1 to a certain degree1 at the same time with these more popular compositions4 ,of the works of the earliest of the ,roman comic writers1 ,livius ,andronicus and ,nvius1 we know only one or two titles1 and a few fragments quoted in the works of the later ,roman writers4 ,they were followed by ,plautus1 who died ,b4,c4 #ahd1 and nineteen of whose comedies are preserved and well known2 by several other writers1 whose names are almost forgotten1 and whose comedies are all lost2 and by ,terence1 six of whose comedies are preserved4 ,terence died about the year #aei ,b4,c4 ,about the same time with ,terence lived ,lucius ,afranius and ,quinctius ,atta1 who appear to close the list of the ,roman writers of comedy4 #aa ,see1 for allusions to the private employment of these performances1 ,pliny1 ,epist4 i4 #ae1 and ix4 #cf4 ,but another branch of comic literature had sprung out of the satire of the religious festivities4 ,a year after ,livius ,andronicus produced the first drama at ,rome1 in the year #bci ,b4,c41 the poet ,ennius was born at ,rudi1 in ,magna ,grcia4 ,the satirical verse1 whether ,saturnine or ,fescennine1 had been gradually improving in its form1 although still very rude1 but ,ennius is said to have given at least a new polish1 and perhaps a new metrical shape1 to it4 ,the verse was still irregular1 but it appears to have been no longer intended for recitation1 accompanied by the flute4 ,the ,romans looked upon ,ennius not only as their earliest epic poet1 but as the father of satire1 a class of literary composition which appears to have originated with them1 and which they claimed as their own4#ab ,ennius had an imitator in ,m4 ,terentius ,varro4 ,the satires of these first writers are said to have been very irregular compositions1 mixing prose with verse1 and sometimes even ,greek with ,latin2 and to have been rather general in their aim than personal4 ,but soon after this period1 and rather more than a century before ,christ1 came ,caius ,lucilius1 who raised ,roman satirical literature to its perfection4 ,lucilius1 we are told1 was the first who wrote satires in heroic verse1 or hexameters1 mixing with them now and then1 though rarely1 an iambic or trochaic line4 ,he was more refined1 more pointed1 and more personal1 than his predecessors1 and he had rescued satire from the street performer to make it a class of literature which was to be read by the educated1 and not merely listened to by the vulgar4 ,lucilius is said to have written thirty books of satires1 of which1 unfortunately1 only some scattered lines remain4 #ab ,quintilian says1 ,satira quidem tota nostra est4 ,de ,instit4 ,orator41 lib4 x4 c4 #a4 ,lucilius had imitators1 the very names of most of whom are now forgotten1 but about forty years after his death1 and sixty-five years before the birth of ,christ1 was born ,quintus ,horatius ,flaccus1 the oldest of the satirists whose works we now possess1 and the most polished of ,roman poets4 ,in the time of ,horace1 the satire of the ,romans had reached its highest degree of perfection4 ,of the two other great satirists whose works are preserved1 ,juvenal was born about the year #dj of the ,christian era1 and ,persius in #dc4 ,during the period through which these writers flourished1 ,rome saw a considerable number of other satirists of the same class1 whose works have perished4 ,in the time of ,juvenal another variety of the same class of literature had already sprung up1 more artificial and somewhat more indirect than the other1 the prose satiric romance4 ,three celebrated writers represent this school4 ,petronius1 who1 born about the commencement of our era1 died in ,a4,d4 #fe1 is the earliest and most remarkable of them4 ,he compiled a romance1 designed as a satire on the vices of the age of ,nero1 in which real persons are supposed to be aimed at under fictitious names1 and which rivals in license1 at least1 anything that could have been uttered in the ,atellanes or other farces of the mimi4 ,lucian1 of ,samosata1 who died an old man in the year #bjj1 and who1 though he wrote in ,greek1 may be considered as belonging to the ,roman school1 composed several satires of this kind1 in one of the most remarkable of which1 entitled ,lucius1 or the ,ass1 the author describes himself as changed by sorcery into the form of that animal1 under which he passes through a number of adventures which illustrate the vices and weaknesses of contemporary society4 ,apuleius1 who was considerably the junior of ,lucian1 made this novel the groundwork of his ,golden ,ass1 a much larger and more elaborate work1 written in ,latin4 ,this work of ,apuleius was very popular through subsequent ages4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ai4 ,the ,farm-yard in ,burlesque4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bj4 ,an ,asilla-,bearer4 ,let us return to ,roman caricature1 one form of which seems to have been especially a favourite among the people4 ,it is difficult to imagine how the story of the pigmies and of their wars with the cranes originated1 but it is certainly of great antiquity1 as it is spoken of in ,homer1 and it was a very popular legend among the ,romans1 who eagerly sought and purchased dwarfs to make domestic pets of them4 ,the pigmies and cranes occur frequently among the pictorial ornamentations of the houses of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum2 and the painters of ,pompeii not only represented them in their proper character1 but they made use of them for the purpose of caricaturing the various occupations of life--domestic and social scenes1 grave conferences1 and many other subjects1 and even personal character4 ,in this class of caricatures they gave to the pigmies1 or dwarfs1 very large heads1 and very small legs and arms4 ,i need hardly remark that this is a class of caricature which is very common in modern times4 ,our first group of these pigmy caricatures 7,no4 #ai7 is taken from a painting on the walls of the ,temple of ,venus1 at ,pompeii1 and represents the interior of a farm-yard in burlesque4 ,the structure in the background is perhaps intended for a hayrick4 ,in front of it1 one of the farm servants is attending on the poultry4 ,the more important-looking personage with the pastoral staff is possibly the overseer of the farm1 who is visiting the labourers1 and this probably is the cause why their movements have assumed so much activity4 ,the labourer on the right is using the asilla1 a wooden yoke or pole1 which was carried over the shoulder1 with the corbis1 or basket1 suspended at each end4 ,this was a common method of carrying1 and is not unfrequently represented on ,roman works of art4 ,several examples might be quoted from the antiquities of ,pompeii4 ,our cut ,no4 #bj1 from a gem in the ,florentine ,museum1 and illustrating another class of caricature1 that of introducing animals performing the actions and duties of men1 represents a grasshopper carrying the asilla and the corbes4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ba4 ,a ,painter's ,studio4 ,a private house in ,pompeii furnished another example of this style of caricature1 which is given in our cut ,no4 #ba4 ,it represents the interior of a painter's studio1 and is extremely curious on account of the numerous details of his method of operation with which it furnishes us4 ,the painter1 who is1 like most of the figures in these pigmy caricatures1 very scantily clothed1 is occupied with the portrait of another1 who1 by the rather exaggerated fulness of the gathering of his toga1 is evidently intended for a dashing and fashionable patrician1 though he is seated as bare-legged and bare-breeched as the artist himself4 ,both are distinguished by a large allowance of nose4 ,the easel here employed resembles greatly the same article now in use1 and might belong to the studio of a modern painter4 ,before it is a small table1 probably formed of a slab of stone1 which serves for a palette1 on which the painter spreads and mixes his colours4 ,to the right a servant1 who fills the office of colour-grinder1 is seated by the side of a vessel placed over hot coals1 and appears to be preparing colours1 mixed1 according to the directions given in old writers1 with punic wax and oil4 ,in the background is seated a student1 whose attention is taken from his drawing by what is going on at the other side of the room1 where two small personages are entering1 who look as if they were amateurs1 and who appear to be talking about the portrait4 ,behind them stands a bird1 and when the painting was first uncovered there were two4 ,mazois1 who made the drawing from which our cut is taken1 before the original had perished--for it was found in a state of decay--imagined that the birds typified some well-known singers or musicians1 but they are1 perhaps1 merely intended for cranes1 birds so generally associated with the pigmies4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bb4 ,part of a ,triumphal ,procession4 ,according to an ancient writer1 combats of pigmies were favourite representations on the walls of taverns and shops2#ac and1 curiously enough1 the walls of a shop in ,pompeii have furnished the picture represented in our cut ,no4 #bb1 which has evidently been intended for a caricature1 probably a parody4 ,all the pigmies in this picture are crowned with laurel1 as though the painter intended to turn to ridicule some over-pompous triumph1 or some public1 perhaps religious1 ceremony4 ,the two figures to the left1 who are clothed in yellow and green garments1 appear to be disputing the possession of a bowl containing a liquid4 ,one of these1 like the two figures on the right1 has a hoop thrown over his shoulder4 ,the first of the latter personages wears a violet dress1 and holds in his right hand a rod1 and in his left a statuette1 apparently of a deity1 but its attributes are not distinguishable4 ,the last figure to the right has a robe1 or mantle1 of two colours1 red and green1 and holds in his hand a branch of a lily1 or some similar plant2 the rest of the picture is lost4 ,behind the other figure stands a fifth1 who appears younger and more refined in character than the others1 and seems to be ordering or directing them4 ,his dress is red4 #ac 4 ,problem4 ,aristotelic4 ,sec4 x4 #g4 ,we can have no doubt that political and personal caricature flourished among the ,romans1 as we have some examples of it on their works of art1 chiefly on engraved stones1 though these are mostly of a character we could not here conveniently introduce2 but the same rich mine of ,roman art and antiquities1 ,pompeii1 has furnished us with one sample of what may be properly considered as a political caricature4 ,in the year #ei of the ,christian era1 at a gladiatorial exhibition in the amphitheatre of ,pompeii1 where the people of ,nuceria were present1 the latter expressed themselves in such scornful terms towards the ,pompeians1 as led to a violent quarrel1 which was followed by a pitched battle between the inhabitants of the two towns1 and the ,nucerians1 being defeated1 carried their complaints before the reigning emperor1 ,nero1 who gave judgment in their favour1 and condemned the people of ,pompeii to suspension from all theatrical amusements for ten years4 ,the feelings of the ,pompeians on this occasion are displayed in the rude drawing represented in our cut ,no4 #bc1 which is scratched on the plaster of the external wall of a house in the street to which the ,italian antiquarians have given the name of the street of ,mercury4 ,a figure1 completely armed1 his head covered with what might be taken for a medival helmet1 is descending what appear to be intended for the steps of the amphitheatre4 ,he carries in his hand a palm-branch1 the emblem of victory4 ,another palm-branch stands erect by his side1 and underneath is the inscription1 in rather rustic ,latin1 ,,campani ,,victoria ,,vna ,,cvm ,,nvcerinis ,,peristis--,o ,campanians1 you perished in the victory together with the ,nucerians4 ,the other side of the picture is more rudely and hastily drawn4 ,it has been supposed to represent one of the victors dragging a prisoner1 with his arms bound1 up a ladder to a stage or platform1 on which he was perhaps to be exhibited to the jeers of the populace4 ,four years after this event1 ,pompeii was greatly damaged by an earthquake1 and sixteen years later came the eruption of ,vesuvius1 which buried the town1 and left it in the condition in which it is now found4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bc4 ,a ,popular ,caricature4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bd4 ,early ,caricature upon a ,christian4 ,this curious caricature belongs to a class of monuments to which archologists have given technically the ,italian name of graffiti1 scratches or scrawls1 of which a great number1 consisting chiefly of writing1 have been found on the walls of ,pompeii4 ,they also occur among the remains on other ,roman sites1 and one found in ,rome itself is especially interesting4 ,during the alterations and extensions which were made from time to time in the palace of the ,csars1 it had been found necessary to build across a narrow street which intersected the ,palatine1 and1 in order to give support to the structure above1 a portion of the street was walled off1 and remained thus hermetically sealed until about the year #aheg1 when some excavations on the spot brought it to view4 ,the walls of the street were found to be covered with these graffiti1 among which one attracted especial attention1 and1 having been carefully removed1 is now preserved in the museum of the ,collegio ,romano4 ,it is a caricature upon a ,christian named ,alexamenos1 by some pagan who despised ,christianity4 ,the ,saviour is represented under the form of a man with the head of an ass1 extended upon a cross1 the ,christian1 ,alexamenos1 standing on one side in the attitude of worship of that period4 ,underneath we read the inscription1 ,c 7for 71 ,alexamenos worships ,god4 ,this curious figure1 which may be placed among the most interesting as well as early evidences of the truth of ,gospel history1 is copied in our cut ,no4 #bd4 ,it was drawn when the prevailing religion at ,rome was still pagan1 and a ,christian was an object of contempt4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,transition ,,from ,,antiquity ,,to ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4--,,the ,,roman ,,mimi ,,continued ,,to ,,exist4--,,the ,,teutonic ,,after-,,dinner ,,entertainments4--,,clerical ,,satires2 ,,archbishop ,,heriger ,,and ,,the ,,dreamer2 ,,the ,,supper ,,of ,,the ,,saints4--,,transition ,,from ,,ancient ,,to ,,medi,,val ,,art4--,,taste ,,for ,,monstrous ,,animals1 ,,dragons1 ,,etc42 ,,church ,,of ,,san ,,fedele1 ,,at ,,como4--,,spirit ,,of ,,caricature ,,and ,,love ,,of ,,grotesque ,,among ,,the ,,anglo-,,saxons4--,,grotesque ,,figures ,,of ,,demons4--,,natural ,,tendency ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,medi,,val ,,artists ,,to ,,draw ,,in ,,caricature4--,,examples ,,from ,,early ,,manuscripts ,,and ,,sculptures4 ,the transition from antiquity to what we usually understand by the name of the middle ages was long and slow2 it was a period during which much of the texture of the old society was destroyed1 while at the same time a new life was gradually given to that which remained4 ,we know very little of the comic literature of this period of transition2 its literary remains consist chiefly of a mass of heavy theology and of lives of saints4 ,the stage in its perfectly dramatic form--theatre and amphitheatre--had disappeared4 ,the pure drama1 indeed1 appears never to have had great vitality among the ,romans1 whose tastes lay far more among the vulgar performances of the mimics and jesters1 and among the savage scenes of the amphitheatre4 ,while probably the performance of comedies1 such as those of ,plautus and ,terence1 soon went out of fashion1 and tragedies1 like those of ,seneca1 were only written as literary compositions1 imitations of the similar works which formed so remarkable a feature in the literature of ,greece1 the ,romans of all ranks loved to witness the loose attitudes of their mimi1 or listen to their equally loose songs and stories4 ,the theatre and the amphitheatre were state institutions1 kept up at the national expense1 and1 as just stated1 they perished with the overthrow of the western empire2 and the sanguinary performances of the amphitheatre1 if the amphitheatre itself continued to be used 7which was perhaps the case in some parts of western ,europe71 and they gave place to the more harmless exhibitions of dancing bears and other tamed animals1#ad for deliberate cruelty was not a characteristic of the ,teutonic race4 ,but the mimi1 the performers who sung songs and told stories1 accompanied with dancing and music1 survived the fall of the empire1 and continued to be as popular as ever4 ,st4 ,augustine1 in the fourth century1 calls these things nefaria1 detestable things1 and says that they were performed at night4#ae ,we trace in the capitularies the continuous existence of these performances during the ages which followed the empire1 and1 as in the time of ,st4 ,augustine1 they still formed the amusement of nocturnal assemblies4 ,the capitulary of ,childebert proscribes those who passed their nights with drunkenness1 jesting1 and songs4#af ,the council of ,narbonne1 in the year #ehi1 forbade people to spend their nights with dancings and filthy songs4#ag ,the council of ,mayence1 in #hac1 calls these songs filthy and licentious 7turpia atque luxuriosa72 and that of ,paris speaks of them as obscene and filthy 7obscna et turpia72 while in another they are called frivolous and diabolic4 ,from the bitterness with which the ecclesiastical ordinances are expressed1 it is probable that these performances continued to preserve much of their old paganism2 yet it is curious that they are spoken of in these capitularies and acts of the councils as being still practised in the religious festivals1 and even in the churches1 so tenaciously did the old sentiments of the race keep their possession of the minds of the populace1 long after they had embraced ,christianity4 ,these songs1 as they are called1 continued also to consist not only of general1 but of personal satire1 and contained scandalous stories of persons living1 and well known to those who heard them4 ,a capitulary of the ,frankish king ,childeric ,,iii41 published in the year #gdd1 is directed against those who compose and sing songs in defamation of others 7in blasphemiam alterius1 to use the rather energetic language of the original72 and it is evident that this offence was a very common one1 for it is not unfrequently repeated in later records of this character in the same words or in words to the same purpose4 ,thus one result of the overthrow of the ,roman empire was to leave comic literature almost in the same condition in which it was found by ,thespis in ,greece and by ,livius ,andronicus in ,rome4 ,there was nothing in it which would be contrary to the feelings of the new races who had now planted themselves in the ,roman provinces4 #ad ,on this subject1 see my ,history of ,domestic ,manners and ,sentiments1 p4 #fe4 ,the dancing bear appears to have been a favourite performer among the ,germans at a very early period4 #ae ,per totam noctem cantabantur hic nefaria et a cantatoribus saltabatur4 ,augustini ,serm4 #caa1 part v4 #af ,noctes pervigiles cum ebrietate1 scurrilitate1 vel canticis4 ,see the ,capitulary in ,labbei ,concil41 vol4 v4 #ag ,ut populi44444saltationibus et turpibus invigilant canticis4 ,the ,teutonic and ,scandinavian nations had no doubt their popular festivals1 in which mirth and frolic bore sway1 though we know little about them2 but there were circumstances in their domestic manners which implied a necessity for amusement4 ,after the comparatively early meal1 the hall of the primitive ,teuton was the scene--especially in the darker months of winter--of long sittings over the festive board1 in which there was much drinking and much talking1 and1 as we all know1 such talking could not preserve long a very serious tone4 ,from ,bede's account of the poet ,cdmon1 we learn that it was the practice of the ,anglo-,saxons in the seventh century1 at their entertainments1 for all those present to sing in their turns1 each accompanying himself with a musical instrument4 ,from the sequel of the story we are led to suppose that these songs were extemporary effusions1 probably mythic legends1 stories of personal adventure1 praise of themselves1 or vituperation of their enemies4 ,in the chieftain's household there appears to have been usually some individual who acted the part of the satirist1 or1 as we should perhaps now say1 the comedian4 ,hunferth appears as holding some such position in ,beowulf2 in the later romances1 ,sir ,kay held a similar position at the court of king ,arthur4 ,at a still later period1 the place of these heroes was occupied by the court fool4 ,the ,roman mimus must have been a welcome addition to the entertainments of the ,teutonic hall1 and there is every reason to think that he was cordially received4 ,the performances of the hall were soon delegated from the guests to such hired actors1 and we have representations of them in the illuminations of ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts4#ah ,among the earliest amusements of the ,anglo-,saxon table were riddles1 which in every form present some of the features of the comic1 and are capable of being made the source of much laughter4 ,the saintly ,aldhelm condescended to write such riddles in ,latin verse1 which were1 of course1 intended for the tables of the clergy4 ,in primitive society1 verse was the ordinary form of conveying ideas4 ,a large portion of the celebrated collection of ,anglo-,saxon poetry known as the ,exeter ,book1 consists of riddles1 and this taste for riddles has continued to exist down to our own times4 ,but other forms of entertainment1 if they did not already exist1 were soon introduced4 ,in a curious ,latin poem1 older than the twelfth century1 of which fragments only are preserved1 and have been published under the title of ,ruodlieb1 and which appears to have been a translation of a much earlier ,german romance1 we have a curious description of the post-prandial entertainments after the dinner of a great ,teutonic chieftain1 or king4 ,in the first place there was a grand distribution of rich presents1 and then were shown strange animals1 and among the rest tame bears4 ,these bears stood upon their hind legs1 and performed some of the offices of a man2 and when the minstrels 7mimi7 came in1 and played upon their musical instruments1 these animals danced to the music1 and performed all sorts of strange tricks4 ,et pariles ursi4444 ,qui vas tollebant1 ut homo1 bipedesque gerebant4 ,mimi quando fides digitis tangunt modulantes1 ,illi saltabant1 neumas pedibus variabant4 ,interdum saliunt1 seseque super jaciebant4 ,alterutrum dorso se portabant residendo1 ,amplexando se1 luctando deficiunt se4 ,then followed dancing-girls1 and exhibitions of other kinds4#ai #ah ,the reader is referred1 for further information on this subject1 to my ,history of ,domestic ,manners and ,sentiments1 pp4 #cc-ci4 #ai ,this curious ,latin poem was printed by ,grimm and ,schmeller1 in their ,lateinische ,gedichte des x4 und xi4 ,jh41 p4 #abi4 ,although these performances were proscribed by the ecclesiastical laws1 they were not discountenanced by the ecclesiastics themselves1 who1 on the contrary1 indulged as much in after-dinner amusements as anybody4 ,the laws against the profane songs are often directed especially at the clergy2 and it is evident that among the ,anglo-,saxons1 as well as on the ,continent1 not only the priests and monks1 but the nuns also1 in their love of such amusements1 far transgressed the bounds of decency4#bb ,these entertainments were the cradle of comic literature1 but1 as this literature in the early ages of its history was rarely committed to writing1 it has almost entirely perished4 ,but1 at the tables of the ecclesiastics1 these stories were sometimes told in ,latin verse1 and as ,latin was not so easily carried in the memory as the vernacular tongue1 in this language they were sometimes committed to writing1 and thus a few examples of early comic literature have fortunately been preserved4 ,these consist chiefly of popular stories1 which were among the favourite amusements of medival society--stories many of which are derived from the earliest period of the history of our race1 and are still cherished among our peasantry4 ,such are the stories of the ,child of ,snow1 and of the ,mendacious ,hunter1 preserved in a manuscript of the eleventh century4#ba ,the first of these was a very popular story in the middle ages4 ,according to this early version1 a merchant of ,constance1 in ,switzerland1 was detained abroad for several years1 during which time his wife made other acquaintance1 and bore a child4 ,on his return1 she excused her fault by telling him that on a cold wintry day she had swallowed snow1 by which she had conceived2 and1 in revenge1 the husband carried away the child1 and sold it into slavery1 and returning1 told its mother1 that the infant which had originated in snow1 had melted away under a hotter sun4 ,some of these stories originated in the different collections of fables1 which were part of the favourite literature of the later ,roman period4 ,another is rather a ridiculous story of an ass belonging to two sisters in a nunnery1 which was devoured by a wolf4#bj curious how soon the medival clergy began to imitate their pagan predecessors in parodying religious subjects and forms1 of which we have one or two very curious examples4 ,visits to purgatory1 hell1 and paradise1 in body or spirit1 were greatly in fashion during the earlier part of the middle ages1 and afforded extremely good material for satire4 ,in a metrical ,latin story1 preserved in a manuscript of the eleventh century1 we are told how a prophet1 or visionary1 went to ,heriger1 archbishop of ,mayence from #iab to #ibf1 and told him that he had been carried in a vision to the regions below1 and described them as a place surrounded by thick woods4 ,it was the ,teutonic notion of hell1 and indeed of all settlements of peoples2 and ,heriger replied with a sneer that he would send his herdsmen there with his lean swine to fatten them4 ,each mark1 or land of a family or clan1 in the early ,teutonic settlements1 was surrounded by woodland1 which was common to all members of the clan for fattening their swine and hunting4 ,the false dreamer added1 that he was afterwards carried to heaven1 where he saw ,christ sitting at the table and eating4 ,john the ,baptist was butler1 and served excellent wine round to the saints1 who were the ,lord's guests4 ,st4 ,peter was the chief cook4 ,after some remarks on the appointments to these two offices1 archbishop ,heriger asked the informant how he was received in the heavenly hall1 where he sat1 and what he eat4 ,he replied that he sat in a corner1 and stole from the cooks a piece of liver1 which he eat1 and then departed4 ,instead of rewarding him for his information1 ,heriger took him on his own confession for the theft1 and ordered him to be bound to a stake and flogged1 which1 for the offence1 was rather a light punishment4 #bj ,on the character of the nuns among the ,anglo-,saxons1 and indeed of the inmates of the monastic houses generally1 ,i would refer my readers to the excellent and interesting volume by ,mr4 ,john ,thrupp1 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,home3 a ,history of the ,domestic ,institutions and ,customs of ,england from the fifth to the eleventh century4 ,london1 #ahfb4 #ba ,these will be found in ,m4 ,edlestand du ,mril's ,posies ,populaires ,latines antrieures au douzime sicle1 pp4 #bge1 #bgf4 #bb ,this1 and the metrical story next referred to1 were printed in the ,altdeutsche ,bltter1 edited by ,moriz ,haupt and ,heinrich ,hoffmann1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cij1 #cib1 to whom ,i communicated them from a manuscript in the ,university ,library at ,cambridge4 ,heriger illum jussit ad palum loris ligari1 scopisque cedi1 sermone duro hunc arguendo4 ,these lines will serve as a specimen of the popular ,latin verse in which these monkish after-dinner stories were written2 but the most remarkable of these early parodies on religious subjects1 is one which may be described as the supper of the saints2 its title is simply ,cna4 ,it is falsely ascribed to ,st4 ,cyprian1 who lived in the third century2 but it is as old as the tenth century1 as a copy was printed by professor ,endlicher from a manuscript of that period at ,vienna4 ,it was so popular1 that it is found and known to have existed in different forms in verse and in prose4 ,it is a sort of drollery1 founded upon the wedding feast at which the ,saviour changed water into wine1 though that miracle is not at all introduced into it4 ,it was a great king of the ,east1 named ,zoel1 who held his nuptial feast at ,cana of ,galilee4 ,the personages invited are all scriptural1 beginning with ,adam4 ,before the feast1 they wash in the river ,jordan1 and the number of the guests was so great1 that seats could not be provided for them1 and they took their places as they could4 ,adam took the first place1 and seated himself in the middle of the assembly1 and next to him ,eve sat upon leaves 7super folia71--fig-leaves1 we may suppose4 ,cain sat on a plough1 ,abel on a milk-pail1 ,noah on an ark1 ,japhet on tiles1 ,abraham on a tree1 ,isaac on an altar1 ,lot near the door1 and so with a long list of others4 ,two were obliged to stand--,paul1 who bore it patiently1 and ,esau1 who grumbled--while ,job lamented bitterly because he was obliged to sit on a dunghill4 ,moses1 and others1 who came late1 were obliged to find seats out of doors4 ,when the king saw that all his guests had arrived1 he took them into his wardrobe1 and there1 in the spirit of medival generosity1 distributed to them dresses1 which had all some burlesque allusion to their particular characters4 ,before they were allowed to sit down to the feast1 they were obliged to go through other ceremonies1 which1 as well as the eating1 are described in the same style of caricature4 ,the wines1 of which there was great variety1 were served to the guests with the same allusions to their individual characters2 but some of them complained that they were badly mixed1 although ,jonah was the butler4 ,in the same manner are described the proceedings which followed the dinner1 the washing of hands1 and the dessert1 to the latter of which ,adam contributed apples1 ,samson honey2 while ,david played on the harp and ,mary on the tabor2 ,judith led the round dance2 ,jubal played on the psalter2 ,asael sung songs1 and ,herodias acted the part of the dancing-girl3-- ,tunc ,adam poma ministrat1 ,samson favi dulcia4 ,david cytharum percussit1 et ,maria tympana4 ,judith choreas ducebat1 et ,jubal psalteria4 ,asael metra canebat1 saltabat ,herodias4 ,mambres entertained the company with his magical performances2 and the other incidents of a medival festival followed1 throughout which the same tone of burlesque is continued2 and so the story continues1 to the end4#bc ,we shall find these incipient forms of medival comic literature largely developed as we go on4 #bc ,the text of this singular composition1 with a full account of the various forms in which it was published1 will be found in ,m4 du ,mril's ,posies ,populaires ,latines antrieures au douzime sicle1 p4 #aic4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #be4 ,saturn ,devouring his ,child4 ,the period between antiquity and the middle ages was one of such great and general destruction1 that the gulf between ancient and medival art seems to us greater and more abrupt than it really was4 ,the want of monuments1 no doubt1 prevents our seeing the gradual change of one into the other1 but nevertheless enough of facts remain to convince us that it was not a sudden change4 ,it is now indeed generally understood that the knowledge and practice of the arts and manufactures of the ,romans were handed onward from master to pupil after the empire had fallen2 and this took place especially in the towns1 so that the workmanship which had been declining in character during the later periods of the empire1 only continued in the course of degradation afterwards4 ,thus1 in the first ,christian edifices1 the builders who were employed1 or at least many of them1 must have been pagans1 and they would follow their old models of ornamentation1 introducing the same grotesque figures1 the same masks and monstrous faces1 and even sometimes the same subjects from the old mythology1 to which they had been accustomed4 ,it is to be observed1 too1 that this kind of iconographical ornamentation had been encroaching more and more upon the old architectural purity during the latter ages of the empire1 and that it was employed more profusely in the later works1 from which this taste was transferred to the ecclesiastical and to the domestic architecture of the middle ages4 ,after the workmen themselves had become ,christians1 they still found pagan emblems and figures in their models1 and still went on imitating them1 sometimes merely copying1 and at others turning them to caricature or burlesque4 ,and this tendency continued so long1 that1 at a much later date1 where there still existed remains of ,roman buildings1 the medival architects adopted them as models1 and did not hesitate to copy the sculpture1 although it might be evidently pagan in character4 ,the accompanying cut 7,no4 #be7 represents a bracket in the church of ,mont ,majour1 near ,nismes1 built in the tenth century4 ,the subject is a monstrous head eating a child1 and we can hardly doubt that it was really intended for a caricature on ,saturn devouring one of his children4 ,sometimes the medival sculptors mistook the emblematical designs of the ,romans1 and misapplied them1 and gave an allegorical meaning to that which was not intended to be emblematical or allegorical1 until the subjects themselves became extremely confused4 ,they readily employed that class of parody of the ancients in which animals were represented performing the actions of men1 and they had a great taste for monsters of every description1 especially those which were made up of portions of incongruous animals joined together1 in contradiction to the precept of ,horace3-- ,humano capiti cervicem pictor equinam ,jungere si velit1 et varias inducere plumas1 ,undique collatis membris1 ut turpiter atrum ,desinet in piscem mulier formosa superne2 ,spectatum admissi risum teneatis1 amici8 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bf4 ,sculpture from ,san ,fedele1 at ,como4 ,the medival architects loved such representations1 always and in all parts1 and examples are abundant4 ,at ,como1 in ,italy1 there is a very ancient and remarkable church dedicated to ,san ,fedele 7,saint ,fidelis72 it has been considered to be of so early a date as the fifth century4 ,the sculptures that adorn the doorway1 which is triangular-headed1 are especially interesting4 ,on one of these1 represented in our cut ,no4 #bf1 in a compartment to the left1 appears a figure of an angel1 holding in one hand a dwarf figure1 probably intended for a child1 by a lock of his hair1 and with the other hand directing his attention to a seated figure in the compartment below4 ,this latter figure has apparently the head of a sheep1 and as the head is surrounded with a large nimbus1 and the right hand is held out in the attitude of benediction1 it may be intended to represent the ,lamb4 ,this personage is seated on something which is difficult to make out1 but which looks somewhat like a crab-fish4 ,the boy in the compartment above carries a large basin in his arms4 ,the adjoining compartment to the right contains the representation of a conflict between a dragon1 a winged serpent1 and a winged fox4 ,on the opposite side of the door1 two winged monsters are represented devouring a lamb's head4 ,i owe the drawing from which this and the preceding engraving were made to my friend ,mr4 ,john ,robinson1 the architect1 who made the sketches while travelling with the medal of the ,royal ,academy4 ,figures of dragons1 as ornaments1 were great favourites with the peoples of the ,teutonic race2 they were creatures intimately wrapped up in their national mythology and romance1 and they are found on all their artistic monuments mingled together in grotesque forms and groups4 ,when the ,anglo-,saxons began to ornament their books1 the dragon was continually introduced for ornamental borders and in forming initial letters4 ,one of the latter1 from an ,anglo-,saxon manuscript of the tenth century 7the well-known manuscript of ,cdmon1 where it is given as an initial ,v71 is represented in our cut on the next page1 ,no4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bg4 ,anglo-,saxon ,dragons4 ,caricature and burlesque are naturally intended to be heard and seen publicly1 and would therefore be figured on such monuments as were most exposed to popular gaze4 ,such was the case1 in the earlier periods of the middle ages1 chiefly with ecclesiastical buildings1 which explains how they became the grand receptacles of this class of ,art4 ,we have few traces of what may be termed comic literature among our ,anglo-,saxon forefathers1 but this is fully explained by the circumstance that very little of the popular ,anglo-,saxon literature has been preserved4 ,in their festive hours the ,anglo-,saxons seem to have especially amused themselves in boasting of what they had done1 and what they could do2 and these boasts were perhaps often of a burlesque character1 like the gabs of the ,french and ,anglo-,norman romancers of a later date1 or so extravagant as to produce laughter4 ,the chieftains appear also to have encouraged men who could make jokes1 and satirise and caricature others2 for the company of such men seems to have been cherished1 and they are not unfrequently introduced in the stories4 ,such a personage1 as ,i have remarked before1 is ,hunferth in ,beowulf2 such was the ,sir ,kay of the later ,arthurian romances2 and such too was the ,norman minstrel in the history of ,hereward1 who amused the ,norman soldiers at their feasts by mimicry of the manners of their ,anglo-,saxon opponents4 ,the too personal satire of these wits often led to quarrels1 which ended in sanguinary brawls4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon love of caricature is shown largely in their proper names1 which were mostly significant of personal qualities their parents hoped they would possess2 and in these we remark the proneness of the ,teutonic race1 as well as the peoples of antiquity1 to represent these qualities by the animals supposed to possess them1 the animals most popular being the wolf and the bear4 ,but it is not to be expected that the hopes of the parents in giving the name would always be fulfilled1 and it is not an uncommon thing to find individuals losing their original names to receive in their place nicknames1 or names which probably expressed qualities they did possess1 and which were given to them by their acquaintances4 ,these names1 though often not very complimentary1 and even sometimes very much the contrary1 completely superseded the original name1 and were even accepted by the individuals to whom they applied4 ,the second names were indeed so generally acknowledged1 that they were used in signing legal documents4 ,an ,anglo-,saxon abbess of rank1 whose real name was ,hrodwaru1 but who was known universally by the name ,bugga1 the ,bug1 wrote this latter name in signing charters4 ,we can hardly doubt that such a name was intended to ascribe to her qualities of a not agreeable character1 and very different to those implied by the original name1 which perhaps meant1 a dweller in heaven4 ,another lady gained the name of the ,crow4 ,it is well known that surnames did not come into use till long after the ,anglo-,saxon period1 but appellatives1 like these nicknames1 were often added to the name for the purpose of distinction1 or at pleasure1 and these1 too1 being given by other people1 were frequently satirical4 ,thus1 one ,harold1 for his swiftness1 was called ,hare-foot2 a well-known ,edith1 for the elegant form of her neck1 was called ,swan-neck2 and a ,thurcyl1 for a form of his head1 which can hardly have been called beautiful1 was named ,mare's-head4 ,among many other names1 quite as satirical as the last-mentioned1 we find ,flat-nose1 the ,ugly ,squint-eye1 ,hawk-nose1 c4 ,of ,anglo-,saxon sculpture we have little left1 but we have a few illuminated manuscripts which present here and there an attempt at caricature1 though they are rare4 ,it would seem1 however1 that the two favourite subjects of caricature among the ,anglo-,saxons were the clergy and the evil one4 ,we have abundant evidence that1 from the eighth century downwards1 neither the ,anglo-,saxon clergy nor the ,anglo-,saxon nuns were generally objects of much respect among the people2 and their character and the manner of their lives sufficiently account for it4 ,perhaps1 also1 it was increased by the hostility between the old clergy and the new reformers of ,dunstan's party1 who would no doubt caricature each other4 ,a manuscript psalter1 in the ,university ,library1 ,cambridge 7,ff4 #a1 #bc71 of the ,anglo-,saxon period1 and apparently of the tenth century1 illustrated with rather grotesque initial letters1 furnishes us with the figure of a jolly ,anglo-,saxon monk1 given in our cut ,no4 #bh1 and which it is hardly necessary to state represents the letter ,q4 ,as we proceed1 we shall see the clergy continuing to furnish a butt for the shafts of satire through all the middle ages4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bh4 ,a ,jolly ,monk4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bi4 ,satan in ,bonds4 ,the inclination to give to the demons 7the middle ages always looked upon them as innumerable7 monstrous forms1 which easily ran into the grotesque1 was natural1 and the painter1 indeed1 prided himself on drawing them ugly2 but he was no doubt influenced in so generally caricaturing them1 by mixing up this idea with those furnished by the popular superstitions of the ,teutonic race1 who believed in multitudes of spirits1 representatives of the ancient satyrs1 who were of a playfully malicious description1 and went about plaguing mankind in a very droll manner1 and sometimes appeared to them in equally droll forms4 ,they were the ,pucks and ,robin ,goodfellows of later times2 but the ,christian missionaries to the west taught their converts to believe1 and probably believed themselves1 that all these imaginary beings were real demons1 who wandered over the earth for people's ruin and destruction4 ,thus the grotesque imagination of the converted people was introduced into the ,christian system of demonology4 ,it is a part of the subject to which we shall return in our next chapter2 but ,i will here introduce two examples of the ,anglo-,saxon demons4 ,to explain the first of these1 it will be necessary to state that1 according to the medival notions1 ,satan1 the arch demon1 who had fallen from heaven for his rebellion against the ,almighty1 was not a free agent who went about tempting mankind1 but he was himself plunged in the abyss1 where he was held in bonds1 and tormented by the demons who peopled the infernal regions1 and also issued thence to seek their prey upon ,god's newest creation1 the earth4 ,the history of ,satan's fall1 and the description of his position 7,no4 #bi71 form the subject of the earlier part of the ,anglo-,saxon poetry ascribed to ,cdmon1 and it is one of the illuminations to the manuscript of ,cdmon 7which is now preserved at ,oxford71 which has furnished us with our cut1 representing ,satan in his bonds4 ,the fiend is here pictured bound to stakes1 over what appears to be a gridiron1 while one of the demons1 rising out of a fiery furnace1 and holding in his hand an instrument of punishment1 seems to be exulting over him1 and at the same time urging on the troop of grotesque imps who are swarming round and tormenting their victim4 ,the next cut1 ,no4 #cj1 is also taken from an ,anglo-,saxon manuscript1 preserved in the ,british ,museum 7,,ms4 ,cotton41 ,tiberius1 ,c4 vi471 which belongs to the earlier half of the eleventh century1 and contains a copy of the psalter4 ,it gives us the ,anglo-,saxon notion of the demon under another form1 equally characteristic1 wearing only a girdle of flames1 but in this case the especial singularity of the design consists in the eyes in the fiend's wings4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #cj4 ,satan4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ca4 ,the ,temptation4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #cb4 ,david and the ,lion4 ,another circumstance had no doubt an influence on the medival taste for grotesque and caricature--the natural rudeness of early medival art4 ,the writers of antiquity tell us of a remote period of ,grecian art when it was necessary to write under each figure of a picture the name of what it was intended to represent1 in order to make the whole intelligible--this is a horse1 this is a man1 this is a tree4 ,without being quite so rude as this1 the early medival artists1 through ignorance of perspective1 want of knowledge of proportion1 and of skill in drawing1 found great difficulty in representing a scene in which there was more than one figure1 and in which it was necessary to distinguish them from each other2 and they were continually trying to help themselves by adopting conventional forms or conventional positions1 and by sometimes adding symbols that did not exactly represent what they meant4 ,the exaggeration in form consisted chiefly in giving an undue prominence to some characteristic feature1 which answered the same purpose as the ,anglo-,saxon nickname and distinctive name1 and which is1 in fact1 one of the first principles of all caricature4 ,conventional positions partook much of the character of conventional forms1 but gave still greater room for grotesque4 ,thus the very first characteristics of medival art implied the existence of caricature1 and no doubt led to the taste for the grotesque4 ,the effect of this influence is apparent everywhere1 and in innumerable cases serious pictures of the gravest and most important subjects are simply and absolutely caricatures4 ,anglo-,saxon art ran much into this style1 and is often very grotesque in character4 ,the first example we give 7cut ,no4 #ca7 is taken from one of the illustrations to ,alfric's ,anglo-,saxon version of the ,pentateuch1 in the profusely illuminated manuscript in the ,british ,museum 7,,ms4 ,cotton41 ,claudius ,b iv471 which was written at the end of the tenth1 or beginning of the eleventh1 century4 ,it represents the temptation and fall of man2 and the subject is treated1 as will be seen1 in a rather grotesque manner4 ,eve is evidently dictating to her husband1 who1 in obeying her1 shows a mixture of eagerness and trepidation4 ,adam is no less evidently going to swallow the apple whole1 which is1 perhaps1 in accordance with the medival legend1 according to which the fruit stuck in his throat4 ,it is hardly necessary to remark that the tree is entirely a conventional one2 and it would be difficult to imagine how it came to bear apples at all4 ,the medival artists were extremely unskilful in drawing trees2 to these they usually gave the forms of cabbages1 or some such plants1 of which the form was simple1 or often of a mere bunch of leaves4 ,our next example 7cut ,no4 #cb7 is also ,anglo-,saxon1 and is furnished by the manuscript in the ,british ,museum already mentioned 7,,ms4 ,cotton41 ,tiberius ,c vi47 ,it probably represents young ,david killing the lion1 and is remarkable not only for the strange posture and bad proportions of the man1 but for the tranquillity of the animal and the exaggerated and violent action of its slayer4 ,this is very commonly the case in the medival drawings and sculptures1 the artists apparently possessing far less skill in representing action in an animal than in man1 and therefore more rarely attempting it4 ,these illustrations are both taken from illuminated manuscripts4 ,the two which follow are furnished by sculptures1 and are of a rather later date than the preceding4 ,the abbey of ,st4 ,george of ,boscherville1 in the diocese of ,auxerre 7in ,normandy71 was founded by ,ralph de ,tancarville1 one of the ministers of ,william the ,conqueror1 and therefore in the latter half of the eleventh century4 ,a history of this religious house was published by a clever local antiquary--,m4 ,achille ,deville--from whose work we take our cut ,no4 #cc1 one of a few rude sculptures on the abbey church1 which no doubt belonged to the original fabric4 ,it is not difficult to recognise the subject as ,joseph taking the ,virgin ,mary with her ,child into ,egypt2 but there is something exceedingly droll in the unintentional caricature of the faces1 as well as in the whole design4 ,the ,virgin ,mary appears without a nimbus1 while the nimbus of the ,infant ,jesus is made to look very like a bonnet4 ,it may be remarked that this subject of the flight into ,egypt is by no means an uncommon one in medival art2 and a drawing of the same subject1 copied in my ,history of ,domestic ,manners and ,sentiments 7p4 #aae71 presents a remarkable illustration of the contrast of the skill of a ,norman sculptor and of an almost contemporary ,anglo-,norman illuminator4 ,our cut also furnishes us with evidence of the error of the old opinion that ladies rode astride in the middle ages4 ,even one1 who by his style of art must have been an obscure local carver on stone1 when he represented a female on horseback1 placed her in the position which has always been considered suitable to the sex4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #cc4 ,the flight into ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #cd4 ,david and ,goliah4 ,for the drawing of the other sculpture to which ,i allude1 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,robinson4 ,it is one of the subjects carved on the faade of the church of ,st4 ,gilles1 near ,nismes1 and is a work of the twelfth century4 ,it appears to represent the young ,david slaying the giant ,goliah1 the latter fully armed in scale armour1 and with shield and spear1 like a ,norman knight2 while to ,david the artist has given a figure which is feminine in its forms4 ,what we might take at first sight for a basket of apples1 appears to be meant for a supply of stones for the sling which the young hero carries suspended from his neck4 ,he has slain the giant with one of these1 and is cutting off his head with his own sword4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,diabolical ,,in ,,caricature4--,,medi,,val ,,love ,,of ,,the ,,ludicrous4--,,causes ,,which ,,made ,,it ,,influence ,,the ,,notions ,,of ,,demons4--,,stories ,,of ,,the ,,pious ,,painter ,,and ,,the ,,erring ,,monk4--,,darkness ,,and ,,ugliness ,,caricatured4--,,the ,,demons ,,in ,,the ,,miracle ,,plays4--,,the ,,demon ,,of ,,notre ,,dame4 ,as ,i have already stated in the last chapter1 there can be no doubt that the whole system of the demonology of the middle ages was derived from the older pagan mythology4 ,the demons of the monkish legends were simply the elves and hobgoblins of our forefathers1 who haunted woods1 and fields1 and waters1 and delighted in misleading or plaguing mankind1 though their mischief was usually of a rather mirthful character4 ,they were represented in classical mythology by the fauns and satyrs who had1 as we have seen1 much to do with the birth of comic literature among the ,greeks and ,romans2 but these ,teutonic elves were more ubiquitous than the satyrs1 as they even haunted men's houses1 and played tricks1 not only of a mischievous1 but of a very familiar character4 ,the ,christian clergy did not look upon the personages of the popular superstitions as fabulous beings1 but they taught that they were all diabolical1 and that they were so many agents of the evil one1 constantly employed in enticing and entrapping mankind4 ,hence1 in the medival legends1 we frequently find demons presenting themselves under ludicrous forms or in ludicrous situations2 or performing acts1 such as eating and drinking1 which are not in accordance with their real character2 or at times even letting themselves be outwitted or entrapped by mortals in a very undignified manner4 ,although they assumed any form they pleased1 their natural form was remarkable chiefly for being extremely ugly2 one of them1 which appeared in a wild wood1 is described by ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 who wrote at the end of the twelfth century1 as being hairy1 shaggy1 and rough1 and monstrously deformed4#bd ,according to a medival story1 which was told in different forms1 a great man's cellar was once haunted by these demons1 who drank all his wine1 while the owner was totally at a loss to account for its rapid disappearance4 ,after many unsuccessful attempts to discover the depredators1 some one1 probably suspecting the truth1 suggested that he should mark one of the barrels with holy water1 and next morning a demon1 much resembling the description given by ,giraldus1 was found stuck fast to the barrel4 ,it is told also of ,edward the ,confessor1 that he once went to see the tribute called the ,danegeld1 and it was shown to him all packed up in great barrels ready to be sent away--for this appears to have been the usual mode of transporting large quantities of money4 ,the saintly king had the faculty of being able to see spiritual beings--a sort of spiritual second-sight--and he beheld seated on the largest barrel1 a devil1 who was black and hideous4 ,vit un dable saer desus ,le tresor1 noir et hidus4--,life of ,s4 ,edward1 l4 #idd4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ce4 ,the ,demon of the ,treasure4 ,an early illuminator1 in a manuscript preserved in the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge 7,,ms4 ,trin4 ,col41 ,b x4 #b71 has left us a pictorial representation of this scene1 from which ,i copy his notion of the form of the demon in cut ,no4 #ce4 ,the general idea is evidently taken from the figure of the goat1 and the relationship between the demon and the classical satyr is very evident4 #bd ,formam quandam villosam1 hispidam1 et hirsutam1 adeoque enormiter deformem4 ,girald4 ,camb41 ,itiner4 ,camb41 lib4 i4 c4 #e4 ,ugliness was an essential characteristic of the demons1 and1 moreover1 their features have usually a mirthful cast1 as though they greatly enjoyed their occupation4 ,there is a medival story of a young monk1 who was sacristan to an abbey1 and had the directions of the building and ornamentation4 ,the carvers of stone were making admirable representations of hell and paradise1 in the former of which the demons seemed to take great delight in well tormenting their victims-- ,qui par semblant se delitoit ,en ce que bien les tormentoit4 ,the sacristan1 who watched the sculptors every day1 was at last moved by pious zeal to try and imitate them1 and he set to work to make a devil himself1 with such success1 that his fiend was so black and ugly that nobody could look at it without terror4 ,tant qu'un dable fere emprist2 ,si i mist sa poine et sa cure1 ,que la forme fu si oscure ,et si laide1 que cil doutast ,que entre deus oilz l'esgardast4 ,the sacristan1 encouraged by his success--for it must be understood that his art was a sudden inspiration 7as he had not been an artist before7--continued his work till it was completed1 and then it was so horrible and so ugly1 that all who saw it affirmed upon their oaths that they had never seen so ugly a figure either in sculpture or in painting1 or one which had so repulsive an appearance1 or a devil which was a better likeness than the one this monk had made for them-- ,si horribles fu et si lez1 ,que trestouz cels que le voient ,seur leur serement afermoient ,c'onques ms si laide figure1 ,ne en taille ne en peinture1 ,n'avoient nul jor vue1 ,qui si ust laide vue1 ,ne dable miex contrefet ,que cil moines leur avoit fet4--,meon's ,fabliaux1 tom4 ii4 p4 #dad4 ,the demon himself now took offence at the affront which had been put upon him1 and appearing the night following to the sacristan1 reproached him with having made him so ugly1 and enjoined him to break the sculpture1 and execute another representing him better looking1 on pain of very severe punishment2 but1 although this visit was repeated thrice1 the pious monk refused to comply4 ,the evil one now began to work in another way1 and1 by his cunning1 he drew the sacristan into a disgraceful amour with a lady of the neighbourhood1 and they plotted not only to elope together by night1 but to rob the monastery of its treasure1 which was of course in the keeping of the sacristan4 ,they were discovered1 and caught in their flight1 laden with the treasure1 and the unfaithful sacristan was thrown into prison4 ,the fiend now appeared to him1 and promised to clear him out of all his trouble on the mere condition that he should break his ugly statue1 and make another representing him as looking handsome--a bargain to which the sacristan acceded without further hesitation4 ,it would thus appear that the demons did not like to be represented ugly4 ,in this case1 the fiend immediately took the form and place of the sacristan1 while the latter went to his bed as if nothing had happened4 ,when the other monks found him there next morning1 and heard him disclaim all knowledge of the robbery or of the prison1 they hurried to the latter place1 and found the devil in chains1 who1 when they attempted to exorcise him1 behaved in a very turbulent manner1 and disappeared from their sight4 ,the monks believed that it was all a deception of the evil one1 while the sacristan1 who was not inclined to brave his displeasure a second time1 performed faithfully his part of the contract1 and made a devil who did not look ugly4 ,in another version of the story1 however1 it ends differently4 ,after the third warning1 the monk went in defiance of the devil1 and made his picture uglier than ever2 in revenge for which the demon came unexpectedly and broke the ladder on which he was mounted at his work1 whereby the monk would undoubtedly have been killed4 ,but the ,virgin1 to whom he was much devoted1 came to his assistance1 and1 seizing him with her hand1 and holding him in the air1 disappointed the devil of his purpose4 ,it is this latter dnouement which is represented in the cut ,no4 #cf1 taken from the celebrated manuscript in the ,british ,museum known as ,queen ,mary's ,psalter 7,,ms4 ,reg4 #b ,b vii474 ,the two demons employed here present1 well defined1 the air of mirthful jollity which was evidently derived from the popular hobgoblins4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #cf4 ,the ,pious ,sculptor4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #cg4 ,the ,monk's ,disaster4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ch4 ,the ,demons ,disappointed4 ,there was another popular story1 which also was told under several forms4 ,the old ,norman historians tell it of their duke ,richard ,sans-,peur4 ,there was a monk of the abbey of ,st4 ,ouen1 who also held the office of sacristan1 but1 neglecting the duties of his position1 entered into an intrigue with a lady who dwelt in the neighbourhood1 and was accustomed at night to leave the abbey secretly1 and repair to her4 ,his place as sacristan enabled him thus to leave the house unknown to the other brethren4 ,on his way1 he had to pass the little river ,robec1 by means of a plank or wooden bridge1 and one night the demons1 who had been watching him on his errand of sin1 caught him on the bridge1 and threw him over into the water1 where he was drowned4 ,one devil seized his soul1 and would have carried it away1 but an angel came to claim him on account of his good actions1 and the dispute ran so high1 that duke ,richard1 whose piety was as great as his courage1 was called in to decide it4 ,the same manuscript from which our last cut was taken has furnished our cut ,no4 #cg1 which represents two demons tripping up the monk1 and throwing him very unceremoniously into the river4 ,the body of one of the demons here assumes the form of an animal1 instead of taking1 like the other1 that of a man1 and he is1 moreover1 furnished with a dragon's wings4 ,there was one version of this story1 in which it found its place among the legends of the ,virgin ,mary1 instead of those of duke ,richard4 ,the monk1 in spite of his failings1 had been a constant worshipper of the ,virgin1 and1 as he was falling from the bridge into the river1 she stepped forward to protect him from his persecutors1 and taking hold of him with her hand1 saved him from death4 ,one of the compartments of the rather early wall-paintings in ,winchester ,cathedral represents the scene according to this version of the story1 and is copied in our cut ,no4 #ch4 ,the fiends here take more fantastic shapes than we have previously seen given to them4 ,they remind us already of the infinitely varied grotesque forms which the painters of the age of the ,renaissance crowded together in such subjects as ,the ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony4 ,in fact these strange notions of the forms of the demons were not only preserved through the whole period of the middle ages1 but are still hardly extinct4 ,they appear in almost exaggerated forms in the illustrations to books of a popular religious character which appeared in the first ages of printing4 ,i may quote1 as an example1 one of the cuts of an early and very rare block-book1 entitled the ,ars ,moriendi1 or ,art of ,dying1 or1 in a second title1 ,de ,tentationibus ,morientium1 on the temptations to which dying men are exposed4 ,the scene1 of which a part is given in the annexed cut 7,no4 #ci71 is in the room of the dying man1 whose bed is surrounded by three demons1 who are come to tempt him1 while his relatives of both sexes are looking on quite unconscious of their presence4 ,the figures of these demons are particularly grotesque1 and their ugly features betray a degree of vulgar cunning which adds not a little to this effect4 ,the one leaning over the dying man suggests to him the words expressed in the label issuing from his mouth1 ,provideas amicis1 provide for your friends2 while the one whose head appears to the left whispers to him1 ,yntende thesauro1 think of your treasure4 ,the dying man seems grievously perplexed with the various thoughts thus suggested to him4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ci4 ,a ,medival ,death-bed4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dj4 ,condemned ,souls carried to their ,place of ,punishment4 ,why did the medival ,christians think it necessary to make the devils black and ugly8 ,the first reply to this question which presents itself is1 that the characteristics intended to be represented were the blackness and ugliness of sin4 ,this1 however1 is only partially the explanation of the fact2 for there can be no doubt that the notion was a popular one1 and that it had previously existed in the popular mythology2 and1 as has been already remarked1 the ugliness exhibited by them is a vulgar1 mirthful ugliness1 which makes you laugh instead of shudder4 ,another scene1 from the interesting drawings at the foot of the pages in ,queen ,mary's ,psalter1 is given in our cut ,no4 #dj4 ,it represents that most popular of medival pictures1 and1 at the same time1 most remarkable of literal interpretations1 hell mouth4 ,the entrance to the infernal regions was always represented pictorially as the mouth of a monstrous animal1 where the demons appeared leaving and returning4 ,here they are seen bringing the sinful souls to their last destination1 and it cannot be denied that they are doing the work right merrily and jovially4 ,in our cut ,no4 #da1 from the manuscript in the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 which furnished a former subject1 three demons1 who appear to be the guardians of the entrance to the regions below--for it is upon the brow above the monstrous mouth that they are standing--present varieties of the diabolical form4 ,the one in the middle is the most remarkable1 for he has wings not only on his shoulders1 but also on his knees and heels4 ,all three have horns2 in fact1 the three special characteristics of medival demons were horns1 hoofs--or1 at least1 the feet of beasts1--and tails1 which sufficiently indicate the source from which the popular notions of these beings were derived4 ,in the cathedral of ,treves1 there is a mural painting by ,william of ,cologne1 a painter of the fifteenth century1 which represents the entrance to the shades1 the monstrous mouth1 with its keepers1 in still more grotesque forms4 ,our cut ,no4 #db gives but a small portion of this picture1 in which the porter of the regions of punishment is sitting astride the snout of the monstrous mouth1 and is sounding with a trumpet what may be supposed to be the call for those who are condemned4 ,another minstrel of the same stamp1 spurred1 though not booted1 sits astride the tube of the trumpet1 playing on the bagpipes2 and the sound which issues from the former instrument is represented by a host of smaller imps who are scattering themselves about4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #da4 ,the ,guardians of ,hell ,mouth4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #db4 ,the ,trumpeter of ,evil4 ,it must not be supposed that1 in subjects like these1 the drollery of the scene was accidental2 but1 on the contrary1 the medival artists and popular writers gave them this character purposely4 ,the demons and the executioners--the latter of whom were called in ,latin tortores1 and in popular old ,english phraseology the tormentours--were the comic characters of the time1 and the scenes in the old mysteries or religious plays in which they were introduced were the comic scenes1 or farce1 of the piece4 ,the love of burlesque and caricature was1 indeed1 so deeply planted in the popular mind1 that it was found necessary to introduce them even in pious works1 in which such scenes as the slaughter of the innocents1 where the knights and the women abused each other in vulgar language1 the treatment of ,christ at the time of ,his trial1 some parts of the scene of the crucifixion1 and the day of judgment1 were essentially comic4 ,the last of these subjects1 especially1 was a scene of mirth1 because it often consisted throughout of a coarse satire on the vices of the age1 especially on those which were most obnoxious to the populace1 such as the pride and vanity of the higher ranks1 and the extortions and frauds of usurers1 bakers1 taverners1 and others4 ,in the play of ,juditium1 or the day of doom1 in the ,towneley ,mysteries1 one of the earliest collections of mysteries in the ,english language1 the whole conversation among the demons is exactly of that joking kind which we might expect from their countenances in the pictures4 ,when one of them appears carrying a bag full of different offences1 another1 his companion1 is so joyful at this circumstance1 that he says it makes him laugh till he is out of breath1 or1 in other words1 till he is ready to burst2 and1 while asking if anger be not among the sins he had collected1 proposes to treat him with something to drink-- ,primus dmon4 ,peasze1 ,i pray the1 be stille2 ,i laghe that ,i kynke4 ,is oghte ire in thi bille8 and then salle thou drynke4 --,towneley ,mysteries1 p4 #cji4 ,and in the continuation of the conversation1 one telling of the events which had preceded the announcement of ,doomsday says1 rather jeeringly1 and somewhat exultingly1 ,souls came so thick now of late to hell1 that our porter at hell gate is ever held so close at work1 up early and down late1 that he never rests-- ,saules cam so thyk now late unto helle1 ,as ever ,oure porter at helle gate ,is halden so strate1 ,up erly and downe late1 ,he rystys never4--,ib41 p4 #cad4 ,with such popular notions on the subject1 we have no reason to be surprised that the artists of the middle ages frequently chose the figures of demons as objects on which to exercise their skill in burlesque and caricature1 that they often introduced grotesque figures of their heads and bodies in the sculptured ornamentation of building1 and that they presented them in ludicrous situations and attitudes in their pictures4 ,they are often brought in as secondary actors in a picture in a very singular manner1 of which an excellent example is furnished by the beautifully illuminated manuscript known as ,queen ,mary's ,psalter1 which is copied in our cut ,no4 #dc4 ,nothing is more certain than that in this instance the intention of the artist was perfectly serious4 ,eve1 under the influence of a rather singularly formed serpent1 having the head of a beautiful woman and the body of a dragon1 is plucking the apples and offering them to ,adam1 who is preparing to eat one1 with evident hesitation and reluctance4 ,but three demons1 downright hobgoblins1 appear as secondary actors in the scene1 who exercise an influence upon the principals4 ,one is patting ,eve on the shoulder1 with an air of approval and encouragement1 while a second1 with wings1 is urging on ,adam1 and apparently laughing at his apprehensions2 and a third1 in a very ludicrous manner1 is preventing him from drawing back from the trial4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dc4 ,the ,fall of ,man4 ,in all the delineations of demons we have yet seen1 the ludicrous is the spirit which chiefly predominates1 and in no one instance have we had a figure which is really demoniacal4 ,the devils are droll but not frightful2 they provoke laughter1 or at least excite a smile1 but they create no horror4 ,indeed1 they torment their victims so good-humouredly1 that we hardly feel for them4 ,there is1 however1 one well-known instance in which the medival artist has shown himself fully successful in representing the features of the spirit of evil4 ,on the parapet of the external gallery of the cathedral church of ,notre ,dame in ,paris1 there is a figure in stone1 of the ordinary stature of a man1 representing the demon1 apparently looking with satisfaction upon the inhabitants of the city as they were everywhere indulging in sin and wickedness4 ,we give a sketch of this figure in our cut ,no4 #dd4 ,the unmixed evil--horrible in its expression in this countenance--is marvellously portrayed4 ,it is an absolute ,mephistophiles1 carrying in his features a strange mixture of hateful qualities--malice1 pride1 envy--in fact1 all the deadly sins combined in one diabolical whole4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dd4 ,the ,spirit of ,evil4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,employment ,,of ,,animals ,,in ,,medi,,val ,,satire4--,,popularity ,,of ,,fables2 ,,odo ,,de ,,cirington4--,,reynard ,,the ,,fox4--,,burnellus ,,and ,,fauvel4--,,the ,,charivari4--,,le ,,monde ,,bestorn4--,,encaustic ,,tiles4--,,shoeing ,,the ,,goose1 ,,and ,,feeding ,,pigs ,,with ,,roses4--,,satirical ,,signs2 ,,the ,,mustard ,,maker4 ,the people of the middle ages appear to have been great admirers of animals1 to have observed closely their various characters and peculiarities1 and to have been fond of domesticating them4 ,they soon began to employ their peculiarities as means of satirising and caricaturing mankind2 and among the literature bequeathed to them by the ,romans1 they received no book more eagerly than the ,fables of sop1 and the other collections of fables which were published under the empire4 ,we find no traces of fables among the original literature of the ,german race2 but the tribes who took possession of the ,roman provinces no sooner became acquainted with the fables of the ancients1 than they began to imitate them1 and stories in which animals acted the part of men were multiplied immensely1 and became a very important branch of medival fiction4 ,among the ,teutonic peoples especially1 these fables often assumed very grotesque forms1 and the satire they convey is very amusing4 ,one of the earliest of these collections of original fables was composed by an ,english ecclesiastic named ,odo de ,cirington1 who lived in the time of ,henry ,,ii4 and ,richard ,i4 ,in ,odo's fables1 we find the animals figuring under the same popular names by which they were afterwards so well known1 such as ,reynard for the ,fox1 ,isengrin for the wolf1 ,teburg for the cat1 and the like4 ,thus the subject of one of them is ,isengrin made ,monk 7de ,isengrino monacho74 ,once1 we are told1 ,isengrin desired to be a monk4 ,by dint of fervent supplications1 he obtained the consent of the chapter1 and received the tonsure1 the cowl1 and the other insignia of monachism4 ,at length they put him to school1 and he was to learn the ',paternoster1' but he always replied1 'lamb' 7agnus7 or 'ram' 7aries74 ,the monks taught him that he ought to look upon the crucifix and upon the sacrament1 but he ever directed his eyes to the lambs and rams4 ,the fable is droll enough1 but the moral1 or application is still more grotesque4 ,such is the conduct of many of the monks1 whose only cry is 'aries1' that is1 good wine1 and who have their eyes always fixed on fat flesh and their platter2 whence the saying in ,english-- ,they thou the vulf hore ,though thou the hoary wolf hod to preste1 consecrate to a priest1 they thou him to skole sette though thou put him to school salmes to lerne1 to learn ,psalms1 hevere bet hise geres ever are his ears turned to the grove grene4 to the green grove4 ,these lines are in the alliterative verse of the ,anglo-,saxons1 and show that such fables had already found their place in the popular poetry of the ,english people4 ,another of these fables is entitled ,of the ,beetle 7serabo7 and his ,wife4 ,a beetle1 flying through the land1 passed among most beautiful blooming trees1 through orchards and among roses and lilies1 in the most lovely places1 and at length threw himself upon a dunghill among the dung of horses1 and found there his wife1 who asked him whence he came4 ,and the beetle said1 ',i have flown all round the earth and through it2 ,i have seen the flowers of almonds1 and lilies1 and roses1 but ,i have seen no place so pleasant as this1' pointing to the dunghill4 ,the application is equally droll with the former and equally uncomplimentary to the religious part of the community4 ,odo de ,cirington tells us that1 ,thus many of the clergy1 monks1 and laymen listen to the lives of the fathers1 pass among the lilies of the virgins1 among the roses of the martyrs1 and among the violets of the confessors1 yet nothing ever appears so pleasant and agreeable as a strumpet1 or the tavern1 or a singing party1 though it is but a stinking dunghill and congregation of sinners4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #de4 ,the ,fox in the ,pulpit4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #df4 ,ecclesiastical ,sincerity4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dg4 ,reynard turned ,monk4 ,popular sculpture and painting were but the translation of popular literature1 and nothing was more common to represent1 in pictures and carvings1 than individual men under the forms of the animals who displayed similar characters or similar propensities4 ,cunning1 treachery1 and intrigue were the prevailing vices of the middle ages1 and they were those also of the fox1 who hence became a favourite character in satire4 ,the victory of craft over force always provoked mirth4 ,the fabulists1 or1 we should perhaps rather say1 the satirists1 soon began to extend their canvas and enlarge their picture1 and1 instead of single examples of fraud or injustice1 they introduced a variety of characters1 not only foxes1 but wolves1 and sheep1 and bears1 with birds also1 as the eagle1 the cock1 and the crow1 and mixed them up together in long narratives1 which thus formed general satires on the vices of contemporary society4 ,in this manner originated the celebrated romance of ,reynard the ,fox1 which in various forms1 from the twelfth century to the eighteenth1 has enjoyed a popularity which was granted probably to no other book4 ,the plot of this remarkable satire turns chiefly on the long struggle between the brute force of ,isengrin the ,wolf1 possessed only with a small amount of intelligence1 which is easily deceived--under which character is presented the powerful feudal baron--and the craftiness of ,reynard the ,fox1 who represents the intelligent portion of society1 which had to hold its ground by its wits1 and these were continually abused to evil purposes4 ,reynard is swayed by a constant impulse to deceive and victimise everybody1 whether friends or enemies1 but especially his uncle ,isengrin4 ,it was somewhat the relationship between the ecclesiastical and baronial aristocracy4 ,reynard was educated in the schools1 and intended for the clerical order2 and at different times he is represented as acting under the disguise of a priest1 of a monk1 of a pilgrim1 or even of a prelate of the church4 ,though frequently reduced to the greatest straits by the power of ,isengrin1 ,reynard has generally the better of it in the end3 he robs and defrauds ,isengrin continually1 outrages his wife1 who is half in alliance with him1 and draws him into all sorts of dangers and sufferings1 for which the latter never succeeds in obtaining justice4 ,the old sculptors and artists appear to have preferred exhibiting ,reynard in his ecclesiastical disguises1 and in these he appears often in the ornamentation of medival architectural sculpture1 in wood-carvings1 in the illuminations of manuscripts1 and in other objects of art4 ,the popular feeling against the clergy was strong in the middle ages1 and no caricature was received with more favour than those which exposed the immorality or dishonesty of a monk or a priest4 ,our cut ,no4 #de is taken from a sculpture in the church of ,christchurch1 in ,hampshire1 for the drawing of which ,i am indebted to my friend1 ,mr4 ,llewellynn ,jewitt4 ,it represents ,reynard in the pulpit preaching2 behind1 or rather perhaps beside him1 a diminutive cock stands upon a stool--in modern times we should be inclined to say he was acting as clerk4 ,reynard's costume consists merely of the ecclesiastical hood or cowl4 ,such subjects are frequently found on the carved seats1 or misereres1 in the stalls of the old cathedrals and collegiate churches4 ,the painted glass of the great window of the north cross-aisle of ,st4 ,martin's church in ,leicester1 which was destroyed in the last century1 represented the fox1 in the character of an ecclesiastic1 preaching to a congregation of geese1 and addressing them in the words--,testis est mihi ,deus1 quam cupiam vos omnes visceribus meis 7,god is witness1 how ,i desire you all in my bowels71 a parody on the words of the ,new ,testament4#be ,our cut ,no4 #df is taken from one of the misereres in the church of ,st4 ,mary1 at ,beverley1 in ,yorkshire4 ,two foxes are represented in the disguise of ecclesiastics1 each furnished with a pastoral staff1 and they appear to be receiving instructions from a prelate or personage of rank--perhaps they are undertaking a pilgrimage of penance4 ,but their sincerity is rendered somewhat doubtful by the geese concealed in their hoods4 ,in one of the incidents of the romance of ,reynard1 the hero enters a monastery and becomes a monk1 in order to escape the wrath of ,king ,noble1 the lion4 ,for some time he made an outward show of sanctity and self-privation1 but unknown to his brethren he secretly helped himself freely to the good things of the monastery4 ,one day he observed1 with longing lips1 a messenger who brought four fat capons as a present from a lay neighbour to the abbot4 ,that night1 when all the monks had retired to rest1 ,reynard obtained admission to the larder1 regaled himself with one of the capons1 and as soon as he had eaten it1 trussed the three others on his back1 escaped secretly from the abbey1 and1 throwing away his monastic garment1 hurried home with his prey4 ,we might almost imagine our cut ,no4 #dg1 taken from one of the stalls of the church of ,nantwich1 in ,cheshire1 to have been intended to represent this incident1 or1 at least1 a similar one4 ,our next cut1 ,no4 #dh1 is taken from a stall in the church of ,boston1 in ,lincolnshire4 ,a prelate1 equally false1 is seated in his chair1 with a mitre on his head1 and the pastoral staff in his right hand4 ,his flock are represented by a cock and hens1 the former of which he holds securely with his right hand1 while he appears to be preaching to them4 #be ,an engraving of this scene1 modernised in character1 is given in ,nichols's ,leicestershire1 vol4 i4 plate #dc4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dh4 ,the ,prelate and his ,flock4 ,another medival sculpture has furnished events for a rather curious history1 at the same time that it is a good illustration of our subject4 ,odo de ,cirington1 the fabulist1 tells us how1 one day1 the wolf died1 and the lion called the animals together to celebrate his exequies4 ,the hare carried the holy water1 hedgehogs bore the candles1 the goats rang the bells1 the moles dug the grave1 the foxes carried the corpse on the bier4 ,berengarius1 the bear1 celebrated mass1 the ox read the gospel1 and the ass the epistle4 ,when the mass was concluded1 and ,isengrin buried1 the animals made a splendid feast out of his goods1 and wished for such another funeral4 ,our satirical ecclesiastic makes an application of this story which tells little to the credit of the monks of his time4 ,so it frequently happens1 he says1 that when some rich man1 an extortionist or a usurer1 dies1 the abbot or prior of a convent of beasts1 i4e4 of men living like beasts1 causes them to assemble4 ,for it commonly happens that in a great convent of black or white monks 7,benedictines or ,augustinians7 there are none but beasts--lions by their pride1 foxes by their craftiness1 bears by their voracity1 stinking goats by their incontinence1 asses by their sluggishness1 hedgehogs by their asperity1 hares by their timidity1 because they were cowardly where there was no fear1 and oxen by their laborious cultivation of their land4#bf #bf ,the ,latin text of this and some others of the fables of ,odo de ,cirington will be found in my ,selection of ,latin ,stories1 pp4 #ej-eb1 #ee-eh1 and #hj4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #di4 ,the ,funeral of the ,fox4 ,a scene closely resembling that here described by ,odo1 differing only in the distribution of the characters1 was translated from some such written story into the pictorial language of the ancient sculptured ornamentation of ,strasburg ,cathedral1 where it formed1 apparently1 two sides of the capital or entablature of a column near the chancel4 ,the deceased in this picture appears to be a fox1 which was probably the animal intended to be represented in the original1 although1 in the copy of it preserved1 it looks more like a squirrel4 ,the bier is carried by the goat and the boar1 while a little dog underneath is taking liberties with the tail of the latter4 ,immediately before the bier1 the hare carries the lighted taper1 preceded by the wolf1 who carries the cross1 and the bear1 who holds in one hand the holy-water vessel and in the other the aspersoir4 ,this forms the first division of the subject1 and is represented in our cut ,no4 #di4 ,in the next division 7cut ,no4 #ej71 the stag is represented celebrating mass1 and the ass reads the ,gospel from a book which the cat supports with its head4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ej4 ,the ,mass for the ,fox4 ,this curious sculpture is said to have been of the thirteenth century4 ,in the fifteenth century it attracted the attention of the reformers1 who looked upon it as an ancient protest against the corruptions of the mass1 and one of the more distinguished of them1 ,john ,fischart1 had it copied and engraved on wood1 and published it about the year #aehj1 with some verses of his own1 in which it was interpreted as a satire upon the papacy4 ,this publication gave such dire offence to the ecclesiastical authorities of ,strasburg1 that the ,lutheran bookseller who had ventured to publish it1 was compelled to make a public apology in the church1 and the wood-engraving and all the impressions were seized and burnt by the common hangman4 ,a few years later1 however1 in #afjh1 another engraving was made1 and published in a large folio with ,fischart's verses2 and it is from the diminished copy of this second edition--given in ,flgel's ,geschichte des ,komisches ,literatur--that our cuts are taken4 ,the original ,sculpture was still more unfortunate4 ,its publication and explanation by ,fischart was the cause of no little scandal among the ,catholics1 who tried to retort upon their opponents by asserting that the figures in this funeral celebration were intended to represent the ignorance of the ,protestant preachers2 and the sculpture in the church continued to be regarded by the ecclesiastical authorities with dissatisfaction until the year #afhe1 when1 to take away all further ground of scandal1 it was entirely defaced4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ea4 ,the ,fox ,provided4 ,reynard's medival celebrity dates certainly from a rather early period4 ,montflaucon has given an alphabet of ornamental initial letters1 formed chiefly of figures of men and animals1 from a manuscript which he ascribes to the ninth century1 among which is the one copied in our cut ,no4 #ea1 representing a fox walking upon his hind legs1 and carrying two small cocks1 suspended at the ends of a cross staff4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that this group forms the letter ,t4 ,long before this1 the ,frankish historian ,fredegarius1 who wrote about the middle of the seventh century1 introduces a fable in which the fox figures at the court of the lion4 ,the same fable is repeated by a monkish writer of ,bavaria1 named ,fromond1 who flourished in the tenth century1 and by another named ,aimoinus1 who lived about the year #a1jjj4 ,at length1 in the twelfth century1 ,guibert de ,nogent1 who died about the year #aabd1 and who has left us his autobiography 7de ,vita sua71 relates an anecdote in that work1 in explanation of which he tells us that the wolf was then popularly designated by the name of ,isengrin2 and in the fables of ,odo1 as we have already seen1 this name is commonly given to the wolf1 ,reynard to the fox1 ,teburg to the cat1 and so on with the others4 ,this only shows that in the fables of the twelfth century the various animals were known by these names1 but it does not prove that what we know as the romance of ,reynard existed4 ,jacob ,grimm argued from the derivation and forms of these names1 that the fables themselves1 and the romance1 originated with the ,teutonic peoples1 and were indigenous to them2 but his reasons appear to me to be more specious than conclusive1 and ,i certainly lean to the opinion of my friend ,paulin ,paris1 that the romance of ,reynard was native of ,france1#bg and that it was partly founded upon old ,latin legends perhaps poems4 ,its character is altogether feudal1 and it is strictly a picture of society1 in ,france primarily1 and secondly in ,england and the other nations of feudalism1 in the twelfth century4 ,the earliest form in which this romance is known is in the ,french poem--or rather poems1 for it consists of several branches or continuations--and is supposed to date from about the middle of the twelfth century4 ,it soon became so popular1 that it appeared in different forms in all the languages of ,western ,europe1 except in ,england1 where there appears to have existed no edition of the romance of ,reynard the ,fox until ,caxton printed his prose ,english version of the story4 ,from that time it became1 if possible1 more popular in ,england than elsewhere1 and that popularity had hardly diminished down to the commencement of the present century4 #bg ,see the dissertation by ,m4 ,paulin ,paris1 published in his nice popular modern abridgment of the ,french romance1 published in #ahfa1 under the title ,les ,aventures de ,matre ,renart et d',ysengrin son compre4 ,on the debated question of the origin of the ,romance1 see the learned and able work by ,jonckbloet1 #hvo41 ,groningue1 #ahfc4 ,the popularity of the story of ,reynard caused it to be imitated in a variety of shapes1 and this form of satire1 in which animals acted the part of men1 became altogether popular4 ,in the latter part of the twelfth century1 an ,anglo-,latin poet1 named ,nigellus ,wireker1 composed a very severe satire in elegiac verse1 under the title of ,speculum ,stultorum1 the ,mirror of ,fools4 ,it is not a wise animal like the fox1 but a simple animal1 the ass1 who1 under the name of ,brunellus1 passes among the various ranks and classes of society1 and notes their crimes and vices4 ,a prose introduction to this poem informs us that its hero is the representative of the monks in general1 who were always longing for some new acquisition which was inconsistent with their profession4 ,in fact1 ,brunellus is absorbed with the notion that his tail was too short1 and his great ambition is to get it lengthened4 ,for this purpose he consults a physician1 who1 after representing to him in vain the folly of his pursuit1 gives him a receipt to make his tail grow longer1 and sends him to the celebrated medical school of ,salerno to obtain the ingredients4 ,after various adventures1 in the course of which he loses a part of his tail instead of its being lengthened1 ,brunellus proceeds to the ,university of ,paris to study and obtain knowledge2 and we are treated with a most amusingly satirical account of the condition and manners of the scholars of that time4 ,soon convinced of his incapacity for learning1 ,brunellus abandons the university in despair1 and he resolves to enter one of the monastic orders1 the character of all which he passes in review4 ,the greater part of the poem consists of a very bitter satire on the corruptions of the monkish orders and of the ,church in general4 ,while still hesitating which order to choose1 ,brunellus falls into the hands of his old master1 from whom he had run away in order to seek his fortune in the world1 and he is compelled to pass the rest of his days in the same humble and servile condition in which he had begun them4 ,a more direct imitation of ,reynard the ,fox is found in the early ,french romance of ,fauvel1 the hero of which is neither a fox nor an ass1 but a horse4 ,people of all ranks and classes repair to the court of ,fauvel1 the horse1 and furnish abundant matter for satire on the moral1 political1 and religious hypocrisy which pervaded the whole frame of society4 ,at length the hero resolves to marry1 and1 in a finely illuminated manuscript of this romance1 preserved in the ,imperial ,library in ,paris1 this marriage furnishes the subject of a picture1 which gives the only representation ,i have met with of one of the popular burlesque ceremonies which were so common in the middle ages4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #eb4 ,a ,medival ,charivari4 ,among other such ceremonies1 it was customary with the populace1 on the occasion of a man's or woman's second marriage1 or an ill-sorted match1 or on the espousals of people who were obnoxious to their neighbours1 to assemble outside the house1 and greet them with discordant music4 ,this custom is said to have been practised especially in ,france1 and it was called a charivari4 ,there is still a last remnant of it in our country in the music of marrow-bones and cleavers1 with which the marriages of butchers are popularly celebrated2 but the derivation of the ,french name appears not to be known4 ,it occurs in old ,latin documents1 for it gave rise to such scandalous scenes of riot and licentiousness1 that the ,church did all it could1 though in vain1 to suppress it4 ,the earliest mention of this custom1 furnished in the ,glossarium of ,ducange1 is contained in the synodal statutes of the church of ,avignon1 passed in the year #accg1 from which we learn that when such marriages occurred1 people forced their way into the houses of the married couple1 and carried away their goods1 which they were obliged to pay a ransom for before they were returned1 and the money thus raised was spent in getting up what is called in the statute relating to it a ,chalvaricum4 ,it appears from this statute1 that the individuals who performed the charivari accompanied the happy couple to the church1 and returned with them to their residence1 with coarse and indecent gestures and discordant music1 and uttering scurrilous and indecent abuse1 and that they ended with feasting4 ,in the statutes of ,meaux1 in #acfe1 and in those of ,hugh1 bishop of ,beziers1 in #acfh1 the same practice is forbidden1 under the name of ,charavallium2 and it is mentioned in a document of the year #acgb1 also quoted by ,ducange1 under that of ,carivarium1 as then existing at ,nmes4 ,again1 in #adde1 the ,council of ,tours made a decree1 forbidding1 under pain of excommunication1 the insolences1 clamours1 sounds1 and other tumults practised at second and third nuptials1 called by the vulgar a ,charivarium1 on account of the many and grave evils arising out of them4#bh ,it will be observed that these early allusions to the charivari are found almost solely in documents coming from the ,roman towns in the south of ,france1 so that this practice was probably one of the many popular customs derived directly from the ,romans4 ,when ,cotgrave's ,dictionary was published 7that is1 in #afcb7 the practice of the charivari appears to have become more general in its existence1 as well as its application2 for he describes it as a public defamation1 or traducing of2 a foule noise made1 blacke santus rung1 to the shame and disgrace of another2 hence an infamous 7or infaming7 ballad sung1 by an armed troupe1 under the window of an old dotard1 married the day before unto a yong wanton1 in mockerie of them both4 ,and1 again1 a charivaris de poelles is explained as the carting of an infamous person1 graced with the harmonie of tinging kettles and frying-pan musicke4#bi ,the word is now generally used in the sense of a great tumult of discordant music1 produced often by a number of persons playing different tunes on different instruments at the same time4 #bh ,insultationes1 clamores1 sonos1 et alios tumultus1 in secundis et tertiis quorundam nuptiis1 quos charivarium vulgo appellant1 propter multa et gravia incommoda1 prohibemus sub pna excommunitationis4--,ducange1 v4 ,charivarium4 #bi ,cotgrave's ,dictionarie1 v4 ,charivaris4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ec4 ,continuation of the ,charivari4 ,as ,i have stated above1 the manuscript of the romance of ,fauvel is in the ,imperial ,library in ,paris4 ,a copy of this illumination is engraved in ,jaime's ,muse de la ,caricature1 from which our cuts ,nos4 #eb and #ec are taken4 ,it is divided into three compartments1 one above another1 in the uppermost of which ,fauvel is seen entering the nuptial chamber to his young wife1 who is already in bed4 ,the scene in the compartment below1 which is copied in our cut ,no4 #eb1 represents the street outside1 and the mock revellers performing the charivari2 and this is continued in the third1 or lowest1 compartment1 which is represented in our cut ,no4 #ec4 ,down each side of the original illumination is a frame-work of windows1 from which people1 who have been disturbed by the noise1 are looking out upon the tumult4 ,it will be seen that all the performers wear masks1 and that they are dressed in burlesque costume4 ,in confirmation of the statement of the ecclesiastical synods as to the licentiousness of these exhibitions1 we see one of the performers here disguised as a woman1 who lifts up his dress to expose his person while dancing4 ,the musical instruments are no less grotesque than the costumes1 for they consist chiefly of kitchen utensils1 such as frying-pans1 mortars1 saucepans1 and the like4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ed4 ,the ,tables ,turned4 ,there was another series of subjects in which animals were introduced as the instruments of satire4 ,this satire consisted in reverting the position of man with regard to the animals over which he had been accustomed to tyrannise1 so that he was subjected to the same treatment from the animals which1 in his actual position1 he uses towards them4 ,this change of relative position was called in old ,french and ,anglo-,norman1 le monde bestorn1 which was equivalent to the ,english phrase1 the world turned upside down4 ,it forms the subject of rather old verses1 ,i believe1 both in ,french and ,english1 and individual scenes from it are met with in pictorial representation at a rather early date4 ,during the year #ahfb1 in the course of accidental excavations on the site of the ,friary1 at ,derby1 a number of encaustic tiles1 such as were used for the floors of the interiors of churches and large buildings1 were found4#cj ,the ornamentation of these tiles1 especially of the earlier ones1 is1 like all medival ornamentations1 extremely varied1 and even these tiles sometimes present subjects of a burlesque and satirical character1 though they are more frequently adorned with the arms and badges of benefactors to the church or convent4 ,the tiles found on the site of the priory at ,derby are believed to be of the thirteenth century1 and one pattern1 a diminished copy of which is given in our cut ,no4 #ed1 presents a subject taken from the monde bestorn4 ,the hare1 master of his old enemy1 the dog1 has become hunter himself1 and seated upon the dog's back he rides vigorously to the chace1 blowing his horn as he goes4 ,the design is spiritedly executed1 and its satirical intention is shown by the monstrous and mirthful face1 with the tongue lolling out1 figured on the outer corner of the tile4 ,it will be seen that four of these tiles are intended to be joined together to make the complete piece4 ,in an illumination in a manuscript of the fourteenth century in the ,british ,museum 7,,ms4 ,reg4 #aj ,e iv471 the hares are taking a still more severe vengeance on their old enemy4 ,the dog has been caught1 brought to trial for his numerous murders1 and condemned1 and they are represented here 7cut ,no4 #ee7 conducting him in the criminal's cart to the gallows4 ,our cut ,no4 #ef1 the subject of which is furnished by one of the carved stalls in ,sherborne ,minster 7it is here copied from the engraving in ,carter's ,specimens of ,ancient ,sculpture71 represents another execution scene1 similar in spirit to the former4 ,the geese have seized their old enemy1 ,reynard1 and are hanging him on a gallows1 while two monks1 who attend the execution1 appear to be amused at the energetic manner in which the geese perform their task4 ,mr4 ,jewitt mentions two other subjects belonging to this series1 one of them taken from an illuminated manuscript2 they are1 the mouse chasing the cat1 and the horse driving the cart--the former human carter in this case taking the place of the horse between the shafts4 #cj ,mr4 ,llewellynn ,jewitt1 in his excellent publication1 the ,reliquary1 for ,october1 #ahfb1 has given an interesting paper on the encaustic tiles found on this occasion1 and on the conventual house to which they belonged4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ee4 ,justice in the ,hands of the ,persecuted4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ef4 ,reynard brought to ,account at ,last4 ,the ,world turned upside down2 or1 the ,folly of ,man1 has continued amongst us to be a popular chap-book and child's book till within a very few years1 and ,i have now a copy before me printed in ,london about the year #agij4 ,it consists of a series of rude woodcuts1 with a few doggrel verses under each4 ,one of these1 entitled ,the ,ox turned ,farmer1 represents two men drawing the plough1 driven by an ox4 ,in the next1 a rabbit is seen turning the spit on which a man is roasting1 while a cock holds a ladle and bastes4 ,in a third1 we see a tournament1 in which the horses are armed and ride upon the men4 ,another represents the ox killing the butcher4 ,in others we have birds netting men and women2 the ass1 turned miller1 employing the man-miller to carry his sacks2 the horse turned groom1 and currying the man2 and the fishes angling for men and catching them4 ,in a cleverly sculptured ornament in ,beverley ,minster1 represented in our cut ,no4 #eg1 the goose herself is represented in a grotesque situation1 which might almost give her a place in ,the ,world turned upside down1 although it is a mere burlesque1 without any apparent satirical aim4 ,the goose has here taken the place of the horse at the blacksmith's1 who is vigorously nailing the shoe on her webbed foot4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #eg4 ,shoeing the ,goose4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #eh4 ,food for ,swine4 ,burlesque subjects of this description are not uncommon1 especially among architectural sculpture and wood-carving1 and1 at a rather later period1 on all ornamental objects4 ,the field for such subjects was so extensive1 that the artist had an almost unlimited choice1 and therefore his subjects might be almost infinitely varied1 though we usually find them running on particular classes4 ,the old popular proverbs1 for instance1 furnished a fruitful source for drollery1 and are at times delineated in an amusingly literal or practical manner4 ,pictorial proverbs and popular sayings are sometimes met with on the carved misereres4 ,for example1 in one of those at ,rouen1 in ,normandy1 represented in our cut ,no4 #eh1 the carver has intended to represent the idea of the old saying1 in allusion to misplaced bounty1 of throwing pearls to swine1 and has given it a much more picturesque and pictorially intelligible form1 by introducing a rather dashing female feeding her swine with roses1 or rather offering them roses for food1 for the swine display no eagerness to feed upon them4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ei4 ,the ,industrious ,sow4 ,we meet with such subjects as these scattered over all medival works of art1 and at a somewhat later period they were transferred to other objects1 such as the signs of houses4 ,the custom of placing signs over the doors of shops and taverns1 was well known to the ancients1 as is abundantly manifested by their frequent occurrence in the ruins of ,pompeii2 but in the middle ages1 the use of signs and badges was universal1 and as--contrary to the apparent practice in ,pompeii1 where certain badges were appropriated to certain trades and professions--every individual was free to choose his own sign1 the variety was unlimited4 ,many still had reference1 no doubt1 to the particular calling of those to whom they belonged1 while others were of a religious character1 and indicated the saint under whose protection the householder had placed himself4 ,some people took animals for their signs1 others monstrous or burlesque figures2 and1 in fact1 there were hardly any of the subjects of caricature or burlesque familiar to the medival sculptor and illuminator which did not from time to time appear on these popular signs4 ,a few of the old signs still preserved1 especially in the quaint old towns of ,france1 ,germany1 and the ,netherlands1 show us how frequently they were made the instruments of popular satire4 ,a sign not uncommon in ,france was ,la ,truie qui file 7the sow spinning74 ,our cut ,no4 #ei represents this subject as treated on an old sign1 a carving in bas-relief of the sixteenth century1 on a house in the ,rue du ,march-aux-,poires1 in ,rouen4 ,the sow appears here in the character of the industrious housewife1 employing herself in spinning at the same time that she is attending to the wants of her children4 ,there is a singularly satirical sign at ,beauvais1 on a house which was formerly occupied by an picier-moutardier1 or grocer who made mustard1 in the ,rue du ,chtel4 ,in front of this sign1 which is represented in our cut ,no4 #fj1 appears a large mustard-mill1 on one side of which stands ,folly with a staff in her hand1 with which she is stirring the mustard1 while an ape with a sort of sardonic grin1 throws in a seasoning1 which may be conjectured by his posture4#ca ,the trade-mark of the individual who adopted this strange device1 is carved below4 #ca ,see an interesting little book on this subject by ,m4 ,ed4 de la ,qurire1 entitled ,recherches sur les ,enseignes des ,maisons ,particulires1 #hvo41 ,rouen1 #aheb1 from which both the above examples are taken4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fj4 ,adulteration4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,monkey ,,in ,,burlesque ,,and ,,caricature4--,,tournaments ,,and ,,single ,,combats4--,,monstrous ,,combinations ,,of ,,animal ,,forms4--,,caricatures ,,on ,,costume4--,,the ,,hat4--,,the ,,helmet4--,,ladies' ,,head-,,dresses4--,,the ,,gown1 ,,and ,,its ,,long ,,sleeves4 ,the fox1 the wolf1 and their companions1 were introduced as instruments of satire1 on account of their peculiar characters2 but there were other animals which were also favourites with the satirist1 because they displayed an innate inclination to imitate2 they formed1 as it were1 natural parodies upon mankind4 ,i need hardly say that of these the principal and most remarkable was the monkey4 ,this animal must have been known to our ,anglo-,saxon forefathers from a remote period1 for they had a word for it in their own language--apa1 our ape4 ,monkey is a more modern name1 and seems to be equivalent with maniken1 or a little man4 ,the earliest ,bestiaries1 or popular treatises on natural history1 give anecdotes illustrative of the aptness of this animal for imitating the actions of men1 and ascribe to it a degree of understanding which would almost raise it above the level of the brute creation4 ,philip de ,thaun1 an ,anglo-,norman poet of the reign of ,henry ,i41 in his ,bestiary1 tells us that the monkey1 by imitation1 as books say1 counterfeits what it sees1 and mocks people3-- ,li singe par figure1 si cum dit escripture1 ,ceo que il vait contrefait1 de gent escar hait4#cb ,he goes on to inform us1 as a proof of the extraordinary instinct of this animal1 that it has more affection for some of its cubs than for others1 and that1 when running away1 it carried those which it liked before it1 and those it disliked behind its back4 ,the sketch from the illuminated manuscript of the ,romance of the ,comte d',artois1 of the fifteenth century1 which forms our cut ,no4 #fa1 represents the monkey1 carrying1 of course1 its favourite child before it in its flight1 and what is more1 it is taking that flight mounted on a donkey4 ,a monkey on horseback appears not to have been a novelty1 as we shall see in the sequel4 #cb ,see my ,popular ,treatises on ,science written during the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #ajg4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fa4 ,a ,monkey ,mounted4 ,alexander ,neckam1 a very celebrated ,english scholar of the latter part of the twelfth century1 and one of the most interesting of the early medival writers on natural history1 gives us many anecdotes1 which show us how much attached our medival forefathers were to domesticated animals1 and how common a practice it was to keep them in their houses4 ,the baronial castle appears often to have presented the appearance of a menagerie of animals1 among which some were of that strong and ferocious character that rendered it necessary to keep them in close confinement1 while others1 such as monkeys1 roamed about the buildings at will4 ,one of ,neckam's stories is very curious in regard to our subject1 for it shows that the people in those days exercised their tamed animals in practically caricaturing contemporary weaknesses and fashions4 ,this writer remarks that the nature of the ape is so ready at acting1 by ridiculous gesticulations1 the representations of things it has seen1 and thus gratifying the vain curiosity of worldly men in public exhibitions1 that it will even dare to imitate a military conflict4 ,a jougleur 7histrio7 was in the habit of constantly taking two monkeys to the military exercises which are commonly called tournaments1 that the labour of teaching might be diminished by frequent inspection4 ,he afterwards taught two dogs to carry these apes1 who sat on their backs1 furnished with proper arms4 ,nor did they want spurs1 with which they strenuously urged on the dogs4 ,having broken their lances1 they drew out their swords1 with which they spent many blows on each other's shields4 ,who at this sight could refrain from laughter8#cc #cc ,alexander ,neckam1 ,de ,naturis ,rerum1 lib4 ii4 c4 #abi4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fb4 ,a ,tournament4 ,such contemporary caricatures of the medival tournament1 which was in its greatest fashion during the period from the twelfth to the fourteenth century1 appear to have been extremely popular1 and are not unfrequently represented in the borders of illuminated manuscripts4 ,the manuscript now so well known as ,queen ,mary's ,psalter 7,,ms4 ,reg4 #b ,b vii471 and written and illuminated very early in the fourteenth century1 contains not a few illustrations of this description4 ,one of these1 which forms our cut ,no4 #fb1 represents a tournament not much unlike that described by ,alexander ,neckam1 except that the monkeys are here riding upon other monkeys1 and not upon dogs4 ,in fact1 all the individuals here engaged are monkeys1 and the parody is completed by the introduction of the trumpeter on one side1 and of minstrelsy1 represented by a monkey playing on the tabor1 on the other2 or1 perhaps1 the two monkeys are simply playing on the pipe and tabor1 which were looked upon as the lowest description of minstrelsy1 and are therefore the more aptly introduced into the scene4 ,the same manuscript has furnished us with the cut ,no4 #fc4 ,here the combat takes place between a monkey and a stag1 the latter having the claws of a griffin4 ,they are mounted1 too1 on rather nondescript animals--one having the head and body of a lion1 with the forefeet of an eagle2 the other having a head somewhat like that of a lion1 on a lion's body1 with the hind parts of a bear4 ,this subject may1 perhaps1 be intended as a burlesque on the medival romances1 filled with combats between the ,christians and the ,saracens2 for the ape--who1 in the moralisations which accompany the ,bestiaries1 is said to represent the devil--is here armed with what are evidently intended for the sabre and shield of a ,saracen1 while the flag carries the shield and lance of a ,christian knight4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fc4 ,a ,feat of ,arms4 ,the love of the medival artists for monstrous figures of animals1 and for mixtures of animals and men1 has been alluded to in a former chapter4 ,the combatants in the accompanying cut 7,no4 #fd71 taken from the same manuscript1 present a sort of combination of the rider and the animal1 and they again seem to be intended for a ,saracen and a ,christian4 ,the figure to the right1 which is composed of the body of a satyr1 with the feet of a goose and the wings of a dragon1 is armed with a similar ,saracenic sabre2 while that to the left1 which is on the whole less monstrous1 wields a ,norman sword4 ,both have human faces below the navel as well as above1 which was a favourite idea in the grotesque of the middle ages4 ,our medival forefathers appear to have had a decided taste for monstrosities of every description1 and especially for mixtures of different kinds of animals1 and of animals and men4 ,there is no doubt1 to judge by the anecdotes recorded by such writers as ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 that a belief in the existence of such unnatural creatures was widely entertained4 ,in his account of ,ireland1 this writer tells us of animals which were half ox and half man1 half stag and half cow1 and half dog and half monkey4#cd ,it is certain that there was a general belief in such animals1 and nobody could be more credulous than ,giraldus himself4 #cd ,see ,girald4 ,cambr41 ,topog4 ,hiberni1 dist4 ii4 cc4 #ba1 #bb2 and the ,itinerary of ,wales1 lib4 ii4 c4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fd4 ,a ,terrible ,combat4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fe4 ,fashionable ,dress4 ,the design to caricature1 which is tolerably evident in the subjects just given1 is still more apparent in other grotesques that adorn the borders of the medival manuscripts1 as well as in some of the medival carvings and sculpture4 ,thus1 in our cut ,no4 #fe1 taken from one of the borders in the ,romance of the ,comte d',artois1 a manuscript of the fifteenth century1 we cannot fail to recognise an attempt at turning to ridicule the contemporary fashions in dress4 ,the hat is only an exaggerated form of one which appears to have been commonly used in ,france in the latter half of the fifteenth century1 and which appears frequently in illuminated manuscripts executed in ,burgundy2 and the boot also belongs to the same period4 ,the latter reappeared at different times1 until at length it became developed into the modern top-boots4 ,in cut ,no4 #ff1 from the same manuscript1 where it forms the letter ,t1 we have the same form of hat1 still more exaggerated1 and combined at the same time with grotesque faces4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ff4 ,heads and ,hats4 ,caricatures on costume are by no means uncommon among the artistic remains of the middle ages1 and are not confined to illuminated manuscripts4 ,the fashionable dresses of those days went into far more ridiculous excesses of shape than anything we see in our times--at least1 so far as we can believe the drawings in the manuscripts2 but these1 however seriously intended1 were constantly degenerating into caricature1 from circumstances which are easily explained1 and which have1 in fact1 been explained already in their influence on other parts of our subject4 ,the medival artists in general were not very good delineators of form1 and their outlines are much inferior to their finish4 ,conscious of this1 though perhaps unknowingly1 they sought to remedy the defect in a spirit which has always been adopted in the early stages of art-progress--they aimed at making themselves understood by giving a special prominence to the peculiar characteristics of the objects they wished to represent4 ,these were the points which naturally attracted people's first attention1 and the resemblance was felt most by people in general when these points were put forward in excessive prominence in the picture4 ,the dresses1 perhaps1 hardly existed in the exact forms in which we see them in the illuminations1 or at least those were only exceptions to the generally more moderate forms2 and hence1 in using these pictorial records as materials for the history of costume1 we ought to make a certain allowance for exaggeration--we ought1 indeed1 to treat them almost as caricatures4 ,in fact1 much of what we now call caricature1 was then characteristic of serious art1 and of what was considered its high development4 ,many of the attempts which have been made of late years to introduce ancient costume on the stage1 would probably be regarded by the people who lived in the age which they were intended to represent1 as a mere design to turn them into ridicule4 ,nevertheless1 the fashions in dress were1 especially from the twelfth century to the sixteenth1 carried to a great degree of extravagance1 and were not only the objects of satire and caricature1 but drew forth the indignant declamations of the ,church1 and furnished a continuous theme to the preachers4 ,the contemporary chronicles abound with bitter reflections on the extravagance in costume1 which was considered as one of the outward signs of the great corruption of particular periods2 and they give us not unfrequent examples of the coarse manner in which the clergy discussed them in their sermons4 ,the readers of ,chaucer will remember the manner in which this subject is treated in the ,parson's ,tale4 ,in this respect the satirists of the ,church went hand in hand with the pictorial caricaturists of the illuminated manuscripts1 and of the sculptures with which we sometimes meet in contemporary architectural ornamentation4 ,in the latter1 this class of caricature is perhaps less frequent1 but it is sometimes very expressive4 ,the very curious misereres in the church of ,ludlow1 in ,shropshire1 present the caricature reproduced in our cut ,no4 #fg4 ,it represents an ugly1 and1 to judge by the expression of the countenance1 an ill-tempered old woman1 wearing the fashionable head-dress of the earlier half of the fifteenth century1 which seems to have been carried to its greatest extravagance in the beginning of the reign of ,henry ,,vi4 ,it is the style of coiffure known especially as the horned head-dress1 and the very name carries with it a sort of relationship to an individual who was notoriously horned--the spirit of evil4 ,this dashing dame of the olden time appears to have struck terror into two unfortunates who have fallen within her influence1 one of whom1 as though he took her for a new ,gorgon1 is attempting to cover himself with his buckler1 while the other1 apprehending danger of another kind1 is prepared to defend himself with his sword4 ,the details of the head-dress in this figure are interesting for the history of costume4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fg4 ,a ,fashionable ,beauty4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fh4 ,a ,man of ,war4 ,our next cut1 ,no4 #fh1 is taken from a manuscript in private possession1 which is now rather well known among antiquaries by the name of the ,luttrell ,psalter1 and which belongs to the fourteenth century4 ,it seems to involve a satire on the aristocratic order of society--on the knight who was distinguished by his helmet1 his shield1 and his armour4 ,the individual here represented presents a type which is anything but aristocratic4 ,while he holds a helmet in his hand to show the meaning of the satire1 his own helmet1 which he wears on his head1 is simply a bellows4 ,he may be a knight of the kitchen1 or perhaps a mere quistron1 or kitchen lad4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fi4 ,a ,lady's ,head-dress4 ,we have just seen a caricature of one of the ladies' head-dresses of the earlier half of the fifteenth century1 and our cut ,no4 #fi1 from an illuminated manuscript in the ,british ,museum of the latter half of the same century 7,,ms4 ,harl41 ,no4 #dcgi71 furnishes us with a caricature of a head-dress of a different character1 which came into fashion in the reign of our ,edward ,,iv4 ,the horned head-dress of the previous generation had been entirely laid aside1 and the ladies adopted in its place a sort of steeple-shaped head-dress1 or rather of the form of a spire1 made by rolling a piece of linen into the form of a long cone4 ,over this lofty cap was thrown a piece of fine lawn or muslin1 which descended almost to the ground1 and formed1 as it were1 two wings4 ,a short transparent veil was thrown over the face1 and reached not quite to the chin1 resembling rather closely the veils in use among our ladies of the present day 7#ahfd74 ,the whole head-dress1 indeed1 has been preserved by the ,norman peasantry2 for it may be observed that1 during the feudal ages1 the fashions in ,france and ,england were always identical4 ,these steeple head-dresses greatly provoked the indignation of the clergy1 and zealous preachers attacked them roughly in their sermons4 ,a ,french monk1 named ,thomas ,conecte1 distinguished himself especially in this crusade1 and inveighed against the head-dress with such effect1 that we are assured that many of the women threw down their head-dresses in the middle of the sermon1 and made a bonfire of them at its conclusion4 ,the zeal of the preacher soon extended itself to the populace1 and1 for a while1 when ladies appeared in this head-dress in public1 they were exposed to be pelted by the rabble4 ,under such a double persecution it disappeared for a moment1 but when the preacher was no longer present1 it returned again1 and1 to use the words of the old writer who has preserved this anecdote1 the women who1 like snails in a fright1 had drawn in their horns1 shot them out again as soon as the danger was over4 ,the caricaturist would hardly overlook so extravagant a fashion1 and accordingly the manuscript in the ,british ,museum1 just mentioned1 furnishes us with the subject of our cut ,no4 #fi4 ,in those times1 when the passions were subjected to no restraint1 the fine ladies indulged in such luxury and licentiousness1 that the caricaturist has chosen as their fit representative a sow1 who wears the objectionable head-dress in full fashion4 ,the original forms one of the illustrations of a copy of the historian ,froissart1 and was1 therefore1 executed in ,france1 or1 more probably1 in ,burgundy4 ,the sermons and satires against extravagance in costume began at an early period4 ,the ,anglo-,norman ladies1 in the earlier part of the twelfth century1 first brought in vogue in our island this extravagance in fashion1 which quickly fell under the lash of satirist and caricaturist4 ,it was first exhibited in the robes rather than in the head-dress4 ,these ,anglo-,norman ladies are understood to have first introduced stays1 in order to give an artificial appearance of slenderness to their waists2 but the greatest extravagance appeared in the forms of their sleeves4 ,the robe1 or gown1 instead of being loose1 as among the ,anglo-,saxons1 was laced close round the body1 and the sleeves1 which fitted the arm tightly till they reached the elbows1 or sometimes nearly to the wrist1 then suddenly became larger1 and hung down to an extravagant length1 often trailing on the ground1 and sometimes shortened by means of a knot4 ,the gown1 also1 was itself worn very long4 ,the clergy preached against these extravagances in fashion1 and at times1 it is said1 with effect2 and they fell under the vigorous lash of the satirist4 ,in a class of satires which became extremely popular in the twelfth century1 and which produced in the thirteenth the immortal poem of ,dante--the visions of purgatory and of hell--these contemporary extravagances in fashion are held up to public detestation1 and are made the subject of severe punishment4 ,they were looked upon as among the outward forms of pride4 ,it arose1 no doubt1 from this taste--from the darker shade which spread over men's minds in the twelfth century--that demons1 instead of animals1 were introduced to personify the evil-doers of the time4 ,such is the figure 7cut ,no4 #gj7 which we take from a very interesting manuscript in the ,british ,museum 7,,ms4 ,cotton4 ,nero1 ,c iv474 ,the demon is here dressed in the fashionable gown with its long sleeves1 of which one appears to have been usually much longer than the other4 ,both the gown and sleeve are shortened by means of knots1 while the former is brought close round the waist by tight lacing4 ,it is a picture of the use of stays made at the time of their first introduction4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gj4 ,sin in ,satins4 ,this superfluity of length in the different parts of the dress was a subject of complaint and satire at various and very distant periods1 and contemporary illuminations of a perfectly serious character show that these complaints were not without foundation4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,mimus ,,after ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,empire4--,,the ,,minstrel ,,and ,,jogelour4--,,history ,,of ,,popular ,,stories4--,,the ,,fabliaux4--,,account ,,of ,,them4--,,the ,,contes ,,devots4 ,i have already remarked that1 upon the fall of the ,roman empire1 the popular institutions of the ,romans were more generally preserved to the middle ages than those of a higher and more refined character4 ,this is understood without difficulty1 when we consider that the lower class of the population--in the towns1 what we might perhaps call the lower and middle classes--continued to exist much the same as before1 while the barbarian conquerors came in and took the place of the ruling classes4 ,the drama1 which had never much hold upon the love of the ,roman populace1 was lost1 and the theatres and the amphitheatres1 which had been supported only by the wealth of the imperial court and of the ruling class1 were abandoned and fell into ruin2 but the mimus1 who furnished mirth to the people1 continued to exist1 and probably underwent no immediate change in his character4 ,it will be well to state again the chief characteristics of the ancient mimus1 before we proceed to describe his medival representative4 ,the grand aim of the mimus was to make people laugh1 and he employed generally every means he knew of for effecting this purpose1 by language1 by gestures or motions of the body1 or by dress4 ,thus he carried1 strapped over his loins1 a wooden sword1 which was called gladius histricus and clunaculum1 and wore sometimes a garment made of a great number of small pieces of cloth of different colours1 which was hence called centunculus1 or the hundred-patched dress4#ce ,these two characteristics have been preserved in the modern harlequin4 ,other peculiarities of costume may conveniently be left undescribed2 the female mim sometimes exhibited themselves unrestricted by dress4 ,they danced and sung2 repeated jokes and told merry stories2 recited or acted farces and scandalous anecdotes2 performed what we now call mimicry1 a word derived from the name of mimus2 and they put themselves in strange postures1 and made frightful faces4 ,they sometimes acted the part of a fool or zany 7morio71 or of a madman4 ,they added to these performances that of the conjurer or juggler 7prstigiator71 and played tricks of sleight of hand4 ,the mimi performed in the streets and public places1 or in the theatres1 and especially at festivals1 and they were often employed at private parties1 to entertain the guests at a supper4 #ce ,uti me consuesse tragdi syrmate1 histrionis crotalone ad trieterica orgia1 aut mimi centunculo4--,apuleius1 ,apolog4 ,we trace the existence of this class of performers during the earlier period of the middle ages by the expressions of hostility towards them used from time to time by the ecclesiastical writers1 and the denunciations of synods and councils1 which have been quoted in a former chapter4#cf ,nevertheless1 it is evident from many allusions to them1 that they found their way into the monastic houses1 and were in great favour not only among the monks1 but among the nuns also2 that they were introduced into the religious festivals2 and that they were tolerated even in the churches4 ,it is probable that they long continued to be known in ,italy and the countries near the centre of ,roman influence1 and where the ,latin language was continued1 by their old name of mimus4 ,the writers of the medival vocabularies appear all to have been much better acquainted with the meaning of this word than of most of the ,latin words of the same class1 and they evidently had a class of performers existing in their own times to whom they considered that the name applied4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon vocabularies interpret the ,latin mimus by glig-mon1 a gleeman4 ,in ,anglo-,saxon1 glig or gliu meant mirth and game of every description1 and as the ,anglo-,saxon teachers who compiled the vocabularies give1 as synonyms of mimus1 the words scurra1 jocista1 and pantomimus1 it is evident that all these were included in the character of the gleeman1 and that the latter was quite identical with his ,roman type4 ,it was the ,roman mimus introduced into ,saxon ,england4 ,we have no traces of the existence of such a class of performers among the ,teutonic race before they became acquainted with the civilisation of imperial ,rome4 ,we know from drawings in contemporary illuminated manuscripts that the performances of the gleeman did include music1 singing1 and dancing1 and also the tricks of mountebanks and jugglers1 such as throwing up and catching knives and balls1 and performing with tamed bears1 c4#cg #cf ,see before1 p4 #da of the present volume4 #cg ,see examples of these illuminations in my ,history of ,domestic ,manners and ,sentiments1 pp4 #cd1 #ce1 #cg1 #fe4 ,but even among the peoples who preserved the ,latin language1 the word mimus was gradually exchanged for others employed to signify the same thing4 ,the word jocus had been used in the signification of a jest1 playfulness1 jocari signified to jest1 and joculator was a word for a jester2 but1 in the debasement of the language1 jocus was taken in the signification of everything which created mirth4 ,it became1 in the course of time the ,french word jeu1 and the ,italian gioco1 or giuoco4 ,people introduced a form of the verb1 jocare1 which became the ,french juer1 to play or perform4 ,joculator was then used in the sense of mimus4 ,in ,french the word became joglor1 or jouglor1 and in its later form jougleur4 ,i may remark that1 in medival manuscripts1 it is almost impossible to distinguish between the u and the n1 and that modern writers have misread this last word as jongleur1 and thus introduced into the language a word which never existed1 and which ought to be abandoned4 ,in old ,english1 as we see in ,chaucer1 the usual form was jogelere4 ,the medival joculator1 or jougleur1 embraced all the attributes of the ,roman mimus1#ch and perhaps more4 ,in the first place he was very often a poet himself1 and composed the pieces which it was one of his duties to sing or recite4 ,these were chiefly songs1 or stories1 the latter usually told in verse1 and so many of them are preserved in manuscripts that they form a very numerous and important class of medival literature4 ,the songs were commonly satirical and abusive1 and they were made use of for purposes of general or personal vituperation4 ,out of them1 indeed1 grew the political songs of a later period4 ,there were female jougleurs1 and both sexes danced1 and1 to create mirth among those who encouraged them1 they practised a variety of performances1 such as mimicking people1 making wry and ugly faces1 distorting their bodies into strange postures1 often exposing their persons in a very unbecoming manner1 and performing many vulgar and indecent acts1 which it is not necessary to describe more particularly4 ,they carried about with them for exhibition tame bears1 monkeys1 and other animals1 taught to perform the actions of men4 ,as early as the thirteenth century1 we find them including among their other accomplishments that of dancing upon the tight-rope4 ,finally1 the jougleurs performed tricks of sleight of hand1 and were often conjurers and magicians4 ,as1 in modern times1 the jougleurs of the middle ages gradually passed away1 sleight of hand appears to have become their principal accomplishment1 and the name only was left in the modern word juggler4 ,the jougleurs of the middle ages1 like the mimi of antiquity1 wandered about from place to place1 and often from country to country1 sometimes singly and at others in companies1 exhibited their performances in the roads and streets1 repaired to all great festivals1 and were employed especially in the baronial hall1 where1 by their songs1 stories1 and other performances1 they created mirth after dinner4 #ch ,people in the middle ages were so fully conscious of the identity of the medival jougleur with the ,roman mimus1 that the ,latin writers often use mimus to signify a jougleur1 and the one is interpreted by the others in the vocabularies4 ,thus1 in ,latin-,english vocabularies of the fifteenth century1 we have-- ,hic joculator1 ,anglice jogulour4 ,hic mimus1 ,this class of society had become known by another name1 the origin of which is not so easily explained4 ,the primary meaning of the ,latin word minister was a servant1 one who ministers to another1 either in his wants or in his pleasures and amusements4 ,it was applied particularly to the cup-bearer4 ,in low ,latinity1 a diminutive of this word was formed1 minestellus1 or ministrellus1 a petty servant1 or minister4 ,when we first meet with this word1 which is not at a very early date1 it is used as perfectly synonymous with joculator1 and1 as the word is certainly of ,latin derivation1 it is clear that it was from it the middle ages derived the ,french word menestrel 7the modern mntrier71 and the ,english minstrel4 ,the mimi or jougleurs were perhaps considered as the petty ministers to the amusements of their lord1 or of him who for the time employed them4 ,until the close of the middle ages1 the minstrel and the jougleur were absolutely identical4 ,possibly the former may have been considered the more courtly of the two names4 ,but in ,england1 as the middle ages disappeared1 and lost their influence on society sooner than in ,france1 the word minstrel remained attached only to the musical part of the functions of the old mimus1 while1 as just observed1 the juggler took the sleight of hand and the mountebank tricks4 ,in modern ,french1 except where employed technically by the antiquary1 the word mntrier means a fiddler4 ,the jougleurs1 or minstrels1 formed a very numerous and important1 though a low and despised1 class of medival society4 ,the dulness of every-day life in a feudal castle or mansion required something more than ordinary excitement in the way of amusement1 and the old family bard1 who continually repeated to the ,teutonic chief the praises of himself and his ancestors1 was soon felt to be a wearisome companion4 ,the medival knights and their ladies wanted to laugh1 and to make them laugh sufficiently it required that the jokes1 or tales1 or comic performances1 should be broad1 coarse1 and racy1 with a good spicing of violence and of the wonderful4 ,hence the jougleur was always welcome to the feudal mansion1 and he seldom went away dissatisfied4 ,but the subject of the present chapter is rather the literature of the jougleur than his personal history1 and1 having traced his origin to the ,roman mimus1 we will now proceed to one class of his performances4 ,it has been stated that the mimus and the jougleurs told stories4 ,of those of the former1 unfortunately1 none are preserved1 except1 perhaps1 in a few anecdotes scattered in the pages of such writers as ,apuleius and ,lucian1 and we are obliged to guess at their character1 but of the stories of the jougleurs a considerable number has been preserved4 ,it becomes an interesting question how far these stories have been derived from the mimi1 handed down traditionally from mimus to jougleur1 how far they are native in our race1 or how far they were derived at a later date from other sources4 ,and in considering this question1 we must not forget that the medival jougleurs were not the only representatives of the mimi1 for among the ,arabs of the ,east also there had originated from them1 modified under different circumstances1 a very important class of minstrels and story-tellers1 and with these the jougleurs of the west were brought into communication at the commencement of the crusades4 ,there can be no doubt that a very large number of the stories of the jougleurs were borrowed from the ,east1 for the evidence is furnished by the stories themselves2 and there can be little doubt also that the jougleurs improved themselves1 and underwent some modification1 by their intercourse with ,eastern performers of the same class4 ,on the other hand1 we have traces of the existence of these popular stories before the jougleurs can have had communication with the ,east4 ,thus1 as already mentioned1 we find1 composed in ,germany1 apparently in the tenth century1 in rhythmical ,latin1 the well-known story of the wife of a merchant who bore a child during the long absence of her husband1 and who excused herself by stating that her pregnancy had been the result of swallowing a flake of snow in a snow-storm4 ,this1 and another of the same kind1 were evidently intended to be sung4 ,another poem in popular ,latin verse1 which ,grimm and ,schmeller1 who edited it1#ci believe may be of the eleventh century1 relates a very amusing story of an adventurer named ,unibos1 who1 continually caught in his own snares1 finishes by getting the better of all his enemies1 and becoming rich1 by mere ingenious cunning and good fortune4 ,this story is not met with among those of the jougleurs1 as far as they are yet known1 but1 curiously enough1 ,lover found it existing orally among the ,irish peasantry1 and inserted the ,irish story among his ,legends of ,ireland4 ,it is a curious illustration of the pertinacity with which the popular stories descend along with peoples through generations from the remotest ages of antiquity4 ,the same story is found in an oriental form among the tales of the ,tartars published in ,french by ,guenlette4 #ci ,in a volume entitled ,lateinische ,gedichte des x4 und xi4 ,jh4 #hvo4 ,gttingen1 #ahch4 ,the people of the middle ages1 who took their word fable from the ,latin fabula1 which they appear to have understood as a mere term for any short narration1 included under it the stories told by the mimi and jougleurs2 but1 in the fondness of the middle ages for diminutives1 by which they intended to express familiarity and attachment1 applied to them more particularly the ,latin fabella1 which in the old ,french became fablel1 or1 more usually1 fabliau4 ,the fabliaux of the jougleurs form a most important class of the comic literature of the middle ages4 ,they must have been wonderfully numerous1 for a very large quantity of them still remain1 and these are only the small portion of what once existed1 which have escaped perishing like the others by the accident of being written in manuscripts which have had the fortune to survive2 while manuscripts containing others have no doubt perished1 and it is probable that many were only preserved orally1 and never written down at all4#dj ,the recital of these fabliaux appears to have been the favourite employment of the jougleurs1 and they became so popular that the medival preachers turned them into short stories in ,latin prose1 and made use of them as illustrations in their sermons4 ,many collections of these short ,latin stories are found in manuscripts which had served as note-books to the preachers1#da and out of them was originally compiled that celebrated medival book called the ,gesta ,romanorum4 #dj ,many of the ,fabliaux have been printed1 but the two principal collections1 and to which ,i shall chiefly refer in the text1 are those of ,barbazan1 re-edited and much enlarged by ,mon1 #d vols4 #hvo41 #ahjh1 and of ,mon1 #b vols4 #hvo41 #ahbc4 #da ,a collection of these short ,latin stories was edited by the author of the present work1 in a volume printed for the ,percy ,society in #ahdb4 ,it is to be regretted that the subjects and language of a large portion of these fabliaux are such as to make it impossible to present them before modern readers1 for they furnish singularly interesting and minute pictures of medival life in all classes of society4 ,domestic scenes are among those most frequent1 and they represent the interior of the medival household in no favourable point of view4 ,the majority of these tell loose stories of husbands deceived by their fair spouses1 or of tricks played upon unsuspecting damsels4 ,in some instances the treatment of the husband is perhaps what may be called of a less objectionable character1 as in the fabliau of ,la ,vilain ,mire 7the clown doctor71 printed in ,barbazan 7iii4 #a71 which was the origin of ,molire's well-known comedy of ,le ,mdecin malgr lui4 ,a rich peasant married the daughter of a poor knight2 it was of course a marriage of ambition on his part1 and of interest on hers--one of those ill-sorted matches which1 according to feudal sentiments1 could never be happy1 and in which the wife was considered as privileged to treat her husband with all possible contempt4 ,in this instance the lady hit upon an ingenious mode of punishing her husband for his want of submission to her ill-treatment4 ,messengers from the king passed that way1 seeking a skilful doctor to cure the king's daughter of a dangerous malady4 ,the lady secretly informed these messengers that her husband was a physician of extraordinary talent1 but of an eccentric temper1 for he would never acknowledge or exercise his art until first subjected to a severe beating4 ,the husband is seized1 bound1 and carried by force to the king's court1 where1 of course1 he denies all knowledge of the healing art1 but a severe beating obliges him to compliance1 and he is successful by a combination of impudence and chance4 ,this is only the beginning of the poor man's miseries4 ,instead of being allowed to go home1 his fame has become so great that he is retained at court for the public good1 and1 with a rapid succession of patients1 fearful of the results of his conscious ignorance1 he refuses them all1 and is subjected in every case to the same ill-treatment to force his compliance4 ,the examples in which the husband1 on the other hand1 outwits the wife are few4 ,a fabliau by a poet who gives himself the name of ,cortebarbe1 printed also by ,barbazan 7iii4 #cih71 relates how three blind beggars were deceived by a clerc1 or scholar1 of ,paris1 who met them on the road near ,compigne4 ,the clerk pretended to give the three beggars a bezant1 which was then a good sum of money1 and they hastened joyfully to the next tavern1 where they ordered a plentiful supper1 and feasted to their hearts' content4 ,but1 in fact1 the clerk had not given them a bezant at all1 although1 as he said he did so1 and they could only judge by their hearing1 they imagined that they had the coin1 and each thought that it was in the keeping of one of his companions4 ,thus1 when the time of paying came1 and the money was not forthcoming1 in the common belief that one of the three had received the bezant and intended to keep it and cheat the others1 they quarrelled violently1 and from abuse soon came to blows4 ,the landlord1 drawn to the spot by the uproar1 and informed of the state of the case1 accused the three blind men of a conspiracy to cheat him1 and demanded payment with great threats4 ,the clerk of ,paris1 who had followed them to the inn1 and taken his lodging there in order to witness the result1 delivered the blind men by an equally ingenious trick which he plays upon the landlord and the priest of the parish4 ,some of these stories have for their subject tricks played among thieves4 ,in one printed by ,mon 7i4 #abd71 we have the story of a rich but simple villan1 or countryman1 named ,brifaut1 who is robbed at market by a cunning sharper1 and severely corrected by his wife for his carelessness4 ,robbery1 both by force and by sleight of hand and craft1 prevailed to an extraordinary degree during the middle ages4 ,the plot of the fabliau of ,barat and ,haimet1 by ,jean de ,boves 7,barbazan1 iv4 #bcc71 turns upon a trial of skill among three robbers to determine who shall commit the cleverest act of thievery1 and the result is1 at least1 an extremely amusing story4 ,it may be mentioned as an example of the numerous stories which the jougleurs certainly obtained from the ,east1 that the well-known story of the ,hunchback in the ,arabian ,nights appears among them in two or three different forms4 ,the social vices of the middle ages1 their general licentiousness1 the prevalence of injustice and extortion1 are very fully exposed to view in these compositions1 in which no class of society is spared4 ,the villan1 or peasant1 is always treated very contemptuously2 he formed the class from which the jougleur received least benefit4 ,but the aristocracy1 the great barons1 the lords of the soil1 come in for their full share of satire1 and they no doubt enjoyed the ridiculous pictures of their own order4 ,i will not venture to introduce the reader to female life in the baronial castle1 as it appears in many of these stories1 and as it is no doubt truly painted1 although1 of course1 in many instances1 much exaggerated4 ,we have already seen how in the story of ,reynard1 the character of medival society was represented by the long struggle between brute force represented by the wolf1 the emblem of the aristocratic class1 and the low astuteness of the fox1 or the unaristocratic class4 ,the success of the craft of the human fox over the force of his lordly antagonist is often told in the fabliaux in ludicrous colours4 ,in that of ,trubert1 printed by ,mon 7i4 #aib71 the duke of a country1 with his wife and family1 become repeatedly the dupes of the gross deceptions of a poor but impudent peasant4 ,these satires upon the aristocracy were no doubt greatly enjoyed by the good bourgeoisie1 who1 in their turn1 furnished abundance of stories1 of the drollest description1 to provoke the mirth of the lords of the soil1 between whom and themselves there was a kind of natural antipathy4 ,nor are the clergy spared4 ,the priest is usually described as living with a concubine--his order forbade marrying--and both are considered as fair game to the community2 while the monk figures more frequently as the hero of gallant adventures4 ,both priest and monk are usually distinguished by their selfishness and love of indulgence4 ,in the fabliau ,du ,bouchier d',abbeville1 in ,barbazan 7iv4 #a71 a butcher1 on his way home from the fair1 seeks a night's lodging at the house of an inhospitable priest1 who refuses it4 ,but when the former returns1 and offers1 in exchange for his hospitality1 one of his fat sheep which he has purchased at the fair1 and not only to kill it for their supper1 but to give all the meat they do not eat to his host1 he is willingly received into the house1 and they make an excellent supper4 ,by the promise of the skin of the sheep1 the guest succeeds in seducing both the concubine and the maid-servant1 and it is only after his departure the following morning1 in the middle of a domestic uproar caused by the conflicting claims of the priest1 the concubine1 and the maid1 to the possession of the skin1 that it is discovered that the butcher had stolen the sheep from the priest's own flock4 ,the fabliaux1 as remarked before1 form the most important class of the extensive mass of the popular literature of the middle ages1 and the writers1 confident in their strong hold upon public favour1 sometimes turn round and burlesque the literature of other classes1 especially the long heavy monotony of style of the great romances of chivalry and the extravagant adventures they contained1 as though conscious that they were gradually undermining the popularity of the romance writers4 ,one of these poems1 entitled ,de ,audigier1 and printed in ,barbazan 7iv4 #bag71 is a parody on the romance writers and on their style1 not at all wanting in spirit or wit1 but the satire is coarse and vulgar4 ,another printed in ,barbazan 7iv4 #bhg71 under the title ,de ,berengier1 is a satire upon a sort of knight-errantry which had found its way into medival chivalry4 ,berengier was a knight of ,lombardy1 much given to boasting1 who had a beautiful lady for his wife4 ,he used to leave her alone in his castle1 under pretext of sallying forth in search of chivalrous adventures1 and1 after a while1 having well hacked his sword and shield1 he returned to vaunt the desperate exploits he had performed4 ,but the lady was shrewd as well as handsome1 and1 having some suspicions of his truthfulness as well as of his courage1 she determined to make trial of both4 ,one morning1 when her husband rode forth as usual1 she hastily disguised herself in a suit of armour1 mounted a good steed1 and hurrying round by a different way1 met the boastful knight in the middle of a wood1 where he no sooner saw that he had to encounter a real assailant1 than he displayed the most abject cowardice1 and his opponent exacted from him an ignominious condition as the price of his escape4 ,on his return home at night1 boasting as usual of his success1 he found his lady taking her revenge upon him in a still less respectful manner1 but he was silenced by her ridicule4 ,the trouvres1 or poets1 who wrote the fabliaux--,i need hardly remark that trouvre is the same word as trobador1 but in the northern dialect of the ,french language--appear to have flourished chiefly from the close of the twelfth century to the earlier part of the fourteenth4 ,they all composed in ,french1 which was a language then common to ,england and ,france1 but some of their compositions bear internal evidence of having been composed in ,england1 and others are found in contemporary manuscripts written in this island4 ,the scene of a fabliau1 printed by ,mon 7i4 #aac71 is laid at ,colchester2 and that of ,la ,male ,honte1 printed in ,barbazan 7iii4 #bjd71 is laid in ,kent4 ,the latter1 however1 was written by a trouvre named ,hugues de ,cambrai4 ,no objection appears to have been entertained to the recital of these licentious stories before the ladies of the castle or of the domestic circle1 and their general popularity was so great1 that the more pious clergy seem to have thought necessary to find something to take their place in the post-prandial society of the monastery1 and especially of the nunnery2 and religious stories were written in the same form and metre as the fabliaux4 ,some of these have been published under the title of ,contes ,devots1 and1 from their general dulness1 it may be doubted if they answered their purpose of furnishing amusement so well as the others4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,caricatures ,,of ,,domestic ,,life4--,,state ,,of ,,domestic ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4--,,examples ,,of ,,domestic ,,caricature ,,from ,,the ,,carvings ,,of ,,the ,,misereres4--,,kitchen ,,scenes4--,,domestic ,,brawls4--,,the ,,fight ,,for ,,the ,,breeches4--,,the ,,judicial ,,duel ,,between ,,man ,,and ,,wife ,,among ,,the ,,germans4--,,allusions ,,to ,,witchcraft4--,,satires ,,on ,,the ,,trades2 ,,the ,,baker1 ,,the ,,miller1 ,,the ,,wine-,,pedlar ,,and ,,tavern-,,keeper1 ,,the ,,ale-,,wife1 ,,etc4 ,the influence of the jougleurs over people's minds generally1 with their stories and satirical pieces1 their grimaces1 their postures1 and their wonderful performances1 was very considerable1 and may be easily traced in medival manners and sentiments4 ,this influence would naturally be exerted upon inventive art1 and when a painter had to adorn the margin of a book1 or the sculptor to decorate the ornamental parts of a building1 we might expect the ideas which would first present themselves to him to be those suggested by the jougleur's performance1 for the same taste had to be indulged in the one as in the other4 ,the same wit or satire would pervade them both4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ga4 ,a ,medival ,kitchen ,scene4 ,among the most popular subjects of satire during the middle ages1 were domestic scenes4 ,domestic life at that period appears to have been in its general character coarse1 turbulent1 and1 ,i should say1 anything but happy4 ,in all its points of view1 it presented abundant subjects for jest and burlesque4 ,there is little room for doubt that the ,romish ,church1 as it existed in the middle ages1 was extremely hostile to domestic happiness among the middle and lower classes1 and that the interference of the priest in the family was only a source of domestic trouble4 ,the satirical writings of the period1 the popular tales1 the discourses of those who sought reform1 even the pictures in the manuscripts and the sculptures on the walls invariably represent the female portion of the family as entirely under the influence of the priests1 and that influence as exercised for the worst of purposes4 ,they encouraged faithlessness as well as disobedience in wives1 and undermined the virtue of daughters1 and were consequently regarded with anything but kindly feeling by the male portion of the population4 ,the priest1 the wife1 and the husband1 form the usual leading characters in a medival farce4 ,subjects of this kind are not very unfrequent in the illuminations of manuscripts1 and more especially in the sculptures of buildings1 and those chiefly ecclesiastical1 in which monks or priests are introduced in very equivocal situations4 ,this part of the subject1 however1 is one into which we shall not here venture1 as we find the medival caricaturists drawing plenty of materials from the less vicious shades of contemporary life2 and1 in fact1 some of their most amusing pictures are taken from the droll1 rather than from the vicious1 scenes of the interior of the household4 ,such scenes are very frequent on the misereres of the old cathedrals and collegiate churches4 ,thus1 in the stalls at ,worcester ,cathedral1 there is a droll figure of a man seated before a fire in a kitchen well stored with flitches of bacon1 he himself occupied in attending to the boiling pot1 while he warms his feet1 for which purpose he has taken off his shoes4 ,in a similar carving in ,hereford ,cathedral1 a man1 also in the kitchen1 is seen attempting to take liberties with the cook maid1 who throws a platter at his head4 ,a copy of this curious subject is given in cut ,no4 #ga1 and the cut ,no4 #gb is taken from a similar miserere in ,minster ,church1 in the ,isle of ,thanet4 ,it represents an old lady seated1 occupied industriously in spinning1 and accompanied by her cats4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gb4 ,an ,old ,lady and her ,friends4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gc4 ,the ,lady and her ,cat4 ,we might easily add other examples of similar subjects from the same sources1 such as the scene in our cut ,no4 #gc1 taken from one of the stalls of ,winchester ,cathedral1 which seems to be intended to represent a witch riding away upon her cat1 an enormous animal1 whose jovial look is only outdone by that of its mistress4 ,the latter has carried her distaff with her1 and is diligently employed in spinning4 ,a stall in ,sherborne ,minster1 given in our cut ,no4 #gd1 represents a scene in a school1 in which an unfortunate scholar is experiencing punishment of a rather severe description1 to the great alarm of his companions1 on whom his disgrace is evidently acting as a warning4 ,the flogging scene at school appears to have been rather a favourite subject among the early caricaturists1 for the scourge was looked upon in the middle ages as the grand stimulant to scholarship4 ,in those good old times1 when a man recalled to memory his schoolboy days1 he did not say1 ,when ,i was at school1 but1 ,when ,i was under the rod4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gd4 ,scholastic ,discipline4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ge4 ,a ,point in ,dispute4 ,an extensive field for the study of this interesting part of our subject will be found in the architectural gallery in the ,kensington ,museum1 which contains a large number of calls from stalls and other sculptures1 chiefly selected from the ,french cathedrals4 ,one of these1 engraved in our cut ,no4 #ge1 represents a couple of females1 seated before the kitchen fire4 ,the date of this sculpture is stated to be #achb4 ,to judge by their looks and attitude1 there is a disagreement between them1 and the object in dispute seems to be a piece of meat1 which one has taken out of the pot and placed on a dish4 ,this lady wields her ladle as though she were prepared to use it as a weapon1 while her opponent is armed with the bellows4 ,the ale-pot was not unfrequently the subject of pictures of a turbulent character1 and among the grotesque and monstrous figures in the margins of the noble manuscript of the fourteenth century1 known as the ,luttrell ,psalter1 one represents two personages not only quarrelling over their pots1 which they appear to have emptied1 but actually fighting with them4 ,one of them has literally broken his pot over his companion's head4 ,the scene is copied in our cut ,no4 #gf4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gf4 ,want of ,harmony over the ,pot4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gg4 ,domestic ,strife4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gh4 ,a ,struggle for the ,mastery4 ,it must be stated1 however1 that the more common subjects of these homely scenes are domestic quarrels1 and that the man1 or his wife1 enjoying their fireside1 or similar bits of domestic comfort1 only make their appearance at rare intervals4 ,domestic quarrels and combats are much more frequent4 ,we have already seen1 in the cut ,no4 #ge1 two dames of the kitchen evidently beginning to quarrel over their cookery4 ,a stall in the church of ,stratford-upon-,avon gives us the group represented in our cut ,no4 #gg4 ,the battle has here become desperate1 but whether the male combatant be an oppressed husband or an impertinent intruder1 is not clear4 ,the quarrel would seem to have arisen during the process of cooking1 as the female1 who has seized her opponent by the beard1 has evidently snatched up the ladle as the readiest weapon at hand4 ,the anger appears to be mainly on her side1 and the rather tame countenance of her antagonist contrasts strangely with her inflamed features4 ,our next cut1 ,no4 #gh1 is taken from the sculpture of a column in ,ely ,cathedral1 here copied from an engraving in ,carter's ,specimens of ,ancient ,sculpture4 ,a man and wife1 apparently1 are struggling for the possession of a staff1 which is perhaps intended to be the emblem of mastery4 ,as is generally represented to be the case in these scenes of domestic strife1 the woman shows more energy and more strength than her opponent1 and she is evidently overcoming him4 ,the mastery of the wife over the husband seems to have been a universally acknowledged state of things4 ,a stall in ,sherborne ,minster1 in ,dorset1 which has furnished the subject of our cut ,no4 #gi1 might almost be taken as the sequel of the last cut4 ,the lady has possessed herself of the staff1 has overthrown her husband1 and is even striking him on the head with it when he is down4 ,in our next cut1 ,no4 #hj1 which is taken from one of the casts of stalls in the ,french cathedrals exhibited in the ,kensington ,museum1 it is not quite clear which of the two is the offender1 but1 perhaps1 in this case1 the archer1 as his profession is indicated by his bow and arrows1 has made a gallant assault1 which1 although she does not look much displeased at it1 the offended dame certainly resists with spirit4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gi4 ,the ,wife in the ,ascendant4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hj4 ,violence ,resisted4 ,one idea connected with this picture of domestic antagonism appears to have been very popular from a rather early period4 ,there is a proverbial phrase to signify that the wife is master in the household1 by which it is intimated that she wears the breeches4 ,the phrase is1 it must be confessed1 an odd one1 and is only half understood by modern explanations2 but in medival story we learn how she first put in her claim to wear this particular article of dress1 how it was first disputed and contested1 how she was at times defeated1 but how1 as a general rule1 the claim was enforced4 ,there was a ,french poet of the thirteenth century1 ,hugues ,piaucelles1 two of whose fabliaux1 or metrical tales1 entitled the ,fabliau d',estourmi1 and the ,fabliau de ,sire ,hains et de ,dame ,anieuse1 are preserved in manuscript1 and have been printed in the collection of ,barbazan4 ,the second of these relates some of the adventures of a medival couple1 whose household was not the best regulated in the world4 ,the name of the heroine of this story1 ,anieuse1 is simply an old form of the ,french word ennuyeuse1 and certainly dame ,anieuse was sufficiently ennuyeuse to her lord and husband4 ,sire ,hains1 her husband1 was1 it appears1 a maker of cottes and mantles1 and we should judge also1 by the point on which the quarrel turned1 that he was partial to a good dinner4 ,dame ,anieuse was of that disagreeable temper1 that whenever ,sire ,hains told her of some particularly nice thing which he wished her to buy for his meal1 she bought instead something which she knew was disagreeable to him4 ,if he ordered boiled meat1 she invariably roasted it1 and further contrived that it should be so covered with cinders and ashes that he could not eat it4 ,this would show that people in the middle ages 7except1 perhaps1 professional cooks7 were very unapt at roasting meat4 ,this state of things had gone on for some time1 when one day ,sire ,hains gave orders to his wife to buy him fish for his dinner4 ,the disobedient wife1 instead of buying fish1 provided nothing for his meal but a dish of spinage1 telling him falsely that all the fish stank4 ,this leads to a violent quarrel1 in which1 after some fierce wrangling1 especially on the part of the lady1 ,sire ,hains proposes to decide their difference in a novel manner4 ,early in the morning1 he said1 ,i will take off my breeches and lay them down in the middle of the court1 and the one who can win them shall be acknowledged to be master or mistress of the house4 ,le matinet1 sans contredire1 ,voudrai mes braies deschaucier1 ,et enmi nostre cort couchier2 ,et qui conquerre les porra1 ,par bone reson mousterra ,qu'il ert sire ou dame du nostre4 ,barbazan1 ,fabliaux1 tome iii4 p4 #chc4 ,dame ,anieuse accepted the challenge with eagerness1 and each prepared for the struggle4 ,after due preparation1 two neighbours1 friend ,symon and ,dame ,aupais1 having been called in as witnesses1 and the object of dispute1 the breeches1 having been placed on the pavement of the court1 the battle began1 with some slight parody on the formalities of the judicial combat4 ,the first blow was given by the dame1 who was so eager for the fray that she struck her husband before he had put himself on his guard2 and the war of tongues1 in which at least ,dame ,anieuse had the best of it1 went on at the same time as the other battle4 ,sire ,hains ventured a slight expostulation on her eagerness for the fray1 in answer to which she only threw in his teeth a fierce defiance to do his worst4 ,provoked at this1 ,sire ,hains struck at her1 and hit her over the eyebrows1 so effectively1 that the skin was discoloured2 and1 over-confident in the effect of this first blow1 he began rather too soon to exult over his wife's defeat4 ,but ,dame ,anieuse was less disconcerted than he expected1 and recovering quickly from the effect of the blow1 she turned upon him and struck him on the same part of his face with such force1 that she nearly knocked him over the sheepfold4 ,dame ,anieuse1 in her turn1 now sneered over him1 and while he was recovering from his confusion1 her eyes fell upon the object of contention1 and she rushed to it1 and laid her hands upon it to carry it away4 ,this movement roused ,sire ,hains1 who instantly seized another part of the article of his dress of which he was thus in danger of being deprived1 and began a struggle for possession1 in which the said article underwent considerable dilapidation1 and fragments of it were scattered over the court4 ,in the midst of this struggle the actual fight recommenced1 by the husband giving his wife so heavy a blow on the teeth that her mouth was filled with blood4 ,the effect was such that ,sire ,hains already reckoned on the victory1 and proclaimed himself lord of the breeches4 ,hains fiert sa fame enmi les denz ,tel cop1 que la bouche dedenz ,li a toute emplie de sancz4 ,tien ore1 dist ,sire ,hains1 anc1 ,je cuit que je t'ai bien atainte1 ,or t'ai-je de deux colors tainte-- ,j'aurai les braies toutes voies4 ,but the immediate effect on ,dame ,anieuse was only to render her more desperate4 ,she quitted her hold on the disputed garment1 and fell upon her husband with such a shower of blows that he hardly knew which way to turn4 ,she was thus1 however1 unconsciously exhausting herself1 and ,sire ,hains soon recovered4 ,the battle now became fiercer than ever1 and the lady seemed to be gaining the upper hand1 when ,sire ,hains gave her a skilful blow in the ribs1 which nearly broke one of them1 and considerably checked her ardour4 ,friend ,symon here interposed1 with the praiseworthy aim of restoring peace before further harm might be done1 but in vain1 for the lady was only rendered more obstinate by her mishap2 and he agreed that it was useless to interfere until one had got a more decided advantage over the other4 ,the fight therefore went on1 the two combatants having now seized each other by the hair of the head1 a mode of combat in which the advantages were rather on the side of the male4 ,at this moment1 one of the judges1 ,dame ,aupais1 sympathising too much with ,dame ,anieuse1 ventured some words of encouragement1 which drew upon her a severe rebuke from her colleague1 ,symon1 who intimated that if she interfered again there might be two pairs of combatants instead of one4 ,meanwhile ,dame ,anieuse was becoming exhausted1 and was evidently getting the worst of the contest1 until at length1 staggering from a vigorous push1 she fell back into a large basket which lay behind her4 ,sire ,hains stood over her exultingly1 and ,symon1 as umpire1 pronounced him victorious4 ,he thereupon took possession of the disputed article of raiment1 and again invested himself with it1 while the lady accepted faithfully the conditions imposed upon her1 and we are assured by the poet that she was a good and obedient wife during the rest of her life4 ,in this story1 which affords a curious picture of medival life1 we learn the origin of the proverb relating to the possession and wearing of the breeches4 ,hugues ,piaucelles concludes his fabliau by recommending every man who has a disobedient wife to treat her in the same manner2 and medival husbands appear to have followed his advice1 without fear of laws against the ill-treatment of women4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ha4 ,the ,fight for the ,breeches4 ,a subject like this was well fitted for the burlesques on the stalls1 and accordingly we find on one of those in the cathedral at ,rouen1 the group given in our cut ,no4 #ha1 which seems to represent the part of the story in which both combatants seize hold of the disputed garment1 and struggle for possession of it4 ,the husband here grasps a knife in his hand1 with which he seems to be threatening to cut it to pieces rather than give it up4 ,the fabliau gives the victory to the husband1 but the wife was generally considered as in a majority of cases carrying off the prize4 ,in an extremely rare engraving by the ,flemish artist ,van ,mecken1 dated in #adhj1 of which ,i give a copy in our cut ,no4 #hb4 the lady1 while putting on the breeches1 of which she has just become possessed1 shows an inclination to lord it rather tyrannically over her other half1 whom she has condemned to perform the domestic drudgery of the mansion4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hb4 ,the ,breeches ,won4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hc4 ,a ,legal ,combat4 ,in ,germany1 where there was still more roughness in medival life1 what was told in ,england and ,france as a good story of domestic doings1 was actually carried into practice under the authority of the laws4 ,the judicial duel was there adopted by the legal authorities as a mode of settling the differences between husband and wife4 ,curious particulars on this subject are given in an interesting paper entitled ,some observations on ,judicial ,duels as practised in ,germany1 published in the twenty-ninth volume of the ,archologia of the ,society of ,antiquaries 7p4 #cdh74 ,these observations are chiefly taken from a volume of directions1 accompanied with drawings1 for the various modes of attack and defence1 compiled by ,paulus ,kall1 a celebrated teacher of defence at the court of ,bavaria about the year #adjj4 ,among these drawings we have one representing the mode of combat between husband and wife4 ,the only weapon allowed the female1 but that a very formidable one1 was1 according to these directions1 a heavy stone wrapped up in an elongation of her chemise1 while her opponent had only a short staff1 and he was placed up to the waist in a pit formed in the ground4 ,the following is a literal translation of the directions given in the manuscript1 and our cut ,no4 #hc is a copy of the drawing which illustrates it3--,the woman must be so prepared1 that a sleeve of her chemise extend a small ell beyond her hand1 like a little sack2 there indeed is put a stone weighing three pounds2 and she has nothing else but her chemise1 and that is bound together between the legs with a lace4 ,then the man makes himself ready in the pit over against his wife4 ,he is buried therein up to the girdle1 and one hand is bound at the elbow to the side4 ,at this time the practice of such combats in ,germany seems to have been long known1 for it is stated that in the year #abjj a man and his wife fought under the sanction of the civic authorities at ,ble1 in ,switzerland4 ,in a picture of a combat between man and wife1 from a manuscript resembling that of ,paulus ,kall1 but executed nearly a century later1 the man is placed in a tub instead of a pit1 with his left arm tied to his side as before1 and his right holding a short heavy staff2 while the woman is dressed1 and not stripped to the chemise1 as in the former case4 ,the man appears to be holding the stick in such a manner that the sling in which the stone was contained would twist round it1 and the woman would thus be at the mercy of her opponent4 ,in an ancient manuscript on the science of defence in the library at ,gotha1 the man in the tub is represented as the conqueror of his wife1 having thus dragged her head-foremost into the tub1 where she appears with her legs kicking up in the air4 ,this was the orthodox mode of combat between man and wife1 but it was sometimes practised under more sanguinary forms4 ,in one picture given from these old books on the science of defence by the writer of the paper on the subject in the ,archologia1 the two combatants1 naked down to the waist1 are represented fighting with sharp knives1 and inflicting upon each other's bodies frightful gashes4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hd4 ,the ,witch and the ,demon4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #he4 ,the ,witch and her ,victim4 ,a series of stall carvings at ,corbeil1 near ,paris1 of which more will be said a little farther on in this chapter1 has furnished the curious group represented in our cut ,no4 #hd1 which is one of the rather rare pictorial allusions to the subject of witchcraft4 ,it represents a woman who must1 by her occupation1 be a witch1 for she has so far got the mastery of the demon that she is sawing off his head with a very uncomfortable looking instrument4 ,another story of witchcraft is told in the sculpture of a stone panel at the entrance of the cathedral of ,lyons1 which is represented in our cut ,no4 #he4 ,one power1 supposed to be possessed by witches1 was that of transforming people to animals at will4 ,william of ,malmesbury1 in his ,chronicle1 tells a story of two witches in the neighbourhood of ,rome1 who used to allure travellers into their cottage1 and there transform them into horses1 pigs1 or other animals1 which they sold1 and feasted themselves with the money4 ,one day a young man1 who lived by the profession of a jougleur1 sought a night's lodging at their cottage1 and was received1 but they turned him into an ass1 and1 as he retained his understanding and his power of acting1 they gained much money by exhibiting him4 ,at length a rich man of the neighbourhood1 who wanted him for his private amusement1 offered the two women a large sum for him1 which they accepted1 but they warned the new possessor of the ass that he should carefully restrain him from going into the water1 as that would deprive him of his power of performing4 ,the man who had purchased the ass acted upon this advice1 and carefully kept him from water1 but one day1 through the negligence of his keeper1 the ass escaped from his stable1 and1 rushing to a pond at no great distance1 threw himself into it4 ,water--and running water especially--was believed to destroy the power of witchcraft or magic2 and no sooner was the ass immersed in the water1 than he recovered his original form of a young man4 ,he told his story1 which soon reached the ears of the pope1 and the two women were seized1 and confessed their crimes4 ,the carving from ,lyons ,cathedral appears to represent some such scene of sorcery4 ,the naked woman1 evidently a witch1 is1 perhaps1 seated on a man whom she has transformed into a goat1 and she seems to be whirling the cat over him in such a manner that it may tear his face with its claws4 ,there was still another class of subjects for satire and caricature which belongs to this part of our subject--,i mean that of the trader and manufacturer4 ,we must not suppose that fraudulent trading1 that deceptive and imperfect workmanship1 that adulteration of everything that could be adulterated1 are peculiar to modern times4 ,on the contrary1 there was no period in the world's history in which dishonest dealing was carried on to such an extraordinary extent1 in which there was so much deception used in manufactures1 or in which adulteration was practised on so shameless a scale1 as during the middle ages4 ,these vices1 or1 as we may1 perhaps1 more properly describe them1 these crimes1 are often mentioned in the medival writers1 but they were not easily represented pictorially1 and therefore we rarely meet with direct allusions to them1 either in sculpture1 on stone or wood1 or in the paintings of illuminated manuscripts4 ,representations of the trades themselves are not so rare1 and are sometimes droll and almost burlesque4 ,a curious series of such representations of arts and trades was carved on the misereres of the church of ,st4 ,spire1 at ,corbeil1 near ,paris1 which only exist now in ,millin's engravings1 but they seem to have been works of the fifteenth century4 ,among them the first place is given to the various occupations necessary for the production of bread1 that article so important to the support of life4 ,thus we see1 in these carvings at ,corbeil1 the labours of the reaper1 cutting the wheat and forming it into sheaves1 the miller carrying it away to be ground into meal1 and the baker thrusting it into the oven1 and drawing it out in the shape of loaves4 ,our cut ,no4 #hf1 taken from one of these sculptures1 represents the baker either putting in or taking out the bread with his peel2 by the earnest manner in which he looks at it1 we may suppose that it is the latter1 and that he is ascertaining if it be sufficiently baked4 ,we have an earlier representation of a medival oven in our cut ,no4 #hg1 taken from the celebrated illuminated manuscript of the ,romance of ,alexandre1 in the ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford1 which appears to belong to an early period of the fourteenth century4 ,here the baker is evidently going to take a loaf out of the oven1 for his companion holds a dish for the purpose of receiving it4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hf4 ,a ,baker of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hg4 ,a ,medival ,baker4 ,in nothing was fraud and adulteration practised to so great an extent as in the important article of bread1 and the two occupations especially employed in making it were objects of very great dislike and of scornful satire4 ,the miller was proverbially a thief4 ,every reader of ,chaucer will remember his character so admirably drawn in that of the miller of ,trumpington1 who1 though he was as proud and gay as eny pecok1 was nevertheless eminently dishonest4 ,a theef he was for soth of corn and mele1 ,and that a sleigh 7sly71 and usyng 7practised7 for to stele4 ,chaucer's ,reeves ,tale4 ,this practice included a large college then existing in ,cambridge1 but now forgotten1 the ,soler ,hall1 which suffered greatly by his depredations4 ,and on a day it happed in a stounde1 ,syk lay the mauncyple on a maledye1 ,men wenden wisly that he schulde dye2 ,for which this meller stal bothe mele and corn ,a thousend part more than byforn4 ,for ther biforn he stal but curteysly2 ,but now he is a theef outrageously4 ,for which the wardeyn chidde and made fare1 ,but therof sette the meller not a tare2 ,he crakked boost1 and swor it was nat so4 ,two of the scholars of this college resolved to go with the corn to the mill1 and by their watchfulness prevent his depredations4 ,those who are acquainted with the story know how the scholars succeeded1 or rather how they failed2 how the miller stole half a bushel of their flour and caused his wife to make a cake of it2 and how the victims had their revenge and recovered the cake4 ,as already stated1 the baker had in these good old times no better character than the miller1 if not worse4 ,there was an old saying1 that if three persons of three obnoxious professions were put together in a sack and shaken up1 the first who came out would certainly be a rogue1 and one of these was a baker4 ,moreover1 the opinion concerning the baker was so strong that1 as in the phrase taken from the old legends of the witches1 who in their festivals sat thirteen at a table1 this number was popularly called a devil's dozen1 and was believed to be unlucky--so1 when the devil's name was abandoned1 perhaps for the sake of euphony1 the name substituted for it was that of the baker1 and the number thirteen was called a baker's dozen4 ,the makers of nearly all sorts of provisions for sale were1 in the middle ages1 tainted with the same vice1 and there was nothing from which society in general1 especially in the towns where few made bread for themselves1 suffered so much4 ,this evil is alluded to more than once in that curious educational treatise1 the ,dictionarius of ,john de ,garlande1 printed in my ,volume of ,vocabularies4 ,this writer1 who wrote in the earlier half of the thirteenth century1 insinuates that the makers of pies 7pastillarii71 an article of food which was greatly in repute during the middle ages1 often made use of bad eggs4 ,the cooks1 he says further1 sold1 especially in ,paris to the scholars of the university1 cooked meats1 sausages1 and such things1 which were not fit to eat2 while the butchers furnished the meat of animals which had died of disease4 ,even the spices and drugs sold by the apothecaries1 or piciers1 were not1 he says1 to be trusted4 ,john de ,garlande had evidently an inclination to satire1 and he gives way to it not unfrequently in the little book of which ,i am speaking4 ,he says that the glovers of ,paris cheated the scholars of the university1 by selling them gloves made of bad materials2 that the women who gained their living by winding thread 7devacuatrices1 in the ,latin of the time71 not only emptied the scholars' purses1 but wasted their bodies also 7it is intended as a pun upon the ,latin word72 and the hucksters sold them unripe fruit for ripe4 ,the drapers1 he says1 cheated people not only by selling bad materials1 but by measuring them with false measures2 while the hawkers1 who went about from house to house1 robbed as well as cheated4 ,m4 ,jubinal has published in his curious volume entitled ,jongleurs et ,trouvres1 a rather jocular poem on the bakers1 written in ,french of1 perhaps1 the thirteenth century1 in which their art is lauded as much better and more useful than that of the goldsmith's4 ,the millers' depredations on the corn sent to be ground at the mill1 are laid to the charge of the rats1 which attack it by night1 and the hens1 which find their way to it by day2 and he explains the diminution the bakings experienced in the hands of the baker as arising out of the charity of the latter towards the poor and needy1 to whom they gave the meal and paste before it had even been put into the oven4 ,the celebrated ,english poet1 ,john ,lydgate1 in a short poem preserved in a manuscript in the ,harleian ,library in the ,british ,museum 7,,ms4 ,harl4 ,no4 #b1bee1 fol4 #aeg1 vo71 describes the pillory1 which he calls their ,bastile1 as the proper heritage of the miller and the baker3-- ,put out his hed1 lyst nat for to dare1 ,but lyk a man upon that tour to abyde1 ,for cast of eggys wil not oonys spare1 ,tyl he be quallyd body1 bak1 and syde4 ,his heed endooryd1 and of verray pryde ,put out his armys1 shewith abrood his face2 ,the fenestrallys be made for hym so wyde1 ,claymyth to been a capteyn of that place4 ,the bastyle longith of verray dewe ryght ,to fals bakerys1 it is trewe herytage ,severalle to them1 this knoweth every wyght1 ,be kynde assygned for ther sittyng stage2 ,wheer they may freely shewe out ther visage1 ,whan they tak oonys their possessioun1 ,owthir in youthe or in myddyl age2 ,men doon hem wrong yif they take hym down4 ,let mellerys and bakerys gadre hem a gilde1 ,and alle of assent make a fraternit1 ,undir the pillory a letil chapelle bylde1 ,the place amorteyse1 and purchase lybert1 ,for alle thos that of ther noumbre be2 ,what evir it coost afftir that they wende1 ,they may clayme1 be just auctorit1 ,upon that bastile to make an ende4 ,the wine-dealer and the publican formed another class in medival society who lived by fraud and dishonesty1 and were the objects of satire4 ,the latter gave both bad wine and bad measure1 and he often also acted as a pawnbroker1 and when people had drunk more than they could pay for1 he would take their clothes as pledges for their money4 ,the tavern1 in the middle ages1 was the resort of very miscellaneous company2 gamblers and loose women were always on the watch there to lead more honest people into ruin1 and the tavern-keeper profited largely by their gains2 and the more vulgar minstrel and jogelour found employment there2 for the middle classes of society1 and even their betters1 frequented the tavern much more generally than at the present day4 ,in the carved stalls of the church of ,corbeil1 the liquor merchant is represented by the figure of a man wheeling a hogshead in a barrow1 as shown in our cut ,no4 #hh4 ,the graveness and air of importance with which he regards it would lead us to suppose that the barrel contains wine2 and the cup and jug on the shelf above show that it was to be sold retail4 ,the wine-sellers called out their wines from their doors1 and boasted of their qualities1 in order to tempt people in2 and ,john de ,garlande assures us that when they entered1 they were served with wine which was not worth drinking4 ,the criers of wine1 he says1 proclaim with extended throat the diluted wine they have in their taverns1 offering it at four pennies1 at six1 at eight1 and at twelve1 fresh poured out from the gallon cask into the cup1 to tempt people4 7,volume of ,vocabularies1 p4 #abf47 ,the ale-wife was an especial subject of jest and satire1 and is not unfrequently represented on the pictorial monuments of our forefathers4 ,our cut ,no4 #hi is taken from one of the misereres in the church of ,wellingborough1 in ,northamptonshire2 the ale-wife is pouring her liquor from her jug into a cup to serve a rustic1 who appears to be waiting for it with impatience4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hh4 ,the ,wine ,dealer4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hi4 ,the ,ale-,wife4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ij4 ,the ,ale-,drawer4 ,the figure of the ale-drawer1 ,no4 #ij1 is taken from one of the misereres in the parish church of ,ludlow1 in ,shropshire4 ,the size of his jug is somewhat disproportionate to that of the barrel from which he obtains the ale4 ,the same misereres of ,ludlow ,church furnish the next scene1 cut ,no4 #ia1 which represents the end of the wicked ale-wife4 ,the day of judgment is supposed to have arrived1 and she has received her sentence4 ,a demon1 seated on one side1 is reading a list of the crimes she has committed1 which the magnitude of the parchment shows to be a rather copious one4 ,another demon 7whose head has been broken off in the original7 carries on his back1 in a very irreverent manner1 the unfortunate lady1 in order to throw her into hell-mouth1 on the other side of the picture4 ,she is naked with the exception of the fashionable head-gear1 which formed one of her vanities in the world1 and she carries with her the false measure with which she cheated her customers4 ,a demon bagpiper welcomes her on her arrival4 ,the scene is full of wit and humour4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ia4 ,the ,ale-,wife's ,end4 ,the rustic classes1 and instances of their rusticity1 are not unfrequently met with in these interesting carvings4 ,the stalls of ,corbeil present several agricultural scenes4 ,our cut ,no4 #ib is taken from those of ,gloucester cathedral1 of an earlier date1 and represents the three shepherds1 astonished at the appearance of the star which announced the birth of the ,saviour of mankind4 ,like the three kings1 the shepherds to whom this revelation was made were always in the middle ages represented as three in number4 ,in our drawing from the miserere in ,gloucester cathedral1 the costume of the shepherds is remarkably well depicted1 even to the details1 with the various implements appertaining to their profession1 most of which are suspended to their girdles4 ,they are drawn with much spirit1 and even the dog is well represented as an especially active partaker in the scene4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ib4 ,the ,shepherds of the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ic4 ,the ,carpenter4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #id4 ,the ,shoemaker4 ,of the two other examples we select from the misereres of ,corbeil1 the first represents the carpenter1 or1 as he was commonly called by our ,anglo-,saxon and medival forefathers1 the wright1 which signifies simply the maker4 ,the application of this higher and more general term--for the ,almighty himself is called1 in the ,anglo-,saxon poetry1 ealra gescefta wyrhta1 the ,maker1 or ,creator1 of all things--shows how important an art that of the carpenter was considered in the middle ages4 ,everything made of wood came within his province4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon ,colloquy of archbishop ,alfric1 where some of the more useful artisans are introduced disputing about the relative value of their several crafts1 the wright says1 ,who of you can do without my craft1 since ,i make houses and all sorts of vessels 7vasa71 and ships for you all8 7,volume of ,vocabularies1 p4 #aa47 ,and ,john de ,garlande1 in the thirteenth century1 describes the carpenter as making1 among other things1 tubs1 and barrels1 and wine-cades4 ,the workmanship of those times was exercised1 before all other materials1 on wood and metals1 and the wright1 or worker in the former material1 was distinguished by this circumstance from the smith1 or worker in metal4 ,the carpenter is still called a wright in ,scotland4 ,our last cut 7,no4 #id71 taken also from one of the misereres at ,corbeil1 represents the shoemaker1 or as he was then usually called1 the cordwainer1 because the leather which he chiefly used came from ,cordova in ,spain1 and was thence called cordewan1 or cordewaine4 ,our shoemaker is engaged in cutting a skin of leather with an instrument of a rather singular form4 ,shoes1 and perhaps forms for making shoes1 are suspended on pegs against the wall4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,grotesque ,,faces ,,and ,,figures4--,,prevalence ,,of ,,the ,,taste ,,for ,,ugly ,,and ,,grotesque ,,faces4--,,some ,,of ,,the ,,popular ,,forms ,,derived ,,from ,,antiquity2 ,,the ,,tongue ,,lolling ,,out1 ,,and ,,the ,,distorted ,,mouth4--,,horrible ,,subjects3 ,,the ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,serpents4--,,allegorical ,,figures3 ,,gluttony ,,and ,,luxury4--,,other ,,representations ,,of ,,clerical ,,gluttony ,,and ,,drunkenness4--,,grotesque ,,figures ,,of ,,individuals1 ,,and ,,grotesque ,,groups4--,,ornaments ,,of ,,the ,,borders ,,of ,,books4--,,unintentional ,,caricature2 ,,the ,,mote ,,and ,,the ,,beam4 ,the grimaces and strange postures of the jougleurs seem to have had great attractions for those who witnessed them4 ,to unrefined and uneducated minds no object conveys so perfect a notion of mirth as an ugly and distorted face4 ,hence it is that among the common peasantry at a country fair few exhibitions are more satisfactory than that of grinning through a horse-collar4 ,this sentiment is largely exemplified in the sculpture especially of the middle ages1 a long period1 during which the general character of society presented that want of refinement which we now observe chiefly in its least cultivated classes4 ,among the most common decorations of our ancient churches and other medival buildings1 are grotesque and monstrous heads and faces4 ,antiquity1 which lent us the types of many of these monstrosities1 saw in her ,typhons and ,gorgons a signification beyond the surface of the picture1 and her grotesque masks had a general meaning1 and were in a manner typical of the whole field of comic literature4 ,the mask was less an individual grotesque to be laughed at for itself1 than a personification of comedy4 ,in the middle ages1 on the contrary1 although in some cases certain forms were often regarded as typical of certain ideas1 in general the design extended no farther than the forms which the artist had given to it2 the grotesque features1 like the grinning through the horse-collar1 gave satisfaction by their mere ugliness4 ,even the applications1 when such figures were intended to have one1 were coarsely satirical1 without any intellectuality1 and1 where they had a meaning beyond the plain text of the sculpture or drawing1 it was not far-fetched1 but plain and easily understood4 ,when the ,anglo-,saxon drew the face of a bloated and disfigured monk1 he no doubt intended thereby to proclaim the popular notion of the general character of monastic life1 but this was a design which nobody could misunderstand1 an interpretation which everybody was prepared to give to it4 ,we have already seen various examples of this description of satire1 scattered here and there among the immense mass of grotesque sculpture which has no such meaning4 ,a great proportion1 indeed1 of these grotesque sculptures appears to present mere variations of a certain number of distinct types which had been handed down from a remote period1 some of them borrowed1 perhaps involuntarily1 from antiquity4 ,hence we naturally look for the earlier and more curious examples of this class of art to ,italy and the south of ,france1 where the transition from classical to medival was more gradual1 and the continued influence of classical forms is more easily traced4 ,the early ,christian masons appear to have caricatured under the form of such grotesques the personages of the heathen mythology1 and to this practice we perhaps owe some of the types of the medival monsters4 ,we have seen in a former chapter a grotesque from the church of ,monte ,majour1 near ,nismes1 the original type of which had evidently been some burlesque figure of ,saturn eating one of his children4 ,the classical mask doubtless furnished the type for those figures1 so common in medival sculpture1 of faces with disproportionately large mouths2 just as another favourite class of grotesque faces1 those with distended mouths and tongues lolling out1 were taken originally from the ,typhons and ,gorgons of the ancients4 ,many other popular types of faces rendered artificially ugly are mere exaggerations of the distortions produced on the features by different operations1 such1 for instance1 as that of blowing a horn4 ,the practice of blowing the horn1 is1 indeed1 peculiarly calculated to exhibit the features of the face to disadvantage1 and was not overlooked by the designers of the medival decorative sculpture4 ,one of the large collection of casts of sculptures from ,french cathedrals exhibited in the museum at ,south ,kensington1 has furnished the two subjects given in our cut ,no4 #ie4 ,the first is represented as blowing a horn1 but he is producing the greatest possible distortion in his features1 and especially in his mouth1 by drawing the horn forcibly on one side with his left hand1 while he pulls his beard in the other direction with the right hand4 ,the force with which he is supposed to be blowing is perhaps represented by the form given to his eyes4 ,the face of the lower figure is in at least comparative repose4 ,the design of representing general distortion in the first is further shown by the ridiculously unnatural position of the arms4 ,such distortion of the members was not unfrequently introduced to heighten the effect of the grimace in the face2 and1 as in these examples1 it was not uncommon to introduce as a further element of grotesque1 the bodies1 or parts of the bodies1 of animals1 or even of demons4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ie4 ,grotesque ,monsters4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #if4 ,diabolical ,mirth4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ig4 ,making ,faces4 ,another cast in the ,kensington ,museum is the subject of our cut ,no4 #if1 which presents the same idea of stretching the mouth4 ,the subject is here exhibited by another rather mirthful looking individual1 but whether the exhibitor is intended to be a goblin or demon1 or whether he is merely furnished with the wings and claws of a bat1 seems rather uncertain4 ,the bat was looked upon as an unpropitious if not an unholy animal2 like the owl1 it was the companion of the witches1 and of the spirits of darkness4 ,the group in our cut ,no4 #ig is taken from one of the carved stalls in the church of ,stratford-upon-,avon1 and represents a trio of grimacers4 ,the first of these three grotesque faces is lolling out the tongue to an extravagant length2 the second is simply grinning2 while the third has taken a sausage between his teeth to render his grimace still more ridiculous4 ,the number and variety of such grotesque faces1 which we find scattered over the architectural decoration of our old ecclesiastical buildings1 are so great that ,i will not attempt to give any more particular classification of them4 ,all this church decoration was calculated especially to produce its effect upon the middle and lower classes1 and medival art was1 perhaps more than anything else1 suited to medival society1 for it belonged to the mass and not to the individual4 ,the man who could enjoy a match at grinning through horse-collars1 must have been charmed by the grotesque works of the medival stone sculptor and wood carver2 and we may add that these display1 though often rather rude1 a very high degree of skill in art1 a great power of producing striking imagery4 ,these medival artists loved also to produce horrible objects as well as laughable ones1 though even in their horrors they were continually running into the grotesque4 ,among the adjuncts to these sculptured figures1 we sometimes meet with instruments of pain1 and very talented attempts to exhibit this on the features of the victims4 ,the creed of the middle ages gave great scope for the indulgence of this taste in the infinitely varied terrors of purgatory and hell2 and1 not to speak of the more crude descriptions that are so common in medival popular literature1 the account to which these descriptions might be turned by the poet as well as the artist are well known to the reader of ,dante4 ,coils of serpents and dragons1 which were the most usual instruments in the tortures of the infernal regions1 were always favourite objects in medival ornamentation1 whether sculptured or drawn1 in the details of architectural decoration1 or in the initial letters and margins of books4 ,they are often combined in forming grotesque tracery with the bodies of animals or of human beings1 and their movements are generally hostile to the latter4 ,we have already seen1 in previous chapters1 examples of this use of serpents and dragons1 dating from the earliest periods of medival art2 and it is perhaps the most common style of ornamentation in the buildings and illuminated manuscripts in our island from the earlier ,saxon times to the thirteenth century4 ,this ornamentation is sometimes strikingly bold and effective4 ,in the cathedral of ,wells there is a series of ornamental bosses1 formed by faces writhing under the attacks of numerous dragons1 who are seizing upon the lips1 eyes1 and cheeks of their victims4 ,one of these bosses1 which are of the thirteenth century1 is represented in our cut ,no4 #ih4 ,a large1 coarsely featured face is the victim of two dragons1 one of which attacks his mouth1 while the other has seized him by the eye4 ,the expression of the face is strikingly horrible4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ih4 ,horror4 ,the higher mind of the middle ages loved to see inner meanings through outward forms2 or1 at least1 it was a fashion which manifested itself most strongly in the latter half of the twelfth century1 to adapt these outward forms to inward meanings by comparisons and moralisations2 and under the effect of this feeling certain figures were at times adopted1 with a view to some other purpose than mere ornament1 though this was probably an innovation upon medival art4 ,the tongue lolling out1 taken originally1 as we have seen1 from the imagery of classic times1 was accepted rather early in the middle ages as the emblem or symbol of luxury2 and1 when we find it among the sculptured ornaments of the architecture especially of some of the larger and more important churches1 it implied probably an allusion to that vice--at least the face presented to us was intended to be that of a voluptuary4 ,among the remarkable series of sculptures which crown the battlements of the cloisters of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 executed a very few years after the middle of the fifteenth century1 amid many figures of a very miscellaneous character1 there are several which were thus1 no doubt1 intended to be representatives of vices1 if not of virtues4 ,i give two examples of these curious sculptures4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ii4 ,gluttony4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajj4 ,luxury4 ,the first1 ,no4 #ii1 is generally considered to represent gluttony1 and it is a remarkable circumstance that1 in a building the character of which was partly ecclesiastical1 and which was erected at the expense and under the directions of a great prelate1 ,bishop ,wainflete1 the vice of gluttony1 with which the ecclesiastical order was especially reproached1 should be represented in ecclesiastical costume4 ,it is an additional proof that the detail of the work of the building was left entirely to the builders4 ,the coarse1 bloated features of the face1 and the villainous low forehead1 are characteristically executed2 and the lolling tongue may perhaps be intended to intimate that1 in the lives of the clergy1 luxury went hand in hand with its kindred vice4 ,the second of our examples1 ,no4 #ajj1 appears by its different characteristics 7some of which we have been unable to introduce in our woodcut7 to be intended to represent luxury itself4 ,sometimes qualities of the individual man1 or even the class of society1 are represented in a manner far less disguised by allegorical clothing1 and therefore much more plainly to the understanding of the vulgar4 ,thus in an illuminated manuscript of the fourteenth century1 in the ,british ,museum 7,,ms4 ,arundel1 ,no4 #ia71 gluttony is represented by a monk devouring a pie alone and in secret1 except that a little cloven-footed imp holds up the dish1 and seems to enjoy the prospect of monastic indulgence4 ,this picture is copied in our cut ,no4 #aja4 ,another manuscript of the same date 7,,ms4 ,sloane1 ,no4 #bdce7 contains a scene1 copied in our cut ,no4 #ajb1 representing drunkenness under the form of another monk1 who has obtained the keys and found his way into the cellar of his monastery1 and is there indulging his love for good ale in similar secrecy4 ,it is to be remarked that here1 again1 the vices are laid to the charge of the clergy4 ,our cut ,no4 #ajc1 from a bas-relief in ,ely ,cathedral1 given in ,carter's ,specimens of ,ancient ,sculpture1 represents a man drinking from a horn1 and evidently enjoying his employment1 but his costume is not sufficiently characteristic to betray his quality4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aja4 ,monkish ,gluttony4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajb4 ,the ,monastic ,cellarer4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajc4 ,drunkenness4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajd4 ,a ,strange ,monster4 ,the subject of grotesque faces and heads naturally leads us to that of monstrous and grotesque bodies and groups of bodies1 which has already been partly treated in a former chapter1 where we have noticed the great love shown in the middle ages for monstrous animated figures1 not only monsters of one nature1 but1 and that especially1 of figures formed by joining together the parts of different1 and entirely dissimilar1 animals1 of similar mixtures between animals and men4 ,this1 as stated above1 was often effected by joining the body of some nondescript animal to a human head and face2 so that1 by the disproportionate size of the latter1 the body1 as a secondary part of the picture1 became only an adjunct to set off still further the grotesque character of the human face4 ,more importance was sometimes given to the body combined with fantastic forms1 which baffle any attempt at giving an intelligible description4 ,the accompanying cut1 ,no4 #ajd1 represents a winged monster of this kind2 it is taken from one of the casts from ,french churches exhibited in the ,kensington ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aje4 ,rolling ,topsy ,turvy4 ,sometimes the medival artist1 without giving any unusual form to his human figures1 placed them in strange postures1 or joined them in singular combinations4 ,these latter are commonly of a playful character1 or sometimes they represent droll feats of skill1 or puzzles1 or other subjects1 all of which have been published pictorially and for the amusement of children down to very recent times4 ,there were a few of these groups which are of rather frequent occurrence1 and they were evidently favourite types4 ,one of these is given in the annexed cut1 ,no4 #aje4 ,it is taken from one of the carved misereres of the stalls in ,ely cathedral1 as given in ,carter1 and represents two men who appear to be rolling over each other4 ,the upper figure exhibits animal's ears on his cap1 which seem to proclaim him a member of the fraternity of fools3 the ears of the lower figure are concealed from view4 ,this group is not a rare one1 especially on similar monuments in ,france1 where the architectural antiquaries have a technical name for it2 and this shows us how even the particular forms of art in the middle ages were not confined to any particular country1 but more or less1 and with exceptions1 they pervaded all those which acknowledged the ecclesiastical supremacy of the church of ,rome2 whatever peculiarity of style it took in particular countries1 the same forms were spread through all western ,europe4 ,our next cut1 ,no4 #ajf1 gives another of these curious groups1 consisting1 in fact1 of two individuals1 one of which is evidently an ecclesiastic4 ,it will be seen that1 as we follow this round1 we obtain1 by means of the two heads1 four different figures in so many totally different positions4 ,this group is taken from one of the very curious seats in the cathedral of ,rouen in ,normandy1 which were engraved and published in an interesting volume by the late ,monsieur ,e4 ,h4 ,langlois4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajf4 ,a ,continuous ,group4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajg4 ,border ,ornament4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajh4 ,a ,triumphal ,procession4 ,among the most interesting of the medival burlesque drawings are those which are found in such abundance in the borders of the pages of illuminated manuscripts4 ,during the earlier periods of the medival miniatures1 the favourite objects for these borders were monstrous animals1 especially dragons1 which could easily be twined into grotesque combinations4 ,in course of time1 the subjects thus introduced became more numerous1 and in the fifteenth century they were very varied4 ,strange animals still continued to be favourites1 but they were more light and elegant in their forms1 and were more gracefully designed4 ,our cut ,no4 #ajg1 taken from the beautifully-illuminated manuscript of the romance of the ,comte d',artois1 of the fifteenth century1 which has furnished us previously with several cuts1 will illustrate my meaning4 ,the graceful lightness of the tracery of the foliage shown in this design is found in none of the earlier works of art of this class4 ,this1 of course1 is chiefly to be ascribed to the great advance which had been made in the art of design since the thirteenth century4 ,but1 though so greatly improved in the style of art1 the same class of subjects continued to be introduced in this border ornamentation long after the art of printing1 and that of engraving1 which accompanied it1 had been introduced4 ,the revolution in the ornamentation of the borders of the pages of books was effected by the artists of the sixteenth century1 at which time people had become better acquainted with1 and had learnt to appreciate1 ancient art and ,roman antiquities1 and they drew their inspiration from a correct knowledge of what the middle ages had copied blindly1 but had not understood4 ,among the subjects of burlesque which the monuments of ,roman art presented to them1 the stumpy figures of the pigmies appear to have gained special favour1 and they are employed in a manner which reminds us of the pictures found in ,pompeii4 ,jost ,amman1 the well-known artist1 who exercised his profession at ,nremberg in the latter half of the sixteenth century1 engraved a set of illustrations to ,ovid's ,metamorphoses1 which were printed at ,lyons in #aegd1 and each cut and page of which is enclosed in a border of very fanciful and neatly-executed burlesque4 ,the pigmies are introduced in these borders very freely1 and are grouped with great spirit4 ,i select as an example1 cut ,no4 #ajh1 a scene which represents a triumphal procession--some pigmy ,alexander returning from his conquests4 ,the hero is seated on a throne carried by an elephant1 and before him a bird1 perhaps a vanquished crane1 proclaims loudly his praise4 ,before them a pigmy attendant marches proudly1 carrying in one hand the olive branch of peace1 and leading in the other a ponderous but captive ostrich1 as a trophy of his master's victories4 ,before him again a pigmy warrior1 heavily armed with battle-axe and falchion1 is mounting the steps of a stage1 on which a nondescript animal1 partaking somewhat of the character of a sow1 but perhaps intended as a burlesque on the strange animals which1 in medival romance1 ,alexander was said to have encountered in ,egypt1 blows a horn1 to celebrate or announce the return of the conqueror4 ,a snail1 also advancing slowly up the stage1 implies1 perhaps1 a sneer at the whole scene4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aji4 ,the ,mote and the ,beam4 ,nevertheless1 these old ,german1 ,flemish1 and ,dutch artists were still much influenced by the medival spirit1 which they displayed in their coarse and clumsy imagination1 in their neglect of everything like congruity in their treatment of the subject with regard to time and place1 and their nave exaggerations and blunders4 ,extreme examples of these characteristics are spoken of1 in which the ,israelites crossing the ,red ,sea are armed with muskets1 and all the other accoutrements of modern soldiers1 and in which ,abraham is preparing to sacrifice his son ,isaac by shooting him with a matchlock4 ,in delineating scriptural subjects1 an attempt is generally made to clothe the figures in an imaginary ancient oriental costume1 but the landscapes are filled with the modern castles and mansion houses1 churches1 and monasteries of western ,europe4 ,these half-medival artists1 too1 like their more ancient predecessors1 often fall into unintentional caricature by the exaggeration or simplicity with which they treat their subjects4 ,there was one subject which the artists of this period of regeneration of art seemed to have agreed to treat in a very unimaginative manner4 ,in the beautiful ,sermon on the ,mount1 our ,saviour1 in condemning hasty judgments of other people's actions1 says 7,matt4 vii4 #c-e71 ,and why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye1 but considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye8 ,or how wilt thou say to thy brother1 ,let me pull out the mote out of thine eye1 and1 behold1 a beam is in thine own eye8 ,thou hypocrite1 first cast out the beam out of thine own eye1 and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy brother's eye4 ,whatever be the exact nature of the beam which the man was expected to overlook in his own eye1 it certainly was not a large beam of timber4 ,yet such was the conception of it by artists of the sixteenth century4 ,one of them1 named ,solomon ,bernard1 designed a series of woodcuts illustrating the ,new ,testament1 which were published at ,lyons in #aeec2 and the manner in which he treated the subject will be seen in our cut ,no4 #aji1 taken from one of the illustrations to that book4 ,the individual seated is the man who has a mote in his eye1 which the other1 approaching him1 points out2 and he retorts by pointing to the beam1 which is certainly such a massive object as could not easily have been overlooked4 ,about thirteen years before this1 an artist of ,augsburg1 named ,daniel ,hopfer1 had published a large copper-plate engraving of this same subject1 a reduced copy of which is given in the cut ,no4 #aaj4 ,the individual who sees the mote in his brother's eye1 is evidently treating it in the character of a physician or surgeon4 ,it is only necessary to add that the beam in his own eye is of still more extraordinary dimensions than the former1 and that1 though it seems to escape the notice both of himself and his patient1 it is evident that the group in the distance contemplate it with astonishment4 ,the building accompanying this scene appears to be a church1 with paintings of saints in the windows4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aaj4 ,the ,mote and the ,beam--,another ,treatment4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,satirical ,,literature ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4--,,john ,,de ,,hauteville ,,and ,,alan ,,de ,,lille4--,,golias ,,and ,,the ,,goliards4--,,the ,,goliardic ,,poetry4--,,taste ,,for ,,parody4--,,parodies ,,on ,,religious ,,subjects4--,,political ,,caricature ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4--,,the ,,jews ,,of ,,norwich4--,,caricature ,,representations ,,of ,,countries4--,,local ,,satire4--,,political ,,songs ,,and ,,poems4 ,in a previous chapter ,i have spoken of a class of satirical literature which was entirely popular in its character4 ,not that on this account it was original among the peoples who composed medival society1 for the intellectual development of the middle ages came almost all from ,rome through one medium or other1 although we know so little of the details of the popular literature of the ,romans that we cannot always trace it4 ,the medival literature of western ,europe was mostly modelled upon that of ,france1 which was received1 like its language1 from ,rome4 ,but when the great university system became established1 towards the end of the eleventh century1 the scholars of western ,europe became more directly acquainted with the models of literature which antiquity had left them2 and during the twelfth century these found imitators so skilful that some of them almost deceive us into accepting them for classical writers themselves4 ,among the first of these models to attract the attention of medival scholars1 were the ,roman satirists1 and the study of them produced1 during the twelfth century1 a number of satirical writers in ,latin prose and verse1 who are remarkable not only for their boldness and poignancy1 but for the elegance of their style4 ,i may mention among those of ,english birth1 ,john of ,salisbury1 ,walter ,mapes1 and ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 who all wrote in prose1 and ,nigellus ,wireker1 already mentioned in a former chapter1 and ,john de ,hauteville1 who wrote in verse4 ,the first of these1 in his ,polycraticus1 ,walter ,mapes1 in his book ,de ,nugis ,curialium1 and ,giraldus1 in his ,speculum ,ecclesi1 and several other of his writings1 lay the lash on the corruptions and vices of their contemporaries with no tender hand4 ,the two most remarkable ,english satirists of the twelfth century were ,john de ,hauteville and ,nigellus ,wireker4 ,the former wrote1 in the year #aahd1 a poem in nine books of ,latin hexameters1 entitled1 after the name of its hero1 ,architrenius1 or the ,arch-mourner4 ,architrenius is represented as a youth1 arrived at years of maturity1 who sorrows over the spectacle of human vices and weaknesses1 until he resolves to go on a pilgrimage to ,dame ,nature1 in order to expostulate with her for having made him feeble to resist the temptations of the world1 and to entreat her assistance4 ,on his way1 he arrives successively at the court of ,venus and at the abode of ,gluttony1 which give him the occasion to dwell at considerable length on the license and luxury which prevailed among his contemporaries4 ,he next reaches ,paris1 and visits the famous medival university1 and his satire on the manners of the students and the fruitlessness of their studies1 forms a remarkable and interesting picture of the age4 ,the pilgrim next arrives at the ,mount of ,ambition1 tempting by its beauty and by the stately palace with which it was crowned1 and here we are presented with a satire on the manners and corruptions of the court4 ,near to this was the ,hill of ,presumption1 which was inhabited by ecclesiastics of all classes1 great scholastic doctors and professors1 monks1 and the like4 ,it is a satire on the manners of the clergy4 ,as ,architrenius turns from this painful spectacle1 he encounters a gigantic and hideous monster named ,cupidity1 is led into a series of reflections upon the greediness and avarice of the prelates1 from which he is roused by the uproar caused by a fierce combat between the prodigals and the misers4 ,he is subsequently carried to the island of far-distant ,thule1 which he finds to be the resting-place of the philosophers of ancient ,greece1 and he listens to their declamations against the vices of mankind4 ,after this visit1 ,architrenius reaches the end of his pilgrimage4 ,he finds ,nature in the form of a beautiful woman1 dwelling with a host of attendants in the midst of a flowery plain1 and meats with a courteous reception1 but she begins by giving him a long lecture on natural philosophy4 ,after this is concluded1 ,dame ,nature listens to his complaints1 and1 to console him1 gives him a handsome woman1 named ,moderation1 for a wife1 and dismisses him with a chapter of good counsels on the duties of married life4 ,the general moral intended to be inculcated appears to be that the retirement of domestic happiness is to be preferred to the vain and heartless turmoils of active life in all its phases4 ,it will be seen that the kind of allegory which subsequently produced the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 had already made its appearance in medival literature4 ,another of the celebrated satirists of the scholastic ages was named ,alanus de ,insulis1 or ,alan of ,lille1 because he is understood to have been born at ,lille in ,flanders4 ,he occupied the chair of theology for many years in the university of ,paris with great distinction1 and his learning was so extensive that he gained the name of doctor universalis1 the universal doctor4 ,in one of his books1 which is an imitation of that favourite book in the middle ages ,boethius de ,consolatione ,philosophi1 ,dame ,nature1 in the place of ,philosophy--not1 as in ,john de ,hauteville1 as the referee1 but as the complainant--is introduced bitterly lamenting over the deep depravity of the thirteenth century1 especially displayed in the prevalence of vices of a revolting character4 ,this work1 which1 like ,boethius1 consists of alternate chapters in verse and prose1 is entitled ,de ,planctu ,natur1 the lamentation of nature4 ,i will not1 however1 go on here to give a list of the graver satirical writers1 but we will proceed to another class of satirists which sprang up among the medival scholars1 more remarkable and more peculiar in their character--,i mean peculiar to the middle ages4 ,the satires of the time show us that the students in the universities in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 who enjoyed a great amount of independence from authority1 were generally wild and riotous1 and1 among the vast number of youths who then devoted themselves to a scholastic life1 we can have no doubt that the habit of dissipation became permanent4 ,among these wild students there existed1 probably1 far more wit and satirical talent than among their steadier and more laborious brethren1 and this wit1 and the manner in which it was displayed1 made its possessors welcome guests at the luxurious tables of the higher and richer clergy1 at which ,latin seems to have been the language in ordinary use4 ,in all probability it was from this circumstance 7in allusion to the ,latin word gula1 as intimating their love of the table7 that these merry scholars1 who displayed in ,latin some of the accomplishments which the jougleurs professed in the vulgar tongue1 took or received the name of goliards 7in the ,latin of that time1 goliardi1 or goliardenses74#db ,the name at least appears to have been adopted towards the end of the twelfth century4 ,in the year #abbi1 during the minority of ,louis ,,ix41 and while the government of ,france was in the hands of the queen-mother1 troubles arose in the university of ,paris through the intrigues of the papal legate1 and the turbulence of the scholars led to their dispersion and to the temporary closing of the schools2 and the contemporary historian1 ,matthew ,paris1 tells us how some of the servants of the departing scholars1 or those whom we used to call goliardenses1 composed an indecent epigram on the rumoured familiarities between the legate and the queen4 ,but this is not the first mention of the goliards1 for a statute of the council of ,treves1 in #abbg1 forbade all priests to permit truants1 or other wandering scholars1 or goliards1 to sing verses or ,sanctus and ,angelus ,dei in the service of the mass4#dc ,this probably refers to parodies on the religious service1 such as those of which ,i shall soon have to speak4 ,from this time the goliards are frequently mentioned4 ,in ecclesiastical statutes published in the year #abhi1 it is ordered that the clerks or clergy 7clerici1 that is1 men who had their education in the university7 should not be jougleurs1 goliards1 or buffoons2#dd and the same statute proclaims a heavy penalty against those clerici who persist in the practice of goliardy or stage performance during a year1#de which shows that they exercised more of the functions of the jougleur than the mere singing of songs4 #db ,in the medival ,latin1 the word goliardia was introduced to express the profession of the goliard1 and the verb goliardizare1 to signify the practice of it4 #dc ,item1 prcipimus ut omnes sacerdotes non permittant trutannos et alios vagos scholares1 aut goliardos1 cantare versus super ,sanctus et ,angelus ,dei in missis1 etc4--,concil4 ,trevir41 an4 #abbg1 ap4 ,marten4 et ,durand4 ,ampliss4 ,coll41 vii4 col4 #aag4 #dd ,item1 prcipimus quod clerici non sint joculatores1 goliardi1 seu bufones4--,stat4 ,synod4 ,caduacensis1 ,ruthenensis1 et ,tutelensis ,eccles4 ap4 ,martene1 ,thes4 ,anecd41 iv4 col4 #gbg4 #de ,clerici 444 si in goliardia vel histrionatu per annum fuerint4--,ib4 col4 #gbi4 ,in one of the editions of this statute it is added1 after they have been warned three times4 ,these vagabond clerks made for themselves an imaginary chieftain1 or president of their order1 to whom they gave the name of ,golias1 probably as a pun on the name of the giant who combated against ,david1 and1 to show further their defiance of the existing church government1 they made him a bishop--,golias episcopus4 ,bishop ,golias was the burlesque representative of the clerical order1 the general satirist1 the reformer of eclesiastical and all other corruptions4 ,if he was not a doctor of divinity1 he was a master of arts1 for he is spoken of as ,magister ,golias4 ,but above all he was the father of the ,goliards1 the ribald clerks1 as they are called1 who all belonged to his household1#df and they are spoken of as his children4 ,summa salus omnium1 filius ,mari1 ,pascat1 potat1 vestiat pueros ,goly6#dg ,may the ,saviour of all1 the ,son of ,mary1 give food1 drink1 and clothes to the children of ,golias6 ,still the name was clothed in so much mystery1 that ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 who flourished towards the latter end of the twelfth century1 believed ,golias to be a real personage1 and his contemporary4 ,it may be added that ,golias not only boasts of the dignity of bishop1 but he appears sometimes under the title of archipoeta1 the archpoet or poet-in-chief4 #df ,clerici ribaldi1 maxime qui vulgo dicuntur de famila ,goli4--,concil4 ,sen4 ap4 ,concil41 tom4 ix4 p4 #egh4 #dg ,see my ,poems of ,walter ,mapes1 p4 #gj4 ,csarius of ,heisterbach1 who completed his book of the miracles of his time in the year #abbb1 tells us a curious anecdote of the character of the wandering clerk4 ,in the year before he wrote1 he tells us1 ,it happened at ,bonn1 in the diocese of ,cologne1 that a certain wandering clerk1 named ,nicholas1 of the class they call archpoet1 was grievously ill1 and when he supposed that he was dying1 he obtained from our abbot1 through his own pleading1 and the intercession of the canons of the same church1 admission into the order4 ,what more8 ,he put on the tunic1 as it appeared to us1 with much contrition1 but1 when the danger was past1 he took it off immediately1 and1 throwing it down with derision1 took to flight4 ,we learn best the character of the goliards from their own poetry1 a considerable quantity of which is preserved4 ,they wandered about from mansion to mansion1 probably from monastery to monastery1 just like the jougleurs1 but they seem to have been especially welcome at the tables of the prelates of the church1 and1 like the jougleurs1 besides being well feasted1 they received gifts of clothing and other articles4 ,in few instances only were they otherwise than welcome1 as described in the rhyming epigram printed in my ,latin ,poems attributed to ,walter ,mapes4 ,i come uninvited1 says the goliard to the bishop1 ready for dinner2 such is my fate1 never to dine invited4 ,the bishop replies1 ,i care not for vagabonds1 who wander among the fields1 and cottages1 and villages2 such guests are not for my table4 ,i do not invite you1 for ,i avoid such as you2 yet without my will you may eat the bread you ask4 ,wash1 wipe1 sit1 dine1 drink1 wipe1 and depart4 ,goliardus4 ,non invitatus venio prandere paratus2 ,sic sum fatatus1 nunquam prandere vocatus4 ,episcopus4 ,non ego curo vagos1 qui rura1 mapalia1 pagos ,perlustrant1 tales non vult mea mensa sodales4 ,te non invito1 tibi consimiles ego vito2 ,me tamen invito potieris pane petito4 ,ablue1 terge1 sede1 prande1 bibe1 terge1 recede4 ,in another similar epigram1 the goliard complains of the bishop who had given him as his reward nothing but an old worn-out mantle4 ,most of the writers of the goliardic poetry complain of their poverty1 and some of them admit that this poverty arose from the tavern and the love of gambling4 ,one of them alleges as his claim to the liberality of his host1 that1 as he was a scholar1 he had not learnt to labour1 that his parents were knights1 but he had no taste for fighting1 and that1 in a word1 he preferred poetry to any occupation4 ,another speaks still more to the point1 and complains that he is in danger of being obliged to sell his clothes4 ,if this garment of vair which ,i wear1 he says1 be sold for money1 it will be a great disgrace to me2 ,i would rather suffer a long fast4 ,a bishop1 who is the most generous of all generous men1 gave me this cloak1 and will have for it heaven1 a greater reward than ,st4 ,martin has1 who only gave half of his cloak4 ,it is needful now that the poet's want be relieved by your liberality addressing his hearers2 let noble men give noble gifts--gold1 and robes1 and the like4 ,si vendatur propter denarium ,indumentum quod porto varium1 ,grande mihi fiet opprobrium2 ,malo diu pati jejunium4 ,largissimus largorum omnium ,prsul dedit mihi hoc pallium1 ,majus habens in clis prmium ,quam ,martinus1 qui dedit medium4 ,nunc est opus ut vestra copia ,sublevetur vatis inopia2 ,dent nobiles dona nobilia1-- ,aurum1 vestes1 et his similia4 ,there has been some difference of opinion as to the country to which this poetry more especially belongs4 ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 writing at the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth century1 evidently thought that ,golias was an ,englishman2 and at a later date the goliardic poetry was almost all ascribed to ,giraldus's contemporary and friend1 the celebrated humourist1 ,walter ,mapes4 ,this was1 no doubt1 an error4 ,jacob ,grimm seemed inclined to claim them for ,germany2 but ,grimm1 on this occasion1 certainly took a narrow view of the question4 ,we shall probably be more correct in saying that they belonged in common to all the countries over which university learning extended2 that in whatever country a particular poem of this class was composed1 it became the property of the whole body of these scholastic jougleurs1 and that it was thus carried from one land to another1 receiving sometimes alterations or additions to adapt it to each4 ,several of these poems are found in manuscripts written in different countries with such alterations and additions1 as1 for instance1 that in the well-known ,confession1 in the ,english copies of which we have1 near the conclusion1 the line-- ,prsul ,coventrensium1 parce confitenti2 an appeal to the bishop of ,coventry1 which is changed1 in a copy in a ,german manuscript1 to ,electe ,coloni1 parce pnitenti1 ,o elect of ,cologne1 spare me penitent4 ,from a comparison of what remains of this poetry in manuscripts written in different countries1 it appears probable that the names ,golias and goliard originated in the university of ,paris1 but were more especially popular in ,england1 while the term archipoeta was more commonly used in ,germany4 ,in #ahda ,i collected all the goliardic poetry which ,i could then find in ,english manuscripts1 and edited it1 under the name of ,walter ,mapes1 as one of the publications of the ,camden ,society4#dh ,at a rather later date ,i gave a chapter of additional matter of the same description in my ,anecdota ,literaria4#di ,all the poems ,i have printed in these two volumes are found in manuscripts written in ,england1 and some of them are certainly the compositions of ,english writers4 ,they are distinguished by remarkable facility and ease in versification and rhyme1 and by great pungency of satire4 ,the latter is directed especially against the clerical order1 and none are spared1 from the pope at the summit of the scale down to the lowest of the clergy4 ,in the ,apocalypsis ,goli1 or ,golias's ,revelations1 which appears to have been the most popular of all these poems1#ej the poet describes himself as carried up in a vision to heaven1 where the vices and disorders of the various classes of the popish clergy are successively revealed to him4 ,the pope is a devouring lion2 in his eagerness for pounds1 he pawns books2 at the sight of a mark of money1 he treats ,mark the ,evangelist with disdain2 while he sails aloft1 money alone is his anchoring-place4 ,the original lines will serve as a specimen of the style of these curious compositions1 and of the love of punning which was so characteristic of the literature of that age3-- ,est leo pontifex summus1 qui devorat1 ,qui libras sitiens1 libros impignorat2 ,marcam respiciet1 ,marcum dedecorat2 ,in summis navigans1 in nummis anchorat4 #dh ,the ,latin ,poems commonly attributed to ,walter ,mapes1 collected and edited by ,thomas ,wright1 ,esq41 #dto41 ,london1 #ahda4 #di ,anecdota ,literaria2 a ,collection of ,short ,poems in ,english1 ,latin1 and ,french1 illustrative of the ,literature and ,history of ,england in the ,thirteenth ,century4 ,edited by ,thomas ,wright1 ,esq4 #hvo41 ,london1 #ahdd4 #ej ,in my edition ,i have collated no less than sixteen copies which occur among the ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum1 and in the libraries at ,oxford and ,cambridge1 and there are1 no doubt1 many more4 ,the bishop is in haste to intrude himself into other people's pastures1 and fills himself with other people's goods4 ,the ravenous archdeacon is compared to an eagle1 because he has sharp eyes to see his prey afar off1 and is swift to seize upon it4 ,the dean is represented by an animal with a man's face1 full of silent guile1 who covers fraud with the form of justice1 and by the show of simplicity would make others believe him to be pious4 ,in this spirit the faults of the clergy1 of all degrees1 are minutely criticised through between four and five hundred lines2 and it must not be forgotten that it was the ,english clergy whose character was thus exposed4 ,tu scribes etiam1 forma sed alia1 ,septem ecclesiis qu sunt in ,anglia4 ,others of these pieces are termed ,sermons1 and are addressed1 some to the bishops and dignitaries of the church1 others to the pope1 others to the monastic orders1 and others to the clergy in general4 ,the court of ,rome1 we are told1 was infamous for its greediness2 there all right and justice were put up for sale1 and no favour could be had without money4 ,in this court money occupies everybody's thoughts2 its cross--i4 e4 the mark on the reverse of the coin--its roundness1 and its whiteness1 all please the ,romans2 where money speaks law is silent4 ,nummis in hac curia non est qui non vacet2 ,crux placet1 rotunditas1 et albedo placet1 ,et cum totum placeat1 et ,romanis placet1 ,ubi nummus loquitur1 et lex omnis tacet4 ,perhaps one of the most curious of these poems is the ,confession of ,golias1 in which the poet is made to satirise himself1 and he thus gives us a curious picture of the goliard's life4 ,he complains that he is made of light material1 which is moved by every wind2 that he wanders about irregularly1 like the ship on the sea or the bird in the air1 seeking worthless companions like himself4 ,he is a slave to the charms of the fair sex4 ,he is a martyr to gambling1 which often turns him out naked to the cold1 but he is warmed inwardly by the inspiration of his mind1 and he writes better poetry than ever4 ,lechery and gambling are two of his vices1 and the third is drinking4 ,the tavern1 he says1 ,i never despised1 nor shall ,i ever despise it1 until ,i see the holy angels coming to sing the eternal requiem over my corpse4 ,it is my design to die in the tavern2 let wine be placed to my mouth when ,i am expiring1 that when the choirs of angels come1 they may say1 ',be ,god propitious to this drinker6' ,the lamp of the soul is lighted with cups2 the heart steeped in nectar flies up to heaven2 and the wine in the tavern has for me a better flavour than that which the bishop's butler mixes with water4444 ,nature gives to every one his peculiar gift3 ,i never could write fasting2 a boy could beat me in composition when ,i am hungry2 ,i hate thirst and fasting as much as death4 ,tertio capitulo memoro tabernam3 ,illam nullo tempore sprevi1 neque spernam1 ,donec sanctos angelos venientes cernam1 ,cantantes pro mortuo requiem ternam4 ,meum est propositum in taberna mori2 ,vindum sit appositum morientis ori1 ,ut dicant cum venerint angelorum chori1 ',deus sit propitius huic potatori6' ,poculis accenditur animi lucerna2 ,cor imbutum nectare volat ad superna3 ,mihi sapit dulcius vinum in taberna1 ,quam quod aqua miscuit prsulis pincerna4 ,unicuique proprium dat natura munus3 ,ego nunquam potui scribere jejunus2 ,me jejunum vincere posset puer unus2 ,sitim et jejunium odi tanquam funus4#ea ,another of the more popular of these goliardic poems was the advice of ,golias against marriage1 a gross satire upon the female sex4 ,contrary to what we might perhaps expect from their being written in ,latin1 many of these metrical satires are directed against the vices of the laity1 as well as against those of the clergy4 #ea ,poems attributed to ,walter ,mapes1 p4 #gc4 ,the stanzas here quoted1 with some others1 were afterwards made up into a drinking song1 which was rather popular in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,in #ahdd the celebrated ,german scholar1 ,jacob ,grimm1 published in the ,transactions of the ,academy of ,sciences at ,berlin a selection of goliardic verses from manuscripts in ,germany1 which had evidently been written by ,germans1 and some of them containing allusions to ,german affairs in the thirteenth century4#eb ,they present the same form of verse and the same style of satire as those found in ,england1 but the name of ,golias is exchanged for archipoeta1 the archpoet4 ,some of the stanzas of the ,confession of ,golias are found in a poem in which the archpoet addresses a petition to the archchancellor for assistance in his distress1 and confesses his partiality for wine4 ,a copy of the ,confession itself is also found in this ,german collection1 under the title of the ,poet's ,confession4 #eb ,gedichte des ,mittelalters auf ,knig ,friedrich ,i4 den ,staufar1 und aus seiner so wie der nchstfolgenden ,zeit1 #dto4 ,separate copies of this work were printed off and distributed among medival scholars4 ,the ,royal ,library at ,munich contains a very important manuscript of this goliardic ,latin poetry1 written in the thirteenth century4 ,it belonged originally to one of the great ,benedictine abbeys in ,bavaria1 where it appears to have been very carefully preserved1 but still with an apparent consciousness that it was not exactly a book for a religious brotherhood1 which led the monks to omit it in the catalogue of their library1 no doubt as a book the possession of which was not to be proclaimed publicly4 ,when written1 it was evidently intended to be a careful selection of the poetry of this class then current4 ,one part of it consists of poetry of a more serious character1 such as hymns1 moral poems1 and especially satirical pieces4 ,in this class there are more than one piece which are also found in the manuscripts written in ,england4 ,a very large portion of the collection consists of love songs1 which1 although evidently treasured by the ,benedictine monks1 are sometimes licentious in character4 ,a third class consists of drinking and gambling songs 7potatoria et lusoria74 ,the general character of this poetry is more playful1 more ingenious and intricate in its metrical structure1 in fact1 more lyric than that of the poetry we have been describing2 yet it came1 in all probability1 from the same class of poets--the clerical jougleurs4 ,the touches of sentiment1 the descriptions of female beauty1 the admiration of nature1 are sometimes expressed with remarkable grace4 ,thus1 the green wood sweetly enlivened by the joyous voices of its feathered inhabitants1 the shade of its branches1 the thorns covered with flowers1 which1 says the poet1 are emblematical of love1 which pricks like a thorn and then soothes like a flower1 are tastefully described in the following lines3-- ,cantu nemus avium ,lascivia canentium ,suave delinitur1 ,fronde redimitur1 ,vernant spin floribus ,micantibus1 ,venerem signantibus ,quia spina pungit1 flos blanditur4 ,and the following scrap of the description of a beautiful damsel shows no small command of language and versification-- ,allicit dulcibus ,verbis et osculis1 ,labellulis ,castigate tumentibus1 ,roseo nectareus ,odor infusus ori2 ,pariter eburneus ,sedat ordo dentium ,par niveo candori4 ,the whole contents of this manuscript were printed in #ahdg1 in an octavo volume1 issued by the ,literary ,society at ,stuttgard4#ec ,i had already printed some examples of such amatory ,latin lyric poetry in #ahch1 in a volume of ,early ,mysteries and ,latin ,poems2#ed but this poetry does not belong properly to the subject of the present volume1 and ,i pass on from it4 #ec ,carmina ,burana4 ,lateinische und ,deutsche ,lieder und ,gedichte einer ,handschrift des ,,xiii4 ,jahrhunderts aus ,benedictbeurn auf der ,k4 ,bibliothek zu ,mnchen4 #hvo4 ,stuttgart1 #ahdg4 #ed ,early ,mysteries and other ,latin ,poems of the ,twelfth and ,thirteenth ,centuries1 edited by ,thomas ,wright1 ,esq4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahch4 ,the goliards did not always write in verse1 for we have some of their prose compositions1 and these appear especially in the form of parodies4 ,we trace a great love for parody in the middle ages1 which spared not even things the most sacred1 and the examples brought forward in the celebrated trial of ,william ,hone1 were mild in comparison to some which are found scattered here and there in medival manuscripts4 ,in my ,poems1 attributed to ,walter ,mapes1#ee ,i have printed a satire in prose entitled ,magister ,golyas de quodam abbate 7i4e41 ,master ,golias's account of a certain abbot71 which has somewhat the character of a parody upon a saint's legend4 ,the voluptuous life of the superior of a monastic house is here described in a tone of banter which nothing could excel4 ,several parodies1 more direct in their character1 are printed in the two volumes of the ,reliqu ,antiqu4#ef ,one of these 7vol4 ii4 p4 #bjh7 is a complete parody on the service of the mass1 which is entitled in the original1 ,missa de ,potatoribus1 the ,mass of the ,drunkard4 ,in this extraordinary composition1 even the pater-noster is parodied4 ,a portion of this1 with great variations1 is found in the ,german collection of the ,carmina ,burana1 under the title of ,officium ,lusorum1 the ,office of the ,gamblers4 ,in the ,reliqu ,antiqu 7ii4 #eh7 we have a parody on the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke1 beginning with the words1 ,initium fallacis ,evangelii secundum ,lupum1 this last word being1 of course1 a sort of pun upon ,lucam4 ,its subject also is ,bacchus1 and the scene having been laid in a tavern in ,oxford1 we have no difficulty in ascribing it to some scholar of that university in the thirteenth century4 ,among the ,carmina ,burana we find a similar parody on the ,gospel of ,st4 ,mark1 which has evidently belonged to one of these burlesques on the church service2 and as it is less profane than the others1 and at the same time pictures the medival hatred towards the church of ,rome1 ,i will give a translation of it as an example of this singular class of compositions4 ,it is hardly necessary to remind the reader that a mark was a coin of the value of thirteen shillings and fourpence3-- ,the beginning of the holy gospel according to ,marks of silver4 ,at that time the pope said to the ,romans3 ',when the son of man shall come to the seat of our majesty1 first say1 ,friend1 for what hast thou come8 ,but if he should persevere in knocking without giving you anything1 cast him out into utter darkness4' ,and it came to pass1 that a certain poor clerk came to the court of the lord the pope1 and cried out1 saying1 ',have pity on me at least1 you doorkeepers of the pope1 for the hand of poverty has touched me4 ,for ,i am needy and poor1 and therefore ,i seek your assistance in my calamity and misery4' ,but they hearing this were highly indignant1 and said to him3 ',friend1 thy poverty be with thee in perdition2 get thee backward1 ,satan1 for thou dost not savour of those things which have the savour of money4 ,verily1 verily1 ,i say unto thee1 ,thou shalt not enter into the joy of thy lord1 until thou shalt have given thy last farthing4' ,then the poor man went away1 and sold his cloak and his gown1 and all that he had1 and gave it to the cardinals1 and to the doorkeepers1 and to the chamberlains4 ,but they said1 ',and what is this among so many8' ,and they cast him out of the gates1 and going out he wept bitterly1 and was without consolation4 ,after him there came to the court a certain clerk who was rich1 and gross1 and fat1 and large1 and who in a tumult had committed manslaughter4 ,he gave first to the doorkeeper1 secondly to the chamberlain1 third to the cardinals4 ,but they judged among themselves1 that they were to receive more4 ,then the lord the pope1 hearing that the cardinals and officials had received many gifts from the clerk1 became sick unto death4 ,but the rich man sent him an electuary of gold and silver1 and he was immediately made whole4 ,then the lord the pope called before him the cardinals and officials1 and said to them3 ',brethren1 see that no one deceive you with empty words4 ,for ,i give you an example1 that1 as ,i take1 so take ye also4' #ee ,introduction1 p4 xl4 #ef ,reliqui ,antiqu4 ,scraps from ,ancient ,manuscripts1 illustrating chiefly ,early ,english ,literature and the ,english ,language4 ,edited by ,thomas ,wright1 ,esq41 and ,j4 ,o4 ,halliwell1 ,esq4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,vol4 i41 ,london1 #ahda2 vol4 ii41 #ahdc4 ,this medival love of parody was not unfrequently displayed in a more popular form1 and in the language of the people4 ,in the ,reliqu ,antiqu 7i4 #hb7 we have a very singular parody in ,english on the sermons of the ,catholic priesthood1 a good part of which is so written as to present no consecutive sense1 which circumstance itself implies a sneer at the preachers4 ,thus our burlesque preacher1 in the middle of his discourse1 proceeds to narrate as follows 7,i modernise the ,english73-- ,sirs1 what time that ,god and ,st4 ,peter came to ,rome1 ,peter asked ,adam a full great doubtful question1 and said1 ',adam1 ,adam1 why ate thou the apple unpared8' ',forsooth1' quod he1 'for ,i had no wardens 7pears7 fried4' ,and ,peter saw the fire1 and dread him1 and stepped into a plum-tree that hanged full of ripe red cherries4 ,and there he saw all the parrots in the sea4 ,there he saw steeds and stockfish pricking 'swose' 787 in the water4 ,there he saw hens and herrings that hunted after harts in hedges4 ,there he saw eels roasting larks4 ,there he saw haddocks were done on the pillory for wrong roasting of ,may butter2 and there he saw how bakers baked butter to grease with old monks' boots4 ,there he saw how the fox preached1 c4 ,the same volume contains some rather clever parodies on the old ,english alliterative romances1 composed in a similar style of consecutive nonsense4 ,it is a class of parody which we trace to a rather early period1 which the ,french term a coq--l'ne1 and which became fashionable in ,england in the seventeenth century in the form of songs entitled ,tom-a-,bedlams4 ,m4 ,jubinal has printed two such poems in ,french1 perhaps of the thirteenth century1#eg and others are found scattered through the old manuscripts4 ,there is generally so much coarseness in them that it is not easy to select a portion for translation1 and in fact their point consists in going on through the length of a poem of this kind without imparting a single clear idea4 ,thus1 in the second of those published by ,jubinal1 we are told how1 ,the shadow of an egg carried the new year upon the bottom of a pot2 two old new combs made a ball to run the trot2 when it came to paying the scot1 ,i1 who never move myself1 cried out1 without saying a word1 ',take the feather of an ox1 and clothe a wise fool with it4'-- ,li ombres d'un oef ,portoit l'an reneuf ,sur la fonz d'un pot2 ,deus viez pinges neuf ,firent un estuef ,pour courre le trot2 ,quant vint au paier l'escot1 ,je1 qui onques ne me muef1 ,m'escriai1 si ne dis mot3-- ',prens la plume d'un buef1 ,s'en vestez un sage sot4'--,jubinal1 ,nouv4 ,rec41 ii4 #bag4 #eg ,achille ,jubinal1 ,jongleurs et ,trouvres4 #hvo41 ,paris1 #ahce1 p4 #cd2 and ,nouveau ,recueil de ,contes1 ,dits1 ,fabliaux1 c4 #hvo41 ,paris1 #ahdb4 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #bjh4 ,in the first instance ,m4 ,jubinal has given to this little poem the title ,resveries1 in the second1 ,fatrasies4 ,the spirit of the goliards continued to exist long after the name had been forgotten2 and the mass of bitter satire which they had left behind them against the whole papal system1 and against the corruptions of the papal church of the middle ages1 were a perfect godsend to the reformers of the sixteenth century1 who could point to them triumphantly as irresistible evidence in their favour4 ,such scholars as ,flacius ,illyricus1 eagerly examined the manuscripts which contained this goliardic poetry1 and printed it1 chiefly as good and effective weapons in the great religious strife which was then convulsing ,european society4 ,to us1 besides their interest as literary compositions1 they have also a historical value1 for they introduce us to a more intimate acquaintance with the character of the great mental struggle for emancipation from medival darkness which extended especially through the thirteenth century1 and which was only overcome for a while to begin more strongly and more successfully at a later period4 ,they display to us the gross ignorance1 as well as the corruption of manners1 of the great mass of the medival clergy4 ,nothing can be more amusing than the satire which some of these pieces throw on the character of monkish ,latin4 ,i printed in the ,reliqu ,antiqu1 under the title of ,the ,abbot of ,gloucester's ,feast1 a complaint supposed to issue from the mouth of one of the common herd of the monks1 against the selfishness of their superiors1 in which all the rules of ,latin grammar are entirely set at defiance4 ,the abbot and prior of ,gloucester1 with their whole convent1 are invited to a feast1 and on their arrival1 the abbot1 says the complainant1 goes to sit at the top1 and the prior next to him1 but ,i stood always in the back place among the low people4 ,abbas ire sede sursum1 ,et prioris juxta ipsum2 ,ego semper stavi dorsum inter rascalilia4 ,the wine was served liberally to the prior and the abbot1 but nothing was give to us poor folks--everything was for the rich4 ,vinum venit sanguinatis ,ad prioris et abbatis2 ,nihil nobis paupertatis1 sed ad dives omnia4 ,when some dissatisfaction was displayed by the poor monks1 which the great men treated with contempt1 said the prior to the abbot1 ',they have wine enough2 will you give all our drink to the poor8 ,what does their poverty regard us8 they have little1 and that is enough1 since they came uninvited to our feast4' ,prior dixit ad abbatis1 ',ipsi habent vinum satis2 ,vultis dare paupertatis noster potus omnia8 ,quid nos spectat paupertatis8 ,postquam venit non vocatis ad noster convivia4' ,thus through several pages this amusing poem goes on to describe the gluttony and drunkenness of the abbot and prior1 and the ill-treatment of their inferiors4 ,this composition belongs to the close of the thirteenth century4 ,a song very similar to it in character1 but much shorter1 is found in a manuscript of the middle of the fifteenth century1 and printed with the other contents of this manuscript in a little volume issued by the ,percy ,society4#eh ,the writer complains that the abbot and prior drunk good and high-flavoured wine1 while nothing but inferior stuff was usually given to the convent2 ,but1 he says1 it is better to go drink good wine at the tavern1 where the wines are of the best quality1 and money is the butler4 ,bonum vinum cum sapore ,bibit abbas cum priore2 ,sed conventus de pejore semper solet bibere4 ,bonum vinum in taberna1 ,ubi vina sunt valarna 7for ,falerna71 ,ubi nummus est pincerna1 ,ibi prodest bibere4 #eh ,songs and ,carols1 now first printed from a ,manuscript of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,edited by ,thomas ,wright1 ,esq4 #hvo41 ,london1 #ahdg1 p4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aaa4 ,caricature upon the ,jews at ,norwich4 ,partly out of the earnest1 though playful1 satire described in this chapter1 arose political satire1 and at a later period political caricature4 ,i have before remarked that the period we call the middle ages was not that of political or personal caricature1 because it wanted that means of circulating quickly and largely which is necessary for it4 ,yet1 no doubt1 men who could draw1 did1 in the middle ages1 sometimes amuse themselves in sketching caricatures1 which1 in general1 have perished1 because nobody cared to preserve them2 but the fact of the existence of such works is proved by a very curious example1 which has been preserved1 and which is copied in our cut ,no4 #aaa4 ,it is a caricature on the ,jews of ,norwich1 which some one of the clerks of the king's courts in the thirteenth century has drawn with a pen1 on one of the official rolls of the ,pell office1 where it has been preserved4 ,norwich1 as it is well known1 was one of the principal seats of the ,jews in ,england at this early period1 and ,isaac of ,norwich1 the crowned ,jew with three faces1 who towers over the other figures1 was no doubt some personage of great importance among them4 ,dagon1 as a two-headed demon1 occupies a tower1 which a party of demon knights is attacking4 ,beneath the figure of ,isaac there is a lady1 whose name appears to be ,avezarden1 who has some relation or other with a male figure named ,nolle-,mokke1 in which another demon1 named ,colbif1 is interfering4 ,as this latter name is written in capital letters1 we may perhaps conclude that he is the most important personage in the scene2 but1 without any knowledge of the circumstances to which it relates1 it would be in vain to attempt to explain this curious and rather elaborate caricature4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aab4 ,an ,irishman4 ,similar attempts at caricature1 though less direct and elaborate1 are found in others of our national records4 ,one of these1 pointed out to me by an excellent and respected friend1 the ,rev4 ,lambert ,b4 ,larking1 is peculiarly interesting1 as well as amusing4 ,it belongs to the ,treasury of the ,exchequer1 and consists of two volumes of vellum called ,liber ,a and ,liber ,b1 forming a register of treaties1 marriages1 and similar documents of the reign of ,edward ,i41 which have been very fully used by ,rymer4 ,the clerk who was employed in writing it1 seems to have been1 like many of these official clerks1 somewhat of a wag1 and he has amused himself by drawing in the margin figures of the inhabitants of the provinces of ,edward's crown to which the documents referred4 ,some of these are evidently designed for caricature4 ,thus1 the figure given in our cut ,no4 #aab was intended to represent an ,irishman4 ,one trait1 at least1 in this caricature is well known from the description given by ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 who speaks with a sort of horror of the formidable axes which the ,irish were accustomed to carry about with them4 ,in treating of the manner in which ,ireland ought to be governed when it had been entirely reduced to subjection1 he recommends that1 in the meantime1 they ought not to be allowed in time of peace1 on any pretence or in any place1 to use that detestable instrument of destruction1 which1 by an ancient but accursed custom1 they constantly carry in their hands instead of a staff4 ,in a chapter of his ,topography of ,ireland1 ,giraldus treats of this ancient and wicked custom of always carrying in their hand an axe1 instead of a staff1 to the danger of all persons who had any relations with them4 ,another ,irishman1 from a drawing in the same manuscript1 given in our cut ,no4 #aac1 carries his axe in the same threatening attitude4 ,the costume of these figures answers with sufficient accuracy to the description given by ,giraldus ,cambrensis4 ,the drawings exhibit more exactly than that writer's description the small close-fitting hoods1 hanging a cubit's length 7half-a-yard7 below the shoulders1 which1 he tells us1 they were accustomed to wear4 ,this small hood1 with the flat cap attached to it1 is shown better perhaps in the second figure than in the first4 ,the breeches and hose of one piece1 or hose and breeches joined together1 are also exhibited here very distinctly1 and appear to be tied over the heel1 but the feet are clearly naked1 and evidently the use of the brogues was not yet general among the ,irish of the thirteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aac4 ,another ,irishman4 ,if the ,welshman of this period was somewhat more scantily clothed than the ,irishman1 he had the advantage of him1 to judge by this manuscript1 in wearing at least one shoe4 ,our cut ,no4 #aad1 taken from it1 represents a ,welshman armed with bow and arrow1 whose clothing consists apparently only of a plain tunic and a light mantle4 ,this is quite in accordance with the description by ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 who tells us that in all seasons their dress was the same1 and that1 however severe the weather1 they defended themselves from the cold only by a thin cloak and tunic4 ,giraldus says nothing of the practice of the ,welsh in wearing but one shoe1 yet it is evident that at the time of this record that was their practice1 for in another figure of a ,welshman1 given in our cut ,no4 #aae1 we see the same peculiarity1 and in both cases the shoe is worn on the left foot4 ,giraldus merely says that the ,welshmen in general1 when engaged in warfare1 either walked bare-footed1 or made use of high shoes1 roughly made of untanned leather4 ,he describes them as armed sometimes with bows and arrows1 and sometimes with long spears2 and accordingly our first example of a ,welshman from this manuscript is using the bow1 while the second carries the spear1 which he apparently rests on the single shoe of his left foot1 while he brandishes a sword in his left hand4 ,both our ,welshmen present a singularly grotesque appearance4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aad4 ,a ,welsh ,archer4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aae4 ,a ,welshman with his ,spear4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aaf4 ,a ,gascon at his ,vine4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aag4 ,the ,wine ,manufacturer4 ,the ,gascon is represented with more peaceful attributes4 ,gascony was the country of vineyards1 from whence we drew our great supply of wines1 a very important article of consumption in the middle ages4 ,when the official clerk who wrote this manuscript came to documents relating to ,gascony1 his thoughts wandered naturally enough to its rich vineyards and the wine they supplied so plentifully1 and to which1 according to old reports1 clerks seldom showed any dislike1 and accordingly1 in the sketch1 which we copy in our cut ,no4 #aaf1 we have a ,gascon occupied diligently in pruning his vine-tree4 ,he1 at least1 wears two shoes1 though his clothing is of the lightest description4 ,he is perhaps the vinitor of the medival documents on this subject1 a serf attached to the vineyard4 ,our second sketch1 cut ,no4 #aag1 presents a more enlarged scene1 and introduces us to the whole process of making wine4 ,first we see a man better clothed1 with shoes 7or boots7 of much superior make1 and a hat on his head1 carrying away the grapes from the vineyard to the place where another man1 with no clothing at all1 is treading out the juice in a large vat4 ,this is still in some of the wine countries the common method of extracting the juice from the grape4 ,further to the left is the large cask in which the juice is put when turned into wine4 ,satires on the people of particular localities were not uncommon during the middle ages1 because local rivalries and consequent local feuds prevailed everywhere4 ,the records of such feuds were naturally of a temporary character1 and perished when the feuds and rivalries themselves ceased to exist1 but a few curious satires of this kind have been preserved4 ,a monk of ,peterborough1 who lived late in the twelfth or early in the thirteenth century1 and for some reason or other nourished an unfriendly feeling to the people of ,norfolk1 gave vent to his hostility in a short ,latin poem in what we may call goliardic verse4 ,he begins by abusing the county itself1 which1 he says1 was as bad and unfruitful as its inhabitants were vile2 and he suggests that the evil one1 when he fled from the anger of the ,almighty1 had passed through it and left his pollution upon it4 ,among other anecdotes of the simplicity and folly of the people of this county1 which closely resemble the stories of the wise men of ,gotham of a later date1 he informs us that one day the peasantry of one district were so grieved by the oppressions of their feudal lord1 that they subscribed together and bought their freedom1 which he secured to them by formal deed1 ratified with a ponderous seal4 ,they adjourned to the tavern1 and celebrated their deliverance by feasting and drinking until night came on1 and then1 for want of a candle1 they agreed to burn the wax of the seal4 ,next day their former lord1 informed of what had taken place1 brought them before a court1 where the deed was judged to be void for want of the seal1 and they lost all their money1 were reduced to their old position of slavery1 and treated worse than ever4 ,other stories1 still more ridiculous1 are told of these old ,norfolkians1 but few of them are worth repeating4 ,another monk1 apparently1 who calls himself ,john de ,st4 ,omer1 took up the cudgels for the people of ,norfolk1 and replied to the ,peterborough satirist in similar language4#ei ,i have printed in another collection1#fj a satirical poem against the people of a place called ,stockton 7perhaps ,stockton-on-,tees in ,durham71 by the monk of a monastic house1 of which they were serfs4 ,it appeared that they had risen against the tyranny of their lord1 but had been unsuccessful in defending their cause in a court of law1 and the ecclesiastical satirist exults over their defeat in a very uncharitable tone4 ,there will be found in the ,reliqu ,antiqu1#fa a very curious satire in ,latin prose directed against the inhabitants of ,rochester1 although it is in truth aimed against ,englishmen in general1 and is entitled in the manuscript1 which is of the fourteenth century1 ,proprietates ,anglicorum 7the ,peculiarities of ,englishmen74 ,in the first place1 we are told1 that the people of ,rochester had tails1 and the question is discussed1 very scholastically1 what species of animals these ,rocestrians were4 ,we are then told that the cause of their deformity arose from the insolent manner in which they treated ,st4 ,augustine1 when he came to preach the ,gospel to the heathen ,english4 ,after visiting many parts of ,england1 the saint came to ,rochester1 where the people1 instead of listening to him1 hooted at him through the streets1 and1 in derision1 attached tails of pigs and calves to his vestments1 and so turned him out of the city4 ,the vengeance of ,heaven came upon them1 and all who inhabited the city and the country round it1 and their descendants after them1 were condemned to bear tails exactly like those of pigs4 ,this story of the tails was not an invention of the author of the satire1 but was a popular legend connected with the history of ,st4 ,augustine's preaching1 though the scene of the legend was laid in ,dorsetshire4 ,the writer of this singular composition goes on to describe the people of ,rochester as seducers of other people1 as men without gratitude1 and as traitors4 ,he proceeds to show that ,rochester being situated in ,england1 its vices had tainted the whole nation1 and he illustrates the baseness of the ,english character by a number of anecdotes of worse than doubtful authenticity4 ,it is1 in fact1 a satire on the ,english composed in ,france1 and leads us into the domains of political satire4 #ei ,both these poems are printed in my ,early ,mysteries1 and other ,latin ,poems of the ,twelfth and ,thirteenth ,centuries4 #hvo41 ,london1 #ahch4 #fj ,anecdota ,literaria1 p4 #di4 #fa ,reliqu ,antiqu1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bcj4 ,political satire in the middle ages appeared chiefly in the form of poetry and song1 and it was especially in ,england that it flourished1 a sure sign that there was in our country a more advanced feeling of popular independence1 and greater freedom of speech1 than in ,france or ,germany4#fb ,m4 ,leroux de ,lincy1 who undertook to make a collection of this poetry for ,france1 found so little during the medival period that came under the character of political1 that he was obliged to substitute the word historical in the title of his book4#fc ,where feudalism was supreme1 indeed1 the songs which arose out of private or public strife1 which then were almost inseparable from society1 contained no political sentiment1 but consisted chiefly of personal attacks on the opponents of those who employed them4 ,such are the four short songs written in the time of the revolt of the ,french during the minority of ,st4 ,louis1 which commenced in #abbf2 they are all of a political character which ,m4 ,leroux de ,lincy has been able to collect previous to the year #abgj1 and they consist merely of personal taunts against the courtiers by the dissatisfied barons who were out of power4 ,we trace a similar feeling in some of the popular records of our baronial wars of the reign of ,henry ,,iii41 especially in a song1 in the baronial language 7,anglo-,norman71 preserved in a small roll of vellum1 which appears to have belonged to the minstrel who chanted it in the halls of the partisans of ,simon de ,montfort4 ,the fragment which remains consists of stanzas in praise of the leaders of the popular party1 and in reproach of their opponents4 ,thus of ,roger de ,clifford1 one of earl ,simon's friends1 we are told that the good ,roger de ,clifford behaved like a noble baron1 and exercised great justice2 he suffered none1 either small or great1 or secretly or openly1 to do any wrong4 ,et de ,cliffort ly bon ,roger ,se contint cum noble ber1 ,si fu de grant justice2 ,ne suffri pas petit ne grant1 ,ne arre ne par devant1 ,fere nul mesprise4 ,on the other hand1 one of ,montfort's opponents1 the bishop of ,hereford1 is treated rather contemptuously4 ,we are told that he learnt well that the earl was strong when he took the matter in hand2 before that he 7the bishop7 was very fierce1 and thought to eat up all the ,english2 but now he is reduced to straits4 ,ly eveske de ,herefort ,sout bien que ly quens fu fort1 ,kant il prist l'affre2 ,devant ce esteit mult fer1 ,les ,englais quida touz manger1 ,ms ore ne set que fere4 ,this bishop was ,peter de ,aigueblanche1 one of the foreign favourites1 who had been intruded into the see of ,hereford1 to the exclusion of a better man1 and had been an oppressor of those who were under his rule4 ,the barons seized him1 threw him into prison1 and plundered his possessions1 and at the time this song was written1 he was suffering under the imprisonment which appears to have shortened his life4 #fb ,i have published from the original manuscripts the mass of the political poetry composed in ,england during the middle ages in my three volumes--,the ,political ,songs of ,england1 from the ,reign of ,john to that of ,edward ,,ii4 #dto41 ,london1 #ahci 7issued by the ,camden ,society72 and ,political ,poems and ,songs relating to ,english ,history1 composed during the ,period from the ,accession of ,edward ,,iii4 to that of ,richard ,,iii4 #hvo41 vol i41 ,london1 #ahei2 vol4 ii41 #ahfa 7published by the ,treasury1 under the direction of the ,master of the ,rolls47 #fc ,receuil de ,chants ,historiques ,franais depuis le xiie4 jusqu'au xviiie4 ,sicle1 par ,leroux de ,lincy4444 ,premire ,srie1 xiie41 xiiie41 xive1 et xve41 ,sicles4 #hvo41 ,paris1 #ahda4 ,the universities and the clerical body in general were deeply involved in these political movements of the thirteenth century2 and our earliest political songs now known are composed in ,latin1 and in that form and style of verse which seems to have been peculiar to the goliards1 and which ,i venture to call goliardic4 ,such is a song against the three bishops who supported king ,john in his quarrel with the pope about the presentation to the see of ,canterbury1 printed in my ,political ,songs4 ,such1 too1 is the song of the ,welsh1 and one or two others1 in the same volume4 ,and such1 above all1 is that remarkable ,latin poem in which a partisan of the barons1 immediately after the victory at ,lewes1 set forth the political tenets of his party1 and gave the principles of ,english liberty nearly the same broad basis on which they stand at the present4 ,it is an evidence of the extent to which these principles were now acknowledged1 that in this great baronial struggle our political songs began to be written in the ,english language1 an acknowledgment that they concerned the whole ,english public4 ,we trace little of this class of literature during the reign of ,edward ,i42 but1 when the popular feelings became turbulent again under the reign of his son and successor1 political songs became more abundant1 and their satire was directed more even than formerly against measures and principles1 and was less an instrument of mere personal abuse4 ,one satirical poem of this period1 which ,i had printed from an imperfect copy in a manuscript at ,edinburgh1 but of which a more complete copy was subsequently found in a manuscript in the library of ,st4 ,peter's ,college1 ,cambridge1#fd is extremely curious as being the earliest satire of this kind written in ,english that we possess4 ,it appears to have been written in the year #acbj4 ,the writer of this poem begins by telling us that his object is to explain the cause of the war1 ruin1 and manslaughter which then prevailed throughout the land1 and why the poor were suffering from hunger and want1 the cattle perished in the field1 and the corn was dear4 ,these he ascribes to the increasing wickedness of all orders of society4 ,to begin with the church1 ,rome was the head of all corruptions1 at the papal court false-hood and treachery only reigned1 and the door of the pope's palace was shut against truth4 ,during the twelfth and following centuries these complaints1 in terms more or less forcible1 against the corruptions of ,rome1 are continually repeated1 and show that the evil must have been one under which everybody felt oppressed4 ,the old charge of ,romish simony is repeated in this poem in very strong terms4 ,the clerk's voice shall be little heard at the court of ,rome1 were he ever so good1 unless he bring silver with him2 though he were the holiest man that ever was born1 unless he bring gold or silver1 all his time and anxiety are lost4 ,alas6 why love they so much that which is perishable8 ,voys of clerk shall lytyl be heard at the court of ,rome1 ,were he never so gode a clerk1 without silver and he come2 ,though he were the holyst man that ever yet was ibore1 ,but he bryng gold or sylver1 al hys while is forlore ,and his thowght4 ,allas6 whi love thei that so much that schal turne to nowght8 #fd ,a ,poem on the ,times of ,edward ,,iii41 from a ,,ms4 preserved in the ,library of ,st4 ,peter's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,c4 ,hardwick4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahdi4 7,one of the publications of the ,percy ,society47 ,when1 on the contrary1 a wicked man presented himself at the pope's court1 he had only to carry plenty of money thither1 and all went well with him4 ,according to our satirist1 the bishops were fools1 and the other dignitaries and officials of the church were influenced chiefly by the love of money and self-indulgence4 ,the parson began humbly1 when he first obtained his benefice1 but no sooner had he gathered money together1 than he took a wenche to live with him as his wife1 and rode a hunting with hawks and hounds like a gentleman4 ,the priests were men with no learning1 who preached by rote what they neither understood nor appreciated4 ,truely1 he says1 it fares by our unlearned priests as by a jay in a cage1 who curses himself3 he speaks good ,english1 but he knows not what it means4 ,no more does an unlearned priest know his gospel that he reads daily4 ,an unlearned priest1 then1 is no better than a jay4 ,certes at so hyt fareth by a prest that is lewed1 ,as by a jay in a cage that hymself hath beshrewed3 ,gode ,englysh he speketh1 but he not never what4 ,no more wot a lewed prest hys gospel wat he rat ,by day4 ,than is a lewed prest no better than a jay4 ,abbots and priors were remarkable chiefly for their pride and luxury1 and the monks naturally followed their examples4 ,thus was religion debased everywhere4 ,the character of the physician is treated with equal severity1 and his various tricks to obtain money are amusingly described4 ,in this manner the songster presents to view the failings of the various orders of lay society also1 the selfishness and oppressive bearing of the knights and aristocracy1 and their extravagance in dress and living1 the neglect of justice1 the ill-management of the wars1 the weight of taxation1 and all the other evils which then afflicted the state4 ,this poem marks a period in our social history1 and led the way to that larger work of the same character1 which came about thirty years later1 the well-known ,visions of ,piers ,ploughman1#fe one of the most remarkable satires1 as well as one of the most remarkable poems1 in the ,english language4 ,we will do no more than glance at the further progress of political satire which had now taken a permanent footing in ,english literature4 ,we see less of it during the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 the greater part of which was occupied with foreign wars and triumphs1 but there appeared towards the close of his reign1 a very remarkable satire1 which ,i have printed in my ,political ,poems and ,songs4 ,it is written in ,latin1 and consists of a pretended prophecy in verse by an inspired monk named ,john of ,bridlington1 with a mock commentary in prose--in fact1 a parody on the commentaries in which the scholastics of that age displayed their learning1 but in this case the commentary contains a bold though to us rather obscure criticism on the whole policy of ,edward's reign4 ,the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 was convulsed by the great struggle for religious reform1 by the insurrections of the lower orders1 and by the ambition and feuds of the nobles1 and produced a vast quantity of political and religious satire1 both in prose and verse1 but especially the latter4 ,we must not overlook our great poet ,chaucer1 as one of the powerful satirists of this period4 ,political song next makes itself heard loudly in the wars of the ,roses4 ,it was the last struggle of feudalism in ,england1 and the character of the song had fallen back to its earlier characteristics1 in which all patriotic feelings were abandoned to make place for personal hatred4 #fe ,the ,vision and the ,creed of ,piers ,ploughman2 with ,notes and a ,glossary by ,thomas ,wright4 #b vols4 #abmo4 ,london1 #ahdb4 ,second and revised edition1 #b vols4 #abmo4 ,london1 #ahef4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,minstrelsy ,a ,,subject ,,of ,,burlesque ,,and ,,caricature4--,,character ,,of ,,the ,,minstrels4--,,their ,,jokes ,,upon ,,themselves ,,and ,,upon ,,one ,,another4--,,various ,,musical ,,instruments ,,represented ,,in ,,the ,,sculptures ,,of ,,the ,,medi,,val ,,artists4--,,sir ,,matthew ,,gournay ,,and ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,portugal4--,,discredit ,,of ,,the ,,tabor ,,and ,,bagpipes4--,,mermaids4 ,one of the principal classes of the satirists of the middle ages1 the minstrels1 or jougleurs1 were far from being unamenable to satire themselves4 ,they belonged generally to a low class of the population1 one that was hardly acknowledged by the law1 which merely administered to the pleasures and amusements of others1 and1 though sometimes liberally rewarded1 they were objects rather of contempt than of respect4 ,of course there were minstrels belonging to a class more respectable than the others1 but these were comparatively few2 and the ordinary minstrel seems to have been simply an unprincipled vagabond1 who hardly possessed any settled resting-place1 who wandered about from place to place1 and was not too nice as to the means by which he gained his living--perhaps fairly represented by the street minstrel1 or mountebank1 of the present day4 ,one of his talents was that of mocking and ridiculing others1 and it is not to be wondered at1 therefore1 if he sometimes became an object of mockery and ridicule himself4 ,one of the well-known minstrels of the thirteenth century1 ,rutebeuf1 was1 like many of his fellows1 a poet also1 and he has left several short pieces of verse descriptive of himself and of his own mode of life4 ,in one of these he complains of his poverty1 and tells us that the world had in his time--the reign of ,st4 ,louis--become so degenerate1 that few people gave anything to the unfortunate minstrel4 ,according to his own account1 he was without food1 and in a fair way towards starvation1 exposed to the cold without sufficient clothing1 and with nothing but straw for his bed4 ,je touz de froit1 de fain baaille1 ,dont je suis mors et maubailliz1 ,je suis sanz coutes et sans liz2 ,n'a si povre jusqu' ,senliz4 ,sire1 si ne sai quel part aille2 ,mes costeiz connoit le pailliz1 ,et liz de paille n'est pas liz1 ,et en mon lit n'a fors la paille4 --uvres de ,rutebeuf1 vol4 i4 p4 #c4 ,in another poem1 ,rutebeuf laments that he has rendered his condition still more miserable by marrying1 when he had not wherewith to keep a wife and family4 ,in a third1 he complains that in the midst of his poverty1 his wife has brought him a child to increase his domestic expenses1 while his horse1 on which he was accustomed to travel to places where he might exercise his profession1 had broken its leg1 and his nurse was dunning him for money4 ,in addition to all these causes of grief1 he had lost the use of one of his eyes4 ,or a d'enfant gu ma fame2 ,mon cheval a brisi la jame ,a une lice2 ,or veut de l'argent ma norrice1 ,qui m'en destraint et me plice1 ,for l'enfant pestre4 ,throughout his complaint1 although he laments over the decline of liberality among his contemporaries1 he nevertheless turns his poverty into a joke4 ,in several other pieces of verse he speaks in the same way1 half joking and half lamenting over his condition1 and he does not conceal that the love of gambling was one of the causes of it4 ,the dice1 he says1 have stripped me entirely of my robe2 the dice watch and spy me2 it is these which kill me2 they assault and ruin me1 to my grief4 ,li d que li dtier ont fet1 ,m'ont de ma robe tout desfet2 ,li d m'ocient4 ,li d m'aguetent et espient2 ,li d m'assaillent et dessient1 ,ce poise moi4--,ib41 vol4 i4 p4 #bg4 ,and elsewhere he intimates that what the minstrels sometimes gained from the lavish generosity of their hearers1 soon passed away at the tavern in dice and drinking4 ,one of ,rutebeuf's contemporaries in the same profession1 ,colin ,muset1 indulges in similar complaints1 and speaks bitterly of the want of generosity displayed by the great barons of his time4 ,in addressing one of them who had treated him ungenerously1 he says1 ,sir ,count1 ,i have fiddled before you in your hostel1 and you neither gave me a gift1 nor paid me my wages4 ,it is discreditable behaviour4 ,by the duty ,i owe to ,st4 ,mary1 ,i cannot continue in your service at this rate4 ,my purse is ill furnished1 and my wallet is empty4 ,sire quens1 j'ai viel ,devant vos en vostre ostel2 ,si ne m'avez riens donn1 ,ne mes gages acquitez1 ,c'est vilanie4 ,foi que doi sainte ,marie1 ,ensi ne vos sieurr-je mie4 ,m'aumosnire est mal garnie1 ,et ma male mal farsie4 ,he proceeds to state that when he went home to his wife 7for ,colin ,muset also was a married minstrel71 he was ill received if his purse and wallet were empty2 but it was very different when they were full4 ,his wife then sprang forward and threw her arms round his neck2 she took his wallet from his horse with alacrity1 while his lad conducted the animal cheerfully to the stable1 and his maiden killed a couple of capons1 and prepared them with piquant sauce4 ,his daughter brought a comb for his hair4 ,then1 he exclaims1 ,i am master in my own house4 ,ma fame va destroser ,ma male sans demorer2 ,mon garon va abuvrer ,men cheval et conreer2 ,ma pucele va tuer ,deux chapons por deporter ,a la sause aillie4 ,ma fille m'aporte un pigne ,en sa main par cortoisie4 ,lors sui de mon ostel sire4 ,when the minstrels could thus joke upon themselves1 we need not be surprised if they satirised one another4 ,in a poem of the thirteenth century1 entitled ,les deux ,troveors ,ribauz1 two minstrels are introduced on the stage abusing and insulting one another1 and while indulging in mutual accusations of ignorance in their art1 they display their ignorance at the same time by misquoting the titles of the poems which they profess to be able to recite4 ,one of them boasts of the variety of instruments on which he could perform3-- ,je suis jugleres de viele1 ,si sai de muse et frestele1 ,et de harpes et de chifonie1 ,de la gigue1 de l'armonie1 ,de l'salteire1 et en la rote ,sai-ge bien chanter une note4 ,it appears1 however1 that among all these instruments1 the viol1 or fiddle1 was the one most generally in use4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aah4 ,a ,charming ,fiddler4 ,the medival monuments of art abound with burlesques and satires on the minstrels1 whose instruments of music are placed in the hands sometimes of monsters1 and at others in those of animals of a not very refined character4 ,our cut ,no4 #aah is taken from a manuscript in the ,british ,museum 7,,ms4 ,cotton1 ,domitian ,a4 ii471 and represents a female minstrel playing on the fiddle2 she has the upper part of a lady1 and the lower parts of a mare1 a combination which appears to have been rather familiar to the imagination of the medival artists4 ,in our cut ,no4 #aai1 which is taken from a copy made by ,carter of one of the misereres in ,ely ,cathedral1 it is not quite clear whether the performer on the fiddle be a monster or merely a cripple2 but perhaps the latter was intended4 ,the instrument1 too1 assumes a rather singular form4 ,our cut ,no4 #abj1 also taken from ,carter1 was furnished by a sculpture in the church of ,st4 ,john1 at ,cirencester1 and represents a man performing on an instrument rather closely resembling the modern hurdy-gurdy1 which is evidently played by turning a handle1 and the music is produced by striking wires or strings inside4 ,the face is evidently intended to be that of a jovial companion4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aai4 ,a ,crippled ,minstrel4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abj4 ,the ,hurdy-,gurdy4 ,gluttony was an especial characteristic of that class of society to which the minstrel belonged1 and perhaps this was the idea intended to be conveyed in the next picture1 ,no4 #aba1 taken from one of the stalls in ,winchester ,cathedral1 in which a pig is performing on the fiddle1 and appears to be accompanied by a juvenile of the same species of animal4 ,one of the same stalls1 copied in our cut ,no4 #abb1 represents a sow performing on another sort of musical instrument1 which is not at all uncommon in medival delineations4 ,it is the double pipe or flute1 which was evidently borrowed from the ancients4 ,minstrelsy was the usual accompaniment of the medival meal1 and perhaps this picture is intended to be a burlesque on that circumstance1 as the mother is playing to her brood while they are feeding4 ,they all seem to listen quietly1 except one1 who is evidently much more affected by the music than his companions4 ,the same instrument is placed in the hands of a rather jolly-looking female in one of the sculptures of ,st4 ,john's ,church in ,cirencester1 copied in our cut ,no4 #abc4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aba4 ,a ,swinish ,minstrel4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abb4 ,a ,musical ,mother4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abc4 ,the ,double ,flute4 ,although this instrument is rather frequently represented in medival works of art1 we have no account of or allusion to it in medival writers2 and perhaps it was not held in very high estimation1 and was used only by a low class of performers4 ,as in many other things1 the employment of particular musical instruments was guided1 no doubt1 by fashion1 new ones coming in as old ones went out4 ,such was the case with the instrument which is named in one of the above extracts1 and in some other medival writers1 a chiffonie1 and which has been supposed to be the dulcimer1 that had fallen into discredit in the fourteenth century4 ,this instrument is introduced in a story which is found in ,cuvelier's metrical history of the celebrated warrior ,bertrand du ,gueselin4 ,in the course of the war for the expulsion of ,pedro the ,cruel from the throne of ,castile1 an ,english knight1 ,sir ,matthew ,gournay1 was sent as a special ambassador to the court of ,portugal4 ,the ,portuguese monarch had in his service two minstrels whose performances he vaunted greatly1 and on whom he let great store1 and he insisted on their performing in the presence of the new ambassador4 ,it turned out that they played on the instrument just mentioned1 and ,sir ,matthew ,gournay could not refrain from laughing at the performance4 ,when the king pressed him to give his opinion1 he said1 with more regard for truth than politeness1 in ,france and ,normandy1 the instruments your minstrels play upon are regarded with contempt1 and are only in use among beggars and blind people1 so that they are popularly called beggar's instruments4 ,the king1 we are told1 took great offence at the bluntness of his ,english guest4 ,the fiddle itself appears at this time to have been gradually sinking in credit1 and the poets complained that a degraded taste for more vulgar musical instruments was introducing itself4 ,among these we may mention especially the pipe and tabor4 ,the ,french antiquary1 ,m4 ,jubinal1 in a very valuable collection of early popular poetry1 published under the title of ,jongleurs et ,trouvres1 has printed a curious poem of the thirteenth or fourteenth century1 intended as a protest against the use of the tabor and the bagpipes1 which he characterises as properly the musical instruments of the peasantry4 ,yet people then1 he says1 were becoming so besotted on such instruments1 that they introduced them in places where better minstrelsy would be more suitable4 ,the writer thinks that the introduction of so vulgar an instrument as the tabor into grand festivals could be looked upon in no other light than as one of the signs which might be expected to be the precursors of the coming of ,antichrist4 ,if such people are to come to grand festivals as carry a bushel i4e4 a tabor made in the form of a bushel measure1 on the end of which they beat1 and make such a terrible noise1 it would seem that ,antichrist must now be being born2 people ought to break the head of each of them with a staff4 ,dussent itiels genz venir bele feste ,qui portent un boissel1 qui mainent tel tempeste1 ,il samble que ,antecrist doie maintenant nestre2 ,l'en duroit d'un baston chascun brisier la teste4 ,this satirist adds1 as a proof of the contempt in which the ,virgin ,mary held such instruments1 that she never loved a tabor1 or consented to hear one1 and that no tabor was introduced among the minstrelsy at her espousals4 ,the gentle mother of ,god1 he says1 loved the sound of the fiddle1 and he goes on to prove her partiality for that instrument by citing some of her miracles4 ,onques le mre ,dieu1 qui est virge honore1 ,et est avoec les angles hautement corone1 ,n'ama onques tabour1 ne point ne li agre1 ,n'onques tabour n'i ot quant el fu espouse4 ,la douce mre ,dieu ama son de viele4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abd4 ,the ,tabor1 or ,drum4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abe4 ,bruin turned ,piper4 ,the artist who carved the curious stalls in ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel at ,westminster1 seems to have entered fully into the spirit displayed by this satirist1 for in one of them1 represented in our cut ,no4 #abd1 he has introduced a masked demon playing on the tabor1 with an expression apparently of derision4 ,this tabor presents much the form of a bushel measure1 or rather1 perhaps1 of a modern drum4 ,it may be remarked that the drum is1 in fact1 the same instrument as the tabor1 or1 at least1 is derived from it1 and they were called by the same names1 tabor or tambour4 ,the ,english name drum1 which has equivalents in the later forms of the ,teutonic dialects1 perhaps means simply something which makes a noise1 and is not1 as far as ,i know1 met with before the sixteenth century4 ,another carving of the same series of stalls at ,westminster1 copied in our cut ,no4 #abe1 represents a tame bear playing on the bagpipes4 ,this is perhaps intended to be at the same time a satire on the instrument itself1 and upon the strange exhibitions of animals domesticated and taught various singular performances1 which were then so popular4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abf4 ,royal ,minstrelsy4 ,in our cut ,no4 #abf we come to the fiddle again1 which long sustained its place in the highest rank of musical instruments4 ,it is taken from one of the sculptures on the porch of the principal entrance to the ,cathedral of ,lyons in ,france1 and represents a mermaid with her child1 listening to the music of the fiddle4 ,she wears a crown1 and is intended1 no doubt1 to be one of the queens of the sea1 and the introduction of the fiddle under such circumstances can leave no doubt how highly it was esteemed4 ,the mermaid is a creature of the imagination1 which appears to have been at all times a favourite object of poetry and legend4 ,it holds an important place in the medival bestiaries1 or popular treatises on natural history1 and it has only been expelled from the domains of science at a comparatively recent date4 ,it still retains its place in popular legends of our sea-coasts1 and more especially in the remoter parts of our islands4 ,the stories of the merrow1 or ,irish fairy1 hold a prominent place among my late friend ,crofton ,croker's ,fairy ,legends of the ,south of ,ireland4 ,the mermaid is also introduced not unfrequently in medival sculpture and carving4 ,our cut ,no4 #abg1 representing a mermaid and a merman1 is copied from one of the stalls of ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,the usual attributes of the mermaid are a looking-glass and comb1 by the aid of which she is dressing her hair2 but here she holds the comb alone4 ,her companion1 the male1 holds a fish1 which he appears to have just caught1 in his hand4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abg4 ,mermaids4 ,while1 after the fifteenth century the profession of the minstrel became entirely degraded1 and he was looked upon more than ever as a rogue and vagabond1 the fiddle accompanied him1 and it long remained1 as it still remains in ,ireland1 the favourite instrument of the peasantry4 ,the blind fiddler1 even at the present day1 is not unknown in our rural districts4 ,it has always been in ,england the favourite instrument of minstrelsy4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,court ,,fool4--,,the ,,normans ,,and ,,their ,,gabs4--,,early ,,history ,,of ,,court ,,fools4--,,their ,,costume4--,,carvings ,,in ,,the ,,cornish ,,churches4--,,the ,,burlesque ,,societies ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4--,,the ,,feasts ,,of ,,asses1 ,,and ,,of ,,fools4--,,their ,,licence4--,,the ,,leaden ,,money ,,of ,,the ,,fools4--,,the ,,bishop',s ,,blessing4 ,from the employment of minstrels attached to the family1 probably arose another and well-known character of later times1 the court fool1 who took the place of satirist in the great households4 ,i do not consider what we understand by the court fool to be a character of any great antiquity4 ,it is somewhat doubtful whether what we call a jest1 was really appreciated in the middle ages4 ,puns seem to have been considered as elegant figures of speech in literary composition1 and we rarely meet with anything like a quick and clever repartee4 ,in the earlier ages1 when a party of warriors would be merry1 their mirth appears to have consisted usually in ridiculous boasts1 or in rude remarks1 or in sneers at enemies or opponents4 ,these jests were termed by the ,french and ,normans gabs 7gab1 in medival ,latin71 a word supposed to have been derived from the classical ,latin word cavilla1 a mock or taunt2 and a short poem in ,anglo-,norman has been preserved which furnishes a curious illustration of the meaning attached to it in the twelfth century4 ,this poem relates how ,charlemagne1 piqued by the taunts of his empress on the superiority of ,hugh the ,great1 emperor of ,constantinople1 went to ,constantinople1 accompanied by his douze pairs and a thousand knights1 to verify the truth of his wife's story4 ,they proceeded first to ,jerusalem1 where1 when ,charlemagne and his twelve peers entered the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre1 they looked so handsome and majestic1 that they were taken at first for ,christ and his twelve apostles1 but the mystery was soon cleared up1 and they were treated by the patriarch with great hospitality during four months4 ,they then continued their progress till they reached ,constantinople1 where they were equally well received by the emperor ,hugo4 ,at night the emperor placed his guests in a chamber furnished with thirteen splendid beds1 one in the middle of the room1 and the other twelve distributed around it1 and illuminated by a large carbuncle1 which gave a light as bright as that of day4 ,when ,hugh left them in their quarters for the night1 he lent them wine and whatever was necessary to make them comfortable2 and1 when alone1 they proceeded to amuse themselves with gabs1 or jokes1 each being expected to say his joke in his turn4 ,charlemagne took the lead1 and boasted that if the emperor ,hugh would place before him his strongest bachelor1 in full armour1 and mounted on his good steed1 he would1 with one blow of his sword1 cut him through from the head downwards1 and through the saddle and horse1 and that the sword should1 after all this1 sink into the ground to the handle4 ,charlemagne then called upon ,roland for his gab1 who boasted that his breath was so strong1 that if the emperor ,hugh would lend him his horn1 he would take it out into the fields and blow it with such force1 that the wind and noise of it would shake down the whole city of ,constantinople4 ,oliver1 whose turn came next1 boasted of exploits of another description if he were left alone with the beautiful princess1 ,hugh's daughter4 ,the rest of the peers indulged in similar boasts1 and when the gabs had gone round1 they went to sleep4 ,now the emperor of ,constantinople had very cunningly1 and rather treacherously1 made a hole through the wall1 by which all that passed inside could be seen and heard1 and he had placed a spy on the outside1 who gave a full account of the conversation of the distinguished guests to his imperial master4 ,next morning ,hugh called his guests before him1 told them what he had heard by his spy1 and declared that each of them should perform his boast1 or1 if he failed1 be put to death4 ,charlemagne expostulated1 and represented that it was the custom in ,france when people retired for the night to amuse themselves in that manner4 ,such is the custom in ,france1 he said1 at ,paris1 and at ,chartres1 when the ,french are in bed they amuse themselves and make jokes1 and say things both of wisdom and of folly4 ,si est tel custume en ,france1 ,paris e ,cartres1 ,quand ,franceis sunt culchiez1 que se giuunt e gabent1 ,e si dient ambure e saver e folage4 ,but ,charlemagne expostulated in vain1 and they were only saved from the consequence of their imprudence by the intervention of so many miracles from above4#ff #ff ,charlemagne1 an ,anglo-,norman ,poem of the ,twelfth ,century1 now first published1 by ,francisque ,michel1 #abmo41 #hvo41 ,london1 #ahcf4 ,in such trials of skill as this1 an individual must continually have arisen who excelled in some at least of the qualities needful for raising mirth and making him a good companion1 by showing himself more brilliant in wit1 or more biting in sarcasms1 or more impudent in his jokes1 and he would thus become the favourite mirth-maker of the court1 the boon companion of the chieftain and his followers in their hours of relaxation4 ,we find such an individual not unusually introduced in the early romances and in the mythology of nations1 and he sometimes unites the character of court orator with the other4 ,such a personage was the ,sir ,kay of the cycle of the romances of king ,arthur4 ,i have remarked in a former chapter that ,hunferth1 in the ,anglo-,saxon poem of ,beowulf1 is described as holding a somewhat similar position at the court of king ,hrothgar4 ,to go farther back in the mythology of our forefathers1 the ,loki of ,scandinavian fable appears sometimes to have performed a similar character in the assembly of his fellow deities2 and we know that1 among the ,greeks1 ,homer on one occasion introduces ,vulcan acting the part of joker 77 to the gods of ,olympus4 ,but all these have no relationship whatever to the court-fool of modern times4 ,the ,german writer ,flgel1 in his ,history of ,court ,fools1#fg has thrown this subject into much confusion by introducing a great mass of irrelevant matter2 and those who have since compiled from ,flgel1 have made the confusion still greater4 ,much of this confusion has arisen from the misunderstanding and confounding of names and terms4 ,the mimus1 the joculator1 the ministrel1 or whatever name this class of society went by1 was not in any respects identical with what we understand by a court fool1 nor does any such character as the latter appear in the feudal household before the fourteenth century1 as far as we are acquainted with the social manners and customs of the olden time4 ,the vast extent of the early ,french romans de geste1 or ,carlovingian romances1 which are filled with pictures of courts both of princes and barons1 in which the court fool must have been introduced had he been known at the time they were composed1 that is1 in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 contains1 ,i believe1 no trace of such personage2 and the same may be said of the numerous other romances1 fabliaux1 and in fact all the literature of that period1 one so rich in works illustrative of contemporary manners in their most minute detail4 ,from these facts ,i conclude that the single brief charter published by ,m4 ,rigollot from a manuscript in the ,imperial ,library in ,paris1 is either misunderstood or it presents a very exceptional case4 ,by this charter1 ,john1 king of ,england1 grants to his follus1 ,william ,picol1 or ,piculph 7as he is called at the close of the document71 an estate in ,normandy named in the document ,fons ,ossan 7,menil-,ozenne in ,mortain71 with all its appurtenances1 to have and to hold1 to him and to his heirs1 by doing there-for to us once a year the service of one follus1 as long as he lives2 and after his death his heirs shall hold it of us1 by the service of one pair of gilt spurs to be rendered annually to us4#fh ,the service 7servitium7 here enjoined means the annual payment of the obligation of the feudal tenure1 and therefore if follus is to be taken as signifying a fool1 it only means that ,picol was to perform that character on one occasion in the course of the year4 ,in this case1 he may have been some fool whom king ,john had taken into his special favour2 but it certainly is no proof that the practice of keeping court fools then existed4 ,it is not improbable that this practice was first introduced in ,germany1 for ,flgel speaks1 though rather doubtfully1 of one who was kept at the court of the emperor ,rudolph ,i4 7of ,hapsburg71 whose reign lasted from #abgc to #abib4 ,it is more certain1 however1 that the kings of ,france possessed court fools before the middle of the fourteenth century1 and from this time anecdotes relating to them begin to be common4 ,one of the earliest and most curious of these anecdotes1 if it be true1 relates to the celebrated victory of ,sluys gained over the ,french fleet by our king ,edward ,,iii4 in the year #acdj4 ,it is said that no one dared to announce this disaster to the ,french king1 ,philippe ,,vi41 until a court fool undertook the task4 ,entering the king's chamber1 he continued muttering to himself1 but loud enough to be heard1 ,those cowardly ,english6 the chicken-hearted ,britons6 ,how so1 cousin8 the king inquired4 ,why1 replied the fool1 because they have not courage enough to jump into the sea1 like your ,french soldiers1 who went over headlong from their ships1 leaving those to the enemy who showed no inclination to follow them4 ,philippe thus became aware of the full extent of his calamity4 ,the institution of the court fool was carried to its greatest degree of perfection during the fifteenth century2 it only expired in the age of ,louis ,,xiv4 #fg ,geschichte der ,hofnarren1 von ,karl ,friedrich ,flgel1 #hvo4 ,liegnitz und ,leipzig1 #aghi4 #fh ,the words of this charter1 as given by ,rigollot1 are3--,joannes1 ,d ,g41 etc4 ,sciatis nos dedisse et prsenti charta confirmasse ,willelmo ,picol1 follo nostro1 ,fontem ,ossan1 cum omnibus pertinenciis suis1 habendum et tenendum sibi et hredibus suis1 faciendo inde nobis annuatim servitium unius folli quoad vixerit2 et post ejus decessum hredes sui eam tenebunt1 et per servitium unius paris calcarium deauratorum nobis annuatim reddendo4 ,quare volumus et firmiter prcipimus quod prdictius ,piculphus et hredes sui habeant et teneant in perpetuum1 bene et in pace1 libere et quiete1 prdictam terram4--,rigollot1 ,monnaies inconnues des ,evques des ,innocens1 etc41 #hvo41 ,paris1 #ahcg4 ,it was apparently with the court fool that the costume was introduced which has ever since been considered as the characteristic mark of folly4 ,some parts of this costume1 at least1 appear to have been borrowed from an earlier date4 ,the gelotopi of the ,greeks1 and the mimi and moriones of the ,romans1 shaved their heads2 but the court fools perhaps adopted this fashion as a satire upon the clergy and monks4 ,some writers professed to doubt whether the fools borrowed from the monks1 or the monks from the fools2 and ,cornelius ,agrippa1 in his treatise on the ,vanity of ,sciences1 remarks that the monks had their heads all shaven like fools 7raso toto capite ut fatui74 ,the cowl1 also1 was perhaps adopted in derision of the monks1 but it was distinguished by the addition of a pair of asses' ears1 or by a cock's head and comb1 which formed its termination above1 or by both4 ,the court fool was also furnished with a staff or club1 which became eventually his bauble4 ,the bells were another necessary article in the equipment of a court fool1 perhaps also intended as a satire on the custom of wearing small bells in the dress1 which prevailed largely during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 especially among people who were fond of childish ostentation4 ,the fool wore also a party-coloured1 or motley1 garment1 probably with the same aim--that of satirising one of the ridiculous fashions of the fourteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abg;a4 ,court ,fools4 ,it is in the fifteenth century that we first meet with the fool in full costume in the illuminations or manuscripts1 and towards the end of the century this costume appears continually in engravings4 ,it is also met with at this time among the sculptures of buildings and the carvings of wood-work4 ,the two very interesting examples given in our cut ,no4 #abg;a are taken from carvings of the fifteenth century1 in the church of ,st4 ,levan1 in ,cornwall1 near the ,land's ,end4 ,they represent the court fool in two varieties of costume2 in the first1 the fool's cowl1 or cap1 ends in the cock's head2 in the other1 it is fitted with asses' ears4 ,there are variations also in other parts of the dress2 for the second only has bells to his sleeves1 and the first carries a singularly formed staff1 which may perhaps be intended for a strap or belt1 with a buckle at the end2 while the other has a ladle in his hand4 ,as one possesses a beard1 and presents marks of age in his countenance1 while the other is beardless and youthful1 we may consider the pair as an old fool and a young fool4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abh4 ,a ,fool and a ,grimace-maker4 ,the ,cornish churches are rather celebrated for their early carved wood-work1 chiefly of the fifteenth century1 of which two examples are given in our cut1 ,no4 #abh1 taken from bench pannels in the church of ,st4 ,mullion1 on the ,cornish coast1 a little to the north of the ,lizard ,point4 ,the first has bells hanging to the sleeves1 and is no doubt intended to represent folly in some form2 the other appears to be intended for the head of a woman making grimaces4#fi #fi ,for the drawings of these interesting carvings from the ,cornish churches1 ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,blight1 the author of an extremely pleasing and useful guide to the beauties of a well-known district of ,cornwall1 entitled ,a ,week at the ,land's ,end4 ,the fool had long been a character among the people before he became a court fool1 for ,folly--or1 as she was then called1 ,mother ,folly--was one of the favourite objects of popular worship in the middle ages1 and1 where that worship sprang up spontaneously among the people1 it grew with more energy1 and presented more hearty joyousness and bolder satire than under the patronage of the great4 ,our forefathers in those times were accustomed to form themselves into associations or societies of a mirthful character1 parodies of those of a more serious description1 especially ecclesiastical1 and elected as their officers mock popes1 cardinals1 archbishops and bishops1 kings1 c4 ,they held periodical festivals1 riotous and licentious carnivals1 which were admitted into the churches1 and even taken under the especial patronage of the clergy1 under such titles as the feast of fools1 the feast of the ass1 the feast of the innocents1 and the like4 ,there was hardly a ,continental town of any account which had not its company of fools1 with its mock ordinances and mock ceremonies4 ,in our own island we had our abbots of misrule and of unreason4 ,at their public festivals satirical songs were sung and satirical masks and dresses were worn2 and in many of them1 especially at a later date1 brief satirical dramas were acted4 ,these satires assumed much of the functions of modern caricature2 the caricature of the pictorial representations1 which were mostly permanent monuments and destined for future generations1 was naturally general in its character1 but in the representations of which ,i am speaking1 which were temporary1 and designed to excite the mirth of the moment1 it became personal1 and1 often1 even political1 and it was constantly directed against the ecclesiastical order4 ,the scandal of the day furnished it with abundant materials4 ,a fragment of one of their songs of an early date1 sung at one of these feasts at ,rouen1 has been preserved1 and contains the following lines1 written in ,latin and ,french3-- ,de asino bono nostro1 ,meliori et optimo1 ,debemus faire fte4 ,en revenant de ,gravinaria1 ,un gros chardon reperit in via1 ,il lui coupa la tte4 ,vir monachus in mense ,julio ,egressus est e monasterio1 ,c'est dom de la ,bucaille2 ,egressus est sine licentia1 ,pour aller voir dona ,venissia1 ,et faire la ripaille4 ,,translation4 ,for our good ass1 ,the better and the best1 ,we ought to rejoice4 ,in returning from ,gravinire1 ,a great thistle he found in the way1 ,he cut off its head4 ,a monk in the month of ,july ,went out of his monastery1 ,it is dom de la ,bucaille2 ,he went out without license1 ,to pay a visit to the dame de ,venisse1 ,and make jovial cheer4 ,it appears that ,de la ,bucaille was the prior of the abbey of ,st4 ,taurin1 at ,rouen1 and that the dame de ,venisse was prioress of ,st4 ,saviour1 and these lines1 no doubt1 commemorate some great scandal of the day relating to the private relations between these two individuals4 ,these mock religious ceremonies are supposed to have been derived from the ,roman ,saturnalia2 they were evidently of great antiquity in the medival church1 and were most prevalent in ,france and ,italy4 ,under the name of the feast of the sub-deacons they are forbidden by the acts of the council of ,toledo1 in #fcc2 at a later period1 the ,french punned on the word sous-diacres1 and called them ,saouls-diacres 7,drunken ,deacons71 words which had nearly the same sound4 ,the feast of the ass is said to be traced back in ,france as far as the ninth century4 ,it was celebrated in most of the great towns in that country1 such as ,rouen1 ,sens1 ,douai1 c41 and the service for the occasion is actually preserved in some of the old church books4 ,from this it appears that the ass was led in procession to a place in the middle of the church1 which had been decked out to receive it1 and that the procession was led by two clerks1 who sung a ,latin song in praise of the animal4 ,this song commences by telling us how the ass came from the east1 handsome and very strong1 and most fit for carrying burthens3-- ,orientis partibus ,adventavit asinus1 ,pulcher et fortissimus1 ,sarcinis aptissimus4 ,the refrain or burthen of the song is in ,french1 and exhorts the animal to join in the uproar--,eh6 sir ass1 chant now1 fair mouth1 bray1 you shall have hay enough1 and oats in abundance3-- ,hez1 sire asnes1 car chantez1 ,belle bouche1 rechignez1 ,vous aurez du foin assez1 ,et de l'avoine plantez4 ,in this tone the chant continues through nine similar stanzas1 describing the mode of life and food of the ass4 ,when the procession reached the altar1 the priest began a service in prose4 ,beleth1 one of the celebrated doctors of the university of ,paris1 who flourished in #aahb1 speaks of the feast of fools as in existence in his time2 and the acts of the council of ,paris1 held in #abab1 forbid the presence of archbishops and bishops1 and more especially of monks and nuns1 at the feasts of fools1 in which a staff was carried4#gj ,we know the proceedings of this latter festival rather minutely from the accounts given in the ecclesiastical censures4 ,it was in the cathedral churches that they elected the archbishop or bishop of fools1 whose election was confirmed1 and he was consecrated1 with a multitude of buffooneries4 ,he then entered upon his pontifical duties wearing the mitre and carrying the crosier before the people1 on whom he bestowed his solemn benediction4 ,in the exempt churches1 or those which depended immediately upon the ,holy ,see1 they elected a pope of fools 7unum papam fatuorum71 who wore similarly the ensigns of the papacy4 ,these dignitaries were assisted by an equally burlesque and licentious clergy1 who uttered and performed a mixture of follies and impieties during the church service of the day1 which they attended in disguises and masquerade dresses4 ,some wore masks1 or had their faces painted1 and others were dressed in women's clothing1 or in ridiculous costumes4 ,on entering the choir1 they danced and sang licentious songs4 ,the deacons and sub-deacons ate black puddings and sausages on the altar while the priest was celebrating2 others played at cards or dice under his eyes2 and others threw bits of old leather into the censer in order to raise a disagreeable smell4 ,after the mass was ended1 the people broke out into all sorts of riotous behaviour in the church1 leaping1 dancing1 and exhibiting themselves in indecent postures1 and some went as far as to strip themselves naked1 and in this condition they were drawn through the streets with tubs full of ordure and filth1 which they threw about at the mob4 ,every now and then they halted1 when they exhibited immodest postures and actions1 accompanied with songs and speeches of the same character4 ,many of the laity took part in the procession1 dressed as monks and nuns4 ,these disorders seem to have been carried to their greatest degree of extravagance during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4#ga #gj ,a festis follorum ubi baculus accipitur omnino abstineatur4444 ,idem fortius monachis et monialibus prohibemus4 #ga ,on the subject of all these burlesques and popular feasts and ceremonies1 the reader may consult ,flgel's ,geschichte des ,grotesk-,komischen1 of which a new and enlarged edition has recently been given by ,dr4 ,friedrich ,w4 ,ebeling1 #hvo41 ,leipzig1 #ahfb4 ,much interesting information on the subject was collected by ,du ,tilliot1 in his ,memoires pour servir l',histoire de la ,fte des ,fous1 #hvo41 ,lausanne1 #agea4 ,see also ,rigollot1 in the work quoted above1 and a popular article on the same subject will be found in my ,archological ,album4 ,towards the fifteenth century1 lay societies1 having apparently no connection with the clergy or the church1 but of just the same burlesque character1 arose in ,france4 ,one of the earliest of these was formed by the clerks of the ,bazoche1 or lawyers' clerks of the ,palais de ,justice in ,paris1 whose president was a sort of king of misrule4 ,the other principal society of this kind in ,paris took the rather mirthful name of ,enfans sans ,souci 7,careless ,boys72 it consisted of young men of education1 who gave to their president or chieftain the title of ,prince des ,sots 7the ,prince of ,fools74 ,both these societies composed and performed farces1 and other small dramatic pieces4 ,these farces were satires on contemporary society1 and appear to have been often very personal4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abi4 ,money of the ,archbishop of the ,innocents4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acj4 ,money of the ,pope of ,fools4 ,almost the only monuments of the older of these societies consist of coins1 or tokens1 struck in lead1 and sometimes commemorating the names of their mock dignitaries4 ,a considerable number of these have been found in ,france1 and an account of them1 with engravings1 was published by ,dr4 ,rigollot some years ago4#gb ,our cut ,no4 #abi will serve as an example4 ,it represents a leaden token of the ,archbishop of the ,innocents of the parish of ,st4 ,firmin1 at ,amiens1 and is curious as bearing a date4 ,on one side the archbishop of the ,innocents is represented in the act of giving his blessing to his flock1 surrounded by the inscription1 ,,moneta ,,archiepi ,,scti ,,firmini4 ,on the other side we have the name of the individual who that year held the office of archbishop1 ,,nicolavs ,,gavdram ,,archiepvs #aebj1 surrounding a group consisting of two men1 one of whom is dressed as a fool1 holding between them a bird1 which has somewhat the appearance of a magpie4 ,our cut ,no4 #acj is still more curious2 it is a token of the pope of fools4 ,on one side appears the pope with his tiara and double cross1 and a fool in full costume1 who approaches his bauble to the pontifical cross4 ,it is certainly a bitter caricature on the papacy1 whether that were the intention or not4 ,two persons behind1 dressed apparently in scholastic costume1 seem to be merely spectators4 ,the inscription is1 ,,moneta ,,nova ,,adriani ,,stvltorv ,m ,,pape 7the last ,e being in the field of the piece71 new money of ,adrian1 the pope of fools4 ,the inscription on the other side of the token is one frequently repeated on these leaden medals1 ,,stvltorv ,m ,,infinitvs ,,est ,,nvmervs1 the number of fools is infinite4 ,in the field we see ,mother ,folly holding up her bauble1 and before her a grotesque figure in a cardinal's hat1 apparently kneeling to her4 ,it is rather surprising that we find so few allusions to these burlesque societies in the various classes of pictorial records from which the subject of these chapters has been illustrated2 but we have evidence that they were not altogether overlooked4 ,until the latter end of the last century1 the misereres of the church of ,st4 ,spire1 at ,corbeil1 near ,paris1 were remarkable for the singular carvings with which they were decorated1 and which have since been destroyed1 but fortunately they were engraved by ,millin4 ,one of them1 copied in our cut ,no4 #aca1 evidently represents the bishop of fools conferring his blessing2 the fool's bauble occupies the place of the pastoral staff4 #gb ,monnaies inconnues des ,evques des ,innocens1 des ,fous1 c41 ,paris1 #ahcg4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aca4 ,the ,bishop of ,fools4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,dance ,,of ,,death4--,,the ,,paintings ,,in ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,la ,,chaise ,,dieu4--,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,folly4--,,sebastian ,,brandt2 ,,the ,,ship ,,of ,,fools4--,,disturbers ,,of ,,church ,,service4--,,troublesome ,,beggars4--,,geiler',s ,,sermons4--,,badius1 ,,and ,,his ,,ship ,,of ,,foolish ,,women4--,,the ,,pleasures ,,of ,,smell4--,,erasmus2 ,,the ,,praise ,,of ,,folly4 ,there is still one cycle of satire which almost belongs to the middle ages1 though it only became developed at their close1 and became most popular after they were past4 ,there existed1 at least as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century1 a legendary story of an interview between three living and three dead men1 which is usually told in ,french verse1 and appears under the title of ,des trois vifs et des trois morts4 ,according to some versions of the legend1 it was ,st4 ,macarius1 the ,egyptian recluse1 who thus introduced the living to the dead4 ,the verses are sometimes accompanied with figures1 and these have been found both sculptured and painted on ecclesiastical buildings4 ,at a later period1 apparently early in the fifteenth century1 some one extended this idea to all ranks of society1 and pictured a skeleton1 the emblem of death1 or even more than one1 in communication with an individual of each class2 and this extended scene1 from the manner of the grouping--in which the dead appeared to be wildly dancing off with the living--became known as the ,dance of ,death4 ,as the earlier legend of the three dead and the three living was1 however1 still often introduced at the beginning of it1 the whole group was most generally known--especially during the fifteenth century--as the ,danse ,macabre1 or ,dance of ,macabre1 this name being considered as a mere corruption of ,macarius4 ,the temper of the age--in which death in every form was constantly before the eyes of all1 and in which people sought to regard life as a mere transitory moment of enjoyment--gave to this grim idea of the fellowship of death and life great popularity1 and it was not only painted on the walls of churches1 but it was suspended in tapestry around people's chambers4 ,sometimes they even attempted to represent it in masquerade1 and we are told that in the month of ,october1 #adbd1 the ,danse ,macabre was publicly danced by living people in the cemetery of the ,innocents1 in ,paris--a fit place for so lugubrious a performance--in the presence of the ,duke of ,bedford and the ,duke of ,burgundy1 who came to ,paris after the battle of ,verneuil4 ,during the rest of the century we find not unfrequently allusions to the ,danse ,macabre4 ,the ,english poet ,lydgate wrote a series of stanzas to accompany the figures1 and it was the subject of some of the earliest engravings on wood4 ,in the posture and accompaniments of the figures representing the different classes of society1 and in the greater or less reluctance with which the living accept their not very attractive partners1 satire is usually implied1 and it is in some cases accompanied with drollery4 ,the figure representing death has almost always a grimly mirthful countenance1 and appears to be dancing with good will4 ,the most remarkable early representation of the ,danse ,macabre now preserved1 is that painted on the wall of the church of ,la ,chaise ,dieu1 in ,auvergne1 a beautiful fac-simile of which was published a few years ago by the well-known antiquary ,m4 ,jubinal4 ,this remarkable picture begins with the figures of ,adam and ,eve1 who are introducing death into the world in the form of a serpent with a death's head4 ,the dance is opened by an ecclesiastic preaching from a pulpit1 towards whom death is leading first in the dance the pope1 for each individual takes his precedence strictly according to his class--alternately an ecclesiastic and a layman4 ,thus next after the pope comes the emperor1 and the cardinal is followed by the king4 ,the baron is followed by the bishop1 and the grim partner of the latter appears to pay more intention to the layman than to his own priest1 so that two dead men appear to have the former in charge4 ,the group thus represented by the nobleman and the two deaths1 is copied in our cut ,no4 #acb1 and will serve as an example of the style and grouping of this remarkable painting4 ,after a few other figures1 perhaps less striking1 we come to the merchant1 who receives the advances of his partner with a thoughtful air2 while immediately after him another death is trying to make himself more acceptable to the bashful nun by throwing a cloak over his nakedness4 ,in another place two deaths armed with bows and arrows are scattering their shafts rather dangerously4 ,soon follow some of the more gay and youthful members of society4 ,our cut ,no4 #acc represents the musician1 who appears also to attract the attentions of two of the persecutors4 ,in his dismay he is treading under foot his own viol4 ,the dance closes with the lower orders of society1 and is concluded by a group which is not so easily understood4 ,before the end of the fifteenth century1 there had appeared in ,paris several editions of a series of bold engravings on wood1 in a small folio size1 representing the same dance1 though somewhat differently treated4 ,france1 indeed1 appears to have been the native country of the ,danse ,macabre4 ,but in the century following the beautiful set of drawings by the great artist ,hans ,holbein1 first published at ,lyons in #aech1 gave to the ,dance of ,death a still greater and wider celebrity4 ,from this time the subjects of this dance were commonly introduced in initial letters1 and in the engraved borders of pages1 especially in books of a religious character4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acb4 ,the ,knight in the ,dance of ,death4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acc4 ,the ,musician in ,death's ,hands4 ,death may truly be said to have shared with ,folly that melancholy period--the fifteenth century4 ,as society then presented itself to the eye1 people might easily suppose that the world was running mad1 and folly1 in one shape or other1 seemed to be the principle which ruled most men's actions4 ,the jocular societies1 described in my last chapter1 which multiplied in ,france during the fifteenth century1 initiated a sort of mock worship of ,folly4 ,that sort of inauguration of death which was performed in the ,danse ,macabre1 was of ,french growth1 but the grand crusade against folly appears to have originated in ,germany4 ,sebastian ,brandt was a native of ,strasburg1 born in #adeh4 ,he studied in that city and in ,ble1 became a celebrated professor in both those places1 and died at the former in #aebj4 ,the ,ship of ,fools1 which has immortalised the name of ,sebastian ,brandt1 is believed to have been first published in the year #adid4 ,the original ,german text went through numerous editions within a few years2 a ,latin translation was equally popular1 and it was afterwards edited and enlarged by ,jodocus ,badius ,ascensius4 ,a ,french text was no less successful2 an ,english translation was printed by ,richard ,pynson in #aeji2 a ,dutch version appeared in #aeai4 ,during the sixteenth century1 ,brandt's ,ship of ,fools was the most popular of books4 ,it consists of a series of bold woodcuts1 which form its characteristic feature1 and of metrical explanations1 written by ,brandt1 and annexed to each cut4 ,taking his text from the words of the preacher1 ,stultorum numerus est infinitus1 ,brandt exposes to the eye1 in all its shades and forms1 the folly of his contemporaries1 and bares to view its roots and causes4 ,the cuts are especially interesting as striking pictures of contemporary manners4 ,the ,ship of ,fools is the great ship of the world1 into which the various descriptions of fatuity are pouring from all quarters in boat-loads4 ,the first folly is that of men who collected great quantities of books1 not for their utility1 but for their rarity1 or beauty of execution1 or rich bindings1 so that we see that bibliomania had already taken its place among human vanities4 ,the second class of fools were interested and partial judges1 who sold justice for money1 and are represented under the emblem of two fools throwing a boar into a caldron1 according to the old ,latin proverb1 ,agere aprum in lebetem4 ,then come the various follies of misers1 fops1 dotards1 men who are foolishly indulgent to their children1 mischief-makers1 and despisers of good advice2 of nobles and men in power2 of the profane and the improvident2 of foolish lovers2 of extravagant eaters and drinkers1 c41 c4 ,foolish talking1 hypocrisy1 frivolous pursuits1 ecclesiastical corruptions1 impudicity1 and a great number of other vices as well as follies1 are duly passed in review1 and are represented in various forms of satirical caricature1 and sometimes in simpler unadorned pictures4 ,thus the foolish valuers of things are represented by a fool holding a balance1 one scale of which contains the sun1 moon1 and stars1 to represent heaven and heavenly things1 and the other a castle and fields1 to represent earthly things1 the latter scale overweighing the other2 and the procrastinator is pictured by another fool1 with a parrot perched on his head1 and a magpie on each hand1 all repeating cras1 cras1 cras 7to-morrow74 ,our cut ,no4 #acd represents a group of disturbers of church service4 ,it was a common practice in former days to take to church hawks 7which were constantly carried about as the outward ensign of the gentleman7 and dogs4 ,the fool has here thrown back his fool's-cap to exhibit more fully the fashionable gent of the day2 he carries his hawk on his hand1 and wears not only a fashionable pair of shoes1 but very fashionable clogs also4 ,these gentlemen la mode1 turgentes genere et natalibus altis1 we are told1 were the persons who disturbed the church service by the creaking of their shoes and clogs1 the noise made by their birds1 the barking and quarrelling of their dogs1 by their own whisperings1 and especially with immodest women1 whom they met in church as in a convenient place of assignation4 ,all these forms of the offence are expressed in the picture4 ,our second example cut ,no4 #ace1 which forms the fifty-ninth title or subject in the ,ship of ,fools1 represents a party of the beggars with which1 either lay or ecclesiastical1 the country was then overrun4 ,in the explanation1 these wicked beggars are described as indulging in idleness1 in eating1 drinking1 rioting1 and sleep1 while they levy contributions on the charitable feelings of the honest and industrious1 and1 under cover of begging1 commit robbery wherever they find the opportunity4 ,the beggar1 who appears to be only a deceptive cripple1 leads his donkey laden with children1 whom he is bringing up in the same profession1 while his wife lingers behind to indulge in her bibulous propensities4 ,these cuts will give a tolerable notion of the general character of the whole1 which amount in number to a hundred and twelve1 and therefore present a great variety of subjects relative to almost every class and profession of life4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acd4 ,disturbers of ,church ,service4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ace4 ,mendicants on their ,travels4 ,we may remark1 however1 that after ,folly had thus run through all the stages of society1 until it had reached the lowest of all1 the ranks of mendicity1 the gods themselves became alarmed1 the more so as this great movement was directed especially against ,minerva1 the goddess of wisdom1 and they held a conclave to provide against it4 ,the result is not told1 but the course of ,folly goes on as vigorously as ever4 ,ignorant fools who set up for physicians1 fools who cannot understand jokes1 unwise mathematicians1 astrologers1 of the latter of which the moraliser says1 in his ,latin verse-- ,siqua voles sortis prnoscere damna futur1 ,et vitare malum1 sol tibi signa dabit4 ,sed tibi1 stulte1 tui cur non dedit ille furoris ,signa8 aut1 si dederit1 cur tanta mala subis8 ,nondum grammatic callis primordia1 et audes ,vim cli radio supposuisse tuo4 ,the next cut is a very curious one1 and appears to represent a dissecting-house of this early period4 ,among other chapters which afford interesting pictures of that time1 and indeed of all times1 we may instance those of litigious fools1 who are always going to law1 and who confound blind justice1 or rather try to unbind her eyes2 of filthy-tongued fools1 who glorify the race of swine2 of ignorant scholars2 of gamblers2 of bad and thievish cooks2 of low men who seek to be high1 and of high who are despisers of poverty2 of men who forget that they will die2 of irreligious men and blasphemers2 of the ridiculous indulgence of parents to children1 and the ungrateful return which was made to them for it2 and of women's pride4 ,another title describes the ruin of ,christianity3 the pope1 emperor1 king1 cardinals1 c41 are receiving willingly from a suppliant fool the cap of ,folly1 while two other fools are looking derisively upon them from an adjoining wall4 ,it need hardly be said that this was published on the eve of the ,reformation4 ,in the midst of the popularity which greeted the appearance of the work of ,sebastian ,brandt1 it attracted the special attention of a celebrated preacher of the time named ,johann ,geiler4 ,geiler was born at ,schaffhausen1 in ,switzerland1 in #adde1 but having lost his father when only three years of age1 he was educated by his grandfather1 who lived at ,keysersberg1 in ,alsace1 and hence he was commonly called ,geiler of ,keysersberg4 ,he studied in ,freiburg and ,ble1 obtained a great reputation for learning1 was esteemed a profound theologian1 and was finally settled in ,strasburg1 where he continued to shine as a preacher until his death in #aeaj4 ,he was a bold man1 too1 in the cause of truth1 and declaimed with earnest zeal against the corruptions of the church1 and especially against the monkish orders1 for he compared the black monks to the devil1 the white monks to his dam1 and the others he said were their chickens4 ,on another occasion he said that the qualities of a good monk were an almighty belly1 an ass's back1 and a raven's mouth4 ,he told his congregation from the pulpit that a great reformation was at hand1 that he did not expect to live to see it himself1 but that many of those who heard him would live to see it4 ,as may be supposed1 the monks hated him1 and spoke of him with contempt4 ,they said1 that in his sermons he took his texts1 not from the ,scriptures1 but from the ,ship of ,fools of ,sebastian ,brandt2 and1 in fact1 during the year #adih1 ,geiler preached at ,strasburg a series of sermons on the follies of his time1 which were evidently founded upon ,brandt's book1 for the various follies were taken in the same order4 ,they were originally compiled in ,german1 but one of ,geiler's scholars1 ,jacob ,other1 translated them into ,latin1 and published them1 in #aeja1 under the title of ,navicula sive ,speculum ,fatuorum prstantissimi sacrarum literarum doctoris ,johannis ,geiler4 ,within a few years this work went through several editions both in ,latin and in ,german1 some of them illustrated by woodcuts4 ,the style of preaching is quaint and curious1 full of satirical wit1 which is often coarse1 according to the manner of the time1 sometimes very indelicate4 ,each sermon is headed by the motto1 ,stultorum infinitus est numerus4 ,geiler takes for his theme in each sermon one of the titles of ,brandt's ,ship of ,fools1 and he separates them into subdivisions1 or branches1 which he calls the bells 7nolas7 from the fool's-cap4 ,the other scholar who did most to spread the knowledge of ,brandt's work1 was ,jodocus ,badius1 who assumed the additional name of ,ascensius because he was born at ,assen1 near ,brussels1 in #adfb4 ,he was a very distinguished scholar1 but is best known for having established a celebrated printing establishment in ,paris1 where he died in #aece4 ,i have already stated that ,badius edited the ,latin translation of the ,ship of ,fools of ,sebastian ,brandt1 with additional explanations of his own1 but he was one of the first of ,brandt's imitators4 ,he seems to have thought that ,brandt's book was not complete--that the weaker sex had not received its fair share of importance2 and apparently in #adih1 while ,geiler was turning the ,stultifera ,navis into sermons1 ,badius compiled a sort of supplement to it 7additamentum71 to which he gave the title of ,stultifer navicul1 seu ,scaph1 ,fatuarum ,mulierum1 the ,boats of ,foolish ,women4 ,as far as can be traced1 the first edition appears to have been printed in #aejb4 ,the first cut represents the ship carrying ,eve alone of the female race1 whose folly involved the whole world4 ,the book is divided into five chapters1 according to the number of the five senses1 each sense represented by a boat carrying its particular class of foolish women to the great ship of foolish women1 which lies off at anchor4 ,the text consists of a dissertation on the use and abuse of the particular sense which forms the substance of the chapter1 and it ends with ,latin verses1 which are given as the boatman's celeusma1 or boat song4 ,the first of these boats is the scapha stult visionis ad stultiferam navem perveniens--the boat of foolish seeing proceeding to the ship of fools4 ,a party of gay ladies are taking possession of the boat1 carrying with them their combs1 looking-glasses1 and all other implements necessary for making them fair to be looked upon4 ,the second boat is the scapha auditionis fatu1 the boat of foolish hearing1 in which the ladies are playing upon musical instruments4 ,the third is the scapha olfactionis stult1 the boat of foolish smell1 and the pictorial illustration to it is partly copied in our cut ,no4 #acf4 ,in the original some of the ladies are gathering sweet-smelling flowers before they enter the boat1 while on board a pedlar is vending his perfume4 ,one folle femme1 with her fool's cap on her head1 is buying a pomander1 or1 as we should perhaps now say1 a scent-ball1 from the itinerant dealer4 ,figures of pomanders are extremely rare1 and this is an interesting example2 in fact1 it is only recently that our ,shakspearian critics really understood the meaning of the word4 ,a pomander was a small globular vessel1 perforated with holes1 and filled with strong perfumes1 as it is represented in our woodcut4 ,the fourth of these boats is that of foolish tasting1 scapha gustationis fatu1 and the ladies have their well-furnished table on board the boat1 and are largely indulging in eating and drinking4 ,in the last of these boats1 the scapha contactionis fatu1 or boat of foolish feeling1 the women have men on board1 and are proceeding to great liberties with them2 one of the gentle damsels1 too1 is picking the pocket of her male companion in a very unlady-like manner4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acf4 ,the ,boat of ,pleasant ,odours4 ,two ideas combined in this peculiar field of satiric literature1 that of the ship and that of the fools1 now became popular1 and gave rise to a host of imitators4 ,there appeared ships of health1 ships of penitence1 ships of all sorts of things1 on the one hand2 and on the other1 folly was a favourite theme of satire from many quarters4 ,one of the most remarkable of the personages involved in this latter warfare1 was the great scholar ,desiderius ,erasmus1 of ,rotterdam1 who was born in that city in #adfg4 ,like most of these satirists1 ,erasmus was strongly imbued with the spirit of the ,reformation1 and he was the acquaintance and friend of those to whom the ,reformation owed a great part of its success4 ,in #adig1 when the ,ship of ,fools of ,sebastian ,brandt was in the first full flush of its popularity1 ,erasmus came to ,england1 and was so well received1 that from that time forward his literary life seemed more identified with our island than with any other country4 ,his name is still a sort of household word in our universities1 especially in that of ,cambridge4 ,he made here the friendly acquaintance of the great ,sir ,thomas ,more1 himself a lover of mirth1 and one of those whose names are celebrated for having kept a court fool4 ,in the earlier years of the sixteenth century1 ,erasmus visited ,italy1 and passed two or three years there4 ,he returned thence to ,england1 as appears1 early in the year #aejh4 ,it is not easy to decide whether his experience of society in ,italy had convinced him more than ever that folly was the presiding genius of mankind1 or what other feeling influenced him1 but one of the first results of his voyage was the 7,mori ,encomium71 or ,praise of ,folly4 ,erasmus dedicated this little jocular treatise to ,sir ,thomas ,more as a sort of pun upon his name1 although he protests that there was a great contrast between the two characters4 ,erasmus takes much the same view of folly as ,brandt1 ,geiler1 ,badius1 and the others1 and under this name he writes a bold satire on the whole frame of contemporary society4 ,the satire is placed in the mouth of ,folly herself 7the ,mre ,folie of the jocular clubs71 who delivers from her pulpit a declamation in which she sets forth her qualities and praises4 ,she boasts of the greatness of her origin1 claims as her kindred the sophists1 rhetoricians1 and many of the pretentious scholars and wise men1 and describes her birth and education4 ,she claims divine affinity1 and boasts of her influence over the world1 and of the beneficent manner in which it was exercised4 ,all the world1 she pretends1 was ruled under her auspices1 and it was only in her presence that mankind was really happy4 ,hence the happiest ages of man are infancy1 before wisdom has come to interfere1 and old age1 when it has passed away4 ,therefore1 she says1 if men would remain faithful to her1 and avoid wisdom altogether1 they would pass a life of perpetual youth4 ,in this long discourse of the influence of folly1 written by a man of the known sentiments of ,erasmus1 it would be strange if the ,romish church1 with its monks and ignorant priesthood1 its saints1 and relics1 and miracles1 did not find a place4 ,erasmus intimates that the superstitious follies had become permanent1 because they were profitable4 ,there are some1 he tells us1 who cherished the foolish yet pleasant persuasion1 that if they fixed their eyes devoutly on a figure of ,st4 ,christopher1 carved in wood or painted on the wall1 they would be safe from death on that day2 with many other examples of equal credulity4 ,then there are your pardons1 your measures of purgatory1 which may be bought off at so much the hour1 or the day1 or the month1 and a multitude of other absurdities4 ,ecclesiastics1 scholars1 mathematicians1 philosophers1 all come in for their share of the refined satire of this book1 which1 like the ,ship of ,fools1 has gone through innumerable editions1 and has been translated into many languages4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acg4 ,superstition4 ,in an early ,french translation1 the text of this work of ,erasmus is embellished with some of the woodcuts belonging to ,brandt's ,ship of ,fools1 which1 it need hardly be remarked1 are altogether inappropriate1 but the ,praise of ,folly was detained to receive illustrations from a more distinguished pencil4 ,a copy of the book came into the hands of ,hans ,holbein--it may possibly have been presented to him by the author--and ,holbein took so much interest in it1 that he amused himself with drawing illustrative sketches with a pen in the margins4 ,this book afterwards passed into the library of the ,university of ,ble1 where it was found in the latter part of the seventeenth century1 and these drawings have since been engraved and added to most of the subsequent editions4 ,many of these sketches are very slight1 and some have not a very close connection with the text of ,erasmus1 but they are all characteristic1 and show the spirit--the spirit of the age--in which ,holbein read his author4 ,i give two examples of them1 taken almost haphazard1 for it would require a longer analysis of the book than can be given here to make many of them understood4 ,the first of these1 our cut ,no4 #acg1 represents the foolish warrior1 who has a sword long enough to trust to it for defence1 bowing with trembling superstition before a painting of ,st4 ,christopher crossing the water with the infant ,christ on his shoulder1 as a more certain security for his safety during that day4 ,the other1 our cut ,no4 #ach1 represents the preacher1 ,lady ,folly1 descending from her pulpit1 after she has concluded her sermon4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ach4 ,preacher ,folly ending her ,sermon4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,popular ,,literature ,,and ,,its ,,heroes2 ,,brother ,,rush1 ,,tyll ,,eulenspiegel1 ,,the ,,wise ,,men ,,of ,,gotham4--,,stories ,,and ,,jest-,,books4--,,skelton1 ,,scogin1 ,,tarlton1 ,,peele4 ,the people in the middle ages1 as well as its superiors1 had its comic literature and legend4 ,legend was the literature especially of the peasant1 and in it the spirit of burlesque and satire manifested itself in many ways4 ,simplicity1 combined with vulgar cunning1 and the circumstances arising out of the exercise of these qualities1 presented the greatest stimulants to popular mirth4 ,they produced their popular heroes1 who1 at first1 were much more than half legendary1 such as the familiar spirit1 ,robin ,goodfellow1 whose pranks were a source of continual amusement rather than of terror to the simple minds which listened to those who told them4 ,these stories excited with still greater interest as their spiritual heroes became incarnate1 and the auditors were persuaded that the perpetrators of so many artful acts of cunning and of so many mischievous practical jokes1 were but ordinary men like themselves4 ,it was but a sign or symbol of the change from the mythic age to that of practical life4 ,one of the earliest of these stories of mythic comedy transformed into1 or at least presented under the guise of1 humanity1 is that of ,brother ,ruth4 ,although the earliest version of this story with which we are acquainted dates only from the beginning of the sixteenth century1#gc there is no reason for doubt that the story itself was in existence at a much more remote period4 #gc ,this earliest known version is in ,german verse1 and was printed in #aeae4 ,an ,english version1 in prose1 was printed in #afbj1 and is reprinted in ,thoms's ,collection of ,early ,prose ,romances4 ,rush was1 in truth1 a spirit of darkness1 whose mission it was to wander on the earth tempting and impelling people to do evil4 ,perceiving that the internal condition of a certain abbey was well suited to his purpose1 he presented himself at its gates in the disguise of a youth who wanted employment1 and was received as an assistant in the kitchen1 but he pleased the monks best by the skill with which he furnished them all with fair companions4 ,at length he quarrelled with the cook1 and threw him into the boiling caldron1 and the monks1 assuming that his death was accidental1 appointed ,rush to be cook in his place4 ,after a service of seven years in the kitchen--which appears to have been considered a fair apprenticeship for the new honour which was to be conferred upon him--the abbot and convent rewarded him by making him a monk4 ,he now followed still more earnestly his design for the ruin of his brethren1 both soul and body1 and began by raising a quarrel about a woman1 which led1 through his contrivance1 to a fight1 in which the monks all suffered grievous bodily injuries1 and in which ,brother ,rush was especially active4 ,he went on in this way until at last his true character was accidentally discovered4 ,a neighbouring farmer1 overtaken by night1 took shelter in a hollow tree4 ,it happened to be the night appointed by ,lucifer to meet his agents on earth1 and hear from them the report of their several proceedings1 and he had selected this very oak as the place of rendezvous4 ,there ,brother ,rush appeared1 and the farmer1 in his hiding-place1 heard his confession from his own lips1 and told it to the abbot1 who1 being as it would appear a magician1 conjured him into the form of a horse1 and banished him4 ,rush hurried away to ,england1 where he laid aside his equine form1 and entered the body of the king's daughter1 who suffered great torments from his possession4 ,at length some of the great doctors from ,paris came and obliged the spirit to confess that nobody but the abbot of the distant monastery had any power over him4 ,the abbot came1 called him out of the maiden1 and conjured him more forcibly than ever into the form of a horse4 ,such is1 in mere outline1 the story of ,brother ,rush1 which was gradually enlarged by the addition of new incidents4 ,but the people wanted a hero who presented more of the character of reality1 who1 in fact1 might be recognised as one of themselves2 and such heroes appear to have existed at all times4 ,they usually represented a class in society1 and especially that class which consisted of idle sharpers1 who lived by their wits1 and which was more numerous and more familiarly known in the middle ages than at the present day4 ,folly and cunning combined presented a never-failing subject of mirth4 ,this class of adventurers first came into print in ,germany1 and it is there that we find its first popular hero1 to whom they gave the name of ,eulenspiegel1 which means literally the owl's mirror1 and has been since used in ,german in the sense of a merry fool4 ,tyll ,eulenspiegel1 and his story1 are supposed to have belonged to the fourteenth century1 though we first know them in the printed book of the commencement of the sixteenth1 which is believed to have come from the pen of the well-known popular writer1 ,thomas ,murner1 of whom ,i shall have to speak more at length in another chapter4 ,the popularity of this work was very great1 and it was quickly translated into ,french1 ,english1 ,latin1 and almost every other language of ,western ,europe4 ,in the ,english version the name also was translated1 and appears under the form of ,owleglass1 or1 as it often occurs with the superfluous aspirate1 ,howleglass4#gd ,according to the story1 ,tyll ,eulenspiegel was the son of a peasant1 and was born at a village called ,kneitlingen1 in the land of ,brunswick4 ,the story of his birth may be given in the words of the early ,english version1 as a specimen of its quaint and antiquated language3-- ,yn the lande of ,sassen1 in the vyllage of ,ruelnige1 there dwelleth a man that was named ,nicholas ,howleglas1 that had a wife named ,wypeke1 that lay a childbed in the same wyllage1 and that chylde was borne to christening2 and named ,tyell ,howleglass4 ,and than the chyld was brought into a taverne1 where the father was wyth his gosseppes and made good chere4 ,whan the mydwife had wel dronke1 she toke the childe to bere it home1 and in the wai was a litle bridg over a muddy water4 ,and as the mydwife would have gone over the lytle brydge1 she fel into the mudde with the chylde1 for she had a lytel dronk to much wyne1 for had not helpe come quickly1 the had both be drowned in the mudde4 ,and whan she came home with the childe1 the made a kettle of warm water to be made redi1 and therin they washed the child clen of the mudde4 ,and thus was ,howleglas thre tymes in one dai cristened1 once at the churche1 once in the mudde1 and once in the warm water4 #gd ,the title of this ,english translation is1 ,here beginneht a merye ,jest of a man that was called ,howleglas1 and of many marveylous thinges and jestes that he dyd in his lyfe1 in ,eastlande1 and in many other places4 ,it was printed by ,coplande1 supposed about #aebj4 ,an edition of ,eulenspiegel in ,english1 by ,mr4 ,kenneth ,mackenzie1 has recently been published by ,messrs4 ,trbner ,co41 of ,paternoster ,row4 ,it will be seen that the ,english translator was not very correct in his geography or in his names4 ,the child1 having thus escaped destruction1 grew rapidly1 and displayed an extraordinary love of mischief1 with various other evil propensities1 as well as a cunning beyond his age1 in escaping the risks to which these exposed him4 ,at a very early age1 he displayed a remarkable talent for setting the other children by the ears1 and this was his favourite amusement during life4 ,his mother1 who was now a widow1 contemplating the extraordinary cunning of her child1 which1 as she thought1 must necessarily ensure his advancement in the world1 resolved that he should no longer remain idle1 and put him apprentice to a baker2 but his wicked and restless disposition defeated all the good intentions of his parent1 and ,eulenspiegel was obliged to leave his master in consequence of his mal-practices4 ,one day his mother took him to a church-dedication1 and the child drank so much at the feast on that occasion1 that he crept into an empty beehive and fell asleep1 while his mother1 thinking he had gone home1 returned without him4 ,in the night-time two thieves came into the garden to steal the bees1 and they agreed to take first the hive which was heaviest4 ,this1 as may be supposed1 proved to be the hive in which ,eulenspiegel was hidden1 and they fixed it on a pole which they carried on their shoulders1 one before and one behind1 the hive hanging between them4 ,eulenspiegel1 awakened by the movement1 soon discovered the position in which he was placed1 and hit upon a plan for escaping4 ,gently lifting the lid of the hive1 he put out his arm and plucked the hair of the man before1 who turned about and accused his companion of insulting him4 ,the other asserted that he had not touched him1 and the first1 only half satisfied1 continued to bear his share of the burthen1 but he had not advanced many steps when a still sharper pull at his hair excited his great anger1 and from wrathful words the two thieves proceeded to blows4 ,while they were fighting1 ,eulenspiegel crept out of the hive and ran away4 ,after leaving the baker1 ,eulenspiegel became a wanderer in the world1 gaining his living by his trickery and deception1 and engaging himself in all sorts of strange and ludicrous adventures4 ,he ended everywhere by creating discord and strife4 ,he became at different times a blacksmith1 a shoemaker1 a tailor1 a cook1 a drawer of teeth1 and assumed a variety of other characters1 but remained in each situation only long enough to make it too hot for him1 and to be obliged to secure his retreat4 ,he intruded himself into all classes of society1 and invariably came to similar results4 ,many of his adventures1 indeed1 are so droll that we can easily understand the great popularity they once enjoyed4 ,but they are not merely amusing--they present a continuous satire upon contemporary society1 upon a social condition in which every pretender1 every reckless impostor1 every private plunderer or public depredator1 saw the world exposed to him in its folly and credulity as an easy prey4 ,the middle ages possessed another class of these popular satirical histories1 which were attached to places rather than to persons4 ,there were few countries which did not possess a town or a district1 the inhabitants of which were celebrated for stupidity1 or for roguery1 or for some other ridiculous or contemptible quality4 ,we have seen1 in a former chapter1 the people of ,norfolk enjoying this peculiarity1 and1 at a later period1 the inhabitants of ,pevensey in ,sussex1 and more especially those of ,gotham in ,nottinghamshire1 were similarly distinguished4 ,the inhabitants of many places in ,germany bore this character1 but their grand representatives among the ,germans were the ,schildburgers1 a name which appears to belong entirely to the domain of fable4 ,schildburg1 we are told1 was a town in ,misnopotamia1 beyond ,utopia1 in the kingdom of ,calecut4 ,the ,schildburgers were originally so renowned for their wisdom1 that they were continually invited into foreign countries to give their advice1 until at length not a man was left at home1 and their wives were obliged to assume the charge of the duties of their husbands4 ,this became at length so onerous1 that the wives held a council1 and resolved on despatching a solemn message in writing to call the men home4 ,this had the desired effect2 all the ,schildburgers returned to their own town1 and were so joyfully received by their wives that they resolved upon leaving it no more4 ,they accordingly held a council1 and it was decided that1 having experienced the great inconvenience of a reputation of wisdom1 they would avoid it in future by assuming the character of fools4 ,one of the first evil results of their long neglect of home affairs was the want of a council-hall1 and this want they now resolved to supply without delay4 ,they accordingly went to the hills and woods1 cut down the timber1 dragged it with great labour to the town1 and in due time completed the erection of a handsome and substantial building4 ,but1 when they entered their new council-hall1 what was their consternation to find themselves in perfect darkness6 ,in fact1 they had forgotten to make any windows4 ,another council was held1 and one who had been among the wisest in the days of their wisdom1 gave his opinion very oracularly2 the result of which was that they should experiment on every possible expedient for introducing light into the hall1 and that they should first try that which seemed most likely to succeed4 ,they had observed that the light of day was caused by sunshine1 and the plan proposed was to meet at mid-day when the sun was brightest1 and fill sacks1 hampers1 jugs1 and vessels of all kinds1 with sunshine and daylight1 which they proposed afterwards to empty into the unfortunate council-hall4 ,next day1 as the clock struck one1 you might see a crowd of ,schildburgers before the council-house door1 busily employed1 some holding the sacks open1 and others throwing the light into them with shovels and any other appropriate implements which came to hand4 ,while they were thus labouring1 a stranger came into the town of ,schildburg1 and1 hearing what they were about1 told them they were labouring to no purpose1 and offered to show them how to get the daylight into the hall4 ,it is unnecessary to say more than that this new plan was to make an opening in the roof1 and that the ,schildburgers witnessed the effect with astonishment1 and were loud in their gratitude to their new comer4 ,the ,schildburgers met with further difficulties before they completed their council-hall4 ,they sowed a field with salt1 and when the salt-plant grew up next year1 after a meeting of the council1 at which it was stiffly disputed whether it ought to be reaped1 or mowed1 or gathered in in some other manner1 it was finally discovered that the crop consisted of nothing but nettles4 ,after many accidents of this kind1 the ,schildburgers are noticed by the emperor1 and obtain a charter of incorporation and freedom1 but they profit little by it4 ,in trying some experiments to catch mice1 they set fire to their houses1 and the whole town is burnt to the ground1 upon which1 in their sorrow1 they abandon it altogether1 and become1 like the ,jews of old1 scattered over the world1 carrying their own folly into every country they visit4 ,the earliest known edition of the history of the ,schildburgers was printed in #aeig1ge but the story itself is no doubt older4 ,it will be seen at once that it involves a satire upon the municipal towns of the middle ages4 ,a similar series of adventures1 only a little more clerical1 bore the title of ,der ,pfarrherrn vom ,kalenberg1 or the ,parson of ,kalenberg1 and was first1 as far as we know1 published in the latter half of the sixteenth century4 ,the first known edition1 printed in #aehb1 is in prose4 ,von der ,hagen1 who reprinted a subsequent edition in verse1 in a volume already quoted1 seems to think that in its first form the story belongs to the fourteenth century4 #ge ,it was reprinted by ,von der ,hagen1 in a little volume entitled ,narrenbuch2 herausgegeben durch ,friedrich ,heinrich von der ,hagen4 #abmo41 ,halle1 #ahaa4 ,the ,schildburgers of ,germany were represented in ,england by the wise men of ,gotham4 ,gotham is a village and parish about seven miles to the south-west of ,nottingham1 and1 curiously enough1 a story is told according to which the folly of the men of ,gotham1 like that of the ,schildburgers1 was at first assumed4 ,it is pretended that one day king ,john1 on his way to ,nottingham1 intended to pass through the village of ,gotham1 and that the ,gothamites1 under the influence of some vague notion that his presence would be injurious to them1 raised difficulties in his way which prevented his visit4 ,the men of ,gotham were now apprehensive of the king's vengeance1 and they resolved to try and evade it by assuming the character of simpletons4 ,when the king's officers came to ,gotham to inquire into the conduct of the inhabitants1 they found them engaged in the most extraordinary pursuits1 some of them seeking to drown an eel in a pond of water1 others making a hedge round a tree to confine a cuckoo which had settled in it1 and others employing themselves in similar futile pursuits4 ,the commissioners reported the people of ,gotham to be no better than fools1 and by this stratagem they escaped any further persecution1 but the character they assumed remained attached to them4 ,this explanation is1 of course1 very late and very apocryphal2 but there can be little doubt that the character of the wise men of ,gotham is one of considerable antiquity4 ,the story is believed to have been drawn up in its present form by ,andrew ,borde1 an ,english writer of the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,it was reprinted a great number of times under the form of those popular books called chap-books1 because they were hawked about the country by itinerant booksellers or chap-men4 ,the acts of the ,gothamites displayed a greater degree of simplicity even than those of the ,schildburgers1 but they are less connected4 ,here is one anecdote told in the unadorned language of the chap-books1 in explanation of which it is only necessary to state that the men of ,gotham admired greatly the note of the cuckoo4 ,on a time the men of ,gotham fain would have pinn'd in the cuckow1 that she might sing all the year2 and1 in the midst of the town1 they had a hedge made round in compass1 and got a cuckow and put her into it1 and said1 ',sing here1 and you shall lack neither meat nor drink all the year4' ,the cuckow1 when she perceived herself encompassed with the hedge1 flew away4 ',a vengeance on her1' said these wise men1 'we did not make our hedge high enough4' ,on another occasion1 having caught a large eel which offended them by its voracity1 they assembled in council to deliberate on an appropriate punishment1 which ended in a resolution that it should be drowned1 and the criminal was ceremoniously thrown into a great pond4 ,one day twelve men of ,gotham went a-fishing1 and on their way home they suddenly discovered that they had lost one of their number1 and each counted in his turn1 and could find only eleven4 ,in fact1 each forgot to count himself4 ,in the midst of their distress--for they believed their companion to be drowned--a stranger approached1 and learnt the cause of their sorrow4 ,finding they were not to be convinced of their mistake by mere argument1 he offered1 on certain conditions1 to find the lost ,gothamite1 and he proceeded as follows4 ,he took one by one each of the twelve ,gothamites1 struck him a hard blow on the shoulder1 which made him scream1 and at each cry counted one1 two1 three1 c4 ,when it came to twelve1 they were all satisfied that the lost ,gothamite had returned1 and paid the man for the service he had rendered them4 ,as a chap-book1 this history of the men of ,gotham became so popular1 that it gave rise to a host of other books of similar character1 which were compiled at a later period under such titles--formerly well known to children--as1 ,the ,merry ,frolicks1 or the ,comical ,cheats of ,swalpo2 ,the ,witty and ,entertaining ,exploits of ,george ,buchanan1 commonly called the ,king's ,fool2 ,simple ,simon's ,misfortunes2 and the like4 ,nor must it be forgotten that the history of ,eulenspiegel was the prototype of a class of popular histories of larger dimensions1 represented in our own literature by ,the ,english ,rogue1 the work of ,richard ,head and ,francis ,kirkman1 in the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 and various other rogues belonging to different countries1 which appeared about that time1 or not long afterwards4 ,the earliest of these books was ,the ,spanish ,rogue1 or ,life of ,guzman de ,alfarache1 written in ,spanish by ,mateo ,aleman in the latter part of the sixteenth century4 ,curiously enough1 some ,englishman1 not knowing apparently that the history of ,eulenspiegel had appeared in ,english under the name of ,owlglass1 took it into his head to introduce him among the family of rogues which had thus come into fashion1 and1 in #agbj1 published as ,made ,english from the ,high ,dutch1 what he called ,the ,german ,rogue1 or the ,life and ,merry ,adventures1 ,cheats1 ,stratagems1 and ,contrivances of ,tiel ,eulespiegle4 ,the fifteenth century was the period during which medival forms generally were changing into forms adapted to another state of society1 and in which much of the popular literature which has been in vogue during modern times took its rise4 ,in the fourteenth century1 the fabliaux of the jougleurs were already taking what we may perhaps term a more literary form1 and were reduced into prose narratives4 ,this took place especially in ,italy1 where these prose tales were called novelle1 implying some novelty in their character1 a word which was transferred into the ,french language under the form of nouvelles1 and was the origin of our modern ,english novel1 applied to a work of fiction4 ,the ,italian novelists adopted the ,eastern plan of stringing these stories together on the slight framework of one general plot1 in which are introduced causes for telling them and persons who tell them4 ,thus the ,decameron of ,boccaccio holds towards the fabliaux exactly the same position as that of the ,arabian ,nights to the older ,arabian tales4 ,the ,italian novelists became numerous and celebrated throughout ,europe1 from the time of ,boccaccio to that of ,straparola1 at the commencement of the sixteenth century1 and later4 ,the taste for this class of literature appears to have been introduced into ,france at the court of ,burgundy1 where1 under duke ,philippe le ,bon1 a well-known courtier and man of letters named ,antoine de ,la ,sale1 who had1 during a sojourn in ,italy1 become acquainted with one of the most celebrated of the earlier ,italian collections1 the ,cento ,novello1 or the ,hundred ,novels1 compiled a collection in ,french in imitation of them1 under the title of ,les ,cent ,nouvelles ,nouvelles1 or the ,hundred new ,novels1 one of the purest examples of the ,french language in the fifteenth century4#gf ,the later ,french story-books1 such as the ,heptameron of the queen of ,navarre1 and others1 belong chiefly to the sixteenth century4 ,these collections of stories can hardly be said to have ever taken root in this island as a part of ,english literature4 #gf ,i am obliged to pass over this part of the subject very rapidly4 ,for the history of that remarkable book1 the ,cent ,nouvelles ,nouvelles1 ,i would refer the reader to the preface to my own edition1 ,les ,cent ,nouvelles ,nouvelles1 publies d'aprs le seul manuscrit connu1 avec ,introduction et ,notes1 par ,m4 ,thomas ,wright4 #b vols1 #abmo41 ,paris1 #aheh4 ,but there arose partly out of these stories a class of books which became greatly multiplied1 and were1 during a long period1 extremely popular4 ,with the household fool1 or jester1 instead of the old jougleur1 the stories had been shorn of their detail1 and sank into the shape of mere witty anecdotes1 and at the same time a taste arose for what we now class under the general term of jests1 clever sayings1 what the ,french call bons mots1 and what the ,english of the sixteenth century termed quick answers4 ,the word jest itself arose from the circumstance that the things designated by it arose out of the older stories1 for it is a mere corruption of gestes1 the ,latin gesta1 in the sense of narratives of acts or deeds1 or tales4 ,the ,latin writers1 who first began to collect them into books1 included them under the general name of faceti4 ,the earlier of these collections of faceti were written in ,latin1 and of the origin of the first with which we are acquainted1 that by the celebrated scholar ,poggio of ,florence1 a curious anecdote is told4 ,some wits of the court of pope ,martin ,v41 elected to the papacy in #adag1 among whom were the pope's two secretaries1 ,poggio and ,antonio ,lusco1 ,cincio of ,rome1 and ,ruzello of ,bologna1 appropriated to themselves a private corner in the ,vatican1 where they assembled to chat freely among themselves4 ,they called it their buggiale1 a word which signifies in ,italian1 a place of recreation1 where they tell stories1 make jests1 and amuse themselves with discussing satirically the doings and characters of everybody4 ,this was the way in which ,poggio and his friends entertained themselves in their buggiale1 and we are assured that in their talk they neither spared the church nor the pope himself or his government4 ,the faceti of ,poggio1 in fact1 which are said to be a selection of the good things said in these meetings1 show neither reverence for the church of ,rome nor respect for decency1 but they are mostly stories which had been told over and over again1 long before ,poggio came into the world4 ,it was perhaps this satire upon the church and upon the ecclesiastics which gave much of their popularity to these faceti at a time when a universal agitation of men's minds on religious affairs prevailed1 which was the great harbinger of the ,reformation2 and the next ,latin books of faceti came from men such as ,henry ,bebelius1 who were zealous reformers themselves4 ,many of the jests in these ,latin collections are put into the mouths of jesters1 or domestic fools1 fatui1 or moriones1 as they are called in the ,latin2 and in ,england1 where these jest-books in the vernacular tongue became more popular perhaps than in any other country1 many of them were published under the names of celebrated jesters1 as the ,merie ,tales of ,skelton1 ,the ,jests of ,scogin1 ,tarlton's ,jests1 and ,the ,jests of ,george ,peele4 ,john ,skelton1 poet-laureat of his time1 appears to have been known in the courts of ,henry ,,vii4 and ,henry ,,viii4 quite as much in the character of a jester as in that of a poet4 ,poet-laureat was then a title or degree given in the university of ,oxford4 ,his ,merye ,tales are all personal of himself1 and we should be inclined to say that his jests and his poetry are equally bad4 ,the former picture him as holding a place somewhere between ,eulenspiegel and the ordinary court-fool4 ,we may give as a sample of the best of them the tale ,no4 #a4-- ,how ,skelton came home late to ,oxford from ,abington4 ,skelton was an ,englysheman borne as ,skogyn was1 and hee was educated and broughte up in ,oxfoorde1 and there was he made a poete lauriat4 ,and on a tyme he had ben at ,abbington to make mery1 wher that he had eate salte meates1 and hee did com late home to ,oxforde1 and he did lye in an ine named the ,tabere1 whyche is now the ,angell1 and hee dyd drynke1 and went to bed4 ,about midnight he was so thyrstie or drye that he was constrained to call to the tapster for drynke1 and the tapster harde him not4 ,then hee cryed to hys oste and hys ostes1 and to the ostler1 for drinke1 and no man would here hym4 ,alacke1 sayd ,skelton1 ,i shall peryshe for lacke of drynke6 ,what reamedye8 ,at the last he dyd crie out and sayd1 ,fyer1 fyer1 fyer6 ,when ,skelton hard every man bustle hymselfe upward1 and some of them were naked1 and some were halfe asleepe and amased1 and ,skelton dyd crye1 ,fier1 fier6 styll1 that everye man knewe not whether to resorte4 ,skelton did go to bed1 and the oste and ostis1 and the tapster1 with the ostler1 dyd runne to ,skeltons chamber with candles lyghted in theyr handes1 saying1 ,where1 where1 where is the fyer8 ,here1 here1 here1 said ,skelton1 and poynted hys fynger to hys mouth1 saying1 ,fetch me some drynke to quenche the fyer and the heate and the drinesse in my mouthe4 ,and so they dyd4 ,another of these ,merye ,tales of ,skelton contains a satire upon the practice which prevailed in the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth centuries of obtaining letters-patent of monopoly from the crown1 and also on the bibulous propensities of ,welshmen-- ,how the ,welshman dyd desyre ,skelton to ayde hym in hys sute to the kynge for a patent to sell drynke4 ,skelton1 when he was in ,london1 went to the kynges courte1 where there did come to hym a ,welshman1 saying1 ,syr1 it is so1 that manye dooth come upp of my country to the kynges court1 and some doth get of the kyng by patent a castell1 and some a parke1 and some a forest1 and some one fee and some another1 and they dooe lyve lyke honest men2 and ,i shoulde lyve as honestly as the best1 if ,i myght have a patyne for good dryncke1 wherefore ,i dooe praye yow to write a fewe woords for mee in a lytle byll to geve the same to the kynges handes1 and ,i wil geve you well for your laboure4 ,i am contented1 sayde ,skelton4 ,syt downe then1 sayde the ,welshman1 and write4 ,what shall ,i wryte8 sayde ,skelton4 ,the ,welshman sayde wryte dryncke4 ,nowe1 sayde the ,welshman1 write more dryncke4 ,what now8 sayde ,skelton4 ,wryte nowe1 a great deale of dryncke4 ,nowe1 sayd the ,welshman1 putte to all thys dryncke a littell crome of breade1 and a great deale of drynke to it1 and reade once agayne4 ,skelton dyd reade1 ,dryncke1 more dryncke1 and a great deale of dryncke1 and a lytle crome of breade1 and a great deale of dryncke to it4 ,than the ,welshman sayde1 ,put oute the litle crome of breade1 and sette in1 all dryncke and no breade4 ,and if ,i myght have thys sygned of the kynge1 sayde the ,welshman1 ,i care for no more1 as longe as ,i dooe lyve4 ,well then1 sayde ,skelton1 when you have thys signed of the kyng1 then wyll ,i labour for a patent to have bread1 that you wyth your drynke and ,i with the bread may fare well1 and seeke our livinge with bagge and staffe4 ,these two tales are rather favourable specimens of the collection published under the name of ,skelton1 which1 as far as we know1 was first printed about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,the collection of the jests of ,scogan1 or1 as he was popularly called1 ,scogin1 which is said to have been compiled by ,andrew ,borde1 was probably given to the world a few years before1 but no copies of the earlier editions are now known to exist4 ,scogan1 the hero of these jests1 is described as occupying at the court of ,henry ,,vii4 a position not much different from that of an ordinary court-fool4 ,good old ,holinshed the chronicler says of him1 perhaps a little too gently1 that he was a learned gentleman and student for a time in ,oxford1 of a pleasant wit1 and bent to merrie devices1 in respect whereof he was called into the court1 where1 giving himselfe to his naturall inclination of mirth and pleasant pastime1 he plaied manie sporting parts1 although not in such uncivil manner as hath beene of him reported4 ,this allusion refers most probably to the jests1 which represent him as leading a life of low and coarse buffoonery1 in the course of which he displayed a considerable share of the dishonest and mischievous qualities of the less real ,eulenspiegel4 ,he is even represented as personally insulting the king and queen1 and as being consequently banished over the ,channel1 to show no more respect to the majesty of the king of ,france4 ,scogin's jests1 like ,skelton's1 consist in a great measure of those practical jokes which appear in all former ages to have been the delight of the ,teutonic race4 ,many of them are directed against the ignorance and worldliness of the clergy4 ,scogin is described as being at one time himself a teacher in the university1 and on one occasion1 we are told1 a husbandman sent his son to school to him that he might be made a priest4 ,the whole story1 which runs through several chapters1 is an excellent caricature on the way in which men vulgarly ignorant were intruded into the priesthood before the ,reformation4 ,at length1 after much blundering1 the scholar came to be ordained1 and his examination is reported as follows3-- ,how the scholler said ,tom ,miller of ,oseney was ,jacob's father4 ,after this1 the said scholler did come to the next orders1 and brought a present to the ordinary from ,scogin1 but the scholler's father paid for all4 ,then said the ordinary to the scholler1 ,i must needes oppose you1 and for master ,scogin's sake1 ,i will oppose you in a light matter4 ,isaac had two sons1 ,esau and ,jacob4 ,who was ,jacob's father8 ,the scholler stood still1 and could not tell4 ,well1 said the ordinary1 ,i cannot admit you to be priest untill the next orders1 and then bring me an answer4 ,the scholler went home with a heavy heart1 bearing a letter to master ,scogin1 how his scholler could not answer to this question3 ,isaac had two sons1 ,esau and ,jacob2 who was ,jacob's father8 ,scogin said to his scholler1 ,thou foole and asse-head6 ,dost thou not know ,tom ,miller of ,oseney8 ,yes1 said the scholler6 ,then1 said ,scogin1 thou knowest he had two sonnes1 ,tom and ,jacke2 who is ,jacke's father8 ,the scholler said1 ,tom ,miller4 ,why1 said ,scogin1 thou mightest have said that ,isaac was ,jacob's father4 ,then said ,scogin1 ,thou shalt arise betime in the morning1 and carry a letter to the ordinary1 and ,i trust he will admit thee before the orders shall be given4 ,the scholler rose up betime in the morning1 and carried the letter to the ordinary4 ,the ordinary said1 ,for ,master ,scogin's sake ,i will oppose you no farther than ,i did yesterday4 ,isaac had two sons1 ,esau and ,jacob2 who was ,jacob's father8 ,marry1 said the scholler1 ,i can tell you now that was ,tom ,miller of ,oseney4 ,goe1 foole1 goe1 said the ordinary1 and let thy master send thee no more to me for orders1 for it is impossible to make a foole a wise man4 ,scogin's scholar was1 however1 made a priest1 and some of the stories which follow describe the ludicrous manner in which he exercised the priesthood4 ,two other stories illustrate ,scogin's supposed position at court3-- ,how ,scogin told those that mocked him that he had a wall-eye4 ,scogin went up and down in the king's hall1 and his hosen hung downe1 and his coat stood awry1 and his hat stood a boonjour1 so every man did mocke ,scogin4 ,some said he was a proper man1 and did wear his rayment cleanly2 some said the foole could not put on his owne rayment2 some said one thing1 and some said another4 ,at last ,scogin said1 ,masters1 you have praised me wel1 but you did not espy one thing in me4 ,what is that1 ,tom8 said the men4 ,marry1 said ,scogin1 ,i have a wall-eye4 ,what meanest thou by that8 said the men4 ,marry1 said ,scogin1 ,i have spyed a sort of knaves that doe mocke me1 and are worse fooles themselves4 ,how ,scogin drew his sonne up and downe the court4 ,after this ,scogin went from the court1 and put off his foole's garments1 and came to the court like an honest man1 and brought his son to the court with him1 and within the court he drew his sonne up and downe by the heeles4 ,the boy cried out1 and ,scogin drew the boy in every corner4 ,at last every body had pity on the boy1 and said1 ,sir1 what doe you meane1 to draw the boy about the court8 ,masters1 said ,scogin1 he is my sonne1 and ,i doe it for this cause4 ,every man doth say1 that man or child which is drawne up in the court shall be the better as long as hee lives2 and therefore ,i will every day once draw him up and downe the court1 after that hee may come to preferment in the end4 ,the appreciation of a good joke cannot at this time have been very great or very general1 for ,scogin's jests were wonderfully popular during at least a century1 from the first half of the sixteenth century4 ,they passed through many editions1 and are frequently alluded to by the writers of the ,elizabethan age4 ,the next individual whose name appears at the head of a collection of his jests1 was the well-known wit1 ,richard ,tarlton1 who may be fairly considered as court fool to ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,his jests belong to the same class as those of ,skelton and ,scogin1 and if possible1 they present a still greater amount of dulness4 ,tarlton's jests were soon followed by the merrie conceited jests of ,george ,peele1 the dramatist1 who is described in the title as gentleman1 sometimes student in ,oxford2 and it is added that in these jests is shewed the course of his life1 how he lived2 a man very well knowne in the city of ,london and elsewhere4 ,in fact1 ,peele's jests are chiefly curious for the striking picture they give us of the wilder shades of town life under the reigns of ,elizabeth and ,james ,i4 ,during the period which witnessed the publication in ,england of these books1 many other jest-books appeared1 for they had already become an important class of ,english popular literature4 ,most of them were published anonymously1 and indeed they are mere compilations from the older collections in ,latin and ,french4 ,all that was at all good1 even in the jests of ,skelton1 ,scogin1 ,tarlton1 and ,peele1 had been repeated over and over again by the story-tellers and jesters of former ages4 ,two of the earlier ,english collections have gained a greater celebrity than the rest1 chiefly through adventitious circumstances4 ,one of these1 entitled ,a ,hundred ,merry ,tales1 has gained distinction among ,shakespearian critics as the one especially alluded to by the great poet in ,much ,ado about ,nothing1 7,act ii41 ,sc4 #a71 where ,beatrice complains that somebody had said that ,i had my good wit out of the ,hundred ,merry ,tales4 ,the other collection alluded to was entitled ,mery ,tales1 ,wittie ,questions1 and ,quicke ,answeres1 very pleasant to be readde1 and was printed in #aefg4 ,its modern fame appears to have arisen chiefly from the circumstance that1 until the accidental discovery of the unique and imperfect copy of the ,hundred ,merry ,tales1 it was supposed to be the book alluded to by ,shakespeare4 ,both these collections are mere compilations from the ,cent ,nouvelles ,nouvelles1 ,poggio1 ,straparola1 and other foreign works4#gg ,the words put into the mouth of ,beatrice are correctly descriptive of the use made of these jest-books4 ,it had become fashionable to learn out of them jests and stories1 in order to introduce them into polite conversation1 and especially at table2 and this practice continued to prevail until a very recent period4 ,the number of such jest-books published during the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries1 was quite extraordinary4 ,many of these were given anonymously2 but many also were put forth under names which possessed temporary celebrity1 such as ,hobson the carrier1 ,killigrew the jester1 the friend of ,charles ,,ii41 ,ben ,jonson1 ,garrick1 and a multitude of others4 ,it is1 perhaps1 unnecessary to remind the reader that the great modern representative of this class of literature is the illustrious ,joe ,miller4 #gg ,a neat and useful edition of these two jest-books1 with the other most curious books of the same class1 published during the ,elizabethan period1 has recently been published in two volumes1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,the ,,reformation4--,,thomas ,,murner2 ,,his ,,general ,,satires4--,,fruitfulness ,,of ,,folly4--,,hans ,,sachs4--,,the ,,trap ,,for ,,fools4--,,attacks ,,on ,,luther4--,,the ,,pope ,,as ,,antichrist4--,,the ,,pope-,,ass ,,and ,,the ,,monk-,,calf4--,,other ,,caricatures ,,against ,,the ,,pope4--,,the ,,good ,,and ,,bad ,,shepherds4 ,the reign of ,folly did not pass away with the fifteenth century--on the whole the sixteenth century can hardly be said to have been more sane than its predecessor1 but it was agitated by a long and fierce struggle to disengage ,european society from the trammels of the middle ages4 ,we have entered upon what is technically termed the renaissance1 and are approaching the great religious reformation4 ,the period during which the art of printing began first to spread generally over ,western ,europe1 was peculiarly favourable to the production of satirical books and pamphlets1 and a considerable number of clever and spirited satirists and comic writers appeared towards the end of the fifteenth century1 especially in ,germany1 where circumstances of a political character had at an early period given to the intellectual agitation a more permanent strength than it could easily or quickly gain in the great monarchies4 ,among the more remarkable of these satirists was ,thomas ,murner1 who was born at ,strasburg1 in #adge4 ,the circumstances even of his childhood are singular1 for he was born a cripple1 or became one in his earliest infancy1 though he was subsequently healed1 and it was so universally believed that this malady was the effect of witchcraft1 that he himself wrote afterwards a treatise upon this subject under the title of ,de ,phitonico ,contractu4 ,the school in which he was taught may at least have encouraged his satirical spirit1 for his master was ,jacob ,locher1 the same who translated into ,latin verse the ,ship of ,fools of ,sebastian ,brandt4 ,at the end of the century ,murner had become a master of arts in the ,university of ,paris1 and had entered the ,franciscan order4 ,his reputation as a ,german popular poet was so great1 that the emperor ,maximiliannbsp2,i41 who died in #aeai1 conferred upon him the crown of poetry1 or1 in other words1 made him poet-laureat4 ,he took the degree of doctor in theology in #aeji4 ,still ,murner was known best as the popular writer1 and he published several satirical poems1 which were remarkable for the bold woodcuts that illustrated them1 for engraving on wood flourished at this period4 ,he exposed the corruptions of all classes of society1 and1 before the ,reformation broke out1 he did not even spare the corruptions of the ecclesiastical state1 but soon declared himself a fierce opponent of the ,reformers4 ,when the ,lutheran revolt against the ,papacy became strong1 our king1 ,henry ,,viii41 who took a decided part against ,luther1 invited ,murner to ,england1 and on his return to his own country1 the satiric ,franciscan became more bitter against the ,reformation than ever4 ,he advocated the cause of the ,english monarch in a pamphlet1 now very rare1 in which he discussed the question whether ,henry ,,viii4 or ,luther was the liar--,antwort dem ,murner uff seine frag1 ob der knig von ,engllant ein ,lgner sey oder ,martinus ,luther4 ,murner appears to have divided the people of his age into rogues and fools1 or perhaps he considered the two titles as identical4 ,his ,narrenbeschwerung1 or ,conspiracy of ,fools1 in which ,brandt's idea was followed up1 is supposed to have been published as early as #aejf1 but the first printed edition with a date1 appeared in #aeab4 ,it became so popular1 that it went through several editions during subsequent years2 and that which ,i have before me was printed at ,strasburg in #aeah4 ,it is1 like ,brandt's ,ship of ,fools1 a general satire against society1 in which the clergy are not spared1 for the writer had not yet come in face of ,luther's ,reformation4 ,the cuts are superior to those of ,brandt's book1 and some of them are remarkable for their design and execution4 ,in one of the earliest of them1 copied in the cut ,no4 #aci1 ,folly is introduced in the garb of a husbandman1 scattering his feed over the earth1 the result of which is a very quick and flourishing crop1 the fool's heads rising above ground1 almost instantaneously1 like so many turnips4 ,in a subsequent engraving1 represented in our cut ,no4 #adj1 ,folly holds out1 as an object of emulation1 the fool's cap1 and people of all classes1 the pope himself1 and the emperor1 and all the great dignitaries of this world1 press forward eagerly to seize upon it4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aci4 ,sowing a ,fruitful ,crop4 ,the same year 7#aeab7 witnessed the appearance of another poetical1 or at least metrical1 satire by ,murner1 entitled ,schelmenzunft1 or the ,confraternity of ,rogues1 similarly illustrated with very spirited engravings on wood4 ,it is another demonstration of the prevailing dominion of folly under its worst forms1 and the satire is equally general with the preceding4 ,murner's satire appears to have been felt not only generally1 but personally2 and we are told that he was often threatened with assassination1 and he raised up a number of literary opponents1 who treated him with no little rudeness2 in fact1 he had got on the wrong side of politics1 or at all events on the unpopular side1 and men who had more talents and greater weight appeared as his opponents--men like ,ulrich von ,utten1 and ,luther himself4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adj4 ,an ,acceptable ,offering4 ,among the satirists who espoused the cause to which ,murner was opposed1 we must not overlook a man who represented in its strongest features1 though in a rather debased form1 the old spontaneous poetry of the middle ages4 ,his name was ,hans ,sachs1 at least that was the name under which he was known1 for his real name is said to have been ,loutrdorffer4 ,his spirit was entirely that of the old wandering minstrel1 and it was so powerful in him1 that1 having been apprenticed to the craft of a weaver1 he was no sooner freed from his indentures1 than he took to a vagabond life1 and wandered from town to town1 gaining his living by singing the verses he composed upon every occasion which presented itself4 ,in #aeai1 he married and settled in ,nremberg1 and his compositions were then given to the public through the press4 ,the number of these was quite extraordinary--songs1 ballads1 satires1 and dramatic pieces1 rude in style1 in accordance with the taste of the time1 but full of cleverness4 ,many of them were printed on broadsides1 and illustrated with large engravings on wood4 ,hans ,sachs joined in the crusade against the empire of ,folly1 and one of his broadsides is illustrated with a graceful design1 the greater part of which is copied in our cut ,no4 #ada4 ,a party of ladies have set a bird-trap to catch the fools of the age1 who are waiting to be caught4 ,one fool is taken in the trap1 while another is already secured and pinioned1 and others are rushing into the snare4 ,a number of people of the world1 high in their dignities and stations1 are looking on at this remarkable scene4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ada4 ,bird-,traps4 ,the evil influence of the female sex was at this time proverbial1 and1 in fact1 it was an age of extreme licentiousness4 ,another poet-laureat of the time1 ,henricus ,bebelius1 born in the latter half of the fifteenth century1 and rather well known in the literature of his time1 published1 in #aeae1 a satirical poem in ,latin1 under the title of ,triumphus ,veneris1 which was a sort of exposition of the generally licentious character of the age in which he lived4 ,it is distributed into six books1 in the third of which the poet attacks the whole ecclesiastical state1 not sparing the pope himself1 and we are thereby perfectly well initiated into the weaknesses of the clergy4 ,bebelius had been preceded by another writer on this part of the subject1 and we might say by many1 for the incontinence of monks and nuns1 and indeed of all the clergy1 had long been a subject of satire4 ,but the writer to whom ,i especially allude was named ,paulus ,olearius1 his name in ,german being ,oelschlgel4 ,he published1 about the year #aejj1 a satirical tract1 under the title of ,de ,fide ,concubinarum in ,sacerdotes4 ,it was a bitter attack on the licentiousness of the clergy1 and was rendered more effective by the engravings which accompanied it4 ,we give one of these as a curious picture of contemporary manners2 the individual who comes within the range of the lady's attractions1 though he may be a scholar1 has none of the characteristics of a priest4 ,she presents a nosegay1 which we may suppose to represent the influence of perfume upon the senses2 but the love of the ladies for pet animals is especially typified in the monkey1 attached by a chain4 ,a donkey appears to show by his heels his contempt for the lover4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adb4 ,courtship4 ,from an early period1 the ,roman church had been accustomed to treat contemptuously1 as well as cruelly1 all who dissented from its doctrines1 or objected to its government1 and this feeling was continued down to the age of the ,reformation1 in spite of the tone of liberalism which was beginning to shine forth in the writings of some of its greatest ornaments4 ,some research among the dusty1 because little used1 records of national archives and libraries would no doubt bring to light more than one singular caricature upon the heretics of the middle ages1 and my attention has been called to one which is possessed of peculiar interest4 ,there is1 among the imperial archives of ,france1 in ,paris1 among records relating to the country of the ,albigeois in the thirteenth century1 a copy of the bull of pope ,innocent ,,iv4 giving directions for the proceedings against dissenters from ,romanism1 on the back of which the scribe1 as a mark of his contempt for these arch-heretics of the south1 has drawn a caricature of a woman bound to a stake over the fire which is to burn her as an open opponent of the church of ,rome4 ,the choice of a woman for the victim was perhaps intended to show that the proselytism of heresy was especially successful among the weaker sex1 or that it was considered as having some relation to witchcraft4 ,it is1 by a long period1 the earliest known pictorial representation of the punishment of burning inflicted on a heretic4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adc4 ,burning a ,heretic4 ,the shafts of satire were early employed against ,luther and his new principles1 and men like ,murner1 already mentioned1 ,emser1 ,cochlus1 and others1 signalised themselves by their zeal in the papal cause4 ,as already stated1 ,murner distinguished himself as the literary ally of our king ,henry ,,viii4 ,the taste for satirical writings had then become so general1 that ,murner complains in one of his satires that the printers would print nothing but abusive or satirical works1 and neglected his more serious writings4 ,da sindt die trucker schuld daran1 ,die trucken als die ,gauchereien1 ,und lassen mein ernstliche bcher leihen4 ,some of ,murner's writings against ,luther1 most of which are now very rare1 are extremely violent1 and they are generally illustrated with satirical woodcuts4 ,one of these books1 printed without name of place or date1 is entitled1 ,of the great ,lutheran ,fool1 how ,doctor ,murner has exorcised him 7,von dem grossen ,lutherisschen ,narren1 wie in ,doctor ,murner beschworen hat74 ,in the woodcuts to this book ,murner himself is introduced1 as is usually the case in these satirical engravings1 under the character of a ,franciscan friar1 with the head of a cat1 while ,luther appears as a fat and jolly monk1 wearing a fool's cap1 and figuring in various ridiculous circumstances4 ,in one of the first woodcuts1 the cat ,franciscan is drawing a rope so tight round the great ,lutheran fool's neck1 that he compels him to disgorge a multitude of smaller fools4 ,in another the great ,lutheran fool has his purse1 or pouch1 full of little fools suspended at his girdle4 ,this latter figure is copied in the cut ,no4 #add1 as an example of the form under which the great reformer appears in these satirical representations4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #add4 ,folly in ,monastic ,habit4 ,in a few other caricatures of this period which have been preserved1 the apostle of the ,reformation is attacked still more savagely4 ,the one here given 7,fig4 #ade71 taken from a contemporary engraving on wood1 presents a rather fantastic figure of the demon playing on the bagpipes4 ,the instrument is formed of ,luther's head1 the pipe through which the devil blows entering his ear1 and that through which the music is produced forming an elongation of the reformer's nose4 ,it was a broad intimation that ,luther was a mere tool of the evil one1 created for the purpose of bringing mischief into the world4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ade4 ,the ,music of the ,demon4 ,the reformers1 however1 were more than a match for their opponents in this sort of warfare4 ,luther himself was full of comic and satiric humour1 and a mass of the talent of that age was ranged on his side1 both literary and artistic4 ,after the reformer's marriage1 the papal party quoted the old legend1 that ,antichrist was to be born of the union of a monk and a nun1 and it was intimated that if ,luther himself could not be directly identified with ,antichrist1 he had1 at least1 a fair chance of becoming his parent4 ,but the reformers had resolved1 on what appeared to be much more conclusive evidence1 that ,antichrist was only emblematical of the papacy1 that under this form he had been long dominant on earth1 and that the end of his reign was then approaching4 ,a remarkable pamphlet1 designed to place this idea pictorially before the public1 was produced from the pencil of ,luther's friend1 the celebrated painter1 ,lucas ,cranach1 and appeared in the year #aeba under the title of ,the ,passionale of ,christ and ,antichrist 7,passional ,christi und ,antichristi74 ,it is a small quarto1 each page of which is nearly filled by a woodcut1 having a few lines of explanation in ,german below4 ,the cut to the left represents some incident in the life of ,christ1 while that facing it to the right gives a contrasting fact in the history of papal tyranny4 ,thus the first cut on the left represents ,jesus in ,his humility1 refusing earthly dignities and power1 while on the adjoining page we see the pope1 with his cardinals and bishops1 supported by his hosts of warriors1 his cannon1 and his fortifications1 in his temporal dominion over secular princes4 ,when we open again we see on one side ,christ crowned with thorns by the insulting soldiery1 and on the other the pope1 enthroned in all his worldly glory1 exacting the worship of his courtiers4 ,on another we have ,christ washing the feet of ,his disciples1 and in contrast the pope compelling the emperor to kiss his toe4 ,and so on1 through a number of curious illustrations1 until at last we come to ,christ's ascension into heaven1 in contrast with which a troop of demons1 of the most varied and singular forms1 have seized upon the papal ,antichrist1 and are casting him down into the flames of hell1 where some of his own monks wait to receive him4 ,this last picture is drawn with so much spirit1 that ,i have copied it in the cut ,no4 #adf4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adf4 ,the ,descent of the ,pope4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adg4 ,the ,pope-ass4 ,the monstrous figures of animals which had amused the sculptors and miniaturists of an earlier period came in time to be looked upon as realities1 and were not only regarded with wonder as physical deformities1 but were objects of superstition1 for they were believed to be sent into the world as warnings of great revolutions and calamities4 ,during the age preceding the ,reformation1 the reports of the births or discoveries of such monsters were very common1 and engravings of them were no doubt profitable articles of merchandise among the early book-hawkers4 ,two of these were very celebrated in the time of the ,reformation1 the ,pope-ass and the ,monk-calf1 and were published and republished with an explanation under the names of ,luther and ,melancthon1 which made them emblematical of the ,papacy and of the abuses of the ,romish church1 and1 of course1 prognostications of their approaching exposure and fall4 ,it was pretended that the ,pope-ass was found dead in the river ,tiber1 at ,rome1 in the year #adif4 ,it is represented in our cut ,no4 #adg1 taken from an engraving preserved in a very curious volume of broadside ,lutheran caricatures1 in the library of the ,british ,museum1 all belonging to the year #aede1 though this design had been published many years before4 ,the head of an ass1 we are told1 represented the pope himself1 with his false and carnal doctrines4 ,the right hand resembled the foot of an elephant1 signifying the spiritual power of the pope1 which was heavy1 and stamped down and crushed people's consciences4 ,the left hand was that of a man1 signifying the worldly power of the pope1 which grasped at universal empire over kings and princes4 ,the right foot was that of an ox1 signifying the spiritual ministers of the papacy1 the doctors of the church1 the preachers1 confessors1 and scholastic theologians1 and especially the monks and nuns1 those who aided and supported the pope in oppressing people's bodies and souls4 ,the left foot was that of a griffin1 an animal which1 when it once seizes its prey1 never lets it escape1 and signified the canonists1 the monsters of the pope's temporal power1 who grasped people's temporal goods1 and never returned them4 ,the breast and belly of this monster were those of a woman1 and signified the papal body1 the cardinals1 bishops1 priests1 monks1 c41 who spent their lives in eating1 drinking1 and incontinence2 and this part of the body was naked1 because the popish clergy were not ashamed to expose their vices to the public4 ,the legs1 arms1 and neck1 on the contrary1 were clothed with fishes' scales2 these signified the temporal princes and lords1 who were mostly in alliance with the papacy4 ,the old man's head behind the monster1 meant that the papacy had become old1 and was approaching its end2 and the head of a dragon1 vomiting flames1 which served for a tail1 was significative of the great threats1 the venomous horrible bulls and blasphemous writings1 which the pontiff and his ministers1 enraged at seeing their end approach1 were launching into the world against all who opposed them4 ,these explanations were supported by apt quotations from the ,scriptures1 and were so effective1 and became so popular1 that the picture was published in various shapes1 and was seen adorning the walls of the humblest cottages4 ,i believe it is still to be met with in a similar position in some parts of ,germany4 ,it was considered at the time to be a masterly piece of satire4 ,the picture of the ,monk-calf1 which is represented in our cut ,no4 #adh1 was published at the same time1 and usually accompanies it4 ,this monster is said to have been born at ,freyburg1 in ,misnia1 and is simply a rather coarse emblem of the monachal character4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adh4 ,the ,monk-,calf4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adi4 ,the ,head of the ,papacy4 ,the volume of caricatures just mentioned contains several satires on the pope1 which are all very severe1 and many of them clever4 ,one has a movable leaf1 which covers the upper part of the picture2 when it is down1 we have a representation of the pope in his ceremonial robes1 and over it the inscription ,,alex ,,vi ,,pont ,,max4 ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 was the infamous ,roderic ,borgia1 a man stained with all the crimes and vices which strike most horror into men's minds4 ,when the leaf is raised1 another figure joins itself with the lower part of the former1 and represents a papal demon1 crowned1 the cross being transformed into an instrument of infernal punishment4 ,this figure is represented in our cut ,no4 #adi4 ,above it are inscribed the words ,,ego ,,svm ,,papa1 ,i am the ,pope4 ,attached to it is a page of explanation in ,german1 in which the legend of that pope's death is given1 a legend that his wicked life appeared sufficient to sanction4 ,it was said that1 distrusting the success of his intrigues to secure the papacy for himself1 he applied himself to the study of the black art1 and sold himself to the ,evil ,one4 ,he then asked the tempter if it were his destiny to be pope1 and received an answer in the affirmative4 ,he next inquired how long he should hold the papacy1 but ,satan returned an equivocal and deceptive answer1 for ,borgia understood that he was to be pope fifteen years1 whereas he died at the end of eleven4 ,it is well known that ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 died suddenly and unexpectedly through accidentally drinking the poisoned wine he had prepared with his own hand for the murder of another man4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aej4 ,the ,pope's ,nurse4 ,an ,italian theatine wrote a poem against the ,reformation1 in which he made ,luther the offspring of ,megra1 one of the furies1 who is represented as having been sent from hell into ,germany to be delivered of him4 ,this sarcasm was thrown back upon the pope with much greater effect by the ,lutheran caricaturists4 ,one of the plates in the above-mentioned volume represents the birth and origin of the pope 7ortus et origo pap71 making the pope identical with ,antichrist4 ,in different groups1 in this rather elaborate design1 the child is represented as attended by the three furies1 ,megra acting as his wet-nurse1 ,alecto as nursery-maid1 and ,tisiphone in another capacity1 c4 ,the name of ,martin ,luther is added to this caricature also4 ,hie wird geborn der ,widerchrist4 ,megera sein ,seugamme ist2 ,alecto sein ,keindermeidlin1 ,tisiphone die gengelt in4--,m4 ,luth41 ,d4 #aede4 ,one of the groups in this plate1 representing the fury ,megra1 a becoming foster-mother1 suckling the pope-infant1 is given in our cut1 ,no4 #aej4 ,in another of these caricatures the pope is represented trampling on the emperor1 to show the manner in which he usurped and tyrannised over the temporal power4 ,another illustrates the kingdom of ,satan and the ,pope 7regnum ,satan et ,pap71 and the latter is represented as presiding over hell-mouth in all his state4 ,one1 given in our cut ,no4 #aea1 represents the pope under the form of an ass playing on the bagpipes1 and is entitled ,papa doctor theologi et magister fidei4 ,four lines of ,german verse beneath the engraving state how the pope can alone expound ,scripture and purge error1 just as the ass alone can pipe and touch the notes correctly4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aea4 ,the ,pope giving the ,tune4 ,der ,bapst kan allein auslegen ,die ,schrifft1 und irthum ausfegen2 ,wie der esel allein pfeiffen ,kan1 und die noten recht greiffen4--#aede4 ,this was the last year of ,luther's active labours4 ,at the commencement of the year following he died at ,eissleben1 whither he had gone to attend the council of princes4 ,these caricatures may perhaps be considered as so many proclamations of satisfaction and exultation in the final triumph of the great reformer4 ,books1 pamphlets1 and prints of this kind were multiplied to an extraordinary degree during the age of the ,reformation1 but the majority of them were in the interest of the new movement4 ,luther's opponent1 ,eckius1 complained of the infinite number of people who gained their living by wandering over all parts of ,germany1 and selling ,lutheran books4#gh ,among those who administered largely to this circulation of polemic books was the poet of farces1 comedies1 and ballads1 ,hans ,sachs1 already mentioned4 ,hans ,sachs had in one poem1 published in #aece1 celebrated ,luther under the title of the ,wittemberg ,nightingale3-- ,die ,wittembergisch' ,nachtigall1 ,die man jetzt hret berall2 and described the effects of his song over all the other animals2 and he published1 also in verse1 what he called a ,monument1 or ,lament1 on his death 7,ein ,denkmal oder ,klagred' ob der ,leiche ,doktors ,martin ,luther74 ,among the numerous broadsides published by ,hans ,sachs1 one contains the very clever caricature of which we give a copy in our cut ,no4 #aeb4 ,it is entitled ,der gut ,hirt und bss ,hirt1 the good shepherd and bad shepherd1 and has for its text the opening verses of the tenth chapter of the gospel of ,st4 ,john4 ,the good and bad shepherds are1 as may be supposed1 ,christ and the pope4 ,the church is here pictured as a not very stately building2 the entrance1 especially1 is a plain structure of timber4 ,jesus said to the ,pharisees1 ,he that entereth not by the door into the sheepfold1 but climbeth up some other way1 the same is a thief and a robber4 ,but he that entereth in by the door is the shepherd of the flock4 ,in the engraving1 the pope1 as the hireling shepherd1 sits on the roof of the stateliest part of the building1 pointing out to the ,christian flock the wrong way1 and blessing the climbers4 ,under him two men of worldly distinction are making their way into the church through a window2 and on a roof below a friar is pointing to the people the way up4 ,at another window a monk holds out his arms to invite people up2 and one in spectacles1 no doubt emblematical of the doctors of the church1 is looking out from an opening over the entrance door to watch the proceedings of the ,good ,shepherd4 ,to the right1 on the papal side of the church1 the lords and great men are bringing the people under their influence1 till they are stopped by the cardinals and bishops1 who prevent them from going forward to the door and point out very energetically the way up the roof4 ,at the door stands1 the ,saviour1 as the good shepherd1 who has knocked1 and the porter has opened it with his key4 ,christ's true teachers1 the evangelists1 show the way to the solitary man of worth who comes by this road1 and who listens with calm attention to the gospel teachers1 while he opens his purse to bestow his charity on the poor man by the road side4 ,in the original engraving1 in the distance on the left1 the ,good ,shepherd is seen followed by his flock1 who are obedient to his voice2 on the right1 the bad shepherd1 who has ostentatiously drawn up his sheep round the image of the cross1 is abandoning them1 and taking to flight on the approach of the wolf4 ,he that entereth in by the door is the shepherd of the sheep4 ,to him the porter openeth2 and the sheep hear his voice1 and he calleth his own sheep by name1 and leadeth them out4 ,and when he putteth forth his own sheep he goeth before them1 and the sheep follow him1 for they know his voice4444 ,but he that is an hireling1 and not the shepherd1 whose own the sheep are not1 seeth the wolf coming1 and leaveth the sheep1 and fleeth2 and the wolf catcheth them1 and scattereth the sheep4 7,john x4 #b-d1 #ab47 #gh ,infinitus jam erat numerus qui victum ex ,lutheranis libris quritantes1 in speciem bibliopolarum longe lateque per ,germani provincias vagabantur4--,eck41 p4 #eh4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aeb4 ,the ,two ,shepherds4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aec4 ,murner and ,luther's ,daughter4 ,the triumph of ,luther is the subject of a rather large and elaborate caricature1 which is an engraving of great rarity1 but a copy of it is given in ,jaime's ,muse de ,caricature4 ,leo ,x4 is represented seated on his throne upon the edge of the abyss1 into which his cardinals are trying to prevent his falling2 but their efforts are rendered vain by the appearance of ,luther on the other side supported by his principal adherents1 and wielding the ,bible as his weapon1 and the pope is overthrown1 in spite of the support he receives from a vast host of popish clergy1 doctors1 c4 ,the popish writers against ,luther charged him with vices for which there was probably no foundation1 and invented the most scandalous stories against him4 ,they accused him1 among other things1 of drunkenness and licentiousness4 and there may1 perhaps1 be some allusion to the latter charge in our cut ,no4 #aec1 which is taken from one of the comic illustrations to ,murner's book1 ,von dem grossen ,lutherischen ,narren1 which was published in #aebb2 but1 at all events1 it will serve as a specimen of these illustrations1 and of ,murner's fancy of representing himself with the head of a cat4 ,in #aebe1 ,luther married a nun who had turned ,protestant and quitted her convent1 named ,catherine de ,bora1 and this became the signal to his opponents for indulging in abusive songs1 and satires1 and caricatures1 most of them too coarse and indelicate to be described in these pages4 ,in many of the caricatures made on this occasion1 which are usually woodcut illustrations to books written against the reformer1 ,luther is represented dancing with ,catherine de ,bora1 or sitting at table with a glass in his hand4 ,an engraving of this kind1 which forms one of the illustrations to a work by ,dr4 ,konrad ,wimpina1 one of the reformer's violent opponents1 represents ,luther's marriage4 ,it is divided into three compartments2 to the left1 ,luther1 whom the ,catholics always represented in the character of a monk1 gives the marriage ring to ,catherine de ,bora1 and above them1 in a sort of aureole1 is inscribed the word ,vovete2 on the right appears the nuptial bed1 with the curtains drawn1 and the inscription ,reddite2 and in the middle the monk and nun are dancing joyously together1 and over their heads we read the words-- ,discedat ab aris ,cui tulit hesterna gaudia nocte ,venus4 ,while ,luther was heroically fighting the great fight of reform in ,germany1 the foundation of religious reform was laid in ,france by ,john ,calvin1 a man equally sincere and zealous in the cause1 but of a totally different temper1 and he espoused doctrines and forms of church government which a ,lutheran would not admit4 ,literary satire was used with great effect by the ,french ,calvinists against their popish opponents1 but they have left us few caricatures or burlesque engravings of any kind2 at least1 very few belonging to the earlier period of their history4 ,jaime1 in his ,muse de ,caricature1 has given a copy of a very rare plate1 representing the pope struggling with ,luther and ,calvin1 as his two assailants4 ,both are tearing the pope's hair1 but it is ,calvin who is here armed with the ,bible1 with which he is striking at ,luther1 who is pulling him by the beard4 ,the pope has his hands upon their heads4 ,this scene takes place in the choir of a church1 but ,i give here 7cut ,no4 #aed7 only the group of the three combatants1 intended to represent how the two great opponents to papal corruptions were hostile at the same time to each other4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aed4 ,luther and ,calvin4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,origin ,,of ,,medi,,val ,,farce ,,and ,,modern ,,comedy4--,,hrotsvitha4--,,medi,,val ,,notions ,,of ,,terence4--,,the ,,early ,,religious ,,plays4--,,mysteries ,,and ,,miracle ,,plays4--,,the ,,farces4--,,the ,,drama ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,there is still another branch of literature which1 however it may have been modified1 has descended to us from the middle ages4 ,it has been remarked more than once in the course of this book1 that the theatre of the ,romans perished in the transition from the empire to the middle ages2 but something in the shape of theatrical performances appears to be inseparable from society even in its most barbarous state1 and we soon trace among the peoples who had settled upon the ruins of the empire of ,rome an approach towards a drama4 ,it is worthy of remark1 too1 that the medival drama originated exactly in the same way as that of ancient ,greece1 that is1 from religious ceremonies4 ,such was the ignorance of the ancient stage in the middle ages1 that the meaning of the word comdia was not understood4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon glossaries interpret the word by racu1 a narrative1 especially an epic recital1 and this was the sense in which it was generally taken until late in the fourteenth or the fifteenth century4 ,it is the sense in which it is used in the title of ,dante's great poem1 the ,divina ,commedia4 ,when the medival scholars became acquainted in manuscripts with the comedies of ,terence1 they considered them only as fine examples of a particular sort of literary composition1 as metrical narratives in dialogue1 and in this feeling they began to imitate them4 ,one of the first of these medival imitators was a lady4 ,there lived in the tenth century a maiden of ,saxony1 named ,hrotsvitha--a rather unfortunate name for one of her sex1 for it means simply a loud noise of voices1 or1 as she explains it herself1 in her ,latin1 clamor validus4 ,hrotsvitha1 as was common enough among the ladies of those days1 had received a very learned education1 and her ,latin is very respectable4 ,about the middle of the tenth century1 she became a nun in the very aristocratic ,benedictine abbey of ,gandesheim1 in ,saxony1 the abbesses of which were all princesses1 and which had been founded only a century before4 ,she wrote in ,latin verse a short history of that religious house1 but she is best known by seven pieces1 which are called comedies 7comdi71 and which consist simply of legends of saints1 told dialogue-wise1 some in verse and some in prose4 ,as may be supposed1 there is not much of real comedy in these compositions1 although one of them1 the ,dulcitius1 is treated in a style which approaches that of farce4 ,it is the story of the martyrdom of the three virgin saints--,agape1 ,chione1 and ,irene--who excite the lust of the persecutor ,dulcitius2 and it may be remarked1 that in this comedy1 and in that of ,callimachus and one or two of the others1 the lady ,hrotsvitha displays a knowledge of love-making and of the language of love1 which was hardly to be expected from a holy nun4#gi #gi ,several editions of the writings of ,hrotsvitha1 texts and translations1 have been published of late years both in ,germany and in ,france1 of which ,i may point out the following as most useful and complete--,thatre de ,hrotsvitha1 ,religieuse ,allemande du xe sicle4444par ,charles ,magnin1 #hvo41 ,paris1 #ahde2 ,hrotsvith ,gandeshemensis1 virginis et monialis ,germanic1 gente ,saxonica ort1 ,comdias sex1 ad fidem codicis ,emmeranensis typis expressas edidit4444 ,j4 ,benedixen1 #afmo41 ,lubec1 #aheg2 ,die ,werke der ,hrotsvitha3 ,herausgegeben von ,dr4 ,k4 ,a4 ,barack1 #hvo41 ,nrnberg1 #aheh4 ,hrotsvitha1 in her preface1 complains that1 in spite of the general love for the reading of the ,scriptures1 and contempt for everything derived from ancient paganism1 people still too often read the fictions of ,terence1 and thus1 seduced by the beauties of his style1 soiled their minds with the knowledge of the criminal acts which are described in his writings4 ,a rather early manuscript has preserved a very curious fragment illustrative of the manner in which the comedies of the ,romans were regarded by one class of people in the middle ages1 and it has also a further meaning4 ,its form is that of a dialogue in ,latin verse between ,terence and a personage called in the original delusor1 which was no doubt intended to express a performer of some kind1 and may be probably considered as synonymous with jougleur4 ,it is a contention between the new jouglerie of the middle ages and the old jouglerie of the schools1 somewhat in the same style as the fabliau of ,les deux ,troveors ,ribauz1 described in a former chapter4#hj ,we are to suppose that the name of ,terence has been in some way or other brought forward in laudatory terms1 upon which the jougleur steps forward from among the spectators and expresses himself towards the ,roman writer very contemptuously4 ,terence then makes his appearance to speak in his own defence1 and the two go on abusing one another in no very measured language4 ,terence asks his assailant who he is8 to which the other replies1 ,if you ask who ,i am1 ,i reply1 ,i am better than thee4 ,thou art old and broken with years2 ,i am a tyro1 full of vigour1 and in the force of youth4 ,you are but a barren trunk1 while ,i am a good and fertile tree4 ,if you hold your tongue1 old fellow1 it will be much better for you4 ,si rogitas quis sum1 respondeo3 te melior sum4 ,tu vetus atque senex2 ego tyro1 valens1 adulescens4 ,tu sterilis truncus2 ego fertilis arbor1 opimus4 ,si taceas1 o vetule1 lucrum tibi quris enorme4 ,terence replies3--,what sense have you left8 ,are you1 think you1 better than me8 ,let me see you1 young as you are1 compose what ,i1 however old and broken1 will compose4 ,if you be a good tree1 show us some proofs of your fertility4 ,although ,i may be a barren trunk1 ,i produce abundance of better fruit than thine4 ,quis tibi sensus inest8 numquid melior me es8 ,nunc vetus atque senex qu fecero fac adolescens4 ,si bonus arbor ades1 qua fertilitate redundas8 ,cum sim truncus iners1 fructu meliore redundo4 ,and so the dispute continues1 but unfortunately the latter part has been lost with a leaf or two of the manuscript4 ,i will only add that ,i think the age of this curious piece has been overrated4#ha #hj ,see p4 #aia of the present volume4 #ha ,this singular composition was published with notes by ,m4 de ,montaiglon1 in a ,parisian journal entitled1 ,l',amateur de ,livres1 in #ahdi1 under the title of ,fragment d'un ,dialogue ,latin du ixe sicle entre ,terence et un ,bouffon4 ,a few separate copies were printed1 of which ,i possess one4 ,hrotsvitha is the earliest example we have of medival writers in this particular class of literature4 ,we find no other until the twelfth century1 when two writers flourished named ,vital of ,blois 7,vitalis ,blesensis7 and ,matthew of ,vendme 7,matthus ,vindocinensis71 the authors of several of the medival poems distinguished by the title of comdi1 which give us a clearer and more distinct idea of what was meant by the word4 ,they are written in ,latin ,elegiac verse1 a form of composition which was very popular among the medival scholars1 and consist of stories told in dialogue4 ,hence ,professor ,osann1 of ,giessen1 who edited two of those of ,vital of ,blois1 gives them the title of eclogues 7eclog74 ,the name comedy is1 however1 given to them in manuscripts1 and it may perhaps admit of the following explanation4 ,these pieces seem to have been first mere abridgments of the plots of the ,roman comedies1 especially those of ,plautus1 and the authors appear to have taken the ,latin title of the original as applied to the plot1 in the sense of a narrative1 and not to its dramatic form4 ,of the two comedies by ,vital of ,blois1 one is entitled ,geta1 and is taken from the ,amphytrio of ,plautus1 and the other1 which in the manuscripts bears the title of ,querulus1 represents the ,aulularia of the same writer4 ,independent of the form of composition1 the scholastic writer has given a strangely medival turn to the incidents of the classic story of ,jupiter and ,alcmena4 ,another similar comedy1 that of ,babio1 which ,i first printed from the manuscripts1 is still more medival in character4 ,its plot1 perhaps taken from a fabliau1 for the medival writers rarely invented stories1 is as follows1 although it must be confessed that it comes out rather obscurely in the dialogue itself4 ,babio1 the hero of the piece1 is a priest1 who1 as was still common at that time 7the twelfth century71 has a wife1 or1 as the strict religionists would then say1 a concubine1 named ,pecula4 ,she has a daughter named ,viola1 with whom ,babio is in love1 and he pursues his design upon her1 of course unknown to his wife4 ,babio has also a man-servant named ,fodius1 who is engaged in a secret intrigue with his mistress1 ,pecula1 and also seeks to seduce her daughter1 ,viola4 ,to crown the whole1 the lord of the manor1 a knight named ,croceus1 is also in love with ,viola1 though with more honourable designs4 ,here is surely intrigue enough and a sufficient absence of morality to satisfy a modern ,french novelist of the first water4 ,at the opening of the piece1 amid some by-play between the four individuals who form the household of ,babio1 it is suddenly announced that ,croceus is on his way to visit him1 and a feast is hastily prepared for his reception4 ,it ends in the knight carrying away ,viola by force4 ,babio1 after a little vain bluster1 consoles himself for the loss of the damsel with reflections on the virtue of his wife1 ,pecula1 and the faithfulness of his man1 ,fodius1 when1 at this moment1 ,fame carries to his ear reports which excite his suspicions against them4 ,he adopts a stratagem very frequently introduced in the medival stories1 surprises the two lovers under circumstances which leave no room for doubting their guilt1 and then forgives them1 enters a monastery1 and leaves them to themselves4 ,in form1 these comedies are little more than scholastic exercises2 but1 at a later period1 we shall see the same stories adopted as the subjects of farces4#hb #hb ,to judge by the number of copies found in manuscripts1 especially of the ,geta1 these dramatic poems must have enjoyed considerable popularity4 ,the ,geta and the ,querulus were published in a volume entitled1 ,vitalis ,blesensis ,amphitryon et ,aulularia ,eclog4 ,edidit ,fridericus ,osannus1 ,professor ,gisensis1 #hvo41 ,darmstadt1 #ahcf4 ,the ,geta and the ,babio are included in my ,early ,mysteries1 and other ,latin ,poems of the ,twelfth and ,thirteenth ,centuries4 ,already1 however1 by the side of these dramatic poems1 a real drama--the drama of the middle ages--was gradually developing itself4 ,as stated before1 it arose1 like the drama of the ,greeks1 out of the religious ceremonies4 ,we know nothing of the existence of anything approaching to dramatic forms which may have existed among the religious rites of the peoples of the ,teutonic race before their conversion to ,christianity1 but the ,christian clergy felt the necessity of keeping up festive religious ceremonies in some form or other1 and also of impressing upon people's imagination and memory by means of rude scenical representations some of the broader facts of scriptural and ecclesiastical history4 ,these performances at first consisted probably in mere dumb show1 or at the most the performers may have chanted the scriptural account of the transaction they were representing4 ,in this manner the choral boys1 or the younger clergy1 would1 on some special ,saint's day1 perform some striking act in the life of the saint commemorated1 or1 on particular festivals of the church1 those incidents of gospel history to which the festival especially related4 ,by degrees1 a rather more imposing character was given to these performances by the addition of a continuous dialogue1 which1 however1 was written in ,latin verse1 and was no doubt chanted4 ,this incipient drama in ,latin1 as far as we know it1 belongs to the twelfth century1 and is represented by a tolerably large number of examples still preserved in medival manuscripts4 ,some of the earliest of these have for their author a pupil of the celebrated ,abelard1 named ,hilarius1 who lived in the first half of the twelfth century1 and is understood to have been by birth an ,englishman4 ,hilarius appears before us as a playful ,latin poet1 and among a number of short pieces1 which may be almost called lyric1 he has left us three of these religious plays4 ,the subject of the first of these is the raising of ,lazarus from the dead1 the chief peculiarity of which consists of the songs of lamentation placed in the mouths of the two sisters of ,lazarus1 ,mary and ,martha4 ,the second represents one of the miracles attributed to ,st4 ,nicholas2 and the third1 the history of ,daniel4 ,the latter is longer and more elaborate than the others1 and at its conclusion1 the stage direction tells us that1 if it were performed at matins1 ,darius1 king of the ,medes and ,persians1 was to chant ,te ,deum ,laudamus1 but if it were at vespers1 the great king was to chant ,magnificat anima mea ,dominum4#hc #hc ,hilarii ,versus et ,ludi1 #hvo41 ,paris1 #ahce4 ,edited by ,m4 ,champollion ,figeac4 ,that this medival drama was not derived from that of the ,roman is evident from the circumstance that entirely new terms were applied to it4 ,the western people in the middle ages had no words exactly equivalent with the ,latin comdia1 tragdia1 theatrum1 c42 and even the ,latinists1 to designate the dramatic pieces performed at the church festivals1 employed the word ludus1 a play4 ,the ,french called them by a word having exactly the same meaning1 jeu 7from jocus74 ,similarly in ,english they were termed plays4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon glossaries present as the representative of the ,latin theatrum1 the compounded words plege-stow1 or pleg-stow1 a play-place1 and pleg-hus1 a play-house4 ,it is curious that we ,englishmen have preferred to the present time the ,anglo-,saxon words in play1 player1 and play-house4 ,another ,anglo-,saxon word with exactly the same signification1 lac1 or gelac1 play1 appears to have been more in use in the dialect of the ,northumbrians1 and a ,yorkshireman still calls a play a lake1 and a player a laker4 ,so also the ,germans called a dramatic performance a spil1 i4e4 a play1 the modern spiel1 and a theatre1 a spil-hus4 ,one of the pieces of ,hilarius is thus entitled ,ludus super iconia sancti ,nicolai1 and the ,french jeu and the ,english play are constantly used in the same sense4 ,but besides this general term1 words gradually came into use to characterise different sorts of plays4 ,the church plays consisted of two descriptions of subjects1 they either represented the miraculous acts of certain saints1 which had a plain meaning1 or some incident taken from the ,holy ,scriptures1 which was supposed to have a hidden mysterious signification as well as an apparent one1 and hence the one class of subject was usually spoken of simply as miraculum1 a miracle1 and the other as mysterium1 a mystery4 ,mysteries and miracle-plays are still the names usually given to the old religious plays by writers on the history of the stage4 ,we have a proof that the ,latin religious plays1 and the festivities in which they were employed1 had become greatly developed in the twelfth century1 in the notice taken of them in the ecclesiastical councils of that period1 for they were disapproved by the stricter church disciplinarians4 ,so early as the papacy of ,gregory ,,viii41 the pope urged the clergy to extirpate from their churches theatrical plays1 and other festive practices which were not quite in harmony with the sacred character of these buildings4#hd ,such performances are forbidden by a council held at ,treves in #abbg4he ,we learn from the annals of the abbey of ,corbei1 published by ,leibnitz1 that the younger monks at ,heresburg performed on one occasion a sacred comedy 7sacram comdiam7 of the selling into captivity and the exaltation of ,joseph1 which was disapproved by the other heads of the order4#hf ,such performances are included in a proclamation of the bishop of ,worms1 in #acaf1 against the various abuses which had crept into the festivities observed in his diocese at ,easter and ,st4 ,john's tide4#hg ,similar prohibitions of the acting of such plays in churches are met with at subsequent periods4 #hd ,interdum ludi fiunt in ecclesiis theatrales1 c4--,decret ,gregorii1 lib4 iii4 tit4 i4 #he ,item non permittant sacerdotes ludos theatrales fieri in ecclesia et alios ludos inhonestos4 #hf ,juniores fratres in ,heresburg sacram habuere comdiam de ,josepho vendito et exalto1 quod vero reliqui ordinis nostri prlati male interpretati sunt4--,leibn41 ,script4 ,brunsv4 tom4 ii4 p4 #caa4 #hg ,the acts of this synod of ,worms are printed in ,harzheim1 tom4 iv4 p4 #beh4 ,while these performances were thus falling under the censure of the church authorities1 they were taken up by the laity1 and under their management both the plays and the machinery for acting them underwent considerable extension4 ,the municipal guilds contained in their constitution a considerable amount of religious spirit4 ,they were great benefactors of the churches in cities and municipal towns1 and had usually some parts of the sacred edifice appropriated to them1 and they may1 perhaps1 have taken a part in these performances1 while they were still confined to the church4 ,these guilds1 and subsequently the municipal corporations1 took them entirely into their own hands4 ,certain annual religious festivals1 and especially the feast of ,corpus ,christi1 were still the occasions on which the plays were acted1 but they were taken entirely from the churches1 and the performances took place in the open streets4 ,each guild had its particular play1 and they acted on movable stages1 which were dragged along the streets in the procession of the guild4 ,these stages appear to have been rather complicated4 ,they were divided into three floors1 that in the middle1 which was the principal stage1 representing this world1 while the upper division represented heaven1 and that at the bottom hell4 ,the medival writers in ,latin called this machinery a pegma1 from the ,greek word 1 a scaffold2 and they also applied to it1 for a reason which is not is easily seen1 unless the one word arose out of a corruption of the other1 that of pagina1 and from a further corruption of these came into the ,french and ,english languages the word pageant1 which originally signified one of these movable stages1 though it has since received secondary meanings which have a much wider application4 ,each guild in a town had its pageant and its own actors1 who performed in masks and costumes1 and each had one of a series of plays1 which were performed at places where they halted in the procession4 ,the subjects of these plays were taken from ,scripture1 and they usually formed a regular series of the principal histories of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,for this reason they were generally termed mysteries1 a title already explained2 and among the few series of these plays still preserved1 we have the ,coventry ,mysteries1 which were performed by the guilds of that town1 the ,chester ,mysteries1 belonging to the guilds in the city of ,chester1 and the ,towneley ,mysteries1 so called from the name of the possessor of the manuscript1 but which probably belonged to the guilds of ,wakefield in ,yorkshire4 ,during these changes in the method of performance1 the plays themselves had also been considerably modified4 ,the simple ,latin phrases1 even when in rhyme1 which formed the dialogue of the earlier ludi--as in the four miracles of ,st4 ,nicholas1 and the six ,latin mysteries taken from the ,new ,testament1 printed in my volume of ,early ,mysteries and other ,latin ,poems--must have been very uninteresting to the mass of the spectators1 and an attempt was made to enliven them by introducing among the ,latin phrases popular proverbs1 or even sometimes a song in the vulgar tongue4 ,thus in the play of ,lazarus by ,hilarius1 the ,latin of the lamentations of his two sisters is intermixed with ,french verses4 ,such is the case also with the play of ,st4 ,nicholas by the same writer1 as well as with the curious mystery of the ,foolish ,virgins1 printed in my ,early ,mysteries just alluded to1 in which latter the ,latin is intermingled with ,provenal verse4 ,a much greater advance was made when these performances were transferred to the guilds4 ,the ,latin was then discarded altogether1 and the whole play was written in ,french1 or ,english1 or ,german1 as the case might be1 the plot was made more elaborate1 and the dialogue greatly extended4 ,but now that the whole institution had become secularised1 the want of something to amuse people--to make them laugh1 as people liked to laugh in the middle ages--was felt more than ever1 and this want was supplied by the introduction of droll and ludicrous scenes1 which are often very slightly1 if at all1 connected with the subject of the play4 ,in one of the earliest of the ,french plays1 that of ,st4 ,nicholas1 by ,jean ,bodel1 the characters who form the burlesque scene are a party of gamblers in a tavern4 ,in others1 robbers1 or peasants1 or beggars form the comic scene1 or vulgar women1 or any personages who could be introduced acting vulgarly and using coarse language1 for these were great incitements to mirth among the populace4 ,in the ,english plays now remaining1 these scenes are1 on the whole1 less frequent1 and they are usually more closely connected with the general subject4 ,the earliest ,english collection that has been published is that known as the ,towneley ,mysteries1 the manuscript of which belongs to the fifteenth century1 and the plays themselves may have been composed in the latter part of the fourteenth4 ,it contains thirty-two plays1 beginning with the ,creation1 and ending with the ,ascension and the ,day of ,judgment1 with two supplementary plays1 the ,raising of ,lazarus and the ,hanging of ,judas4 ,the play of ,cain and ,abel is throughout a vulgar drollery1 in which ,cain1 who exhibits the character of a blustering ruffian1 is accompanied by a garcio1 or lad1 who is the very type of a vulgar and insolent horse-boy1 and the conversation of these two worthies reminds us a little of that between the clown and his master in the open-air performances of the old wandering mountebanks4 ,even the death of ,abel by the hand of his brother is performed in a manner calculated to provoke great laughter4 ,in the old mirthful spirit1 to hear two persons load each other with vulgar abuse1 was as good as seeing them grin through a horse-collar1 if not better4 ,hence the droll scene in the play of ,noah is a domestic quarrel between ,noah and his wife1 who was proverbially a shrew1 and here gives a tolerable example of abusive language1 as it might then come from a woman's tongue4 ,the quarrel arises out of her obstinate refusal to go into the ark4 ,in the ,new ,testament series the play of ,the ,shepherds was one of those most susceptible of this sort of embellishment4 ,there are two plays of the ,shepherds in the ,towneley ,mysteries1 the first of which is amusing enough1 as it represents1 in clever burlesque1 the acts and conversation of a party of medival shepherds guarding their flocks at night2 but the second play of the ,shepherds is a much more remarkable example of a comic drama4 ,the shepherds are introduced at the opening of the piece conversing very satirically on the corruptions of the time1 and complaining how the people were impoverished by over-taxation1 to support the pride and vanity of the aristocracy4 ,after a good deal of very amusing talk1 the shepherds1 who1 as usual1 are three in number1 agree to sing a song1 and it is this song1 it appears1 which brings to them a fourth1 named ,mak1 who proves to be a sheep-stealer2 and1 in fact1 no sooner have the shepherds resigned themselves to sleep for the night1 than ,mak chooses one of the best sheep in their flocks1 and carries it home to his hut4 ,knowing that he will be suspected of the theft1 and that he will soon be pursued1 he is anxious to conceal the plunder1 and is only helped out of his difficulty by his wife1 who suggests that the carcase shall be laid at the bottom of her cradle1 and that she shall lie upon it and groan1 pretending to be in labour4 ,meanwhile the shepherds awake1 discover the loss of a sheep1 and perceiving that ,mak has disappeared also1 they naturally suspect him to be the depredator1 and pursue him4 ,they find everything very cunningly prepared in the cottage to deceive them1 but1 after a large amount of roundabout inquiry and research1 and much drollery1 they discover that the boy of which ,mak's wife pretends to have been just delivered1 is nothing else but the sheep which had been stolen from their flocks4 ,the wife still asserts that it is her child1 and ,mak sets up as his defence that the baby had been forspoken1 or enchanted1 by an elf at midnight1 and that it had thus been changed into the appearance of a sheep2 but the shepherds refuse to be satisfied with this explanation4 ,the whole of this little comedy is carried out with great skill1 and with infinite drollery4 ,the shepherds1 while still wrangling with ,mak and his wife1 are seized with drowsiness1 and lie down to sleep2 but they are aroused by the voice of the angel1 who proclaims the birth of the ,saviour4 ,the next play in which the drollery is introduced1 is that of ,herod and the ,slaughter of the ,innocents4 ,herod's bluster and bombast1 and the vulgar abuse which passes between the ,hebrew mothers and the soldiers who are murdering their children1 are wonderfully laughable4 ,the plays which represented the arrest1 trial1 and execution of ,jesus1 are all full of drollery1 for the grotesque character which had been given to the demons in the earlier middle ages1 appears to have been transferred to the executioners1 or1 as they were called1 the tormentors1 and the language and manner in which they executed their duties1 must have kept the audience in a continual roar of laughter4 ,in the play of ,doomsday1 the fiends retained their old character1 and the manner in which they joke over the distress of the sinful souls1 and the details they give of their sinfulness1 are equally mirth-provoking4 ,the ,coventry ,mysteries are also printed from a manuscript of the middle of the fifteenth century1 and are1 perhaps1 as old as the ,towneley ,mysteries4 ,they consist of forty-two plays1 but they contain1 on the whole1 fewer droll scenes than those of the ,towneley collection4 ,but a very remarkable example is furnished in the play of the ,trial of ,joseph and ,mary1 which is a very grotesque picture of the proceedings in a medival consistory court4 ,the sompnour1 a character so well known by ,chaucer's picture of him1 opens the piece by reading from his book a long list of offenders against chastity4 ,at its conclusion1 two detractors make their appearance1 who repeat various scandalous stories against the ,virgin ,mary and her husband ,joseph1 which are overheard by some of the high officers of the court1 and ,mary and ,joseph are formally accused and placed upon their trial4 ,the trial itself is a scene of low ribaldry1 which can only have afforded amusement to a very vulgar audience4 ,there is a certain amount of the same kind of indelicate drollery in the play of ,the ,woman taken in ,adultery1 in this collection4 ,the ,chester ,mysteries are still more sparing of such scenes1 but they are printed from manuscripts written after the ,reformation1 which had1 perhaps1 gone through the process of expurgation1 in which such excrescences had been lopped off4 ,however1 in the play of ,noah's ,flood1 we have the old quarrel between ,noah and his wife1 which is carried so far that the latter actually beats her husband in the presence of the audience4 ,there is a little drollery in the play of ,the ,shepherds1 a considerable amount of what may be called ,billingsgate language in the play of the ,slaughter of the ,innocents1 but less than the usual amount of insolence in the tormentors and demons4#hh ,it is probable1 however1 that these droll scenes were not always considered an integral part of the play in which they were introduced1 but that they were kept as separate subjects1 to be introduced at will1 and not always in the same play1 and therefore that they were not copied with the play in the manuscripts4 #hh ,the editions of the three principal collections of ,english mysteries are--#a4 ,the ,towneley ,mysteries1 #hvo41 ,london1 #ahcf1 published by the ,surtees ,society2 #b4 ,ludus ,coventri3 a ,collection of ,mysteries1 formerly represented at ,coventry on the ,feast of ,corpus ,christi1 edited by ,james ,orchard ,halliwell1 ,esq41 #hvo41 ,london1 #ahda1 published by the ,shakespeare ,society2 #c4 ,the ,chester ,plays3 a ,collection of ,mysteries founded upon ,scriptural ,subjects1 and formerly represented by the ,trades of ,chester at ,whitsuntide1 edited by ,thomas ,wright1 ,esq41 #b vols4 #hvo41 ,london1 #ahdc and #ahdg1 published by the ,shakespeare ,society4 ,in the ,coventry play of ,noah's ,flood1 when ,noah has received the directions from an angel for the building of the ark1 he leaves the stage to proceed to this important work4 ,on his departure1 ,lamech comes forward1 blind and led by a youth1 who directs his hand to shoot at a beast concealed in a bush4 ,lamech shoots1 and kills ,cain1 upon which1 in his anger1 he beats the youth to death1 and laments the misfortune into which the latter has led him4 ,this was the legendary explanation of the passage in the fourth chapter of ,genesis3 ,and ,lamech said 444 ,i have slain a man to my wounding1 and a young man to my hurt2 if ,cain shall be avenged seven-fold1 truly ,lamech seventy and seven-fold4 ,it is evident that this is a piece of scriptural story which has nothing to do with ,noah's flood1 and accordingly1 in the ,coventry play1 we are told in the stage directions1 that it was introduced in the place of the interlude1#hi as if there were a place in the machinery of the pageant where the episode1 which was not an integral part of the subject1 was performed1 and that this part of the performance was called an interlude1 or play introduced in the interval of the action of the main subject4 ,the word interlude remained long in our language as applied to such short and simple dramatic pieces as we may suppose to have formed the drolleries of the mysteries4 ,but they had another name in ,france which has had a greater and more lulling celebrity4 ,in one of the early ,french miracle-plays1 that of ,st4 ,fiacre1 an interlude of this kind is introduced1 containing five personages--a brigand or robber1 a peasant1 a sergeant1 and the wives of the two latter4 ,the brigand1 meeting the peasant on the highway1 asks the way to ,st4 ,omer1 and receives a clownish answer1 which is followed by one equally rude on a second question4 ,the brigand1 in revenge1 steals the peasant's capon1 but the sergeant comes up at this moment and1 attempting to arrest the thief1 receives a blow from the latter which is supposed to break his right arm4 ,the brigand thus escapes1 and the peasant and the sergeant quit the scene1 which is immediately occupied by their wives4 ,the sergeant's wife is informed by the other of the injury sustained by her husband1 and she exults over it because it will deprive him of the power of beating her4 ,they then proceed to a tavern1 call for wine1 and make merry1 the conversation turning upon the faults of their respective husbands1 who are not spared4 ,in the midst of their enjoyments1 the two husbands return1 and show1 by beating their wives1 that they are not very greatly disabled4 ,in the manuscript of the miracle-play of ,st4 ,fiacre1 in which this amusing episode is introduced1 a marginal stage direction is expressed in the following words1 cy est interpos une farsse 7here a farce is introduced74 ,this is one of the earliest instances of the application of the term farce to these short dramatic faceti4 ,different opinions have been expressed as to the origin of the word1 but it seems most probable that it is derived from an old ,french verb1 farcer1 to jest1 to make merry1 whence the modern word farceur for a joker1 and that it thus means merely a drollery or merriment4 #hi ,hic transit ,noe cum familia sua pro navi1 quo exeunte1 locum interludii subintret statim ,lameth1 conductus ab adolescente1 et dicens1 c4 ,i have just suggested as a reason for the absence of these interludes1 or farces1 in the mysteries as they are found in the manuscripts1 that they were probably not looked upon as parts of the mysteries themselves1 but as separate pieces which might be used at pleasure4 ,when we reach a certain period in their history1 we find that not only was this the case1 but that these farces were performed separately and altogether independently of the religious plays4 ,it is in ,france that we find information which enables us to trace the gradual revolution in the medival drama4 ,a society was formed towards the close of the fourteenth century under the title of ,confrres de la ,passion1 who1 in #acih1 established a regular theatre at ,st4 ,maur-des-,fosss1 and subsequently obtained from ,charles ,,vi4 a privilege to transport their theatre into ,paris1 and to perform in it mysteries and miracle-plays4 ,they now rented of the monks of ,hermires a hall in the hospital of the ,trinity1 outside of the ,porte ,st4 ,denis1 performing there regularly on ,sundays and saints' days1 and probably making a good thing of it1 for1 during a long period1 they enjoyed great popularity4 ,gradually1 however1 this popularity was so much diminished1 that the confrres were obliged to have recourse to expedients for reviving it4 ,meanwhile other similar societies had arisen into importance4 ,the clerks of the ,bazoche1 or lawyers' clerks of the ,palais de ,justice1 had thus associated together1 it is said1 as early as the beginning of the fourteenth century1 and they distinguished themselves by composing and performing farces1 for which they appear to have obtained a privilege4 ,towards the close of the fourteenth century1 there arose in ,paris another society1 which took the name of ,enfans sans souci1 or ,careless ,boys1 who elected a president or chief with the title of ,prince des ,sots1 or ,king of the ,fools1 and who composed a sort of dramatic satires which they called ,sotties4 ,jealousies soon arose between these two societies1 either because the sotties were made sometimes to resemble too closely the farces1 or because each trespassed too often on the territories of the other4 ,their differences were finally arranged by a compromise1 whereby the ,bazochians yielded to their rivals the privilege of performing farces1 and received in return the permission to perform sotties4 ,the ,bazochians1 too1 had invented a new class of dramatic pieces which they called ,moralities1 and in which allegorical personages were introduced4 ,thus three dramatic societies continued to exist in ,france through the fifteenth century1 and until the middle of the sixteenth4 ,these various pieces1 under the titles of farces1 sotties1 moralities1 or whatever other names might be given to them1 had become exceedingly popular at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 and a very considerable number of them were printed1 and many of them are still preserved1 but they are books of great rarity1 and often unique4#ij ,of these the farces form the most numerous class4 ,they consist simply of the tales of the older jougleurs or story-tellers represented in a dramatic form1 but they often display great skill in conducting the plot1 and a considerable amount of wit4 ,the story of the sheep-stealer in the ,towneley play of ,the ,shepherds1 is a veritable farce4 ,as in the fabliaux1 the most common subjects of these farces are love intrigues1 carried on in a manner which speaks little for the morality of the age in which they were written4 ,family quarrels frequently form the subject of a farce1 and the weaknesses and vices of women4 ,the priests1 as usual1 are not spared1 but are introduced as the seducers of wives and daughters4 ,in one the wives have found a means of re-modelling their husbands and making them young again1 which they put in practice with various ludicrous circumstances4 ,tricks of servants are also common subjects for these farces4 ,one is the story of a boy who does not know his own father1 and some of the subjects are of a still more trivial character1 as that of the boy who steals a tart from the pastrycook's shop4 ,two hungry boys1 prowling about the streets1 come to the shop door just as the pastrycook is giving directions for sending an eel-pie after him4 ,by an ingenious deception the boys gain possession of the pie and eat it1 and they are both caught and severely chastised4 ,this is the whole plot of the farce4 ,a dull schoolboy examined by his master in the presence of his parents1 and the mirth produced by his blunders and their ignorance1 formed also a favourite subject among these farces4 ,one or two examples are preserved1 and1 from a companion of them1 we might be led to suspect that ,shakespeare took the idea of the opening scene in the fourth act of the ,merry ,wives of ,windsor from one of these old farces4 #ij ,the most remarkable collection of these early farces1 sotties1 and moralities yet known1 was found accidentally in #ahde1 and is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,these were all edited in ,paris as the first three volumes of a work in ten1 entitled ,ancien ,thatre ,franois1 ou ,collection des ,ouvrages dramatiques les plus remarquable depuis les ,mystres jusqu' ,corneille1 publi 444 par ,m4 ,viollet le ,duc1 #abmo41 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,it is right to state that these three volumes were edited1 not by ,m4 ,viollet le ,duc1 but by a scholar better known for his learning in the older ,french literature1 ,m4 ,anatole de ,montaiglon4 ,the sotties and moralities were more imaginative and extravagant than the farces1 and were filled with allegorical personages4 ,the characters introduced in the former have generally some relation to the kingdom of folly4 ,thus1 in one of the sotties1 the king of fools 7le roy des sotz7 is represented as holding his court1 and consulting with his courtiers1 whose names are ,triboulet1 ,mitouflet1 ,sottinet1 ,coquibus1 and ,guippelin4 ,their conversation1 as may be supposed1 is of a satirical character4 ,another is entitled ,the ,sottie of the ,deceivers1 or cheats4 ,sottie--another name for mother ,folly--opens the piece with a proclamation or address to fools of all descriptions1 summoning them to her presence4 ,two1 named ,teste-,verte and ,fine-,mine1 obey the call1 and they are questioned as to their own condition1 and their proceedings1 but their conversation is interrupted by the sudden intrusion of another personage named ,everyone 7,chascun71 who1 on examination1 is found to be as perfect a fool as any of them4 ,they accordingly fraternise1 and join in a song4 ,finally1 another character1 ,the ,time 7le ,temps71 joins them1 and they agree to submit to his directions4 ,accordingly he instructs them in the arts of flattery and deceiving1 and the other similar means by which men of that time sought to thrive4 ,another is the ,sottie of ,foolish ,ostentation 7de folle bobance74 ,this lady similarly opens the scene with an address to all the fools who hold allegiance to her1 and three of these make their appearance4 ,the first fool is the gentleman1 the second the merchant1 the fourth the peasant1 and their conversation is a satire on contemporary society4 ,the personification of abstract principles is far bolder4 ,the three characters who compose one of these moralities are ,everything 7tout71 ,nothing 7rien71 and ,everyone 7chascun74 ,how the personification of ,nothing was to be represented1 we are not told4 ,the title of another of these moralities will be enough to give the reader a notion of their general title2 it is1 ,a ,new ,morality of the ,children of ,now-a-,days 7,maintenant71 who are the ,scholars of ,once-good 7,jabien71 who shows them how to play at ,cards and at ,dice1 and to entertain ,luxury1 whereby one comes to ,shame 7,honte71 and from ,shame to ,despair 7,desespoir71 and from ,despair to the gibbet of ,perdition1 and then turns himself to ,good-doing4 ,the characters in this play are ,now-a-,days1 ,once-good1 ,luxury1 ,shame1 ,despair1 ,perdition1 and ,good-doing4 ,the three dramatic societies which produced all these farces1 sotties1 and moralities1 continued to flourish in ,france until the middle of the sixteenth century1 at which period a great revolution in dramatic literature took place in that country4 ,the performance of the ,mysteries had been forbidden by authority1 and the ,bazochians themselves were suppressed4 ,the petty drama represented by the farces and sotties went rapidly out of fashion1 in the great change through which the mind of society was at this time passing1 and in which the taste for classical literature overcame all others4 ,the old drama in ,france had disappeared1 and a new one1 formed entirely upon an imitation of the classical drama1 was beginning to take its place4 ,this incipient drama was represented in the sixteenth century by ,etienne ,jodel1 by ,jacques ,grevin1 by ,rmy ,belleau1 and especially by ,pierre de ,larivey1 the most prolific1 and perhaps the most talented1 of the earlier ,french regular dramatic authors4 ,these ,french dramatic essays1 the farces1 the sotties1 and the moralities1 were imitated1 and sometimes translated1 in ,english1 and many of them were printed2 for the further our researches are carried into the early history of printing1 the more we are astonished at the extreme activity of the press1 even in its infancy1 in multiplying literature of a popular character4 ,in ,england1 as in ,france1 the farces had been1 at a rather early period1 detached from the mysteries and miracle-plays1 but the word interludes had been adopted here as the general title for them1 and continued in use even after the establishment of the regular drama4 ,perhaps this name owed its popularity to the circumstance that it seemed more appropriate to its object1 when it became so fashionable in ,england to act these plays at intervals in the great festivals and entertainments given at court1 or in the households of the great nobles4 ,at all events1 there can be no doubt that this fashion had a great influence on the fate of the ,english stage4 ,the custom of performing plays in the universities1 great schools1 and inns of court1 had also the effect of producing a number of very clever dramatic writers2 for when this literature was so warmly patronised by princes and nobles1 people of the highest qualifications sought to excel in it4 ,hence we find from books of household expenses and similar records of the period1 that there was1 during the sixteenth century1 an immense number of such plays compiled in ,england which were never printed1 and of which1 therefore1 very few are preserved4 ,the earliest known plays of this description in the ,english language belong to the class which were called in ,france moralities4 ,they are three in number1 and are preserved in a manuscript in the possession of ,mr4 ,hudson ,gurney1 which ,i have not seen1 but which is said to be of the reign of our king ,henry ,,vi4 ,several words and allusions in them seem to me to show that they were translated1 or adapted1 from the ,french4 ,they contain exactly the same kind of allegorical personages4 ,the allegory itself is a simple one1 and easily understood4 ,in the first1 which is entitled the ,castle of ,perseverance1 the hero is ,humanum ,genus 7,mankynd71 for the names of the parts are all given in ,latin4 ,on the birth of this personage1 a good and a bad angel offer themselves as his protectors and guides1 and he chooses the latter1 who introduces him to ,mundus 7the ,world71 and to his friends1 ,stultitia 7,folly71 and ,voluptas 7,pleasure74 ,these and some other personages bring him under the influence of the seven deadly sins1 and ,humanum ,genus takes for his bedfellow a lady named ,luxuria4 ,at length ,confessio and ,pnitentia succeed in reclaiming ,humanum ,genus1 and they conduct him for security to the ,castle of ,perseverance1 where the seven cardinal virtues attend upon him4 ,he is besieged in this castle by the seven deadly sins1 who are led to the attack by ,belial1 but are defeated4 ,humanum ,genus has now become aged1 and is exposed to the attacks of another assailant4 ,this is ,avaritia1 who enters the ,castle stealthily by undermining the wall1 and artfully persuades ,humanum ,genus to leave it4 ,he thus comes again under the influence of ,mundus1 until ,mors 7,death7 arrives1 and the bad angel carries off the victim to the domains of ,satan4 ,this1 however1 is not the end of the piece4 ,god appears1 seated on ,his throne1 and ,mercy1 ,peace1 ,justice1 and ,truth appear before ,him1 the two former pleading for1 and the latter against1 ,humanum ,genus1 who1 after some discussion1 is saved4 ,this allegorical picture of human life was1 in one form or other1 a favourite subject of the moralisers4 ,i may quote as examples the interludes of ,lusty ,juventus1 reprinted in ,hawkins's ,origin of the ,english ,drama1 and the ,disobedient ,child1 and ,trial of ,treasure1 reprinted by the ,percy ,society4 ,the second of the moralities ascribed to the reign of ,henry ,,vi41 has for its principal characters ,mind1 ,will1 and ,understanding4 ,these are assailed by ,lucifer1 who succeeds in alluring them to vice1 and they change their modest raiment for the dress of gay gallants4 ,various other characters are introduced in a similar strain of allegory1 until they are reclaimed by ,wisdom4 ,mankind is again the principal personage of the third of these moralities1 and some of the other characters in the play1 such as ,nought1 ,new-guise1 and ,now-a-days1 remind us of the similar allegorical personages in the ,french moralities described above4 ,these interludes bring us into acquaintance with a new comic character4 ,the great part which folly acted in the social destinies of mankind1 had become an acknowledged fact2 and as the court and almost every great household had its professed fool1 so it seems to have been considered that a play also was incomplete without a fool4 ,but1 as the character of the fool was usually given to one of the most objectionable characters in it1 so1 for this reason apparently1 the fool in a play was called the ,vice4 ,thus1 in ,lusty ,juventus1 the character of ,hypocrisy is called the ,vice2 in the play of ,all for ,money1 it is ,sin2 in that of ,tom ,tyler and his ,wife1 it is ,desire2 in the ,trial of ,treasure it is ,inclination2 and in some instances the ,vice appears to be the demon himself4 ,the ,vice seems always to have been dressed in the usual costume of a court fool1 and he perhaps had other duties besides his mere part in the plot1 such as making jests of his own1 and using other means for provoking the mirth of the audience in the intervals of the action4 ,a few of our early ,english interludes were1 in the strict sense of the word1 farces4 ,such is the mery play of ,john the ,husband1 ,tyb the ,wife1 and ,sir ,john the ,priest1 written by ,john ,heywood1 the plot of which presents the same simplicity as those of the farces which were so popular in ,france4 ,john has a shrew for his wife1 and has good causes for suspecting an undue intimacy between her and the priest2 but they find means to blind his eyes1 which is the more easily done1 because he is a great coward1 except when he is alone4 ,tyb1 the wife1 makes a pie1 and proposes that the priest shall be invited to assist in eating it4 ,the husband is obliged1 very unwillingly1 to be the bearer of the invitation1 and is not a little surprised when the priest refuses it4 ,he gives as his reason1 that he was unwilling to intrude himself into company where he knew he was disliked1 and persuaded ,john that he had fallen under the wife's displeasure1 because1 in private interviews with her1 he had laboured to induce her to bridle her temper1 and treat her husband with more gentleness4 ,john1 delighted at the discovery of the priest's honesty1 insists on his going home with him to feast upon the pie4 ,there the guilty couple contrive to put the husband to a disagreeable penance1 while they eat the pie1 and treat him otherwise very ignominiously1 in consequence of which the married couple fight4 ,the priest interferes1 and the fight thus becomes general1 and is only ended by the departure of ,tyb and the priest1 leaving the husband alone4 ,the popularity of the moralities in ,england is1 perhaps1 to be explained by peculiarities in the condition of society1 and the greater pre-occupation of men's minds in our country at that time with the religious and social revolution which was then in progress4 ,the ,reformers soon saw the use which might be made of the stage1 and compiled and caused to be acted interludes in which the old doctrines and ceremonies were turned to ridicule1 and the new ones were held up in a favourable light4 ,we have excellent examples of the success with which this plan was carried out in the plays of the celebrated ,john ,bale4 ,his play of ,kyng ,johan1 an edition of which was published by the ,camden ,society1 is not only a remarkable work of a very remarkable man1 but it may be considered as the first rude model of the ,english historical drama4 ,the stage became now a political instrument in ,england1 almost as it had been in ancient ,greece1 and it thus became frequently the object of particular as well as general persecution4 ,in #aedc1 the vicar of ,yoxford1 in ,suffolk1 drew upon himself the violent hostility of the other clergy in that county by composing and causing to be performed plays against the pope's counsellors4 ,six years afterwards1 in #aedi1 a royal proclamation prohibited for a time the performance of interludes throughout the kingdom1 on the ground that they contained matter tendyng to sedicion and contempnyng of sundery good orders and lawes1 whereupon are growen daily1 and are likely to growe1 muche disquiet1 division1 tumultes1 and uproares in this realme4 ,from this time forward we begin to meet with laws for the regulation of stage performances1 and proceedings in cases of supposed infractions of them1 and it became customary to obtain the approval of a play by the privy council before it was allowed to be acted4 ,thus gradually arose the office of a dramatic censor4 ,with ,bale and with ,john ,heywood1 the ,english plays began to approach the form of a regular drama1 and the two now rather celebrated pieces1 ,ralph ,roister ,doister1 and ,gammer ,gurton's ,needle1 which belong to the middle of the sixteenth century1 may be considered as comedies rather than as interludes4 ,the former1 written by a well-known scholar of that time1 ,nicholas ,udall1 master of ,eton1 is a satirical picture of some phases of ,london life1 and relates the ridiculous adventures of a weak-headed and vain-glorious gallant1 who believes that all the women must be in love with him1 and who is led by a needy and designing parasite named ,matthew ,merygreeke4 ,rude as it is as a dramatic composition1 it displays no lack of talent1 and it is full of genuine humour4 ,the humour in ,gammer ,gurton's ,needle is none the less rich because it is of coarser and rather broader cast4 ,the good dame of the piece1 ,gammer ,gurton1 during an interruption in the process of mending the breeches of her husband1 ,hodge1 has lost her needle1 and much lamentation follows a misfortune so great at a time when needles appear to have been rare and valuable articles in the rural household4 ,in the midst of their trouble appears ,diccon1 who is described in the dramatis person as ,diccon the ,bedlam1 meaning that he was an idiot1 and who appears to hold the position of ,vice in the play4 ,diccon1 however1 though weak-minded1 is a cunning fellow1 and especially given to making mischief1 and he accuses a neighbour1 ,dame ,chat1 of stealing the needle4 ,at the same time1 the same mischievous individual tells ,dame ,chat that ,gammer ,gurton's cock had been stolen in the night from the henroost1 and that she1 ,dame ,chat1 was accused of being the thief4 ,amid the general misunderstanding which results from ,diccon's successful endeavours1 they send for the parson of the parish1 ,dr4 ,rat1 who appears to unite in himself the three parts of preacher1 physician1 and conjurer1 in order to have advantage of his experience in finding the needle4 ,diccon now contrives a new piece of mischief4 ,he persuades ,dame ,chat that ,hodge intends to hide himself in a certain hole in the premises1 in order1 that night1 to creep out and kill all her hens2 and at the same time he informs ,dr4 ,rat1 that if he will hide in the same hole1 he will give him ocular demonstration of ,dame ,chat's guilt of stealing the needle4 ,the consequence is that ,dame ,chat attacks by surprise1 and somewhat violently1 the supposed depredator in the hole1 and that ,dr4 ,rat gets a broken head4 ,dame ,chat is brought before ,master ,bayly for the assault1 and the proceedings in the trial bring to light the deceptions which have been played upon them all1 and ,diccon stands convicted as the wicked perpetrator4 ,in fact1 the bedlam confesses it all1 and it is finally decided by ,master ,bayly that there shall be a general reconciliation1 and that ,diccon shall take a solemn oath on ,hodge's breech1 that he will do his best to find the lost needle4 ,diccon has still the spirit of mischief in him1 and instead of laying his hand quietly on ,hodge's breech1 he gives him a sharp blow1 which is responded to by an unexpected scream4 ,the needle1 indeed1 which has never quitted the breeches1 is driven rather deep into the fleshy part of ,hodge's body1 and the general joy at having found it again overruling all other considerations1 they all agree to be friends over a jug of drink4 ,we cannot but feel astonished at the short period which it required to develop rude attempts at dramatic composition like this into the wonderful creations of a ,shakespeare2 and it can only be explained by the fact that it was an age remarkable for producing men of extraordinary genius in every branch of intellectual development4 ,hitherto1 the literature of the stage had represented the intelligence of the mass2 it became individualised in ,shakespeare1 and this fact marks an entirely new era in the history of the drama4 ,in the writings of our great bard1 nearly all the peculiarities of the older national drama are preserved1 even some which may be perhaps considered as its defects1 but carried to a degree of perfection which they had never attained before4 ,the drollery1 which1 as we have seen1 could not be dispensed with even in the religious mysteries and miracle-plays1 had become so necessary1 that it could not be dispensed with in tragedy4 ,its omission belonged to a later period1 when the foreign dramatists became objects of imitation in ,england4 ,but in the earlier drama1 these scenes of drollery seem frequently to have no connection whatever with the general plot1 while ,shakespeare always interweaves them skilfully with it1 and they seem to form an integral and necessary part of it4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,diablerie ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4--,,early ,,types ,,of ,,the ,,diabolical ,,forms4--,,st4 ,,anthony4--,,st4 ,,guthlac4--,,revival ,,of ,,the ,,taste ,,for ,,such ,,subjects ,,in ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4--,,the ,,flemish ,,school ,,of ,,breughel4--,,the ,,french ,,and ,,italian ,,schools1 ,,callot1 ,,salvator ,,rosa4 ,we have seen how the popular demonology furnished materials for the earliest exercise of comic art in the middle ages1 and how the taste for this particular class of grotesque lasted until the close of the medival period4 ,after the renaissance of art and literature1 this taste took a still more remarkable form1 and the school of grotesque diablerie which flourished during the sixteenth century1 and the first half of the seventeenth1 justly claims a chapter to itself4 ,the birthplace of this demonology1 as far as it belongs to ,christianity1 must probably be sought in the deserts of ,egypt4 ,it spread thence over the east and the west1 and when it reached our part of the world1 it grafted itself1 as ,i have remarked in a former chapter1 on the existing popular superstitions of ,teutonic paganism4 ,the playfully burlesque1 which held so great a place in these superstitions1 no doubt gave a more comic character to this ,christian demonology than it had possessed before the mixture4 ,its primitive representative was the ,egyptian monk1 ,st4 ,anthony1 who is said to have been born at a village called ,coma1 in ,upper ,egypt1 in the year #bea4 ,his history was written in ,greek by ,st4 ,athanasius1 and was translated into ,latin by the ecclesiastical historian ,evagrius4 ,anthony was evidently a fanatical visionary1 subject to mental illusions1 which were fostered by his education4 ,to escape from the temptations of the world1 he sold all his property1 which was considerable1 gave it to the poor1 and then retired into the desert of the ,thebaid1 to live a life of the strictest asceticism4 ,the evil one persecuted him in his solitude1 and sought to drive him back into the corruptions of worldly life4 ,he first tried to fill his mind with regretful reminiscences of his former wealth1 position in society1 and enjoyments2 when this failed1 he disturbed his mind with voluptuous images and desires1 which the saint resisted with equal success4 ,the persecutor now changed his tactics1 and presenting himself to ,anthony in the form of a black and ugly youth1 confessed to him1 with apparent candour1 that he was the spirit of uncleanness1 and acknowledged that he had been vanquished by the extraordinary merits of ,anthony's sanctity4 ,the saint1 however1 saw that this was only a stratagem to stir up in him the spirit of pride and self-confidence1 and he met it by subjecting himself to greater mortifications than ever1 which of course made him still more liable to these delusions4 ,now he sought greater solitude by taking up his residence in a ruined ,egyptian sepulchre1 but the farther he withdrew from the world1 the more he became the object of diabolical persecution4 ,satan broke in upon his privacy with a host of attendants1 and during the night beat him to such a degree1 that one morning the attendant who brought him food found him lying senseless in his cell1 and had him carried to the town1 where his friends were on the point of burying him1 believing him to be dead1 when he suddenly revived1 and insisted on being taken back to his solitary dwelling4 ,the legend tells us that the demons appeared to him in the forms of the most ferocious animals1 such as lions1 bulls1 wolves1 asps1 serpents1 scorpions1 panthers1 and bears1 each attacking him in the manner peculiar to its species1 and with its peculiar voice1 thus making together a horrible din4 ,anthony left his tomb to retire farther into the desert1 where he made a ruined castle his residence2 and here he was again frightfully persecuted by the demons1 and the noise they made was so great and horrible that it was often heard at a vast distance4 ,according to the narrative1 ,anthony reproached the demons in very abusive language1 called them hard names1 and even spat in their faces2 but his most effective weapon was always the cross4 ,thus the saint became bolder1 and sought a still more lonely abode1 and finally established himself on the top of a high mountain in the upper ,thebaid4 ,the demons still continued to persecute him1 under a great variety of forms2 on one occasion their chief appeared to him under the form of a man1 with the lower members of an ass4 ,the demons which tormented ,st4 ,anthony became the general type for subsequent creations1 in which these first pictures were gradually1 and in the sequel1 greatly improved upon4 ,st4 ,anthony's persecutors usually assumed the shapes of bon fide animals1 but those of later stories took monstrous and grotesque forms1 strange mixtures of the parts of different animals1 and of others which never existed4 ,such were seen by ,st4 ,guthlac1 the ,st4 ,anthony of the ,anglo-,saxons1 among the wild morasses of ,croyland4 ,one night1 which he was passing at his devotions in his cell1 they poured in upon him in great numbers2 and they filled all the house with their coming1 and they poured in on every side1 from above and from beneath1 and everywhere4 ,they were in countenance horrible1 and they had great heads1 and a long neck1 and lean visage2 they were filthy and squalid in their beards1 and they had rough ears1 and distorted face1 and fierce eyes1 and foul mouths2 and their teeth were like horses' tusks1 and their throats were filled with flame1 and they were grating in their voice2 they had crooked shanks1 and knees big and great behind1 and distorted toes1 and shrieked hoarsely with their voices2 and they came with such immoderate noises and immense horror1 that it seemed to him that all between heaven and earth resounded with their dreadful cries4 ,on another similar occasion1 it happened one night1 when the holy man ,guthlac fell to his prayers1 he heard the howling of cattle and various wild beasts4 ,not long after he saw the appearance of animals and wild beasts and creeping things coming in to him4 ,first he saw the visage of a lion that threatened him with his bloody tusks1 also the likeness of a bull1 and the visage of a bear1 as when they are enraged4 ,also he perceived the appearance of vipers1 and a hog's grunting1 and the howling of wolves1 and croaking of ravens1 and the various whistlings of birds1 that they might1 with their fantastic appearance1 divert the mind of the holy man4 ,such were the suggestions on which the medival sculptors and illuminators worked with so much effect1 as we have seen repeatedly in the course of our preceding chapters4 ,after the revival of art in western ,europe in the fifteenth century1 this class of legends became great favourites with painters and engravers1 and soon gave rise to the peculiar school of diablerie mentioned above4 ,at that time the story of the ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony attracted particular attention1 and it is the subject of many remarkable prints belonging to the earlier ages of the art of engraving4 ,it employed the pencils of such artists as ,martin ,schongauer1 ,israel van ,mechen1 and ,lucas ,cranach4 ,of the latter we have two different engravings on the same subject--,st4 ,anthony carried into the air by the demons1 who are represented in a great variety of grotesque and monstrous forms4 ,the most remarkable of the two bears the date of #aejf1 and was1 therefore1 one of ,cranach's earlier works4 ,but the great representative of this earlier school of diablerie was ,peter ,breughel1 a ,flemish painter who flourished in the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,he was born at ,breughel1 near ,breda1 and lived some time at ,antwerp1 but afterwards established himself at ,brussels4 ,so celebrated was he for the love of the grotesque displayed in his pictures1 that he was known by the name of ,peter the ,droll4 ,breughel's ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony1 like one or two others of his subjects of the same class1 was engraved in a reduced form by ,j4 ,t4 de ,bry4 ,breughel's demons are figures of the most fantastic description--creations of a wildly grotesque imagination2 they present incongruous and laughable mixtures of parts of living things which have no relation whatever to one another4 ,our cut ,no4 #aee represents a group of these grotesque demons1 from a plate by ,breughel1 engraved in #aefe1 and entitled ,divus ,jacobus diabolicis prstigiis ante magnum sistitur 7,st4 ,james is arrested before the magician by diabolical delusions74 ,the engraving is full of similarly grotesque figures4 ,on the right is a spacious chimney1 and up it witches1 riding on brooms1 are making their escape1 while in the air are seen other witches riding away upon dragons and a goat4 ,a kettle is boiling over the fire1 around which a group of monkeys are seen sitting and warming themselves4 ,behind these a cat and a toad are holding a very intimate conversation4 ,in the background stands and boils the great witches' caldron4 ,on the right of the picture the magus1 or magician1 is seated1 reading his grimoire2 with a frame before him supporting the pot containing his magical ingredients4 ,the saint occupies the middle of the picture1 surrounded by the demons represented in our cut and by many others2 and as he approaches the magician1 he is seen raising his right hand in the attitude of pronouncing a benediction1 the apparent consequence of which is a frightful explosion of the magician's pot1 which strikes the demons with evident consternation4 ,nothing can be more bizarre than the horse's head upon human legs in armour1 the parody upon a crawling spider behind it1 the skull 7apparently of a horse7 supported upon naked human legs1 the strangely excited animal behind the latter1 and the figure furnished with pilgrim's hood and staff1 which appears to be mocking the saint4 ,another print--a companion to the foregoing--represents the still more complete discomfiture of the magus4 ,the saint here occupies the right-hand side of the picture1 and is raising his hand higher1 with apparently a greater show of authority4 ,the demons have all turned against their master the magician1 whom they are beating and hurling headlong from his chair4 ,they seem to be proclaiming their joy at his fall by all sorts of playful attitudes4 ,it is a sort of demon fair4 ,some of them1 to the left of the picture1 are dancing and standing upon their heads on a tight-rope4 ,near them another is playing some game like that which we now call the thimble-rig4 ,the monkeys are dancing to the tune of a great drum4 ,a variety of their mountebank tricks are going on in different parts of the scene4 ,three of these playful actors are represented in our cut ,no4 #aef4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aef4 ,strange ,demons4 ,breughel also executed a series of similarly grotesque engravings1 representing in this same fantastic manner the virtues and vices1 such as ,pride 7superbia71 ,courage 7fortitudo71 ,sloth 7desidia71 c4 ,these bear the date of #aeeh4 ,they are crowded with figures equally grotesque with those just mentioned1 but a great part of which it would be almost impossible to describe4 ,i give two examples from the engraving of ,sloth1 in the accompanying cut 7,no4 #aeg74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aee4 ,st4 ,james and his ,persecutors4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aeg4 ,imps of ,sloth4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aeh4 ,the ,folly of ,hunting4 ,from making up figures from parts of animals1 this early school of grotesque proceeded to create animated figures out of inanimate things1 such as machines1 implements of various kinds1 household utensils1 and other such articles4 ,a ,german artist1 of about the same time as ,breughel1 has left us a singular series of etchings of this description1 which are intended as an allegorical satire on the follies of mankind4 ,the allegory is here of such a singular character1 that we can only guess at the meaning of these strange groups through four lines of ,german verse which are attached to each of them4 ,in this manner we learn that the group represented in our cut1 ,no4 #aeh1 which is the second in this series1 is intended as a satire upon those who waste their time in hunting1 which1 the verses tell us1 they will in the sequel lament bitterly2 and they are exhorted to cry loud and continually to ,god1 and to let that serve them in the place of hound and hawk4 ,die zeit die du verleurst mit jagen1 ,die wirstu zwar noch schmertzlich klagen2 ,ruff laut zu ,gott gar oft und vil1 ,das sey dein hund und federspil4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aei4 ,the ,wastefulness of ,youth4 ,the next picture in the series1 which is equally difficult to describe1 is aimed against those who fail in attaining virtue or honour through sluggishness4 ,others follow1 but ,i will only give one more example4 ,it forms our cut ,no4 #aei1 and appears1 from the verses accompanying it1 to be aimed against those who practice wastefulness in their youth1 and thus become objects of pity and scorn in old age4 ,whatever may be the point of the allegory contained in the engraving1 it is certainly far-fetched1 and not very apparent4 ,this ,german-,flemish school of grotesque does not appear to have outlived the sixteenth century1 or at least it had ceased to flourish in the century following4 ,but the taste for the diablerie of the ,temptation scenes passed into ,france and ,italy1 in which countries it assumed a much more refined character1 though at the same time one equally grotesque and imaginative4 ,these artists1 too1 returned to the original legend1 and gave it forms of their own conception4 ,daniel ,rabel1 a ,french artist1 who lived at the end of the sixteenth century1 published a rather remarkable engraving of the ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony1 in which the saint appears on the right of the picture1 kneeling before a mound on which three demons are dancing4 ,on the right hand of the saint stands a naked woman1 sheltering herself with a parasol1 and tempting the saint with her charms4 ,the rest of the piece is filled with demons in a great variety of forms and postures4 ,another ,french artist1 ,nicholas ,cochin1 has left us two ,temptations of ,st4 ,anthony1 in rather spirited etching1 of the earlier part of the seventeenth century4 ,in the first1 the saint is represented kneeling before a crucifix1 surrounded by demons4 ,the youthful and charming temptress is here dressed in the richest garments1 and the highest style of fashion1 and displays all her powers of seduction4 ,the body of the picture is1 as usual1 occupied by multitudes of diabolical figures1 in grotesque forms4 ,in ,cochin's other picture of the ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony1 the saint is represented as a hermit engaged in his prayers2 the female figure of voluptuousness 7voluptas7 occupies the middle of the picture1 and behind the saint is seen a witch with her besom4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afj4 ,the ,demon ,tilter 7,callot74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afa4 ,uneasy ,riding 7,callot74 ,but the artist who excelled in this subject at the period at which we now arrive1 was the celebrated ,jacques ,callot1 who was born at ,nancy1 in ,brittany1 in #aeic1 and died at ,florence on the #bdth of ,march1 #afce1 which1 according to the old style of calculating1 may mean ,march1 #afcf4 ,of ,callot we shall have to speak in another chapter4 ,he treated the subject of the ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony in two different plates1 which are considered as ranking among the most remarkable of his works1 and to which1 in fact1 he appears to have given much thought and attention4 ,he is known1 indeed1 to have worked diligently at it4 ,they resemble those of the older artists in the number of diabolical figures introduced into the picture1 but they display an extraordinary vivid imagination in the forms1 postures1 physiognomies1 and even the equipments1 of the chimerical figures1 all equally droll and burlesque1 but which present an entire contrast to the more coarse and vulgar conceptions of the ,german-,flemish school4 ,this difference will be understood best by an example4 ,one of ,callot's demons is represented in our cut ,no4 #afj4 ,many of them are mounted on nondescript animals1 of the most extraordinary demoniacal character1 and such is the case of the demon in our cut1 who is running a tilt at the saint with his tilting spear in his hand1 and1 to make more sure1 his eyes well furnished with a pair of spectacles4 ,in our next cut1 ,no4 #afa1 we give a second example of the figures in ,callot's peculiar diablerie4 ,the demon in this case is riding very uneasily1 and1 in fact1 seems in danger of being thrown4 ,the steeds of both are of an anomalous character2 the first is a sort of dragon-horse2 the second a mixture of a lobster1 a spider1 and a craw-fish4 ,mariette1 the art-collector and art-writer of the reign of ,louis ,,xv4 as well as artist1 considers this grotesque1 or1 as he calls it1 fantastic and comic character1 as almost necessary to the pictures of the ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony1 which he treats as one of ,callot's especially serious subjects4 ,it was allowable1 he says1 to ,callot1 to give a flight to his imagination4 ,the more his fictions were of the nature of dreams1 the more they were fitted to what he had to express4 ,for the demon intending to torment ,st4 ,anthony1 it is to be supposed that he must have thought of all the forms most hideous1 and most likely to strike terror4 ,callot's first and larger print of the ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony is rare4 ,it is filled with a vast number of figures4 ,above is a fantastic being who vomits thousands of demons4 ,the saint is seen at the entrance of a cavern1 tormented by some of these4 ,others are scattered about in different occupations4 ,on one side1 a demoniacal party are drinking together1 and pledging each other in their glasses2 here1 a devil is playing on the guitar2 there1 others are occupied in a dance2 all such grotesque figures as our two examples would lead the reader to expect4 ,in the second of ,callot's ,temptations1 which is dated in #afce1 and must therefore have been one of his latest works1 the same figure vomiting the demons occupies the upper part of the plate1 and the field is covered with a prodigious number of imps1 more hideous in their forms1 and more varied in their extraordinary attitudes1 than in the same artist's first design4 ,below1 a host of demons are dragging the saint to a place where new torments are prepared for him4 ,callot's prints of the ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony gained so great a reputation1 that imitations of them were subsequently published1 some of which so far approached his style1 that they were long supposed to be genuine4 ,callot1 though a ,frenchman1 studied and flourished in ,italy1 and his style is founded upon ,italian art4 ,the last great artist whose treatment of the ,temptation ,i shall quote1 is ,salvator ,rosa1 an ,italian by birth1 who flourished in the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,his style1 according to some opinions1 is refined from that of ,callot2 at all events1 it is bolder in design4 ,our cut ,no4 #afb represents ,st4 ,anthony protecting himself with the cross against the assaults of the demon1 as represented by ,salvator ,rosa4 ,with this artist the school of diablerie of the sixteenth century may be considered to have come to its end4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afb4 ,st4 ,anthony and his ,persecutor4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,callot ,,and ,,his ,,school4--,,callot',s ,,romantic ,,history4--,,his ,,caprici1 ,,and ,,other ,,burlesque ,,works4--,,the ,,balli ,,and ,,the ,,beggars4--,,imitators ,,of ,,callot2 ,,della ,,bella4--,,examples ,,of ,,della ,,bella4--,,romain ,,de ,,hooghe4 ,the art of engraving on copper1 although it had made rapid advances during the sixteenth century1 was still very far from perfection2 but the close of that century witnessed the birth of a man who was destined not only to give a new character to this art1 but also to bring in a new style of caricature and burlesque4 ,this was the celebrated ,jacques ,callot1 a native of ,lorraine1 and descended from a noble ,burgundian family4 ,his father1 ,jean ,callot1 held the office of herald of ,lorraine4 ,jacques was born in the year #aeib1ia at ,nancy1 and appears to have been destined for the church1 with a view to which his early education was regulated4 ,but the early life of ,jacques ,callot presents a romantic episode in the history of art aspirations4 ,while yet hardly more than an infant1 he seized every opportunity of neglecting more serious studies to practise drawing1 and he displayed especially a very precocious taste for satire1 for his artistic talent was shown principally in caricaturing all the people he knew4 ,his father1 and apparently all his relatives1 disapproved of his love for drawing1 and did what they could to discourage it2 but in vain1 for he still found means of indulging it4 ,claude ,henriet1 the painter to the court of ,lorraine1 gave him lessons1 and his son1 ,israel ,henriet1 formed for him a boy's friendship4 ,he also learnt the elements of the art of engraving of ,demange ,crocq1 the engraver to the duke of ,lorraine4 #ia ,this is the date fixed by ,meaume1 in his excellent work on ,callot1 entitled ,recherches sur la ,vie et les ,ouvrages de ,jacques ,callot1 #b tom4 #hvo41 #ahfj4 ,about this time1 the painter ,bellange1 who had been a pupil of ,claude ,henriet1 returned from ,italy1 and gave young ,callot an exciting account of the wonders of art to be seen in that country2 and soon afterwards ,claude ,henriet dying1 his son ,israel went to ,rome1 and his letters from thence had no less effect on the mind of the young artist at ,nancy1 than the conversation of ,bellange4 ,indeed the passion of the boy for art was so strong1 that1 finding his parents obstinately opposed to all his longings in this direction1 he left his father's house secretly1 and1 in the spring of #afjd1 when he had only just entered his thirteenth year1 he set out for ,italy on foot1 without introductions and almost without money4 ,he was even unacquainted with the road1 but after proceeding a short distance1 he fell in with a band of gipsies1 and1 as they were going to ,florence1 he joined their company4 ,his life among the gipsies1 which lasted seven or eight weeks1 appears to have furnished food to his love of burlesque and caricature1 and he has handed down to us his impressions1 in a series of four engravings of scenes in gipsy life1 admirably executed at a rather later period of his life1 which are full of comic humour4 ,when they arrived at ,florence1 ,jacques ,callot parted company with the gipsies1 and was fortunate enough to meet with an officer of the grand duke's household1 who listened to his story1 and took so much interest in him1 that he obtained him admission to the studio of ,remigio ,canta ,gallina4 ,this artist gave him instructions in drawing and engraving1 and sought to correct him of his taste for the grotesque by keeping him employed upon serious subjects4 ,after studying for some months under ,canta ,gallina1 ,jacques ,callot left ,florence1 and proceeded to ,rome1 to seek his old friend ,israel ,henriet2 but he had hardly arrived1 when he was recognised in the streets by some merchants from ,nancy1 who took him1 and in spite of his tears and resistance1 carried him home to his parents4 ,he was now kept to his studies more strictly than ever1 but nothing could overcome his passion for art1 and1 having contrived to lay by some money1 after a short interval he again ran away from home4 ,this time he took the road to ,lyons1 and crossed ,mont ,cenis1 and he had reached ,turin when he met in the street of that city his elder brother ,jean1 who again carried him home to ,nancy4 ,nothing could now repress young ,callot's ardour1 and soon after this second escapade1 he engraved a copy of a portrait of ,charles ,,iii41 duke of ,lorraine1 to which he put his name and the date #afjg1 and which1 though it displays little skill in engraving1 excited considerable interest at the time4 ,his parents were now persuaded that it was useless to thwart any longer his natural inclinations1 and they not only allowed him to follow them1 but they yielded to his wish to return to ,italy4 ,the circumstances of the moment were especially favourable4 ,charles ,,iii41 duke of ,lorraine1 was dead1 and his successor1 ,henry ,,ii41 was preparing to send an embassy to ,rome to announce his accession4 ,jean ,callot1 by his position of herald1 had sufficient interest to obtain for his son an appointment in the ambassador's retinue1 and ,jacques ,callot started for ,rome on the #ast of ,december1 #afjh1 under more favourable auspices than those which had attended his former visits to ,italy4 ,callot reached ,rome at the beginning of the year #afji1 and now at length he joined the friend of his childhood1 ,israel ,henriet1 and began to throw all his energy into his art-labours4 ,it is more than probable that he studied under ,tempesta1 with ,henriet1 who was a pupil of that painter1 and another ,lorrainer1 ,claude ,dervet4 ,after a time1 ,callot began to feel the want of money1 and obtained employment of a ,french engraver1 then residing in ,rome1 named ,philippe ,thomassin1 with whom he worked nearly three years1 and became perfect in handling the graver4 ,towards the end of the year #afaa1 ,callot went to ,florence1 to place himself under ,julio ,parigi1 who then flourished there as a painter and engraver4 ,tuscany was at this time ruled by its duke ,cosmo de' ,medicis1 a great lover of the arts1 who took ,callot under his patronage1 giving him the means to advance himself4 ,hitherto his occupation had been principally copying the works of others1 but under ,parigi he began to practise more in original design1 and his taste for the grotesque came upon him stronger than ever4 ,although ,parigi blamed it1 he could not help admiring the talent it betrayed4 ,in #afae1 the grand duke gave a great entertainment to the prince of ,urbino1 and ,callot was employed to make engravings of the festivities2 it was his first commencement in a class of designs by which he afterwards attained great celebrity4 ,in the year following1 his engagement with ,parigi ended1 and he became his own master4 ,he now came out unfettered in his own originality4 ,the first fruits were seen in a new kind of designs1 to which he gave the name of ,caprices1 a series of which appeared about the year #afag1 under the title of ,caprici di varie ,figure4 ,callot re-engraved them at ,nancy in later years1 and in the new title they were stated to have been originally engraved in #afaf4 ,in a short preface1 he speaks of these as the first of his works on which he set any value4 ,they now strike us as singular examples of the fanciful creations of a most grotesque imagination1 but they no doubt preserve many traits of the festivals1 ceremonies1 and manners of that land of masquerade1 which must have been then familiar to the ,florentines2 and these engravings would1 doubtless1 be received by them with absolute delight4 ,one is copied in our cut ,no4 #afc2 it represents a cripple supporting himself on a short crutch1 with his right arm in a sling4 ,our cut ,no4 #afd is another example from the same set1 and represents a masked clown1 with his left hand on the hilt of his dagger1 or perhaps of a wooden sword4 ,from this time1 although he was very industrious and produced much1 ,callot engraved only his own designs4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afc4 ,a ,cripple4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afd4 ,a ,grotesque ,masker4 ,while employed for others1 ,callot had worked chiefly with the graver1 but now that he was his own master1 he laid aside that implement1 and devoted himself almost entirely to etching1 in which he attained the highest proficiency4 ,his work is remarkable for the cleanness and ease of his lines1 and for the life and spirit he gave to his figures4 ,his talent lay especially in the extraordinary skill with which he grouped together great numbers of diminutive figures1 each of which preserved its proper and full action and effect4 ,the great annual fair of the ,impruneta was held with extraordinary festivities1 and attended by an immense concourse of people of all classes on ,st4 ,luke's ,day1 the #ahth of ,october1 in the outskirts of ,florence4 ,callot engraved a large picture of this fair1 which is absolutely wonderful4 ,the picture embraces an extensive space of ground1 which is covered with hundreds of figures1 all occupied1 singly or in groups1 in different manners1 conversing1 masquerading1 buying and selling1 playing games1 and performing in various ways2 each group or figure is a picture in itself4 ,this engraving produced quite a sensation1 and it was followed by other pictures of fairs1 and1 after his final return to ,nancy1 ,callot engraved it anew4 ,it was this talent for grouping large masses of persons which caused the artist to be so often employed in drawing great public ceremonies1 sieges1 and other warlike operations4 ,by the duke of ,florence1 ,cosmo ,,ii41 ,callot was liberally patronised and loaded with benefits1 but on his death the government had to be placed in the hands of a regency1 and art and literature no longer met with the same encouragement4 ,in this state of things1 ,callot was found by ,charles of ,lorraine1 afterwards duke ,charles ,,iv41 and persuaded to return to his native country4 ,he arrived at ,nancy in #afbb1 and began to work there with greater activity even than he had displayed before4 ,it was not long after this that he produced his sets of grotesques1 the ,balli 7or dancers71 the ,gobbi 7or hunchbacks71 and the ,beggars4 ,the first of these sets1 called in the title ,balli1 or ,cucurucu1#ib consists of twenty-four small plates1 each of them containing two comic characters in grotesque attitudes1 with groups of smaller figures in the distance4 ,beneath the two prominent figures are their names1 now unintelligible1 but at that time no doubt well known on the comic stage at ,florence4 ,thus1 in the couple given in our cut ,no4 #afe1 which is taken from the fourth plate of the series1 the personage to the left is named ,smaraolo ,cornuto1 which means simply ,smaraolo the cuckold2 and the one on the right is called ,ratsa di ,boio4 ,in the original the background is occupied by a street1 full of spectators1 looking on at a dance of pantaloons1 round one who is mounted on stilts and playing on the tabour4 ,the couple in our cut ,no4 #aff1 represents another of ,callot's ,caprices1 from a set differing from the first ,caprices1 or the ,balli4 ,the ,gobbi1 or hunchbacks1 form a set of twenty-one engravings2 and the set of the ,gipsies1 already alluded to1 which was also executed at ,nancy1 was included in four plates1 the subjects of which were severally--#a1 the gipsies travelling2 #b1 the avant-guard2 #c1 the halt2 and #d1 the preparations for the feast4 ,nothing could be more truthful1 and at the same time more comic1 than this last set of subjects4 ,we give1 as an example of the set of the ,baroni1 or beggars1 ,callot's figure of one of that particular class--for beggars and rogues of all kinds were classified in those days--whose part it was to appeal to charity by wounds and sores artificially represented4 ,in the ,english slang of the seventeenth century1 these artificial sores were called clymes1 and a curious account of the manner in which they were made will be found in that singular picture of the vicious classes of society in this country at that period1 the ,english ,rogue1 by ,head and ,kirkman4 ,the false cripple in our cut is holding up his leg to make a display of his pretended infirmity4 #ib ,meaume appears to be doubtful of the meaning of this word2 a friend has pointed out to me the correction4 ,it was the title of a song1 so called because the burden was an imitation of the crowing of a cock1 the singer mimicking also the action of the bird4 ,when ,bacchus1 in ,redi's ,bacco in ,toscana1 is beginning to feel the exhilarating effects of his critical investigation of the ,tuscan wines1 he calls upon ,ariadne to sing to him sulla mandola la ,cucuruc1 on the mandola the ,cucurucu4 ,a note fully explains the word as we have stated it--,canzone cosi detta1 perch in esse si replica molte volte la voce del gallo2 e cantandola si fanno atti e moti simili a quegli di esso gallo4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afe4 ,smaraolo ,cornuto4--,ratsa di ,boio4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aff4 ,a ,caprice4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afg4 ,the ,false ,cripple4 ,callot remained at ,nancy1 with merely temporary absences1 during the remainder of his life4 ,in #afbh1 he was employed at ,brussels in drawing and engraving the ,siege of ,breda1 one of the most finished of his works1 and he there made the personal acquaintance of ,vandyck4 ,early in #afbi1 he was called to ,paris to execute engravings of the siege of ,la ,rochelle1 and of the defence of the ,isle of ,rh1 but he returned to ,nancy in #afcj4 ,three years afterwards his native country was invaded by the armies of ,louis ,,xiii41 and ,nancy surrendered to the ,french on the #beth of ,september1 #afcc4 ,callot was required to make engravings to celebrate the fall of his native town2 but1 although he is said to have been threatened with violence1 he refused2 and afterwards he commemorated the evils brought upon his country by the ,french invasion in those two immortal sets of prints1 the lesser and greater ,misres de la ,guerre4 ,about two years after this1 ,callot died1 in the prime of life1 on the #bdth of ,march1 #afce4 ,the fame of ,callot was great among his contemporaries1 and his name is justly respected as one of the most illustrious in the history of ,french art4 ,he had1 as might be expected1 many imitators1 and the ,caprices1 the ,balli1 and the ,gobbi1 became very favourite subjects4 ,among these imitators1 the most successful and the most distinguished was ,stephano ,della ,bella2 and1 indeed1 the only one deserving of particular notice4 ,della ,bella was born at ,florence1 on the #ahth of ,may1 #afaj2ic his father1 dying two years afterwards1 left him an orphan1 and his mother in great poverty4 ,as he grew up1 he showed1 like ,callot himself1 precocious talents in art1 and of the same kind4 ,he eagerly attended all public festivals1 games1 c41 and on his return from them made them the subject of grotesque sketches4 ,it was remarked of him1 especially1 that he had a curious habit of always beginning to draw a human figure from the feet1 and proceeding upwards to the head4 ,he was struck at a very early period of his pursuit of art by the style of ,callot1 of which1 at first1 he was a servile imitator1 but he afterwards abandoned some of its peculiarities1 and adopted a style which was more his own1 though still founded upon that of ,callot4 ,he almost rivalled ,callot in his success in grouping multitudes of figures together1 and hence he also was much employed in producing engravings of sieges1 festive entertainments1 and such elaborate subjects4 ,as ,callot's aspirations had been directed towards ,italy1 those of ,della ,bella were turned towards ,france1 and when in the latter days of the ministry of ,cardinal ,richelieu1 the grand duke of ,florence sent ,alexandro del ,nero as his resident ambassador in ,paris1 ,della ,bella was permitted to accompany him4 ,richelieu was occupied in the siege of ,arras1 and the engraving of that event was the foundation of ,della ,bella's fame in ,france1 where he remained about ten years1 frequently employed on similar subjects4 ,he subsequently visited ,flanders and ,holland1 and at ,amsterdam made the acquaintance of ,rembrandt4 ,he returned to ,florence in #afej1 and died there on the #bcrd of ,july1 #affd4 #ic ,the materials for the history of ,della ,bella and his works1 will be found in a carefully compiled volume1 by ,c4 ,a4 ,jombert1 entitled1 ,essai d'un ,catalogue de l',oeuvre d',etienne de la ,bella4 #hvo41 ,paris1 #aggb4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afh4 ,a ,witch ,mounted4 ,while still in ,florence1 ,della ,bella executed four prints of dwarfs quite in the grotesque style of ,callot4 ,in #afcg1 on the occasion of the marriage of the grand duke ,ferdinand ,,ii41 ,della ,bella published engravings of the different scenes represented1 or performed1 on that occasion4 ,these were effected by very elaborate machinery1 and were represented in six engravings1 the fifth of which 7scena quinta7 represents hell 7d' ,inferno71 and is filled with furies1 demons1 and witches1 which might have found a place in ,callot's ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony4 ,a specimen of these is given in our cut ,no4 #afh--;a naked witch seated upon a skeleton of an animal that might have been borrowed from some far distant geological period4 ,in #afdb1 ,della ,bella executed a set of small ,caprices1 consisting of thirteen plates1 from the eighth of which we take our cut ,no4 #afi4 ,it represents a beggar-woman1 carrying one child on her back1 while another is stretched on the ground4 ,in this class of subjects ,della ,bella imitated ,callot1 but the copyist never succeeded in equalling the original4 ,his best style1 as an original artist of burlesque and caricature1 is shown in a set of five plates of ,death carrying away people of different ages1 which he executed in #afdh4 ,the fourth of this set is copied in our cut ,no4 #agj1 and represents ,death carrying off1 on his shoulder1 a young woman1 in spite of her struggles to escape from him4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afi4 ,beggary4 ,with the close of the seventeenth century these ,caprices and masquerade scenes began to be no longer in vogue1 and caricature and burlesque assumed new forms2 but ,callot and ,della ,bella had many followers1 and their examples had a lasting influence upon art4 ,we must not forget that a celebrated artist1 in another country1 at the end of the same century1 the well-known ,romain de ,hooghe1 was produced from the school of ,callot1 in which he had learnt1 not the arts of burlesque and caricature1 but that of skilfully grouping multitudes of figures1 especially in subjects representing episodes of war1 tumults1 massacres1 and public processions4 ,of ,romain de ,hooghe we shall have to speak again in a subsequent chapter4 ,in his time the art of engraving had made great advance on the ,continent1 and especially in ,france1 where it met with more encouragement than elsewhere4 ,in ,england this art had1 on the whole1 made much less progress1 and was in rather a low condition1 one branch only excepted1 that of portraits4 ,of the two distinguished engravers in ,england during the seventeenth century1 ,hollar was a ,bohemian1 and ,faithorne1 though an ,englishman1 learnt his art in ,france4 ,we only began to have an ,english school when ,dutch and ,french engravers came in with ,king ,william to lay the groundwork4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agj4 ,death carrying off his ,prey4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,satirical ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4--,,pasquil4-- ,,macaronic ,,poetry4--,,the ,,epistol ,,obsurorum ,,virorum4--,,rabelais4-- ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,navarre1 ,,and ,,its ,,literary ,,circle2 ,,bonaventure ,,des ,,periers4--,,henri ,,etienne4--,,the ,,ligue1 ,,and ,,its ,,satire3 ,,the ,,satyre ,m,,nipp,e4 ,the sixteenth century1 especially on the ,continent1 was a period of that sort of violent agitation which is most favourable to the growth of satire4 ,society was breaking up1 and going through a course of decomposition1 and it presented to the view on every side spectacles which provoked the mockery1 perhaps more than the indignation1 of lookers-on4 ,even the clergy had learnt to laugh at themselves1 and almost at their own religion2 and people who thought or reflected were gradually separating into two classes--those who cast all religion from them1 and rushed into a jeering scepticism1 and those who entered seriously and with resolution into the work of reformation4 ,the latter found most encouragement among the ,teutonic nations1 while the sceptical element appears to have had its birth in ,italy1 and even in ,rome itself1 where1 among popes and cardinals1 religion had degenerated into empty forms4 ,at some period towards the close of the fifteenth century1 a mutilated ancient statue was accidentally dug up in ,rome1 and it was erected on a pedestal in a place not far from the ,ursini ,palace4 ,opposite it stood the shop of a shoemaker1 named ,pasquillo1 or ,pasquino1 the latter being the form most commonly adopted at a later period4 ,this ,pasquillo was notorious as a facetious fellow1 and his shop was usually crowded by people who went there to tell tales and hear news2 and1 as no other name had been invented for the statue1 people agreed to give it the name of the shoemaker1 and they called it ,pasquillo4 ,it became a custom1 at certain seasons1 to write on pieces of paper satirical epigrams1 sonnets1 and other short compositions in ,latin or ,italian1 mostly of a personal character1 in which the writer declared whatever he had seen or heard to the discredit of somebody1 and these were published by depositing them with the statue1 whence they were taken and read4 ,one of the ,latin epigrams which pleads against committing these short personal satires to print1 calls the time at which it was usual to compose them ,pasquil's festival3-- ,jam redit illa dies in qua ,romana juventus ,pasquilli festum concelebrabit ovans4 ,sed versus impressos obsecro ut edere omittas1 ,ne noceant iterum qu nocuere semel4 ,the festival was evidently a favourite one1 and well celebrated4 ,the soldiers of ,xerxes1 says another epigram1 placed in ,pasquil's mouth1 were not so plentiful as the paper bestowed upon me2 ,i shall soon become a bookseller-- ,armigerm ,xerxi non copia tanta papyri ,quanta mihi3 fiam bibliopola statim4 ,the name of ,pasquil was soon given to the papers which were deposited with the statue1 and eventually a pasquil1 or pasquin1 was only another name for a lampoon or libel4 ,not far from this statue stood another1 which was found in the forum of ,mars 7,martis forum71 and was thence popularly called ,marforio4 ,some of these satirical writings were composed in the form of dialogues between ,pasquil and ,marforio1 or of messages from one to the other4 ,a collection of these pasquils was published in #aedd in two small volumes4#id ,many of them are extremely clever1 and they are sharply pointed4 ,the popes are frequent objects of bitterest satire4 ,thus we are reminded in two lines upon pope ,alexander ,,vi4 7sextus71 the infamous ,borgia1 that ,tarquin had been a ,sextus1 and ,nero also1 and now another ,sextus was at the head of the ,romans1 and told that ,rome was always ruined under a ,sextus-- ,de ,alexandro ,,vi4 ,pont4 ,sextus ,tarquinius1 ,sextus ,nero1 ,sextus et iste3 ,semper sub ,sextis perdita ,roma fuit4 ,the following is given for an epitaph on ,lucretia ,borgia1 pope ,alexander's profligate daughter3-- ,hoc tumulo dormit ,lucretia nomine1 sed re ,thais1 ,alexandri filia1 sponsa1 nurus4 #id ,pasquillorum ,tomi duo4 ,eleutheropoli1 ,,mdxliiii4 ,in another of a rather later date1 ,rome1 addressing herself to ,pasquil1 is made to complain of two successive popes1 ,clement ,,vii4 7,julio de ,medicis1 #aebc-aecd7 and ,paul ,,iii4 7,alexandro ,farnese1 #aecd-aedi71 and also of ,leo ,x4 7#aeac-aeba74 ,i am1 ,rome says1 sick enough with the physician 7,medicus1 as a pun on the ,medicis71 ,i was also the prey of the lion 7,leo71 now1 ,paul1 you tear my vitals like a wolf4 ,you1 ,paul1 are not a god to me1 as ,i thought in my folly1 but you are a wolf1 since you tear the food from my mouth-- ,sum ,medico satis gra1 fui quoque prda ,leonis1 ,nunc mea dilaceras viscera1 ,paule1 lupus4 ,non es1 ,paule1 mihi numen1 ceu stulta putabam1 ,sed lupus es1 quoniam subtrahis ore cibum4 ,another epigram1 addressed to ,rome herself1 involves a pun in ,greek 7in the words ,paulos1 ,paul1 and ,phaulos1 wicked74 ,once1 ,rome1 it says1 lords of lords were thy subjects1 now thou in thy wretchedness art subject to the serfs of serfs2 once you listened to the oracles of ,st4 ,paul1 but now you perform the abominable commands of the wicked-- ,quondam1 ,roma1 tibi suberant domini dominorum1 ,servorum servis nunc miseranda subes2 ,audisti quondam divini oracula 1 ,at nunc jussa nefanda facis4 ,the idea1 of course1 is the contrast of ,rome in her ,pagan glory1 with ,rome in her ,christian debasement1 very much the same as that which struck ,gibbon1 and gave birth to his great history of ,rome's decline and fall4#ie #ie ,pasquil and ,pasquin became1 during the latter part of the sixteenth and the whole of the seventeenth centuries1 a well-known name in ,french and ,english literature4 ,in ,english popular literature he was turned into a jester1 and a book was published in #afjd under the title ,pasquil's ,jests2 with the ,merriments of ,mother ,bunch4 ,wittie1 pleasant1 and delightfull4 ,the pasquils formed a body of satire which struck indiscriminately at everybody within its range1 but satirists were now rising who took for their subjects special cases of the general disorder4 ,rotten at the heart1 society presented an external glossiness1 a mixture of pedantry and affectation1 which offered subjects enough for ridicule in whatever point of view it was taken4 ,the ecclesiastical body was in a state of fermentation1 out of which new feelings and new doctrines were about to rise4 ,the old learning and literature of the middle ages remained in form after their spirit had passed away1 and they were now contending clumsily and unsuccessfully against new learning and literature of a more refined and healthier character4 ,feudalism itself had fallen1 or it was struggling vainly against new political principles1 yet the aristocracy clung to feudal forms and feudal assumptions1 with an exaggeration which was meant for an appearance of strength4 ,among the literary affectations of this false feudalism1 was the fashion for reading the long1 dry1 old romances of chivalry2 while the churchmen and schoolmen were corrupting the language in which medival learning had been expressed1 into a form the most barbarous1 or introducing words compounded from the later into the vernacular tongue4 ,these peculiarities were among the first to provoke literary satire4 ,italy1 where this class of satire originated1 gave it its name also1 though it appears still to be a matter of doubt why it was called macaronic1 or in its ,italian form maccharonea4 ,some have considered this name to have been taken from the article of food called macaroni1 to which the ,italians were1 and still are1 so much attached2 while others pretend that it was derived from an old ,italian word macarone1 which meant a lubberly fellow4 ,be this1 however1 as it may1 what is called macaronic composition1 which consists in giving a ,latin form to words taken from the vulgar tongue1 and mixing them with words which are purely ,latin1 was introduced in ,italy at the close of the fifteenth century4 ,four ,italian writers in macaronic verse are known to have lived before the year #aejj4if ,the first of these was named ,fossa1 and he tells us that he composed his poem entitled ,vigonce1 on the second day of ,may1 #adid4 ,it was printed in #aejb4 ,bassano1 a native of ,mantua1 and the author of a macaronic which bears no title1 was dead in #adii2 and another1 a ,paduan named ,fifi degli ,odassi1 was born about the year #adej4 ,giovan ,georgio ,allione1 of ,asti1 who is believed also to have written during the last ten years of the fifteenth century1 is a name better known through the edition of his ,french works1 published by ,monsieur ,j4 ,c4 ,brunet in #ahcf4 ,all these present the same coarseness and vulgarity of sentiment1 and the same licence in language and description1 which appear to have been taken as necessary characteristics of macaronic composition4 ,odassi appears to give support to the derivation of the name from macaroni1 by making the principal character of his poem a fabricator of that article in ,padua-- ,est unus in ,padua natus speciale cusinus1 ,in maccharonea princeps bonus atque magister4 #if ,the great authority on the history of ,macaronic literature is my excellent friend ,monsieur ,octave ,delepierre1 and ,i will simply refer the reader to his two valuable publications1 ,macaronana1 ou ,mlanges de ,littrature ,macaronique des differents ,peuples de l',europe1 #hvo41 ,paris1 #aheb2 and ,macaronana1 #dto41 #ahfc2 the latter printed for the ,philobiblon ,club4 ,but the great matter of macaronic poetry was ,teofilo ,folengo1 of whose life we know just sufficient to give us a notion of the personal character of these old literary caricaturists4 ,folengo was descended from a noble family1 which had its seat at the village of ,cipada1 near ,mantua1 where he was born on the #hth of ,november1 #adia1 and baptised by the name of ,girolamo4 ,he pursued his studies1 first in the university of ,ferrara1 under the professor ,visago ,cocaio1 and afterwards in that of ,bologna1 under ,pietro ,pomponiazzo2 or rather1 he ought to have pursued them1 for his love of poetry1 and his gaiety of character1 led him to neglect them1 and at length his irregularities became so great1 that he was obliged to make a hasty flight from ,bologna4 ,he was ill received at home1 and he left it also1 and appears to have subsequently led a wild life1 during part of which he adopted the profession of a soldier1 until at length he took refuge in a ,benedictine convent near ,brescia1 in #aejg1 and became a monk4 ,the discipline of this house had become entirely relaxed1 and the monks appear to have lived very licentiously2 and ,folengo1 who1 on his admission to the order1 had exchanged his former baptismal name for ,teofilo1 readily conformed to their example4 ,eventually he abandoned the convent and the habit1 ran away with a lady named ,girolama ,dedia1 and for some years he led a wandering1 and1 it would seem1 very irregular life4 ,finally1 in #aebg1 he returned to his old profession of a monk1 and remained in it until his death1 in the ,december of #aedd4 ,he is said to have been extremely vain of his poetical talents1 and a story is told of him which1 even if it were invented1 illustrates well the character which was popularly given to him4 ,it is said that when young1 he aspired to excel in ,latin poetry1 and that he wrote an epic which he himself believed to be superior to the neid4 ,when1 however1 he had communicated the work to his friend the bishop of ,mantua1 and that prelate1 intending to compliment him1 told him that he had equalled ,virgil1 he was so mortified1 that he threw the manuscript on the fire1 and from that time devoted his talents entirely to the composition of macaronic verse4 ,such was the man who has justly earned the reputation of being the first of macaronic poets4 ,when he adopted this branch of literature1 while he was in the university of ,bologna1 he assumed in writing it the name of ,merlinus ,cocaius1 or ,coccaius1 probably from the name of his professor at ,ferrara4 ,folengo's printed poems consist of--#a4 ,the ,zanitonella1 a pastoral in seven eclogues1 describing the love of ,tonellus for ,zanina2 #b1 the macaronic romance of ,baldus1 ,folengo's principal and most remarkable work2 #c1 the ,moscha1 or dreadful battle between the flies and the ants2 and #d1 a book of ,epistles and ,epigrams4 ,the first edition of the ,baldus appeared in #aeag4 ,it is a sort of parody on the romances of chivalry1 and combines a jovial satire upon everything1 which1 as has been remarked1 spares neither religion nor politics1 science nor literature1 popes1 kings1 clergy1 nobility1 or people4 ,it consists of twenty-five cantos1 or1 as they are termed in the original1 phantasi1 fantasies4 ,in the first we are told of the origin of ,baldus4 ,there was at the court of ,france a famous knight named ,guy1 descended from that memorable paladin ,renaud of ,montauban4 ,the king1 who showed a particular esteem for ,guy1 had also a daughter of surpassing beauty1 named ,balduine1 who had fallen in love with ,guy1 and he was equally amorous of the princess4 ,in the sequel of a grand tournament1 at which ,guy has distinguished himself greatly1 he carries off ,balduine1 and the two lovers fly on foot1 in the disguise of beggars1 reach the ,alps in safety1 and cross them into ,italy4 ,at ,cipada1 in the territory of ,brescia1 they are hospitably entertained by a generous peasant named ,berte ,panade1 with whom the princess ,balduine1 who approaches her time of confinement1 is left2 while her lover goes forth to conquer at least a marquisate for her4 ,after his departure she gives birth to a fine boy1 which is named ,baldus4 ,such1 as told in the second canto1 is the origin of ,folengo's hero1 who is destined to perform marvellous acts of chivalry4 ,the peasant ,berte ,panade has also a son named ,zambellus1 by a mother who had died in childbirth of him4 ,baldus passes for the son of ,berte also1 so that the two are supposed to be brothers4 ,baldus is successively led through a series of extraordinary adventures1 some low and vulgar1 others more chivalrous1 and some of them exhibiting a wild fertility of imagination1 which are too long to enable me to take my readers through them1 until at length he is left by the poet in the country of ,falsehood and ,charlatanism1 which is inhabited by astrologers1 necromancers1 and poets4 ,thus is the hero ,baldus dragged through a great number of marvellous accidents1 some of them vulgar1 many of them ridiculous1 and some1 again1 wildly poetical1 but all of them presenting1 in one form or other1 an opportunity for satire upon some of the follies1 or vices1 or corruptions of his age4 ,the hybrid language in which the whole is written1 gives it a singularly grotesque appearance2 yet from time to time we have passages which show that the author was capable of writing true poetry1 although it is mixed with a great amount of coarse and licentious ideas1 expressed no less coarsely and licentiously4 ,what we may term the filth1 indeed1 forms a large proportion of the ,italian macaronic poetry4 ,the pastoral of ,zanitonella presents1 as might be expected1 more poetic beauty than the romance of ,balbus4 ,as an example of the language of the latter1 and indeed of that of the ,italian macaronics in general1 ,i give a few lines of a description of a storm at sea1 from the twelfth canto1 with a literal translation3-- ,jam gridor terias hominum concussit abyssos1 ,sentiturque ingens cordarum stridor1 et ipse ,pontus habet pavidos vultus1 mortisque colores4 ,nunc ,sirochus habit palmam1 nunc ,borra superchiat2 ,irrugit pelagus1 tangit quoque fluctibus astra1 ,fulgure flammigero creber lampezat ,olympus2 ,vela forata micant crebris lacerata balottis2 ,horrendam mortem nautis ea cuncta minazzant4 ,nunc sbalzata ratis celsum tangebat ,olympum1 ,nunc subit infernam unda sbadacchiante paludem4 ,,translation ,now the clamour of the men shook the ethereal abysses1 ,and the mighty crashing of the ropes is felt1 and the very ,sea has pale looks1 and the hue of death4 ,now the ,sirocco has the palm1 now ,eurus exults over it2 ,the sea roars1 and touches the stars with its waves1 ,olympus continually blazes out with flaming thunder1 ,the pierced sails glitter torn with frequent thunderbolts2 ,all these threaten frightful death to the sailors4 ,now the ship tossed up touched the top of ,olympus1 ,now1 the wave yawning1 it sinks into the infernal lake4 ,teofilo ,folengo was followed by a number of imitators1 of whom it will be sufficient to state that he stands in talent as far above his followers as above those who preceded him4 ,one of these minor ,italian macaronic writers1 named ,bartolommeo ,bolla1 of ,bergamo1 who flourished in the latter half of the sixteenth century1 had the vanity to call himself1 in the title of one of his books1 the ,apollo of poets1 and the ,cocaius of this age2 but a modern critic has remarked of him that he is as far removed from his model ,folengo1 as his native town ,bergamo is distant from ,siberia4 ,an earlier poet1 named ,guarino ,capella1 a native of the town of ,sarsina1 in the country of ,forli1 on the borders of ,tuscany1 approached far nearer in excellence to the prince of macaronic writers4 ,his work also is a mock romance1 the history of ,cabrinus1 king of ,gagamagoga1 in six books or cantos1 which was printed at ,arimini in #aebf1 and is now a book of excessive rarity4 ,the taste for macaronics passed rather early1 like all other fashions in that age1 from ,italy into ,france1 where it first brought into literary reputation a man who1 if he had not the great talent of ,folengo1 possessed a very considerable amount of wit and gaiety4 ,antoine de la ,sable1 who ,latinised his name into ,antonius de ,arena1 was born of a highly respectable family at ,soliers1 in the diocese of ,toulon1 about the year #aejj1 and1 being destined from his youth to follow the profession of the law1 studied under the celebrated jurisconsult ,alciatus4 ,he had only arrived at the simple dignity of juge1 at ,st4 ,remy1 in the diocese of ,arles1 when he died in the year #aedd4 ,in fact1 he appears to have been no very diligent student1 and we gather from his own confessions that his youth had been rather wild4 ,the volume containing his macaronics1 the second edition of which 7as far as the editions are known7 was printed in #aebi1 bears a title which will give some notion of the character of its contents1--,provencalis de bragardissima villa de ,soleriis1 ad suos compagnones qui sunt de persona friantes1 bassas dansas et branlas practicantes novellas1 de guerra ,romana1 ,neapolitana1 et ,genuensi mandat2 una cum epistola ad falotissimam suam garsam1 ,janam ,rosam1 pro passando tempora--7i4e4 a ,provenal of the most swaggering town of ,soliers1 sends this to his companions1 who are dainty of their persons1 practising basse dances and new brawls1 concerning the war of ,rome1 ,naples1 and ,genoa2 with an epistle to his most merry wench1 ,jeanne ,rose1 for pastime74 ,in the first of these poems ,arena traces in his burlesque verse1 which is an imitation of ,folengo1 his own adventures and sufferings in the war in ,italy which led to the sack of ,rome1 in #aebg1 and in the subsequent expeditions to ,naples and ,genoa4 ,from the picture of the horrors of war1 he passes very willingly to describe the joyous manners of the students in ,provenal universities1 of whom he tells us1 that they are all fine gallants1 and always in love with the pretty girls4 ,gentigalantes sunt omnes instudiantes1 ,et bellas garsas semper amare solent4 ,he goes on to describe the scholars as great quarrellers1 as well as lovers of the other sex1 and after dwelling on their gaiety and love of the dance1 he proceeds to treat in the same burlesque style on the subject of dancing2 but ,i pass over this to speak of ,arena's principal piece1 the satirical description of the invasion of ,provence by the emperor ,charles ,v4 in #aecf4 ,this curious poem1 which is entitled ,meygra ,enterprisa ,catoloqui imperatoris1 and which extends to upwards of two thousand lines1 opens with a laudatory address to the king of ,france1 ,franois ,i41 and with a sneer at the pride of the emperor1 who1 believing himself to be the master of the whole world1 had foolishly thought to take away ,france and the cities of ,provence from their rightful monarch4 ,it was ,antonio de ,leyva1 the boaster1 who had put this project into the emperor's head1 and they had already pillaged and ravaged a good part of ,provence1 and were dividing the plunder1 when1 harassed continually by the peasantry1 the invaders were brought to a stand by the difficulty of subsisting in a devastated country1 and by the diseases to which this difficulty gave rise4 ,nevertheless1 the ,spaniards and their allies committed terrible devastation1 which is described by ,arena in strong language4 ,he commemorates the valiant resistance of his native town of ,soliers1 which1 however1 was taken and sacked1 and he lost in it his house and property4 ,arles held the imperialists at bay1 while the ,french1 under the constable ,montmorency1 established themselves firmly at ,avignon4 ,at length disease gained possession of ,antonio de ,leyva himself1 and the emperor1 who had been making an unsuccessful demonstration against ,marseilles1 came to him in his sickness4 ,the first lines of the description of this interview1 will serve as a specimen of the language of the ,french macaronics3-- ,sed de ,marsella bragganti quando retornat1 ,fort male contentus1 quando repolsat eum1 ,antonium ,levam trobavit forte maladum1 ,cui mors terribilis triste cubile parat4 ,ethica torquet eum per costas1 et dolor ingens3 ,cum male res vadit1 vivere fachat eum4 ,dixerunt medici1 speransa est nulla salutis3 ,ethicus in testa vivere pauca potest4 ,ante suam mortem voluit parlare per horam ,imperelatori1 consiliumque dare4 ,scis1 ,csar1 stricte nostri groppantur amores1 ,namque duas animas corpus utrumque tenet1 ,heu6 fuge ,provensam fortem1 fuge littus amarum1 ,fac tibi non noceat gloria tanta modo4 ,,translation4 ,but when he returns from boasting ,marseilles1 ,very ill content1 that she had repulsed him1 ,he found ,antonio de ,leyva very ill1 ,for whom terrible death is preparing a sorrowful bed4 ,hectic fever tortures him in the ribs1 and great pain2 ,since things are going ill1 he is weary of life4 ,before his death he wished to speak an hour ,to the emperor1 and to give him counsel4 ,you know1 ,csar1 our affections are closely bound together1 ,for either body holds the two souls1 ,alas6 fly ,provence the strong1 fly the bitter shore1 ,take care that your great glory prove not an injury to you4 ,thus ,leyva goes on to persuade the emperor to abandon his enterprise1 and then dies4 ,arena exults over his death1 and over the emperor's grief for his loss1 and then proceeds to describe the disastrous retreat of the imperial army1 and the glory of ,france in her king4 ,antonius de ,arena wrote with vigour and humour1 but his verses are tame in comparison with his model1 ,folengo4 ,the taste for macaronic verse never took strong root in ,france1 and the few obscure writers who attempted to shine in that kind of composition are now forgotten1 except by the laborious bibliographer4 ,one named ,jean ,germain1 wrote a macaronic history of the invasion of ,provence by the imperialists in rivalry of ,arenas4 ,i will not follow the taste for this class of burlesque composition into ,spain or ,germany1 but merely add that it was not adopted in ,england until the beginning of the seventeenth century1 when several authors employed it at about the same time4 ,the most perfect example of these early ,english macaronics is the ,polemo-,middiana1 i4e4 battle of the dunghill1 by the talented and elegant-minded ,drummond of ,hawthornden4 ,we may take a single example of the ,english macaronic from this poem1 which will not need an ,english translation4 ,one of the female characters in the dunghill war1 calls1 among others1 to her aid-- ,hunc qui dirtiferas tersit cum dishclouty dishras1 ,hunc qui gruelias scivit bene lickere plettas1 ,et saltpannifumos1 et widebricatos fisheros1 ,hellosque etiam salteros duxit ab antris1 ,coalheughos nigri girnantes more divelli2 ,lifeguardamque sibi svas vocat improba lassas1 ,maggyam magis doctam milkare covas1 ,et doctam suepare flouras1 et sternere beddas1 ,quque novit spinnare1 et longas ducere threddas2 ,nansyam1 claves bene qu keepaverat omnes1 ,quque lanam cardare solet greasy-fingria ,betty4 ,perhaps before this was written1 the eccentric ,thomas ,coryat had published in the volume of his ,crudities1 printed in #afaa1 a short piece of verse1 which is perfect in its macaronic style1 but in which ,italian and other foreign words are introduced1 as well as ,english4 ,the celebrated comedy of ,ignoramus1 composed by ,george ,ruggle in #afae1 may also be mentioned as containing many excellent examples of ,english macaronics4 ,while ,italy was giving birth to macaronic verse1 the satire upon the ignorance and bigotry of the clergy was taking another form in ,germany1 which arose from some occurrences which it will be necessary to relate4 ,in the midst of the violent religious agitation at the beginning of the sixteenth century in ,germany1 there lived a ,german ,jew named ,pfeffercorn1 who embraced ,christianity1 and to show his zeal for his new faith1 he obtained from the emperor an edict ordering the ,talmud and all the ,jewish writings which were contrary to the ,christian faith to be burnt4 ,there lived at the same time a scholar of distinction1 and of more liberal views than most of the scholastics of his time1 named ,john ,reuchlin4 ,he was a relative of ,melancthon1 and was secretary to the palsgrave1 who was tolerant like himself4 ,the ,jews1 as might be expected1 were unwilling to give up their books to be burnt1 and ,reuchlin wrote in their defence1 under the assumed name of ,capnion1 which is a ,hebrew translation of his own name of ,reuchlin1 meaning smoke1 and urged that it was better to refute the books in question than to burn them4 ,the converted ,pfeffercorn replied in a book entitled ,speculum ,manuale1 in answer to which ,reuchlin wrote his ,speculum ,oculare4 ,the controversy had already provoked much bigoted ill-feeling against ,reuchlin4 ,the learned doctors of the university of ,cologne espoused the cause of ,pfeffercorn1 and the principal of the university1 named in ,latin ,ortuinus ,gratius1 supported by the ,sorbonne in ,paris1 lent himself to be the violent organ of the intolerant party4 ,hard pressed by his bigoted opponents1 ,reuchlin found good allies1 but one of the best of these was a brave baron named ,ulric von ,hutten1 of an old and noble family1 born in #adhh in the castle of ,staeckelberg1 in ,franconia4 ,he had studied in the schools at ,fulda1 ,cologne1 and ,frankfort on the ,oder1 and distinguished himself so much as a scholar1 that he obtained the degree of ,master of ,arts before the usual age4 ,but ,ulric possessed an adventurous and chivalrous spirit1 which led him to embrace the profession of a soldier1 and he served in the wars in ,italy1 where he was distinguished by his bravery4 ,he was at ,rome in #aeaf1 and defended ,reuchlin against the ,dominicans4 ,the same year appeared the first edition of that marvellous book1 the ,epistol ,obscurorum ,virorum1 one of the most remarkable satires that the world has yet seen4 ,it is believed that this book came entirely from the pen of ,ulric von ,hutten2 and the notion that ,reuchlin himself1 or any others of his friends1 had a share in it appears to be without foundation4 ,ulric was in the following year made poet-laureat4 ,nevertheless1 this book greatly incensed the monks against him1 and he was often threatened with assassination4 ,yet he boldly advocated the cause and embraced the opinions of ,luther1 and was one of the staunch supporters of ,lutheranism4 ,after a very turbulent life1 ,ulric von ,hutten died in the ,august of the year #aebc4 ,the ,epistol ,obscurorum ,virorum1 or letters of obscure men1 are supposed to be addressed to ,ortuinus ,gratius1 mentioned above1 by various individuals1 some his scholars1 others his friends1 but all belonging to the bigoted party opposed to ,reuchlin1 and they were designed to throw ridicule on the ignorance1 bigotry1 and immorality of the clergy of the ,romish church4 ,the old scholastic learning had become debased into a heavy and barbarous system of theology1 literary composition consisted in writing a no less barbarous ,latin1 and even the few classical writers who were admitted into the schools1 were explained and commented upon in a strange half-theological fashion4 ,these old scholastics were bitterly opposed to the new learning1 which had taken root in ,italy1 and was spreading abroad1 and they spoke contemptuously of it as secular4 ,the letters of the obscure individuals relate chiefly to the dispute between ,reuchlin and ,pfeffercorn1 to the rivalry between the old scholarship and the new1 and to the low licentious lives of the theologists2 and they are written in a style of ,latin which is intended for a parody on that of the latter1 and which closely resembles that which we call dog-,latin4#ig ,they are full of wit and humour of the most exquisite description1 but they too often descend into details1 treated in terms which can only be excused by the coarse and licentious character of the age4 ,the literary and scientific questions discussed in these letters are often very droll4 ,the first in order of the correspondents of ,ortuinus ,gratius1 who boasts of the rather formidable name1 ,thomas ,langschneiderius1 and addresses master ,ortuinus as poet1 orator1 philosopher1 and theologist1 and more if he would1 propounds to him a difficult question3-- ,there was here one day an ,aristotelian dinner1 and doctors1 licenciates1 and masters too1 were very jovial1 and ,i was there too1 and we drank at the first course three draughts of ,malmsey1 444 and then we had six dishes of flesh and chickens and capons1 and one of fish1 and as we passed from one dish to another1 we continually drunk wine of ,kotzburg and the ,rhine1 and ale of ,embeck1 and ,thurgen1 and ,neuburg4 ,and the masters were well satisfied1 and said that the new masters had acquitted themselves well and with great honour4 ,then the masters in their hilarity began to talk learnedly on great questions1 and one asked whether it were correct to say magister nostrandus1 or noster magistrandus1 for a person fit to be made doctor in theology4444 ,and immediately ,master ,warmsemmel1 who is a subtle ,scotist1 and has been master eighteen years1 and was in his time twice rejected and thrice delayed for the degree of master1 and he went on offering himself1 until he was promoted for the honour of the university1 444 spoke1 and held that we should say noster magistrandus4444 ,then ,master ,andreas ,delitsch1 who is very subtle1 and half poet1 half artist 7i4e4 one who professed in the faculty of arts71 physician1 and jurist2 and now he reads ordinarily ',ovid on the ,metamorphoses1' and expounds all the fables allegorically and literally1 and ,i was his hearer1 because he expounds very fundamentally1 and he also reads at home ,quintillian and ,juvencus1 and he held the opposite to ,master ,warmsemmel1 and said that we ought to say magister nostrandus4 ,for as there is a difference between magister noster and noster magister1 so also there is a difference between magister nostrandus and noster magistrandus2 for a doctor in theology is called magister noster1 and it is one word1 but noster magister are two words1 and it is taken for any master2 and he quoted ,horace in support of this4 ,then the masters much admired his subtlety1 and one drank to him a cup of ,neuburg ale4 ,and he said1 ',i will wait1 but spare me1' and touched his hat1 and laughed heartily1 and drank to ,master ,warmsemmel1 and said1 ',there1 master1 don't think ,i am an enemy1' and he drank it off at one draught1 and ,master ,warmsemmel replied to him with a strong draught4 ,and the masters were all merry till the bell rang for ,vespers4 #ig ,this style differs entirely from the macaronic4 ,it consists merely in using the words of the ,latin language with the forms and construction of the vulgar tongue1 as illustrated by the directions of the professor who1 lecturing in the schools1 was interrupted by the entrance of a dog1 and shouted out to the doorkeeper1 ,verte canem ex1 meaning thereby that he should turn the dog out4 ,it was perhaps from this1 or some similar occurrence1 that this barbarous ,latin gained the name of dog-,latin4 ,the ,french call it ,latin de cuisine4 ,master ,ortuin is pressed for his judgment on this weighty question4 ,a similar scene described in another letter ends less peacefully4 ,the correspondent on this occasion is ,magister ,bornharddus ,plumilegus1 who addresses ,ortuinus ,gratius as follows3-- ,wretched is the mouse which has only one hole for a refuge6 ,so also ,i may say of myself1 most venerable sir1 for ,i should be poor if ,i had only one friend1 and when that one should fail me1 then ,i should not have another to treat me with kindness4 ,as is the case now with a certain poet here1 who is called ,george ,sibutus1 and he is one of the secular poets1 and reads publicly in poetry1 and is in other respects a good fellow 7bonus socius74 ,but as you know these poets1 when they are not theologists like you1 will always reprehend others1 and despise the theologists4 ,and once in a drinking party in his house1 when we were drinking ,thurgen ale1 and sat until the hour of tierce1 and ,i was moderately drunk1 because that ale rose into my head1 then there was one who was not before friendly with me1 and ,i drank to him half a cup1 and he accepted it4 ,but afterwards he would not return the compliment4 ,and thrice ,i cautioned him1 and he would not reply1 but sat in silence and said nothing4 ,then ,i thought to myself1 ,behold this man treats thee with contempt1 and is proud1 and always wants to confound you4 ,and ,i was stirred in my anger1 and took the cup1 and threw it at his head4 ,then that poet was angry at me1 and said that ,i had caused a disturbance in his house1 and said ,i should go out of his house in the devil's name4 ,then ,i replied1 ',what matter is it if you are my enemy8 ,i have had as bad enemies as you1 and yet ,i have stood in spite of them4 ,what matters it if you are a poet8 ,i have other poets who are my friends1 and they are quite as good as you1 ego bene merdarem in vestram poetriam6 ,do you think ,i am a fool1 or that ,i was born under a tree like apples8' ,then he called me an ass1 and said that ,i never saw a poet4 ,and ,i said1 ',you are an ass in your skin1 ,i have seen many more poets than you4' ,and ,i spoke of you4444 ,wherefore ,i ask you very earnestly to write me one piece of verse1 and then ,i will show it to this poet and others1 and ,i will boast that you are my friend1 and you are a much better poet than he4 ,the war against the secular poets1 or advocates of the new learning1 is kept up with spirit through this ludicrous correspondence4 ,one correspondent presses ,ortuinus ,gratius to write to me whether it be necessary for eternal salvation that scholars learn grammar from the secular poets1 such as ,virgil1 ,tullius1 ,pliny1 and others2 for1 he adds1 it seems to me that this is not a good method of studying4 ,as ,i have often written to you1 says another1 ,i am grieved that this ribaldry 7ista ribaldria71 namely1 the faculty of poetry1 becomes common1 and is spread through all provinces and regions4 ,in my time there was only one poet1 who was called ,samuel2 and now1 in this city alone1 there are at least twenty1 and they vex us all who hold with the ancients4 ,lately ,i thoroughly defeated one1 who said that scholaris does not signify a person who goes to the school for the purpose of learning2 and ,i said1 ',ass6 will you correct the holy doctor who expounded this word8' ,the new learning was1 of course1 identified with the supporters of ,reuchlin4 ,it is said here1 continues the same correspondent1 that all the poets will side with doctor ,reuchlin against the theologians4 ,i wish all the poets were in the place where pepper grows1 that they might let us go in peace6 ,master ,william ,lamp1 master of arts1 sends to ,master ,ortuinus ,gratius1 a narrative of his adventures in a journey from ,cologne to ,rome4 ,first he went to ,mayence1 where his indignation was moved by the open manner in which people spoke in favour of ,reuchlin1 and when he hazarded a contrary opinion1 he was only laughed at1 but he held his tongue1 because his opponents all carried arms and looked fierce4 ,one of them is a count1 and is a long man1 and has white hair2 and they say that he takes a man in armour in his hand1 and throws him to the ground1 and he has a sword as long as a giant2 when ,i saw him1 then ,i held my tongue4 ,at ,worms1 he found things no better1 for the doctors spoke bitterly against the theologians1 and when he attempted to expostulate1 he got foul words as well as threats1 a learned doctor in medicine affirming quod merdaret super nos omnes4 ,on leaving ,worms1 ,lamp and his companion1 another theologist1 fell in with plunderers who made them pay two florins to drink1 and ,i said occulte1 ,drink what may the devil bless to you6 ,subsequently they fell into low amours at country inns1 which are described coarsely1 and then they reached ,insprucken1 where they found the emperor1 and his court and army1 with whole manners and proceedings ,magister ,lamp became sorely disgusted4 ,i pass over other adventures till they reach ,mantua1 the birthplace of ,virgil1 and of a late medival ,latin poet1 named from it ,baptista ,mantuanus4 ,lamp1 in his hostile spirit towards the secular poets1 proceeds1--,and my companion said1 ',here ,virgil was born4' ,i replied1 ',what do ,i care for that pagan8 ,we will go to the ,carmelites1 and see ,baptista ,mantuanus1 who is twice as good as ,virgil1 as ,i have heard full ten times from ,ortuinus2' and ,i told him how you once reprehended ,donatus1 when he says1 ',virgil was the most learned of poets1 and the best2' and you said1 ',if ,donatus were here1 ,i would tell him to his face that he lies1 for ,baptista ,mantuanus is above ,virgil4' ,and when we came to the monastery of the ,carmelites1 we were told that ,baptista ,mantuanus was dead2 then ,i said1 ',may he rest in peace6' ,they continued their journey by ,bologna1 where they found the inquisitor ,jacob de ,hochstraten1 and ,florence1 to ,siena4 ,after this there are small towns1 and one is called ,monte-flascon1 where we drunk excellent wine1 such as ,i never drank in my life4 ,and ,i asked the host what that wine is called1 and he replied that it is lachryma ,christi4 ,then said my companion1 ',i wish ,christ would cry in our country6' ,and so we drank a good bout1 and two days after we entered ,rome4 ,in the course of these letters the theologists1 the poets especially1 the character of the clergy1 and particularly ,reuchlin and ,pfeffercorn1 afford continual subjects for dispute and pleasantry4 ,the last mentioned individual1 in the opinion of some1 had merited hanging for theft1 and it was pretended that the ,jews had expelled him from their society for his wicked courses4 ,one argued that all ,jews stink1 and as it was well known that ,pfeffercorn continued to stink like a ,jew1 it was quite evident that he could not be a good ,christian4 ,some of ,ortuinus's correspondents consult him on difficult theological questions4 ,here is an example in a letter from one ,henricus ,schaffmulius1 another of his scholars who had made the journey to ,rome3-- ,since1 before ,i journeyed to the ,court1 you said to me that ,i am to write often to you1 and that sometimes ,i am to send you any theological questions1 which you will solve for me better than the courtiers of ,rome1 therefore now ,i ask your mastership what you hold as to the case when any one on a ,friday1 or any other fast day1 eats an egg1 and there is a chicken inside4 ,because the other day we sat in a tavern in the ,campo-flore1 and made a collation1 and eat eggs1 and ,i1 opening an egg1 saw that there was a young chicken in it1 which ,i showed to my companion1 and then he said1 ',eat it quickly before the host sees it1 for if he sees it1 then you will be obliged to give a carlino or a julio for a hen1 because it is the custom here that1 when the host places anything on the table1 you must pay for it1 for they will not take it back4 ,and when he sees there is a young hen in the egg1 he will say1 ,pay me for the hen1 because he reckons a small one the same as a large one4' ,and ,i immediately sucked up the egg1 and with it the chicken1 and afterwards ,i bethought me that it was ,friday1 and ,i said to my companion4 ',you have caused me to commit a mortal sin1 in eating flesh on ,friday4' ,and he said that it is not a mortal sin1 nor even a venial sin1 because that embryo of a chicken is not reckoned other than an egg till it is born2 and he told me that it is as in cheeses1 in which there are sometimes worms1 and in cherries1 and fresh peas and beans1 yet they are eaten on ,fridays1 and also in the vigils of the apostles4 ,but the hosts are such rogues1 that they say that they are flesh1 that they may have more money4 ,then ,i went away1 and thought about it4 ,and1 per ,deum6 ,magister ,ortuinus1 ,i am much troubled1 and ,i know not how ,i ought to rule myself4 ,if ,i went to ask advice of a courtier of the papal court1 ,i know that they have not good consciences4 ,it seems to me that these young hens in the eggs are flesh1 because the matter is already formed and figured in members and bodies of an animal1 and it has life2 it is otherwise with worms in cheeses and other things1 because worms are reputed for fishes1 as ,i have heard from a physician1 who is a very good naturalist4 ,therefore ,i ask you very earnestly1 that you will give me your reply on this question4 ,because if you hold that it is a mortal sin1 then ,i will purchase an absolution here1 before ,i return to ,germany4 ,also you must know that our master ,jacobus de ,hochstraten has obtained a thousand florins from the bank1 and ,i think that with these he will gain his cause1 and the devil confound that ,john ,reuchlin1 and the other poets and jurists1 because they will be against the church of ,god1 that is1 against the theologists1 in whom is founded the church1 as ,christ said3 ,thou art ,peter1 and upon this rock ,i will build my church4 ,and so ,i commend you to the ,lord ,god4 ,farewell4 ,given from the city of ,rome4 ,while in ,italy macaronic literature was reaching its greatest perfection1 there arose in the very centre of ,france a man of great original genius1 who was soon to astonish the world by a new form of satire1 more grotesque and more comprehensive than anything that had been seen before4 ,teofilo ,folengo may fairly be considered as the precursor of ,rabelais1 who appears to have taken the ,italian satirist as his model4 ,what we know of the life of ,franois ,rabelais is rather obscure at best1 and is in some parts no doubt fabulous4 ,he was born at ,chinon in ,touraine1 either in #adhc or in #adhg1 for this seems to be a disputed point1 and some doubt has been thrown on the trade or profession of his father1 but the most generally received opinion is that he was an apothecary4 ,he is said to have shown from his youth a disposition more inclined to gaiety than to serious pursuits1 yet at an early age he had made great proficiency in learning1 and is said to have acquired a very sufficient knowledge of ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew1 two of which1 at least1 were not popular among the popish clergy1 and not only of the modern languages and literature of ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,spain1 but even of ,arabic4 ,probably this estimate of his acquirements in learning is rather exaggerated4 ,it is not quite clear where the young ,rabelais gained all this knowledge1 for he is said to have been educated in convents and among monks1 and to have become at a rather early age a ,franciscan friar in the convent of ,fontenai-le-,compte1 in ,lower ,poitou1 where he became an object of jealousy and ill-feeling to the other friars by his superior acquirements4 ,it was a tradition1 at least1 that the conduct of ,rabelais was not very strictly conventual1 and that he had so far shown his contempt for monastic rule1 and for the bigotry of the ,romish church1 that he was condemned to the prison of his monastery1 upon a diet of bread and water1 which1 according to common report1 was very uncongenial with the tastes of this jovial friar4 ,out of this difficulty he is said to have been helped by his friend the bishop of ,maillezais1 who obtained for him the pope's licence to change the order of ,st4 ,francis for the much more easy and liberal order of ,st4 ,benedict1 and he became a member of the bishop's own chapter in the abbey of ,maillezais4 ,his unsteady temper1 however1 was not long satisfied with this retreat1 which he left1 and1 laying aside the regular habit1 assumed that of a secular priest4 ,in this character he wandered for some time1 and then settled at ,montpellier1 where he took a degree as doctor in medicine1 and practised for some time with credit4 ,there he published in #aecb a translation of some works of ,hippocrates and ,galen1 which he dedicated to his friend the bishop of ,maillezais4 ,the circumstances under which he left ,montpellier are not known1 but he is supposed to have gone to ,paris upon some business of the university1 and to have remained there4 ,he found there a staunch friend in ,jean de ,bellay1 bishop of ,paris1 who soon afterwards was raised to the rank of cardinal4 ,when the cardinal de ,bellay went as ambassador to ,rome from the court of ,france1 ,rabelais accompanied him1 it is said in the character of his private medical adviser1 but during his stay in the metropolis of ,christendom1 as ,christendom was understood in those days by the ,romish church1 ,rabelais obtained1 on the #agth of ,january1 #aecf the papal absolution for all his transgressions1 and licence to return to ,maillezais1 and practise medicine there and elsewhere as an act of charity4 ,thus he became again a ,benedictine monk4 ,he1 however1 changed again1 and became a secular canon1 and finally settled down as the cur of ,meudon1 near ,paris1 with which he also held a fair number of ecclesiastical benefices4 ,rabelais died in #aeec1 according to some in a very religious manner1 but others have given strange accounts of his last moments1 representing that1 even when dying1 he conversed in the same spirit of mockery1 not only of ,romish forms and ceremonies1 but of all religions whatever1 which was ascribed to him during his life1 and which are but too openly manifested in the extraordinary satirical romance which has given so much celebrity to his name4 ,during the greater part of his life1 ,rabelais was exposed to troubles and persecutions4 ,he was saved from the intrigues of the monks by the friendly influence of popes and cardinals2 and the favour of two successive kings1 ,franois ,i4 and ,henri ,,ii41 protected him against the still more dangerous hostility of the ,sorbonne and the parliament of ,paris4 ,this high protection has been advanced as a reason for rejecting the anecdotes and accounts which have been commonly received relating to the personal character of ,rabelais1 and his irregularities may possibly have been exaggerated by the hatred which he had drawn upon himself by his writings4 ,but nobody1 ,i think1 who knows the character of society at that time1 who compares what we know of the lives of the other satirists1 and who has read the history of ,gargantua and ,pantagruel1 will consider such an argument of much weight against the deliberate statements of those who were his contemporaries1 or be inclined to doubt that the writer of this history was a man of jovial character1 who loved a good bottle and a broad joke1 and perhaps other things that were equally objectionable4 ,his books present a sort of wild riotous orgy1 without much order or plan1 except the mere outline of the story1 in which is displayed an extraordinary extent of reading in all classes of literature1 from the most learned to the most popular1 with a wonderful command of language1 great imagination1 and some poetry1 intermixed with a perhaps larger amount of downright obscene ribaldry1 than can be found in the macaronics of ,folengo1 in the ,epistol ,obscurorum ,virorum1 or in the works of any of the other satirists who had preceded him1 or were his contemporaries4 ,it is a broad caricature1 poor enough in its story1 but enriched with details1 which are brilliant with imagery1 though generally coarse1 and which are made the occasions for turning to ridicule everything that existed4 ,the five books of this romance were published separately and at different periods1 apparently without any fixed intention of continuing them4 ,the earlier editions of the first part were published without date1 but the earliest editions with dates belong to the year #aece1 when it was several times reprinted4 ,it appeared as the life of ,gargantua4 ,this hero is supposed to have flourished in the first half of the fifteenth century1 and to have been the son of ,grandgousier1 king of ,utopia1 a country which lay somewhere in the direction of ,chinon1 a prince of an ancient dynasty1 but a jovial fellow1 who loved good eating and drinking better than anything else4 ,grandgousier married ,gargamelle1 daughter of the king of the ,parpaillos1 who became the mother of ,gargantua4 ,the first chapters relate rather minutely how the child was born1 and came out at its mother's ear1 why it was called ,gargantua1 how it was dressed and treated in infancy1 what were its amusements and disposition1 and how ,gargantua was put to learning under the sophists1 and made no progress4 ,thereupon ,grandgousier sent his son to ,paris1 to seek instruction there1 and he proceeds thither mounted on an immense mare1 which had been sent as a present by the king of ,numidia--it must be borne in mind that the royal race of ,utopia were all giants4 ,at ,paris the populace assembled tumultuously to gratify their curiosity in looking at this new scholar2 but ,gargantua1 besides treating them in a very contemptuous manner1 carried off the great bells of ,notre ,dame to suspend at the neck of his mare4 ,great was the indignation caused by this theft4 ,all the city was risen up in sedition1 they being1 as you know1 upon any slight occasions1 so ready to uproars and insurrections1 that foreign nations wonder at the patience of the kings of ,france1 who do not by good justice restrain them from such tumultuous courses4 ,the citizens take counsel1 and resolve on sending one of the great orators of the university1 ,master ,janotus de ,bragmardo1 to expostulate with ,gargantua1 and obtain the restoration of the bells4 ,the speech which this worthy addresses to ,gargantua1 in fulfilment of his mission1 is an amusing parody on the pedantic style of ,parisian oratory4 ,the bells1 however1 are recovered1 and ,gargantua1 under skilful instructors1 pursues his studies with credit1 until he is suddenly called home by a letter from his father4 ,in fact1 ,grandgousier was suddenly involved in a war with his neighbour ,picrocole1 king of ,lern1 caused by a quarrel about cakes between some cake-makers of ,lern and ,grandgousier's shepherds1 in consequence of which ,picrocole had invaded the dominions of ,grandgousier1 and was plundering and ravaging them4 ,his warlike humour is stirred up by the counsels of his three lieutenants1 who persuade him that he is going to become a great conqueror1 and that they will make him master of the whole world4 ,it is not difficult to see1 in the circumstances of the time1 the general aim of the satire contained in the history of this war4 ,it ends in the entire defeat and disappearance of king ,picrocole4 ,a sensual and jovial monk named brother ,jean des ,entommeurs1 who has first distinguished himself by his prowess and strength in defending his own abbey against the invaders1 contributes largely to the victory gained by ,gargantua against his father's enemies1 and ,gargantua rewards him by founding for him that pleasant abbey of ,thlme1 a grand establishment1 stored with everything which could contribute to terrestrial happiness1 from which all hypocrites and bigots were to be excluded1 and the rule of which was comprised in the four simple words1 ,do as you like4 ,such is the history of ,gargantua1 which was afterwards formed by ,rabelais into the first book of his great comic romance4 ,it was published anonymously1 the author merely describing himself as l'abstracteur de quinte essence2 but he afterwards adopted the pseudonyme of ,alcofribas ,nasier1 which is merely an anagram of his own name1 ,franois ,rabelais4 ,a very improbable story has been handed down to us relating to this book4 ,it is pretended that1 having published a book of medical science which had no sale1 and the publisher complaining that he had lost money by it1 ,rabelais promised to make amends for his loss1 and immediately wrote the history of ,gargantua1 by which the same book-seller made his fortune4 ,there can be no doubt that this remarkable satire had a deeper origin than any casual accident like this2 but it was exactly suited to the taste and temper of the age4 ,it was quite original in its form and style1 and it met with immediate and great success4 ,numerous editions followed each other rapidly1 and its author1 encouraged by its popularity1 very soon afterwards produced a second romance1 in continuation1 to which he gave the title of ,pantagruel4 ,the caricature in this second romance is bolder even than in the first1 the humour broader1 and the satire more pungent4 ,grandgousier has disappeared from the scene1 and his son1 ,gargantua1 is king1 and has a son named ,pantagruel1 whose kingdom is that of the ,dipsodes4 ,the first part of this new romance is occupied chiefly with ,pantagruel's youth and education1 and is a satire on the university and on the lawyers1 in which the parodies on their style of pleading as then practised is admirable4 ,in the latter part1 ,pantagruel1 like his father ,gargantua1 is engaged in great wars4 ,it was perhaps the continued success of this new production of his pen which led ,rabelais to go on with it1 and form the design of making these two books part only of a more extensive romance4 ,during his studies in ,paris1 ,pantagruel has made the acquaintance of a singular individual named ,panurge1 who becomes his attached friend and constant companion1 holding somewhat the position of brother ,jean in the first book1 but far more crafty and versatile4 ,the whole subject of the third book arises out of ,pantagreul's desire to marry1 and its various amusing episodes describe the different expedients which1 at the suggestion of ,panurge1 he adopts to arrive at a solution of the question whether his marriage would be fortunate or not4 ,in publishing his fourth book1 ,rabelais complains that his writings had raised him enemies1 and that he was accused of having at least written heresy4 ,in fact1 he had bitterly provoked both the monks and the university and parliament2 and1 as the increasing reaction of ,romanism in ,france gave more power of persecution to the two latter1 he was not writing without some degree of danger1 yet the satire of each successive book became bolder and more direct4 ,the fifth1 which was left unfinished at his death1 and which was published posthumously1 was the most severe of them all4 ,the character of ,gargantua1 indeed1 was almost forgotten in that of ,pantagruel1 and ,pantagruelism became an accepted name for the sort of gay1 reckless satire of which he was looked upon as the model4 ,he described it himself as a certaine gaiet d'esprit confite en mpris des choses fortuites1 in fact1 neither ,romanism nor ,protestantism1 but simply a jovial kind of ,epicurianism4 ,all the gay wits of the time aspired to be ,pantagruelists1 and the remainder of the sixteenth century abounded in wretched imitations of the style of ,rabelais1 which are now consigned as mere rarities to the shelves of the bibliophilist4 ,among the dangers which began to threaten them in ,france in the earlier part of the sixteenth century1 liberal opinions found an asylum at the court of a princess who was equally distinguished by her beauty1 by her talents and noble sentiments1 and by her accomplishments4 ,marguerite d',angoulme1 queen of ,navarre1 was the only sister of ,franois ,i41 who was her junior by two years1 and was affectionately attached to her4 ,she was born on the #aath of ,april1 #adib4 ,she had married1 first1 that unfortunate duke d',alenon1 whose misconduct at ,pavia was the cause of the disastrous defeat of the ,french1 and the captivity of their king4 ,the duke died1 it was said of grief at his misfortune1 in #aebe2 and two years afterwards1 on the #bdth of ,january1 #aebg1 she married ,henri d',albret1 king of ,navarre4 ,their daughter1 ,jeanne d',albret1 carried this petty royalty to the house of ,bourbon1 and was the mother of ,henri ,,iv4 ,marguerite held her court in true princely manner in the castle of ,pau or at ,nrac1 and she loved to surround herself with a circle of men remarkable for their character and talents1 and ladies distinguished by beauty and accomplishments1 which made it rival in brilliance even that of her brother ,franois4 ,she placed nearest to her person1 under the character of her valets-de-chambre1 the principal poets and beaux-esprits of her time1 such as ,clement ,marot1 ,bonaventure des ,periers1 ,claude ,gruget1 ,antoine du ,moulin1 and ,jean de la ,haye1 and admitted them to such a tender familiarity of intercourse1 as to excite the jealousy of the king her husband1 from whose ill-treatment she was only protected by her brother's interference4 ,the poets called her chamber a veritable ,parnassus4 ,hers was certainly a great mind1 greedy of knowledge1 dissatisfied with what was1 and eager for novelties1 and therefore she encouraged all who sought for them4 ,it was in this spirit1 combined with her earnest love for letters1 that she threw her protection over both the sceptics and the religious reformers4 ,at the beginning of the persecutions1 as early as #aebc1 she openly declared herself the advocate of the ,protestants4 ,when ,clement ,marot was arrested by order of the ,sorbonne and the ,inquisitor on the charge of having eaten bacon in ,lent1 ,marguerite caused him to be liberated from prison1 in defiance of his persecutors4 ,some of the purest and ablest of the early ,french reformers1 such as ,roussel and ,le ,fvre d',etaples1 and ,calvin himself1 found a safe asylum from danger in her dominions4 ,as might be supposed1 the bigoted party were bitterly incensed against the queen of ,navarre1 and were not backward in taking advantage of an opportunity for showing it4 ,a moral treatise1 entitled ,le ,miroir de l',ame ,pcheresse1 of which ,marguerite was the author1 was condemned by the ,sorbonne in #aecc1 but the king compelled the university1 in the person of its rector1 ,nicolas ,cop1 to disavow publicly the censure4 ,this was followed by a still greater act of insolence1 for1 at the instigation of some of the more bigoted papists1 the scholars of the college of ,navarre1 in concert with their regents1 performed a farce in which ,marguerite was transformed into a fury of hell4 ,franois ,i41 greatly indignant1 sent his archers to arrest the offenders1 who further provoked his anger by resistance1 and only obtained their pardon through the generous intercession of the princess whom they had so grossly insulted4 ,marguerite was herself a poetess1 and she loved above all things those gay1 and seldom very delicate1 stories1 the telling of which was at that time one of the favourite amusements of the evening1 and one in which she was known to excel4 ,her poetical writings were collected and printed1 under her own authority1 in #aedg1 by her then valet-de-chambre1 ,jean de la ,haye1 who dedicated the volume to her daughter4 ,they are all graceful1 and some of them worthy of the best poets of her time4 ,the title of this collection was1 punning upon her name1 which means a pearl1 ,marguerites de la ,marguerite des princesses1 trs illustre reyne de ,navarre4 ,marguerite's stories 7nouvelles7 were more celebrated than her verses1 and are said to have been committed to writing under her own dictation4 ,all the ladies of her court possessed copies of them in writing4 ,it is understood to have been her intention to form them into ten days' tales1 of ten in each day1 so as to resemble the ,decameron of ,boccaccio1 but only eight days were finished at the time of her death1 and the imperfect work was published posthumously by her valet-de-chambre1 ,claude ,gruget1 under the title of ,l',heptameron1 ou ,histoire des ,amants ,fortuns4 ,it is by far the best collection of stories of the sixteenth century4 ,they are told charmingly1 in language which is a perfect model of ,french composition of that age1 but they are all tales of gallantry such as could only be repeated in polite society in an age which was essentially licentious4 ,queen ,marguerite died on the #bast of ,december1 #aedi1 and was buried in the cathedral of ,pau4 ,her death was a subject of regret to all that was good and all that was poetic1 not only in ,france1 but in ,europe1 which had been accustomed to look upon her as the tenth ,muse and the fourth ,grace3-- ,musarum decima et ,charitum quarta1 inclyta regum ,et soror et conjux1 ,marguaris illa jacet4 ,before ,marguerite's death1 her literary circle had been broken up by the hatred of religious persecutors4 ,already1 in #aecf1 the imprudent boldness of ,marot had rendered it impossible to protect him any longer1 and he had been obliged to retire to a place of concealment1 from whence he sometimes paid a stealthy visit to her court4 ,his place of valet-de-chambre was given to a man of talents1 even more remarkable1 and who shared equally the personal esteem of the queen of ,navarre1 ,bonaventure des ,periers4 ,marot's successor paid a graceful compliment to him in a short poem entitled ,l',apologie de ,marot absent1 published in #aecg4 ,the earlier part of the year following witnessed the publication of the most remarkable work of ,bonaventure des ,periers1 the ,cymbalum ,mundi1 concerning the real character of which writers are still divided in opinion4 ,in it ,des ,periers introduced a new form of satire1 imitated from the dialogues of ,lucian4 ,the book consists of four dialogues1 written in language which forms a model of ,french composition1 the personages introduced in them intended evidently to represent living characters1 whose names are concealed in anagrams and other devices1 among whom was ,clement ,marot4 ,it was the boldest declaration of scepticism which had yet issued from the ,epicurean school represented by ,rabelais4 ,the author sneers at the ,romish church as an imposture1 ridicules the ,protestants as seekers after the philosopher's stone1 and shows disrespect to ,christianity itself4 ,such a book could hardly be published in ,paris with impunity1 yet it was printed there1 secretly1 it is said1 by a well-known bookseller1 ,jean ,morin1 in the ,rue ,st4 ,jacques1 and therefore in the immediate vicinity of the persecuting ,sorbonne4 ,private information had been given of the character of this work1 possibly by the printer himself or by one of his men1 and on the #fth of ,march1 #aech1 when it was on the eve of publication1 the whole impression was seized at the printer's1 and ,morin himself was arrested and thrown into prison4 ,he was treated rigorously1 and is understood to have escaped only by disavowing all knowledge of the character of the book1 and giving up the name of the author4 ,the first edition of the ,cymbalum ,mundi was burnt1 and ,bonaventure des ,periers1 alarmed by the personal dangers in which he was thus involved1 retired from the court of the queen of ,navarre1 and took refuge in the city of ,lyons1 where liberal opinions at that time found a greater degree of tolerance than elsewhere4 ,there he printed a second edition of the ,cymbalum ,mundi1 which also was burnt1 and copies of either edition are now excessively rare4#ih ,bonaventure des ,periers felt so much the weight of the persecution in which he had now involved himself1 that1 in the year #aeci1 as far as can be ascertained1 he put an end to his own existence4 ,this event cast a gloom over the court of the queen of ,navarre1 from which it seems never to have entirely recovered4 ,the school of scepticism to which ,des ,periers belonged had now fallen into equal discredit with ,catholics and ,protestants1 and the latter looked upon ,marguerite herself1 who had latterly conformed outwardly with ,romanism1 as an apostate from their cause4 ,henri ,estienne1 in his ,apologie pour ,herodote1 speaks of the ,cymbalum ,mundi as an infamous book4 #ih ,a cheap and convenient edition of the ,cymbalum ,mundi1 edited by the ,bibliophile ,jacob 7,paul ,lacroix71 was published in ,paris in #ahda4 ,i may here state that similar editions of the principal ,french satirists of the sixteenth century have been printed during the last twenty-five years4 ,bonaventure des ,periers left behind him another work more amusing to us at the present day1 and more characteristic of the literary tastes of the court of ,marguerite of ,navarre4 ,this is a collection of facetious stories1 which was published several years after the death of its author1 under the title of ,les ,contes1 ou ,les ,nouvelles ,rcrations et ,joyeux ,devis de ,bonaventure des ,periers4 ,they have some resemblance in style to the stories of the ,heptameron1 but are shorter1 and rather more facetious1 and are characterised by their bitter spirit of satire against the monks and popish clergy4 ,some of these stories remind us1 in their peculiar character and tone1 of the ,epistol ,obscurorum ,virorum1 as1 for an example1 the following1 which is given as an anecdote of the cur de ,brou3-- ,this cur had a way of his own to chant the different offices of the church1 and above all he disliked the way of saying the ,passion in the manner it was ordinarily said in churches1 and he chanted it quite differently4 ,for when our ,lord said anything to the ,jews1 or to ,pilate1 he made him talk high and loud1 so that everybody could hear him1 and when it was the ,jews or somebody else who spoke1 he spoke so low that he could hardly be heard at all4 ,it happened that a lady of rank and importance1 on her way to ,chteaudun1 to keep there the festival of ,easter1 passed through ,brou on ,good ,friday1 about ten o'clock in the morning1 and1 wishing to hear service1 she went to the church where the cur was officiating4 ,when it came to the ,passion1 he said it in his own manner1 and made the whole church ring again when he said ,quem quritis8 ,but when it came to the reply1 ,jesum ,nazarenum1 he spoke as low as he possibly could4 ,and in this manner he continued the ,passion4 ,the lady1 who was very devout1 and1 for a woman1 well informed in the holy scriptures1 and attentive to the ecclesiastical ceremonies1 felt scandalised at this mode of chanting1 and wished she had never entered the church4 ,she had a mind to speak to the cur1 and tell him what she thought of it2 and for this purpose sent for him to come to her after the service4 ,when he came1 she said to him1 ',monsieur le ,cur1 ,i don't know where you learnt to officiate on a day like this1 when the people ought to be all humility2 but to hear you perform the service1 is enough to drive away anybody's devotion4' ',how so1 madame8' said the cur4 ',how so8' said she1 'you have said a ,passion contrary to all rules of decency4 ,when our ,lord speaks1 you cry as if you were in the town-hall2 and when it is a ,caiaphas1 or ,pilate1 or the ,jews1 you speak softly like a young bride4 ,is this becoming in one like you8 are you fit to be a cur8 ,if you had what you deserve1 you would be turned out of your benefice1 and then you would be made to know your fault6' ,when the cur had very attentively listened to her1 he said1 ',is this what you had to say to me1 madame8 ,by my soul6 it is very true1 what they say2 and the truth is1 that there are many people who talk of things which they do not understand4 ,madame1 ,i believe that ,i know my office as well as another1 and ,i beg all the world to know that ,god is as well served in this parish according to its condition1 as in any place within a hundred leagues of it4 ,i know very well that the other curs chant the ,passion quite differently2 ,i could easily chant it like them if ,i would2 but they do not understand their business at all4 ,i should like to know if it becomes those rogues of ,jews to speak as loud as our ,lord6 ,no1 no1 madame2 rest assured that in my parish it is my will that ,god be the master1 and ,he shall be as long as ,i live2 and let the others do in their parishes according to their understanding4' ,another story1 equally worthy of ,ulric von ,hutten1 is satirical enough on priestly pedantry3-- ,there was a priest of a village who was as proud as might be1 because he had seen a little more than his ,cato2 for he had read ,de ,syntaxi1 and his ,fauste precor gelida the first eclogue of ,baptista ,mantuanus4 ,and this made him set up his feathers1 and talk very grand1 using words that filled his mouth1 in order to make people think him a great doctor4 ,even at confession1 he made use of terms which astonished the poor people4 ,one day he was confessing a poor working man1 of whom he asked1 ',here1 now1 my friend1 tell me1 art thou ambitious8' ,the poor man said ',no1' thinking this was a word which belonged to great lords1 and almost repented of having come to confess to this priest2 for he had already heard that he was such a great clerk1 and that he spoke so grandly1 that nobody understood him1 which he now knew by this word ambitious2 for although he might have heard it somewhere1 yet he did not know at all what it was4 ,the priest went on to ask ',art thou not a fornicator8' ',no1' said the labourer1 who understood as little as before4 ',art thou not a gourmand8' said the priest4 ',no4' ',art thou not superbe proud8' ',no4' ',art thou not iracund8' ',no4' ,the priest seeing the man answer always ',no1' was somewhat surprised4 ',art thou not concupiscent8' ',no4' ',and what art thou1 then8' said the priest4 ',i am1' said he1 'a mason2 here is my trowel6' ,at this time ,pantagruelism had mixed itself more or less largely in all the satirical literature of ,france4 ,it is very apparent in the writings of ,bonaventure des ,periers1 and in a considerable number of satirical publications which now issued1 many of them anonymously1 or under the then fashionable form of anagrams1 from the press in ,france4 ,among these writers were a few who1 though far inferior to ,rabelais1 may be considered as not unequal to ,des ,periers himself4 ,one of the most remarkable of these was a gentleman of ,britany1 ,noel du ,fail1 lord of ,la ,hrissaye1 who was1 like so many of these satirists1 a lawyer1 and who died1 apparently at an advanced age1 at the end of #aehe1 or beginning of #aehf4 ,in his publications1 according to the fashion of that age1 he concealed his name under an anagram1 and called himself ,leon ,ladulfil 7doubling the l in the name ,fail74 ,noel du ,fail has been called the ape of ,rabelais1 though the mere imitation is not very apparent4 ,he published 7as far as has been ascertained71 in #aedh1 his ,discours d'aucuns propos ruftiques factieux1 et de singulire rcration4 ,this was followed immediately by a work entitled ,baliverneries1 ou ,contes ,nouveaux d',eutrapel2 but his last1 and most celebrated book1 the ,contes et ,discours d',eutrapel1 was not printed until #aehf1 after the death of its author4 ,the writings of ,noel du ,fail are full of charming pictures of rural life in the sixteenth century1 and1 though sufficiently free1 they present less than most similar books of that period of the coarseness of ,rabelais4 ,i cannot say the same of a book which is much more celebrated than either of these1 and the history of which is still enveloped in obscurity4 ,i mean the ,moyen de ,parvenir4 ,this book1 which is full of wit and humour1 but the licentiousness of which is carried to a degree which renders it unreadable at the present day1 is now ascribed by bibliographers1 in its present form1 to ,broalde de ,verville1 a gentleman of a ,protestant family who had embraced ,catholicism1 and obtained advancements in the church1 and it was not printed until #afaj1 but it is supposed that in its present form it is only a revision of an earlier composition1 perhaps even an unacknowledged work of ,rabelais himself1 which had been preserved in manuscript in ,beroald's family4 ,pantagruelism1 or1 if you like1 ,rabelaism1 did not1 during the sixteenth century1 make much progress beyond the limits of ,france4 ,in the ,teutonic countries of ,europe1 and in ,england1 the sceptical sentiment was small in comparison with the religious feeling1 and the only satirical work at all resembling those we have been describing1 was the ,utopia of ,sir ,thomas ,more1 a work comparatively spiritless1 and which produced a very slight sensation4 ,in ,spain1 the state of social feeling was still less favourable to the writings of ,rabelais1 yet he had there a worthy and true representative in the author of ,don ,quixote4 ,it was only in the seventeenth century that the works of ,rabelais were translated into ,english2 but we must not forget that our satirists of the last century1 such as ,swift and ,sterne1 derived their inspiration chiefly from ,rabelais1 and from the ,pantagruelistic writers of the latter half of the sixteenth century4 ,these latter were most of them poor imitators of their original1 and1 like all poor imitators1 pursued to exaggeration his least worthy characteristics4 ,there is still some humour in the writings of ,tabourot1 the sieur des ,accords1 especially in his ,bigarrures1 but the later productions1 which appeared under such names as ,bruscambille and ,tabarin1 sink into mere dull ribaldry4 ,there had arisen1 however1 by the side of this satire which smelt somewhat too much of the tavern1 another satire1 more serious1 which still contained a little of the style of ,rabelais4 ,the ,french ,protestants at first looked upon ,rabelais as one of their towers of strength1 and embraced with gratitude the powerful protection they received from the graceful queen of ,navarre2 but their gratitude failed them1 when ,marguerite1 though she never ceased to give them her protection1 conformed outwardly1 from attachment to her brother1 to the forms of the ,catholic faith1 and they rejected the school of ,rabelais as a mere school of ,atheists4 ,among them arose another school of satire1 a sort of branch from the other1 which was represented in its infancy by the celebrated scholar and printer1 ,henri ,estienne1 better known among us as ,henry ,stephens4 ,the remarkable book called an ,apologie pour ,herodote1 arose out of an attack upon its writer by the ,romanists4 ,henri ,estienne1 who was known as a staunch ,protestant1 published1 at great expense1 an edition of ,herodotus in ,greek and ,latin1 and the zealous ,catholics1 out of spite to the editor1 decried his author1 and spoke of ,herodotus as a mere collector of monstrous and incredible tales4 ,estienne1 in revenge1 published what1 under the form of an apology for ,herodotus1 was really a violent attack on the ,romish church4 ,his argument is that all historians must relate transactions which appear to many incredible1 and that the events of modern times were much more incredible1 if they were not known to be true1 than anything which is recorded by the historian of antiquity4 ,after an introductory dissertation on the light in which we ought to regard the fable of the ,golden ,age1 and on the moral character of the ancient peoples1 he goes on to show that their depravity was much less than that of the middle ages and of his own time1 indeed of all periods during which people were governed by the ,church of ,rome4 ,not only did this dissoluteness of morals pervade lay society1 but the clergy were more vicious even than the people1 to whom they ought to serve as an example4 ,a large part of the book is filled with anecdotes of the immoral lives of the popish clergy of the sixteenth century1 and of their ignorance and bigotry2 and he describes in detail the methods employed by the ,romish church to keep the mass of the people in ignorance1 and to repress all attempts at inquiry4 ,out of all this1 he says1 had risen a school of atheists and scoffers1 represented by ,rabelais and ,bonaventure des ,periers1 both of whom he mentions by name4 ,as we approach the end of the sixteenth century1 the struggle of parties became more political than religious1 but not less bitter than before4 ,the literature of the age of that celebrated ,ligue1 which seemed at one time destined to overthrow the ancient royalty of ,france1 consisted chiefly of libellous and abusive pamphlets1 but in the midst of them there appeared a work far superior to any purely political satire which had yet been seen1 and the fame of which has never passed away4 ,its object was to turn to ridicule the meeting of the ,estates of ,france1 convoked by the duke of ,mayenne1 as leader of the ,ligue1 and held at ,paris on the #ajth of ,february1 #aejc4 ,the grand object of this meeting was to exclude ,henri ,,iv4 from the throne2 and the ,spanish party proposed to abolish the ,salic law1 and proclaim the infanta of ,spain queen of ,france4 ,the ,french ligueurs proposed plans hardly less unpatriotic1 and the duke of ,mayenne1 indignant at the small account made of his own personal pretensions1 prorogued the meeting1 and persuaded the two parties to hold what proved a fruitless conference at ,suresne4 ,it was the meeting of the ,estates in ,paris which gave rise to that celebrated ,satyre ,mnippe1 of which it was said1 that it served the cause of ,henri ,,iv4 as much as the battle of ,ivry itself4 ,this satire originated among a party of friends1 of men distinguished by learning1 wit1 and talent1 though most of their names are obscure1 who used to meet in an evening in the hospitable house of one of them1 ,jacques ,gillot1 on the ,quai des ,orfvres in ,paris1 and there talk satirically over the violence and insolence of the ligueurs4 ,they all belonged either to the bar or to the university1 or to the church4 ,gillot himself1 a ,burgundian1 born about the year #aefj1 had been a dean in the church of ,langres1 and afterwards canon of the ,sainte ,chapelle in ,paris1 and was at this time conseiller-clerc to the parliament of ,paris4 ,in #aehi he was committed to the ,bastille1 but was soon afterwards liberated4 ,nicolas ,rapin1 one of his friends1 was born in #aece1 and was said to have been the son of a priest1 and therefore illegitimate4 ,he was a lawyer1 a poet1 and a soldier1 for he fought bravely in the ranks of ,henri ,,iv4 at ,ivry1 and his devotion to that prince was so well known1 that he was banished from ,paris by the ligueurs1 but had returned thither before the meeting of the ,estates in #aeic4 ,jean ,passerat1 born in #aecd1 was also a poet1 and a professor in the ,collge ,royal4 ,florent ,chrestien1 born at ,orleans in #aedj1 had been the tutor of ,henri ,,iv41 and was well known as a man of sound learning4 ,the most learned of the party was ,pierre ,pithou1 born at ,troyes in #aeci1 who had abjured ,calvinism to return to ,romanism1 and who held a distinguished position at the ,french bar4 ,the last of this little party of men of letters was a canon of ,rouen named ,pierre le ,roy1 a patriotic ecclesiastic1 who held the office of almoner to the cardinal de ,bourbon4 ,it was ,le ,roy who drew up the first sketch of the ,satyre ,mnippe1 each of the others executed his part in the composition1 and ,pithou finally revised it4 ,for several years this remarkable satire circulated only secretly1 and in manuscript1 and it was not printed until ,henri ,,iv4 was established on the throne4 ,the satire opens with an account of the virtues of the ,catholicon1 or nostrum for curing all political diseases1 or the higuiero d'infierno1 which had been so effective in the hands of the ,spaniards1 who invented it4 ,some of these are extraordinary enough4 ,if1 we are told1 the lieutenant of ,don ,philip have some of this ,catholicon on his flags1 he will enter without a blow into an enemy's country1 and they will meet him with crosses and banners1 legates and primates2 and though he ruin1 ravage1 usurp1 massacre1 and sack everything1 and carry away1 ravish1 burn1 and reduce everything to a desert1 the people of the country will say1 ',these are our friends1 they are good ,catholics2 they do it for our peace1 and for our mother holy church4' ,if an indolent king amuse himself with refining this drug in his escurial1 let him write a word into ,flanders to ,father ,ignatius1 sealed with the ,catholicon1 he will find him a man who 7salva conscientia7 will assassinate his enemy whom he has not been able to conquer by arms in twenty years4 ,this1 of course1 is an allusion to the murder of the prince of ,orange4 ,if this king proposes to assure his estates to his children after his death1 and to invade another's kingdom at little expense1 let him write a word to ,mendoza1 his ambassador1 or to ,father ,commelet 7one of the most seditious orators of the ,ligue71 and if he write with the higuiero del infierno1 at the bottom of his letter1 the words ,yo el ,rey1 they will furnish him with an apostate monk1 who will go under a fair semblance1 like a ,judas1 and assassinate in cold blood a great king of ,france1 his brother-in-law1 in the middle of his camp1 without fear of ,god or men2 they will do more1 they will canonise the murderer1 and place this ,judas above ,st4 ,peter1 and baptise this prodigious and horrible crime with the name of a providential event1 of which the godfathers will be cardinals1 legates1 and primates4 ,the allusion here is to the assassination of ,henri ,,iii4 by ,jacques ,clement4 ,these are but a few of the marvellous properties of the political drug1 after the enumeration of which the report of the meeting of the ,estates is introduced by a burlesque description of the grand procession which preceded it4 ,then we are introduced to the hall of assembly1 and different subjects pictured on the tapestries which cover its walls1 all having reference to the politics of the ,ligue1 are described fully4 ,then we come to the report of the meeting1 and to the speeches of the different speakers1 each of which is a model of satire4 ,it is not known which of the little club of satirists wrote the open speech of the duke of ,mayenne1 but that of the ,roman legate is known to be the work of ,gillot1 and that of the cardinal de ,pelv1 a masterpiece of ,latin in the style of the ,epistol ,obscurorum ,virorum1 was written by ,florent ,chrestien4 ,nicolas ,rapin composed the harangue placed in the mouth of the archbishop of ,lyons1 as well as that of ,rose1 the rector of the university2 and the long speech of ,claude d',aubray was by ,pithou4 ,passerat composed most of the verses which are scattered through the book1 and it is understood that ,pithou finally revised the whole4 ,this mock report of the meeting of the ,estates closes with a description of a series of political pictures which are arranged on the wall of the staircase of the hall4 ,these pictures1 as well as those on the tapestries of the hall of meeting1 are simply so many caricatures1 and the same may be said of another set of pictures1 of which a description is given in one of the satirical pieces which followed the ,satyre ,mnippe1 on the same side1 entitled1 ,histoire des ,singeries de la ,ligue4 ,it was amid the political turmoil of the sixteenth century in ,france that modern political caricature took its rise4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,political ,,caricature ,,in ,,its ,,infancy4--,,the ,,revers ,,du ,,jeu ,,des ,,suysses4--,,caricature ,,in ,,france4--,,the ,,three ,,orders4--,,period ,,of ,,the ,,league2 ,,caricatures ,,against ,,henri ,,iii4--,,caricatures ,,against ,,the ,,league4--,,caricature ,,in ,,france ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4--,,general ,,galas4--,,the ,,quarrel ,,of ,,ambassadors4--,,caricature ,,against ,,louis ,,xiv42 ,,william ,,of ,f,,rstemberg4 ,it has been already remarked that political caricature1 in the modern sense of the word1 or even personal caricature1 was inconsistent with the state of things in the middle ages1 until the arts of engraving and printing became sufficiently developed1 because it requires the facility of quick and extensive circulation4 ,the political or satirical song was carried everywhere by the minstrel1 but the satirical picture1 represented only in some solitary sculpture or illumination1 could hardly be finished before it had become useless even in the small sphere of its influence1 and then remained for ages a strange figure1 with no meaning that could be understood4 ,no sooner1 however1 was the art of printing introduced1 than the importance of political caricature was understood and turned to account4 ,we have seen what a powerful agent it became in the ,reformation1 which in spirit was no less political than religious2 but even before the great religious movement had begun1 this agent had been brought into activity4 ,one of the earliest engravings which can be called a caricature--perhaps the oldest of our modern caricatures known--is represented in our cut ,no4 #aga1 is no doubt ,french1 and belongs to the year #adii4 ,it is sufficiently explained by the history of the time4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aga4 ,the ,political ,game of ,cards4 ,at the date just mentioned1 ,louis ,,xii4 of ,france1 who had been king less than twelve months1 was newly married to ,anne of ,britany1 and had resolved upon an expedition into ,italy1 to unite the crown of ,naples with that of ,france4 ,such an expedition affected many political interests and ,louis had to employ a certain amount of diplomacy with his neighbours1 several of whom were strongly opposed to his projects of ambition1 and among those who acted most openly were the ,swiss1 who were believed to have been secretly supported by ,england and the ,netherlands4 ,louis1 however1 overcame their opposition1 and obtained a renewal of the alliance which had expired with his predecessor ,charles ,,viii4 ,this temporary difficulty with the ,swiss is the subject of our caricature1 the original of which bears the title ,le ,revers du ,jeu des ,suysses 7the defeat of the game of the ,swiss74 ,the princes most interested are assembled round a card-table1 at which are seated the king of ,france to the right1 opposite him the ,swiss1 and in front the doge of ,venice1 who was in alliance with the ,french against ,milan4 ,at the moment represented1 the king of ,france is announcing that he has a flush of cards1 the ,swiss acknowledges the weakness of his hand1 and the doge lays down his cards--in fact1 ,louis ,,xii4 has won the game4 ,but the point of the caricature lies principally in the group around4 ,to the extreme right the king of ,england1 ,henry ,,vii41 distinguished by his three armorial lions1 and the king of ,spain1 are engaged in earnest conversation4 ,behind the former stands the infanta ,margarita1 who is evidently winking at the ,swiss to give him information of the state of the cards of his opponents4 ,at her side stands the duke of ,wirtemberg1 and just before him the pope1 the infamous ,alexander ,,vi4 7,borgia71 who1 though in alliance with ,louis1 is not able1 with all his efforts1 to read the king's game1 and looks on with evident anxiety4 ,behind the doge of ,venice stands the ,italian refugee1 ,trivulci1 an able warrior1 devoted to the interests of ,france2 and at the doge's right hand1 the emperor1 holding in his hands another pack of cards1 and apparently exulting in the belief that he has thrown confusion into the king of ,france's game4 ,in the background to the left are seen the count ,palatine and the marquis of ,montserrat1 who also look uncertain about the result2 and below the former appears the duke of ,savoy1 who was giving assistance to the ,french designs4 ,the duke of ,lorraine is serving drink to the gamblers1 while the duke of ,milan1 who was at this time playing rather a double part1 is gathering up the cards which have fallen to the ground1 in order to make a game for himself4 ,louis ,,xii4 carried his designs into execution2 the duke of ,milan1 ,ludovico ,sforza1 nick-named the ,moor1 played his cards badly1 lost his duchy1 and died in prison4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agb4 ,the ,three ,orders of the ,state4 ,such is this earliest of political caricatures--and in this case it was purely political--but the question of religion soon began not only to mix itself up with the political question1 but almost to absorb it1 as we have seen in the review of the history of caricature under the ,reformation4 ,before this period1 indeed1 political caricature was only an affair between crowned heads1 or between kings and their nobles1 but the religious agitation had originated a vast social movement1 which brought into play popular feelings and passions3 these gave caricature a totally new value4 ,its power was greatest on the middle and lower classes of society1 that is1 on the people1 the tiers tat1 which was now thrown prominently forward4 ,the new social theory is proclaimed in a print1 of which a fac-simile will be found in the ,muse de la ,caricature1 by ,e4 ,j4 ,jaime1 and which1 from the style and costume1 appears to be ,german4 ,the three orders1 the church1 the lord of the land1 and the people1 represented respectively by a bishop1 a knight1 and a cultivator1 stand upon the globe in an honourable equality1 each receiving direct from heaven the emblems or implements of his duties4 ,to the bishop is delivered his bible1 to the husbandman his mattock1 and to the knight the sword with which he is to protect and defend the others4 ,this print--see cut ,no4 #agb--which bears the title1 in ,latin1 ,quis te prtulit8 7,who chose thee87 belongs probably to the earlier half of the sixteenth century4 ,a painting in the ,htel de ,ville of ,aix1 in ,provence1 represents the same subject much more satirically1 intending to delineate the three orders as they were1 and not as they ought to be4 ,the divine hand is letting down from heaven an immense frame in the form of a heart1 in which is a picture representing a king kneeling before the cross1 intimating that the civil power was to be subordinate to the ecclesiastical4 ,the three orders are represented by a cardinal1 a noble1 and a peasant1 the latter of whom is bending under the burthen of the heart1 the whole of which is thrown upon his shoulders1 while the cardinal and the noble1 the latter dressed in the fashionable attire of the court minions of the day1 are placing one hand to the heart on each side1 in a manner which shows that they support none of the weight4 ,amid the fierce agitation which fell upon ,france in the sixteenth century1 for a while we find but few traces of the employment of caricature by either party4 ,the religious reformation there was rather aristocratic than popular1 and the reformers sought less to excite the feelings of the multitude1 which1 indeed1 went generally in the contrary direction4 ,there was1 moreover1 a character of gloom in the religion of ,calvin1 which contracted strongly with the joyousness of that of the followers of ,luther2 and the factions in ,france sought to slaughter1 rather than to laugh at1 each other4 ,the few caricatures of this period which are known1 are very bitter and coarse4 ,as far as ,i am aware1 no early ,huguenot caricatures are known1 but there are a few directed against the ,huguenots4 ,it was1 however1 with the rise of the ,ligue that the taste for political caricature may be said to have taken root in ,france1 and in that country it long continued to flourish more than anywhere else4 ,the first caricatures of the ligueurs were directed against the person of the king1 ,henri de ,valois1 and possess a brutality almost beyond description4 ,it was now an object to keep up the bitterness of spirit of the fanatical multitude4 ,in one of these caricatures a demon is represented waiting on the king to summon him to a meeting of the ,estates in hell2 and in the distance we see another demon flying away with him4 ,another relates to the murder of the ,guises1 in #aehh1 which the ligueurs professed to ascribe to the councils of ,m4 d',epernon1 one of his favourites1 on whom they looked with great hatred4 ,it is entitled1 ,soufflement et ,conseil diabolique de d',epernon ,henri de ,valois pour faccager les ,catholiques4 ,in the middle of the picture stands the king1 and beside him ,d',epernon1 who is blowing into his ear with a bellows4 ,on the ground before them lie the headless corpses of the deux frres ,catholiques1 the duke of ,guise1 and his brother the cardinal1 while the executioner of royal vengeance is holding up their heads by the hair4 ,in the distance is seen the castle of ,blois1 in which this tragedy took place2 and on the left of the picture appear the cardinal de ,bourbon1 the archbishop of ,blois1 and other friends of the ,guises1 expressing their horror at the deed4 ,henri ,,iii4 was himself murdered in the year following1 and the caricatures against him became still more brutal during the period in which the ligueurs tried to set up a king of their own in his place4 ,in one caricature1 which has more of an emblematical character than most of the others1 he is pictured as ,henri le ,monstrueux2 and in others1 entitled ,les ,hermaphrodites1 he is exhibited under forms which point at the infamous vices with which he was charged4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agc4 ,the ,assembly of ,apes4 ,the tide of caricature1 however1 soon turned in the contrary direction1 and the coarse1 unprincipled abuse employed by the ligueurs found a favourable contrast in the powerful wit and talent of the satirists and caricaturists who now took up pen and pencil in the cause of ,henri ,,iv4 ,the former was1 on the whole1 the more formidable weapon1 but the latter represented to some eyes more vividly in picture what had already been done in type4 ,this was the case on both sides2 the caricature last mentioned was founded upon a very libellous satirical pamphlet against ,henri ,,iii41 entitled ,l',isle des ,hermaphrodites4 ,it is the case also with the first caricatures against the ligueurs1 which ,i have to mention4 ,the ,estates held in ,paris by the duke of ,mayenne and the ligueurs for the purpose of electing a new king in opposition to ,henri of ,navarre1 were made the subject of the celebrated ,satyre ,mnippe1 in which the proceedings of these ,estates were turned to ridicule in the most admirable manner4 ,four large editions were sold in less than as many months4 ,several caricatures arose out of or accompanied this remarkable book4 ,one of these is a rather large print1 entitled ,la ,singerie des ,estats de la ,ligue1 l'an #aeic1 in which the members of the ,estates and the ligueurs are pictured with the heads of monkeys4 ,the central part represents the meeting of the ,estates1 at which the lieutenant-general of the kingdom1 the duke of ,mayenne1 seated on the throne1 presides4 ,above him is suspended a large portrait of the infanta of ,spain1 ,l',espouse de la ,ligue1 as she is called in the satire1 ready to marry any one whom the ,estates shall declare king of ,france4 ,in chairs1 on each side of ,mayenne1 are the two ladies of honour of the said future spouse4 ,to the left are seated in a row the celebrated council of sixteen 7les seize71 reduced at this time to twelve1 because the duke of ,mayenne1 to check their turbulence1 had caused four of them to be hanged4 ,they wear the favours of the future spouse4 ,opposite to them are the representatives of the three orders1 all1 we are told1 devoted to the service of the said lady4 ,before the throne are the two musicians of the ,ligue1 one described as ,phelipottin1 the blind performer on the viel1 or hurdy-gurdy1 to the ,ligue1 and his subordinate1 the player on the triangle1 kept at the expense of the future spouse4 ,these were to entertain the assembly during the pauses between the orations of the various speakers4 ,all this is a satire on the efforts of the king of ,spain to establish a monarch of his own choice4 ,on the bench behind the musicians sit the deputies from ,lyons1 ,poitiers1 ,orleans1 and ,rheims1 cities where the influence of the ,ligue was strong1 discussing the question as to who should be king4 ,thus much of this picture is represented in our cut ,no4 #agc4 ,there are other groups of figures in the representation of the assembly of the ,estates2 and there are two side compartments--that on the left representing a forge1 on which the fragments of a broken king are laid to be refounded1 and a multitude of apes1 with hammers and an anvil1 ready to work him into a new king2 the other side of the picture represents the circumstances of a then well-known act of tyranny perpetrated by the ,estates of the ,ligue4 ,another large and well-executed engraving1 published at ,paris in #aeid1 immediately after ,henri ,,iv4 had obtained possession of his capital1 also represents the grand procession of the ,ligue as described at the commencement of the ,satyre ,mnippe1 and was intended to hold up to ridicule the warlike temper of the ,french ,catholic clergy4 ,it is entitled1 ,la ,procession de la ,ligue4 ,henri's triumph over the ,ligue was made the subject of a series of three caricatures1 or perhaps1 more correctly1 of a caricature in three divisions4 ,the first is entitled the ,naissance de la ,ligue1 and represents it under the form of a monster with three heads1 severally those of a wolf1 a fox1 and a serpent1 issuing from hell-mouth4 ,under it are the following lines3-- ,l'enfer1 pour asservir soubs ses loix tout le monde1 ,vomit ce monstre hideux1 fait d'un loup ravisseur1 ,d'un renard enveilly1 et d'un serpent immonde1 ,affubl d'un manteau propre toute couleur4 ,the second division1 the ,declin de la ,ligue1 representing its downfall1 is copied in our cut ,no4 #agd4 ,henri of ,navarre1 in the form of a lion1 has pounced fiercely upon it1 and not too soon1 for it had already seized the crown and sceptre4 ,in the distance1 the sun of national prosperity is seen rising over the country4 ,the third picture1 the ,effets de la ,ligue1 represents the destruction of the kingdom and the slaughter of the people1 of which the ,ligue had been the cause4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agd4 ,the ,destruction of the ,ligue4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #age4 ,general ,galas4 ,the caricatures in ,france became more numerous during the seventeenth century1 but they are either so elaborate or so obscure1 that each requires almost a dissertation to explain it1 and they often relate to questions or events which have little interest for us at the present day4 ,several rather spirited ones appeared at the time of the disgrace of the mareschal d',ancre and his wife2 and the inglorious war with the ,netherlands1 in #afce1 furnished the occasion for others1 for the ,french1 as usual1 could make merry in their reverses as well as in their successes4 ,the imperialist general ,galas inflicted serious defeat on the ,french armies1 and compelled them to a very disastrous retreat from the countries they had invaded1 and they tried to amuse themselves at the expense of their conqueror4 ,galas was rather remarkable for obesity1 and the ,french caricaturists of the day made this circumstance a subject for their satire4 ,our cut ,no4 #age is copied from a print in which the magnitude of the stomach of ,general ,galas is certainly somewhat exaggerated4 ,he is represented1 not apparently with any good reason1 as puffed up with his own importance1 which is evaporating in smoke2 and along with the smoke thus issuing from his mouth1 he is made to proclaim his greatness in the following rather doggrel verses3-- ,je suis ce grand ,galas1 autrefois dans l'arme ,la gloire de l',espagne et de mes compagnons2 ,maintenant je ne suis qu'un corps plein de fume1 ,pour avoir trop mang de raves et d'oignons4 ,gargantua jamais n'eut une telle panse1 c4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agf4 ,batteville ,humiliated4 ,caricatures in ,france began to be tolerably abundant during the middle of the seventeenth century1 but under the crushing tyranny of ,louis ,,xiv41 the freedom of the press1 in all its forms1 ceased to exist1 and caricatures relating to ,france1 unless they came from the court party1 had to be published in other countries1 especially in ,holland4 ,it will be sufficient to give two examples from the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,in the year #affa1 a dispute arose in ,london between the ambassador of ,france1 ,m4 ,d',estrades1 and the ,spanish ambassador1 the baron de ,batteville1 on the question of precedence1 which was carried so far as to give rise to a tumult in the streets of the ,english capital4 ,at this very moment1 a new ,spanish ambassador1 the marquis de ,fuentes1 was on his way to ,paris1 but ,louis1 indignant at ,batteville's behaviour in ,london1 sent orders to stop ,fuentes on the frontier1 and forbid his further advance into his kingdom4 ,the king of ,spain disavowed the act of his ambassador in ,england1 who was recalled1 and ,fuentes received orders to make an apology to king ,louis4 ,this event was made the subject of a rather boasting caricature1 the greater portion of which is given in our cut ,no4 #agf4 ,it is entitled ,batteville vient adorer le ,soliel 7,batteville comes to worship the sun74 ,in the original the sun is seen shining in the upper corner of the picture to the right1 and presenting the juvenile face of ,louis ,,xiv41 but the caricaturist appears to have substituted ,batteville in the place of ,fuentes4 ,beneath the whole are the following boastful lines3-- ,on ne va plus ,rome1 on vient de ,rome en ,france1 ,mriter le pardon de quelque grande offence4 ,l',italie tout entire est soumise ces loix2 ,un ,espagnol s'oppose ce droit de nos rois4 ,mais un ,franais puissant joua des bastonnades1 ,et punit l'insolent de ses rodomontades4 ,from this time there sprung up many caricatures against the ,spaniards2 but the most ferocious caricature1 or rather book of caricatures1 of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 came from without1 and was directed against the king and his ministers and courtiers4 ,the revocation of the edict of ,nantes took place in ,october1 #afhe1 and was preceded and followed by frightful persecutions of the ,protestants1 which drove away in thousands the earnest1 intelligent1 and industrious part of the population of ,france4 ,they carried with them a deep hatred to their oppressors1 and sought refuge especially in the countries most hostile to ,louis ,,xiv4--,england and ,holland4 ,the latter country1 where they then enjoyed the greatest freedom of action1 soon sent forth numerous satirical books and prints against the ,french king and his ministers1 of which the book just alluded to was one of the most remarkable4 ,it is entitled ,les ,heros de la ,ligue1 ou la ,procession ,monacale conduite par ,louis ,,xiv4 pour la ,conversion des ,protestans de son ,royaume1 and consists of a series of twenty-four most grotesque faces1 intended to represent the ministers and courtiers of the grand roi most odious to the ,calvinists4 ,it must have provoked their wrath exceedingly4 ,i give one example1 and as it is difficult to select1 ,i take the first in the list1 which represents ,william of ,frstemberg1 one of the ,german princes devoted to ,louis ,,xiv41 who1 by his intrigues1 had forced him into the archbishopric of ,cologne1 by which he became an elector of the empire4 ,for many reasons ,william of ,frstemberg was hated by the ,french ,protestants1 but it is not quite clear why he is here represented in the character of one of the low merchants of the ,halles4 ,over the picture1 in the original1 we read1 ,guillaume de ,furstemberg1 crie1 ite1 missa est1 and beneath are the four lines3-- ,j'ay quitt mon pais pour servir la ,france1 ,soit par ma trahison1 soit par ma lachet2 ,j'ay troubl les tats par ma mchancet1 ,une abbaye est ma recompense4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agg4 ,william of ,frstemberg4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,early ,,political ,,caricature ,,in ,,england4--,,the ,,satirical ,,writings ,,and ,,pictures ,,of ,,the ,,commonwealth ,,period4--,,satires ,,against ,,the ,,bishops2 ,,bishop ,,williams4--,,caricatures ,,on ,,the ,,cavaliers2 ,,sir ,,john ,,suckling4--,,the ,,roaring ,,boys2 ,,violence ,,of ,,the ,,royalist ,,soldiers4--,,contest ,,between ,,the ,,presbyterians ,,and ,,independents4--,,grinding ,,the ,,king',s ,,nose4--,,playing-,,cards ,,used ,,as ,,the ,,medium ,,for ,,caricature2 ,,haselrigge ,,and ,,lambert4--,,shrovetide4 ,during the sixteenth century caricature can hardly be said to have existed in ,england1 and it did not come much into fashion1 until the approach of the great struggle which convulsed our country in the century following4 ,the popular reformers have always been the first to appreciate the value of pictorial satire as an offensive weapon4 ,such was the case with the ,german reformers in the age of ,luther2 as it was again with the ,english reformers in the days of ,charles ,i41 a period which we may justly consider as that of the birth of ,english political caricature4 ,from #afdj to #affa the press launched forth an absolute deluge of political pamphlets1 many of which were of a satirical character1 scurrilous in form and language1 and1 on whatever side they were written1 very unscrupulous in regard to the truth of their statements4 ,among them appeared a not unfrequent engraving1 seldom well executed1 whether on copper or wood1 but displaying a coarse and pungent wit that must have told with great effect on those for whom it was intended4 ,the first objects of attack in these caricatures were the ,episcopalian party in the church and the profaneness and insolence of the cavaliers4 ,the ,puritans or ,presbyterians who took the lead in1 and at first directed1 the great political movement1 looked upon ,episcopalianism as differing in little from popery1 and1 at all events1 as leading direct to it4 ,arminianism was with them only another name for the same thing1 and was equally detested4 ,in a caricature published in #afda1 ,arminius is represented supported on one side by ,heresy1 wearing the triple crown1 while on the other side ,truth is turning away from him1 and carrying with her the ,bible4 ,it was the indiscreet zeal of archbishop ,laud which led to the triumph of the ,puritan party1 and the downfall of the episcopal church government1 and ,laud became the butt for attacks of all descriptions1 in pamphlets1 songs and satirical prints1 the latter usually figuring in the titles of the pamphlets4 ,laud was especially obnoxious to the ,puritans for the bitterness with which he had persecuted them4 ,in #afdj ,laud was committed to the ,tower1 an event which was hailed as the first grand step towards the overthrow of the bishops4 ,as an example of the feeling of exultation displayed on this occasion by his enemies1 we may quote a few lines from a satirical song1 published in #afda1 and entitled ,the ,organs ,eccho4 ,to the ,tune of the ,cathedrall ,service4 ,it is a general attack on the prelacy1 and opens with a cry of triumph over the fall of ,william ,laud1 of whom the song says-- ,as he was in his braverie1 ,and thought to bring us all in slaverie1 ,the parliament found out his knaverie2 ,and so fell ,william4 ,alas6 poore ,william6 ,his pope-like domineering1 ,and some other tricks appearing1 ,provok'd ,sir ,edward ,deering ,to blame the old prelate4 ,alas6 poore prelate6 ,some say he was in hope ,to bring ,england againe to th' pope2 ,but now he is in danger of an axe or a rope4 ,farewell1 old ,canterbury4 ,alas6 poore ,canterbury6 ,wren1 bishop of ,ely1 was another of the more obnoxious of the prelates1 and there was hardly less joy among the popular party when he was committed to the ,tower in the course of the year #afda4 ,another song1 in verse similar to the last1 contains a general review of the demerits of the members of the prelacy1 under the title of ,the ,bishops ,last ,good-night4 ,at the head of the broadside on which it is printed stand two satirical woodcuts1 but it must be confessed that the words of the song are better than the engraving4 ,the bishop of ,ely1 we are told1 had just gone to join his friend ,laud in the ,tower-- ,ely1 thou hast alway to thy power ,left the church naked in a storme and showre1 ,and now for 't thou must to thy old friend i' th' ,tower4 ,to the ,tower must ,ely2 ,come away1 ,ely4 ,a third obnoxious prelate was bishop ,williams4 ,williams was a ,welshman who had been high in favour with ,james ,i41 but he had given offence to the government of ,charles ,i41 and been imprisoned in the ,tower during the earlier part of that king's reign4 ,he was released by the parliament in #afdj1 and so far regained the favour of king ,charles1 that he was raised to the archbishopric of ,york in the year following4 ,when the civil war began1 he retired into ,wales1 and garrisoned ,conway for the king4 ,williams's warlike behaviour was the source of much mirth among the ,roundheads4 ,in #afdb was published a large caricature on the three classes to whom the parliamentarians were especially hostile--the royalist judges1 the prelates1 and the ruffling cavaliers2 represented here1 as we are told in writing in the copy among the king's pamphlets1 by judge ,mallet1 bishop ,williams1 and colonel ,lunsford4 ,these three figures are placed in as many compartments with doggrel verses under each4 ,that of bishop ,williams is copied in our cut ,no4 #agh4 ,the bishop is armed cap--pie1 and in the distance behind him are seen on one side his cathedral church1 and on the other his war-horse4 ,the verses beneath it contain an allusion to this prelate's ,welsh extraction in the orthography of some of the words3-- ,oh1 sir1 ,i'me ready1 did you never heere ,how forward ,i have byn t'is many a yeare1 ,t'oppose the practice dat is now on foote1 ,which plucks my brethren up both pranch and roote8 ,my posture and my hart toth well agree ,to fight2 now plud is up3 come1 follow mee4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agh4 ,the ,church ,militant4 ,the country had now begun to experience the miseries of war1 and to smart under them2 and the cavaliers were especially reproached for the cruelty with which they plundered and ill-treated people whenever they gained the mastery4 ,colonel ,lunsford was especially notorious for the barbarities committed by himself and his men--to such a degree that he was popularly accused of eating children1 a charge which is frequently alluded to in the popular songs of the time4 ,thus one of these songs couples him with two other obnoxious royalists3-- ,from ,fielding1 and from ,vavasour1 ,both ill-affected men1 ,from ,lunsford eke deliver us1 ,who eateth up children4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agi4 ,the ,sucklington ,faction4 ,in the third compartment of the caricature just mentioned1 we see in the background of the picture1 behind colonel ,lunsford1 his soldiers occupied in burning towns1 and massacring women and children4 ,the model of the gay cavalier of the earlier period of this great revolution1 before the war had broken out in its intensity1 was the courtly ,sir ,john ,suckling1 the poet of the drawing-room and tavern1 the admired of roaring boys1 and the hated of rigid ,puritans4 ,sir ,john outdid his companions in extravagance in everything which was fashionable1 and the display of his zeal in the cause of royalty was not calculated to conciliate the reformers4 ,when the king led an army against the ,scottish ,covenanters in #afci1 ,suckling raised a troop of a hundred horse at his own expense2 but they gained more reputation by their extraordinary dress than by their courage1 and the whole affair was made a subject of ridicule4 ,from this time the name of ,suckling became identified with that gay and profligate class who1 disgusted by the outward show of sanctity which the ,puritans affected1 rushed into the other extreme1 and became notorious for their profaneness1 their libertinism1 and their indulgence in vice1 which threw a certain degree of discredit upon the royalist party4 ,there is a large broadside among the ,king's ,pamphlets in the ,british ,museum1 entitled1 ,the ,sucklington ,faction2 or 7,sucklings7 ,roaring ,boys4 ,it is one of those satirical compositions which were then fashionable under the title of ,characters1 and is illustrated by an engraving1 from which our cut ,no4 #agi is copied4 ,this engraving1 which from its superior style is perhaps the work of a foreign artist1 represents the interior of a chamber1 in which two of the ,roaring ,boys are engaged in drinking and smoking1 and forms a curious picture of contemporary manners4 ,underneath the engraving we read the following lines3-- ,much meate doth gluttony produce1 ,and makes a man a swine2 ,but hee's a temperate man indeed ,that with a leafe can dine4 ,hee needes no napkin for his handes1 ,his fingers for to wipe2 ,he hath his kitchin in a box1 ,his roast meate in a pipe4 ,when the war spread itself over the country1 many of these ,roaring ,boys became soldiers1 and disgraced the profession by rapacity and cruelty4 ,the pamphlets of the parliamentarians abound with complaints of the outrages perpetrated by the ,cavaliers1 and the evil appears to have been increased by the ill-conduct of the auxiliaries brought over from ,ireland to serve the king1 who were especially objects of hatred to the ,puritans4 ,a broadside among the king's pamphlets is adorned by a satirical picture of ,the ,english ,irish ,souldier1 with his new discipline1 new armes1 old stomacke1 and new taken pillage2 who had rather eat than fight4 ,it was published in #afdb4 ,the ,english ,irish soldier is1 as may be supposed1 heavily laden with plunder4 ,in #afdf appeared another caricature1 which is copied in our cut ,no4 #ahj4 ,it represents ,england's ,wolfe with ,eagles clawes3 the cruell impieties of bloud-thirsty royalists and blasphemous anti-parliamentarians1 under the command of that inhumane prince ,rupert1 ,digby1 and the rest1 wherein the barbarous crueltie of our civill uncivill warres is briefly discovered4 ,england's wolf1 as will be seen1 is dressed in the high fashion of the gay courtiers of the time4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahj4 ,england's ,wolf4 ,a few large caricatures1 embodying satire of a more comprehensive description1 appeared from time to time1 during this troubled age4 ,such is a large emblematical picture1 published on the #ith of ,november1 #afdb1 and entitled ,heraclitus' ,dream1 for the scene is supposed to be manifested to the philosopher in a vision4 ,in the middle of the picture the sheep are seen shearing their shepherd2 while one cuts his hair1 another treats his beard in the same manner4 ,under the picture we read the couplet-- ,the flocke that was wont to be shorne by the herd1 ,now polleth the shepherd in spight of his beard4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aha4 ,folly ,uppermost4 ,on the #aith of ,january1 #afdg1 a caricature appeared under the title ,an ,embleme of the ,times4 ,on one side ,war1 represented as a giant in armour1 is seen standing upon a heap of dead and mutilated bodies1 while ,hypocrisy1 in the form of a woman with two faces1 is flying towards a distant city4 ,libertines1 anti-sabbatarians1 and others1 are hastening in the same direction2 and the angel of pestilence1 hovering over the city1 is ready to pounce upon it4 ,the party of the parliament was now triumphant1 and the question of religion again became the subject of dispute4 ,the ,presbyterians had been establishing a sort of tyranny over men's minds1 and sought to proscribe all other sects1 till their intolerance gradually raised up a strong and general feeling of resistance4 ,since #afdc a brisk war of political pamphlets had been carried on between the ,presbyterians and their opponents1 when1 in #afdg1 the ,independents1 whose cause had been espoused by the army1 gained the mastery4 ,sir ,john ,presbyter or to use the more familiar phrase1 ,jack ,presbyter1 furnished a subject for frequent satire1 and the ,presbyterians were not slow in returning the blow4 ,in the collection in the ,british ,museum we find a caricature which must have come from the ,presbyterian party1 entitled ,reall ,persecution1 or the ,foundation of a general ,toleration1 displaied and portrayed by a proper emblem1 and adorned with the same flowers wherewith the scoffers of this last age have strowed their libellous pamphlets4 ,the group which occupies the middle part of this broadside1 is copied in our cut ,no4 #aha4 ,it has its separate title1 ,the ,picture of an ,english ,persecutor1 or a foole-ridden ante-,presbeterian sectary4 7,i give the spelling as in the original47 ,folly is riding on the sectarian1 whom he holds with a bridle1 the sectarian having the ears of an ass4 ,the following homely rhymes are placed in the mouth of ,folly1-- ,behould my habit1 like my witt1 ,equalls his on whom sitt4 ,anti-,presbyterian is1 as will be seen1 dressed in the height of the fashion1 and says-- ,my cursed speeches against ,presbetry ,declares unto the world my foolery4 ,the mortification of the ,presbyterians led in ,scotland to the proclamation of ,charles ,,ii4 as king1 and to the ill-fated expedition which ended in the battle of ,worcester in #afea1 when satirical pamphlets1 ballads1 and caricatures against the ,scottish ,presbyterians became for a while very popular4 ,one of the best of the latter is represented in our cut ,no4 #ahb4 ,its object is to ridicule the conditions which the ,presbyterians exacted from the young prince before they offered him the crown4 ,it is printed in the middle of the broadside1 in prose1 published on the #adth of ,july1 #afea1 with the general title1 ,old ,sayings and ,predictions verified and fulfilled1 touching the young ,king of ,scotland and his gude subjects4 ,the picture has its separate title1 ,the ,scots holding their young kinges nose to the grinstone4 followed by the lines-- ,come to the grinstone1 ,charles1 'tis now to late ,to recolect1 'tis presbiterian fate1 ,you covinant pretenders1 must ,i bee ,the subject of youer tradgie-comedie8 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahb4 ,conditions of ,royalty4 ,in fact1 the picture represents ,presbyterianism--,jack ,presbyter--holding the young king's nose to the grindstone1 which is turned by the ,scots1 personified as ,jockey4 ,the following lines are put into the mouths of the three actors in this scene3-- ,jockey4--,i1 ,jockey1 turne the stone of all your plots1 ,for none turnes faster than the turne-coat ,scots4 ,presbyter4--,we for our ends did make thee king1 be sure1 ,not to rule us1 we will not that endure4 ,king4--,you deep dissemblers1 ,i kow what you doe1 ,and1 for revenges sake1 ,i will dissemble too4 ,charles's defeat and flight from ,worcester furnished materials for a much more elaborate caricature than most of the similar productions of this period1 and of a somewhat singular design4 ,it was published on the #fth of ,november1 #afea1 and bears the title ,a ,mad ,designe2 or a ,description of the king of ,scots marching in his disguise1 after the ,rout at ,worcester4 ,a long1 and not unnecessary1 explanation of the several groups forming this picture1 enables us to understand it4 ,on the left ,charles is seated on the globe in a melancholy posture4 ,a little to the right1 and nearly in front1 the bishop of ,clogher is performing mass1 at which lords ,ormond and ,inchquin1 in the shapes of strange animals1 hold torches1 and the lord ,taaf1 in the form of a monkey1 holds up the bishop's train4 ,the ,scottish army is seen marching up1 consisting1 according to the description1 of papists1 prelatical malignants1 ,presbyterians1 and old cavaliers2 the latter of whom are represented by the fooles head upon a pole in the rear4 ,the next group consists of two monkeys1 one with a fiddle1 the other carrying a long staff with a torch at the end1 concerning which we learn that ,the two ridiculous anticks1 one with a fiddle1 and the other with a torch1 set forth the ridiculousness of their condition when they marched into ,england1 carried up with high thoughts1 yet altogether in the darke1 having onely a fooles bawble to be their light to walke by1 mirth of their own whimsies to keep up their spirits1 and a sheathed sword to truste in4 ,next come a troop of women1 children1 and papists1 lamenting over their defeat4 ,two monkeys on foot1 and one on horseback1 follow1 the latter riding with his face turned to the horse's tail1 and carrying in his hand a spit with provisions on it4 ,it is explained as ,the ,scots ,kings flight from ,worcester1 represented by the foole on horseback1 riding backward1 turning his face every way in feares1 ushered by duke ,hambleton and the lord ,wilmot4 ,lastly1 a crowd of women with flags bring up the rear4 ,it cannot be said that the wit displayed in this satire is of the very highest order4 ,after this period we meet with comparatively few caricatures until the death of ,cromwell1 and the eve of the ,restoration1 when there came a new and fierce struggle of political parties4 ,the ,dutch were the subject of some satirical prints and pamphlets in #afeb2 and we find a small number of caricatures on the social evils1 such as drunkenness and gluttony1 and on one or two subjects of minor agitation4 ,with the close of the ,commonwealth a new form of caricature came in4 ,playing cards had1 during this seventeenth century1 been employed for various purposes which were quite alien to their original character4 ,in ,france they were made the means of conveying instruction to children4 ,in ,england1 at the time of which we are speaking1 they were adopted as the medium for spreading political caricature4 ,the earliest of these packs of cards known is one which appears to have been published at the very moment of the restoration of ,charles ,,ii41 and which was1 perhaps1 engraved in ,holland4 ,it contains a series of caricatures on the principal acts of the ,commonwealth1 and on the parliamentary leaders4 ,among other cards of a similar character which have been preserved is a pack relating to the popish plot1 another relating to the ,rye ,house conspiracy1 one on the ,mississippi scheme1 published in ,holland1 and one on the ,south ,sea bubble4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahc4 ,arthur ,haselrigg4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahd4 ,general ,lambert4 ,the earliest of these packs of satirical cards1 that on the ,commonwealth1 belonged a few years ago to a lady of the name of ,prest1 and is very fully described in a paper by ,mr4 ,pettigrew1 printed in the ,journal of the ,british ,archological ,association4 ,each of the fifty-two cards presents a picture with a satirical title4 ,thus the ace of diamonds represents ,the ,high ,court of ,justice1 or ,oliver's ,slaughter ,house4 ,the eight of diamonds is represented in our cut ,no4 #ahc2 its subject is ,don ,haselrigg1 ,knight of the ,codled ,braine4 ,it is hardly necesiary to say that ,sir ,arthur ,haselrigg acted a very prominent and remarkable part during the whole of the ,commonwealth period1 and that his manners were impetuous and authoritative1 which was probably the meaning of the epithet here given to him4 ,the card of the king of diamonds represents rather unequivocally the subject indicated by its title1 ,sir ,h4 ,mildmay solicits a citizen's wife1 for which his owne corrects him4 ,it is an allusion to one of the petty scandals of the republican period4 ,the eight of hearts is a satire on major-general ,lambert4 ,this able and distinguished man was remarkably fond of flowers1 took great pleasure in cultivating them1 and was skilful in drawing them1 which was one of his favourite amusements4 ,he withdrew to ,amsterdam during the ,protectorate1 and there gave full indulgence to this love of flowers1 and ,i need hardly say that it was the age of the great tulip mania in ,holland4 ,when1 after the ,restoration1 he was involved in the fate of the regicides1 but had his sentence commuted for thirty years of imprisonment1 he alleviated the dulness of his long confinement in the isle of ,guernsey by the same amusement4 ,in the card we have engraved1 ,lambert is represented in his garden1 holding a large tulip in his hand2 and it is no doubt in allusion to this innocent taste that he is here entitled ,lambert1 ,knight of the ,golden ,tulip4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahe4 ,shrovetide4 ,the ,restoration furnished better songs than prints1 and many years passed before any caricatures worthy of notice appeared in ,england4 ,even burlesque subjects of any merit occur but rarely1 and ,i hardly know of one which is worth describing here4 ,among the best of those ,i have met with1 is a pair of plates1 published in #affj1 representing ,lent and ,shrovetide1 and these1 ,i believe1 are copied or imitated from foreign prints4 ,lent is come as a thin miserable-looking knight-errant1 appropriately armed and mounted1 ready to give battle to ,shrovetide1 whose good living is pernicious to the whole community1 and he abuses his opponent in good round terms4 ,in the companion print1 of which our cut ,no4 #ahe is a copy1 ,shrovetide appears as a jolly champion1 quite ready to meet his enemy4 ,he is best described in the following lines1 extracted from the verses which accompany the prints3-- ,fatt ,shrovetyde1 mounted on a good fatt oxe1 ,supposd that ,lent was mad1 or caught a foxe1#ii ,armed cap-a-pea from head unto the heel1 ,a spit his long sword1 somewhat worse than steale1 7,sheath'd in a fatt pigge and a peece of porke71 ,his bottles fild with wine1 well stopt with corke2 ,the two plump capons fluttering at his crupper2 ,and 's shoulders lac'd with sawsages for supper2 ,the gridir'n 7like a well strung instrument7 ,hung at his backe1 and for the turnament ,his helmet is a brasse pott1 and his flagge ,a cookes foule apron1 which the wind doth wagg1 ,fixd to a broome3 thus bravely he did ride1 ,and boldly to his foe he thus replied4 #ii i4e41 was drunk4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,english ,,comedy4--,,ben ,,jonson4--,,the ,,other ,,writers ,,of ,,his ,,school4--,,interruption ,,of ,,dramatic ,,performances4--,,comedy ,,after ,,the ,,restoration4--,,the ,,howards ,,brothers2 ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,buckingham2 ,,the ,,rehearsal4--,,writers ,,of ,,comedy ,,in ,,the ,,latter ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4--,,indecency ,,of ,,the ,,stage4--,,colley ,,cibber4--,,foote4 ,in ,england1 as in ,athens of old1 perfect comedy arose gradually out of the personalities of the rude dramatic attempts of an earlier period4 ,such productions as ,ralph ,roister ,doister and ,gammer ,gurton's ,needle were mere imperfect attempts at1 we may perhaps rather say feelers towards1 comedy itself--that drama1 the object of which was to caricature1 and thus to dissect and apply correctives to1 the vices and weaknesses of contemporary society4 ,the genius of ,shakespeare was far too exquisitely poetical to qualify him for a task like this2 it wanted some one who could use the lancet and scalpel skilfully1 but soberly1 and who was not liable to be led astray by too much vigour of imagination4 ,such a one was ,ben ,jonson1 whom we may rightly consider as the father of ,english comedy4 ,bartholomew ,fair1 first performed at the ,hope ,theatre1 on ,bankside1 ,london1 on the #cast of ,october1 #afad1 is the most perfect and most remarkable example of the truly ,english comedy1 remarkable1 among many other things1 for the extraordinary number of characters who were brought upon the stage in one piece1 and who are all at the same time grouped and individualised with a skill that reminds us of the pictorial triumphs of a ,callot or a ,hogarth4 ,london life is placed before us in all its more popular forms in one grand tableau1 the one in which it would show itself in its more grotesque attitudes2 the ,london citizen1 his vain or easy wife1 sharpers of every description1 and their victims no less varied in character1 the petty city officers1 all come in for their share of satire4 ,the different groups are distributed so naturally1 that it is difficult to say who is the principal character of the piece--and who ever was the principal character in ,bartholomew ,fair8 ,perhaps the character of ,cokes1 the young booby squire from ,harrow--for in those times even so near ,london as ,harrow1 a young squire was considered to be in all probability but a young country booby--strikes us most4 ,it is said to have been at a later period the favourite character of ,charles ,,ii4 ,among the other principal characters of the play are a proctor of the ,arches ,court named ,littlewit1 who imagines himself to be a bel esprit of the first order2 his wife1 and her mother1 dame ,purecraft1 who is a widow2 ,justice ,overdo1 a ,london magistrate1 to whose ward1 ,grace ,wellborn1 ,cokes is affianced in marriage2 a zealous ,puritan1 named ,zeal-of-the-land ,busy1 who is a suitor to the widow ,purecraft1 herself also a ,puritan2 ,winwife1 ,busy's rival2 and a gamester named ,tom ,quarlous1 who figures as ,winwife's friend and companion4 ,all these meet in town1 on the morning of the fair1 ,cokes under the care of a sort of steward or upper servant1 named ,waspe1 who was of a quarrelsome disposition1 and separate in groups among the crowd which filled ,smithfield and its vicinity1 each having their separate adventures1 but meeting from time to time1 and reassembling at the end4 ,cokes behaves as a simpleton from the country1 longs for everything1 and wonders at everything1 buys up toys and gingerbread1 is separated from all his companions1 robbed of his money and even of his outer garments1 and in this condition finally settles down at a puppet-show4 ,meanwhile the ,puritan ,busy1 by his zeal against the heathen abominations of the fair on one hand1 and ,waspe1 by his quarrelsome temper on the other1 fall into a series of scrapes1 which end in both being carried to the stocks4 ,they are there joined by another important personage4 ,justice ,overdo1 who is distinguished by an extraordinary zeal for the right administration of justice and the suppression of social vices of all kinds1 has come into the fair in disguise1 in order to make himself acquainted with its various abuses1 and he passes among them unknown2 and his inquisitive intermeddling brings him into a variety of mishaps1 in the course of which he also is seized by the constable1 and allows himself to be taken to the stocks1 rather than betray his identity4 ,thus all three1 ,busy1 ,waspe1 and ,overdo1 are placed in the stocks at the same time2 but ,waspe1 by a clever trick1 escapes1 and leaves the ,puritan and the justice confined together1 the one looking upon himself as a martyr for religion's sake1 the other rather glorying in suffering through his disinterested zeal for the common good4 ,they1 too1 after a while make their escape through an accidental oversight of their keepers1 and mix again with the mob4 ,the women1 likewise1 have been separated from their male companions1 have fallen among sharpers and bullies1 been made drunk1 and escaped but narrowly from still worse disasters4 ,they all finally meet before the puppet-show1 which has fixed the attention of ,cokes1 and there justice ,overdo discovers himself4 ,such are the materials of ,ben ,jonson's ,bartholomew ,fair1 the busiest and most amusing of plays4 ,it is said1 when first acted1 to have given great satisfaction to king ,james1 by the ridicule thrown upon the ,puritans1 and it continued to be a favourite comedy when revived after the ,restoration4 ,the ,alchemist1 by the same author1 preceded ,bartholomew ,fair1 by four years1 and was designed as a satire upon a class of impostors who1 in that age1 were among the greatest pests of society1 and were instruments1 one way or other1 in the greatest crimes of the day4 ,the ,alchemist belongs1 also1 to the pure ,english comedy1 but its plot is more simple and distinct than that of ,bartholomew ,fair4 ,it involves events which may have occurred frequently1 at periods when the metropolis was from time to time exposed to the vicissitudes of the plague4 ,on one of these occasions1 ,lovewit1 a ,london gentleman1 obliged to quit the metropolis in order to avoid the plague1 leaves his town house to the charge of one man-servant1 ,face1 who proves dishonest1 associates himself with a rogue named ,subtle1 and an immoral woman named ,dol ,common1 and introduces them into the house1 which is made the basis for their subsequent operations4 ,subtle assumes the character of a magician and alchemist1 while ,dol acts various female parts1 and ,face goes about alluring people into their snares4 ,among their dupes are a knight who lives upon the town1 two ,english ,puritans from ,amsterdam1 a lawyer's clerk1 a tobacco man1 a young country squire1 and his sister dame ,pliant1 a widow4 ,the various intrigues in which these individuals are involved1 show us the way in which the pretended conjurers and alchemists contributed to all the vices of the town4 ,at length their base dealings are on the point of being exposed by the cunning of one upon whom they had attempted to impose1 when ,truewit1 the master of the house1 returns unexpectedly1 and all is discovered1 but the alchemist and his female associate contrive to escape4 ,the object of their last intrigue had been to entrap dame ,pliant1 who was rich1 into a marriage with a needy sharper2 and ,lovewit1 finding the lady in the house1 and liking her1 marries her himself1 and1 in consideration of the satisfaction he has thus procured1 forgives his unfaithful servant4 ,many have considered the ,alchemist to be the best of ,jonson's dramas4 ,epicne1 or the ,silent ,woman1 which belongs to the year #afji1 is another satirical picture of ,london society1 in which the same class of characters appear4 ,morose1 an eccentric gentleman of fortune1 who has a great horror for noise1 and even obliges his servants to communicate with him by signs1 has a nephew1 a young knight named ,sir ,dauphine ,eugenie1 with whom he is dissatisfied1 and he refuses to allow him money for his support4 ,a plot is laid by his friends1 whereby the uncle is led into a marriage with a supposed silent woman1 named ,epicne1 but she only sustains the character until the wedding formalities are completed1 and these are followed by a scene of noise and riot1 which completely horrifies ,morose1 and leads to a reconciliation with his nephew1 to whom he makes over half his fortune4 ,the earliest of ,ben ,jonson's comedies1 ,every ,man in his ,humour1 was composed in its present form in #aeih1 and is the first of these dramatic satires on the manners and character of the citizens of ,london1 of whom it was fashionable at the courts of ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i4 to speak contemptuously4 ,kno'well1 an old gentleman of respectability1 is highly displeased with his son ,edward1 because the latter has taken to writing poetry1 and has formed a friendship with another gentleman of his own age1 who loves poetry and frequents the rather gay society of the poets and wits of the town4 ,wellbred has a half-brother1 a plain squire1 named ,downright1 and a sister married to a rich city merchant named ,kitely4 ,kitely1 the merchant1 who is extremely jealous of his wife1 has a great desire to reform ,wellbred1 and draw him to a steadier line of life1 a sentiment in which ,downright heartily joins4 ,kitely's jealousy1 and the steps taken to reform ,wellbred1 lead to the most comic parts of the play1 which concludes with the marriage of young ,kno'well to ,kitely's daughter1 ,miss ,bridget1 and his reconciliation with his father4 ,among the other characters in the piece are captain ,bobadil1 a blustering coward1 justice ,clement1 an old merry magistrate1 his clerk1 ,roger ,formal1 and a country gull and a town gull4 ,these comedies of ,london life became popular1 and continued so during this and the following reign--in fact1 the mass of those who attended the theatres could understand and appreciate them better than any others1 and1 what was more1 they felt them4 ,among ,jonson's contemporaries in the literature of this ,english comedy were ,middleton and ,thomas ,heywood1 both very prolific writers1 ,chapman1 and ,marston4 ,certain classes of characters are continually repeated in this comedy1 because they belonged especially to the ,london society of the time1 but the employment and distribution of these characters admitted of great variations1 and they perhaps often had at the time a special interest1 as representing known individuals1 or as being combined in a plot which was built upon real incidents in ,london life4 ,among these were usually a country gentleman of fortune1 who was very avaricious1 and had a spendthrift son1 or who had a daughter1 a rich heiress1 who was the object of the intrigues of spendthrift suitors2 young heirs1 who have just come to their estates1 and are spending them in ,london2 young country squires who are easy victims2 a needy knight1 as poor in principles as in money1 who lived upon the public in every way he could2 designing and unscrupulous women2 bullies and sharpers of every description4 ,in fact1 we seem to be always in the smell of the tavern1 and in the midst of dissipation4 ,then there are fat1 sleek1 and wealthy citizens1 whole souls are entirely wrapt up in their merchandise1 who are proud1 nevertheless1 of their position2 and easy1 credulous city wives1 who are fond of finery and of praise1 eager for gaiety and display1 impatient of the rule of husbands1 or of the dulness of home1 and very ready to listen to the advances of the gay gallants from the court end of the town1 or from the tavern4 ,the city tradesman has generally an apprentice or two1 sometimes very sober but perhaps more frequently dissipated1 who play their parts in the piece2 and often a daughter1 who is either a model of modesty and all the domestic virtues1 and is finally the reward of some hero of good principles1 who has been temporarily led astray1 and his character misinterpreted1 or who is gay and intriguing1 and comes to disgrace4 ,but the favourite idea of excellence1 or1 to use a technical phrase1 the beau ideal of this comedy1 appears to have been a wild youth1 who goes through every scene of dissipation1 in a gentlemanly manner 7as the term was then understood71 and comes out at the end of the play as an honest1 virtuous man1 and receives the reward for qualities which he had not previously displayed4 ,sometimes the writers of this comedy indulged in personal1 or even in political1 allusions which brought them into trouble4 ,in the year #afje1 ,ben ,jonson1 ,george ,chapman1 and ,john ,marston1 wrote jointly a comedy entitled ,eastward ,hoe4 ,it is a very excellent and amusing comedy1 and was very popular4 ,touchstone1 an honest goldsmith in the city1 has two apprentices1 ,golding1 a sober and industrious youth1 and ,quicksilver1 who is an irreclaimable rake4 ,touchstone has also two daughters1 the eldest of whom1 ,gertrude1 affects the fine lady1 and is ambitious of finding a husband in the fashionable world1 while her younger sister1 ,mildred1 is all virtue and humility4 ,an attachment arises between ,golding and ,mildred4 ,another character in this drama is a needy1 scheming knight1 who lives upon the town1 and rejoices in the name of ,sir ,petronel ,flash4 ,sir ,petronel is attracted by the rich dowry which the young lady1 ,gertrude1 had to expect1 pays his court to her1 and easily works upon her vanity2 and1 her mother encouraging her1 they are hastily married1 contrary to the wishes of her father4 ,the knight is supposed to possess a magnificent castle somewhere to the east of ,london1 and the young bride and her mother proceed in search of this1 from which the comedy derives its title of ,eastward ,hoe1 but they are involved in various disagreeable adventures in the search1 which ends in the conviction that it is all a fable4 ,another character in the play is a greedy and unprincipled usurer1 who is so jealous of his young and pretty wife1 that he keeps her under lock and key2 and this man is deeply involved in money-lending with ,sir ,petronel ,flash1 and they are engaged in a series of unprincipled transactions1 which lead to the disgrace of them all1 and in the course of which the virtue of the usurer's wife falls a sacrifice4 ,meanwhile the fortunes of the two apprentices have been advancing in directly opposite directions4 ,quicksilver1 the unworthy apprentice1 leaves his master1 proceeds from bad to worse1 and finally is committed to prison1 for a crime the punishment of which was death4 ,on the other hand1 ,golding has not only gained his master's esteem and married his daughter ,mildred1 and been adopted as the heir to his wealth1 but he has merited the respect of his fellow-citizens1 and has been promoted in municipal rank4 ,it becomes ,golding's duty to preside over the trial of his old fellow apprentice ,quicksilver1 but the latter escapes through ,golding's generosity4 ,there is some sound morality in the spirit of this comedy1 and a very large amount of immorality in the text4 ,there was1 indeed1 a coarse licence in the relations of society at this period1 which are but too faithfully represented in its literature4 ,but there are two circumstances1 accidentally attached to this drama1 which give it a peculiar interest4 ,when brought out upon the stage it contained reflections upon ,scotchmen which provoked the anger of king ,james ,i4 to such a degree1 that all the authors were seized and thrown into prison1 and narrowly escaped the loss of their ears and noses1 but they obtained their release with some difficulty1 and only through powerful intercession4 ,in the copy which has been brought down to us through the press1 we find no reflections whatever upon ,scotchmen1 so that it must have been altered from the original text4 ,when we consider that1 at this time1 the ,english court and capital were crowded with needy ,scottish adventurers1 who were looked upon with great jealousy1 it is not improbable that in the original form of the comedy1 ,sir ,petronel ,flash may have been a ,scotchman1 and intended not only as a satire upon the ,scottish adventurers in general1 but to have been designed for some one in particular who had the means of bringing upon the authors the extreme displeasure of the court4 ,the other circumstance which has given celebrity to this comedy1 is one of still greater interest4 ,after the ,restoration1 it was new modelled by ,nicholas ,tate1 and brought again upon the stage under the title of ,cuckold's ,haven4 ,perhaps through this remodelled edition1 ,hogarth took from the comedy of ,eastward ,hoe1 the idea of his series of plates of the history of the ,idle and ,industrious ,apprentices4 ,when we consider the ridicule which was continually thrown upon them in this earlier period of the ,english comedy1 we can easily understand the bitterness with which the ,puritans regarded the stage and the drama4 ,when they obtained power1 the stage1 as might be expected1 was suppressed1 and for some years ,england was without a theatre4 ,at the ,restoration1 however1 the theatres were opened again1 and with greater freedom than ever4 ,at first the old comedies of the days of ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i4 were revived1 and many of them1 modified and adapted to the new circumstances1 were again brought upon the stage4 ,the original comedies which appeared immediately after the ,restoration1 were often marked with a political tinge2 as the stage saw its natural protectors in the court1 and in the court party1 it embraced their politics2 and ,puritans1 ,roundheads1 ,whigs1 all whose principles were supposed to be contrary to royalty and arbitrary power1 fell under its satire4 ,such was the character of the comedy of ,the ,cheats1 by a play-writer of some repute named ,wilson1 which was brought out in #affb4 ,the object of this play appears to have been1 in the first place1 to satirise the ,nonconformists or ,puritanical clergy--with whom were classed the astrologers and conjurers1 who had increased in number during the ,commonwealth time1 and infested society more than ever--and the city magistrates1 who were not looked upon as being generally over-loyal4 ,the three cheats who are the heroes of this comedy1 are ,scruple1 the ,nonconformist1 ,mopus1 a pretender to physic and astrology1 and alderman ,whitebroth4 ,direct personal attacks had been introduced into the comedy of the ,restoration1 and it is probable that somebody of influence was satirised under the name of ,scruple1 for the play was suppressed by authority1 and at a later period1 when it was revived1 the prologue announces this fact in the following words3-- ,sad news1 my masters2 and too true1 ,i fear1 ,for us--,scruple's a silenc'd minister4 ,would ye the cause8 ,the brethren snivel1 and say1 ',tis scandalous that any cheat but they4 ,many of the dramatists of the ,restoration were men of good and aristocratic families1 witty and profligate cavaliers1 who had returned from exile with their king4 ,the family of the earl of ,berkshire produced no less than four writers of comedy1 all brothers1 ,edward ,howard1 colonel ,henry ,howard1 sir ,robert ,howard1 and ,james ,howard1 while their sister1 the lady ,elizabeth ,howard1 was married to the poet ,dryden4 ,edward ,howard's first dramatic piece was a tragi-comedy entitled ,the ,usurper1 which came out in #affh1 and was intended as a satire upon ,cromwell4 ,his best known comedies were ,the ,man of ,newmarket1 and ,woman's ,conquest4 ,colonel ,henry ,howard composed a comedy entitled ,united ,kingdoms1 which appears not to have been printed4 ,to ,james ,howard1 the youngest of the brothers1 the play-going public1 even then rather a large one1 owed ,the ,english ,mounsieur1 and ,all ,mistaken1 or the ,mad ,couple4 ,sir ,robert ,howard was the best writer of the four1 and wrote both tragedies and comedies1 which were afterwards published collectively4 ,the best of his comedies is ,the ,committee1 which was first brought on the stage in #affe1 and through some chance1 certainly not by its merit1 continued to be an acting play during the whole of the last century4 ,the ,committee is by far the best of the dramatic writings of the ,howards4 ,its design was to turn to ridicule the ,commonwealth men and the ,puritans4 ,colonel ,blunt and colonel ,careless are two royalists1 whose estates are in the hands of the committee of sequestrations1 and who repair to ,london for the purpose of compounding for them4 ,the chairman of the committee is a ,mr4 ,day1 a worldly-minded and sufficiently selfish ,puritan1 but who is ruled by his more crafty and still less scrupulous wife1 a designing and very talkative woman4 ,both are of low origin1 for ,mrs4 ,day had been a kitchen-woman1 and both are very proud and very tyrannical4 ,among the other principal characters are ,abel ,day1 their son1 ,obadiah1 the clerk to the committee1 a man in the interest of the ,days1 and an ,irish servant named ,teague1 who had been the servant of ,careless's dear friend1 a royalist officer killed in battle1 and whom the colonel finds in great distress1 and takes into his own service out of charity4 ,the character of ,teague is a very poor caricature upon an ,irishman1 and his blunders and bulls are of a very spiritless description4 ,here is an example4 ,teague has overheard the two colonels state that they should be obliged to take the ,covenant1 and express their reluctance to do it1 and in his inconsiderate zeal1 he hurries away to try if he cannot take the covenant for them1 and thus save them a disagreeable operation4 ,in the street he meets a wandering bookseller--a class of pedlars who were then common--and a scene takes place which is best given in the words of the original3-- ,bookseller4--,new books1 new books6 ,a ,desperate ,plot and ,engagement of the ,bloody ,cavaliers6 ,mr4 ,saltmarshe's ,alarum to the ,nation1 after having been three days dead6 ,mercurius ,britannicus-- ,teague4--,how's that8 ,they cannot live in ,ireland after they are dead three days6 ,book4--,mercurius ,britannicus1 or the ,weekly ,post1 or the ,solemn ,league and ,covenant6 ,teag4--,what is that you say8 ,is it the ,covenant you have8 ,book4--,yes2 what then1 sir8 ,teag4--,which is that ,covenant8 ,book4--,why1 this is the ,covenant4 ,teag4--,well1 ,i must take that ,covenant4 ,book4--,you take my commodities8 ,teag4--,i must take that ,covenant1 upon my soul1 now4 ,book4--,stand off1 sir1 or ,i'll set you further6 ,teag4--,well1 upon my soul1 now1 ,i will take the ,covenant for my master4 ,book4--,your master must pay me for't1 then6 ,teag4--,i must take it first1 and my master will pay you afterwards4 ,book4--,you must pay me now4 ,teag4--,oh6 that ,i will ,knocks him down4 ,now you're paid1 you thief of the world4 ,here's ,covenants enough to poison the whole nation4 ,exit4 ,book4--,what a devil ails this fellow8 ,crying4 ,he did not come to rob me1 certainly2 for he has not taken above two-pennyworth of lamentable ware away2 but ,i feel the rascal's fingers4 ,i may light upon my wild ,irishman again1 and1 if ,i do1 ,i will fix him with some catchpole1 that shall be worse than his own country bogs4 ,exit4 ,in the sequel1 ,teague is caught by the constables1 and is liberated at the interference of his master1 who pays twopence for the book4 ,the plot of the comedy is but a simple one1 and is neither skilfully nor naturally carried out4 ,colonel ,blunt comes to ,london from ,reading in the inside of a stage-coach1 having for his travelling companions ,mrs4 ,day1 her supposed daughter ,ruth1 and ,arabella1 a young lady whose father is recently dead1 leaving his estates in the hands of the committee of sequestrations4 ,ruth is1 in truth1 a young lady whose estates the ,days have1 under similar circumstances1 robbed her of1 and it is their design to treat ,arabella in the same manner1 under disguise of forcing her to marry their son ,abel1 a vain silly lad4 ,to effect this1 as the committee itself requires some influencing to engage them in the selfish plans of their chairman1 ,day and his wife forge a letter from the exiled king1 complimenting the former on his great power and influence and talents as a statesman1 and offering him great rewards if he will secretly promote his cause4 ,day communicates this to the committee under the pretext that it is his duty to make them acquainted with all such perfidious designs that might come to his knowledge1 and they1 convinced of his honesty and value to them1 give up ,arabella's estates to the ,days1 and she falls entirely under their power4 ,meanwhile1 on the one hand1 ,arabella has gained the confidence of ,ruth1 who makes her acquainted with the whole plot against her and her estates1 and on the other1 ,ruth falls in love with colonel ,careless1 and colonel ,blunt is smitten with the charms of ,arabella1 and all this takes place in the committee room4 ,various incidents follow1 which seem not very much to the purpose1 but at last1 as the marriage of ,arabella to ,abel ,day is pressed forward1 the two young ladies1 although as yet they have hardly had an interview with the colonels1 resolve to make their escape from the house of the chairman of the committee1 and fly to their lovers for protection4 ,a short absence from the house of ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,day and their son together1 presents the desired opportunity1 and ,day having accidentally left his keys behind him1 the idea suggests itself to ,ruth to open his cabinet1 and gain possession of the deeds and papers of her own estates and those of ,arabella4 ,as she had before this secretly observed the private drawer in which they were placed1 she met with no difficulty in effecting her purpose1 and not only found these documents1 but also with them the forged letter from the king1 and some letters addressed to ,day by young women whom he was secretly keeping1 and who demanded money for the support of children they had by him1 and alluded to matters of a still more serious character4 ,ruth takes possession of all these1 and thus laden1 the two damsels hurry away1 and reach without interruption the house where they were to meet the colonels4 ,the ,days return home immediately after the departure of their wards1 and at once suspect the real state of affairs1 which is fully confirmed1 when ,mr4 ,day finds that his most private drawer has been opened1 and his most important papers carried off4 ,they immediately proceed in search of the fugitives1 having sent orders for a detachment of soldiers to assist them1 and the house in which the lovers have taken refuge is surrounded before they have had time to escape4 ,finding it useless to attempt resistance by force1 the besieged call for a parley1 and then ,ruth frightens ,day by acquainting him with the contents of the private letters she has become possessed of1 and his wife by the knowledge she has obtained of the forged letter1 which also she has in her possession4 ,the ,days are thus overreached1 and the play ends with a general reconciliation4 ,the ladies are left with the titles of their estates1 and with their lovers1 and we are left to suppose that they afterwards married1 and were happy4 ,the plot of ,the ,committee1 it will be seen1 is not a very capital one1 but the manner in which it is worked out is still worse4 ,the dialogue is extremely tame1 and the incidents are badly interwoven4 ,when ,i say that the example of wit given above is the best in the play1 and that there are not many attempts at wit in it1 it will hardly be thought that it could be amusing1 and we cannot but feel astonished at the popularity which it once enjoyed4 ,this popularity1 indeed1 is only explained by the fashion of ridiculing the ,puritans1 which then prevailed so strongly2 and it perhaps retained its place on the stage during the last century chiefly from the circumstance of its wanting the objectionable qualities which characterised the written plays of the latter half of the seventeenth century4 ,the ,committee is1 after all1 one of the very best comedies of the school of dramatists represented by the brothers ,howard4 ,contemporary with this school of flat comedies1 there was a school of equally inflated tragedy1 and both soon became objects of ridicule to the satirists of the day4 ,of these1 one of the boldest was ,george ,villiers1 duke of ,buckingham1 the son of the favourite of king ,james ,i41 and equally celebrated for his talents and his profligacy4 ,buckingham is said to have planned and begun his satirical comedy of ,the ,rehearsal as early as the year #affc1 and to have had it ready for representation towards the ,december of #affe1 when the breaking out of the great plague caused the theatres to be closed4 ,after this interruption its author1 who was a desultory writer1 appears to have laid it aside for some time and then1 new objects for satire having presented themselves1 he altered and modified it1 and it was finally completed in #afga1 when it was brought out at the ,theatre ,royal in ,covent ,garden4 ,it is said that ,buckingham was assisted in the composition of this satire1 but it is not stated in what manner1 by ,butler1 and by ,martin ,clifford1 of the ,charter-house4 ,it is understood that1 in the first form of his satire1 ,buckingham had chosen the ,hon4 ,edward ,howard for its hero1 and that he afterwards exchanged him for ,sir ,william ,davenant1 but he finally fixed upon ,dryden1 whose tragedies and comedies are certainly not the best of his writings--possibly some personal pique may have had an influence in the selection4 ,nevertheless1 with ,dryden1 the ,howards1 ,davenant1 and one or two other writers of comedy1 come in for their share of ridicule4 ,dryden1 under the name of ,bayes1 has composed a new drama1 and a friend named ,johnson goes to witness the rehearsal of this play1 taking with him a country friend of the name of ,smith4 ,the play itself is a piece of mockery throughout1 made up of parodies1 often very happy1 on the different play-writers of the day1 and especially upon ,dryden2 and it is mixed up with a running conversation between ,bayes1 the author1 and his two visitors1 which is full of satirical humour4 ,the first part of the prologue explains to us sufficiently the spirit in which this satire was written4 ,we might well call this short mock-play of ours ,a posie made of weeds instead of flowers2 ,yet such have been presented to your noses1 ,and there are such1 ,i fear1 who thought 'em roses4 ,would some of 'em were here1 to see this night ,what stuff it is in which they took delight4 ,here1 brisk1 insipid rogues1 for wit1 let fall ,sometimes dull sense1 but oft'ner none at all2 ,there1 strutting heroes1 with a grim-fac'd train1 ,shalt brave the gods1 in king ,cambyses vein4 ,for 7changing rules1 of late1 as if men writ ,in spite of reason1 nature1 art1 and wit7 ,our poets make us laugh at tragedy1 ,and with their comedies they make us cry4 ,a short account of this satire will1 perhaps1 be best understood1 if ,i explain that the antagonism of two contending kings of ,granada having been a favourite idea of ,dryden in his tragedies1 ,buckingham is said to have designed to ridicule him in making two1 not rival1 but associate kings of ,brentford1 though others say that these two kings of ,brentford were intended for a sneer upon king ,charles ,,ii4 and the duke of ,york4 ,these two kings are the heroes of ,bayes's play4 ,the first act of ,the ,rehearsal consists of a discussion between ,bayes1 ,johnson1 and ,smith1 on the general character of the play1 in which ,bayes exhibits a large amount of vanity and self-confidence1 said to have been a characteristic of all these play-writers of the earlier period of the ,restoration1 and he informs them that he has made a prologue and an epilogue1 which may both serve for either2 that is1 the prologue for the epilogue1 or the epilogue for the prologue1 7do you mark67 nay1 they may both serve1 too1 'egad1 for any other play as well as this4 ,smith observes1 ,that's indeed artificial4 ,finally ,bayes explains1 that as other authors1 in their prologues1 sought to flatter and propitiate their audience1 in order to gain their favourable opinion of the plot1 he1 on the contrary1 intended to force their applause out of them by mere dint of terror1 and for that purpose1 he had introduced as speakers of his prologue1 no less personages than ,thunder and ,lightning4 ,this prologue1 disengaged from the remarks of ,bayes and his friends1 runs as follows3-- ,enter ,,thunder and ,,lightning4 ,thun4--,i am the bold ,thunder4 ,light4--,the brisk ,lightning ,i4 ,thun4--,i am the bravest ,hector of the sky4 ,light4--,and ,i fair ,helen1 that made ,hector die4 ,thun4--,i strike men down4 ,light4--,i fire the town4 ,thun4--,let critics take heed how they grumble1 ,for then ,i begin for to rumble4 ,light4--,let the ladies allow us their graces1 ,or ,i'll blast all the paint on their faces1 ,and dry up their peter to soot4 ,thun4--,let the critics look to't4 ,light4--,let the ladies look to't4 ,thun4--,for the ,thunder will do't4 ,light4--,for the ,lightning will shoot4 ,thun4--,i'll give you dash for dash4 ,light4--,i'll give you flash for flash4 ,gallants1 ,i'll singe your feather4 ,thun4--,i'll ,thunder you together4 ,both4--,look to't1 look to't2 we'll do't1 we'll do't2 look to't2 we'll do't4 ,twice or thrice repeated4 ,bayes calls this but a slash of a prologue1 in reply to which1 ,smith observes1 ,yes2 'tis short1 indeed1 but very terrible4 ,it is a parody on a scene in ,the ,slighted ,maid1 a play by ,sir ,robert ,stapleton1 where ,thunder and ,lightning were introduced1 and their conversation begins in the same words4 ,but the poet has another difficulty on which he desires the opinion of his visitors4 ,i have made1 he says1 one of the most delicate1 dainty similes in the whole world1 'egad1 if ,i knew how to apply it4 ',tis1 he adds1 an allusion to love4 ,this is the simile-- ,so boar and sow1 when any storm is nigh ,snuff up1 and smell it gathering in the sky2 ,boar beckons sow to trot in chesnut groves1 ,and there consummate their unfinished loves3 ,pensive in mud they wallow all alone1 ,and snore and gruntle to each others moan4 ,it is a rather coarse1 but clever parody on a simile in ,dryden's ,conquest of ,granada1 part ii43-- ,so two kind turtles1 when a storm is nigh1 ,look up1 and see it gathering in the sky2 ,each calls his mate to shelter in the groves1 ,leaving1 in murmurs1 their unfinished loves2 ,perch'd on some dropping branch1 they sit alone1 ,and coo1 and hearken to each other's moan4 ,it is decided that the simile should be added to the prologue1 for1 as ,johnson remarks to ,bayes1 ,faith1 'tis extraordinary fine1 and very applicable to ,thunder and ,lightning1 methinks1 because it speaks of a storm4 ,in the second act we come to the opening of the play1 the first scene consisting of whispering1 in ridicule of a scene in ,davenant's ,play-house to ,let1 where ,drake senior says-- ,draw up your men1 ,and in low whispers give your orders out4 ,in fact1 the ,gentleman-,usher and the ,physician of the two kings of ,brentford appear upon the scene alone1 and discuss a plot to dethrone the two kings of ,brentford1 which they communicate by whispers into each other's ears1 which are totally inaudible4 ,in ,scene ii41 ,enter the two kings1 hand in hand1 and ,bayes remarks to his visitors1 ,oh6 these are now the two kings of ,brentford2 take notice of their style--'twas never yet upon the stage2 but1 if you like it1 ,i could make a shift1 perhaps1 to show you a whole play1 writ all just so4 ,the kings begin1 rather familiarly1 because1 as ,bayes adds1 they are both persons of the same quality3-- #ast ,king4--,did you observe their whispers1 brother king8 #bnd ,king4--,i did1 and heard1 besides1 a grave bird sing1 ,that they intend1 sweetheart1 to play us pranks4 #ast ,king4--,if that design appears1 ,i'll lay them by the ears1 ,until ,i make 'em crack4 #bnd ,king4--,and so will ,i1 i' fack6 #ast ,king4--,you must begin1 mon foi4 #bnd ,king4--,sweet sir1 pardonnez moi4 ,bayes observes that he makes the two kings talk ,french in order to show their breeding4 ,in the third act1 ,bayes introduces a new character1 prince ,prettyman1 a parody upon the character of ,leonidas1 in ,dryden's ,marriage-a-la-,mode4 ,the prince falls asleep1 and then his beloved ,cloris comes in1 and is surprised1 upon which ,bayes remarks1 ,now1 here she must make a simile4 ,where's the necessity of that1 ,mr4 ,bayes8 asks the critical ,mr4 ,smith4 ,oh1 replies ,bayes1 because she's surprised4 ,that's a general rule4 ,you must ever make a simile when you are surprised2 'tis a new way of writing4 ,now we have another parody upon one of ,dryden's similes4 ,in the fourth scene1 the ,gentleman-,usher and ,physician appear again1 discussing the question whether their whispers had been heard or not1 a discussion which they conclude by seizing on the two thrones1 and occupying them with their drawn swords in their hands4 ,then they march out to raise their forces1 and a battle to music takes place1 four soldiers on each side1 who are all killed4 ,next we have a scene between prince ,prettyman and his tailor1 ,tom ,thimble1 which involves a joke upon the princely principle of non-payment4 ,a scene or two follows in a similar tone1 without at all advancing the plot2 although it appears that another prince1 ,volscius1 who1 we are to suppose1 supports the old dynasty of ,brentford1 has made his escape to ,piccadilly1 while the army which he is to lead has assembled1 and is concealed1 at ,knightsbridge4 ,this incident produces a discussion between ,mr4 ,bayes and his friends3-- ,smith4--,but pray1 ,mr4 ,bayes1 is not this a little difficult1 that you were saying e'en now1 to keep an army thus concealed in ,knightsbridge8 ,bayes4--,in ,knightsbridge8--stay4 ,johnson4--,no1 not if inn-keepers be his friends4#ajj ,bayes4--,his friends8 ,ay1 sir1 his intimate acquaintance2 or else1 indeed1 ,i grant it could not be4 ,smith4--,yes1 faith1 so it might be very easy4 ,bayes4--,nay1 if ,i don't make all things easy1 'egad1 ,i'll give 'em leave to hang me4 ,now you would think that he is going out of town2 but you will see how prettily ,i have contrived to stop him1 presently4 #ajj ,knightsbridge1 as the principal entrance to ,london from the west1 was full of inns4 ,accordingly1 prince ,volscius yields to the influence of a fair demoiselle1 who bears the classical name of ,parthenope1 and after various exhibitions of hesitation1 he does not leave town4 ,another scene or two1 with little meaning1 but full of clever parodies on the plays of ,dryden1 the ,howards1 and their contemporaries4 ,the first scene of the fourth act opens with a funeral1 a parody upon colonel ,henry ,howard's play of the ,united ,kingdoms4 ,pallas interferes1 brings the lady who is to be buried to life1 gets up a dance1 and furnishes a very extempore feast4 ,the princes ,prettyman and ,volscius dispute about their sweethearts4 ,at the commencement of the fifth act the two usurping kings appear in state1 attended by four cardinals1 the two princes1 all the lady-loves1 heralds1 and sergeants-at-arms1 c4 ,in the middle of all this state1 the two right kings of ,brentford descend in the clouds1 singing1 in white garments1 and three fiddlers sitting before them in green4 ,now1 says ,bayes to his friends1 because the two right kings descend from above1 ,i make 'em sing to the tune and style of our modern spirits4 ,and accordingly they proceeded in a continuous parody3-- #ast ,king4--,haste1 brother king1 we are sent from above4 #bnd ,king4--,let us move1 let us move2 ,move1 to remove the fate ,of ,brentford's long united state4 #ast ,king4--,tara1 tan1 tara6--full east and by south4 #bnd ,king4--,we sail with thunder in our mouth4 ,in scorching noon-day1 whilst the traveller stays1 ,busy1 busy1 busy1 busy1 we bustle along1 ,mounted upon warm ,phbus's rays1 ,through the heavenly throng1 ,hasting to those ,who will feast us at night with a pig's pettytoes4 #ast ,king4--,and we'll fall with our plate ,in an olio of hate #bnd ,king4--,but1 now supper's done1 the servitors try1 ,like soldiers1 to storm a whole half-moon pie4 #ast ,king4--,they gather1 they gather1 hot custards in spoons3 ,but1 alas6 ,i must leave these half-moons1 ,and repair to my trusty dragoons4 #bnd ,king4--,o stay6 for you need not as yet go astray2 ,the tide1 like a friend1 has brought ships in our way1 ,and on their high ropes we will play2 ,like maggots in filberts1 we'll snug in our shell1 ,we'll frisk in our shell1 ,we'll firk in our shell1 ,and farewell4 #ast ,king4--,but the ladies have all inclination to dance1 ,and the green frogs croak out a coranto of ,france4 ,all this is quite ,aristophanic4 ,it is interrupted by a discussion between ,bayes and his visitors on the music and the dance1 and then the two kings continue3-- #bnd ,king4--,now mortals1 that hear ,how we tilt and career1 ,with wonder1 will fear ,the event of such things as shall never appear4 #ast ,king4--,stay you to fulfil what the gods have decreed4 #bnd ,king4--,then call me to help you1 if there shall be need4 #ast ,king4--,so firmly resolved is a true ,brentford king1 ,to save the distressed1 and help to 'em bring1 ,that1 ere a full pot of good ale you can swallow1 ,he's here with a whoop1 and gone with a halloo4 ,the rather too inquisitive ,smith wonders at all this1 and complains that1 to him1 the sense of this is not very plain4 ,plain6 exclaims ,bayes1 why1 did you ever hear any people in the clouds speak plain8 ,they must be all for flight of fancy1 at its full range1 without the least check or control upon it4 ,when once you tie up sprites and people in clouds to speak plain1 you spoil all4 ,the two kings of ,brentford now light out of the clouds1 and step into the throne1 continuing the same dignified conversation3-- #ast ,king4--,come1 now to serious council we'll advance4 #bnd ,king4--,i do agree2 but first1 let's have a dance4 ,this confidence of the two kings of ,brentford is suddenly disturbed by the sound of war4 ,two heralds announce that the army1 that of ,knightsbridge1 had come to protect them1 and that it had come in disguise1 an arrangement which puzzles the author's two visitors3-- #ast ,king4--,what saucy groom molests our privacies8 #ast ,herald4--,the army's at the door1 and1 in disguise1 ,desires a word with both your majesties4 #bnd ,herald4--,having from ,knightsbridge hither march'd by stealth4 #bnd ,king4--,bid 'em attend a while1 and drink our health4 ,smith4--,how1 ,mr4 ,bayes8 ,the army in disguise6 ,bayes4--,ay1 sir1 for fear the usurpers might discover them1 that went out but just now4 ,war itself follows1 and the commanders of the two armies1 the general and the lieutenant-general1 appear upon the stage in another parody upon the opening scenes of ,dryden's ,siege of ,rhodes3-- ,enter1 at several doors1 the ,,general and ,,lieutenant-,,general1 armed cap--pie1 with each a lute in his hand1 and his sword drawn1 and hung with a scarlet riband at the wrist4 ,lieut4-,gen4--,villain1 thou liest4 ,gen4--,arm1 arm1 ,gonsalvo1 arm4 ,what6 ho6 ,the lie no flesh can brook1 ,i trow4 ,lieut4-,gen4--,advance from ,acton with the musqueteers4 ,gen4--,draw down the ,chelsea cuirassiers4 ,lieut4-,gen4--,the band you boast of1 ,chelsea cuirassiers1 ,shall in my ,putney pikes now meet their peers4 ,gen4--,chiswickians1 aged1 and renowned in fight1 ,join with the ,hammersmith brigade4 ,lieut4-,gen4--,you'll find my ,mortlake boys will do them right1 ,unless by ,fulham numbers over-laid4 ,gen4--,let the left wing of ,twick'n'am foot advance1 ,and line that eastern hedge4 ,lieut4-,gen4--,the horse ,i raised in ,petty ,france ,shall try their chance1 ,and scour the meadows1 overgrown with sedge4 ,gen4--,stand3 give the word4 ,lieut4-,gen4--,bright sword4 ,gen4--,that may be thine1 ,but 'tis not mine4 ,lieut4-,gen4--,give fire1 give fire1 at once give fire1 ,and let those recreant troops perceive mine ire4 ,gen4--,pursue1 pursue2 they fly1 ,that first did give the lie6 ,exeunt4 ,thus the battle is carried on in talk between two individuals4 ,bayes alleges1 as an excuse for introducing these trivial names of places1 that the spectators know all these towns1 and may easily conceive them to be within the dominions of the two kings of ,brentford4 ,the battle is finally stopped by an eclipse1 and three personages1 representing the sun1 moon1 and earth1 advance upon the stage1 and by dint of singing and manuvring1 one gets in a line between the other two1 and this1 according to the strict rules of astronomy1 constituted the eclipse4 ,the eclipse is followed by another battle of a more desperate character1 to which a stop is put in an equally extraordinary manner1 by the entrance of the furious hero ,drawcansir1 who slays all the combatants on both sides4 ,the marriage of prince ,prettyman was to form the subject of the fifth act1 but while ,bayes1 ,johnson1 and ,smith withdraw temporarily1 all the players1 in disgust1 run away to their dinners1 and thus ends ,the ,rehearsal of ,mr4 ,bayes's play4 ,the epilogue returns to the moral which the play was designed to inculcate3-- ,the play is at an end1 but where's the plot8 ,that circumstance the poet ,bayes forgot4 ,and we can boast1 though 'tis a plotting age1 ,no place is freer from it than the stage4 ,formerly people sought to write so that they might be understood1 but this new way of wit was altogether incomprehensible3-- ,wherefore1 for ours1 and for the kingdom's peace1 ,may this prodigious way of writing cease2 ,let's have1 at least once in our lives1 a time ,when we may hear some reason1 not all rhyme4 ,we have this ten years felt its influence2 ,pray let this prove a year of prose and sense4 ,english comedy was certainly greatly reformed1 in some senses of the word reform1 during the period which followed the publication of ,the ,rehearsal1 and1 in the hands of writers like ,wycherley1 ,shadwell1 ,congreve1 and ,d',urfey1 the dulness of the ,howards was exchanged for an extreme degree of vivacity4 ,the plot was as little considered as ever--it was a mere peg on which to hang scenes brilliant with wit and repartee4 ,the small intrigue is often but a frame for a great picture of society in its forms then most open to caricature1 with all the petty intrigues inseparable from it4 ,epsom ,wells1 one of ,shadwell's earlier comedies1 and perhaps his best1 will bear comparison with ,jonson's ,bartholomew ,fair4 ,the personages represented in it are exactly those which then shone in such society--three men of wit and pleasure1 one of the class of country squires whom the wits of ,london loved to laugh at1 and who is described as a country justice1 a public spirited1 politick1 discontented fop1 an immoderate hater of ,london1 and a lover of the country above measure1 a hearty true ,english coxcomb4 ,then we have two cheating1 sharking1 cowardly bullies4 ,the citizens of ,london are represented by ,bisket1 a comfit-maker1 a quiet1 humble1 civil cuckold1 governed by his wife1 whom he very much fears and loves at the same time1 and is very proud of1 and ,fribble1 a haberdasher1 a surly cuckold1 very conceited1 and proud of his wife1 but pretends to govern and keep her under1 and their wives1 the first an impertinent1 imperious strumpet1 and the other1 an humble1 submitting wife1 who jilts her husband that way1 a very ----4 ,one or two other characters of the same stamp1 with two young ladies of wit1 beauty1 and fortune1 who behave themselves not much better than the others1 and a full allowance of parsons1 hectors1 constables1 watchmen1 and fiddlers1 complete the dramatis person of ,epsom ,wells4 ,with such materials anybody will understand the character of the piece1 which was brought out on the stage in #afgb4 ,the ,squire of ,alsatia1 by the same author1 brought upon the stage in the eventful year #afhh1 is a vivid picture of one of the wildest phases of ,london life in those still rather primitive times4 ,alsatia1 as every reader of ,walter ,scott knows1 was a cant name for the ,white ,friars1 in ,london1 a locality which1 at that time1 was beyond the reach of the law and its officers1 a refuge for thieves and rogues1 and especially for debtors1 where they could either resist with no great fear of being overcome1 or1 when resistance was no longer possible1 escape with ease4 ,with such a scene1 and such people for characters1 we are not surprised that the printed edition of this play is prefaced by a vocabulary of the cant words employed in it4 ,the principal characters in the play are of the same class with those which form the staple of all these old comedies4 ,first there is a country father or uncle1 who is rich and severe upon the vices of youth1 or arbitrary1 or avaricious4 ,he is here represented by sir ,william ,belfond1 a gentleman of about #cjjj per annum1 who in his youth had been a spark of the town2 but married and retired into the country1 where he turned to the other extreme--rigid1 morose1 most sordidly covetous1 clownish1 obstinate1 positive1 and forward4 ,he must have a ,london brother1 or near relative1 endowed with exactly contrary qualities1 here represented by sir ,edward ,belfond1 sir ,william's brother1 a merchant1 who by lucky hits had gotten a great estate1 lives single with ease and pleasure1 reasonably and virtuously1 a man of great humanity and gentleness and compassion towards mankind1 well read in good books1 possessed with all gentlemanlike qualities4 ,sir ,william ,belfond has two sons4 ,belfond senior1 the eldest1 is bred after his father's rustic1 swinish manner1 with great rigour and severity1 upon whom his father's estate is entailed1 the confidence of which makes him break out into open rebellion to his father1 and become lewd1 abominably vicious1 stubborn1 and obstinate4 ,the younger ,belfond1 ,sir ,william's second son1 had been adopted by ,sir ,edward1 and bred from his childhood by him1 with all the tenderness and familiarity1 and bounty1 and liberty that can be2 he was instructed in all the liberal sciences1 and in all gentleman-like education2 somewhat given to women1 and now and then to good fellowship2 but an ingenious1 well-accomplished gentleman2 a man of honour1 and of excellent disposition and temper4 ,then we have some of the leading heroes of ,alsatia1 and first ,cheatly1 who is described as a rascal1 who by reason of debts1 dares not stir out of ,whitefryers1 but there inveigles young heirs in tail2 and helps 'em to goods and money upon great disadvantages2 is bound for them1 and shares with them1 till he undoes them2 a lewd1 impudent1 debauched fellow1 very expert in the cant about the town4 ,shamwell is cousin to the ,belfonds1 an heir1 who1 being ruined by ,cheatly1 is made a decoy-duck for others2 not daring to stay out of ,alsatia1 where he lives2 is bound with ,cheatly for heirs1 and lives upon them1 a dissolute1 debauch'd life4 ,another of these characters is captain ,hackum1 a block-headed bully of ,alsatia2 a cowardly1 impudent1 blustering fellow2 formerly a sergeant in ,flanders1 run from his colours1 retreating into ,whitefryers for a very small debt2 where by the ,alsatians he is dubb'd a captain2 marries one that lets lodgings1 sells cherry-brandy1 and is a bawd4 ,nor is ,alsatia without a representative of the ,puritanical part of society1 in ,scrapeall1 a hypocritical1 repeating1 praying1 psalm-singing1 precise fellow1 pretending to great piety2 a godly knave1 who joins with ,cheatly1 and supplies young heirs with goods and money4 ,a rather large number of inferior characters fill up the canvas2 and the females1 with two exceptions1 belong to the same class4 ,the plot of this play is very simple4 ,the elder son of sir ,william ,belfond has taken to ,alsatia1 but sir ,william1 on his return from abroad1 hearing talk of the fame of a squire ,belfond among the ,alsatians1 imagines that it is his younger son1 and out of this mistake a considerable amount of misunderstanding arises4 ,at last sir ,william discovers his error1 and finds his eldest son in ,whitefryers1 but the youth sets him at defiance4 ,the father1 in great anger1 brings tipstaff constables1 to take away his son by force2 but the ,alsatians rise in force1 the officers of the law are beaten1 and sir ,william himself taken prisoner4 ,he is rescued by the younger ,belfond1 and in the conclusion the elder brother becomes penitent1 and is reconciled with his father4 ,there is an underplot1 far from moral in its character1 which ends in the marriage of ,belfond junior4 ,it is a busy1 noisy play1 and was a great favourite on the stage2 but it is now chiefly interesting as a vivid picture of ,london life in the latter half of the seventeenth century4 ,bury ,fair1 by ,shadwell1 is another comedy of the same description2 with little interest in the plot1 but full of life and movement4 ,if ,the ,squire of ,alsatia was noisy1 ,the ,scowrers1 another comedy by the same author1 first brought on the stage in #afia1 was still more so4 ,the wild and riotous gallants who1 in former times of inefficient police regulation1 infested the streets at night1 and committed all sorts of outrages1 were known at different periods by a variety of names4 ,in the reign of ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i4 they were the roaring boys2 in the time of ,shadwell1 they were called the scowrers1 because they scowered the streets at night1 and rather roughly cleared them of all passengers2 a few years later they took the name of ,mohocks1 or ,mohawks4 ,during the night ,london lay at the mercy of these riotous classes1 and the streets witnessed scenes of brutal violence1 which1 at the present day1 we can hardly imagine4 ,this state of things is pictured in ,shadwell's comedy4 ,sir ,william ,rant1 ,wildfire1 and ,tope1 are noted scowrers1 well known in the town1 whose fame has excited emulation in men of less distinction in their way1 ,whachum1 a city wit and scowrer1 imitator of sir ,william1 and two scoundrells1 his companions1 ,bluster and ,dingboy4 ,great enmity arises between the two parties of rival scowrers4 ,the more serious characters in the play are ,mr4 ,rant1 sir ,william ,rant's father1 and sir ,richard ,maggot1 a foolish ,jacobite alderman 7it must be remembered that we are now in the reign of king ,william74 ,sir ,richard's wife1 lady ,maggot1 like the citizen's wives of the comedy of the ,restoration generally1 is a lady rather wanting in virtue1 ambitious of mixing with the gay and fashionable world1 and somewhat of a tyrant over her husband4 ,she has two handsome daughters1 whom she seeks to keep confined from the world1 lest they should become her rivals4 ,there are low characters of both sexes1 who need not be enumerated4 ,much of the play is taken up with street rows1 capital satirical pictures of ,london life4 ,the play ends with marriages1 and with the reconciliation of sir ,william ,rant with his father1 the serious old gentleman of the play4 ,shadwell excelled in these busy comedies4 ,one of the nearest approaches to him is ,mountfort's comedy of ,greenwich ,park1 which is another striking satire on the looseness of ,london life at that time4 ,as in the others1 the plot is simply nothing4 ,the play consists of a number of intrigues1 such as may be imagined1 at a time when morality was little respected1 in places of fashionable resort like ,greenwich ,park and ,deptford ,wells4 ,an element of satire was now introduced into ,english comedy which does not appear to have belonged to it before--this was mimicry4 ,although the principal characters in the play bore conventional names1 they appear often to have been intended to represent individuals then well known in society1 and these individuals were caricatured in their dress1 and mimicked in their language and manners4 ,we are told that this mimicry contributed greatly to the success of ,the ,rehearsal1 the duke of ,buckingham having taken incredible pains to make ,lacy1 who acted the part of ,bayes1 perfect in imitating the voice and manner of ,dryden1 whose dress and gait were minutely copied4 ,this personal satire was not always performed with impunity4 ,on the #ast of ,february1 #affi1 ,pepys went to the ,theatre ,royal to see the performance of ,the ,heiress1 in which it appears that sir ,charles ,sedley was personally caricatured1 and the secretary of king ,charles's admiralty has left in his diary the following entry3--,to the king's house1 thinking to have seen the ,heyresse1 first acted on ,saturday1 but when we come thither we find no play there2 ,kynaston1 that did act a part therein in abuse to sir ,charles ,sedley1 being last night exceedingly beaten with sticks by two or three that saluted him1 so as he is mightily bruised1 and forced to keep his bed4 ,it is said that ,dryden's comedy of ,limberham1 brought on the stage in #afgh1 was prohibited after the first night1 because the character of ,limberham was considered to be too open a satire on the duke of ,lauderdale4 ,another peculiarity in the comedies of the age of the ,restoration was their extraordinary indelicacy4 ,the writers seemed to emulate each other in presenting upon the stage scenes and language which no modest ear or pure mind could support4 ,in the earlier period coarseness in conversation was characteristic of an unpolished age--the language put in the mouths of the actors1 as remarked before1 smelt of the tavern2 but under ,charles ,,ii4 the tone of fashionable society1 as represented on the stage1 is modelled upon that of the brothel4 ,even the veiled allusion is no longer resorted to1 broad and direct language is substituted in its place4 ,this open profligacy of the stage reached its greatest height between the years #afgj and #afhj4 ,the staple material of this comedy may be considered to be the commission of adultery1 which is presented as one of the principal ornaments in the character of the well-bred gentleman1 varied with the seducing of other men's mistresses1 for the keeping of mistresses appears as the rule of social life4 ,the ,country ,wife1 one of ,wycherley's comedies1 which is supposed to have been brought on the stage perhaps as early as #afgb1 is a mass of gross indecency from beginning to end4 ,it involves two principal plots1 that of a voluptuary who feigns himself incapable of love and insensible to the other sex1 in order to pursue his intrigues with greater liberty2 and that of a citizen who takes to his wife a silly and innocent country girl1 whose ignorance he believes will be a protection to her virtue1 but the very means he takes to prevent her1 lead to her fall4 ,the ,parson's ,wedding1 by ,thomas ,killigrew1 first acted in #afgc1 is equally licentious4 ,the same at least may be said of ,dryden's ,limberham1 or the ,kind ,keeper1 first performed in #afgh1 which1 according to the author's own statement1 was prohibited on account of its freeness1 but more probably because the character of ,limberham was believed to be intended for a personal satire on the unpopular earl of ,lauderdale4 ,its plot is simple enough2 it is the story of a debauched old gentleman1 named ,aldo1 whose son1 after a rather long absence on the ,continent1 returns to ,england1 and assumes the name of ,woodall1 in order to enjoy freely the pleasures of ,london life before he makes himself known to his friends4 ,he takes a lodging in a house occupied by some loose women1 and there meets with his father1 but1 as the latter does not recognise his son1 they become friends1 and live together licentiously so long1 that when the son at length discovers himself1 the old man is obliged to overlook his vices4 ,otway's comedy of ,friendship in ,fashion1 performed the same year1 was not a whit more moral4 ,but all these are far outdone by ,ravenscroft's comedy of ,the ,london ,cuckolds1 first brought out in #afhb1 which1 nevertheless1 continued to be acted until late in the last century4 ,it is a clever comedy1 full of action1 and consisting of a great number of different incidents1 selected from the less moral tales of the old story-tellers as they appear in the ,decameron of ,boccaccio1 among which that of the ignorant and uneducated young wife1 similar to the plot of ,wycherley's ,country ,wife1 is again introduced4 ,the corruption of morals had become so great1 that when women took up the pen1 they exceeded in licentiousness even the other sex1 as was the case with ,mrs4 ,behn4 ,aphra ,behn is understood to have been born at ,canterbury1 but to have passed some part of her youth in the colony of ,surinam1 of which her father was governor4 ,she evidently possessed a disposition for intrigue1 and she was employed by the ,english government1 a few years after the ,restoration1 as a political spy at ,antwerp4 ,she subsequently settled in ,london1 and gained a living by her pen1 which was very prolific in novels1 poems1 and plays4 ,it would be difficult to point out in any other works such scenes of open profligacy as those presented in ,mrs4 ,behn's two comedies of ,sir ,patient ,fancy and ,the ,city ,heiress1 or ,sir ,timothy ,treat-all1 which appeared in #afgh and #afha4 ,concealment of the slightest kind is avoided1 and even that which cannot be exposed to view1 is tolerably broadly described4 ,it appears that the performance of the ,london ,cuckolds had been the cause of some scandal1 and there were1 even among play-goers1 some who took offence at such outrages on the ordinary feelings of modesty4 ,the excess of the evil had begun to produce a reaction4 ,ravenscroft1 the author of that comedy1 produced on the stage1 in #afhd1 a comedy1 entitled ,dame ,dobson1 or the ,cunning ,woman1 which was intended to be a modest play1 but it was unceremoniously damned by the audience4 ,the prologue to this new comedy intimates that the ,london ,cuckolds had pleased the town and diverted the court1 but that some squeamish females had taken offence at it1 and that he had now written a dull1 civill play to make amends4 ,they are addressed1 therefore1 in such terms as these3-- ,in you1 chaste ladies1 then we hope to-day1 ,this is the poet's recantation play4 ,come often to 't1 that he at length may see ',tis more than a pretended modesty4 ,stick by him now1 for if he finds you falter1 ,he quickly will his way of writing alter2 ,and every play shall send you blushing home1 ,for1 though you rail1 yet then we're sure you'll come4 ,and it is further intimated1-- ,a naughty play was never counted dull-- ,nor modest comedy e'er pleased you much4 ,i remember1 says ,colley ,cibber in his ,apology1 looking back to these times1 ,i remember the ladies were then observed to be decently afraid of venturing bare-faced to a new comedy1 till they had been assured they might do it without the risk of an insult to their modesty2 or if their curiosity were too strong for their patience1 they took care at least to save appearances1 and rarely came upon the first days of acting but in masks 7then daily worn1 and admitted in the pit1 the side boxes1 and gallery71 which custom1 however1 had so many ill consequences attending it1 that it has been abolished these many years4 ,according to the ,spectator1 ladies began now to desert the theatre when comedies were brought out1 except those who never miss the first day of a new play1 lest it should prove too luscious to admit of their going with any countenance to the second4 ,in the midst of this abuse1 there suddenly appeared a book which created at the time a great sensation4 ,the comedies of the latter half of the seventeenth century were not only indecent1 but they were filled with profane language1 and contained scenes in which religion itself was treated with contempt4 ,at that time there lived a divine of the ,church of ,england1 celebrated for his ,jacobitism--for ,i am now speaking of the reign of king ,william--for his talents as a controversial writer1 and for his zeal in any cause which he undertook4 ,this was ,jeremy ,collier1 the author of several books of some merit1 which are seldom read now1 and who suffered for his zeal in the cause of king ,james1 and for his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to king ,william4 ,in the year #afih ,collier published his ,short ,view of the ,immorality and ,profaneness of the ,english stage1 in which he boldly attacked the licentiousness of the ,english comedy4 ,perhaps ,collier's zeal carried him a little too far2 but he had offended the wits1 and especially the dramatic poets1 on all sides1 and he was exposed to attacks from all quarters1 in which ,dryden himself took an active part4 ,collier showed himself fully capable of dealing with his opponents1 and the controversy had the effect of calling attention to the immoralities of the stage1 and certainly contributed much towards reforming them4 ,they were become much less frequent and less gross at the opening of the eighteenth century4 ,towards the end of the reign of king ,charles ,,ii41 the stage was more largely employed as a political agent1 and under his successor1 ,james ,,ii41 the ,puritans and the ,whigs were constantly held up to scorn4 ,after the ,revolution1 the tables were turned1 and the satire of the stage was often aimed at ,tories and ,non-jurors4 ,the ,non-juror1 by ,colley ,cibber1 which appeared in #agag1 at a very opportune moment1 gained for its author a pension and the office of poet-laureate4 ,it was founded upon the ,tartuffe of ,molire1 for the ,english comedy writers borrowed much from the foreign stage4 ,a disguised priest1 who passes under the name of ,dr4 ,wolf1 and who had been engaged in the rebellion of #agae1 has insinuated himself into the household of a gentleman of fortune1 of not very strong judgment1 ,sir ,john ,woodvil1 whom1 under the title of a ,non-juror1 he has not only induced to become an abettor of rebels1 but he has persuaded him to disinherit his son1 and he labours to seduce his wife and to deceive his daughter4 ,his baseness is exposed only just soon enough to defeat his designs4 ,such a production as this could not fail to give great offence to all the ,jacobite party1 of whatever shade1 who were then rather numerous in ,london1 and ,cibber assures us that his reward was a considerable amount of adverse criticism in every quarter where the ,tory influence reached4 ,his comedies were inferior in brilliance of dialogue to those of the previous age1 but the plots were well imagined and conducted1 and they are generally good acting plays4 ,to ,samuel ,foote1 born in #agbb1 we owe the last change in the form and character of ,english comedy4 ,a man of infinite wit and humour1 and possessed of extraordinary talent as a mimic1 ,foote made mimicry the principal instrument of his success on the stage4 ,his plays are above all light and amusing2 he reduced the old comedy of five acts to three acts1 and his plots were usually simple1 the dialogue full of wit and humour2 but their peculiar characteristic was their open boldness of personal satire4 ,it is entirely a comedy of his own4 ,he sought to direct his wit against all the vices of society1 but this he did by holding up to ridicule and scorn the individuals who had in some way or other made themselves notorious by the practice of them4 ,all his principal characters were real characters1 who were more or less known to the public1 and who were so perfectly mimicked on the stage in their dress1 gait1 and speech1 that it was impossible to mistake them4 ,thus1 in ,the ,devil upon ,two ,sticks1 which is a general satire on the low condition to which the practice of medicine had then fallen1 the personages introduced in it all represented quacks well known about the town4 ,the ,maid of ,bath dragged upon the stage scandals which were then the talk of ,bath society4 ,the nabob of the comedy which bears that title1 had also his model in real life4 ,the ,bankrupt may be considered as a general satire on the baseness of the newspaper press of that day1 which was made the means of propagating private scandals and libellous accusations in order to extort money1 yet the characters introduced are said to have been all portraits from the life2 and the same statement is made with regard to the comedy of ,the ,author4 ,it is evident that a drama of this inquisitorial character is a dangerous thing1 and that it could hardly be allowed to exist where the rights of society are properly defined2 and we are not surprised if ,foote provoked a host of bitter enemies4 ,but in some cases the author met with punishment of a heavier and more substantial description4 ,one of the individuals introduced into ,the ,maid of ,bath1 extorted damages to the amount of #c1jjj4 ,one of the persons who figured in ,the ,author1 obtained an order from the lord chamberlain for putting a stop to the performance after it had had a short run2 and the consequences of ,the ,trip to ,calais1 were still more disastrous4 ,it is well known that the character of lady ,kitty ,crocodile in that play was a broad caricature on the notorious duchess of ,kingston4 ,through the treachery of some of the people employed by ,foote1 the duchess obtained information of the nature of this play before it was ready for representation1 and she had sufficient influence to obtain the lord chamberlain's prohibition for bringing it on the stage4 ,nor was this all1 for as the play was printed1 if not acted1--and it was subsequently brought out in a modified form1 with omission of the part of lady ,kitty ,crocodile1 though the characters of some of her agents were still retained1--infamous charges were got up against ,foote1 in retaliation1 which caused him so much trouble and grief1 that they are said to have shortened his days4 ,the drama which ,samuel ,foote had invented did not outlive him2 its caricature was itself transferred to the caricature of the print-shop4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,caricature ,,in ,,holland4--,,romain ,,de ,,hooghe4--,,the ,,english ,,revolution4--,,caricatures ,,on ,,louis ,,xiv4 ,,and ,,james ,,ii4--,,dr4 ,,sacheverell4--,,caricature ,,brought ,,from ,,holland ,,to ,,england4--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,word ,,caricature4--,,mississippi ,,and ,,the ,,south ,,sea2 ,,the ,,year ,,of ,,bubbles4 ,modern political caricature1 born1 as we have seen1 in ,france1 may be considered to have had its cradle in ,holland4 ,the position of that country1 and its greater degree of freedom1 made it1 in the seventeenth century1 the general place of refuge to the political discontents of other lands1 and especially to the ,french who fled from the tyranny of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,it possessed at that time some of the most skilful artists and best engravers in ,europe1 and it became the central spot from which were launched a multitude of satirical prints against that monarch's policy1 and against himself and his favourites and ministers4 ,this was in a great measure the cause of the bitter hatred which ,louis always displayed towards that country4 ,he feared the caricatures of the ,dutch more than their arms1 and the pencil and graver of ,romain de ,hooghe were among the most effective weapons employed by ,william of ,nassau4 ,the marriage of ,william with ,mary1 daughter of the duke of ,york1 in #afgg1 naturally gave the ,dutch a greater interest than they could have felt before in the domestic affairs of ,great ,britain1 and a new stimulus to their zeal against ,louis of ,france1 or1 which was the same thing1 against arbitrary power and ,popery1 both of which had been rendered odious under his name4 ,the accession of ,james ,,ii4 to the throne of ,england1 and his attempt to re-establish ,popery1 added religious as well as political fuel to these feelings1 for everybody understood that ,james was acting under the protection of the king of ,france4 ,the very year of king ,james's accession1 in #afhe1 the caricature appeared which we have copied in our cut ,no4 #ahf1 and which1 although the inscription is in ,english1 appears to have been the work of a foreign artist4 ,it was probably intended to represent ,mary of ,modena1 the queen of ,james ,,ii41 and her rather famous confessor1 father ,petre1 the latter under the character of the wolf among the sheep4 ,its aim is sufficiently evident to need no explanation4 ,at the top1 in the original1 are the ,latin words1 ,converte ,angliam1 convert ,england1 and beneath1 in ,english1 ,it is a foolish sheep that makes the wolf her confessor4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahf4 ,a ,dangerous ,confessor4 ,the period during which the ,dutch school of caricature flourished1 extended through the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 and into the regency in ,france1 and two great events1 the revolution of #afhh in ,england1 and the wild money speculations of the year #agbj1 exercised especially the pencils of its caricaturists4 ,the first of these events belongs almost entirely to ,romain de ,hooghe4 ,very little is known of the personal history of this remarkable artist1 but he is believed to have been born towards the middle of the seventeenth century1 and to have died in the earlier years of the eighteenth century4 ,the older ,french writers on art1 who were prejudiced against ,romain de ,hooghe for his bitter hostility to ,louis ,,xiv41 inform us that in his youth he employed his graver on obscene subjects1 and led a life so openly licentious1 that he was banished from his native town of ,amsterdam1 and went to live at ,haerlem4 ,he gained celebrity by the series of plates1 executed in #afgb1 which represented the horrible atrocities committed in ,holland by the ,french troops1 and which raised against ,louis ,,xiv4 the indignation of all ,europe4 ,it is said that the prince of ,orange 7,william ,,iii4 of ,england71 appreciating the value of his satire as a political weapon1 secured it in his own interests by liberally patronising the caricaturist2 and we owe to ,romain de ,hooghe a succession of large prints in which the king of ,france1 his protg ,james ,,ii41 and the adherents of the latter1 are covered with ridicule4 ,one1 published in #afhh1 and entitled ,les ,monarches ,tombants1 commemorates the flight of the royal family from ,england4 ,another1 which appeared at the same date1 is entitled1 in ,french1 ,arlequin fur l'hypogryphe la croisade ,loioliste1 and in ,dutch1 ,arme van de ,heylige ,league voor der ,jesuiten ,monarchy 7i4e4 the army of the holy league for establishing the monarchy of the ,jesuits74 ,louis ,,xiv4 and ,james ,,ii4 were represented under the characters of ,arlequin and ,panurge1 who are seated on the animal here called a hypogryphe1 but which is really a wild ass4 ,the two kings have their heads joined together under one ,jesuit's cap4 ,other figures1 forming part of this army of ,jesuitism1 are distributed over the field1 the most grotesque of which is that given in our cut ,no4 #ahg4 ,two personages introduced in some ridiculous position or other1 in most of these caricatures1 are father ,petre1 the ,jesuit1 and the infant prince of ,wales1 afterwards the old ,pretender4 ,it was pretended that this infant was in fact the child of a miller1 secretly introduced into the queen's bed concealed in a warming-pan2 and that this ingenious plot was contrived by father ,petre4 ,hence the boy was popularly called ,peterkin1 or ,perkin1 i4e4 little ,peter1 which was the name given afterwards to the ,pretender in songs and satires at the time of his rebellion2 and in the prints a windmill was usually given to the child as a sign of its father's trade4 ,in the group represented in our cut1 father ,petre1 with the child in his arms1 is seated on a rather singular steed1 a lobster4 ,the young prince here carries the windmill on his head4 ,on the lobster's back1 behind the ,jesuit1 are carried the papal crown1 surmounted by a fleur-de-lis1 with a bundle of relics1 indulgences1 c41 and it has seized in one claw the ,english church service book1 and in the other the book of the laws of ,england4 ,in the ,dutch description of this print1 the child is called the new born ,antichrist4 ,another of ,romain de ,hooghe's prints1 entitled ,panurge second par ,arlequin ,deodaat la croisade d',irlande1 #afhi1 is a satire on king ,james's expedition to ,ireland1 which led to the memorable battle of the ,boyne4 ,james and his friends are proceeding to the place of embarkation1 and1 as represented in our cut ,no4 #ahh1 father ,petre marches in front1 carrying the infant prince in his arms4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahg4 ,a ,jesuit well ,mounted4 ,the drawing of ,romain de ,hooghe is not always correct1 especially in his larger subjects1 which perhaps may be ascribed to his hasty and careless manner of working2 but he displays great skill in grouping his figures1 and great power in investing them with a large amount of satirical humour4 ,most of the other caricatures of the time are poor both in design and execution4 ,such is the case with a vulgar satirical print which was published in ,france in the autumn of #afij1 on the arrival of a false rumour that king ,william had been killed in ,ireland4 ,in the field of the picture the corpse of the king is followed by a procession consisting of his queen and the principal supporters of his cause4 ,the lower corner on the left hand is occupied by a view of the interior of the infernal regions1 and king ,william introduced in the place allotted to him among the flames4 ,in different parts of the picture there are several inscriptions1 all breathing a spirit of very insolent exultation4 ,one of them is the-- ,billet d',enterrement4 ,vous estes priez d'assister au convoy1 service1 et enterrement du tres haut1 tres grand1 et tres infame ,prince infernal1 grand stadouter1 des ,arms diaboliques de la ligue d',ausbourg1 et insigne usurpateur des ,royaumes d',angleterre1 d',eccosse1 et d',irlande1 dcd dans l',irlande au mois d',aoust #afij1 qui se fera le dit mois1 dans sa paroisse infernale1 ou assisteront ,dame ,proserpine1 ,radamonte1 et les ,ligueurs4 ,les ,dames lui diront s'il leur plaist des injures4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahh4 ,off to ,ireland4 ,the prints executed in ,england at this time were1 if possible1 worse than those published in ,france4 ,almost the only contemporary caricature on the downfall of the ,stuarts that ,i know1 is an ill-executed print1 published immediately after the accession of ,william ,,iii41 under the title1 ,england's ,memorial of its wonderful deliverance from ,french ,tyranny and ,popish ,oppression4 ,the middle of the picture is occupied by the royal orange tree1 which flourishes in spite of all the attempts to destroy it4 ,at the upper corner1 on the left side1 is a representation of the ,french king's council1 consisting of an equal number of ,jesuits and devils1 seated alternately at a round table4 ,the circumstance that the titles and inscriptions of nearly all these caricatures are in ,dutch1 seems to show that their influence was intended to be exercised in ,holland rather than elsewhere4 ,in two or three only of them these descriptions were accompanied with translations in ,english or ,french2 and after a time1 copies of them began to be made in ,england1 accompanied with ,english descriptions4 ,a curious example of this is given in the fourth volume of the ,poems on ,state ,affairs1 printed in #agjg4 ,in the preface to this volume the editor takes occasion to inform the reader--,that having procur'd from beyond sea a ,collection of ,satyrical ,prints done in ,holland and elsewhere1 by ,rom4 de ,hoog1 and other the best masters1 relating to the ,french ,king and his ,adherents1 since he unjustly begun this war1 ,i have persuaded the ,bookseller to be at the expense of ingraving several of them2 to each of which ,i have given the ,explanation in ,english verse1 they being in ,dutch1 ,french1 or ,latin in the originals4 ,copies of seven of these caricatures are accordingly given at the end of the volume1 which are certainly inferior in every respect to those of the best period of ,romain de ,hooghe4 ,one of them commemorates the eclipse of the sun on the #abth of ,may1 #agjf4 ,the sun1 as it might be conjectured1 is ,louis ,,xiv41 eclipsed by queen ,anne1 whose face occupies the place of the moon4 ,in the foreground of the picture1 just under the eclipse1 the queen is seated on her throne under a canopy1 surrounded by her counsellors and generals4 ,with her left arm she holds down the ,gallic cock1 while with the other hand she clips one of its wings 7see our cut ,no4 #ahi74 ,in the upper corner on the right1 is inserted a picture of the battle of ,ramillies1 and in the lower corner on the left1 a sea-fight under admiral ,leake1 both victories gained in that year4 ,another of these copies of foreign prints is given in our cut ,no4 #aij4 ,we are told that these figures represent a ,french trumpet and drum1 sent by ,louis le ,grand to enquire news of several citys lost by the ,mighty ,monarch last campaign4 ,the trumpeter holds in his hand a list of lost towns1 and another is pinned to the breast of the drummer2 the former list is headed by the names of ,gaunt1 ,brussels1 ,antwerp1 ,bruges1 the latter by ,barcelona4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahi4 ,clipping the ,cock's ,wings4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aij4 ,trumpet and ,drum4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aia4 ,the ,three ,false ,brethren4 ,the first remarkable outburst of caricatures in ,england was caused by the proceedings against the notorious ,dr4 ,sacheverell in #agaj4 ,it is somewhat curious that ,sacheverell's partisans speak of caricatures as things brought recently from ,holland1 and new in ,england1 and ascribe the use of them as peculiar to the ,whig party4 ,the writer of a pamphlet1 entitled ,the ,picture of ,malice1 or a true ,account of ,dr4 ,sacheverell's ,enemies1 and their behaviour with regard to him1 informs us that the chief means by which all the lower order of that sort of men call'd ,whigs1 shall ever be found to act for the ruin of a potent adversary1 are the following three--by the ,print1 the ,canto or ,doggrell ,poem1 and by the ,libell1 grave1 calm1 and cool1 as the author of the ',true ,answer' describes it4 ,these are not all employed at the same time1 any more than the ban and arierban of a kingdom is raised1 unless to make sure work1 or in cases of great exigency and imminent danger4 ,the ,print1 he goes on to say1 is originally a ,dutch talisman 7bequeathed to the ancient ,batavians by a certain ,chinese necromancer and painter71 with a virtue far exceeding that of the ,palladium1 not only of guarding their cities and provinces1 but also of annoying their enemies1 and preserving a due balance amongst the neighbouring powers around4 ,this writer warms up so much in his indignation against this new weapon of the ,whigs1 that he breaks out in blank verse to tell us how even the mysterious power of the magician did not destroy its victims-- ,swifter than heretofore the ,print effac'd ,the pomp of mightiest monarchs1 and dethron'd ,the dread idea of royal majesty2 ,dwindling the prince below the pigmy size4 ,witness the once ,great ,louis in youthful pride1 ,and ,charles of happy days1 who both confess'd ,the magic power of mezzotinto#aja shade1 ,and form grotesque1 in manifestoes loud ,denouncing death to boor and burgomaster4 ,witness1 ye sacred popes with triple crown1 ,who likewise victims fell to hideous print1 ,spurn'd by the populace who whilome lay ,prostrate1 and ev'n adored before your thrones4 #aja ,the method of engraving called mezzotinto was very generally adopted in ,england in the earlier part of the last century for prints and caricatures4 ,it was continued to rather a late period by the publishing house of ,carrington ,bowles4 ,we are then told that this1 if not the first1 has yet been the chief machine which his enemies have employ'd against the doctor2 they have exposed him in the same piece with the pope and the devil1 and who now could imagine that any simple priest should be able to stand before a power which had levelled popes and monarchs8 ,at least one copy of the caricature here alluded to is preserved1 although a great rarity1 and it is represented in our cut ,no4 #aia4 ,two of the party remained long associated together in the popular outcry1 and as the name of the third fell into contempt and oblivion1 the doctor's place in this association was taken by a new cause of alarm1 the ,pretender1 the child whom we have just seen so joyously brandishing his windmill4 ,it is evident1 however1 that this caricature greatly exasperated ,sacheverell and the party which supported him4 ,it will have been noticed that the writer just quoted1 in using the term print1 ignores altogether that of caricature1 which1 however1 was about this time beginning to come into use1 although it is not found in the dictionaries1 ,i believe1 until the appearance of that of ,dr4 ,johnson1 in #agee4 ,caricature is1 of course1 an ,italian word1 derived from the verb caricare1 to charge or load2 and therefore1 it means a picture which is charged1 or exaggerated 7the old ,french dictionaries say1 c'est la mme chose que charge en peinture74 ,the word appears not to have come into use in ,italy until the latter half of the seventeenth century1 and the earliest instance ,i know of its employment by an ,english writer is that quoted by ,johnson from the ,christian ,morals of ,sir ,thomas ,brown1 who died in #afhb1 but it was one of his latest writings1 and was not printed till long after his death3--,expose not thyself by four-footed manners unto monstrous draughts 7i4e4 drawings7 and caricatura representations4 ,this very quaint writer1 who had passed some time in ,italy1 evidently uses it as an exotic word4 ,we find it next employed by the writer of the ,essay ,no4 #ecg1 of the ,spectator1 who1 speaking of the way in which different people were led by feelings of jealousy and prejudice to detract from the characters of others1 goes on to say1 ,from all these hands we have such draughts of mankind as are represented in those burlesque pictures which the ,italians call caricaturas1 where the art consists in preserving1 amidst distorted proportions and aggravated features1 some distinguishing likeness of the person1 but in such a manner as to transform the most agreeable beauty into the most odious monster4 ,the word was not fully established in our language in its ,english form of caricature until late in the last century4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aib4 ,atlas4 ,the subject of agitation which produced a greater number of caricatures than any previous event was the wild financial scheme introduced into ,france by the ,scottish adventurer1 ,law1 and imitated in ,england in the great ,south ,sea ,bubble4 ,it would be impossible here1 within our necessary limits1 to attempt to trace the history of these bubbles1 which all burst in the course of the year #agbj2 and1 in fact1 it is a history of which few are ignorant4 ,on this1 as on former occasions1 the great mass of the caricatures1 especially those against the ,mississippi scheme1 were executed in ,holland1 but they are much inferior to the works of ,romain de ,hooghe4 ,in fact1 so great was the demand for these caricatures1 that the publishers1 in their eagerness for gain1 not only deluged the world with plates by artists of no talent1 which were without point or interest1 but they took old plates of any subject in which there was a multitude of figures1 put new titles to them1 and published them as satires on the ,mississippi scheme2 for people were ready to take anything which represented a crowd as a satire on the eagerness with which ,frenchmen rushed into the share-market4 ,one or two curious instances of this deception might be pointed out4 ,thus1 an old picture1 evidently intended to represent the meeting of a king and a nobleman1 in the court of a palace1 surrounded by a crowd of courtiers1 in the costume probably of the time of ,henri ,,iv41 was republished as a picture of people crowding to the grand scene of stock-jobbing in ,paris1 the ,rue ,quinquenpoix2 and the old picture of the battle between ,carnival and ,lent came out again1 a little re-touched1 under the ,dutch title1 ,stryd tuszen de smullende ,bubbel-,heeren en de aanstaande ,armoede1 i4e41 ,the battle between the good-living bubble-lords and approaching poverty4 ,besides being issued singly1 a considerable number of these prints were collected and published in a volume1 which is still met with not unfrequently1 under the title ,het groote ,tafereel der ,dwaasheid1 ,the great picture of folly4 ,one of this set of prints represents a multitude of persons1 of all ages and sexes1 acting the part of ,atlas in supporting on their backs globes1 which1 though made only of paper1 had become1 through the agitation of the stock exchange1 heavier than gold4 ,law himself 7see our cut ,no4 #aib7 stands foremost1 and requires the assistance of ,hercules to support his enormous burthen4 ,in the ,french verses accompanying this print1 the writer says-- ,ami ,atlas1 on voit 7sans conter vous et moi7 ,faire l',atlas partout des divers personnages1 ,riche1 pauvre1 homme1 femme1 et sot et quasi-sage1 ,valet1 et paisan1 le gueux s'eleve en roi4 ,another of these caricatures represents ,law in the character of ,don ,quixote1 riding upon ,sancho's donkey4 ,he is hastening to his ,dulcinia1 who waits for him in the actie huis 7action or share-house71 towards which people are dragging the animal on which he is seated4 ,the devil 7see our cut ,no4 #aic71 sits behind ,law1 and holds up the ass's tail1 while a shower of paper1 in the form of shares in companies1 is scattered around1 and scrambled for by the eager actionnaires4 ,in front1 the animal is laden with the money into which this paper has been turned1--the box bears the inscription1 ,bombarioos ,geldkist1 #agbj1 ,bombario's 7,law's7 gold chest2 and the flag bears the inscription1 ,ik koom1 ik koom1 ,dulcinia1 ,i come1 ,i come1 ,dulcinia4 ,the best1 perhaps1 of this lot of caricatures is a large engraving by the well-known ,picart1 inserted among the ,dutch collection with explanations in ,dutch and ,french1 and which was re-engraved in ,london1 with ,english descriptions and applications4 ,it is a general satire on the madness of the memorable year #agbj4 ,folly appears as the charioteer of ,fortune1 whose car is drawn by the representatives of the numerous companies which had sprung up at this time1 most of which appear to be more or less unsound4 ,many of these agents have the tails of foxes1 to show their policy and cunning1 as the explanation informs us4 ,the devil is seen in the clouds above1 blowing bubbles of soap1 which mix with the paper which ,fortune is distributing to the crowd4 ,the picture is crowded with figures1 scattered in groups1 who are employed in a variety of occupations connected with the great folly of the day1 one of which1 as an example1 is given in our cut ,no4 #aid4 ,it is a transfer of stock1 made through the medium of a ,jew broker4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aic4 ,the ,don ,quixote of ,finance4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aid4 ,transfer of ,stock4 ,it was in this bubble agitation that the ,english school of caricature began1 and a few specimens are preserved1 though others which are advertised in the newspapers of that day1 seem to be entirely lost4 ,in fact1 a very considerable portion of the caricature literature of a period so comparatively recent as the first half of the last century1 appears to have perished2 for the interest of these prints was in general so entirely temporary that few people took any care to preserve them1 and few of them were very attractive as pictures4 ,as yet1 indeed1 these ,english prints are but poor imitations of the works of ,picart and other continental artists4 ,a pair of ,english prints1 entitled ,the ,bubbler's ,mirrour1 represents1 one a head joyful at the rise in the value of stock1 the other1 a similar head sorrowful at its fall1 surrounded in each case with lists of companies and epigrams upon them4 ,they are engraved in mezzotinto1 a style of art supposed to have been invented in ,england--its invention was ascribed to ,prince ,rupert--and at this time very popular4 ,in the imprint of these last-mentioned plates1 we are informed that they were ,printed for ,carington ,bowles1 next ye ,chapter ,house1 in ,st4 ,paul's ,ch4 ,yard1 ,london1 a well-known name in former years1 and even now one quite familiar to collectors1 of this class of prints1 especially4 ,of ,carington ,bowles we shall have more to say in the next chapter4 ,with him begins the long list of celebrated ,english printsellers4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,english ,,caricature ,,in ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,george ,,ii4--,,english ,,printsellers4--,,artists ,,employed ,,by ,,them4--,,sir ,,robert ,,walpole',s ,,long ,,ministry4--,,the ,,war ,,with ,,france4--,,the ,,newcastle ,,administration4--,,opera ,,intrigues4--,,accession ,,of ,,george ,,iii41 ,,and ,,lord ,,bute ,,in ,,power4 ,with the accession of ,george ,,ii41 the taste for political caricatures increased greatly1 and they had become almost a necessity of social life4 ,at this time1 too1 a distinct ,english school of political caricature had been established1 and the print-sellers became more numerous1 and took a higher position in the commerce of literature and art4 ,among the earliest of these printsellers the name of ,bowles stands especially conspicuous4 ,hogarth's burlesque on the ,beggar's ,opera1 published in #agbh1 was printed for ,john ,bowles1 at the ,black ,horse1 in ,cornhill4 ,some copies of ,king ,henry the ,eighth and ,anna ,bullen1 engraved by the same great artist in the following year1 bear the imprint of ,john ,bowles2 and others were printed for ,robert ,wilkinson1 ,cornhill1 ,carington ,bowles1 in ,st4 ,paul's ,church ,yard1 and ,r4 ,sayer1 in ,fleet ,street4 ,hogarth's ,humours of ,southwark ,fair was also published1 in #agcc1 by ,carington and ,john ,bowles4 ,this ,carington ,bowles was1 perhaps1 dead in #agee1 for in that year the caricature entitled ,british ,resentment bears the imprint1 ,printed for ,t4 ,bowles1 in ,st4 ,paul's ,church ,yard1 and ,jno4 ,bowles ,son1 in ,cornhill4 ,john ,bowles appears to have been the brother of the first ,carington ,bowles in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 and a son named ,carington succeeded to that business1 which1 under him and his son ,carington1 and then as the establishment of ,bowles and ,carver1 has continued to exist within the memory of the present generation4 ,another very celebrated printshop was established in ,fleet ,street by ,thomas ,overton1 probably as far back as the close of the seventeenth century4 ,on his death his business was purchased by ,robert ,sayers1 a mezzotinto engraver of merit1 whose name appears as joint publisher of a print by ,hogarth in #agbi4 ,overton is said to have been a personal friend of ,hogarth4 ,sayers was succeeded in the business by his pupil in mezzotinto engraving1 named ,laurie1 from whom it descended to his son1 ,robert ,h4 ,laurie1 known in city politics1 and it became subsequently the firm of ,laurie and ,whittle4 ,this business still exists at #ec1 ,fleet ,street1 the oldest establishment in ,london for the publication of maps and prints4 ,during the reign of the second ,george1 the number of publishers of caricatures increased considerably1 and among others1 we meet with the names of ,j4 ,smith1 at ,hogarth's ,head1 ,cheapside1 attached to a caricature published ,august1 #agef2 ,edwards and ,darly1 at the ,golden ,acorn1 facing ,hungerford1 ,strand1 who also published caricatures during the years #agef-g2 caricatures and burlesque prints were published by ,g4 ,bickham1 ,may's ,buildings1 ,covent ,garden1 and one1 directed against the employment of foreign troops1 and entitled ,a ,nurse for the ,hessians1 is stated to have been sold in ,may's ,buildings1 ,covent ,garden1 where is #ej more2 ,the ,raree ,show1 published in #agfb1 was sold at ,sumpter's ,political ,print-shop1 ,fleet ,street1 and many caricatures on contemporary costume1 especially on the ,macaronis1 about the year #aggb1 were published by ,t4 ,bowen1 opposite the ,haymarket1 ,piccadilly4 ,sledge1 printseller1 ,henrietta ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 is also met with about the middle of the last century4 ,among other burlesque prints1 ,bickham1 of ,may's ,buildings1 issued a series of figures representing the various trades1 made up of the different tools1 c41 used by each4 ,the house of ,carington ,bowles1 in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 produced an immense number of caricatures1 during the last century and the present1 and of the most varied character1 but they consisted more of comic scenes of society than of political subjects1 and many of them were engraved in mezzotinto1 and rather highly coloured4 ,among them were caricatures on the fashions and foibles of the day1 amusing accidents and incidents1 common occurrences of life1 characters1 41 and they are frequently aimed at lawyers and priests1 and especially at monks and friars1 for the anti-,catholic feeling was strong in the last century4 ,j4 ,brotherton1 at ,no4 #acb1 ,new ,bond ,street1 published many of ,bunbury's caricatures2 while the house of ,laurie and ,whittle gave employment especially to the ,cruikshanks4 ,but perhaps the most extensive publisher of caricatures of them all was ,s4 ,w4 ,fores1 who dwelt first at ,no4 #c1 ,piccadilly1 but afterwards established himself at ,no4 #ej1 the corner of ,sackville ,street1 where the name still remains4 ,fores seems to have been most fertile in ingenious expedients for the extension of his business4 ,he formed a sort of library of caricatures and other prints1 and charged for admission to look at them2 and he afterwards adopted a system of lending them out in portfolios for evening parties1 at which these portfolios of caricatures became a very fashionable amusement in the latter part of the last century4 ,at times1 some remarkable curiosity was employed to add to the attractions of his shop4 ,thus1 on caricatures published in #agij1 we find the statement that1 ,in ,fores' ,caricature ,museum is the completest collection in the kingdom4 ,also the head and hand of ,count ,struenzee4 ,admittance1 #as4 ,caricatures against the ,french revolutionists1 published in #agic1 bear imprints stating that they were published by ,s4 ,w4 ,fores1 ,no4 #c1 ,piccadilly1 where may be seen a complete ,model of the ,guillotine--admittance1 one shilling4 ,in some this model is said to be six feet high4 ,among the artists employed by the print-publishers of the age of ,george ,,ii41 we still find a certain number of foreigners4 ,coypel1 who caricatured the opera in the days of ,farinelli1 and pirated ,hogarth1 belonged to a distinguished family of ,french painters4 ,goupy1 who also caricatured the artistes of the opera 7in #agbg71 and ,boitard1 who worked actively for ,carington ,bowles from #agej to #aggj1 were also ,frenchmen4 ,liotard1 another caricaturist of the time of ,george ,,ii41 was a native of ,geneva4 ,the names of two others1 ,vandergucht and ,vanderbank1 proclaim them ,dutchmen4 ,among the ,english caricaturists who worked for the house of ,bowles1 were ,george ,bickham1 the brother of the printseller1 ,john ,collet1 and ,robert ,dighton1 with others of less repute4 ,r4 ,attwold1 who published caricatures against admiral ,byng in #agej1 was an imitator of ,hogarth4 ,among the more obscure caricaturists of the latter part of the half-century1 were ,mac,ardell--whose print of ,the ,park ,shower1 representing the confusion raised among the fashionable company in the ,mall in ,st4 ,james's ,park by a sudden fall of rain1 is so well known--and ,darley4 ,paul ,sandby1 who was patronised by the duke of ,cumberland1 executed caricatures upon ,hogarth4 ,many of these artists of the earlier period of the ,english school of caricature appear to have been very ill paid--the first of the family of ,bowles is said to have boasted that he bought many of the plates for little more than their value as metal4 ,the growing taste for caricature had also brought forward a number of amateurs1 among whom were the countess of ,burlington1 and general1 afterwards marquis1 ,townshend4 ,the former1 who was the lady of that earl who built ,burlington ,house1 in ,piccadilly1 was the leader of one of the factions in the opera disputes at the close of the reign of ,george ,i41 and is understood to have designed the well-known caricature upon ,cuzzoni1 ,farinelli1 and ,heidegger1 which was etched by ,goupy1 whom she patronised4 ,it must not be forgotten that ,bunbury himself1 as well as ,sayers1 were amateurs2 and among other amateurs ,i may name captain ,minthull1 captain ,baillie1 and ,john ,nixon4 ,the first of these published caricatures against the ,macaronis 7as the dandies of the earlier part of the reign of ,george ,,iii4 were called71 one of which1 entitled ,the ,macaroni ,dressing-,room1 was especially popular4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aie4 ,a ,party of ,mourners4 ,english political caricature came into its full activity with the ministry of ,sir ,robert ,walpole1 which1 beginning in #agba1 lasted through the long period of twenty years4 ,in the previous period the ,whigs were accused of having invented caricature1 but now the ,tories certainly took the utmost advantage of the invention1 for1 during several years1 the greater number of the caricatures which were published were aimed against the ,whig ministry4 ,it is also a rather remarkable characteristic of society at this period1 that the ladies took so great an interest in politics1 that the caricatures were largely introduced upon fans1 as well as upon other objects of an equally personal character4 ,moreover1 the popular notion of what constituted a caricature was still so little fixed1 that they were usually called hieroglyphics1 a term1 indeed1 which was not ill applied1 for they were so elaborate1 and so filled with mystical allusions1 that now it is by no means easy to understand or appreciate them4 ,towards the year #agci1 there was a marked improvement in the political caricatures--they were better designed1 and displayed more talent1 but still they required rather long descriptions to render them intelligible4 ,one of the most celebrated was produced by the motion in the ,house of ,commons1 ,feb4 #ac1 #agda1 against the minister ,walpole4 ,it was entitled ,the ,motion1 and was a ,whig satire upon the opposition1 who are represented as driving so hurriedly and inconsiderately to obtain places1 that they are overthrown before they reach their object4 ,the party of the opposition retaliated by a counter-caricature1 entitled1 ,the ,reason1 which was in some respects a parody upon the other1 to which it was inferior in point and spirit4 ,at the same time appeared another caricature against the ministry1 under the title of ,the ,motive4 ,these provoked another1 entitled1 ,a ,consequence of the ,motion2 which was followed the day after its publication by another caricature upon the opposition1 entitled1 ,the ,political ,libertines2 or1 ,motion upon ,motion2 while the opponents of the government also brought out a caricature1 entitled1 ,the ,grounds1 a violent and rather gross attack upon the ,whigs4 ,among other caricatures published on this occasion1 one of the best was entitled1 ,the ,funeral of ,faction1 and bears the date of ,march #bf1 #agda4 ,beneath it are the words1 ,funerals performed by ,squire ,s----s1 alluding to ,sandys1 who was the motion-maker in the ,house of ,commons1 and who thus brought on his party a signal defeat4 ,among the chief mourners on this occasion are seen the opposition journals1 ,the ,craftsman1 the creation of ,bolingbroke and ,pulteney1 the still more scurrilous ,champion1 ,the ,daily ,post1 ,the ,london and ,evening ,post1 and ,the ,common ,sense ,journal4 ,this mournful group is reproduced in our cut ,no4 #aie4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aif4 ,british ,resentment4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aig4 ,britannia in a ,new ,dress4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aih4 ,caught by a ,bait4 ,from this time there was no falling off in the supply of caricatures1 which1 on the contrary1 seemed to increase every year1 until the activity of the pictorial satirists was roused anew by the hostilities with ,france in #agee1 and the ministerial intrigues of the two following years4 ,the war1 accepted by the ,english government reluctantly1 and ill prepared for1 was the subject of much discontent1 although at first hopes were given of great success4 ,one of the caricatures1 published in the middle of these early hopes1 at a time when an ,english fleet lay before ,louisbourg1 in ,canada1 is entitled1 ,british ,resentment1 or the ,french fairly coop'd at ,louisbourg1 and came from the pencil of the ,french artist ,boitard4 ,one of its groups1 representing the courageous ,english sailor and the despairing ,frenchman1 is given in our cut ,no4 #aif1 and may serve as an example of ,boitard's style of drawing4 ,it became now the fashion to print political caricatures1 in a diminished form1 on cards1 and seventy-five of these were formed into a small volume1 under the title of ,a ,political and ,satirical ,history of the years #agef and #ageg4 ,in a series of seventy-five humorous and entertaining ,prints1 containing all the most remarkable ,transactions1 ,characters1 and ,caricaturas of those two memorable years4444 ,london3 printed for ,e4 ,morris1 near ,st4 ,paul's4 ,the imprints of the plates1 which bear the dates of their several publications1 inform us that they came from the well-known shop of ,darly and ,edwards1 at the ,acorn1 facing ,hungerford1 ,strand4 ,these caricatures begin with our foreign relations1 and express the belief that the ministers were sacrificing ,english interests to ,french influence4 ,in one of them 7our cut ,no4 #aig71 entitled1 ,england made odious1 or the ,french ,dressers1 the minister1 ,newcastle1 in the garb of a woman1 and his colleague1 ,fox1 have dressed ,britannia in a new ,french robe1 which does not fit her4 ,she exclaims1 ,let me have my own cloathes4 ,i cannot stir my arms in these2 besides1 everybody laughs at me4 ,newcastle replies1 rather imperiously1 ,hussy1 be quiet1 you have no need to stir your arms--why1 sure6 what's here to do8 ,while ,fox1 in a more insinuating tone1 offers her a fleur-de-lis1 and says1 ,here1 madam1 stick this in your bosom1 next your heart4 ,the two pictures which adorn the walls of the room represent an axe and a halter2 and underneath we read the lines1-- ,and shall the substitutes of power ,our genius thus bedeck8 ,let them remember there's an hour ,of quittance--then1 ware neck4 ,in another print of this series1 this last idea is illustrated more fully4 ,it is aimed at the ministers1 who were believed to be enriching themselves at the expense of the nation1 and is entitled1 ,the ,devil turned ,bird-catcher4 ,on one side1 while ,fox is greedily scrambling for the gold1 the fiend has caught him in a halter suspended to the gallows2 on the other side another demon is letting down the fatal axe on ,newcastle1 who is similarly employed4 ,the latter 7see our cut ,no4 #aih7 is described as a ,noddy catching at the bait1 while the bird-catcher lets drop an axe4 ,this implement of execution is a perfect picture of a guillotine1 long before it was so notoriously in use in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aii4 ,british ,idolatry4 ,the third example of these caricatures which ,i shall quote is entitled ,the ,idol1 and has for its subject the extravagancies and personal jealousies connected with the ,italian opera4 ,the rivalry between ,mingotti and ,vanneschi was now making as much noise there as that of ,cuzzoni and ,faustina some years before4 ,the former acted arbitrarily and capriciously1 and could with difficulty be bound to sing a few times during the season for a high salary3 it is said1 #b1jjj for the season4 ,in the caricature to which ,i allude1 this lady appears raised upon a stool1 inscribed #b1jjj per annum1 and is receiving the worship of her admirers4 ,immediately before her an ecclesiastic is seen on his knees1 exclaiming1 ,unto thee be praise now and for evermore6 ,in the background a lady appears1 holding up her pug-dog1 then the fashionable pet1 and addressing the opera favourite1 ',tis only pug and you ,i love4 ,other men are on their knees behind the ecclesiastic1 all persons of distinction2 and last comes a nobleman and his lady1 the former holding in his hand an order for #b1jjj1 his subscription to the opera1 and remarking1 ,we shall have but twelve songs for all this money4 ,the lady replies1 with an air of contempt1 ,well1 and enough too1 for the paltry trifle4 ,the idol1 in return for all this homage1 sings rather contemptuously-- ,ra1 ru1 ra1 rot ye1 ,my name is ,mingotti1 ,if you worship me notti1 ,you shall all go to potti4 ,the closing years of the reign of ,george ,,ii41 under the vigorous administration of the first ,william ,pitt1 witnessed a calm in the domestic politics of the country1 which presented a strange contrast to the agitation of the previous period4 ,faction seemed to have hidden its head1 and there was comparatively little employment for the caricaturist4 ,but this calm lasted only a short time after that king's death1 and the new reign was ushered in by indications of approaching political agitation of the most violent description1 in which satirists who had hitherto contented themselves with other subjects were tempted to embark in the strife of politics4 ,among these was ,hogarth1 whose discomforts as a political caricaturist we shall have to describe in our next chapter4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjj4 ,fox on ,boots4 ,perhaps no name ever provoked a greater amount of caricature and satirical abuse than that of ,lord ,bute1 who1 through the favour of the ,princess of ,wales1 ruled supreme at court during the first period of the reign of ,george ,,iii4 ,bute had taken into the ministry1 as his confidential colleague1 ,fox--the ,henry ,fox who became subsequently the first ,lord ,holland1 a man who had enriched himself enormously with the money of the nation1 and these two appeared to be aiming at the establishment of arbitrary power in the place of constitutional government4 ,fox was usually represented in the caricatures with the head and tail of the animal represented by his name rather strongly developed2 while ,bute was drawn1 as a very bad pun upon his name1 in the garb of a ,scotchman1 wearing two large boots1 or sometimes a single boot of still greater magnitude4 ,in these caricatures ,bute and ,fox are generally coupled together4 ,thus1 a little before the resignation of the duke of ,newcastle in #agfb1 there appeared a caricature entitled ,the ,state ,nursery1 in which the various members of the ministry1 as it was then formed under ,lord ,bute's influence1 are represented as engaged in childish games4 ,fox1 as the whipper-in of parliamentary majorities1 is riding1 armed with his whip1 on ,bute's shoulders 7see our cut ,no4 #bjj71 while the duke of ,newcastle performs the more menial service of rocking the cradle4 ,in the rhymes which accompany this caricature1 the first of these groups is described as follows 7,fox was commonly spoken of in satire by the title of ,volpone7-- ,first you see old sly ,volpone-y1 ,riding on the shoulders brawny ,of the muckle favourite ,sawny2 ,doodle1 doodle1 doo4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bja4 ,fanaticism in another ,shape4 ,the number of caricatures published at this period was very great1 and they were almost all aimed in one direction1 against ,bute and ,fox1 the ,princess of ,wales1 and the government they directed4 ,caricature1 at this time1 ran into the least disguised licence1 and the coarsest allusions were made to the supposed secret intercourse between the minister and the ,princess of ,wales1 of which perhaps the most harmless was the addition of a petticoat to the boot1 as a symbol of the influence under which the country was governed4 ,in mock processions and ceremonies a ,scotchman was generally introduced carrying the standard of the boot and petticoat4 ,lord ,bute1 frightened at the amount of odium which was thus heaped upon him1 fought to stem the torrent by employing satirists to defend the government1 and it is hardly necessary to state that among these mercenary auxiliaries was the great ,hogarth himself1 who accepted a pension1 and published his caricature entitled1 ,the ,times1 ,nov4 #a1 in the month of ,september1 #agfb4 ,hogarth did not excel in political caricature1 and there was little in this print to distinguish it above the ordinary publications of a similar character4 ,it was the moment of negotiations for ,lord ,bute's unpopular peace1 and ,hogarth's satire is directed against the foreign policy of the great ex-minister ,pitt4 ,it represents ,europe in a state of general conflagration1 and the flames already communicating to ,great ,britain4 ,while ,pitt is blowing the fire1 ,bute1 with a party of soldiers and sailors zealously assisted by his favourite ,scotchmen1 is labouring to extinguish it4 ,in this he is impeded by the interference of the duke of ,newcastle1 who brings a wheelbarrow full of ,monitors and ,north ,britons1 the violent opposition journals1 to feed the flames4 ,the advocacy of ,bute's mercenaries1 whether literary or artistic1 did little service to the government1 for they only provoked increased activity among its opponents4 ,hogarth's caricature of ,the ,times1 drew several answers1 one of the best of which was a large print entitled ,the ,raree ,show3 a political contrast to the print of ',the ,times1' by ,william ,hogarth4 ,it is the house of ,john ,bull which is here on fire1 and the ,scots are dancing and exulting at it4 ,in the centre of the picture appears a great actors' barn1 from an upper window of which ,fox thrusts out his head and points to the sign1 representing neas and ,dido entering the cave together1 as the performance which was acting within4 ,it is an allusion to the scandal in general circulation relating to ,bute and the princess1 who1 of course1 were the neas and ,dido of the piece1 and appear in those characters on the scaffold in front1 with two of ,bute's mercenary writers1 ,smollett1 who edited the ,briton1 and ,murphy1 who wrote in the ,auditor1 one blowing the trumpet and the other beating the drum4 ,among the different groups which fill the picture1 one1 behind the actors' barn 7see our cut ,no4 #bja71 is evidently intended for a satire on the spirit of religious fanaticism which was at this time spreading through the country4 ,an open-air preacher1 mounted on a stool1 is addressing a not very intellectual-looking audience1 while his inspiration is conveyed to him in a rather vulgar manner by the spirit1 not of good1 but of evil4 ,the violence of this political warfare at length drove ,lord ,bute from at least ostensible power4 ,he resigned on the #fth of ,april1 #agfc4 ,one of the popular favourites at this time was the duke of ,cumberland1 the hero of ,culloden1 who was regarded as the leader of the opposition in the ,house of ,lords4 ,people now believed that it was the duke of ,cumberland who had overthrown the boot1 and his popularity increased on a sudden4 ,the triumph was commemorated in several caricatures4 ,one of these is entitled1 ,the ,jack-,boot kick'd down1 or ,english ,will triumphant3 a ,dream4 ,the duke of ,cumberland1 whip in hand1 has kicked the boot out of the house1 exclaiming to a young man in tailor's garb who follows him1 ,let me alone1 ,ned2 ,i know how to deal with ,scotsmen4 ,remember ,culloden4 ,the youth replies1 ,kick hard1 uncle1 keep him down4 ,let me have a kick too4 ,nearly the same group1 using similar language1 is introduced into a caricature of the same date1 entitled1 ,the ,boot and the ,blockhead4 ,the youthful personage is no doubt intended for ,cumberland's nephew1 ,edward1 duke of ,york1 who was a sailor1 and was raised to the rank of rear-admiral1 and who appears to have joined his uncle in his opposition to ,lord ,bute4 ,the boot1 as seen in our cut ,no4 #bjb1 is encircled with ,hogarth's celebrated line of beauty1 of which ,i shall have to speak more at length in the next chapter4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjb4 ,the ,overthrow of the ,boot4 ,with the overthrow of ,bute's ministry1 we may consider the ,english school of caricature as completely formed and fully established4 ,from this time the names of the caricaturists are better known1 and we shall have to consider them in their individual characters4 ,one of these1 ,william ,hogarth1 had risen in fame far above the group of the ordinary men by whom he was surrounded4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,hogarth4--,,his ,,early ,,history4--,,his ,,sets ,,of ,,pictures4--,,the ,,harlot',s ,,progress4--,,the ,,rake',s ,,progress4--,,the ,,marriage ,a ,,la ,,mode4--,,his ,,other ,,prints4--,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,beauty1 ,,and ,,the ,,persecution ,,arising ,,out ,,of ,,it4--,,his ,,patronage ,,by ,,lord ,,bute4--,,caricature ,,of ,,the ,,times4--,,attacks ,,to ,,which ,,he ,,was ,,exposed ,,by ,,it1 ,,and ,,which ,,hastened ,,his ,,death4 ,on the #ajth of ,november1 #afig1 ,william ,hogarth was born in the city of ,london4 ,his father1 ,richard ,hogarth1 was a ,london schoolmaster1 who laboured to increase the income derived from his scholars by compiling books1 but with no great success4 ,from his childhood1 as he tells us in his ,anecdotes of himself1 the young ,hogarth displayed a taste for drawing1 and especially for caricature2 and1 out of school1 he appears to have been seldom without a pencil in his hand4 ,the limited means of ,richard ,hogarth compelled him to take the boy from school at an early age1 and bind him apprentice to a steel-plate engraver4 ,but this occupation proved little to the taste of one whose ambition rose much higher2 and when the term of his apprenticeship had expired1 he applied himself to engraving on copper2 and1 setting up on his own account1 did considerable amount of work1 first in engraving arms and shop-bills1 and afterwards in designing and engraving book illustrations1 none of which displayed any superiority over the ordinary run of such productions4 ,towards #agbh ,hogarth began to practice as a painter1 and he subsequently attended the academy of sir ,james ,thornhill1 in ,covent ,garden1 where he became acquainted with that painter's only daughter1 ,jane4 ,the result was a clandestine marriage in #agcj1 which met the disapproval and provoked the anger of the lady's father4 ,subsequently1 however1 sir ,james became convinced of the genius of his son-in-law1 and a reconciliation was effected through the medium of lady ,thornhill4 ,at this time ,hogarth had already commenced that new style of design which was destined to raise him soon to a degree of fame as an artist few men have ever attained4 ,in his ,anecdotes of himself1 the painter has given us an interesting account of the motives by which he was guided4 ,the reasons1 he says1 which induced me to adopt this mode of designing were1 that ,i thought both writers and painters had1 in the historical style1 totally overlooked that intermediate species of subjects which may be placed between the sublime and the grotesque4 ,i therefore wished to compose pictures on canvas similar to representations on the stage2 and further hope that they will be tried by the same test1 and criticised by the same criterion4 ,let it be observed1 that ,i mean to speak only of those scenes where the human species are actors1 and these1 ,i think1 have not often been delineated in a way of which they are worthy and capable4 ,in these compositions1 those subjects that will both entertain and improve the mind bid fair to be of the greatest public utility1 and must therefore be entitled to rank in the highest class4 ,if the execution is difficult 7though that is but a secondary merit71 the author has claim to a higher degree of praise4 ,if this be admitted1 comedy1 in painting as well as writing1 ought to be allotted the first place1 though the sublime1 as it is called1 has been opposed to it4 ,ocular demonstration will carry more conviction to the mind of a sensible man than all he would find in a thousand volumes1 and this has been attempted in the prints ,i have composed4 ,let the decision be left to every unprejudiced eye2 let the figures in either pictures or prints be considered as players dressed either for the sublime1 for genteel comedy or farce1 for high or low life4 ,i have endeavoured to treat my subjects as a dramatic writer3 my picture is my stage1 and men and women my players1 who1 by means of certain actions and gestures1 are to exhibit a dumb-show4 ,the great series of pictures1 indeed1 which form the principal foundation of ,hogarth's fame1 are comedies rather than caricatures1 and noble comedies they are4 ,like comedies1 they are arranged1 by a series of successive plates1 in acts and scenes2 and they represent contemporary society pictorially1 just as it had been and was represented on the stage in ,english comedy4 ,it is not by delicacy or excellence of drawing that ,hogarth excels1 for he often draws incorrectly2 but it is by his extraordinary and minute delineation of character1 and by his wonderful skill in telling a story thoroughly4 ,in each of his plates we see a whole act of a play1 in which nothing is lost1 nothing glossed over1 and1 ,i may add1 nothing exaggerated4 ,the most trifling object introduced into the picture is made to have such an intimate relationship with the whole1 that it seems as if it would be imperfect without it4 ,the art of producing this effect was that in which ,hogarth excelled4 ,the first of ,hogarth's great suites of prints was ,the ,harlot's ,progress1 which was the work of the years #agcc and #agcd4 ,it tells a story which was then common in ,london1 and was acted more openly in the broad face of society than at the present day2 and therefore the effect and consequent success were almost instantaneous4 ,it had novelty1 as well as excellence1 to recommend it4 ,this series of plates was followed1 in #agce1 by another1 under the title of ,the ,rake's ,progress4 ,in the former1 ,hogarth depicted the shame and ruin which attended a life of prostitution2 in this1 he represented the similar consequences which a life of profligacy entailed on the other sex4 ,in many respects it is superior to the ,harlot's ,progress1 and its details come more home to the feelings of people in general1 because those of the prostitute's history are more veiled from the public gaze4 ,the progress of the spendthrift in dissipation and riot1 from the moment he becomes possessed of the fruits of paternal avarice1 until his career ends in prison and madness1 forms a marvellous drama1 in which every incident presents itself1 and every agent performs his part1 so naturally1 that it seems almost beyond the power of acting4 ,perhaps no one ever pictured despair with greater perfection than it is shown in the face and bearing of the unhappy hero of this history1 in the last plate but one of the series1 where1 thrown into prison for debt1 he receives from the manager of a theatre the announcement that the play which he had written in the hope of retrieving somewhat of his position--his last resource--has been refused4 ,the returned manuscript and the manager's letter lie on the wretched table 7cut ,no4 #bjc72 while on the one side his wife reproaches him heartlessly with the deprivations and sufferings which he has brought upon her1 and on the other the jailer is reminding him of the fact that the fees exacted for the slight indulgence he has obtained in prison are unpaid1 and even the pot-boy refuses to deliver him his beer without first receiving his money4 ,it is but a step further to ,bedlam1 which1 in the next plate1 closes his unblessed career4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjc4 ,despair4 ,ten years almost from this time had passed away before ,hogarth gave to the world his next grand series of what he called his modern moral subjects4 ,this was ,the ,marriage la mode1 which was published in six plates in #agde1 and which fully sustained the reputation built upon the ,harlot's ,progress and the ,rake's ,progress4 ,perhaps the best plate of the ,marriage la mode1 is the fourth--the music scene--in which one principal group of figures especially arrests the attention4 ,it is represented in our cut ,no4 #bjd4 ,william ,hazlitt has justly remarked upon it that1 the preposterous1 overstrained admiration of the lady of quality2 the sentimental1 insipid1 patient delight of the man with his hair in papers1 and sipping his tea2 the pert1 smirking1 conceited1 half-distorted approbation of the figure next to him2 the transition to the total insensibility of the round face in profile1 and then to the wonder of the negro boy at the rapture of his mistress1 form a perfect whole4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjd4 ,fashionable ,society4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bje4 ,an ,old ,maid and her ,page4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjf4 ,loss and ,gain4 ,in the interval between these three great monuments of his talent1 ,hogarth had published various other plates1 belonging to much the same class of subjects1 and displaying different degrees of excellence4 ,his engraving of ,southwark ,fair1 published in #agcc1 which immediately preceded the ,harlot's ,progress1 may be regarded almost as an attempt to rival the fairs of ,gallot4 ,the ,midnight ,modern ,conversation appeared in the interval between the ,harlot's ,progress and the ,rake's ,progress2 and three years after the series last mentioned1 in #agch1 the engraving1 remarkable equally in design and execution1 of the ,strolling ,actresses in a ,barn1 and the four plates of ,morning1 ,noon1 ,evening1 and ,night1 all full of choicest bits of humour4 ,such is the group of the old maid and her footboy in the first of this series 7cut ,no4 #bje7--the former stiff and prudish1 whose religion is evidently not that of charity2 while the latter crawls after1 shrinking at the same time under the effects of cold and hunger1 which he sustains in consequence of the hard1 niggardly temper of his mistress4 ,among the humorous events which fill the plate of ,noon1 we may point to the disaster of the boy who has been sent to the baker's to fetch home the family dinner1 and who1 as represented in our cut ,no4 #bjf1 has broken his pie-dish1 and spilt its contents on the ground2 and it is difficult to say which is expressed with most fidelity to nature--the terror and shame of the unfortunate lad1 or the feeling of enjoyment in the face of the little girl who is feasting on the fragments of the scattered meal4 ,in #agda appeared the plate of ,the ,enraged ,musician4 ,during this period ,hogarth appears to have been hesitating between two subjects for his third grand pictorial drama4 ,some unfinished sketches have been found1 from which it would seem that1 after depicting the miseries of a life of dissipation in either sex1 he intended to represent the domestic happiness which resulted from a prudent and well-assorted marriage2 but for some reason or other he abandoned this design1 and gave the picture of wedlock in a less amiable light1 in his ,marriage la mode4 ,the title was probably taken from that of ,dryden's comedy4 ,in #agej appeared ,the ,march to ,finchley1 in many respects one of ,hogarth's best works4 ,it is a striking exposure of the want of discipline1 and the low morale of the ,english army under ,george ,,ii4 ,many amusing groups fill this picture1 the scene of which is laid in ,tottenham ,court ,road1 along which the guards are supposed to be marching to encamp at ,finchley1 in consequence of rumours of the approach of the ,pretender's army in the ,rebellion of '#de4 ,the soldiers in front are moving on with some degree of order1 but in the rear we see nothing but confusion1 some reeling about under the effects of liquor1 and confounded by the cries of women and children1 camp-followers1 ballad-singers1 plunderers1 and the like4 ,one of the latter1 as represented in our cut ,no4 #bjg1 is assisting a fallen soldier with an additional dose of liquor1 while his pilfering propensities are betrayed by the hen screaming from his wallet1 and by the chickens following distractedly the cries of their parent4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjg4 ,a brave ,soldier4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjh4 ,a ,painter's ,amusements4 ,hogarth presents a singular example of a satirist who suffered under the very punishment which he inflicted on others4 ,he made many personal enemies in the course of his labours4 ,he had begun his career with a well-known personal satire1 entitled ,the ,man of ,taste1 which was a caricature on ,pope1 and the poet is said never to have forgiven it4 ,although the satire in his more celebrated works appears to us general1 it told upon his contemporaries personally2 for the figures which act their parts in them were so many portraits of individuals who moved in contemporary society1 and who were known to everybody1 and thus he provoked a host of enemies4 ,it was like ,foote's mimicry4 ,he was to an extraordinary degree vain of his own talent1 and jealous of that of others in the same profession2 and he spoke in terms of undisguised contempt of almost all artists1 past or present4 ,thus1 the painter introduced into the print of ,beer ,street1 is said to be a caricature upon ,john ,stephen ,liotard1 one of the artists mentioned in the last chapter4 ,he thus provoked the hostility of the greatest part of his contemporaries in his own profession1 and in the sequel had to support the full weight of their anger4 ,when ,george ,,ii41 who had more taste for soldiers than pictures1 saw the painting of the ,march to ,finchley1 instead of admiring it as a work of art1 he is said to have expressed himself with anger at the insult which he believed was offered to his army2 and ,hogarth not only revenged himself by dedicating his print to the king of ,prussia1 by which it did become a satire on the ,british army1 but he threw himself into the faction of the prince of ,wales at ,leicester ,house4 ,the first occasion for the display of all these animosities was given in the year #agec1 at the close of which he published his ,analysis of ,beauty4 ,though far from being himself a successful painter of beauty1 ,hogarth undertook in this work to investigate its principles1 which he referred to a waving or serpentine line1 and this he termed the line of beauty4 ,in #agde ,hogarth had published his own portrait as the frontispiece to a volume of his collected works1 and in one corner of the plate he introduced a painter's palette1 on which was this waving line1 inscribed ,the line of beauty4 ,for several years the meaning of this remained either quite a mystery1 or was only known to a few of ,hogarth's acquaintances1 until the appearance of the book just mentioned4 ,hogarth's manuscript was revised by his friend1 ,dr4 ,morell1 the compiler of the ,thesaurus1 whose name became thus associated with the book4 ,this work exposed its author to a host of violent attacks1 and to unbounded ridicule1 especially from the whole tribe of offended artists4 ,a great number of caricatures upon ,hogarth and his line of beauty appeared during the year #aged1 which show the bitterness of the hatred he had provoked2 and to hold still further their terror over his head1 most of them are inscribed with the words1 ,to be continued4 ,among the artists who especially signalised themselves by their zeal against him1 was ,paul ,sandby1 to whom we owe some of the best of these anti-,hogarthian caricatures4 ,one of these is entitled1 ,a ,new ,dunciad1 done with a view of fixing the fluctuating ideas of taste4 ,in the principal group 7which is given in our cut ,no4 #bjh71 ,hogarth is represented playing with a pantin1 or figure which was moved into activity by pulling a string4 ,the string takes somewhat the form of the line of beauty1 which is also drawn upon his palette4 ,this figure is described underneath the picture as a painter at the proper exercise of his taste4 ,to his breast is attached a card 7the knave of hearts71 which is described by a very bad pun as the fool of arts4 ,on one side his genius is represented in the form of a black harlequin2 while behind appears a rather jolly personage 7intended1 perhaps1 for ,dr4 ,morell71 who1 we are told1 is one of his admirers4 ,on the table are the foundations1 or the remains1 of a house of cards4 ,near him is ,hogarth's favourite dog1 named ,trump1 which always accompanies him in these caricatures4 ,another caricature which appeared at this time represents ,hogarth on the stage as a quack doctor1 holding in his hand the line of beauty1 and recommending its extraordinary qualities4 ,this print is entitled ,a ,mountebank ,painter demonstrating to his admirers and subscribers that crookedness is ye most beautifull4 ,lord ,bute1 whose patronage at ,leicester ,house ,hogarth now enjoyed1 is represented fiddling1 and the black harlequin serves as his puff4 ,in the front a crowd of deformed and hump-backed people are pressing forwards 7see our cut ,no4 #bji71 and the line of beauty fits them all admirably4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bji4 ,the ,line of ,beauty exemplified4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #baj4 ,piracy ,exposed4 ,much as this famous line of beauty was ridiculed1 ,hogarth was not allowed to retain the small honour which seemed to arise from it undisputed4 ,it was said that he had stolen the idea from an ,italian writer named ,lomazzo1 ,latinised into ,lomatius1 who had enounced it in a treatise on the ,fine ,arts1 published in the sixteenth century4#ajb ,in another caricature by ,paul ,sandby1 with a vulgar title which ,i will not repeat1 ,hogarth is visited1 in the midst of his glory1 by the ghost of ,lomazzo1 carrying in one hand his treatise on the arts1 and with his other holding up to view the line of beauty itself4 ,in the inscriptions on the plate1 the principal figure is described as ,an author sinking under the weight of his saturnine analysis2 and1 indeed1 ,hogarth's terror is broadly painted1 while the volume of his analysis is resting heavily upon a strong support bent in the line of beauty by the mighty load upon it4 ,beside ,hogarth stands his faithful pug1 and behind him a friend of the author endeavouring to prevent his sinking to his natural lowness4 ,on the other side stands ,dr4 ,morell1 or1 perhaps1 ,mr4 ,townley1 the master of ,merchant ,taylors' ,school1 who continued his service in preparing the book for the press after ,morell's death1 described as the author's friend and corrector1 astonished at the sight of the ghost4 ,the ugly figure on the left hand of the picture is described as ,deformity weeping at the condition of her darling son1 while the dog is a greyhound bemoaning his friend's condition4 ,this group is represented in our cut ,no4 #baj4 ,the other caricatures which appeared at this time were two numerous to allow us to give a particular description of them4 ,the artist is usually represented1 under the influence of his line of beauty1 painting ugly pictures from deformed models1 or attempting historical pictures in a style bordering on caricature1 or1 on one occasion1 as locked up in a mad-house1 and allowed only to exercise his skill upon the bare walls4 ,one of these caricatures is entitled1 in allusion to the title of one of his most popular prints1 ,the ,painter's ,march through ,finchley1 dedicated to the king of the gipsies1 as an encourager of arts1 c4 ,hogarth appears in full flight through the village1 closely pursued by women and children1 and animals in great variety1 and defended only by his favourite dog4 #ajb ,it was translated into ,english by ,richard ,haydocke1 under the title of ,the ,artes of ,curious ,paintinge1 ,carvinge1 ,buildinge1 fol4 #aeih4 ,this is one of the earliest works on art in the ,english language4 ,with the ,marriage la mode1 ,hogarth may be considered as having reached his highest point of excellence4 ,the set of ,industry and ,idleness tells a good and useful moral story1 but displays inferior talent in design4 ,beer ,street and ,gin ,lane disgust us by their vulgarity1 and the ,four ,stages of ,cruelty are equally repulsive to our feelings by the unveiled horrors of the scenes which are too coarsely depicted in them4 ,in the four prints of the proceedings at an election1 which are the last of his pictures of this description1 published in #aged1 ,hogarth rises again1 and approaches in some degree to his former elevation4 ,in #ageg1 on the death of his brother-in-law1 ,john ,thornhill1 the office of sergeant-painter of all his ,majesty's works became vacant1 and it was bestowed upon ,hogarth1 who1 according to his own account1 received from it an income of about #bjj a-year4 ,this appointment caused another display of hostility towards him1 and his enemies called him jeeringly the king's chief panel painter4 ,it was at this moment that a plan for the establishment of an academy of the fine arts was agitated1 which1 a few years later1 came into existence under the title of the ,royal ,academy1 and ,hogarth proclaimed so loud an opposition to this project1 that the old cry was raised anew1 that he was jealous and envious of all his profession1 and that he sought to stand alone as superior to them all4 ,it was the signal for a new onslaught of caricatures upon himself and his line of beauty4 ,hitherto his assailants had been found chiefly among the artists1 but the time was now approaching when he was destined to thrust himself into the midst of a political struggle1 where the attacks of a new class of enemies carried with them a more bitter sting4 ,george ,,ii4 died on the #agth of ,october1 #agfj1 and his grandson succeeded him to the throne as ,george ,,iii4 ,it appears evident that before this time ,hogarth had gained the favour of lord ,bute1 who1 by his interest with the princess of ,wales1 was all-powerful in the household of the young prince4 ,the painter had hitherto kept tolerably clear of politics in his prints1 but now1 unluckily for himself1 he suddenly rushed into the arena of political caricature4 ,it was generally said that ,hogarth's object was1 by displaying his zeal in the cause of his patron1 lord ,bute1 to obtain an increase in his pension2 and he acknowledges himself that his object was gain4 ,this1 he says1 being a period when war abroad and contention at home engrossed every one's mind1 prints were thrown into the background2 and the stagnation rendered it necessary that ,i should do some timed thing the italics are ,hogarth's to recover my lost time1 and stop a gap in my income4 ,accordingly he determined to attack the great minister1 ,pitt1 who had then recently been compelled to resign his office1 and had gone over to the opposition4 ,it is said that ,john ,wilkes1 who had previously been ,hogarth's friend1 having been privately informed of his design1 went to the painter1 expostulated with him1 and1 as he continued obstinate1 threatened him with retaliation4 ,in ,september1 #agfb1 appeared the print entitled ,the ,times1 ,no4 ,i1 indicating that it was to be followed by a second caricature4 ,the principal features of the picture are these3 ,europe is represented in flames1 which are communicating to ,great ,britain1 but lord ,bute1 with soldiers and sailors1 and the assistance of ,highlanders1 is labouring to extinguish them1 while ,pitt is blowing the fire1 and the duke of ,newcastle brings a barrowful of ,monitors and ,north ,britons1 the violent journals of the popular party1 to feed it4 ,there is much detail in the print which it is not necessary to describe4 ,in fulfilment of his threat1 ,wilkes1 in the number of the ,north ,briton published on the ,saturday immediately following the publication of this print1 attacked ,hogarth with extraordinary bitterness1 casting cruel reflections upon his domestic as well as his professional character4 ,hogarth1 stung to the quick1 retaliated by publishing the well-known caricature of ,wilkes4 ,thereupon ,churchill1 the poet1 ,wilkes's friend1 and formerly the friend of ,hogarth also1 published a bitter invective in verse against the painter1 under the title of an ,epistle to ,william ,hogarth4 ,hogarth retaliated again3 ,having an old plate by me1 he tells us1 with some parts ready1 such as a background and a dog1 ,i began to consider how ,i could turn so much work laid aside to some account1 so patched up a print of ,master ,churchill in the character of a bear4 ,the unfinished picture was intended to be a portrait of ,hogarth himself2 the canonical bear1 which represented ,churchill1 held a pot of porter in one hand1 and in the other a knotted club1 each knot labelled lie #a1 lie #b1 c4 ,the painter1 in his ,anecdotes1 exults over the pecuniary profit he derived from the extensive sale of these two prints4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #baa4 ,an ,independent ,draughtsman4 ,the virulence of the caricaturists against ,hogarth became on this occasion greater than ever4 ,parodies on his own works1 sneers at his personal appearance and manners1 reflections upon his character1 were all embodied in prints which bore such names as ,hogg-ass1 ,hoggart1 ,o',garth1 c4 ,our cut ,no4 #baa represents one of the caricature portraits of the artist4 ,it is entitled ,wm4 ,hogarth1 ,esq41 drawn from the ,life4 ,hogarth wears the thistle on his hat1 as the sign of his dependence on lord ,bute4 ,at his breast hangs his palette1 with the line of beauty inscribed upon it4 ,he holds behind his back a roll of paper inscribed ,burlesque on ,l--d ,b--t4 ,in his right hand he presents to view two pictures1 ,the ,times1 and the ,portrait of ,wilkes4 ,at the upper corner to the left is the figure of ,bute1 offering him in a bag a pension of #cjj per ann4 ,some of the allusions in this picture are now obscure1 but they no doubt relate to anecdotes well known at the time4 ,they receive some light from the following mock letters which are written at the foot of the plate3-- ,copy of a ,letter from ,mr4 ,hog-garth to ,lord ,mucklemon1 wth his ,lordship's ,answer4 ,my ,lord1--,the enclosed is a design ,i intend to publish2 you are sensible it will not redound to your honour1 as it will expose you to all the world in your proper colours4 ,you likewise know what induced me to do this2 but it is in yr power to prevent it from appearing in publick1 which ,i would have you do immediately4 ,,will,m ,,hog-,,garth4 ,maisr ,hog-garth1--,by my saul1 mon1 ,i am sare troobled for what ,i have done2 ,i did na ken yr muckle merit till noow2 say na mair aboot it2 ,i'll mak au things easy to you1 gie you bock your ,pension4 ,,sawney ,,mucklemon4 ,in an etching without a title1 published at this time1 and copied in our cut ,no4 #bab1 the ,hogarthian dog is represented barking from a cautious distance at the canonical bear1 who appears to be meditating further mischief4 ,pugg stands upon his master's palette and the line of beauty1 while ,bruin rests upon the ,epistle to ,wm4 ,hogarth1 with the pen and ink by its side4 ,on the left1 behind the dog1 is a large frame1 with the words ,pannel ,painting inscribed upon it4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bab4 ,beauty and the ,bear4 ,the article by ,wilkes in the ,north ,briton1 and ,churchill's metrical epistle1 irritated ,hogarth more than all the hostile caricatures1 and were generally believed to have broken his heart4 ,he died on the #bfth of ,october1 #agfd1 little more than a year after the appearance of the attack by ,wilkes1 and with the taunts of his political as well as his professional enemies still ringing in his ears4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,lesser ,,caricaturists ,,of ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,george ,,iii4--,,paul ,,sandby4--,,collet2 ,,the ,,disaster1 ,,and ,,father ,,paul ,,in ,,his ,,cups4--,,james ,,sayer2 ,,his ,,caricatures ,,in ,,support ,,of ,,pitt1 ,,and ,,his ,,reward4--,,carlo ,,khan',s ,,triumph4--,,bunbury2 ,,his ,,caricatures ,,on ,,horsemanship4--,,woodward2 ,,general ,,complaint4--,,rowlandson',s ,,influence ,,on ,,the ,,style ,,of ,,those ,,whose ,,designs ,,he ,,etched4--,,john ,,kay ,,of ,,edinburgh3 ,,looking ,a ,,rock ,,in ,,the ,,face4 ,the school of caricature which had grown amid the political agitation of the reigns of the two first ,georges1 gave birth to a number of men of greater talent in the same branch of art1 who carried it to its highest degree of perfection during that of ,george ,,iii4 ,among them are the three great names of ,gillray1 ,rowlandson1 and ,cruikshank1 and a few who1 though second in rank to these1 are still well remembered for the talent displayed in their works1 or with the effect they produced on contemporaries4 ,among these the principal were ,paul ,sandby1 ,john ,collet1 ,sayer1 ,bunbury1 and ,woodward4 ,sandby has been spoken of in the last chapter4 ,he was not by profession a caricaturist1 but he was one of those rising artists who were offended by the sneering terms in which ,hogarth spoke of all artists but himself1 and he was foremost among those who turned their satire against him4 ,examples of his caricatures upon ,hogarth have already been given1 sufficient to show that they display skill in composition as well as a large amount of wit and humour4 ,after his death1 they were republished collectively1 under the title1 ,retrospective ,art1 from the ,collection of the late ,paul ,sandby1 ,esq41 ,r4,a4 ,sandby was1 indeed1 one of the original members of the ,royal ,academy4 ,he was an artist much admired in his time1 but is now chiefly remembered as a topographical draughtsman4 ,he was a native of ,nottingham1 where he was born in #agbe1ajc and he died on the #gth of ,november1 #ahji4ajd #ajc ,his death is usually placed1 but erroneously1 in #agcb4 #ajd ,sandby etched landscapes on steel1 and in aquatinta1 the latter by a method peculiarly his own1 besides painting in oil and opaque colours4 ,but his fame rests mainly on being the founder of the ,english school of water-colour painting1 since he was the first to show the capability of that material to produce finished pictures1 and to lead the way to the perfection in effect and colour to which that branch of art has since attained4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bac4 ,a ,disaster4 ,john ,collet1 who also has been mentioned in a previous chapter1 was born in ,london in #agbe1 and died there in #aghj4 ,collet is said to have been a pupil of ,hogarth1 and there is a large amount of ,hogarthian character in all his designs4 ,few artists have been more industrious and produced a greater number of engravings4 ,he worked chiefly for ,carrington ,bowles1 in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 and for ,robert ,sayers1 at #ec1 ,fleet ,street4 ,his prints published by ,bowles were engraved generally in mezzotinto1 and highly coloured for sale2 while those published by ,sayers were usually line engravings1 and sometimes remarkably well executed4 ,collet chose for his field of labour that to which ,hogarth had given the title of comedy in art1 but he did not possess ,hogarth's power of delineating whole acts and scenes in one picture1 and he contented himself with bits of detail and groups of characters only4 ,his caricatures are rarely political--they are aimed at social manners and social vanities and weaknesses1 and altogether they form a singularly curious picture of society during an important period of the last century4 ,the first example ,i give 7,no4 #bac7 is taken from a line engraving1 published by ,sayers in #aggf4 ,at this time the natural adornments of the person in both sexes had so far yielded to artificial ornament1 that even women cut off their own hair in order to replace it by an ornamental peruque1 supporting a head-dress1 which varied from time to time in form and in extravagance4 ,collet has here introduced to us a lady who1 encountering a sudden and violent wind1 has lost all her upper coverings1 and wig1 cap1 and hat are caught by her footman behind4 ,the lady is evidently suffering under the feeling of shame2 and hard by1 a cottager and his wife1 at their door1 are laughing at her discomfiture4 ,a bill fixed against a neighbouring wall announces ,a ,lecture upon ,heads4 ,at this time the no-popery feeling ran very high4 ,four years afterwards it broke out violently in the celebrated lord ,gordon riots4 ,it was this feeling which contributed greatly to the success of ,sheridan's comedy of ,the ,duenna1 brought out in #agge4 ,collet drew several pictures founded upon scenes in this play1 one of which is given in our cut ,no4 #bad4 ,it forms one of ,carington ,bowles's rather numerous series of prints from designs by ,collet1 and represents the well-known drinking scene in the convent1 in the fifth scene of the third act of ,the ,duenna4 ,the scene1 it will be remembered1 is a room in the priory1 and the excited monks are toasting1 among other objects of devotion1 the abbess of ,st4 ,ursuline and the blue-eyed nun of ,st4 ,catherine's4 ,the blue-eyed nun is1 perhaps1 the lady seen through the window1 and the patron saint of her convent is represented in one of the pictures on the wall4 ,there is great spirit in this picture1 which is entitled ,father ,paul in his ,cups1 or the ,private ,devotions of a ,convent4 ,it is accompanied with the following lines3-- ,see with these friars how religion thrives1 ,who love good living better than good lives2 ,paul1 the superior father1 rules the roast1 ,his god's the glass1 the blue-eyed nun his toast4 ,thus priests consume what fearful fools bestow1 ,and saints' donations make the bumpers flow4 ,the butler sleeps--the cellar door is free-- ,this is a modern cloister's piety4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bad4 ,father ,paul in his ,cups4 ,from ,collet to ,sayer we rush into the heat--,i may say into the bitterness--of politics1 for ,james ,sayer is known1 with very trifling exceptions1 as a political caricaturist4 ,he was the son of a captain of a merchant ship at ,great ,yarmouth1 but was himself put to the profession of an attorney4 ,as1 however1 he was possessed of a moderate independence1 and appears to have had no great taste for the law1 he neglected his business1 and1 with considerable talent for satire and caricature1 he threw himself into the political strife of the day4 ,sayer was a bad draughtsman1 and his pictures are produced more by labour than by skill in drawing1 but they possess a considerable amount of humour1 and were sufficiently severe to obtain popularity at a time when this latter character excused worse drawing even than that of ,sayer4 ,he made the acquaintance and gained the favour of the younger ,william ,pitt1 when that statesman was aspiring to power1 and he began his career as a caricaturist by attacking the ,rockingham ministry in #aghb--of course in the interest of ,pitt4 ,sayer's earliest productions which are now known1 are a series of caricature portraits of the ,rockingham administration1 that appear to have been given to the public in instalments1 at the several dates of ,april #f1 ,may #ad1 ,june #ag1 and ,july #c1 #aghb1 and bear the name of ,c4 ,bretherton as publisher4 ,he published his first veritable caricature on the occasion of the ministerial changes which followed the death of lord ,rockingham1 when lord ,shelburne was placed at the head of the cabinet1 and ,fox and ,burke retired1 while ,pitt became chancellor of the exchequer4 ,this caricature1 which bears the title of ,paradise ,lost1 and is1 in fact1 a parody upon ,milton1 represents the once happy pair1 ,fox and ,burke1 turned out of their paradise1 the ,treasury1 the arch of the gate of which is ornamented with the heads of ,shelburne1 the prime minister1 and ,dunning and ,barr1 two of his staunch supporters1 who were considered to be especially obnoxious to ,fox and ,burke4 ,between these three heads appear the faces of two mocking fiends1 and groups of pistols1 daggers1 and swords4 ,beneath are inscribed the well-known lines of ,milton-- ,to the eastern side ,of ,paradise1 so late their happy seat1 ,waved over by that flaming brand2 the gate ,with dreadful faces thronged and fiery arms6 ,some natural tears they dropt1 but wiped them soon4 ,the world was all before them1 where to choose ,their place of rest1 and providence their guide4 ,they1 arm in arm1 with wand'ring steps1 and slow1 ,thro' ,eden took their solitary way4 ,nothing can be more lugubrious than the air of the two friends1 ,fox and ,burke1 as they walk away1 arm in arm1 from the gate of the ministerial paradise4 ,from this time ,sayer1 who adopted all ,pitt's virulence towards ,fox1 made the latter a continual subject of his satire4 ,nor did this zeal pass unrewarded1 for ,pitt1 in power1 gave the caricaturist the not unlucrative offices of marshal of the court of exchequer1 receiver of the sixpenny duties1 and cursitor4 ,sayer was1 in fact1 ,pitt's caricaturist1 and was employed by him in attacking successively the coalition under ,fox and ,north1 ,fox's ,india ,bill1 and even1 at a later period1 ,warren ,hastings on his trial4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bae4 ,a ,contrast4 ,i have already remarked that ,sayer was almost exclusively a political caricaturist4 ,the exceptions are a few prints on theatrical subjects1 in which contemporary actors and actresses are caricatured1 and a single subject from fashionable life4 ,a copy of the latter forms our cut ,no4 #bae4 ,it has no title in the original1 but in a copy in my possession a contemporary has written on the margin in pencil that the lady is ,miss ,snow and the gentleman ,mr4 ,bird1 no doubt well-known personages in contemporary society4 ,it was published on the #aith of ,july1 #aghc4 ,one of ,sayer's most successful caricatures1 in regard to the effect it produced on the public1 was that on ,fox's ,india ,bill1 published on the #eth of ,september1 #aghc4 ,it was entitled ,carlo ,khan's ,triumphal ,entry into ,leadenhall ,street1 ,carlo ,khan being personified by ,fox1 who is carried in triumph to the door of the ,india ,house on the back of an elephant1 which presents the face of lord ,north4 ,burke1 who had been the principal supporter of the bill in debate1 appears in the character of the imperial trumpeter1 and leads the elephant on its way4 ,on a banner behind ,carlo1 the old inscription1 ,the ,man of the ,people1 the title popularly given to ,fox1 is erased1 and the two ,greek words1 king of kings1 substituted in its place4 ,from a chimney above1 the bird of ill omen croaks forth the doom of the ambitious minister1 who1 it was pretended1 aimed at making himself more powerful than the king himself2 and on the side of the house just below we read the words-- ,the night-crow cried foreboding luckless time4--,shakespeare4 ,henry ,william ,bunbury belonged to a more aristocratic class in society than any of the preceding4 ,he was the second son of sir ,william ,bunbury1 ,bart41 of ,mildenhall1 in the county of ,suffolk1 and was born in #agej4 ,how he first took so zealously to caricature we have no information1 but he began to publish before he was twenty-one years of age4 ,bunbury's drawing was bold and often good1 but he had little skill in etching1 for some of his earlier prints1 published in #agga1 which he etched himself1 are coarsely executed4 ,his designs were afterwards engraved by various persons1 and his own style was sometimes modified in this process4 ,his earlier prints were etched and sold by ,james ,bretherton1 who has been already mentioned as publishing the works of ,james ,sayer4 ,this ,bretherton was in some esteem as an engraver1 and he also had a print-shop at #acb1 ,new ,bond ,street1 where his engravings were published4 ,james had a son named ,charles1 who displayed great talent at an early age1 but he died young4 ,as early as #aggb1 when the macaronis 7the dandies of the eighteenth century7 came into fashion1 ,james ,bretherton's name appears on prints by ,bunbury as the engraver and publisher1 and it occurs again as the engraver of his print of ,strephon and ,chloe in #ahja1 which was published by ,fores4 ,at this and a later period some of his designs were engraved by ,rowlandson1 who always transferred his own style to the drawings he copied4 ,a remarkable instance of this is furnished by a print of a party of anglers of both sexes in a punt1 entitled ,anglers of #ahaa 7the year of ,bunbury's death74 ,but for the name1 ,h4 ,bunbury1 del41 very distinctly inscribed upon it1 we should take this to be a genuine design by ,rowlandson2 and in #ahjc ,rowlandson engraved some copies of ,bunbury's prints on horsemanship for ,ackermann1 of the ,strand1 in which all traces of ,bunbury's style are lost4 ,bunbury's style is rather broadly burlesque4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #baf4 ,how to ,travel on ,two ,legs in a ,frost4 ,bunbury had evidently little taste for political caricature1 and he seldom meddled with it4 ,like ,collet1 he preferred scenes of social life1 and humorous incidents of contemporary manners1 fashionable or popular4 ,he had a great taste for caricaturing bad or awkward horsemanship or unmanageable horses1 and his prints of such subjects were numerous and greatly admired4 ,this taste for equestrian pieces was shown in prints published in #aggb1 and several droll series of such subjects appeared at different times1 between #agha and #agia1 one of which was long famous under the title of ,geoffrey ,gambado's ,horsemanship4 ,an example of these incidents of horsemanship is copied in our cut ,no4 #baf1 where a not very skilful rider1 with a troublesome horse1 is taking advantage of the state of the ground for accelerating locomotion4 ,it is entitled1 ,how to travel on ,two ,legs in a ,frost1 and is accompanied with the motto1 in ,latin1 ,ostendunt terris hunc tantum fata1 neque ultra esse sinent4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bag4 ,strephon and ,chloe4 ,occasionally ,bunbury drew in a broader style of caricature1 especially in some of his later works4 ,of our examples of this broader style1 the first cut1 ,no4 #bag1 entitled ,strephon and ,chloe1 is dated the #ast of ,july1 #ahja4 ,it is the very acme of sentimental courtship1 expressed in a spirit of drollery which could not easily be excelled4 ,the next group 7cut ,no4 #bah71 from a similar print published on the #bast of ,july in the same year1 is a no less admirable picture of overstrained politeness4 ,it is entitled in the original1 ,the ,salutation ,tavern1 probably with a temporary allusion beyond the more apparent design of the picture4 ,bunbury1 as before stated1 died in #ahaa4 ,it is enough to say that sir ,joshua ,reynolds used to express a high opinion of him as an artist4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bah4 ,a ,fashionable ,salutation4 ,bunbury's prints rarely appeared without his name1 and1 except when they had passed through the engraving of ,rowlandson1 are easily recognised4 ,no doubt his was considered a popular name1 which was almost of as much importance as the print itself4 ,but a large mass of the caricatures published at the latter end of the last century and the beginning of the present1 appeared anonymously1 or with imaginary names4 ,thus a political print1 entitled ,the ,modern ,atlas1 bears the inscription ,masr ,hook fecit2 another entitled ,farmer ,george delivered1 has that of ,poll ,pitt del4 ,everybody delinit1 is inscribed on a caricature entitled ,the ,lover's ,leap2 and one which appeared under the title of ,veterinary ,operations1 is inscribed ,giles ,grinagain fect4 ,some of these were probably the works of amateurs1 for there appear to have been many amateur caricaturists in ,england at that time4 ,in a caricature entitled ,the ,scotch ,arms1 published by ,fores on the #crd of ,january1 #aghg1 we find the announcement1 ,gentlemen's designs executed gratis1 which means1 of course1 that ,fores would publish the caricatures of amateurs1 if he approved them1 without making the said amateurs pay for the engraving4 ,but also some of the best caricaturists of the day published much anonymously1 and we know that this was the case to a very great extent with such artists as ,cruikshank1 ,woodward1 c41 at all events until such time as their names became sufficiently popular to be a recommendation to the print4 ,it is certain that many of ,woodward's designs were published without his name4 ,such was the case with the print of which we give a copy in our cut ,no4 #bai1 which was published on the #eth of ,may1 #agif1 and which bears strongly the marks of ,woodward's style4 ,the spring of this year1 #agif1 witnessed a general disappointment at the failure of the negociations for peace1 and therefore the necessity of new sacrifices for carrying on the war1 and of increased taxation4 ,many clever caricatures appeared on this occasion1 of which this by ,woodward was one4 ,of course1 when war was inevitable1 the question of generals was a very important one1 and the caricaturist pretends that the greatest general of the age was ,general ,complaint4 ,the general appears here with an empty purse in his right hand1 and in his left a handful of papers containing a list of bankrupts1 the statement of the budget1 c4 ,four lines beneath1 in rather doggrel verse1 explain the situation as follows3-- ,don't tell me of generals raised from mere boys1 ,though1 believe me1 ,i mean not their laurel to taint2 ,but the general1 ,i'm sure1 that will make the most noise1 ,if the war still goes on1 will be ,general ,complaint4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bai4 ,general ,complaint4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbj4 ,desire4 ,there was much of ,bunbury's style in that of ,woodward1 who had a taste for the same broad caricatures upon society1 which he executed in a similar spirit4 ,some of the suites of subjects of this description that he published1 such as the series of the ,symptoms of the ,shop1 those of ,everybody out of town and ,everybody in ,town1 and the ,specimens of ,domestic ,phrensy1 are extremely clever and amusing4 ,woodward's designs were also not unfrequently engraved by ,rowlandson1 who1 as usual1 imprinted his own style upon them4 ,a very good example of this practice is seen in the print of which we give a copy in our cut ,no4 #bbj4 ,its title1 in the original1 is ,desire1 and the passion is exemplified in the case of a hungry schoolboy watching through a window a jolly cook carrying by a tempting plum-pudding4 ,we are told in an inscription underneath3 ,various are the ways this passion might be depicted2 in this delineation the subjects chosen are simple--a hungry boy and a plum-pudding4 ,the design of this print is stated to be ,woodward's2 but the style is altogether that of ,rowlandson1 whose name appears on it as the etcher4 ,it was published by ,r4 ,ackermann1 on the #bjth of ,january1 #ahjj4 ,woodward is well known by his prolific pencil1 but we are so little acquainted with the man himself1 that ,i cannot state the date either of his birth or of his death4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bba4 ,looking a ,rock in the ,face4 ,there lived at this time in ,edinburgh an engraver of some eminence in his way1 but whose name is now nearly forgotten1 and1 in fact1 it does not occur in the last edition of ,bryan's ,dictionary of ,engravers4 ,this name was ,john ,kay1 which is found attached to prints1 of which about four hundred are known1 with dates extending from #aghd to #ahag4 ,as an engraver1 ,kay possessed no great talent1 but he had considerable humour1 and he excelled in catching and delineating the striking points in the features and gait of the individuals who then moved in ,edinburgh ,society4 ,in fact1 a large proportion of his prints consist of caricature portraits1 often several figures on the same plate1 which is usually of small dimensions4 ,among them are many of the professors and other distinguished members of the university of ,edinburgh4 ,thus one1 copied in our cut ,no4 #bba1 represents the eminent old geologist1 ,dr4 ,james ,hutton1 rather astonished at the shapes which his favourite rocks have suddenly taken4 ,the original print is dated in #aghg1 ten years before ,dr4 ,hutton's death4 ,the idea of giving faces to rocks was not new in the time of ,john ,kay1 and it has been frequently repeated4 ,some of these caricature portraits are clever and amusing1 and they are at times very satirical4 ,kay appears to have rarely ventured on caricature of any other description1 but there is one rare plate by him1 entitled ,the ,craft in ,danger1 which is stated in a few words pencilled on the copy ,i have before me1 to have been aimed at a cabal for proposing ,dr4 ,barclay for a professorship in the university of ,edinburgh4 ,it displays no great talent1 and is1 in fact1 now not very intelligible4 ,the figures introduced in it are evidently intended for rather caricatured portraits of members of the university engaged in the cabal1 and are in the style of ,kay's other portraits4#aje #aje ,in the library of the ,british ,museum there is a collection of ,john ,kay's works bound in two volumes quarto1 with a title and table of contents in manuscript1 but whether it is one of a few copies intended for publication1 or whether it is merely the collection of some individual1 ,i am not prepared to say4 ,it contains #cdc plates1 which are stated to be all ,kay's works down to the year #ahac1 when this collection was made4 ,the ,craft in ,danger is not among them4 ,i have before me a smaller1 but a very choice selection1 of ,kay's caricatures1 the loan of which ,i owe to the kindness of ,mr4 ,john ,camden ,hotten1 of ,piccadilly4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,hotten for many courtesies of this description1 and especially for the use of a very valuable collection of caricatures of the latter part of the eighteenth century and earlier part of the present1 mounted in four large folio volumes1 which has been of much use to me4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,gillray4--,,his ,,first ,,attempts4--,,his ,,caricatures ,,begin ,,with ,,the ,,shelburne ,,ministry4--,,impeachment ,,of ,,warren ,,hastings4--,,caricatures ,,on ,,the ,,king2 ,,new ,,way ,,to ,,pay ,,the ,,national ,,debt4--,,alleged ,,reason ,,for ,,gillray',s ,,hostility ,,to ,,the ,,king4--,,the ,,king ,,and ,,the ,,apple-,,dumplings4--,,gillray',s ,,later ,,labours4--,,his ,,idiotcy ,,and ,,death4 ,in the year #ageg was born the greatest of ,english caricaturists1 and perhaps of all caricaturists of modern times whose works are known--,james ,gillray4 ,his father1 who was named like himself1 ,james1 was a ,scotchman1 a native of ,lanark1 and a soldier1 and1 having lost one arm at the battle of ,fontenoy1 became an out-pensioner of ,chelsea ,hospital4 ,he obtained also the appointment of sexton at the ,moravian burial-ground at ,chelsea1 which he held forty years1 and it was at ,chelsea that ,james ,gillray the younger was born4 ,the latter1 having no doubt shown signs of artistic talent1 was put apprentice to letter-engraving2 but after a time1 becoming disgusted with this employment1 he ran away1 and joined a party of strolling players1 and in their company passed through many adventures1 and underwent many hardships4 ,he returned1 however to ,london1 and received some encouragement as a promising artist1 and obtained admission as a student in the ,royal ,academy--the then young institution to which ,hogarth had been opposed4 ,gillray soon became known as a designer and engraver1 and worked in these capacities for the publishers4 ,among his earlier productions1 two illustrations of ,goldsmith's ,deserted ,village are spoken of with praise1 as displaying a remarkable freedom of effect4 ,for a long time after ,gillray became known as a caricaturist he continued to engrave the designs of other artists4 ,the earliest known caricature which can be ascribed to him with any certainty1 is the plate entitled ,paddy on ,horseback1 and dated in #aggi1 when he was twenty-two years of age4 ,the horse on which ,paddy rides is a bull2 he is seated with his face turned to the tail4 ,the subject of satire is supposed to be the character then enjoyed by the ,irish as fortune-hunters4 ,the point1 however1 is not very apparent1 and indeed ,gillray's earliest caricatures are tame1 although it is remarkable how rapidly he improved1 and how soon he arrived at excellence4 ,two caricatures1 published in ,june and ,july1 #aghb1 on the occasion of admiral ,rodney's victory1 are looked upon as marking his first decided appearance in politics4 ,a distinguishing characteristic of ,gillray's style is1 the wonderful tact with which he seizes upon the points in his subject open to ridicule1 and the force with which he brings those points out4 ,in the fineness of his design1 and in his grouping and drawing1 he excels all the other caricaturists4 ,he was1 indeed1 born with all the talents of a great historical painter1 and1 but for circumstances1 he probably would have shone in that branch of art4 ,this excellence will be the more appreciated when it is understood that he drew his picture with the needle on the plate1 without having made any previous sketch of it1 except sometimes a few hasty outlines of individual portraits or characters scrawled on cards or scraps of paper as they struck him4 ,soon after the two caricatures on ,rodney's naval victory1 the ,rockingham administration was broken up by the death of its chief1 and another was formed under the direction of ,lord ,shelburne1 from which ,fox and ,burke retired1 leaving in it their old colleague1 ,pitt1 who now deserted the ,whig party in parliament4 ,fox and ,burke became from this moment the butt of all sorts of abuse and scornful satire from the caricaturists1 such as ,sayer1 and newspaper writers in the pay of their opponents2 and ,gillray1 perhaps because it offered at that moment the best chance of popularity and success1 joined in the crusade against the two ex-ministers and their friends4 ,in one of his caricatures1 which is a parody upon ,milton1 ,fox is represented in the character of ,satan1 turning his back upon the ministerial ,paradise1 but looking enviously over his shoulder at the happy pair 7,shelburne and ,pitt7 who are counting their money on the treasury table3-- ,aside he turned ,for envy1 yet with jealous leer malign ,eyed them askance4 ,another1 also by ,gillray1 is entitled ,guy ,faux and ,judas ,iscariot1 the former represented by ,fox1 who discovers the desertion of his late colleague1 lord ,shelburne1 by the light of his lantern1 and recriminates angrily1 ,ah6 what1 ,i've found you out1 have ,i8 ,who arm'd the high priests and the people8 ,who betray'd his mas--8 ,at this point he is interrupted by a sneering retort from ,shelburne1 who is carrying away the treasury bag with a look of great self-complacency1 ,ha1 ha6 poor ,gunpowder's vexed6 ,he1 he1 he6--,shan't have the bag1 ,i tell you1 old ,goosetooth6 ,burke was usually caricatured as a ,jesuit2 and in another of ,gillray's prints of this time 7published ,aug4 #bc1 #aghb71 entitled ,cincinnatus in ,retirement1 ,burke is represented as driven into the retirement of his ,irish cabin1 where he is surrounded by ,popish relics and emblems of superstition1 and by the materials for drinking whisky4 ,a vessel1 inscribed ,relick ,no4 #a41 used by ,st4 ,peter1 is filled with boiled potatoes1 which ,jesuit ,burke is paring4 ,three imps are seen dancing under the table4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbb4 ,a ,strong ,dose4 ,in #aghc the ,shelburne ministry itself was dissolved1 and succeeded by the ,portland ministry1 in which ,fox was secretary of state for foreign affairs1 and ,burke1 paymaster of the forces1 and ,lord ,north1 who had joined the ,whigs against lord ,shelburne1 now obtained office as secretary for the home department4 ,gillray joined warmly in the attacks on this coalition of parties1 and from this time his great activity as a caricaturist begins4 ,fox1 especially1 and ,burke1 still under the character of a ,jesuit1 were incessantly held up to ridicule in his prints4 ,in another year this ministry also was overthrown1 and young ,william ,pitt became established in power1 while the ex-ministers1 now the opposition1 had become unpopular throughout the country4 ,the caricature of ,gillray followed them1 and ,fox and ,burke constantly appeared under his hands in some ridiculous situation or other4 ,but ,gillray was not a hired libeller1 like ,sayer and some of the lower caricaturists of that time2 he evidently chose his subjects1 in some degree independently1 as those which offered him the best mark for ridicule2 and he had so little respect for the ministers or the court1 that they all felt his satire in turn4 ,thus1 when the plan of national fortifications--brought forward by the duke of ,richmond1 who had deserted the ,whigs to be made a ,tory minister1 as master-general of the ordnance--was defeated in the ,house of ,commons in #aghg1 the best caricature it provoked was one by ,gillray1 entitled ,honi soit qui mal y pense1 which represents the horror of the duke of ,richmond at being so unceremoniously compelled to swallow his own fortifications 7cut ,no4 #bbb74 ,it is lord ,shelburne1 who had now become marquis of ,lansdowne1 who is represented as administering the bitter dose4 ,some months afterwards1 in the famous impeachment against ,warren ,hastings1 ,gillray sided warmly against the impeachers1 perhaps partly because these were ,burke and his friends2 yet several of his caricatures on this affair are aimed at the ministers1 and even at the king himself4 ,lord ,thurlow1 who was a favourite with the king1 and who supported the cause of ,warren ,hastings with firmness1 after he had been deserted by ,pitt and the other ministers1 was especially an object of ,gillray's satire4 ,thurlow1 it will be remembered1 was rather celebrated for profane swearing1 and was sometimes spoken of as the thunderer4 ,one of the finest of ,gillray's caricatures at this period1 published on the #ast of ,march1 #aghh1 is entitled ,blood on ,thunder fording the ,red ,sea1 and represents ,warren ,hastings carried on chancellor ,thurlow's shoulders through a sea of blood1 strewed with the mangled corpses of ,hindoos4 ,as will be seen in our copy of the most important part of this print 7cut ,no4 #bbc71 the saviour of ,india1 as he was called by his friends1 has taken care to secure his gains4 ,a remarkably bold caricature by ,gillray against the government appeared on the #bnd of ,may in this year4 ,it is entitled ,market-,day--every man has his price1 and represents a scene in ,smithfield1 where the horned cattle exposed for sale are the supporters of the king's ministry4 ,lord ,thurlow1 with his characteristic frown1 appears as the principal purchaser4 ,pitt1 and his friend and colleague ,dundas1 are represented drinking and smoking jovially at the window of a public-house4 ,on one side ,warren ,hastings is riding off with the king in the form of a calf1 which he has just purchased1 for ,hastings was popularly believed to have worked upon king ,george's avarice by rich presents of diamonds4 ,on another side1 the overwhelming rush of the cattle is throwing over the van in which ,fox1 ,burke1 and ,sheridan are driving4 ,this plate deserves to be placed among ,gillray's finest works4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbc4 ,blood on ,thunder4 ,gillray caricatured the heir to the throne with bitterness1 perhaps because his dissipation and extravagance rendered him a fair subject of ridicule1 and because he associated himself with ,fox's party in politics2 but his hostility to the king is ascribed in part to personal feelings4 ,a large and very remarkable print by our artist1 though his name was not attached to it1 and one which displays in a special manner the great characteristics of ,gillray's style1 appeared on the #bast of ,april1 #aghf1 just after an application had been made to the ,house of ,commons for a large sum of money to pay off the king's debts1 which were very great1 in spite of the enormous income then attached to the crown4 ,george was known as a careful and even a parsimonious man1 and the queen was looked upon generally as a mean and very avaricious woman1 and people were at a loss to account for this extraordinary expenditure1 and they tried to explain it in various ways which were not to the credit of the royal pair4 ,it was said that immense sums were spent in secret corruption to pave the way to the establishment of arbitrary power2 that the king was making large savings1 and hoarding up treasures at ,hanover2 and that1 instead of spending money on his family1 he allowed his eldest son to run into serious difficulties through the smallness of his allowance1 and thus to become an object of pity to his ,french friend1 the wealthy duc d',orleans1 who had offered him relief4 ,the caricature just mentioned1 which is extremely severe1 is entitled ,a new way to pay the ,national ,debt4 ,it represents the entrance to the treasury1 from which king ,george and his queen1 with their band of pensioners1 are issuing1 their pockets1 and the queen's apron1 so full of money1 that the coins are rolling out and scattering about the ground4 ,nevertheless1 ,pitt1 whose pockets also are full1 adds to the royal treasures large bags of the national revenue1 which are received with smiles of satisfaction4 ,to the left1 a crippled soldier sits on the ground1 and asks in vain for relief2 while the wall above is covered with torn placards1 on some of which may be read1 ,god save the ,king2 ,charity1 a romance2 ,from ,germany1 just arrived a large and royal assortment4442 and ,last dying speech of fifty-four malefactors executed for robbing a hen-roost4 ,the latter is a satirical allusion to the notorious severity with which the most trifling depredators on the king's private farm were prosecuted4 ,in the background1 on the right hand side of the picture1 the prince appears in ragged garments1 and in want of charity no less than the cripple1 and near him is the duke of ,orleans1 who offers him a draft for #bjj1jjj4 ,on the placards on the walls here we read such announcements as ,economy1 an old song2 ,british property1 a farce2 and ,just published1 for the benefit of posterity1 the dying groans of ,liberty2 and one1 immediately over the prince's head1 bears the prince's feathers1 with the motto1 ,ich starve4 ,altogether this is one of the most remarkable of ,gillray's caricatures4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbd4 ,farmer ,george and his ,wife4 ,the parsimoniousness of the king and queen was the subject of caricatures and songs in abundance1 in which these illustrious personages appeared haggling with their tradesmen1 and making bargains in person1 rejoicing in having thus saved a small sum of money4 ,it was said that ,george kept a farm at ,windsor1 not for his amusement1 but to draw a small profit from it4 ,by ,peter ,pindar he is described as rejoicing over the skill he has shown in purchasing his live stock as bargains4 ,gillray seized greedily all these points of ridicule1 and1 as early as #aghf1 he published a print of ,farmer ,george and his ,wife 7see our cut ,no4 #bbd71 in which the two royal personages are represented in the very familiar manner in which they were accustomed to walk about ,windsor and its neighbourhood4 ,this picture appears to have been very popular2 and years afterwards1 in a caricature on a scene in ,the ,school for ,scandal1 where1 in the sale of the young profligate's effects1 the auctioneer puts up a family portrait1 for which a broker offers five shillings1 and ,careless1 the auctioneer1 says1 ,going for no more than one crown1 the family piece is the well-known picture of ,farmer ,george and his ,wife1 and the ruined prodigal is the prince of ,wales1 who exclaims1 ,careless1 knock down the farmer4 ,many caricatures against the undignified meanness of the royal household appeared during the years #agia and #agib1 when the king passed much of his time at his favourite watering-place1 ,weymouth2 and there his domestic habits had become more and more an object of remark4 ,it was said that1 under the pretence of ,weymouth being an expensive place1 and taking advantage of the obligations of the royal mail to carry parcels for the king free1 he had his provisions brought to him by that conveyance from his farm at ,windsor4 ,on the #bhth of ,november1 #agia1 ,gillray published a caricature on the homeliness of the royal household1 in two compartments1 in one of which the king is represented1 in a dress which is anything but that of royalty1 toasting his muffins for breakfast2 and in the other1 queen ,charlotte1 in no less homely dress1 though her pocket is overflowing with money1 toasting sprats for supper4 ,in another of ,gillray's prints1 entitled ,anti-saccharites1 the king and queen are teaching their daughters economy in taking their tea without sugar2 as the young princesses show some dislike to the experiment1 the queen admonishes them1 concluding with the remark1 ,above all1 remember how much expense it will save your poor papa6 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbe4 ,a ,flemish ,proclamation4 ,according to a story which seems to be authentic1 ,gillray's dislike of the king was embittered at this time by an incident somewhat similar to that by which ,george ,,ii4 had provoked the anger of ,hogarth4 ,gillray had visited ,france1 ,flanders1 and ,holland1 and he had made sketches1 a few of which he engraved4 ,our cut ,no4 #bbe represents a group from one of these sketches1 which explains itself1 and is a fair example of ,gillray's manner of drawing such subjects4 ,he accompanied the painter ,loutherbourg1 who had left his native city of ,strasburg to settle in ,england1 and become the king's favourite artist1 to assist him in making sketches for his great painting of ,the ,siege of ,valenciennes1 ,gillray sketching groups of figures while ,loutherbourg drew the landscape and buildings4 ,after their return1 the king expressed a desire to see their sketches1 and they were placed before him4 ,loutherbourg's landscapes and buildings were plain drawings1 and easy to understand1 and the king expressed himself greatly pleased with them4 ,but the king's mind was already prejudiced against ,gillray for his satirical prints1 and when he saw his hasty and rough1 though spirited sketches1 of the ,french soldiers1 he threw them aside contemptuously1 with the remark1 ,i don't understand these caricatures4 ,perhaps the very word he used was intended as a sneer upon ,gillray1 who1 we are told1 felt the affront deeply1 and he proceeded to retort by a caricature1 which struck at once at one of the king's vanities1 and at his political prejudices4 ,george ,,iii4 imagined himself a great connoisseur in the fine arts1 and the caricature was entitled ,a ,connoisseur examining a ,cooper4 ,it represented the king looking at the celebrated miniature of ,oliver ,cromwell1 by the ,english painter1 ,samuel ,cooper4 ,when ,gillray had completed this print1 he is said to have exclaimed1 ,i wonder if the royal connoisseur will understand this6 ,it was published on the #ahth of ,june1 #agib1 and cannot have failed to produce a sensation at that period of revolutions4 ,the king is made to exhibit a strange mixture of alarm with astonishment in contemplating the features of this great overthrower of kingly power1 at a moment when all kingly power was threatened4 ,it will be remarked1 too1 that the satirist has not overlooked the royal character for domestic economy1 for1 as will be seen in our cut ,no4 #bbf1 the king is looking at the picture by the light of a candle-end stuck on a save-all4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbf4 ,a ,connoisseur in ,art4 ,from this time ,gillray rarely let pass an opportunity of caricaturing the king4 ,sometimes he pictured his awkward and undignified gait1 as he was accustomed to shuffle along the esplanade at ,weymouth2 sometimes in the familiar manner in which1 in the course of his walks in the neighbourhood of his ,windsor farm1 he accosted the commonest labourers and cottagers1 and overwhelmed them with a long repetition of trivial questions--for king ,george had a characteristic manner of repeating his questions1 and of frequently giving the reply to them himself4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbg4 ,royal ,affability4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbh4 ,a ,lesson in ,apple ,dumplings4 ,then asks the farmer's wife1 or farmer's maid1 ,how many eggs the fowls have laid2 ,what's in the oven1 in the pot1 the crock2 ,whether 'twill rain or no1 and what's o'clock2 ,thus from poor hovels gleaning information1 ,to serve as future treasure for the nation4 ,so said ,peter ,pindar2 and in this rle king ,george was represented not unfrequently in satirical prints4 ,on the #ajth of ,february ,gillray illustrated the quality of ,affability in a picture of one of these rustic encounters4 ,the king and queen1 taking their walk1 have arrived at a cottage1 where a very coarse example of ,english peasantry is feeding his pigs with wash4 ,the scene is represented in our cut ,no4 #bbg4 ,the vacant stare of the countryman betrays his confusion at the rapid succession of questions--,well1 friend1 where a' you going1 hay8--,what's your name1 hay8--,where do you live1 hay8--hay8 ,in other prints the king is represented running into ludicrous adventures while hunting1 an amusement to which he was extremely attached4 ,one of the best known of these has been celebrated equally by the pen of ,peter ,pindar and by the needle of ,gillray4 ,it was said that one day while king ,george was following the chase1 he came to a poor cottage1 where his usual curiosity was rewarded by the discovery of an old woman making apple dumplings4 ,when informed what they were1 he could not conceal his astonishment how the apples could have been introduced without leaving a seam in their covering4 ,in the caricature by ,gillray1 from which we take our cut ,no4 #bbh1 the king is represented looking at the process of dumpling making through the window1 inquiring in astonishment1 ,hay8 hay8 apple dumplings8--how get the apples in8--how8 ,are they made without seams8 ,the story is told more fully in the following verses of ,peter ,pindar1 which will serve as the best commentary on the engraving3-- ,,the ,,king ,,and ,,the ,,apple ,,dumpling4 ,once on a time a monarch1 tired with whooping1 ,whipping and spurring1 ,happy in worrying ,a poor1 defenceless1 harmless buck 7,the horse and rider wet as muck71 ,from his high consequence and wisdom stooping1 ,enter'd through curiosity a cot1 ,where sat a poor old woman and her pot4 ,the wrinkled1 blear-eyed1 good old granny1 ,in this same cot1 illum'd by many a cranny4 ,had finish'd apple dumplings for her pot4 ,in tempting row the naked dumplings lay1 ,when lo6 the monarch in his usual way ,like lightning spoke1 ,what this8 what this8 what8 what8 ,then taking up a dumpling in his hand1 ,his eyes with admiration did expand1 ,and oft did majesty the dumpling grapple4 ',tis monstrous1 monstrous hard1 indeed8 he cried2 ,what makes it1 pray1 so hard8--,the dame replied1 ,low curtseying1 ,please your majesty1 the apple4 ,very astonishing1 indeed6 strange thing6 ,turning the dumpling round1 rejoined the king2 ',tis most extraordinary then1 all this is-- ,it beats ,pinetti's conjuring all to pieces-- ,strange ,i should never of a dumpling dream6 ,but1 ,goody1 tell me where1 where1 where's the seam8 ,sir1 there's no seam1 quoth she1 ,i never knew ,that folks did apple dumplings sew4 ,no6 cried the staring monarch with a grin1 ,how1 how the devil got the apple in8 ,on which the dame the curious scheme reveal'd ,by which the apple lay so sly conceal'd1 ,which made the ,solomon of ,britain start2 ,who to the palace with full speed repair'd ,and queen1 and princesses so beauteous1 scared1 ,all with the wonders of the dumpling art4 ,there did he labour one whole week1 to show ,the wisdom of an apple dumpling maker2 ,and lo6 so deep was majesty in dough1 ,the palace seem'd the lodging of a baker6 ,gillray was not the only caricaturist who turned the king's weaknesses to ridicule1 but none caricatured them with so little gentleness1 or evidently with so good a will4 ,on the #gth of ,march1 #agif1 the princess of ,wales gave birth to a daughter1 so well known since as the princess ,charlotte4 ,the king is said to have been charmed with his grandchild1 and this sentiment appears to have been anticipated by the public1 for on the #acth of ,february1 when the princess's accouchment was looked forward to with general interest1 a print appeared under the title of ,grandpapa in his ,glory4 ,in this caricature1 which is given in our cut ,no4 #bbi1 king ,george1 seated1 is represented nursing and feeding the royal infant in an extraordinary degree of homeliness4 ,he is singing the nursery rhyme-- ,there was a laugh and a craw1 ,there was a giggling honey1 ,goody good girl shall be fed1 ,but naughty girl shall have noney4 ,this print bears no name1 but it is known to be by ,woodward1 though it betrays an attempt to imitate the style of ,gillray4 ,gillray was often imitated in this manner1 and his prints were not unfrequently copied and pirated4 ,he even at times copied himself1 and disguised his own style1 for the sake of gaining money4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbi4 ,grandfather ,george4 ,at the period of the regency bill in #aghi1 ,gillray attacked ,pitt's policy in that affair with great severity4 ,in a caricature published on the #crd of ,january1 he drew the premier in the character of an over-gorged vulture1 with one claw fixed firmly on the crown and sceptre1 and with the other seizing upon the prince's coronet1 from which he is plucking the feathers4 ,among other good caricatures on this occasion1 perhaps the finest is a parody on ,fuseli's picture of ,the ,weird ,sisters1 in which ,dundas1 ,pitt1 and ,thurlow1 as the sisters1 are contemplating the moon1 the bright side of whose disc represents the face of the queen1 and the other that of the king1 overcast with mental darkness4 ,gillray took a strongly hostile view of the ,french revolution1 and produced an immense number of caricatures against the ,french and their rulers1 and their friends1 or supposed friends1 in this country1 during the period extending from #agij to the earlier years of the present century4 ,through all the changes of ministry or policy1 he seems to have fixed himself strongly on individuals1 and he seldom ceased to caricature the person who had once provoked his attacks4 ,so it was with the lord chancellor ,thurlow1 who became the butt of savage satire in some of his prints which appeared in #agib1 at the time when ,pitt forced him to resign the chancellorship4 ,among these is one of the boldest caricatures which he ever executed4 ,it is a parody1 fine almost to sublimity1 on a well-known scene in ,milton1 and is entitled1 ,sin1 ,death1 and the ,devil4 ,the queen1 as ,sin1 rushes to separate the two combatants1 ,death 7in the semblance of ,pitt7 and ,satan 7in that of ,thurlow74 ,during the latter part of the century ,gillray caricatured all parties in turn1 whether ministerial or opposition1 with indiscriminate vigour2 but his hostility towards the party of ,fox1 whom he persisted in regarding1 or at least in representing1 as unpatriotic revolutionists1 was certainly greatest4 ,in #ahjc he worked energetically against the ,addington ministry2 and in #ahjf he caricatured that which was known by the title of ,all the ,talents2 but during this later period of his life his labours were more especially aimed at keeping up the spirit of his countrymen against the threats and designs of our foreign enemies4 ,it was1 in fact1 the caricature which at that time met with the greatest encouragement4 ,in his own person1 ,gillray had lived a life of great irregularity1 and as he grew older1 his habits of dissipation and intemperance increased1 and gradually broke down his intellect4 ,towards the year #ahaa he ceased producing any original works2 the last plate he executed was a drawing of ,bunbury's1 entitled ,a ,barber's ,shop in ,assize ,time1 which is supposed to have been finished in the ,january of that year4 ,soon afterwards his mind sank into idiotcy1 from which it never recovered4 ,james ,gillray died in #ahae1 and was buried in ,st4 ,james's churchyard1 ,piccadilly1 near the rectory house4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,gillray',s ,,caricatures ,,on ,,social ,,life4--,,thomas ,,rowlandson4--,,his ,,early ,,life4--,,he ,,becomes ,a ,,caricaturist4--,,his ,,style ,,and ,,works4--,,his ,,drawings4--,,the ,,cruikshanks4 ,gillray was1 beyond all others1 the great political caricaturist of his age4 ,his works form a complete history of the greater and more important portion of the reign of ,george ,,iii4 ,he appears to have had less taste for general caricature1 and his caricatures on social life are less numerous1 and with a few exceptions less important1 than those which were called forth by political events4 ,the exceptions are chiefly satires on individual characters1 which are marked by the same bold style which is displayed in his political attacks4 ,some of his caricatures on the extravagant costume of the time1 and on its more prominent vices1 such as the rage for gambling1 are also fine1 but his social sketches generally are much inferior to his other works4 ,this1 however1 was not the case with his contemporary1 ,thomas ,rowlandson1 who doubtlessly stands second to ,gillray1 and may1 in some respects1 be considered his equal4 ,rowlandson was born in the ,old ,jewry in ,london1 the year before that of the birth of ,gillray1 in the ,july of #agef4 ,his father was a city merchant1 who had the means to give him a good education1 but embarking rashly in some unsuccessful speculations1 he fell into reduced circumstances1 and the son had to depend upon the liberality of a relative4 ,his uncle1 ,thomas ,rowlandson1 after whom probably he was named1 had married a ,french lady1 a ,mademoiselle ,chatelier1 who was now a widow1 residing in ,paris1 with what would be considered in that capital a handsome fortune1 and she appears to have been attached to her ,english nephew1 and supplied him rather freely with money4 ,young ,rowlandson had shown at an early age great talent for drawing1 with an especial turn for satire4 ,as a schoolboy1 he covered the margins of his books with caricatures upon his master and upon his fellow-scholars1 and at the age of sixteen he was admitted a student in the ,royal ,academy in ,london1 then in its infancy4 ,but he did not profit immediately by this admission1 for his aunt invited him to ,paris1 where he began and followed his studies in art with great success1 and was remarked for the skill with which he drew the human body4 ,his studies from nature1 while in ,paris1 are said to have been remarkably fine4 ,nor did his taste for satirical design fail him1 for it was one of his greatest amusements to caricature the numerous individuals1 and groups of individuals1 who must in that age have presented objects of ridicule to a lively ,englishman4 ,during this time his aunt died1 leaving him all her property1 consisting of about #g1jjj in money1 and a considerable amount in plate and other objects4 ,the sudden possession of so much money proved a misfortune to young ,rowlandson4 ,he appears to have had an early love for gaiety1 and he now yielded to all the temptations to vice held out by the ,french metropolis1 and especially to an uncontrollable passion for gambling1 through which he soon dissipated his fortune4 ,before this1 however1 had been effected1 ,rowlandson1 after having resided in ,paris about two years1 returned to ,london1 and continued his studies in the ,royal ,academy4 ,but he appears for some years to have given himself up entirely to his dissipated habits1 and to have worked only at intervals1 when he was driven to it by the want of money4 ,we are told by one who was intimate with him1 that1 when reduced to this condition1 he used to exclaim1 holding up his pencil1 ,i have been playing the fool1 but here is my resource6 and he would then produce--with extraordinary rapidity--caricatures enough to supply his momentary wants4 ,most of ,rowlandson's earlier productions were published anonymously1 but here and there1 among large collections1 we meet with a print1 which1 by companion of the style with that of his earliest known works1 we can hardly hesitate in ascribing to him2 and from these it would appear that he had begun with political caricature1 because1 perhaps1 at that period of great agitation1 it was most called for1 and1 therefore1 most profitable4 ,three of the earliest of the political caricatures thus ascribed to ,rowlandson belong to the year #aghd1 when he was twenty-eight years of age1 and relate to the dissolution of parliament in that year1 the result of which was the establishment of ,william ,pitt in power4 ,the first1 published on the #aath of ,march1 is entitled ,the ,champion of the ,people4 ,fox is represented under this title1 armed with the sword of ,justice and the shield of ,truth1 combating the many-headed hydra1 its mouths respectively breathing forth ,tyranny1 ,assumed ,prerogative1 ,despotism1 ,oppression1 ,secret ,influence1 ,scotch ,politics1 ,duplicity1 and ,corruption4 ,some of these heads are already cut off4 ,the ,dutchman1 ,frenchman1 and other foreign enemies are seen in the background1 dancing round the standard of ,sedition4 ,fox is supported by numerous bodies of ,english and ,irishmen1 the ,english shouting1 ,while he protects us1 we will support him4 ,the ,irish1 ,he gave us a free trade and all we asked2 he shall have our firm support4 ,natives of ,india1 in allusion to his unsuccessful ,india ,bill1 kneel by his side and pray for his success4 ,the second of these caricatures was published on the #bfth of ,march1 and is entitled ,the ,state ,auction4 ,pitt is the auctioneer1 and is represented as knocking down with the hammer of prerogative all the valuable articles of the constitution4 ,the clerk is his colleague1 ,henry ,dundas1 who holds up a weighty lot1 entitled1 ,lot #a4 ,the ,rights of the ,people4 ,pitt calls to him1 ,show the lot this way1 ,harry--a'going1 a'going--speak quick1 or it's gone--hold up the lot1 ye ,dund-ass6 ,the clerk replies in his ,scottish accent1 ,i can hould it na higher1 sir4 ,the ,whig members1 under the title of the chosen representers1 are leaving the auction room in discouragement1 with reflections in their mouths1 such as1 ,adieu to ,liberty6 ,despair not6 ,now or never6 ,while ,fox stands firm in the cause1 and exclaims--,i am determined to bid with spirit for ,lot #a2 he shall pay dear for it that outbids me6 ,pitt's ,tory supporters are ranged under the auctioneer1 and are called the hereditary virtuosis2 and their leader1 who appears to be the lord chancellor1 addresses them in the words1 ,mind not the nonsensical biddings of those common fellows4 ,dundas remarks1 ,we shall get the supplies by this sale4 ,the third of these caricatures is dated on the #cast of ,march1 when the elections had commenced1 and is entitled1 ,the ,hanoverian ,horse and ,british ,lion--a ,scene in a new ,play1 lately acted in ,westminster1 with distinguished applause4 ,act #bnd1 ,scene last4 ,at the back of the picture stands the vacant throne1 with the intimation1 ,we shall resume our situation here at pleasure1 ,leo ,rex4 ,in front1 the ,hanoverian horse1 unbridled1 and without saddle1 neighs pre-ro-ro-ro-ro-rogative1 and is trampling on the safeguard of the constitution1 while it kicks out violently the faithful commons 7alluding to the recent dissolution of parliament74 ,pitt1 on the back of the horse1 cries1 ,bravo6--go it again6--,i love to ride a mettled steed2 send the vagabonds packing6 ,fox appears on the other side of the picture1 mounted on the ,british lion1 and holding a whip and bridle in his hand4 ,he says to ,pitt1 ,prithee1 ,billy1 dismount before ye get a fall1 and let some abler jockey take your seat2 and the lion observes1 indignantly1 but with gravity1 ,if this horse is not tamed1 he will soon be absolute king of our forest4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcj4 ,opera ,beauties4 ,if these prints are correctly ascribed to ,rowlandson1 we see him here fairly entered in the lists of political caricature1 and siding with ,fox and the ,whig party4 ,he displays the same boldness in attacking the king and his ministers which was displayed by ,gillray--a boldness that probably did much towards preserving the liberties of the country from what was no doubt a resolute attempt to trample upon them1 at a time when caricature formed a very powerful weapon4 ,before this time1 however1 ,rowlandson's pencil had become practised in those burlesque pictures of social life for which he became afterwards so celebrated4 ,at first he seems to have published his designs under fictitious names1 and one now before me1 entitled ,the ,tythe ,pig1 bears the early date of #aghf1 with the name of ,wigstead1 no doubt an assumed one1 which is found on some others of his early prints4 ,it represents the country parson1 in his own parlour1 receiving the tribute of the tithe pig from an interesting looking farmer's wife4 ,the name of ,rowlandson1 with the date #agib1 is attached to a very clever and humorous etching which is now also before me1 entitled ,cold ,broth and ,calamity1 and representing a party of skaters1 who have fallen in a heap upon the ice1 which is breaking under their weight4 ,it bears the name of ,fores as publisher4 ,from this time1 and especially toward the close of the century1 ,rowlandson's caricatures on social life became very numerous1 and they are so well known that it becomes unnecessary1 nor indeed would it be easy1 to select a few examples which would illustrate all his characteristic excellencies4 ,in prints published by ,fores at the beginning of #agid1 the address of the publisher is followed by the words1 where may be had all ,rowlandson's works1 which shows how great was his reputation as a caricaturist at that time4 ,it may be stated briefly that he was distinguished by a remarkable versatility of talent1 by a great fecundity of imagination1 and by a skill in grouping quite equal to that of ,gillray1 and with a singular ease in forming his groups of a great number of figures4 ,among those of his contemporaries who spoke of him with the highest praise were sir ,joshua ,reynolds and ,benjamin ,west4 ,it has been remarked1 too1 that no artist ever possessed the power of ,rowlandson of expressing so much with so little effort4 ,we trace a great difference in style between ,rowlandson's earlier and his later works2 although there is a general identity of character which cannot be mistaken4 ,the figures in the former show a taste for grace and elegance that is rare in his later works1 and we find a delicacy of beauty in his females which he appears afterwards to have entirely laid aside4 ,an example of his earlier style in depicting female faces is furnished by the pretty farmer's wife1 in the print of ,the ,tythe ,pig1 just alluded to2 and ,i may quote as another example1 an etching published on the #ast of ,january1 #agid1 under the title of ,english ,curiosity2 or1 the foreigner stared out of countenance4 ,an individual1 in a foreign costume1 is seated in the front row of the boxes of a theatre1 probably intended for the opera1 where he has become the object of curiosity of the whole audience1 and all eyes are eagerly directed upon him4 ,the faces of the men are rather coarsely grotesque1 but those of the ladies1 two of which are given in our cut ,no4 #bcj1 possess a considerable degree of refinement4 ,he appears1 however1 to have been naturally a man of no real refinement1 who easily gave himself up to low and vulgar tastes1 and1 as his caricature became more exaggerated and coarse1 his females became less and less graceful1 until his model of female beauty appears to have been represented by something like a fat oyster-woman4 ,our cut ,no4 #bca1 taken from a print in the possession of ,mr4 ,fairholt1 entitled1 ,the ,trumpet and ,bassoon1 presents a good example of ,rowlandson's broad humour1 and of his favourite models of the human face4 ,we can almost fancy we hear the different tones of this brace of snorers4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bca4 ,the ,trumpet and ,bassoon4 ,a good example of ,rowlandson's grotesques of the human figure is given in our cut ,no4 #bcb1 taken from a print published on the #ast of ,january1 #agif1 under the title of ,anything will do for an ,officer4 ,people complained of the mean appearance of the officers in our armies1 who obtained their rank1 it was pretended1 by favour and purchase rather than by merit2 and this caricature is explained by an inscription beneath1 which informs us how ,some school-boys1 who were playing at soldiers1 found one of their number so ill-made1 and so much under size1 that he would have disfigured the whole body if put into the ranks4 ',what shall we do with him8' asked one4 ',do with him8' says another1 'why make an officer of him4' ,this plate is inscribed with his name1 ,rowlandson fecit4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcb4 ,a ,model ,officer4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcc4 ,antiquaries at ,work4 ,at this time ,rowlandson still continued to work for ,fores1 but before the end of the century we find him working for ,ackermann1 of the ,strand1 who continued to be his friend and employer during the rest of his life1 and is said to have helped him generously in many difficulties4 ,in these1 indeed1 he was continually involved by his dissipation and thoughtlessness4 ,ackermann not only employed him in etching the drawings of other caricaturists1 especially of ,bunbury1 but in furnishing illustrations to books1 such as the several series of ,dr4 ,syntax1 the ,new ,dance of ,death1 and others4 ,rowlandson's illustrations to editions of the older standard novels1 such as ,tom ,jones1 are remarkably clever4 ,in transferring the works of other caricaturists to the copper1 ,rowlandson was in the habit of giving his own style to them to such a degree1 that nobody would suspect that they were not his own1 if the name of the designer were not attached to them4 ,i have given one example of this in a former chapter1 and another very curious one is furnished by a print now before me1 entitled ,anglers of #ahaa1 which bears only the name ,h4 ,bunbury del41 but which is in every particular a perfect example of the style of ,rowlandson4 ,during the latter part of his life ,rowlandson amused himself with making an immense number of drawings which were never engraved1 but many of which have been preserved and are still found scattered through the portfolios of collectors4 ,these are generally better finished than his etchings1 and are all more or less burlesque4 ,our cut ,no4 #bcc is taken from one of these drawings1 in the possession of ,mr4 ,fairholt2 it represents a party of antiquaries engaged in important excavations4 ,no doubt the figures were intended for well-known archologists of the day4 ,thomas ,rowlandson died in poverty1 in lodgings in the ,adelphi1 on the #bbnd of ,april1 #ahbg4 ,among the most active caricaturists of the beginning of the present century we must not overlook ,isaac ,cruikshank1 even if it were only because the name has become so celebrated in that of his more talented son4 ,isaac's caricatures1 too1 were equal to those of any of his contemporaries1 after ,gillray and ,rowlandson4 ,one of the earliest examples which ,i have seen bearing the well-known initials1 ,i4 ,c41 was published on the #ajth of ,march1 #agid1 the year in which ,george ,cruikshank was born1 and probably1 therefore1 when ,isaac was quite a young man4 ,it is entitled ,a ,republican ,belle1 and is an evident imitation of ,gillray4 ,in another1 dated the #ast of ,november1 #agie1 ,pitt is represented as ,the ,royal ,extinguisher1 putting out the flame of ,sedition4 ,isaac ,cruikshank published many prints anonymously1 and among the numerous caricatures of the latter end of the last century we meet with many which have no name attached to them1 but which resemble so exactly his known style1 that we can hardly hesitate in ascribing them to him4 ,it will be remarked that in his acknowledged works he caricatures the opposition2 but perhaps1 like other caricaturists of his time1 he worked privately for anybody who would pay him1 and was as willing to work against the government as for it1 for most of the prints which betray their author only by their style are caricatures on ,pitt and his measures4 ,such is the group given in our cut ,no4 #bcd1 which was published on the #aeth of ,august1 #agig1 at a time when there were loud complaints against the burthen of taxation4 ,it is entitled ,billy's ,raree-,show2 or1 ,john ,bull ,en-lighten'd1 and represents ,pitt1 in the character of a showman1 exhibiting to ,john ,bull1 and picking his pocket while his attention is occupied with the show4 ,pitt1 in a true showman's style1 says to his victim1 ,now1 pray lend your attention to the enchanting prospect before you1--this is the prospect of peace--only observe what a busy scene presents itself--the ports are filled with shipping1 the quays loaded with merchandise1 riches are flowing in from every quarter--this prospect alone is worth all the money you have got about you4 ,accordingly1 the showman abstracts the same money from his pocket1 while ,john ,bull1 unconscious of the theft exclaims with surprise1 ,mayhap it may1 master showman1 but ,i canna zee ony thing like what you mentions1--,i zees nothing but a woide plain1 with some mountains and molehills upon't--as sure as a gun1 it must be all behoind one of those6 ,the flag of the show is inscribed1 ,licensed by authority1 ,billy ,hum's grand exhibition of moving mechanism2 or1 deception of the senses4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcd4 ,the ,raree-,show4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bce4 ,flight across the ,herring ,pond4 ,in a caricature with the initials of ,i4 ,c41 and published on the #bjth of ,june1 #agig1 ,fox is represented as ,the ,watchman of the ,state1 ironically1 of course1 for he is betraying the truth which he had ostentatiously assumed1 and absenting himself at the moment when his agents are putting the match to the train they have laid to blow up the constitution4 ,yet ,cruikshank's caricatures on the ,irish union were rather opposed to ministers4 ,one of these1 published on the #bjth of ,june1 #ahjj1 is full of humour4 ,it is entitled ,a ,flight across the ,herring ,pond4 ,england and ,ireland are separated by a rough sea1 over which a crowd of ,irish patriots are flying1 allured by the prospect of honours and rewards4 ,on the ,irish shore1 a few wretched natives1 with a baby and a dog1 are in an attitude of prayer1 expostulating with the fugitives1--,och1 och6 do not leave us--consider your old house1 it will look like a big wallnut-shell without a kernel4 ,on the ,english shore1 ,pitt is holding open the ,imperial ,pouch1 and welcoming them1--,come on1 my little fellows1 there's plenty of room for you all--the budget is not half full4 ,inside the pouch appears a host of men covered with honours and dignities1 one of whom says to the foremost of the ,irish candidates for favour1 ,very snug and convenient1 brother1 ,i allure you4 ,behind ,pitt1 ,dundas1 seated on a pile of public offices united in his person1 calls out to the immigrants1 ,if you've ony consciences at a'1 here's enugh to satisfy ye a'4 ,a portion of this clever caricature is represented in our cut ,no4 #bce4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcf4 ,a ,case of ,abduction4 ,there is a rare caricature on the subject of the ,irish union1 which exhibits a little of the style of ,isaac ,cruikshank1 and a copy of which is in the possession of ,mr4 ,fairholt4 ,from this ,i have taken merely the group which forms our cut ,no4 #bcf4 ,it is a long print1 dated on the #ast of ,january1 #ahjj1 and is entitled ,the ,triumphal entry of the ,union into ,london4 ,pitt1 with a paper entitled ,irish ,freedom in his pocket1 is carrying off the young lady 7,ireland7 by force1 with her natural accompaniment1 a keg of whisky4 ,the lord chancellor of ,ireland 7lord ,clare7 sits on the horse and performs the part of fiddler4 ,in advance of this group are a long rabble of radicals1 ,irishman1 c41 while close behind comes ,grattan1 carried in a sedan-chair1 and earnestly appealing to the lady1 ,ierne1 ,ierne6 my sweet maid1 listen not to him--he's a false1 flattering1 gay deceiver4 ,still farther in the rear follows ,st4 ,patrick1 riding on a bull1 with a sack of potatoes for his saddle1 and playing on the ,irish harp4 ,an ,irishman expostulates in the following words--,ah1 long life to your holy reverence's memory1 why will you lave your own nate little kingdom1 and go to another where they will tink no more of you then they would of an old brogue8 ,shure1 of all the saints in the red-letter calendar1 we give you the preference6 och hone6 och hone6 ,another ,irishman pulls the bull by the tail1 with the lament1 ,ah1 masther1 honey1 why will you be after leaving us8 ,what will become of poor ,shelagh and all of us1 when you are gone8 ,it is a regular ,irish case of abduction4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcg4 ,the ,farthing ,rushlight4 ,the last example ,i shall give of the caricatures of ,isaac ,cruikshank is the copy of one entitled ,the ,farthing ,rushlight1 which1 ,i need hardly say1 is a parody on the subject of a well-known song4 ,the rushlight is the poor old king1 ,george1 whom the prince of ,wales and his ,whig associates1 ,fox1 ,sheridan1 and others1 are labouring in vain to blow out4 ,the latest caricature ,i possess1 bearing the initials of ,isaac ,cruikshank1 was published by ,fores1 on the #aith of ,april1 #ahaj1 and is entitled1 ,the ,last ,grand ,ministerial ,expedition 7on the ,street1 ,piccadilly74 ,the subject is the riot on the arrest of sir ,francis ,burdett1 and it shows that ,cruikshank was at this time caricaturing on the radical side in politics4 ,isaac ,cruikshank left two sons who became distinguished as caricaturists1 ,george1 already mentioned1 and ,robert4 ,george ,cruikshank1 who is still amongst us1 has raised caricature in art to perhaps the highest degree of excellence it has yet reached4 ,he began as a political caricaturist1 in imitation of his father ,isaac--in fact the two brothers are understood to have worked jointly with their father before they engraved on their own account4 ,i have in my own possession two of his earliest works of this class1 published by ,fores1 of ,piccadilly1 and dated respectively the #crd and the #aith of ,march1 #ahae4 ,george was then under twenty-one years of age4 ,the first of these prints is a caricature on the restrictions laid upon the trade in corn1 and is entitled ,the ,blessings of ,peace1 or1 the ,curse of the ,corn ,bill4 ,a foreign boat has arrived1 laden with corn at a low price--one of the foreign traders holds out a sample and says1 ,here is de best for #ejs4 ,a group of bloated aristocrats and landholders stand on the shore1 with a closed storehouse1 filled with corn behind them2 the foremost1 warning the boat away with his hand1 replies to the merchant1 ,we won't have it at any price--we are determined to keep up our own to #hjs41 and if the poor can't buy at that price1 why they must starve4 ,we love money too well to lower our rents again2 the income tax is taken off4 ,one of his companions exclaims1 ,no1 no1 we won't have it at all4 ,a third adds1 ,ay1 ay1 let 'em starve1 and be d-- to 'em4 ,upon this another of the foreign merchants cries1 ,by gar1 if they will not have it at all1 we must throw it overboard6 and a sailor is carrying this alternative into execution by emptying a sack into the sea4 ,another group stands near the closed storehouse--it consists of a poor ,englishman1 his wife with an infant in the arms1 and two ragged children1 a boy and a girl4 ,the father is made to say1 ,no1 no1 masters1 ,i'll not starve2 but quit my native country1 where the poor are crushed by those they labour to support1 and retire to one more hospitable1 and where the arts of the rich do not interpose to defeat the providence of ,god4 ,the corn bill was passed in the spring of #ahae1 and was the cause of much popular agitation and rioting4 ,the second of these caricatures1 on the same subject1 is entitled1 ,the ,scale of ,justice reversed1 and represents the rich exulting over the disappearance of the tax on property1 while the poor are crushed under the weight of taxes which bore only upon them4 ,these two caricatures present unmistakable traces of the peculiarities of style of ,george ,cruikshank1 but not as yet fully developed4 ,george ,cruikshank rose into great celebrity and popularity as a political caricaturist by his illustrations to the pamphlets of ,william ,houe1 such as ,the ,political ,house that ,jack built1 ,the ,political ,showman at ,home1 and others upon the trial of queen ,caroline2 but this sort of work suited the taste of the public at that time1 and not that of the artist1 which lay in another direction4 ,the ambition of ,george ,cruikshank was to draw what ,hogarth called moral comedies1 pictures of society carried through a series of acts and scenes1 always pointed with some great moral2 and it must be confessed that he has1 through a long career1 succeeded admirably4 ,he possesses more of the true spirit of ,hogarth than any other artist since ,hogarth's time1 with greater skill in drawing4 ,he possesses1 even to a greater degree than ,hogarth himself1 that admirable talent of filling a picture with an immense number of figures1 every one telling a part of the story1 without which1 however minute1 the whole picture would seem to us incomplete4 ,the picture of the ,camp at ,vinegar ,hill1 and one or two other illustrations to ,maxwell's ,history of the ,irish ,rebellion in #agih1 are equal1 if not superior1 to anything ever produced by ,hogarth or by ,callot4 ,the name of ,george ,cruikshank forms a worthy conclusion to the ,history of ,caricature and ,grotesque4 ,he is the last representative of the great school of caricaturists formed during the reign of ,george ,,iii4 ,though there can hardly be said to be a school at the present day1 yet our modern artists in this field have been all formed more or less under his influence2 and it must not be forgotten that we owe to that influence1 and to his example1 to a great degree1 the cleansing of this branch of art from the objectionable characteristics of which ,i have on more than one occasion been obliged to speak4 ,may he still live long among the friends who not only admire him for his talents1 but love him for his kindly and genial spirit2 and none among them love and admire him more sincerely than the author of the present volume4 ,,finis4 ,post ,office ,orders payable ,,december1 #ahgd4 at ,piccadilly ,circus4 ,illustration ,a ,list of ,books ,,published ,,by ,,chatto ,,windus #gd #ge1 ,,piccadilly1 ,,london1 ,w4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,turner ,,gallery3 ,a ,series of ,sixty ,engravings ,from the ,principal ,works of ,,joseph ,,mallord ,,william ,,turner4 ,with a ,memoir and ,illustrative ,text ,,by ,,ralph ,,nicholson ,,wornum1 ,,keeper ,,and ,,secretary1 ,,national ,,gallery4 ,handsomely half-bound1 ,india ,proofs1 ,royal folio1 #aj2 ,,large ,,paper copies1 ,artists' ,india ,proofs1 ,elephant folio1 #bj4 ,a ,descriptive ,pamphlet will be sent upon application4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,copyright ,,american ,,work4 ,,lotos ,,leaves3 ,comprising ,original ,stories1 ,essays1 and ,poems by sc,wilkie ,collins_/sc1 ,,mark ,,twain1 ,,whitelaw ,,reed1 ,,john ,,hay1 ,,noah ,,brooks1 ,,john ,,brougham1 ,,edmund ,,yates1 ,p4 ,v4 ,,nasby1 ,,isaac ,,bromley1 and others4 ,profusely illustrated by ,,alfred ,,fredericks1 ,,arthur ,,lumley1 ,,john ,,la ,,farge1 ,,gilbert ,,berling1 ,,george ,,white1 and others4 ,small quarto1 handsomely bound1 cloth extra1 gilt1 and gilt edges4 #bas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,national ,,gallery3 ,a ,selection from its ,pictures1 ,by ,,claude1 ,,rembrandt1 ,,cuyp1 ,sir ,,david ,,wilkie1 ,,correggio1 ,,gainsborough1 ,,canaletti1 ,,vandyck1 ,,paul ,,veronese1 ,,caracci1 ,,rubens1 ,n4 and ,g4 ,,poussin1 and other great ,masters4 ,engraved by ,,george ,,doo1 ,,john ,,burnet1 ,,william ,,finden1 ,,john and ,,henry ,,le ,,keux1 ,,john ,,pye1 _/sc,walter ,bromley_/sc1 and others4 ,with descriptive ,text4 ,a ,,new ,,edition1 from the ,original ,plates1 in columbier #dto1 cloth extra1 full gilt and gilt edges1 #dbs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,famous ,,fraser ,,portraits4 ,,maclise',s ,,gallery ,,of ,,illustrious ,,literary ,,characters4 ,with ,notes by the late ,,william ,,maginn1 ,,ll4,d4 ,edited1 with copious ,notes1 by ,,william ,,bates1 ,b4,a4 ,the volume contains #hc ,,splendid ,,and ,,most ,,characteristic ,,portraits1 now first issued in a complete form4 ,in demy #dto1 over #djj pages1 cloth gilt and gilt edges1 #cas4 #f;d4 ,most interesting4--,saturday ,review4 ,not possible to imagine a more elegant addition to a drawing-room table4--,fun4 ,one of the most interesting volumes of this year's literature4 --,times4 ,deserves a place on every drawing-room table1 and may not unfitly be removed from the drawing-room to the library4--,spectator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,works ,,of ,,james ,,gillray1 ,,the ,,caricaturist4 ,with the ,story of his ,life and ,times1 and full and ,anecdotal ,descriptions of his ,engravings4 ,edited by ,,thomas ,,wright1 ,esq41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,illustrated with #hc full-page ,plates1 and very numerous ,wood ,engravings4 ,demy #dto1 #fjj pages1 cloth extra1 #cas4 #f;d4 ,high as the expectations excited by this description in the ,introduction may be1 they will not be disappointed4 ,with rare exception1 no source of information has been neglected by the editor1 and the most inquisitive or exacting reader will find ready gathered to his hand1 without the trouble of reference1 almost every scrap of narrative1 anecdote1 gossip1 scandal1 or epigram1 in poetry or prose1 that he can possibly require for the elucidation of the caricatures4--,quarterly ,review4 ,the publishers have done good service in bringing so much that is full of humour and of historical interest within the reach of a large class4--,saturday ,review4 ,one of the most amusing and valuable illustrations of the social and polished life of that generation which it is possible to conceive4--,spectator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,series ,,of ,,beautiful ,,pictures4 ,including ,examples by ,,armytage1 ,,faed1 ,,goodall1 ,,hemsley1 ,,horsley1 ,,marks1 ,,nicholls1 ,sir ,,noel ,,paton1 ,,pickersgill1 ,g4 ,,smith1 ,,marcus ,,stone1 ,,solomon1 ,,straight1 ,e4 ,m4 ,,ward1 ,,warren2 all engraved in the highest style of ,art1 with ,notices of the ,artists and of their ,pictures by ,,sydney ,,armytage1 ,m4,a4 ,imperial #dto1 cloth extra1 gilt1 and gilt edges1 #bas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,beautiful ,,pictures ,,by ,,british ,,artists3 ,a ,gathering of ,favourites from our ,picture ,galleries1 #ahjj-ahgj4 ,including examples by ,,wilkie1 ,,constable1 ,,turner1 ,,mulready1 ,,landseer1 ,,maclise1 ,e4 ,m4 ,,ward1 ,,frith1 ,sir ,,john ,,gilbert1 ,,leslie1 ,,ansdell1 ,,marcus ,,stone1 ,sir ,,noel ,,paton1 ,,faed1 ,,eyre ,,crowe1 ,,gavin1 ,o',,neil1 and ,,madox ,,brown4 ,engraved on ,steel in the highest style of ,art4 ,edited1 with ,notices of the ,artists1 by ,,sydney ,,armytage1 ,m4,a4 ,imperial #dto1 cloth extra1 gilt and gilt edges1 #bas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tom ,,hood',s ,,new ,,story ,,for ,,children4 ,from ,nowhere to the ,north ,pole3 ,a ,noah's ,arkological ,narrative4 ,by ,,tom ,,hood4 ,with #be ,illustrations by ,w4 ,,brunton and ,e4 ,c4 ,,barnes4 ,sq4 crown #hvo1 in a handsome and specially-designed binding1 gilt edges1 #fs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,book ,,by ,,mr4 ,,walter ,,thornbury4 ,on the ,slopes of ,parnassus4 ,illustrated by ,j4 ,e4 ,,millais1 ,f4 ,,sandys1 ,,fred4 ,,walker1 ,g4 ,j4 ,,pinwell1 ,j4 ,d4 ,,houghton1 ,e4 ,j4 ,,poynter1 ,h4 ,s4 ,,marks1 ,j4 ,,whistler1 and others4 ,handsomely printed1 crown #dto1 cloth extra1 gilt and gilt edges1 #bas4 ,in preparation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,grotesque ,,gift-,,book4 ,queens and ,kings1 and other ,things3 ,a rare and choice ,collection of ,pictures1 ,poetry1 and strange but veritable ,histories1 designed and written by ,s4 ,a4 the ,,princess ,,hesse-,,schwarzbourg4 ,the whole imprinted in gold and many colours by the ,brothers ,,dalziel4 ,imperial #dto1 cloth gilt and gilt edges1 ,one ,guinea4 99 99 99 99 99 sop's ,fables1 translated into ,human ,nature by ,c4 ,h4 ,,bennett4 ,descriptive ,text4 ,entirely ,new ,edit4 ,cr4 #dto1 #bd ,plates1 beautifully printed in colours1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #fs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,the ,bellman of ,london4 ,advertising1 ,a ,history of1 from the ,earliest ,times4 ,illustrated by ,anecdotes1 ,curious ,specimens1 and ,biographical ,notes of ,successful ,advertisers4 ,by ,,henry ,,sampson4 ,cr4 #hvo1 ,coloured ,frontispiece and ,illustrations1 cloth gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,learned1 curious1 amusing1 and instructive is this volume4--,echo4 ,not only shows a vast amount of research1 but1 as a whole1 is most readable4 ,the facsimiles of old newspapers it contains add not a little to its value4--,pictorial ,world4 ,mr4 ,sampson has exhibited great diligence and much curious research2 he appears to have overlooked nothing which could throw light on his subject4--,daily ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,amusing ,poetry4 ,a ,selection of ,humorous ,verse from all the ,best ,writers4 ,edited1 with ,preface1 by ,,shirley ,,brooks4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cl4 ex41 gt4 edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,anacreon4 ,translated by ,,thomas ,,moore1 and ,illustrated by the ,exquisite ,designs of ,,girodet4 ,bound in ,etruscan gold and blue1 #abs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,army ,lists of the ,roundheads and ,cavaliers in the ,civil ,war1 #afdb4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,corrected and considerably ,enlarged4 ,edited1 with ,notes and full ,index1 by ,,edward ,,peacock1 ,f4,s4,a4 #dto1 hf4-,roxburghe1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,artemus ,ward1 ,complete4--,the ,works of ,,charles ,,farrer ,,browne1 better known as ,,artemus ,,ward1 now first collected4 ,crown #hvo1 with fine ,portrait1 facsimile of handwriting1 c41 #edj pages1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,artemus ,ward's ,lecture at the ,egyptian ,hall1 with the ,panorama4 ,edited by ,t4 ,w4 ,,robertson and ,e4 ,p4 ,,hingston4 #dto1 green and gold1 ,,tinted ,,illust41 #fs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,uniform ,,with ,,mr4 ,,ruskin',s ,,edition ,,of ,,grimm4 ,bechstein's ,as ,pretty as ,seven1 and other ,popular ,german ,stories4 ,collected by ,,ludwig ,,bechstein4 ,with ,additional ,tales by the ,brothers ,,grimm4 #ajj ,illustrations by ,,richter4 ,small #dto1 green and gold1 #fs4 #f;d42 gilt edges1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,boccaccio's ,decameron2 or1 ,ten ,days' ,entertainment4 ,now fully translated into ,english1 with ,introduction by ,,thomas ,,wright1 ,esq41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with ,portrait after ,,raphael1 and ,,stothard',s ,ten ,copper-plates4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 extra gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,booksellers1 ,a ,history of4 ,full ,accounts of the ,great ,publishing ,houses and their ,founders1 both in ,london and the ,provinces1 the ,history of their ,rise and ,progress1 and of their greatest ,works4 ,by ,,harry ,,curwen4 ,crown #hvo1 over #ejj pages1 frontispiece and numerous ,portraits and ,illusts41 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,illustration3 ,,headpiece ,,used ,,by ,,william ,,caxton4 ,in these days1 ten ordinary ,histories of ,kings and ,courtiers were well exchanged against the tenth part of one good ,history of ,booksellers4--,,thomas ,,carlyle4 ,this stout little book is unquestionably amusing4 ,ill-starred1 indeed1 must be the reader who1 opening it anywhere1 lights upon six consecutive pages within the entire compass of which some good anecdote or smart repartee is not to be found4--,saturday ,review4 ,mr4 ,curwen has produced an interesting work4--,daily ,news4 ,ought to have a permanent place on library shelves4--,court ,circular4 99 99 99 99 99 ,book of ,hall-,marks2 or1 ,manual of ,reference for the ,goldsmith and ,silversmith4 ,by ,,alfred ,,lutschaunig1 ,manager of the ,liverpool ,assay ,office4 ,crown #hvo1 with #df ,plates of the ,hall-,marks of the different ,assay ,towns of the ,united ,kingdom1 as now stamped on ,plate and ,jewellery1 #gs4 #f;d4 999999 ,this work gives practical methods for testing the quality of gold and silver4 ,it was compiled by the author as a ,supplement to ,chaffers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,boudoir ,ballads3 ,vers de ,socit4 ,by ,j4 ,,ashby ,,sterry4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 and gilt edges1 #fs4 ,in preparation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,bret ,harte's ,complete ,works1 in ,prose and ,poetry4 ,now ,first ,collected4 ,with ,introductory ,essay by ,j4 ,m4 ,,bellew1 ,portrait of the ,author1 and #ej ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #fej pages1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,brewster's 7,sir ,david7 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 the ,creed of the ,philosopher and the ,hope of the ,christian4 ,a ,,new ,,edition1 in small crown #hvo1 cloth1 extra gilt1 with full-page ,astronomical ,plates4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,brewster's 7,sir ,d47 ,martyrs of ,science4 ,small cr4 #hvo1 cloth1 extra gilt1 with full-page ,portraits4 #ds4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,bright's 7,rt4 ,hon4 ,j41 ,m4,p47 ,speeches on ,public ,affairs of the last ,twenty ,years4 ,collated with the best ,public ,reports4 ,royal #afmo1 #cgj pages1 cloth extra1 #as4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,a ,border ,song4 ,,colman',s ,,humorous ,,works4 ,broad ,grins4 ,my ,nightgown and ,slippers1 and other ,humorous ,works1 ,prose and ,poetical1 of ,,george ,,colman the ,younger4 ,with ,life and ,anecdotes of the ,author by ,g4 ,b4 ,,buckstone1 and ,frontispiece by ,,hogarth4 ,crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,broadstone ,hall1 and other ,poems4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,,windus4 ,with #dj ,illustrations by ,,alfred ,,concanen4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #es4 99 99 99 99 99 ,conquest of the ,sea3 ,a ,history of ,diving1 from the ,earliest ,times4 ,by ,,henry ,,siebe4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #ds4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,miss ,,braddon',s ,,new ,,novel4 ,lost for ,love3 ,a ,novel4 ,by ,m4 ,e4 ,,braddon1 ,author of ,lady ,audley's ,secret1 c4 ,now ready1 in #c vols41 crown #hvo1 at all ,libraries1 and at the ,booksellers4 ,one of the best novels lately produced4 ,in several important respects1 it appears to us1 ,miss ,braddon's recent works deserve the highest commendation4--,illustrated ,london ,news4 ,we may confidently predict for it a warm welcome from ,miss ,braddon's numerous admirers4--,graphic4 ',lost for ,love' must be placed high among ,miss ,braddon's novels4 ,it has a quiet power1 which makes it attractive in a high degree4--,scotsman4 ,unaffected1 simple1 and easily written1 it will disappoint ,miss ,braddon's early admirers1 and please that which we hope is a wider public4--,athenum4 99 99 99 99 99 ,byron's 7,lord7 ,letters and ,journals1 with ,notices of his ,life4 ,by ,,thomas ,,moore4 ,a ,reprint of the ,original ,edition1 newly revised1 complete in a thick volume of #ajfjpp41 with ,twelve full-page ,plates4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,we have read this book with the greatest pleasure4 ,considered merely as a composition1 it deserves to be classed among the best specimens of ,english prose which our age has produced4 ,it contains1 indeed1 no single passage equal to two or three which we could select from the ,life of ,sheridan2 but1 as a whole1 it is immeasurably superior to that work4 ,the style is agreeable1 clear1 and manly1 and1 when it rises into eloquence1 rises without effort or ostentation4 ,nor is the matter inferior to the manner4 ,it would be difficult to name a book which exhibits more kindness1 fairness1 and modesty4 ,it has evidently been written1 not for the purpose of showing--what1 however1 it often shows--how well its author can write1 but for the purpose of vindicating1 as far as truth will permit1 the memory of a celebrated man who can no longer vindicate himself4 ,mr4 ,moore never thrusts himself between ,lord ,byron and the public4 ,with the strongest temptations to egotism1 he has said no more about himself than the subject absolutely required4 ,a great part1 indeed the greater part1 of these volumes consists of extracts from the ,letters and ,journals of ,lord ,byron2 and it is difficult to speak too highly of the skill which has been shown in the selection and arrangement4444 ,it is impossible1 on a general survey1 to deny that the task has been executed with great judgment and great humanity4 ,when we consider the life which ,lord ,byron had led1 his petulance1 his irritability1 and his communicativeness1 we cannot but admire the dexterity with which ,mr4 ,moore has contrived to exhibit so much of the character and opinions of his friend1 with so little pain to the feelings of the living4--,,lord ,,macaulay1 in the ,edinburgh ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,carols of ,cockayne3 ,vers de ,socit descriptive of ,london ,life4 ,by ,,henry ,s4 ,,leigh4 ,third ,edition4 ,with numerous ,illustrations by ,,alfred ,,concanen4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #es4 99 99 99 99 99 ,carlyle 7,t47 on the ,choice of ,books4 ,with ,new ,life and ,anecdotes4 ,brown cloth1 ,,uniform ,,with ,,the #bs4 ,,editions ,,of ,,his ,,works1 #as4 #f;d4 ,celebrated ,claimants1 ,ancient and ,modern4 ,being the ,histories of all the most celebrated ,pretenders and ,claimants from ,,perkins ,,warbeck to ,,arthur ,,orton4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 #cej pages1 illustrated boards1 price #bs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mr4 ,,wilkie ,,collins',s ,,new ,,novel4 ,the ,law and the ,lady3 ,a ,novel4 ,by ,,wilkie ,,collins1 ,author of ,the ,woman in ,white4 #c vols41 crown #hvo1 #cas4 #f;d4 ,shortly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,christmas ,carols and ,ballads4 ,selected and ,edited by ,,joshua ,,sylvester4 ,a ,new ,edition1 beautifully printed and bound in cloth1 extra gilt1 gilt edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cruikshank's ,comic ,almanack4 ,complete in ,,two ,,series3 the ,,first from #ahce to #ahdc2 the ,,second from #ahdd to #ahec4 ,a ,gathering of the ,,best ,,humour of ,,thackeray1 ,,hood1 ,,mayhew1 ,,albert ,,smith1 ,a',,beckett1 ,,robert ,,brough1 c4 ,with #b1jjj ,woodcuts and ,steel ,engravings by ,,cruikshank1 ,,hine1 ,,landells1 c4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth gilt1 two very thick volumes1 #aes42 or1 separately1 #gs4 #f;d4 per volume4 999999 ,the ,comic ,almanacks of ,george ,cruikshank have long been regarded by admirers of this inimitable artist as among his finest1 most characteristic productions4 ,extending over a period of nineteen years1 from #ahce to #ahec1 inclusive1 they embrace the best period of his artistic career1 and show the varied excellences of his marvellous power4 ,the late ,mr4 ,tilt1 of ,fleet ,street1 first conceived the idea of the ,comic ,almanack1 and at various times there were engaged upon it such writers as ,,thackeray1 ,,albert ,,smith1 the ,brothers ,,mayhew1 the late ,,robert ,,brough1 ,,gilbert ,a',,beckett1 and1 it has been asserted1 ,,tom ,,hood the elder4 ,,thackeray',s stories of ,stubbs' ,calendar2 or1 ,the ,fatal ,boots1 which subsequently appeared as ,stubbs' ,diary2 and ,barber ,cox2 or1 ,the ,cutting of his ,comb1 formed the leading attractions in the numbers for #ahci and #ahdj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,best ,,guide ,,to ,,heraldry4 ,cussans' ,handbook of ,heraldry2 with ,instructions for ,tracing ,pedigrees and ,deciphering ,ancient ,,mss42 also1 ,rules for the ,appointment of ,liveries1 c41 c4 ,by ,,john ,e4 ,,cussans4 ,illustrated with #cfj ,plates and ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt and emblazoned1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,illustration 999999 ,this volume1 beautifully printed on toned paper1 contains not only the ordinary matter to be found in the best books on the science of ,armory1 but several other subjects hitherto unnoticed4 ,amongst these may be mentioned3--#a4 ,,directions ,,for ,,tracing ,,pedigrees4 #b4 ,,deciphering ,,ancient ,,mss41 ,,illustrated ,,by ,,alphabets ,,and ,,facsimiles4 #c4 ,,the ,,appointment ,,of ,,liveries4 #d4 ,,continental ,,and ,,american ,,heraldry1 c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,and ,,important ,,work4 ,cyclopdia of ,costume2 or1 ,a ,dictionary of ,dress1 ,regal1 ,ecclesiastical1 ,civil1 and ,military1 from the ,earliest ,period in ,england to the reign of ,george the ,third4 ,including ,notices of ,contemporaneous ,fashions on the ,continent1 and preceded by a ,general ,history of the ,costume of the ,principal ,countries of ,europe4 ,by ,j4 ,r4 ,,planch1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,somerset ,herald4 ,this work will be published in ,twenty-four ,monthly ,parts1 quarto1 at ,five ,shillings1 profusely illustrated by ,plates and ,wood ,engravings2 with each ,part will also be issued a splendid ,coloured ,plate1 from an original ,painting or ,illumination1 of ,royal and ,noble ,personages1 and ,national ,costume1 both foreign and domestic4 ,the ,first ,part will be ready on ,jan4 #a1 #ahge4 ,illustration ,in collecting materials for a ,history of ,costume of more importance than the little handbook which has met with so much favour as an elementary work1 ,i was not only made aware of my own deficiencies1 but surprised to find how much more vague are the explanations1 and contradictory the statements1 of our best authorities1 than they appeared to me1 when1 in the plenitude of my ignorance1 ,i rushed upon almost untrodden ground1 and felt bewildered by the mass of unsifted evidence and unhesitating assertion which met my eyes at every turn4 ,during the forty years which have elapsed since the publication of the first edition of my ,history of ,british ,costume in the ,library of ,entertaining ,knowledge1 archological investigation has received such an impetus by the establishment of metropolitan and provincial peripatetic antiquarian societies1 that a flood of light has been poured upon us1 by which we are enabled to re-examine our opinions and discover reasons to doubt1 if we cannot find facts to authenticate4 ,that the former greatly preponderate is a grievous acknowledgment to make after assiduously devoting the leisure of half my life to the pursuit of information on this1 to me1 most fascinating subject4 ,it is some consolation1 however1 to feel that where ,i cannot instruct1 ,i shall certainly not mislead1 and that the reader will find1 under each head1 all that is known to1 or suggested by1 the most competent writers ,i am acquainted with1 either here or on the ,continent4 ,that this work appears in a glossarial form arises from the desire of many artists1 who have expressed to me the difficulty they constantly meet with in their endeavours to ascertain the complete form of a garment1 or the exact mode of fastening a piece of armour1 or buckling of a belt1 from their study of a sepulchral effigy or a figure in an illumination2 the attitude of the personages represented1 or the disposition of other portions of their attire1 effectually preventing the requisite examination4 ,the books supplying any such information are very few1 and the best confined to armour or ecclesiastical costume4 ,the only ,english publication of the kind required1 that ,i am aware of1 is the late ,mr4 ,fairholt's ,costume in ,england 7#hvo1 ,london1 #ahdf71 the last two hundred pages of which contain a glossary1 the most valuable portion whereof are the quotations from old plays1 medival romances1 and satirical ballads1 containing allusions to various articles of attire in fashion at the time of their composition4 ,twenty-eight years have expired since that book appeared1 and it has been thought that a more comprehensive work on the subject than has yet issued from the ,english press1 combining the pith of the information of many costly foreign publications1 and1 in its illustrations1 keeping in view the special requirement of the artist1 to which ,i have alluded1 would be1 in these days of educational progress and critical inquiry1 a welcome addition to the library of an ,english gentleman4 ,j4 ,r4 ,,planch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cussans' ,history of ,hertfordshire4 ,a ,county ,history1 got up in a very superior manner1 and ranging with the finest works of its class4 ,by ,,john ,e4 ,,cussans4 ,illustrated with full-page ,plates on ,copper and ,stone1 and a profusion of small ,woodcuts4 ,parts ,i4 to ,,viii4 are now ready1 price #bas4 each4 999999 ,an entirely new ,history of this important ,county1 great attention being given to all matters pertaining to ,family ,history4 99 99 99 99 99 ,dickens' ,life and ,speeches4 ,by ,,theodore ,,taylor4 ,complete in ,one ,volume1 square #afmo1 cloth extra1 #bs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,don ,,quixote ,,in ,,the ,,original ,,spanish4 99_/ ,el ,ingenioso ,hidalgo ,don ,quijote de la ,mancha4 ,nueva ,edicion1 corregida y revisada4 ,por ,,miguel ,,de ,,cervantes ,,saavedra4 ,complete in one volume1 post #hvo1 nearly #gjj pages1 cloth extra1 price #ds4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gil ,,blas ,,in ,,spanish4 ,historia de ,gil ,blas de ,santillana4 ,por ,,le ,,sage4 ,traducida al ,castellano por el ,,padre ,,isla4 ,nueva ,edicion1 corregida y revisada4 ,complete in ,one ,volume4 ,post #hvo1 cloth extra1 nearly #fjj pages1 price #ds4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,earthward ,pilgrimage1 from the ,next ,world to that which now is4 ,by ,,moncure ,d4 ,,conway4 ,crown #hvo1 beautifully printed and bound1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ellis's 7,mrs47 ,mothers of ,great ,men4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with ,illustrations by ,,valentine ,w4 ,,bromley4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth gilt1 over #ejj pages1 #fs4 ,mrs4 ,ellis believes1 as most of us do1 that the character of the mother goes a long way2 and1 in illustration of this doctrine1 she has given us several lives written in her charming1 yet earnest1 style4 ,we especially commend the life of ,byron's and ,napoleon's mothers4444 ,the volume has some solid merits4--,echo4 ,this is a book which ought to be in the libraries of all who interest themselves in the education of women4--,victoria ,magazine4 ,an extremely agreeable and readable book1 444 and its value is not a little enhanced by ,mr4 ,bromley's illustrations4--,illustrated ,dramatic ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,emanuel on ,diamonds and ,precious ,stones2 ,their ,history1 ,value1 and ,properties2 with ,simple ,tests for ascertaining their ,reality4 ,by ,,harry ,,emanuel1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with numerous ,illustrations1 ,tinted and ,plain4 ,a ,new ,edition1 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #fs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,poe',s ,,cottage ,,at ,,fordham4 ,edgar ,allan ,poe's ,prose and ,poetical ,works2 including ,additional ,tales and his fine ,critical ,essays4 ,with a ,translation of ,,charles ,,baudelaire',s ,essay4 #gej pages1 crown #hvo1 fine ,portrait and ,illustrations1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,english ,surnames3 ,their ,sources and ,significations4 ,by ,,charles ,,wareing ,,bardsley1 ,m4,a4 ,,second ,,edition1 revised throughout1 considerably enlarged1 and partially re-written4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #is4 ,mr4 ,bardsley has faithfully consulted the original medival documents and works from which the origin and development of surnames can alone be satisfactorily traced4 ,he has furnished a valuable contribution to the literature of surnames1 and we hope to hear more of him in this field4--,times4 ,mr4 ,bardsley's volume is a very good specimen of the work which the nineteenth century can turn out4 ,he has evidently bestowed a great deal of attention1 not only upon surnames1 but upon philology in general4 ,the book is a mine of information4--,westminster ,review4 ,we welcome this book as an important addition to our knowledge of an important and interesting subject4--,athenum4 99 99 99 99 99 ,englishman's ,house 7,the73 ,a ,practical ,guide to all interested in ,selecting or ,building a ,house1 with full ,estimates of ,cost1 ,quantities1 c4 ,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,richardson1 ,architect1 ,author of ,old ,english ,mansions1 c4 ,third ,edition4 ,with nearly #fjj ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,illustration 999999 ,this ,work might not inappropriately be termed ,a ,book of ,houses4 ,it gives every variety of house1 from a workman's cottage to a nobleman's palace4 ,the book is intended to supply a want long felt1 viz41 a plain1 non-technical account of every style of house1 with the cost and manner of building4 99 99 99 99 99 ,faraday's ,chemical ,history of a ,candle4 ,lectures delivered to a ,juvenile ,audience4 ,a ,new ,edition1 edited by ,w4 ,,crookes1 ,esq41 ,f4,c4,s41 c4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 with all the ,original ,illustrations1 #ds4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,faraday's ,various ,forces of ,nature4 ,a ,new ,edition1 edited by ,w4 ,,crookes1 ,esq41 ,f4,c4,s41 c4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 with all the ,original ,illustrations1 #ds4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,father ,,prout',s ,,remains4 ,final ,reliques of ,father ,prout4 ,collected and ,edited1 from ,,mss4 supplied by the ,family of the ,rev4 ,,francis ,,mahoney1 by ,,blanchard ,,jerrold4 ,in preparation4 ,finish to ,life in and out of ,london2 or1 ,the ,final ,adventures of ,tom1 ,jerry1 and ,logic4 ,by ,,pierce ,,egan4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth extra1 with ,spirited ,coloured ,illustrations by ,,cruikshank1 #bas4 ,flagellation and the ,flagellants4--,a ,history of the ,rod in all ,countries1 from the ,earliest ,period to the ,present ,time4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,cooper1 ,b4,a4 ,third ,edition1 revised and corrected1 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,thick crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #abs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fools' ,paradise2 with the ,many ,wonderful ,adventures there1 as seen in the strange1 surprising ,peep-,show of ,professor ,wolley ,cobble4 ,crown #dto1 with nearly #cej very funny ,coloured ,pictures1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,professor',s ,,leetle ,,music ,,lesson4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ruskin ,,and ,,cruikshank4 ,german ,popular ,stories4 ,collected by the ,brothers ,,grimm1 and ,translated by ,,edgar ,,taylor4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction1 by ,,john ,,ruskin4 ,with #bb ,illustrations after the inimitable designs of ,,george ,,cruikshank4 ,both ,series complete4 ,square crown #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d42 gilt leaves1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the illustrations of this volume 444 are of quite sterling and admirable art1 in a class precisely parallel in elevation to the character of the tales which they illustrate2 and the original etchings1 as ,i have before said in the ,appendix to my ',elements of ,drawing1' were unrivalled in masterfulness of touch since ,rembrandt 7in some qualities of delineation1 unrivalled even by him74444 ,to make somewhat enlarged copies of them1 looking at them through a magnifying glass1 and never putting two lines where ,cruikshank has put only one1 would be an exercise in decision and severe drawing which would leave afterwards little to be learnt in schools4--,extract from ,introduction by ,,john ,,ruskin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,golden ,treasury of ,thought4 ,the ,best ,encyclopdia of ,quotations and ,elegant ,extracts1 from ,writers of all ,times and all ,countries1 ever formed4 ,selected and ,edited by ,,theodore ,,taylor4 ,crown #hvo1 very handsomely bound1 cloth gilt1 and gilt edges1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,genial ,showman2 or1 ,show ,life in the ,new ,world4 ,adventures with ,artemus ,ward1 and the ,story of his ,life4 ,by ,e4 ,p4 ,,hingston4 ,third ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 ,illustrated by ,w4 ,,brunton1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,golden ,,library4 ,square #afmo 7,tauchnitz size71 cloth1 extra gilt1 price #bs4 per vol4 ,clerical ,anecdotes3 ,the ,humours and ,eccentricities of the ,cloth4 99 99 99 ,holmes's ,autocrat of the ,breakfast ,table4 ,with an ,introduction by ,,george ,,augustus ,,sala4 99 99 99 ,holmes's ,professor at the ,breakfast ,table4 ,with the ,,story ,,of ,,iris4 99 99 99 ,hood's ,whims and ,oddities4 ,both ,series complete in ,one ,volume1 with all the original ,illustrations4 99 99 99 ,lamb's ,essays of ,elia4 ,both ,series complete in ,one ,volume4 99 99 99 ,leigh ,hunt's ,essays3 ,a ,tale for a ,chimney ,corner1 and other ,pieces4 ,with ,portrait1 and ,introduction by ,,edmund ,,ollier4 99 99 99 ,shelley's ,early ,poems3 ,queen ,mab1 c4 ,reprinted from the ,author's ,original ,editions4 ,with ,essay by ,,leigh ,,hunt4 7,first ,series of his ,works47 99 99 99 ,shelley's ,later ,poems3 ,laon and ,cythna1 the ,cenci1 and other ,pieces4 ,reprinted from the ,author's ,original ,editions4 ,with an ,introductory ,essay4 7,second ,series of his ,works47 99 99 99 ,shelley's ,miscellaneous ,poems and ,prose ,works4 ,the ,third and ,fourth ,series4 ,these ,two ,volumes will include the ,posthumous ,poems1 published by ,mrs4 ,,shelley in #ahbd2 the ,shelley ,papers1 published in #ahcc2 the ,six ,weeks' ,tour 7#ahaf72 the ,notes to ,queen ,mab1 c42 the ,marlow and ,dublin ,pamphlets2 ,the ,wandering ,jew1 a ,poem2 and the two ,novels1 ,zastrozzi and ,st4 ,irvyne4 ,the three last now first included in any edition of ,shelley4 99 99 99 99 99 ,great ,cond 7,the71 and the ,period of the ,fronde3 ,an ,historical ,sketch4 ,by ,,walter ,,fitzpatrick4 ,second ,edition1 in #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth extra1 #aes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,greenwood's 7,james7 ,wilds of ,london3 ,being ,descriptive ,sketches1 from the ,personal ,observations and ,experiences of the ,writer1 of ,remarkable ,scenes1 ,people1 and ,places in ,london4 ,by ,,james ,,greenwood1 the ,lambeth ,casual4 ,with ,twelve full-page tinted ,illustrations by ,,alfred ,,concanen4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,mr4 ,james ,greenwood presents himself once more in the character of 'one whose delight it is to do his humble endeavour towards exposing and extirpating social abuses and those hole-and-corner evils which afflict society4'--,saturday ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hall's 7,mrs4 ,s4 ,c47 ,sketches of ,irish ,character4 ,,wooing ,,and ,,wedding1 ,,jack ,,the ,,shrimp1 ,,peter ,,the ,,prophet1 ,,good ,,and ,,bad ,,spirits1 ,,mabel ,o',,neil',s ,,curse1 c41 c4 ,with numerous ,illustrations on ,steel and ,wood1 by ,,daniel ,,maclise1 ,r4,a41 ,sir ,,john ,,gilbert1 ,w4 ,,harvey1 and ,g4 ,,cruikshank4 #hvo1 pp4 #dej1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,illustration ,the ,irish sketches of this lady resemble ,miss ,mitford's beautiful ,english ,sketches in ',our ,village1' but they are far more vigorous and picturesque and bright4--,blackwood's ,magazine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,most ,,complete ,,hogarth ,,ever ,,published4 ,hogarth's ,works3 with ,life and ,anecdotal ,descriptions of the ,pictures1 by ,,john ,,ireland and ,,john ,,nichols4 ,the ,work includes #afj ,engravings1 reduced in exact facsimile of the ,original ,plates1 specimens of which have now become very scarce4 ,the whole in ,three ,series1 #hvo1 cloth1 gilt1 #bbs4 #f;d42 or1 separately1 #gs4 #f;d4 per volume4 ,each ,series is ,complete in itself4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,talking ,,hand4 ,will be a great boon to authors and artists as well as amateurs4444 ,very cheap and very complete4--,standard4 ,for all practical purposes the three handsome volumes comprising this edition are equal to a collection of ,hogarthian prints4 ,we are quite sure that any one who adds this work to his library will be amply repaid by the inexhaustible charms of its facsimile prints4--,birmingham ,daily ,mail4 ,the plates are reduced in size1 but yet truthfully reproduced4 ,the best and cheapest edition of ,hogarth's complete works yet brought forward4--,building ,news4 ,three very interesting volumes1 important and valuable additions to the library4 ,the edition is thoroughly well brought out1 and carefully printed on fine paper4--,art ,journal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hogarth's ,five ,days' ,frolic2 or1 ,peregrinations by ,land and ,water4 ,illustrated with ,tinted ,drawings1 made by ,,hogarth and ,,scott during the ,journey4 #dto1 beautifully printed1 cloth1 extra gilt1 #ajs4 #f;d4 999999 ,a graphic and most extraordinary picture of the hearty ,english times in which these merry artists lived4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hogg's ,jacobite ,relics of ,scotland3 ,being the ,songs1 ,airs1 and ,legends of the ,adherents to the ,house of ,stuart4 ,collected and ,illustrated by ,,james ,,hogg4 ,in #b vols4 ,vol4 ,i41 a ,facsimile of the original ,edition2 ,vol4 ,,ii41 the original ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth1 #bhs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,haunted2 or1 ,tales of the ,weird and ,wonderful4 ,a new and entirely original series of ,,ghost ,,stories1 by ,,francis ,e4 ,,stainforth4 ,post #hvo1 illust4 bds41 #bs4 ,nearly ready4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hawthorne's ,english and ,american ,note ,books4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction1 by ,,moncure ,d4 ,,conway4 ,royal #afmo1 paper cover1 #as42 in cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hone's ,scrap-,books3 ,the ,miscellaneous ,writings of ,,william ,,hone1 ,author of ,the ,table-,book1 ,every-,day ,book1 and the ,year ,book3 being a ,supplementary ,volume to those works4 ,now first collected4 ,with ,notes1 ,portraits1 and numerous ,illustrations of curious and eccentric objects4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra4 ,preparing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mr4 ,,horne',s ,,epic4 ,orion4 ,an ,epic ,poem1 in ,three ,books4 ,by ,,richard ,,hengist ,,horne4 ,with ,photographic ,portrait-,frontispiece4 ,,tenth ,,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #gs4 ,orion will be admitted1 by every man of genius1 to be one of the noblest1 if not the very noblest poetical work of the age4 ,its defects are trivial and conventional1 its beauties intrinsic and supreme4--,,edgar ,,allan ,,poe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hunt's 7,robert7 ,drolls of ,old ,cornwall2 or1 ,,popular ,,romances ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,of ,,england4 ,with ,illustrations by ,,george ,,cruikshank4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,illustration 999999 ,mr4 ,hunt's charming book of the ,drolls and ,stories of the ,west of ,england4--,saturday ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,irish ,guide4--,how to ,spend a ,month in ,ireland4 ,being a complete ,guide to the ,country1 with an ,appendix containing information as to the ,fares between the ,principal ,towns in ,england and ,ireland1 and as to ,tourist ,arrangements for the ,season4 ,with a ,map and #hj ,illustrations4 ,by ,sir ,,cusack ,p4 ,,roney4 ,a ,new ,edition1 ,edited by ,mrs4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,riddell4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 price #as4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,jennings' 7,hargrave7 ,one of the ,thirty4 ,with curious ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #ajs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 ,jennings' 7,hargrave7 ,the ,rosicrucians3 ,their ,rites and ,mysteries4 ,with ,chapters on the ,ancient ,fire and ,serpent ,worshippers and ,explanations of ,mystic ,symbols in ,monuments and ,talismans of ,primeval ,philosophers4 ,crown #hvo1 #cjj ,illustrations1 #ajs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,jerrold's 7,blanchard7 ,cent4 per ,cent4 ,a ,story ,written on a ,bill ,stamp4 ,a ,new ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 illustrated boards1 #bs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,work ,,by ,,douglas ,,jerrold4 ,jerrold's 7,douglas7 ,the ,barber's ,chair1 and ,the ,hedgehog ,letters4 ,now first collected4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction1 by his ,son1 ,,blanchard ,,jerrold4 ,crown #hvo1 with ,steel ,plate ,portrait from his ,bust1 engraved by ,w4 ,h4 ,,mote1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,no library is complete without ,douglas ,jerrold's ,works2 ergo1 no library is complete without the ',barber's ,chair4' ,a delightful volume2 the papers are most amusing2 they abound with sly touches of sarcasm2 they are full of playful wit and fancy4--,pictorial ,world4 ,an amusing volume1 full of ,douglas ,jerrold's well-known sharpness and repartee4--,daily ,news4 ,better fitted than any other of his productions to give an idea of ,douglas ,jerrold's amazing wit2 the ',barber's ,chair' may be presumed to give as near an approach as is possible in print to the wit of ,jerrold's conversation4--,examiner4 99 99 99 ,jerrold's 7,douglas7 ,brownrigg ,papers3 ,the ,actress at the ,duke's2 ,baron von ,boots2 ,christopher ,snubb2 ,the ,tutor ,fiend and his ,three ,pupils2 ,papers of a ,gentleman at ,arms1 c4 ,by ,,douglas ,,jerrold4 ,edited by his ,son1 ,,blanchard ,,jerrold4 ,post #hvo1 illustrated boards1 #bs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,kalendars of ,gwynedd4 ,compiled by ,,edward ,,breese1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with ,notes by ,,william ,,watkin ,,edward ,,wynne1 ,esq41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,demy #dto1 cloth extra1 #bhs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lamb's 7,charles7 ,complete ,works1 in ,prose and ,verse1 reprinted from the ,original ,editions1 with many pieces now first included in any ,edition4 ,edited1 with ,notes and ,introduction1 by ,r4 ,h4 ,,shepherd4 ,with ,two ,portraits and facsimile of a page of the ,essay on ,roast ,pig4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,is it not time for a new and final edition of ,lamb's ,works--a finer tribute to his memory than any monument in ,edmonton churchyard8 ,lamb's writings1 and more especially his fugitive productions1 have scarcely yet escaped from a state of chaos4--,westminster ,review1 ,october1 #ahgd4 ,,abstract ,,of ,,contents4 ,,essays ,,of ,,elia1 as originally published in ,the ,london ,magazine1 ,the ,examiner1 ,the ,indicator1 ,the ,reflector1 ,the ,new ,monthly1 ,the ,englishman's ,magazine1 ,the ,athenum1 c4 ,,papers contributed to ,hone's ,table ,book1 ,year ,book1 and ,every ,day ,book1 and to ,walter ,wilson's ,life of ,defoe4 ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,english ,,dramatists1 #ahjh-ahbg4 ,,review ,,of ,,wordsworth',s ,,excursion 7from the ,quarterly ,review74 ,,rosamond ,,gray 7from the ,edition of #agih74 ,,tales ,,from ,,shakespeare and from ,,mrs4 ,,leicester',s ,,school4 ,,the ,,adventures ,,of ,,ulysses4 ,,dramatic ,,pieces3 ,john ,woodvil3 a ,tragedy 7from the ,edition of #ahjb74 ,mr4 ,h----1 a ,farce4 ,the ,wife's ,trial2 or1 ,the ,intruding ,widow4 ,the ,pawnbroker's ,daughter4 ,,poems3 ,sonnets and other ,poems printed with those of ,coleridge in #agif-g1 #ahjj1 and #ahac4 ,blank ,verse 7from the ,edition of #agih74 ,poetry for ,children1 #ahji4 ,album ,verses1 #ahcj4 ,satan in ,search of a ,wife1 #ahca1 c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lamb 7,mary ,charles73 ,their ,poems1 ,letters1 and ,remains4 ,now first collected1 with ,reminiscences and ,notes1 by ,w4 ,,carew ,,hazlitt4 ,with ,,hancock',s ,portrait of the ,essayist1 ,facsimiles of the ,title-pages of the rare ,first ,editions of ,lamb's and ,coleridge's ,works1 ,facsimile of a ,page of the ,original ,,ms4 of the ,essay on ,roast ,pig1 and numerous ,illustrations of ,lamb's ,favourite ,haunts4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #ajs4 #f;d42 ,,large-,,paper ,,copies #bas4 ,mr4 ,w4,c4 ,hazlitt has published a very pretty and interesting little volume4 ,it has many pictorial illustrations1 which were supplied by ,mr4 ,camden ,hotten2 and1 above all1 it contains a facsimile of the first page of ,elia on ',roast ,pig4' ,it is well got up1 and has a good portrait of ,elia4 ,there are also some letters and poems of ,mary ,lamb which are not easily accessible elsewhere4--,westminster ,review4 ,must be consulted by all future biographers of the ,lambs4--,daily ,news4 ,tells us a good deal that is interesting and something that is fairly new4--,graphic4 ,very many passages will delight those fond of literary trifles2 hardly any portion will fail to have its interest for lovers of ,charles ,lamb and his sister4--,standard4 ,mr4 ,hazlitt's work is very important and valuable1 and all lovers of ,elia will thank him for what he has done4--,sunday ,times4 ,will be joyfully received by all ,lambites4--,globe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lee 7,general ,edward73 ,his ,life and ,campaigns4 ,by his ,nephew1 ,,edward ,,lee ,,childe4 ,with ,portrait and ,plans4 #a vol4 ,crown #hvo4 ,in preparation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,life in ,london2 or1 ,the ,day and ,night ,scenes of ,jerry ,hawthorn and ,corinthian ,tom4 ,,with ,,the ,,whole ,,of ,,cruikshank',s ,,very ,,droll ,,illustrations1 in ,colours1 after the ,originals4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,literary ,scraps4 ,a ,folio ,scrap-,book of #cdj columns1 with guards1 for the reception of ,cuttings from ,newspapers1 ,extracts1 ,miscellanea1 c4 ,in folio1 half-roan1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,little ,london ,directory of #afgg4 ,the ,oldest ,printed ,list of the ,merchants and ,bankers of ,london4 ,reprinted from the ,rare ,original1 with an ,introduction by ,,john ,,camden ,,hotten4 #afmo1 binding after the original1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,illustration ,longfellow's ,prose ,works1 complete1 including ,outre-,mer1 ,hyperion1 ,kavanagh1 ,driftwood1 ,on the ,poets and ,poetry of ,europe4 ,with ,portrait and ,illustrations by ,,bromley4 #hjj pages1 crown #hvo1 cloth gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 999999 ,the reader will find the present edition of ,longfellow's ,prose ,writings by far the most complete ever issued in this country4 ,outre-,mer contains two additional chapters1 restored from the first edition2 while ,the ,poets and ,poetry of ,europe1 and the little collection of ,sketches entitled ,driftwood1 are now first introduced to the ,english public4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lost ,beauties of the ,english ,language4 ,an ,appeal to ,authors1 ,poets1 ,clergymen1 and ,public ,speakers4 ,by ,,charles ,,mackay1 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #fs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,linton's 7,mrs4 ,e4 ,lynn7 ,true ,history of ,joshua ,davidson1 ,christian and ,communist4 ,,sixth ,,edition1 with a ,new ,preface4 ,small crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,in a short and vigorous preface1 ,mrs4 ,linton defends1 in certain points1 her notion of the logical outcome of ,christianity as embodied in this attempt to conceive how ,christ would have acted1 with whom ,he would have fraternised1 and who would have declined to receive ,him1 had ,he appeared in the present generation4--,examiner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mrs4 ,,lynn ,,linton',s ,,new ,,novel4 ,patricia ,kemball3 ,a ,novel1 by ,e4 ,,lynn ,,linton1 ,author of ,joshua ,davidson1 c41 in ,three ,vols4 crown #hvo1 is now ready at all the ,libraries and at the ,booksellers'4 ,perhaps the ablest novel published in ,london this year4444 ,we know of nothing in the novels we have lately read equal to the scene in which ,mr4 ,hamley proposes to ,dora4444 ,we advise our readers to send to the library for the story4--,athenum4 ,this novel is distinguished by qualities which entitle it to a place apart from the ordinary fiction of the day2 444 displays genuine humour1 as well as keen social observation4444 ,enough graphic portraiture and witty observation to furnish materials for half a dozen novels of the ordinary kind4--,saturday ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,madre ,natura versus ,the ,moloch of ,fashion4 ,a ,social ,essay4 ,by ,,luke ,,limner4 ,with #cb ,illustrations by the ,author4 ,,fourth ,,edition1 revised1 corrected1 and enlarged4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra gilt1 red edges1 price #bs4 #f;d4 ,illustration ,bravo1 ,luke ,limner6 ,in this treatise1 aptly and ably illustrated1 the well-known artist scathingly exposes the evils of the present fashions--more especially of tight-lacing4 ,girls should be made to learn it by heart1 and act on its precepts4--,fun4 ,agreeably written and amusingly illustrated4 ,common sense and erudition are brought to bear on the subjects discussed in it4--,lancet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,magna ,charta4 ,an exact ,facsimile of the ,original ,document in the ,british ,museum1 carefully drawn1 and printed on fine plate paper1 nearly #c feet long by #b feet wide1 with the ,arms and ,seals of the ,barons emblazoned in ,gold and ,colours4 ,price #es4 ,a full ,translation1 with ,notes1 printed on a large sheet1 price #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,author',s ,,corrected ,,edition4 ,mark ,twain's ,choice ,works4 ,revised and ,corrected throughout by the ,author4 ,with ,life1 ,portrait1 and numerous ,illustrations4 #gjj pages1 cloth extra gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 ,mark ,twain's ,pleasure ,trip on the ,continent of ,europe4 ,with ,frontispiece4 #ejj pages1 illustrated boards1 #bs42 or cloth extra1 #bs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,marston's 7,dr4 ,westland7 ,poetical and ,dramatic ,works4 ,a ,new and ,collected ,library ,edition1 in ,two ,vols4 crown #hvo1 is now in the press1 and will be ready very shortly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mr4 ,,philip ,,marston',s ,,poems4 ,song ,tide1 and other ,poems4 ,by ,,philip ,,bourke ,,marston4 ,,second ,,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #hs4 ,this is a first work of extraordinary performance and of still more extraordinary promise4 ,the youngest school of ,english poetry has received an important accession to its ranks in ,philip ,bourke ,marston4--,examiner4 ,mr4 ,marston has fairly established his claim to be heard as a poet4444 ,his present volume is well worthy of careful perusal1 as the utterance of a poetic1 cultivated mind4--,standard4 ,we have spoken plainly of some defects in the poetry before us1 but we have read much of it with interest1 and even admiration4--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 99 99 99 ,all in ,all3 ,poems and ,sonnets4 ,by ,,philip ,,bourke ,,marston4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #hs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mayhew's ,london ,characters3 ,illustrations of the ,humour1 ,pathos1 and ,peculiarities of ,london ,life4 ,by ,,henry ,,mayhew1 ,author of ,london ,labour and the ,london ,poor1 and other ,writers4 ,with nearly #ajj graphic ,illustrations by ,w4 ,s4 ,,gilbert1 and others4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #fs4 ,well fulfils the promise of its title4444 ,the book is an eminently interesting one1 and will probably attract many readers4--,court ,circular4 99 99 99 99 99 ,memorials of ,manchester ,streets4 ,by ,,richard ,,wright ,,procter4 ,with an ,appendix1 containing ,the ,chetham ,library1 by ,,james ,,crossley1 ,f4,s4,a42 and ,old ,manchester and its ,worthies1 by ,,james ,,croston1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth extra1 with ,photographic ,frontispiece and numerous ,illustrations1 #aes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,monumental ,inscriptions of the ,west ,indies1 from the ,earliest ,date1 with ,genealogical and ,historical ,annotations1 c41 from ,original1 ,local1 and other ,sources4 ,illustrative of the ,histories and ,genealogies of the ,seventeenth ,century1 the ,calendars of ,state ,papers1 ,peerages1 and ,baronetages4 ,with ,engravings of the ,arms of the principal ,families4 ,chiefly collected on the spot by the ,author1 ,capt4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,lawrence-,,archer4 ,demy #dto1 cloth extra1 #dbs4 ,nearly ready4 99 99 99 99 99 ,muses of ,mayfair3 ,vers de ,socit of the ,nineteenth ,century1 including selections from ,,tennyson1 ,,browning1 ,,swinburne1 ,,rossetti1 ,,jean ,,ingelow1 ,,locker1 ,,ingoldsby1 ,,hood1 ,,lytton1 ,c4 ,s4 ,c41 ,,landor1 ,,henry ,s4 ,,leigh1 and very many others4 ,edited by ,h4 ,,cholmondeley-,,pennell1 ,author of ,puck on ,pegasus4 ,beautifully printed1 cloth extra gilt1 gilt edges1 uniform with ,the ,golden ,treasury of ,thought1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mr4 ,o',,shaughnessy',s ,,poems4 ,music and ,moonlight3 ,poems and ,songs4 ,by ,,arthur ,o',,shaughnessy1 ,author of ,an ,epic of ,women4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,it is difficult to say which is more exquisite1 the technical perfection of structure and melody1 or the delicate pathos of thought4 ,mr4 ,o',shaughnessy will enrich our literature with some of the very best songs written in our generation4--,academy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an ,epic of ,women1 and other ,poems4 ,,second ,,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth extra1 #fs4 ,of the formal art of poetry he is in many senses quite a master2 his metres are not only good1--they are his own1 and often of an invention most felicitous as well as careful4--,academy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lays of ,france4 7,founded on the ,lays of ,marie47 ,,second ,,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,as we have before remarked in noticing an earlier volume of his1 this modern votary of ,marie has1 in imaginative power1 keen intuition1 and ear1 a genuine claim to be writing poetry1 as things go now4444 ,and ,mr4 ,o',s4 is also an accomplished master in those peculiar turns of rhythm which are designed to reproduce the manner of the medival originals4--,saturday ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mystery of the ,good ,old ,cause3 ,sarcastic ,notices of those ,members of the ,long ,parliament that held ,places1 both ,civil and ,military1 contrary to the ,self-denying ,ordinance of ,april #c1 #afde2 with the ,sums of ,money and ,lands they divided among themselves4 ,small #dto1 half-morocco1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,napoleon ,,iii41 the ,man of ,his ,time2 from ,caricatures4 ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,napoleon ,,iii41 as told by ,j4 ,m4 ,,haswell4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,same ,,story1 as told by the ,,popular ,,caricatures of the past ,thirty-five ,years4 ,crown #hvo1 with ,coloured ,frontispiece and over #ajj ,caricatures1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,original ,lists of ,persons of ,quality2 ,emigrants2 ,religious ,exiles2 ,political ,rebels2 ,serving ,men ,sold for a ,term of ,years2 ,apprentices2 ,children ,stolen2 ,maidens ,pressed2 and others who went from ,great ,britain to the ,american ,plantations1 #afjj-agjj4 ,with their ,ages1 the ,localities where they formerly ,lived in the ,mother ,country1 ,names of the ,ships in which they embarked1 and other interesting particulars4 ,from ,,mss4 preserved in the ,state ,paper ,department of ,her ,majesty's ,public ,record ,office1 ,england4 ,edited by ,,john ,,camden ,,hotten4 ,a very handsome volume1 crown #dto1 cloth gilt1 #gjj pages1 #chs4 ,a few ,large ,paper copies have been printed1 price #fjs4 ,this volume is an ,english ,family ,record1 and as such may be commended to ,english families1 and the descendants of ,english families1 wherever they exist4--,academy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,old ,,dramatists4 ,,mr4 ,,swinburne',s ,,new ,,essay4 ,george ,chapman's ,poems and ,minor ,translations4 ,complete1 including some ,pieces now first printed4 ,with an ,essay on the ,dramatic and ,poetical ,works of ,,george ,,chapman1 by ,,algernon ,,charles ,,swinburne4 ,crown #hvo1 with ,frontispiece1 cloth extra1 #fs4 99 99 99 ,george ,chapman's ,translations of ,homer's ,iliad and ,odyssey4 ,edited by ,,richard ,,herne ,,shepherd4 ,in one volume1 crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #fs4 99 99 99 ,george ,chapman's ,plays1 ,complete1 from the ,original ,quartos1 including the doubtful ,plays4 ,edited by ,r4 ,h4 ,,shepherd4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 with ,frontispiece1 #fs4 99 99 99 ,ben ,jonson's ,works4 ,with ,notes1 ,critical and ,explanatory1 and a ,biographical ,memoir by ,,william ,,gifford4 ,edited by ,lieut4-,col4 ,,francis ,,cunningham4 ,complete in #c vols41 crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 ,portrait1 #fs4 each4 99 99 99 ,christopher ,marlowe's ,works2 ,including his ,translations4 ,edited1 with ,notes and ,introduction1 by ,lt4-,col4 ,f4 ,,cunningham4 ,cr4 #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 ,portrait1 #fs4 99 99 99 ,philip ,massinger's ,plays4 ,from the ,text of ,,wm4 ,,gifford4 ,with the addition of the ,tragedy of ,believe as ,you ,list4 ,edited by ,lieut4-,col4 ,,francis ,,cunningham4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra gilt1 with ,portrait1 price #fs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,old ,,books--,,facsimile ,,reprints4 ,musarum ,delici2 or1 ,the ,muses' ,recreation1 #afef2 ,wit ,restor'd1 #afeh2 and ,wit's ,recreations1 #afdj4 ,the whole compared with the originals2 with all the ,wood ,engravings1 ,plates1 ,memoirs1 and ,notes4 ,a ,new ,edition1 in #b vols41 post #hvo1 printed on antique laid paper1 and bound in antique boards1 #bas4 99 99 99 ,rump 7,the72 or1 ,an ,exact ,collection of the choicest ,,poems and ,,songs relating to the late ,times1 and continued by the most eminent ,wits2 from ,anno #afci to #affa4 ,a ,facsimile ,reprint of the rare ,original ,edition 7,london1 #affb71 with ,frontispiece and ,engraved ,title-page4 ,in #b vols41 large fcap4 #hvo1 printed on antique laid paper1 and bound in antique boards1 #ags4 #f;d4 99 99 99 ,d',urfey's 7,tom7 ,wit and ,mirth2 or1 ,,pills ,,to ,,purge ,,melancholy3 ,being a ,collection of the best ,merry ,ballads and ,songs1 ,old and ,new4 ,fitted to all ,humours1 having each their proper ,tune for either ,voice or ,instrument3 most of the ,songs being new set4 ,london3 ,printed by ,w4 ,pearson1 for ,j4 ,tonson1 at ,shakespeare's ,head1 over-against ,catherine ,street in the ,strand1 #agai4 ,an exact reprint4 ,in #f vols41 large fcap4 #hvo1 printed on antique laid paper1 antique boards1 #c #cs4 99 99 99 ,english ,rogue 7,the71 described in the ,life of ,,meriton ,,latroon1 and other ,extravagants1 comprehending the most ,eminent ,cheats of both ,sexes4 ,by ,,richard ,,head and ,,francis ,,kirkman4 ,a ,facsimile ,reprint of the rare ,original ,edition 7#affe-afgb71 with ,frontispiece1 ,facsimiles of the #ab copper plates1 and ,portraits of the ,authors4 ,in #d vols41 large fcap4 #hvo1 printed on antique laid paper1 and bound in antique boards1 #cfs4 99 99 99 ,westminster ,drolleries3 ,being a choice ,collection of ,songs and ,poems sung at ,court and ,theatres4 ,with ,additions made by a ,person of ,quality4 ,now first reprinted in exact facsimile from the ,original ,editions of #afga and #afgb4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction on the ,literature of the ,drolleries1 a copious ,appendix of ,notes1 ,illustrations1 and ,emendations of ,text1 ,table of ,contents1 and ,index of ,first ,lines1 by ,j4 ,,woodfall ,,ebsworth1 ,m4,a4 ,cantab4 ,large fcap4 #hvo1 printed on antique paper1 and bound in antique boards1 #ajs4 #f;d42 large paper copies1 #bas4 99 99 99 ,ireland ,forgeries4--,confessions of ,,william-,,henry ,,ireland4 ,containing the ,particulars of his ,fabrication of the ,shakspeare ,manuscripts2 together with ,anecdotes and ,opinions 7hitherto unpublished7 of many ,distinguished ,persons in the ,literary1 ,political1 and ,theatrical ,world4 ,a ,facsimile ,reprint from the ,original ,edition1 with several additional ,facsimiles4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 printed on antique laid paper1 and bound in antique boards1 #ajs4 #f;d42 a few ,large ,paper copies1 at #bas4 99 99 99 ,grose's ,dictionary of the ,vulgar ,tongue4 #aghe4 ,an unmutilated ,reprint of the ,first ,edition4 ,quarto1 bound in half-,roxburghe1 gilt top1 price #hs4 99 99 99 ,joe ,miller's ,jests3 the politest ,repartees1 most elegant ,bon-,mots1 and most pleasing short ,stories in the ,english ,language4 ,london3 printed by ,t4 ,read4 #agci4 ,a ,facsimile of the ,original ,edition4 #hvo1 half-morocco1 #is4 #f;d4 99 99 99 ,old ,prose ,stories 7,the7 whence ,,tennyson',s ,idylls of the ,king were taken4 ,by ,b4 ,m4 ,,ranking4 ,royal #afmo1 paper cover1 #as42 cloth extra1 #as4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,old ,,shekarry',s ,,works4 ,forest and ,field3 ,life and ,adventure in ,wild ,africa4 ,by the ,,old ,,shekarry4 ,with ,eight ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #fs4 99 99 99 ,wrinkles2 or1 ,hints to ,sportsmen and ,travellers upon ,dress1 ,equipment1 ,armament1 and ,camp ,life4 ,by the ,,old ,,shekarry4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with ,illustrations4 ,small crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #fs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ouida',s ,,novels4 ,uniform ,edition1 each ,complete in ,one ,volume1 crown #hvo1 red cloth extra1 price #es4 each4 ,folle ,farine4 ,idalia3 ,a ,romance4 ,chandos3 ,a ,novel4 ,under ,two ,flags4 ,cecil ,castlemaine's ,gage4 ,tricotrin3 ,the ,story of a ,waif and ,stray4 ,pascarl3 ,only a ,story4 ,held ,in ,bondage2 or1 ,granville de ,vigne4 ,puck3 ,his ,vicissitudes1 ,adventures1 c4 ,a ,dog of ,flanders1 and other ,stories4 ,strathmore2 or1 ,wrought by his ,own ,hand4 ,two ,little ,wooden ,shoes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,parochial ,history of the ,county of ,cornwall4 ,compiled from the best ,authorities1 and corrected and improved from actual ,survey4 #d vols4 #dto1 cloth extra1 #c #cs4 the set2 or1 separately1 the first three volumes1 #afs4 each2 the fourth volume1 #ahs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,plain ,english4 ,by ,,john ,,hollingshead4 ,one vol41 crown #hvo4 ,preparing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,private ,book of ,useful ,alloys and ,memoranda for ,goldsmiths and ,jewellers4 ,by ,,james ,e4 ,,collins1 ,c4,e4 ,royal #afmo1 #cs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,seventh ,,edition ,,of ,puck on ,pegasus4 ,by ,h4 ,,cholmondeley-,,pennell4 ,profusely illustrated by the late ,,john ,,leech1 ,h4 ,k4 ,,browne1 ,sir ,,noel ,,paton1 ,,john ,,millais1 ,,john ,,tenniel1 ,,richard ,,doyle1 ,miss ,,ellen ,,edwards1 and other artists4 ,a ,new ,edition 7the ,,seventh71 crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 price #es42 or gilt edges1 #fs4 ,the book is clever and amusing1 vigorous and healthy4--,saturday ,review4 ,the epigrammatic drollery of ,mr4 ,cholmondeley-,pennell's ',puck on ,pegasus' is well known to many of our readers4444 ,the present 7the sixth7 is a superb and handsomely printed and illustrated edition of the book4--,times4 ,specially fit for reading in the family circle4--,observer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,awfully ,,jolly ,,book ,,for ,,parties4 ,puniana3 ,thoughts ,wise and ,otherwise4 ,by the ,hon4 ,,hugh ,,rowley4 ,best ,book of ,riddles and ,puns ever formed4 ,with nearly #ajj exquisitely ,fanciful ,drawings4 ,contains nearly #cjjj of the best ,riddles1 and #aj1jjj most outrageous ,puns1 and is one of the most ,popular ,books ever issued4 ,new ,edition1 small quarto1 green and gold1 gilt edges1 price #fs4 ,enormous burlesque--unapproachable and pre-eminent4 ,we think this very queer volume will be a favourite4 ,we should suggest that1 to a dull person desirous to get credit with the young holiday people1 it would be good policy to invest in the book1 and dole it out by instalments4--,saturday ,review4 ,also1 ,more ,puniana4 ,by the ,hon4 ,,hugh ,,rowley4 ,containing nearly #ajj beautifully executed ,drawings1 and a splendid ,collection of ,riddles and ,puns1 rivalling those in the ,first ,volume4 ,small #dto1 green and gold1 gilt edges1 uniform with the ,first ,series1 #fs4 ,illustration3 ,when are persons entitled to speak like a book8 ,only when they are a tome on the subject4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,pursuivant of ,arms 7,the72 or1 ,heraldry founded upon ,facts4 ,a ,popular ,guide to the ,science of ,heraldry4 ,by ,j4 ,r4 ,,planch1 ,esq41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,somerset ,herald4 ,to which are added1 ,essays on the ,,badges ,,of ,,the ,,houses ,,of ,,lancaster ,,and ,,york4 ,a ,new ,edition1 enlarged and revised by the ,author1 illustrated with ,coloured ,frontispiece1 ,five full-page ,plates1 and about #bjj ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 bound in cloth extra1 gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,practical ,assayer3 ,a ,guide to ,miners and ,explorers4 ,by ,,oliver ,,north4 ,with ,tables and ,illustrative ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 999999 ,this book gives directions1 in the simplest form1 for assaying bullion and the baser metals by the cheapest1 quickest1 and best methods4 ,those interested in mining property will be enabled1 by following its instructions1 to form a tolerably correct idea of the value of ores1 without previous knowledge of assaying2 while to the young man seeking his fortune in mining countries it is indispensable4 ,likely to prove extremely useful4 ,the instructions are clear and precise4--,chemist and ,druggist4 ,an admirable little volume4--,mining ,journal4 ,we cordially recommend this compact little volume to all engaged in mining enterprize1 and especially to explorers4--,monetary and ,mining ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gustave ,,dor',s ,,designs4 ,rabelais' ,works4 ,faithfully translated from the ,french1 with variorum ,notes1 and numerous characteristic ,illustrations by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,cr4 #hvo1 cl4 extra1 #gjj pp4 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,uniform ,,with ,,wonderful ,,characters4 ,remarkable ,trials and ,notorious ,characters4 ,from ,half-,hanged ,smith1 #agjj1 to ,oxford1 who shot at the ,queen1 #ahdj4 ,by ,captain ,l4 ,,benson4 ,with spirited full-page ,engravings by ,,phiz4 #hvo1 #eej pages1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,rochefoucauld's ,reflections and ,moral ,maxims4 ,with ,introductory ,essay by ,,sainte-,,beuve1 and ,explanatory ,notes4 ,cloth extra1 #as4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,reminiscences of the late ,thomas ,assheton ,smith1 ,esq42 or1 ,the ,pursuits of an ,english ,country ,gentleman4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,,eardley ,,wilmot1 ,bart4 ,a ,new and ,revised ,edition1 with ,steel-plate ,portrait1 and plain and coloured ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,roll of ,battle ,abbey2 or1 ,a ,list of the ,principal ,warriors who came over from ,normandy with ,william the ,conqueror1 and ,settled in this ,country1 ,a4,d4 #ajff-g4 ,carefully drawn1 and printed on fine plate paper1 nearly three feet by two feet1 with the ,arms of the principal ,barons elaborately emblazoned in ,gold and ,colours4 ,price #es42 or1 handsomely framed in carved oak of an antique pattern1 #bbs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,roll of ,caerlaverock1 the ,oldest ,heraldic ,roll2 including the ,original ,anglo-,norman ,poem1 and an ,english ,translation of the ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum4 ,by ,,thomas ,,wright1 ,m4,a4 ,the ,arms emblazoned in ,gold and ,colours4 ,in #dto1 very handsomely printed1 extra gold cloth1 #abs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,roman ,catholics in the ,county of ,york in #afjd4 ,transcribed from the ,original ,,ms4 in the ,bodleian ,library1 and ,edited1 with ,genealogical ,notes1 by ,,edward ,,peacock1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,editor of ,army ,lists of the ,roundheads and ,cavaliers1 #afdb4 ,small #dto1 handsomely printed and bound1 #aes4 999999 ,genealogists and ,antiquaries will find much new and curious matter in this work4 ,an elaborate ,index refers to every name in the volume1 among which will be found many of the highest local interest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ross's 7,chas4 ,h47 ,story of a ,honeymoon4 ,a ,new ,edition of this charmingly humorous book1 with numerous ,illustrations by the ,author4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 illustrated boards1 #bs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,school ,life at ,winchester ,college2 or1 ,the ,reminiscences of a ,winchester ,junior4 ,by the ,author of ,the ,log of the ,water ,lily2 and ,the ,water ,lily on the ,danube4 ,second ,edition1 ,revised1 ,,coloured ,,plates1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,schopenhauer's ,the ,world ,considered as ,will and ,imagination4 ,translated by ,dr4 ,,franz ,,hueffer1 ,author of ,richard ,wagner and the ,music of the ,future4 ,in preparation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,secret ,,out ,,series4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 profusely ,illustrated1 price #ds4 #f;d4 each4 ,art of ,amusing4 ,a ,collection of ,graceful ,arts1 ,games1 ,tricks1 ,puzzles1 and ,charades1 intended to ,amuse ,everybody4 ,by ,,frank ,,bellew4 ,with nearly #cjj ,illustrations4 99 99 99 ,hanky-,panky4 ,a ,wonderful ,book of ,very ,easy ,tricks1 ,very ,difficult ,tricks1 ,white ,magic1 ,sleight of ,hand2 in fact1 all those startling ,deceptions which the ,great ,wizards call ,hanky-,panky4 ,edited by ,w4 ,h4 ,,cremer4 ,with nearly #bjj ,illustrations4 99 99 99 ,magician's ,own ,book4 ,ample ,instruction for ,performances with ,cups and ,balls1 ,eggs1 ,hats1 ,handkerchiefs1 c4 ,all from ,actual ,experience4 ,edited by ,w4 ,h4 ,,cremer4 ,with #bjj ,illustrations4 99 99 99 ,magic ,no ,mystery4 ,a ,splendid ,collection of ,tricks with ,cards1 ,dice1 ,balls1 c41 with fully descriptive working ,directions4 ,with very numerous ,illustrations4 ,nearly ready4 99 99 99 ,merry ,circle 7,the71 and ,how the ,visitors were entertained during ,twelve ,pleasant ,evenings4 ,a ,book of ,new ,intellectual ,games and ,amusements4 ,edited by ,mrs4 ,,clara ,,bellew4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 99 99 99 ,secret ,out2 or1 ,one ,thousand ,tricks with ,cards1 and other ,recreations2 with ,entertaining ,experiments in ,drawing ,room or ,white ,magic4 ,edited by ,w4 ,h4 ,,cremer4 ,with #cjj ,engravings4 99 99 99 ,shelley's ,early ,life4 ,from ,original ,sources4 ,with ,curious ,incidents1 ,letters1 and ,writings1 now ,first ,published or ,collected4 ,by ,,denis ,,florence ,,mac-,,carthy4 ,crown #hvo1 with ,illustrations1 #ddj pages1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 ,sheridan's ,complete ,works1 with ,life and ,anecdotes4 ,including his ,dramatic ,writings1 printed from the ,original ,editions1 his ,works in ,prose and ,poetry1 ,translations1 ,speeches1 ,jokes1 ,puns1 c42 with a ,collection of ,sheridaniana4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth gilt1 with #aj beautifully executed ,portraits and ,scenes from his ,plays1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,signboards3 ,their ,history4 ,with ,anecdotes of ,famous ,taverns and ,remarkable ,characters4 ,by ,,jacob ,,larwood and ,,john ,,camden ,,hotten4 ,,seventh ,,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,it is not fair on the part of a reviewer to pick out the plums of an author's book1 thus filching away his cream1 and leaving little but skim-milk remaining2 but1 even if we were ever so maliciously inclined1 we could not in the present instance pick out all ,messrs4 ,larwood and ,hotten's plums1 because the good things are so numerous as to defy the most wholesale depredation4--,the ,times4 ,illustration3 ,,help ,,me ,,through ,,this ,,world6 999999 ,nearly #ajj most curious illustrations on wood are given1 showing the signs which were formerly hung from taverns1 c4 ,,handbook ,,of ,,colloquialisms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wedge ,,and ,,the ,,wooden ,,spoon4 ,the ,slang ,dictionary3 ,etymological1 ,historical1 and ,anecdotal4 ,an ,,entirely ,,new ,,edition1 revised throughout1 and considerably ,enlarged1 containing upwards of a thousand more words than the last edition4 ,crown #hvo1 with ,curious ,illustrations1 cloth extra1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,peculiarly a book which 'no gentleman's library should be without1' while to costermongers and thieves it is absolutely indispensable4--,dispatch4 ,interesting and curious4 ,contains as many as it was possible to collect of all the words and phrases of modern slang in use at the present time4--,public ,opinion4 ,in every way a great improvement on the edition of #ahfd4 ,its uses as a dictionary of the very vulgar tongue do not require to be explained4--,notes and ,queries4 ,compiled with most exacting care1 and based on the best authorities4--,standard4 ,in ',the ,slang ,dictionary' we have not only a book that reflects credit upon the philologist2 it is also a volume that will repay1 at any time1 a dip into its humorous pages4--,figaro4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,west-,,end ,,life ,,and ,,doings4 ,story of the ,london ,parks4 ,by ,,jacob ,,larwood4 ,with numerous ,illustrations1 ,coloured and ,plain4 ,in ,one thick ,volume1 crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 999999 ,a most interesting work1 giving a complete ,history of these favourite out-of-door resorts1 from the earliest period to the present time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,keepsake ,,for ,,smokers4 ,smoker's ,text-,book4 ,by ,j4 ,,hamer1 ,f4,r4,s4,l4 ,exquisitely printed from silver-faced type1 cloth1 very neat1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d41 post free4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,charming ,,new ,,travel-,,book4 ,illustration3 ,it may be we shall touch the happy isles4 ,summer ,cruising in the ,south ,seas4 ,by ,,charles ,,warren ,,stoddard4 ,with ,twenty-five ,engravings on ,wood1 drawn by ,,wallis ,,mackay4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 extra gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,this is a very amusing book1 and full of that quiet humour for which the ,americans are so famous4 ,we have not space to enumerate all the picturesque descriptions1 the poetical thoughts1 which have so charmed us in this volume2 but we recommend our readers to go to the ,south ,seas with ,mr4 ,stoddard in his prettily illustrated and amusingly written little book4--,vanity ,fair4 ,mr4 ,stoddard's book is delightful reading1 and in ,mr4 ,wallis ,mackay he has found a most congenial and poetical illustrator4--,bookseller4 ,a remarkable book1 which has a certain wild picturesqueness4--,standard4 ,the author's experiences are very amusingly related1 and1 in parts1 with much freshness and originality4--,judy4 ,mr4 ,stoddard is a humourist2 ',summer ,cruising' has a good deal of undeniable amusement4--,nation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,syntax's 7,dr47 ,three ,tours4 ,with the whole of ,,rowlandson',s very droll full-page ,illustrations1 in ,colours1 after the ,original ,drawings4 ,comprising the well-known ,,tours--#a4 ,,in ,,search ,,of ,,the ,,picturesque4 #b4 ,,in ,,search ,,of ,,consolation4 #c4 ,,in ,,search ,,of ,a ,,wife4 ,the ,three ,series ,complete1 with a ,life of the ,author by ,,john ,,camden ,,hotten4 ,medium #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt1 price #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,theseus3 ,a ,greek ,fairy ,legend4 ,illustrated1 in a series of ,designs in ,gold and ,sepia1 by ,,john ,,moyr ,,smith4 ,with descriptive text4 ,oblong folio1 price #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,theodore ,,hook',s ,,house1 ,,near ,,putney4 ,theodore ,hook's ,choice ,humorous ,works1 with his ,ludicrous ,adventures1 ,bons-mots1 ,puns1 and ,hoaxes4 ,with a new ,life of the ,author1 ,,portraits1 ,,facsimiles1 and ,,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #fjj pages1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 999999 ,as a wit and humourist of the highest order his name will be preserved4 ,his political songs and jeux d'esprit1 when the hour comes for collecting them1 will form a volume of sterling and lasting attraction6--,j4 ,g4 ,,lockhart4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mr4 ,,swinburne',s ,,works4 ,,second ,,edition ,,now ,,ready ,,of ,bothwell3 ,a ,tragedy4 ,by ,,algernon ,,charles ,,swinburne4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 pp4 #edj1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,mr4 ,swinburne's most prejudiced critic cannot1 we think1 deny that ',bothwell' is a poem of a very high character4 ,every line bears traces of power1 individuality1 and vivid imagination4 ,the versification1 while characteristically supple and melodious1 also attains1 in spite of some affectations1 to a sustained strength and dignity of a remarkable kind4 ,mr4 ,swinburne is not only a master of the music of language1 but he has that indescribable touch which discloses the true poet--the touch that lifts from off the ground4--,saturday ,review4 ,it is not too much to say that1 should he never write anything more1 the poet has by this work firmly established his position1 and given us a poem upon which his fame may safely rest4 ,he no longer indulges in that frequent alliteration1 or that oppressive wealth of imagery and colour1 which gave rhythm and splendour to some of his works1 but would have been out of place in a grand historical poem2 we have now a fair opportunity of judging what the poet can do when deprived of such adventitious aid1--and the verdict is1 that he must henceforth rank amongst the first of ,british authors4--,graphic4 ,the whole drama flames and rings with high passions and great deeds4 ,the imagination is splendid2 the style large and imperial2 the insight into character keen2 the blank verse varied1 sensitive1 flexible1 alive4 ,mr4 ,swinburne has once more proved his right to occupy a seat among the lofty singers of our land4--,daily ,news4 ,a really grand1 statuesque dramatic work4444 ,the reader will here find ,mr4 ,swinburne at his very best2 if manliness1 dignity1 and fulness of style are superior to mere pleasant singing and alliterative lyrics4--,standard4 ,splendid pictures1 subtle analyses of passion1 and wonderful studies of character will repay him who attains the end4444 ,in this huge volume are many fine and some unsurpassable things4 ,subtlest traits of character abound1 and descriptive passages of singular delicacy4--,athenum4 ,there can be no doubt of the dramatic force of the poem4 ,it is severely simple in its diction1 and never dull2 there are innumerable fine touches on almost every page4--,scotsman4 ',bothwell' shows us ,mr4 ,swinburne at a point immeasurably superior to any that he has yet achieved4 ,it will confirm and increase the reputation which his daring genius has already won4 ,he has handled a difficult subject with a mastery of art which is a true intellectual triumph4--,hour4 99 99 99 ,chastelard3 ,a ,tragedy4 ,foolscap #hvo1 #gs4 99 99 99 ,poems and ,ballads4 ,foolscap #hvo1 #is4 99 99 99 ,notes on ,poems and ,ballads1 and on the ,reviews of them4 ,demy #hvo1 #as4 99 99 99 ,songs before ,sunrise4 ,post #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 ,atalanta in ,calydon4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 #fs4 99 99 99 ,the ,queen ,mother and ,rosamond4 ,foolscap #hvo1 #es4 99 99 99 ,a ,song of ,italy4 ,foolscap #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 ,ode on the ,proclamation of the ,french ,republic4 ,demy #hvo1 #as4 99 99 99 ,under the ,microscope4 ,post #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 ,william ,blake3 ,a ,critical ,essay4 ,with facsimile ,paintings1 ,coloured by ,hand1 after the ,drawings by ,blake and his ,wife4 ,demy #hvo1 #afs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,thackeray ,,sketch-,,book4 ,illustration ,,thackerayana3 ,notes and ,anecdotes1 ,illustrated by about ,six ,hundred ,sketches by ,,william ,,makepeace ,,thackeray1 depicting ,humorous ,incidents in his ,school-life1 and ,favourite ,scenes and ,characters in the books of his every-day reading1 ,,now ,,for ,,the ,,first ,,time ,,published1 from the ,original ,drawings made on the margins of his books1 c4 ,large post #hvo1 clth4 extra gilt1 gilt top1 price #abs4 #f;d4 ,illustration ,it is ,thackeray's aim to represent life as it is actually and historically--men and women as they are1 in those situations in which they are usually placed1 with that mixture of good and evil1 of strength and foible1 which is to be found in their characters1 and liable only to those incidents which are of ordinary occurrence4 ,he will have no faultless characters1 no demi-gods1--nothing but men and brethren4--,,david ,,masson4 99 99 99 99 99 ,timbs' ,english ,eccentrics and ,eccentricities4 ,stories of ,wealth and ,fashion1 ,delusions1 ,impostures and ,fanatic ,missions1 ,strange ,sights and ,sporting ,scenes1 ,eccentric ,artists1 ,theatrical ,folks1 ,men of ,letters1 c4 ,by ,,john ,,times1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,an entirely ,new ,edition1 with about #ej ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #fjj pages1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,illustration3 ,sir ,lumley ,skeffington at the ,birthday ,ball4 ,timbs' ,clubs and ,club ,life in ,london4 ,with ,,anecdotes of its ,,famous ,,coffee ,,houses1 ,,hostelries1 and ,,taverns4 ,by ,,john ,,timbs1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,new ,edition1 with ,,numerous ,,illustrations drawn expressly4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #fjj pages1 #gs4 #f;d4 999999 ,a ,companion to ,the ,history of ,sign-,boards4 ,it abounds in quaint stories of the ,blue ,stocking1 ,kit-,kat1 ,beef ,steak1 ,robin ,hood1 ,mohocks1 ,scriblerus1 ,one o',clock1 the ,civil1 and hundreds of other ,clubs2 together with ,tom's1 ,dick's1 ,button's1 ,ned's1 ,will's1 and the famous ,coffee ,houses of the last century4 ,the book supplies a much-felt want4 ,the club is the avenue to general society at the present day1 and ,mr4 ,timbs gives the entre to the club4 ,the scholar and antiquary will also find the work a repertory of information on many disputed points of literary interest1 and especially respecting various well-known anecdotes1 the value of which only increases with the lapse of time4--,morning ,post4 ,blake's ,works4 ,messrs4 ,,chatto ,,windus have in preparation a series of ,reproductions in ,facsimile of the ,works of ,,william ,,blake1 including the ,songs of ,innocence and ,experience1 ,the ,book of ,thel1 ,america1 ,the ,vision of the ,daughters of ,albion1 ,the ,marriage of ,heaven and ,hell1 ,europe1 a ,prophecy1 ,jerusalem1 ,milton1 ,urizen1 ,the ,song of ,los1 c4 ,these ,works will be issued both coloured and plain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,taylor's ,history of ,playing ,cards4 ,with ,sixty curious ,illustrations4 #eej pp41 crown #hvo1 cloth1 extra gilt1 price #gs4 #f;d4 999999 ,ancient and ,modern ,games1 ,conjuring1 ,fortune-,telling1 and ,card ,sharping1 ,gambling and ,calculation1 ,cartomancy1 ,old ,gaming-,houses1 ,card ,revels and ,blind ,hookey1 ,picquet and ,vingt-et-un1 ,whist and ,cribbage1 ,tricks1 c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,vagabondiana2 or1 ,anecdotes of ,mendicant ,wanderers through the ,streets of ,london2 with ,portraits of the most remarkable1 drawn from the ,life by ,,john ,,thomas ,,smith1 late ,keeper of the ,prints in the ,british ,museum4 ,with ,introduction by ,,francis ,,douce1 and descriptive text4 ,reprinted from the original1 with the ,woodcuts1 and the #cb ,plates1 from the original ,coppers1 in crown #dto1 half ,roxburghe1 price #abs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,les ,,mis,,rables4 ,complete in ,three ,parts4 ,victor ,hugo's ,fantine4 ,now first published in an ,english ,translation1 complete and unabridged1 with the exception of a few advisable omissions4 ,post #hvo1 illustrated boards1 #bs4 ,this work has something more than the beauties of an exquisite style or the word-compelling power of a literary ,zeus to recommend it to the tender care of a distant posterity3 in dealing with all the emotions1 passions1 doubts1 fears1 which go to make up our common humanity1 ,m4 ,victor ,hugo has stamped upon every page the ,hall-mark of genius and the loving patience and conscientious labour of a true artist4 ,but the merits of ',les ,misrables' do not merely consist in the conception of it as a whole2 it abounds1 page after page1 with details of unequalled beauty4--,quarterly ,review4 99 99 99 ,victor ,hugo's ,cosette and ,marius4 ,translated into ,english1 complete1 uniform with ,fantine4 ,post #hvo1 illustrated boards1 #bs4 99 99 99 ,victor ,hugo's ,saint ,denis and ,jean ,valjean4 ,translated into ,english1 complete1 uniform with the above4 ,post #hvo1 illustrated boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,vyner's ,notitia ,venatica3 ,a ,treatise on ,fox-,hunting1 the ,general ,management of ,hounds1 and the ,diseases of ,dogs2 ,distemper and ,rabies2 ,kennel ,lameness1 c4 ,sixth ,edition1 ,enlarged4 ,by ,,robert ,c4 ,,vyner4 ,,with ,,spirited ,,illustrations ,,in ,,colours1 ,,by ,,alken1 ,,of ,,memorable ,,fox-,,hunting ,,scenes4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth extra1 #bas4 999999 ,an entirely new edition of the best work on ,fox-,hunting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,walt ,whitman's ,leaves of ,grass4 ,the ,complete ,work1 precisely as issued by the ,author in ,washington4 ,a thick volume1 #hvo1 green cloth1 price #is4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,walton and ,cotton1 ,illustrated4--,the ,complete ,angler2 or1 the ,contemplative ,man's ,recreation2 being a ,discourse of ,rivers1 ,fish-ponds1 ,fish and ,fishing1 written by ,,izaak ,,walton2 and ,instructions how to ,angle for a ,trout or ,grayling in a clear ,stream1 by ,,charles ,,cotton4 ,with ,original ,memoirs and ,notes by ,sir ,,harris ,,nicolas1 ,k4,c4,m4,g4 ,with the whole #fa ,illustrations1 precisely as in the royal #hvo two-volume ,edition issued by ,pickering4 ,a ,new ,edition1 complete in ,one ,volume1 large crown #hvo1 with the ,illustrations from the original plates1 printed on full pages1 separately from the text1 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,warrant to ,execute ,charles ,i4 ,an exact ,facsimile of this important ,document1 with the ,fifty-nine ,signatures of the ,regicides1 and corresponding ,seals1 admirably executed on paper made to imitate the original document1 #bb in4 by #ad in4 ,price #bs42 or1 handsomely framed and glazed in carved oak of antique pattern1 #ads4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,warrant to ,execute ,mary ,queen of ,scots4 ,the ,exact ,facsimile of this important ,document1 including the ,signature of ,queen ,elizabeth and ,facsimile of the ,great ,seal1 on tinted paper1 to imitate the ,original ,,ms4 ,price #bs42 or1 handsomely framed and glazed in carved oak1 antique pattern1 #ads4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,waterford ,roll 7,the74--,illuminated ,charter-,roll of ,waterford1 ,temp4 ,richard ,,ii4 999999 ,amongst the ,corporation ,muniments of the ,city of ,waterford is preserved an ancient ,illuminated ,roll1 of great interest and beauty1 comprising all the early ,charters and ,grants to the ,city of ,waterford1 from the time of ,henry ,,ii4 to ,richard ,,ii4 ,a full-length ,portrait of each ,king1 whose ,charter is given--including ,edward ,,iii41 when young1 and again at an advanced age--adorns the margin4 ,these ,portraits1 with the exception of four which are smaller1 and on one sheet of vellum1 vary from eight to nine inches in length--some in armour1 and some in robes of state4 ,in addition to these are ,portraits of an ,archbishop in full canonicals1 of a ,chancellor1 and of many of the chief ,burgesses of the ,city of ,waterford1 as well as singularly curious ,portraits of the ,mayors of ,dublin1 ,waterford1 ,limerick1 and ,cork1 figured for the most part in the quaint bipartite costume of the ,second ,richard's reign1 though partaking of many of the peculiarities of that of ,edward ,,iii4 ,altogether this ancient work of art is unique of its kind in ,ireland1 and deserves to be rescued from oblivion1 by the publication of the unedited ,charters1 and of fac-similes of all the ,illuminations4 ,the production of such a work would throw much light on the question of the art and social habits of the ,anglo-,norman settlers in ,ireland at the close of the fourteenth century4 ,the ,charters are1 many of them1 highly important from an historic point of view4 ,the ,illuminations have been accurately traced and coloured for the work from a copy carefully made1 by permission of the ,mayor and ,corporation of ,waterford1 by the late ,george ,v4 ,du ,noyer1 ,esq41 ,m4,r4,i4,a42 and those ,charters which have not already appeared in print will be edited by the ,rev4 ,james ,graves1 ,a4,b41 ,m4,r4,i4,a41 ,hon4 ,secretary ,kilkenny and ,south-,east of ,ireland ,archological ,society4 ,the ,work will be brought out in the best manner1 with embossed cover and characteristic title-page2 and it will be put to press as soon as #bej subscribers are obtained4 ,the price1 in imperial #dto1 is #bjs4 to subscribers1 or #cjs4 to non-subscribers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wonderful ,characters3 ,memoirs and ,anecdotes of ,remarkable and ,eccentric ,persons of ,every ,age and ,nation4 ,from the text of ,,henry ,,wilson and ,,james ,,caulfield4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 with ,sixty-one full-page ,engravings of ,extraordinary ,persons1 #gs4 #f;d4 999999 ,there are so many curious matters discussed in this volume1 that any person who takes it up will not readily lay it down until he has read it through4 ,the ,introduction is almost entirety devoted to a consideration of ,pig-,faced ,ladies1 and the various stories concerning them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wright's 7,andrew7 ,court-,hand ,restored2 or1 ,student's ,assistant in ,reading ,old ,deeds1 ,charters1 ,records1 c4 ,half ,morocco1 a ,new ,edition1 #ajs4 #f;d4 999999 ,the best guide to the reading of old ,records1 c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wright's ,caricature ,history of the ,georges 7,house of ,hanover74 ,with #djj ,pictures1 ,caricatures1 ,squibs1 ,broadsides1 ,window ,pictures1 c4 ,by ,,thomas ,,wright1 ,esq41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,illustration ,a set of caricatures such as we have in ,mr4 ,wright's volume brings the surface of the age before us with a vividness that no prose writer1 even of the highest power1 could emulate4 ,macaulay's most brilliant sentence is weak by the side of the little woodcut from ,gillray1 which gives us ,burke and ,fox4--,saturday ,review4 ,a more amusing work of its kind was never issued4--,art ,journal4 ,it is emphatically one of the liveliest of books1 as also one of the most interesting4 ,it has the twofold merit of being at once amusing and edifying4--,morning ,post4 99 99 99 99 99 ,yankee ,drolleries1 ,edited by ,g4 ,a4 ,,sala4 ,containing ,,artemus ,,ward',s ,,book2 ,,biglow ,,papers2 ,,orpheus ,c4 ,,kerr2 ,,jack ,,downing2 and ,,nasby ,,papers4 #gjj pp41 #cs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,more ,yankee ,drolleries4 ,containing ,,artemus ,,ward',s ,,travels2 ,,hans ,,breitmann2 ,,professor ,,at ,,breakfast ,,table2 ,,biglow ,,papers1 ,part ,,ii42 and ,,josh ,,billings2 with ,introduction by ,g4 ,a4 ,,sala4 #gjj pp41 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,third ,supply of ,yankee ,drolleries4 ,containing ,,artemus ,,ward',s ,,fenians2 ,,autocrat ,,of ,,breakfast ,,table2 ,,bret ,,harte',s ,,stories2 ,,innocents ,,abroad2 and ,,new ,,pilgrim',s ,,progress2 with an ,introduction by ,g4 ,a4 ,,sala4 #gjj pp41 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,in general1 spelling is retained as printed4 ,on occasion1 apparent printer's errors1 however1 are corrected1 where the author uses a more standard spelling elsewhere 7e4g41 'acknowleges' on p4 #bhc74 ,where the printer simply missed a word 7e4g41'hand' on p4 #aea71 it is added4 ,incidental punctuation1 especially of abbreviated words and in captions1 which is missing from the printed original1 has been silently restored4 ,in the advertisement section at the end of the text1 an asterism 7three asterisks arranged in an inverted triangle7 are used as a 'bullet'4 ,in this text1 these will be retained as 9999994 ,this table summarizes the various issues detected1 and their resolution4 p4 xii ,,le ,,monde ,,bestorn,e_/ ,corrected4 p4 #f as #aahe1 ,b4,c4 ,removed4 p4 #eg and trepidation4 ,added4 p4 #gf fat flesh and their platter2 ,probable placement p4 #ajg it is evident from many allusions ,added4 p4 #aea luxury went hand in hand ,added4 p4 #aec a playful character4_/1 or sometimes ,added4 p4 #aee ,nu_/remberg ,corrected4 p4 #afj and meats with a courteous reception sic4 p4 #afb should not be jougleurs1 goliards1 ,probable or buffoons2 placement4 p4 #afc de famila ,goli sic4 p4 #agc _/',adam1 ,adam 444 ,corrected4 p4 #bja received by the the emperor ,hugo ,removed4 p4 #bcj ,here beginneht a merye jest sic4 n4 #gd p4 #bdc ,cent ,nouvelles ,nouvelles1 ,poggio1 ,straparola1 ,added4 seventeenth ,added4 p4 #bed the early book-hawkers1_/4 ,corrected4 p4 #bhi acknowledged ,added4 p4 #cce aspired to be ,plantagruelists ,removed4 p4 #cdd ,florent ,chrestien ,added4 p4 #cif who jilts her husband that way1 a very ----4 ,added4 p4 #dde were two_/too numerous ,corrected4