file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #ddeji-;h4htm or #ddeji-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#ddeji_/pg#ddeji-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#dd eji_/ddeji-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through the ,google ,books ,library ,project4 ,see http3_/_/www4google4com_/books8idsq,i,z, a,a,a,a,y,a,a,j ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face 7bold74 ,greek transliterations are enclosed by curly braces 7example3 kosmos74 ,the transcriber's descriptions of illustrations are in parentheses4 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,the ,,historical ,,development ,,of ,,art4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,of ,,the ,,historical ,,development ,,of ,,art4 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,the ,,historical ,,development ,,of ,,art ,pre-historic--,ancient--,classic--,earl y ,christian ,with ,special ,reference to ,architecture1 ,sculpture1 ,painting1 and ,ornamentation by ,g4 ,g4 ,,zerffi1 ,,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,l4 ,one of the ,lecturers of ,h4 ,m4 ,department of ,science and ,art4 ,london3 ,hardwicke ,bogue1 #aib ,piccadilly1 ,w4 #ahgf4 ,london3 ,printed by ,spottiswoode and ,co41 ,new-,street ,square and ,parliament ,street ,the right of translation is reserved4 ,this ,book is ,inscribed ,,to ,e4 ,j4 ,,poynter1 ,,esq41 ,r4,a4 ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,training ,,schools1 ,,south ,,kensington1 ,,in ,,recognition ,,of ,,his ,,genius ,,as ,a ,,painter1 ,,and ,,of ,,his ,,untiring ,,efforts ,,in ,,promoting ,,higher ,,art ,,education4 ,,preface4 ,an experience of more than eight years as ,lecturer on the #8,historical ,development of ,art1' at the ,national ,art ,training ,school1 ,south ,kensington1 has convinced me of the necessity for a short and concise ,manual1 which should serve both the public and students as a guide to the study of the history of art4 ,in all our educational establishments1 colleges1 and ladies' schools1 the study of art-history1 which ought to form one of the most important subjects of our educational system1 is entirely neglected4 ,to suggest and to excite to such a study is the aim of this book4 ,it would be impossible to exhaust in a short volume even that section of the subject which ,i propose to treat1 and the most that can be done is to give outlines1 which must be filled in by further studies4 ,art is at last assuming a better position with us1 thanks to the influence of the lamented ,prince ,consort1 to whom we undoubtedly owe the revival of the culture of sciences and arts1 and the indefatigable exertions of the ,government1 aided by munificent grants of ,parliament4 ,but much more is to be desired from the public4 ,if the #8,national ,association for the ,promotion of ,social ,science' is a faithful mirror of our intellectual stand-point1 we certainly have not yet attained a very high position as an artistic national body4 ,for twenty years the ,association has met and has discussed a variety of topics1 and this year1 for the first time1 it occurred to the learned socialists that there was such a factor in humanity as art1 and the congress allowed an art-section to be opened under the presidency of ,mr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,poynter1 ,r4,a41 the director of the #8,national ,art ,training ,school4' ,four questions were proposed for discussion1 and ,i gave anticipatory answers to these1 before the congress was opened1 in my introductory lecture to the students of the ,art ,training ,school4 ,these answers will serve as so many reasons for the issue of this book1 and ,i therefore reproduce them here1 with the questions to which they refer4 #a4 #8,what are the best methods of securing the improvement of ,street ,architecture1 especially as regards its connection with public buildings8' ,answer4--,architects must be trained in art-history to prevent them from committing glaring anachronisms in brick1 mortar1 stone1 iron1 wood1 or any other building material4 ,our street architecture cannot improve so long as we allow any original genius to copy medival oddities1 and revive by-gone monstrosities at random1 in perfect contradiction to the spirit of our times4 #b4 #8,how best can the encouragement of ,mural ,decoration1 especially ,frescoes1 be secured8' ,answer4--,this might be attained by enlarging the area of national interest beyond horse-racing1 pigeon-shooting1 and deer-stalking1 the buying of old china1 medival candlesticks1 ewers and salvers1 or of old pictures1 that can scarcely be seen2 and extending our general art-support to our own talented artists1 even though they may not all be ,michael ,angelos or ,raphaels4 ,we could allow them to decorate the walls of our town-houses1 public buildings1 chapels1 churches1 banks1 and museums4 ,we must1 however1 first train their minds to a correct appreciation of art-history1 of the world's history1 and of the glorious ,history of ,england1 thus enriching their imaginations with the illustrious deeds of the past1 in which they may mirror our present state1 and foreshadow a continually progressing glorious future4 ,for there is a mysterious and marvellous #8one-ness' in the religious1 social1 and artistic development of humanity which ,i have tried in the pages of this book continually to point out4 ,no civilised and wealthy country on the surface of our globe1 can boast of more heroic deeds on sea and land1 in and out of ,parliament2 of more splendid conquests by warlike and peaceful means than ours4 ,the ,wars of the ,roses1 the colonisation of ,america1 the occupation of ,india1 the peopling of ,australia1 the struggles of conformists and non-conformists1 of ,cavaliers and ,roundheads1 of ,churchmen and ,puritans1 of ,independents and ,royalists1 of ,papists and ,covenanters1 of ,iconoclasts and ,free-thinkers1 all offer stirring scenes2 and yet1 if we want to see on canvas pictures of our past1 we must turn to ,france or ,germany for them4 ,i am sorry to say that until lately the ,iconoclasts have borne all before them4 ,as1 however1 the #8,national ,association' has at length consented to allow the discussion of art1 and as words are in general precursors of deeds1 we may expect some results from our awakened interest in art-matters4 #c4 #8,what is the influence of academies upon the art of the nation8' ,answer4--,academies have no influence whatever1 if the nation itself takes no interest in art1 and has no art-education from a general1 theoretical1 and historical point of view4 ,so long as art is considered a mere luxury1 because a house does not keep out cold and wet better1 if it be outwardly decorated2 so long as it is thought that a parlour need but have red curtains to be a parlour2 that our walls may be covered with any description of hideously-shaped1 realistically-wrought ,chinese or ,japanese flowers1 if they are only kept in greenish or brownish neutral tints2 so long as we fancy that our wainscotings may be bright light1 though the paper above be dark2 and that a window is admirable1 if only provided with a pointed arch1 and some trefoil or quatrefoil to keep out as much light as possible2 academies can do nothing4 ,so long as we neglect higher esthetical culture and training in our public schools1 our academy will but reflect this neglect4 ,in reviewing the past ,i have throughout endeavoured to show the close connection of art-forms with the general1 social1 religious1 intellectual1 and moral conditions of the different nations and periods in which they appeared4 ,it is erroneous to suppose that art has only to treat of straight or waving lines1 of triangles1 squares1 and circles1 of imitations of flowers1 animals1 and men1 of nature and nothing but nature4 ,the study of art comprises man in all his thoughts and actions1 and has to add to this the phenomena of the whole outer world1 from crystallisations to the heavenly vault1 studded with innumerable stars at night1 or glowing with light and life in colours at day-time4 ,if our academy were to take this to heart1 and expand its curriculum so as to have the students taught the beauties of ,greek1 ,english1 and ,german poetry1 we should not be obliged to turn to foreigners for worthy illustrations of our immortal ,shakespeare1 ,milton1 or even ,tennyson4 ,the art-historian knows that academies neither produced a ,pheidias nor a ,praxiteles1 neither a ,raphael nor an ,albert ,drer2 neither a ,rubens nor a ,holbein2 neither a ,gainsborough nor a ,hogarth2 neither a ,canova nor a ,flaxman4 ,for art-academies1 as mere outgrowths of fashion1 unless rooted in the earnest1 artistic spirit of a nation1 only foster mannerism1 pander to the general bad taste of the wealthy classes1 and one-sidedly cultivate portrait-painting1 whilst they shut out landscape or historical figure-painting4 ,academies have rarely encouraged grand ideas2 they create a kind of parlour or bed-room art1 with nice1 but very small1 sentiments1 water-colour effusions and flower imitations1 in which the ,chinese surpass us by far4 ,so long as our academy will have great names on its programmes1 as nominal lecturers1 so called because they do not lecture2 so long as it will systematically neglect to teach our rising artists ,universal ,history1 ,art ,history1 ,archology1 ,comparative ,mythology1 ,symbolism1 ,iconography1 ,esthetics from a higher scientific point1 and ,psychology with special reference to artistic composition1 and so long as these subjects are ignored in our general educational establishments1 we shall in vain try to compete at large with other nations1 however many isolated great artists we may produce4 ,artists in all ages reflected in their products the general sentiments of the times in which they lived1 and of the people for whom they worked2 every page of this book bears out this assertion4 ,art is a mighty civiliser of humanity and elevates the whole of our earthly existence1 for it purifies passions and pacifies our mind4 ,art is the eternally-active genius of humanity4 ,let our academy acknowledge this1 and it will at least try to imitate the ,art ,training ,school at ,south ,kensington1 which has continually worked in the direction of enlarging the range of the studies of its students4 #d4 #8,what is the influence upon society of ,decorative ,art and ,art-workmanship in all household details8' ,answer4--,if this question had been asked with an eye to business1 we might answer that decorative art makes trade brisk1 induces people to buy ornaments1 and fills the pockets of dealers in curiosities4 ,but this is not our aim4 ,so long as we fail to look upon art as an earnest and serious study1 as important and necessary to our social wellbeing as either ethics or science1 the influence of decorative art must be confined to enticing people to plaster their walls with all sorts of ,china plate1 or pay dearly for ,japanese trays1 screens1 or cupboards1 because they have not learnt to distinguish between the quaint and the comical1 the beautiful and the ugly4 ,their taste is still on a level with that of untrained children1 who have plenty of money in their pockets1 do not know what to buy1 and rush to purchase the ugliest monstrosities4 ,if half the money that is wasted in these directions were to be devoted to the encouragement of our hard-working rising artists1 we might soon boast of still greater successes than we can proudly point to1 despite the adverse circumstances under which artists have to labour amongst us4 ,art with us is still looked upon as an extravagance1 a luxury1 as it was with the ,romans of old1 and this produces a craving for oddities4 ,we hang up big china cockatoos1 or place big china dogs1 or stags with big china antlers1 on our hearth-rugs4 ,we have coarse china frogs and lizards1 crabs or lobsters1 from which we eat our fruit or fish2 or a life-like salmon with staring eyes is brought on our table1 its back takes off1 and we scoop out the real cooked salmon with which its inside is filled4 ,form of dish1 association of ideas1 and action of the host are more worthy of anthropophagi than civilised beings of the nineteenth century4 ,so long as art-history and esthetics are not made regular studies1 not only in art-schools but also in general educational establishments1 and especially ladies' schools1 our national consciousness of art in general and the requirements of our age in particular cannot improve4 ,art is a branch of human knowledge1 ingenuity1 and creative force in which ladies1 trained to appreciate beauty1 might be made better #8helps1' than in the kitchen1 the pantry1 or the larder4 ,the national wealth of ,france consists in the nation's superiority in taste and artistic skill4 ,the ,french arrange a few artificial flowers with an exquisite understanding of the juxtaposition of colours and the combination of forms1 and make us pay for a #8bouquet' on a bonnet from fifty to sixty francs1 whilst the raw material costs from five to six francs2 they do the same in terra-cotta1 bronze1 or iron4 ,so long as everyone with us thinks himself justified in having his own bad taste gratified1 because he can pay for it1 decorative artists will serve that bad taste in all our household details4 ,art-history comprises not merely measurements of temples1 heights of spires in feet1 or of statues in cubits and inches4 ,we have of late years made gigantic strides in the advancement of street-architecture1 though we do not yet know how to create perspective views of artistic beauty2 we still indulge too much in medival crookedness and unintelligible windings4 ,we still decorate too gaudily1 or1 falling into the other extreme1 too much in neutral colours2 but we are beginning to understand that man does not live on stone and brick alone1 but also on taste in arranging and decorating the stone4 ,london1 with the exception of some of our monstrous railway bridges and railway stations1 begins to look worthy of its position as the centre of the world's commerce4 ,our streets have lately put on some stately #8,sunday clothing' in terra-cotta1 ,portland cement1 and iron railings4 ,our glass and china1 our furniture and carpets1 begin to have more variegated patterns1 though ,i am sorry to hear that foreigners are still generally appointed as the principal modellers4 ,i base this assertion on the ,report on the ,national ,competition of the ,works of ,schools of ,art for #ahgf1 in which the examiners say3 #8,our want of that workman-like power over the material1 which is so noticeable in all ,french productions in modelling1 is still very conspicuous4 ,as long as this continues a large proportion of the decorative figure or ornamental designs in relief made for the ,english market will be in the hands of foreign artists4' ,the panacea of this evil will and can only be a higher intellectual training1 not merely of the faculty of imitating and combining given forms in nature1 but of endowing them with ideal beauty1 fostered by a correct study of art-history4 ,there are no illustrations to this work1 but ,i have annexed a long list of illustrated works on art4 ,my aim in teaching1 and writing1 has been consistently to induce my hearers and readers to think and study for themselves4 ,bad or even good wood-cuts are by no means essential in art-books1 for we possess in the ,british1 ,christy's1 and ,south ,kensington ,museums such invaluable art-collections1 that we may write books without illustrations if we can induce readers and students to verify what we say by a diligent study of these specimens4 ,theoretical generalisation ought always to precede our special studies4 ,we only then know when we are able to systematise1 to group1 to draw analogies1 or to arrange our details according to some general principle4 ,if we enter on any study without having prepared our mind to grasp the connecting links in an artistic or scientific subject1 our knowledge of an incoherent mass of details will only dwarf our understanding1 instead of brightening and clearing it1 and we shall become technically-trained machines1 instead of self-conscious and self-reasoning creators in any branch of art4 ,the ,art ,library at the ,south ,kensington ,museum is1 without any exaggeration1 the completest in the world2 it abounds in the best illustrated works of all nations4 ,art-books with bad or indifferent illustrations1 or even with good illustrations1 are not so much needed as art-books with unbiased theories1 esthetical principles1 and philosophical ideas1 which may awaken the power of reasoning in both readers and students4 ,it is only too often the case that1 in seeing bad illustrations1 the student imagines he knows everything about the work spoken of and produced in outlines4 ,he must1 however1 go and see for himself4 ,art has its own fairy domain and its own most catholic realm1 in which everyone is welcome who can contribute to the improvement1 delight1 and happiness of man4 ,to induce readers and students to visit1 with some fore-thought and fore-knowledge1 our vast and unparalleled art-collections1 and to convince them1 that to detach the study of art from a correct appreciation of the ideas that engendered its forms1 is an impossibility1 was the task ,i set myself in writing the pages of this book4 ,,london3 ,october #ahgf4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,prolegomena4 ,,page ,the phenomena of destruction and combination in ,nature--,the difference between the sublime and beautiful--,without man no beauty--,science1 industry1 and art--,the utilitarian principle--,choice--,the realistic1 historical1 and critical points of view in art--,crystallisations and their elements --,symmetry and eurythmy--,proportion1 action1 and expression --,man is the symbol of earthly perfection #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,ethnology ,,in ,,its ,,bearing ,,on ,,art4 ,the ,negro1 the ,turanian1 and the ,aryan3 their characteristics1 facial angle1 amount of brain1 and artistic capacities-- ,space and time--,art treated historically--,pottery in its development--,generalisation and its advantage #bb ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,pre-,,historic ,,and ,,savage ,,art4 ,traces of man's inventive and decorative force in by-gone ages--,classification of pre-historic products--,the old stone age--,the new stone age--,the bronze and iron ages-- ,man's first dwellings--,houses and temples--,lake-or pile-dwellings in their gradual development--,cranoges or wooden islands--,art in the western hemisphere--,the stucco in the rock-hewn temple at ,mitla in ,mexico-- ,difference between art-products in ,north1 ,central1 and ,south ,america--,cuzco1 near ,lake ,titicaca--,pottery as a reliable historical record--,the wild and fantastic mode of ornamentation in ,america1 and its causes #cb ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,chinese ,,art4 ,the ,chinese language--,the holy books of the ,chinese--,the sacred number five--,principle of ornamentation--,their towns--,the wall with the ,chinese not yet a completing part of the building--,the enclosure1 the frame1 and the substructure--,the trellis-work of the ,chinese and its subdivision--,their ,tshao-pings and ,miaos--,mode of colouring--,silk-weavings and their usual patterns-- ,feather works and embroideries--,their deficiencies in painting--,their pottery--,causes of their failings in art in a higher sense4 #de ,,chapter ,v4 ,,india1 ,,persia1 ,,assyria1 ,,and ,,babylon4 ,the ,aryans on this and the other side of the ,himlyan ,mountains--,science and art the offsprings of religion-- ,endeavours to express abstract phenomena in concrete signs--,the symbolic1 dialectic1 and mythological periods-- ,the ,indian trinity--,the principal divinities of ,india1 and their analogy with the ,egyptian1 ,persian1 and ,greek gods-- ,indian epic poetry--,the rock-hewn temples and ,buddha-- ,stucco ornamentation--,causes of the gorgeousness of ,indian art--,persia and the ,persians--,their five cosmical elements--,historical development--,the ,zend-,avesta-- ,persepolis and its oldest monuments--,zoroaster--,the ,persian trinity--,light and darkness--,why no temples were constructed--,the ,babylonians and ,ninivites--,their principles of ornamentation--,their wall decorations #fj ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,egyptian ,,art4 ,the sphinx the emblem of ,egyptian art--,long and short chronologists--,lepsius and his list of ,egyptian dynasties-- ,state of ,egypt under ,menes1 who ruled #chib ,b4,c41 according to ,lepsius--,division of ,egyptian art into periods--,the forty-two holy books of the ,egyptians--,their gods of the first1 second1 and third orders--,the ,egyptian trinity--,the pyramidal period--,the hieratic style--,the ,ptolemaic style --,their mode of ornamentation and symmetrophobia #ajc ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,hebrew ,,art4 ,the ,hebrews are a mixed race--,social and political condition of the ,jews during #f1jjj years--,description of the country and aspect of nature--,rabbi ,manasseh ,ben ,israel-- ,architecture a sure measure of a nation's social and political development--,egotistical character of nomadic traders--,the temple and palace of ,solomon1 the only architectural efforts of the ,jews--,sketch of their history1 divided into eight periods--,the tabernacle a tent--,the first temple constructed on its plan--,ben ,david on the mysterious empty room above the ,holy of ,holies--,causes why the ,jews had no art1 and never attempted to have any #acb ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,greek ,,art4 ,meshiah 7humanity7 was first freed by the ,greeks in form1 and by ,christ in spirit--,aspect of nature--,india1 ,egypt1 and ,persia as the component parts of ,greek development-- ,the different dialects of the ,greeks--,their mythology-- ,traces of intelligible facts and historical events in the ,greek myths--,zeus and his character--,prometheus and ,faust--,the nine muses and their leader--,greek life a continuous festivity--,greek poetry and philosophy--,greek artistic development--,the ,olympian1 ,pythian1 ,neman1 and ,isthmian games--,greek architecture3 the temple-- ,building materials--,site of temples--,proportion--,plan of temples--,the ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,korinthian orders and their subdivisions--,the ,attic style--,greek pottery and ,greek sculpture--,different periods--,the ,british ,museum and ,greek art--,onatas1 ,ageladas1 ,kalamis1 ,pheidias1 ,praxiteles1 ,skopas1 and ,lysippus--,the ,parthenon-- ,aphrodite no longer draped--,the groups of ,niobe1 ,laokon1 and the ,farnese bull--,causes of the decline of ,greek art #aec ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,etruskan ,,art4 ,the first settlers in ,etruria--,their gods of the first and second orders--,the ritual of thunder--,temples and tombs-- ,subdivision of tombs--,cinerary chests--,excavations at ,prneste--,pottery and metal works--,their style either ,archaic or ,etruskan--,division of ,etruskan works of art into five principal categories #bab ,,chapter ,x4 ,,roman ,,art4 ,characteristic differences between ,greeks and ,romans--,the triple theocracy of ,rome--,the mythical period of the seven kings of ,rome--,rome as republic--,roman mythology--,rome under the emperors--,roman public games--,roman literature the outgrowth of ,greek literature--,polylithic wall decorations--,the arch1 cross-vault1 and cupola--,periods of ,roman art and their subdivisions--,temples--,fora and theatres--,the mausoleum of ,augustus--,hadrian1 the divine architect--,triumphal arches--,the baths of ,caracalla--,the advent of ,christianity #bbh ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,early ,,christian ,,art4 ,north and south of our globe--,buddhism and ,christianity-- ,christ's divine teachings--,romanesque and ,byzantine art-forms--,symbols1 allegories1 emblems1 and myths-- ,catacombs at ,rome and ,naples--,the sacredness of the number seven--,christian art in its essence and different phases-- ,the spiritual element predominates--,the first ,christian churches--,constantine--,ravenna and its early churches-- ,st4 ,sophia in the ,byzantine style--,migration of northern nations--,their religious notions--,the ,teutons turn ,christians--,wood and ivory carvings--,art in its relation to the progressive development of mankind--,summary and conclusion #bfd ,,bibliography for the study of the historical development of ,art #cja ,,index #cje ,,manual ,,of ,,the ,,historical ,,development ,,of ,,art ,,chapter ,i4 ,,prolegomena4 ,gazing at the heavens on a starry night1 we see1 in addition to myriads of sparkling worlds floating in the air1 a great quantity of nebul--either decayed systems of worlds1 or worlds in formation4 ,worlds which have lost their centre of gravity and fallen to pieces2 or worlds which are seeking1 according to the general law of gravitation1 to form a central body by the attraction of cosmical ether4 ,the one phenomenon is that of destruction1 the other that of new formation4 ,this double process is continually repeating itself in the development of art4 ,consciously or unconsciously1 the artists of the different nations1 at different periods1 devote themselves to the dissolution or reconstruction of artistic products4 ,to become acquainted with this process1 to trace the elements from which art is built up1 or the influences which engender a dissolution of artistic forms1 is of the greatest importance4 ,art must be looked upon as the phenomenal result of certain religious1 social1 intellectual1 and natural conditions4 ,to trace these conditions1 their origin1 influence1 and gradual development1 by means of a critical and historical investigation into the causes which produced them1 will be our task4 ,for art is like a mirror3 whatever looks into it is reflected by it4 ,if a poor1 untrained imagination stares into it1 no one must be astonished that poor and distorted images result4 ,it is usually accepted as a truism that the essence of art is the reproduction of nature4 ,wherever1 then1 nature were reflected in the #8,art-mirror1' we should have the best work of art4 ,but this is not so4 ,for art has to reflect the phenomena of the makrokosm as a subjectively-conceived mikrokosm4 ,we do not see matters as they really are1 as each thing is surrounded by a thick fog of incidental1 objective1 and subjective peculiarities4 ,this fog must be cleared away1 to show us nature in the bright colours of intellectual and self-conscious idealisation4 ,nature furnishes us with mortar and stones for the building1 but the architect's intellectual power has to arrange these elements1 and to bring them into an artistic shape4 ,nature furnishes us with flowers1 trees1 animals and men2 but the ornamental designer or painter has to reproduce and to group them so as to impress the forms of nature with an intellectual vitality4 ,before the artist proceeds to his work he must become thoroughly conscious of the distinction between the ,,sublime and the ,,beautiful4 ,it is essential that he should draw a strict line of demarcation between the two conceptions2 in order not to waste his energies on the reproduction of objects which are beyond the powers of art4 ,during the long period of the cosmical formation of the earth1 when mountains were towered upon mountains1 rocks upheaved1 islands submerged2 when air1 water1 fire1 and solid matter seemed engaged in never-ending conflict--nature was sublime4 ,the dynamic force appeared to be the only element1 and the counterbalancing static force was without influence4 ,gradually vegetable and animal life1 in their first crude forms1 commenced to show themselves4 ,zoophites were developed into megatheriums and mastodons4 ,mammoths and elks sported on plains which now form the mountain tops of our continents4 ,scarcely visible coral animals were still engaged in constructing mountain chains1 and a luxuriant vegetation covered the small continents4 ,such transformations1 convulsions1 and changes are gigantic1 grand1 awe-inspiring--sublime1 but not beautiful4 ,whenever nature is at work1 disturbing the air with electric currents or shaking huge mountains1 so that they bow their lofty summits1 or when the dry soil is rent asunder1 and sends forth streams of glowing lava1 we are in the presence of the sublime1 not of the beautiful4 ,whenever man's nature is overawed1 whenever he is made to feel his impotence by the phenomena of nature1 he faces the sublime4 ,in art1 only a few divinely-gifted and chosen geniuses have ever reached the sublime4 ,when1 however1 the cosmical forces had expended their exuberant powers--when a diversified climate had produced those plants and animals that surround us--when man appeared on this revolving planet1 and by degrees reached self-consciousness as his highest development--then only beauty acquired existence and dominion on earth4 ,without men capable of understanding what is beautiful1 art would have no meaning4 ,the aim of science is to vanquish error2 the province of industry to subdue matter1 and the vocation of art to produce beauty4 ,the artist must not neglect science1 for he has to be truthful1 as error is ugly2 he must make himself well acquainted with matter1 for he has to use1 to transform1 and to modify it2 and1 finally1 he has to hallow this scientifically-treated matter by impressing it with the stamp of ideal beauty4 ,the attainment of this1 the perfection of art1 has been slow and gradual4 ,though art1 like all the inventions1 took its origin in want and necessity1 the utilitarian spirit is the very bane of art1 for art flourishes only under the influence of the very highest intellectual culture4 ,nature produces like art2 but the products of nature are the unconscious effects of the immutable law of causation4 ,the products of art are the results of the conscious intellectual power of the artist4 ,it is the free1 yet well-regulated1 consciousness of the artist that elevates his productions into works of art4 ,undoubtedly the great store-house of the artist is nature2 he learns from nature how to ornament1 but he has to discern1 to combine1 to adapt1 to select1 his forms4 ,the whole success of the artist1 in whatever branch he works1 must depend on an earnest and severe use of the word ,,choice4 #8,he is truly great who knows the value of everything1 and distinguishes what is more or less great1 and what is most estimable1 so as to begin from that1 and to apply the genius1 and fix the desires upon the execution of things worthy and great4' ,this mode of thinking was followed by the most celebrated and enlightened artists from the ancient ,greeks to our own time4 ,they knew to distinguish that which was most worthy in nature1 and to this they directed their study1 diligence1 and industry4 ,inferior geniuses1 because they are attached to mediocrity1 believe that a mere clinging to nature constitutes all art2 and the lowest artists are enchanted with the minuti of little works1 taking them for principal things2 so that human ignorance passes from the trifling to the useless1 from the useless to the ugly1 and from the ugly to the false and chimerical4 ,in treating of the historical development of art1 to enable artists to distinguish and to choose the best1 and not only to imitate but to create consciously for themselves1 it is necessary to make them theoretically acquainted with the progress of art4 ,to trace historically the changes art had to undergo is necessary for all really self-conscious artists4 ,art with us is still looked upon as entirely subject to individual taste4 ,everyone thinks himself competent to have an opinion on products of art4 #8,de gustibus non est disputandum' is heard not only in our drawing-rooms1 but also in art-circles4 ,this false and utterly untenable adage is the cause of the chaotic anarchy in our art-world4 ,so little as there can be differences in truth1 can there be differences in beauty4 ,it is the duty of philosophy to strive for truth2 it is the task of the theoretical artist to point out what is beautiful4 ,we may treat art from three different points of view3-- #a4 ,from a realistic point of view1 taking nature and geometry as its basis4 #b4 ,from an historical point of view2 showing by antiquarian and archological researches its gradual development4 #c4 ,from a critical point of view2 propounding abstract principles of speculative philosophy and esthetics as applied to art4 ,a4 ,the realistic school has in later years had an immense influence with us4 ,art-critics have almost gone so far as to demand from the artist a correct rendering of the very stratification of rocks2 or of the different kinds of soil1 to such a degree that the farmer should be able to recognise the ground in which to sow oats or wheat4 ,pictures1 according to these estheticists1 should be geological maps1 mineralogical collections1 and1 so far as flowers are concerned1 perfect herbariums4 ,when this school takes up the archological view1 it clings with indomitable tenacity to given forms1 and checks imagination4 ,art is then only to be handled as the ,greeks or ,romans practised it4 ,either the ,gothic or the ,renaissance style is to be slavishly imitated4 ,this school has one great drawback3 it considers all things natural beautiful1 and looks upon an imitation of that which was as better than an exertion of the self-creative originality of the artist4 ,b4 ,the historical school endeavours to bring before our eyes the past1 so as to enable us to understand the present1 and to influence the future of art4 ,this school has followed two divergent directions1 the ,antique and the ,gothic1 the classical or romantic2 the one holding that everything beautiful must be based upon ,greek patterns2 the other that all beauty is confined to the ,gothic4 ,the writers of these two schools bewilder the students2 either driving them into a cold1 soulless imitation of classic forms1 or forcing them to sacrifice everything to trefoils1 pinnacles1 tracery1 finials1 buttresses1 thin spires1 painted windows1 and pointed arches4 ,c4 ,the critical school indulges in tall phrases1 mere hypothetical paradoxes1 often startling the world with speculations of the wildest sort4 ,art-critics frequently roam in the spheres of surmises2 they have their good points1 but often neglect reality1 or the historical ground2 they sacrifice everything to the idea1 which is with them the only productive basis of everything existing in art4 ,we shall try to be realistic1 as it would be vain to attempt to detach art from the influences of nature2 for art borrows its principal elements from the impressions of natural phenomena4 ,we shall be historical1 and point out the progressive development of art2 and1 lastly1 we shall endeavour to be critical4 ,speculative philosophy has its merits in art4 ,esthetical criticism suggests new ideas1 and new ideas engender new forms4 ,we shall endeavour to adopt from each of the three schools what is best4 ,our age is an age of eclecticism in art4 ,we must1 however1 try to prepare for a period of original vitality1 which can only be done by avoiding one-sidedness and heedless originality4 ,we shall try to suggest and to excite in our readers new thoughts4 ,as music speaks in sounds1 poetry in words1 so art in forms2 but music1 poetry1 and art are subject to certain rules1 without which harmony would become dissonance1 poetry an inflated prose1 and art a tasteless entity1 of which quaintness will be the only distinguishing attribute4 ,what we call our sense of beauty is based on those laws which make the existence of the universe possible4 ,the ,greeks used for beauty in art the same word1 as for order1 or the perfect arrangement of the universe4 ,the word kosmos 7from which we have #8cosmetic1' any beautifying application7 may teach us how we should look upon works of art1 which ought to be a reflection of the general laws ruling nature4 ,two forces guide our material and intellectual life4 ,we possess two means of acquiring knowledge and of practising art3 reason and experience4 ,impressions from without are the everlasting source of all our conceptions4 ,hunger and thirst drive us to seek nourishment1 to become fishers1 hunters1 herdsmen1 or agriculturists4 ,cold and heat force us to seek a shelter1 to construct wigwams1 huts1 dwellings on piles1 cottages1 houses1 palaces1 and temples4 ,though order and harmony prevail in the outer world1 every atom of the universe is endowed with an unconscious will or life of its own4 ,atoms seek atoms according to inherent laws1 or fly from or annihilate one another4 ,the whole process of life around us appears to be one never-ending struggle4 ,apparently there rules only the law of chance and might2 what cannot conquer is conquered4 ,history is one long catalogue of appearing and disappearing nations1 of devouring and devoured kingdoms and empires4 ,it is as though generation after generation had emerged from the spectral past into the sanguinary present1 to destroy or to be destroyed4 ,this conflict in the outer world is seconded by everlasting conflicts in our inner world4 ,fear1 hope1 love--passions of all kinds1 imagination and reality1 ignorance and knowledge1 pride and humility1 prejudice and wisdom1 form an intellectual hurricane not less destructive than the warfare of the cosmical elements4 ,religion1 ,science1 and ,art1 this divine triad1 step in4 ,religion excites in us the hope of higher and better morals2 science creates consciousness of the laws according to which we are governed2 the link between cause and effect is traced1 and the rule of arbitrary chance narrowed4 ,lastly1 art throws its beautifying halo on everything4 ,thus these three are instrumental in elevating our mind1 expanding our intellectual powers1 and bringing harmony and beauty into the eternal conflict4 ,faith is the element of religion1 experience the element of knowledge1 and beauty the element of art4 ,whilst faith and experience are possible without an artistic elevation of the mind1 art must combine the elements of religion and science1 and form through beauty a visible link between these elements4 ,the sublime1 as we have said1 rules in the universe4 ,clouds chase one another and are subject to everlasting changes4 ,trees cover the surface of our globe1 forming woods at random4 ,mountains are towered up1 as if hurled together by chance4 ,seas form a bewildering variety of coasts4 ,streams wind their paths through mountains and valleys with capricious irregularity4 ,all these phenomena confuse and oppress us1 they engender an incomprehensible1 indistinct feeling in us4 ,but so soon as we begin with our intellectual force to sift1 to separate1 and to detach single phenomena from the general mass--as soon as choice begins to work1 the isolated phenomenon displays at once its symmetrical beauty4 ,illustration3 7,snowflakes7 ,this is the case with crystallisations1 the first artistic products of unconscious nature4 ,if we look at a vast plain covered with snow1 a feeling of sublime cold and wretchedness overcomes us2 but if we take up one isolated snow-flake1 and place it under a microscope1 we find that the elements of the crystallised drop of water surround with harmonious regularity a common centre1 which is the body1 from which radiate as integral parts the diversified forms of the flake4 ,in studying snow-flakes1 we find that the three dimensions of space--height1 breadth1 and depth1 limited by symmetry1 proportion and direction--are the principal elements of every form which in itself has to represent a detached total4 ,in all the crystallisations there is one #8momentum' of formation--the centre1 from which all the parts emanate perfectly well-balanced and complete in themselves4 ,the elements of which all artistic works1 whether natural or produced by men1 are composed1 are the straight line and the waving line4 ,with these elements we can obtain the three principal conditions of every work of art--symmetry1 proportion1 and direction4 ,snow-flakes may be used in any direction1 and therefore they may be set down as without distinct direction4 ,the rays with their radiation1 however1 are formed according to the principal law of the universe4 ,they represent the dynamic force2 they strive at isolation from the centre which must be looked upon as their static momentum4 ,thus in the first artistic products of nature positive and negative1 or rather dynamic and static forces are clearly perceptible4 ,the horizontal line is the representative of the static1 whilst the vertical line is the indicator of the dynamic force4 ,,symmetry is a perfect equality of form to the right and left of a vertical line on a horizontal base4 ,,eurythmy consists in a repetition of variegated forms4 ,in order to produce eurythmy we must confine symmetry within a certain compass2 for this purpose we have the frame4 ,our doors are nothing but frames for the entering or departing individuals2 as our windows are frames for the landscape1 sky1 or walls on which we look1 or for ourselves when seen from without4 ,the frame1 whether it be real or imaginary1 as the correct limitation of forms1 is of the very highest importance in decorative and pictorial art4 ,eurythmy may be alternating4 ,this alternating principle is observed in metopes and triglyphs4 ,the alternation may be interrupted by a csura 7a mark or sign of rest74 ,masks1 heads of lions1 or any other figures may form the csura1 as decorative elements in the long lines of the tops of houses1 palaces1 or temples4 ,the csura1 combined with eurythmy and symmetry1 will give us the best patterns for flat decorations1 as in carpets1 paper-hangings1 keramic works and metal or wood ornaments4 ,applying what we have said of crystallisations to plants and animals1 we find that symmetry is undoubtedly the predominant element in every flower4 ,the plant developes itself from the ground1 which is its horizontal basis4 ,it shoots up generally in a vertical direction1 as a radiation from our globe4 ,in trees the branches1 leaves1 flowers1 and fruits are clustered around a central line in eurythmical proportion4 ,in flowers symmetry predominates1 whilst in trees eurythmy prevails4 ,in considering the branches of a tree in relation to its trunk1 we find the same symmetry and eurythmy1 though the direction be changed4 ,we can study these forms best in plants of the coal formation--the ,sigillaria1 ,stigmaria1 ,lepidodendra1 and ,calamites2 and in ferns1 fir-trees1 cedars1 c4 ,in the palm tree we see most distinctly the working of the conflicting forces of nature4 ,the dynamic force of vitality drives the stem upwards1 and the static force of gravitation towards a common centre is expressed in the beautifully-drooping curves of the leaves4 ,symmetry is further to be observed in the lowest animals1 in polyps1 radiata1 c41 but never in higher species1 in which it is not planimetrical 7viz41 cannot be treated on a plane7 but linear1 none of them being perfectly regular in any of the three dimensions of space4 ,man is altogether different from the products of the mineral or vegetable kingdoms1 which give us the prototypes of conventional art4 ,man is not in all directions symmetrical in the strict sense of the word4 ,he has not two heads1 two noses1 or two mouths4 ,the component elements in man are different4 ,his very nature revolts against a planimetrical treatment4 ,this was perfectly understood by the masters of arabesque1 who have always turned man half into a fish1 a plant1 a serpent1 a tendril1 or some other form adapted for planimetrical treatment4 ,eurythmy and ,proportion are the elements of higher organic forms--to which must be added direction or ,action1 and finally ,expression4 ,in most of the lower animals the vertebr are horizontal1 and coincident with the moving direction of the whole creature4 ,in man1 on the other hand1 the vertebr are vertical1 in opposition to the moving direction which is horizontal2 so that the vertebr and line of motion are at right angles4 ,in men1 detached as they are from their horizontal basis1 the soil--carrying their static force with them1 and able to change it either from below1 upwards1 or from front to back--direction is of a complicated nature1 and must be well studied1 so as not to produce incongruities4 ,if a woman or man were painted with the most beautiful and expressive face1 but having it twisted round1 so as to crown the spine1 we should turn from it with disgust1 as anyone endowed with the sense of beauty turns from acrobats1 because the natural laws of gravitation and symmetry would be violated4 ,this illustration may serve to prove1 that there are laws in art with which we must make ourselves acquainted1 and that the mere #8right of taste1' in the general sense of the words1 cannot promote the understanding and appreciation of our artistic productions4 ,next to direction we have to take into account motion4 ,this element is in animals and men produced by their inherent dynamic force1 counteracted by the body itself1 which represents the static force1 or the #8vis inerti1' chaining them to the centre of gravitation in the earth4 ,motion again leads to expression and action4 ,expression is the effect of the conflicting static or dynamic 7passive or active7 state of the mind1 so far as this state is revealed in the lineaments of the face4 ,action is the effect of the same conflicting force so far as it is expressed in the limbs and the position of the body4 ,a third force1 which is often used unconsciously1 necessarily grows out of these elements--the controlling or ruling element1 or1 as ,vitruvius has it1 #8the principle of authority4' ,this element points out the preponderance of certain forms as the visible representatives of the general principles which we have stated1 bringing into the variety of details1 harmony and unity4 ,this controlling element stands to the surrounding and united parts in the same relation as the key-note to a harmonious melody4 ,without that key-note no harmony--without the controlling element no beauty1 were possible4 ,having proceeded step by step from the formation of matter in crystals to man1 we may set down the following as the five principal elements necessary to beauty in art3-- #a4 ,symmetry4 #b4 ,eurythmy4 #c4 ,proportion4 #d4 ,direction or motion4 #e4 ,expression4 4 ,symmetry has already been amply treated4 4 ,eurythmy is either stereometric or planimetric4 ,it is stereometric in balls and in regular solid bodies1 such as the tetrahedron1 a figure of four equal triangular faces1 or the polyhedron1 a figure with many sides4 ,these forms are symmetrical without any controlling element4 ,such an element shows itself first in the ellipsoid--distinct from the oval--in the prism1 and the pyramid4 ,planimetric eurythmy preponderates in snow-crystals1 flowers1 plants1 trees1 and the lowest animals4 ,the controlling element shows itself in the grouping of the single parts round a common centre1 which is often distinguished by a contrast in forms or colours4 ,it is unconsciously expressed by a sign or mark4 ,ornamentation takes its origin in the effort to express1 to designate1 or to mark out the controlling element4 ,the ornamented object has only then a meaning1 when it expresses visibly the hidden idea of the controlling element1 say the idea of fastening or keeping together1 as in clasps1 brooches1 buckles2 or the idea of equilibrium1 as in earrings4 ,such signs or marks were very early used1 and are spread all over our globe2 they developed into the rough tombs in ,phrygia1 ,greece and ,italy2 took a higher form in ,central ,america and ,assyria2 became crystallised in the ,pyramids2 and attained the highest perfection in the tombs of ,mausolus1 ,augustus1 and ,hadrian4 ,the mark or sign is also used in games1 as on race-courses1 in the stadium1 the circus1 or the amphitheatre4 ,a more distinct expression is gained when the mark or sign1 as divine statue1 altar1 c41 is surrounded by rhythmically-arranged circles or encompassing walls1 as the visible expression of the union of the many1 or variety1 for one religious or ceremonial purpose4 ,the mark or sign reflects1 on the one hand1 the idea of harmony1 whilst1 on the other1 the rhythmically-arranged surroundings form an impressive total1 heightening the force of the controlling element4 ,this law explains the awe1 veneration1 mysterious feeling1 and secret fear with which men at all times have looked upon the central mark or sign1 whether in the simple stone-circles of ,abury1 ,stonehenge1 and ,carnac1 the rock-hewn temples of ,india1 the temples of ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome1 or the synagogues and churches of our own times4 ,next to the controlling element1 we must take into consideration the grouping of the whole object on a horizontal basis around a vertical axis4 ,this axis becomes the seat of the linear1 symmetrical1 controlling element4 ,it is especially marked by richly ornamented reliefs or by gaudier colours1 so pronounced that the other parts of the ornamented object appear as mere accompaniments of the horizontal and vertical lines4 ,remarkable in their incongruity1 but often unsurpassed in the application of this principle1 are the tattooed heads of savages1 in which the linear central line is ornamented symmetrically on both sides of the face--the prominent parts being marked by spirals to make them appear still more prominent4 4 ,proportion1 as an element of art1 cannot work by itself1 but must be considered in relation to its parts and the controlling element4 ,proportion consists of a basis1 a middle piece1 and a dominant4 ,to illustrate this1 we have in plants and trees1 the root 7basis71 the stem or trunk 7middle piece71 and the top1 crown or flower 7dominant74 ,the basis represents the cosmical element of gravitation by powerful masses1 simplicity of forms1 and dark colouring4 ,this law was especially observed in the excellent decoration of the ,roman houses at ,pompeii1 and is still followed in our wainscoting4 ,we try unconsciously to express the static force from which the dynamic rises4 ,the middle piece1 growing out of the basis1 is supported and supporting2 it unites the elements of the basis with the top or dominant2 it is the connecting link between these two extremes4 ,the basis stands in the same relation to the middle piece1 as the latter to the dominant4 ,the dominant harmoniously reconciles the conflicting forces of striving upwards1 and being drawn downwards4 ,variations in these relations are not only allowable1 but form the very element of the artist's creative originality--so long as he clearly marks the purpose of the three elements4 4 ,direction1 or motion1 in its highest form is only to be found in man4 ,in fishes the axis1 or seat of the controlling element1 is not fixed as in plants4 ,if fishes pursue some point of attraction1 they shoot forward in a straight line1 so that a conflict between the static and dynamic forces is never visible in them1 because the axes of these two forces are always one and the same4 ,this is entirely different with birds1 quadrupeds1 and especially with men1 who1 to a great extent1 are masters of their motions2 for will1 as the force of their conscious intellect1 changes their static as well as their dynamic direction4 ,man is the symbol of earthly perfection4 ,in him all laws and elements of the universe are united4 ,what is with inanimate nature a static point of attraction1 is with man moral2 the dynamic force of activity1 is with him intellect4 ,animals also work1 but their works are in general the result of their instinct2 whilst with man1 though he may also be ruled by unconscious impulses1 intellect--self-conscious intellect--is the mainspring of all his actions4 ,these have a reflecting mirror in the glance of his eyes1 whilst the changing and changeable effects of scorn1 love1 wrath1 delight1 happiness1 or despair are pictured in the mysteriously-woven lineaments of his countenance4 4 ,expression1 of intellectual and moral impressions1 is most concentrated in ,,man4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,ethnology ,,in ,,its ,,bearing ,,on ,,art4 ,man is placed on this globe as a radius1--a detached radius4 ,the axis of his body is part of the diameter of the earth1 and divides him into symmetrical halves4 ,a line1 that passes at an equal distance through the double organs1 also divides the single ones into two equally-arranged portions4 ,we possess two eyes1 to receive the impression of light2 two ears1 to be touched simultaneously by the waves of sound2 two tubes are opened1 to receive the refined1 imponderable bodies producing odour2 the lips are grouped round a marked central line to the chin4 ,we have two shoulders1 two arms1 two hands1 two legs1 two feet2 both hands have the same number of fingers1 and both feet the same number of toes4 ,on the other hand1 the parts1 taken by themselves1 break through all the laws of symmetrical uniformity4 ,the arms are longer than the trunk2 the legs are longer than the arms2 hands end in unequally-subdivided fingers2 feet in similarly-treated toes4 ,but notwithstanding this want of symmetry there is perfect harmony in the relations of the parts to the whole1 so that man may be said to be the very master-piece of creation4 ,in considering the controlling linear elements1 in the three grand groups into which humanity may be best divided for a comprehensive study of art1 we find that the very fundamental facial lines differ4 ,i4 ,we have first the ,negro1 the fossil1 the black1 or antediluvian man4 ,the eyes1 nostrils1 and lips are drawn downwards in melancholy lines4 ,he is cross-toothed 7prognathous71 triangular-headed1 has flat feet1 long heels1 an imperfect pelvis1 but a very powerful digestive organ1 and a correspondingly enormous mouth4 ,illustration ,the ,oceanic ,negro is the best example of this group4 ,he is slow of temperament1 unskilled1 his mechanical ingenuity being that of a child2 he never goes beyond geometrical ornamentation2 builds tumuli or triangular wigwams2 lives on what he finds by chance1 and1 at the best1 hunts or fishes4 ,his reasoning faculty is very limited1 his imagination slow1 but his perceptive faculties 7the senses7 are highly developed4 ,he is altogether incapable of rising from a fact to a principle4 ,he cannot create beauty1 for he is indifferent to any ideal conception4 ,he possesses only from #ge-hc cubic inches of brain1 his facial angle being about #he degrees4 ,this lowest group of mankind branches off into different types4 ,the general features of the group have neither changed nor improved4 ,the ,negro is still the woolly-headed1 animal-faced being1 represented on the tombs of the ,pharaohs1 because his bodily structure1 his facial lines have not altered during thousands of years4 ,in studying the artistic products1 the customs and manners of this group1 we can picture to ourselves the state in which ,asiatics and ,europeans must have lived during the oldest stone period4 ,the ,negroes use the same kind of flint instruments1 manufacture the same crude kind of pottery1 adorn their clubs1 paddles1 and the cross-beams of their huts with the same rope and serpent-like entangled windings and twistings1 that are found in various parts of the globe of pre-historic times4 ,the ruling lines of the face and head of the ,negro are reflected in his triangular or mound-like architectural constructions4 ,,ii4 ,illustration ,next we have the ,turanian 7from tura1 #8swiftness of a horse'71 the ,mongol1 the square or short-headed 7brachikephalous71 the traditionary1 the yellow man4 ,his face is flat1 his nose deeply sunken between his prominent cheeks2 his reasoning faculty is developed only to a certain degree4 ,he has small1 oblique eyes1 the lines being turned upwards1 expressing cunning and jocularity4 ,his mouth is less powerful than that of the negro4 ,he has broad shoulders1 an expansive chest1 thin and small bow legs1 as if formed to use those of horses instead of his own2 he is an excellent rider1 but a slow though steady walker4 ,he looks on nature with a nomadic shepherd's eye1 and not with that of a settled artist4 ,he excels in technical ability1 has great powers of imitation1 can produce geometrical ornamentation of the most complicated and ingenious character1 and a realistic imitation of flowers1 butterflies1 and birds1 but has no sense for perspective and no talent for shading4 ,he is incapable of drawing the human form4 ,sculpture of a higher kind is unknown to him1 though he can execute perfectly marvellous carvings1 which1 though quaint in design and composition1 are wanting in proportion and expression4 ,faithful to his nomadic traditions1 and the lines of his head and face1 his architectural constructions take an according form4 ,like his facial lines1 the roofs of his houses are twisted upwards4 ,the amount of brain in the ,turanian averages #hc cubic inches1 and his facial angle is #hg degrees4 ,,iii4 ,illustration ,finally we have the ,aryan1 the long or oval-headed man 7dolichokephalous71 the historical1 the white man1 the crowning product of the cosmical forces of nature4 ,his facial lines are composed of the two conflicting elements1 the horizontal and the vertical line1 and are framed in by an oval4 ,his amount of brain is on an average #ib cubic inches1 and his facial angle #ij degrees4 ,his development is not limited4 ,this group of mankind1 though divided into many different types 7races or nations71 which have arisen from an intermixture with the other two groups1 or through the influences of climate1 food1 and the aspect of nature1 stands at the highest point of civilisation4 ,as the lines of his face are admirably counterbalanced1 and his body is a master-piece of regularity and proportion1 he has tried to establish a perfect balance between the conflicting forces in his moral and intellectual nature4 ,to him exclusively we owe art in its highest sense4 ,once he stood on the same level with the primitive black savage1 then he advanced to the ingenuity of the yellow man1 and left both far behind him in his gradual but always progressive development4 ,he surpasses the other two groups of humanity1 not only in technical skill1 but especially in inventive and reasoning power1 critical discernment1 and purity of artistic taste4 ,the white man alone1 has produced idealised master-pieces in sculpture and painting4 ,the white man in his architecture uses either the horizontal or the vertical line1 or both2 he takes the triangular building of the negro and places it on the square tent of the yellow man1 making his house as perfect as possible2 he goes further1 and1 in accordance with his powerfully-arched brow1 over-arches not only rivers and chasms1 but builds his magnificent cupolas and pointed arches1 the acme of architectural forms4 ,ethnology then serves us as a foundation for the study of art in its different phases4 ,conforming to the general tendency of modern science1 we have tried to express the cause of the artistic development of the three groups of humanity by figures2 we have measured the seat and instrument of our intellectual faculty1 and have thus tried to leave the sphere of mere conjecture1 or unfounded opinion1 in order to place the phenomena of art-history on a firm basis4 ,though art1 undoubtedly1 belongs #8to the magic circle of the imagination1 and the inner powers of the mind1' those powers are dependent on our very bodily construction1 the amount of brain and the facial angle4 ,we do not deal in mere hypothesis1 but submit to our readers a complete theory borne out by facts4 ,in considering the frontispiece of our manual1 representing the #8,,tree ,,of ,,art1' we can visibly trace the slow and gradual development of the white man4 ,the negro fixes our attention only as savage2 the yellow man has a line of his own1 and has remained stationary in his artistic development2 the white man has passed through the savage stages1 and by his own exertions1 undergoing various phases of rise and decline 7the real signs of historical vitality71 has steadily progressed till he began to attempt1 and to succeed in bringing about1 #8a harmonious connection between the representation of nature and the expression of awakened emotion1 and a mysterious analogy between the emotions of his mind and the phenomena perceived by his senses4' ,as all phenomena must take place in space and time 7the two fundamental forms of all existence71 the products of art must also have been executed under these two conditions1 and can therefore be treated historically4 ,space is the expansion and extension of the forces of nature into the infinite4 ,time is the limitation of this activity4 ,without space no object could arrive at completion4 ,without time the subject would be eternal4 ,these are the two counteracting elements4 ,the one1 space1 is positive--the other1 time1 negative4 ,time is either relative or absolute4 ,if relative1 it can be measured by an ascertained succession of events4 ,if absolute1 it becomes measurable by years4 ,in both we can trace a gradual and successive development of artistic forms4 ,in general1 time relative1 with its succession of products1 is more reliable than time labelled with voluntary and more than doubtful dates4 ,for instance1 we cannot measure the periods of the formation of the earth's crust by years1 and still we are perfectly convinced that the tertiary formation could not have taken place before the primary2 thus we are justified in assuming that the iron period must have succeeded the stone or bronze period2 bronze instruments never being found with iron handles1 whilst iron blades have ornamented wooden or bronze handles4 ,man naturally scarcely ever uses the worse material for a practical purpose when he has once found a better one2 but he will use the softer material as a means of ornamentation4 ,that we have plenty of #8survivals' in art1 as well as in nature1 does not in any way militate against the strict logic of facts4 ,the lowest forms of animals have mostly survived 7like the lowest forms of ornamentation71 yet no one can doubt or deny the gradual and systematic development of the vegetable and animal kingdoms4 ,if we find no fragments of pottery in ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 or the ,polynesian islands1 we cannot assume that a grand and powerful civilisation has perished there1 leaving no traces behind4 ,in finding different kinds of pottery1 gradually improving even in the quality of the material--the clay being first unwashed1 then mixed with grains of quartz and felspar1 next carefully washed1 then sun-baked1 then fire-baked2 first hand and then wheel turned1 and at last glazed1 unornamented or ornamented--we cannot assume that the order was inverted1 and that man first ornamented glazed pottery1 which he turned out on the wheel1 and then went back to unwashed clay and hand-made pottery4 ,the #8degeneration theory' has exploded as entirely as the geocentric and anthropocentric theories have vanished4 ,we know that man1 like flowers1 trees1 rocks and animals1 is the product of the combined forces of nature and the influences of climate and food1 and that his religious1 social1 and political conditions are closely reflected in his art4 ,as little as our globe is the centre of the universe1 or man the centre of creation1 so little did art or science spring at once perfectly armed1 provided with spear and shield1 from ,jupiter's head like blue-eyed ,athene4 ,in a certain sense art and science are both of divine origin1 but only so far as the originating and creative power is concerned1 which1 once set in motion1 had to grow and to develop according to definite and immutable laws4 ,to trace this development step by step in general outlines1 from time relative to the mythical and traditional periods1 and thence to the age of history1 is the aim of our manual4 ,in generalising thus1 and separating the special from the universal1 we are enabled to embrace at once with greater clearness a wider range of knowledge1 and to give to the treatment of art-history a more elevated and useful character4 ,by a suppression of details1 the great periods and features of a common development are rendered more intelligible1 and our reasoning faculty is enabled to grasp that which might otherwise escape our limited powers of comprehension4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,pre-,,historic ,,and ,,savage ,,art4 ,art1 like nature1 is its own interpreter4 ,a well-finished pattern has not preceded a more simple one2 circular ornamentations are of a later date than ornamentations with straight lines4 ,the cave-habitation must have been in use before the construction of independent temples4 ,art must have had a beginning like language2 for it is a language--a language in forms1 speaking to our eyes4 ,if what the ,arabs say is true1 that the best description is that in which the ear is transformed into an eye1 the best picture will be one that transforms our eyes into ears4 ,art speaks through light1 as language through sounds4 ,we have tried to discover by means of philology--which in modern times has become a science--a more or less close relationship between idioms and idioms2 in the same way we try to trace some general primitive types from which we may deduce the innumerable works of art4 ,in times long by-gone we find traces of man's inventive and decorative force4 ,the products of that force even in pre-historic ages widely differ in their degrees of workmanship4 ,there are more or less finished hatchets1 chisels1 knives1 arrow-heads1 paal-stabs1 celts and armlets4 ,the ornamentation1 from mere varying straight lines1 goes over into spiral forms of different direction and combination4 ,we have therefore no difficulty in classifying the products of pre-historic art in the following way3-- a4 ,the ,palolithic1 or old stone age4 b4 ,the ,neolithic1 or new stone age4 c4 ,the ,bronze age1 and d4 ,the ,iron age4 ,the first two subdivisions belong to savage life1 the third to the mythical or traditionary1 and the fourth to the historical periods4 ,during the old stone age we have scarcely any traces of ornamentation2 during the new stone age we find some attempts at geometrical lines1 and some sketches of animals on ivory blades2 during the bronze age we have winding and twisting patterns of excellent geometrical design2 and1 finally1 during the iron age1 animals and even human forms are used as means of ornamentation4 ,during the pre-historic period of man's artistic development we find a peculiar similarity between his dwellings and his tombs4 ,the mountain cavern1 and the hut constructed of beams and boughs1 covered with skins1 were undoubtedly men's first stately palaces4 ,the very oldest traditions bear out this statement4 ,the earliest inhabitants of ,greece dwelt in mountain caverns4 ,the people of ,siberia1 anterior to the ,samoyedes1 lived1 according to ,erman1 in subterranean caves4 ,the ,kyklops of ,homer are but nomads1 residing in mountain caverns4 ,of the ,hittites1 a tribe in ,canaan in the times of ,abraham1 it is recorded that they buried their dead in caves4 ,but it is an incontestable fact that the burial-places resembled the dwellings of the pre-historic man4 ,crypts1 catacombs1 and rock-hewn temples may be set down as having originated from man's first mountain home4 ,the tombs of the ,tartars in ,kasan resemble their houses on a small scale4 ,a ,circassian tomb resembles a ,circassian cottage4 ,the tombs of the ,karaite ,jews in the valley of ,jehoshaphat1 are like their houses4 ,laplanders live in caves4 ,the aborigines of ,germany and ,france1 the contemporaries of the mammoth1 rhinoceros1 auerochs and elk1 dwelt in caves1 as their bones are found mingled with those of these now extinct animals1 together with various implements1 such as adzes1 flint arrows1 stone knives1 and even1 as in the cave at ,perigord on the borders of the ,dordogne1 works of art of great artistic power4 ,jordanes1 in his #8,de ,rebus ,geticis1' mentions people in ,sweden 7,scania7 living like wild animals in caves1 cut out in the rocks4 ,but the nomad savage could find such dwellings only where there were mountains4 ,if he wandered out of such a district into the plains1 and wanted to shelter himself from the inclemency of the weather1 he had to collect blocks of stone1 and to form with them artificial caves4 ,in this manner cromlechs1 ,ds1 ,dyss or dolmens1 and gallery chambers arose1 in which the long1 narrow gallery corresponds to the confined entrance of the mountain-cave1 and the chamber to the cavern4 ,by degrees man began to construct detached houses for himself1 and at last temples for his god or gods4 ,no traces of temples are found in pre-historic times1 except in the ,western hemisphere4 ,the ,stiens of ,cambodia1 in the central parts of ,cochin-,china1 have no temples4 ,from the southern promontory of ,africa to far beyond the banks of the ,zambesi no temples are found4 ,the pastoral and agricultural people of ,madagascar have no temples1 though they have huts and houses1 ornamented pottery1 and are to a certain degree acquainted with textile art4 ,before man constructs a temple he constructs a house1 to protect himself1 his herds1 and family from wild animals1 but above all from his still more dreaded fellow-creature1 in whom he sees a dangerous rival4 ,this propensity serves to explain the origin of lake-dwellings--the most ancient proofs of man's constructing capacity1 and of his talent to unite for a certain purpose1 and to enclose a given space4 ,herodotus already tells us of a settlement on ,lake ,prasias1 the modern ,tachyno 7in ,rumelia1 ,european ,turkey71 where men lived on platforms1 supported by tall piles4 ,abulfeda1 the ,syrian geographer 7b4 #abgc2 d4 #acac71 speaks of ,christian fishermen living in wooden huts1 built on piles in one of the ,apamean lakes on the ,orontes 7in ,asia74 ,the ,papuans of ,new ,guinea still live in such pile-dwellings1 the floors of which are supported by rudely-carved human figures1 an attempt at telamons4 ,these are #8survivals1' but the lake-dwellings in ,italy and ,switzerland belong to pre-historic times4 ,in tracing their different modes of construction1 we find three periods of a progressive architectural development recorded4 ,we have pile-dwellings of the most primitive construction4 ,rough piles were used1 pointed with the aid of fire or with stone hatchets1 later with bronze1 and finally with iron tools4 ,they were placed either close together or in pairs1 or wide apart--generally in regular order4 ,the heads of the piles were brought to a level above the water to receive the beams of the platform1 which were fastened down with wooden pins4 ,later1 as an improvement1 mortices were cut in the tops of the vertical piles to receive the cross-beams4 ,other constructions1 especially those near ,nidau 7niedere ,au1 lower meadow71 are built on a foundation artificially strengthened with stones1 which is1 undoubtedly1 an improvement on the former method4 ,experience taught the pre-historic architects that the piles were not quite safe1 and ought to have some support against the turbulent risings of the lake4 ,this produced the still more improved fascine constructions1 which certainly gave still greater strength to the dwelling4 ,the platform did not rest on mere piles but on artificial foundations1 built up from the bottom with horizontal layers of sticks or small branches of trees1 the vertical piles serving as connecting links to the whole construction4 ,cranoges1 or wooden islands1 are chiefly found in ,ireland and ,scotland4 ,they differ from the fascine constructions in that they frequently were built on natural islands1 or on shallows approaching to this character4 ,the huts built upon these pile-constructions were rectangular2 some may have been round1 like the huts of savages1 in imitation of mole-hills1 the prototypes of the numerous mounds strewn all over the globe4 ,the huts contained an artificial hearth1 made of three or four slabs of stone4 ,that the inhabitants of the lake-dwellings were acquainted with textile art1 is proved by the discovery of an innumerable quantity of clay-weights for weaving purposes1 and by pieces of burnt woven flax4 ,the crude pottery1 tools and wooden pegs1 fibres twisted into ropes1 remains of different cereals1 fruits1 and domestic animals found in these settlements1 clearly prove that a certain kind of family life must have existed4 ,at all events1 the inhabitants must have reached a higher degree of civilisation than some of the ,south-,sea ,islanders of our century1 who1 on receiving some iron nails1 planted them1 in the expectation of reaping a rich crop of this valuable vegetable4 ,we see that in pre-historic times art was already practised1 not only for a merely utilitarian but also for an ornamental and artistic purpose4 ,this may be said1 in a much higher sense1 of the pre-historic art-remains in the ,western hemisphere4 ,art had there a threefold development1 corresponding to the three groups of humanity4 ,we find the mounds of the ,negro2 the pottery of the yellow man1 with its quaint ornamentation2 and the remarkable temples1 fortresses1 viaducts1 and aqueducts of the ,aryan group4 ,we possess in our museums abundant specimens of the works of these three groups1 as also of their singular hieroglyphic writings1 resembling the first attempts of the ,chinese and ,egyptians to represent ideas in forms4 ,imagination with savages supplies the form2 the mere outlines therefore suffice4 ,the horse drawn in this way 7a7 is a real horse2 7b7 this forms a real goose2 7c7 this is the sun2 and 7d7 this a real man4 ,it is a kind of pictorial writing or ideography1 to be seen for miles and miles hewn in rocks at ,massaya1 and practised by humanity at large1 as by our own children1 in the first stage of awakening consciousness4 ,illustration ,we find not only ethnological1 but also philological and artistic traces of the fact1 that at an unknown pre-historic period1 the ,western hemisphere must have been in close connection with the ,eastern4 ,the name of the supreme ,divinity1 ,dyaus1 ,theos1 ,deus1 is in the far ,west ,teotl4 ,art in the ,north of the ,western hemisphere is primitive1 kyklopean walls and sepulchral mounds being the principal remains4 ,in the ,centre of the ,continent1 art bears all the traces of a gradually-developed progress4 ,it almost reached the forms of ,egypt1 but stopped half way4 ,by some means ,atalanta was separated from the ,east1 and the pyramids1 temples and palaces of central ,america remained in the same relation to the pyramids1 temples and palaces of ,egypt as the tapir to the elephant2 the alligator to the crocodile2 and the llama to the camel4 ,the ,west possessed a knowledge of astronomy analogous to that of the ,chinese1 and their mode of ornamentation in excellent stucco reached a high degree of technical and even pictorial skill4 ,they went so far as to represent scenes of an historical character with some degree of dramatic power2 as the stucco of the rock-hewn temple of ,mitla in ,mexico proves4 ,their ornamentation is irregular and confused1 like their wild vegetation1 in which creepers predominate4 ,some figures are striking in their resemblance to ,egyptian forms4 ,a sculptured divinity of granite1 #c feet high1 found near a finely-built pyramid not far from ,guatusco or ,huatusco1 is excellently worked and finished in a simple style4 ,still more curious is a small statue executed in lava1 with a head-dress resembling those of ,isis1 the ,sphinx1 the capitals of the temple of ,denderah1 or at a later period those of ,antinous4 ,even the position of the feet reminds us of the sphinx1 and proves the absence of a knowledge of proportion4 ,in ,south ,america1 in the regions of ,lake ,titicaca in ,peru1 lying at an elevation of #ac1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 i4e4 about four times as high as ,snowdon1 we have proofs of a very high civilisation4 ,artificially-constructed causeways lead over the surrounding marshes to the sacred town of ,cuzco1 the capital and central spot of the empire of the fabulous yet real ,incas4 ,of those times we have a garden of the ,incas1 in the warmest and most sheltered part of the island1 #8with its baths1 and its fountains still flowing with silvery sheen and murmur4' ,not far from ,titicaca is the island of ,coati1 sacred to the moon4 ,here stood the famous palace of the ,virgins of the ,sun 7reminding us of the ,vestals instituted by one of the ,roman rulers71 flanked by two shrines dedicated to the sun and moon4 ,these are the best-preserved specimens of ,american pre-historic architecture4 ,round ,lake ,umayo1 on a peninsula1 we find a remarkable group of ancient square burial towers1 known as the ,chulpas of ,silustani4 ,cuzco was the ,rome of the south of the ,western hemisphere4 ,the town was traversed by four high-roads in the direction of the four points of the compass4 ,it was divided into an upper 7,hanau7 and a lower 7,hurin7 town4 ,grouped around the central square in the form of an oval were twelve subdivisions 7,carrios74 ,here stood the great palace1 one mile in length and a quarter of a mile broad2 the ,yachahuasi 7,huasi1 houses7 dedicated to the instruction of the youth2 the ,galpones1 edifices in which festivals were held2 the convent of the ,virgins of the ,sun1 the ,corichanca or ,palace of ,gold1 and the temple dedicated to the sun1 surrounded by chapels dedicated to the moon1 the stars1 and to thunder and lightning4 ,here also stood the eighth wonder of the world--the great fortress ,sacsahuaman2 the entrances with slanting jambs1 and a large plinth1 constructed like inverted stairs1 sometimes in stone1 sometimes in excellent stucco1 either with or without ornament4 ,the three lines of massive walls round the town1 forming the defence1 were constructed #8en tenaille1' the entering angles all being ninety degrees2 the very best ,european fortifications1 planned by ,vauban or ,moltke1 could not surpass the terrace-like arrangement of these three lines of defence4 ,the polygonal blocks1 of which the walls are constructed1 are of blue limestone1 from eight to ten feet in length1 half as much in width and depth1 and weigh from fifteen to twenty tons each4 ,the first wall has an average height of about twenty-five feet1 the second eighteen feet1 and the third fourteen feet4 ,total elevation of walls1 fifty-seven feet4 ,however cursorily we have touched upon art as it developed in the ,western hemisphere1 the reader must be impressed by two facts4 7#a7 ,that there are analogies between ,east and ,west which are too striking to be attributed to mere chance2 and 7#b7 that those who built the edifices of ,uxmal1 ,palenque1 ,copan1 ,chichen1 ,itza1 and ,cuzco must have been far beyond a mere nomadic state4 ,they had palaces1 temples1 and therefore a kind of social organisation and religion4 ,their religion must have been of a low and cruel character1 judging from the representations of their divinities1 and from their using detached limbs of the human body as arabesques2 though we can trace in their calendar1 as in their conceptions of the personified powers of nature1 ,eastern influences1 connecting the pre-historic ,west with the historic ,east4 ,whilst the ,eastern world used incense at its religious ceremonies1 the ,west used tobacco smoke4 ,in both hemispheres some mysterious power was attributed to animals4 ,the helmets of all nations took their origin in this common belief4 ,eagles1 vultures1 wolves1 tigers1 lions1 dragons and serpents are used to adorn the fighter or to charm his weapons4 ,the custom of wearing masks and helmets or head-dresses of some terrifying form1 exaggerating the size of the head1 is of purely barbarous origin4 ,in the remains of ancient ,mexico1 ,peru1 and the ,south ,sea ,islands we find a variety of carved masks2 some resembling human faces1 adorned with false hair1 beards and eyebrows2 others representing the heads of birds4 ,they are generally painted1 often ornamented with pieces of foliaceous mica to make them glitter1 or with turquoises and other precious stones4 ,that the pre-historic man1 whether of the ,east or the farthest ,west1 had some sort of civilisation may be best studied in his keramic products4 ,earthenware vessels1 pots1 jugs1 vases1 urns1 and amphor are as interesting to the art-historian as fossil plants and animals to the paleontologist1 or the different strata of the earth's crust to the geologist4 ,pottery is one of the most reliable historical documents for fixing the degree of civilisation of a nation4 ,fossil pottery very much resembles antediluvian animals--it is without shape and form4 ,shells1 leaves and fruits suggested it4 ,by degrees gourds and eggs gave man better patterns4 ,at a certain period it must have been the fashion in ,egypt1 ,etruria1 ,greece1 ,china1 ,mexico and ,peru to use animal and human forms for vases1 bottles1 jugs and goblets1 whilst horns1 skulls and boots are found amongst ,teutons and some savage tribes4 ,the ,teutons hoped to drink sweet honey out of the skulls of their slain enemies in ,walhalla4 ,we cannot wonder that so amiable a creed should have engendered quaint drinking vessels4 ,we see in our own times plates and dishes adorned with frogs and lizards1 which indisputably prove that there are pre-historic #8survivals4' ,from ,kyprus we have1 in the ,imperial ,cabinet of ,antiquities at ,vienna1 an urn with a human face1 which is very much like those found in ,mexico1 of which the ,south ,kensington ,museum and the ,christy collection of the ,british ,museum possess excellent specimens4 ,the wild and fantastic mode of ornamentation in the ,western hemisphere1 in pre-historic times1 is entirely due to the aspect of nature4 ,man seems to have received patterns from ,india1 ,egypt and ,greece1 and worked them out by reflecting the impressions of an exuberant nature4 ,flowers1 feathers1 pearls1 trinkets1 hieroglyphs1 animals1 human bodies--all are mingled together in endless confusion4 ,here and there a symmetrical echo of times long by-gone can be traced4 ,though1 however1 the ,western artists of pre-historic times sometimes attained symmetry1 they continually sin against eurythmy4 ,of proportion and action they have no conception4 ,they have a style1 but a style of their own1 devoid of all those requisites which elevate a product to artistic beauty4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,chinese ,,art4 ,the ,chinese undoubtedly reached a high degree of culture earlier than all the historical nations1 and still they are in a state of civilised infancy4 ,they possess reliable historical records referring to periods when branches of the ,aryan group of humanity were still nomads4 ,they knew that our globe is flattened at the poles1 at a time when we thought it to be a square supported by pillars2 they were acquainted with the properties of the magnet-needle2 worked metal2 cultivated the mulberry-tree1 systematically fed the silk-worm with its leaves1 weaving its product into the very best silk4 ,in pottery they have attained the greatest perfection so far as the material is concerned4 ,in engineering they were not less clever4 ,they have aqueducts1 executed with great daring2 innumerable bridges span their rivers2 they drained and irrigated the land at a time when other people assumed a universal deluge2 and yet they remained babies in thoughts and customs1 whilst they grew older and older in age4 ,they have all the manners of precocious children with prematurely aged faces4 ,this phenomenon can be explained in figures4 ,there are #djj1jjj1jjj of ,chinese1 nearly all ,turanians4 ,taking an equal number of ,aryans1 we shall find that they are not less than #c1djj1jjj1jjj cubic inches short of brain1 of which each inch represents a certain amount of intellectual force4 ,this deficiency in #8brain-force' shows itself in their totally different development1 and the stationary character of their institutions4 ,they ingeniously play in science1 art1 politics1 and religion4 #d1ejj years ago they reached a high degree of civilisation1 and they remained stationary in their civilised childhood1 which they preserve with a pious veneration4 ,to look back1 to believe that the past was better than the present1 has become the static law of ,china1 and has checked every progress4 ,their language is agglutinative1 only one degree higher than the savage monosyllabic1 and forms a link between this and the flexible languages4 ,the #dej monosyllables are used to form #a1bcj word-sounds1 out of which they compose from #dj1jjj to #fj1jjj compounds4 ,they cannot pronounce certain consonants1 resembling in this some badly-taught ,european children4 ,they say3 #8,yoo-lo-pa' instead of ,europe2 #8,ya-me-li-ka' instead of ,america2 #8,ma-li-ya' instead of ,maria2 #8cu-lu-su' instead of crux2 #8,ki-li-tu-su' for ,christus4 ,their mode of writing has developed from pictorial signs4 ,they preserved these2 and1 although arbitrary characters have supplanted picture-writing1 or hieroglyphs1 they still retain the clumsiness of this form1 and have for every word a special sign4 ,notwithstanding these drawbacks they possess an encyclopdia in #e1jjj volumes1 and a collection of works of fiction amounting to #ahj1jjj volumes4 ,they can boast of a ,socrates in ,confucius1 of a ,plato in ,mem-tsu1 and of a ,xenophon in ,tsem-tsu4 ,five is with them a holy number3 they had five emperors during their ,golden ,age2 there are five great principles on which they base the possibility of a regulated social existence1 viz4 humanity1 justice1 conformity1 uprightness1 and sincerity4 ,they have five holy books3 the ,shoo-,king 7political precepts72 the ,y-,king 7a philosophy of emanations based on figures72 the ,shi-,king 7a collection of didactical odes and songs about #c1jjj years old72 the ,li-,king 7a record of ceremonial customs and social manners72 and the ,yo-,king 7a book on music1 regulating harmony on the most discordant principles74 ,they have five domestic principles1 five elements1 five primitive colours1 five seasons of the year1 five ruling spirits1 five planets1 five points of the compass1 five sorts of earth1 five different precious stones1 five degrees of punishment1 five different kinds of dresses2 and their whole principle of ornamentation is based on five points ,illustration3 7five points forming a rectangle with one point in the middle74 ,by uniting these five points they produce that ingenious system for the conventional treatment of flowers and animals1 which has been divided by ,owen ,jones into-- a4 ,the continuous stem system2 b4 ,the united fragmentary system2 and c4 ,the interspersed fragmentary system4 ,in these three systems they observe the natural laws of radiation and tangential curvature4 ,but in all their works of art appears the spectre of childishness1 with wrinkles in its withered face4 ,their patterns in textile art are such as some people delight in for the sake of their quaint originality4 ,they altogether neglect the laws of ornamentation2 and we never know whether in ornamenting a vase they did not intend to dress a ,chinese lady for a tea party1 or whether in dressing a high-standing mandarin1 or a lady in stiff brocade1 they did not intend to ornament one of their peculiarly-shaped tea-pots4 ,in fact their vases are ladies in brocade dresses1 whilst their gentlemen and ladies look like ambulatory vases4 ,we often see on a lady1 #8doves as big as bustards1 cooing2 flowers and trees growing on plates and vases upside down1 and inside out4' ,we see a mandarin strutting about1 adorned with an embroidered tree with fifty different foliages4 ,one screen is decorated with fishes with feathers1 another with birds with fins1 or monstrous dragons creep on the ground or fly in the air4 ,everything in art is done as it ought not to be done4 ,it is as if some merry and mischievous hobgoblin had instructed the ,chinese to make up a kind of artistic patchwork out of all the odds and ends of ornamental fancies1 distorted figures1 and incomprehensible combinations4 ,their towns look like large encampments of nomad hordes1 ready at a moment's notice to take up their tents and run away4 ,though they have constructed a huge wall1 which is #be feet thick at the base1 diminishing to #ae at the platform1 provided at distances of #ajj yards with towers about #dj feet square at the base1 diminishing to #cj at the top1 and about #cg-dh feet in height2 though they have carried this over the ridges of lofty hills 7one of them #e1jjj feet above the level of the sea71 and led it through the deepest valleys1 or upon arches over rivers--their architecture is still in its very infancy4 ,it is a kind of toy-architecture4 ,the walls of their houses may be pulled down1 and the houses still remain standing4 ,for architecture with the ,chinese is in no way an organic total2 it is not even a chemically-united composition2 but a mechanically-joined something1 without any ruling and connecting idea4 ,contrary to all rules of good architecture1 they express in their constructions the principle of the separation and independence of the active elements of the building1 instead of their union and harmony4 ,it is variety without unity4 ,their walls are mere screens in bricks or wood1 mere frameworks for tapestry4 ,the wall with them does not support2 it appears movable and totally distinct from the roof4 ,the scaffolding which supports the horizontal1 as also the vertical enclosures1 belongs more to textile than to tectonic art ,the ,turanian is still addicted to fascine work1 like the pre-historic lake-dweller1 or our contemporary aboriginal ,new ,zealander4 ,the divisions in the interior of the house are movable2 either consisting of real carpets1 lattice-work1 wooden-jointed leaves1 or boards1 ornamented to imitate carpets or movable screens4 ,imitations of flowered woven-stuffs1 lacquered panels with impossible perspectives1 bamboo tress-work1 with protruding knobs1 carved and turned into gaping and grinning fantastic monsters1 are also among the principal characteristics of ,chinese architectural ornamentation4 ,chinese trellis-work has a fairy-like appearance4 ,the patterns are infinitely varied1 either closely fitting or perforated1 dividing and enclosing spaces1 surrounding terraces as railings1 running up the staircases1 or forming large borders between column and column4 ,the trellis-work of the ,chinese may be divided into three classes3-- #a4 ,the bamboo wicker-work1 a close imitation of textile fabrics2 in fact1 woven wood-work4 #b4 ,the lattice-work1 a kind of transition or metamorphic work between trellis and cross-barred work4 ,the patterns are of a grosser kind4 #c4 ,the mixed-work1 a combination of the two classes4 ,the first is generally used in ornamenting the interior of the basements of the houses4 ,the natural bright yellow tint of the bamboo is either left1 or it is lacquered in variegated colours to heighten the effect of the patterns4 ,the lattice-work is used for door and window-frames4 ,in the latter case the holes are filled up with transparent shells1 coloured paper1 or painted glass1 which has been in use since #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,the mixed-work runs along the walls1 forming a frieze of gilt metal or alabaster4 ,the last-named material is employed in summer-houses as a finish to the outer space1 connecting bright red or light blue columns4 ,when thus used the effect is undoubtedly charming4 ,the roofs are tinted dark green1 an unconscious reminiscence of by-gone times1 when they were made of the leafy branches of trees or the broad foliage of plants4 ,the dark azure of heaven shining through the perforated trellis-work1 contrasting with the white marble of the substructure and the red columns1 forms a combination both striking and agreeable4 ,the upper parts of a building appear to swim in the air4 ,the brick walls of the ,chinese are bare of stucco2 the void predominating4 ,they use the walls either as enclosures for court-yards1 as isolated protecting walls before the entrances of houses--reminding us of the gates of ,india or the propyla of ,egypt--as substructures1 or as enclosures and partitions for dwelling-places4 ,all these walls are constructed of air-dried1 fire-baked1 or glazed tiles and bricks4 ,the latter are only used for temples or imperial buildings4 ,whilst we possess a ,board of ,public ,works that unfortunately has no administrative power1 and cannot prevent our thoroughfares from being constructed according to the principles of a most inveterate symmetrophobia 7hatred of all order1 shape1 style1 and homo-geneousness71 the law in ,china goes so far as to regulate even the use of building material1 not according to any esthetical rule1 but pandering merely to rank and class interest4 ,white marble may only be used for imperial substructures1 the enclosure of imperial courts1 and in the construction of imperial bridges1 and must never be used as wall-decoration4 ,their cement for coating walls is like ours2 the stucco flat coloured1 and the colours mixed with the plaster before laying on4 ,according to his station in the ,state1 the owner of a house may surround it with a wall of clay or lime1 or with one of air-dried or fire-baked bricks4 ,only the walls of princes may have stone plinths4 ,the encircling walls of imperial palaces have a roof of bright yellow1 and light-green glazed tiles4 ,the ,tshao-,pings1 or protecting walls1 placed before the entrance doors of houses1 like screens before our fire-places1 have large protruding plinths4 ,they differ in colour according to the rank of the owner4 ,generally they are white1 with painted ornamentation4 ,before the houses or palaces of princes the colours are red with gold1 and the covering green or yellow4 ,before ,miaos1 temples of honour1 they are nearly always of bright yellow4 ,the outer walls are mostly white1 decorated with incrusted landscapes or other conventional decorations4 ,the inner walls are red and richly ornamented with gold2 they have a kind of frieze ornamented with trellis-work1 so as apparently to detach the support from the supported roof4 ,in the houses of the higher classes the walls are decorated with damask1 and in those of the commoners with paper-hangings1 which latter we have adopted4 ,drapery is also freely used1 hanging down and serving to divide the interior spaces of the houses4 ,doors and windows are still formed of curtains1 as in the primitive times of civilisation in ,assyria1 ,india1 and ,babylon4 ,we are all acquainted with the excellence of ,chinese silk-weaving1 interspersed with golden threads1 as also with the brightness and originality of some of their patterns1 whenever they keep to an imitation of nature in their floral forms4 ,they are generally1 however1 too realistic1 the material not unfrequently appearing like a botanist's herbarium1 or like a collection of butterflies or stuffed birds4 ,their embroidery is not less old than their silk-weaving4 ,as early as #bbje ,b4,c4 in their statistical records 7numbering about #d1gfh volumes7 gold1 silver1 copper1 ivory1 precious stones--five sorts of pigments of mineral extraction--silk1 hemp1 cotton1 weavings of these materials1 and the feathers of all sorts of birds are mentioned4 ,the woven stuffs are of one colour4 ,silk is either red1 black1 white1 or yellowish1 weaving in colours not being known4 ,the frequent mention made of birds' feathers may serve as a proof that they were used for embroidery1 which in primitive times was more an #8opus plumarium' than embroidery proper1 which is the forerunner of the art of painting4 ,feather crowns1 kilts1 and dresses are still in use amongst the savages of our own times4 ,the colours are given by nature1 and suit the grotesque taste of the undisciplined mind by their bright variegations and incongruities4 ,the oldest ,chinese embroidery in colours was perfectly plastic4 ,the plants1 flowers1 animals1 and even figures1 formed a polychromatic relief on the flat surface of the stuff4 ,this style is still fashionable in ,china1 though1 instead of feathers1 artificially coloured threads are used1 always so as to make the objects appear raised from the surface4 ,even at present life-size figures in relief1 or whole scenes1 are executed with the needle in brightly-coloured silk threads4 ,we are here involuntarily reminded of the reliefs of ,nineveh1 and we may assume that they are nothing but a transformation of embroidery into stone or alabaster4 ,the dresses1 furniture1 saddles1 tea-pots1 shoes and boots1 jackets1 covers1 weapons1 doors1 and windows of the ,chinese are all ornamented with patterns which have had their origin in this kind of relief-embroidery1 traces of which are found even in their lacquered and keramic products4 ,the roofs of their houses are curved and drawn up like their features2 they are copies of lids of baskets1 tea-caddies1 urns1 or of caps and hats4 ,the protruding parts are richly ornamented with dragons4 ,the dragon with the ,chinese is the prototype out of which man developed2 the dragon is therefore the symbol of the imperial power4 ,whilst the ,chinese are altogether deficient in painting1 because they have no idea of perspective or shading1 they certainly excel in the technical treatment of keramic works of art1 especially in the paste1 which they make of kaolin1 a decomposed feldspathic granite4 ,the forms of their genuine pottery are most primitive in outline2 dishes1 cups1 plates1 and bowls are cylindrically shaped1 as are their bottles and jars4 ,our ,south ,kensington ,museum abounds in specimens illustrating this4 ,sharp naturalism and an exact reproduction of the forms of nature1 without any skill in the conventional treatment of flowers1 creepers1 leaves1 stems1 fruits1 and animals1 prevail in all ,chinese and ,japanese works4 ,the artist1 if he intends to work in the ,chinese style1 must divest himself of all considerations for the higher esthetical principles of art2 he must stoop to the tastes and delights of children1 must study thoroughly their every-day customs and manners1 enter into their mode of thinking1 try to make the quaint quainter1 and the grotesque still more grotesque4 ,a big sun with thick rays in a corner to the right2 some sharply-drawn trees in the middle2 a bridge up in the clouds with a dog running over it2 some children with large heads playing to the left2 a bright stream marked with rough waves1 through which fishes are peeping2 the whole excellently finished so far as the lacquered work goes--and a ,chinese tray is complete4 ,the coloured enamel on keramic works1 and their lacquered or varnished ware1 notwithstanding their unimaginative naturalism and monstrously fantastic delineation1 surpass anything we are capable of producing in the ,west of ,europe4 ,their magnificent folding-screens1 trays1 tubs1 wash-hand basins1 toilet-cases1 work-tables1 perfume-cases1 frames for looking-glasses2 their jewel-tables--full of little drawers1 secret nooks and corners1 puzzling openings1 and hidden shuttings--are so many additional proofs of their childish nature4 ,they use the fret1 which they have in common with the ,mexicans1 ,peruvians1 and ,greeks4 ,whilst1 however1 the latter arrived at a continuous system of fret ornamentation1 the ,chinese still use it mostly fragmentarily1 either one link after the other1 or one above the other1 without forming a continuous ornament4 ,we see in the ,chinese one of the most interesting phenomena in the history of mankind1 whether we look upon them from a social1 religious1 or artistic point of view4 ,they govern their ,state on paternal principle1 and on the grand rule1 #8,do to another what you would he should do unto you1 and do not unto another what you would not should be done unto you4 ,thou only needest this law alone2 it is the foundation of all the rest' 7,confucius in the sixth century ,b4,c471 and yet they have made no progress in sciences and arts4 ,the paternal government and home-rule check every thought4 ,a moral principle of the very highest meaning has1 as with many of us1 worked badly4 ,they have done unto others what others have done unto them4 ,they cheated because they were cheated2 they told falsehoods because they were deceived by others2 they were hypocritical because others were so too2 and they robbed and plundered others1 because they were robbed and plundered themselves4 ,in this moral chaos they forgot to cultivate the intellectual force of reasoning2 they thus further disturbed the already deranged equilibrium between morals and intellect4 ,and though they had gunpowder before the ,west of ,europe1 it remained in the far ,east of ,asia a mere toy to amuse young and old at festivals1 whilst in the possession of ,western ,europe it became1 next to the art of printing1 the most powerful agent of civilisation4 ,they had paper before the ,west of ,europe2 they knew how to print at least five centuries before ,europe thought of re-inventing this ,chinese invention4 ,they are as polite1 if not politer1 than the most civilised ,frenchman1 and are witty and good-humoured4 ,they have no fear of death2 trade with the same skill and perseverance as we2 cultivate the soil with even greater industry and ability than we2 so that their territory1 about equal in extent to the whole of ,europe1 looks like one great well-drained and irrigated garden1 in which no spot which can yield some return for assiduous labour is left uncultivated4 ,there is amongst the #djj1jjj1jjj of subjects of one single emperor not one who cannot read and write4 ,all places in the administration are assigned after a severe competitive examination1 and still they lack the capacity of self-conscious1 independent reasoning both in science and art4 ,they can paint a tiger-skin with such truthfulness that it appears a real skin1 framed under glass2 but in the conception and reproduction of the head of the ferocious brute1 with its bloodthirsty jaws and its merciless cruelty1 they altogether fail4 ,they have an aversion to a proportionate division of space2 they never attempt to counterbalance their artistic ideas1 and to arrange them according to a law4 ,they abhor spiritual1 imaginary1 and all higher intellectual culture to such a degree1 that they concentrate all their powers on mere technicalities4 ,therefore they have remained stationary1 whilst others1 who began their self-conscious national existence thousands of years later1 have left them far behind4 ,the ,chinese sacrifice everything to preconceived ideas of custom--in morals1 science1 and art4 ,as our forefathers did1 let us do also4 ,the result of this principle has been that curious1 grotesque1 and ingenious1 but above all childish art1 which we must study as the link between savage and ,aryan art4 ,whilst the ,negro scarcely went beyond geometrical figures1 we find the ,turanian already capable of using plants and the lower kinds of animals in ornamentation1 in addition to geometrical figures4 ,as soon1 however1 as he approaches beings1 in whom proportion1 action1 and expression1 as the higher elements of form1 prevail1 he loses his power of reproduction altogether4 ,matter-of-fact prose is the element of the ,turanian2 he is without every higher artistic feeling1 because his mode of writing1 speaking1 and thinking1 his religious1 social1 and political organisation1 has till lately checked all expansion of the imagination1 and the use of the intellectual faculties4 ,art with him has remained undeveloped1 and however interesting his products may be1 they form only a subject for our curiosity and perhaps momentary fashion1 showing what humanity at large did when in its infancy4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,india1 ,,persia1 ,,assyria1 ,,and ,,babylon4 ,our tree of art1 with its manifold branches1 flowers1 and fruits1 rooted in the unknown origin of the three great groups of humanity1 shows that the ,negro1 or black branch1 had a very short growth4 ,it still lives on in savage art1 but is crippled1 and has no vitality4 ,next we have seen the long line of ,turanian art1 represented by the ,chinese2 it originates in the geological age1 passes through the mythical1 traditional1 and historical periods1 and continues uninterruptedly to modern times4 ,we have up to this point treated of the artistic productions of the ,negro and ,turanian groups1 both of which stand without the pale of real history4 ,we now take up the art-history of the ,aryan1 the historical group4 ,the birth-place of this group undoubtedly was ,central ,asia4 ,thence the pure ,aryan group took two divergent roads4 ,one division crossed over the ,himlya ,mountain chain1 and settled round the ,brahmapootra1 the ,indus and ,ganges rivers1 and the other remained on this side of the mountains4 ,the ,aryans may1 therefore1 be best divided into ,trans-,himlyans and ,cis-,himlyans4 ,in these two groups we find the oldest traces of a power slowly awakening to full consciousness4 ,we can perceive in remote ages1 only measurable by means of analogy and deduction1 an endeavour to solve the greatest problems of our existence4 ,to find answers to these three questions3 ,where from8 ,what for8 ,where to8 ,to measure the three dimensions of space and time2 to trace the cause of which the three1 ever stable and still ever varying1 phenomena are the effect2 and to know what creation1 preservation and annihilation1 or rather only transformation1 are1 has been the chief aim of the ,aryan mind2 and1 as history teaches us1 they have found more or less distinct answers to these questions4 ,we are not only capable of philologically tracing the development of the different languages of the ,aryan group step by step to one common parent-language--the ,sanskrit1 but the art-historian may trace every mysterious conception of the powers of nature1 every form of personification or incarnation1 and every religious tenet or mystery1 symbol or myth1 to these same ,indians1 who with the words ,pit1 ,mat1 ,braht1 ,duiht1 have taught us the holiest relations of our family life4 ,for words1 like pictures1 are only representatives of outward impressions4 ,to the ,trans-and ,cis-,himlyan ,aryans we can trace all theogonies1 cosmogonies1 systems of esoteric pathology and mythic anthropology4 ,they first saw in geometrical forms the phenomena of the material as well as the spiritual world2 gave meaning and interpretation to these mystic types2 peopled heaven and earth with visible and invisible1 good and evil1 gods1 goddesses1 and spirits4 ,they first acknowledged the #8noumenal1' or invisible1 divine nature with its creative force2 and recognised the #8phenomenal1' or visible1 nature of the world as an emanation1 evolution1 development1 outgrowth1 or mere work of the invisible ,creator4 ,all the gods of the ,persians1 ,assyrians1 ,babylonians1 ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 and a great number of the customs of ,hebrews and ,christians1 may be traced back to ,indian conceptions1 forms1 and modes of worship4 ,not historical events only1 but the whole life of humanity centres round religion4 ,for science and art were in olden times the direct offsprings of religion4 ,neither science nor art can be understood1 unless we have a clear insight into the mythologies and religious conceptions of the ancient peoples4 ,our great mistake has been1 that till very lately we detached one of the different branches of the tree of knowledge4 ,we criticised its bark1 leaves1 blossoms1 and fruits separately1 never concerning ourselves about the ramifications of the root1 the soil in which it first spread1 the chemical substances on which it fed1 the conditions of climate under which it flourished or withered1 never enquiring whether it brought forth only flowers and never fruits1 or for what purposes its fruits and flowers were used by those who gathered both4 ,now without such understanding artists are mere unconscious machines1 groping in the dark of ignorance1 never capable of a clear reproduction of forms4 ,education and a higher conception flow like invisible magnetic streams through the hand1 whether it hold pencil1 paint-brush1 chisel1 or engraver's needle1 and endow the work of art with a vitality which forms its real charm4 ,it is never the technical correctness that appeals to us most strongly when contemplating even the smallest work of art1 but the thought which animated the artist when constructing his forms4 ,whilst the savage scarcely ever acquires a correct notion of time and space1 and the ,turanian only a limited one1 the ,aryan gathers from them the first dim recognition of the ,infinite4 ,in time and space perceptible changes take place1 through the influence of an invisible power which creates all visible things4 ,in time and space all created things are preserved1 and in time and space all either perish or assume different forms4 ,the ,aryans endeavoured to express these abstract1 yet concrete phenomena by signs4 ,a triangle with three equal sides appeared best to express the mystery of the three equally powerful forces--creation1 preservation1 and transformation4 ,in the very earliest dawn of civilisation1 therefore1 the triangle became the hallowed symbol of the ,divinity4 ,after the ,symbolic and ,dialectic period had given place to the ,mythological1 time and space were looked upon as the origin of all things1 out of which ,brahm1 ,vishnu1 and ,s'iva had sprung4 ,these three incomprehensible forces were expressed by geometrical figures1 or1 so to speak1 crystallised1 before they became incarnate persons4 ,the creator had the sign of a double triangle ,illustration3 7apexes upwards7 which formed three triangles symbolically representing the three forces in ,,one1 the ,,creator4 ,vishnu was designated by an equilateral triangle with the apex pointing downwards1 ,illustration meaning the preserver2 whilst ,s'iva had for his symbol a triangle with the apex upwards1 ,illustration denoting the transformer4 ,the divinities were placed in the following order3 ,s'iva first1 then ,vishnu1 and ,brahm last1 to whom no temples were built4 ,this was the case with nearly all the races of the ,aryan group2 there are scarcely any temples to ,amn1 ,brahm1 ,zeruane-,akerene1 ,uranos1 ,wodan1 c4 ,the order of the symbols1 as given below1 with their five significations-- ,illustration3 7,triangle apex up1 ,triangle apex down1 ,three triangles as trapezoid7 ,s',,iva4 ,,vishnu4 ,,brahm4 #a4 ,transformer1 ,preserver1 ,creator1 #b4 ,fire1 ,water1 ,sun1 #c4 ,justice1 ,wisdom1 ,power1 #d4 ,future1 ,present1 ,past1 #e4 ,time1 ,space1 ,matter1 produced the most sacred word-- ,,vm or ,m1 expressed by this triangular combination-- ,illustration3 7,six-pointed star7 ,this was the mysterious ,,trimurty of the ,indians1 from which in time1 according to the influences of nature1 the degree of intellectual development1 and the social and political condition of the different groups of the ,aryan races1 grew the different mystic conceptions of the triune power in one1 working in nature4 ,whilst the ,trans-,himlyans1 influenced by a gorgeous nature1 allowed their imagination to run wild1 and to distort the primitive mystic simplicity of these religious conceptions1 the ,cis-,himlyans remained more faithful to the first impressions of nature1 and worshipped ,light and ,fire as the symbols of intellect1 righteousness1 and virtue1 in opposition to ,night1 as the symbol of ignorance1 injustice1 and sin4 ,to the triangular forms1 the circle1 ,illustration3 7circle7 the serpent1 was added1 the form without beginning and end2 no wonder that1 encircling the equilateral triangle and joined to the square1 it became the symbol of the mysterious1 incomprehensible forces of nature4 ,the ,illustration3 triangle1 square1 and the circle united1 intersected1 combined1 isolated1 and crossed1 formed the fundamental lines of temples and their decorations4 ,it was only at a later period that animal and monstrous human forms were conceived to personify abstract divine powers4 ,the attributes of ,ether1 ,water 7,indra71 and ,fire 7,agni71 were transformed into acting persons4 ,the three equal sides of the triangle1 influenced by the imagination of the expounders of matters divine1 were changed into an individual with three heads1 so as to give a more comprehensible form to the incomprehensible divine power4 ,illustration3 7,three heads with pointed caps7 ,the ,trans-,himlyans1 once settled on the gigantic triangular peninsula stretching into the ,indian ,ocean1 had leisure to work out a vast theogony1 which has served the ,aryans down to our own days as a store-house for different mythologies and religious systems4 ,the ,divespiter of ,india 7,deus pater1 ,jupiter7 became the ,lord of the sky1 the ,lord of hosts2 his weapon was the thunderbolt4 ,he possessed a splendid garden1 the paradise1 nandana4 ,gnesa is ,janus1 the god with two heads4 ,he was the guardian of ways2 he had a rod or sceptre in his hand 7the shepherd's crook or crosier7 and a key--symbolic of his power to enter upon all the important undertakings of mankind4 ,s'r or ,s'rs 7,seris--,ceres71 also ,lakshm1 ,padm1 and ,camal1 was the goddess of abundance1 sprung from the sacred ,lotus4 ,s'iva1 the ,greek ,zeus1 the ,egyptian ,jao1 the ,hebrew ,javeh1 the ,roman ,jovis1 with their analogous attributes of revenge1 jealousy1 indomitable caprices1 terror1 and irreconciliation1 all point to one and the same origin4 ,of ,s'iva 7as of ,zeus1 ,jovis1 or ,javeh elsewhere7 it is recorded in ,indian mythology that he had to fight with ,daityas 7,titans1 or fallen angels71 the children of ,dity4 ,indra1 on this occasion1 provided the ,god of ,fire1 ,justice1 and ,transformation with fiery shafts4 ,again1 ,jove overthrew the ,titans and giants1 whom ,typhon1 ,bisareus1 and ,tityus led against the ruler of ,olympus4 ,the same is done by ,javeh or ,jehovah1 who hurled the legions of proud and overbearing angels under ,satan's rule into the infernal regions4 ,the analogy is too striking to require any further comment4 ,paulastya 7the ,greek and ,roman ,pluto71 or ,kuvra1 the ,egyptian ,typhon1 the ,hebrew ,satan1 bears a general family resemblance to the conceptions of the chiefs of the lower regions4 ,garuda1 the beautiful bird with a lovely human face attending on ,vishnu1 is the prototype of the youthful1 blooming ,ganymede attending on ,zeus1 not only in similarity of name1 but especially in similarity of function4 ,durga1 who takes her name from brandishing a lance1 is1 like ,pallas or ,minerva1 the ,indian representative of heroic valour and reflecting wisdom4 ,both ,durga and ,pallas slew demons and giants with their own hands2 both protected the wise and virtuous who paid them due respect and adoration4 ,seraswati and ,minerva have also much in common4 ,the ,minerva of ,italy invented the flute1 and ,seraswati presided over melody4 ,is'wara and ,is'i of ,india are undoubtedly the originals of ,osiris and ,isis4 ,dypuc read backwards gives us ,cupid4 ,the ,indian name is derived from ,de'paka1 the inflamer4 ,the mischief-maker of ,india and ,greece had one and the same name4 ,we find his name and character in ,shakespeare's masterly delineation of ,puck4 ,these analogies go much farther and deeper than is at first sight apparent4 ,s'iva is said to have had three eyes1 symbolic of the three dimensions of time4 ,a serpent1 denoting the measurement of time by years1 formed his necklace4 ,a second necklace of human skulls marked the lapse and revolution of ages1 and the extinction and succession of the generations of mankind4 ,he holds a trident in one hand1 signifying that the attributes of the other gods are united in him4 ,s'iva is also called ,trilchana 7three looks--lchan1 the eye1 the look74 ,pausanias tells us that ,zeus was honoured with the name of ,triophthalmos 7three-eyed71 and that a statue of ,jupiter had been found at the taking of ,troy exhibiting the father of the gods with a third eye in his forehead4 ,vishnu appeared on earth in several incarnations4 ,the ,indians look upon the planets as habitable4 ,the sun was set down as the motor1 directing the movements of these planets1 furnishing them with light1 and endowing them with the genial heat of vitality4 ,krishna 7the black or blue one7 was1 like the ,greek ,apollo1 the symbol of the sun1 of light1 of purity1 and of love4 ,he is represented as the promised ,saviour1 the eighth incarnation of ,vishnu4 ,according to the ,vedas1 the ,earth complained to ,vishnu1 and demanded redress4 ,it then received the promise of a ,comforter and of a total renovation4 ,time is then said to have hastened to the birth of ,krishna1 #8that bright offspring of the gods1 who sets forward on his way to signal honours4 ,the world with its globular1 ponderous frame1 nodding signs of congratulation1 when the sweet babe will distinguish his mother by her smiles6' ,krishna1 whom the ,samaritans believed to have been ,joshua1 the long hoped-for ,messiah1 at last appeared on earth1 where he passed a life of a most extraordinary and incomprehensible nature4 ,he is said to have been the son of ,devaki1 a virgin1 by ,king ,vasudvas1 but his birth was concealed for fear of the tyrant ,kansa1 his uncle1 to whom it had been predicted that a child1 born of that mother1 would destroy him1 and put an end to his dominion4 ,krishna had to hide1 and was brought up in ,mal'hur by honest herdsmen4 ,he performed most amazing miracles1 saved multitudes by his supernatural powers1 raised the dead1 and descended into the infernal regions of ,ptla1 where the king of serpents1 ,sshnga 7suggestive of the name of ,satana71 ruled1 that he might reanimate the six sons of a pious ,brahman1 who had been killed in battle4 ,krishna obtained a glorious victory on the banks of the ,yamun over the great serpent ,kaliya ,nga1 which poisoned the air1 destroying the herds of that region4 ,apollo also destroyed with his arrows the serpent ,python4 ,the whole legend1 in both instances1 took its origin in the action of the rays of the sun1 purifying the air1 and dispersing the noxious vapours of the atmosphere1 which bred loathsome animals4 ,krishna and ,apollo are thus identical in their actions4 ,krishna is disappointed by ,tulasi1 ,apollo by ,daphne2 both conceptions liked the companionship of shepherds and shepherdesses4 ,the ,tulasi 7or lotus7 was sacred to ,krishna1 as the ,laurus 7laurel7 to ,apollo4 ,these and similar legends ought to be studied by artists to enable them not only to understand ,indian art from a higher point of view1 but to learn that many a monstrous form had a sacred symbolic meaning1 that outward signs may be hallowed by hidden conceptions2 and that1 wherever this is the case1 art will not succeed in reaching the bright spheres of beauty4 ,the finest sculptured ,durga without her necklace of human skulls1 the protruding red tongue1 the four arms with outstretched fingers balancing severed human heads1 c41 would no longer convey to the mind of an ,indian worshipper the idea of the goddess of valour and wisdom4 ,thus we may understand how a baked clay ,indian idol1 in spite of its revolting form1 may be the symbol of some grand idea1 through which it obtains value in the eyes of the credulous believer4 ,in considering the causes that produced the peculiar development of ,indian art1 we must not omit to refer to the continually increasing power of the ,brahmans4 ,symbolism and mysticism were used by the priests of all ancient nations for thousands of years in preparing intoxicating draughts of superstition for the people1 and proving the necessity for making sacrifices4 ,at first depraved passions only were to be sacrificed1 but by degrees they tried to typify those passions by animals1 with analogous propensities4 ,goats became the representatives of licentiousness2 bulls1 types of indomitable fury and insubordination2 and these animal types were offered to the gods4 ,as soon as the priests had convinced the people that the blood of animals1 the smoke from their burning bodies1 the odour of roasting sheep1 might appease the anger of ,s'iva1 fanaticism went a step further1 and drew human beings into the awful vortex of prejudice1 and thousands of men and women were crushed1 joyfully screaming1 under the heavy wheels of ,jugurnaut's1 ,s'iva's1 or ,harris's cars4 ,men and women were burned alive2 intellectual progress stopped1 asceticism and blind submission to priestly despotism were enforced1 and the possibility of a progressive art was crushed for thousands of years4 ,this desolate state of society required reform1 and ,man stepped forward4 ,he divided society into four distinct layers3 the ,brahmans1 ,kshattryas1 ,vaisyas1 and ,s'udras1 of which the two first were ,aryans1 the third caste ,turanians1 and the fourth ,negroes2 consequently1 in spite of the excellence of his laws1 which were assumed to have been dictated by ,brahma himself1 no real art was possible4 ,the ,indians have two great national epic poems1 containing nearly the whole substance of all the epic poems of the other ,aryan races1 and the many scenes from the ,ramyna and ,mahbhrata in carvings and sculptures stand in the same relation to ,greek art1 as these poems to the ,iliad and ,odyssee4 ,in both1 scenes of heroism are displayed2 but1 whilst symmetry and proportion rule in the ,greek poems1 fantastic irregularity1 wild incongruities1 exaggerations and impossibilities are heaped up in the ,indian4 ,the beauty of some thought is effaced by overburdened metaphors1 gushing forth in an endless stream like the waters of the ,ganges4 ,there are passages in the #bh1jjj double verses of the ,ramyna surpassing anything written4 ,as an indisputable proof ,i will quote a few lines from the opening passages of the ,ramyna4 ,the gods are assembled before the first1 incomprehensible cause1 and address it in the following words3-- ,o ,thou1 whom threefold might and splendour veil1 ,maker1 ,preserver1 and ,transformer1 hail6 ,thy gaze surveys this world from clime to clime1 ,thyself immeasurable in space and time3 ,to no corrupt desires1 no passions prone3 ,unconquered conqueror1 infinite1 unknown2 ,though in one form ,thou veil'st ,thy might divine1 ,still1 at thy pleasure1 every form is ,thine4 ,pure crystals thus prismatic hues assume1 ,as varying lights and varying tints illume2 ,men think ,thee absent1 ,thou art ever near2 ,pitying those sorrows which ,thou ne'er canst fear4 ,unsordid penance ,thou alone canst pay2 ,unchanged1 unchanging--old without decay3 ,thou knowest all things--who ,thy praise can state8 ,createdst all things--,thyself uncreate6 ,the endeavour to give forms to such sublime abstractions made the ,indians lose their regulating power in pictorial and plastic art4 ,a god was to be made powerful1 and he was provided with four or twenty arms1 and three heads4 ,the miraculous and symbolic were the greatest enemies of ,indian art4 ,in the ,mahbhrata1 exceeding ,homer's combined poems seven times in quantity1 having not less than #aaj1jjj double verses1 we read of sentiments1 feelings1 and deeds which are our own--but nothing is within the pale of the credible4 ,the birth of all the heroes is miraculous4 ,their deeds surpass the standard of human acts4 ,they constantly associate with the gods1 talk1 argue1 and dispute with them2 their palaces are of immeasurable grandeur and splendour3 ivory gates inlaid with jewels1 golden pillars1 diamond thrones1 glittering with the splendour of a thousand suns2 their armies are reckoned by millions2 their heroes uproot trees1 and kill hundreds of thousands at one blow2 time and space have no meaning with them4 ,kings reign #bg1jjj years2 ,prathama-,raja reigned #f1cjj1jjj and lived #h1djj1jjj years4#a ,how could art in a higher sense exist under such conditions8 #a ,by striking off the zeros1 which are put on by the ,brahmans out of respect1 the figures may be reduced to some natural compass of possibility4 ,art in a more comprehensible form appeared in ,india only when ,buddha came to attempt a second regeneration of the people4 ,he abolished castes1 preached equality and freedom1 and succeeded in awakening a high force of artistic activity in the dreamy ,indians4 ,but their art was altogether confined to the construction of rock-hewn temples1 of stupas1 topes1 and religious buildings--architectural constructions in comparison with which even our greatest cathedrals dwindle into mere child's play4 ,their works of art are tinged with the same exaggerations as their great heroic poems1 and when ,buddhism was stamped out in its birth-place about the seventh century ,a4,d41 the ,brahmans constructed their temples1 vying with those of the ,buddhist artists in architectural grandeur4 ,they went back to their monstrosities1 but they could no longer check the artistic power of the ,aryan spirit4 ,the rock-hewn and isolated temples of ,india have details in stucco1 of ornamentation1 foliage1 and general decoration1 which1 like their mythology1 their heroic poems1 and their abstruse philosophy1 went through all the artistic metamorphoses of pliable1 plastic1 elastic and solid substances4 ,in all we observe an unbounded play of imagination1 uncontrolled by any law of symmetry4 ,the walls are decorated with the most exquisite shawl and lace patterns1 either in stucco or hewn in stone2 a proof that before the application of those delicate forms to wall decorations they must have existed as textile fabrics of high finish4 ,the rock-hewn temples exhibit clear imitations of rafters and cross-beams2 wood had1 therefore1 been long in use before they attempted to imitate it in stone4 ,their sculptures are wood-carvings1 terra-cotta or plaster-of-,paris works1 turned into stone4 ,the pliability of the softer materials visibly predominates4 ,the gateways before the ,sanchi ,tope 7see the masterly cast of one of these in the ,south ,kensington ,museum71 though hewn in stone1 are a close imitation of wooden posts and cross-beams joined together4 ,this imitation is so faithful that even the rough and crooked outlines of the badly-cut posts and beams are preserved4 ,the richness and variety of their decorative patterns1 as also the minuteness of the details1 prove that such patterns must have been carved in wood or fashioned in clay long before they were executed in the harder material--stone4 ,stucco must have served as a means of transition from wood-carving to sculpture4 ,in the ,ramyna the town of ,agodhy1 built by ,man 7the father and lawgiver of mankind71 is thus described3 #8,it was adorned with beautiful palaces1 high as mountains1 and with houses of many stories2 everything shining as in ,indra's heaven4 ,its aspect had a charming effect4 ,the town was enlivened by ever-changing colours2 regular bowers and sweetly-blooming trees delighted the eyes4 ,it was full of precious stones4 ,its walls were covered with variegated-coloured fields resembling a chess board1' c42 the latter allusion giving a description of tesselated or mosaic work with which the walls must have been decorated4 ,in a description of a palace in the ,sakuntal1 by ,kalidsa1 who lived a century ,b4,c41 we read3 #8,over the gate rises an arch of ivory2 above it float flags of a deep yellow hue1 the tassels of which appear to beckon and to call to you3 ,step in--step in4 ,the panels of the door are of gold and stucco1 glittering like the diamond breast of a god4 ,look here6 there is a row of palaces shining like the moon1 like shells1 like the stem of a water-lily4 ,the stucco is laid on as thick as a hand4 ,golden steps adorned with different stones lead to the higher rooms1 from which crystal windows surrounded with pearls look down1 glittering like the bright eyes of a beautiful maiden4' ,the passage that the stucco was laid on as thick as a hand can only mean that the ornament was worked in relief4 ,richly-painted ornamentation in stucco with mosaic and other patterns must therefore have existed4 ,these undoubtedly originated1 like the ,persian1 ,assyrian1 and ,babylonian wall-decorations1 in textile fabrics1 which1 having been found to perish too quickly1 were made of a stronger1 more durable material1 preserving1 however1 all the character of the original patterns and material4 ,the ,indians are distinguished by a keen observation of nature1 and1 so far as the conventional treatment of flowers1 fruits1 creepers1 trees1 and animals is concerned1 we may learn much from them2 but we have carefully to avoid their over-ornamentation4 ,in their treatment of architecture1 want of subordination of the single parts to a well-proportioned total is the greatest fault2 in their sculptures of the human figure1 the soft and waving lines predominate1 creating a kind of voluptuous sensuality which is entirely opposed to good sculpture4 ,their naturalism is objectionable1 and leads to a wild1 fantastic coarseness which can never be pardoned in art4 ,measure and harmony are wanting4 ,gorgeous and mean1 powerful and petty1 sublime and ugly1 are their products4 ,indian art1 religion1 and poetry are so closely united that it is impossible to understand the one without a diligent study of the other two4 ,we have in ,indian art the first attempts of humanity to step out of childhood4 ,to children1 wisdom is best communicated in symbols1 mystic signs1 fables1 legends1 and fairy-tales1 and therefore ,indian art is distinguished by these characteristics4 ,the tupo1 sutupo or sutheouphu1 from the ,sanskrit stpa1 a heap 7our word top7 or a pile of earth1 corresponding to a tumulus1 was at the same time a symbol of the religious principles of the ,hindoos4 ,it is said of ,buddha that he once preached to his disciples1 on the shores of the ,ganges1 on the instability of all things1 the frailty of human life1 on the grief and sorrows of our existence1 comparing life to a water-bubble1 consisting of the four elements and still perishing so quickly4 ,the water-bubble thus lent its form to the tope and daghopa1 which latter1 according to ,w4 v4 ,humboldt1 means #8hider of the body1' destined for the reception of ,buddha's relics4 ,the tower which rises inside the tope is symbolic of the nine incarnations of ,vishnu4 ,we have in the ,indian temple1 as in our ,gothic churches1 a homily in stone4 ,the arched dome has to remind us of the perishableness of life2 the daghopa1 with its seven or nine divisions1 tells us that there is hope for the immortal soul to reach heaven through seven or nine degrees of purification4 ,the protecting canopies 7umbrellas7 are symbolic of ,buddha's intercession1 which he is sure to accord1 if we only recognise the nihilism 7nothingness7 of our earthly existence4 ,the religious construction was also extended to every-day utensils1 a tendency which was universal with all the people of the ,aryan group4 ,to these typical ornamentations belong the lotus flower and the tree and serpent ornament4 ,the religious conception is everything with the ,indian4 ,it is not the form itself that he cares for1 but the religious thought which is expressed emblematically1 allegorically1 or symbolically4 ,this is the reason why he clings to his fourteen-armed divinities4 ,it is ,god and ,his powers that he wishes to represent2 but1 whenever man attempts to express the incomprehensible or the abstract in visible and concrete forms1 he errs4 ,the soul of the ,indian is absorbed in ,god3 in ,him is everything2 the world is without ,him and still within ,him4 ,all beings take their origin in ,him and return to ,him4 ,an everlasting emanation and absorption is continually proceeding before the eyes of the ,indian1 and1 looking for a type of this wonderful process1 he found it in the #8,aswatha' tree1 the ,indian fig-tree 7,ficus ,indica74 ,the banyan takes root1 so to speak1 in the air1 grows downwards1 grasps the earth with its branches1 shoots upwards again1 and repeats this process #8ad infinitum4' ,everything coming near its feelers is embraced1 covered over1 and in this mystic encircling1 annihilated4 ,from time immemorial this sacred tree has been the tree of life1 the symbolic tree of the petrifaction1 vivification1 and incarnation of ,god's spirit in minerals1 plants1 animals and man4 ,this pantheistic conception is not favourable to art3 it crushes the powers of the artist1 who has to deal with too great an ideal weight in forms4 ,there is another species of fig-tree 7,ficus religiosa7 which does not take root again1 but the leaves of which appear eternally to tremble2 it became the symbol of the ever-moving and oscillating spheres filling the universe4 ,the tree combines two working cosmical forces1 it partly remains the same and still continually changes and varies2 it is now covered only with leaves1 by degrees with leaves and blossoms1 and at last with leaves and fruits2 then its vitality apparently dying away1 leaves1 blossoms1 and fruits vanish1 to be renewed again with the same regularity and abundance4 ,the mind1 not yet accustomed to account for every phenomenon by simple or compound gases1 globules1 or atoms1 set in motion by affinities1 is altogether absorbed by the miraculous phenomena of nature1 and1 having been kept for thousands of years in this absorption1 is incapable of seeing objects in their proper light4 ,it sees in every form a metaphysical cause1 which leads in ornamental art to those entwined1 confused1 monstrous1 and bizarre combinations1 which mar symmetry1 mock eurythmy1 distort proportion1 have no direction1 and1 trying to express the inexpressible1 have no expression at all4 ,the artist1 if he wishes to work in the ,indian style1 must make himself acquainted with the feelings that animate the ,indian mind4 ,he will do best by generally using their arabesques1 and arranging them after a careful study of the antique into symmetrical forms4 ,the ,indian conventional treatment of plants in surface-decorations is unsurpassed1 and in this we may learn from them2 but we have to beware of their monotonous excellence1 and their everlasting repetitions4 ,we may1 here and there1 use their forms1 but we must bring order and measure into the wild and unintelligible chaos4 ,if we want to produce entirely ,indian patterns we must not alter them1 or else we destroy their effect2 but we may be original in merely using the form1 and endowing it with a spirit of our own2 this being the great advantage of the historical study of art4 ,indian architecture has been well systematised by ,mr4 ,fergusson4 ,we have in the north the ,bengallee1 in the south the ,dravidian1 and in the west the ,chalkyan style2 besides these we have three distinct religious styles--the ,brahmanic1 the ,buddhistic1 and1 at a later period1 the ,mahomedan4 ,turning to the ,cis-,himlyans1 who appear under numberless names of tribes1 nations1 and races1 and by degrees peopled ,assyria1 ,babylon1 ,persia1 ,greece1 ,northern ,europe1 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,france1 and ,england1 and carried religion and civilisation into ,egypt2 we begin to tread1 for the first time1 on really historical ground1 for we shall be able to place events in time absolute4 ,persia--the ,hebrew ,elam1 the ,indian ,paraa1 from ,pars1 or ,fars1 or ,fardistan--differs entirely in geographical position1 climate1 and natural products from ,china or ,india4 ,hekatos1 ,artemidoros1 ,eratosthenes1 and ,strabo describe the climate and soil of ,persia as cold and sterile in the north1 temperate and fertile in the central or valley regions1 and hot and enervating in the south4 ,we have1 therefore1 enterprising activity1 energetic courage from the north1 and a counteracting regulating element in the centre1 tinged with the dreamy idleness of the south4 ,the aspect of nature is less oppressive4 ,instead of gigantic creepers1 the vine1 with its juicy grapes1 clings to tall and fruitful trees2 bright-eyed gazelles abound2 lions and tigers excite to daring hunts2 exquisitely-coloured and fragrant roses perfume the air1 and open the mind to the gentler impressions of a tender beauty4 ,the ,persians1 ,assyrians1 and ,babylonians rose to power1 declined1 and passed away with all their grandeur2 but in these very changes there were activity and life4 ,the ,persians were the first to proclaim a governing universal unity1 which endowed men with forces1 enabling them to become virtuous and intellectual by their own exertions4 ,they remained faithful to the first impressions of nature1 in which the ,eternal ,spirit revealed himself4 ,the ,persians1 like the ,indians1 expressed the cosmical elements of creation symbolically by means of geometrical signs1 which are given below4 ,illustration3 7,five simple shapes1 stacked1 representing ether1 air1 fire1 water1 and earth7 ,illustration3 7,human-like diagram derived from simple shapes7 ,this five in one comprised the creation2 it was the work of ,chud 7,khuda71 ,choda from the ,sanskrit ,svadtta 7self-given1 ,god-given74 ,from the ,zend word ,chuda1 or ,choda1 we have the words ,,gott and ,,god4 ,at a later period man's imagination soon perceived in these abstract signs a concrete form2 it turned ,cha into the head of a being1 ,ka into the arms1 ,ra into the chest1 ,wa into the lower parts of the body1 and ,a into the feet1 and thus the first embryonic1 ill-shapen incarnation1 or embodiment1 of the creative power of nature was formed4 ,this embryo1 by degrees1 developed into the master-pieces of ,greek sculpture4 ,in ,persia1 the pure and exalted consciousness of a first1 incomprehensible cause leaving its products1 the special manifestations of its creative power1 free in themselves1 was fostered and developed4 ,to the ,persians we owe the first clear conception of a ,god independent of nature4 ,spirit and matter are not one with them1 as with the ,indians4 ,with the ,persians ,god is separated from ,his creation--the universe4 ,god1 as the ruling ,spirit1 acquires subjective reality2 man1 ,his creature1 whether good or bad1 whether poor or rich1 whether righteous or unrighteous1 whether high or low1 is1 as ,his creature1 equal and free4 ,man thus obtained a free position face to face1 if we may say so1 with the ,supreme ,being--the ,creator4 ,what a totally different mode of thinking to that in ,china or ,india6 ,in ,china man is a mere machine1 regulated by stereotyped moral maxims4 ,in ,india duties and rights depend on the chance of birth2 the ,brahman is a born priest1 whether he has talent or not for his vocation2 the ,kshattriya1 a born soldier1 though he may be the greatest coward2 the ,vaisya1 a born merchant or artisan1 in spite of his utter incapacity for business2 and the ,s'udra1 a born slave1 though he may be gifted with greater wisdom than the ,brahman1 more heroic virtues than the ,kshattriya1 and more talent for commerce1 trade1 or art than the ,vaisya4 ,in ,persia the ,aryans acquired1 for the first time1 a kind of collective freedom1 but not yet an individual consciousness as free agents4 ,the ,indian language and ,indian metaphysics1 in the garb of mythology1 were undoubtedly components of ,egyptian1 ,persian1 ,assyrian1 ,chaldan1 and ,babylonian art1 and the forms thus produced1 in their turn1 became the direct elements out of which ,grecian art in its infancy developed itself4 ,the ,persians are direct descendants of the ,zend people4 ,their language is nearly the same as ,sanskrit4 ,out of ten ,zend words1 seven or eight are ,sanskrit4 ,persian history may be traced back into time relative2 for1 when it passes into time absolute1 the advanced state of the people in science1 especially in astronomy1 their social condition1 and their architecture and ornamental art1 prove that they must have existed in a social bond for thousands of years1 in order to develop and to attain that progress which excites our astonishment even after the lapse of more than #f1jjj years4 ,their history may be divided into the following periods3-- #a4 ,the mythic period1 from an unknown time down to the foundation of the vast1 well-organised1 and powerful ,persian empire by ,kai-,khorus1 or ,kyrus1 in the sixth century ,b4,c4 #b4 ,the second period affords reliable accounts of the existence of the empire down to ,alexander the ,great1 from #efj ,b4,c4-#ccj ,b4,c4 #c4 ,the history of the ,persians1 as members of the ,greek-,makedonian empire1 ending with the conquest of ,persia by the ,arabs from #ccj ,b4,c4-#acg ,b4,c4 #d4 ,the empire of ,central ,persia1 under the ,arabs1 down to its extinction by the ,mahomedans in #fea ,a4,d4 #e4 ,the dominion of the ,kaliphs down to its destruction in #abeh ,a4,d4 #f4 ,the last period continuing to our own time4 ,the mythic and historical periods of ,persia resemble two diverging lines1 of which the undoubted fact of the reign of ,kai-,khorus forms the connecting point4 ,whilst the historical line grows more and more distinct as it proceeds1 the mythic line retreats farther and farther into the dim region of the unknown4 ,passing from the known to the unknown1 we must assign to the development of ,zend thoughts1 institutions1 mode of writing1 and mode of building1 a greater antiquity than to the ,assyrian and ,babylonian monuments4 ,of ,persian remains we possess nothing but skeleton buildings1 which1 from the entire absence of connecting walls1 lead us to infer that they were still mere tents1 and that the textile fabric had not yet undergone the further process of incrustation in stucco or stone sculpture4 ,this is not the case with ,nineveh and ,babylon1 the great towns1 or1 as we should say1 the great empires1 on the ,tigris and ,euphrates4 ,through the indefatigable exertions of the ,right ,hon4 ,mr4 ,layard1 ,m4 ,botta1 ,lord ,loftus1 and ,mr4 ,rassam1 we possess now1 in ,london and ,paris1 tablets with records more than #c1jjj years old4 ,the boundary stones prove that some fixed laws regulated territorial property1 even at these remote periods4 ,the personal ornaments1 consisting of mother-of-pearl studs1 silver rings1 bracelets1 gold and pearl earrings1 beads1 and shell-bosses with bronze pins1 testify to a high civilisation4 ,the mode of writing in ,nineveh and ,babylon was borrowed from the ,zend people2 and the religious conceptions of the ,persians are undoubtedly older than the already-complicated idolatry based on the astronomical notions of the ,assyrians and ,babylonians4 ,the ,zend-,avesta 7meaning the living word7 may be said to be like an ,egyptian ,nile-meter1 erected on the primeval soil of history1 measuring the yearly deposits and alluvial sediments of by-gone ages4 ,through the pure crystals of myth and poetry we may see the inner formation of society1 whilst from without the vast construction of history is mysteriously going on4 ,we wander through endless lines of ,memnon statues1 all resounding with the legends of past ages1 in perusing the ,zend-,avesta1 and are suddenly led before the fountain of all matter1 at which the high-priest stands1 commanding in the harmony of the seven planets the birth of the world1 and the origin of all things4 ,our first parents1 according to the ,zend-,avesta1 dwelt in ,eriene ,veedjo1 or ,iran ,veji1 or ,aria1 ,aturia1 ,asshuria1 meaning the fiery or bright land1 figuratively the blessed land1 in a happy garden1 the paradise1 assigned to them by ,ormuzd--contraction of ,ahura-,mazda 7the divine ,being or the ,great ,lord74 ,from this they were driven by ,agrmainyus1 ,ahriman1 the murderer from the beginning1 who changed the seasons1 transforming the seven beautiful summer months into ten cold and dreary winter months1 leaving only two tolerably warm months4 ,the division of the year into twelve months is clearly proved by this mythic statement4 ,can anyone count the ages1 and describe the means by which ,persians1 ,chaldans1 ,medes1 ,egyptians1 and ,indians arrived at a systematic arrangement of time1 dividing the year into twelve months8 ,after the reign of the ,abads 7fathers1 abbas7 ,azer-,abad ruled2 then ,dshey-,afram1 ,kedor-la-,omer 7,cadam1 ,adam7 followed2 he ruled #efj years1 and attained the venerable age of one thousand years4 ,we find here1 as in all old records1 the tendency to ascribe to man a longevity which he has long lost4 ,like shadows which are more gigantic in the rising and setting sun than in the broad mid-day1 historical facts in the first dawn of consciousness are exaggerated and turned into fables1 which again vanish in the bright light of scientific criticism4 ,cadam was followed by ,siamek1 who was succeeded by ,tahamur1 who conquered the ,devas1 or evil spirits4 ,he learned from them the art of writing and reading1 constructed aqueducts and viaducts1 and taught his people music and the use of iron4 ,the ,aryans on this side of the ,himlyas had passed the savage state 7the palolithic period of art71 entered into the nomadic 7the neolithic period71 settled down and used bronze instruments1 and then were taught1 no longer as with the ,indians1 ,egyptians1 and ,greeks by a divinity1 but by one of their rulers1 to extract iron from the ore and to work it4 ,with ,tahamur we step into the iron or historical age4 ,dshemshid1 the ,greek ,achmenes1 the ,biblical ,nimrod1 the mighty hunter before the ,lord1 pierced the earth with a golden dagger--allegorically meaning that he improved agriculture4 ,dshemshid ruled #faf years2 he built ,persepolis1 or ,takt-i-,dshemshid 7the throne of ,dshemshid74 ,he was1 however1 conquered by ,zahok and sawn into two pieces1 meaning that the empire of ,dshemshid had been divided by ,zahok1 who was a descendant of the cursed race of ,aad4 ,he is said to have been the ,sesostris1 or ,sesoosis1 of the third dynasty of the ,egyptians1 the #ccbnd king after ,menes the builder of ,memphis1 a great conqueror who went to ,india1 took possession of ,thracia and ,skythia1 and united thiopia1 ,libya1 and ,egypt into one mighty empire in the fortieth century ,b4,c4 ,he is also said to have been ,ninus1 who with ,semiramis1 the night-born queen of doves1 and the daughter of the water-sprung ,derceto1 is set down as the builder of ,nineveh1 and the founder of the empire of ,babel4 ,takt-i-,dshemshid existed before either ,nineveh or ,babylon2 its priority is borne out not only by these records1 but1 as we have said1 by the very ruins left of the ,persian metropolis4 ,the name ,parsagad1 or ,passagarda1 means #8camp of the ,persians1' and points to an early1 unsettled state of society2 as also do the ruins1 which may be divided into two classes3-- #a4 ,the ancient ,persian monuments of ,dshemshid4 #b4 ,the monuments of the reign of the ,sassanides4 ,the name ,persepolis was first used by the ,greek historiographers who accompanied ,alexander the ,great1 to denote that part only of the vast town in which the tomb of ,kyrus was situated1 and this gave rise to much confusion4 ,passagarda1 ,isthakr1 or ,estakar1 was situated on the border of one of the richest and most beautiful plains of ,central ,asia1 watered by the ,bendemir 7the ,araxes of the ancients71 and surrounded by lofty mountains1 #8whose rugged masses rise from the verdant plain like islands from the ocean4' ,the oldest monuments are3-- #a4 ,the ruins of the palace now called by the ,arabs ,tshil-,minar 7the forty columns71 and two great tombs close by4 #b4 ,four other tombs1 about four and a half ,english miles to the north-west1 and in the plains of ,murghab the ruins of ,passagarda1 built by ,kyrus to commemorate his victory over ,astyages1 who came from ,hamadan 7,ecbatana74 ,here is situated the pyramidically-constructed tomb of ,kyrus1 made of white marble blocks4 ,farther north are the ruins of ,bisutun4 ,passing to the monuments under the reign of the ,sassanides2 they consist of reliefs and inscriptions hewn in rock at a distance of about four and a half miles from the ruins of ,persepolis4 ,they are called ,naksh-i-,rustam 7the image of ,rustam71 because it was assumed that the exploits of this hero were here glorified4 ,de ,sacy1 in his #8,mmoires sur diverses ,antiquits de la ,perse1' has explained the inscriptions as referring to the kings of the ,sassanide dynasty4 ,the reliefs are portraits of these kings1 recognisable by their head-dresses4 ,the distance from ,passagarda to ,tshil-,minar is about forty-nine ,english miles1 and this space is crowded with ,persian monuments4 ,it is most probable that the more recently-made subdivisions did not exist1 but that the capital of the ancient ,persian empire extended from ,passagarda to ,tshil-,minar1 including ,isthakr1 ,naksh-i-,rustam1 and the king's palace1 called by the ,greeks ,persepolis4 ,the palace was cut out of the beautiful grey marble rock towering over it1 and stood on three well-defined1 gradually-rising platforms4 ,the arrangement was like that of the ,indian1 ,egyptian1 and later ,greek temples2 the first terrace corresponding to the ,pronaos1 where the people paid their homage to the king2 the second to the ,naos1 where the ambassadors of the different nations assembled2 and the third to the ,adytum1 where the king had his special temple and private abode4 ,the whole foundation was constructed of bold ,kyklopean masonry4 ,at the gates stood colossal fabulous animals1 fantastic representations combined of the lion1 the bull1 the horse1 the wild ass1 the rhinoceros1 the ostrich1 the eagle1 the scorpion1 and the unicorn4 ,besides these there were winged and horned animals1 and others having the winged body of a lion1 the feet of a horse1 and the head of a man1 with well-curled1 long beard and crowned with the tiara--the symbol of the king's power1 endowed with intellect1 force1 and swiftness4 ,the bull with the ,persians was1 like ,nundi with the ,indians1 ,apis with the ,egyptians1 and ,taurus with the ,greeks1 a sign of strength and power4 ,the capitals of ,persian columns were not yet made to support a heavy stone weight1 but only a light wooden beam4 ,the foundation walls were1 like those of ,nineveh and ,babylon1 covered with sculptures1 the designs of which were all of textile origin4 ,but in these sculptures1 as in those of ,kouyunjik and the ,palace of ,nimrod1 the theological1 or religious1 and symbolical element is entirely left in the background4 ,we have the friends1 relations1 and servants of the king2 tributaries submitting to kings2 officers holding fly-flaps of feathers2 horses crossing rivers2 kings hunting and slaying lions2 armies before besieged towns2 warriors returning from battle2 battering rams2 chains to destroy the action of rams2 soldiers mining ramparts2 infantry with bows and shields2 removals of cattle and spoil from captured cities2 boats floating on rivers2 galleys going to sea2 damsels and children with musical instruments2 and mathematical tablets with calculations of square roots4 ,we have man active1 warring1 scientific1 and only here and there some scenes of a religious character1 and these more frequently in ,nineveh and ,babylon4 ,the cause of this phenomenon was the religion of the ,zend people4 ,its founder was ,zarathustra1 ,zerdusht1 ,soroatheos1 ,zoroaster--partly a mythical1 partly a real person4 ,his name appears to have been derived from the ,sanskrit ,srya-dvas1 meaning #8the ,sun-god4' ,according to ,aristotle ,zoroaster lived #f1jjj years before ,plato4 ,the ,biblical ,abram1 ,sesostris the ,egyptian king1 and ,moses1 were all honoured by this name4 ,svedius mentions a ,zoroaster #ejj years before the ,trojan war4 ,the historical ,zoroaster1 the compiler of the religious tenets of the ,zend people in the ,zend-,avesta1 lived about #ehi ,b4,c42 he was therefore a contemporary of ,confucius1 ,pythagoras1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezra4 ,he received the holy books from ,ormuzd on ,mount ,elbruz4 ,the ,zend-,avesta assumes one ,universal ,being1 clothed in an outward form1 but this form is ,light4 ,light is neither a serpent1 nor a stone1 nor a four-handed monster1 nor a three-headed ,brahm1 nor a bull1 owl1 or hawk2 it is a simple manifestation1 it has no particular existence1 it perceptibly pervades universality4 ,it admits of a highly symbolical interpretation2 it is virtue1 it is truth1 proficiency1 knowledge1 and directing will4 ,light involves an opposite--darkness1 just as virtue has an antithesis--evil4 ,both light and darkness took their origin in the unlimited ,all 7,zeruane-,akerene74 ,we have here clearly a purer ,trinitarian conception4 ,we have 7#a7 the ,infinite ,all1 producing 7#b7 light or good 7,ormuzd71 and 7#c7 darkness or evil 7,ahriman74 ,with the ,indians ,brahm is ether2 ,vishnu1 water2 and ,s'iva1 fire2 and in spite of all spiritualisation we have matter before us4 ,the ,persians1 in becoming conscious of light and darkness1 destroyed the innocence of mankind1 but proclaimed to the world moral consciousness4 ,without a knowledge of evil there is no knowledge of good2 to be virtuous is to know the evil and to do the good4 ,this led the ,cis-,himlyans a step further4 ,the two opposing phenomena1 light and darkness1 were placed1 like good and evil1 purity and impurity1 right and wrong1 truth and falsehood1 knowledge and ignorance1 in eternal conflict4 ,creation was thus considered as in everlasting strife4 ,this strife was life-activity in honour of ,ormuzd or ,ahriman4 ,this activity was carried beyond this world2 for the followers of ,ormuzd1 there was a heaven1 and for the followers of ,ahriman1 a hell in the future4 ,ormuzd had ,fervers as attendants2 ,ahriman1 ,dews or ,devas 7in ,keltic ,dusii1 devils74 ,on the ,persian and ,assyrian slabs we see1 floating over the heads of the kings1 their winged portraits2 these represent their protecting ,fervers1 one of whom continually watched over each good man1 and protected him from the influences of ,ahriman's servants4 ,the worship of ,ormuzd1 in whose sight all creatures were equal1 but equally dependent1 was threefold3-- 7a7 ,pure thoughts1 through which alone we may approach the beginning of all things1 wisdom and light--,god4 7b7 ,pure words1 the word of ,god 7the ,logos71 which is no longer personified as some visible form1 but is the mere vibration of the spirit of ,god1 embodied in abstract signs in the ,zend-,avesta4 7c7 ,pure deeds1 accomplished by one's own efforts1 as we are endowed with perfect individual freedom4 ,this religion was the cause why the ,persians had no special temples1 but only small altars4 ,the vaulted azure heavens were the glorious temple of ,ormuzd1 which he was compelled to share with ,ahriman4 ,neither light nor darkness1 however1 could be carved or painted2 the dynamic force of the artists was therefore directed to matter-of-fact scenes1 to ornamentations1 showing a better balance between forms and ideas4 ,the rosette1 the palmette1 the sun with its disc1 the moon1 the pine-cone1 the pomegranate1 intermixed with clearly-defined1 and not much entwined1 geometrical patterns1 were the principal means of ornamentation4 ,at a later period a tendency to allegorical and emblematic figures appeared4 ,the artists composed cherubim1 chimeras1 basilisks1 griphons1 kentaurs1 and sphinxes2 undoubtedly influenced by ,indian and ,egyptian ideas1 for ,nineveh and ,babylon were the ancient ,venice and ,genoa of the far ,east1 situated as they were on the commercial high-roads1 the twin-rivers1 the ,tigris and the ,euphrates4 ,the ,babylonian textile fabrics were highly appreciated from time immemorial4 ,serpents and trees1 winged witches and flying-fish1 were first spell-bound in ,babylonian tapestry1 and then carved in stone on the walls of ,nineveh4 ,the immense riches which we possess in the ,british ,museum1 enable every student of art-history to see before him the active life of the ,cis-,himlyans1 whether as ,assyrians1 ,persians1 ,medes1 or ,babylonians1 in clear and distinct outlines4 ,their knowledge of embossing gold and silver was considerable4 ,their household furniture1 drinking cups1 tables1 candelabra1 bracelets1 and rings are of strictly architectural construction4 ,we miss that overburdening confusion in ornamentation which distinguishes the ,indian products2 and the more correct treatment of ornamental outlines1 especially to be seen in their mosaics and tesselated pavements1 approaches ,greek forms4 ,the commercial spirit1 which swayed this portion of the river-valley of the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 engendered a powerful activity in a practical direction4 ,whilst we build railways--the ,babylonians dug canals1 connected the two rivers1 and constructed aqueducts4 ,they built palaces at ,nineveh1 castles 7,el ,kassr7 at ,babylon1 and an immense nekropolis at ,vurka1 about #ahj ,english miles from ,bagdad1 and about #h miles to the east of the ,euphrates4 ,at every step in the interior of these ruins we find clay-coffins piled up to a height of from #ae-bj feet4 ,all these ruins are now covered with saltpetre1 small shells and broken pottery4 ,the remains of the walls are from #ab-bb feet thick1 partly of unbaked and partly of baked bricks4 ,the construction everywhere closely imitates wood-work1 and the decoration reproduces textile fabrics such as carpets and striped tent covers4 ,there are capitals in stucco of the ,ionic and even of the ,corinthian type2 though the leaves are those of the palm-tree instead of the ,acanthus4 ,the volute of the ,ionic capital is rather in the form of two serpents drinking from a cup1 than in the form of rams' horns4 ,we might call this old ,babylonian stucco capital1 the proto-,ionic type4 ,on the two shores of the ,euphrates1 as far as ,babylon1 coffins of green glazed clay and small terra-cotta tablets with cuneiform inscriptions have been found by thousands4 ,these coffins were imitations of dead bodies1 swathed in cloths and tied with cords4 ,in addition to this reproduction of textile fabrics in clay1 we find with the ,cis-,himlyans a tendency to overlay wood-carvings with metal coatings4 ,when they advanced more in metallotechnic they still held to patterns which clearly had their origin in wood-carvings4 ,the plant-like forms predominate2 then we have the quilloche1 palm-leaves1 or feathers arranged in the form of palm-leaves1 and the pine-cone1 which is often used in eurythmical variation with the conventionally-treated open or closed tulips1 and open or closed lotus flowers4 ,the pictorial art of the ,assyrians and ,babylonians shows us two distinct periods--an older and a more recent one4 ,the older works had a bluish-green ground2 the later a light1 either whitish or yellowish1 ground4 ,in both styles the outlines are marked strongly in black or dark red4 ,in the older1 the sinews are more rope-like and less correct in their anatomy4 ,in the more recent style a finer treatment1 and a more correct knowledge of the human frame1 may be traced4 ,wild animals are reproduced with a keen eye of observation1 and a strong tendency to naturalism4 ,polychromy was known to them1 but it is very difficult to decide whether they coloured in tempera or in fresco1 with wax or by some other means--perhaps even in oil4 ,the incrustation of clay walls with baked and painted1 and even glazed1 tiles it is difficult to explain4 ,in many instances1 as at ,vurka1 each cone has its own colour1 and1 by a proper arrangement1 squares1 imbrications1 diapers1 and networks were produced2 but at ,babylon and ,nineveh the tiles show clear marks of painting4 ,diodorus 7probably after ,ktesias7 gives us a description of the interior circular wall of the royal palace at ,babylon1 and says3 #8,it was decorated with all sorts of coloured human and animal forms baked in clay1 much resembling nature4 ,the whole represented a hunt4 ,the figures were more than four yards high4 ,semiramis was to be seen by the side of her husband ,ninus1 she killing a panther1 he piercing with his dart a lion4' ,the principles of decoration with the ,assyrians far surpass mere ornamentations in geometrical patterns4 ,dramatic life of a higher kind is introduced1 showing greater artistic power than the reliefs in stone4 ,the outlines are neither black nor red1 the treatment is tasteful1 the colours a tender blue1 brown1 white or yellow1 and the ground a lightish green4 ,these paintings are not mosaics1 as at ,vurka4 ,the baking and glazing must have taken place in the following manner4 ,the unbaked tiles were arranged and numbered in a horizontal position on the ground1 then they were painted and placed vertically on the wall as a tapestry decoration4 ,when the wall was finished it must have been heated1 so as to change the light and fluid colours into a kind of enamel1 giving the clay-wall a thin terra-cotta coating4 ,the utilitarian purpose was everything with the ,persians1 ,assyrians1 and ,babylonians4 ,this is evident in their furniture1 especially in their tables1 chairs1 and footstools4 ,the construction of the frame was taken from plants and trees1 whilst wild animals were used as silent and obedient domestic creatures4 ,in supporting their furniture with the legs of the lion1 tiger1 or leopard1 they used these animals for an excellent ornamental purpose4 ,the legs of the brute were made to support1 the body was turned into a seat1 and the head was conventionally used as a side-ornament for the backs or arms of the throne or chair4 ,we see in the ,cis-,himlyans1 in accordance with their greater activity in life1 a further progress in art4 ,merely geometrical figures do not suffice2 not monstrous divinities1 but animals and men1 are the most important subjects of sculpture4 ,their architecture was without symmetry and proportion1 the material of their buildings in no accordance with the monumental tendencies of their construction1 and their efforts did not carry them further than the vague attempts of half-settled nomads4 ,their walls1 which once consisted of textile hangings1 retained this character1 stretching for thousands of feet without any interruption1 except that the doorways had their colossal symbolic guards1 which to a certain extent relieved the monotony of the construction4 ,the art of ,persia and ,assyria is in every sense the transition-link between nomadic and monumental art4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,egyptian ,,art4 #8,anything capable of uniting many souls--is sacred1' says ,goethe4 ,the sacredness of religious tenets or monumental buildings is at once explained by this4 ,to unite humanity into one great brotherhood was first attempted by the ,babylonians with their huge tower of ,belus1 ,baal1 or ,babel4 ,men for the first time left patriarchal particularism1 and tried to build a beacon reaching up to the stars1 calling humanity together to one spot1 by a work produced by their united labour as a visible sign of their union4 ,this first attempt at a really monumental building was made in the plains of the ,euphrates4 ,whilst the people of ,asia still struggled to settle down1 and changed their habitations and with them their forms of art1 we see monuments emerge from the dim past1 which reflect man for the first time in his grandeur as wielder of matter4 ,the sphinx in its incomprehensible1 mysterious form1 half brute1 half human being1 may be looked upon as the very emblem of ,egyptian art4 ,it is written in one of the ,hermetic books1 #8,o ,egypt1 fables alone will be thy future history1 wholly incredible to later generations1 and nought but the letter of thy stone-engraved monuments will survive4' ,our knowledge of ,egypt is scarcely half a century old4 ,it originated in a black basalt stone1 the so-called ,rosetta-stone1 deposited1 at the beginning of the century1 in the ,british ,museum4 ,approached by ,dr4 ,young1 of ,cambridge1 with the wand of investigation1 this stone poured forth a little spring1 which has now swollen into a mighty river1 carrying off with irresistible force all those little souls who1 on their small boats of prejudice1 with tiny chronological ladles1 try to stop the sweeping power of historical truth4 ,we know something at least of ,egypt2 we have monumental evidence1 which surpasses all written documents1 which may be voluntarily or involuntarily falsified4 ,egyptologists may be divided into two parties3--the long and the short chronologists4 ,the short chronologists1 in the face of our advanced knowledge of geology1 of the vast accumulation of pre-historic relics1 consisting of flint instruments1 pottery1 weavings1 and architectural remains 7lake and pile-dwellings71 deserve no consideration4 ,they follow the chronological dislocation of ,rabbi ,hillel1 of the first half of the fourth century ,a4,d41 with childish ignorance4 ,this view is the most charitable1 as otherwise we should be driven to accuse them of interested knavery4 ,after the exertions of a ,champollion-,figeac1 ,bckh1 ,barucchi1 ,bunsen1 ,brugsch1 ,henry1 ,lesueur1 ,lepsius1 ,hincks1 ,kenrick1 ,uhleman1 c4--who all belong to the long chronologists1 to turn to the short chronology is impossible4 ,lepsius succeeded in tracing ,egyptian history1 king by king1 event by event1 to ,alexander the ,great1 and hence through the ,x,x,x,ist1 ,x,x,xth1 ,x,x,i,xth1 ,x,x,v,i,i,ith1 ,x,x,v,i,ith1 ,x,x,v,ith1 ,x,x,vth1 ,x,x,i,vth1 and ,x,x,i,i,ird consecutive ,egyptian dynasties1 back to ,sheshonk ,shishak1 founder of the ,x,x,i,ind dynasty1 who conquered ,jerusalem #8in the ,vth year of ,king ,rehoboam1' as is hieroglyphically recorded in ,karnac4 ,this furnishes us with a perfect synchronism between ,egyptian and ,hebrew history up to #iga-c ,b4,c4 ,from this point we have innumerable ,egyptian tablets1 papyri1 and genealogical lists1 carrying us upward through the ,x,x,ist1 ,x,xth1 ,x,i,xth1 and ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasties to ,ramses ,i4 7,ramesu7 #aeth-#afth century ,b4,c4 ,here we have a short period of anarchy1 represented in the ,disk heresy1 and find sundry royal claimants1 at the head of whom stands ,atenra-,bakhan1 or ,bexen-aten1 called by ,lepsius #8,amenophis ,,iv4' ,from the reign of his father ,amenophis ,,iii4 every king is known1 by means of hieroglyphical inscriptions on stone and papyri1 back to the beginning of the ,x,v,i,ith ,theban dynasty1 in the reign of ,,aahmes ,i4 7,amosis71 about #afga ,b4,c4 ,here again we have the mysterious period of the ,hyksos or ,shepherd kings1 who1 according to ,manetho1 ruled #eaa years4 ,three dynasties may be put down for this period--the ,x,v,ith1 ,x,vth1 and ,x,i,vth4 ,but we again step into the broad daylight of monumental facts when we reach the ,x,i,i,ith dynasty1 and with it the #8,old ,empire' in the land of ,,kham1 ,ham1 the venerable ,chemnus1 the ,sebakhetps and ,hepherhetps of the ,x,i,i,ith dynasty2 whilst the glories of the ,x,i,ith blaze forth effulgently1 thanks to the critical investigations of the ,turin ,papyrus by the immortal ,lepsius4 ,the ,x,i,ith dynasty ends about #babd ,b4,c4 ,though little is known of the ,x,ith1 ,xth1 ,i,xth1 ,v,i,i,ith1 and ,v,i,ith dynasties1 the ,v,ith and ,vth dynasties stand solid as rocks on the ,turin papyrus1 and are thoroughly known in consequence of the recovery of all the kings1 but one1 from the tombs opened at ,memphis4 ,the remains of the ,i,vth dynasty surpass belief2 those who doubt can refer to the folio plates1 the #8,denkmler1' by ,lepsius1 copies of which are in nearly all our libraries4 ,of the ,i,i,ird1 ,i,ind1 and ,ist dynasties we have no monuments1 but even this unknown age must have been preceded by a long period of development1 till at last ,,menes is set down as the first ,pharaoh of ,egypt about #chib ,b4,c4 according to ,lepsius1 or #egjb ,b4,c4 according to ,bckh2 #efac ,b4,c4 according to ,unger2 ,brugsch puts him #ddee ,b4,c42 ,lauth #daeg ,b4,c41 and ,bunsen #cfbc ,b4,c4 ,but before ,menes constructed ,memphis2 ,teni1 ,this1 or ,thinis1 was already a once flourishing and then decaying town4 ,menes erected at ,memphis a green sanctuary1 ornamented with the figures of men and animals4 ,memphis 7,men-ofer7 means #8the good station4' ,the king in the times of ,menes had already several titles4 ,he was called the great house--,per-o1 ,pharaoh2 as we speak of the #8sublime ,porte4' ,the king was to his subjects nuter 7divine71 or neb 7master74 ,he was addressed by the title of hon-f1 corresponding to our #8,your ,majesty'2 or only by on1 which would be our #8,sire4' ,the ,egyptians under ,menes had already rewards in the form of decorations1 in nub1 the golden collar1 corresponding to our #8order of the garter4' ,the court consisted of nobles and attendants4 ,the nobles were ,sez1 and had to distinguish themselves by wisdom and learning4 ,the house of the king's children was under a governor1 who was responsible for their health and education4 ,those belonging to the highest classes had the title of erpa1 illustrious1 ha1 chief1 or set1 your excellency4 ,the affairs of the court were entrusted to intendants1 the hir-sesta1 the secretary and numerous scribes4 ,the king #cjjj or #ejjj years ,b4,c4 had a quartermaster-general2 a director of vocal music2 a director of amusements2 a chief of the chamber of the robes2 a chief hair-dresser2 a master of trimming the nails of ,h4,m41 and a superintendent of the baths4 ,inferior court-officials were intrusted with the supervision of the granaries1 the fruit and oil-chambers2 there were royal purveyors of meat1 royal bakers1 and equerries4 ,architects1 who were held in the very highest honour1 because they could marry the daughters of the king1 had to inspect the public works4 ,judges administered the law1 already divided into a civil and criminal section4 ,the title hir-sesta meant #8he who is above a secret1' ,there was a hir-sesta of heaven 7the royal astronomer71 one of #8secret words1' a kind of private secretary1 who had to compose important political or social essays2 another of grammar4 ,the scribes again were divided into different classes4 ,they had to transmit orders from their superiors2 to register dry facts2 to keep accounts4 ,the very titles of these court-officials are enough to convince us that at the time of ,menes1 ,egypt must have already possessed a highly-complicated and civilised ,state-organisation4 ,the successor of ,menes1 ,atos or ,akotus1 is recorded to have written #8books on ,anatomy1' and constructed the royal palace of ,memphis4 ,this was the state of ,egypt under ,menes4 ,his name suggests a more than merely accidental analogy with ,man1 ,minos1 or ,man1 and has reference to the time when man became conscious of law1 and assembled into a social bondship4 ,the ,egyptians1 before a ,menes could have ruled over them1 must have gone through the savage and nomadic1 or pastoral stages1 and have passed from the palolithic1 neolithic1 and bronze ages of art into that of iron4 ,when did they invent their hieroglyphs1 which must first have been ideographic before they became phonetic8 ,from the first-recorded meeting between the ,hebrews1 then still nomads1 and the ,egyptians1 it appears that the latter already then formed a well-organised ,state-body4 ,as regards their monuments1 we see them enter the mythical age with their grand stone-constructions1 their pyramids1 colosses1 temples1 palaces1 sphinxes1 catacombs and obelisks1 as a developed artistic nation4 ,all these stupendous works are constructed for eternity2 there is nothing nomadic in them1 though this element here and there shows itself in colossal petrifactions4 ,wood-constructions and textile fabrics form the bases of their ornamentation1 but this influence must have taken effect in antediluvian1 nay1 even pre-,adamitic1 times1 when humanity everywhere else was sunk in a state of unconscious inactivity4 ,the mound1 constructed with geometrical accuracy as a huge pyramid1 must have had an origin somewhere4 ,the construction itself has a purpose4 ,the crystal form surrounds an inner kernel1 around which the stone shell is laid2 it not only serves to point upwards1 but also downwards4 ,thus mortality and immortality are already blended into one in these hoary monuments4 ,to proclaim the grandeur of the silent inhabitant1 once a mighty ruler1 to the four quarters of the globe1 was the purpose of these pyramids4 ,natural caves must have suggested their tombs and catacombs4 ,the sacred ,nile with its majestic flow is reflected in the endless horizontal lines of their temples4 ,the rising peaks of mountains seem to have suggested their huge pylons4 ,the rays of the sun were transformed by them into stones1 recording1 as gigantic obelisks1 the deeds of their kings4 ,when did these obelisks shake off the rough shape of mere huge monoliths1 placed in plains to commemorate some grand event8 ,to point upwards in isolated forms was the secret tendency of these half-sculptured1 half-architectural marvels4 ,trees and forests were turned by the ,egyptian artists into hypostyle halls1 with innumerable columns1 spreading a mysterious gloom about them4 ,the ,chinese were practical2 the ,trans-,himlyans metaphysical2 the ,cis-,himlyans agricultural1 commercial and warlike2 and the ,egyptians pre-eminently architectural and monumental4 ,their whole historical life may be divided into the following art-periods4 7a7 ,the ,ante-monumental4 7b7 ,the ,pyramidal4 7c7 ,the ,hieratic4 7d7 ,the ,ptolemaic4 ,a4 ,these four epochs of art-development resemble layers in the earth's crust4 ,whilst with other nations the remnants of art are mere skeletons1 colourless frames of an extinct social organism1 with the ,egyptians we have art in all its different phases1 with the dried flesh and the scarcely-faded colours1 embalmed like a mummy4 ,life and death were with them so closely allied1 that we may say1 their life was a continual death1 and their death was everlasting life4 ,the spiritual conceptions of the ,egyptians1 which might have served to enable us to understand their art thoroughly1 were lost with their sacred books1 of which1 with one exception1 we have merely the titles4 ,plato considered them #aj1jjj years old in his time4 ,they consisted of3-- #a4 ,the two books of the ,chanter--like the ,vedas and the ,zend-,avesta containing hymns in honour of the gods1 and a code of laws like those of ,man4 #b4 ,the four astronomical books of the ,horoskopus2 treating of fixed stars1 and of solar and lunar conjunctions1 making the sun the centre1 round which we revolve4 #c4 ,the ten books of the ,hierogrammatist1 or the ,sacred ,scribe1 treating of the art of writing1 which was3 hieroglyphic 7sacred71 hieratic 7a kind of hieroglyphic tachygraphy--short-hand writing1 used by priests only71 and enchorial or demotic1 used by the people4 ,these books contained1 further1 the elements of cosmography and geography2 tablets1 on which the high-roads of the earth were marked2 astronomical records1 mentioning1 according to ,diogenes ,laertius1 #cgc solar and #hcb lunar eclipses1 referring thus to a period of #dh1hfc years2 a chorography of ,egypt1 and the delineation of the course of the sacred ,nile2 an inventory of each temple1 of the landed property of the priests1 and a treatise on weights and measures4 #d4 ,the ten ceremonial books of the ,stolists1 which were entirely devoted to religious worship1 containing the ordinances as to #8the first-fruits1 and the sacrificial stamp1 sacrifices1 prayers1 processions1' and the like4 ,no human sacrifices were offered up from at least #cjjj years ,b4,c4 #e4 ,the ten books of the prophets1 consisting of thirty-six sections1 called the hieratic writings1 with which the prophets1 the first order of the priests1 were entrusted4 ,a description of the deities1 regulations for the education of the priests1 and general laws formed their contents4 ,the oldest books of law1 were attributed to ,hermes 7,toth71 implying1 that the first germ of an hierarchical organisation of society sprung from the sacred songs1 and that law was entirely based upon the religious conceptions of the secret forces of nature by which man had been impressed4 ,like the ,code of ,man1 which took its origin in the ,vedas1 or the ,laws of ,zoroaster based on the ,zend-,avesta1 or the injunctions of ,confucius founded on the holy records and songs of by-gone ages1 the ,egyptian laws took their origin in the first poetical feelings of awakened humanity1 excited by the mysteries of nature under the rule of an incomprehensible first cause4 #f4 ,the six books of the ,dead4 ,the only books still extant1 written in hieroglyphs1 and divided by ,lepsius into #afe sections4 ,the first fifteen chapters form a distinct and connected whole1 with the superscription3 #8,here begin the ,sections of the glorification in the ,light of ,osiris4' ,it concludes with a book entitled #8,the ,book of ,deliverance in the ,hall of the twofold ,justice 7,reward and ,punishment71 and the ,book of ,redemption4' ,with such a deep and mystic literature1 encompassing the gods1 nature1 and man1 in life and death1 it is no wonder that a mystic and symbolic art should have succeeded in ,egypt4 ,their mythology was not less profound than that of the ,trans-,himlyans2 there was more of symmetry1 at least architectural symmetry1 in their conceptions and representations than in those of the ,brahmans1 though ,egyptian priests and ,brahmans have apparently taken their conceptions from one and the same source4 ,the ,egyptian had eight gods of the first order1 twelve gods of the second1 and seven gods of the third order1 pointing by these very numbers to an astronomical basis1 thus3-- #a4 ,the cosmical forces of creative nature4 #b4 ,the twelve months of the year4 #c4 ,the seven days of the week4 ,astronomy is the first powerful divisor of time and the supreme lord of agriculture4 ,only when the #8,sacred ,nile' deposited its fructifying alluvium on the barren limestone of the valleys1 formed by the ,libyan and ,arabian mountain ranges1 man could exist and develop in that region4 ,the regular inundation appeared to have taken place under the influence of the sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,the sun 7,osiris7 was1 therefore1 believed to call forth the ,nile 7,isis7 from regions unknown down to our own days1 and sun and water became1 as with the ,indians 7,indra and ,agni71 the first visible1 creative forces of nature4 ,the eight gods of the first order were3-- ,i4 ,,amn 7,brahm71 ,am-,ra1 ,ammon1 the ,greek ,zeus 7the son of ,kronos and ,rhea71 the ,roman ,jupiter2 the #8,concealed ,god1' the #8,lord of ,heaven1' the #8,lord of ,thrones'2 the first creative1 incomprehensible1 invisible force of the universe4 ,the ,brahm of the ,indians1 the ,zeruane-,akerene of the ,persians4 ,,ii4 ,,khem 7,kama71 the generative ,god of ,nature1 ,brahm4 ,he was worshipped1 under the second ,thinite ,dynasty1 under the symbol of the goat4 ,the primitive1 active1 or male element of nature4 ,,iii4 ,,mut 7 maa1 matter1 ,demeter1 ,leto1 ,latona1 ,bhavani71 the primitive1 passive1 or female element of nature4 ,,iv4 ,,num 7,nu1 ,kneph1 ,ch,n,ubis1 the ,indian ,visch,n,u1 ,noah1 ,neptun74 ,in ,arabic nef means to breathe4 ,the breath of the universe when condensed--#8water2' the creative spirit1 the ,greek3 ,agathodaimn2 the pnema7the wind1 the air7 of the ,greeks4 ,v4 ,,seti 7in ,koptic ,sate71 the ray1 the arrow2 at a later period the frog-headed goddess1 the consort of ,kneph2 the sun-beam1 the fructifying heat in union with water 7cosmical moisture71 producing the inner force of creation4 ,,vi4 ,,phtah 7,ptah1 ,phthah1 ,s'iva1 ,vulcan71 the creator of the world1 which sprang from the mouth of ,kneph1 meaning at his bidding4 ,his symbol became at a later period the scarabus4 ,the more numerous this animal was in the ,nile valley after the subsidence of the inundation1 the more fruitful was the year4 ,phtah was in reality telluric heat4 ,,vii4 ,,net 7,neith1 ,athene1 ,pallas1 ,minerva1 ,doorga71 the bright goddess of intellectual power1 wisdom1 knowledge1 virtue1 passionless happiness4 ,isis was her substitute4 ,her temple at ,sas had no roof1 but was vaulted over by the sunny or starry canopy of heaven1 and bore the mysterious inscription3 #8,i am all that was1 and is1 and is to be2 no mortal has lifted up my veil1 and the fruit ,i bore is ,helios4' ,past1 present1 and future1 are mysteriously entwined in the conception of intellect1 pervading and ruling the universe4 ,,viii4 ,,ra 7,helios1 ,apollo1 ,adonis1 ,adonas1 the ,lord1 ,baal1 ,mithras1 ,moloch1 ,teotl1 ,toth1 ,hermes1 ,odin1 ,thor1 ,atys1 ,janus1 ,kekrops1 ,endymion1 c471 the sun1 the reflected light 7with the ,cabalists ,hachoser1 in opposition to the expanding light1 ,hajashor74 ,the representations of these divinities were not monstrous1 like those of the ,indians2 the human form predominates1 but the symbolic is still the most important element4 ,the outward form has an inward1 secret meaning4 #8,meaning' and #8meant' are still in wild conflict4 ,the sublime forces of the deity were to be hewn in stone1 or given in outlines1 or painted2 the result was a grotesque product of art1 and as such a complete failure4 ,the twelve gods of the second order were the children of four of the gods of the first order4 ,i4 ,,amn had only one son1 ,khunsu 7,chous1 ,chaos1 the prototype of ,herkules74 ,,ii4 ,,kneph had also only one son1 ,teth 7,toth1 ,thoth1 ,hermes71 who taught men to write and to read4 ,,iii4 ,,phtah had two children1 ,atumu 7,atum1 ,atmu71 and ,pecht1 the cat-headed goddess of ,bubastis 7the ,greek ,artemis or ,diana74 ,,iv4 ,,ra had eight children1 ,hat-her 7,athyr1 ,athor1 ,aphrodite72 ,mau 7,jao72 ,ma 7,truth72 ,tefun 7the lion-headed goddess72 ,muntu 7,mant72 ,sebak 7,sebek71 the crocodile-headed god2 ,seb 7,kronos71 and ,nutpe 7,rhea74 ,the seven gods of the third order1 emanations from those of the second1 as these were emanations from those of the first1 were3-- #a4 ,set1 ,nubi1 or ,typhon1 celebrated for his struggle with ,horus1 the son of ,osiris1 in the infernal regions4 7,see what is said of ,krishna1 p4 #gj47 #b4 ,hesiri1 ,osiris 7also the solar year71 ,,hsr4 #c4 ,hes or ,isis1 ,,hs1 the ,nile1 the moon 7the lunar year74 #d4 ,nebt-hi or ,nephthys1 the sister of ,isis2 sister and wife of ,typhon4 #e4 ,her-,her 7,aroris1 ,arueris74 #f4 ,her 7,horus1 the child of ,osiris and ,isis1 ,harpokrates71 who1 with ,isis and ,osiris1 formed the great1 incomprehensible1 mystic trinity of the ,egyptians1 of which we have the following record3-- ,,osiris was the father1 husband1 brother1 and son of ,,isis4 ,,isis was the mother1 wife1 sister1 and daughter of ,,osiris4 ,,horus was the brother and son of ,osiris and ,isis1 and was ,,osiris himself4 #g4 ,anubis 7,anupo7 the dog-star4 ,who does not understand at once that1 out of these half-astronomical1 half-cosmogonical conceptions1 a religion and art full of mysticism1 blending into one ,fetishism1 ,astrology1 and ,anthropomorphism1 must have grown8 ,only through a careful study of ,egyptian mythology are we enabled to comprehend that gigantic power which urged the people to construct those temples and palaces1 those labyrinths and catacombs1 as mystic in themselves1 as the hidden powers of nature4 ,the masses in ,egypt were kept in a degraded state of passive obedience2 they were overawed by metaphysical subtleties1 and by huge stone monsters1 which filled them with horror1 and made them subservient to the dictates of a gloomy priesthood4 ,religion and art1 both supported by a vast store of natural science1 were the exclusive property of the priests1 of whom the ,pharaoh was the merely tolerated head1 a kind of stone idol in the flesh4 ,egyptian art was an echo of priestly caprices1 which1 wrapt in symbolism1 had a powerful hold on the untutored minds of the people4 ,careful investigations have proved that these priests were of a different race to the aborigines2 their mythological analogies point to immigrated ,brahmans1 who brought some religious notions with them from the ,ganges1 and transferred them to the ,nile4 ,egyptian art reflects in every form the gorgeous influences of religion4 ,the whole life of every ,egyptian was placed1 in seven phases1 under the protection of seven divinities4 ,the first period of man's life was under the influence of ,isis1 the moon 7,luna1 ,selene74 ,the second was devoted to ,hermes2 during this period man had to learn to read and to write1 to play the harp1 to dance1 to develop the body in the gymnasium1 and to make himself well versed in knowledge according to his station in life2 but the only station that granted man an insight into knowledge was that of the priest4 ,during the third period man was under the care of ,hat-her 7,athyr71 or ,venus4 ,love was to rule the youth2 the world was to appear to him in the rosy hue of a mystic foam of incomprehensible longing4 ,the fourth period was under the dominion of ,ra 7,helios72 when love had ceased to disturb the mind1 and to fill this world with illusions1 the light of truth and earnest activity was to ripen man1 and to prepare him for the fifth period1 under the protection of ,man or ,mars1 the ,god of ,war2 man was to learn either to conquer others1 or to conquer his own passions1 and to work in the ,state as a useful member4 ,few only reached the sixth period1 guided by ,amn1 the supreme representative of abstract wisdom2 during this period man was admitted to act as a judge1 to sit at the board of a hierarchical council1 or to teach priests as high-priest4 ,at last man became1 during the seventh period1 vapour--breath--air--under the dominion of ,num 7,kneph71 and was detached from reality2 if good1 transferred into a state of ideality2 if not1 doomed to begin life anew as a loathsome animal1 till he atoned for his evil deeds1 and1 purified1 reached the bright abode of ,osiris4 ,b4 ,the pyramidal period1 the most ancient of ,egyptian art1 is the outgrowth of these mystic religious conceptions4 ,nature was to be reproduced1 and surpassed in her sublime grandeur4 ,the mountain was brought into a geometrical shape4 ,the three principal pyramids were built during the reign of the fourth dynasty1 #cdbf ,b4,c4-#cbbj ,b4,c42 the first1 by ,shufu 7,cheops71 was1 in extent1 #ac acres #a rood and #bb perches1 more than twice the area of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome4 ,the original quantity of masonry was #hi1jbh1jjj cubic feet4 ,total height #dhj feet2 #af feet higher than ,st4 ,peter's1 and #abj feet higher than ,st4 ,paul's 7,london72 #cfj1jjj human beings worked at it for twenty years4 ,the stones are from #i to #ab feet in length1 and #f to #h feet in breadth4 ,the second pyramid was smaller1 built by ,shafra 7,chephren71 only #ded feet high2 and the third by ,menkare 7,mykerinus71 #bah feet high4 ,the mode of fitting the polished stones together is a perfect master-piece of architectural construction4 ,osiris was to be worshipped in all halls of festival1 in all creation1 in all places4 ,temples were erected in honour of the gods1 which were approached through avenues of sphinxes4 ,these sphinxes were of six different kinds4 #a4 ,the pure lion 7symbol of ,amn74 #b4 ,the lion with the ram's head 7,krio-sphinx--symbol of ,khem or ,amn74 #c4 ,the lion with hawk's head 7symbol of ,ra74 #d4 ,the lion with a male human head 7the symbol of ,osiris or ,horus74 #e4 ,the lion with a female human head 7the symbol of ,mut or ,isis74 #f4 ,the lion's half-body and legs1 with female human head and arms1 as in the reliefs of ,karnack1 and on the ,campesian obelisk 7probably the symbol of ,net74 ,the tombs were1 more or less deeply1 hewn into rocks4 ,they generally begin with a small sanctuary1 from which an inclined passage leads down into the sepulchral chamber4 ,the decoration is an imitation of wooden trellis-work in very gay colours4 ,the threshold also distinctly bears the traces of a primitive wood construction2 a round1 trunk-like beam generally unites the two door-posts1 and even the ceilings of the apartments are repeatedly made in imitation of wooden boards fastened together4 ,the pillars are square1 and united either by a rectangular architrave or by circular beams4 ,the temples point1 by their forms1 to a civilisation which took its course from south to north4 ,this bears out the theory that ,meroe was once the seat of a colony of priests1 who spread religion1 and with it science and art1 from ,upper into ,lower ,egypt4 ,thebes appears to have been the most ancient seat of the ,egyptian ,pharaohs1 one of the first of whom was perhaps ,osiris1 though he has been placed amongst the gods1 and was said to have been1 like ,krishna1 an incarnation of the ,supreme ,being1 who revealed himself in love and kindness1 and was to put an end to the dominion of ,typhon1 the ,eternal ,evil4 ,might not this myth conceal some historical fact--the advent of a wise hero1 who conquers a wild and reckless tyrant8 ,for ,osiris had to go through all the sufferings of humanity1 and even to suffer death1 so as to become the saviour1 the deliverer of his people2 and then only was he able to turn the earth into a powerful kingdom4 ,by ,earth1 we may assume1 ,upper ,egypt was meant1 where the god-man ,osiris presided1 who1 in spite of his having become man1 and belonging to the third order of the gods1 was placed on an equality with the gods of the first order4 ,the temple or tomb of ,ipsambul may be considered the very oldest rock-hewn construction2 it has a figure of ,osiris twenty feet high over the entrance door4 ,we pass over the remains of ,phil1 ,elephantine1 and ,edfou1 and come to those of ,karnac and ,luxor1 the venerable ,thebes1 which1 in the fifth century ,b4,c41 during the times of ,herodotus1 were already in a state of dilapidation4 ,upon extensive brick terraces1 raised high above the flat banks of the ,nile1 the ,egyptian temple stood1 a strictly secluded building4 ,strong walls1 rising in pyramidal form1 crowned with an overhanging fluted cornice1 gave the mural enclosure a mysterious and stern character4 ,no opening for windows1 no colonnade interrupted the monotonous flatness1 which is covered1 as by one long tapestry1 with hieroglyphs1 and representations of gods and ,pharaohs4 ,the entrance to these buildings1 like that of the temple of ,edfou1 was placed between two tower-like structures called propyla1 the walls of which were decorated with sculptured figures--in three or more rows4 ,then followed a court1 surrounded by pillars1 placed at a distance from the walls on both sides1 roofed over with stone1 and forming a gallery4 ,thence we reach the pronaos or portico1 after which we enter the cell1 divided into the naos and adytum4 ,the naos was generally a kind of hypostyle hall1 with a flat roof raised in the middle4 ,the pillars and columns had a variety of capitals1 but these were generally of one pattern throughout the temple4 ,the quadrilateral ,isis-headed capital1 as at ,denderah1 was often used4 ,the monuments of the #8hundred-gated' ,thebes are the best school for the study of genuine ,egyptian art4 ,the temples on the eastern side of the river are symbolical of the dawn of life2 on the western side we find tombs1 catacombs1 and ,memnoniums4 ,at ,karnac we have one of the grandest constructions of the world in the ruins of the hypostyle hall1 with its gigantic stone ceiling supported by #acd columns1 of which the twelve middle ones1 about #fe feet high and #aa feet in diameter1 are larger and taller than the others1 supporting a loftier central nave4 ,the width of this hall is #cch feet1 the depth #agj feet1 and the area #eg1fbi feet1 or about five times as large as the church of ,st4 ,martin-in-the-,fields in ,london4 ,columns and walls are completely covered with sculptured forms of deities2 ,osiris predominates4 ,pylons1 propyla1 obelisks1 colossal statues of red1 grey1 and black granite cover the courts2 chapel-like apartments1 connected and unconnected1 are strangely intermingled4 ,next to the temples we must mention one of the most gorgeous buildings1 the ,labyrinth1 containing between three and four thousand chambers in rows1 facing inwards the winding alleys1 which ascended in a spiral line to the middle1 and descended from it in the same way4 ,it has been minutely described by ,herodotus1 ,pomponius ,mela1 ,pliny1 and ,ezekiel4 ,the building was to be a strict architectural imitation of the planetary system4 ,the inner #a1ejj chambers were divided into twelve courtyards1 corresponding to the twelve signs of the zodiac1 six of which were towards the north1 and six towards the south4 ,the ,memnons were monolith statues of imposing size1 symbolic of the rising sun--of ,horus or ,osiris4 ,homer mentions ,memnon1 for his remarkable beauty1 as the son of the east4 ,diodorus speaks of him as ,tithonus1 a general1 sent out to aid ,priamus of ,troy against the besieging ,greeks4 ,the walls of temples1 palaces1 tombs1 and catacombs were partly decorated with reliefs en creux1 and partly with tapestry-like patterns1 using geometrical figures1 sometimes1 though rarely1 intermixed with plants1 or plants treated with conventional stiffness4 ,the walls with the ,egyptians had a different purpose than merely to encircle or to enclose2 they served as huge blackboards of stone1 on which the priests wrote their mystic records4 ,the superfluous thickness of the walls suggests that they were once made of brick1 like those of ,nineveh or ,babylon1 and1 further1 the overlaying of these immense granite blocks with stucco1 serves to bear out this supposition4 ,the walls of the enclosures of temples and the sarcophagi were covered with hieroglyphs or scenes from life1 both on the inside and outside2 tombs and catacombs were decorated on the inside only4 ,these scenes are framed in with borders1 reminding us of the broad seams in woven stuffs4 ,in temples the scenes refer to burial rituals1 or the judgment of the dead2 in palaces to hunts and conquests of the kings4 ,we see the ,asian and ,african conquests of ,ramses ,,ii4 represented on the walls of ,ipsambul 7,aboosimbal in ,nubia7 in bright-coloured pictures4 ,the king brandishes a pole-axe over the heads of ,negroes1 ,hebrews1 and ,aryans1 that is1 over one mixed and two pure groups of mankind4 ,above his head runs the hieroglyphic scroll3 #8,the beneficent living ,god1 guardian of glory1 smites the ,south2 puts to flight the ,east2 rules by victory1 and drags to his country all the earth1 and all foreign lands4' ,high officials and private persons ornamented the walls of their houses and tombs with scenes of every-day occurrences4 ,we may study in these their whole domestic and public life1 their customs and manners1 their amusements and toils4 ,the ceilings of the chambers are not covered with symbolic pictures1 but generally with patterns of conventional wall-decorations4 ,in temples they are sometimes decorated with zodiacs1 as at ,denderah--the best-preserved ,egyptian temple1 of which1 however1 the date is doubtful4 ,c4 ,the hieratic style of the ,pharaohs substituted a greater amount of very tasteful symbolic ornamentation4 ,the ,hathor-masks1 the names of kings in cartouches1 the viper as a symbol of divine or royal power2 serpents1 scarabi1 winged globes1 either symbolic of the sun1 the moon1 or the earth1 formed the principal elements of the innumerable variety of severe ornamentation4 ,in addition to these the following were used3-- #a4 ,the papyrus1 as the symbol of bodily and intellectual food4 #b4 ,the lotus1 as a symbol of the creative mysteries of the universe4 #c4 ,the palm-tree1 with its graceful and simple form1 served as the prototype of their columns1 the capitals of which were either open or closed lotus-buds or flowers4 #d4 ,lastly1 the feather ornament1 as the emblem of sovereignty4 ,the columns during the pyramidal1 or old style expressed with distinct clearness their purpose to serve as a support2 in the hieratic1 or new style this purpose is detached from the outer form of the column1 which no longer has to support1 but merely to serve as an ornament1 or to proclaim some mysterious tenet in symbolic types4 ,the face of ,isis is to look to the four quarters of the globe2 the closed or open lotus to symbolise the mystery of creation1 the fountain of life1 the cup of plenty1 and the fount of all blessings4 ,in this treatment they went so far as to imitate the very dew-drops on the lotus1 in granite4 ,a strict naturalism was the foundation of all ,egyptian conventionalism1 and in many instances they succeeded in producing perfectly astonishing effects4 ,in their columns we recognise the very plant which must have suggested the forms4 ,when made circular and of granite1 these columns still retained the triangular shape of the papyrus by means of three raised lines on the round surface4 ,at a later period they were fluted1 and apparently tied together under the capital with a strap1 cord1 or band of a broad fibrous substance2 the capital above rose in four divisions in the form of a closed lotus4 ,in the hieratic style the fluting of the columns disappears--they are smooth1 round1 and covered with hieroglyphs1 but the base still discloses the plant origin1 disguised in an ornament of palm or reed leaves4 ,characteristic in these columns is the expression of tension in the swelling shaft1 which was probably an unconscious imitation of wood-construction2 the heavy cross-beams pressing on the thin posts produced this effect1 which has been slavishly copied in stone4 ,with the ,greeks this swelling of the column became one of the elements of its beauty1 because with them it was an abstraction of symmetrical proportion1 consciously done1 to express the conflicting powers of pressure and resistance4 ,with a proud obstinacy the ,egyptians1 during their hieratic period1 insisted on separating the ornamental from the architectural part of the building1 so that no organic connection existed between sculpture and architecture4 ,this is most striking in those colossal sitting figures which are placed in the front and at the back of propyla1 or before the walls of pylons4 ,it is a clear separation of matter and spirit1 of purpose and form1 which is altogether contrary to the fundamental principles of good architecture4 ,art with the ,egyptians was thoroughly polychromatic2 they tinted granite1 of whatever colour1 with a red pigment1 so that the stone might have its proper divine colour1 hallowed by the priests4 ,they coloured in flat tints1 and used no shading or shadow2 they had1 however1 no difficulty in conveying to the mind the original forms which they intended to copy4 ,priestly canons regulated the size1 form1 colour1 and expression of every statue1 and every attribute had its prescribed form1 the meaning of which was concealed from the artist1 turning him into a mere unconscious machine1 a tool in priestly hands4 ,this is the reason why their works of art look monotonous1 and everything with them is impressed by the crushing influence of over-regulation4 ,the ,typhonic blast of uniformity killed every higher aspiration in the artist4 ,the human figure had to consist of nineteen units2 the second finger was that unit4 ,squares of this unit were drawn on the flat1 and according to these measurements the human figure was constructed with geometrical accuracy1 looking as flat as possible4 ,dreary deserts of religious prejudices1 gloomy superstitions1 and childish formalities hindered all progress1 and marked their sculpture and ornamentation with fixed1 stereotyped stiffness1 until the last period of their art4 ,d4 ,the ,ptolemaic style began to develop a little more life and taste4 ,the statues did not look as if cast in a general mould2 the gods were allowed to have their feet asunder1 the one in advance of the other1 which gave them some appearance of motion4 ,how taste may be degraded by prejudice and custom1 can be seen in the fact1 that when this innovation in ,egyptian art was settled by a general law of the ,pharaoh1 with the connivance of the high ceremonial courts1 the masses1 on seeing their gods with legs apart1 as if ready to walk1 rushed from all sides with strong ropes1 and tied the divinities to their pedestals1 horrified at the possibility of their leaving the country altogether4 ,and the gods did leave the country4 ,anything based on superstition or prejudice1 anything having for its vivifying element symbolism or mysticism1 must die away in time4 ,what we said of ,indian art holds good of ,egyptian forms4 ,take away from the ,urus1 the lotus1 papyrus1 palm1 crocodile1 cat1 and bull their symbolic meaning1 and these elements of ornamentation lose their vitality4 ,the ,greeks1 and more especially the ,romans1 have shown us how we may use some of their patterns to advantage3 how an entrance hall may be decorated with silent and mournful-looking sphinxes1 and what an unsurpassed charm there is in the obelisk1 directing the thought upwards4 ,a pyramid still remains one of the finest monuments for one who has filled the four quarters of the globe with his fame4 ,in their every-day ornaments1 rings1 bracelets1 necklaces1 head-dresses and furniture1 the architectural straight lines prevail2 variety is not much required1 the forms as well as the patterns must be the same4 ,just as we reproduce horse-shoe upon horse-shoe because they bring #8luck1' the ,egyptian jeweller reproduced the scarabus1 and the ,turin ,museum has not less than #ahj different kinds of scarabi4 ,in their architecture they suffered from one great evil--from a horror of symmetry4 ,their grand palaces or temples have no ruling element2 everything is out of proportion1 and though in their detailed ornamentation they were symmetrical1 and even eurythmical--the harmony of purpose is often wanting4 ,the thought of building for eternity1 however1 is always present1 whilst no one can deny that in our buildings the ninety years' lease is to be traced in every corner4 ,the ,egyptians tried to represent the forms of monumental architecture1 and they certainly succeeded in reaching the sublime1 but they did this in neglecting the beautiful4 ,their symmetrophobia1 which many of our architects imitate only too successfully1 spoilt everything4 ,their weavings were excellent2 their wood-constructions1 as far as furniture was concerned1 faultless2 music was known to them2 they worked gold1 and ornamented it in the so-called #8champ-lev' manner1 and were acquainted with enamel #8cloisonn4' ,they also fixed thin layers of gold thread on metal1 and filled the remaining spaces with enamel of different colours1 which method the ancients called #8encaustum4' ,notwithstanding all these advantages ,egyptian art never reached the ideal of beauty2 it has only the charm of the mysterious for us4 ,to keep this sentiment alive is the duty of any modern artist who wishes to work in the ,egyptian style4 ,he must try to convey some mystic cosmogonical or incomprehensible religious thought in diapers1 and floral ornament1 or in the use of animals or the human frame in outlines1 he must place his ideas and forms under a strict linear canon4 ,he may then succeed in reproducing the artistic forms of a nation1 during a period1 in which humanity did not go beyond the hierarchical in religion1 and the practical in art2 during which mankind struggled to find forms1 but was prevented from the freer exercise of its innate artistic force by the dictates of a despotic priesthood1 and was tied with merciless tyranny to monotonous canons1 crushing under the weight of symbolism and mysticism every higher artistic aspiration4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,hebrew ,,art4 ,little1 or rather nothing1 can properly be said of ,hebrew art1 for it is a non-entity4 ,the ,hebrews are a mixed race4 ,they assert themselves to be of the ,semitic group of mankind1 but ethnologically they are a composition of black1 yellow1 and white men1 and are closely related to the ,arabs and ,phnicians4 ,they were generally slaves4 ,for #dej years they were in bondage in ,egypt1 whence they first emerged into a national existence4 ,from ,moses to ,saul1 for #dej years1 they lived under a kind of theocratic democracy3 ,god1 the supreme ruler in heaven1 and the ,jews on earth his chosen people4 ,for another #dej years they had a kind of theocratic monarchy3 ,god ruled in heaven1 as the king ruled on earth4 ,this period lasted from ,saul to ,zedekiah1 and gives us-- 77 ,a period of #ajj years under the first three kings1 when the twelve tribes were yet united2 and 77 ,another period during which they formed two separate kingdoms4 ,of these 7a7 ,israel1 in this condition1 lasted #bbj years under twenty kings1 who ruled at ,samaria1 and was destroyed by the ,assyrians4 7b7 ,juda1 as a separate ,state1 existed #cej years under twenty-one kings1 and was annihilated by the ,babylonians4 ,not less than #fej years intervened between the destruction of ,jerusalem and its second destruction by the ,romans4 ,during this period the chosen people were #a4 #bjj years under ,persian sway4 #b4 #agj years under the dominion of ,alexander the ,great and his successors4 #c4 #acj years they enjoyed a certain independence under the ,maccabees4 #d4 #ajj years they were ruled by the ,herodes and ,romans4 ,after the second destruction of ,jerusalem the ,jews ceased to have an independent ,state of their own1 and were scattered all over the earth4 ,they in reality enjoyed only #eej years of freedom1 as a grand and united nation1 out of a period of not less than #f1jjj historically-known years4 ,intellect came to absolute consciousness for the first time amongst the ,jews1 and in this their historical importance and weight lie4 ,man1 created in the image of ,god1 lost his state of innocence1 absolute contentment and immortality1 by eating of the tree of knowledge4 ,the ,jews were the first to recognise in a higher sense the double nature of man--his godhead and his animal nature4 ,the country in which they developed is a perfect geological marvel4 ,the region in which they settled was divided by a river and a sea4 ,this sea is #a1djj feet below the level of the ,mediterranean4 ,the river flows downwards1 like the ,stygian river1 far beneath the level of the ocean4 ,the banks of the ,jordan and the lake ,asphaltites are the lowest regions of the habitable globe4 ,in the west the ,jews found some fertile plains1 but they never could obtain full and peaceful possession of them1 nor of the sea-coast4 ,they were shut out from the world in a mountainous region as in a gloomy ,puritan chapel1 and had ample leisure for self-contemplation1 and for attempting to solve the riddle of man's destiny with the help of ,egyptian wisdom1 ,persian1 ,assyrian and ,babylonian theories4 ,rocks and sand formed the foreground of their earthly existence2 the background was made up by a gloomy river and a still gloomier sea--the sea of death1 the ,acherusian1 the ,plutonian lake4 ,a sea too low1 too mephitic and poisonous for art to exist round it4 ,a region of sorrow1 sinfulness1 and abject wretchedness cannot be the abode of art and science4 ,the fine art of the ,jews was like a migratory bird in its passage over the sea of death4 ,not only with the ,jews1 but also with the ,egyptians1 ,persians1 and early ,greeks1 to represent a god in the likeness of man was considered sinful4 ,the ,persians abhorred idols in any shape4 ,the ,egyptians gave their gods shape and form1 but a merely symbolic form1 expressing in concrete signs some higher abstract conception4 ,the human head1 the body of a beast or fish1 the horns of a ram1 or the ears of a cow2 the human leg with the foot of a goat1 or the human arm with the claws of a bird of prey1 were sacred1 because symbolical4 ,they had a metaphysical theology written in hieroglyphs4 ,all this was prohibited with the ,jews4 ,they allowed some exceptions1 and borrowed the figures of the cherubim from the ,assyrians1 the oxen of the temple from the ,egyptians1 and the sculptured lions of ,solomon's palace from the ,persians2 their artists were foreigners1 and the imitation of these works was ever after forbidden4 #8,all those things1' says ,rabbi ,manasseh ,ben ,israel1 one of their most learned commentators1 #8which are esteemed holy in the presence of ,god1 or idea of man1 may not be imitated in any known form or shape1 although made without the intention of adoring them1 so as to preclude the possibility of their being worshipped or deified hereafter4 ,thus the figure of the divine chariot1 which ,ezekiel saw1 may not be made1 nor the likeness of angels of any degree1 nor of man1 for these creatures are all superior from being made in the image of ,god4' 444 ,the prohibition is further applied by him to everything appertaining to the holy temple1 and no house or palace could be built of its size or proportions4 ,poetry and music were exempt from this enactment4 ,the importance and influence of the social and religious condition on the development of art may best be studied in the ,jews4 ,they had no great architects1 sculptors or painters1 no inventors1 no philosophers in natural science1 but many excellent poets1 theologians1 cabalists1 necromancers1 philologists and composers4 ,in our times1 however1 influenced by the vivifying spirit of ,christianity1 they count amongst themselves1 in addition to an inordinate number of picture-dealers1 some creditable painters4 ,they possessed legitimately only one temple4 ,their first temple was a portable tent4 ,the second was almost entirely of cedar-wood1 richly provided with metallic ornaments1 made by artists from ,tyre and ,sidon4 ,they possessed one palace1 that of ,solomon4 ,babylonian or ,assyrian architecture was probably reflected in this1 and we may thus form a dim idea of what ,solomon's palace must have been4 ,first the temple1 then the palace was constructed4 ,the fact that the first temple was a mere tent1 shows at once the nomadic character of the ,jews1 at a period when the ,egyptians had possessed their architectural marvels for thousands of years4 ,to the student of history1 architecture is a sure measure of the degree of artistic and social development of a nation4 ,we may boldly say1 show us the plans of the houses1 palaces1 and temples of any nation1 and we can determine the degree of its civilisation2 we can do even more1 we can read its character and religious fervour in these wood1 brick1 or stone records4 ,that the ,jews1 having been compelled to witness all the misery and superstitious dulness which the ,egyptian hierarchy and theocracy produced1 should have detested architecture1 and looked upon sculpture or any stone and brick as a curse to humanity1 was quite natural2 and that1 once escaped from the bondage of ,egypt1 they should have hated any monumental1 architectural1 or artistic sculptural attempt1 is equally obvious4 ,the egotistical character of the nomadic trader may be traced in the architectural constructions of the ,jews4 ,any nation that loves its god or gods with zeal and self-denial will be sure to build grand temples to his or their glorification4 ,the ,persians had no temples1 because they spiritualised the divine conception to such a degree1 that they thought the first cause present everywhere like light4 ,the ,jews borrowed the same idea1 and yet to fix the ,eternal ,spirit visibly amongst themselves1 they assigned him a permanent abode1 where he was exclusively to dwell2 to be near them and to watch over them4 ,religious egotism was the mainspring of their national existence1 and this general egotism made every individual ,jew an egotist2 and egotists are always bad supporters of anything by which the masses generally may benefit4 ,such people look only to the satisfaction of their momentary wants2 they will collect trinkets1 earrings1 bracelets1 armlets1 goblets1 gold and silver vessels1 but the divine art of architecture1 which binds masses together1 will be neglected4 ,we see them at first contented with a mere tent1 and1 when they undertook to construct a lasting building1 it was done with all the pomp and gaudiness of a parvenu2 they borrowed from all the surrounding rich people anything they could lay hands upon1 merely to be able to say1 without reason or taste--#8,look1 my special ,god has also his special house4' ,in the most powerful period of their national existence1 which was a very short one1 the ,jews roused themselves to the construction of at least one temple to their ,javeh4 ,they wished at last to possess an ,akropolis like the ,egyptians1 who had so many1 or the ,greeks1 ,persians1 ,assyrians and ,babylonians4 ,their ,god was at last to be housed1 like the gods of the despised ,gentiles4 ,the temple of ,solomon has been much written upon4 ,prejudice1 religious fanaticism1 blind faith1 and unconscious or voluntary ignorance1 dictated the descriptions and guided the reconstructions4 ,michaelis1 one of the greatest ,jewish authorities on ,scriptural matters1 tells us that #8all the representations which we possess of the temple of ,solomon are ornamented with arbitrary forms1 and if we ask for authority or proof of this or that ornamental form1 we invariably receive the answer3 ,it must have been so1 for ,i would have built in this way4' ,it is naturally very difficult to obtain a correct description of the temple of ,solomon1 for with regard to its construction we must rely on the records of the ,jews themselves4 ,unfortunately the ,books of the ,kings1 ,chronicles1 ,ezekiel1 and the writings of ,josephus1 the varying descriptions of the translators1 and the host of commentators1 who generally obscure the simplicity of the simplest subject1 are all at variance4 ,we may divide ,jewish history into the eight following periods4 ,during the first period we find them as nomads on the shores of the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,during the second period they were received as shepherds in ,egypt ,here they learnt for the first time the arts of a settled people4 ,they found a mighty hierarchy already established2 astronomy1 chemistry1 architecture1 and sculpture were practised by priests1 who were well-versed theologians1 lawyers1 physicians1 and philosophers4 ,not only the ,jews1 who lived amongst the ,egyptians1 but also the wisest and most learned men of ,greece1 owed much to the land of hidden wisdom1 which was undoubtedly the cradle of the ,jewish faith and of ,greek philosophy4 ,moses1 ,lykurgus1 and ,solon sat piously listening to the oracular instructions of the ,egyptian priests1 who taught in mystic symbols4 ,thales1 ,pythagoras and ,plato borrowed their philosophical theories and systems largely from the ,egyptians4 ,the ,egyptians worked out the incarnation theory with mystic refinement4 ,osiris1 the concealed ,lord of heaven1 had to become flesh1 to conquer evil4 ,he condescended to become a redeemer--had to suffer a cruel death in order to paralyse the influences of ,typhon4 ,the ,greeks and ,jews never could grasp the mystery of a god changing his almighty subjectivity into an objective human form1 in order to attain1 through suffering and death1 what he could have fulfilled in a thousand other ways4 ,osiris was not only the supreme ruler in heaven1 but he was also the supremely just and inexorable judge in hell4 ,the division of the universe into an abode of bliss for the departed just1 and of eternal darkness and fire for the unjust1 was an ,indian1 ,persian1 and ,egyptian dogma4 ,to the blessed it was promised that they should pluck the sweetest fruits in heaven1 #8for they have given food to the hungry1 and water to the thirsty2 they clothed the naked1 and lived in truth2 for their heart was with ,god and ,god was with them1 and they will enjoy eternal life in his presence1' ,of the wicked1 on the contrary1 it was said3 #8that they could not see the countenance of the ,lord of heaven1 nor ever hear his voice2 they would go about without heads1 drag after them their hearts1 be boiled for ever in a cauldron1 be hanged for ever by their legs4' ,from these metaphysical and mystic ,egyptians1 the immortal ,jewish lawgiver borrowed the division of his nation into twelve tribes1 in imitation of the twelve zodiacal signs1 and the division of ,egypt into twelve nomes4 ,in ,egypt he learnt to distinguish between clean and unclean animals2 to practise circumcision1 which was with the ,egyptians confined to their priests2 but ,moses promised to make his compatriots #8a nation of priests4' ,he established the tribe of the ,levites1 in imitation of the ,egyptian priest-caste2 and regulated their income1 mode of living1 and duties according to the ten books of the prophets 7see p4 #aab72 he divided the priests into four different classes1 which at a later period were called ,peshat1 exegists1 ,remes1 expounders of dubious points1 ,derush1 composers of homilies1 and ,sod1 the hierophants1 or those versed in the real mysteries4 ,the initials of the four names are taken from the ,persian word ,,prds 7paradise7 which may be adduced to prove that what ,moses originally instituted was worked out1 and systematised1 at a later period1 under ,persian influence4 ,the whole arrangement of the tabernacle was ,egyptian2 the serpent-worship was ,egyptian1 and so was the idolatrous predilection for the golden calf4 ,moses in his wise gratitude forbade the ,jews ever to be hostile to the ,egyptians4 ,during the third period they left ,egypt1 and though they were acquainted with all the smaller arts of their ,egyptian task-masters1 and knew how to weave1 to cut stones1 to model1 to cast1 and to found gold and silver1 they had to seek and to gain by hard fighting a new home to settle in4 ,during this period they forgot everything2 their accomplishments were gone when they settled in the ,holy ,land4 ,for during times of war the growth of sciences and arts was never fostered4 ,during the fourth period they reached the very climax of their national glory4 ,david became master of a large empire which extended from the shores of the ,euphrates to the frontiers of ,egypt2 this expansion was accomplished by the force of arms4 ,his successor ,solomon administered and consolidated the empire1 founded on blood and iron1 by wisdom and the culture of the arts of peace4 ,after a ,csar1 the ,jews had an ,augustus4 ,solomon lived in friendship and peace with the surrounding mighty kingdoms1 especially with ,hiram1 ,king of ,tyre4 ,it was ,solomon who began to build ,tadmor 7afterwards ,palmyra1 the queen of the ,east71 to establish in the desert a common emporium for ,phnician wares1 and to enable the ,jews to trade with them4 ,during the fifth period the vast empire was divided into two parts1 the one of which was altogether annihilated1 and the other fell into the hands of the ,babylonians1 and the temple of ,solomon was destroyed4 ,slaves and captives are rarely good artists4 ,during the sixth period1 after ,kyrus had freed the ,jews and permitted them to return to their native country1 their national position improved4 ,under ,darius1 ,zorobabel received permission to reconstruct the temple of ,solomon on the foundations of the one erected by that wise king1 and it was accordingly rebuilt1 but this could only be done in accordance with the impoverished condition of freed captives4 ,during the seventh period1 under ,alexander the ,great and his followers1 the ,jews1 attacked by ,persians1 ,egyptians1 and ,syrians1 showed that they could rise to the very highest deeds of heroism and self-sacrifice4 ,finally1 during the eighth period1 under the ,romans1 they gave up all hope of maintaining their position as a chosen people2 they revolted sometimes1 but more for theological than political reasons4 ,pompey treated them with great kindness and consideration after the capture of ,jerusalem4 ,during the reign of ,augustus the town attained a grandeur and extension which it had never possessed1 even in its brightest days under the sway of ,solomon4 ,but stubborn and arrogant as the ,jews always were in times of prosperity1 though enjoying a certain amount of freedom1 they revolted1 and the town and temple were destroyed4 ,nothing was left but the candlestick with seven branches1 symbolic with the ,egyptians of the seven planets1 and with the ,jews of seven archangels1 or of the seven days of the week1 sculptured in marble on the ,arch of ,titus1 together with a facsimile of the holy ark1 and some of the trumpets1 used in religious ceremonies4 ,it would be most interesting if the original relics1 which it is assumed are buried in the ,tiber1 could be recovered2 and1 as so many venerable relics of by-gone ages have been brought to light1 we do not despair of once seeing these remains4 ,the tabernacle1 or earliest temple of the ,jews1 was entirely constructed on the plan of an ,egyptian temple4 ,to convince ourselves of this truth we need only compare its plan with that of the temple at ,edfou4 ,the triple division into a ,pronaos1 ,naos1 and ,adytum1 or the ,holy of ,holies1 was strictly observed in both4 ,the ,adytum was a cube #aj cubits1 or #ae feet each way2 an outer temple1 as ,naos1 consisted of two such cubes1 #ae feet broad by #cj feet long4 ,adytum and ,naos were covered by a sloping roof1 which projected #e cubits 7#g feet7 in every direction beyond the temple itself1 making the whole #dj cubits1 or #fj feet1 in length1 by #bj cubits1 or #cj feet1 in width4 ,adytum and ,naos stood in an enclosure--the ,pronaos1 #ajj cubits 7#aej feet7 long1 by #ej cubits 7#ge feet7 broad4 ,from ,moses to ,solomon1 for #fjj years1 this tabernacle was the only temple of the ,jews4 ,when ,solomon began to construct the temple1 he adhered strictly to the above arrangement1 only doubling all the dimensions4 ,the temple partook more of the character of a square shrine1 or a store-house intended to contain precious works in metal2 a kind of opisthodomos4 ,the principal ornaments were two brazen pillars1 ,jachin and ,boaz 7sun and moon71 by the skilful ,hiram of ,tyre4 ,they were said to have been marvels of metal-work4 ,the pillars of ,susan or ,persepolis1 which had capitals of the same relative proportions1 may give us some idea of these4 ,in ,egyptian temples it was also usual to place propyle at the porch of a temple1 and the same custom prevailed with the ,phnicians1 as in the case of the celebrated ,venus 7,astarte or ,astharote7 shrine at ,paphos4 ,after the construction of the temple by ,solomon1 ,jerusalem became the holy and exclusive central point of ,judaism4 ,there only1 and nowhere else1 did they allow their ,god to be present4 ,zorobabel erected on the very spot another altar and temple in the same spirit1 and this is the reason why the erection of a second temple at ,heliopolis by ,onias1 under the ,ptolemians1 caused such animosity and jealousy amongst ,egyptian and ,judaic ,jews4 ,it is said that the necessary marble1 wood1 and stone1 and also the gold1 silver1 and brass vessels had already been weighed and prepared for the construction of the temple during the reign of ,king ,david1 who gave his son the plan of the whole architectural construction4 ,according to ,chronicles1 however1 it appears that ,david made little or no preparation1 and that ,solomon only found some of the brass-work ready for use4 ,this latter assertion is clearly verified by the correspondence between ,solomon and ,hiram4 ,solomon asks for wood for building in general1 as also cedars and cypress trees from ,mount ,lebanon2 adding that he wishes that ,sidonians1 as experienced carpenters1 should help his own workmen1 whom he designates as less able4 ,this does not say very much in favour of the artistic skill of the ,jews1 who at the period of ,solomon's reign had not yet attained the same degree of proficiency as the pre-historic constructors of pile-dwellings4 ,the request of ,solomon was granted by the ,king of ,tyre1 and ,adoniram was sent as foreman of the ,sidonian carpenters1 of whom #cj1jjj were appointed by ,solomon2 #aj1jjj of these worked alternately from month to month4 ,besides the #cj1jjj carpenters1 there were #hj1jjj sculptors1 or rather stone-cutters and masons1 and #gj1jjj journeymen1 making altogether #ahj1jjj working men1 under #c1cjj overseers1 employed in the construction of the temple1 all tributary strangers whom ,david had conquered4 ,the construction began #eib years after ,exodus1 about #ige years ,b4,c4 ,mount ,moreah1 or ,moriah1 was the site chosen1 and the temple was completed in seven years4 ,the inner temple was #fj cubits 7#ij feet7 long1 #bj cubits 7#cj feet7 broad1 and #cj cubits 7#de feet7 high4 ,josephus says it was #abj cubits 7#ahj feet7 high2 this would make the edifice resemble a square tower4 ,the ,pronaos may have been #abj cubits high4 ,the space1 #fj cubits long and #bj broad1 was separated into two divisions4 ,of these the rear was #bj cubits square1 forming the ,holy of ,holies1 the #8sekos' of the ,egyptian temples4 ,the other division1 #dj by #aj1 formed the ,naos1 the holy place1 which was preceded by a hall1 the ,pronaos4 ,the division3 ,one ,god1 one priesthood1 and one people1 was thus expressed4 ,rooms were constructed round the temple three stories high1 corresponding to the rooms in the ,egyptian ,labyrinth1 and the ,brahmanic and ,buddhistic choultries1 or cloisters4 ,there were thirty rooms on each floor4 ,the height of the temple having been #cj cubits1 this would give #ae feet for each story1 walls included4 ,josephus doubles all these dimensions1 and adopts inconceivable measurements4 ,the ninety rooms were used as receptacles for the sacred vessels1 and the temple was thus literally a holy treasury4 ,the ,holy of ,holies having been only #bj cubits high1 a space of #aj cubits1 or #ae feet1 would have been left above it2 of this room no intelligible mention is made4 ,in the ,septuagint there is an allusion1 which differs from the ,vulgate and the different translations4 ,in ,chronicles we have upper chambers mentioned1 which were overlaid with gold2 this might have been the rooms or chambers above the ,holy of ,holies4 ,no special staircase led to this room4 ,it was undoubtedly a mysterious apartment1 and1 like all mysteries1 excited some writers to very varied speculations on its possible nature4 ,amongst others the learned ,ben ,david1 in a letter to ,lichtenberg in the ,berlin #8,archive der ,zeit1' asserted that this chamber must have contained an electric battery1 for golden chains connected the room with the pillars of ,jachin and ,boaz1 which were hollow1 and could be placed in communication with the altar of brass4 ,the points of the temple were golden4 ,at the consecration of the temple1 clouds1 produced by incense1 suddenly filled the interior of the temple1 and a flash of lightning ignited the sacrifice4 ,michaelis tells us that the temple was never struck by lightning--the lightning1 therefore1 setting fire to the sacrifice must have been produced within the temple4 ,no stone roofs or vaults are mentioned in connection with the temple or palace built by the ,jews2 architecture was1 therefore1 in its most primitive stage4 ,the inner temple and the ,holy of ,holies were entered through folding-doors4 ,the ,holy of ,holies was entirely empty1 symbolic of the incomprehensibility of the nature of the ,deity4 ,this was also the case in ,egypt with the #8sekos1' which was1 in fact1 a shrine either quite empty1 or containing a scroll1 on which were written the words3 #8,i am that was1 that is1 and that shall be4' ,two courts surrounded the temple1 an inner and an outer court4 ,the outer court was open to every ,jew1 but the inner court to the priests only4 ,the former was surrounded by a double row of pillars overlaid with cedar-wood4 ,it is said that ,solomon had valleys filled up in order to make the concrete subconstruction of the length even4 ,each side of the outer wall surrounding the whole temple was #d stadia or #a stadium 7#fjf feet #i inches ,english7 in length1 giving #b1dbg feet all round4 ,the pillars ,jachin and ,boaz stood on the staircase of the inner court2 each was #cf feet in circumference1 #ed feet in height without the capital1 which was #ae feet high4 ,the shafts were hollow and the brass #d inches thick4 ,on the south-eastern side stood the round brass basin1 called the sea1 #cj feet in diameter1 in which the priests used to wash their hands4 ,besides the #8sea1' there stood on pedestals on either side of the temple five cups1 #ab feet in diameter and #i feet high4 ,the altar of the burning sacrifice1 in the middle of this space1 was #fj feet broad and as many feet long2 all these secondary necessaries of the temple stood in the east4 ,the surrounding courts rose in terraces like those of the palace of ,persepolis4 ,the temple1 whatever its magnificence might have been in precious stones1 gold1 silver1 carved cherubim1 brass and silver vessels1 washing-basins and candlesticks1 was architecturally an utter failure1 whether compared with the monumental temples of ,egypt1 the grand and splendid palaces of ,assyria1 ,babylon1 or ,persepolis1 or the temple of ,diana at ,ephesus4 ,the latter1 which was built on a marsh1 that it might not be endangered by earthquakes1 was #dbe feet in length and #bbj in width1 and had #abg columns #fj feet high1 each the gift of a king4 ,this is the account given by ,pliny1 who1 however1 describes either the seventh or eighth temple4 ,stable as was everything in religious matters with the ,jews1 they did not venture in rebuilding their temple to make any alterations2 a stone displaced1 an ornament improved1 might have driven their ,god from his chosen abode4 ,with such ideas art is impossible4 ,the additions made to the temple under the ,romans1 in order to render the building more in harmony with their street architecture1 were only outer courts with rich colonnades of ,corinthian columns1 and had nothing to do with the temple itself4 ,these formed the ,stoa-,basilica1 with the court of the ,gentiles1 which is spoken of as imposing and forming a mighty group1 and must not be confounded with the temple itself1 which was certainly no specimen of architecture1 either in dimension1 in plan1 or in decoration1 if we except some stiff vine foliage on capitals1 which was exceptionally characteristic of the ,jewish style4 ,the numerous tombs in the neighbourhood of ,jerusalem are rock-hewn1 clearly betraying their ,egyptian origin2 they are provided with numerous hollows for the reception of the bodies4 ,these sepulchres are without any artistic stamp2 on some faades we can see the ,egyptian fluted corona4 ,the faades of the so-called royal tombs of ,jacob or the judges are decorated in a ,greek style1 as are the tombs of ,zacharias and ,absalom2 the latter stand out from the rock as independent structures1 ornamented with ,ionic pillars1 and above the ,egyptian corona rises a pyramidal or conical structure2 a combination of the pre-historic tumulus with ,egyptian and classic elements4 ,something is borrowed from everyone to make up a chosen national element4 ,in books or in conversation this may avail1 but in art1 where the outer impression is to create a corresponding sensation1 assertions must be borne out by visible productions1 and to falsify architectural records is much more difficult than to interpolate passages1 alter dates1 or make assertions in utter defiance of probability and possibility4 ,the ,hebrews1 whether as ,jews or ,israelites1 had no art1 and never pretended to have one2 they were contented with the art-products which other nations made for them1 in perfect accordance with the clearly-expressed promise of the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob3 #8,that ,he would give them great and goodly cities1 which they would not build2 and houses full of good things1 which they would not fill2 and wells digged1 which they would not dig2 and vineyards and olive trees1 which they would not plant4' ,with such principles neither architecture1 sculpture1 nor ornamentation could flourish4 ,art in ,asia never became master of matter from an esthetical point of view1 for1 in all these works1 matter sways the mind2 it is either an exhibition of precious stones on walls1 or lace-work in marble1 or endless heaps of huge granite blocks and columns without purpose1 or decorations in wild1 fantastic1 and endless combinations4 ,the ,eastern mind could not free itself from the influence of a mighty hierarchy4 ,in the ,east it was the eternal ,hermes1 the ,logos1 the priest1 who read truth in the stars1 manufactured gods and goddesses1 wrote the language of heaven1 drew up plans for temples1 squared out the proportions of the human body1 and gave laws to sculptors and painters1 to stone-cutters and masons1 to joiners and carpenters1 weavers and dyers4 ,hermes1 with his followers1 was the physician1 the lawgiver1 and the judge of the masses2 he prayed1 he sacrificed for them1 he prophesied1 circumcised1 married1 embalmed1 and buried them4 ,the priest in the ,east1 whether as ,brahman1 ,buddhist1 ,hierophant1 ,magi1 or ,levite1 generally placed the idea1 the spirit1 the word1 the logos above the form1 which1 in itself1 crippled the form the more effectually1 because the form1 however revolting1 was the mere symbol of some sacred mystery4 ,the creative genius of art was thus almost extinguished under the stifling and petrifying influence of hierarchical formalism1 and1 until it had been freed from this1 could neither develop nor prosper4 ,the process of freeing humanity from this formalism was first begun and accomplished by the ,greeks4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,greek ,,art4 ,art has appeared to us till now under peculiar circumstances4 ,we have seen it in ,asia and ,africa1 and in both parts of the world it represented the uninterrupted struggle of humanity for self-consciousness4 ,humanity was too much under the influence of the marvellous and incomprehensible1 and neither the marvellous nor the incomprehensible can be brought into shape4 ,the ,indians tried to give forms to the metaphysical phenomena of nature2 the ,persians were bent on the glorification of the power of one visible earthly despot2 the ,egyptians tried to copy the realistic phenomena of nature1 and inscribed them with mystic signs1 uniting ,indian abstractions with the real phenomena of nature4 ,when a thought was fixed into a form2 the thought1 being at the same time a religious conception1 could no more be changed2 it became in art what a technical name for a natural phenomenon is in science4 ,oxygen is oxygen1 and designates only that element2 so when once a form was settled1 as that of ,vishnu or ,amn1 ,s'iva or ,osiris--or the serpent fixed as a symbol of eternity1 or the hawk as a symbol of light--the inner or spiritual life of the artist was fettered down to outward forms with special inward meanings4 ,thus the constraining sway of misunderstood nature on one side1 and the stationary precepts of an omnipotent hierarchy on the other1 entangled the artist's imagination and paralysed every effort of his subjective power of production4 ,the different nations began to be wrapped up in their different artistic forms1 which became by degrees hard and impenetrable national and religious incrustations2 the masses1 held in abeyance1 led by theocratical art1 had only to glorify one visible or invisible tyrant1 with whom the universe was blessed4 ,eastern art was to a certain degree plastic1 only too plastic as in ,india2 but it was too penetrated with an incomprehensible spiritualism to find the right objects for its plastic tendencies4 ,even where geometrical figures1 flowers1 or trees were used1 the effect of their simple combination was marred by a want of harmony between thought and form1 or idea and body4 ,this harmony between outward form and inner spirit1 wherein real beauty consists1 this balance between the dynamic and static cosmogonical elements1 was wanting in ,eastern art4 ,the ,east rent nature asunder1 and looked upon matter as evil2 and yet matter was to be used1 to bring spirit into form4 ,the element of ,s'iva1 ,ahriman1 or ,typhon was to give visible form to the conceptions of ,brahm1 ,ormuzd1 or ,osiris1 and could not do this1 because the connecting link to blend the apparently-opposed powers into one1 was wanting4 ,a uniting force for this mysterious antagonism1 a mediator between heaven and earth1 divinity and humanity1 was sought for1 but not found4 ,the ,persian unconsciously set ,meshiah 7man1 mensch7 down as that element1 but ,meshiah was not yet allowed to come to any free development1 and he sank into the pitiful and degraded position of a slave to despotic oligarchs1 or still more intolerant spiritual hierarchs4 ,meshiah 7humanity7 was first freed by the ,greeks in form and by ,christ in spirit4 ,there can be no doubt that the ,greeks were1 for a short time at least1 the ancient representatives of the well-balanced static and dynamic forces in humanity4 ,of all the geographical districts of the world1 whether in the ,eastern or ,western hemisphere1 none are so admirably adapted for the cultivation of social intercourse as the ,grecian isles1 and the ,grecian peninsula1 the classical region of the gean ,sea4 ,nowhere is so large a coast-line found1 surrounding so small a territorial surface2 nowhere such a variety of creeks1 capes1 promontories1 inlets1 and harbours as round the ,peloponnesus1 and the islands uniting ,asia ,minor with ,greece and ,italy4 ,no streams like the ,ganges1 or the ,hoang-ho2 no mountains like the ,belur ,tag or ,himlya4 ,gorgeous uniformity is the characteristic of ,china and ,india2 variety and change the very element of the ,greek world4 ,mountains1 plains1 valleys1 streams1 are all of a limited size2 there rules a sweet1 eternal harmony between spirit and form2 nothing is exaggerated1 nothing overawes man2 he feels at home2 the dark-blue sky over-arches his verdant1 hilly1 amiable earth1 adorned with brooks and hills1 boskets and flowers4 ,valley chases valley2 rivulet pursues rivulet2 clouds follow clouds2 the morning dawn flies before the bright noon1 and the noon dies away1 in the cool sighs of the evening breezes1 into the embrace of dark night4 ,the self-conscious spirit of youthful humanity came into life for the first time in ,greece4 ,everything with the ,greeks was feeling1 but a feeling1 conscious of a real purpose in religion1 the ,state1 the family1 and in art4 ,we shall see that intuitive feeling grow by degrees into critical reflection1 but in the first instance everything with the ,greeks was ingenuous1 or1 as the ,french call it1 #8nave4' ,this classical #8navet1' this unconscious1 unaffected simplicity1 enabled them to become masters of intuitive productions1 and to look upon this world with an unbiassed eye1 prone only to see what was harmonious and beautiful4 ,the whole life of the ,greeks was thus one long ideal dream of poetical and artistic reality4 ,they took an interest1 however1 in objective individuality only2 the beauties of nature as one great total did not yet affect their subjective comprehension4 ,they could not grasp the pantheistic notion of the ,indians1 who saw in every detailed phenomenon of the universe the working of ,,one indivisible and incomprehensible first cause4 ,they shuddered at the ,egyptian monsters1 which were to serve as symbols of that sublime conception which lost on the ,nile all its primitive grandeur4 ,they found the ,persian absorption of the universe into a conflict between light and darkness too dreary1 and ascribed to it the loss of all individual freedom4 ,they worked out a system of their own1 based on ,indian grandeur1 ,egyptian symbolism1 and ,persian abstractions4 ,to be thoroughly acquainted with this combination of influences is the very first step towards an understanding of ,greek art4 ,the ,greeks were ,aryans in language1 and in mode of thinking2 ,aryans who had detached themselves very early from their ,cis-,himlyan brethren1 and peopled ,asia ,minor and the surrounding islands4 ,they were strengthened by ,egyptian and ,phnician immigrations1 and invigorated by ,thracia's warlike spirit4 ,like a plant that only lives and grows by means of the antithetic activity of air1 light1 and water1 the ,greek ,state-body had air supplied by ,orpheus from ,thracia1 light by ,kekrops from ,egypt1 and water by ,kadmus from ,phnicia4 ,independent freedom and love of the arts were the gifts of the ,north2 the ,south furnished them with deep knowledge1 and ,phnicia gave them the vivifying spirit of commerce4 ,their language is an offshoot of the ,sanskrit1 but stands in a more distant relation to it than the ,zend--to which it is closely allied4 ,they are principally distinguished from the ,asiatic nations by their decided hatred of everything arbitrary and chaotic4 ,from their love for individuality and diversity of customs1 manners and modes of thinking1 sprang the national unity of the ,greeks in the fairy realms of ,poetry and ,art4 ,when they began to feel themselves a people1 they assumed the name of ,hellenes2 and their first historical deed was the admirable completion of a language which1 for simplicity1 power1 and beauty1 has remained up to our own days a model for all other languages1 for it alike possesses eurythmy and power of expression4 ,the overwhelming metaphysical subtleties of the ,sanskrit are simplified2 the variety of consonants and vowels reduced1 and the mode of writing corrected2 everything proving a deep sense for order1 clearness1 and moderation4 ,they had three dialects3 the ,doric1 distinguished by a broader pronunciation2 the ,ionic1 possessed of softness and a melodious richness2 and the olic1 a kind of mixture without a special character4 ,the ,dorians came southwards from the hoary mountains of ,thessaly1 and gained step by step an influence and dominion over the other tribes of ,greece4 ,the ,ionians occupied the east1 and were considered the connecting link between ,hellas and ,asia2 but whatever the ,hellenes took from ,byblos1 ,sidon1 ,tyros or the ,libanon1 assumed a really ,hellenic form1 after it had passed through the purifying element of ,doric correctness4 ,the south gave ideas1 and the north brought them into form4 ,whatever the ,hellenes touched they beautified4 ,the powerful giant ,bhma of the ,mahbhrata is the prototype of ,herakles2 but in the myths concerning ,herakles we recognise the mere personification of commercial daring and enterprise4 ,accompanied by his dog1 he finds the cochineal2 the goblet in which he sails to ,erytheia is but the ,phnician merchantman2 the ,phnicians are referred to1 when it is recorded of him that he had broken the devastating horn of the mountain-streams4 ,moloch1 to whom ,assyrians1 ,indians and ,hebrews sacrificed1 without ever being capable of investing the fire-spitting monster with anything like poetry1 was destroyed by ,herakles4 ,the gods of ,asia became with the ,hellenes demons1 from whom they learned some useful trades4 ,poseidon1 the god of the sea1 is1 like the element over which he rules and in which he dwells1 of a sinister1 implacable character2 he requires human sacrifices1 annihilates horses 7meaning ships71 in fact does1 as incarnate divinity1 what the sea does in our own times4 ,the ,titans are acquainted with astronomy1 and are personifications of a certain knowledge in maritime matters4 ,proteus1 the ,egyptian ,pharaoh1 is with them the keeper of the seas1 and ,atlas the father of nautical astronomy1 and both were companions of the ,tyrean ,herkules4 ,in all the myths and legends of the ,greeks we can trace some facts4 ,the divinity they could only comprehend in the well-proportioned form of a human being1 and a hero or benefactor of humanity became with them a divinity4 ,this blending into one of the divine and human is the most important feature in ,greek thought4 ,vishnu and ,osiris also became incarnate--but their deeds were supernatural2 the principal feature of their #8man-godhead1' or #8divine manhood1' is an incomprehensible mysticism4 ,their anthropomorphism had in it something gloomy4 ,when the divine ,apollo uttered the memorable words3 #8,man1 know thyself1' the ,greeks became suddenly conscious of the inborn spark of the divine intellect in man2 the gods were intelligible to them1 and the ,asiatic world of abstractions emerged in a thousand different human forms of divine conceptions4 ,uranos 7,varuna in ,sanskrit7 is heaven1 or rather space--,kronos1 time1 and ,ga1 earth4 ,uranos as well as ,kronos and ,pontos were offsprings of the ,earth4 ,so far we have to deal with the same mystical elements which engendered all the ,asiatic cosmogonies4 ,but ,uranos and ,ga are set down as male and female1 and are endowed with powerful children--the ,titans and ,titanides1 the ,hekatoncheires 7or ,kentimanos1 hundred-handed1 powerful giants with fifty heads71 and the ,kyklopes1 who were very clever1 and invented many useful arts4 ,the most important gods were ,okeanos1 ,japets1 and ,kronos4 ,the human character of ,greek mythology begins even before the birth of ,zeus4 ,uranos was afraid of his own children1 and had them confined in eternal darkness in ,tartaros2 their mother1 ,ga1 had pity on them1 and armed the youngest1 ,kronos1 with a sickle1 with which he attacked ,uranos1 and deprived him of his creative power4 ,from that moment ,uranos was idle1 could produce no new forms1 and was neither worshipped by gods nor men4 ,the fact which underlies this dramatic scene1 in which gods are the actors1 is a cosmical phenomenon4 ,in time all things were created1 and in time the creative force1 as far as our earth was concerned1 ceased with the creation of man1 to be productive of new forms4 ,kronos had five children--,hestia1 ,demeter1 ,here1 ,pluton1 and ,poseidon1 and these he devoured4 ,in this cruel image we see represented the revolving movements of time1 in which the present is everlastingly the prey of the past1 engendering the future4 ,the sixth son of ,kronos1 ,zeus 7creative ether71 was saved by his mother's cunning1 for she gave the inhuman god a stone instead of her child2 ,metis1 however 7,maya1 ,matter71 afterwards the wife of ,zeus2 rescues the children that ,kronos had swallowed1 and he is obliged to give them back again in an eternal circle4 ,these children of ,kronos are years1 months1 weeks1 days and hours4 ,we have here an instance of the manner in which phenomena were turned by the ,hellenes into living beings4 ,kronos was an old man with a long flowing beard1 and held a sickle or scythe in his hands1 with which he cut down everything4 ,and as symbol of eternity a serpent lay by his side4 ,zeus serves us even more as a specimen of the anthropomorphic tendency of the ,greeks4 ,he was the father of the gods1 and had to fight with the ,titans4 ,he led the immortal gods1 who assembled on ,mount ,olympus against these terrible ,titans1 who mustered in great strength on ,mount ,othrys4 ,for ten years the battle raged without result2 heaven1 earth1 and sea resounded with the frightful struggle4 ,ga advised the gods to call in the ,kyklopes and ,hekatoncheires4 ,these presented ,poseidon with the trident1 ,pluton with the helmet that had the power to make the wearer invisible1 and ,zeus received from the depths of the earth the flaming thunderbolts4 ,then only the ,titans had to yield to storms and lightnings1 and were chained down at last in ,tartaros4 ,we read a chapter of geology when we peruse ,hesiod's description of this struggle4 ,in the ,titans1 ,kyklopes1 and the hundred-handed giants we recognise the antediluvian monsters--the mastodons1 megatheriums1 and saurians1 petrified for ever in the strata of the earth's crust4 ,zeus1 after his conquest1 began to rule the ,olympian gods and mankind4 ,he himself was full of passion and wrath1 of human failings and shortcomings2 but1 after all1 he was kind1 dignified--even in his weakness1 just and grand4 ,he smiled1 and love and joy pervaded the universe2 he frowned1 and the universe shook to its very foundations4 ,he indulged in freaks1 and still was afraid of his haughty and jealous wife1 who acted in many instances as a well-bred lady would1 who had the misfortune to be wedded to an amorous husband4 ,zeus was frequently so troubled by his riotous gods and goddesses1 that he had a bad headache1 and was once obliged to call in ,hephaistos to cure him with a heavy blow1 and on this occasion ,minerva 7wisdom7 sprang forth armed with spear1 helmet1 and shield4 ,the truth that intellect and reason are of divine origin was proclaimed in this myth4 ,in the ,greek legends the poet's imagination has turned the forces of nature into beautiful men1 women1 or children4 ,how much the gods1 with them1 were the creatures of man's fancy1 may be seen in the fear of the opinions of their earth-born children with which the gods were endowed4 ,the ,almighty ,thunderer1 when his heavenly subjects made too much noise1 often cried3 #8,what will my earthly sons say8' and for fear that they might find fault with him he yielded1 and made concessions1 and heaven and earth1 sun1 moon and stars were again at peace4 ,it is true that in ,indian lore the same characters are drawn1 but1 like their supernatural gods1 they are gigantic and monstrous4 ,men and women in the ,indian fables1 behave like unwieldy spectres1 that frighten us during an uneasy dream2 we must first divest them of their inhuman forms in order to comprehend them4 ,the conceptions are too marvellous to impress us with moral lessons2 we are lost in allegories1 metaphors1 symbols and double meanings4 ,this occurs less in ,greek mythology4 ,atlas was the representative of patience2 he had for ever to carry the world on his shoulders1 and was turned at last into a rocky mountain range4 ,epimetheus was the prototype of senseless carelessness1 and was destroyed by his own folly4 ,prometheus at last was the embodiment of considerate prudence2 he was devoured by the vulture of #8care and sorrow for the morrow4' ,prometheus may be said to be the best1 most intelligible emblem of classic humanity1 as ,faust may be considered as the incarnation of romantic mankind4 ,prometheus wanted to bring matter into form2 ,faust to know what held spirit and matter together4 ,prometheus stole fire from heaven1 made man of clay1 and vivified him4 ,faust knew that this heavenly fire was a force over which he had no control1 and he called in a spirit to teach him #8how all one whole harmonious weaves1 each in the other works and lives4' ,the #8formal' is the longing of the ,greek ,faust1 and the #8spiritual' the aspiration of the ,teuton ,prometheus4 ,all the ,greek edola embodied some power of nature4 ,philomela was a pining woman4 ,the ,laurel was formed out of the lovely ,daphne 7from the ,sanskrit ,dahanah1 our word #8dawn'74 ,in every tree a ,dryad dwelt1 in every wave a ,naiad sported4 ,demeter's tears for her lost daughter ,persephone nourished rivulets4 ,on the bright heights of ,mount ,olympus1 on ,helikon1 or ,parnassus1 or ,pindus1 above the petty cares of every-day life1 sat the earnest ,klio with an open scroll and a stylum1 recording with lovely patience the events of the past4 ,euterpe1 with her two flutes1 brought harmony into the discordant sounds of the earthly spheres1 and filled the world with songs and tunes2 ,melpomene1 armed with gloomy mask and dagger1 presided over the fictitious sufferings of humanity struggling with the inexorable fates1 reflecting in an artificial mirror--reality4 ,thalia1 with a shepherd's staff and a ,silenus' mask1 endowed with an eternal smile1 comforted man with more cheerful views4 ,terpsichore1 with a lyre of seven chords1 taught him to express joy1 happiness1 and pious veneration by the rhythmical movements of his body4 ,erato1 on her ,kythera with nine chords1 warbled love-songs1 and inspired and aided young poets to pour out in measured language the immeasurable feelings of their souls4 ,polyhymnia1 or ,polymnia1 protected orators1 philosophers1 and stage-players1 and enabled them to keep within the boundaries of moderation1 for she placed the first finger of her right hand on her lips1 impressing them with the necessity for caution4 ,urania1 with her eyes lifted to the starry heavens1 tried to draw man's attention to the well-regulated courses of the heavenly bodies1 proclaiming in eternal silence with fiery tongues the glories of the universe4 ,kalliope finally taught man to record heroic deeds in epic poetry4 ,these nine muses1 presided over by the manly and wise1 valorous and glorious ,apollo1 nursed1 taught1 and accompanied the ,hellenes through life2 they met them as lovely charmers in a thousand different forms1 in temples1 on friezes1 metopes1 goblets1 pateras1 amphor1 and urns2 nothing possessed a meaning for them that had not a poetical1 artistic1 and scientific aim4 ,life with the ,greeks was one continual festivity4 ,they worshipped their gods in singing joyous songs1 in running1 playing1 and wrestling4 ,they thought it a duty to develop both body and intellect1 the gifts of the immortal gods4 ,they deeply loved poetry1 wrote it if they could1 or recited it1 or listened to it and imbibed it with their whole souls4 ,they rejoiced in athletic sports2 influenced by ,terpsichore1 they showed the wondrous beauty of their harmoniously-constructed bodies4 ,joy and delight swelled their muscles when they wrestled1 and throbbed through all their veins when they moved in rhythmical simplicity1 like the stars in heaven4 ,they prayed when they composed epic poems2 they worshipped when they wrote tragedies or comedies2 they honoured the gods when they built temples2 they humbly beseeched their blessing when they sculptured4 ,the whole life of the ,greeks was one grateful act of artistic devotion4 ,their temples were so many hymns in stone and marble2 their ornamentations in reliefs1 sculptures1 winding frets and meanders1 are epic poems1 dramatic representations1 and lyric effusions of the very highest intellectual refinement4 ,art with the ,greeks was cherished1 cultivated1 and loved for its own divine sake4 ,rich and poor1 old and young1 men and women1 boys and girls1 used art and poetry1 science and philosophy1 as the plastic language of their ever-praying lips1 hands and minds4 ,whenever the life of a nation is thus inspired2 when the comprehensive culture of intellect1 the harmonious development of the body1 and the mysterious feelings of existence are guided by the mighty and productive energy of an awakened and excited imagination1 and regulated by a consciousness of order2 art must attain that expansive1 noble1 and beautiful form which we admire in the ,greeks4 ,greek poetry and philosophy had the same basis of reality as their mythology4 ,that which was asserted by the ,asiatic and ,african law-givers to have been directly dictated by the gods1 was gradually acquired by the ,greeks through deductive and inductive reasoning4 ,soon the mythological conceptions of the poets were turned into edola4 ,aphrodite was set down as the representative of matter1 out of which all things were formed4 ,pallas-,athene lost her individuality1 and became intellect pervading humanity4 ,apollo was no more the #8god-man' or the living sun1 but cosmical heat4 ,the forms of fearful monsters that originated in ,asia1 with ferocious jaws1 with three heads1 spreading fear and awe1 looking as if nothing but human flesh could satisfy their voracity1 also terrified the ,greeks during the mythic period of their national existence1 and human flesh was accordingly sacrificed4 ,such sacrifices were prevalent wherever monster-gods1 without human shape1 without legs or arms1 with fishes' tails1 dog's or cat's heads1 with round and glaring eyes1 and many arms1 inspired the masses with fear and trembling4 ,this was the case in ,greece when monsters and pirates peopled the sea-coasts2 when ,geryon1 the giant with three bodies1 three heads1 six hands1 six legs1 and two wings2 ,echidna1 the wife of ,typhon2 the ,lernean serpent1 with nine or with fifty heads2 the ,chimera1 with a lion's or goat's head2 the ,sphinx1 with a woman's head and bust1 the body of a lion1 and the wings and tail of a dragon2 and the fearfully howling ,skylla1 with six heads and six long necks1 formed part of their pantheon4 ,as soon1 however1 as poetry threw a glittering veil of beauty over the forces and phenomena of nature1 no one thought of sacrificing human flesh to the gods4 ,who could have slaughtered a human being in the sight of the ,olympian ,zeus or the ,pallas-,athene of ,pheidias1 the ,venus of ,alkemenes1 or the ,apollo of ,praxiteles8 ,the ,greek mind1 once on the road to progress through a correct appreciation of beauty1 developed with incredible rapidity4 ,the elements of art as well as of science are threefold4 ,we have3-- 4 ,the reign of imagination through the emotional element1 more or less regulated2 4 ,that of intellect1 the reflective element1 more or less influenced by imagination2 and 4 ,that of reason1 the speculative element1 discerning between imagination and intellect1 and binding the two into one4 ,the first element is the province of the unconscious artist4 ,he trusts his own subjective imagination1 and sees things only from his individual point of view4 ,the second tries to compare the different products of art1 to draw analogies between them1 and to assign causes for certain forms4 ,this is the province of the chronicler1 the antiquary1 and the art-historian4 ,the third reaches the sphere of philosophical consciousness4 ,in it the esthetical writer combines a correct appreciation of art as a grand total1 with all its essential details4 ,he sees distinctly its inner element based on immutable general laws1 and comprehends the necessary organism1 without which an artistic work cannot exist4 ,poetry and philosophy1 like art1 passed through these developments in ,greece4 ,first we have the epic and lyric poets3 ,homer1 ,hesiod1 ,sappho1 ,alkus1 and ,pindar2 next the dramatic poets3 schylus1 ,sophokles1 and ,euripides4 ,at last the philosophers and historians3 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,herodotus1 ,thukydides1 and ,xenophon4 ,in analogy with these purely mental phases we have in art3 the architect1 who constructs a small world of organic coherence out of inorganic matter by means of his imagination2 the sculptor1 who reproduces with discernment the organic world around him in inorganic matter1 but endows it with individual expression and feeling2 the painter at last1 who creates with his colours a union of spirit and matter1 of idea and form4 ,beauty was in all ,greek products the vital element4 #8,true beauty1 the companion of the gods1 must be sought for1' says ,pausanias1 and makes no advances2 it is too elevated to communicate itself1' ,and ,plato propounds3 #8,the ,supreme has no image2 he converses only with the wise2 with the vulgar he shows himself proud and forbidding2 always equal1 he expresses the emotion of the souls1 he wraps himself in the delicious calm of that divine nature of which the great masters in the arts1 according to ancient writers1 endeavoured to seize the type4' ,this delicious calm may be traced everywhere in ,greek art1 and forms its essential element4 ,the temples of the ,greeks were national and public buildings4 ,they were not mere shrines destined as exclusive dwelling-places for some visible or invisible1 concrete or abstract1 theocratic monster4 ,they were the central spots for their national assemblies1 their gatherings1 and for the celebration of their public festivities4 ,the ,olympian1 ,pythian1 ,neman1 and ,isthmian games attracted visitors to these temples4 ,these games did not consist of mere exhibitions of athletic prowess2 but poets like ,pindar--tragedians like schylus and ,sophokles--historians like ,herodotus--read to enraptured audiences the masterly products of their intellectual powers4 ,wrestlers and runners1 sculptors and poets1 and tragic and comic writers vied with one another to be crowned with a laurel wreath1 or to receive a palm-twig1 some a crown1 or a tripod4 ,no sordid feeling of gain mingled with their yet unalloyed pleasure in being distinguished for mere distinction's sake2 the commercial question was unregarded4 ,the prizes1 given away in the sight of the delighted masses1 were for everything--for bodily as well as for intellectual excellence--even for proficiency in the art of kissing4 ,at the festival of the ,philesian ,apollo a prize for the most exquisite kiss was conferred upon a young lady4 ,at ,sparta and at ,lesbos1 in the temple of ,here1 and also among the citizens of ,parrhasia1 women contended for the prizes with men4 ,how much we try to imitate ,greek customs may be judged from the fact1 that we also give prizes for exquisite dogs1 cats out of proportion1 and fat babies2 but we are sorry to say1 that this is done with a keen eye to business--to advertise a baby-food or a dog-or cat-fancier4 ,that art is not altogether ,greek with us need astonish no one4 ,we are trained for practical purposes1 but the ,greeks were trained to appreciate beauty1 symmetry1 and harmony1 not in verses only1 but also in the human frame and in every product of art4 ,architecture with them was thoroughly plastic2 it was never subservient to some metaphysical subtlety2 it was finished in itself2 a total of which every part formed1 as in the human body1 a completing element--without which the whole conception of a temple would be as incomplete as a man without arms1 legs1 or toes4 ,the ,greek temple entirely differed from the gloomy buildings of ,egypt or ,india1 which were constructed as symbols of hell1 earth1 and heaven2 hell was for the sinners1 the outcasts and the poor2 earth for the respectable middle-classes2 and heaven for the priests1 the kings and their high officials4 ,the constructions never made any attempt at symmetrical beauty1 but aimed only at gorgeous pomp1 in order to overawe the credulous mob--mystery was their essence4 ,sudden turnings placed the terrified worshipper1 unawares1 face to face with some colossal idol1 looking to the excited and surprised imagination twice as large as it was1 and ascending and descending staircases visibly divided the temple into abodes of splendour and horror4 ,with the ancient ,greeks in constructing a temple1 the first question was the aim of the building2 to whom was it to be dedicated--to ,zeus1 ,apollo1 ,poseidon1 ,minerva or ,venus8 ,this question once decided1 the most convenient spot1 in accordance with the character of the god to whose worship the temple was to be dedicated1 was chosen4 ,the building to be erected was always to be in harmony with the surrounding scenery4 ,the temple with the ,greeks generally stood on a terrace-like base of several steps4 ,the ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,korinthian orders1 as architectural subdivisions1 are most usual4 ,so far as the different styles are concerned1 a fourth must be added1 which modern art-historians call the ,attic4 ,the ,greeks were undoubtedly the first people who succeeded in producing architectural works of art2 they were also the first3-- 7a7 ,to distinguish the material2 7b7 ,to bring about symmetry and proportion2 and 7c7 ,to construct with a clear consciousness of purpose4 ,marble was most profusely made use of2 wood also1 but the latter by degrees disappeared altogether4 ,the ,athenians completed even the roofs of their temples in stone4 ,the ,greeks availed themselves of soft materials1 such as clay1 chalk1 gypsum1 and marble dust1 for stucco 7 koniasis71 in which they excelled all other nations4 ,metal too formed an important element in their decorations4 ,it is asserted by many authorities that the ,korinthian capital was not the latest development of ,greek architecture2 but that on the contrary it was older than the simplified and more correct ,doric capital1 which1 showing no traces of wood-construction1 is altogether of a pure #8stone-feeling1' whilst the forms of the ,korinthian capital bear undoubted traces of wood-carving and metallotechnic4 ,we see that the ,greeks employed pliable1 plastic1 elastic and solid materials2 the great secret of their success lay in the fact that they made use of these elements appropriately4 ,the vertical and horizontal were the principal lines used by the ,greeks4 ,the curved line was not altogether excluded4 ,the uprising straight lines in columns were cylindrical or conical4 ,the relation of the lines to one another1 and to the whole of the building1 was regulated by a strict observation of the laws of proportion4 ,the diameter or half-diameter of the column 7the module7 served as the unit for the whole building4 ,as in the human body the general law of proportion does not exclude an infinite diversity of forms1 so in the ,greek temples regulation did not preclude variety4 ,in man the height is limited1 and1 to a certain extent1 determined by his bones4 ,this was the case in the ,greek temple4 ,the height was limited by the diameter of the column4 ,taking two columns of the same height1 the one thin and the other thick1 the thin column will appear high and the other short1 but both will have a certain proportion1 taken from their own body2 the one will be1 say1 nine times the diameter of its body1 and the other only seven times4 ,proportion in no way fetters the artist2 it allows him perfect freedom1 but freedom in order1 without which no good building is possible4 ,all architectural elements are of geometrical origin4 ,these elements are to be divided into those that support1 and those that are supported4 ,the column is the most perfect supporting body2 surrounding a vertical axis in a slightly conical form4 ,through the #8contractura1' the swelling or tapering1 it assumes the most perfect expression of the dynamic force in the striving upwards4 ,through the square plinth 7,abacus7 a harmonious union is effected between column1 as supporter1 and architrave1 as the supported1 or static1 element of the building4 ,the ,greek temple was pre-eminently the house of the man-like god4 ,the god in the most exquisite idealised human form was visibly present4 ,a forecourt 7pronaos7 led to the cella 7naos72 there was a rear-court 7posticum71 and occasionally a special court 7the opisthodome7 was added4 ,architecture and sculpture were closely allied in ,greece2 and still so clear and rational a separation between these two art-sisters1 as existed there1 has nowhere been observed4 ,through this apparent contradiction1 architecture gained an independent soul1 full of emotion and life1 whilst sculpture obtained a well-proportioned body1 the closely united artistic product being thus endowed with solidity and firmness4 ,the general architectural arrangement of a ,greek temple was invariably the same4 ,the cella1 the abode of the divinity1 was of smaller or larger dimensions4 ,two rows of columns adorned the interior1 supporting an upper gallery4 ,if the central space was left roofless1 to supply the temple with light1 it was called hypthral4 ,a temple1 surrounded by one row of columns1 was designated a ,peripteros2 if two rows of columns ornamented it1 a ,dipteros4 ,with a front portico it was ,prostyle2 provided with a court1 both front and back1 ,amphiprostyle4 ,the pillars projecting on the side walls were ant2 and a temple having this decorative element was styled an ,anttemple4 ,the colonnade surrounding the temple at smaller or greater distances1 represented a combined power of support4 ,the base marked the independent existence of the separate columns4 ,the shaft was covered with channelled flutings1 and rose vertically with a convex extension of its circumference 7called entasis74 ,it then strongly contracted1 thus expressing in the most perfect manner not merely passive sustaining1 but an active and lively support4 ,above the capitals the mighty beams of the architrave 7epistyle7 were held together by a broad band1 on which rested the frieze1 sometimes adorned with triglyphs and metopes1 or with reliefs2 above it projected the overhanging plinth of the principal cornice4 ,on the narrow sides of the oblong building1 bordered by a cornice 7the corona1 geison7 and the roof-gutter1 rose the pediment with its groups and statues4 ,on the front edge of the roof1 both at the corners and in the middle1 there stood smaller sculptures or marble palm-trees2 whilst at the sides the rain-water was ejected through lions' heads2 the finishing horizontal lines were eurythmically crowned with palm-shaped tiles 7antifix74 ,the roof and the rest of the building1 in the noblest works1 were of marble1 the architectural product being thus transformed into an elegant chiselled work of sculpture4 ,the ,greeks had in their mythology3 #a4 ,powerful gods and goddesses1 as ,zeus1 ,pallas1 ,poseidon1 and ,mars4 #b4 ,charming and lovely divinities1 as ,aphrodite1 ,eros1 and ,persephone4 #c4 ,mixtures of sublime power and beauty1 of manly dignity and womanly grace1 as ,here1 ,diana1 ,bacchus1 and ,apollo4 ,in studying the characteristics of these three groups of divinities we become acquainted with the principal features of the three orders of their architecture4 ,i4 ,the ,doric order is full of power and monumental dignity4 ,force is its most prominent characteristic4 ,,ii4 ,the ,ionic order mingles southern imagination with northern severity2 this order1 with its voluted capital instead of the simple abacus1 is of a more complicated character and livelier expression4 ,,iii4 ,the ,korinthian order exhibits1 instead of the tapering ,doric1 a slender column--ending in a richly-decorated1 upward-striving capital4 ,there is something of the ,doric style in the ,ionic1 and something of the ,ionic in the ,korinthian4 ,the ,doric was1 however1 the basis of ,greek architecture4 ,a4 ,the ,doric order had six distinct developments of style4 a4 ,the proto-,doric1 compressed and heavy4 b4 ,the lax ,archaic-,doric1 slender1 with more distinctly-tapering columns4 c4 ,the stern ,archaic-,doric1 more finished and graceful in its proportions4 d4 ,the pure ,doric1 most correct in all its details4 e4 ,the ,attic-,doric1 during the rule of ,perikles1 combining utmost severity with the very highest refinement in execution4 f4 ,the ,makedonian-,doric style2 not correctly proportioned1 the columns becoming elongated1 and the distances narrowed4 ,gorgeousness and vanity predominate4 ,b4 ,the ,ionic order had three distinct phases of development in style4 a4 ,the first simple in form1 with the strongly-pronounced volute4 b4 ,the richly ornamented style1 as in the temple of ,minerva ,polias4 c4 ,the compound style2 half ,doric and half ,ionic4 ,c4 ,the ,korinthian order passed through four phases of style3 a4 ,the undecided style2 half ,ionic and half ,korinthian4 b4 ,the finished style2 graceful and rich4 c4 ,the over-decorated style1 with strong ,ionic forms4 d4 ,the variegated style1 with decorative additions of trophies1 winged-horses1 dolphins1 and eagles2 half northern and half southern--combining ,asiatic with ,greek forms4 ,d4 ,the ,doric intermingled with ,ionic forms produced in ,attica a peculiar order1 or rather mere style1 neither ,doric1 nor ,ionic1 nor ,korinthian--a kind of eclectic style which we may very properly call the ,attic style4 ,the ,erechtheium of ,athens was in this style4 ,there are six principal distinctions in this style1 which justify us in treating it as totally distinct from those mentioned under ,a1 ,b and ,c3-- #a4 ,a particular plinth is wanting in the base4 #b4 ,instead of this1 a double contraction is transformed into one1 united to the common support by means of a strong circular ovolo4 ,the contractura is expressed on a small scale in the base4 #c4 ,the shaft is more slender in proportion4 #d4 ,the volutes are more projecting4 #e4 ,the frieze is considerably higher than it is generally in any of the other orders4 #f4 ,the corona is without the dentated ornament2 but the projecting plinth is strongly undercut1 and powerfully overhangs the finishing member of the frieze4 ,in all classifications of this kind a narrow-minded pedantry is to be avoided2 canons1 of whatever sort1 hinder the natural growth of art4 ,still worse than strict canons is ignorance4 ,without a correct and thorough knowledge of ,greek literature1 no man can aspire to an exalted position in poetry and science2 and without a correct and thorough study of ,greek art1 no man can become an artist4 ,we do not recommend a slavish imitation of the ,greeks1 but a thorough understanding of their slow development1 through the phases of unconscious reproduction and systematically conscious creation1 to the philosophical appreciation of beauty1 which enabled them to reflect in their works of art the eternal types of ,nature in an idealised form4 ,the same gradual development which we remarked in their architecture also took place in ,greek keramic art4 ,the oldest pottery was coarse1 the material generally taken from the most recent formation of the soil1 the ,cainozoic period4 ,these older specimens are very much alike amongst all the ,aryan nations4 ,the forms are undecided1 and made by the hand2 the ornaments1 as in pre-historic times1 consisted of points1 zigzags1 spirals and knobs4 ,at a very early period1 however1 the ,greeks as ,pelasgians1 ,achaians1 ,danaians and ,argeians1 possessed more defined outlines1 and a more perfect symmetry1 even in their very coarsest pottery4 ,in the oldest1 so-called ,tyrrhenian1 vases we have already a decided plastic improvement4 ,the ornamentation takes its patterns from metallotechnic1 and we recognise ,asiatic influences in the winged horses and lions1 stamped in the clay as flat ornaments4 ,the ,greek taste improved2 leaves and flowers were treated with a delicate1 idealising conventionalism2 the vine1 ivy1 anthimion1 and masks and festoons1 were used for decorative purposes1 and gave to the well-shaped vessel a high artistic value4 ,this was the most successful period of pottery for ,greece4 ,samos appears to have been the principal place for its manufacture4 ,the use of the wheel was long dispensed with2 the ,greeks trusting more to the delicacy of their touch than to the technical accuracy of a machine4 ,in ,asia the wheel had long been known1 and it had exercised rather a detrimental than an improving influence on pottery1 as the forms1 settled by religious prejudices1 or venerable custom1 did not change1 but remained stationary4 ,as soon as the ,greeks adopted the wheel--it must have been in use before ,homer1 for he speaks of it--their better-trained minds brought a new spirit into the handicraft of the potter1 which was then turned into real art4 ,korbos1 of ,athens1 a mythic person1 is said to have elevated keramic art to high perfection4 ,dibutades is said to have been the first modeller in clay1 and ,talos1 his nephew1 is mentioned as the inventor of the potter's wheel in ,hellas4 ,with reference to the process of colouring we have two distinct classes of ,greek pottery3-- #a4 ,the oligochromatic1 from oligos 7small71 and chrma 7colour74 #b4 ,the polychromatic1 from polus 7many71 and chrma 7colour74 ,i4 ,the oligochromatic class of ,greek pottery may be divided into two distinct styles3 a4 ,the ,archaic2 b4 ,the ,hellenic4 ,a4 ,as soon as the wheel became generally used1 a finer paste was required1 fit for exposure to a greater heat1 and for the production of a greater variety of vessels4 ,in the beginning the paste was coarse-grained and of a yellowish-grey2 later it was fine1 and the colour homogeneous4 ,the glazing was without lustre1 brownish-black1 and spotted1 proving a want of experience in baking4 ,we have violet1 brownish-red1 and white tints badly fixed on the black glaze4 ,with the exception of ,pithoi 7wine jars7 found at ,thera1 the vessels belonging to the ,archaic style are generally of moderate size1 broad and compressed1 with sudden and bold interruptions of the curves1 and abrupt unions of the extremities4 ,the ornament is not yet an integral part of the vessel4 ,the general forms are cups1 pots1 flasks1 c41 all being entirely black4 ,some are ornamented with yellowish or white points1 or with simple lines drawn all over the vessel4 ,by degrees a clearer understanding of the laws of ornamentation is perceptible2 the ornamentation becomes restricted to the bulge1 whilst rings1 meanders1 and floral ornamentations mark the upper and lower parts of the vessel4 ,a further progress may be seen in the treatment of ornamentation in the animals which surround the vessels in parallel circles4 ,highly interesting are the flowers1 balls1 and crosses on these oligochromatic vases4 ,with the progress of civilisation we find the human figure introduced1 surrounded1 however1 by monstrous combinations of ,asiatic origin4 ,genii1 with and without wings1 make their appearance2 then divinities amongst lions1 panthers1 ostriches1 and a profusion of symbolic representations4 ,swans are either tamed1 chased1 or killed4 ,the spirit of ,persepolis and ,nineveh1 of ,phnicia and ,egypt1 animates these pre-,homeric compositions2 they are entirely incomprehensible4 ,this pottery of the ,greeks is of the very highest interest2 we may advantageously study in it the progress of civilisation amongst them4 ,we have a period in which monster chases monster2 then a period in which men kill monsters2 then1 when men begin to settle down1 and to pass from the barbarous state of mere hunters into a more settled mode of living1 freed from obnoxious wild animals1 they fight against men4 ,the conquerors have decidedly ,aryan features1 whilst the conquered have unmistakably ,turanian faces4 7,see the work of ,lord ,hamilton47 ,at length we suddenly surprise them before the walls of ,troy2 the incidents of the ,iliad are known1 and furnish the potters with heroic subjects4 ,achilles and ,hektor1 ,penelope and ,ulysses1 may be recognised2 the first two in deadly combat1 the two latter meeting after a long separation4 ,the subject1 in these ,archaic vases and vessels1 is not yet thoroughly purified1 for amongst the heroes we see ,gorgons with spread wings and lolling tongues4 ,other monsters1 destroying animals1 surround the principal actors of the drama as mere unconcerned #8dummies4' ,we accompany the development a step further1 and observe that the monsters have a share in the action2 they seem to take part pro and con1 like the gods in the ,iliad1 and1 later1 they appear in yet more purified forms as protecting divinities4 ,it is as if the ,iliad had first been drawn in clay by potters and improved upon1 till at last it was shaped in its divine form1 and edited under the name of ,homer4 ,b4 ,the ,hellenic1 or classic1 style of ,greek pottery1 based on the ,archaic1 shows great improvements in every direction4 ,the paste is harder1 finer1 and well glazed1 and the colours are less discordant4 ,the red is of a fiery brightness1 and the black without any spots--sometimes with a greenish hue4 ,in the decoration great delicacy of shape and feeling is prominent4 ,the figures are laid on with anatomical accuracy4 ,the limiting frame is dispensed with1 giving ampler scope to a freer and still more connected ornamentation4 ,the curves are less protruding1 and the transition from concave to convex lines is gentler4 ,the canon of this period1 that the vessel had to form in all its parts one continuous line1 rendered these products sometimes stiff and over-regulated4 ,the influence of the progress in the ,attic style1 however1 soon corrected this evil1 and the potters of ,greece vied with the very best sculptors and painters in beautiful works4 ,the ,asiatic types of winged or unwinged monsters were merely used as grotesque or comical friezes1 and soon began to disappear altogether1 to make room for some useful animal1 and1 finally1 to give place to frets or garlands of the most beautiful combinations4 ,for the monstrous creations of an overheated imagination1 heroes1 gods1 and goddesses were substituted4 ,perseus destroying ,medusa2 the ,forge of ,hephaistos2 a triclinium with ,herakles and ,alkmene1 ,hermes and ,athene2 diskoboli and their teachers2 ,aphrodite at her toilette2 ,ares1 ,herakles1 ,athene1 and ,zeus driven in their quadrigas by ,nik2 ,elektra at the tomb of ,agamemnon2 ,aphrodite crossing the sea on a swan2 the blind ,chiron healed by ,apollo2 the weighing of ,cupids--#8young loves for sale2' and rows of well-sketched warriors1 representing the victories of valour1 beauty1 and honesty over barbaric roughness1 dishonesty1 and despotism1 form the subjects of pictorial ornamentation4 ,what an immense field for the student of art to peruse1 to fill his imagination with lively classical scenes6 ,,ii4 ,the polychromatic style took its origin in the very first attempts in pottery1 when white pipe-clay was painted over4 ,the colours used were red1 violet1 and yellow oxides of iron4 ,at the period when marble was introduced in architecture1 and ivory in sculpture1 during the middle of the fifth century ,b4,c41 we find these highly-coloured and richly-decorated vases4 ,the paste was very fine1 originally white1 and the colouring encaustic4 ,not only mineral pigments and metallic oxides1 but also vegetable colours1 requiring only a very slow fire1 were known and used4 ,the encaustic consisted of a polychromatic paste more or less opaque1 containing1 in addition to wax1 also flint1 whether as principal or secondary element it is difficult to decide4 ,this polychromatic treatment is to be observed on some smaller vessels1 and vases known under the name of ,lekythus 7with a narrow mouth71 and on saucers of large dimensions1 the outsides having reddish figures on black grounds1 and the insides1 coloured figures on white grounds4 ,pottery led to fashioning in clay1 and this to modelling in bronze and sculpture4 ,architecture took its origin in religion1 as also did sculpture4 ,opposed to the inorganic1 objective productions of human intellect1 as embodied in architecture1 is spirit aspiring to a subjective existence in sculpture4 ,the inorganic sternness of architecture is far surpassed by plastic art1 which embodies spirit in a less fixed form4 ,spirit is not yet absolutely free1 for it requires a tangible body to show its existence4 ,unlike music and painting1 which by a mere movement of the air1 or a mixture of tints1 produce bodies1 plastic art has to fill the three dimensions of space1 and does this by means of coarse matter--with clay1 wood1 bronze1 or stone4 ,sculpture stands higher in the scale of art than architecture1 for it is not obliged to transform inorganic matter for a utilitarian purpose4 ,at a certain period the ,greeks were contented with shapeless divinities2 a pointed stone1 a square piece of wood1 the deformed root of a tree1 a pillar with a circular finish1 or a cone1 sufficed for their piety4 ,even ,plato indulged in the untenable proposition that art was mere mimicry1 and therefore a falsehood1 and detrimental to virtue2 as truth ought to be the only aim of humanity4 ,the ,beautiful with ,plato was a mere abstraction1 applicable exclusively to the absolute #8good'2 artistic beauty was looked down upon by him as something bad and altogether objectionable4 ,the ,kynic and ,kyrenic schools held to a certain degree the opinions of ,plato4 ,the ,kynics said that anything good was beautiful--anything bad ugly2 whilst the ,kyrenics propounded that everything beautiful must be good--anything ugly must be bad2 and in this way the notions1 good and bad1 beautiful and ugly1 changed places4 ,this dialectic difference led at last to ,aristotle's deeper appreciation of art4 ,aristotle1 who rarely started from pre-conceived1 priori ideas1 but attached his deep reasonings and admirable inductions to something tangible and really existent1 pronounced1 in opposition to the idealistic ,plato1 more correct thoughts on art4 ,imitation1 mimicry 7 mimsis71 is with him the subjective formation or creation of an idea1 and therefore a process far superior to that of imperfect reality2 in fact it is a sublimated1 idealised representation and reproduction of reality4 ,next to the #8mimesis' he required purification from all passion 7 katharsis7 to be the aim and purpose of art4 ,genius and imagination were the means by which alone a work of art could be produced4 ,the principal element in every work of art was with him thos1 and wherever ,ethos1 the ethic or moral principle1 was wanting1 the product failed to be artistic in the highest sense of the word4 ,the development of ,greek sculpture has borne out the sublime views of ,aristotle on art4 ,as soon as the merely naturalistic and sensational began to rule supreme1 the ,katharsis was neglected1 the ,ethic no longer swayed works of art1 and the ,antique died out4 ,the priests at ,delphos1 at a time when ,greece abounded with the most exquisite ,apollo-statues1 still held to a pointed pillar as the emblem of the god of wisdom and the leader of the muses4 ,anthropomorphism was long opposed by the hierarchy of ,delphi1 but they encouraged the artists to produce beautiful vessels1 tripods1 lamps1 sacrificial basins1 c41 which had to be made according to certain prescribed forms4 ,by degrees the ,asiatic idea #8that ,god created man in his own image' was inverted by the ,greeks1 #8and man began to create the gods in his own image4' ,this one sentence embodies the cause of the progressive development of ,greek sculpture on the one hand1 and the ever-stationary forms of the ,east on the other4 ,the ,greeks had also idols that dropped from heaven1 puppet-like forms or symbolic carvings1 like the ,artemis of ,ephesus or the four-armed ,apollo of the ,lakedemonians1 reminding us of ,vishnu4 ,the discoveries at ,athens1 ,kyprus1 and most recently at ,hassarlik by ,dr4 ,schliemann1 prove the gradual and slow progress of ,greek sculpture in all its different phases4 ,the first ,parthenon1 destroyed by the ,persians1 was adorned with divinities entirely different in shape from those which surrounded it after it had been rebuilt #ddd ,b4,c4 ,the dresses1 ornamentations1 jewels1 and pearls are of ,assyro-,egyptian and ,indo-,persian patterns4 ,the faces of the divinities show far more of the ,turanian than of the ,aryan type4 ,the eyes are protruding1 the cheek-bones high1 the drapery is extremely stiff1 the anatomy doll-like1 and the features bear a kind of repulsive grin4 ,in the gigantic1 rock-hewn bull1 near ,smyrna1 we have a proof that the ,indian ,nundi and the ,egyptian ,apis must have had their worshippers in ,greece4 ,of ,daidalos it is reported that he was the first who improved upon these symbolic carvings4 ,he made winking gods and walking images by means of mechanical contrivances4 ,he is said to have been a contemporary of ,theseus2 both belong therefore to the mythical period4 ,though a statue of ,herakles1 holding in his right arm a club1 whilst his left extended bears a lion's skin as a shield1 is attributed to him2 and though ,homer mentions ,daidalos1 of ,krete1 as having wrought a dance in metal for ,ariadne1 which formed the model for that wrought by ,hephaistos on the shield of ,achilles2 the fact that the very word to #8embellish' is taken from his name1 points less to a distinct person than to the period in which ,greek art began to free itself from ,asiatic bondage4 ,the historical periods into which we may group ,greek sculpture correspond to those of their architecture4 ,first period1 from the #hth century ,b4,c4 to the ,persian wars1 #dgj ,b4,c4 ,second period1 from ,kimon to the end of the ,peloponnesian war1 #dgj ,b4,c4-#djj ,b4,c4 ,third period1 from the delivery of ,athens to the conquest of ,greece by the ,romans1 #djj ,b4,c4-#adf ,b4,c4 ,this third period comprises ,greek sculpture in its decline4 ,struggle into existence1 growth and development1 acme and decline1 follow in rapid succession4 ,wood-carvers and potters begin2 then we have a transition to bronze-works under ,glaukos1 who was the first to solder the separate parts of the statues1 which prior to him had been always beaten into union4 ,following up this improvement1 the artists of ,samos succeeded in making a clay-model1 and then in covering it with the fluid metal4 ,as if by a supernatural charm the bright metal statue grew out of the gloomy clay1 and formed an everlasting monument to adorn temples1 squares1 and streets4 ,rhkos and ,theodorus of ,samos1 with ,smilis1 built the ,labyrinth at ,lemnos1 which they adorned with #aej columns1 which were turned out by an ingenious mechanism1 an improvement on the art of casting in bronze4 ,pliny describes a bronze figure by ,theodorus1 which held in its right hand a file1 and in its left a quadriga with a charioteer1 which was so small that the car1 with the four horses and the driver1 could be covered by the wing of a fly4 ,the celebrated ring of ,polykrates1 admirably wrought gold and silver sacrificial vessels1 and a vine with golden leaves and grapes of precious stones1 were also attributed to this artist4 ,at ,chios1 the birth-place of ,glaukos1 the family of ,mlas worked for the first time in ,parian marble2 whilst ,byzes of ,naxos cut marble into thin slabs for architectural purposes1 giving a more exquisite finish to the houses of the gods4 ,on every side a marked improvement took place4 ,the head-dress of ,apollo was still that of the ,egyptian sphinx4 ,the faces of the statues were placid1 mask-like1 as if modelled separately and then fixed on2 the eyes looked as if first cut out1 and then placed into their sockets2 but the anatomy of the body was treated with greater care and a more refined feeling4 ,the legs were close together and the arms hung down perpendicularly1 with a prescribed stiffness1 but there were details in the treatment of the stone surface1 which promised well for the future of ,greek art1 and the promise was most faithfully kept4 ,the struggling art freed itself from the fetters of stern canons4 ,custom1 struck by the lightning of genius1 had to vanish1 and life1 truth1 and beauty as essential elements ruled the ,greek mind4 ,to blend the isolated perfections of the two sexes into one became the aim of ,greek art4 ,women were sculptured with the colder lines of manly firmness1 and men received gentler forms through a less angular treatment4 ,the artists conscientiously purified their works from all passions and second thoughts1 expressing nothing that could divert the mind from the simple admiration of idealised nature4 ,at this period they only succeeded in animating the limbs of their statues3 action was expressed with great power in strained muscles and swelling veins4 ,the faces were still without life1 and without a comprehension of those emotions which vibrate electrically in the countenances of excited humanity4 ,they could not yet petrify the thinking soul1 but they undoubtedly already succeeded in sculpturing the animated body to perfection4 ,the second period was ushered in by the versatile and productive talents of ,onatas1 ,ageladas1 ,kalamis1 ,iphikrates1 ,pythagoras of ,regium1 and ,myron4 ,greece had attained her independence1 the ,persian hordes of despotism were vanquished1 and ,athens enjoyed her hegemony4 ,freedom and national exultation produced ,sokrates1 ,plato1 and ,anaxagoras in philosophy2 ,kimon1 ,perikles1 and ,themistokles in politics2 schylus1 ,sophokles1 and ,euripides in dramatic poetry2 and ,pheidias1 ,praxiteles1 and ,skopas in sculpture4 ,if we add to this fourfold triad ,herodotus1 ,thukydides1 and ,xenophon1 we have given an array of names each of which singly would have filled the world with its fame1 and become a landmark in the progressive development of humanity4 ,athens was at this period the most brilliant centre of intellectual and artistic life4 ,men were inspired by the general animation2 they began to modify old thoughts1 to transform edola1 and to give birth to numberless productions which in beauty and striving for truth surpassed anything attempted before4 ,schools of arts vied with the schools of wrestlers1 poets1 and thinkers1 and all excited the dramatists to their grand conceptions1 which again reacted on plastic art4 ,under these influences the imaginary theogony yielded to a more scientific inquiry into the origin of all things1 which led to the recognition of the first incomprehensible1 immutable1 eternal cause1 no longer based on mere belief1 but on the immovable rock of scientific conviction4 ,no wonder that art was also inspired by this spiritual movement4 ,the conceptions of the priests and philosophers were to be loudly proclaimed in visible forms1 and the sculptor1 from a deep feeling of veneration for the ,supreme ,artist of the ,universe1 became the expounder of the divinity1 and the exclusive high priest of beauty and truth4 ,instead of singing ,vedantic hymns or ,egyptian psalms and litanies to the glory of ,god1 the ,greek sculptors hewed the gods in majestic forms1 and every touch of their chisels on the lifeless marble1 every blow of their hammers1 became an eternally resounding prayer in honour of ,god4 ,wood1 metal1 clay1 precious stones1 and marble had by degrees yielded to the creative power of the ,greek masters2 and matter could no longer resist in any way their ruling intellectual force4 ,at this moment1 under these circumstances1 ,pheidias1 the son of ,charmides of ,athens1 the pupil of ,hegias and ,ageladas1 stepped forward1 and was raised by the superiority of his genius to the dignity of king of ,greek plastic art4 ,the ,zeus of ,olympia and the ,athene of the ,parthenon qualified ,pheidias as the sculptor of the concrete form of the divinity2 for if the father of the gods had had a visible form1 and his wisdom and intellect had been incarnate in ,athene1 both must have looked as they were sculptured by ,pheidias4 ,in symbolic emblems he poetically expressed the powers of the two divinities2 and used the mineral1 the vegetable1 and animal kingdoms to glorify their power4 ,nothing is left us of these two master-pieces but the glowing descriptions of those who saw and admired them4 ,that which a combination of thousands of our artists1 with all our technical advancement1 can scarcely accomplish2 the drawing of thousands and thousands of intellectual human beings together to admire their works of art2 was done by ,pheidias4 ,men flocked from all parts of the world to see and admire his statues1 and to offer fervent thanks to the ,father of all for having endowed one of his creatures with the power to give a correct form to ,homer's lines3 ,he 7,zeus7 spoke1 and awful bends his sable brows2 ,shakes his ambrosial curls and gives the nod1 ,the stamp of fate1 and sanction of the god2 ,high heaven with trembling the dread signal took1 ,and all ,olympus to the centre shook4 ,we possess in the ,vatican a copy of the original head of the ,jupiter1 and what a master-piece even this bad copy is6 ,what a power in the bold1 arched brows2 the large eyes with their benevolent1 forgiving1 and yet commanding glance2 the full1 parted lips ready to bless and to forgive2 the luxuriant beard1 the mighty locks inspiring veneration1 and the beautifully-rounded cheeks1 expressive of creative force and eternal manly beauty6 ,the independent works of ,pheidias were very numerous4 ,besides the two colossal divinities of bronze 7,athene ,promachos1 #ej feet high1 and ,athene h ,lmnia71 we find twelve others mentioned3 of these1 six were statues of ,athene2 one colossal ,apollo of bronze1 #gj feet high2 one marble ,hermes2 three of ,aphrodite 7two of marble1 and one of ivory and gold72 a mother of the gods1 material unknown2 and an ,asklepios 7sculapius7 of gold and ivory4 ,of sacrificial statues1 a group of thirteen bronze figures1 in commemoration of the victory of ,marathon1 is mentioned as having been executed by him4 ,in this work twelve mythical characters surrounded one historical figure--that of ,miltiades2 a proof that the ,greeks attributed their victory far more to the help of the gods than to the exertions of their leaders4 ,they were much more inclined to adorn the courts of their temples and their public places with the statues of orators1 wrestlers1 poets1 artists1 and philosophers1 than with those of men who1 in defending their country against invading hordes of barbarians1 did their duty and nothing more4 ,what a scope for our artists if we were to adorn our town-halls1 courts of justice1 our museums1 universities1 academies1 public places1 and churches with the statues of those who had devoted their energies to religion1 oratory1 science1 art1 politics1 and the general welfare of their country6 ,if gratitude were to prompt us to do this1 and not childish vanity or egotistical pride1 we should shortly have many ,pantheons with excellent sculptures4 ,in no town in ,europe can the artist study the sculptural splendour of ancient ,greece with greater ease than in ,london4 ,of the ninety-two metopes which adorned the ,parthenon on the ,akropolis at ,athens we possess seventeen2 of the frieze of the cella #c-a_/e feet high and #ebd feet long1 representing the ,panathenaic procession1 we possess fifty-three plates and casts of the whole western side4 ,in all these sculptures what a clear power of grouping1 what a variety of characters1 what handsome men and women6 ,the flower of ,athens is seen assembled to do homage in joyous excitement to the supreme divinity of the ,state1 the embodiment of wisdom and intellect4 ,some are crowned with wreaths2 others carry sun-shades1 chairs1 splendid pitchers1 ornamented vases1 or decorated pateras2 some are ready to start2 others1 preparing in animated haste to take their places1 are in the act of mounting their prancing horses1 or1 already mounted1 eagerly await the arrival of their friends4 ,on the eastern side1 under the entrance to the temple1 there was an admirable group of gods and goddesses1 in whose presence peplus1 or sacred veil1 is delivered to the authorities of the temple2 animals are led to be sacrificed--flute and kythara-players follow4 ,amongst the hundreds and hundreds of figures not one is like the other2 the exquisite variety in the folds of the dresses of the sitting1 standing1 walking1 riding1 driving groups is in general unsurpassed for beauty of design1 and perfection of execution4 ,none of the figures are raised more than three inches from the background1 and yet the most correct perspective is observed4 ,there is such a softness and truthfulness1 such a firmness and ideal vitality in this frieze1 that we may at least attribute the composition to ,pheidias himself4 ,some plates of the western side are less excellent in execution2 the forms are marked with roughness and dryness1 and some faults in the outlines are also apparent to the critic4 ,some of the horses have legs too long1 and bodies too thin2 in one of the horses1 which is bending its neck to rub its head against one of its fore feet1 the curves are much too stiff4 ,the execution of these reliefs must have been left to some inferior artist4 ,what we must admire is1 that there are so few faults4 ,the correct study of this frieze ought to serve us as an example in grouping1 and would teach us how to arrange a marble strip round some monument for the sake of decoration4 ,little of this influence1 however1 is to be observed in our sculptors4 ,we intend to evolve sculpture from our own inner consciousness1 and neglect these ancient books with their glorious poems in ,pentelic marble2 we prefer #8going to nature' as the popular phrase runs1 and ignore or despise the study of the antique4 ,now the ,greeks had an opportunity of going to real nature--not with the darkened eye of ,asiatic prejudice1 despising matter and exalting spirit--but with a prejudice in the very opposite direction1 cultivating spirit only so far as it served to embellish and to reproduce form4 ,in this they attained perfection1 and to surpass them in sculpture is after all impossible2 we can only try to equal them1 and to learn from what they have left us1 to produce other combinations4 ,in this spirit we ought to study the nine figures from the eastern pediment of the ,parthenon1 in the ,british ,museum4 ,what forms1 what exquisite drapery6 ,the finest tissue of pliable stuff is reproduced in hard ,pentelic marble4 ,the drapery disguises1 and at the same time reveals1 the beautiful forms of the human frame4 ,softness and sensationalism were equally avoided by ,pheidias and his school4 ,the study of anatomy was not yet degraded to coarse realism4 ,it was not yet the aim of ,greek sculptors to distort the human body so as to exhibit expanded muscles1 over-strained sinews1 and swelling veins1 as expressions of pain1 grief1 distress1 or contortions of the death-agony4 ,anatomy served ,pheidias as a mould1 into which he poured his beautiful conceptions--the spiritualised forms of gods and men4 ,katharsis was the principle of his school4 ,the very heights of perfection were reached by ,pheidias1 ,polykletus1 and ,alkemenes4 ,gods and goddesses were the subjects of their chisels4 ,they were not only the high-priests of art--but inspired prophets1 to whom divine beauty was revealed in all its brightness and splendour4 ,the existence of the ,greek ,state was suddenly shaken to its very foundation4 ,internal dissensions weakened the safety of the citizens2 sophistry destroyed philosophy1 and mannerism grasped ,greek art1 dragged it down from its heights of idealised beauty and hurled it into the abyss of sensational realism4 ,the best specimen of this school is the frieze from the temple of ,apollo at ,bass1 near ,phigalia in ,arkadia4 7,found #ahab1 now in the ,british ,museum47 ,it represents ,kentaurs fighting with ,amazons4 ,the old ,indian ,ghandarvas1 the moist and heavy clouds that hinder the sun from breaking forth in all his glory1 and are conquered by his fiery shafts1 became in time monsters1 half-men1 half-horses1 fighting against loveliness and civilisation4 ,the ,amazons in this instance represent fair ,greece rushing into civil strife4 ,passion is predominant in action and expression4 ,amazons are dragged by the hair and by the legs from their horses2 a ,kentaur is seen biting a warrior in the shoulder4 ,bold naturalism and vulgar realism go hand-in-hand in these sculptures4 ,how sensitive art is--how faithfully it reflects the social condition of a nation6 and the feelings by which the artists were pervaded may be studied in this frieze4 ,the nude is treated with exquisite truthfulness1 but there is heaviness in the sudden1 too violent movements4 ,action and expression lose the balance of the symmetrical4 ,the women are common2 their drapery floating and yet stiff1 deranged for the sake of effect4 ,the artists worked no more with love and security4 ,the political party spirit troubled their imagination4 ,the chisel trembled with rage or fear1 with hatred or passion1 in their hands2 they saw prophetically the national downfall of their country1 and with it science1 art1 poetry1 and philosophy were to be rendered for thousands of years houseless and homeless4 ,once more art revived under ,skopas1 ,praxiteles1 and ,lysippus1 but in a totally different shape4 ,greece had lost through her civil war the proper balance between her moral and intellectual forces4 ,simplicity and refinement of thought had vanished4 ,in literature metaphors prevailed2 in politics ,aristides had to yield to the double-tongued ,alkibiades2 in tragedy ,sophokles was superseded by ,euripides2 in sculpture the immortal ,pheidias was followed by ,praxiteles4 ,the national spirit of the ,greeks1 inspired by common interests1 swayed by the very highest aspirations in arts and sciences1 suddenly collapsed into a narrow-minded1 particularising egotism4 ,tribes cared only for tribes1 parties for parties4 ,the public buildings began to be neglected1 whilst the private dwellings gained in ornamentation and comfort1 what was denied to the grand national enterprises4 ,the public places were no longer adorned with the statues of those who had gained the general approbation of the masses4 ,the artist1 doubtful whom to please1 tried to please everyone1 or to satisfy the individual fancy of a paying patron4 ,art was no more the chaste virgin sacrificing to beauty1 but became a courtesan seeking general and special favour at all hazards4 ,the divinities were no more the representations of a spiritual edolon1 but a glowing sentiment of sensual love was poured over their frames2 they were no longer ideal conceptions in marble1 but beautiful flesh forms in stone or bronze4 ,they lost all generalisation1 they were more correct in the anatomical outlines1 but a passionate sentiment of sensuality thrilled through every point4 ,kephisodotus 7the elder71 probably the father of ,praxiteles1 embodied the change in ,greek thought in a beautiful group4 ,eirene 7peace7 fondles the child ,pluton 7riches7--a splendid allegorical representation of the political condition of ,greece at this time4 #8,let us put an end to our quarrels2 let us have peace1 and enjoy life once more4' ,skopas1 born on the island of ,paros1 expressed the modern flow of ideas in ,greece with greater clearness4 ,violent scenes of deadly struggle filled the pediments of the temple of ,athene ,alea at ,tegea4 ,in front1 the hunt of the ,kalydonian boar by ,herakles1 at the back ,achilles fighting with ,telephos was represented4 ,an under-current of thought1 a kind of allegory1 may be traced in this composition1 for the boar to be hunted was the opposition4 ,art was no longer to exalt the mind unconditionally1 but to fulfil another purpose--to irritate1 to excite to hatred1 and to arouse passion2 thus placed1 art must lose its civilising influence1 and it did this step by step4 ,even the divinities sculptured by ,skopas were not to inspire veneration1 but to please by little allegorical additions2 his ,apollo 7,smintheus7 stood on a mouse2 ,apollo1 the leader of the muses1 the representative of vivifying light in art1 science1 and the universe1 degraded to a beautiful #8mouse-killer4' ,aphrodite1 the mother of humanity1 was sculptured sitting on a goat--the vilest emblem of passion in union with the purest edolon of tender love4 ,another ,apollo was represented in the long waving robes of an elegant ,grecian lady playing the lyre2 this was still more objectionable4 ,though the drapery excites our admiration by its exquisite softness and finish1 the statue appears to have been chiselled to show the artist's skill in carving a heap of waving drapery4 ,whenever art condescends to such tricks it is on the high-road to degradation4 ,skopas composed a splendid group for a pediment1 representing ,achilles receiving from his mother the arms forged by ,hephaistos4 ,the principal figures are ,thetis1 the queen of the bright green waves1 ,poseidon1 and ,achilles2 they are surrounded by a crowd of ,nereids and ,tritons1 all in harmonious arrangement4 ,richer in grouping are some marble reliefs 7now in the ,glyptothek at ,mnich71 representing the wedding of ,poseidon and ,amphitrite4 ,the mother of the bride1 ,doris1 is seated on a ,hippokamp 7sea-horse71 holding two torches towards the couple2 ,tritons play on shells and lyres a merry wedding tune4 ,nereids surround them4 ,one rides on a sea-bull1 led by a mischievous-looking ,eros1 standing on its left fore-foot2 another1 mounted on a fantastic sea-monster1 is accompanied by another1 borne by a ,triton2 other ,nereids follow1 pointing towards the principal group1 one sitting on a ,hippokamp1 with an ,eros on its curled tail2 a dragon carrying a ,nereid is led with self-conscious pride by another ,eros1 whilst a ,triton carries another sea-nymph on his winding body with placid and contented looks4 ,the composition in general1 and in all its details1 is perfect4 ,without over-crowding the allotted space1 it could not be better filled up4 ,there is a striking freedom in the lines1 and lively contrast of forms4 ,we may consider this relief the prototype of all those fantastic compositions of the pure renaissance style1 in which we see dragons and monsters1 bulls and horses1 entwined with plants and flowers1 nymphs and gods1 everything real and imaginary1 beautiful and graceful1 united into one great dissonant harmony4 ,skopas was the first 7so far as we know7 who sculptured ,venus in the full beauty of her nude body4 ,pheidias would have considered such a treatment of the mother of mankind blasphemy4 ,in a group of ,eros1 ,himeros1 and ,pothos 7,love1 ,longing1 and ,desire71 we find a classification of a general feeling into three distinct subdivisions1 executed with conscious discernment in order to produce a sensational effect4 ,a raving ,bacchante appears to rush away with dishevelled hair1 in flowing robes2 the head is thrown backwards in delirious delight2 the marble lives and breathes maddening joy1 but is vivified with sensual feelings1 and not inspired with the elevating spirit of artistic simplicity and purity4 ,of this period we may study another master-piece in the ,british ,museum2 the frieze of the tomb of ,mausolos at ,halikarnassus4 ,the greater part is in ,london and the remainder at ,genoa4 ,the subject is a battle between ,greeks and ,amazons4 ,the composition is nearly as good as that on the ,parthenon4 ,there is a continuous symmetrical stream of action and reaction1 as in the dashing waves of a stormy sea4 ,skopas worked the eastern1 ,bryaxis the northern1 ,timeotheos the southern1 and ,leochares the western side4 ,many mistakes may be found in the details1 but the whole is a master-piece of manly thought2--it may be said to have been the last manly product of the period4 ,praxiteles altogether turned the scale2 ,aphrodite1 ,demeter1 ,persephone1 ,flora1 ,eros1 ,dionysius1 and ,apollo1 are the divinities mostly sculptured by him4 ,everything is smooth1 young1 and effeminate4 ,all harshness of line is avoided1 all loftier ideas discarded4 ,the flesh become stone is placed before us in charming and full roundness4 ,aphrodite was no longer draped--but with the concealing drapery the higher conception of the divinity fled4 ,venus1 conscious of her charms1 with a smile on her lips1 and a coquettish movement of her hand1 sinks to the level of an every-day woman4 ,venus had eaten of the tree of knowledge2 with the consciousness of her particular womanly charms the ideal of divine universality was gone4 ,we possess of ,praxiteles1 an ,eros in the ,vatican1 and his celebrated ,apollo with the lizard 7,saurokthonos7 in the ,louvre4 ,both these statues are more women than men4 ,the lines are too soft2 the bodies as though without muscles or bones1 composed only of flesh and fat4 ,it is true that the older artists also softened down the too marked lines of the sexes1 and in blending them together created ideal forms of beauty2 but now the mere surface of the woman's body was used for both sexes1 to affect the senses exclusively4 ,three groups 7the one probably for the pediment of a temple1 the other two forming independent works of art7 deserve special mention4 ,the group of ,niobe and her dying children1 attributed to ,skopas or ,praxiteles4 ,greece was fast sinking4 ,niobe-,greece sees her children struck down one after the other by the inexorable decree of the gods1 who are bent on punishing the proud mother who only cared for the outward beauty of her children1 and neglected their moral inner grandeur4 ,niobe1 amidst a harmonious confusion of misery and endless woe1 stands erect1 and presses the youngest child to herself1 turning her proud looks upwards1 her eyes filled with tears of heroic resignation--for she knows the gods have willed her downfall1 and their will is unalterable4 ,this moment of agony1 of mental rather than bodily suffering1 makes the group a master-piece of antique beauty and grandeur4 ,this cannot be said of the sensational ,laokon1 the joint work of ,agesander1 ,athenodorus1 and ,polydoros 7of which there is a copy in the ,vatican71 and the so-called #8,farnese ,bull1' the joint work of ,apollonios and ,tauriskos 7a copy of which exists in the museum at ,naples74 ,bodily anguish is the dominating element in these two groups4 ,if it were the province of art to depress the soul1 and to fill us with pain and horror1 nothing could surpass the technical skill with which these two are arranged4 ,in the first we have3-- #a4 ,in the father a stifled death scream4 #b4 ,in the younger son1 to the right1 the last convulsions of a dying boy4 #c4 ,in the elder son1 to the left1 an unbounded horror at witnessing the frightful death of father and brother4 ,there is no psychological necessity in this group to indemnify us for the pathological and anatomical truthfulness of so great an amount of horrible suffering4 ,art has never to serve as a hospital ward1 and to force us to witness the contortions of a poor family dying poisoned by strychnine or arsenic4 ,not less objectionable is the revenge of a mother and her two sons on a defenceless woman4 ,in this group we have3-- #a4 ,the horror-stricken1 half-dying1 half-imploring look of poor ,dirk4 #b4 ,the merciless glance of the jealous ,antiope1 wrapt in placid satisfaction to see herself revenged on her rival4 #c4 ,the ferocious anger of the two passionate sons2 and1 lastly1 #d4 ,the wild look of the furious bull1 ready to dash the beautiful frame of a frail woman to pieces4 ,dramatic justice is here meted out by the artist in a most revolting way4 ,a bull is called in to help to punish2 it is the vulgarity of the cruel revenge that degrades the technically masterly work of art4 ,the free grouping of marble statues is one of the most difficult tasks1 and was never attempted during the classic period of ancient art4 ,a mixture of men and animals is even more to be avoided4 ,as soon as the gods of ,egypt changed their architectural and monumental position1 they lost their sway over the superstitious masses2 as soon as the ,greeks lost that balance of morality1 which1 in the form of the beautiful1 regulated their life1 science1 and art1 they lost at the same time their productive power4 ,form and idea as in ,asia came into conflict2 the formal had attained the extreme of perfection1 and the new ideas had not yet ripened4 ,art was either to touch the feelings or to speak to reason--it was to be based on a mere imitation of nature1 or to be the expression of some thought in some form4 ,this #8either1'--#8or1'--or this #8neither1'--#8nor1' which divided art-critics during this period1 made an end of art altogether4 ,the ,asiatics rent the universe asunder with conflicting abstractions based on the phenomena of nature2 the ,greeks lost their power1 when they once recognised that there was something higher than the mere form4 ,a new sphere was felt to open new spiritual beauties--but this sphere was to be attained through totally different means4 ,the formal was however so highly developed by the ,greeks that we shall see the new spirit1 after more than a thousand years1 become incarnate in those forms4 ,we see then clearly that art1 the product of the creative force of men1 requires a certain moral and intellectual condition1 under which alone it can actively live4 ,change the moral temperature through the superstitions of a terrified populace1 the aspect of nature1 the despotic organisation of government1 or the rule of a wild1 uneducated mob1 and the artistic force will also change or die out altogether4 ,the artist acts only to a certain degree on the public2 the public reacts with a greater combined vis inerti on the artist1 who is merely the reflection of certain ideas floating in the intellectual atmosphere around him4 ,is a man who sees nothing but emaciated1 beggarly1 or sanctimonious faces1 thin limbs1 hungry looks1 dwellings bare of all domestic comfort1 decayed brick-houses and crumbling walls1 to paint convivial scenes of happiness and joy8 ,or let him change this atmosphere and live in a sphere of so-called respectability2 having always the same bland smile before him1 the same trimmed whiskers1 the same business-like self-contentment1 the same stiff collars and cuffs2 hearing the same stereotyped1 insignificant phrases about the weather or the funds1 the price of coals or meat--will he1 influenced by such an atmosphere1 not draw or paint only caricatures1 and never grand and heart-stirring historical paintings1 recording in glowing colours scenes full of life1 excitement1 passion1 and dramatic action8 ,in such surroundings it is necessary for an artist to create for himself a world of his own--an intellectual world--by turning to the glorious records of the past1 and devoting every spare hour to the study of the ancients and the reading of history4 ,his imagination1 deadened by reality1 must be fed and nourished by the poets1 poetry1 works of art1 and historical facts of the past4 ,our meagreness and poverty in artistic productions take their origin in our unpardonable neglect of the study of history2 through this neglect we have deprived art altogether of its firmest basis4 ,the very moment that the ,greek artists lost their historical and poetical ground1 they took to and excelled in painting barbers' and shoemakers' shops2 oyster shells1 vases1 little combinations of chairs and musical instruments1 and small things1 with great accuracy4 ,in fact the same causes produced the same pictorial effects2 the mind of the ,greek nation had dwindled1 and their works of art embraced decorations of household furniture and pottery4 ,in these ornamentations the reminiscences of a by-gone age may be traced2 they are still symmetrical to the highest degree1 plants are still treated with great conventional freedom1 but the ,greeks only worked as skilful workmen--artists they produced no more4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,etruskan ,,art4 ,the first question that here suggests itself is1 who were the ,etruskans8 ,their name ,tuskan1 from ,tuisko1 points at once to an ,aryan branch of ,teutonic race4 ,but ethnologists differ4 ,some say they were ,phnicians1 others assert they were ,egyptians2 some that they were pure ,teutons1 and others that they were pure ,kelts4 ,taking their old pottery into consideration1 as given in ,lord ,hamilton's admirable plates1 or in the collection of the ,museum at ,clusium 7,chiusi71 we are induced to pronounce the aborigines of ,etruria to have been ,turanians1 conquered by immigrant ,aryans4 ,this mixture of ,aryans and ,mongols under the influence of a totally different aspect of nature1 on a different soil1 under different social and religious conditions1 produced a type quite different from the ,greek--a kind of transition link between the ,pelasgians and the ,romans4 ,two distinct immigrations of ,aryans into ,etruria are recorded4 ,the first about #afej ,b4,c41 when ,pelasgians and ,thyrrenians settled amongst the aborigines2 and the second1 #djj years before ,herodotus1 about the times of ,thales and ,lykurgus4 ,of the first immigration we have scarcely any relics2 the second time the immigrants succeeded in forming an organised social state2 they brought with them ,greek mythological notions1 and a kind of ,greek writing4 ,their language and writing died out after ,augustus1 and disappeared altogether before ,julian1 fourth century ,a4,d4 ,nature forced them to industry and enterprise4 ,the ,etruskans had to cultivate their fields by individual exertion2 in spring they had to ward off the devastating waters of overflowing rivers1 and in summer they had to provide water for their parched valleys4 ,they consequently became masters in constructing aqueducts and irrigating the land1 at an early period4 ,their mythology was composed of ,assyrian1 ,persian1 and ,egyptian notions1 strongly tinged with gloomy superstitions4 ,petrifactions of the most astonishing forms abound in the plains where they settled4 ,near ,cortona the bones of a whale have been found4 ,the ,arno valley resembles a vast elephant burial-place2 and the bones of the mastodon1 rhinoceros1 and hippopotamus1 are scattered broadcast all over old ,etruria1 and are still used to fence in the fields4 ,besides the bones of these huge monsters1 those of hynas1 panthers1 bears1 and wolves are found in such abundance1 that the peasants to this very day believe they grew like mushrooms over night1 having been sown by invisible spirits to give the poor the trouble of picking them up4 ,the aspect of nature and the remains of an antediluvian world gave the ,etruskan priesthood an irresistible sway over the minds of the people4 ,whilst in ,greece1 under the influence of a happy aspect of nature1 the ,indian1 ,assyrian1 and ,egyptian embodiments of the forces of nature lost their fearful forms2 in ,etruria they gained even more gloomy and melancholy figures in the presence of everlasting thunder and lightning1 and volcanic disturbances4 ,the ,etruskans had two sets of gods4 a4 ,the veiled gods1 with #8,asar' at their head1 representing the cosmognical forces of nature2 especially fire1 water1 earth1 and ether1 like the divinities of ,india and ,egypt4 b4 ,twelve lower divinities presiding over the order of existing and visible things4 ,their gods have a great resemblance to those of the ,scandinavians1 uniting in one distinct chain the ,aryans on the ,ganges1 those on the ,nile1 and those round the ,delphic oracle1 with the ,hyperboreans of the farthest north4 ,they all believed in an #8inferno1' only with the ,greeks this was an ,elysium1 a land of shadows1 a land of happiness4 ,the divinities of the ,etruskans were phantoms of horror4 ,the whole of their creed was devoid of a comforting union between gods and men4 ,this despairing faith impressed the people with a ferocious character4 ,their art under such impressions never could reach the beautiful4 ,a tribe of whom it has been said that their priests attacked the ,romans with hissing serpents and burning torches--a tribe that crouched in fear before invisible gods1 and hated every other tribe--could never take an interest in the gentler emotions produced by poetry or art4 ,they remembered the ,greek expedition against ,thebes1 and adorned their burial urns with scenes from the battle at ,marathon2 they commemorated the heroic deed of a ploughman1 who1 in the midst of the battle1 took up his plough and drove the ,persians before him like a flock of frightened sheep1 whilst the ,greeks remembered the deed in mentioning ,echetlos in connection with ,marathon1 but possessed no record of the fact on any of their monuments4 ,the ,etruscans1 however1 delighted in such scenes4 ,at their funerals they had no dances1 but sanguinary fights4 ,no less than twelve different thunderbolts were known to them4 ,they believed in a thunderbolt of prophecy1 one of authority1 one of law1 one of wish1 one of admonition1 one of approval1 one of help1 one of prosperity1 one of falsehood1 one of plague1 one of threats1 and one of murder4 ,every transaction in life1 with the best or the worst of mankind1 might have been accompanied by an approving or disapproving thunder-clap4 ,they firmly believed the thunderbolts used by the ,supreme ,deity were all manufactured in the fiery interior of ,mount tna4 ,they possessed no ritual of the dead like the ,egyptians1 but a thunderbolt ritual4 ,every day of the year that brought thunder had its special signification4 ,all the veiled gods1 and nine of the secondary gods1 had the power of thundering4 ,their conception of angry1 jealous1 persecuting1 thundering1 and lightning divinities has much in common with the ,jewish and ,phnician ideals of the ,supreme ,deity4 ,this peculiarity the ,northerns shared in their conception of ,thor4 ,the ,etruskan belief1 that arolites were thunderbolts sent by the angels against the ,titans1 has a great analogy with the ,persian legends assuming these to have been hurled by the ,fervers against the ,devas4 ,their superior divinities are1 like the kings or priests of ,persia1 ,assyria1 and ,babylon1 provided with wings4 ,jupiter1 ,diana1 ,minerva 7a kind of female ,mercury with the ,etruskans1 who had wings not only on her shoulders1 but also on her feet7 and ,venus were all winged2 others1 like ,proserpina 7,persephone71 ,amor 7,eros71 and the ,furies1 had wings on their heads4 ,white and black winged genii 7angels and demons7 are plentiful in the subterranean tombs of the old ,etruskan town1 ,tarquinium4 ,according to ,dempster1 their cars even are often provided with wings4 ,what was a metaphor with the ,greeks was turned by the ,etruskans into matter-of-fact4 ,euripides in his #8,orestes' speaks of the winged car of ,phbus1 and on some ,eleusian coins ,ceres is seen sitting in a winged car1 drawn by two serpents4 ,from a gloomy contemplation of supernatural matters the ,etruskans turned their minds to extremely worldly and practical purposes4 ,they wished to secure their towns and to protect them against real and imaginary monsters1 and they constructed excellent walls and most comfortable houses4 ,the #8cavdium' 7#8cavum dium'71 with the impluvium and compluvium 7the one for collecting and the other for preserving water71 was altogether an ,etruskan invention1 and was called by the ,romans who adopted it1 ,tuscanicum4 ,they constructed temples differing only in some details from those of the ,greeks4 ,the cella was generally square2 sometimes they had more than one cella2 one in the ,postica and one in the ,antica 7the rear and front of the temple74 ,the portico was often filled with columns4 ,the architectural style was a rough and primitive ,doric4 ,they never attained the majestic simplicity which distinguished this order in ,greece4 ,the columns had a base1 were more slender 7about fourteen moduli71 stood more apart1 and supported a wooden roof with clumsily-protruding beams1 an unwieldy cornice1 and a high pediment4 ,cinerary chests they had in abundance with divinities on them1 worked in reliefs of a decidedly ,egyptian type4 ,they used brazen tablets representing ,osiris and ,isis4 ,little clay figures were put into the graves to protect the dead4 ,amongst these has been found a winged ,harpokrates or ,horus1 with the fore-finger of one hand on his lips1 a lotus on his head1 and a cornucopia in his other hand4 ,their ancient pottery is more in the ,egyptian than the ,greek style4 ,their jars represent sphinxes and women2 their drinking cups are in the form of human legs1 with human faces replacing the knee2 some are in the form of ,mercury with a pointed1 attached beard1 like those to be seen in ,egyptian divinities4 ,some of the patterns of their ornamentation1 in general as well as in detail1 are perfectly ,mexican4 ,on one of their lamps we have a winged ,kentaur holding a rabbit1 whilst four rabbits running after one another1 form the spirited ornamentation of the border1 intermixed with triangles1 rosettes1 or solar circles4 ,with their religious notions1 it is not surprising that the ,etruskans should have devoted the greatest care to their tombs and burial-places4 ,these tombs were3-- #a4 ,subterranean2 hewn into the tufa on plains4 ,steps led underground1 where a vestibulum1 consisting of several chambers1 sometimes provided with columns1 led into the vault4 ,the ceiling of this was either horizontal or pointed1 in imitation of a wooden roof4 ,many such tombs are found at ,volci1 ,clusium1 and ,volaterra4 #b4 ,a second species of their subterranean tombs consisted of those provided with tumuli above-ground2 simple graves as found in ,scandinavia and the north of the ,western hemisphere1 the corpses lying on simple stone beds4 #c4 ,burial chambers 7cucumella7 with artificial hills above them1 and provided with a tower-like construction1 or with conical columns4 ,they are found near ,volci1 ,tarquinii1 and ,viterbo4 #d4 ,chambers1 vertically hewn into the rocks1 with a simple or decorated entrance near ,tuskania4 #e4 ,rock-hewn chambers with faades screening the entrance1 as at ,aria1 or with ,doric fronts as at ,orchia4 ,asia furnished patterns for the decoration and construction of these tombs4 ,the reliefs are full of lively scenes1 reminding us of ,assyrian and ,babylonian sculptures4 ,the figures are heavy1 the legs short and thick2 the upper part of the statues is placed #8en face1' whilst the legs and feet are in profile4 ,the monstrous element predominates4 ,harpies1 chimeras1 winged lions1 sphinxes1 and griffins abound2 but they are void of any symmetrical arrangement1 and are dry1 stiff1 and as revolting as possible in their coarse outlines4 ,with regard to the construction of their walls it is remarkable that they improved very early on the ,kyklopean mode1 and constructed the very best regular freestone walls4 ,they had arched gates1 built with wedge-shaped stones1 which produced by their span a firmly-vaulted construction4 ,the ,etruskans thus acquired a lasting merit in the history of art by the new epoch which they inaugurated with the introduction of this decidedly progressive element in the technical construction of architectural works4 ,as potters and metal-workers they distinguished themselves more than either as architects or sculptors4 ,as the ,chinese are considered as the potters par excellence of the farthest ,east1 the ,etruskans may be called the potters of the ,west4 ,in burning1 painting1 and fashioning clay they appear to have acquired a speciality1 so that their trade in vases extended all over the then known world1 and even the ,greeks furnished their houses with ,etruskan pottery in preference to their own4 ,the gloomy mythology of the ,etruskans was far better suited to potters1 manufacturing black vases with red figures1 or red vases with black figures1 or for casting dark bronze figures1 than to sculptors handling white marble4 ,they also distinguished themselves in chiselling and founding metal4 ,innumerable chests1 candelabra1 metal frames for looking-glasses1 and other utensils show their cleverness in working gold1 silver1 and bronze4 ,some ivory carvings1 described in a report of the ,archological ,society at ,rome1 #ahfb1 are of great interest4 ,they were found at ,prneste 7,palestrina71 where also silver vessels in the purest ,egyptian style1 and an ivory tablet with ,assyrian patterns1 were excavated4 ,more important even than these discoveries are four ivory tablets found at ,corneto1 showing traces of gilding and painting4 ,the carvings represent scenes of every-day life1 mixed with mystic figures4 ,we see on the tablets a lady and gentleman sitting at dinner1 served by a little boy2 a huntsman chasing game2 a kind of sea-divinity holding in each hand a fish2 and a man in a biga driving winged horses4 ,these figures might have formed representations concerning the zodiac1 namely3 the ,twins1 ,sagittarius1 ,pisces1 and the ,sun 7,phbus or ,horus74 ,the receding forehead of the driver and his manner of holding the whip are types which we constantly meet in ,egyptian sculptures and reliefs4 ,about #ffj ,b4,c4 ,eucheir1 ,diopos1 ,eugrammos and ,demeratos were driven from ,korinthum into ,etruria1 and from that date we note a decided improvement in the artistic productions4 ,the ,etruskans began to excel in terra-cotta and bronze works4 ,their vases1 amphor1 statuettes1 cinerary and mystic chests1 prove this4 ,their mystic chests 7cist mystic1 corresponding to the quippa-chests of the ,mexicans7 were made of embossed bronze4 ,the lids were ornamented with mysterious animals1 and the legs formed of the claws or paws of mythical brutes4 ,foliage and ,greek frets in good arrangement were also used4 ,their candelabra are of a superior design4 ,other works of art1 such as ornamented backs and handles for mystic mirrors1 in gold1 silver1 or bronze1 are of excellent technical execution4 ,there was1 however1 too much of the aborigine ,turanian element left in the ,etruskans4 ,the noble and elevating rhythmus of ,greek idealisation is everywhere wanting4 ,cooking utensils1 small pieces of furniture1 tables1 chairs1 and couches1 aqueducts and viaducts1 and even cloacas1 were made and constructed to perfection1 but as soon as they attempted the production of human forms1 or of higher works in architecture1 they did not succeed4 ,the heads of their figures are either too small or too large4 ,the legs are short2 the drapery in stiff lines hangs down with rope-like regularity4 ,animals are much better executed2 but the human form1 in consequence of a scrupulous and constrained conception1 and an exaggerated attention to detail1 had a cold1 lifeless appearance1 void of all spiritual animation4 ,their imagination was one-sidedly directed by nature and religion to take a gloomy and distorted view of creation1 and their products bear this spiritual stamp4 ,in everything they touched we recognise the ,egyptian mythology with its stifling breath1 and the influence of the volcanic ground on which the ,aryans were thrown1 amongst a number of superstitious ,turanians4 ,the rumbling1 fire-spitting ,vesuvius and tna worked on the brains of the new immigrants4 ,the sudden1 devastating bursts of fire and water filled their minds with horror2 they were forced to ponder over the instability of human things4 ,the beauty of the ,italian sky1 the exuberant luxury of the vegetation1 heightened in them a feeling of dumb despair4 ,the contrast between life and death was too striking1 and filled the souls of the artists with awe and dread1 reflected in their artistic compositions4 ,their representations were often divided into two distinct compartments4 ,on one side were scenes from the lower regions4 ,mantus1 ,mania1 and furies pursuing the deceased with hammers4 ,mantus of the ,etruskans1 probably a descendant of ,radamanthus1 was an infernal divinity4 ,mania 7whose name we have preserved in the words mania and maniac7 was the mother of the ,lares and persecuted the dead4 ,our readers must begin to see whence many of the horrifying scenes of the middle ages took their origin4 ,on the other side were scenes from life in the upper regions--joyous1 triumphal processions and festivities4 ,drunkenness and licentiousness are always twin-sisters of superstition and bigotry4 ,these arrangements recall the same custom of dividing subjects in antithetical groups observed in ,assyria1 where we find on the slabs hunts in the upper compartments1 and joyous festivities in the row below4 ,the subjects chosen with the ,assyrians were undoubtedly much healthier4 ,hard work first1 and joy and happiness afterwards4 ,the ,etruskans kept to the old ,egyptian customs1 reminding man continually of the short duration of his life4 ,the mummy placed in ,egyptian banqueting halls1 with the inscription3 #8,eat and drink2 such a one wilt thou be1' had a pernicious ethical effect2 instead of sobering man down1 it drove him to reckless and despairing gaiety and extravagance4 ,the ,etruskans1 though filling their imaginations with horrors1 could never master art in life4 ,they had the savage fondness for adorning their persons with innumerable trinkets4 ,the desire to shine conspicuously for the short and uncertain time of their existence absorbed their artistic endeavours1 and this fashion prevails amongst the peasants in ,italy at the present day4 ,the patterns are now filigree ,moresque2 in ancient times they were in a clumsy ,greek style4 ,to wear a ring was considered essential to man's and woman's existence4 ,this led them very early to cultivate glyptics1 or the art of stone-cutting4 ,the subjects were partly mythological1 partly heroic2 the artists delighted in strong muscles1 attitudinizing groups1 and theatrical postures4 ,in the paintings and mosaics1 with which they adorned their burial chambers1 we may distinguish1 in reference to their treatment3 a4 ,an ,archaic style2 b4 ,an ,etruskan style4 ,a4 ,in the ,archaic ,style they exhibit a thorough acquaintance with ,greek mythology and classical poetry4 ,orpheus1 ,homer1 ,hesiod and ,pindar furnish the scenes1 but the dead play the most conspicuous part4 ,we have1 in another world1 festivities in vine bowers and blooming gardens2 processions1 gymnastic games and races amongst the departed4 ,the grouping is spirited so far as variety is concerned1 but the execution is rough1 and bare of all higher artistic feeling4 ,b4 ,in the ,etruskan ,style1 stern simplicity and roughness yield to a freer treatment of the human form4 ,the thick-set1 short figures are replaced by better drawn and lighter forms2 the subjects are exclusively taken from ,etruskan mythology4 ,white and black spirits 7angels and devils71 armed with big hammers1 are represented as fighting for the souls of the departed4 ,in one of the graves 7see ,dempster and ,agincourt7 we have a soul hanged1 and tormented with iron instruments1 roasting over a brisk fire4 ,in these products1 in spite of the intervention of the ,roman period of history1 we find the direct connecting link between the old ,assyrian1 ,egyptian1 ,etruskan1 and early ,christian arts4 ,the ,etruskans indulged in fantastic conceptions1 and rejoiced in forced and cruel scenes1 and in bizarre compositions4 ,art with them was exclusively technical4 ,we may arrange their works into the following five groups3-- #a4 ,the original ,tuscanica 7as ,strabo has it7 or ,etruskan works4 ,heavy in form and details2 dresses very stiff2 figures without beards4 ,of this group we have many bronze figures1 very few sculptures in stone1 some gems1 and some very old wall-paintings4 #b4 ,the ,oriental group4 ,imitations of ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 and ,babylonian patterns4 ,tapestry1 for floor and wall-decorations1 was much used4 ,the imitations were good1 but without any effort at originality4 ,remains plentiful4 #c4 ,caricatures distinguished by grotesque quaintness4 ,this style predominates at periods1 when nations look upon art as superfluous2 not as one of the most important factors of civilization4 ,taste degenerates1 and the higher aspirations of art are crippled by distorted products4 ,the quaint is preferred to the beautiful1 and the dynamic force of the artistic element1 driven into this direction1 loses itself in a broad grin at everything sacred and elevated in ,state1 religion1 and science1 fostering a deplorable spirit of vulgar egotism1 which looks down upon the sublime exertions of artists1 as the mere vagaries of simpletons or madmen4 #d4 ,works in the best ,greek style1 but only in bronze1 as frames and handles of mirrors4 ,whenever the higher spirit of art is neglected1 the power of the artist is directed to small matters2 he serves trade and nothing but trade4 ,we have in these #8,articles of ,etruria' the prototypes of our #8,articles de ,paris4' #e4 ,mechanical products1 such as helmets1 weapons1 swords1 shields1 hatchets1 clubs1 wall-breakers1 cooking utensils1 pots1 pans1 and saucers1 were of exquisite workmanship1 but without any attempt at artistic forms4 ,the utilitarian incubus is as bad as the hierarchical canon2 both expel all higher aspirations from the realm of art4 ,the ,etruskans thought1 with many of us1 that if the house were only built of dry bricks1 the carpet thick1 the furniture solid and heavy1 and the knife sharp1 it was unnecessary to care for anything else4 ,whilst such ideas exist1 art1 in a higher sense1 will remain as little possible1 as it was with the ,etruskans4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,roman ,,art4 ,the ,greeks1 from a poetical1 artistic1 and esthetical1 and the ,romans1 from a social1 legal1 and political point of view1 are still our masters4 ,historical art-critics1 and a certain class of writers1 who would wish to see the whole universe one great court of justice with an infinite variety of crimes1 subdivided into felony1 misdemeanour1 petty larceny1 c41 will never agree as to the place that should be assigned to the ,romans in the world's history4 ,we are bold enough to assert that the whole of the criminal and sanguinary history of ,rome1 with her products in literature and art1 might be wiped out1 and yet philosophically1 poetically1 and artistically1 not the slightest gap in the progressive development of humanity would be found4 ,socially and legally1 we should be sorry to miss a state1 which had a mission of its own1 which1 if well understood1 may teach us the causes why the gentler feelings of morality were oppressed1 imagination defiled1 and every higher artistic aspiration deadened in ,rome4 ,from beginning to end1 ,,roma1 read backwards ,,amor1 was an ambiguous #8state-abstraction1' which absorbed the individual4 ,the ,state with the ,greeks was a concrete association of freemen4 ,with the ,romans1 it was the abstract principle of an imaginary union of heterogeneous citizens4 ,the ,greeks fostered science and art1 poetry and philosophy4 ,the ,romans despised science1 mocked art1 scorned poetry1 and never condescended to trouble themselves about philosophy4 ,the ,greeks colonised and civilised their colonies1 which became the free daughters of a free mother-country1 attached to it by the ties of a common worship of beauty and intellectual enjoyment4 ,the ,romans conquered1 and the conquered provinces were to furnish soldiers or labourers1 and were tied by means of despotism to the wheels of the proud state-carriage4 ,the ,greeks humanised2 the ,romans demoralised and organised4 ,the ,greeks played at soldiers in a spirit of glorious patriotism4 ,the ,romans were soldiers for the sake of conquest1 plunder1 and vain glory4 ,spirited youthfulness was the ,greek element4 ,stern and calculating manliness the essence of the ,roman4 ,the ,greek was free in life1 in art1 in the worship of his gods1 in poetry and philosophy4 ,the ,roman was cowed down in religion1 politics and life1 by the inexorable despotic force of legal phantoms1 which turned men into mere machines4 ,the despotism of the ,east was the despotism of some invisible god1 or some visible ruler2 and it often overlooked the individual in its almighty position4 ,the democracy of ,greece gave fair play to individual talent and genius in art and science2 but the ,roman self-constituted aristocracy1 or rather triple theocracy1 invented the inexorable and meddlesome monster authority1 to which everything was to be sacrificed4 ,under the tragi-comical sobriquet1 ,salus reipublic suprema lex 7in free translation1 #8whatever we in authority find good1 is good'71 they committed the blackest crimes1 which no historian could venture to commit to paper in their whole truthfulness4 ,this triple theocracy presented itself in the shape of seven mythical kings2 in the form of a nominal republic1 which was in reality a military and theocratic aristocracy2 and lastly in the theocracy of the ,csars1 which in course of time was changed into a papal theocracy4 ,the ,romans had to reverence and submit to theocracy under the form of a triple authority--the political authority2 the paternal authority2 and the legal authority4 ,wherever the ,roman turned to1 in that vast empire1 which was bounded in the west by the ,atlantic1 in the north by the ,rhine and the ,danube1 in the east by the ,euphrates1 and in the south by the deserts of ,arabia and ,africa1 he met his triple crown of authority4 ,he was confronted by some consul or proconsul1 some law1 some edict1 some whim or caprice of an invisible something1 that always had a visible lictor at its command with a bundle of sticks1 ready for flogging1 or1 in urgent cases1 with a well-sharpened axe to sever the head from the trunk4 ,he had to obey a power1 with innumerable soldiers1 ready to punish whole provinces if they resisted that ever present1 ever vigilant1 and ever-active ,state abstraction4 ,whilst in ,greece1 the individual man was developed with all his bodily and intellectual faculties in science and art1 ,rome disturbed and hindered this individual development1 concentrating the static and dynamic forces of her citizens on brutal military enterprises4 ,rome1 through its theocratical spirit1 oppressed the conquered by the conqueror1 the poor by the rich1 the #8nihil habentes' by the #8possedentes1' the client by the patron1 the plebeian by the patrician1 humanity by priests and gods1 and the individual by the ,state4 ,the ,roman as individual was never a self-acting1 self-conscious1 and free-thinking entity1 but a mere cipher after the ,state unit2 a wheel in a large and complicated machine2 a drop of water in an ocean2 an atom in the universe4 ,the ,greek recognised in the ,state only an agglomeration of men like himself2 this sum total of citizens had to serve him2 the ,state was to him a means1 not an aim4 ,the ,greek demanded of the ,state that it should protect him in the free and perfect use of his bodily and intellectual faculties4 ,he was1 if he liked1 poet1 magistrate1 athlete1 judge1 dancer1 philosopher1 fighter1 priest1 wrestler1 tragedian1 soldier1 or singer2 all for his own sake1 without ever becoming an over-regulated or over-regulating pedant4 ,he worshipped his gods without restraining dogmas2 he never allowed his individuality to be absorbed by some incomprehensible1 shapeless1 universal theocracy2 his whole scientific and artistic national career was one glorious struggle against such an accomplishment4 ,all this was the very reverse with the ,romans4 ,that ,rome had no art or science of her own1 was the effect of those causes which we have here tried to sketch in a general way4 ,the ,romans1 like the ,greeks1 were a mixture of ,aryans and ,turanians1 with this difference1 that with the ,greeks the ,aryan element predominated1 whilst with the ,romans the ,turanian1 and even the black elements formed a considerable portion of the national ,state body4 ,the ,greek element1 which1 at the time of the earliest formation of the ,roman ,state1 was very powerful1 soon became absorbed in the ,gallic1 ,iberian1 ,african1 ,egyptian1 and ,syrian elements4 ,the enervating south was not counterbalanced by the energetic north1 but1 on the contrary1 the south predominated2 and as in the south-east theocratic despotism flourished1 the same principle was adopted by the ,romans1 and worked into a perfect system4 ,that the language of the ,romans had a common origin with that of the ,greeks1 ,persians1 and ,indians is evident from the consideration even of a few words4 ,the verbs sum 7,i am71 do 7,i give71 and the words pater1 mater1 frater1 are ,sanskrit4 ,the most important pastoral and agricultural expressions are ,sanskrit1 showing that a certain degree of civilisation must have been brought with them by the settlers1 after their separation from their ,trans-,himlyan brethren1 when they peopled the shores of the ,mediterranean1 and occupied that small coast-land which was probably once connected with the ,african continent through ,sicily4 ,pecus1 sus1 taurus1 and canis are ,sanskrit words4 ,the ,sanskrit agras 7meadow7 is the ,latin ager 7,germ4 acker1 acre74 ,the ,sanskrit kurnu 7,germ4 korn1 corn1 grain7 is the ,latin granum4 ,the settlers were undoubtedly acquainted with even higher elements of a steady and civilised life4 ,the ,sanskrit word aritram 7ship and oar71 survived as aratrum the plough1 cutting through the ground like the aritram through the waves4 ,the ,sanskrit damas1 domos is the ,latin domus2 naus is navis2 akshas is axis 7,germ4 achse7 a coach or cart2 and we have in the ,sanskrit vastra1 the ,latin vestis 7vestment71 not only a proof of the connection between the ,aryans of the ,ganges1 and those on the shores of the ,tiber1 but a living testimony that the former had left off tattooing their bodies and used textile fabrics4 ,the ,romans were first called ,ramnes4 ,three races may be said to have furnished the first settlers on the ,seven ,hills1 the ,ramnes1 ,titians1 and ,lukeres4 ,from this threefold confederation we have the word tribuere1 tribus 7tribe74 ,later ,pelasgians1 ,sabines1 ,albans1 ,etruskans1 and ,hellenes joined the first settlers1 and formed by degrees the ,roman ,state4 ,as the ,britons at one time earnestly believed that they were the direct descendants of ,brutus1 the son of neas1 we need not wonder that the ,romans should have indulged in the flattering faith that they were the direct descendants of neas himself4 ,they had scarcely attained a settled state1 when they began to work out their legends and myths1 concerning the divine foundation of their town1 which had taken place under seven kings4 #a4 ,romulus1 a god-man1 for he and his brother1 ,remus1 were incarnations of the war-god ,mars and miraculously born of a virgin4 ,their uncle ,amulius1 fearing that they might deprive him of his throne1 had them exposed in the swollen ,tiber in a cradle4 ,the river subsided1 and the cradle was caught by a sacred fig-tree at the foot of the ,palatine hill1 and a she-wolf had pity on the boys1 and suckled them4 ,the founders of ,rome thus mythically imbibed1 with their foster-mother's milk1 that savage brutality and thirst for blood which distinguished the citizens of the ,holy ,city for thousands of years4 ,romulus and ,remus were found by shepherds1 and brought up by them4 ,subsequently a town was founded by the twins1 and ,romulus then killed his brother and ruled alone4 ,he divided the people into curi4 #b4 ,numa ,pompilius enlarged the town and introduced a settled form of worship1 not out of piety1 but in order to subject the citizens to the will of the ,state4 #c4 ,tullus ,hostilius improved upon the theocratical institutions of ,numa1 and gave ,rome a military organisation1 as the secret tool with which her will was to be enforced throughout a vast part of the globe4 #d4 ,ancus ,martius commanded the citizens to have taste and to beautify the town1 or rather had this done1 superintending the improvements himself4 ,he is stated to have been a grandson of ,numa4 #e4 ,tarquinius ,priscus1 of a ,korinthian family1 showed in his very infancy that he was destined by supernatural influences to become a benefactor of the chosen people1 the ,romans4 ,when a tender boy sleeping in his cradle1 his head was surrounded by a brilliant halo of flames4 ,he conquered many ,latin and ,sabine towns1 and showed himself worthy of his exalted position4 ,he introduced the golden diadem1 the ivory throne1 the sceptre adorned with an eagle1 and the purple toga1 as distinctive marks of the supreme authority4 #f4 ,servius ,tullius was also of supernatural origin4 ,he was the son of a female slave1 and the protecting divinity of the royal castle4 ,he divided the people into five classes or castes2 instituted tribunes1 and founded the orders of senators1 knights1 and commons4 #g4 ,tarquinius ,superbus1 like the ,chinese tyrant ,ly-wang1 who succeeded the five good emperors1 defiled the imperial dignity1 outraged all laws1 divine and human1 and was rebelled against by the patricians1 who abolished the regal authority4 ,the innocent ,lucretia is said to have been the direct cause of the expulsion of the tyrant1 and the establishment of the republic4 ,in the myths concerning these seven kings we have abundant elements for the most beautiful songs1 epic poems1 and artistic subjects full of dramatic power and vitality4 ,the remarkable fact with the ,romans was1 that they preserved these myths as historical truths1 recorded them in dull prose1 affixing to them dates1 each of which was a flagrant falsehood1 and used them in good earnest as the basis of their national existence4 ,the royal period ended with the seven kings4 ,rome had prepared in perfect silence her murderous weapons1 and1 suddenly dashing forward a well-trained prize-fighter1 inaugurated the military theocracy4 ,the history of this second period1 with its appalling monotony1 may be condensed into one terrible word--,,war4 ,from #cdb-cdj ,b4,c4 war with the ,samnites4 ,from #cdj-ccg ,b4,c4 war with the ,latins4 ,from #cbe-bij ,b4,c4 the second and third ,latin war4 ,from #bhh-bfd ,b4,c4 war with ,carthage and ,syrakuse4 ,from #bfd-bda ,b4,c4 the first ,punic war4 ,peace was made1 and to fill up the leisure hours1 there was a ,gallic war4 ,from #bah-bja ,b4,c4 the second ,punic war4 ,peace was again concluded1 and during the interval 7#ahc ,b4,c47 ,greece and the ,makedonian empire were subjugated4 ,from #adi-adf ,b4,c4 the third ,punic war4 ,the world was conquered1 and the boundaries of the vast empire extended in all directions2 but the warlike spirit of the ,romans had not learnt to rest and to enjoy these conquests in peace2 industry1 arts1 and sciences1 had no charm for these wild and indomitable conquerors1 and wanting a foreign enemy1 they quarrelled amongst themselves4 ,the internal dissensions began4 ,there were the ,numantian troubles1 the tumults of the ,gracchi1 and the feud between ,marius and ,sulla4 ,a foreign war happily put an end to these internal struggles4 ,from #aab-ajf ,b4,c4 war with ,jugurtha4 ,from #hh-hj ,b4,c4 war with ,mithridates4 ,from #gb-ga ,b4,c4 the slaves rebelled and called for bread and for revenge4 ,this was the first civil war--individual egotism conspired against the supreme power1 faction fought against faction2 a dissolution of all law and order threatened the ,state4 ,from #ed-ea ,b4,c4 the ,gallic war amused the ,roman spectators and war-comedians4 ,from #di-dh ,b4,c4 there was a second civil war2 from #dc-cj ,b4,c4 a third2 and the republic was at last absorbed by a ,csarian theocracy4 ,that arts and sciences did not flourish in a state of continual warfare is quite natural4 ,the houses were mean and low1 here and there adorned with clumsy ,etruskan pillars2 the temples had some ,greek forms2 sculpture was not cultivated1 and ,greeks had to chisel or to carve the scanty embellishments4 ,on the other hand1 high roads of great excellence1 and bold bridges with magnificent arches1 were constructed1 for everywhere the spirit of practical realism was served2 in every stone1 every column1 every pillar1 every statue1 the spirit of theocratic despotism predominated4 ,the charming gods of the ,greeks were turned into haughty military commanders1 not inviting love through beauty1 but demanding blind obedience with a thundering #8sic volo1 sic jubeo' 7#8as ,i will it1 so ,i command it'74 ,the period of imperial theocracy showed ,rome in her pomp and splendour1 covering inner hollowness and gradual decay with marble slabs4 ,palaces and temples1 basilic and arcades1 triumphal arches and amphitheatres1 arenas and baths 7of the latter ,rome alone had about #gfh71 naumachi and circuses1 theatres and arenas1 hippodromes and magnificent tombs abounded2 but in all these architectural marvels1 the monumental spirit of pride1 self-glorification1 vain ostentation1 and theatrical display1 is to be traced2 the love of beauty1 of artistic moderation1 and simplicity being everywhere conspicuous by its absence4 ,roman art and decoration are to be carefully studied1 that we may learn #8how not to do it1' if we earnestly intend to produce works of art1 and not works of ornamentation1 forming a very ,paradise for #8parvenus' with bad taste4 ,we have asserted that the ,romans never produced anything original in art and science4 ,their religion1 their literature1 and their products of art1 bear this assertion out to the very letter4 ,the word #8religion' is of ,roman origin4 ,the ,teutons have faith or trust in ,god4 ,the ,roman word meant the tying down of everyone to certain formulas or dogmas4 ,they borrowed their dogmas and superstitions1 their gods and ceremonies1 from all parts of the world2 especially from the ,greeks and ,etruskans1 and later from the ,egyptians4 ,everything served their purpose so soon as it helped to overawe the masses4 ,they had augurs1 auspices1 and sibylline oracles4 ,from the entrails of beasts and human beings they predicted the future4 ,flashes of lightning1 the rolling thunder1 the flight of birds1 meetings with hares1 goats1 dogs1 or cats1 announced the will of the gods4 ,the conceptions of the ,eastern gods were disfigured1 and they were made more jealous1 threatening1 merciless1 revengeful1 and inexorable4 ,jupiter the thunderer 7,jupiter tonans7 did not govern by any moral law1 but by mere force2 he spoke in flashes of lightning and in thunder1 in terrifying earthquakes and volcanic eruptions4 ,amongst the #cj1jjj deities with which the ,roman triple theocracy peopled the visible and invisible world1 there was not ,,one divinity of kindness1 mercy1 and comfort4 ,they had a divinity of peace1 to urge them on to war2 they had divinities of plague1 hunger1 fever1 mildew1 and death4 ,in their practical spirit they went even so far as to have a #8,dea ,cloacina4' ,what subjects to paint or sculpture6 ,a pale-yellow woman with dishevelled hair1 protruding ghastly eyes1 wasted lips1 fleshless and emaciated limbs1 may represent the goddess of hunger2 another woman deliberately and slowly tearing the limbs of helpless creatures from their bodies with diabolical delight1 may be a goddess of plague2 another1 placidly playing with human skulls in a field surrounded by dying men1 women1 and children1 may be the goddess of death4 ,in the illustration of a ,dante or a ,milton1 a knowledge of the ,roman mythology may prove full of suggestive power4 ,the ,greeks had a principle in their anthropomorphic worship2 the ,romans had no aim4 ,roman high-priests were spiritual butchers1 who tried to appease the angry gods with the smoke of burning bullocks1 to nourish them with fat1 with which they literally besmeared the statues1 and to quench their thirst with blood which they poured over the altars4 ,when already educated enough to consider all these divinities with a cold and sceptic indifference2 when the augurs could no longer meet without laughing and sneering at each other and their sacred office1 then the ,roman mind became eager for a more concrete god than these stone figures1 and they found a corresponding living divinity in the person of their ,emperors4 ,earth certainly could offer nothing more divine in the form of visible majesty1 recognised and obeyed1 as soon as clothed in the imperial purple and crowned with the imperial diadem1 than the irresponsible #8god-man1' who sat on the throne of the ,csars4 ,the creative force of the ,universe1 and the phenomena of nature1 were moulded in visible forms2 and now for the first time a political abstraction had become incarnate in the ,emperor pro tem4 ,the hordes of courtiers1 courtezans1 flatterers1 poets1 philosophers1 historians1 juris consults1 orators1 prtors1 and consuls1 supported by the thoughtless mass of the people1 rendered divine honours to a mortal1 in whom1 however1 the immortal principle of theocratic authority was concentrated4 ,not even the ,egyptians1 crouching in grateful admiration before the crocodiles of the ,nile1 outraged humanity to such a degree as these polite ,romans1 rendering divine honour to an ,emperor1 like ,aurelius ,commodus1 who fought #gce times as a common gladiator in the arena before his enervated people4 ,the ,roman religion was1 in fact1 a cosmopolitan mixture of all the atrocious superstitions of the world4 ,the ,romans also instituted public games in imitation of the ,greeks1 on the degrading #8panis et circenses' principle4 ,in ,greece1 ,apollo with his nine muses presided over the public games4 ,the ,romans had specially-trained gladiators1 wrestlers1 dancers1 and prize-fighters4 ,the competitors at the ,greek games were free and independent citizens2 with the ,romans they were either criminals1 runaway slaves1 or men condemned to death4 ,bears1 lions1 tigers1 and elephants were starved1 and set against one another1 to delight the spectators with their savage brutality4 ,soon an improvement was effected1 and men were arrayed against men with deadly weapons1 to amuse men and women1 boys and girls1 with their skill in murdering2 and at last1 as a further progressive development in taste1 men were pitted against wild beasts4 ,in the ,greek tragedy1 the ideal sufferings of humanity1 struggling in an unequal combat with omnipotent and inexorable fate1 were prominently set forth to purify men from their passions by showing the consequences of even unconscious guilt4 ,the ,greek tragedy was the national moral conscience brought into the most perfect poetical form4 ,the ,romans instituted a cruel reality of bodily suffering2 real blood streaming from real limbs2 the real rattle in the throat1 which signals death2 and the real last gasp of an expiring man1 afforded them amusement4 ,like their religion and public games1 their literature1 with the exception of their satires and law-codes1 was matter of fact and imitative4 ,the generation of the ,roman products of poetry and prose was the following3 ,homer engendered ,virgil1 ,hesiod--,lucretius2 ,pindar--,horace2 sop--,phdrus2 ,euripides--,terence2 ,aristophanes--,plautus2 ,xenophon--,sallust2 ,thukydides--,titus ,livy2 ,demosthenes--,cicero4 ,ovid and ,tacitus were the only really original writers2 the first faithfully depicted the hollowness of ,roman ethics2 and the other1 in unsurpassed language1 drew a historical sketch of the ,teutons1 mercilessly exposing the contrast between noble simplicity1 grandeur and honesty1 and the demoralised state of his own country4 ,if art is the outgrowth of the intellectual and moral condition of a people1 what kind of art could the ,romans have produced8 ,none4 ,and this was the case4 ,roman art is altogether a misnomer2 it is in fact ,etruskan1 ,greek1 ,assyrian1 and ,egyptian art1 dressed in an eclectic ,roman garb by foreign artists4 ,art with the ,romans was never the glorious emanation of the poet's sacred ideal of the gods1 or the irresistible civilising power of beauty2 it was merely the handmaid of power1 wealth1 pomp1 and vanity4 ,art was with them a slave1 well fed1 well clad1 well housed1 well paid1 to make power more powerful1 to dazzle the people1 to proclaim the universal dominion of ,rome over the world4 ,the ,roman character was dry and geometrical1 and therefore in its artistic taste architectural and monumental4 ,anything that could serve1 by means of technical perfection1 to promote art1 was encouraged1 adopted1 and supported by the ,romans4 ,we have given a drastic picture of the evils of the ,roman spirit2 we must be just to the great mission which it fulfilled unconsciously and against its will4 ,the centralisation in language1 customs1 and manners produced a cosmopolitan spirit4 ,greek artists and philosophers spread taste and learning4 ,distant nations were brought into closer connection4 ,the roads constructed to facilitate the march of legions1 bent on devastating a province1 served as means of communication2 so did their aqueducts and bridges4 ,the wants of an increasing population forced the ,romans to improve agriculture1 and commerce was found necessary4 ,corn had to be brought from one quarter1 textile fabrics from another2 ,greece and ,egypt were pillaged of their innumerable works of art1 and ,rome may be said to have been at that period the greatest museum of the universe4 ,the superstition and credulity which existed among the people1 by degrees disappeared4 ,africa had been considered a land of monsters1 with serpents large enough to entangle a whole army and to crush it2 other regions of the accessible world had been thought inhabited by men without heads4 ,giants1 kyklops1 and enchantresses had been said to perform incredible feats1 but were found to be without supernatural power2 the golden apples of ,spain turned out to be mere oranges1 and graced the tables of the wealthier1 and in time even of the poorer classes4 ,the mouth of hell had been placed on the shores of the ,euxine 7,black ,sea71 but when those regions were occupied by ,roman soldiers1 the mouth of hell had to be removed elsewhere4 ,east and west1 south and north1 were united under one great ,roman vault1 the four quarters of the globe were over-arched1 and the broad cupola of universalism set over them4 ,man was made a common slave to one grand and common abstraction1 typically foreshadowing the time when men would be brought as free agents under one great dome of universal brotherhood4 ,for this grand and really majestic soldering of humanity into one total1 the ,romans found the spiritual as well as the material form in #a4 ,the arch4 #b4 ,the cross-vault4 #c4 ,the cupola4 ,through the arch1 which was used by the ,etruskans1 but which under the ,romans became a most important part of architecture1 the art of constructing was suddenly freed of all hindrances4 ,courts could be formed with more ease1 and the ground-plan drawn with greater variety4 ,the cross-vault may be considered a specially ,roman form4 ,two cylindrical arches were constructed intersecting each other at right angles in a quadrangular space4 ,the intersection takes place at the two diagonal lines1 thus uniting the opposite corners4 ,the arches in their cross-form rise from four points of support1 and divide the arch into four curved triangles1 called calottes4 ,the cupola1 a third form of the vault1 was called forth in the ,romans by their preference for circular buildings4 ,the ancient mound was revived by them4 ,it was the application of the arch to a circular ground-plan4 ,a powerful larger or smaller member of decoration was produced1 interrupting the flatness of walls1 and allowing a rich variety of statuary to be used as ornament4 ,this refers to the use of the half-cupola for semicircular niches and the apsid4 ,these merely geometrical constructions would have been monotonous and without grace1 like our railway stations2 and would have been classed as works of engineering1 but never of art2 had not the ,romans employed ,greek forms in the shape of columns and pilasters1 to adorn them4 ,the ,doric1 ,ionic1 ,attic1 and ,korinthian styles were all used1 and a so-called composite or ,roman order was added4 ,the composite stood in the same relation to the proto-,korinthian1 as ,plautus to ,aristophanes4 ,the ,romans1 with arrogant clumsiness1 placed a coarser and more contracted form of the ,ionic capital on two rows of richly carved acanthus leaves4 ,this was a bad composition1 and left room for much improvement1 which was effected more than fifteen hundred years later4 ,nothing is known of art during the mythical period of ,roman history4 ,during the first centuries of the ,republic1 the ,etruskan style is said to have been prevalent1 introduced by ,tarquin4 ,square wooden huts with a rounded and tumulus-like roof of straw1 were the first palaces of the ,roman citizens4 ,only after the conquest of ,greece #ahc ,b4,c41 ,grecian architecture and sculpture were introduced4 ,from this date we may classify ,roman art1 under ,greek1 ,assyrian1 and ,egyptian influences1 into the following periods4 a4 ,the first begins in the second century ,b4,c41 under the ,republic1 after the destruction of ,korinthum by ,mummius1 and ends with the reign of the ,augustan house1 and the beginning of the rule of the ,flavians1 #fi ,a4,d4 ,this was the ,grco-,roman ,period of architecture and sculpture4 b4 ,the second period commences with the ,flavians1 #fi ,a4,d4 ,after the tyrannical reigns of ,tiberius and ,nero1 the cosmopolitan ,imperial state acquired an apparent stability in new social forms1 which found expression in gigantic artistic constructions4 ,this period1 which lasted down to ,septimus ,severus1 #aic ,a4,d41 has three distinct phases4 4 ,a phase of powerful development under the ,flavians4 4 ,a phase of brilliant success under ,trajan 7#ih-aag ,a4,d47 4 ,a phase of revival of classic ,greek forms under ,hadrian 7#aag-ach ,a4,d47 ,we may designate these phases of development as the ,romano-,greek period4 c4 ,the third period under the military despotism of the prtorian guards1 during which ,rome ceased to be the centre of universal dominion1 and each province began to feel its own vitality1 lasted from ,septimus ,severus 7#aic-baa ,a4,d47 to ,constantine the ,great4 ,art lost every basis--degenerated into luxurious pomp1 and became heavier with each new product1 and more fantastic in incredible details and impossible executions4 ,we may best designate this as the ,romano-eclectic period4 ,a4 ,after the destruction of ,korinthum1 ,rome abounded in ,greek immigrants1 and in ,greek marble and bronze statues1 friezes1 pillars1 and various movable works of art4 ,the spoils of ,greek temples and houses were set up in ,roman houses built of bricks and mortar4 ,the contrast between the unartistic architecture of the ,romans1 and the master-pieces of ,greek art1 was so striking1 that they were forced to endeavour to improve their architecture1 and art became to a certain degree fashionable4 ,the wealthier classes began to study it theoretically1 and to affect an immense amount of patronizing enthusiasm1 without any deeper understanding of the laws of taste and beauty1 but with a determination to outdo all other nations in the profession of works of art4 ,such sentiments often engender a brisk trade1 but they fail to promote real art1 or to benefit genuine artists4 ,the walls of the houses of this period were generally white1 with red painted ornamentations4 ,red is the favourite colour with children1 savages1 and butchers in mind4 ,this led to the making of red bricks1 which were mixed with others of different colours1 and thus originated polylithic wall-decoration4 ,the spaces between the red bricks were filled in with a black composition in imitation of different textile patterns1 and this mode of decoration was called ,niello4 ,by degrees1 bricks and cement were superseded by marble1 and the houses became so rich1 that a ,puritan party of ,roman iditais formed itself1 and thundered against corruption and enervation1 luxury and degradation4 ,the power of this party was so great that ,cicero1 fearing lest these stern and dull ,roman worthies should think him acquainted with the principles of artistic refinement1 declared his utter ignorance of art1 and expressed his high contempt for all such futile #8allotria4' ,the art of ornamentation became more and more universal4 ,the fora and atria were overcrowded with bronze and marble statues and groups4 ,these efforts1 however1 were not genuine2 they did not grow out of the artistic wants and love of the people--the whole movement was strange to their minds--and was altogether a heterogeneous element grafted on their natures by the force of circumstances4 ,they succeeded by degrees in ornamenting grandly1 but there was always something in contradiction to1 or in conflict with1 really good taste4 ,they used patterns meant for floors on their walls1 and wall patterns on their ceilings1 and that which would have fitted a ceiling1 they laid on their floors2 creating by this means a sad confusion4 ,asia always excelling in bright colours1 and in a secret talent for matching them correctly1 excited the admiration of the ,romans1 and they began to paint their walls4 ,they often cut out the decorated parts of a pillaged ,greek temple1 and fixed these pieces at random in their houses1 caring very little whether there was a congruity between these and their own wall-decoration or not4 ,we have1 during this period1 an attempt at #8scenography4' ,the walls were painted over with architectural views1 representing colonnades1 interiors1 landscapes1 and later1 ,greek mythological and even historical scenes4 ,in these1 ,perseus and ,andromeda1 or ,medea meditating the murder of her children1 or ,herkules destroying the serpent1 or some other sensational deed1 formed the cherished subjects4 ,under the influence of the ,greeks of ,alexandria1 another custom became prevalent4 ,the walls were more and more panelled1 and the panels filled with works of art4 ,this #8mania1' or fashion1 became so universal with the ,romans that they could find no more works of classic art1 and had to engage living artists to reproduce antique cornices1 metopes1 colonnades1 capitals1 shields1 helmets1 tripods1 sphinxes1 and griffins2 but even these artists were so overwhelmed with commissions1 that it was impossible for them to satisfy the feverish demand4 ,to produce works of art more quickly1 they began to paint the panels1 and the ,roman empire became a complete manufactory of wall-decorations4 ,light colonnades of slender reeds1 baldachins with pointed arches and fantastic monsters1 filled the walls1 and sometimes mere combinations of colours were used in a conventional style4 ,art again sank into mere trade4 ,the panels and walls were not decorated with the works of the good old ,greek masters1 but with mere imitations4 ,mannerism supplanted style1 and arabesques1 flourishes1 insignificant chequered patterns1 or geometrical puzzles1 took the place of historical paintings--poor wall-decorations in a theatrical style1 without any attempt at higher art4 ,the use of marble as a means of decoration was not always customary with the ,romans1 and was introduced by ,l4 ,crassus1 the censor1 who had his house decorated with six small columns of marble from ,hymettus1 and was very much blamed for this extravagance4 ,m4 ,scaurus1 the dile1 who built the famous wooden theatre1 decorated with #cfj pillars of marble1 glass1 and bronze1 and about #c1jjj statues and images1 had the atrium and peristyle of his private house richly adorned with exquisite columns4 ,manurra1 prefect of the armourers1 under ,julius ,csar in ,gaul1 is set down as the first who had his walls decorated with marble incrustations2 whilst ,m4 ,catulus could boast of the first marble flooring1 and of thresholds in ,numidian marble4 ,of temples1 one of the first constructed of marble blocks in a purer ,greek style was that of ,jupiter ,tonans4 ,the temple of ,fortuna ,virilis which rose on a lofty substructure on the banks of the ,tiber1 was in the ,ionic style4 ,the ,vesta temple at ,tivoli1 enthroned on a steep and rocky height above the foaming waters of the ,anio1 was a circular building in the ,korinthian style4 ,theatres1 public halls1 baths1 and ,fora were found necessary1 either to distract the public mind from political matters1 or to gain the suffrages of the fickle mob1 eager for amusement and excitement4 ,the first theatre in stone was erected by ,pompey4 ,julius ,csar surpassed all his predecessors and rivals in magnificence4 ,he began the theatre of ,marcellus1 which was completed by ,augustus1 and so enlarged and beautified the ,circus ,maximus that it could accommodate #aej1jjj spectators2 he built the beautiful ,basilica ,julia1 a public law-court for the ,centumviri or ,judges to sit in1 and hear causes1 and for the counsellors to receive their clients1 and had a new ,forum constructed1 and adorned it with a temple dedicated to ,venus ,genetrix4 ,the ,roman ,forum 7in imitation of the ,greek ,agora7 was a building about three times as long as broad4 ,the interior was surrounded by arched porticos1 and flanked by the most stately edifices1 such as theatres1 basilic1 and temples4 ,these ,fora were devoted to special purposes1 as ,fora civilia or ,fora venalia1 and were used for public meetings1 or as market-places4 ,csar tried to become a ,roman ,perikles1 but was distanced in this by the ,emperor ,augustus4 ,up to the establishment of ,csarism1 ,rome had been literally a city of #8bricks2' now it became a #8city of marble4' ,temples were profusely built and rebuilt4 ,the ,csarian theocracy required these abodes of splendour and self-glorification4 ,one of the most imposing specimens of this ,grco-,roman architecture was the ,pantheon1 built by ,agrippa1 the son-in-law of ,augustus4 ,originally it was to have been an entrance-hall to splendid ,therm1 but on its completion it was turned into a temple1 and dedicated to the avenging ,jupiter4 ,it was a circular building #acb feet in diameter1 and #acb feet high1 and triumphantly proclaimed ,rome's wealth and might4 ,it contained a statue of ,minerva by ,pheidias1 and a ,venus1 who it is said had in her ear the half of the pearl left by ,cleopatra4 ,the pearl was valued at #abe1jjjl4 ,that a ,greek marble statue should have been ornamented with part of the ear-ring of an ,egyptian princess1 is highly characteristic of ,roman taste in matters of art4 ,one of the most splendid remains in the style of good ,greek ,korinthian ornamentation is the temple of ,augustus at ,pola in ,istria4 ,triumphal gates1 these ,roman specialities1 were at this period simple in design1 and perfect in execution4 ,of the ,mausoleum of ,augustus nothing is left but the substructure1 #bbj feet in diameter1 now used as a circus for equestrian performances4 #8,sic transit gloria mundi1' if based on mere ostentation and vain pride4 ,during this period ,nikopolis was planned and built2 the ,temple of ,solomon was adorned with colonnades in the ,greek ,korinthian style1 and at ,nmes 7,nemausus7 we possess the most complete remains of a prostylos pseudipteros temple of ,roman architecture1 with the purest ,korinthian columns4 ,under ,tiberius the camp of the prtorians was turned into a marble palace4 ,under ,claudius harbours and moles were enlarged1 built1 and decorated4 ,nero burned ,rome1 to reconstruct it with greater pomp4 ,the architects ,celerus and ,severus had to build the golden houses1 of which the porticos were miles long4 ,the dining-rooms surpassed in splendour anything dreamt of in ,indian poetry4 ,in the decoration of this palace1 or rather cluster of palaces1 we trace the greatest mistake an artist can be guilty of4 ,the error is of ,asiatic origin4 ,it may be designated as a conscious #8lying' in the constructive elements4 ,they tried to hide the costly material under a cheap disguise2 a tendency as bad and objectionable1 as a #8lying' in cheap substances to represent costly materials4 ,the ,romans used tortoise-shell as veneer for their furniture1 and painted it to make it appear like wood2 we1 on the other hand1 use wood1 and paint it over to make it appear #8giallo antico1' 7yellow marble71 or any other costly stone4 ,ornamentation began to lose all symmetry and proportion4 ,confusion and profusion ruled supreme4 ,the walls of the rooms looked like exhibitions of oriental carpets1 tapestry1 and jewelry4 ,art retrograded to the over-painted1 over-decorated1 over-ornamented shrouds1 in which the mummies of old were buried4 ,for a time art was carried with ,asiatic splendour to a grave of tasteless pomposity4 ,b4 ,with the ,flavians1 down to ,septimus ,severus1 a new spirit of artistic universalism pervaded the ,roman world4 ,the ,greek element waned1 and the circular forms of the ,romans1 ornamented with an indiscriminate mixture of ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,korinthian columns1 predominated4 ,the ,colosseum1 a ,flavian amphitheatre1 begun by ,vespasian and finished by ,titus1 belongs to this period4 ,three rows of arcades1 the first of ,doric1 the second of ,ionic1 and the third of ,korinthian half-columns1 with their entablatures1 crowned with a fourth story1 adorned with ,korinthian pilasters1 and furnished with windows1 encompassed an oval1 #fjj feet long by #ejj feet broad1 capable of holding #hj1jjj spectators4 ,the circus was so constructed that it could also be used as a naumachy4 ,in this over-decorated pompous building1 the great fights of the gladiators took place2 here men and wild beasts met in deadly struggle2 here men1 if killed1 were dragged away by ropes fixed in their bodies with iron hooks2 here the ,imperators sat with all the nobility of ,rome1 and delighted in sports1 which1 at a later period of ,rome's spiritual dominion1 were only surpassed in cruelty by the pious #8auto-da-fs' of misguided priests4 ,the triumphal arch of ,titus1 on the heights of the ,via ,sacra2 with one arch broken through the massive walls1 ornamented on each side by half-columns2 was the first to be decorated with the coarser form of the ,roman composite capital4 ,the ornamentation keeps within certain limits2 the inner side walls of the arch have excellent reliefs1 referring to the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,everything yet enumerated was surpassed in splendour and magnificence by the #8,forum ,trajanum' 7,a4,d4 #ih-aag71 of which ,apollodorus1 born at ,damaskus1 was the architect4 ,the great basilica ,ulpia1 with its five aisles1 formed part of it4 ,in a small courtyard1 surrounded by pillars1 rose the gigantic column of ,trajan to a height of #ib feet4 ,the reliefs1 which in spiral windings surround the richly ornamented column1 are a kind of ,imperial record1 chronicling with historical accuracy and dryness1 scene after scene of the ,dacian war4 ,the figures are two feet high and not less than #b1ejj in number2 they are sculptured in a simple naturalistic style1 void of all idealisation1 and show the artist's talent for grouping4 ,the heads of the figures1 as was generally the case in all sculptures by the ,romans1 are too small for the bodies4 ,the triumphal arch of ,constantine1 with three openings1 is undoubtedly the most splendid monument of its kind4 ,it was of ,pentelic marble1 taken from the fragments of an arch in honour of ,trajan4 ,the proportions are noble1 and the execution is technically precise2 the ornamentation1 however1 is too profuse4 ,the second phase of this period degenerated very quickly4 ,cornices began to be fluted2 triglyphs and indentations were used alternately in endless rows2 even the central volutes of the ,corinthian capitals 7the caulicoli7 were over-decorated4 ,everything ran wild2 rosettes1 cassettes1 shields1 consols1 stereobates1 and stylobates were used abundantly1 without sense and reason1 to heighten the effect of the horizontal lines of the buildings4 ,everything was out of shape1 out of proportion1 and out of place4 ,an eternal repetition of the same forms proclaimed the same desperate deification of the omnipotent power of the theocratic ruler4 ,hadrian1 the emperor1 whose position constituted him a divine architect1 and who by his very dignity must have known art better than any other mortal1 did not share1 with many a self-conceited artist of our time1 the idea that the #8work and labour done' was all that was required in art1 and that any knowledge of correct principles1 any feeling of beauty1 any acquaintance with esthetics or with art-history1 was useless1 and that money and power of execution were the only things required4 ,on the contrary1 though ,emperor of the ,romans1 he diligently studied the antique1 and tried to revive classic art4 ,we had an imperial architect1 with an unlimited amount of gold1 silver1 marble1 wood1 and precious material at his command1 and yet he had to go back to the ,greeks for elegant forms in ornamentation4 ,he had ,apollodorus executed for daring to find fault with the confused plan of the temple of ,venus 7,amor7 and ,roma1 which was a building surpassing1 so far as splendour went1 any construction of those times4 ,the double temple had certainly something whimsical in its plan4 ,the ,emperor was too forcibly struck by the discovery that ,roma read backwards gave ,amor1 and wanted to express this discovery in an architectural allegory1 placing two temples back to back so that they made one1 to typify two words with two meanings1 that yet were one word4 ,the success1 so far as correctness of plan went1 was doubtful4 ,the cassettes of the bronze roof which united the two temples into one1 were most elegantly finished4 ,the court of the temple was #ejj feet by #cjj4 ,another tower-like circular monument1 based on a square sub-structure1 formed the ,mausoleum 7now the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo74 ,the diameter of the circular part was #bbf feet4 ,the construction vies in solidity and grandeur with the ,egyptian monuments4 ,the blocks of travertin are colossal1 and the immense building was covered with ,parian marble1 and crowned with a huge quadriga4 ,under the ,antonines architecture1 and art in general1 gradually declined4 ,the people occupied themselves with entirely different topics4 ,stoicism and ,christianity--the old world of heathen formality1 and the new world of spiritual redemption--were placed in conflict4 ,a disturbed state of the public mind rarely favours plastic art4 ,a specimen exhibiting this conflict may be seen in the temple of ,antoninus and ,faustina1 built by ,antoninus ,pius 7,a4,d4 #ach-afa74 ,a second edition of ,trajan's column is given in that of ,marcus ,aurelius 7,a4,d4 #afa-ahj71 which stands on the field of ,mars4 ,the reliefs1 winding round the shaft1 represent scenes from the war against the ,markomanni4 ,there is a certain liveliness in the execution1 but the composition is wanting in clearness and precision1 and above all in idealisation4 ,rivers1 fields1 and enclosures of walls1 are marked with great accuracy2 and the reliefs take1 in style1 the forms of geographical maps4 ,strict realism is the leading feature in this monument4 ,c4 ,during the third period architecture and sculpture1 ornamentation and painting1 had soon to yield to a continual use of arms4 ,the proud mistress of the world no more expanded her sway2 she was once more busy in decorating her rich palaces1 but in care and sorrow1 and with an anxious brow1 haunted by the necessity for exerting all her powers to keep what she possessed4 ,the provinces had learnt to do without ,rome2 the consuls and pro-consuls had so well imitated their divine masters1 that they thought themselves gods1 and the supreme deity1 the ,imperator1 lost his power over them4 ,the ,state--based on an abstraction--began to vanish like a midnight phantom at daybreak4 ,the one-sided deification of matter1 during the old heathen times1 had to yield to a totally new mode of feeling1 thinking1 speaking1 and acting4 ,the new times were seeking new forms1 and had to pass from a savage state1 through that of barbarism1 symbolism1 and mysticism1 into self-consciousness1 in order to find such shapes as would express a perfect harmony between spirit and matter4 ,in the meantime1 art dragged on its existence in copying what the old masters of ,greece and the artists of ,rome had done4 ,the chisel1 ruler1 nay the very stones1 trembled in the hands of the artists4 ,they felt that they worked without a basis2 that they heaped up blocks to see them soon crumble into the dust2 that they constructed streets of pompous columns1 some of them #c1ejj feet long1 to see them empty and deserted2 they ornamented1 but did it with a heavy heart2 their soul was no more in the work4 ,they heard already the deep spiritual whisper of other tidings resounding through the world on one side1 and the terrible temporal shout of powerful barbarians1 not yet enervated by luxury and licentiousness1 armed with swords and iron clubs1 on the other4 ,the footsteps of avenging phantoms were heard in the ,north2 the #8hallelujahs' of redeemed humanity in the ,south4 ,this period is ushered in with the triumphal arch of ,severus1 on which the reliefs are placed without any regard to the architectural arrangement4 ,caracalla 7,a4,d4 #baa-bag7 had baths constructed1 with gigantic halls1 furnished with #a1fjj marble seats1 with shady promenades1 pompous reading-rooms1 and places for games of every variety4 ,this was to be a paradise on earth1 to detach men from that spiritual ,eden of love and happiness1 the gates of which were opened by ,christ4 ,in feverish excitement1 streets1 palaces1 basilic1 halls1 market-places1 monuments1 and whole towns1 were built by the heathens4 ,the pomp of worship was increased4 ,diocletian constructed baths with #b1djj seats2 the principal hall was under three cross-vaults1 with a span of #hj feet each1 resting on granite columns4 ,sensationalism seized upon both people and artists2 a sensationalism tinged with ,roman vulgarity4 ,all the principles of architecture1 sculpture1 and ornamentation were neglected4 ,columns and arches were mixed together in doleful incongruity4 ,the arch rested on the architrave1 or often rose without interruption directly from the capital4 ,columns were made in spiral or screw form2 the variety of details was oppressive2 no rest1 no csura distinguished their ornamentation4 ,it was1 in fact1 an ornamentation over-ornamented4 ,the technical execution was everywhere splendid1 but utterly mechanical2 principles were neglected in art1 because ,roman life had lost even the one guiding principle of its existence--expansion by brutal force4 ,the vulgar in mind and taste will always be charmed by huge and imposing masses1 by the richness of the material1 the daring of geometrical combination1 and by startling feats of mechanical contrivance4 ,the gorgeous mouldings1 the friezes of endless decorations1 the capitals with their rich foliage1 marshalled in precise architectural lines1 like ,roman legions placed in battle array1 have a peculiarly mystic charm for all those1 who care more for effect than for taste or severity of style1 or more for show than for symmetry and proportion2 but if they love the old ,roman style1 and wish to work in it1 let them above all insist on genuine materials4 ,let them work in real granite1 travertin1 and marble2 let them not work in iron and glass1 or in plaster of ,paris1 instead of ,carrara marble2 or in wood painted and varnished to represent granite1 lapis lazuli 7azure-stone71 or giallo antico4 ,an artist's first duty is to know and master his material1 and not to try and bring about ,roman architectural effects with substances that require an altogether different treatment4 ,whenever we endeavour to shirk this law1 we are sure to produce something small and mean1 thin and wasted1 notwithstanding gorgeous dimensions4 ,whilst trying to look grand and haughty1 substantial and pompous1 we tell #8falsehoods' in bricks and mortar1 in painted friezes1 sham columns1 and meretricious porticos2 and we are then astonished that our artistic product1 instead of being admired1 is laughed at as a caricature4 ,in ,greece the dynamic force was concentrated on the reproduction of ideal beauty2 in ,rome it was exhausted in conquests and politics4 ,only so long as the moral force of beauty--equivalent to that of virtue--counterbalanced the eccentricities of a wild fantastic imagination1 the ,greeks were capable of producing models of art4 ,the ,romans never cultivated this balance2 they disciplined themselves1 but in a totally different direction4 ,this technical1 mechanical1 and military discipline is1 at a certain period of an individual's or a nation's life1 highly necessary1 in order to place the bodily and intellectual capacities under the guidance of some authority1 although this may be a mere abstraction4 ,the results which may thus be attained1 can be studied in ,roman art1 in spite of all its shortcomings4 ,,christianity now illuminated the world with its clear light2 but1 dazzled by the divine brilliancy1 everything in art1 science and social life appeared at first dark1 black1 and hopeless4 ,by degrees the minds of men began to grasp the newly proclaimed eternal law1 through which alone the disturbed inner and outer1 spiritual and material1 moral and intellectual1 static and dynamic forces of humanity were to attain a perfect balance4 ,in time man became conscious of his nature1 and emancipated his spirit in life and in art4 ,he began to strive upwards1 to detach himself from mere forms1 however beautiful1 if there was no meaning1 no soul1 no sense in them2 he sought in everything the redeeming ,,idea1 without which no modern work of art is possible4 ,thus1 ancient art had to yield to different principles4 ,we shall have in future to distinguish between artistic products of reality1 feeling1 and intellect1 till we shall find ourselves obliged to seek for a combination of these elements in order to understand modern art4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,early ,,christian ,,art4 ,historically and philosophically1 from the point of view of whatever religious denomination2 in the eyes of the devout believer1 as well as in the eyes of the sceptic2 by the thinker1 and by the mere automaton of blood1 flesh and bones2 it must be admitted1 that the two most important events in the history of humanity were the foundation of ,christianity1 and the great migration of the ,northern people4 ,the one was a spiritual movement1 the other thoroughly material4 ,it is usual1 in tracing the historical development of mankind in science and art1 to follow the apparent course of the sun1 and to assume that progress travelled with ,indra1 ,ormuzd1 ,horus and ,phoibos ,apollo1 from ,east to ,west4 ,this is1 however1 a mere phrase4 ,to understand and appreciate the history of man1 it is better to divide the globe into a southern and northern hemisphere2 for we find1 that in analogy with this subdivision1 the material as well as the intellectual development of life on our globe took place4 ,we may even go further1 and trace a distinction between the development of life and art in the south and north of the northern and southern hemispheres4 ,in the farthest south of the southern hemisphere we have animal life and man1 in the very lowest scale of progressive development2 whilst the further we travel towards the north1 the more animal life and the intellectual capacity of man increase4 ,this is also the case in the northern hemisphere1 up to the frigid zone1 where a reaction sets in4 ,in the south the moral power was more developed than the intellectual4 ,in the south the predominant static force1 joined to an ill-disciplined imagination1 drove man to the field of metaphysical speculation2 the misunderstood laws of nature1 and the ignorance of the sluggish and indolent masses1 gave free play to superstition and priestcraft4 ,thus the south 7or south-east7 was the birth-place of various theogonies1 and religious systems4 ,idolatry1 zoolatry1 ,sabaism1 theism1 pantheism1 astrology1 symbolism1 mysticism1 alchemy1 magic1 and cabalism originated in the south4 ,the intellectual power in humanity1 with a strong tendency to regulate itself by moral force1 decidedly prevailed in the north1 or north-west of our globe2 and we received philosophy1 as well as art1 in their highest perfection1 from ,greece1 the then most northern dwelling-place of civilized humanity4 ,all the sciences which1 through their beneficial influence have promoted the welfare and progress of humanity1 were fostered in the ,north4 ,in the ,north1 astronomy1 geography1 history1 botany1 zoology1 physiology1 anatomy1 chemistry1 geology1 and cosmogony were developed4 ,the savage of the ,south1 up to our days1 does not go beyond an ornamentation with geometrical figures2 he can neither produce animals nor the human figure4 ,the ,egyptians surpassed the ,assyrians and ,babylonians in their monumental architecture1 but in the plastic reproduction of the human form they never succeeded4 ,their sitting figures had legs and thighs forming right angles in the side view1 while in front they were parallel2 the drapery was merely marked by lines1 rarely interrupted by folds4 ,in their historical and allegorical bas-reliefs the composition is devoid of elegance and correctness of outlines2 but they already showed a remarkable power in drawing animals4 ,the ,indians reached a higher stage of progress in sculpture2 their mythology and poetry furnished them with a variety of subjects1 with which they covered the walls of their shrines and temples2 after the doctrines of ,buddha became more universal1 they attained grandeur in their architecture1 combined with a certain degree of elegance4 ,the human form is reproduced with ease2 the proportions1 though too soft1 too sensual1 are more correct than with the ,egyptians4 ,so long as the ,greek artists worked with reverence and modesty1 inspired by faith in the gods1 they were capable of understanding ,god's revelation of beauty in man's outer form4 ,so long as the ,romans unconsciously worked in this spirit1 they produced their stupendous architectural monuments4 ,when1 however1 ,state and citizens were forced by false principles to war with reality for a beggarly existence1 or to plunge into mere sensuous enjoyments1 man came to an open rupture with his destiny1 and humanity might have perished altogether in sin and iniquity1 had not ,providence mercifully interfered by freeing1 through ,christ1 the #8inner man'--that is1 the intellectual and moral force in man--thus preparing humanity for a higher progressive life4 ,the south of ,asia had to go through the same religious and artistic phases of development4 ,buddhism stands to ,brahmanism in the same relation as ,christianity to ,mosaism and ,heathenism4 ,excepting1 however1 that both religions were reformations of older established creeds1 all analogy between them ceases4 ,the proof of the difference lies in the diametrically opposed development produced by ,buddhism and ,christianity4 ,it is true that ,buddhism teaches us not to kill1 not to steal1 not to lie1 and not to be drunken4 ,christianity does the same4 ,buddha1 in twelve other ordinances1 extols self-abnegation1 poverty1 and commands all to meditate amongst the tombs on the fleeting transitoriness of our earthly existence4 ,christianity does the same4 ,christ1 however1 redeemed and freed our spiritual nature1 and brought it into a self-conscious1 vivid activity2 whilst ,buddhism degraded this higher individual nature into a nonentity1 denying that there was an independent moral agent in us2 teaching that we were phenomena of an all-pervading divine power1 by which universality we should be absorbed after life4 ,so long as ,christianity held1 though in a different shape1 nearly the same mystic principles as ,buddhism1 the results in art were the same2 for our ecclesiastical art was a revival of ,buddhistic temples1 with all their divisions and sub-divisions1 their pointed arches1 their variegated columns and pillars1 the triforium1 the altar 7,daghopa71 cloisters1 chapels1 and crypts4 ,christ's divine words resounded at a period when the ,greeks had long turned their minds to the licentious worship of the sensuous4 ,the ,egyptians1 sighing under their ,roman taskmasters1 had taken refuge in dark mysticism1 the meaning of which had been long lost to them2 the ,jews were divided into quarrelling sects1 sunken in religious indifference1 or occupied with mere outward formalities1 hating everyone and hated by everyone4 ,the ,romans knelt tremblingly before an imperial divinity1 slaves and poor being considered mere burdens on society2 the rich were merciless1 debauched1 and revelled in amusements2 infanticides1 suicides1 murder and decay1 despair and annihilation1 were every-day occurrences4 ,at this period1 under such circumstances1 the divine ,master died on the cross1 sealing with his death the one great tiding of love3 #8that we are all children of one ,father1 who is in heaven4' ,the god of revenge of the old world was transformed into a ,god of inexhaustible love4 ,with the ,jews and the ancients1 he only was blessed who had plenty on earth2 now1 the pure in mind1 whether poor or rich1 weak or mighty1 beautiful or ugly1 was extolled4 ,god was not merely present in the universe as its living soul1 or in a burning bush1 in thunder and lightning1 in growling volcanoes1 in an ark1 a carved idol1 a statue or in a temple4 ,god was present1 wherever a kind1 loving1 and forgiving mind was ready to be ,his ark or temple4 ,christ repudiated all local gods2 did not require any sacrifices of plants or animals2 did not prescribe any diet1 or outward sanguinary sign2 did not allow polygamy2 did not proclaim his followers the only chosen children of the ,father of ,all2 but taught the one and indivisible1 and ever-true law of peace1 love1 and tolerance4 ,this doctrine is as universal as intellect2 it must be of as divine origin as intellect itself2 it is1 and can be1 the only faith which must once unite ,humanity into one great loving and beloved brotherhood4 ,what a change6 ,not only a change2 it was the building up of a new glorious future2 it was the re-establishment of the lost balance between the working forces of humanity2 it was the redemption of our individual1 moral1 and intellectual capacities2 it was the enunciation of an eternal law1 under which humanity had1 till then1 unconsciously developed1 but of which it became conscious in word as well as in spirit1 through ,christ4 ,slavery in body or mind was1 at least in principle1 for ever abolished2 and one of the noblest edifices of ,byzantine architecture in ,italy1 the church of ,st4 ,vitale at ,ravenna1 was dedicated by ,justinian1 a ,roman ,emperor1 to the memory of a slave1 who was martyred for the sake of his piety and love4 ,hospitals for the poor and sick1 ,xenodochia 7refuges for strangers7 began to be built--architectural constructions of which the whole ancient world could not boast4 ,the ,christian spirit at first struggled to find a corresponding form in art2 the new wine was put into the old vessels till it burst the decaying fetters and issued forth in a life-giving art-stream1 in two directions3-- 7a7 ,as ,romanesque art in the ,west1 a decaying continuation of ,roman art2 7b7 ,as ,byzantine art in the ,east1 a revival of ,asiatic art4 ,the beginning of ,christian plastic and pictorial art is to be looked for in subterranean caves2 in catacombs1 used by ,egyptians1 ,assyrians1 ,persians1 ,greeks1 ,etruskans1 and ,romans as burial-places4 ,the deep but simple doctrines of ,christ were at first hidden in symbols1 types1 allegories and emblems4 ,in a ,,symbol we try to express a general idea by a special outward sign1 totally heterogeneous in form to the meaning4 ,geometrical figures1 plants1 and animals1 furnish the elements of symbolism4 ,in the ,,allegory the artist represents congruities1 traces connections1 unites analogies and separates differences4 ,imagination has in allegories an inexhaustible field for composition4 ,,types are signs1 arbitrarily interpreted as meaning something1 which they may or may not mean4 ,,emblems with the ,greeks were golden or silver figures which could be detached from vessels4 ,with the ,romans the word was used as a synonym for symbol or metaphor4 ,they became with us ,christians signs in colours4 ,white or blue was the emblem of innocence1 red of joy1 black of mourning1 green of hope1 and purple of power or dignity4 ,,myths generally had their origin in symbols and allegories1 which found interpreters1 commentators1 exegists1 and expounders in the priests of the ancient world4 ,later1 the myths were taken up by poets and artists1 and the dogmatic explanations of mystic signs were transformed into legends1 tales1 sagas1 or even into historical facts4 ,nothing affords greater delight to the inquisitive mind of man than a mystic sign6 ,the more unintelligible such a sign is1 the more welcome it is to the childish creature4 ,anything veiled in doubt1 shrouded in a symbol or type1 has a peculiar charm4 ,anything that can only be guessed at1 or dimly felt1 is more admired than that which lies clearly before our perceptive faculty4 #8,mysteries were taught in symbols1 in darkness at night-time2 the symbolic itself is to be compared to night and darkness1' says ,demetrius4 ,no wonder that symbols were adopted by the first followers of ,christ4 ,they were too near to ,egypt2 the ancient world had not yet altogether lost its hold on the minds of the masses1 and they could not have avoided availing themselves of forms which were used by ,indians1 ,greeks1 ,egyptians1 or ,romans4 ,in the old catacombs of ,st4 ,sebastiano1 ,st4 ,calisto1 ,st4 ,lorenzo1 and ,sta4 ,agnese at ,rome1 extending altogether to about #gej miles1 and in those of ,st4 ,gennaro de ,poveri1 ,sta4 ,maria della ,sanit1 and ,sta4 ,maria della ,vita at ,naples1 we find some attempts at symbolism2 the cross1 the monogram of ,christ's name ,,chr2 or an ,a1 symbolical of the beginning and the end of all things2 a palm branch1 doves1 the piscis vesica1 and here and there a lamb4 ,but these signs belong to the fourth and fifth centuries ,a4,d4 ,the inscriptions do not go farther back than the second century4 ,the homely simplicity of the early ,christians is distinctly to be traced in the absence of all symbolic decoration during the first two centuries4 ,gradually the ,christians passed through the phase of geometrical ornamentation4 ,triangles and circles1 crosses and squares1 squares divided into four squares1 or the square taken three times1 giving twelve points1 which number contains the sacred numbers2 three 7the ,trinity71 five 7the five sacred wounds of ,christ71 seven 7the seven cardinal virtues1 or the seven days of ,creation71 and twelve 7the twelve apostles71 made their appearance4 ,seven was a holy and mystic number with all the ancient nations4 ,there were seven planets1 and seven colours in olden times2 ,apollo's lyre had seven strings2 ,pan used seven pipes for his flute4 ,there are seven days of the week2 seven or three times seven are the critical days in medicine2 there were seven branches to the candlestick of the ,jews in the ,temple of ,jerusalem4 ,seven years ,jacob had to serve for ,leah2 and seven others for ,rachel2 seven were the ears and kine of which ,pharaoh dreamt2 seven were the gods in ,scandinavian mythology2 seven were the sufferings of the ,virgin ,mary2 seven the cardinal virtues2 seven the deadly sins2 seven are the sacraments of the ,romish ,church4 ,we cannot fail to see in the minutest details of history and art1 philosophy and religious systems1 an eternally progressing #8one-ness' pervading humanity as a great whole4 ,scarcely had the ,christians adopted these signs1 when they passed on to the next phase1 adorning churches and tombs1 altars and sacred vessels1 with emblems taken from the vegetable and animal kingdoms1 to serve as the holy visible outward signs of some sacred inward grace or virtue4 ,what was immortal was to be expressed in mortal forms1 and the finite was to embody the infinite4 ,again1 the meaning hallowed the form2 again1 by degrees1 the form became all1 and the spirit was altogether lost through the mere outward sign4 ,art suffered for centuries under the gloomy pressure of symbolism1 and in striving to disentangle itself1 produced marvels1 but it was only freed and attained higher forms of beauty again1 when humanity had gone back to those laws1 which when followed out had produced forms perfect in themselves4 ,for centuries art revelled in the reproduction of symbolical crows1 eagles1 peacocks1 doves1 gridirons1 pitchers1 beehives1 oxen1 pigs1 bulls1 geese1 violins1 fishes1 c41 as the attributes of ,st4 ,sebastian1 ,st4 ,john1 ,sta4 ,barbara1 ,st4 ,thomas of ,aquin1 ,st4 ,cyprian1 ,st4 ,narcissus1 ,st4 ,bernard1 ,st4 ,sebaldus1 ,st4 ,anthony1 ,st4 ,martin1 ,st4 ,genesius1 ,st4 ,chrysogonus1 c4 ,a whole science arose out of these symbols and emblems3 ,iconology1 which differs only in form from mythology4 ,the mere phenomena of nature were no longer embodied2 the individual spirit that lived in the form1 became all in all4 ,we were thus introduced to a two-fold world by ,christian art4 7#a7 ,into a spiritual world1 in which our intellect moved1 as it were1 in a circle4 ,we took our beginning in the infinite1 lost our transitory bodily form1 and returned to the infinite from which we emanated--a kind of idealisation of the corporeal4 7#b7 ,a world of external forms1 which in their individual phenomena had only a meaning as the fragile temporary vessels of the eternal ,spirit2 this ,spirit was no longer a universal sum total by which the individual was hereafter absorbed1 but was assumed to remain individualised through all eternity4 ,artists and men worked not only for this world1 but their deeds were to outlast all time to come4 ,in this two-fold world1 ,christian art went through the following phases3-- 7a7 ,through a historical phase1 which commenced with ,christ's birth1 life1 death1 and resurrection1 as the new central point of all things4 ,the eternal ,spirit was embodied1 worked in a finite form1 and freed from it1 regained its absolute divinity4 ,this led in time to sublime historical sketches in sculpture and painting4 7b7 ,through a religious phase4 ,the spirit1 freed and redeemed by ,christ1 sought in deeds of harmonious love totally new spheres of action4 ,crystals1 flowers1 trees1 landscapes1 animals and men1 were interwoven to proclaim not only outward beauty1 as with the ,greeks1 but a union of the inorganic and the organic1 the ancient and the new worlds1 in honour of one ,god in three emanations or personifications4 ,so long as bishops1 priests1 elders1 deacons and laymen1 were occupied in trying to shape the new spirit into words1 art appeared to slumber4 ,a too strong storm-wind of dissension on metaphysical niceties1 of mystic and dogmatic hair-splittings1 hindered a plastic treatment of ,christianity4 ,gnostics1 ,nestorians1 ,manichans1 ,donatists1 ,arians1 and ,athanasians1 c41 wasted the energies of the early ,christian artists1 with their wild distinctions1 their incomprehensible differences4 ,quarrels as to whether a blessing was more efficacious when bestowed with three or only with two uplifted fingers2 whether crosses of equal parts1 or crosses in which one division was smaller than the other1 were more powerful1 did not promote the productive ability of artists4 ,when1 under ,constantine1 ,christianity was elevated to the rank of a ,state religion1 churches were built in honour of the new faith4 ,in the ,west the ,roman ,basilic were given up to the religious worship of the ,christians1 and in time1 mixed with ,teuton forms1 produced the ,romanesque style4 ,in the ,east a lively revival of ,asiatic forms1 of ,indian1 ,assyrian1 and ,babylonian patterns1 took place1 and from these combinations we have the so-called ,byzantine style4 ,the general characteristics of the early ,christian style1 in which the form of the ,roman basilica predominated1 were the following3--,the apsis1 the seat of the bishop and clergy1 was semicircular4 ,between the apsis and the nave stood the altar1 or rather the common table1 canopied by a baldachin supported by columns4 ,the walls were covered with figures of ,christ4 ,the main body consisted of a broad and lofty central nave1 on the two sides of which there were two lower passages1 divided by rows of columns1 supporting the upper wall of the nave either by a common architrave1 or by strong circular arches4 ,the upper wall was provided with large broad windows1 some being also placed in the low walls of the side-aisles4 ,the apsis was kept in mystic darkness4 ,the threefold division of the ,indian1 ,egyptian1 and ,hebrew temples was carefully kept up4 ,the priests assembled in the apsis2 the worshippers in the hall or the galleries2 and the penitents or sinners stopped at the entrance4 ,of this period1 we have the ,basilica of ,reparatus1 in ,tingitanum 7now ,orlansville7 in ,algeria1 and another in ,el ,hayz1 on a small oasis1 in the ,libyan desert4 ,in the former the pillars were probably square1 and the apsis is not marked outside4 ,the latter is furnished with vaulted aisles1 adorned with pilasters and niches in the ,romano-,egyptian style4 ,under ,constantine1 ,christian churches of larger dimensions were constructed2 marble decorations and a profusion of columns were common4 ,the five aisles still predominated1 the ,athanasians not having yet succeeded in establishing the ,trinitarian doctrine4 ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome 7rebuilt in the #afth century72 ,sta4 ,croce at ,jerusalem1 and the ,church of ,sta4 ,maria at ,bethlehem1 built by ,helena1 the wife of ,constantine1 were splendid specimens of the pure early ,christian style4 ,the transept before the raised apsis was an innovation4 ,the central aisle 7the nave7 rises in independent loftiness4 ,the galleries are dispensed with1 as the dimensions of the building are considerably increased4 ,light is admitted through windows in the lofty central aisle4 ,the lines all tend towards the altar1 and the high tribune4 ,the nave is separated from the transept by a lofty arch supported by pillars4 ,the transept is provided with broad windows1 throwing the greatest amount of light on the altar1 by which means a sublime effect is attained4 ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 and ,sta4 ,maria at ,bethlehem1 are provided with cross-beams1 which do not accord with the superstructure1 which is too heavy4 ,before these churches1 in a court-yard1 stood the fountain4 ,these fountains were common to all the ,indian1 ,egyptian1 and ,hebrew temples1 because the sanctity of water was recognised by all the religious sects of the ,southeast4 ,san ,paolo fuori le mura belonged to this class of churches4 ,it was constructed by ,theodosius and ,honorius4 #8,the mighty apsis1 about eighty feet in breadth1 is increased in effect by a lofty transept1 which stretches in front of it1 across the whole nave4 ,the body of the church has five aisles4 ,eighty granite columns1 connected by circular arches1 rise in four rows in order to divide the aisles1 and to support the upper wall of the central aisle1 and the framework of the roof4 ,the main aisle opens into the transept with a broad and lofty triumphal arch1 which rests on two colossal columns4 ,a splendid atrium1 surrounded with colonnades1 was added to the front1 completing the plan of this basilica4' ,the high walls above the central isle fulfilled a double purpose3 they vividly expressed an expanding tendency upwards1 and filled the soul with the idea of the infinite4 ,this tendency was still more strongly expressed in ecclesiastical or ,gothic architecture4 ,scenes from the life of ,christ and his disciples were painted1 and1 in imitation of ,roman decoration1 gilded panels and marble pavings were freely used4 ,after the fourth century the five aisles were gradually abandoned1 and only three were used1 symbolic of the ,trinity4 ,we have here a kind of ,indian or rather ,buddhistic renaissance4 ,when ,ravenna became the seat of the ,byzantine ,exarchs 7viceroys71 the ,ostrogoth influences which were perceptible under ,theodoric vanished1 and a freer organisation of the sacred edifices was introduced by the addition of an independent bell-tower1 reminding us of the ,buddhistic towers or pillars1 the ,irish round towers1 the minarets of the ,mahomedans1 and the obelisks of the ,egyptians4 ,the tower rose in a cylindrical form1 without tapering4 ,the roofs of the churches were generally flat4 ,strong wall pillars1 connected by circular arches1 framed the windows as a repetition of the arcades below4 ,the capitals retained a double row of acanthus leaves1 but the imposts became stronger1 taking the form of a coffin or a small altar1 adorned with crosses1 or the monogram of ,christ4 ,the churches of ,st4 ,vitale and ,st4 ,apollinare in ,classe1 are models of this transition style1 which formed the link between the ,romanesque and the ,byzantine4 ,in these we find ,greek marble columns1 profuse mosaics on gold grounds1 panels and medallions filled with historical scenes1 or the portraits of bishops1 prophets1 saints1 and martyrs2 the decoration is heavy in outlines1 the forms and figures too naturalistic2 the taste gorgeous without refinement2 and the technical treatment rough and defective4 ,whilst the architectural and ornamental styles were receiving fixed forms as the pure ,romanesque of the ,west--through the influence of the ,teutons1 who became masters of ,italy and worked with greater stiffness1 simplicity1 and angularity--,byzantine architecture assumed1 from the time of ,justinian1 a peculiarly pompous1 ,asiatic type4 ,the dome prevailed2 the ground-plan was composed of squares and circles4 ,ceremonies and mysteries borrowed from the ,egyptians1 ,persians1 and ,romans1 and the division of priests into different castes1 required a different arrangement of the building4 ,there was a place for the high and one for the low clergy2 another for the laymen2 the galleries were1 in the old ,jewish fashion1 assigned to the women2 and1 lastly1 there was a place for the penitent4 ,these divisions and subdivisions induced confusion and disunion in the whole plan4 ,many of the ,christian buildings have become1 in their turn1 ,mahomedan mosques1 just as the ,roman basilic of old were turned into ,christian churches4 ,the mightiest and the most gigantic of all ,byzantine churches is undoubtedly that of ,st4 ,sophia1 at ,constantinople4 ,first the building was a temple dedicated to #8,holy ,wisdom1' in the ancient or classic meaning of the word4 ,the edifice was destroyed by fire1 and rebuilt by ,justinian in five years 7,a4,d4 #ecb-ecg74 ,twenty years later it was much damaged by an earthquake4 ,the injured dome was removed1 raised somewhat higher upon strengthened counterfoils1 and finished ,a4,d4 #efc4 ,the architects were ,anthemis of ,tralles1 and ,isidorus of ,miletus4 ,the ground-plan1 ornamentation1 and construction1 aim in combination at one single result--surprise4 ,there is a contradiction between lengths and circles1 destroying all effect of simple perspective4 ,the various cupolas1 arches1 and half-cupolas1 connected with great technical skill1 have no organically united life4 ,an antediluvian world opens its gates to us4 ,there is everywhere something astounding and gorgeous1 but we are unable to discern the necessity for the existence of the parts1 to form a coherent total4 ,the galleries with their colonnades puzzle us4 ,the outer square-form1 overtowered by a mighty cupola1 and by half-cupolas1 is as incongruous as the ornamentation of the interior4 ,the shafts of the columns are amongst the finest specimens of ,roman architecture4 ,walls and pillars are adorned with variegated marble panels in mosaic patterns4 ,the roofs of the dome and semi-domes are covered with gold mosaics1 set in coloured ornamented frames1 interspersed with figurative tapestry-like representations4 ,christ1 saints1 and prophets1 are suspended in golden clouds4 ,the effect on an untutored mind is perfectly intoxicating4 ,though we do not underrate the fully developed system of stone-roof construction1 we must draw the attention of our readers to the heavy and shapeless capitals with the scarcely recognisable ,ionic volutes1 combined with ,corinthian leaf-work2 all outlines being smothered by over-ornamentation1 destroying the beautiful effect of the antique by a clumsy impost4 ,byzantine architecture remained stationary for hundreds of years4 ,the religious spirit went hand in hand with their stiff1 lifeless art4 ,ignorance and credulity engendered in the ,east a boundless intolerance of all divergence of opinion1 to which was added an equally boundless toleration of falsehoods and frauds1 so soon as these means served to support the received opinions4 ,an intellectual standstill was the result of these principles1 and acted on art1 rendering it in general as well as in detail an unwieldy mixture of ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,greek1 and ,roman forms1 overloaded with ,asiatic filigree composed of lines drawn from ,christian symbolism4 ,the ,byzantine style of ornamentation will always be1 like that of ,china1 a strange element to us4 ,however much the ingenuity of the winding1 coiling1 and recoiling lines1 interspersed with small and large jewels1 may interest us1 though we may gaze at the profusion of gold mixed with gaudy colours with a kind of vague bewilderment1 ,byzantine art can never appeal to our sense of beauty4 ,a most important branch of ,byzantine ornamentation was the treatment of metals4 ,for flat decoration1 in the style of embroidery1 nothing can excel the use of metal1 be it gold1 silver1 bronze1 or steel1 or a combination of all these4 ,there was a fantastic originality in these productions which1 when combined with an assiduous study of the antique1 may aid us in many instances to produce excellent specimens of book-covers1 patterns for ornamented salvers1 caskets1 cups1 candlesticks1 crosses1 c4 ,byzantine art1 however1 is the very opposite of classic art4 ,repose1 as a consequence of the liveliest vibration of forms1 and uniformity through a rich variation of patterns1 are the real elements of ,byzantine and ,oriental art2 in contradistinction to classic art1 which is based on the authority of purpose and a correct subordination of details4 ,this is the reason why the free but well-systematised ornaments of classic ,greece were revived at this period with ,assyrian1 ,babylonian1 and ,persian textile patterns in metal1 stone1 or colours4 ,nothing could be more appropriate for this mode of ornamentation than leaf-work1 flowers1 creepers1 c41 in the arrangement of which1 the stern law of a well-regulated distribution of the repeated forms must be observed1 to bring about a thorough balance between rest and vibration1 variety and uniformity4 ,whilst ,byzantium was exhausting all its powers1 and socially and artistically preparing to fall a prey to iconoclasts and ,mahomedans2 the movement1 next in importance to the establishment of ,christianity1 viz4 the migration of the ,northern ,teutons1 took place4 ,we intend to group ,kelts1 ,normans1 ,franks1 ,ostrogoths1 and ,westrogoths or ,visigoths1 ,alemanni1 ,burgundians1 ,vinilians1 ,ingavorians1 ,istavorians1 ,vandals1 ,saxons1 ,anglo-,saxons1 ,markomanni1 ,rugi1 ,ubi1 ,gurgerni1 ,herulians1 ,bojoarians1 ,gepidi1 ,quadi1 ,marsingi1 ,sclavons1 c41 all under the one name of ,north-,european ,ayrans4 ,it is an imperative duty1 with the art-historian1 to group these scattered elements together1 according to some visible signs1 which serve to prove that1 wherever we find an average facial angle of #ij1 and an amount of brain averaging #ib cubic inches1 we have to deal with the ,aryan group of humanity4 ,we avoid by this means divisions and sub-divisions ad infinitum1 and the danger of losing ourselves in a labyrinth of petty national animosities and jealousies4 ,art1 based on ethnology1 and a study of climatological influences1 has an immensely ,christianising power4 ,we see in the common language of forms1 a common bond between those who formed themselves into small political communities1 each in turn arrogating to themselves a kind of #8chosen-people' superiority1 and turning their powers against that very mother-stock from which they received life1 vigour1 a common language1 and a common mode of thinking on supernatural matters1 and the phenomena of nature4 ,the ,kelts1 ,normans1 ,saxons1 ,danes1 ,swedes1 ,teutons1 ,germans 7,garmans1 ,wahrmans1 or ,wehrmans1 ,brahmans71 are all of the same stock4 ,separated at different periods from their ,trans-and ,cis-,himlyan ancestors1 they lost more or less of their old religious notions1 customs1 and manners1 according to their lesser or greater intermixture with the ,turanian substrata of aborigines1 who peopled the countries wherein they settled4 ,next to the aspect of the country in which they established themselves1 its climate must be taken into consideration4 ,the ,aryan1 snowed in for six months in ,scandinavia1 or living on the coasts of the ,baltic1 obliged to fight for every foot of fertile ground with a boisterous and obstinate nature1 must have developed otherwise than the self-same ,aryan who1 as ,kelt1 took up his abode on an island everlastingly green with refreshing verdure1 and was insulated from outer influences for long periods1 being thus led to look upon this detached spot as the very centre of the universe around which the five parts of our globe1 the myriads of suns1 stars1 planets1 and comets revolved4 ,between the ,aryan-,kelt and the ,aryan-,frank or ,norman1 there will be a difference1 brought about by the progress of time and a freer intermixture with other branches of the mother-stock who attained a higher kind of civilisation4 ,the ,aryans in ,india lost themselves in metaphysical abstractions1 and made of fire1 water1 and air a theogony in which the anthropomorphic element was altogether effaced4 ,the ,aryans in the north of ,europe1 in their cosmogony1 held to the original conceptions4 ,they had to battle with fire1 water1 and air1 in the form of volcanoes1 seas1 rain1 snow1 hail and storms2 and finding that with their intellectual power they could master these elements1 they soon deprived them of their individual godhead1 and the whole earth1 with its loves and passions1 its kindnesses and destructive tendencies1 was looked upon as a living being4 ,they also knew of two regions on earth--not of a spiritually created paradise and hell1 but of a ,muspel-heim in the south1 and a ,nifel-heim in the north3 the one giving warmth1 heat1 life2 the other cold and death2 the one light1 the other night2 the one summer1 and the other winter4 ,according to the ,aryans of the north of ,europe the first cosmical heat produced the giant ,ymir1 or ,angelmir1 who was nourished by the sacred cow ,audumbla1 from which ran four streams of milk1 the four seasons4 ,like ,brahm1 ,ymir had a son and a daughter2 the daughter grew out of his arm1 and the son out of his foot4 ,the ,brahman was the outgrowth of ,brahm's mouth3 the ,kshattriya sprung from his arms1 the ,vaisya grew out of his thighs1 and the ,s'udra out of his feet4 ,ymir's son became the father of the ,hirmthursen 7giants74 ,by licking huge rocks of sandstone the cow became the mother of ,buri4 ,we thus pass from the pastoral into the agricultural state1 and have the legend of ,jupiter and ,io before us4 ,buri had a son1 ,bor1 who had three sons4 ,odin1 ,guodan1 ,wuodan1 ,wodan1 the ,all-pervader--the #8,allvater' 7father of all71 ,willi and ,we--air1 fire and water4 ,wodan was also ,baal1 or the sun-god1 in which capacity he had only one eye 7the sun72 he was also ,apollo1 the god of poetry1 and of all things that love light and goodness4 ,he was also the warfaring god who led the people to battle1 and protected the valorous and virtuous4 ,he had to fight against the giant ,ymir with his brothers4 ,a reminiscence of the wars of the ,greek gods with the ,titans1 c42 the ,indian ,vritaghna or the ,persian ,veretaghna1 with the evil spirits of darkness1 or the ,egyptian ,horus with ,typhon4 ,out of the dead body of ,ymir1 the sons of ,bor created everything4 ,they formed the earth of his flesh1 the rocks of his bones1 the skull became heaven1 and his blood furnished seas1 rivers1 and streams4 ,they then took four dwarfs and placed ,austri 7in the ,east71 ,westri 7in the ,west71 ,sudri 7in the ,south71 and ,nordri 7in the ,north71 to guard the four corners of the heavens4 ,wuodan then embraced the earth1 and created his mighty son ,thor1 ,donar1 ,thunder1 the protector of his mother-earth1 and the enemy of the wicked4 ,he sent his lightnings against giants1 purified the air1 dispersed frost and cold1 killed the demons of heat1 silenced the destructive storms1 built bridges1 made high-roads1 furthered the intercourse of man with man1 and promoted civilisation4 ,the second son of ,wuodan was ,zio 7,ziu1 ,zeus1 ,jovis1 ,sva1 also ,tyr-,tiu or ,tusco71 the god of battles1 the destroyer4 ,the third son was ,fro 7,froho1 ,freyr1 free71 the happy god1 the god of love and marriage4 ,who does not recognise in ,thor1 ,froh1 and ,ziu--,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,siva--,jupiter1 ,apollo and ,mars8 ,as with the ,aryans on the ,ganges1 so also with those on the ,rhine1 the ,elbe or the ,weser1 and in ,scandinavia1 the passive element of nature was embodied in female divinities4 ,hertha1 ,nerthus 7the earth71 corresponds to ,s'ris1 ,hera1 ,ceres1 ,isis2 ,holda is closely allied with ,hilda1 ,hela1 ,hell 7the hidden71 the goddess of death1 ,durga2 and ,freyja represents ,venus1 the goddess of love4 ,these ,aryans of northern ,europe were known to the ancients as ,hyperborans4 ,they were tall1 blue-eyed1 fair-haired1 addicted to fighting1 and sport4 ,some of them erected1 in analogy with ,buddhists and ,egyptians1 long thin towers reaching high into the air1 pointing mystically upwards4 ,the #8,crux ,ansata' is reproduced in the ,irish crosses1 and their mode of ornamentation1 with its twisted rope-like windings1 and its serpent-like entanglements1 points to ,indian patterns of a very ancient type4 ,when these ,aryans of the north of ,europe first dashed into the south1 and destroyed the ,roman colossus1 they embraced ,christianity with all the fervour of their unbiassed hearts4 ,entirely given up to the culture of the wild powers of nature1 free from all metaphysical subtleties--the genuine men of wild oak1 pine1 and beech forests--they had no ,vedas1 no ,homer1 no ,zoroaster1 no ,hermes1 and no ,moses to forget2 they1 in fact1 only knew of an ,allvater1 because no two ,teuton tribes held the same opinions on metaphysics4 ,they had only one common ground1 honest work--industry 7at those times concentrated on warfare72 and therefore they received ,christianity with the greatest eagerness1 and became the only upholders1 expounders1 and propagators of a religion for which their hearts were created4 ,they recognised in ,christ's words1 what they heard in whispers in their legends1 and in the experiences of their wild life--that we ought to love others as ourselves4 ,they added some of their old superstitions to the pure faith1 which they found already much impregnated with ,egyptian1 ,roman1 and ,indian signs and symbols4 ,in the beginning1 whilst ,christianity was spreading all over ,europe1 they cultivated a mixture of ,north ,european and ,roman forms in architecture as well as in ornamentation4 ,they constructed their churches with plans borrowed from ancient times1 and freely used geometrical symbols--for the sign of the ,indian ,trimurty1 that of the shields of ,david or ,solomon1 and that of the ,trinity1 did not differ4 ,the pentagram is still made on every loaf the ,germans bake2 it was a ,druidical mystic sign1 and now serves good ,christians to protect their bread from being eaten by evil spirits4 ,if we look at our ,tudor roses1 or ,st4 ,katherine's wheels1 we may clearly trace their origin to the ,zodiacs of ,egypt1 used as signs of the ,makrokosm4 ,the ,teuton minds found themselves suddenly dazzled by ,christian theology4 ,greek1 ,alexandrian1 ,nestorian1 ,arian1 ,athanasian1 ,jewish and ,christian mystics and casuists1 already abounded in the sunny ,muspel-heim1 in which the ,teutons settled1 and they had to exchange their gloomy1 foggy1 and stormy ,nifel-heim of reality1 for a spiritual ,nifel-heim of doctrinal controversies4 ,they turned their elfs and sprites1 their kobolds and gnomes1 their spirits of air1 water1 and fire1 into so many evil spirits4 ,they looked upon the literature of the ,greeks and ,romans1 of which they knew nothing1 as the work of ,beelzebub4 ,art was an enchantress of the senses1 and sculpture invented by the father of all #8lies1' to deceive us with mock-creatures1 to seduce men1 and to cheat them of their share in everlasting salvation4 ,in this gloomy spirit the newly converted ,teuton ,christians built churches1 and1 sunken in the most atrocious superstition1 occupied themselves with the casting out of devils4 ,nature was1 in fact1 one grand dwelling-place for demons4 ,plague1 poverty1 and sickness1 were attributed to the agency of the enemy of mankind4 ,epileptic fits and insanity were signs that the demon had taken possession of unfortunate wretches1 who were either tormented or put to death4 ,satan1 with his legions of devils1 continually harassed mankind4 ,to mortify and kill the body by fasting1 chanting1 whipping1 praying1 and self-inflicted mortification1 was thought the only worthy and cheerful occupation of mankind4 ,in addition to these religious tendencies1 wars were waged with merciless cruelty1 either in favour of1 or against the new ,christian superstition4 ,a few so-called learned theologians studied the ,jewish ,cabala1 ,egyptian mysteries1 ,zoroastrian magical calculations1 ,greek sophisms1 and ,alexandrian ,neo-,platonism4 ,how could art have flourished under such circumstances8 ,incantations1 astrological calculations1 alchemical experiments1 were the order of the day4 ,the few learned men1 whether architects or others1 as soon as they produced anything astounding1 were said to have received their ideas or plans1 or their powers1 from the devil4 ,who was to create any beautifully shaped product of art1 surrounded by such misgivings8 ,this struggle lasted for several centuries2 until1 stimulated by movements in the far ,east1 the ,christian world left its secluded haunts in cloisters1 monasteries1 churches1 and castles1 and mixed once more with the outer world1 and the whole gloomy medley of ,christianised northern mythology had to yield to new forms in art4 ,of this period we have a quantity of wood and ivory carvings1 swords in the form of crosiers1 and crosiers in the form of swords1 cups and candlesticks1 censers and pastoral staffs1 diptichs and triptichs1 recording scenes from the life of ,christ or of some saint4 ,from the third century down to the twelfth1 year by year1 artistic products of ornamentation grew worse and worse4 ,in the third century there was some naturalness in the drapery1 the folds being well executed2 but in the fifth century the treatment of the human figure deteriorated2 folds became more rope-like2 ,christ was represented as very young1 with or without a beard1 often retaining the form of ,apollo1 or of ,hermes1 carrying a lamb 7the good shepherd74 ,bodies of saints and holy persons grew more and more emaciated2 the anatomy was altogether neglected4 ,after the ,crusades in the twelfth century a marked improvement took place1 but everything was then impregnated with ,mahomedan forms4 ,we should look with deep interest1 and a sense of filial piety1 on these primitive attempts of ,christian art2 the execution is bad1 but the sentiments spread by their carvings1 faulty designs1 and poor ornamentations1 are always excellent4 ,the artists address us in a rough and unskilful manner1 yet some spiritual truth awakens our better nature to exalted feelings of love4 ,this1 however1 teaches us that a good feeling1 a devout spirit1 or a religious sentiment in the artists1 is not alone enough to produce works of art4 ,whilst ,europe was expending its powers in the re-arrangement of the disturbed social and religious relations of humanity1 a new movement arose which threatened to overwhelm the whole world4 ,the new movement produced new art forms1 which in their turn serve to prove that art is a most important factor of civilisation4 ,till lately1 the erroneous notion that art is a mere superfluous luxury has appeared to prevail with us4 ,art was placed by the ethicists in opposition to morals1 and scientists either altogether ignored it1 or regarded it as diametrically opposed to science--a pretty but useless toy4 ,art is as necessary to man as either ethics or science4 ,for man is endowed with an emotional element1 which must be satisfied and cultivated1 in order to raise him to the dignity of a human being using his esthetical and intellectual faculties4 ,it is vain to attempt to draw lines of demarcation1 between our component material and spiritual elements4 ,we recognise1 or become conscious1 through our senses2 we sift the impressions made on our senses by the power of our intellect3 and we regulate and arrange these impressions with the aid of our reason4 ,we may1 therefore1 strictly treat art scientifically1 as well as historically4 ,for works of art may be considered under the following heads3-- 7a47 ,as the concrete embodiments of man's thoughts2 the importance of the historical study of which cannot be too strongly insisted upon1 for through it we can best become acquainted with the past1 from a social and religious point of view4 7b47 ,as products that act upon our emotional1 intellectual1 and reasoning faculties4 ,it is our duty to endeavour to ascertain what forms at different times1 and under various impressions1 acted most agreeably on us4 ,we must learn to know the causes that produced certain art forms at certain periods1 amongst certain people1 under certain intellectual1 social1 and religious conditions4 ,we must inquire why such forms flourished1 decayed1 or revived at different times4 7c47 ,we may examine the relations in which our subjective impressions stand to the products of art1 and learn how far such sensations developed1 in time and space1 to lead us to the consciousness of beauty4 ,from pre-historic times to the advent of ,christ humanity was always engaged as a busy artist4 ,in studying the history of man we find that art ushers us into life1 gladdens the child1 inspires the youth1 and interests the man4 ,all our public actions1 all our religious ceremonies1 our ,court pageantry1 our battles and funerals1 all our useful or useless surroundings1 pass more or less through an artistic process4 ,in analysing the historical development of humanity at large1 or that of a nation1 or even that of single individuals1 we find that our sensations1 intellect1 and reason have always been at work to create something in their respective spheres4 ,from the times of ,plato to our own all great thinkers have more or less occupied themselves with the endeavour to establish the principles of beauty2 just as from ,thales of ,miletus1 and ,demokritos to ,bacon1 ,kant1 ,darwin1 and ,hckel1 they have sought to discover the principle of truth2 or from ,man1 ,confucius1 ,moses1 the ,apostles1 and ,mahomet1 to our own theologians1 they have striven to decide what is right or wrong4 ,art worked synchronically with these endeavours1 and its products are as numerous and variegated as our philosophical systems1 or our creeds and sects4 ,moreover1 works of art are1 in many instances1 far less perishable than works of mere speculation4 ,it becomes an imperative duty1 therefore1 to study historically one of the most important branches of human activity and ingenuity1 which furnishes us in its very products with a record in lasting forms1 with at least the same ardour1 earnestness1 and veneration1 with which we devote ourselves to more varying1 changing1 and perishable products4 ,one fact must be obvious to every reader of these pages--that real art has so exalted a sphere that it can only exist to perfection wherever sciences and morals are highly cultivated4 ,in cursorily summarising these pages1 we find that wherever and whenever beauty as the ideal1 truth as the real1 or goodness as the ethical element in humanity1 has been one-sidedly cultivated1 works of art have not succeeded1 for the harmony and union of these three can alone be the aim of humanity4 ,this harmonious union it is difficult to attain1 but we must endeavour to become historically conscious of the continuous striving of humanity to bring it about4 ,we find two forces constantly at work in humanity--the one static 7morals71 the other dynamic 7intellect7--bent upon leading us to culture1 progress1 truth1 goodness1 and beauty4 ,in the fifth and at the beginning of the fourth century ,b4,c41 for once in our development1 and then only for a short period1 humanity undoubtedly succeeded in attaining a perfect balance of its moral1 intellectual1 and esthetical faculties4 ,we may well call that period the golden age of mankind in art4 ,we still live on the mere interest of that immense capital which was left by the ,greeks as an imperishable legacy to humanity4 ,whatever the ,greeks touched at that period they transformed into pearls of beauty1 gold of truth1 and jewels of goodness4 ,they mounted the winged steed of imagination1 and were taken up to the bright heaven of pure idealisation1 where they saw boundless beauty in forms1 and acquired an immortal striving after truth and the eternal laws of goodness1 based on the very organisation of our complicated double nature4 ,this dream of reality was short but vivid4 ,humanity lives still in an ineffaceable longing and a burning desire to regain that period4 ,like diamonds dropped in unknown ages in small crystallisations into the sand of rivers1 the works of ,greece appear in the stream of time1 serving as a fundamental basis of beauty1 truth1 and goodness4 ,the well-balanced harmony was unfortunately soon disturbed4 ,giddy with victory and joy1 the ,greeks discarded ethics2 truth was made the handmaid of sophistry1 superstition1 and scepticism2 and beauty1 in losing her ideal glory1 sank into the depths of sensualism and realism4 ,the harmony of the triad1 which artists1 philosophers1 and moral teachers had succeeded in establishing1 was destroyed1 and a discordant strain of melancholy woe resounded through history1 echoing here and there some remnants of the old and charming melodies4 ,the conquests of ,philip of ,makedon and ,alexander the ,great brought the ,east into contact with the ,greek spirit4 ,the ,east furnished mystic incomprehensibilities1 and an egotistic hatred of all art that could not be turned into money1 or used for serving some deity to buy up its good graces4 ,buddhistic tenets joined hands with ,brahmanic conceits2 ,egyptian symbols were intermingled with ,hebrew practical enactments1 without any ideal aspirations4 ,greek philosophical diatribes were used to prove the impossible possible1 and the #8supernatural' most natural4 ,some ,greeks attempted to revive the antique mode of thinking1 but they were silenced by the ,neo-,platonists1 and thus the ,greeks themselves became the most successful apostles of unnaturally-shaped superstitions1 deadening the vivifying spirit of ,christ's teachings4 ,the ,romans had only one aim in history--to regulate their conquests4 ,the ,state was everything with them2 they taught us how to systematise the actions of men1 to make them useful citizens in this world1 and1 when they left their legacy of infallible authority to the ,romish ,church1 how to prepare fit inhabitants for another world4 ,the outward realistic form1 proclaiming some inward mystic grace or meaning1 became everything4 ,base hollowness in art and morals1 vapid verbiage in philosophy1 unnatural profligacy and licentiousness1 mean covetousness and heartless egotism1 brought humanity intellectually1 morally1 and spiritually1 to the brink of destruction4 ,everyone thirsted for a change--reality was unbearable4 ,men strove1 in deadening their bodies1 to seek the salvation of their souls4 ,the realistic tendency of the degenerated ancient times gave way to blind faith1 which by degrees obtained an exclusive hold on the ideal in man1 ignoring his reflective and reasoning nature1 working only on the emotional1 and burying antiquity under the gloomy ruins of the ,middle ,ages4 ,for more than #ajjj years beauty had to yield to mystic symbolism1 truth to superstitious prejudice1 and ethics to a morbid sentimentality and a cruel hierarchical despotism4 ,dogmatic scholasticism sought to foster elegance of forms2 to create artistic enthusiasm2 but this attempt was vain4 ,when1 however1 the dogmatic ice began to melt in the burning rays of the rising sun of a freer inquiry2 when the ,romish ,church1 anxious for some powerful helpmate to check the rays of this sun1 and work on the gloomy1 stupified emotions of the masses1 called in to aid her the spirit of the ,greeks in art1 she prepared a bright and happy future for humanity4 ,the reformation in art-forms1 and the revival of the antique spirit in poetry1 was soon followed by a revival in science and ethics4 ,philosophy began to unravel the mysteries of nature1 and to make natural forces subservient to man's wants and happiness4 ,ethics1 based on freedom of thought1 grew day by day more powerful1 and ,greek forms were used in the purified spirit of ,christ1 divested of strange and unintelligible dogmas4 ,having secured the right freely to store up the results of our intellectual investigations1 we must devote our artistic energies1 through an assiduous study of the historical development of art1 to a corresponding culture of our sense of beauty4 ,this is essential1 if we hope to stand as high artistically1 as we do technically and mechanically4 ,without culture we cannot hope to vie with other nations in high art1 in historical paintings1 frescoes1 sculpture1 and architecture4 ,a thorough knowledge of art-history will destroy tasteless prejudices1 and enable us progressively to develop the past without becoming guilty of anachronisms4 ,inspired by the firm conviction that the culture of taste leads to the very highest development of ethics1 and that art can only flourish in strict harmony with truth and goodness1 we can progress1 but not otherwise4 ,in this volume we have brought the reader down to the art of the ,mahomedans1 and trust in a future work to trace the historical development of art to our own times4 ,what we have said in praise of ,greek art1 must not be misunderstood to imply that1 since it flourished1 we have not made gigantic progressive strides in sculpture1 architecture1 and painting2 but we have done so only when we have worked in the ,greek spirit1 that is1 on the principles which stamped their works of art with perfection4 ,,bibliography ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,historical ,,development ,,of ,,art4 ,agincourt1 #8,histoire de l',art par les ,monuments'4 #f vols4 ,fol4 ,paris1 #ahbc4 ,asiatic ,researches4 ,birch1 #8,ancient ,pottery4' ,blanc 7,charles71 #8,grammaire des ,arts du ,dessin4' ,paris1 #ahgj4 ,bohlen 7von71 #8,das alte ,indian4' ,knigsberg1 #ahcj4 #b vols4 ,bkh1 ,works1 #ahaa4 ,leipzig4 ,botta and ,flandin1 #8,monuments de ,ninive1' #ahdi4 ,paris4 ,boutell1 #8,arms and ,armour4' ,brugsch1 #8,histoire d',egypte1' #ahge4 ,leipzig4 ,bunsen1 #8,place of ,egypt in ,history of the ,world1' vol4 #e4 ,burnouf1 #8,introduction l',histoire du ,buddhisme ,indien4' ,paris1 #ahdd4 ,carrire 7,moriz71 #8,die ,kunst im ,zusammenhange der ,kulturentwickelung4' #e vols4 ,leipzig2 ,brockhaus1 #ahga4 ,champollion1 #8,lettres crites de l',egypte4' #8,christy1 ,museum ,catalogue1' #ajc ,victoria ,street4 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,franks1 ,m4,a41 ,curator4 ,photographs of same4 ,cox1 #8,history of ,mythology of ,aryan ,nations4' ,cox1 #8,manual of ,ancient ,mythology4' ,cox1 #8,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations4' ,longmans1 #ahgj4 #b vols4 ,creuzer 7,dr4 ,friedrich71 #8,symbolik und ,mythologie4' ,leipzig and ,darmstadt1 #ahcf4 #d vols4 ,curtius1 #8,history of ,greece4' ,darwin1 #8,expression of the ,emotions4' ,london1 #ahgb4 ,davis 7,sir ,j4 ,f471 #8,china4' ,john ,murray1 #aheg4 ,denon1 #8,l',egypte4' ,d',hancarville1 #8,recherches sur l'origine1 l'esprit et le progrs des ,arts de la ,grce4' ,london1 #aghe4 ,dyer1 #8,history of the ,city of ,rome4' ,dyer1 #8,history of ,rome4' #ahfd4 ,dyer1 #8,pompei4' ,eber 7,dr471 #8gypten und die ,bcher ,moses4' ,leipzig1 #ahfh4 ,egypt1 ,guide to4 ,written by ,wilkinson4 ,john ,murray4 ,engelhardt1 #8,denmark in the ,old ,iron ,age4' ,london1 #ahff4 #8,ethnological ,society ,transactions1' #ahfi4 ,easter ,island4 ,fellows1 #8,asia ,minor and ,lycia4' ,fergusson 7,j471 #8,indian ,architecture4' ,fergusson 7,j471 #8,palaces of ,nineveh and ,persepolis ,restored4' ,london1 #ahea4 ,figuier1 #8,earth and ,sea4' #ahgj4 ,flaxman1 #8,lectures4' #8,fortnightly ,review'--,spencer's articles on ,nature ,worship4 ,chapman and ,hall4 ,gailhabaud1 #8,monuments de l',architecture4' ,gau 7,f4 ,c471 #8,antiquits de la ,nubie4' ,paris1 #ahba-bg4 ,gibbon1 #8,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4' ,gladstone 7,right ,hon4 ,w4 ,e471 #8,homeric ,synchronism4' ,london1 #ahgf4 ,gould 7,baring71 #8,origin and ,development of ,religious ,belief4' ,rivingtons1 #ahfi4 ,grote1 #8,history of ,greece4' ,guilleman1 #8,heavens4' ,harrison 7,charles71 #8,catalogue of a ,series of ,photographs from the ,collection of the ,british ,museum4' ,w4 ,a4 ,mansell ,co4 ,hegel1 #8sthetik4' ,berlin1 #ahdb4 #c vols4 ,hegel1 #8,philosophy of ,history4' ,herder1 #8,ideen zur ,geschichte der ,menschheit4' ,stuttgart1 #ahbg4 #d vols4 ,hirt1 #8,monography of the ,temple of ,solomon4' ,hutcheson1 #8,an ,inquiry into the ,origin of our ,ideas of ,beauty and ,virtue4' ,london1 #agbi4 ,hyde1 #8,histori ,religionis veterum ,persarum4' ,oxonii1 #agjj4 #8,international ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology4' #ahfh4 ,jennings 7,hargrave71 #8,the ,rosicrucians4' ,london1 #ahgj4 ,jones 7,owen71 #8,apology for ,colouring the ,greek ,court of the ,crystal ,palace4' ,jones 7,sir ,wm471 ,works4 ,london1 #agii4 #f vols4 #dto4 ,kant1 #8sthetik4' ,leipzig1 #ahch4 ,king1 #8,antique ,gems4' ,kingsborough 7,lord71 #8,antiquities of ,mexico4' ,london1 #ahca-dh4 #i vols4 ,imp4 ,folio4 ,klaproth1 #8,nouv4 ,jour4 ,asiat4' vol4 #e4 ,layard1 #8,nineveh4' ,lenormant1 #8,manual of the ,history of the ,east4' #b vols4 ,asher and ,co41 #ahge4 ,lepsius1 #8,denkmler4' ,berlin4 ,lewes1 #8,biographical ,history of ,philosophy4' ,lubbock1 #8,origin of ,civilization and ,primitive ,condition of ,man4' ,particularly chapters on ,religion1 and page #aai4 #ahgj4 ,lubbock1 #8,prehistoric ,times4' ,lbke 7,dr471 #8,history of ,art4' ,smith1 ,elder1 and ,co41 #ahfh4 ,madsen1 #8,afbildinger af ,danske ,oldsager og ,mindesmar4' ,ker4 ,kjbenhavn1 #ahgb4 #8,manual of ,ethnology4' ,john ,murray4 ,mommsen1 #8,rmische ,geschichte4' ,berlin1 #ahfh4 ,mller 7,c4 ,o471 #8,ancient ,art and its ,remains4' ,london3 ,b4 ,quaritch1 #aheb4 ,mller 7,max71 #8,chips from a ,german ,workshop4' ,longmans1 #ahfh4 ,newton1 #8,second ,catalogue of ,vase ,rooms1 ,british ,museum4' ,nott and ,g4 ,r4 ,gliddon1 #8,types of ,mankind4' ,dr4 ,morton4 ,oppert 7,dr4 ,j471 #8,expd4 scient4 en ,msop4' ,parthey 7,dr471 #8,de ,philis insula ejusque monumentis commentatis4' ,berolini1 #ahcj4 ,philosophy4 ,see ,smith's #8,dictionary of the ,bible4' ,piper 7,prof4 ,ferdinand71 #8,mythologie der ,christlichen ,kunst4' ,weimar1 #ahdg4 ,potter1 #8,antiquities of ,greece4' ,edinburgh1 #ahah4 #8,pyramid ,builders of the ,mississippi4' ,rawlinson1 #8,herodotus4' ,rawlinson1 #8,manual of ,ancient ,history4' ,rmusat 7,abel71 #8,mlanges ,asiatiques4' vol4 #a4 ,sandreczki 7,c471 #8,reise nach ,mosul und durch ,kurdistan4' ,stuttgart1 #aheg4 #d vols4 ,schliemann 7,dr471 #8,discoveries at ,hassarlik4' ,schnaase 7,dr4 ,e471 #8,geschichte der ,bildenden ,knste4' ,dsseldorf1 #ahff4 ,schwegler1 #8,history of ,philosophy4' ,sef 7,abd ,alla71 #8,relation de l',egypte traduite par ,silvestre de ,sacy4' ,paris1 #ahaj4 ,semper 7,dr471 #8,die ,textile ,kunst4' ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #ahfj4 ,shaftesbury 7,earl of71 #8,characteristics4' #agdc4 #c vols4 ,smith1 #8,ancient ,history4' ,smith1 #8,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities4' ,spruner1 #8,historical ,atlas4' ,squier and ,davis1 #8,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley4' ,stephens1 #8,runic ,monuments4' #b vols4 ,london1 #ahff4 ,stevens1 #8,flint ,chips4' ,bell and ,daldy1 #ahgj4 ,stuart ,revett1 #8,antiquities of ,athens4' ,london1 #ahbg4 ,taine1 #8,lectures on ,art4' #8,traveller's ,art ,companion4' ,principal ,sculptors4 ,see pages #dad et seq4 #8,traveller's ,companion1 ,the4' ,bell and ,daldy1 #ahfh4 ,tylor1 #8,primitive ,culture4' ,london1 #ahga4 ,uhlemann 7,dr4 ,max71 #8,thoth oder die ,wissenschaft der alten ,aegypter4' ,gttingen1 #ahee4 ,valeriani 7,prof4 ,domenico71 #8,etrusco ,museo ,chiusino4' ,poligrafia ,fiesolana1 #ahci4 ,vaux1 #8,british ,museum4' ,vog 7,le ,comte de71 #8,le ,temple de ,jrusalem4' ,paris1 #ahfd4 ,wilkinson1 #8,manners and ,customs of ,egyptians4' ,murray1 #ahee4 ,small edition4 ,winkelmann1 ,werke4 #b vols4 ,worsaae1 #8,norse ,antiquities4' ,copenhagen1 #ahei4 ,zerffi 7,dr471 ,historic ,art ,studies1 with #ajcj illustrations4 #8,building ,news1' #ahgb-f4 ,,index4 ,a1 #hd ,a1 #bgb ,abulfeda1 #ce ,absolom1 #aej ,achaians1 #ahj ,acherusian1 #acd ,achilles1 #ahd ,action1 #af ,adoniram1 #adf neas1 #bcd sop1 #bdb tna1 #bae ,agamemnon1 #ahe ,ageladas1 #aic ,agesander1 #bjg ,agincourt1 #bbe ,agodhy1 #gg ,agrmainyus1 #hi ,ahriman1 #hi ,ahura-,mazda1 #hi ,albans1 #bcc ,alemanni1 #bhc ,alexander the ,great1 #hg ,alkibiades1 #bja ,alkmene1 #ahe ,allegory1 #bgj ,allvater1 #bhf ,amn1 #aad ,amphiprostyle1 #agf ,anaxagoras1 #aic ,ancus ,martius1 #bce ,andromeda1 #bej ,angeians1 #ahj ,angelmir1 #bhf ,anttemple1 #agf ,anthemis of ,tralles1 #bha ,antiope1 #bjh ,antonines1 #beh ,anubis1 #aag ,apis1 #ahi ,apollo at ,bass1 #bjj ,apollo 7,saurokthonos71 #bjf ,apollo 7,smintheus71 #bjc ,apollodorus1 #bef ,apollonius1 #bjg ,archaic-,doric1 #agh ,arch 7,roman71 #bde ,ariadne1 #aij ,arians1 #bge ,aristotle1 #ahg ,arkadia1 #bjj ,arno1 #bac ,artemis of ,ephesus1 #ahi ,aryan1 #bf ,asar1 #bad ,asioatha1 #hj ,asklepios1 #aif ,asphaltites1 #acd ,athanasians1 #bge ,athene ,promachos1 #aie ,athenodorus1 #bjg ,atlas1 #afd ,atos 7,akotus71 #ajh ,attic-,doric1 #agh ,audumbla1 #bhf ,augustus1 #beb ,aurelius ,commodus1 #bda ,azer-,abad1 #hi ,babylon1 #ig ,baltic1 #bhe ,barucchi1 #aje ,bachante1 #bjd ,basilica of ,reparatus1 #bgg ,beautiful1 #c ,beelzebub1 #bij ,bendemir 7,araxes71 #ia ,bengallee1 #hb ,bhma1 #aei ,boaz1 #adh ,bckh1 #ajd ,book of ,deliverance1 #aac ,bor1 #bhf ,botta1 ,m41 #hh ,brahm1 #fd ,brahman1 #he ,brahmapootra1 #fj ,bronze 7age71 #cc ,brugsch1 #aje ,bryaxis1 #bje ,buddha1 #ge ,bunsen1 #aje ,burgundians1 #bhd ,buri1 #bhf ,byzantine1 #bgj ,byzes of ,naxos1 #aia ,cadam1 #hi ,cainozoic1 #ahj ,caracalla1 #bfj ,carthage1 #bcf ,carrios1 #da ,catulus1 ,m41 #bea ,cavdium1 #bag ,celerus1 #bed ,chalkyan1 #hb ,champ-lev1 #aca ,champollion1 #ajd ,cheops 7,shufu71 #aai ,chephren 7,shafra71 #abj ,chichen1 #db ,chimera1 #afh ,chinese language1 #df ,chinese trellis-work1 #ej ,chiron1 #ahe ,choda 7,gott1 ,god71 #hd ,christianity1 #bfc ,chuda 7,khuda1 ,svadtta71 #hd ,cicero1 #bdb ,cis-,himlyans1 #fa ,claudius1 #bec ,cleopatra1 #bec ,cloisonn1 #aca ,clusium1 #bah ,coati1 #dj ,colosseum1 #bee ,compluvium1 #bag ,confucius1 #dg ,constantine 7triumphal arch71 #bef ,contractura1 #age ,copan1 #db ,corichanca1 #da ,corneto1 #bbj ,cortona1 #bac ,cranoges1 #cg ,crassus1 ,l41 #bea ,critical 7,school of ,art71 #h ,cross-vault 7,roman71 #bde ,crusades1 #bib ,crystallisations1 #ab ,cupid1 #fi ,cupola 7,roman71 #bde ,cuzco1 #da ,cynerary chests1 #bag ,daghopa1 #gi ,daidalos1 #aij ,danaians1 #ahj ,dante1 #bdj ,dea ,cloacina1 #bci ,dead 7book of the71 #aab ,delphos1 #ahh ,demeratos1 #bba ,demeter1 #afa ,demetrius1 #bga ,dempster1 #bbe ,derush1 #ada ,devaki1 #gj ,dews 7,devas71 #if ,dialectic1 #fc ,dibutades1 #aha ,diodorus 7,siculus71 #ajj ,diogenes ,laertius1 #aaa ,diopos1 #bba ,dipteros1 #agf ,diptichs1 #bia ,dirk1 #bjh ,disk heresy1 #aje ,divespitar1 #fg ,donatists1 #bge ,ds 7,dyss1 or ,dolmens71 #ce ,dordogne1 #cd ,doric1 #agc ,dshemshid1 #ij ,dshey-,afram1 #hi ,dravidian1 #hb ,durga1 #fi ,dypuc1 #fi ,echidna1 #afh ,eight ,periods of ,jewish ,history1 #aci ,echetlos1 #bae ,eirene1 #bjb ,elbruz1 #id ,elektra1 #ahe ,el ,hayz1 #bgg ,el ,kassr1 #ih ,encaustum1 #aca ,entasis1 #agf ,epimetheus1 #afd ,epistyle1 #agf ,erato1 #afe ,erechtheium1 #agi ,eriene ,veedjo 7,iran ,veji71 #hi ,eros1 #bjd thos1 #ahh ,etruskans1 #bab ,etruskan style1 #bbe ,euchier1 #bba ,eugrammos1 #bba ,euripides1 #bja ,eurythmy1 #ac ,euxine1 #bdd ,euterpe1 #afe ,exarchs1 #bgi ,expression1 #af ,ezekiel1 #aci ,farnese ,bull1 #bjg ,fascine constructions1 #cg ,faust1 #afd ,feather ornament1 #abf ,fervers1 #if ,ficus ,indica1 #hj ,ficus religiosa1 #ha ,figeac1 #ajd ,flavians1 #bdg ,fora 7,civilia71 #beb ,fortuna ,virilis 7temple of71 #bea ,forum ,trajanum1 #bee ,franks1 #bhc ,freyja1 #bhh ,froh 7,freyr71 #bhg ,ga1 #afj ,galpones1 #da ,gnesa1 #fg ,ganges1 #fj ,ganymede1 #fh ,garuda1 #fh ,gepidi1 #bhd ,geryon1 #afh ,ghandarvas1 #bjj ,giallo antico1 #bfb ,glaukos1 #aia ,glypthotek1 #bjc ,gnostics1 #bge ,gurgerni1 #bhd ,hadrian1 #bdg ,hal-her1 #aaf ,hamadan 7,erbatana71 #ib ,hamilton 7,lord71 #ahc ,hanau1 #da ,harris1 #gc ,harpies1 #bai ,hassarlik1 #ahi ,hathor-masks1 #abe ,herakles1 #aei ,hekatoncheires1 #afb ,hektor1 #ahd ,hermetic books1 #ajd ,here1 #afa ,herodotus1 #ce ,hertha 7,nerthus1 ,earth71 #bhh ,herulians1 #bhd ,hes 7,isis71 #aag ,hesiri 7,osiris71 #aag ,hestia1 #afa ,hieratic style1 #abe ,hieroglyphs1 #ajh ,hierogrammatists1 #aaa ,hillel 7,rabbi71 #ajd ,himeros1 #bjd ,hincks1 #aje ,hirmthursen1 #bhf ,historical 7,school of ,art71 #g ,hittites1 #cd ,holda1 #bhh ,horace1 #bdb ,horoskopus1 #aaa ,horus1 #aag ,hurin1 #da ,hyksos1 #aje ,hypthral1 #agf ,ideography1 #ajh ,iphikrates1 #aic ,iliad1 #ahd ,impluvium1 #bag ,ingavorians1 #bhd ,indus1 #fj ,ionic1 #agc ,iron 7age71 #cc ,isidorus of ,miletus1 #bha ,istavorians1 #bhd ,is'wara1 #fi ,itza1 #db ,jachin1 #adh ,janus1 #fg ,japets1 #afj ,jordan1 #acd ,jordanes1 #cd ,jugurtha1 #bcg ,julius ,csar1 #bea ,ka1 #hd ,kadmus1 #aeg ,kalamis1 #aic ,kaledonian 7boar71 #bjb ,kaliphs1 #hg ,kaliya ,nga1 #ga ,kalliope1 #aff ,kansa1 #gj katharsis1 #ahh ,kentaur1 #bah ,kekrops1 #aeg ,kelts1 #bhc ,kenrick1 #aje ,kentimanos1 #afj ,kephisodotus1 #bjb ,kha1 #hd ,kham 7,ham1 ,chemnus71 #ajf ,khem1 #aad ,khai-,khorus 7,kyrus71 #hg ,kimon1 #aij ,klio1 #afe ,kneph1 #aaf koniasis1 #agc ,korinthian1 #agc ,korbus1 #aha ,kouyunjik1 #ic ,krishna1 #gj ,kronos1 #afj ,kshattriya1 #he ,ktesias1 #ajj ,kynic1 #ahg ,kyprus1 #dd ,kyrenic1 #ahg ,labyrinth1 #abc ,lake-dwellings1 #ce ,laokon1 #bjg ,lapis lazuli1 #bfb ,laplanders1 #cd ,lauth1 #ajf ,layard1 ,r4 ,h41 #hh ,leah1 #bgc ,lekythus1 #ahf ,leochares1 #bje ,lepsius1 #aje ,lernean serpent1 #afh ,li-king1 #dg ,lotus1 #abf ,lukeres1 #bcc ,lysippus1 #bja ,maccabees1 #acc ,mahbhrata1 #gc ,makedonian-,doric1 #agh ,makrokosm1 #bhi ,mal'hur1 #ga ,man 7,jao71 #aaf ,manasseh ,ben ,israel1 #ace ,mania1 #bbc ,manichans1 #bge ,mantus1 #bbc ,manurra1 #bea ,marcus ,aurelius1 #beh ,markomanni1 #beh ,masaya1 #ci ,mastadon1 #bac ,mausoleum 7of ,augustus71 #bec ,mausolos at ,halikarnassus1 #bje ,medea1 #bej ,medusa1 #ahe ,mlas1 #aia ,melpomene1 #afe ,memnonium1 #abc ,memnons1 #abd ,memphis1 #ajf ,mem-tsu1 #dg ,menes1 #ajf ,menkerynus 7,menkare71 #abj ,meshiah1 #aee ,metis1 #afa ,metopes1 #agf ,miaos1 #ec ,miltiades1 #aif ,milton1 #bdj mimsis1 #ahh ,module1 #agd ,moltke1 #da ,moses1 #ada ,motion1 #af ,murghab1 #ib ,muspel-heim1 #bhf ,mut1 #aad ,myths1 #bga ,naksh-i-,rustam1 #ib ,negro1 #bc ,neolithic1 #cc ,nero1 #bec ,nestorians1 #bge ,net1 #aae ,nifel-heim1 #bhf ,nik1 #ahe ,nineveh1 #ig ,ninus1 #ij ,niobe1 #bjf ,normans1 #bhc ,num 7,nu71 #aad ,numa ,pompilius1 #bcd ,nundi1 #ahi ,odin1 #bhf ,okeanos1 #afj ,oligochromatic1 #ahb ,olympian1 ,pythian1 ,neman1 and ,isthmian games1 #aga ,onatas1 #aic ,opisthodome1 #age ,opus plumarium1 #ed ,orchia1 #bai ,ormuzd1 #hi ,orpheus1 #aeg ,ostrogoths1 #bhc ,ovid1 #bdb ,palenque1 #db ,palm-tree1 as ornament1 #abf ,palolithic1 #cc ,pantheon1 #bec ,paphos1 #ade ,papyrus1 as ornament1 #abf ,parsagad 7,passagarda or ,persepolis71 #ia ,parthenon1 #aig ,ptla1 #ga ,paulastya1 #fh ,pelasgians1 #ahj ,penelope1 #ahd ,pentagram1 #bhi ,per-ao 7,pharaoh71 #ajg ,perigord1 #cd ,perikles1 #aic ,peripteros1 #agf ,peshat1 #ada ,perseus1 #ahe ,perseus1 #bej ,phdrus1 #bdb ,pheidias1 #aic ,phigalia1 #bjj ,philesian ,apollo1 #aga ,phtah1 #aae ,pile-dwellings1 #cf ,pindar1 #bbd ,planimetric1 #ag ,plato1 #ahg ,plautus1 #bdb ,pluton1 #afa ,pluton1 #bjb ,polychromatic1 #ahb ,polydoros1 #bjg ,polyhymnia1 #afe ,polykrates1 #aia ,pompey1 #adc ,pontos1 #afj ,poseidon1 #afa1 #bjc ,posticum1 #age ,pothos1 #bjd ,prasias1 #ce ,prathama-,raja1 #ge ,praxiteles1 #aic ,prneste 7,palestrina71 #bbj ,prometheus1 #afd ,prophets1 #aab ,proportion1 #ai ,prostyle1 #agf ,proteus1 #aei ,proto-,doric1 #agh ,ptolemaic style1 #abi ,punic war1 #bcf ,pythagoras of ,regium1 #aic ,quadi1 #bhd ,quatusco1 or ,huatusco1 #dj ,ra 7with the ,persians71 #hd ,ra1 #aae ,rachel1 #bgc ,radamanthus1 #bbc ,ramyna1 #gc ,ramnes1 #bcc ,ravenna1 #bgi ,realistic 7,school of ,art71 #g ,remes1 #ada ,rhkos1 #aia ,roma 7,amor71 #bbi ,romanesque1 #bgj ,romulus and ,remus1 #bcd ,rosetta-stone1 #ajd ,sabines1 #bcc ,sacred books 7of the ,egyptians71 #aaa ,sacsahuaman1 #da ,sallust1 #bdb ,samoyedes1 #cd ,sanchi ,tope1 #gf ,san ,paolo fuori le mura1 #bgh ,saul1 #acb ,scandinavia1 #bhe ,scaurus1 ,m41 #bea ,schliemann 7,dr471 #ahi ,seb 7,kronos71 #aaf ,semiramis1 #ij ,septimus ,severus1 #bdg ,servius ,tullius1 #bce ,seti1 #aae ,shi-king1 #dg ,shoo-king1 #dg ,siamek1 #ij ,skopas1 #bja ,skylla1 #afh ,smilis1 #aia ,sod1 #ada ,solomon1 #ach ,sophokles1 #aga ,sphinx1 #afh ,sphinxes 7six kinds of71 #abj ,s'r1 #fh ,sta4 ,agnese1 #bgb ,sta4 ,barbara1 #bgd ,sta4 ,croce at ,jerusalem1 #bgg ,sta4 ,maria at ,bethlehem1 #bgg ,st4 ,apollinare in ,classe1 #bgi ,st4 ,calisto1 #bgb ,stereometric1 #ag ,stiens 7of ,cambodia71 #ce ,st4 ,john1 #bgd ,st4 ,katherine's wheel1 #bhi ,st4 ,lorenzo1 #bgb ,stolists1 #aab ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 #bgg ,st4 ,sebaldus1 #bgd ,st4 ,sebastian1 #bgd ,st4 ,sebastiano1 #bgb ,st4 ,sophia1 #bhj ,st4 ,vitale1 #bgi ,sublime1 #c ,s'udra1 #he ,s'wa1 #fd ,symbol1 #bgj ,symbolic1 #fc ,symmetry1 #ac ,syrakuse1 #bcf ,tachyno1 #ce ,tahamur1 #ij ,tarquinius ,priscus1 #bce ,tarquinius ,superbus1 #bce ,tartaros1 #afb ,tauriskos1 #bjg ,tacitus1 #bdb ,telos1 #aha ,temple1 ,egyptian1 #abb ,teni 7,this1 ,thinis71 #ajf ,teotl1 #ci ,terence1 #bdb ,terpsichore1 #afe ,teth 7,toth1 ,hermes71 #aaf ,thales1 #bac ,thalia1 #afe ,thebes1 #abc ,themistokles1 #aic ,theodorus1 #aia ,thera1 #ahb ,therm1 #bec ,thor1 #bhg ,thukydides1 #aic ,tiberius1 #bec ,timotheos1 #bje ,tingitanum1 #bgg ,titicaca1 #dj ,titians1 #bcc ,titus ,livy1 #bdb ,tombs1 ,egyptian1 #abj ,trajan1 #bdg ,trans-,himlyans1 #fa ,tree of ,art1 #bh ,triglyphs1 #agf ,trilchana1 #fi ,trimurty1 #fe ,triophthalmos1 #gj ,tritons1 #bjc ,tsem-tsu1 #dg ,tshao-,pings1 #eb ,tshil-,minar1 #ia ,tudor roses1 #bhi ,tulasi1 #ga ,tullus ,hostilius1 #bcd ,turanian1 #bd ,tuscanicum1 #bag ,types1 #bga ,typhon 7,nubi1 or ,set71 #aaf ,tyrrhenian1 #aha ,uhleman1 #aje ,ulpia 7,basilica71 #bef ,ulysses1 #ahd ,unger1 #ajf ,urania1 #afe ,uranus1 #afj ,urus1 #abi ,uxmal1 #db ,va1 #hd ,vaisya1 #he ,vandals1 #bhd ,vauban1 #da ,veretaghna1 #bhg ,vesta1 #bea ,vesuvius1 #bbb ,via ,sacra1 #bee ,vinitians1 #bhd ,virgil1 #bdb ,vishnu1 #fd ,viterbo1 #bai ,volaterra1 #bah ,volci1 #bah ,vritaghna1 #bhg ,vurka1 #ih ,xp1 #bgb ,xenophon1 #aic ,yachahnasi1 #da ,yamun1 #ga ,y-,king1 #dg ,ymir1 #bhf ,yo-king1 #dg ,young1 ,dr41 #ajd ,zacharias1 #aej ,zahok1 #ij ,zarathustra 7,zerdusht1 ,zoroaster71 #id ,zedekiah1 #acb ,zend-,avesta1 #hh ,zeruane-,akerene1 #ie ,zeus1 #afb ,zorobabel1 #adb ,zui 7or ,tui1 ,tuisco71 #bhg ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,transcriber-added descriptions of some illustrations are in parentheses1 like this3 ,illustration3 7description74 ,some words were printed both with and without accent marks4 ,the ones clearly meant to be the same 7e4g41 ,index references to the other form7 were changed2 the rest appear both ways4 ,greek and symbols not in the ,latin-#a or ,,ascii character sets have been transliterated or substituted in those versions of this e,book4 ,the original letters and symbols might appear in the ,,utf-#h and ,,html versions4 ,devices unable to display such characters may substitute question marks or other placeholders4