file which includes the original        
illustrations4       ,see #ddcic-;h4htm 
or #ddcic-;h4zip3                       
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu
b_/#ddcic_/pg#ddcic-;images4html7       
or                                      
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#dd
cic_/ddcic-;h4zip7        ,transcriber's
 note3        ,text enclosed by         
underscores is in italics 7italics74    
,the ligature oe is represented by oe4  
,the dagger sign has been marked as     
dagger4        ,a carat character is    
used to denote superscription4 ,a       
single character following the carat is 
superscripted       7,,xive74        a  
represents a letter 7in this instance a 
lower case       a7 with a macron above 
it4      ,illustration3 ,,the           
,,grape-,,gatherers 7,tapestry from     
,cartoon by ,goya4 ,el ,escorial7   ,the
 ,world of ,art ,series  ,,the ,,arts   
,,and ,,crafts ,,of ,,older ,,spain  by 
,,leonard ,,williams  ,corresponding    
,member of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy1

 of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy of     
,history1 and of the ,royal ,spanish    
,academy of ,fine ,arts2 ,author of ,the
 ,land of the ,dons2 ,toledo and        
,madrid2 ,granada1 etc4  ,in ,three     
,volumes1 ,illustrated  ,,volume ,,iii  
,chicago ,a4 ,c4 ,mc,clurg  ,co4        
,edinburgh3 ,t4 ,n4 ,foulis #aijh       
,american ,edition ,published ,october  
#aj1 #aijh                              
,,contents ,,of ,,volume ,,three        
,,textile ,,fabrics                     
,,pages    ,,introduction               
#a-ch    ,,spanish ,,silk               
#ch-aje    ,,cloths ,,and ,,woollens    
#aje-abe    ,,embroidery                
#abe-acg    ,,tapestry                  
#acg-aei    ,,lace                      
#aei-age                     99       99
       99       99       99             
,,appendices                            
#agg-beh    ,,bibliography              
#bei-bfh    ,,index                     
#bga-bhb                                
,,list ,,of ,,illustrations             

,,volume ,,three                        
,,textile ,,fabrics       ,,plate       
,,page            ,the                  
,grape-,gatherers2 ,tapestry from       
,cartoon           by ,goya2 ,el        
,escorial                               
,frontispiece         ,i4 ,the ,banner  
of ,las ,navas2 ,monastery of ,las      
,huelgas1           ,burgos             
#bb        ,,ii4 ,fragment of the       
,burial ,mantle of ,ferdinand the       
,third2           ,royal ,armoury1      
,madrid                                 
#bf       ,,iii4 ,king ,alfonso the     
,learned2 from ,the ,book of ,chess1    
,,ms4           in the ,escorial        
,library                                
#bh        ,,iv4 ,spanish ,velvet2 about
 ,a4,d4 #aejj                           
#cj         ,v4 ,the ,tunic of ,boabdil 
el ,chico2 ,national ,museum of         
,artillery1 ,madrid                     
#cf        ,,vi4 ,the ,banner of ,saint 
,ferdinand2 ,seville ,cathedral         
#dj       ,,vii4 ,velvet made at        

,granada                                
#ef      ,,viii4 ,the ,daughters of     
,philip the ,second2 ,prado ,gallery1   
,madrid                                 
#ih        ,,ix4 ,a ,charra or ,peasant 
,woman of ,salamanca1 in the            
year #aggg                              
#ajb         ,x4 ,embroidered ,priest's 
,robe2 about ,a4,d4 #aejj               
#aah        ,,xi4 ,embroidered ,priest's
 ,robe2 about ,a4,d4 #aejj              
#abj       ,,xii4 ,embroidered          
,chasuble2 ,palencia ,cathedral         
#abb      ,,xiii4 ,embroidered ,case of 
,processional ,cross2 ,toledo ,cathedral
 #abd       ,,xiv4 ,embroidered         
,altar-,front                           
#abf        ,,xv4 ,embroidered          
,altar-,front2 ,toledo ,cathedral       
#abh       ,,xvi4 ,embroidered          
,altar-,front2 ,palencia ,cathedral     
#acj      ,,xvii4 ,embroidered          
,altar-,fronts2 ,palencia ,cathedral    
#acb     ,,xviii4 ,costume of ,woman of 
the ,balearic ,islands2 about           

,a4,d4 #ahaj                            
#acd       ,,xix4 ,the ,genesis         
,tapestry2 ,gerona ,cathedral           
#ach        ,,xx4 ,tapiz of ,crimson    
,velvet worked in gold tissue2          
,monastery of ,las ,huelgas1 ,burgos    
#add       ,,xxi4 ,the ,spinners1 by    
,velazquez2 ,prado ,gallery1 ,madrid    
#adh      ,,xxii4 ,tapestry made at     
,brussels from ,granada ,silk           
#aej     ,,xxiii4 ,a ,promenade in      
,andalusia2 ,cartoon for ,tapestry1     
by ,goya                                
#aeb      ,,xxiv4 ,tapestry2            
,arras-,work1 from ,italian ,cartoons2  
,zamora           ,cathedral            
#aef       ,,xxv4 ,flemish ,tapestry2   
,collection of the late ,count of       
,valencia de ,don ,juan                 
#aeh      ,,xxvi4 ,the ,marchioness of  
,la ,solana1 by ,goya                   
#afj     ,,xxvii4 ,a ,spanish ,maja2    
,a4,d4 #aggg                            
#afb    ,,xxviii4 ,a ,maja1 by ,goya    
#afd      ,,xxix4 ,a ,lady of ,soria2   

about ,a4,d4 #ahaj                      
#aff       ,,xxx4 ,handkerchief of      
,catalan ,lace1 presented to ,queen     
,victoria of ,spain on her marriage     
#afh      ,,xxxi4 ,curtain of ,spanish  
,lace2 ,point and ,pillow ,work1 modern 
#agj     ,,xxxii4 ,point ,lace ,fan1 of 
,mudejar ,design1 modern                
#agb                                    
,,textile ,,fabrics                     
,,introduction   ,our earliest          
intelligence respecting textile fabrics 
of old ,spain derives almost exclusively
 from ,moorish sources1 and shows1      
together with the silence of ,saint     
,isidore1 that until the subjugation of 
the ,visigoths1 the occupants of the    
,peninsula attached no great importance 
to this industry4 ,under the ,moors1 the
 south and east of ,spain grew rapidly  
famous for the manufacture of all kinds 
of textile stuffs1 and in particular    
those of silk4 ,the origin of these     
silks1 or of the most luxurious and     
artistic of them1 may be traced to      

,almera4 ,according to ,al-,makkari1    
what made this ,andalusian capital      
superior to all other cities of the     
world was her various manufactures of   
silks and other dress materials1 such as
 the dibaj1 a silken fabric of many     
colours1 surpassing1 both in quality and
 durability1 all other products made    
elsewhere1 and also the tiraz1 a costly 
stuff whereon are inscribed the names of
 sultans1 princes1 and other personages1
 and for making which there used to be  
no fewer than eight hundred looms4      
,inferior fabrics were the holol 7a kind
 of striped silk71 and brocades woven   
upon a thousand looms1 while as many    
more were employed continually in making
 the scarlet stuffs called iskalaton4   
,another thousand produced the robes    
called al jorjani 7or 'the ,georgian'71 
and yet another thousand the ,isbahani  
robes1 from ,isfahan1 and yet another   
thousand the robes of ,atabi4 ,the      
making of damask for gay-coloured       
curtains and turbans for the women kept 

busy as many persons as the articles    
above-mentioned4  ,edrisi1 a chronicler 
of the twelfth century1 says of the same
 capital that she was the principal city
 belonging to the ,moors in the time of 
the ,moravides4 ,in fact1 she was then a
 great and prosperous industrial centre1
 possessing1 together with other kinds  
of looms1 eight hundred which produced  
the fabrics known as holla1 debady1     
siglaton1 espahani1 and djordjani1      
curtains with a flowered decoration1    
cloths of a smaller size1 and the stuffs
 which were denominated attabi and mi   
djar4  ,a similar notice is contained in
 the ,chronicle of ,rassis the ,moor4   
,referring to the end of the tenth      
century1 this author wrote that ,almera 
is the key of profit and of all         
prosperity4 ,within her walls dwell     
cunning weavers who produce in          
quantities magnificent silken cloths    
inwoven with gold thread4 ,other        
important centres of this trade and     
craft were ,mlaga1 ,baeza1 ,alicante1   

,seville1 and ,granada4 ,rassis wrote of
 ,mlaga3 ,she has a fertile territory1  
wherein is made the finest sirgo in the 
world4 ,from here they trade in it with 
every part of ,spain4 ,here too is made 
the finest of all linens1 and that which
 the women best esteem4 ,of ,baeza he   
wrote3 ,she manufactures excellent and  
famous silken cloths of the kind which  
are called tapetes2 and of ,alicante1   
,this city lies in the ,sierra de       
,benalcatil1 which in its turn is       
situated in the midst of other ranges   
containing prosperous towns where silken
 cloths of finest quality were made in  
other days2 and the weavers of these    
cloths were skilled exceedingly4  ,mlaga
 is described by the ,cordovese         
historian ,ash ,shakandi 7thirteenth    
century7 as famous for its manufactures 
of silks of every colour and design1    
some of them so costly that a suit is   
sold for thousands2 such are the        
brocades of beautiful pattern1 inwoven  
with the names of caliphs1 emirs and    

other wealthy personages4444 ,as at     
,mlaga and ,almera1 there are at ,murcia
 several manufactories of silken cloth  
called al washiu thalathat1 or 'the     
variegated4' ,this town is also         
celebrated for the carpets called       
tantili1 which are exported to all      
countries of the east and west1 as well 
as for a sort of bright-coloured mat    
with which the ,murcians cover the walls
 of their houses4  ,the ancient         
,illiberia or ,illiberis1 believed to   
have been situated not far from where is
 nowadays ,granada1 is described in     
,rassis' chronicle as a city great and  
flourishing by reason of the quantity of
 silk that she exports to every part of 
,spain4 ,she lies at sixty thousand     
paces distance from1 and on the         
southward side of ,cordova1 and six     
thousand paces from1 and to the north of
 the ,frozen ,sierra 7i4e4 the ,sierra  
,nevada74  ,another chronicle--that of  
,el ,nubiense1 who visited ,spain       
towards the twelfth century--states that

 in the kingdom of ,jaen alone were six 
hundred towns which produced and carried
 on a trade in silk4  ,the foregoing    
extracts show that under the ,spanish   
,moors the manufacture of textile       
fabrics attained in medival times a very
 great importance4 ,it is also certain  
that during the same period the textile 
fabrics in use among the ,christian     
,spaniards were strongly and continually
 influenced1 and even to a large extent 
produced1 by ,spanish ,moors1 while1 as 
the ,moorish cities fell into the power 
of the enemy1 the ,christian rulers     
encouraged their newly-sworn ,mohammedan
 lieges to prosecute this industry with 
unabated zeal4 ,a privilege is extant   
which was granted by ,jayme the         
,conqueror in the year #abgc1 to a ,moor
 named ,ali and his sons ,mohammed and  
,bocaron1 empowering these artificers to
 manufacture silk and cloth of gold at  
,jativa1 in the kingdom of ,valencia4   
,the fabrics produced by ,mussulman     
weavers such as these1 found ready      

purchase with the wealthier classes of  
the ,christian ,spaniards4 ,the dress   
and other materials thus elaborated     
possessed a great variety of names1     
whose meaning cannot always be          
determined at the present day4 ,among   
the fabrics most in vogue were those    
denominated samit 7also xamed or        
examitum71 ciclaton1 tabis or atabi1    
zarzahan1 fustian or fustan1 cendal or  
sendat1 camelote 7also chamelote or     
xamellot71 drap imperial1 and bougran   
7also bouckram1 buckram71 stated by ,dr 
,bock to be derived from ,bokhara1 and  
which was of a quality far superior to  
the buckram of more modern times4 ,these
 ,saracenic or semi-,saracenic stuffs   
were manufactured from an early period1 
but modern experts are not agreed as to 
their character4 ,miquel y ,bada and    
some other authorities believe that     
samit was a costly material which was   
sometimes coloured green1 and shot with 
gold or silver thread4 ,others believe  
it to have been a kind of velvet4 ,in   

either case it is known to have been    
used for shrouding the bodies of the    
wealthy4 ,ciclaton was a strong though  
flexible material used for robes and    
also for wall-hangings4 ,tabis or atabi 
was a kind of taffeta1 and probably     
consisted1 as a general rule1 of silk1  
though sometimes it was mixed with      
cotton4 ,chamelot was an oriental fabric
 of rich silk1 coloured white1 black1 or
 grey4 ,it is mentioned1 together with  
velvets1 taffetas1 and cendal or sendat 
7another silken stuff7 in a law passed  
by the ,cortes of ,monzn in #acge1 and  
which is quoted in ,capmany's           
,memorias4#a ,fustian is thought to have
 been first produced in ,egypt4 ,it was 
woven of thread or cotton1 and was      
largely used in ,england from at least  
as early as the twelfth century4 ,from  
about the same time buckram was also    
popular in northern countries4    #a    
,perco con los draps d'or  d'argent1  de
 seda axi brocats d'or        d'argent  
con altres  velluts1 xamelots1          

tafetanes1  sendats se       usen molt  
de vestir en lo dit ,principat d'alguna 
generalitat ne       dret no y sia      
posat1 mes solament vi liners per liura 
per la       entrada4  ,early in the    
fourteenth century a number of other    
costly stuffs began to be made in       
various quarters of the civilized world1
 including ,spain4 ,among these fabrics 
were zatonin or zatony 7perhaps the same
 as zetani1 aceituni1 or aceytoni--that 
is1 satin71 several kinds of drap d'aur 
or cloth of gold1 several kinds of      
velvet1 sarga or serge1 and camocas1    
which is stated by ,miquel y ,bada to   
have been a strong material used for    
lining curtains1 coats of mail1 etc4    
,the same writer observes that the stuff
 called by the name zatonin and its     
variations is the same as the ,castilian
 raso and the ,catalan set or sat1 a    
favourite though expensive and luxurious
 fabric in the fourteenth and succeeding
 centuries4 ,under the name aceytoni it 
is mentioned in a work in the ,catalan  

language titled ,croniques d',espanya1  
by ,pedro ,miguel ,carbonell1 in which  
we read that at the coronation of ,don  
,martin of ,aragon this monarch's       
consort1 ,doa ,mara1 was dressed in     
white cloth of gold and a long mantle   
444 and rode upon a white horse covered 
with trappings of white aceytoni4       
,miquel y ,bada has discovered the names
 of other fabrics which are known from  
documentary evidence to have been used  
in older ,spain1 and which were called  
aducar1 alama1 tela de nacar1 primavera 
or primavert1 almexia1 picote1 and      
velillo4 ,it is probable that alama and 
tela de nacar had silver interwoven with
 their texture4 ,the primavera or spring
 fabric was so named from the flowers   
which adorned it4 ,almexa is mentioned  
in the ,chronicle of the ,cid4 ,it was a
 costly and elaborate stuff1 and is     
believed by ,miquel to have taken its   
title from the city of ,almera4 ,picote 
was a kind of satin manufactured in the 
island of ,majorca1 and velillo a thin1 

delicate fabric decorated with flowers  
and with silver thread4  ,the devices on
 all these stuffs were very varied4     
,prominent types among them were the    
pallia rotata1 containing circles which 
are commonly combined with other        
ornament1 the pallia aquilinata1 in     
which the dominant motive was the eagle1
 and the pallia leonata1 in which it was
 the lion4 ,other beasts1 birds1 and    
monsters were also figured with great   
frequency1 such as griffins1 peacocks1  
swans1 crows1 bulls1 tigers1 or dogs2   
but the emblem most in favour1          
especially throughout the tenth1        
eleventh1 and twelfth centuries1 was the
 eagle1 owing to the numerous and       
illustrious qualities attributed to it1 
such as majesty1 victory1 valour1 and   
good omen4 ,these creatures1 too1 were  
frequently represented face to face or  
back to back1 in pairs2 nor were they so
 disposed in textile fabrics only1 but  
on ivory1 wood1 or silver caskets1 and  
on numerous other objects1 as well as on

 the painted friezes of a place of      
worship4#b    #b ,we have seen many     
instances of such opposed animals and   
birds on       the metal-work and       
carving of the thirteenth century1 and  
there is       no doubt that the design 
is much older than ,mohammedan times1   
and       goes back to the productions  
of the old artists of ,mesopotamia and  
,persia4 ,we read in ,quintus ,curtius  
of robes worn by ,persian satraps1      
adorned with birds beak to beak--aurei  
accipitres veluti rostri in       se    
irruerunt pallam adornabant4 ,plautus   
mentions ,alexandrian       carpets     
ornamented with beasts3 ,alexandrina    
belluata conchyliata       tapetia4     
,there is indeed reason to believe that 
the notion of such       pairs of birds 
or beasts may have originated with the  
weavers of       ancient ,persia1 and   
have been borrowed from them by the     
engravers of       metal-work2 for the  
advantage of such double figures would  
be       specially obvious to a weaver4 

,the symmetrical repetition of the      
figure of the bird or animal1 reversed1 
saved both labour and       elaboration 
of the loom4 ,the old weavers1 not yet  
masters of       mechanical             
improvements1 were obliged to work their
 warp up and down       by means of     
strings1 and the larger the design the  
more numerous       became these strings
 and the more complicated the loom4     
,hence1 to be       able to repeat the  
pattern in reverse was a considerable   
economy of       labour1 and could be   
effected very simply on a loom          
constructed to       work  pointe et    
reverse4 ,examples of such repetitions  
of       patterns1 especially of        
symmetrical pairs of animals within     
circles1       are common in ,byzantine 
and ,sassanian woven work1 and the      
,saracens       followed these          
models4--,stanley ,lane-,poole1 ,the    
,art of the       ,saracens in ,egypt1  
p4 #bhh4  ,the colours of these fabrics 
also varied very greatly4 ,that which   

was most admired was probably red1      
crimson1 or carmine1 used by preference 
as a ground1 with the pattern inwoven or
 super-woven in gold1 silver1 or        
otherwise4 ,velvets1 too1 were not      
invariably in monochrome1 but would     
contain two or three colours such as    
purple1 crimson1 blue1 or yellow1       
besides gold and silver4 ,miquel y ,bada
 mentions a magnificent velvet pluvial  
in gold and three colours1 belonging to 
a church in ,catalua4 ,the following    
observations are by the same authority1 
who himself possesses a valuable        
collection of early textile fabrics1    
many of which are ,spanish4 ,the same   
prevailing colours are found in the     
,mudejar textile fabrics as in those of 
the ,spanish ,moors--the same ground of 
red inclining to carmine1 of dark blue1 
or of bluish green1 with a pattern in   
yellow1 green1 blue1 or red1 according  
to the colour which combines with it4 ,i
 have seen copies of ,mudejar stuffs in 
which there is no white1 because this   

was wanting in the fragments which the  
copying artist had before him4 ,and it  
is a fact that from some cause1 which we
 cannot now determine1 white silk is    
that which disappears soonest from among
 the textile fabrics of the ,spanish    
,moors and ,mudejares1 so that by far   
the greater part of them contain no     
white at all1 or only traces of it4  ,in
 ,spain these handsome stuffs were used 
by all the wealthier classes1 and some  
idea of their prevalence and popularity 
may be formed from the voluminous mass  
of sumptuary laws which deal with them  
at almost every stage of ,spanish       
history4 ,thus1 an edict of ,jayme the  
,first of ,aragon established1 in the   
year #abcd1 that neither the monarch nor
 any of his subjects were to decorate   
their clothes with gold and silver1 or  
fasten their cloaks with gold or silver 
clasps4 ,the ,ordenamiento of ,alfonso  
the ,tenth1 subscribed at ,seville1     
,february #bgth1 #abef1 provides that no
 woman is to carry aljofar-work1 trim   

her dress with gold or silver1 or wear a
 toca decorated with those metals1 but  
only a plain white one1 the price of    
which is not to exceed three maravedis4 
,it is also provided by this edict that 
on the celebration of a wedding1 the    
cost of the bridal clothes must not     
exceed sixty maravedis1 nor may the     
number of guests who sit down to the    
marriage banquet exceed five women and  
five men1 besides the witnesses of the  
ceremony and relatives of the bride and 
bridegroom4 ,this absurd law was so     
extensively neglected that two years    
later the ,cortes of ,valladolid took up
 the matter afresh1 and even resolved   
that the expenses of the king's table1  
without the cost of his invited guests1 
were not to exceed a daily total of a   
hundred and fifty maravedis4  ,in ,a4,d4
 #abhf the ,council of ,cordova decreed 
that knights and squires1 upon the      
celebration of their marriage1 were not 
to present their brides with more than  
two dresses1 one of these to be of      

scarlet1 without trimming of ermine or  
grey fur1 or decoration of gold1 silver1
 or aljofar4 ,a law of ,alfonso the     
,eleventh1 dated ,may #fth1 #acch1      
proclaimed that the women of the upper  
classes were not to clothe themselves in
 any silken fabric decorated with gold  
thread4 ,similar restrictions were laid 
upon the other sex4 ,no man1 whatever be
 his condition 7excepting only ,us1 the 
,king71 shall wear cloth of gold1 or    
silk1 or any stuff adorned with gold    
lace1 aljofar1 or any other trimming1 or
 with enamel3 only his cloak may bear   
aljofar pearl-work1 or fillets without  
pearls4 ,other dispositions signed by   
the same monarch show that the          
,spaniards of his time were in the habit
 of wearing costly cloth adorned with   
gold and silver1 pearls1 gold buttons1  
enamel1 and other ornament1 while even  
the squires wore furs and gilded shoes4 
,the ricos-hombres loaded their saddles 
with gold and with aljofar-work1 and    
their wives were licensed to bear on    

each of their dresses the same          
aljofar-work or strings of tiny pearls1 
to the value of four thousand maravedis4
  ,provisions of the same tenor are     
contained in the prolix sumptuary       
pragmatic of ,pedro the ,cruel1 signed  
in the year #acea at ,valladolid1 as    
well as in that of ,juan the ,first1    
,a4,d4 #ache1 which ordained1 together  
with other vexatious prohibitions1 that 
neither man nor woman1 whatever be their
 condition or estate1 shall wear cloth  
of gold or any silk-stuff1 gold or      
silver aljofar1 or other precious       
stones1 excepting the ,infante and      
,infantas1 who may wear whatever pleases
 them4  ,the extravagance of ,isabella  
the ,catholic in dress and personal     
adornment generally1 was illustrated in 
an earlier chapter of this work4 ,a     
further instance is recorded by         
,clemencin4 ,according to this          
chronicler1 in #adgf and #adgg1 upon her
 reception at ,alcal of two embassies   
from ,france1 the queen was dressed in a

 magnificent robe1 which drew upon her a
 sharp rebuke from her confessor1 the   
virtuous and austere ,hernando de       
,talavera4 ,from this charge ,isabella  
defended herself with more spirit than  
truthfulness4 ,neither myself nor my    
ladies1 she wrote in her letter of      
reply1 were dressed in new apparel4 ,all
 that ,i wore on this occasion ,i had   
already worn in ,aragon1 and the ,french
 themselves had seen me wearing it4 ,i  
only used one robe at all1 and that of  
silk with three marks of gold1 the      
plainest ,i could find3 in this was all 
my festival4 ,i say this much in that my
 clothing was not new2 nor did we deem  
that error could dwell therein4#c    #c 
,elogio de la ,reina ,catlica1 p4 #cgd4 
,although their own extravagance is past
 all question1 on ,september #cjth1     
#adii1 ,ferdinand and his consort issued
 a proclamation at ,granada1 in which it
 was commanded that no persons shall    
wear clothing of brocade1 or silk1 or   
silk chamelote1 or zarzahan1 or taffeta1

 or carry linings of the same upon the  
trappings of their horses1 or upon      
hoods1 or the straps and scabbards of   
their swords1 or bits1 or saddles1 or   
alcorques#d 444 nor shall they wear     
embroidered silk-stuffs decorated with  
gold plates1 whether such gold be drawn 
or hammered1 spun to a thread1 or       
interwoven with the fabric4    #d ,these
 are defined by the ,count of ,clonard  
as a kind of clog       7chapn7 with a  
cork sole1 and which was introduced by  
the ,moors       under the name al-kork4
  ,these prohibitions1 or others of     
their import1 were ratified by ,doa     
,juana at the ,cortes of ,burgos1 and1  
in #aecc1 by ,charles the ,fifth at     
,valladolid4 ,in #aeea the ,emperor     
again prohibited all brocaded stuffs1 or
 gold or silver cloth1 whether          
embroidered or enriched with gold or    
silver thread1 or bound with cord or    
edging of the same2 and a royal edict of
 ,january #abth1 #afaa1 forbade the     
wearing of brocade and every other      

costly stuff to all except the clergy   
and the military4  ,the clergy1 indeed1 
had always been notorious for           
extravagance1 and not a few of all these
 sumptuary laws are aimed specifically  
at them4 ,in ,a4,d4 #abbh the ,council  
of ,valladolid prohibited the use by    
priests of sleeved robes1 or gilded     
saddles1 bits1 spurs1 or poitrels4 ,in  
#abfg the ,synod of ,len repeated these 
prohibitions1 further insisting that the
 garments of the clergy1 besides being  
sleeveless1 were not to be red or green1
 and were to have a moderate length 7non
 muy largas1 non muy cortas71 and that  
their cloaks were not to fasten with a  
clasp or cord2 these regulations to be  
rigidly adhered to en sennal de         
honestidat--as a sign of honesty4  ,we  
also know that at this time 7thirteenth 
century7 the shirts of many of the      
wealthier ,spaniards were woven of      
finest linen imported from the ,east1   
embroidered and picked out with gold and
 silver thread1 and that the clergy were

 at least the equals of the laity in    
their craze for costly clothing4 ,in    
,a4,d4 #abgc1 an inventory was made of  
the effects belonging to ,don ,gonzalo  
,palomeque1 on his election to the      
bishopric of ,cuenca4 ,it mentions      
almadraques and ,murcian tapetes1       
carpitas viadas from ,tlemcen1 fine     
,murcian blankets 7alhamares71 silk     
xamedes1 ,murcian matting for covering  
walls and dases 7para paret et para     
estrado71 and stuffs from ,syria4       
,another inventory1 that of ,don        
,gonzalo ,gudiel1 archbishop of ,toledo1
 is dated ,a4,d4 #abhj1 and mentions1 as
 included with his property1 quantities 
of oriental fabrics which are designated
 by the general name tartaricas4#e      
,among them were unus pannus operatus ad
 aves de auro et campus de serica       
viridi1 item unus alius pannus          
tartaricus cum campo de seta alba et    
vite aurea1 item unus pannus tartaricus 
de seta rubea cum pinis aureis1 item    
unus pannus tartaricus de seta viridi4#f

    #e ,specifically1 tartari was a     
costly fabric1 heavily embroidered4     
,ducange considers that it came1 or came
 originally1 from ,tartary4       ,we   
read of it twice in the ,chronicle of   
the ,cid1 and again1 in       the       
,chronicle of ,ferdinand the            
,fourth3--tiraron los paos de           
marhega que tenia vestidos por su padre 
vistironle unos paos       nobles de    
tartari4    #f ,quoted by ,fernandez y  
,gonzalez1 ,mudejares de ,castilla1 p4  
#bca1       from the originals in the   
,archiepiscopal ,library of ,toledo4  ,a
 number of medival textile fabrics1 some
 in fragments1 some intact1 have been   
preserved in ,spanish private           
collections or museums4 ,it is1 however1
 seldom easy to determine whether they  
were made in this ,peninsula1 or whether
 in ,sicily1 ,byzantium1 ,venice1 or the
 ,east4 ,among the most remarkable of   
all these interesting specimens are1 a  
strip which was extracted from the      
mausoleum of a ,spanish bishop1 ,don    

,bernardo ,calb1 a native of ,vich in   
,catalua1 and which is now in the museum
 of that town2 other fragments in the   
same collection1 including one of       
holosericum or pure silk1 which was     
formerly in the neighbouring church of  
,san ,juan de las ,abadesas1 and is     
commonly known as the pallium or altar  
front of the witches 7owing to certain  
beasts or monsters figuring in the      
design71 a ,moorish tiraz1 now in the   
,academy of ,history at ,madrid1 the    
celebrated ,moorish banner of the battle
 of ,las ,navas1 now in the ,monastery  
of ,santa ,mara la ,real de las ,huelgas
 at ,burgos1 the banner 7also ,moorish7 
of the battle of the ,river ,salado1 the
 chasubles of the ,constable and of     
,chiriana1 preserved respectively at    
,burgos and at ,caravaca1 a fragment1   
preserved in the ,royal ,armoury at     
,madrid1 of the shroud of ,ferdinand the
 ,third1 and the ,moorish clothing of   
the son of the same ,king ,ferdinand1   
the ,infante ,don ,felipe1 and of       

,felipe's second wife1 ,doa ,leonor     
,ruiz de ,castro4  ,the strip of woven  
material found in the sepulchre of      
,bishop ,calb1 who is said to have      
accompanied ,don ,jayme the ,conqueror  
in the conquest of ,valencia 7,a4,d4    
#abch71 is described by ,miquel y ,bada 
as belonging to the class denominated   
pallia rotata--that is1 with circles    
forming part of their design1--and dates
 most probably from the twelfth century2
 but it is impossible to say whether it 
was manufactured in the ,east1 or       
whether at ,valencia or some other      
,spanish town4 ,the same remark applies 
to other fragments which are also1 as ,i
 stated1 in the ,vich ,museum4 ,the one 
discovered in the tomb of ,bishop ,calb 
contains1 coloured in green1 grey1 and  
black upon a carmine ground1 a          
decorative scheme of circles1 flowers1  
and gryphons or other monsters in pairs1
 affronts1 and also1 within the circles1
 the figure of a man grappling with two 
lions1 tigers1 dogs1 or other beasts1   

and who is believed to represent ,samson
 or ,daniel--more probably the latter4  
,miquel y ,bada points out that in this 
fragment the figure of the man recalls  
,egyptian art1 suggested by his curious 
head-dress1 and by the crossing of his  
clothes upon his breast4  ,another      
textile fragment in the same collection 
is coloured black1 red1 and grey upon a 
yellowish ground4 ,it is decorated with 
long-tailed birds resembling peacocks1  
and with sphinxes which fill the circles
 or medallions4 ,a third fragment1 also 
in the ,vich ,museum1 belongs to the    
type of pallia cum aquilis et bestiolis4
 ,the design consists of a double-headed
 eagle with half-extended wings1 holding
 in the claws of either foot some kind  
of quadruped--perhaps a bull4 ,the      
colour of the ground resembles carmine1 
and on it the design is wrought in      
greenish black--that may have been      
originally green--relieved at intervals 
with yellow4  ,the witches' pallium in  
the same collection is decorated with   

the series of extraordinary beasts or   
monsters that have won for it this title
 with the vulgar1 depicted in yellow1   
white1 black1 and dark green upon a red 
ground4 ,miquel believes this fabric to 
proceed from ,byzantium1 and to date    
from not much earlier than the eleventh 
century4 ,the devices are disposed in   
two rows1 the lower containing peacocks 
affronts1 and the upper a series of     
fantastic monsters1 each of which       
possesses a head1 two bodies1 and four  
feet--the head being semi-human1        
semi-bestial1 the double body that of a 
bird1 and the claws those of a lion or  
some other formidable quadruped4  ,the  
,royal ,academy of ,history at ,madrid  
possesses a fragment of the costly      
fabric known as tiraz1 an eastern word  
7corrupted by the ,spaniards into       
taracea1 i4e4 embroidery on clothing71  
which means the bordering for a royal   
robe4 ,such bordering1 which contained  
inscriptions1 or the sultan's name1 or  
both together1 is said to have been     

first used in ,spain by ,abderrahman the
 ,second1 who ruled from ,a4,d4 #hbe to 
#heb4 ,the caliphs of ,cordova1 says    
,riao1 had a place set apart in their   
palaces where this stuff was kept3 this 
custom lasted until the eleventh        
century1 when it disappeared1 and was   
re-established in the thirteenth century
 with the kings of ,granada4 ,tiraz1 in 
fact1 was both produced and stored in   
special departments of the ,sultan's    
palaces#g2 or so we must infer from the 
following passage by ,ibn-,khaldun4 ,the
 places 7almedinas7 where these stuffs  
were woven were situated within the     
palaces of the caliphs1 and were known  
as the 'pavilions of the tiraz4' ,the   
person at the head of these workshops   
was called the superintendent of the    
tiraz3 he had charge of both the weavers
 and the looms1 administered the        
salaries1 and looked to the quality of  
the work4 ,this post was entrusted by   
the princes to one of the foremost      
officers of their kingdom1 or else to   

some freedman who thoroughly deserved   
their confidence4 ,the same historian   
adds that the manufacture of tiraz was  
conducted in ,spain in the same manner  
as in the ,east under the dynasty of the
 ,ommeyades4 ,it is1 however1 certain   
that among the ,spanish ,moors tiraz was
 not produced exclusively in royal      
factories4 ,al-,makkari states that in  
the time of the ,somadies and the       
,almoravides there were looms at ,nerja 
7and possibly at ,almera7 for weaving   
this luxurious fabric1 as well as holas1
 a fine brocade1 heavily embroidered1   
and adorned with figures representing   
the caliphs and other personages4 ,in   
the time of the ,almoravides there were 
at ,almera as many as a thousand        
factories for making holas4    #g ,an   
interesting parallel to the royal silk  
factory1 or       ,dar-et-tiraz of      
,kay-,kubad1 and to that of the ,fatimy 
,khalif at ,tinnis1 is found in the     
similar institution at ,palermo1        
which owed its foundation to the ,kelby 

,amirs who ruled ,sicily as             
vassals of the ,fatimis in the ninth and
 tenth centuries1 though       it       
maintained its special character and    
excellence of work under       the      
,norman kings4 ,the factory was in the  
palace1 and the weavers       were      
,mohammedans1 as indeed is obvious from 
a glance at the famous       silk cloth 
preserved at ,vienna1 and called the    
,mantle of ,nrnberg1       where a long 
,arabic inscription testifies to the    
hands that made it1       by order of   
,king ,roger1 in the year of the ,hijra 
#ebh1 or       ,a4,d4 #aacc4--,stanley  
,lane-,poole1 ,the ,art of the ,saracens
 in ,egypt1       p4 #bhi4  ,the piece  
of tiraz which belongs to the ,spanish  
,academy of ,history measures about a   
yard and a half in length by eighteen   
inches wide4 ,riao describes it as of   
wool1 embroidered in silks with seated  
figures which appear to be a king1 a    
lady1 lions1 birds1 and quadrupeds2 but 
after carefully examining it ,i cannot  

but agree with ,miquel y ,bada that this
 fabric is woven throughout of pure     
silk1 without the slightest trace of    
hand-embroidery4 ,it has two borders    
containing these inscriptions in ,cufic 
letters3 ,in the name of ,god1 the      
clement1 the merciful4 7,may7 the       
blessing of ,god and happiness 7be7 for 
the ,caliph ,iman ,abdallah ,hixem1 the 
favoured of ,god and prince of          
believers4 ,this monarch1 second of the 
name1 reigned at the end of the tenth   
century and early in the eleventh1 and  
the tiraz we are noticing was found in a
 casket on the altar of a church at ,san
 ,esteban de ,gormaz1 in the province of
 ,soria4 ,as ,riao suggests1 it was very
 probably a war trophy4                 
,illustration3 ,i                       
,,the ,,banner ,,of ,,las ,,navas       
7,monastery of ,santa ,maria la ,real de
 las ,huelgas1 ,burgos7  ,another most  
interesting example of ,saracenic       
textile work is the so-called banner of 
,las ,navas 7,plate i471 which popular  

tradition affirms to have been captured 
7,a4,d4 #abab7 in the memorable battle  
of ,las ,navas de ,tolosa1 between the  
,almohades and the ,spanish ,christians4
 ,most experts now consider that this   
object is not a military ensign1 but a  
curtain or some other hanging for a tent
 or doorway4 ,the material is sirgo or  
silken serge1 and both the decoration   
and the workmanship are purely ,moorish4
 ,the design is rich and intricate      
throughout1 consisting of scrolls1      
leaves1 stems1 and inscriptions from the
 ,koran1 disposed with exquisite effect 
about the principal and central motive1 
formed by a large eight-pointed star    
within a circle1 and which contains1 so 
as to form the angles of the star1 eight
 repetitions of the words in ,arabic1   
,the ,empire4 ,the dominant colour is   
carmine1 and the fabric terminates in   
eight farpas or scallops with red and   
yellow edges1 and bearing a series of   
inscriptions in the ,african character4 
,the pendon of the ,rio ,salado1 a      

trophy which seems to have really been a
 war-flag1 belongs to the cathedral of  
,toledo4 ,it measures at this day about 
nine feet two inches by seven feet four 
inches1 but is believed to have been    
originally of a square form1 with       
scalloped edges4 ,the dominant colours  
are red1 green1 and gold4 ,the          
decorative scheme consists of tastefully
 combined circles and inscriptions in   
the ,cufic character1 and the lower end 
concludes in the following sentences1   
now rendered incomplete through the loss
 of nearly two feet of the              
material3--444 the wise1 the victorious1
 the assiduous1 the generous1 the       
sultan1 the caliph1 the famous emir of  
the ,muslims and representative of the  
,lord of the ,universe1 ,abu-,said      
,otsmin1 son of our lord and master 444 
the worshipper of 7,allah71 the modest1 
the warlike1 the emir of the ,mussulmans
 ,nassir-li-,din 7defender of the law71 
,abu ,yusuf ,yacub1 son of ,abd-il-,hac4
 ,in the ,alczar of ,fez 7,god bless it4

 ,praised be ,god71 in the ,moon of     
,moharran of the year twelve and seven  
hundred 7#gab of the ,hegira1 or ,may   
#ith-,june #gth1 ,a4,d4 #acab74         
,tastefully disposed in white ,cufic    
characters1 within four rows of circles 
woven in gold1 are the words which sum  
the ,mussulman religion1--,there is no  
,god but ,god3 ,mahoma is ,his          
,messenger2 and on other parts of the   
flag are inscribed these sentences3--   
,the prophet believes in the purpose for
 which he was sent by his ,lord1 and all
 the faithful believe in ,god1 in ,his  
angels1 in ,his writings1 and in ,his   
messengers4 ,we make no distinction     
between any of ,his messengers4 ,and    
these declare3 ',we hear and do obey4   
,pardon us1 ,o ,lord4'  4444 ,and unto  
,thee we shall return4 ,god will not lay
 on any soul but such a weight as it can
 bear2 for it or against it shall be the
 deeds it may have done4 ,o ,lord1      
chastise not our forgetfulness or       
errors4 ,o ,lord1 lay not upon us the   

burden ,thou hadst laid on those that   
were before us4  4444 ,o ,lord1 burden  
us not too heavily4 ,blot out our       
faults1 and pardon them to us1 and have 
mercy on us4 ,thou art our ,lord4 ,grant
 us victory over the infidel4 ,there    
came to us a glorious prophet that was  
born among us4  ,on him rests the weight
 of your faults1 and full of goodness   
and of clemency he longs ardently for   
you to believe4 ,if you should be       
forsaken1 exclaim1 ',god is sufficient  
for me4 ,there is no ,god but ,he4 ,i   
trust in ,him1 because ,he is ,lord of  
the throne that is on high4'  ,miquel y 
,bada considers that when it was intact 
this object must have measured eleven   
feet square4 ,attention was first drawn 
to its merit and antiquity when it was  
shown at the ,exposicin ,histrico       
,europea of #ahib4  ,the chasubles of   
,chirinos 7,caravaca7 and of the ,chapel
 of the ,constable in ,burgos cathedral 
are both considered to be of            
,spanish-,moorish workmanship4 ,the     

former is woven of silk of various      
colours1 but without admixture of gold  
thread1 and bears an inscription in     
,arabic which ,amador de los ,ros has   
interpreted as1 ,glory to our ,sultan   
,abul-,hachach4 ,the same authority     
deduces that the fabric dates from the  
fourteenth or the fifteenth             
century--that is1 from the time of the  
,sultan ,abul-,hachach 7,yusuf the      
,first7 or of his immediate successors4 
,the chasuble preserved at ,burgos is   
also woven of variegated silk without   
gold thread1 and may originally have    
been a tiraz1 since it bears1 in        
,african letters1 the inscription1      
,glory to our lord the ,sultan4 ,the    
date is probably the fifteenth or       
sixteenth century4 ,fragments of similar
 material are in the collections of     
,seores ,osma and ,miquel y ,bada4      
,illustration3 ,,ii           ,,fragment
 ,,of ,,the ,,burial ,,mantle ,,of      
,,ferdinand ,,the ,,third               
7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7  ,the object 

represented in ,plate ii4 is described  
in the ,catalogue of the ,royal ,armoury
 at ,madrid as ,a fragment of the royal 
mantle in which was buried the king and 
saint1 ,ferdinand the ,third of ,castile
 7,a4,d4 #abag-abeb74 ,gestoso1 in the  
course of his researches into the       
history of old ,seville1 has found that 
in the year #aegi ,philip the ,second   
caused an examination to be made at that
 city of the remains1 enshrined in her  
cathedral1 of ,saint ,ferdinand4 ,the   
body was found with a ring with a blue  
stone on a finger of the right hand1 and
 wearing sword and spurs4 ,in #afgg     
,charles the ,second sent for the ring  
in question1 and eleven years later a   
fresh examination was made1 when the    
mummy of the saint was stated to be     
wrapped in clothing of a stuff the      
nature of which cannot now be           
recognised1 but which is chequered all  
over with the royal arms of ,castile1   
and with lions4 ,a third examination was
 made in #agbi1 when the holy body of   

,seor ,san ,fernando was reported to be 
covered1 the greater part1 with a royal 
mantle1 of a stuff which could not be   
recognised for its decay3 only it was   
seen to be embroidered with castles and 
lions4  ,probably1 therefore1 this      
fragment was taken to ,madrid at the    
same time as the ring--that is1 in the  
year #afgg4 ,it has an irregular shape1 
and measures eighteen inches long by    
thirteen and a half in breadth4 ,the    
material is a woven mixture of silk and 
gold thread1 and the decoration consists
 of castles and lions in gold and red   
respectively1 upon a ground of carmine  
and dirty white4 ,count ,valencia de    
,don ,juan points out that this strip   
belonged to the lower end of the mantle1
 since it includes a portion of the     
border1 formed by a series of horizontal
 stripes1 blue1 yellow1 red1 and gold4  
,the character of the whole fragment is 
decidedly ,mohammedan1 and indicates a  
,mudejar fabric1 made at ,seville in the
 thirteenth century4  ,i find that in   

the ,book of ,chess of ,alfonso the     
,learned 7an illuminated ,spanish       
manuscript executed in the thirteenth   
century1 and now preserved at the       
,escorial71 ,alfonso himself is         
represented 7,plate iii47 as wearing a  
mantle with this very pattern of lions  
and castles contained in squares4       
,therefore it seems extremely probable1 
either that this device was not uncommon
 on the robes of ,spanish kings1 or else
 that at some time the body of ,san     
,fernando was enveloped in a mantle     
belonging to1 and which perhaps had been
 inherited by1 his son4                 
,illustration3 ,,iii                    
,,king ,,alfonso ,,the ,,learned        
7,from ,the ,book of ,chess2 ,,ms4 in   
the ,escorial ,library7  ,the clothing  
of the ,infante ,don ,felipe and of ,doa
 ,leonor1 his wife1 consists of the     
prince's cloak1 which is nearly intact1 
a piece of his aljuba1 his cap1 and a   
strip of silken cloth inwoven with gold4
 ,the latter fragment is thought to have

 belonged to the robe of the ,infanta4  
,these objects1 discovered in #ahdh1 in 
the tomb of ,don ,felipe and ,doa       
,leonor1 at ,villalcazar de ,sirga1 near
 ,palencia1 are now in the ,national    
,museum4 ,the cloak or mantle is richly 
wrought in silk and gold1 and bears the 
word ,blessing1 woven in ,cufic         
characters upon the ground4 ,the aljuba 
is also of silk and gold1 showing a     
delicate combination of blue and yellow1
 and the style and workmanship of all   
these fragments are unmistakably        
,mohammedan4  ,therefore1 in textile    
crafts1 the ,spanish ,moors supplied the
 wants and the caprices both of         
themselves and of their enemies the     
,christians4  ,the relationship between 
certain under-garments of the two       
peoples is evident from the very titles 
of those garments4 ,thus1 the ,spanish  
joquejo or soquejo1 a scarf for winding 
round a woman's body1 is obviously      
derived1 or merely corrupted1 from the  
,arabic jocob2 the ,spanish arrede or   

arrelde1 a kind of cloak1 from the      
,arabic arrida1 and the ,spanish shirt  
or tunic for ordinary wear1 called the  
casot1 quesote1 or quizote 7which was   
sometimes white and sometimes coloured7 
from the ,arabic al-kuesnat4 ,the       
,chronicle of ,juan the ,second 7,a4,d4 
#adaj7 tells of a mountain covered with 
,moorish troops1 and all of them had red
 quesotes4                              
,illustration3 ,,iv                     
,,spanish ,,velvet                7,red 
upon ,gold ,ground4 ,about ,a4,d4 #aejj7
  ,among the cities of ,moorish ,spain1 
,almera and ,granada were undoubtedly   
those which produced the handsomest     
stuffs--,almera from comparatively early
 in the days of ,muslim domination1     
,granada from a somewhat later time4#h  
,notices are extant of ,christian       
princes who directly ordered these      
materials from ,granada2 e4g4 in #acib  
,don ,juan the ,first caused to be      
purchased there1 as a present to his    
daughter on her marriage1 una cambra de 

saya orlada ab son dozer e cobertor de  
color vermella1 blaua1  vert1  otro que 
fuera de buena vista 7,archives of the  
,crown of ,aragon74 ,the manufacture of 
velvet was probably introduced into     
,aragon in the reign of ,pedro the      
,fourth4 ,excellent silks and cloth of  
gold were also made at ,mlaga1 ,seville1
 ,toledo1 and ,valencia4 ,indeed1 no    
better source exists for studying the   
character of this important industry in 
older ,spain than the ,ordinances of the
 cities ,i have just enumerated4#i ,we  
learn from these municipal provisions1  
most of which were framed or ratified in
 the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 
that the mingling of fine with base     
material was forbidden in the strictest 
terms1 and that the styles and classes  
of even the luxurious and elaborate     
stuffs1 which bore an infinite variety  
of devices1 were very numerous4 ,thus1  
there were satins1 taffetas1 azeytunis1 
double and single velvets 7,plates iv4  
and vii471 brocades1 and silken serges2 

as well as fabrics interwoven with gold 
and silver thread1 including the        
gorgoranes1 restaos1 sargas1 and jergas 
de filigrana de plata4 ,the ,ordinances 
of ,toledo mention the following fabrics
 as manufactured in that city in the    
reigns of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 and 
of ,charles the ,fifth3--    ,stuffs of 
gold and silver made in the same manner 
as satin4    ,satins woven with gold4   
,satins brocaded with silk and gold1 or 
silver flowers4    ,silver serges with  
double filigree4    ,silver and gold    
materials1 which are made like gorgoran 
or serge4    ,silver and gold stuffs    
which are made like taffetas1 or in     
silver    with silk flowers4            
,embroidered stuffs4    ,embroidered    
stuffs called silver serge1 or          
berguilla4    ,lama1 cloth of silver1   
shaded with watering in silver4         
,plain silk-stuffs woven with silver or 
gold1 and called restao4    ,silk-stuffs
 woven with gold or silver1 and called  
relampagos4    ,serges woven with gold  

and silver for church vestments4        
,plain filigree serges4    ,velillo of  
silver4    ,satin woven with gold and   
silver4    ,brocades of different kinds4
    ,church vestments4    ,silver       
primaveras4    ,serges for church       
vestments4    #h ,the ,alburquerque     
inventory mentions1 in #aefj1 two       
,almera sheets1       one with green and
 purple edging1 and the other with white
 and red2       also two short holland  
shirts for sleeping in at night4        
,commenting on the word short1 ,seor de 
la ,torre de ,trassierra       aptly    
recalls the thrifty proverb of the      
,spaniards1--,a shirt which             
reaches below the navel is so much linen
 wasted4    #i ,see particularly ,las   
,ordenanzas de los tejedores de seda de 
,sevilla 7officially proclaimed on      
,march #bnd1 #aejb71 and also ,las      
,ordenanzas para el buen rgimen y       
gobierno de la muy noble1 muy           
leal1  imperial cuidad de ,toledo4      
7,tit4 cxxxv3 silk-weavers47  ,it was   

usual for ladies of the                 
,christian-,spanish aristocracy to trim 
their clothes1 in ,moorish fashion1 with
 strings of larger pearls or of         
aljofar-work--a custom which continued  
until the extinction of the ,house of   
,austria4 ,the ,alburquerque inventory  
includes a marlota of crimson satin1    
trimmed with pearls and with aljofar1 as
 to the hem1 the sleeves1 and the hood2 
with twelve buttons of aljofar-pearls in
 the front thereof1 that on a time were 
thirteen2 but one is missing which was  
ground up for the said ,duchess when she
 was sick1 and six buttons on each      
sleeve1 and the same where each sleeve  
meets the shoulder4  ,early in the      
seventeenth century1 ,pinheiro da ,veiga
 mentions the same fashion at           
,valladolid3--,at the sale of the       
,marchioness of ,mondejar1 ,i saw twelve
 of her sayas with long trains to them1 
and satin bodices1 all of embroidered   
silk1 and some with aljofar-work1       
besides a number of all kinds of        

diabluras4  ,it is stated by ,ibn-,said1
 ,al-,makkari1 ,al-,khattib1 and        
,ibn-,khaldun1 that the ,moors of       
,granada occasionally adopted ,christian
 clothing1 and we know that the ,sultan 
,mohammed1 a contemporary of ,alfonso   
the ,learned of ,castile1 was           
assassinated by ,abrahim and ,abomet1   
the sons of ,osmin1 because he was so   
clothed1 and because he had further     
violated the precepts of the ,koran by  
eating at ,alfonso's table4#aj ,but as a
 rule the costume of the ,spanish ,moors
 was almost wholly that of orientals4   
,where they were tolerated in a city    
under ,christian rule1 a certain dress  
was sometimes forced upon them by their 
subjugators1 as by the ,ordenamiento    
7,a4,d4 #adjh7 of ,doa ,catalina1 issued
 on behalf of her son1 ,juan the        
,second1 and which prescribed for the   
,moorish men a capuz of yellow cloth    
with a mark upon it in the form of a    
blue half-moon measuring an inch from   
point to point1 and which was to be worn

 on the right shoulder4 ,the garments of
 the women were to be similarly marked1 
on pain of fifty lashes administered    
publicly1 together with the forfeiture  
of all such clothes as lacked this      
necessary and humiliating token4    #aj 
,on the other hand1 ,rosmithal recorded 
in his narrative of a tour of           
,spain that ,henry the ,second of       
,castile affected the costume of the    
,mohammedans4  ,but where the ,spanish  
,moors were in possession of the soil1  
their clothes were similar in most      
respects to those of eastern peoples4   
,detailed notices of these costumes are 
furnished us by ,ibn-,said and other    
writers4 ,fray ,pedro de ,alcal explains
 in his ,vocabulary that1 among the     
,granadinos1 the use of one garment in  
particular was limited to royalty1 or   
nobles of high rank4 ,this was the libas
 7or1 in the ,granadino dialect1 libis71
 shaped like roomy breeches1 and greatly
 resembling the zaragelles worn until   
this hour by the peasants of the ,huerta

 of ,valencia4 ,ibn-,said1 quoted by    
,al-,makkari 7see ,gayangos1 ,history of
 the ,mohammedan ,dynasties in ,spain1  
,vol4 ,i41 p4 #aaf7 says that the dress 
of the ,moors of ,andalusia was not     
identical with that of the ,asiatic     
,mussulman4 ,the former1 he declares1   
would often discard the turban2         
especially those who lived towards the  
eastern frontier4 ,in the western region
 the turban continued to be generally   
worn by the upper classes and by the    
leading ,state officials4 ,thus1 at     
,cordova and ,seville every cadi and    
alfaqui would wear a turban1 while at   
,valencia and ,murcia even the nobles   
went without it1 and among the lower    
classes it had fallen into absolute     
disuse4 ,neither officers nor soldiers  
of the army wore the turban4  ,we learn 
from ,casiri 7,bibl4 ,arabico-,hispana1 
,,ii41 p4 #beh7 that the imama#aa was   
the only form of head-dress used by the 
cheiks1 cadis1 and ulemas of ,granada4  
,at this capital red was the distinctive

 colour of the sovereigns of the        
,alahmar dynasty1 who took their very   
title from this circumstance1 the       
,arabic word alahmar meaning red4 ,the  
distinctive colour of the ,nasrite      
sultans was purple1 which was replaced  
by black in time of mourning4 ,in this  
last fashion the sultans were probably  
influenced by the ,christian usage1 for 
,ibn-,khaldun remarks that black was not
 a colour approved of by the orientals1 
who considered it to be related with the
 spirits of evil4 ,however this may be1 
the manuscript ,history of the ,house of
 ,cordova quoted by ,eguilaz ,yanguas1  
says that when ,boabdil el ,chico       
entered that city as a prisoner1 the    
captive monarch was dressed in black    
velvet1 in token of his adverse fortune 
and defeat4 ,he rode a richly           
caparisoned charger1 whose coat was     
black and glossy4    #aa ,this was a    
large form of turban4 ,in the well-known
 painting in the        ,hall of        
,justice of the ,alhambra1 the          

head-dress is the aharim or             
almaizar4  ,the ,moors regarded green or
 white as pleasant and well-omened      
colours1 symbolic of the angels and of  
all good fortune4 ,perhaps this         
preference was suggested to them by the 
cool oasis in the desert4 ,nevertheless1
 when ,ibn-,hud became ruler of         
,andalusia1 his shields and banners were
 black1 as well as his costume4 ,black1 
too1 was the colour adopted by the      
,abbaside ,sultans1 to whom ,ibn-,hud   
was subject4 ,under the ,beni-,nasr and 
,beni-,alahmar1 this gloomy hue was     
changed1 as we have seen1 to purple or  
to scarlet1 though black continued to be
 used in sign of mourning4              
,illustration3 ,v                       
,,the ,,tunic ,,of ,,boabdil ,,el       
,,chico                7,national       
,museum of ,artillery1 ,madrid7  ,the   
chronicle says that ,abu-,said1 the     
,red1 who was assassinated at ,tablada1 
under the walls of ,seville1 by ,pedro  
the ,cruel1 was clothed in scarlet at   

the time of that atrocious deed4        
,boabdil was also clothed in red at the 
battle of ,lucena4 ,the ,history of the 
,house of ,cordova1 from which ,i have  
already quoted1 says3 ,il tait arm d'une
 forte cuirasse  clous dors1 double de  
velours cramoisi1 d'un morion teint de  
grenat et dor4444 ,sur sa cuirasse tait 
pass un caban de brocart et de velours  
cramoisi 7,plate v474 ,eguilaz quotes a 
further passage from ,hurtado de        
,mendoza1 to prove that red continued to
 be the official colour of the ,moorish 
rulers of ,granada2 for when the        
,moriscos had risen in the ,alpujarra1  
and met together to invest their        
leaders1 ,aben-,abu and ,aben-,humeya1  
with the insignia of royalty1 they      
clothed the former in a red costume and 
the latter in purple1 passing about his 
neck and shoulders a red token in the   
form of a scarf4#ab    #ab ,eguilaz     
,yanguas1 ,les ,peintures de            
l',alhambra4  ,as ,i remarked in        
speaking of the tiraz1 the clothing of  

the ,moorish kings of ,spain was of the 
richest quality obtainable1 massively   
wrought1 embroidered in colours and in  
gold1 and bearing sometimes a prince's  
name1 sometimes his device or motto1 or 
even a portrait of himself embroidered  
on the right breast of his caban or     
robe1 thus following the fashion of the 
monarchs of ,assyria and ,persia4       
,,spanish ,,silk  ,a very fair idea of  
the magnitude of the craft and trade of 
,spanish silk in bygone epochs may be   
formed by tracing chronologically the   
production and treatment of the raw     
material in various parts of the        
,peninsula4 ,during the centuries of    
,moorish rule1 ,spain's principal       
silk-producing centre was the kingdom of
 ,granada1 which then embraced a large  
extent of coast1 together with ,mlaga   
and other thriving ports4 ,in proof of  
this1 and in his interesting memorial on
 the silk factories of ,seville1#ac     
,ulloa quotes old ,spanish ordinances of
 the weavers1 stating that quantities of

 this substance were exported from      
tierra de ,moros for use by ,christian  
craftsmen1 and also the ,chronology of  
the ,kings of ,granada1 concluded by    
,al-,khattib in the year #acfd4 ,a      
fragment of this chronicle is preserved 
at the ,escorial1 and states1 in the    
well-known version of ,casiri1 that the 
silk produced at ,granada was both      
abundant and of excellent quality1      
surpassing even the ,assyrian4    #ac   
,don ,martin de ,ulloa1 ,discurso sobre 
las fbricas de seda de        ,sevilla4 
,the growing of mulberry trees and      
rearing of silkworms was also busily    
pursued in the kingdom of ,aragon1 which
 formerly included ,catalua1 ,valencia1 
and the ,balearic ,islands4 ,hence1     
though somewhat gradually1 it seems to  
have spread to ,seville4 ,in the        
ordinances of this town relating to her 
weavers of silks and velvets1 and which 
are dated #adib1 it is stated that her  
oficiales de texer sedas were so few    
that1 as a stimulus to augment their    

number1 all who wished might join them  
in the practice of this craft without   
examination4 ,between that year and     
#aejb they evidently multiplied1 since  
subjects of examination of no easy      
character are formulated in the         
ordinances of this later date1 examined 
and confirmed by ,ferdinand and         
,isabella4 ,nevertheless1 it is         
impossible to credit the assertion of   
some authors that by the year #aeai     
,seville possessed no less than sixteen 
thousand looms1 affording occupation to 
one hundred and fifty thousand persons4 
,as ,ulloa suggests1 it is far more     
reasonable to suppose that her silk     
trade grew in proportion as the         
,spaniards continued to discover1 and to
 open up to commerce1 new regions of    
,america2 and that it reached the       
maximum of its development in the reigns
 of ,charles the ,fifth and ,philip the 
,second4 ,the same writer attributes its
 decline and downfall to the piracies   
and insults of ,spain's foreign enemies 

and rivals4  ,the price of ,seville     
silks was also raised and the trade     
injuriously affected1 by the imposition1
 at the close of the reign of ,philip   
the ,second1 of the onerous millones    
tax1 as well as of the minor dues       
denominated alcavalas and cientos2 while
 finally1 when ,philip the ,third was on
 the throne1 the expulsion of the       
,moriscos precipitated the utter ruin of
 this industry4                         
,illustration3 ,,vi                     
,,the ,,banner ,,of ,,saint ,,ferdinand 
7,seville ,cathedral7  ,the ,spanish    
government proved quite incapable of    
grappling with these wrongs and         
difficulties4 ,there were1 however1     
numerous attempts to legislate in the   
direction of reform4 ,measures          
forbidding the introduction of silk     
proceeding from abroad received the     
royal signature in #aejj1 #aead1 #aebe1 
#aecb1 and #aeeb4 ,a petition to the    
same effect1 framed by the procurators  
of the ,cortes1 was presented to the    

king in #afah1 urging that no skein or  
twisted silk proceeding from the        
,portuguese ,indies1 ,china1 or ,persia 
should be imported into ,spain in view  
of the damage thus inflicted on the     
silk-producing regions of ,granada1     
,murcia1 and ,valencia4 ,at the same    
time the petitioners suggested that if  
it should be found impracticable to     
suppress such importation altogether1   
the foreign silk should be required to  
be in the form of stuffs already woven4 
,matters grew steadily worse all through
 the reign of ,philip the ,fourth4 ,the 
principal cause of this additional      
decline lay in the constant depreciation
 of the national currency1 which kept at
 an intolerable pitch of dearness the   
price of home-grown silk1 and enabled   
foreign traders to undersell the        
,spaniard4 ,this will be better         
understood if we consider that the      
composition of the copper and silver    
coinage was often tampered with by      
,crown and ,parliament in such a way as 

to allow the foreigner to rid the       
country of nearly all her gold and      
silver1 leaving in exchange only the    
baser metal4 ,at intervals of a few     
years1 proclamations were issued        
altering the values of the coinage in   
the most capricious and disastrous      
terms1 and ,ulloa mentions as still in  
circulation in the eighteenth century1  
ochavos of ,philip the ,third which bore
 inscribed the value of twelve maravedis
 in ,roman numerals1 and also 7owing to 
the restamping of the coins by order of 
the ,crown71 the second and successive  
value of eight maravedis1 marked in     
ordinary numerals4 ,in fact1 so grave   
were these abuses1 that the arbitrary   
value imposed upon the coins in question
 grew to be six times that of the actual
 value of the metal4  ,at the close of  
the seventeenth century1 when ,charles  
the ,second was on the throne1 a couple 
of well-meant and not completely        
ineffectual attempts were made to bring 
about a fresh revival in the growth of  

,spanish silk4 ,on ,november #ahth1     
#afhc1 the silk-makers of ,toledo1      
,seville1 ,granada1 and ,valencia were  
summoned to a council at ,madrid1 and   
the dispositions they then agreed upon  
received the royal signature and became 
law on ,january #cjth of the following  
year1 the pragmatic which embodied them 
being issued to the public ten days     
later4 ,it was commanded by this        
document that all the silk produced at  
the above-named towns should be examined
 and approved by the veedores or        
mayorales1 and bear the official stamp  
which guaranteed their quality4 ,the    
effect of these ordinances was further  
strengthened by a ,crown cedula of ,july
 #aeth1 #afib1 confirming other         
dispositions dated #afce2 and later     
still1 in ,june of #afii1 a law was     
passed prohibiting the exportation of   
all home-made silks to other countries4 
,the accession of the ,bourbon kings    
heralded a further slight improvement4  
,philip the ,fifth had barely mounted   

the throne when the ,junta de ,comercio 
was revived by his command1 and drafted 
various laws for bettering this and     
other industries4 ,royal decrees of     
,june #bjth and ,september #agth1 #agah1
 renewed in ,june of #agbh and in ,april
 and ,august of #agcd1 forbade the      
introduction of silk and certain other  
stuffs from ,china and the rest of      
,asia--a measure which was made more    
strict as time went on1 the prohibition 
being extended to linens and cottons    
produced and printed in ,africa or ,asia
 or imitated in ,europe4 ,in the        
meantime another cedula1 signed at the  
,escorial on ,november #ajth1 #agbf1 had
 ordered that every ,spanish citizen of 
either sex should dress exclusively in  
silks or cloths of ,spanish manufacture4
  ,these laws1 though founded on        
mistaken principles1 undoubtedly        
restored the national silk trade for a  
while4 ,in #agac the silk looms of      
,seville had increased to four hundred  
and five1 and by #agcb--;in which year  

the ,court resided at that capital--to a
 thousand2 but on the return of the     
royal family to ,madrid1 and the        
declaration of war against ,england in  
#agci1 the number dropped to a hundred  
and forty4 ,in #agdc an effort was made 
to remedy this by exempting ,seville    
silks from payment of the alcabalas and 
cientos1 and further support was        
rendered in #agdi by ,ferdinand the     
,sixth1 who lowered to eighty maravedis 
per pound weight the tax on ,spanish    
silks exported from the kingdom1 and    
issued1 in #ageb1 #agec1 and #agef1     
additional decrees intended to encourage
 and protect this industry4 ,in #agdh   
the same ruler established the          
celebrated silk factories of ,talavera  
de la ,reina1 sparing no pains to bring 
their products to a level with the best 
in ,europe1 and choosing as director of 
the works a thoroughly proficient       
,frenchman named ,jean ,roulire1 a      
native of ,nmes1 who was assisted by a  
carefully selected staff of experts1    

also principally foreigners4  ,about the
 end of the century ,laborde described  
this enterprise as follows3--,the       
manufactures of silks1 gildings1 and    
galloons are highly useful and          
important4444 ,there has also been      
raised at ,cervera1 a village two       
leagues from ,talavera1 another large   
edifice1 in which are twelve mills for  
twisting the silk1 four large windles   
for winding it1 and six machines for    
doubling it4 ,this complicated machinery
 is put in motion by four oxen1 and the 
various processes of twisting1 winding1 
and doubling seven thousand and         
seventy-two threads of silk are thus    
performed at once4  ,this establishment 
was rapidly augmented under the         
direction of ,roulire and the other     
,french mechanics who succeeded him in  
its superintendence4 ,so successful were
 their labours that1 in a short time1   
stuffs were fabricated in ,spain not    
unworthy of competition with those of   
,france1 the demand for which was found 

to diminish4 ,in #agfb1 ,roulire being  
obliged to withdraw from this           
manufactory1 the care of it was         
committed to a company to the exclusion 
of almost all the ,french who had       
previously assisted in its              
establishment4 ,the consequences of this
 change were soon discovered2 the       
manufacture declined1 the stuffs        
deteriorated1 and the consumption       
diminished2 the artisans were discharged
 from the loom1 and everything          
threatened the total subversion of the  
establishment1 when the king interposed1
 and again extended to it his care and  
protection1 ,it has since been yielded  
to the incorporated society of the      
,gremios at ,madrid1 but has never      
recovered its former splendour and      
prosperity4  ,taffetas1 satins1 silk    
cloths1 and serges are fabricated here1 
as are silk ribbons1 plain and figured  
velvets1 stuffs of silk and silver1     
stuffs of silk and gold1 galloons1 gold 
and silver fringes1 and silk stockings4 

,the factory employs three hundred and  
sixty-six looms1 and affords occupation 
to two thousand persons4 ,there are     
annually consumed in it about a hundred 
thousand pounds of silk1 four thousand  
marks of silver1 and seventy marks of   
gold4  ,some of the stuffs issuing from 
the manufactory are beautiful and good1 
but they want the gloss and lustre of   
the ,french stuffs2 and as they are     
dearer than those1 with all the         
contingent expense of commission and    
transportation1 they are far from being 
able to maintain a competition with     
them4 ,the stockings are of the vilest  
quality1 being thin1 shaggy1 and        
ill-dressed4 ,the greater part of these 
articles are exported to the ,spanish   
colonies4  ,further efforts to improve  
the quality of ,spanish silk were made  
by ,charles the ,third1 in whose reign  
the silk looms of ,seville increased to 
four hundred and sixty-two for weaving  
larger pieces1 sixty-two for silver and 
gold galloons1 three hundred and        

fifty-four for finely-worked ribbons1   
twenty-three for small pieces of gold   
and silver stuffs1 eight for fringes and
 cintas de rizo1 sixty-three for        
stockings1 sixty-five for redecillas1   
three for caps1 and one thousand three  
hundred and ninety-one for ordinary     
ribbon4 ,at the same time1 according to 
,ulloa1 one hundred thousand pounds of  
silk required to be annually brought to 
,seville to supply these factories4  ,in
 its fortunate days1 wrote ,alexander de
 ,laborde1 ,seville had many splendid   
manufactures2 it wove silks of every    
kind1 gold and silver tissues1 linens1  
and cottons4#ad ,a memoir presented in  
#afja by the seventeen companies of arts
 and trades of this city gives us an    
idea of the brilliant state of those    
manufactures3 the amount of the silk    
looms is there stated to be #af1jjj1 and
 the persons of both sexes employed at  
them1 #acj1jjj4 ,these manufactures had 
greatly declined even in the last       
century4 ,we learn from ,francisco      

,martnez de la ,mata1 in his ,discursos1
 published in #afei1 according to a     
memoir presented to the king by an      
alcalde of the silk manufactures of     
,seville1 that there were no more1 at   
that time1 than sixty-five looms1 that a
 great number of persons having no work 
had quitted the town1 that the          
population had decreased a third1 and   
that many houses were shut up1          
uninhabited1 and going to ruin4 ,the    
silk manufactures began to look up again
 in the eighteenth century1 but they are
 very far below the brilliant state they
 formerly displayed3 in #aggi there were
 #bcah silk looms in ,seville1 including
 those for stockings1 slight stuffs1 and
 ribbons4#ae    #ad ,in former times1   
linens and cottons painted1 stencilled1 
or stamped        with decorative       
patterns from an iron or boxwood matrix1
 were        considered to be luxurious 
fabrics1 and are denounced as such in   
the sumptuary pragmatic 7quoted by      
,miquel y ,bada7 issued by ,jayme       

the ,conqueror in ,a4,d4 #abcd3 ,item   
statuimos quod nos nec aliquis          
subditus noster non portet vestes       
incisas1 listatas1 vel        trepatas4 
,latterly1 these kind of stuffs were    
made in great quantities at             
,barcelona1 and exported to other       
,spanish provinces1 as well as to       
,america4 ,several manufactures of      
printed linens are established          
here1 wrote ,swinburne1 in #agge1 but   
have not yet arrived at any        great
 elegance of design or liveliness of    
colour4 ,the manuscript        7dated   
about ,a4,d4 #ahaj7 attached to my copy 
of ,pigal's plates of        ,spanish   
costume1 says that the paoleta or fichu 
7neckerchief7        of the women of    
,cartagena in their gala-dress was at   
that time of        mousseline blanche1 
quelquefois brod1 et trs souvent n'est  
qu'un mouchoir d'indienne des fabriques 
de ,barcelonne1 avec une        brodure 
en fleurs rouges1 le fond blanc et      
parsem de petits        bouquets4 ,the  

same manuscript describes the dress of a
 cook at        ,granada3--,le jupon    
7refajo71 qui est toujours trs court1   
est        en hiver de laine avec une   
garniture au bas3 en t il est en        
indienne4 ,cette indienne est une sorte 
de percale ou toile de        coton     
peinte1 dont il y a plusieurs fabriques 
en ,catalogne4 ,on en        exportait  
autrefois une quantit1 immense que l'on 
portait dans        les ,amriques       
,espagnoles2 c'est ce qui lui a fait    
donner le nom        d'indienne4        
,from the same source we learn          
respecting another cotton fabric1       
which might easily be thought by the    
unwary reader of to-day to        have  
been of ,spanish manufacture1 that      
l'habitant de ,mahon fait        en t un
 grand usage de l'toffe des ,indes      
appele nankin4        ,cette toffe n'est
 connue dans plusieurs parties de       
l',espagne que        sous le nom de    
,mahon4    #ae ,in #agii the ,marquis of
 ,monte-,fuerte declared the silk of    

,seville        to be of as fine a      
quality as that of ,valencia and        
,carmona4        7,discurso sobre el    
planto de moreras en ,sevilla y sus     
inmediaciones47  ,turning our attention 
from ,seville to ,granada1 we find that 
the fame of the silks produced in this  
latter city1 or rather kingdom 7for silk
 was raised in great quantities         
throughout the entire region7 extended  
as far abroad as ,constantinople1 and   
that they were used in ,greece in the   
reign of ,comnenus4 ,the ,muzarabs1 who 
petitioned ,alfonso el ,batallador to   
bring an expedition to their rescue and 
wrest ,granada from her ,mussulman      
lords1 reported to him in enthusiastic  
terms the quality and abundance of the  
silk of that locality1 and many a       
document and chronicle record its vogue 
among the ,spanish ,christians of the   
,middle ,ages4  ,the ,alcaicera or      
silk-market of ,granada is referred to  
by various of the older writers1        
including ,marineus ,siculus1           

,navagiero1 ,lalaing1 ,bertaut de       
,rouen1 and ,alvarez de ,colmenar4 ,the 
name itself is stated in ,fray ,pedro de
 ,alcal's ,vocabulario to be derived    
from the ,arabic al-aqqisariya1 meaning 
an exchange for merchants4 ,buildings1  
or groups of buildings1 of this kind    
existed both in ,spain and in ,morocco4 
,early in the eighteenth century a      
,spanish friar wrote of ,fez2 ,the      
,moorish portion of this city is the    
,alcaicera4 ,it stands nearly in the    
centre of the level part of the town1   
and near the principal mosque1          
resembling a town in itself1 with solid 
walls and doors1 and chains across it to
 keep out the horses4 ,it consists of   
fifteen streets of wealthy shops1       
stretching without a break1 and what is 
sold in them--whether of linen1 silk1 or
 cloth--is of the richest and the       
noblest quality4  ,very similar are the 
descriptions relative to the ,alcaicera 
of ,granada in the olden time4 ,bertaut 
de ,rouen wrote of it1 and of the       

adjoining ,zacatin2 ,en retournant      
devers la porte d',elvire est le        
,zacatin1 qui est une rue paralelle au  
,canal du ,darro1 longue et assez       
estroite1 qui vient de la place de la   
,chancellerie  la place de ,vivarambla4 
,dans cette rue sont tous les orfvres1  
les marchands de soie1 de rubans1 de    
vermillon1 qui croist assez prs de      
,grenade1 dont on fait l grand trafic4  
,c'est une plante semblable  celle du   
,safran1 dont il y a beaucoup dans ces  
quartiers-l4  ,dans cette mesme rue du  
,zacatin donne d'un cost l',alcayzerie1 
qui est une espce de ,halle couverte  la
 manire de la ,foire ,saint ,germain1 o 
sont plusieurs boutiques remplies des   
,marchandises les plus curieuses4 ,ils  
disent que cette place1 aussi bien que  
beaucoup d'autres des autres ,villes    
d',andalousie1 se nomme ainsi  cause    
d'un privilege que donnerent les ,cesars
 aux ,arabes de travailler en ,soye4    
,alvarez de ,colmenar wrote of the same 
edifice1 a few years later than         

,bertaut2 ,vis--vis de la ,chancellerie 
on voit une maison fort longue1 nomme   
,alcacria 7sic71 partage en prs de deux 
cent boutiques1 o les ,marchands talent 
tout sorte de marchandises1             
particulirement des toffes en soie4 ,on 
the authority of the same writer1 the   
makers and the dyers of silk-stuffs     
inhabited another quarter of the town4  
,le dernier quartier de la ,ville1 nomm 
,antiqueruela1 est dans une plaine1     
peupl de gens venus d',antechera1 d'o   
lui vient le nom qu'il porte4 ,ses      
habitants sont pour la plupart ouvriers 
en soie1 tisseurs de satin1 de tafetas1 
de damas2 teinturiers qui teignent en   
pourpre1 en carlate1 et autres ouvriers 
semblables4 ,he adds2 ,il s'y fait grand
 commerce d'toffe de soie2 et la ,ville 
et les environs sont pour cet effet     
plants d'un si grand nombre de meuriers1
 que le seul impt sur les feuilles de   
ces arbres vaut annuellement trente     
mille cus au ,roi4  ,about the beginning
 of the nineteenth century ,laborde     

wrote3 ,the ,alcaicera is in the        
,bivarambla3 it is merely an immense    
edifice1 without ornament1 covering a   
considerable extent of ground4 ,the     
,moors used it as a bazaar1 and a good  
many tradesmen still carry on their     
business there4 ,it contains about two  
hundred shops4 ,it remained1 in fact1 in
 much the same condition as when the    
,moors possessed it1 until the year     
#ahdc1 when a fire1 which broke out on  
the night of ,july #bjth of that year1  
reduced it almost totally to ashes4     
,to-day the historic silk trade is no   
more2 but the ,alcaicera1 consisting of 
a chapel and a street which call to mind
 the graceful and effective decoration  
of its predecessor1 has been rebuilt    
with taste and accuracy from the model  
of the old4  ,the ,ordenanzas of        
,granada city1 the first edition of     
which was published in #aeeb1 and the   
second in #afgh1 inform us very closely 
of the silk trade of that region in the 
times immediately succeeding the        

reconquest4 ,having regard to the fact  
that the silk was now spun in skeins in 
an imperfect manner1 with much deceit   
and trickery1 and that its quality was  
of the worst 7,ordinance of ,a4,d4      
#aece71 nobody was allowed henceforth to
 spin silk in or about ,granada without 
being qualified through examination by  
the veedores or inspectors appointed for
 this purpose by the corporation4 ,the  
inspector might charge for this         
examination a fee of twenty-five        
maravedis1 and if the candidate were    
successful he was permitted to set up   
his loom forthwith1 and engage two lads 
or girls1 not less than twelve years    
old1 to fetch and carry at his wheel1 so
 that the work may be continued all day 
long4  ,minute instructions follow as to
 the method of spinning the silk1 wages1
 the treatment of apprentices1 and other
 detail4 ,many of these narrow points of
 city law were troublesome and          
senseless1 and must have tended to      
destroy the trade4 ,for instance1 the   

earnings of a master-spinner1 after     
paying the lads or girls who worked for 
him1 were limited to a maximum of two   
reales and a half per day4 ,women were  
allowed to spin upon the following      
conditions3 ,also1 seeing that there be 
some honest women here who have no      
access to a public wheel1 but work      
within their dwellings only1 we 7i4e4   
the city councillors7 command that these
 may spin per thousand of cocoons1 or at
 a daily wage1 not to exceed two reales 
and a half4 ,the silk was not to be spun
 with an escobilla or brush1 but with   
the hand1 obedient to the rhyming       
,spanish proverb which says1 or used to 
say1 con escobilla el pao1 y la seda con
 la mano 7brush cloth with a brush1 and 
silk with the hand74  ,the laws         
affecting the dyers of silk contain the 
following provisions4 ,they were not to 
dye with pomegranate or sumach1 and if  
the rind of the former fruit were found 
in their houses1 they were liable to a  
fine of six thousand maravedis and      

thirty days' imprisonment4 ,dyeing with 
,brazil-wood was also prohibited in the 
case of silks of finer quality exposed  
for sale in the ,alcaicera4 ,elaborate  
directions follow as to the manner of   
applying the dye4 ,in the case of silks 
dyed blue or purple1 the dyer1 before he
 drew the fabric from the vat1 was      
required to show it to the alamin or    
inspector of the silk1 or else to one of
 the veedores nominated by the city     
councillors4 ,the fines imposed upon the
 dyers who were found to contravene     
these regulations were distributed in   
the following proportion3 one-third     
towards repairing the ramparts or       
adarves of ,granada2 another third      
between the alamin1 the veedores1 and   
the other officials who discovered and  
denounced the culprit2 and the remaining
 third between the magistrates and other
 authorities who tried and sentenced    
him4  ,further1 each silk-dyer was to   
have six tinajas1 or large jars 7see    
,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #abj et seq471 kept    

continually full of dye1 well settled1  
and liable at any hour to be analyzed by
 the veedores4 ,in dyeing fabrics black1
 each pound of silk was to be treated   
with ten ounces of foreign galls of fine
 quality1 two ounces of copperas1 and   
two ounces of gum-arabic4  ,it is       
evident that nearly all this legislation
 was of a mischievous character1 nor can
 it cause surprise that certain of the  
silk-makers of this locality should have
 been in the habit of committing many   
kinds of fraud1 such as mixing salt or  
oil with the raw material1 in order to  
increase its weight4 ,thus1 at the same 
time that the laws themselves were made 
more numerous and stringent1 the more   
elaborate and various were the shifts   
invented by the citizens as a means to  
violate those laws4 ,the inspectors were
 empowered to enter a shop and examine  
its contents at any hour4 ,sometimes1 we
 read1 such ingress was denied them1 and
 the door was kept closed1 or slammed in
 their faces4 ,the penalty for this     

resistance was a fine of two thousand   
maravedis and twenty days imprisonment4 
,no silk-spinner was allowed to possess 
more than two spinning-wheels           
7,ordinance of ,november #ahth1 #aeja71 
or to keep these working after midnight1
 for we are told that in this way the   
veedores were impeded from paying their 
official visit in the small hours of the
 morning1 and much deceit and insult was
 the consequence4 ,this ,ordinance was  
confirmed by a royal rescript of #aedb4 
,illustration3 ,,vii                    
,,velvet ,,made ,,at ,,granada          
7,late #aeth ,century7  ,another group  
of ,ordenanzas concerns the weavers and 
the silk-merchants of the ,alcaicera1   
determining that no silk was to be      
imported from the kingdoms of ,valencia 
or ,murcia1 and that no merchant was to 
buy the raw material in order to resell 
it at a profit1 but might only trade in 
the productions of his own factory4     
,minute instructions are appended for   
weaving the various stuffs which had a  

silk foundation1 such as several kinds  
of damask1 scarlet velvet#af many kinds 
of satin1 velvet dyed with ,brazil-wood1
 taffeta of four leishes1 taffeta of two
 leishes1 and sargas1 or silken serge4  
,other fabrics mentioned in the         
,ordinances are tocas called ,san       
,juanes1 campuses moriscos 7elsewhere   
las tocas moriscas que se llaman        
campuzas71 las tocas moriscas labradas  
que se dizen coninos1 quinales and      
alfardillas1 alcaydias1 tocas de ,reyna1
 and espumillas4 ,most of these names   
are of obscure meaning at the present   
day2 but ,i find that espumillas were   
silken crape1 while alfardillas are     
defined in the old dictionary of        
,fathers ,connelly and ,higgins as an   
ancient kind of silken ribbon1 or tape4 
#af ,granada was especially renowned for
 her velvets 7,plate vii471             
grounded or relieved1 in the oriental   
manner1 with gold or silver4  ,no weaver
 was allowed to be the owner of more    
than four looms for making velvet1      

satin1 damask1 taffeta1 or silken       
serges4 ,the apprentice to a satin-maker
 required to be bound for a minimum term
 of three years1 the apprentice to a    
damask-maker for five years1 the        
apprentice to a taffeta-maker for three 
years4 ,no weaver was to have more than 
three apprentices at one time1 except in
 the case of the damask-makers1 who     
might have four4 ,no weaver might       
dismiss his apprentice without deponing 
to the cause before the city officers1  
nor might he accept money1 or anything  
in lieu of money1 from an apprentice4   
,master-weavers were required to pass   
their examinations in ,granada2 no other
 city would suffice4  ,we further learn 
that many of the apprentices were of    
evil character1 and damaged velvet      
stuffs maliciously1 though knowing      
perfectly how to weave the same4 ,if any
 worker at this craft fell sick1 the    
guild or oficio was to defray the       
expenses of his cure1 including physic  
until he be recovered1 provided his be  

not a venereal ailment1 or a wound      
inflicted with a knife4 ,if he          
succumbed1 the guild was to bury him2   
and when a master-weaver died1 his      
apprentices were compelled to serve out 
the rest of their indentures with his   
widow1 or his sons4 ,no slave might     
learn to weave1 even though he should be
 made a horro or freedman4  ,other      
ordinances refer to the officers known  
as ,xelizes and ,almotalefes of the     
silk1 the privilege of appointing whom  
had been conferred upon the town-council
 by ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,it was   
the business of the almotalefe or       
motalefe to collect silk throughout the 
alcarias or villages of the surrounding 
districts1 and convey it1 on behalf of  
the owner1 to a xeliz or superintendent 
of the market1 attached to one or other 
of the three ,alcaiceras of the kingdom 
of ,granada4 ,the xeliz1 in his turn1   
was required to see that the parcel was 
put up for sale by public auction and   
disposed of to the highest bidder1 after

 which he handed to the motalefe a      
certificate of the price obtained1      
together with the corresponding cash1   
less certain fees deducted for himself  
and calculated on a reasonable scale4   
,the number of motalefes throughout this
 region was evidently large1 because in 
the year #aebj the town-council resolved
 to appoint as many as one or two in    
every town and district4  ,ordinances to
 the above effect were notified to the  
city of ,almuecar1 and the towns of     
,motril1 ,salobrea1 and the ,alpujarras2
 from which we must infer that1 though  
subordinated to the capital herself1    
these places also were silk-producing   
centres of no slight importance4        
,further laws relating to the ,xelizes  
were passed in #aece4 ,on ,august #acth1
 the mayor of ,granada 7described as the
 very magnificent ,seor ,hernan ,darias 
de ,saavedra7 summoned before him these 
officials in order to admonish them     
respecting certain fresh decisions that 
had been adopted by the councillors4    

,the said ,xelizes were six in all1     
known severally as ,juan ,ximenez1      
,hernando el ,comarxi1 ,juan ,infante   
,zaybona1 ,juan de ,granada1 ,lorenzo el
 ,mombatan1 and ,francisco ,hernandez   
,almorox--names which are of interest1  
as showing that the ,morisco element was
 still of weight among the manufacturers
 and merchants of ,granada4 ,from this  
time forth1 and by the resolution of the
 town authorities1 the ,xelizes in      
question were called upon to lodge a    
deposit of one thousand ducats as       
security for the value of the silk      
entrusted them for sale4 ,besides this1 
the silk was to be sold in the          
,zaguaque--that is1 by public auction as
 in the time of the ,moors1 from two in 
the afternoon onward4 ,the buyer was    
required to settle his account before   
ten in the morning of the day next      
following his purchase4 ,failing this1  
the silk was to be again put up for     
sale1 and the costs of this new         
operation were charged to the defaulting

 first purchaser1 who was further       
obliged to pay a daily compensation of  
two reales to the motalefe who had      
brought the silk to market4 ,xelizes    
were strictly forbidden to traffic on   
their own account1 and the fines for    
infringing any of these laws were heavy4
 ,if the infraction were repeated once1 
the fine was doubled2 if twice1 in      
addition to the same amount in money1   
the transgressor was banished for all   
his lifetime from ,granada4  ,all pieces
 of stuff which measured ten yards long 
and upwards1 and which it was desired to
 sell within the capital or district of 
,granada1 required to be marked with the
 weaver's stamp4 ,if three pieces were  
sold together1 or sent abroad to other  
places to be sold1 they required to be  
stamped with the city seal at a fee for 
stamping of two maravedis the piece4    
,this was to be performed by the        
veedores1 who were also to keep a       
register of all the city looms1 and pay 
them a visit of inspection once at least

 in every month4  ,finally1 one of the  
most ridiculous and noxious of these    
ordinances forbade the planting of more 
mulberry-trees in or about ,granada2    
notwithstanding that it was also        
forbidden to deal in silk imported from 
,valencia or ,murcia1 as the merchants  
were said to mingle these foreign silks 
with that of ,granada herself1 to the   
detriment of the latter4  ,throughout   
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 
the silk-trade of this capital remained 
in much the same condition4 ,in #agdg a 
company was formed at ,granada titled   
the ,compaa ,real de ,comercio y        
,fbricas de ,granada1 and the formal    
prospectus of this society1 of which    
document a printed copy is in my        
possession1 was embodied in a royal     
cedula dated in the same year4 ,the     
preliminary remarks attached to this    
certificate explain that the people of  
,granada were now reduced to the most   
unhappy state of poverty1 insomuch that 
nowhere is there memory of a greater    

horde of mendicants4 ,the principal     
cause of this distress is stated to be  
the ruin of the silk-trade1 in which    
disaster may be recognised the          
consequences of the senseless           
legislation ,i have instanced in the    
foregoing paragraphs4 ,the fifteen      
thousand looms which once upon a time   
existed there had dwindled to six       
hundred1 and the production of raw silk1
 from one million pounds a year to one  
hundred thousand4 ,the new ,company was 
floated with the professed ambition of  
restoring ,granada to a measure of her  
old prosperity4 ,the capital was half a 
million pesos1 divided into shares of   
two hundred pesos each2 but silk and    
woven fabrics generally1 whose value had
 been suitably appraised by the         
authorities1 were admissible in payment 
of a share4 ,the holder of each five    
shares enjoyed one vote1 except in the  
case of founders1 who were privileged1  
as instruments of this important        
establishment1 to vote upon possession  

of a single share4 ,if a shareholder    
wished to sell his interest1 the        
,company was to have the first refusal4 
,it further possessed initially in cash 
a sum exceeding one hundred and twenty  
thousand pesos--sufficient to construct 
and work three thousand looms in all2   
and it engaged1 in return for certain   
favours and exemptions under royal      
warrant1 to set up twenty looms for     
making serges of fine quality1 and eight
 more in each year1 for the space of ten
 years1 for making carros de oro1 medios
 carros1 anascotes finos1 christales1   
and every other kind of stuff that is   
not manufactured in this kingdom4  ,the 
favours and exemptions thus solicited   
were of a very mischievous character2   
for the political mind of ,spain was not
 yet shrewd enough to grasp the fact    
that where all competition is removed1  
quality cannot but decline4 ,the        
products of the ,company were freed from
 paying taxes for ten1 or in the case of
 stuffs whose price amounted to six     

reales per yard1 for twenty years4      
,similarly1 all of its merchandise      
exported to ,america in flotas1         
galeones1 registros1 or other craft of  
those that are permitted1 was freed from
 all except the royal dues on loading1  
although if shipped to other parts it   
was to pay a tax of fifty maravedis for 
each ,castilian pound of sixteen ounces4
 ,all the materials and ingredients     
required by the ,company in the         
preparation of its fabrics were exempted
 from customs and other dues4 ,the      
,company enjoyed a preferential right to
 purchase silk throughout the kingdom of
 ,granada1 and such as it abstained from
 purchasing was to be sold by public    
auction in the ,alcaiceras of ,granada  
and ,mlaga1 that of ,almera being       
henceforth suppressed4 ,the ,company was
 also empowered to introduce silk from  
,murcia and ,valencia1 and the          
determination to crush all private      
enterprise is clearly expressed by the  
twenty-second heading of this document1 

which says2 ,all manufacturers and      
traders who do not associate themselves 
with this body shall pay the full tariff
 of dues at present established4 ,the   
,company was further empowered to compel
 the inhabitants of this locality to    
plant new lots of mulberry-trees1 in    
view of the notorious fact that not the 
one-hundredth part remains of all that  
were delivered by the ,royal ,census to 
the occupants of the kingdom of ,granada
 at the time of the reconquest4 ,the    
,company might further open shops and   
erect warehouses wherever it chose4 ,its
 assets were to enjoy perpetual immunity
 from seizure by the city council1      
whether as a loan or otherwise1 and none
 of its servants might be called upon to
 serve the ,crown in the event of war4  
,very shortly after its foundation1 this
 ,company united 7each bringing half the
 capital7 with another powerful         
association titled the ,commercial      
,company of ,estremadura1 with a view to
 securing a conjoint ,crown monopoly or 

exclusive privilege for ,portugal1 to   
the effect that only these two companies
 may traffic there in silk1 and none    
other of my vassals or the inhabitants  
of my dominions may do business1 whether
 in pure silk1 or silk mixed with silver
 or with gold1 in the kingdom of        
,portugal aforesaid4  ,the privilege was
 granted in these terms1 and bears the  
royal signature1 attached at ,aranjuez1 
,june #agth1 #agdg4 ,its provisions were
 to last for ten years1 and1 in return  
for their concession1 the two ,companies
 engaged for a like term of ten years to
 set up fifty silk-looms annually at    
,toledo1 over and above the looms at    
present working in that city4  ,i have  
not been able to trace1 in writing or in
 print1 the subsequent records of the   
,royal ,commercial and ,manufacturing   
,company of ,granada1 although ,i have  
been told that it existed for some time1
 and that on one occasion there was a   
riot among the townsfolk in opposition  
to its tyranny4#ag ,in #aggf ,swinburne 

wrote of the same region3 ,the annual   
produce of silk in this province1 before
 the year #agbf1 seldom fell short of   
two millions six hundred thousand pounds
 weight1 whereas now it does not exceed 
one hundred thousand4 ,judging from     
this1 the ,company does not appear to   
have prospered4 ,in #agge the same      
author wrote of other and more fertile  
silk-producing districts3 ,the          
manufacturers of silk are the cause of a
 population 7i4e4 in ,valencia7 that may
 be reckoned considerable1 if compared  
to that of other provinces of ,spain4   
,the produce of this article came this  
year to one million pounds1 but one year
 with another the average quantity is   
about nine hundred thousand pounds1     
worth a doubloon a pound in the country4
 ,the crop of silk this last season was 
very abundant4 ,government has          
prohibited the exportation of ,valencian
 raw silk1 in order to lay in a stock to
 keep the artificers constantly employed
 in bad years2 for it has happened in   

some1 that half the workmen have been   
laid idle for want of materials4 ,as    
they are not so strict about ,murcian   
silk1 which is of an inferior quality1  
,i am told that some from ,valencia is  
sent out of ,spain under that           
denomination4 ,the great nurseries of   
mulberry-plants in this plain 7the      
,huerta of ,valencia7 are produced from 
seed obtained by rubbing a rope of      
esparto over heaps of ripe mulberries1  
and then burying the rope two inches    
under ground4 ,as the young plants come 
up1 they are drawn and transplanted4    
,the trees1 which are all of the white  
kind1 are afterwards set out in rows in 
the fields1 and pruned every second     
year2 in ,murcia1 only every third year1
 and in ,granada never4 ,the ,granadine 
silk is esteemed the best of all2 and   
the trees are all of the black sort of  
mulberry4    #ag ,similar companies were
 formed at ,toledo1 ,zaragoza1 ,burgos1 
,seville1        and ,zarza4 ,for the   
,crown cedula1 dated ,february #ajth1   

#agdh1        authorizing the ,real     
,compaa de ,comercio y ,fbricas of      
,toledo1        see ,larruga's          
,memorias1 ,vol4 ,,vii41 p4 #fc4        
,according to ,laborde1 who wrote some  
twenty-five years later2 ,the           
cultivation of silk was formerly very   
flourishing in ,andalusia2 the kingdoms 
of ,granada1 ,seville1 and ,jaen        
produced immense quantities of it1 but  
after the conquest of those countries it
 was burdened with heavy taxes3 silk was
 made subject to ecclesiastical tithes  
payable in kind2 the royal tenth it paid
 under the ,moors was retained1         
estimated at three reales vellon each   
pound of silk4 ,to these were added a   
duty of tartil of seventeen maravedis   
per pound and duties of alcabalas and   
cientos1 fixed at eleven reales         
thirty-two maraveds4 ,there accrued from
 it a tax of fifteen reales fifteen     
maraveds for the king1 and six reales1  
or thereabouts1 for the ecclesiastical  
tithe1 making together twenty-one reales

 fifteen maraveds1 or about four        
shillings and sixpence the pound1 which 
at that time sold only for thirty       
reales1 or six shillings and three pence
 ,english4 ,the speculators were        
consequently discouraged1 most of them  
relinquished a labour from which they   
derived so little profit1 and this      
branch of industry entirely failed in   
the kingdoms of ,cordova and ,seville1  
and afterwards in those of ,granada and 
,jaen4 ,for some time it has been       
looking up in the two latter kingdoms1  
but it is very far from what it was     
under the ,moors4 ,the mulberries of    
,granada and ,jaen are black2 they are  
suffered to grow without any care or    
management1 are never lopped or dressed1
 and look as if they were planted by    
chance4  ,of ,murcia he wrote2 ,this    
province has the raw materials of other 
manufactures no less important4 ,in the 
first place1 it has a prodigious        
quantity of silkworms1 which are not    
turned to advantage2 most of the raw    

silks are sold to the neighbouring      
provinces1 and manufactured silk is     
imported from foreign looms1 though the 
inhabitants might manufacture their own 
materials1 and make it an article of    
considerable exportation4 ,the town of  
,murcia is the only place where they    
work some small quantity2 there they    
manufacture a few slight silks1 chiefly 
taffetas and velvets1 but of an inferior
 quality2 and the whole is confined to a
 small number of looms4 ,they make a    
much greater quantity of ribbons1 in    
which twelve hundred looms are employed2
 but they are badly dyed1 and have not a
 good gloss4 ,the ,murcians likewise    
prepare the raw silk1 spin1 and twist   
it2 they have even a warden1 and a great
 number of masters in this business1    
and1 in spite of its importance1 they   
carry it on without being subject to any
 superintendence1 everyone doing as he  
pleases4 ,the consequence is that the   
silk is badly prepared and spun         
unequally4 ,the threads are collected   

without any method1 sometimes more1     
sometimes less1 and then twisted        
unequally4 ,they are of course unfit to 
make fine stuffs1 and the trade of      
,murcia is therefore declining4444 ,silk
 stuffs1 satins1 velvets1 and taffetas  
are made here1 but there is no great    
manufactory of them4 ,they are wrought  
at private houses1 and are but of a     
middling quality4  ,toledo silk1        
including the delicate and costly cendal
 7see pp4 #e1 #f7 which is mentioned in 
the sumptuary law1 dated #acdh1 of      
,alfonso the ,eleventh1 was largely in  
demand from early in the ,middle ,ages  
till about the sixteenth century4 ,the  
statements of the older writers as to   
this neighbourhood are contradictory4   
,according to ,damin de ,olivares1      
himself a native of ,toledo1 this city  
in the sixteenth century possessed      
between five thousand five hundred and  
six thousand looms1 consuming annually  
more than six hundred thousand pounds of
 raw silk4 ,other authors estimate the  

number of her looms at twenty1 thirty1  
or even forty thousand4 ,writing in our 
own time1 ,count ,cedillo is responsible
 for declaring that after the revolt of 
the ,communities1 the persons occupied  
in weaving silk amounted to fifty       
thousand1 all of whom were natives of   
,toledo and the neighbouring villages2  
and he adds1 perhaps a little rashly1   
that the velvets1 damasks1 satins1 and  
taffetas of this locality were          
unrivalled1 even in comparison with the 
admirable products of ,seville1         
,cordova1 and ,granada4#ah ,certainly1  
the silk stockings of ,toledo enjoyed a 
wide-spread fame1 and were used1 among  
other distinguished patrons1 by the     
,duke of ,guise and by ,philip the      
,second4 ,they were also exported in    
quantities to ,america4 ,banners1       
altar-fronts1 and vestments for         
religious worship were also made here in
 large numbers1 and of excellent        
quality1 both in silk alone1 and in this
 substance mixed with gold and silver4  

#ah ,toledo en el ,siglo ,,xvi4 ,miquel 
y ,bada says that in the fifteenth      
century ,toledo1 together with ,genoa   
and ,venice1 manufactured superb        
velvets1 coloured crimson1 blue1 purple1
 or yellow1 and figured        with     
pineapples or pomegranates 7,plate iv474
 ,the latter tree and        fruit are  
commonly related1 in ,spain1 with the   
city of ,granada2        but quite apart
 from this1 the pomegranate was formerly
 regarded as        a symbol of         
fecundity and life4 7,see ,goblet       
d',alviella1 ,la        ,migration des  
,symboles1 p4 #ahd1 and also ,madame    
,errera's        ,catalogue1 ,no4 #ej47 
,in these velvets the gold thread is    
woven with        consummate skill1 and 
forms1 in the costliest and most        
elaborate        specimens1 a groundwork
 of exceedingly small rings4 ,these     
fabrics        were used as hangings for
 beds and walls1 as well as for the     
clothing of great lords and ladies4     
,touching the use of silk for           

certain articles of dress1 an amusing   
story is told in the ,,ms4              
account of ,valladolid1 published by    
,gayangos in the ,revista de            
,espaa4 ,one day1 ,don ,pedro de        
,medicis is reported to have paid       
a visit to a married lady1 to whom he   
had presented some damask               
curtains1 and he was wearing at the time
 some taffeta hose which        made a  
creaking as he walked4 ,the lady came   
out of her room1 and1        finding him
 in one of the lower apartments1        
exclaimed1 ',why do you        come here
 at such an hour1 and with that silk on 
you which creaks        so loudly8 ,take
 care my husband does not hear it4'     
,whereto the        gentleman replied2  
',good ,god1 madam1 is it possible that 
the two        hundred yards of damask  
which ,i gave you for that curtain have 
made no noise at all1 but that a mere   
four yards of simple taffeta            
about my breeches should put you in such
 consternation8'  ,laborde wrote of all 

these manufactures at the time of their 
decline2 ,it is easy to estimate their  
former importance from the loss they    
sustained by the introduction of foreign
 merchandise4 ,the memorial states that 
the consumption of silk was materially  
diminished1 and computes the loss       
sustained by thirty-eight thousand      
artisans1 from the interruption of their
 occupation1 at #a1icg1gbg ducats4      
,symptoms of decay continued to increase
 till the middle of the sixteenth       
century1 when every vestige of commerce 
was effaced4  ,toledo remained in this  
state of listless despondence till the  
present archbishop made a noble effort  
to revive the love of industry1 and to  
open an asylum for the tribes of        
mendicants1 accustomed from infancy to  
subsist on precarious bounty4 ,the      
measure adopted by this prelate was to  
establish in the ,alcazar various       
branches of manufacture1 such as linen1 
ribbons1 cloths1 serges1 woollen stuffs1
 and silk stuffs of every description4  

,he introduced also another branch of   
occupation1 appropriated solely to the  
production of sacerdotal ornaments4 ,in 
#agia there were a hundred and twelve   
manufactories in ,toledo1 ten for lawns 
and canvas1 twelve for ribbons1         
fifty-five for silk1 and seven for      
sacerdotal ornaments4 ,at this period   
the indigent class employed in them     
amounted to six hundred people1 who were
 instructed in various processes1 and   
were led insensibly to acquire the      
useful habits of industry4 ,they were   
taught to draw1 to prepare the          
materials1 and to perform the           
manufacture2 and each was destined to   
pursue some occupation suitable to his  
age1 his inclination1 and his abilities4
  ,in #aghf ,townsend1 himself a        
clergyman1 had written of ,toledo in far
 less hopeful terms4 ,this city1 which  
contained two hundred thousand souls1 is
 now reduced to less than twenty-five   
thousand4 ,the citizens are fled2 the   
monks remain4 ,here we find twenty-six  

parish churches1 thirty-eight convents1 
seventeen hospitals1 four colleges1     
twelve chapels1 and nineteen hermitages1
 the monuments of its former opulence4  
,townsend's good taste1 unusual for a   
traveller of that time1 was horrified at
 the profanation of the ,alcazar1 whose 
magnificent apartments are now occupied 
with spinning-wheels and looms1 and     
instead of princes they are filled with 
beggars4 ,the good archbishop here feeds
 seven hundred persons1 who are employed
 in the silk manufactory2 but           
unfortunately1 with the best intentions1
 he has completed the ruin of the city2 
for by his weight of capital1 he has    
raised the price both of labour and of  
the raw material1 whilst1 by carrying a 
greater quantity of goods to the common 
market1 he has sunk the price of the    
commodity so much1 that the             
manufacturers1 who employed from forty  
to sixty workmen1 now employ only two or
 three1 and many who were in affluence  
are now reduced to penury4  ,these      

people are so far from earning their own
 maintenance1 that over and above the   
produce of their labour they require    
forty thousand ducats a year for their  
support4  ,alvarez de ,colmenar1        
,ricord1 ,bourgoing1 ,laborde1 and other
 writers1 ,spanish and non-,spanish1 of 
the eighteenth century1 inserted full   
descriptions of the silk trade of       
,valencia and ,barcelona4 ,on y fait1   
wrote ,alvarez de ,colmenar of the      
former of these towns1 de trs bonnes    
draperies1 fortes1 d'un bon et long     
usage1 et propres  rsister  la pluie1 et
 grande quantit d'toffes de soie2 del   
vient que les meuriers1 dont les        
feuilles servent  nourrir les vers      
soie1 y font d'un fort gros revenu pour 
les habitans4 ,ricord1 in his scarce    
pamphlet1 printed at ,valencia in #agic1
 gives valuable statistics relating to  
this industry and locality1 prefacing   
his figures arranged in tabular form by 
the following remarks3 ,the silk        
factories of this province form the     

principal basis of her commerce4 ,they  
not only consume all the silk which is  
raised in the kingdom 7of ,valencia71   
and which1 in #agia1 amounted to        
#eha1fhh pounds of fine silk1 #ic1hjj of
 that of ,alducar1 and #bf1aae of       
hiladillo1 but they also require to     
provide themselves from ,aragon and     
other parts of ,spain1 or even from     
abroad1 seeing that in the year         
aforesaid more than #cg1jjj pounds were 
imported from foreign countries4 ,the   
tabular statement appended to these     
observations tells us that in the region
 of ,valencia the looms for making fine 
and silken fabrics such as velvets1     
anascotes1 stockings1 handkerchiefs1    
scarves1 garters1 and ribbons1 gave     
employment to a total of #i1ffh workmen1
 and were distributed among the towns or
 villages of ,valencia1 ,alcira1 ,san   
,felipe1 ,alcoy1 ,vilanesa1 ,denia1     
,ruzafa1 ,alicante1 ,peniscola1         
,beniganim1 ,pego1 ,olivo1 ,liria1      
,asuevar1 ,orihuela1 ,gandia1 ,elche1   

,castellon1 and ,vall de ,almonacid4    
,riao admits1 however1 that this        
manufacture might have prospered even   
more1 if means had been adopted to      
suppress certain acts committed by the  
weavers1 spinners1 and twisters of the  
silk4  ,more curious and instructive is 
the description of the same industry by 
,jean-,franois ,bourgoing1 whose        
observations1 evidently secured at      
first-hand1 are worth translating in    
extenso3--  ,what attracted us still    
more than the fine-art works were the   
stuffs produced at the silk-factories1  
which constitute the principal glory of 
,valencia and contribute to her         
prosperous condition4 ,we followed all  
the process of this manufacture1 from   
the cultivation of the mulberry-tree to 
the weaving of the richest fabrics4 ,i  
will try1 therefore1 to give a          
comprehensive account of them4  ,spain1 
and particularly the kingdom of         
,valencia1 could well export her silk to
 foreign parts1 even after setting apart

 a quantity sufficient for her          
factories4 ,government1 however1 does   
not appear to be convinced of this1     
because it offers constant hindrance to 
such exportation1 or else1 when it      
consents to it1 imposes heavy dues4     
,these dues consist of nine reales and a
 quartillo1 or nearly two livres seven  
francs per each ,valencian pound of     
silk1 which only weighs twelve ounces1  
and is worth at least fifteen livres    
when it is in the raw state4 ,when the  
silk harvest has been scanty1 as in the 
year #aghd1 it has been known to fetch  
eighty reales or twenty livres4 ,this   
year1 too1 the yield of silk has been so
 small that the manufacturers of        
,valencia petitioned ,government to     
allow the introduction1 duty-free1 of   
two hundred thousand pounds of it from  
,italy and ,france4  ,in ordinary years1
 the pound of 7raw7 silk costs eight    
reales for twisting and three reales for
 dyeing in green1 blue or other common  
colours2 so that this material1 ready to

 use1 costs altogether about seventy-one
 reales the pound1 or seventeen to      
eighteen francs of our money4  ,of      
course this price varies according to   
circumstances4 ,one of the causes which 
exercise the greatest influence on this 
fluctuation is the harvest of the       
mulberry4 ,these valuable trees are     
thickly planted over the champaign of   
,valencia1 and all of them are of the   
white-leaved kind4 ,this distinction1   
which would be superfluous in ,france1  
is by no means so in ,spain1 where1 in  
several provinces1 as1 for instance1 the
 kingdom of ,granada1 the leaves of the 
black mulberry are used to nourish the  
silkworms1 and yield almost as handsome 
a silk as those of the white4#ai    #ai 
,the mulberry of ,valencia is the white1
 as being most suitable to        a     
well-watered plain4 ,in ,granada they   
give the preference to the        black1
 as thriving well in elevated stations1 
as more durable1        more abundant in
 leaves1 and yielding a much finer and  

more        valuable silk4 ,but then it 
does not begin bearing till it is about 
twenty years of age4 ,in this province  
they reckon that five trees             
should produce two pounds of silk4      
,i had the curiosity to examine their   
method of feeding the        silkworms4 
,these industrious spinners are spread  
upon wicker        shelves1 which are   
placed one above the other1 all round1  
and        likewise in the middle of    
each apartment1 so as to leave room only
        for the good woman to pass with 
their provisions4 ,in one house ,i      
saw the produce of six ounces of seed1  
and was informed that to        every   
ounce1 during their feeding season1 they
 allow sixty        arrobas of leaves1  
valued at two pounds five4 ,each ounce  
of seed        is supposed to yield ten 
pounds of silk1 at twelve ounces to the 
pound4 ,march #bhth1 the worms began to 
hatch1 and ,may #bbnd they went         
up to spin4 ,on the eleventh day1 from  
the time that they were        hatched1 

they slept2 and on the fourteenth1 they 
awoke to eat        again1 receiving    
food twice a day till the twenty-second 
day4        ,having then slept a second 
time1 without interruption1 for three   
days1 they were fed thrice a day2 and   
thus alternately they        continued  
eating eight days and sleeping three1   
till the        forty-seventh day2 after
 which they ate voraciously for ten     
days1 and not being stinted1 consumed   
sometimes from thirty to        fifty   
arrobas in four and twenty hours4 ,they 
then climbed up        into rosemary    
bushes1 fixed for that purpose between  
the shelves1        and began to spin4  
,upon examination1 they appear evidently
 to draw out two threads        by the  
same operation1 and to glue these       
together1 covering them        with wax4
 ,thismay be proved by spirit of wine1  
which will dissolve        the wax1 and 
leave the thread4 ,having exhausted her 
magazine1 the        worm changes her   
form and becomes a nymph1 until the     

seventy-first        day from the time  
that the little animal was hatched1 when
 she        comes forth with plumage1   
and having found her mate1 begins to    
lay her eggs4 ,at the end of six days   
from this period of existence1          
having answered the end of their        
creation1 they both lie down and        
die4 ,this would be the natural         
progress2 but1 to preserve the silk1    
the animal is killed by heat1 and the   
cones being thrown into        boiling  
water1 the women and children wind off  
the        silk4--,townsend2 ,journey   
through ,spain in the years #aghf and   
#aghg2 ,vol4 ,,iii41 pp4 #bfd-bff4  ,the
 leaves to these mulberry-trees are sold
 by the load of ten arrobas2 and the    
,valencian arroba1 which is about equal 
to twenty-seven ,french pounds1 cost1 in
 #aghc1 about thirty sols tournois4     
,the mulberry leaves are gathered once1 
twice1 or1 at most1 three times in each 
year2 but it is not often that the two  
last crops are of as fine a quality or  

as abundant as the first4 ,the greater  
part of the year is suited for          
harvesting the leaves1 and this         
harvesting is carried out progressively 
as the silkworms copulate1 steadily     
increasing in quantity up to the moment 
when they build their cocoons4 ,as a    
rule only the leaves are plucked1 the   
branches being spared as far as         
possible4 ,thus despoiled of its verdure
 in the middle of the finest times of   
year1 although surrounded by a dazzling 
vegetation1 the tree looks like a dry   
log floating on a green expanse of      
waters1 while the mass of naked trunks  
which seem to be completely sterile1 and
 which grow more numerous as the season 
advances1 combine to render cheerless a 
prospect otherwise so fertile and so    
smiling4 ,still worse becomes their     
state when the trees are pruned entirely
 of their branches--an operation which  
is performed upon them at least once in 
every three years4  ,in the space of ten
 years the kingdom of ,valencia has     

yielded six million pounds of silk1     
which makes a yearly average of six     
hundred thousand pounds2 and as the     
whole of ,spain produces a million      
pounds per annum1 we see from this that 
,valencia alone supplies more than half 
of the entire quantity4 ,the silks of   
,valencia are the finest of the whole   
,peninsula1 and fit to be compared with 
the best of ,europe generally1 but the  
spinning is still imperfect1 because in 
,spain there are not1 as in ,france and 
elsewhere1 houses where the women who   
spin are gathered together under the eye
 of an inspector to see that all the    
silk is spun evenly4 ,in the kingdom of 
,valencia the spinning is distributed   
among several thousand hands1 who       
introduce six1 seven1 eight1 or even    
more ends in a thread of silk which     
should always have the same number2     
hence the unevennesses in the fabrics   
which are woven from them1 while for the
 same reason we do not utilize for any  
delicate work the raw material which we 

import from ,spain4 ,the silk we employ 
for our costlier fabrics is of the kind 
which we import from ,piedmont and the  
southern provinces of ,france4 ,also1   
for the last few years we have felt less
 need of the ,valencian silk4 ,the laws 
prohibiting the exportation of this     
,spanish silk have stimulated the       
cultivation of mulberry-trees in        
,languedoc1 where the peasantry1 alive  
to the profit which these trees could   
render them1 have preferred them to     
other kinds for planting round their    
property4 ,this is why1 in the year     
#aghc1 ,french silk could be bought for 
a lower price than the ,valencian silk  
purchased in that region1 plus the dues 
levied upon its exportation4 ,i know of 
a merchant who at this time enjoyed the 
privilege of exporting for six years a  
hundred thousand pounds free of all     
dues1 but who throughout the year #aghc 
was unable to find a purchaser in       
,france4 ,spain could perhaps remedy the
 egress of her raw material by further  

increasing 7as1 indeed1 she daily does7 
the number of her looms1 and by         
exporting a greater number of her       
products to her ,american possessions2  
but her silk-stuffs will never be       
perfected until she markets them in     
foreign countries1 where the taste of   
her customers may tend to better that of
 her manufacturers4  ,the silk raised in
 the kingdom of ,valencia is estimated1 
during an average year1 to be worth six 
or seven millions of piastres 7nineteen 
to twenty-two millions of livres47 ,at  
the time of my visit to this city1 she  
only employed one half this quantity1   
although her looms of every size        
amounted to four thousand4 ,the rest1 in
 spite of the prohibitions laid upon its
 extraction1 is smuggled off to foreign 
countries1 escaping1 sometimes to       
,france by way of ,barcelona1 and       
sometimes to ,portugal by way of        
,seville and ,extremadura4              
,nevertheless1 there is probably more   
silk in ,spain to-day than formerly1 and

 measures have been earnestly adopted to
 encourage the industries which make use
 of it4 ,for some time past1 silk-looms 
have been scattered over the whole of   
,catalua1 and in the kingdoms of        
,granada1 ,cordova1 ,seville1 etc41     
producing handkerchiefs1 ribbons1 and   
other stuffs in sufficient quantity to  
supply1 or nearly so1 the national      
market3 nevertheless this still left a  
large market for our stocking-factories 
of ,languedoc4 ,the ,spanish            
,government1 by the law of #aggh1       
limited itself to excluding these       
stockings from forming part of the      
foreign cargoes to the ,colonies1 but as
 they continued to be imported into     
,spain1 this law was readily evaded1    
since it sufficed to stamp the ,french  
article with the mark of a ,spanish     
factory4 ,it would have required an     
excessive vigilance1 almost a positive  
inquisition1 to guard against a fraud of
 this kind1 prompted by the avarice of  
traders4 ,the ,spanish ,government next 

sought1 by the law of #aghe1 to put a   
stop to it by totally excluding our silk
 stockings1 and this measure1 together  
with the establishment of a number of   
new looms in ,spain1 has produced an    
almost absolute stagnation in the market
 which our factories of ,languedoc had  
formerly enjoyed in the ,peninsula4 ,but
 let me return now to the ,valencian    
factories4  ,this city has no one       
building in which might be performed the
 whole of the processes through which   
the silk must pass4 ,any person who     
wishes to examine them1 must visit      
several workshops2 and this was the     
course which we adopted1 under the      
guidance of a manufacturer as           
intelligent as he is amiable1 named ,don
 ,manuel ,foz1 a gentleman who has      
travelled extensively in order to       
perfect his knowledge of handling silk1 
and who1 among other secrets1 has       
brought from ,constantinople the art of 
watering silken stuffs4 ,as a reward for
 his activity1 he has been appointed    

,intendente of all the factories of     
,valencia4  ,there are hardly any       
merchants at ,valencia who are not more 
or less concerned in silk-making3       
indeed1 they look upon this industry as 
quite a point d'honneur4 ,some of them  
supply with silk no more than four or   
five looms1 which work at their expense1
 while others have under their control  
as many as several hundred4  ,after the 
silkworm has cleverly built its cell1   
the first thing to be done is to stifle 
it before it can pierce the cocoon in   
search of a new existence4 ,for this    
purpose the cocoons are thrown into a   
moderately heated oven2 and then1 when  
once the worm is killed1 they can be    
kept without being spun for as long as  
may be needed4  ,in order to strip them 
of their covering of silk1 they are     
thrown into hot water1 after which the  
women workers pick up1 and with         
surprising quickness1 the threads of    
several of them1 join them1 and deal    
them out1 thus joined1 on wheels        

constructed for this object4 ,on the    
design of the wheels depends the degree 
of thoroughness with which the silk is  
spun2 but those which are employed in   
,spain are generally the most imperfect1
 as ,i shall presently explain4  ,i have
 already said that the slip of silk     
should be drawn from at least four      
cocoons1 and even then it only serves   
for making slender fabrics1 such as     
taffeta or ribbon4 ,we were shown1      
indeed1 a skein which was assured to    
contain no more than two cocoons2 but so
 slight a slip is of no use at all4     
,most of them are made from seven or    
eight cocoons1 and two of the former are
 joined in order to form a thread       
sufficient to be placed upon the loom4  
,my readers are sure to know that all   
woven fabrics consist of two distinct   
parts1 the woof and the warp4 ,the woof 
is that which is passed by the shuttle  
from one side of the loom to the other1 
and which is enchased between the two   
surfaces formed by the warp4 ,as the    

woof is subjected to more wear and tear 
than the warp1 it should be stouter4    
,for this reason each of the two ends of
 which it is composed is twisted        
separately before the two are twisted   
together1 while for the warp the latter 
of these processes is sufficient4 ,the  
result of this difference is that1 when 
looked at beneath the microscope1 the   
thread of the woof has an uneven look1  
as though it were a small cable1 while  
that of the warp looks flat and smooth1 
and is therefore adapted to reflect the 
light1 receiving the shiny look which   
makes a silk-stuff so attractive4  ,but 
the beauty of these fabrics depends1    
above all else1 upon the way in which   
the silk is divided as it is drawn from 
the cocoon4 ,this first stage of the    
spinning is performed in one or other of
 three ways1 according to the kind of   
wheel which is employed for it4 ,the    
method which the ,spaniards have adopted
 from an early period has the following 
drawback2 that the small threads of six1

 seven1 and eight cocoons which are     
stripped at the same time1 go to form a 
single thread1 and are deposited upon a 
small spindle without the thread rubbing
 against another one1 which friction    
serves to lay the little hairs which    
bristle up1 so that the slip of silk    
thus formed retains a hairy nap and is  
easily frayed4 ,in the ,piedmontese     
method1 on the other hand1 each slip is 
joined to another1 and is not drawn     
apart until it has been twisted round it
 four or five times4  ,the third method1
 known as that of ,vaucanson1 is more   
expensive than the one last mentioned4  
,in the wheel invented by ,vaucanson1   
the two silk-slips are reunited after   
the first twisting1 in order to be      
twisted once again4 ,this operation is  
called the 'double croissade4'  ,if     
these threads1 thus placed on bobbins1  
are intended for the woof1 they are     
enchased perpendicularly in a machine   
consisting of several compartments1 in  
which they are twisted separately4      

,thence they are transferred to another 
machine1 in which they are twisted all  
together2 after which they are ready for
 the loom4 ,those which are destined for
 the web are not twisted 7as ,i have    
explained above7 until the moment when  
they are united4 ,both at ,valencia and 
at ,talavera de la ,reina these         
machines1 so precious to the weaver's   
craft1 and which economise manual toil1 
are not unknown4#bj    #bj ,they        
certainly were not unknown at ,valencia4
 ,i have before me a        copy of the 
work1 ,disertacion descriptiva de la    
,hilaza de la ,seda1        segun el    
antiguo modo de hilar y el nuevo llamado
 de ,vaucanson1        written by the   
priest ,francisco ,ortells y ,gombau1   
and published at        ,valencia in    
#aghc1 by order of the ,royal ,council  
of ,commerce and        ,agriculture4   
,this book1 which clearly sets forth the
 superiority        of ,vaucanson's     
method over those which had preceded it1
 states        that at first the        

,valencians were strongly opposed to the
        ,vaucanson wheel1 believing that
 it caused a loss and waste of          
silk4 ,probably the real reason was that
 it prevented the        manufacturers  
from adding spurious weight to the silk 
by mixing it        with oil4 ,this     
practice1 says ,ortells1 was then so    
widespread an        evil in the kingdom
 of ,valencia1 that there is hardly     
anybody who        does not resort to   
it3 notwithstanding it has been so often
        prohibited by ,his ,majesty1 yet
 openly1 where all the world may        
witness1 do the workers spin with much  
oil added to the silk4         ,the     
,vaucanson form of wheel was also more  
expensive4 ,in the region        of     
,valencia its cost was about thirty     
pesos1 that of the older        wheels  
being only fifteen or sixteen pesos4    
,however1 this        difficulty was not
 insuperable1 for in the year #aggi the 
,royal        ,council of ,commerce     
presented a hundred and twenty          

,vaucanson        wheels to the peasants
 who had raised a minimum crop of a     
hundred        pounds of silk1          
requiring1 in return1 that the          
recipients of the        gift should    
spin not less than fifty pounds of silk 
per annum4  ,at the latter of these     
towns ,i had already seen a single      
toothed-wheel1 which set in motion up to
 a thousand of these tiny bobbins on    
which are wound the twisted slips of    
silk4 ,the wheels ,i saw at ,valencia   
were smaller1 because in this city there
 is not1 as there is at ,talavera1 a    
royal factory self-contained within a   
single building4 ,at ,valencia each     
manufacturer1 in order to carry out     
these various processes1 requires to    
deal with workmen and machines          
distributed through several quarters of 
the town1 and chooses from among them   
such as he best prefers4  ,nothing can  
be simpler than the working of these    
silk-twisting machines1 when once the   
toothed-wheel has set them going4 ,the  

perpendicular movement of all these     
little bobbins is looked after by women1
 and even children4#ba    #ba ,at the   
time when ,vaucanson's wheels began to  
be used in ,spain1 silk        was spun 
by men all over the ,peninsula1 except  
in the immediate        neighbourhood of
 ,valencia 7,orteils2 ,hilaza de la     
,seda1 pp4 #acd        et seq47 ,in     
every other region devoted to this      
industry such as        the valley of   
the ,jucar and the ,huertas of ,orihuela
 and ,murviedro1        as well as in   
the factories of ,toledo1 ,seville1     
,granada1 ,cordova1        ,jan1 ,baeza1
 ,talavera1 and ,priego1 the spinning   
was performed by        men exclusively4
 ,women1 however1 were often engaged in 
harvesting        the cocoons4  ,if they
 should happen to clog1 a touch of the  
finger disengages them4 ,if one of the  
slips should break1 the harm is mended  
in a trice3 the practised fingers of the
 machinist pick up the broken ends with 
marvellous despatch1 tie them together  

by an imperceptible knot1 and the bobbin
 which was thus delayed loses no time in
 overtaking its neighbours4  ,the slips 
of silk1 before being twisted two by    
two1 are put through another process    
which ,i ought to mention4 ,when they   
are still in skeins they are spread upon
 a large tub in which is a quantity of  
viscous substances heated to boiling    
point1 the gases from which tend to make
 them adhere to one another4 ,this is   
termed passer  la brve4  ,thence they   
are removed to the machine for twisting 
them4 ,the silk1 on issuing from this   
machine1 is called organzine2 and it is 
only when it is in this state that it   
can be exported from ,piedmont1 where   
the twisting process was better executed
 than elsewhere1 until the time when it 
was rendered yet more perfect by        
,vaucanson4#bb ,this clever mechanic has
 combined all possible advantages       
relating to the business of the         
silk-weaver4 ,his system1 and no other1 
is practised in the ,lyons factories2   

but these wheels  double croissade are  
only available for silk produced in     
,france2 since that which is exported   
from abroad and which is principally    
used in these factories1 requires to be 
reduced to organzine before it can again
 be taken out of the country4    #bb ,i 
should here remark that the silk which  
is spun and twisted        according to 
the method of ,vaucanson1 forms a fabric
 a third part        closer and stronger
 than ordinary silk-stuffs4  ,in this   
respect ,spain possesses a sensible     
advantage over other manufacturing      
nations2 since she raises a greater     
quantity of silk than she is able to    
consume1 and could easily put it through
 the most advanced and perfect          
processes2 in spite of which she has    
clung for ages to her faulty method4    
,the present government has attacked    
this method by the only means efficient 
to bring about a change2 that is1 the   
slow but certain influence of           
persuasion4 ,in #agha the ,count of     

,floridablanca contracted with a ,french
 merchant settled in ,madrid1 that he   
should supply a hundred tours of the    
,vaucanson pattern for spinning silk1   
first to the ,murcian factories 7of     
which province the ,count was a native71
 next to the ,valencian1 and            
subsequently to any others that might   
wish for them2 and with this object he  
granted to the merchant in question the 
privilege of exporting1 free of duty1   
six hundred thousand pounds of silk in  
six years4 ,nevertheless1 it is possible
 that this measure may yet remain       
fruitless for many years owing to the   
apathy of the ,spanish manufacturers1   
who were loth to use a finer1 closer    
quality of silk1 because it must be     
woven with greater care owing to its    
containing three ends instead of two1   
the work being greater on this account  
without a corresponding increase in the 
gain4 ,it has also been found necessary 
to employ ,frenchmen in the earliest    
trials made in ,spain of this new       

method4  ,the success of the ,spaniards 
should not be counted on1 if we are to  
judge of it by a factory1 which was     
founded some years since at ,la         
,milanesa1 a league's distance from     
,valencia1 by an intelligent man named  
,la ,payessa4#bc    #bc ,this man1      
,joseph ,lapayese or ,la ,payessa1 did  
not initiate        ,vaucanson's method 
in this region4 ,he succeeded a         
,frenchman named        ,reboul1 who1 in
 #agfi1 and holding privileges from the 
,crown1 began        to work with       
,vaucanson wheels at ,vilanesa1 near    
,valencia--the same        place which  
,bourgoing calls ,la ,milanesa4 ,both   
the king and his        minister of     
finance1 ,don ,miguel de ,muzquiz1 were 
keenly interested        in these       
experiments1 and ,muzquiz1 who owned an 
estate near the        town of ,sueca1  
in the same neighbourhood1 imported four
 more of        the new wheels there1   
under ,reboul's direction4 ,this        
craftsman1        however1 was not      

successful4 ,lapayese1 who came after   
him and        enjoyed the same ,crown  
privileges1 made considerably better    
progress1 his efforts being seconded by 
the ,royal ,junta1 the                  
archbishop1 and other bodies or         
individuals of ,valencia1 who           
awarded prizes of wheels and money to   
the best workers in the new             
style4  ,he introduced the method of    
,vaucanson1 but when ,i went to see his 
factory he had not seen his way to      
recover the money which this improvement
 had cost him4 ,he employed barely two  
hundred persons for the most important  
work2 nothing more was done than to spin
 the silk1 divide it1 and convert it    
into organzine4 ,thus treated1 it cost  
from fifty to sixty reales more per     
pound than that which is prepared       
according to the ,spanish method1 so    
that its success was but small4  ,i     
shall not describe in detail either the 
method of dyeing the silk1 or that of   
weaving it4 ,the first of these         

operations is readily imagined2 the     
second is hard to understand1 and still 
more so to explain1 unless one is       
assisted by engravings4 ,i will merely  
observe that all silk is dyed in skeins1
 just before it enters the loom4 ,if it 
be required occasionally to dye it after
 it is woven1 this is only when the silk
 is spotted1 or when the dyeing of the  
skeins has proved a failure4 ,at the    
time of my visit to ,valencia1 there    
were a hundred and seventeen            
master-dyers in that city1 but not all  
of them were working4  ,the stuffs in   
which the factories of ,valencia are    
most successful are principally of the  
smooth sort2 they also make there       
handsome damask brochs with large       
flowers for wall-hangings2 but generally
 all that is undertaken is by order of  
the ,court1 ,madrid1 and the provinces4 
,the ,valencians follow as closely as   
possible the rapidity with which the    
,french designs are changed1 and those  
who profess to invent new ones are but  

copying the ,french ones in a greater or
 less degree4 ,notwithstanding1 the     
,valencian ,fine-,arts ,academy is      
taking serious steps to form designers1 
and a school has been founded which has 
already developed able pupils--amongst  
others1 a young man called ,ferrers1 who
 had died a short while before our      
arrival at the city1 and some of whose  
designs of flowers we had occasion to   
admire4  ,but the process in which the  
,valencians particularly excel is that  
of watering stuffs1 which ,m4 ,foz has  
rendered absolutely perfect4 ,he gave us
 a clear account of this process1 which 
consists in passing a cylinder over the 
stuff to be watered1 this cylinder being
 pressed upon by a heavy mass moved to  
and fro by a mule which draws a lever   
round and round4 ,the stuff is folded in
 the manner of a closed jalousie1 and   
these folds require to be often varied  
so as to distribute the undulations     
evenly4 ,m4 ,foz admitted that the shape
 and the arrangement of these           

undulations are more or less a matter of
 chance1 but he proved to us that it is 
possible to influence them to some      
extent by moistening the stuff in a     
certain manner and direction1 and this  
is the particular secret which he alone 
possesses in the whole of ,spain4 ,the  
excellence of this method is            
demonstrated by the beauty of the       
watered silk which issues from these    
presses4 ,m4 ,foz himself set us to     
judge of this by asking us to compare   
the blue ribbon of the ,order of        
,charles the ,third1 watered by himself1
 with those of the ,order of the ,holy  
,spirit4 ,the comparison1 ,i must admit1
 was far from advantageous to these     
last4  ,the subsequent vicissitudes of  
the ,valencian silk trade are indicated 
by ,laborde1 who wrote1 some few years  
later than the conscientious and        
observant author of the ,nouveau ,voyage
 en ,espagne3--  ,the mulberry-trees are
 of great importance2 the fields of     
,valencia are covered with them1        

particularly in the environs of that    
town1 in the dale of ,elda1 in the      
county of ,carlet1 in almost all the    
places situated on the sea coast1 etc4  
,there are white mulberry-trees1 which  
are lopped every two years4  ,the leaves
 of these trees serve as nourishment to 
silkworms1 which are raised almost      
everywhere in the kingdom of ,valencia4 
,algemesi1 ,alcira1 ,carcagente1        
,castillo of ,san ,felipe1 the county of
 ,carlet1 ,undasuar1 ,gandia1 ,denia1   
,orihuela1 and all the villages near the
 sea are places which produce the       
greatest quantity4  ,the silk made from 
them is the finest in ,spain4 ,it would 
be equal to the best and finest silks of
 ,europe1 if the ,valencians1 in spite  
of the vivacity of their imagination1   
did not obstinately persist in their old
 routine in the skeining2 for in the    
skein they put an undetermined number of
 threads4 ,the government has hired a   
man who has the most experience in this 
kind of work2 but in vain does he       

endeavour to instruct them1 since the   
manufacturers continue their bad custom 
just the same4 ,the quantity of silk    
wound annually is1 on an average1 about 
#a1ejj1jjj pounds of twelve ,valencian  
ounces 7#a1cab1ejj pounds of sixteen    
ounces avoirdupois74 ,it is commonly    
sold raw for fifty reals of vellon a    
,valencian pound1 which gives a total of
 #ge1jjj1jjj reals of vellon            
7#gca1bej74444  ,silk is twisted in     
different places in the kingdom of      
,valencia1 for which purpose machines   
and mills are established at ,gandia1   
,san ,felipe1 ,carcagente1 ,orihuela1   
and ,valencia4 ,the most important      
establishment of this kind is at ,la    
,milanesa1 near the last mentioned town4
 ,nevertheless1 these machines are not  
able to furnish as much as the          
manufactures of the country require4    
,part of the silk is sent to ,priego and
 ,toledo in ,andalusia1 whence it is    
returned into the kingdom of ,valencia  
to be worked4444  ,a great many         

impediments are thrown in the way of the
 exportation of silk1 which is only     
allowed for six months after the        
harvest4 ,if in that period the national
 manufacturers want it1 they are at     
liberty to take it from the merchants   
who have bought it1 on reimbursing them 
the purchase-money together with six per
 cent4 interest4 ,the consequence is    
that the merchants1 uncertain whether   
they will be allowed to export the silk 
which they have purchased1 no longer    
take any foreign commissions for it1 and
 so this branch of exportation has      
fallen4 ,besides this1 a duty has been  
laid upon the silk sent out of the      
kingdom1 of nine reals of vellon and one
 quartillo 7#as4 #aa-a_/d;d4 sterling7  
on every pound of twelve ,valencian     
ounces1 which is almost a fifth of its  
value4 ,this is another obstacle to the 
exportation of it4 ,a very small        
quantity1 twisted and dyed1 is sent into
 ,portugal4  ,generally #a1ejj1jjj      
pounds of silk are made annually1 of    

which #a1ajj1jjj are consumed in the    
province1 and #djj1jjj pounds are       
exported to ,talavera de la ,reina1     
,requea1 ,toledo1 ,granada1 ,seville1   
,priego1 and ,catalua4 ,from this       
results a product of #bj1jjj1jjj reals  
7#bjh1ccc1 #fs474  ,of the city of      
,valencia1 ,laborde wrote3--  ,the      
manufactories of silk are the most      
considerable4 ,they employ nearly       
#be1jjj persons1 and make taffetas1     
serges1 silks1 satins1 plain damasks1   
striped1 printed1 of one colour and of  
mixed colours1 full velvets1 flowered   
velvets1 plain and of various colours4  
,the plain stuffs are those in which    
they succeed best4 ,there are also fine 
damasks made and worked with large      
flowers4  ,according to the same writer1
 the manufacture at ,valencia of silk   
stockings1 galloons1 silk ribbon1       
handkerchiefs1 and sashes revived to    
such an extent1 that in the year #agii  
the looms for producing these articles  
were #dbc more than they had been in    

#agfi4 ,there are #cfah silk looms1     
which work about #hjj1jjj pounds of silk
 annually2 the handkerchiefs1 sashes1   
and other little articles of lace       
consume #ajj1jjj pounds4                
,illustration3 ,,viii                   
,,the ,,daughters ,,of ,,philip ,,the   
,,second                  7,by ,sanchez 
,coello4 ,prado ,gallery7  ,equally as  
instructive is ,laborde's account of    
,barcelona4#bd ,after remarking that the
 decay in her manufactures lasted from  
the end of the sixteenth century till   
the middle of the eighteenth1 he        
continues3--,they are at present in a   
very flourishing state1 and are more    
numerous and varied than ever4444 ,there
 are #ebd looms of silk stuffs1 and     
#bgjj of ribbons and silk galloon4 ,the 
silk works consist of taffetas1 twilled 
and common silks1 satins1 and velvets of
 every kind and colour4 ,these are mixed
 with gold and silver4 ,gold cloths and 
brocades are also made there4#be ,the   
manufactures are not carried on by      

companies1 but dispersed among the      
workmen themselves1 by which perhaps the
 qualities may in some degree be        
injured4 ,it is remarked that the stuffs
 would be better if they were closer1   
for their texture is commonly loose2    
they are also different in the gloss1   
which is seldom fine1 and is never equal
 to that in the manufactures of ,france4
 ,another fault in all these stuffs is  
the imperfect preparation of the silk1  
which leaves it nearly always shaggy3   
the cause of this is the silk being spun
 or twisted in an uneven manner4 ,the   
same unpleasant effect is observed in   
the silk stockings4 ,they cannot be     
fine1 their stitches being uneven1 and  
often large and shaggy4 ,they do not    
last long1 and are as dear as the       
,french stockings after the duty on     
their entrance into ,spain has been     
paid4    #bd ,the art of weaving silk   
appears to have found its way into      
,barcelona comparatively late1 for the  
veil-makers did not form a        guild 

of their own till ,a4,d4 #aeec1 the     
velvet-makers till #aedh1        the    
silk-twisters till #afai1 and the dyers 
of silk till #afbd4    #be ,brocade     
7,spanish brocado or brocato7 may be    
generally described        as a         
silk-stuff woven with devices or raised 
figures in gold and        silver       
thread1 or either of these metals       
separately 7,plate viii474        ,this 
costly fabric1 which may be said to have
 superseded the        earlier kinds of 
cloth of gold1 was greatly in vogue in  
older        ,spain1 especially         
throughout the fifteenth1 sixteenth1 and
        seventeenth centuries4 ,it is   
constantly referred to by her writers   
7,no siendo nueva la que prohibe las    
telas de oro1 los brocados1        y    
tabies4--,fernandez ,navarrete2         
,conservacion de ,monarquas1        p4  
#bca71 and denounced by her priests     
7,fray ,luis de ,len1 ,y ha de          
venir la tela de no s donde1 y el       
brocado de mas altos1 y el        ambar 

que bae el guante71 or in the pragmatics
 of her kings        7e4g4 that of      
,september #bnd1 #adid1 and of #afaa3   
,est prohibido        todo gnero de     
colgaduras1 tapicerias sillas1 coches1 y
 literas de        brocados1 telas de   
oro  plata4444 ,asi mismo se prohiben   
bordaduras en el campo de los doseles y 
camas2 pero no en las        cenefas1   
que podrn llevar alamares1 y fluecos de 
oro1  plata1         brocado74          
,brocade was made in ,spain at ,toledo1 
,barcelona1 ,seville1 ,valencia         
and elsewhere1 but as a rule it could   
not be compared in quality        with  
that of ,genoa or ,venice4 ,a cheaper1  
though showy and        attractive      
modification of brocade was brocatel1 in
 which the silk        was mixed with   
common thread or flax4 ,according to the
 ,dictionary        of the ,spanish     
,academy1 this commoner fabric was used 
for hangings        for churches1 halls1
 beds1 etc41 and a document of #afhj    
tells us        that the price of       

brocatel made at ,granada1 and          
containing two        colours1 was      
twenty-two reales the yard4  ,at        
,barcelona1 laces1 blonds1 net-work1 and
 tapes employ about twelve thousand     
persons4 ,galloons1 laces1 and gold and 
silver fringes1 are likewise made here2 
but these are of no great importance4   
,silk1 gold1 and silver embroideries are
 very common1 and the embroiderers are  
so numerous that they are to be found in
 every street4  ,silk ,stuffs4--,these  
are manufactured at ,manresa1 ,cardona1 
and ,matar1 which has forty-eight looms2
 but principally at ,barcelona1 where   
there are five hundred and twenty-four4 
,there they make velvets1 satins1       
damasks1 silks1 taffetas1 and gold and  
silver stuffs4 ,the town of ,barcelona  
alone uses annually #cjj1jjj pounds of  
raw silk4  ,taffetas1 ,handkerchiefs1   
and silk sashes4--,they make a great    
quantity of these at ,barcelona1 where  
there are a good many little            
manufactories of this kind4 ,there are a

 hundred and fifty looms at ,reus1 and  
six hundred at ,manresa4 ,at the last   
place sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs
 are made1 which take about seventy     
thousand pounds of raw silk4  ,silk     
twisters4--,there are some of these in  
several towns1 and a great many in      
,barcelona4 ,there are eighteen frames  
at ,matar1 which twist1 one year with   
another1 one hundred and twenty-four    
quintals of silk2 and thirty-seven at   
,tarragona1 which twist eleven thousand 
quintals4  ,elsewhere in the course of  
his exhaustive tomes1 ,laborde sums up  
the general revival of the ,spanish     
silk-trade in the following terms3--    
,silk stockings are woven at ,mlaga1    
,zaragoza1 ,valencia1 and at various    
other places in the kingdom of          
,valencia2 at ,valdemoro1 and at        
,talavera de la ,reina in ,new ,castile2
 also in different parts of ,catalua1   
more especially at ,matar1 ,arenys del  
,mar1 and ,barcelona4 ,the most         
extensive manufacture is carried on at  

the latter city1 where the number of    
frames amounts to nine hundred4 ,in the 
city of ,matar are fifty-two1 in        
,valencia one hundred and fifty1 and    
nearly as many in ,talavera4 ,the       
stockings made in ,spain are of a loose 
texture2 owing to the improper method in
 which silk-throwsting is conducted1    
they are badly dressed and worse        
glossed4 ,the ,spanish people themselves
 prefer ,french stockings1 and most of  
those manufactured in the country are   
exported to ,america4  ,ribbons hold a  
distinguished place among the           
manufactured articles of ,spain4 ,some  
few are woven at ,jaen1 ,granada1 and   
,cordova2 but more at ,talavera4 ,cadiz 
has but twenty ribbon-looms1 ,manresa   
five hundred1 ,matar eighty1 ,vich      
twenty-two1 ,requea two hundred1        
,valencia four hundred1 ,murcia twelve  
hundred1 and ,barcelona nearly three    
thousand4 ,these looms are not in       
factories1 but individually dispersed4  
,the ,spanish ribbons are in general    

thin and flimsy1 have little lustre1 and
 their colours are neither brilliant nor
 permanent4 ,ribbons are made of        
floss-silk at ,toledo1 where there are  
about twelve looms1 and at ,manresa1    
where there is a greater number4#bf     
#bf ,towards the nineteenth century1    
ribbon was a great deal worn upon1      
or together with1 the regional costumes 
of the ,spanish women2 for              
instance1 on the gala bodice or cotilla 
of the hortelana of        ,valencia1   
who further used it to make fast her    
alpargatas or        sandals1 described 
in the manuscript account attached to   
,pigal's        plates as espce de      
cothurnes1 attachs avec des rubans en   
soie        ou fil bleu ou rouge4 ,the  
same fabric served the peasant woman    
of ,carthagena for securing the sleeves 
of her gala camisole1 for        lacing 
the bodice of the woman of ,iviza1 and  
in the other ,balearic        ,islands1 
for tying the rebocillo or rebocio      
beneath the chin4        ,also it was   

with ribbon that the servant-girls of   
,granada suspended        a cross round 
their necks1 that the charra of         
,salamanca        7,plate ix47 trimmed  
her hat1 that the women of ,madrid1 ,la 
,mancha1        and ,andalusia bound up 
their knots of hair 7moos        con    
cinta71 and that1 in some localities1   
even ladies of the        highest class 
secured their shoes about the lower leg 
and ankle4                              
,illustration3 ,,ix                     
,a ,,charra ,,or ,,peasant ,,woman      
7,salamanca1 ,a4,d4 #aggg7  ,silk       
taffetas1 serges1 and other articles1   
such as common and figured satins1      
damasks1 and plain and flowered velvets1
 are made at ,jaen1 ,granada1 ,murcia1  
,valencia1 and the adjacent villages2 at
 ,mlaga1 ,zaragoza1 ,toledo1 ,requea1   
,talavera de la ,reina1 ,matar1         
,manresa1 ,cardona1 and ,barcelona4 ,the
 silk-trade of ,jaen and ,granada is at 
present in a very languishing state2 the
 manufacture of ,murcia is dwindled to a

 few individual looms4 ,at ,toledo are  
fifty looms1 fifty at ,matar1 forty at  
,mlaga1 six hundred at ,requea1 four    
hundred at ,talavera1 which consume     
annually two hundred thousand pounds of 
silk2 five hundred at ,barcelona1 which 
annually manufacture1 in conjunction    
with those of ,cardona and ,manresa1    
about three thousand pounds weight of   
silk2 and in the city of ,valencia are  
three thousand1 whose annual demand of  
silk is eight hundred thousand pounds1  
while twenty-two thousand persons are   
employed in the trade4 ,in ,zaragoza are
 sixty looms1 which consume fifty       
thousand pounds of silk2 but taffetas   
only are manufactured there4 ,the cities
 of ,toledo and ,talavera de la ,reina  
are the only places where the looms are 
collected together in factories3 in all 
other places they are separated1 and are
 found individually at the houses of the
 respective weavers4  ,a great portion  
of the silks manufactured in ,spain are 
stout and excellent1 but they are       

destitute of the brilliancy observable  
in ,french silks4 ,the damasks made at  
,valencia are extremely beautiful1 and  
in that city they excel in the art of   
mixing silk and mohair1 and produce     
mohair stuffs which appear to be        
superior to those of ,france and        
,england4  ,quantities of silk          
handkerchiefs and bands are manufactured
 at ,reus1 ,manresa1 and ,barcelona4    
,reus had five hundred looms1 ,manresa  
six hundred1 and annually made sixty    
thousand dozen handkerchiefs2           
,barcelona1 a much larger quantity4  ,at
 ,barcelona is a very considerable      
manufacture of white1 coloured1 plain1  
and figured gauzes4  ,the art of        
silk-throwsting tends greatly to improve
 the silk manufactures in ,spain4       
,machines invented in other countries   
have been adopted here1 and in many     
places profitable changes and           
corrections have taken place in the     
trade4 ,silk is principally thrown at   
,priego1 ,toledo in ,andalusia1 at      

,murcia in the kingdom of the same name1
 at ,cervera near ,talavera de la ,reina
 in ,new ,castile1 at ,valencia1 at     
,milanesa near that city1 at ,gandia1   
,san ,felipe1 and ,carcagente in the    
kingdom of ,valencia4 ,the              
silk-throwsters1 who work at their own  
houses1 and are paid in the great1 that 
is1 according to the quantity of work   
they perform1 are very numerous in      
,murcia2 but they perform the business  
there in a very slovenly way4 ,in the   
city of ,murcia a factory is            
established1 where silk is thrown in an 
excellent manner by means of an         
ingenious machine1 which has been       
already described4 ,the establishment at
 ,la ,milanesa is a very important one1 
and well administered4 ,at ,cervera are 
a dozen silk-mills1 each having four    
large dividers1 and six machines for    
doubling and twisting1 by which seven   
thousand and seventy-two threads are    
divided1 doubled1 and twisted at the    
same time4                              

,,cloths ,,and ,,woollens  ,although the
 history of ,spanish cloths and woollens
 is not of great importance1 ,i think it
 well to briefly sketch their history4  
,sails and other fabrics of the coarsest
 kind are said to have been made1 almost
 in prehistoric times1 at ,stabi 7the   
modern ,jtiva7 and at ,saguntum         
7,murviedro74 ,from the thirteenth      
century cloths of good quality were made
 at ,barcelona1 ,lerida1 ,san ,daniel1  
,baolas1 ,valls1 and other towns of     
,catalua4 ,a privilege of ,alfonso the  
,learned1 dated ,may #ahth1 #abhc1      
contains the following technical        
disposition relative to the cloth-looms 
of the city of ,soria3 ,que la trenza   
cuando sea ordida que haya #hh varas1   
que pese una aranzada  #e libras de     
estambre2  cualquier que la fallare     
menor1 que peche #e sueldos4 ,que todos 
los tejedores  tejedoras de la dicha    
cibdad  de su tierra1 que pongan en las 
telas de lino #db linnuelos  en las de  
estopazo #cb linnuelos2  en las de marga

  de sayal #cb linnuelos4  ,segovia was 
another ancient centre of this          
manufacture1 which ,larruga considers to
 have been transferred hither upon the  
extinction of the factories of ,cameros1
 ,burgos1 and ,palencia4 ,however this  
may be1 the fuero of ,seplveda1 signed  
by ,alfonso the ,sixth1 tells us that   
clothworks existed here as early as the 
eleventh century4 ,towards the end of   
the fourteenth1 when ,catherine of      
,lancaster was married to the ,infante  
,don ,enrique1 the ,english princess    
brought over1 as part of her dowry1 a   
flock of merino sheep4 ,these are       
believed to have pastured near          
,segovia--a city where ,catherine made  
her home for many years4 ,in any case1  
,segovian cloths improved considerably  
from about this time1 and by the reigns 
of ,charles the ,fifth and ,philip the  
,second1 when thirty-four thousand      
persons were employed in the manufacture
 and twenty-five thousand pieces of     
cloth were produced annually1 were      

thought 7especially the baizes and the  
serges7 to be unsurpassed in ,europe4#bg
 ,sovereigns1 including ,charles the    
,second and ,charles the ,fifth of      
,spain1 and ,henry the ,eighth of       
,england1 were among the patrons of     
these fabrics1 while as late as the year
 #agjj the ,franciscan friars engaged in
 redeeming captives from the ,turks1    
reported that at ,constantinople1       
whither they had carried ,segovian      
cloths as presents to the principal     
rulers of that country1 those cloths    
were spoken of in terms of high         
approval4    #bg ,colmenares1 who wrote 
a history of ,segovia down to the reign 
of        ,philip the ,second1 says that
 in his time the clothmakers of this    
town were true fathers of families1 who 
within and without their        houses  
sustain a multitude of persons 7in many 
cases two and three        hundred71    
producing1 with the aid of other        
people's hands1 a great        variety  
of finest cloth3 an employment worthy to

 be ranked with        agriculture1 and 
that is of the utmost profit to any     
city1 or to        any kingdom4  ,early 
in the seventeenth century1 and owing to
 a series of causes such as impertinent 
or improvident legislation1 heavy taxes1
 and the importation of foreign cloths1 
the trade showed symptoms of decay4#bh  
,bertaut de ,rouen wrote in #afei1      
referring to the ,spanish character at  
this time3 ,bien souvent le pain leur   
manque1 comme j'ay veu dans ,almagro1   
petite ville situe dans le meilleur pays
 d',andalousie1 et dans ,segovie1 qui   
est une des grandes villes d',espagne1  
et o il y avoit autrefois des plus      
riches marchands  cause des draps et des
 chapeaux que l'on y faisoit1 qui a est 
longtemps le sejour des ,roys de        
,castille1 et qui n'est qu'environ      
douze ou quatorze lieus de ,madrid1 o il
 n'y avoit point de pain dans toute la  
ville le jour que j'y arrivay1 et il n'y
 en eut qu' quatre heures aprs midy1 que
 l'on le distribua par ordre du         

,corregidor1 aussi bien qu' ,almagro4   
#bh ,an amusing passage in ,fernandez   
,navarrete's ,conservacin de            
,monarquas 7,a4,d4 #afbf7 tells us that 
most of the costlier                    
dress-materials used in ,spain about    
this time proceeded from        abroad1 
and that they were of so fine a texture 
that the heat of        an iron scorches
 them and wears them out in a couple of 
days2        while a great number of men
 employ themselves in the effeminate    
office of dressing collars1 who1 ceasing
 also to be men1 forsake        the     
plough or warlike exercises2 for it is  
certain that when the        ,spaniards 
kept the world in awe1 this land        
produced a greater        number of     
armourers1 and less persons who busied  
themselves with        looking after    
womanish apparel 7p4 #bcb74  ,the rise1 
decay1 and subsequent revival of the    
,spanish cloth industries1 and          
particularly the ,segovian1 are well    
described by ,laborde1 ,bourgoing1 and  

,townsend4 ,according to the first of   
these authorities1 at so early a period 
as #afbi the merchants 7of ,segovia7    
complained that there was every year a  
reduction in the fabrication of cloth1  
to the amount of five thousand five     
hundred pieces2 and that there resulted 
from this deficiency an annual loss of  
#b1dbd1hah ducats and #b reals1 or about
 #bgd1jjj sterling4 ,in the eighteenth  
century it appeared1 from the           
observations of the ,economical         
,society1 that the fabrication of stuffs
 and cloths employed but one hundred and
 twenty looms1 in which only four       
thousand three hundred and eighteen     
quintals of washed wool were consumed4  
,about forty years ago these            
manufactures began to revive1 the looms 
were multiplied1 and the consumption of 
wool considerably augmented4 ,a single  
individual1 ,don ,lorenzo ,ortiz1 has   
for some years accelerated their        
progress4 ,in #agij there was an        
addition of sixty-three looms1 which    

employed eight or nine hundred quintals 
of wool1 and afforded occupation to two 
thousand four hundred manufacturers4    
,the same author wrote that early in the
 nineteenth century1 the woollen        
manufactures of ,new ,castile are the   
most numerous and important4 ,cloths are
 made at ,toledo1 ,chinchon1 ,brihuega1 
,guadalajara2 serges1 stuffs1 and       
flannels at ,toledo and ,cuenca4 ,the   
cloths of ,brihuega are of an excellent 
quality1 but those of ,guadalajara are  
still superior to them2 in particular1  
the cloth of ,vigonia4 ,there are       
twenty-eight looms at ,toledo1 forty at 
,guasmenia1 a hundred at ,brihuega1 and 
six hundred and fifty-six at            
,guadalajara4  ,bourgoing wrote1 a dozen
 years or so before the close of the    
eighteenth century3 ,spanish wool is    
eagerly demanded by manufacturing       
peoples of the rest of ,europe4         
,nevertheless1 it is not turned to so   
much advantage as it might be4 ,french1 
,dutch1 and ,english come to ,spain to  

purchase the wools of ,segovia and ,len 
at the ports of ,bilbao and             
,santander4#bi ,not even so much as the 
commission on their sale is left in     
power of the ,spaniards1 for the        
foreigners buy up the wool straight from
 the shepherd1 and wash it on their own 
account4 ,out of one million of         
arrobas#cj of fine wool which ,spain    
produces annually1 she exports more than
 half in washed wool1 and a lesser      
quantity1 by far1 of unwashed4 ,it has  
been estimated that the export duties on
 this wool and which it has not been    
hitherto thought prudent to curtail1    
produce a sum of close upon five        
millions for the ,king of ,spain4 ,here1
 therefore1 is another reason for not   
suppressing the 'abusive measure' of    
which the patriotic ,spaniards complain 
so loudly2 since it is far from easy to 
do away with so appreciable a source of 
revenue unless one has at hand a swift  
and sure alternative measure by which it
 may be substituted4 ,all the same1     

government is endeavouring to derive a  
greater fiscal profit from the          
exportation of these wools1 and at the  
same time to bring about a greater use  
of them in the ,peninsula4 ,for a long  
time past1 all kinds of common woollen  
fabrics1 such as clothing for the       
soldiery and lower classes1 have been   
made in ,spain4 ,the exportation of     
these fabrics is prohibited4 ,as for the
 finer wools1 these also are employed in
 several places1 but more than anywhere 
else at ,guadalajara1 where ,i visited  
the factories towards the end of the    
year #aghc4 ,i was surprised to remark  
that in several respects the manufacture
 had reached a great pitch of           
perfection4 ,i say ,i was surprised1    
because ,i had heard1 times without     
number1 that the ,spaniards were        
completely ignorant of these processes1 
and did not know how to card1 or spin1  
or weave1 or dye1 or full1 or calender2 
that their stuffs grew loose and wore   
badly2 that the price was exorbitant1   

etc4 ,how many prejudices of this nature
 was ,i able to throw aside after fair  
and deliberate examination of the stuffs
 in question6 ,i will only quote a      
single point to prove that the censures 
which are aimed at the ,spaniards       
respecting the quality of their cloths  
are not applicable to them all1 and that
 they are well upon the road to being   
entirely undeserving of them4 ,i was    
shown at ,guadalajara a piece of scarlet
 cloth1 which1 both for its excellent   
quality and for its skilful dyeing1     
seemed to me to be quite comparable with
 the best cloths of ,julienne4 ,these   
latter cost at their place of           
manufacture as much as thirty-nine      
livres the ell4 ,at ,guadalajara1 ,i    
noted from the tariff established in the
 factory1 that the price of the finest  
scarlet cloth was only from thirty-one  
to thirty-two livres the ell4 ,comparing
 these and other figures on the tariff1 
,i came to the conclusion that there was
 about the same difference in price     

between ,spanish cloths and ,french     
cloths1 in favour of the former4 ,what  
seems more singular still is that the   
factories which work at the ,king's     
expense are generally administered in a 
thriftless fashion1 and that the factory
 of ,guadalajara was being greatly      
mismanaged at the time in question4     
,however1 subsequently to my visit1     
changes for the better have been        
introduced1 which will improve the      
quality of1 as well as cheapen1 its     
products1 though1 even when ,i saw it1  
this factory was one of the most perfect
 to be seen anywhere4 ,within a space by
 no means large1 it contained all the   
machines and apparatus required for     
clothmaking1 except the thin1 polished  
pasteboards which are placed between the
 folds of a piece of cloth as it is     
passed through the press4 ,these were   
still brought from ,england2 but        
everything else was prepared upon the   
spot1 even to the large scissors used in
 the shearing4 ,there were eighty looms 

for the finest cloths1 whose proper name
 is cloths of ,san ,fernando1 from the  
town where they were first produced2 a  
hundred for cloths of the second        
quality2 and five hundred and six for   
making serges1 in which1 in course of   
time1 hopes are entertained of excelling
 those of ,england4#ca ,all these looms 
were contained in two buildings1 and    
kept employed three thousand eight      
hundred and twenty-five persons1 all of 
them paid by the ,king1#cb without      
counting some forty thousand more       
dispersed all over the ,castilian and   
,manchegan tableland1 engaged in        
spinning the wool which is made up into 
stuffs at ,guadalajara4 ,it would be    
difficult1 ,i am sure1 to find a factory
 better organized4 ,even the town in    
which it is1 presents a striking        
contrast with others of that            
neighbourhood4 ,i did not see one single
 mendicant or idler among all its       
fifteen or sixteen thousand inhabitants4
 ,such are the good results of its      

manufactures1 and1 above all1 those of  
cloth1 including many small and detailed
 processes which women1 children1 aged  
people1 or even the sick are able to    
perform4 ,here1 where ,nature seemed to 
have condemned these ailing folk to a   
tedious and useless existence1 art1 as  
it were1 steps in and finds employment  
and relief for them4 ,nevertheless1 it  
must be owned that the ,spaniards 7as   
they themselves admit7 are still a      
little behindhand in the method of      
dyeing and fulling their cloths1 though 
when a people possess 7as they7 the raw 
materials needed1 both for making and   
for dyeing1 a few men skilled in these  
processes are all that is wanted to     
perfect several branches of this        
industry2 especially when1 as is the    
case in ,spain1 government spares no    
effort to achieve this end4 ,guadalajara
 is further the only place in ,spain    
which produces the celebrated ,vicua    
cloth2 an admirable fabric for which the
 rest of the world has cause to envy    

,spanish ,america4#cc ,as the use of    
this cloth has not as yet become        
general1 it is not continually          
manufactured1 nor is it easy to obtain a
 few ells of it without ordering them   
several months in advance4 ,this stuff  
is also manufactured for the ,king of   
,spain1 who makes presents of it to     
various other monarchs4 ,in the year    
#aghb1 after concluding a treaty with   
the ,porte1 he sent twenty pieces of it 
to the ,sultan of ,turkey4 ,they gave   
great satisfaction4 ,it has been        
imagined from this circumstance that    
,spain would not be loth to supply the  
,turkish market with her cloths2 and    
other of the manufacturing nations have 
felt some measure of alarm1 perhaps     
unnecessarily4 ,the ,spanish government 
has too much sense to enter upon such a 
competition with other peoples as long  
as ,spain does not supply the whole of  
the two and twenty million citizens who 
live beneath her rule4 ,the same        
government1 too1 is well aware how      

remote is this degree of prosperity4    
,the clothworks of ,guadalajara have a  
kind of branch factory at ,brihuega1    
four leagues distant4 ,at ,brihuega     
there are a hundred looms1 all used for 
making fabrics of the finest quality4   
#bi ,this recalls the statement made1   
centuries before1 by ,alonso de         
,cartagena at the ,council of ,ble3 ,and
 if the ,english should vaunt        the
 cunning of their cloth-makers1 then    
would ,i tell them somewhat2        for 
if our country lack the weavers to make 
a cloth so delicate as        the       
scarlet cloths of ,london1 yet is that  
substance titled grana        7the      
kermes1 or scarlet grain71 from which   
the scarlet cloth        receives its   
pleasantness of smell and brilliancy of 
hue1 raised        in the kingdom of    
,castile1 and thence conveyed to        
,england1 and        even to            
,italy4--,larruga1 ,memorias1 ,vol4     
,,xiv41 p4 #afg4    #cj ,the weight of  
an arroba is twenty-seven pounds4 ,the  

average        price is from            
twenty-three to twenty-seven livres the 
arroba        of unwashed wool of the   
best quality1 which pays five livres ten
        sols of export duty4 ,the arroba
 of washed wool pays double4    #ca ,it 
has been calculated that ,spain1 about  
this time1 paid annually        to      
,england two million pounds sterling per
 annum1 solely on account        of her 
woollens4    #cb ,his ,majesty          
maintained this factory by a monthly    
payment from his        treasury of one 
hundred and fifty thousand livres2 an   
exorbitant        amount1 which very    
possibly would not be covered by the    
sales of        cloth4         ,townsend
 wrote in #aghg ,royal manufactures and 
monopolies have a        baneful        
influence on population3 for1 as no     
private adventurers        can stand the
 competition with their sovereign1 where
 he is the        great monopolist1     
trade will never prosper4 ,the ,spanish 
monarch is        a manufacturer of     

,broad cloth1 at ,guadalajara and       
,brihuega2             ,china1 at the   
palace of the ,buen ,retiro2            
,cards1 at ,madrid and ,mlaga2          
,glass1 at ,san ,ildefonso2             
,paper1 in ,segovia2                    
,pottery1 at ,talavera2                 
,saltpetre1 at ,madrid and various other
 places2             ,stockings1 at     
,valdemoro2             ,swords1 at     
,toledo2             ,tapestry1 at      
,madrid2             ,tissue1 at        
,talavera4         ,he has the monopoly 
of brandy1 cards1 gunpowder1 lead1      
quicksilver1        sealing-wax1 salts1 
sulphur1 and tobacco4--7,journey through
        ,spain1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bdj47  
#cc ,it is made from wools of ,buenos   
,aires and ,peru4 ,the wool of the      
former of these regions is the longer1  
but the ,peruvian is the more           
silky4  ,segovia1 famous at all periods 
for the excellence of her wool1 was     
formerly not less so for the number and 
perfection of her clothworks4 ,now1     

every patriotic ,spaniard must lament to
 see how she has fallen4 ,in the year   
#aghe the number of her looms did not   
exceed two hundred and fifty4 ,the most 
important factory was that of ,ortiz1   
founded in #aggi under the title of     
,real ,fbrica3 the ,king possessed an   
interest in it4 ,in #aghe ,ortiz was    
still employing three thousand workers  
in and about ,segovia1 and manufactured 
every quality of cloth in sixty-three   
looms1 from the pieces which contained  
the two thousand threads prescribed by  
the ,ordenanzas1 to those which should  
contain four thousand4 ,his energy was  
only hampered by the indolent character 
of the ,segovians4 ,the privileges      
wherewith the government has sought to  
stimulate his first experiments in this 
craft are not at all injurious to the   
other manufacturers4 ,they all concur to
 sell their goods1 and at a reasonable  
price4 ,in ,september of #aghe1 the most
 expensive cloths cost only ninety reals
 the vara2 that is to say1 about        

thirty-one livres and ten sols the ell4 
,illustration3 ,x                       
,,priest',s ,,robe2 ,,spanish           
7,embroidered in ,gold on ,green        
,velvet4 ,about ,a4,d4 #aejj7  ,townsend
 wrote1 precisely at the same time as   
,bourgoing3 ,segovia was once famous for
 its cloth1 made on the ,king's account2
 but other nations have since become    
rivals in this branch1 and the          
manufacture in this city has been       
gradually declining4 ,when the ,king    
gave it up to a private company1 he left
 about three thousand pounds in trade2  
but now he is no longer a partner in the
 business4#cd ,in the year #afab were   
made here twenty-five thousand five     
hundred pieces of cloth1 which consumed 
forty-four thousand six hundred and     
twenty-five quintals of wool1 and       
employed thirty-four thousand one       
hundred and eighty-nine persons2 but at 
present they make only about four       
thousand pieces4 ,the principal         
imperfections of this cloth are1 that   

the thread is not even1 and that much   
grease remains in it when it is         
delivered to the dyer2 in consequence of
 which the colour is apt to fail4 ,yet1 
independently of imperfections1 so many 
are the disadvantages under which the   
manufacture labours1 that foreigners can
 afford to pay three pounds for the     
arroba of fine wool1 for which the      
,spaniard gives no more than twenty     
shillings1 and after all his charges can
 command the market even in the ports of
 ,spain4  ,in the year #aebe1 the city  
contained five thousand families1 but   
now they do not surpass two thousand--a 
scanty population this for twenty-five  
parishes2 yet1 besides the twenty-five  
churches1 together with the cathedral1  
they have one and twenty convents4 ,when
 the canal is finished1 and the         
communication opened to the ,bay of     
,biscay at ,santander1 the trade and    
manufactures of ,segovia may revive2    
but1 previous to that event1 there can  
be nothing to inspire them with hope4   

#cd ,a report presented by the ,council 
of ,commerce to the ,marquis of la      
,ensenada1 put forward1 in #agdd1 the   
absurd pretence that the king        of 
,spain maintained his factories not for 
any ,state convenience        or ad     
lucrum captandum1 but in order to       
augment our own products1        and    
diminish those which are imported from  
abroad4--,larruga's        ,memorias1   
,vol4 ,,xv41 pp4 #gj and #bdg4 ,also see
 the conference        delivered by the 
,count of ,torrenaz in #ahhf1 in the    
,royal ,spanish        ,academy of      
,moral and ,political ,science2 p4 #bg1 
note4         ,several of the ,spanish  
,crown factories were finally taken over
 by        the association--immensely   
wealthy at one period--known as the     
,five        ,chief ,gremios of ,madrid 
7,los ,cinco ,gremios ,mayores de la    
,villa de        ,madrid71 and it is    
clear that the investment of a large    
amount of        capital1 subscribed by 
many shareholders1 would of itself be   

calculated to destroy the narrow ideals 
and what ,i may term the                
individually greedy spirit which        
hitherto had ruled within the           
craftsman's private family4 ,private    
interests1 in short1 were               
superseded by the larger interests of a 
powerful company4 ,that        which ,i 
have mentioned was composed of the five 
gremios of the        capital of ,spain 
which subscribed the largest sums in    
taxes to the        national exchequer2 
namely1 the drapers1 haberdashers1      
spicers and        druggists1 jewellers1
 cloth-merchants1 and linen-drapers4    
,for many        years this association 
administered1 on government's behalf1   
the        alcabalas1 tercias1 and      
cientos of the town and district of     
,madrid1 and subsequently 7,a4,d4 #agde7
 the millones tax1 together        with 
other important dues1 and ultimately1 as
 ,i have stated1 took        over1 on a 
liberal scale of purchase1 the royal    
cloth and silk        factories of      

,talavera de la ,reina 7,a4,d4 #aghe71  
,san ,fernando1        ,guadalajara1    
,brihuega1 ,ezcaray1 and ,cuenca4 ,the  
decay and downfall        of the company
 was due to gross mismanagement1 and    
indeed1 the        idiosyncrasies of the
 ,spanish character render this people1 
even        at the present day1 but     
little fitted to embark upon commercial 
schemes requiring competent directors1  
heavy capital1 and confident            
assistance1 moral and material1 from a  
large body of investors4                
,spaniards1 as ,i have insisted         
elsewhere1 do not pull well together2   
and so1 early in the nineteenth century1
 the association of the        five     
great gremios1 which had possessed at   
one time many millions        of        
pesetas1 suspended payment of all       
dividends4 ,it is fair to        add1   
however1 that this collapse was partly  
owing to the wars        between ,france
 and ,spain4  ,swinburne had written of 
the same city ten years earlier 7#aggf73

 ,the inhabitants do not appear much the
 richer for their cloth manufactory4    
,indeed1 it is not in a very flourishing
 condition2 but what cloth they make is 
very fine4                              
,illustration3 ,,xi                     
,,priest',s ,,robe2 ,,spanish           
7,embroidered in ,gold on ,green        
,velvet4 ,about ,a4,d4 #aejj7  ,the     
,ordinances of ,granada 7,a4,d4 #aecb71 
from which we learn that cloth was also 
manufactured at that capital1 contain   
the usual dispositions relative to the  
stamping of this product by the city    
officers4 ,the stamps were in a box     
which was kept in a corner of the       
cathedral and closed by two keys1       
guarded severally by a councillor and an
 inspector of the trade1 or veedor4 ,on 
every day except a public festival1     
between the hours of ten and eleven of  
the morning1 and three and four of the  
afternoon1 it was the duty of these two 
authorities to proceed to the           
,alcaicera1 and ascertain if any cloth  

required stamping4 ,if so1 the stamps   
were fetched forthwith from the         
cathedral1 the cloth was marked1 and the
 stamps were solemnly restored to their 
chest beneath the double key4  ,among   
the woven fabrics other than those of   
silk1 and which are specified in the    
,ordinances of ,granada relative to the 
tundidores or shearers1 are cloths of   
,florence1 ,flanders1 ,london1          
,valencia1 ,zaragoza1 ,onteniente1      
,segovia1 and ,perpignan2 velarte 7a    
fine cloth manufactured at ,granada71   
red burel 7kersey7 of ,baeza1 black     
kersey of ,villanueva and ,la ,mancha1  
ruan 7,roan linen71 fustians1 friezes1  
and cordellate 7grogram7 of ,granada1   
,valencia1 ,toledo1 ,segovia1 and       
,cuenca4 ,according to ,capmany1 cloths 
of the commoner kind1 and which were    
popular about this time1 were the granas
 treintenas and black cloths of         
,valencia1 the white or yellow          
veintiseiseno cloths of ,toledo1 the    
white cloths of ,ciudad ,real1 the green

 palmillas of ,cuenca1 and green        
dieciochenos of ,segovia1 the contrayes 
of ,cazalla1 and the pardillos of       
,aragon4 ,spanish cloth was also        
manufactured at ,vergara1 ,cordova1     
,jaen1 ,murcia1 ,palencia1 ,tavira de   
,durango1 and ,medina del ,campo4       
,illustration3 ,,xii                    
,,embroidered ,,chasuble                
7,palencia ,cathedral7  ,laborde says3  
,in the archives of the ,crowns of      
,aragon and ,castile there is a notice  
of the duties paid from the thirteenth  
to the end of the seventeenth century   
for foreign cloths sold in ,spain1 and  
for other articles of consumption coming
 from abroad4 ,the principal cloths came
 from ,bruges1 ,montpellier1 and        
,london2 the velvets from ,malines1     
,courtrai1 ,ypres1 and ,florence4 ,this 
trade became so injurious to ,spain1    
that ,ferdinand and ,isabella thought   
themselves bound to limit it entirely to
 the stuffs required for ornaments of   
the church1 which of itself was a       

considerable quantity4 ,their           
prohibition is the subject of the       
rescript of ,september #bnd1 #adid1 for 
the provinces of the ,crown of ,castile4
 ,even so far back as the ,ordinances of
 ,barcelona in #abga1 mention is made of
 the taxes levied on the cloths of      
,flanders1 ,arras1 ,lannoy1 ,paris1     
,saint ,denis1 ,chalons1 ,beziers1 and  
,reims4#ce    #ce ,in the reign of      
,francis the ,first1 the importation of 
,catalan cloth        into ,france was  
prohibited altogether4--,levasseur1     
,histoire des        classes ouvrires en
 ,france1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #gc4          
,among the various cloths 7exclusively  
or chiefly of the less        expensive 
kinds7 which were manufactured in the   
capital and country        of ,catalua1 
we read of those of pure scarlet1       
scarlet tinted with        light or dark
 purple1 ash-coloured1 carmine1 and     
rose2 of cloth of        combed wool1   
medias lanas 7half-woollens71 serges1   
and cadinas        or banyolenchs4 ,but 

before the close of the fifteenth       
century        the production of these  
fabrics had suffered a serious decline  
caused by the tactless government of    
,ferdinand the ,catholic1 and           
above all1 by the introduction of the   
,inquisition into ,barcelona4        ,a 
privilege of ,ferdinand1 granted on     
,november #dth1 #adic1 to the           
,barcelonese clothmakers1 admits that   
this was the foremost and        most   
useful local manufacture 7no y ha altre 
art ni offici que mes        util done71
 adding1 however1 that it had fallen    
into a state of        sad prostration  
owing to the indisposition of these     
times4        7,capmany1 ,memorias1     
,vol4 ,,ii41 ,doc4 ccxliv74             
,this was undoubtedly the case2 for in a
 report of the city council        drawn
 up in #adia1 it is stated that good    
cloth can only be        manufactured   
from good wool1 but that this had now   
become a        difficult matter at     
,barcelona1 because the clothmakers were

 without        the money to purchase   
such wool4 ,in consequence1 they        
appealed to        the city 7then even  
more resourceless than themselves7 to   
help        them4         ,although it  
has become fashionable in some quarters 
to deny that        the ,inquisition    
contributed in a sensible degree to the 
decline of        ,spanish arts and     
industries1 the following passage1      
quoted from the        municipal        
archives of ,barcelona1 places the fact 
beyond all        argument as far as    
this locality is concerned4 ,the city   
councillors        declared in #adib    
that by reason of the ,inquisition      
established in        this city1 many   
evils have befallen our commerce1       
together with the        depopulation of
 the said city1 and much other and      
irreparable        damage to her        
welfare2 and as much more harm will     
occur in the        future1 unless a    
remedy be applied1 wherefore the said   
councillors        entreat of the king's

 majesty that of his wonted clemency he 
order        the said ,inquisition to   
cease2 or else that he repair the matter
 in        such wise that the merchants 
who departed because of the             
,inquisition may return1 and continue in
 the service of their ,god1        their
 king1 and of the general welfare of the
 city aforesaid4                        
,illustration3 ,,xiii                   
,,embroidered ,,manga ,,or ,,case ,,of  
,,processional ,,cross                  
7,early #afth ,century2 ,toledo         
,cathedral7  ,in #ahji the same author  
remarked3 ,the kingdom of ,valencia     
produces little wool1 yet there are five
 manufactories of woollens and coarse   
and fine cloths3 they are at ,morella1  
,enguera1 ,bocairente1 ,onteniente1 and 
,alcoy4 ,the small woollen stuffs are   
principally made at ,enguera2 nothing   
but the coarsest cloths are made at     
,morella1 ,bocairente1 and ,onteniente4 
,the manufactory at ,alcoy is the most  
considerable3 the cloths1 though finer1 

are generally of an inferior quality4   
,the woof of them is thick1 with little 
nap upon it4 ,the finest are scarcely   
superior to the beautiful cloths of     
,carcassonne4                           
,,embroidery  ,the art of embroidering1 
and especially of embroidering with the 
aid of gold and silver thread1 was      
communicated to the ,spaniards by the   
,spanish ,moors1 who doubtless had      
derived it from the ,east4 ,by about the
 thirteenth century1 the needle of the  
,spanish embroiderer had become1 in the 
picturesque phrase of one of his        
compatriots1 a veritable painter's      
brush1 describing facile outlines on    
luxurious fabrics1 and filling in the   
spaces1 sometimes with brilliant hues1  
or sometimes with harmonious1           
softly-graduated tones which imitate the
 entire colour-scheme of ,nature4       
,nevertheless1 it was not until the     
fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries   
that this art attained1 in the          
,peninsula1 its topmost summit of       

perfection4  ,it is not at all          
surprising that embroidery should have  
made great progress among a people so   
devoted to the outward and spectacular  
forms of worship as the ,spaniards2 nor 
have the chasubles1 copes1 and other    
vestments of the ,spanish prelacy and   
priesthood ever been surpassed for      
costly splendour#cf 7,plates x41 xi41   
xii474 ,but generally where the ,spanish
 embroiderer excelled was in the mere   
manipulation of the needle4 ,in         
fertility of design he was far          
outdistanced by the ,germans and        
,italians1 and was even to a large      
extent their imitator2 for ,spanish     
embroidery1 as occurred with ,spanish   
painting1 was influenced1 almost to an  
overwhelming degree1 firstly by northern
 art1 and subsequently by the art of the
 ,renaissance4    #cf ,the cathedrals of
 ,toledo and ,palencia are particularly 
rich in        sets of magnificently    
embroidered vestments4 ,each set1 says  
,riao1 generally includes a chasuble1   

dalmatic1 cope1 altar        frontal1   
covers for the gospel stands1 and other 
smaller pieces4        ,the embroideries
 on the orphreys1 which are formed of   
figures of        saints1 are as perfect
 as the miniatures on illuminated ,,mss4
                                        
,illustration3 ,,xiv                    
,,embroidered ,,altar-,,front  ,these   
tendencies or characteristics will be   
found in nearly all the masterpieces of 
,spanish embroidery that have been      
preserved until to-day1 of which perhaps
 the most remarkable specimens are the  
manga or case of the great processional 
cross presented by ,cardinal ,cisneros  
to ,toledo cathedral1 and the ,tanto    
,monta embroidered tapestry belonging to
 the same temple4 ,the manga grande1    
known as that of the ,corpus 7,plate    
xiii471 is in the ,gothic style1 with   
reminiscences of ,german art1 and       
consists of the following four scenes   
arranged in panels thirty-seven inches  
high1 and hung successively about the   

handle of the cross3--    7#a7 ,the     
,ascension of the ,virgin ,mary1 who is 
supported by six angels4    7#b7 ,the   
,adoration of the ,magi4    7#c7 ,san   
,ildefonso in the act of cutting off a  
piece of the veil of       ,santa       
,leocadia1 patron of ,toledo4    7#d7   
,the ,martyrdom of ,san ,eugenio1       
another patron of the city of ,toledo4  
,the ground of this elaborate sleeve is 
a fabric of rich silk1 on which the     
embroidery is worked in gold and silver 
thread and coloured silks1 principally  
blue and red1 combined in delicate1     
harmonious tones4 ,the figures are      
outlined with fine gold cord1 which     
forms a kind of frame or fencing to     
confine the stretches of smooth silk4   
,the careful copying of architectural   
detail is stated by ,serrano ,fatigati  
to be strongly characteristic of        
,spanish industrial art in the          
fourteenth1 fifteenth1 and even         
sixteenth centuries4 ,the same writer   
considers that this sleeve was executed 

towards the year #aead1 when            
embroiderers of great renown1 such as   
,alonso ,hernndez1 ,juan de ,talavera1  
,martin ,ruiz1 ,hernando de la ,rica1   
,pedro de ,burgos1 and ,marcos de       
,covarrubias were engaged on similar    
work in the venerable city of the       
,tagus4 ,two out of the four panels1    
says ,serrano ,fatigati1 may possibly be
 from the hand of ,covarrubias1 who was 
a famous craftsman of his time1 and held
 the post of master-embroiderer in      
,toledo cathedral4 ,in any case1 the    
four panels are evidently not all by the
 same artist1 nor do they appear to have
 been executed at precisely the same    
period4                                 
,illustration3 ,,xv        ,,embroidered
 ,,altar-,,front1 ,,with ,,the ,,arms   
,,of ,,cardinal ,,mendoza               
7#aeth ,century4 ,toledo ,cathedral7    
,the gorgeous embroidered tapestry which
 also belongs to this cathedral 7where  
it serves as a hanging or colgadura for 
the altar on the day of ,corpus         

,christi71 and which is known as the    
,tanto ,monta tapiz1 is stated by some  
authorities to have been the dosel or   
bed canopy of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 
and to have been purchased1 in the year 
#aeag1 for #ijj1jjj maravedis by ,alonso
 ,fernndez de ,tendilla1 steward of     
those sovereigns4 ,riao gives the       
following account of the same object3-- 
,as a fine specimen of embroidery on a  
large scale1 must be mentioned the dosel
 or canopy called the tent of ,ferdinand
 and ,isabella1 which was used in the   
reception of the ,english envoys1       
,thomas ,salvaige and ,richard ,nanfan1 
who were sent in #adhh to ,spain to     
arrange the marriage of ,prince ,henry  
with the ,infanta ,doa ,catalina4 ,the  
ambassadors describe it in the following
 manner3 ,after the tilting was over1   
the kings returned to the palace1 and   
took the ambassadors with them1 and     
entered a large room2 and there they sat
 under a rich cloth of state of rich    
crimson velvet1 richly embroidered with 

the arms of ,castile and ,aragon1 and   
covered with the device of the ,king    
which is a 444 7blank in original71#cg  
and his motto1 written at length1 which 
is ',tanto ,monta4' 7,memorials of ,king
 ,henry the ,seventh1 ,gairdner1        
,london1 #aheh1 p4 #cdh74    #cg ,the   
device of ,ferdinand the ,catholic was a
 yoke2 the sheaf of        arrows1 that 
of ,isabella4 7,see ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4     
#adg1 etc474  ,riao also describes the  
mantle of the ,virgen del ,sagrario at  
,toledo4 ,it is completely covered with 
pearls and jewels forming a most        
effective ornamentation4 ,this          
embroidery was made in the beginning of 
the seventeenth century1 during the     
lifetime of ,cardinal ,sandoval1 who    
presented it to the church4 ,seor       
,parro1 in his exhaustive work ,toledo  
en la ,mano 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #egd71 gives 
the following account of it3 ,it is made
 of twelve yards of silver lama1 or     
cloth of silver1 which is entirely      
covered with gold and precious stones4  

,in the centre there is a jewel of      
amethysts and diamonds4 ,eight other    
jewels appear on each side1 of enamelled
 gold1 emeralds1 and large rubies4 ,a   
variety of other jewels are placed at   
intervals round the mantle1 and at the  
lower part are the arms of ,cardinal    
,sandoval enamelled on gold and studded 
with sapphires and rubies4 ,the centre  
of this mantle is covered with flowers  
and pomegranates embroidered in         
seed-pearls of different sizes4 ,round  
the borders are rows of large pearls4   
,besides the gems which are employed in 
this superb work of art1 no less than   
two hundred and fifty-seven ounces of   
pearls of different sizes were used1    
three hundred ounces of gold thread1 a  
hundred and sixty ounces of small pieces
 of enamelled gold1 and eight ounces of 
emeralds4                               
,illustration3 ,,xvi                    
,,embroidered ,,altar-,,front           
7,palencia ,cathedral7  ,as in other    
countries1 embroidery in ,spain was     

executed in the bygone time1 both by    
paid embroiderers1 and as a domestic    
occupation by the ladies of the         
aristocracy4 ,the work of the           
professional embroiderer consisted      
principally of paraments or altar-fronts
 7,plates xiv41 xv41 xvi41 xvii471 and  
ecclesiastical vestments4 ,among the    
former of this class of objects1 nothing
 is finer than the frontal of the       
,chapel of ,saint ,george in the        
,audiencia of ,barcelona4 ,it is        
believed to have been wrought by        
,antonio ,sadurni1 a ,catalan           
embroiderer who flourished in the middle
 of the fifteenth century4 ,the scene   
represented is the combat between ,saint
 ,george 7patron of ,catalua7 and the   
dragon4 ,the saint has rescued a damsel 
from the monster's claws1 and her       
parents are looking on from a mirador of
 their palace4 ,this central episode is 
surrounded with borders and arabesques  
of extraordinary richness4  ,riao gives 
a list1 compiled from ,cean1 ,martinez1 

,suarez de ,figueroa1 and other authors1
 of forty-seven ,spanish embroiderers of
 the fifteenth1 sixteenth1 seventeenth1 
and eighteenth centuries4 ,more         
recently1 ,ramrez de ,arellano has      
discovered1 among the municipal archives
 of ,cordova1 the names of sixteen      
others1 who resided at that city        
towards1 or early in1 the seventeenth   
century4 ,the craftsmen in question were
 ,diego de ,aguilar1 ,juan ,bautista1   
,bernardo ,carrillo1 ,luis ,carrillo de 
,quijana1 ,andrs ,fernndez de           
,montemayor1 ,hernn ,gmez del ,ro1      
,diego ,fabin de ,herrera1 ,diego del   
,hierro1 ,diego ,lpez de ,herrera1      
,diego ,lpez de ,valenzuela1 ,antonio de
 ,morales1 ,gonzalo de ,ocaa1 ,mateo    
,sanguino1 ,manuel ,torralbo1 ,cristbal 
de ,valenzuela1 and ,martin de la ,vega4
  ,documents in the same archive contain
 additional particulars respecting two  
or three of these artificers4 ,thus1 on 
,february #ajth1 #afjg1 ,hernn ,gmez del
 ,ro engaged himself to embroider for   

the convent of the ,trinity at ,cordova1
 a bordering for a chasuble and four    
faldones for dalmatics1 with their      
collars and sabastros and bocas mangas4 
,the said bocas mangas to be four in    
number1 and the collars two2 also the   
collaretes which may be necessary for   
the two dalmatics1 and which ,i am to   
embroider in silk and gold upon white   
satin4 ,the collaretes also to be       
embroidered by me in silk and gold to   
match a bordering of white satin for a  
cloak in possession of the said convent4
 ,further1 the convent was to supply the
 artist with the quantity of white satin
 required1 and pay him two hundred and  
ten ducats1 secured by certain of the   
convent's revenues1 for the gold1 the   
silk1 and the workmanship4              
,illustration3 ,,xvii                   
,,embroidered ,,altar-,,fronts          
7,palencia ,cathedral7  ,manuel         
,torralbo contracted to embroider a     
velvet altar-front and its corresponding
 fronteleras for the parish church of   

,luque1 at a price of three hundred     
reales2 and ,cristbal de ,valenzuela 7on
 ,september #beth1 #afjd7 to embroider  
two frontals for the altar of the church
 of ,obejo4 ,one of them was to be of   
purple velvet worked in gold1 and the   
other of black velvet1 with borders and 
caidas embroidered in yellow satin and  
white satin1 with skulls and bones      
embroidered in gold4#ch    #ch ,the     
skull and crossbones were a favourite   
design upon these        objects4 ,the  
,church of the ,escorial possesses four 
paraments so        decorated1 which    
were shown1 in #ahgh1 at the ,parisian  
,exhibition        of ,retrospective    
,art4  ,turning our attention to the    
embroidery which was executed1          
principally as a recreation1 by highborn
 ,spanish ladies of some centuries ago1 
the romance of ,el ,compte ,arnau1      
quoted by ,miquel y ,bada and written in
 ,catalan and ,provenal1 contains the   
following lines3--                ,ahout
 teniu las vostras fillas--muller leal8 

,ahout teniu las vostras fillas--viudeta
 igual8                 ,a la cambra son
 que brodan--,compte l',arnau           
,a la cambra son que brodan--seda y     
estam4  ,isabella the ,catholic         
presented to the ,chapel ,royal of the  
cathedral of ,granada an ecclesiastical 
robe embroidered by her own hands for   
the festival of ,corpus ,christi4 ,the  
material was black satin brocade1 with a
 fringe of white silk1 and the letters  
,,ihs in white damask4#ci    #ci ,gmez  
,moreno2 ,apuntes que pueden servir de  
historia del bordado        de          
imagineria en ,granada 7,el ,liceo de   
,granada2 #fth year1        ,no4 #ah74  
,illustration3 ,,xviii                  
,,wife ,,of ,,well-,,to-,,do ,,merchant 
7,palma1 ,balearic ,islands4 ,about     
,a4,d4 #ahaj7  ,the same usage continued
 in the seventeenth century4 ,countess  
d',aulnoy says3 ,young ladies of great  
beauty and of noble blood engage        
themselves to wait on ladies of the     
aristocracy1 and spend most of their    

time embroidering the collars and       
sleeves of shirts in gold1 silver1 and  
coloured silk1 although1 if they be     
suffered to follow their liking1 they   
work but little1 and gossip a great     
deal4 ,the same writer refers repeatedly
 to the sumptuous embroideries in use   
among the upper classes of the          
,spaniards of that time4 ,thus1 the     
bed-pillows of the ,princess of         
,montelen were embroidered with gold4   
,the sleeves of the coat of ,charles the
 ,second were of white silk1 very large1
 opening towards the wrist1 and         
embroidered with blue silk and jet1 the 
rest of his costume being embroidered in
 white and blue silk4 ,in the palace of 
the same monarch1 the das of the        
throne-room was covered with a wondrous 
carpet1 and the throne and its canopy   
were embroidered with pearls1 diamonds1 
rubies1 emeralds1 and other precious    
stones4 ,the cloaks of the chevaliers   
who belonged to the ,military ,orders of
 ,santiago1 ,calatrava1 and ,alcntara   

were embroidered with gold4 ,the        
gentlemen of ,madrid covered their      
horses with silver gauze1 and trappings 
embroidered with gold and pearls4#dj    
,the same gentlemen wore coats whose    
sleeves were of coloured satin1         
embroidered with silk and jet1 and even 
their lackeys1 when they attended their 
masters in a procession1 wore uniforms  
of cloth embroidered with gold and      
silver4 ,unmarried girls and brides wore
 gold-embroidered bodices4 ,the chairs  
in which the ladies of ,madrid paid     
visits were made of cloth embroidered in
 gold and silver1 stretched upon the    
wooden frame4 ,in the train of the      
,duchess of ,terranova went six litters 
covered with embroidered velvet4 ,in the
 parish church of ,san ,sebastin1 wrote 
,countess d',aulnoy1 ,i have seen a     
hand-chair made by order of the         
queen-mother1 for carrying the          
,sacrament to sick persons in bad       
weather4 ,it is lined with crimson      
velvet embroidered in gold and covered  

with hide studded with gilt nails3 it   
has large window-glasses1 and a kind of 
small belfry full of golden bells4      
#dj ,a similar usage prevailed at       
,valladolid4 ,the account of this city  
as it existed in #afje1 published by    
,gayangos in the ,revista de            
,espaa1 describes ,don ,juan de ,tassis1
 ,count of ,villamediana1 as            
riding in the finest clothes imaginable2
 his cloak1 jacket1        breeches1    
shoes1 and the trappings1 harness1      
reins1 etc41 of his        horse1 being 
all embroidered with the finest twisted 
silver thread4        ,even his horse's 
blinkers were of the same material4     
,with the succession of a ,french line  
of sovereigns to the throne of ,spain1 a
 taste for ,french embroideries passed  
into the ,peninsula1 and these1 in      
course of time1 were imitated by the    
,spanish craftsmen4#da ,we find1 says   
,riao1 that ,madrid was the principal   
centre of this industry1 and that       
,french designs were universally copied1

 as was the case in the whole of        
,europe4 ,the splendid curtains and     
embroidered hangings for apartments     
which exist at the royal palaces of     
,madrid1 the ,escorial1 and ,aranjuez1  
are admirable specimens4    #da ,the use
 of embroidery was1 however1 greatly    
curbed by sumptuary        pragmatics1  
issued early in this century 7see ,vol4 
,i41 pp4 #bhg1        #bhi74 ,a similar 
pragmatic had appeared in #afbb2 but it 
is clear        from the passages ,i    
have quoted1 that little or no attention
 was        paid to it4  ,i may mention 
here the embroidery1 often of a rich and
 highly ornate character1 which is1 or  
used to be1 applied to the regional     
costumes of ,spain4 ,plate ix4 is       
reproduced from a rare print in my      
possession1 showing the gala dress1 as  
it existed in the year #aggg1 of the    
charra of ,salamanca1 with full1 white  
sleeves ornamented in black embroidery  
with animals and other devices4 ,a      
similar costume is still worn in that   

neighbourhood4 ,plate xviii41 also      
copied from a print in my collection1   
dating from about the year #ahaj1 shows 
the costume worn by the women of the    
well-to-do middle class of the island of
 ,majorca4 ,le jupon ou guardapies1 says
 the manuscript description prefixed to 
this series of plates1 en mousseline1   
complete le costume de cette insulaire3 
il est orn au bas de riches broderies1  
mais assez court pour laisser voir un   
joli petit pied chauss d'un bas de coton
 ou de soie et d'un lgant soulier de    
satin4                                  
,,tapestry  ,there is a dim tradition1  
derived from or supported by a ,latin   
poet 7,tunc operosa suis ,hispana       
tapetia villis7 that carpets or         
tapestries of some kind were made in the
 ,spanish ,peninsula in the time of the 
,romans4 ,undoubtedly this craft was    
practised by the ,spanish-,moors1       
particularly in the regions of          
,valencia1 ,alicante1 ,cuenca1 and      
,granada4 ,this statement is confirmed  

by two laconic notices which occur in   
the ,description of ,africa and ,spain  
of ,edrisi1 a ,mohammedan geographer of 
the twelfth century4 ,of the town of    
,chinchilla1 in ,alicante province1 he  
wrote1--woollen carpets are made here1  
such as could not be manufactured       
anywhere else1 owing to the qualities of
 the air and water2 and of ,cuenca1     
excellent woollen carpets are           
manufactured at this town4  ,en         
,espagne1 says ,mntz1 l'industrie       
textile ne tarda pas  prendre galement  
le plus brilliant essor1 grce  la       
conqute maure4 ,les toffes d',almeria   
acquirent rapidement une rputation      
europenne2 il est vrai que c'taient des 
brocarts1 des damas1 et autres tissus   
analogues1 non des tapisseries3         
l'influence qu'elles furent appeles     
exercer au dehors se borna donc au      
domaine de l'ornementation4             
,illustration3 ,,xix                    
,,the ,,genesis ,,tapestry              
7#abth ,century2 ,gerona ,cathedral7    

,of a similar composition to the        
foregoing fabrics specified by          
,mntz--that is to say1 not genuine      
tapestries1 although requiring for      
several reasons to be classed with      
these--is the celebrated ,genesis       
7,plate xix47 of the cathedral of       
,gerona4 ,this primitive yet complicated
 work of art1 dating from the twelfth   
century1 is embroidered in crewels upon 
linen1 and represents the creation of   
the world4 ,its dimensions are about    
four yards high by four and a half yards
 wide2 but the bordering has been torn  
away in places4 ,the design is thus     
described by ,riao3--,in the centre is a
 geometrical figure formed by two       
concentric circles4 ,in the lesser      
circle is a figure of ,christ holding an
 open book1 on which appear the words   
,sanctus ,deus1 and on each side ,rex   
fortis1 surrounded by the inscription1  
,dixit quoque ,deus1 ,fiat lux1 ,et     
facta est lux4 ,in the larger circle are
 the words1 ,in principio creavit ,deus 

coelum et terram1 mare et omnia qu in   
eis sunt1 et vidit ,deus cuncta qu      
egerat et erant valde bona4  ,the space 
between the two circles is divided by   
radiating lines into eight portions1 in 
which are represented the ,mystic ,dove1
 the angels of light and darkness3 the  
division of land from water1 the        
creation of sun1 moon1 and stars1 of    
birds1 fishes1 and beasts1 and of ,adam 
and ,eve4 ,in the angles outside the    
larger circle are the four winds1 and   
the whole is surrounded by a border1    
imperfect in parts1 containing          
representations of the months1 and      
apparently of certain scriptural        
incidents1 too much defaced to be       
clearly made out4  ,the royal palaces of
 ,spain and many of her noble houses    
have possessed1 from about the fifteenth
 century1 splendid collections of the   
costliest tapestries1 consisting        
principally of paos de ,ras1 or ,arras  
cloths 7as they were called among the   
,spaniards1 and especially in ,aragon74 

,until a later period all1 or very      
nearly all1 these objects were imported 
from the ,flemish workshops4#db ,at the 
palace of a nobleman in ,madrid1        
,bertaut de ,rouen observed les plus    
belles tapisseries du monde4 ,the same  
author tells us that in the seventeenth 
century1 when he visited ,spain and     
wrote his entertaining ,journal1 it was 
customary for the walls of the royal    
palace to be hung with tapestry in      
winter1 these hangings being removed for
 greater coolness in the summer months4 
,in reading descriptions of ,spanish    
life referring to the same period1 one  
is struck by the craze which prevailed  
among the ,spaniards for displaying     
tapestries and other gay-coloured       
fabrics in all kinds of places and on   
every possible occasion4 ,thus1 ,bertaut
 de ,rouen relates that when he saw a   
play performed in the ,alczar1 le long  
de ces deux costez de la salle estoient 
seulement deux grands bancs couverts de 
tapis de ,perse2 that the boxes at the  

bull-fights1 both at ,madrid and in the 
country1 were tapisses de brocatelle de 
soye2 and that the lower part of the    
dome in one of the chapels of ,seville  
cathedral was decorated with the same   
material4 ,at the haunted castle of     
,quebaro1 on the road from ,galareta to 
,vitoria1 ,countess d',aulnoy saw upon  
the walls of a large chamber1 some      
tapestries representing the amours of   
,don ,pedro the ,cruel and of ,doa ,mara
 de ,padilla4 ,this lady was depicted   
seated1 like a queen1 among various     
other ladies1 while the king crowned her
 with a chaplet of flowers4 ,elsewhere  
,doa ,mara was reposing in a forest1 as 
the king offered her a falcon4 ,i also  
saw her dressed as a warrior while the  
king1 in armour1 offered her a sword4   
,this set me thinking whether she had   
ever accompanied ,don ,pedro in one of  
his campaigns4 ,all the figures in these
 tapestries were badly drawn1 but ,don  
,fernando assured me that all           
well-executed likenesses of ,doa ,mara  

de ,padilla represented her to be a     
woman of rare charm1 the loveliest of   
her century4    #db ,a ct de l',italie1 
il faut citer l',espagne1 tributaire    
comme        elle des ateliers flamands4
 ,les rsidences royales regorgeaient    
de ces prcieux tissus1 qui aujourd'hui  
encore1  ,madrid ou         l',escurial1
 se chiffrent par centaines4 ,parmi les 
prsents que le        roi de ,castille  
envoya  ,tamerlan 7dagger #adje71 on    
remarquait        des tapisseries dont  
les portraits taient faits avec tant de 
dlicatesse1 dit un chroniqueur persan1  
que si on voulait leur        comparer  
les ouvrages merveilleux autrefois      
excuts par le        peintre ,mani sur  
la toile d',artne1 ,mani serait couvert 
de honte        et ses ouvrages         
paratraient difformes4--,mntz1 ,la      
,tapisserie1        p4 #agb4  ,pinheiro 
da ,veiga says that at ,valladolid in   
#afje1 a banquet was celebrated in a    
large gallery1 completely covered with  
the richest silk brocade1 as were most  

of the other apartments4 ,he also says  
that cloths of similar richness were    
employed as street-awnings4 ,upon the   
ninth was the ,corpus procession1 at    
which the king was to assist2 and a     
proclamation was issued that none should
 promenade on horseback or in coaches4  
,i found nothing remarkable in this     
procession1 unless it were the hangings 
and the awnings to keep off the sun1    
which were of the richest damask and    
brocade4 ,of the same fiesta ,countess  
d',aulnoy wrote in #afgi3 ,the streets  
through which the procession has to pass
 are adorned with the finest tapestries 
in all the world1 since in addition to  
those belonging to the ,crown1 many of  
the greatest beauty are displayed by    
private persons4 ,the celosas of all the
 balconies are replaced by elaborate    
canopies and hangings1 and the whole    
roadway is covered with an awning to    
ward off the sun1 and which1 for the    
sake of greater freshness1 is moistened 
with a little water4 ,nearly identical  

with this account is that of ,alexander 
de ,laborde1 who wrote1 a century and a 
quarter later than the ,countess2 ,on   
,corpus ,christi day there is a grand   
procession composed of the regular and  
secular clergy of ,madrid1 followed by  
the king1 his ministers1 and court1 each
 bearing in his hand a wax taper4       
,magnificent awnings of tapestry are    
raised in the streets through which the 
procession is to pass2 the balconies are
 decorated with splendid hangings2 the  
seats are covered with cushions1 and    
occasionally surmounted with a das2 in  
some of the streets the face of day is  
darkened by canopies which stretch from 
one side to the other4 ,altars are      
placed at regular intervals2 the        
balconies are thronged with ladies      
superbly dressed1 who sprinkle scented  
water1 or scatter fragrant flowers on   
the passing multitudes4  ,pinheiro da   
,veiga also describes a set of          
remarkable tapestries1 evidently        
,flemish1 which he saw in the           

,chapter-room of the ,convent of ,crmen 
,calzado at ,valladolid4 ,it was hung   
with the richest tapestry1 silk1 and    
paintings that had belonged to the ,duke
 of ,lerma4 ,i greatly admired some     
cloths of green velvet1 worked all over 
with the ,bucolics of ,virgil1 in tarjas
 embroidered in silk and gold1 as though
 they were sebastos#dc of ecclesiastical
 vestments1 but these were old1 of great
 value1 and extraordinary merit4 ,finer 
still were certain cloths of recent     
workmanship1 such as ,i had never seen  
equalled1 of a white material painted in
 tempera1 with the borders1 dresses1 and
 faces of the personages on them wrought
 in twisted gold4 ,i never saw anything 
so brilliant or so novel4 ,the cloths   
were eight in number1 with four         
embroidered guardapuertas4 ,the persons 
figured upon them wore belts of real    
pearls1 rings set with diamonds and     
rubies on their fingers1 and gold chains
 and medals studded with precious       
stones1 just as living people wear them4

    #dc ,a ,portuguese word meaning a   
strip of silk upon the back of a        
chasuble4  ,the fashion of collecting   
foreign tapestries seems to have reached
 its height at the ,spanish capital in  
the first half of the seventeenth       
century4 ,nowadays1 wrote ,fernandez de 
,navarrete1 in his ,conservacion de     
,monarquas1 published in #afbf1         
gentlemen are not contented with        
hangings which a few years ago were     
considered good enough to adorn a       
prince's palace4 ,the ,spanish taffetas 
and guadameces1 so highly esteemed in   
other provinces1 are held of no account 
in this one 7,madrid74 ,the sargas and  
arbeles wherewith the moderation of the 
,spanish people was satisfied in former 
days1 must now be turned into injurious 
telas rizas of ,florence and ,milan1 and
 into costliest ,brussels tapestry4     
,illustration3 ,,xx             ,,tapiz 
,,of ,,crimson ,,velvet ,,worked ,,in   
,,gold ,,tissue           7#afth        
,century4 ,monastery of ,las ,huelgas1  

,burgos7  ,it is perhaps allowable to   
include among the oldest makers of      
,spanish tapestry the names of ,gonzalo 
de ,mesa and ,diego ,roman1 who1 in the 
year #acca1 were paid respectively one  
thousand maravedis and eighteen hundred 
maravedis1 for decorating the tents of  
,king ,sancho the ,fourth4 ,there also  
exists the following entry1 dating from 
the same period2 ,to ,boanibre1 master  
of the tents2 ,,xxx maravedis for his   
food1 for fifteen days4#dd    #dd       
,manuel ,g4 ,simancas1 ,artistas        
,castellanos del ,siglo ,,xiii 7,boletn 
de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones
 for ,january1 #aije47  ,far clearer    
than these laconic excerpts is a        
document preserved in the library of the
 ,academy of ,history at ,madrid1 in the
 form of a memorial presented to ,philip
 the ,second by a ,spanish              
tapestry-maker of ,salamanca1 named     
,pedro ,gutierrez1#de and setting forth1
 in pessimistic language1 the unhappy   
condition of this craft in the          

,peninsula4 ,pedro relates of himself   
that in twenty-four days he made for the
 ,cardinal-archduke no less than a      
hundred and twenty reposteros2 and that 
in order to exhibit his cleverness as a 
tapestry-weaver1 he set up a loom in the
 royal palace 7being officially the     
tapicero to the ,crown71 and worked for 
forty days where all might criticise the
 product of his toil4 ,gutierrez also   
states that the township of ,madrid had 
provided him with six hundred ducats to 
enable him to establish there a         
tapestry-factory for the space of ten   
years1 together with six hundred and    
fifty ducats from the ,cortes for       
supporting his apprentices1 and a       
thousand ducats from the king to defray 
the cost of certain voyages he had made 
to ,lisbon1 ,monzn1 and ,barcelona1 and 
of removing his residence from          
,salamanca to the capital of ,spain4 ,he
 complains1 however1 that the house he  
dwells in at ,madrid is not large enough
 to contain his loom1 and replies to the

 objections of such persons as opposed  
his opening the tapestry-works at all   
7on the ground that this craft was      
practised better and more cheaply in    
,flanders71 by asserting that ,spanish  
makers of reposteros were now accustomed
 to receive a daily wage of no more than
 three reales and a miserable meal4     
,this1 he urges1 should render ,spanish 
tapestries at least as inexpensive to   
produce as those of ,flanders2 although1
 upon the other hand1 he admits that the
 colouring of the former is likely to   
prove inferior to the ,flemish cloths in
 purity and durability4 ,common         
tapestry1 he says1 seldom keeps its     
colour upward of a couple of years1 so  
that1 if such were used in open sunlight
 on the backs of beasts of burden1 or to
 cover carts1 exposed to sun1 wind1     
dust1 and mire1 or else for cleaning    
shoes upon1 as now is practised with the
 reposteros1 their imperfections would  
become apparent all the sooner4    #de  
,at about the same time that this       

petition was presented by               
,gutierrez1 another tapestry-maker named
 ,pedro de ,espinosa1 a native        of
 ,iniesta1 was living at ,cordova4 ,on  
,february #bnd1 #aefj1 he        married
 ,leonor de ,burgos1 and received as    
dowry from his bride the        sum of  
thirty-five thousand maravedis4 7,ramrez
 de ,arellano1        ,artistas         
,exhumados1 published in the ,boletn de 
la ,sociedad        ,espaola de         
,excursiones47  ,mention of these       
typically ,spanish objects known as     
reposteros1#df induces me to quote an   
interesting notice relating to the visit
 of ,philip the ,second to ,cordova1 in 
the year #aegj4 ,the train of the ,duke 
of ,medina ,sidonia1 who journeyed to   
this city in order to receive his       
sovereign1 consisted of a hundred and   
three mules covered with new reposteros 
of wool1 and of six mules covered with  
reposteros of purple velvet1 embroidered
 with silver and gold1 and bearing the  
duke's arms4    #df ,reposteros1 says   

,riao1 is the ancient name given to the 
hangings which are placed outside the   
balconies on state occasions        in  
,spain4 ,several splendid examples of   
the sixteenth and        seventeenth    
centuries may still be seen at the      
houses of ,spanish        grandees1 of  
which those belonging to the ,conde de  
,oate and        ,marques de ,alcaices  
at ,madrid are the most remarkable for  
their        artistic design4           
,it is surprising that ,riao should     
insert so incomplete a        definition
 of this word1 whose primitive and      
proper meaning1        according to the 
,dictionary of the ,spanish ,academy1 is
 a square        piece of cloth with the
 arms of a prince or ,seor1 which serves
 for        covering baggage carried by 
beasts of burden1 and also for hanging  
in antechambers4 ,see also ,vol4 ,,ii41 
p4 #af 7note7 of the present            
work4  ,if1 as seems most likely1 the   
woollen reposteros above referred to    
were of woven work containing a device1 

this passage would demonstrate that the 
manufacture of the cloths in question   
was sometimes the province of the       
tapestry-maker and sometimes that of the
 embroiderer4 ,ramrez de ,arellano1 from
 whose instructive studies on the       
craftsmen of older ,spain ,i quote the  
foregoing extract1 says that the making 
of reposteros constitutes a branch of   
craftsmanship distinct from embroidery  
of the common class1 and that the men   
who produced them deserve to be included
 among artists of real merit4 ,he gives 
the names of two1 ,hernn ,gonzalez and  
,juan ,ramos1 who worked at ,cordova in 
the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,a 
document relating to the former of these
 men tells us that in those days the    
price of a repostero de estambre        
measuring sixteen palms square1 with a  
coat-of-arms worked in the centre1 and a
 decorative border1 was ninety reales4  
,illustration3 ,,xxi                    
,,the ,,spinners                        
7,by ,velazquez4 ,prado ,gallery7  ,riao

 says3 ,i do not find any information of
 a later date which suggests the        
existence of the manufacture of         
tapestries in ,spain during the ,middle 
,ages4 ,davillier1 however1 affirms that
 in the year #adaa two master-makers of 
tapestry were living at the court of the
 ,king of ,navarre1 and that other      
craftsmen1 holding the same title1 were 
established at ,barcelona in #acia and  
#adcc4 ,this notice is accepted by      
,mntz3 ,a la fin du ,,xive et au        
commencement du ,,xve sicle1 les        
,espagnols tentrent de fonder dans leur 
patrie quelques ateliers de haute lisse4
 ,a ,barcelone1 en #acia et en #adcc1   
plusieurs tapissiers 7maestros de       
tapices7 firent partie du grand         
,conseil4 ,mais ces tentaves ne semblent
 pas avoir eu de rsultats durables4 ,il 
tait plus commode de recourir aux       
manufactures flamandes1 si              
merveilleusement organises4 ,peut-tre   
mme ce systme tait-il plus conomique4   
,ne voyons-nous pas aujourd'hui jusqu'  

l'extrme ,orient tirer1 pour raison     
d'conomie1 des fabriques de ,manchester 
et de ,birmingham les tissus courants   
dont il a besoin8  ,the history of      
tapestry-making at ,madrid may be said  
to date from the establishment in this  
town of a small factory by ,pedro       
,gutierrez1 whose petition to ,philip   
the ,second ,i have already quoted1 and 
who received protection both from that  
monarch and from the queen1 ,doa ,ana4  
,in #afbe ,gutierrez was succeeded by   
,antonio ,ceron1 who formally styled    
himself tapicero de nuevo1 sucesor de   
,pedro ,gutierrez 7maker of new         
tapestries1 successor to ,pedro         
,gutierrez71 and petitioned the king for
 the grant of a meal a day1 in          
recompense of having taught his trade to
 eight lads1 and of having mounted eight
 looms in 7the factory of7 ,santa       
,isabel4 ,this factory of ,santa ,isabel
 was so called from the street in which 
it lay1 and part of it is represented in
 the celebrated painting by ,velazquez  

called ,las ,hilanderas 7,the ,spinners1
 not1 as it is translated in ,riao's    
handbook1 ,the ,weavers4 ,plate xxi474  
,this factory was unsuccessful1 and     
declined by degrees until it ceased     
completely1 in spite of the efforts made
 to revive it in #afid by a ,belgian    
named ,metler1 and in #agjg by a        
,salamanquino1 ,nicholas ,hernndez4     
,illustration3 ,,xxii                   
,,tapestry ,,made ,,at ,,brussels ,,from
 ,,granada ,,silk               7#afth  
,century4 ,spanish ,crown ,collection7  
,a new tapestry-factory--that of ,santa 
,barbara--was founded shortly afterwards
 in a building known as the ,casa del   
,abreviador4 ,the first director1       
engaged in #agbj by order of ,philip the
 ,fifth1 was ,jacob ,van der ,goten1 a  
native of ,antwerp1#dg who died in      
#agbd1 and was succeeded at the factory 
by his sons1 ,francisco1 ,jacobo1       
,cornelius1 and ,adrian4 ,these         
craftsmen worked with basse lisse looms 
till #agbi1 in which year a haute lisse 

loom was mounted by a ,frenchman1       
,antoine ,lenger4    #dg ,the royal     
contract with the elder ,van der ,goten1
 dated ,july #cjth1        #agbj1 was   
the result of secret negotiations1 and  
largely brought        about by the     
influence of ,philip's minister1        
,cardinal ,alberoni4  ,in #agcj1 when   
the court removed to ,seville1 a        
tapestry-factory was established at this
 city also4 ,the director was ,jacob    
,van der ,goten the younger1 assisted by
 the painter ,procaccini4 ,at the end of
 three years this factory closed its    
doors1 and ,van der ,goten and          
,procaccini1 returning to ,madrid1      
established themselves at the old       
factory of ,santa ,isabel1 from which1  
in #agdd1 they again removed to the     
factory of ,santa ,barbara4#dh    #dh   
,on ,saturday1 ,may #bgth1 passing      
through the gate of ,saint ,barbara1    
,i visited the tapestry manufactory1    
which resembles1 and equals        in   
beauty1 the ,gobelins1 whence it        

originally came4 ,i found a             
,frenchman at the head of it1 who was   
civil and communicative4        ,this   
fabric was brought into ,spain1 and     
established here under        the       
direction of ,john de ,van ,dergoten1   
from ,antwerp1 in the year        #agbj4
 ,they now employ fourscore hands1 and  
work only on the king's        account1 
and for his palaces1 making and         
repairing all the tapestry        and   
carpets which are wanted at any of the  
,sitios1 or royal                       
residences4--,townsend1 in #aghf4       
,the elegant manufacture of tapestry is 
carried on without ,saint               
,barbe's gate1 at the entrance of the   
promenade of ,los ,altos1 or            
,chamberi2 it was established in #agbj  
by ,philip the ,fifth1 at whose         
invitation ,john ,dergoten1 of ,antwerp1
 was induced to undertake its           
superintendence1 an office at present   
filled by his descendants4        ,the  
productions of this manufactory are     

carpets and tapestry1 the               
subjects of which are often drawn from  
fable or history2 it        sometimes   
copies pictures executed by superior    
artists1 and affords        daily       
employment to eighty persons1 including 
dyers1 drawers1        designers1 and   
all its various branches4--,laborde     
7about #ahjj74  ,in #aggd1 when1 with   
the exception of ,cornelius1 who was    
considered the most skilful of them all1
 the family of the ,van der ,gotens had 
died out1 the direction of the ,santa   
,barbara factory was entrusted to       
several ,spanish artists1 named ,manuel 
,sanchez1 ,antonio ,moreno1 ,toms del   
,castillo1 and ,domingo ,galan4         
,sanchez1 who acted as general          
superintendent of the works1 died in    
#aghf1 and was succeeded in this office 
by his nephew1 ,livinio ,stuck1 whose   
son resumed the directorship in #ahae1  
after the factory had been paralysed by 
the invasion of the ,peninsula1 and     
destroyed by the ,french in #ahjh4      

,since then it has never ceased working1
 and descendants of the ,stucks continue
 to superintend it at the present day4  
,illustration3 ,,xxiii                  
,a ,,promenade ,,in ,,andalusia         
7,cartoon for ,tapestry4 ,by ,goya7     
,the collection of tapestry belonging to
 the ,crown of ,spain is probably the   
finest in the world4 ,as far back as the
 reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella the  
walls of the royal palace were hung with
 decorative textile cloths or paos de   
,ras1 and among the officers in the     
household of their son1 the youthful    
,prince ,don ,juan1 we find included a  
keeper of the tapestry and reposteros4  
,but it was not until the reigns of     
,charles the ,fifth and ,philip the     
,second that the royal collection was   
enriched with numerous sets of          
celebrated tapestries produced in ,italy
 and ,flanders--countries which were    
then subjected to the yoke of ,spain4   
,frequent additions were also made      
throughout the seventeenth and          

eighteenth centuries1 both from abroad  
and subsequently 7when the ,brussels    
industry declined7 from the ,spanish    
factories of ,santa ,isabel and ,santa  
,barbara4  ,as early as the year #afjj a
 ,spaniard wrote enthusiastically of the
 rich and cunning tapestries belonging  
to ,his ,majesty1 to whom it would be   
easier to win a kingdom than to get them
 made anew4#di ,at the present day it is
 impossible to estimate with any        
certainty the number of these           
tapestries1 the greater part of which   
are locked away4 ,only on certain       
festivals1 such as the days of ,corpus  
,christi and the ,candelaria            
7,purification71 a few are unfolded and 
displayed in the upper galleries of the 
palace at ,madrid4 ,their total number  
is believed to be not far short of one  
thousand pieces2#ej but ,seor ,tormo    
calculates that were they no more than  
five hundred1 they would1 if placed end 
to end1 cover more than two miles of    
ground4    #di ,licentiate ,gaspar      

,gutierrez de los ,ros1 ,noticia general
 para la        estimacin de las ,artes 
y de la manera en que se conocen las    
liberales de las que son mecnicas y     
serviles4    #ej ,riao estimates them at
 this number4 ,see his ,report on a     
collection of photographs from          
tapestries of the ,royal ,palace of     
,madrid2 ,london1 #ahge2 and also       
,tapices de la ,corona de ,espaa1       
with #ace plates in phototype1 and text 
by ,count ,valencia de ,don             
,juan2 ,madrid1 ,hauser and ,menet1     
#aijc4  ,among the sets which form this 
wonderful collection1 distributed       
between the palaces of ,madrid1 the     
,prado1 and the ,escorial1 none is of   
greater merit or magnificence than the  
series of twelve cloths depicting the   
,conquest of ,tunis 7,plate xxii471     
designed for ,charles the ,fifth by his 
,court painter1 ,jan ,vermay or         
,vermeyen1 of ,beverwyck1 near ,haarlem1
 and executed by ,william ,pannemaker1  
of ,brussels4 ,it was agreed by         

,pannemaker in #aedi that the materials 
employed upon this tapestry should      
consist of the finest wool1 ,granada    
silk1 and1 for the woof1 the choicest   
,lyons fillet--the very best that money 
could procure4 ,the ,emperor himself was
 to provide the gold and silver thread4 
,accordingly1 ,pannemaker was supplied  
with five hundred and fifty-nine pounds 
and one ounce of silk1 dyed and spun in 
the city of ,granada1 where one of      
,charles' agents resided for two years  
seven months and twenty-five days1 for  
the purpose of superintending its       
preparation4 ,the cost of this silk1    
exclusive of the agent's expenses1      
amounted to #f1fcg florins4 ,nineteen   
colours were employed in the dyeing1    
each colour consisting of from three to 
seven shades1 and a hundred and sixty   
pounds of the finest silk were consumed 
in trying to obtain a special shade of  
blue4  ,after receiving these materials1
 ,pannemaker kept seven workmen         
constantly engaged upon each pao of this

 tapestry1 or eighty-four workmen in    
all4 ,as soon as any one of the pieces  
was concluded1 he submitted it to       
experts who pointed out such details as 
they recommended for correction4 ,the   
entire work required a little more than 
five years1 and was therefore terminated
 in #aeed4 ,the price paid for it was   
twelve florins per ell1 and the number  
of these was #abdf1 representing a total
 cost of #ad1ieb florins1 while         
,pannemaker1 subject to the ,emperor's  
being satisfied with the work1 was      
further promised a yearly pension of a  
hundred florins4#ea    #ea ,mntz1 ,la   
,tapisserie1 pp4 #bag1 #bah4 ,wauters1  
,les ,tapisseries        ,bruxelloises1 
pp4 #gf1 #gg4 ,houdoy1 ,tapisseries     
reprsentant la        ,conqueste du     
,royaulme de ,thunes par l'empereur     
,charles-,quint4  ,equally remarkable   
are the spirited design and the flawless
 execution of this series of elaborate  
cloths1 recalling1 in their swarms of   
armed figures and the lofty point of    

view1 which reduces the sky to a mere   
strip1 the vivacious war and camp       
pictures of ,snyders4 ,the titles of the
 subjects1 forming1 as it were1 a       
pictured epitome of the expedition led  
by ,charles in person against the       
,barbary pirates1 are as follows3 7#a7  
,a map of the ,spanish coast2 7#b7 ,the 
review of the troops at ,barcelona2 7#c7
 ,the landing of the forces2 7#d7 ,a    
skirmish2 7#e7 ,the camp2 7#f7          
,foraging2 7#g7 ,the capture of ,la     
,goleta2 7#h7 ,the battle of ,los       
,pozos1 ,tunis2 7#i7 ,a sortie of the   
besieged2 7#aj7 ,the sack of ,tunis2    
7#aa7 ,the victors returning to the     
harbour2 7#ab7 ,the forces embarking4   
,according to ,mntz1 this tapestry has  
been copied at least on two occasions2  
once in the eighteenth century by ,josse
 de ,vos1 of ,brussels1 and also1 in the
 same century1 in ,spain1 partly at     
,seville1 and partly at the factories of
 ,santa ,isabel and ,santa ,barbara4    
,illustration3 ,,xxiv                   

,,tapestry4 ,,arras ,,work1 ,,from      
,,italian ,,cartoons            7,first 
half of #aeth ,century4 ,zamora         
,cathedral7  ,other most valuable and   
beautiful tapestries belonging to the   
,spanish ,crown are the series titled   
,the ,history of the ,virgin1 believed  
to be from cartoons by ,van ,eyk1 ,the  
,passion1 from cartoons attributed to   
,van der ,weyden1 the ,history of ,david
 and ,history of ,saint ,john the       
,baptist1 the ,mass of ,saint ,gregory1 
and the ,founding of ,rome4 ,all of     
these series date from the fifteenth    
century and early in the sixteenth4     
,belonging to a later period are the    
reproductions of rustic scenes and      
hunting subjects by ,teniers and others1
 executed in ,spain between #agba and   
#agbd1 the ,scenes from ,don ,quixote1  
made at ,santa ,barbara from            
,procaccini's cartoons1 and the         
eminently national series produced at   
the same factory from designs by        
,francisco ,goya y ,lucientes4 ,this    

latter group amounts to several dozen   
pieces1 including the well-known ,blind 
,man's ,buff1 ,a ,promenade in          
,andalusia 7,plate xxiii471 ,the        
,crockery-seller1 ,the ,grape-,gatherers
 7,frontispiece71 and other spirited and
 charming scenes of popular ,spanish    
life--tout cela1 as ,lefort describes   
it1 spirituel1 vif1 pittoresque1 trs    
mouvement1 bien group1 s'levant sur des 
fonds champtres ou baignant gaiement en 
pleine lumire4  ,other tapestry         
collections of great merit belong to the
 cathedrals of ,burgos1 ,zamora 7where  
they line the walls of the ,sacristy2   
,plate xxiv471 ,zaragoza1 ,toledo1      
,tarragona1 and ,santiago4 ,the first of
 these temples possesses the following  
sets1 which are displayed to decorate   
the cloisters on the feast of ,corpus   
,christi3--                7#a7 ,the    
,history of ,cleopatra and ,mark        
,antony4              7#b7 ,the ,history
 of ,david4              7#c7 ,the      
,creation4              7#d7 ,an        

,historical ,subject4              7#e7 
,the ,theological and ,cardinal         
,virtues4              7#f7 ,a series of
 five ,gothic tapestries1 which         
represent some                  mystery 
or allegory1 and seem to be of ,flemish 
manufacture4 ,one other pao1 of a       
similar character1                      
accompanies them4  ,all but the last of 
the above sets are marked with two ,b's 
separated by a shield1 denoting         
,brussels workmanship4 ,the ,theological
 and ,cardinal ,virtues were presented  
to the cathedral about the end of the   
sixteenth century4 ,they are evidently  
executed from ,italian cartoons1 and the
 haute-lisse craftsman who made them1 in
 or towards the year #aega1 was named   
,francis ,greubels4#eb    #eb ,see an   
article on these tapestries by ,seor    
,lamperez y ,romea1        published in 
,no4 #ee of the ,boletn de la ,sociedad 
,espaola de        ,excursiones2 and    
also ,nos4 #aef and #aeg of the same    
publication1        for an article on   

the ,crown and other ,spanish           
collections1 by        ,elas ,tormo y   
,monz4                                  
,illustration3 ,,xxv                    
,,flemish ,,tapestry   7,late #aeth     
,century4 ,collection of the late ,count
 of ,valencia de ,don                   
,juan7  ,the tapestries which belong to 
the cathedral of ,zaragoza number some  
sixty or seventy pieces1 including a    
series 7fifteenth century7 representing 
,the ,life of ,saint ,john the ,baptist1
 from designs by ,lucas of ,holland4    
,good tapestries were also the property 
of ,valencia cathedral1 but have been   
dispersed and sold in recent years4 ,the
 convent of the ,descalzas ,reales at   
,madrid possesses a set from designs by 
,rubens4 ,ten pieces of this series     
formerly belonged to the ,count-,duke of
 ,olivares1 who sent them to his town of
 ,loeches2 four passing subsequently to 
the ,duke of ,westminster's collection4 
,the small though valuable collection   
formed by the late ,count of ,valencia  

de ,don ,juan 7,plate xxv471 passed at  
this nobleman's death to his daughter1  
,seora de ,osma1 who has presented part 
of it to the ,archological ,museum at   
,madrid4 ,another collector resident in 
,spain1 ,mons4 ,mersmann1 of ,granada1  
possesses a series of fine ,brussels    
cloths representing scenes from ,don    
,quixote1 by ,van den ,hecke4           
,,lace  ,although the ,spaniards have   
enjoyed1 and still enjoy1 a widespread  
fame for lace-making1 their written     
records of this craft are unsubstantial4
 ,originally1 perhaps1 they borrowed it 
from the ,arabs or ,venetians4          
,certainly1 the earliest ,spanish lace  
was such as is made with a needle1 that 
is1 point1 not pillow lace4 ,in this    
form1  la aguja1 and in the sixteenth   
century1 the ,spaniards possibly        
conveyed the secrets of its manufacture 
to the ,netherlands1 receiving from the 
natives of this country1 in exchange1   
the art of making lace by means of      
bobbins1 including the characteristic   

,flemish net1 or red flands4  ,towards  
the sixteenth century the parts of      
,spain where lace was manufactured in   
the largest quantity were some of the   
,manchegan towns and villages1 the coast
 of ,finisterre1 and nearly the whole of
 ,catalua4 ,in ,la ,mancha lace was     
made1 and still is so1 at ,manzanares1  
,granatula1 ,almagro1 and other places4 
,that of ,almagro 7the celebrated punto 
de ,almagro1 resembling the lace of     
,catalua71 is mentioned by nearly all   
the older travellers4 ,in ,don ,quixote1
 ,teresa writes to ,sancho ,panza that  
their daughter ,sanchita was engaged in 
making bobbin-lace at a daily wage of   
eight sueldos4                          
,illustration3 ,,xxvi                   
,,the ,,marchioness ,,of ,,la ,,solana  
7,by ,goya7  ,in #ahgg1 at the          
,exhibition of ,sumptuary ,arts which   
was held in ,barcelona1 a magnificent   
lace toca was shown1 which was affirmed 
by its possessor1 ,seor ,parcerisa1 to  
be the work of a ,spaniard of the later 

part of the fifteenth century1 and to   
have belonged to ,isabella the          
,catholic4 ,the cathedral of the same   
city owns three thread-lace albs of     
sixteenth century workmanship1 and the  
,south ,kensington ,museum other pieces 
of ,spanish lace of a comparatively     
early date1 probably made by nuns and   
subtracted from the convents during the 
stormy scenes of #ahce4  ,dating from   
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1
 we have a number of notices1 though    
scrappy and inexplicit as a rule1       
relating to ,spanish lace4 ,one of the  
more complete and interesting is quoted 
by ,riao from the ,microcosmia y        
,gobierno ,universal del ,hombre        
,cristiano 7,barcelona1 #aeib7 of       
,father ,marcos ,antonio de ,campos4 ,i 
will not be silent1 wrote this austere  
padre1 and fail to mention the time lost
 these last years in the manufacture of 
cadenetas1 a work of thread combined    
with gold and silver2 this extravagance 
and excess reached such a point that    

#ajj and #ajjj ducats were spent in this
 work1 in which1 besides destroying the 
eyesight1 wasting away the lives1 and   
rendering consumptive the women who     
worked it1 and preventing them from     
spending their time with more advantage 
to their souls1 a few ounces of thread  
and years of time were wasted with so   
unsatisfactory a result4 ,i ask myself1 
after this fancy shall have passed away1
 will the lady or gentleman find that   
the chemises that cost them #ej ducats1 
or the basquia 7petticoat7 that cost    
them #cjj1 are worth half their price1  
which certainly is the case with other  
objects in which the material itself is 
worth more8                             
,illustration3 ,,xxvii                  
,a ,,spanish ,,maja                     
7,a4,d4 #aggg7  ,several of the other   
notices relating to the lace-makers'    
craft are from the pen of ,countess     
d',aulnoy4 ,of the ,countess of ,lemos  
this writer says3 ,her hair was white1  
but she carefully concealed it beneath a

 black blonde2 and of another ,spanish  
lady1 ,doa ,leonor de ,toledo1 that she 
wore a green velvet skirt trimmed with  
,spanish blonde4 ,in the apartments of  
the young ,princess of ,montelen the    
countess saw a bed of green and gold    
damask1 decorated with silver brocade   
and ,spanish blonde4 ,the sheets were   
fringed with ,english point-lace1       
extremely broad and handsome4 ,the      
countess also says that the petticoats  
of the ,spanish ladies were of ,english 
point-lace1#ec and that these ladies1   
when they visited each other1 wore on   
their heads a toca of the richest       
,english black point-lace1 half a yard  
broad1 forming points like the antique  
laces1 beautiful to look at1 and very   
dear4 ,this head-dress suits them       
rarely4    #ec ,upon the other hand1 a  
notice dated #aefb says that at that    
time        ,spanish-made black lace was
 largely used at the ,court of ,england4
  ,according to ,balsa de la ,vega1     
whose interesting articles on ,spanish  

lace 7published in the newspaper ,el    
,liberal7 are worth perusal by all who  
are interested in this craft1 about the 
middle of the seventeenth century the   
custom originated in ,spain of making   
lace in broader pieces1 dividing the    
pattern into a number of strips or fajas
 which were subsequently sewn together4 
,in ,belgium1 on the contrary1 the      
design was cut out1 following the       
contour of the floral or other          
decoration4  ,in former ages gold and   
silver lace was made in ,france1 and    
also at ,genoa4 ,i think it possible    
that ,genoese merchants1 many of whom   
are known to have settled in ,granada   
and other ,spanish cities1 may first    
have introduced this branch of          
lace-making among the ,spaniards4 ,the  
sumptuary laws of ,aragon1 ,castile1    
,len1 and ,navarre would seem to show   
that lace of these materials1 known as  
punto or redecilla de oro 7or plata7 was
 manufactured by the ,spanish ,jews     
between the twelfth and fifteenth       

centuries4 ,during the seventeenth      
century and part of the eighteenth1 the 
quantity produced in the ,peninsula was 
very large4 ,in his ,fenix de ,catalua1 
a work which was published at ,barcelona
 in #afhc1 ,feliu de la ,pea says that  
,spanish randa or rseuil1 of gold and   
silver1 silk1 thread1 and aloe fibre1   
was better made in ,spain than in the   
,netherlands4 ,the journal of ,bertaut  
de ,rouen contains the following notice 
of this silver lace3 ,le ,roy y envoya  
le ,lieutenant du ,maistre des ,postes1 
avec huit postillons1 couverts de       
clinquant1 et quarante chevaux de poste1
 dont il y en avoit huit avec des selles
 et des brides du ,roy o il y avoit de  
la dentelle d'argent1 que ,monsieur le  
,mareschal fit distribuer  environ      
autant de gens que nous estions1 sur une
 liste qu'il avoit envoye quelques jours
 auparavant4                            
,illustration3 ,,xxviii                 
,a ,,maja                               
7,by ,goya7  ,it is impossible to       

mention ,spanish lace without recalling 
that most graceful article of headwear1 
the mantilla1 the use of which is       
gradually dying out4 ,at present we     
understand by this word a black or white
 head-covering of lace alone 7the white 
being more conspicuous and dressy71 but 
about a hundred years ago the mantilla  
was made of a variety of fabrics4 ,also1
 it was worn in an easier and more      
neglig manner than nowadays1 retaining a
 closer likeness to the velo or manto   
with which the ,spanish women of the    
seventeenth century were able1 at their 
pleasure1 to completely mask their faces
 7,plates xxvi4 and xxvii474 ,indeed1 as
 late as the early part of the          
nineteenth century the mantilla was     
sometimes thrown over the face 7,plates 
xxviii4 and xxix474 ,the same usage is  
referred to by ,townsend1 who describes 
the mantilla as serving the double      
purpose of a cloak and veil4#ed ,to-day 
it is worn1 not hanging loose and open1 
but a good deal bunched up at the bosom4

 ,the hair1 too1 is dressed to an       
unusual height1 with a tall comb1 and   
over this the delicate lace covering    
should droop a little to one side4 ,a   
flower or two 7roses or carnations by   
preference7 may be worn at one side of  
the head1 and where the mantilla is     
caught up at the breast4    #ed ,pour   
les femmes1 elles ne sortent point      
qu'emmanteles d'une mante        noire  
comme le deil des dames de ,france1 et  
elles ne se montrent        qu'un oeuil1
 et vont cherchant et agaant les hommes 
avec tant        d'effronterie1 qu'elles
 tiennent  affront quand on ne veut pas 
aller plus loin que la                  
conversation4--,bertaut de ,rouen2      
,journal        du ,voyage d',espagne1  
p4 #bid4  ,the manuscript account of    
,spanish costumes early in the          
nineteenth century1 and which is        
prefixed to my copy of ,pigal's coloured
 lithographs1 contains some excellent   
descriptions of the older ,spanish      
mantilla4 ,we learn1 for instance1 that 

at ,palma the women of the well-to-do   
middle class wore a mantilla of black   
taffeta1 trimmed with blonde 7,plate    
xviii474#ee ,in ,la ,mancha1 and among  
the peasants1 it was of white muslin2 at
 ,cordova1 in cold weather1 en flanelle 
ou en bayette fine3 elle est garnie de  
rubans  l'extrmit desquels il y a deux  
gros noeuds3 en t elle est en           
mousseline4 ,the small mantilla or      
mantellina of the wife of the smuggler  
of ,tarifa was en flanelle blanche1 ou  
noire1 ou rose1 brode d'un ruban3 elle  
en fait trs souvent un usage diffrent   
des autres femmes espagnoles1 car au    
lieu de la mettre sur la tte attachs    
avec des pingles1 elle s'en sert de     
schal3 quelque fois elle la met en      
baudrier laissant flotter derrire elle  
les deux extrmits qui sont ornes d'un   
noeud en ruban4 ,the servant-girl of    
,madrid wore a white mantilla in summer1
 and a black one in winter4 ,the same   
author describes in greater detail the  
mantillas of the fine ladies4 ,la       

mantille et la basquigne1 he says1 voila
 de quoi se compose principalement le   
costume du beau sexe en ,espagne4 ,ce   
costume1 quoique national1 est          
susceptible de recevoir aussi bien que  
tout autre les divers degrs de luxe que 
les femmes d'une riche classe et celles 
du plus haut rang peuvent apporter dans 
leur parure3 la classe la moins aise    
porte la mantille en laine noire ou     
blanche et la basquigne en serge ou     
autre toffe de laine noire4 ,pendant le 
jour1 lorsque les dames espagnoles se   
prsentent en public1 c'est toujours avec
 la mantille et la basquigne1 mais le   
soir si elles vont au spectacle ou      
ailleurs1 elles sortent trs souvent     
habilles  la franaise4    #ee ,blonde1  
,i need hardly state1 is silk-lace4 ,it 
can always be        distinguished by   
the glossy surface4                     
,illustration3 ,,xxix                   
,a ,,lady ,,of ,,soria                  
7,about ,a4,d4 #ahaj7  ,elsewhere he    
says3 ,nous avons dj dit qu'un simple   

ruban1 un peigne1 ou une fleur1 est la  
coiffure adopte par les dames           
espagnoles1 pour faire usage de la      
mantille3 celle-ci est dans l'hiver     
quelquefois en serge de soie1 taffetas1 
etc41 noir1 garnie en outre de blondes1 
ou d'un large ruban de velours noir en  
chiquier 7cinta de terciopelo  tablero71
 mais ce ruban est toujours noir4 ,il y 
eut un temps o la mode1 qui ne fut pas  
de longue dure1 prescrivait que les     
bouts de la mantille se terminassent en 
trois pointes ornes chacune d'une houppe
 7borla7 noire1 ou d'un lacet de ruban  
noir4 ,jamais les mantilles ne sont     
doubles4  ,the same author remarks of   
the lady of ,madrid2 ,la mantille de    
tulle brod ne se porte que dans la belle
 saison 444 elle ne dpasse jamais la    
ceinture#ef2 and of the lady of         
,granada3 si la mantille est blanche1   
elle est en tulle parsem de petits      
bouquets et garnie de larges et riches  
dentelles4 ,si elle est noire1 comme    
cela arrive plus ordinairement1 elle est

 alors en blonde3 il y a de ces         
mantilles qui coutent cinq cent1 mille1 
et jusqu' deux mille francs4    #ef     
,this is incorrect4 ,it was sometimes   
worn longer4                            
,illustration3 ,,xxx                    
,,handkerchief ,,of ,,catalan ,,lace    
7,presented to ,queen ,victoria of      
,spain1 on her marriage7  ,a good deal  
of lace1 principally of the less        
elaborate and cheaper kinds1 was        
formerly manufactured in the kingdom of 
,valencia4 ,cabanillas wrote in #agig   
that at ,novelda1 a small town of this  
region1 more than two thousand women and
 children worked at making laces1 which 
were hawked about the country by others 
of the townspeople4 ,swinburne remarks  
upon the same industry1 and ,ricord     
tells us in his pamphlet 7#agia7 that   
cotton lace was made in six factories at
 ,torrente1 ,alicante1 and ,orihuela4#eg
 ,the total product of these factories  
for the said year was #a1fcf1ajj yards1 
which sold at from nine to twelve reales

 the yard4 ,laborde wrote some years    
later1 in the first volume of his book1 
that lace1 and gold and silver fringes  
were then made at ,valencia1 and in the 
fourth volume2 ,gold and silver laced   
stuffs1 and velvets of all colours      
brocaded and flowered with the same     
metals1 are made at ,toledo1 ,barcelona1
 ,valencia1 and ,talavera de la ,reina2 
and the manufacture at the last-named   
city annually consumes four thousand    
marks of silver1 and seventy marks of   
gold4    #eg ,a letter from ,vargas y   
,ponce to ,cean ,bermudez1 dated #agig1 
says        that in this year there     
existed at ,murcia a school for making  
blondes1 owned by one ,castilla4 ,he    
does good work1 teaches well1        and
 has executed blondes for the ,queen1   
which are well spoken of4  ,at          
,barcelona1 ,talavera de la ,reina1 and 
,valencia are also manufactured gold and
 silver edgings1 lace1 and fringes1     
though not in a sufficient quantity to  
answer the demands of ,spain2 and the   

gold is very badly prepared1 having too 
red a cast4  ,lace-making was an ancient
 and important industry of every part of
 ,catalua4 ,lace articles for ladies'   
headwear are known to have been made    
throughout this region at least as far  
back as the fifteenth century1 and      
,capmany reminds us that by a cedula    
dated from the ,cortes of ,monzn1       
,december #afth1 #aech1 the ,emperor    
,charles the ,fifth confirmed the       
,ordinances of the guild1 established   
long before1 of the tejedores de velos  
of ,barcelona4 ,technical provisions are
 embodied in this code1 concerning      
various articles of lace employed as    
headwear1 such as alfardillas1 quiales1 
and espumilla1 all of which were largely
 exported to ,america4  ,the attention  
of foreigners who travelled in ,catalua 
towards the eighteenth century was      
constantly attracted by the lace-makers4
 ,swinburne mentions ,martorell1 a large
 town1 where much black lace is         
manufactured1 and ,espalungera          

7,esparraguera871 a long village1 full  
of cloth and lace manufacturers1 and    
wrote of ,sarri and its surroundings1   
close to ,barcelona3 ,the women in the  
little hamlets were busy with their     
bobbins making black lace1 some of      
which1 of the coarser kind1 is spun out 
of the leaf of the aloe4 ,it is curious1
 but of little use1 for it grows        
mucilaginous with washing4              
,illustration3 ,,xxxi                   
,,curtain ,,of ,,spanish ,,lace         
7,point and ,pillow ,work4 ,modern7     
,martorell1 wrote ,townsend in #aghf1 is
 one long1 narrow street1 in which      
poverty1 industry1 and filth1 although  
seldom seen together1 have agreed to    
take up their abode4 ,the inhabitants   
make lace1 and even the little children 
of three and four years old are engaged 
in this employment4 ,laborde wrote that 
at the beginning of the eighteenth      
century seventeen manufactories of      
blondes were established at ,matar1 and 
adds of ,barcelona province generally at

 that time3 ,laces and blondes          
constitute the employment of women and  
children4 ,the work is principally done 
at ,pineda1 ,malgrat1 ,san ,celoni1     
,tosa1 ,canet1 ,arenys1 ,callela1       
,san-,pol1 ,matar1 ,esparraguera1       
,martorell1 and ,barcelona4444 ,the     
laces are almost all shipped for the    
,new ,world4  ,the most observant and   
most entertaining of all these tourists 
was ,arthur ,young1 who wrote1 in #aghg1
 of the towns upon the coast of         
,catalua3 ,the appearance of industry is
 as great as it can be3 great numbers of
 fishing-boats and nets1 with rows of   
good white houses on the sea-side2 and  
while the men are active in their       
fisheries1 the women are equally busy   
making lace4 ,of ,matar he says3 ,it    
appears exceedingly industrious2 some   
stocking-frames2 lace-makers at every   
door4444 ,i am sorry to add that here   
also the industry of catching lice in   
each other's heads is well understood4  
,pass ,arrengs 7,arenys71 a large town  

444 making thread lace universal here4  
,they have thread from ,france2 women   
earn ten to sixteen sous at it4 ,great  
industry1 and in consequence a          
flourishing appearance4 ,canet1 another 
large town1 employed also in            
ship-building1 fishing1 and making      
lace4444 ,pass ,malgrat1 which is not so
 well built as the other towns1 but much
 lace made in it4444 ,reach ,figueras1  
whose inhabitants seem industrious and  
active4 ,they make lace1 cordage1 and   
mats1 and have many potteries of a      
common sort4#eh    #eh ,tour in         
,catalonia in #aghg2 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #fdd1
 etc4  ,lace-making prevails to-day all 
through this region of north-eastern    
,spain1 particularly in the strip or    
zone of it including the valley of the  
,llobregat as far as ,martorell1 and    
which extends from ,palams to           
,barcelona4 ,the towns which produce the
 greatest quantities of lace are ,arenys
 de ,mar1 ,malgrat1 ,san ,pol1 ,canet1  
and ,arenys de ,munt4 ,in the last of   

these places an important ,regional     
,exhibition of ,lace was held in ,july  
of last year1 the number of exhibitors  
amounting to one hundred and            
twenty-five4 ,due to the increasing     
production of underlinen and woven      
fabrics generally1 or to other causes1  
lace-making has declined at ,blanes1    
,pineda1 ,calella1 and one or two other 
places4 ,at ,san ,celoni1 ,vallgorguina1
 ,san ,vicente1 ,san ,andrs de          
,llevaneras1 ,argentona1 ,caldeta1 and  
,san ,acisclo de ,vilalta1 lace is made 
by women who combine this work with     
dirtier and rougher labour in the field4
 ,most of the lace made in these towns  
is therefore black4                     
,illustration3 ,,xxxii                  
,,point ,,lace ,,fan1 ,,of ,,mudejar    
,,design                                
7,modern7  ,in the spring of last year1 
an elaborate lace pocket-handkerchief   
7,plate xxx471 designed by ,seor        
,riquer1 and executed in a traditional  
style of ,catalua1 denominated locally  

the ret ,catal1 was made in the         
old-established lace-factory of the     
widow of ,mariano ,castells in the town 
of ,arenys de ,mar1 and offered by the  
,agricultural ,institute of ,san ,isidro
 as a wedding-present to ,princess ,ena 
of ,battenberg4 ,two encajeras worked at
 this handkerchief under the personal   
direction of the widow ,castells1 and   
the time employed by them in making it  
was two months4  ,plate xxxi4 represents
 a small portion of a very original and 
beautiful lace curtain1 ten feet high1  
designed by ,seor ,aguado1 and executed1
 partly by ,seorita ,pilar ,huguet 7who 
superintended the work throughout71 and 
partly by seventeen of this lady's      
pupils1 at the ,school of ,arts and     
,industries1 ,toledo4 ,although it is a 
hackneyed trope to declare that the     
ornamentation of the ,spanish-,moors1   
whether in ivory1 wood or metal1 stone  
or plaster1 was delicate enough to seem 
of lacework1 ,i believe this to be the  
first occasion when such intricate and  

graceful motives have been actually     
reproduced in lace4 ,the result of the  
experiment has proved surprisingly      
effective4 ,the design is               
,spanish-,arabic in its purest form1    
recalling various arabesques upon the   
walls of the ,alhambra1 and includes    
thirty-three medallions which constitute
 the principal decorative scheme1 a     
hundred and forty-eight palms or        
alharacas1 and the ,arabic expression   
,god is all-powerful1 repeated sixty-six
 times4 ,the centre of the curtain      
consists in all of four hundred and     
forty-eight pieces4 ,the broad cenefa or
 bordering1 which runs right round the  
whole1 contains1 in ,arabic1 the        
following inscription3 ,this curtain was
 begun in the curso 7course or series of
 classes7 of the year #aijc-aijd1 and   
terminated in the curso following1      
7,art7 ,school of ,toledo4 ,the style   
adopted throughout is that of ,brussels1
 known erroneously as ,english point1   
although upon a coarser scale than is   

considered to be proper to this lace1   
the ground being executed by the needle1
 or in point-work1 and the rest by      
bobbins4  ,plate xxxii4 represents a    
covering for a fan1 also executed by    
,seorita ,huguet1 and also in the       
,brussels style4 ,the design is a       
combination of ,mudejar motives1 such as
 conventional foliage and geometrical   
bordering1 with a ,spanish scutcheon and
 the double-headed eagle of the ,emperor
 ,charles the ,fifth4  ,at the present  
day1 and largely owing to the initiative
 and the skilled tuition of ,seor       
,salvi1 excellent lace is manufactured  
at ,madrid1 including                   
reproductions--which have been generally
 admired in ,great ,britain and         
elsewhere--of the finest point or bobbin
 work of ,malines1 ,manchester1 and     
,venice4                                
,appendices                             
,,appendix ,a                    ,,the  
,,legend ,,of ,,san ,,miguel ,,in       
,,excelsis   ,towards the year ,a4,d4   

#gjg1 when ,witiza was king of ,spain1  
there dwelt at the castle of ,goi1 not  
far from the city of ,pamplona in       
,navarre1 a cavalier named ,don         
,theodosio1 whose wife1 ,doa ,constanza 
de ,viandra1 was a lady of remarkable   
beauty4 ,on one occasion ,don ,theodosio
 found himself obliged to quit his      
native country for a time1 in order to  
command a military expedition against   
the ,berbers1 and before his departure  
he begged his father and mother to cheer
 his wife's loneliness while he should  
be away1 by taking up their residence at
 his castle4 ,they came accordingly1 and
 as a special mark of honour to the     
parents of her lord1 ,doa ,constanza    
gave up to them her own chamber1        
together with the nuptial couch4 ,after 
a time1 when ,theodosio's enterprise was
 concluded1 and the warrior1 safe and   
sound1 was returning to ,navarre1 the   
,devil1 disguised as a hermit1 one      
evening lay in wait for him at a spot   
called ,errotavidea1 situated at a few  

miles' distance from ,goi castle1 in the
 wooded and romantic valley of the      
,ollo4 ,stepping up to the cavalier's   
side1 ,satan assured him1 in a tone of  
smooth hypocrisy1 that during his       
absence the lady ,constanza had been    
seduced by one of ,theodosio's own      
servants4 ,upon the knight's demanding  
proof1 proceed1 replied the ,devil1 to  
your castle1 enter your nuptial chamber1
 and there you will find your consort in
 the very arms of her paramour4 ,frantic
 with apprehension1 the warrior spurred 
home1 broke into his chamber at the dead
 of night1 and1 passing his hand over   
the bed1 encountered1 as ,satan had     
malignantly foretold1 two bodies2       
whereupon he drew his sword and1 in this
 moment of fatal and irreflective haste1
 murdered his own father and mother4    
,then1 just as he was rushing from the  
room1 he met1 carrying a lighted lamp1  
the lady ,constanza herself1 returning  
from the chapel in which1 as was her    
custom every night1 she had been praying

 for his safe return4  ,smitten with    
deep repentance for the crime1 whose    
enormity had been discovered by the     
impetuous lord in so dramatic and       
dreadful a fashion1 ,theodosio journeyed
 to ,rome1 and related what had happened
 to the ,pope1 who sentenced him to wear
 a heavy iron collar round his neck1 and
 chains about his body1 and to wander1  
in a state of rigorous penance1 through 
the loneliest regions of ,navarre1      
without setting foot in any town1 until1
 as a sign that divine justice was      
satisfied1 the chains should fall from  
off him4 ,wherever this should come to  
pass1 he was instructed to build a      
temple in honour of the archangel       
,michael4  ,the sentence was patiently  
performed1 and ,theodosio had spent some
 years in solitary wandering1 when on a 
day a single link dropped from his      
ponderous chains4 ,this happened on the 
top of a high mountain called ,ayedo1 in
 the ,sierra de ,anda1 and accordingly  
the penitent erected on the spot a      

simple fane in the archangel's honour1  
known by the name of ,san ,miguel de    
,ayedo1 and which1 in the form of a     
little hermitage1 still exists4  ,this  
proof of heavenly grace presaged a      
further and a more complete deliverance4
 ,when ,theodosio's wandering had lasted
 seven years1 he reached one day the    
summit of ,mount ,aralar1 at two        
leagues' distance from his own castle1  
and was there met by a ferocious dragon 
of appalling size4 ,being1 as a         
penitent1 unarmed1 as well as encumbered
 by his massive chains1 the miserable   
man fell helpless to his knees1 and     
called to ,god to succour him4 ,the     
prayer was heard4 ,suddenly the form of 
his patron the archangel flashed out    
against the sky1 the dragon fell dead1  
and all of ,theodosio's chains were     
shattered1 and dropped from him4 ,here1 
therefore1 he built another and a larger
 temple in honour of his guardian1 and1 
accompanied by ,doa ,constanza1 passed  
the remainder of his life in peaceful   

and secluded piety4  ,the castle of     
,goi1 which was also called ,saint      
,michael's palace1 and the palace of the
 cavalier to whom ,saint ,michael       
revealed himself1 was standing as late  
as the year #afhe1 but1 according to    
,padre ,burgui1 by the close of another 
century the walls were crumbling fast4  
,until about the year #agae there also  
stood an ancient wooden cross to mark   
the spot where ,satan1 in a hermit's    
garb1 had appeared to ,don ,theodosio4  
,,appendix ,b                           
,,jet-,,work ,,of ,,santiago  ,in former
 times the art of carving jet was       
largely practised at this town4 ,the    
characteristic form was the signaculum  
or image of ,saint ,james2 that is1 a   
more or less uncouth representation of  
the apostle in full pilgrim's dress4    
,the height of these images1 which are  
now dispersed all over ,europe1 varies  
between four and seven inches4 ,they are
 fully described in ,drury ,fortnum's   
monographs1 ,on a signaculum of ,saint  

,james of ,compostela1 and ,notes on    
other signacula of ,saint ,james of     
,compostela1 as well as in ,villa-amil y
 ,castro's ,la azabachera compostelana4 
,these objects were sold in quantities  
to the pilgrims visiting ,santiago1 who 
nevertheless were often cheated by the  
substitution of black glass for jet4#ei 
#ei ,the following passage from         
,townsend's ,journey through ,spain     
7,vol4        ,,ii41 p4 #ef71 is curious
 as showing where jet was formerly found
 in        this ,peninsula4 ,when ,i    
returned to ,oviedo1 a gentleman gave me
 a        collection of amber and of    
jet1 of which there is great abundance  
in this province3 but the two most      
considerable mines of it are in         
the territory of ,beloncia1 one in a    
valley called ,las ,guerrias1 the       
other on the side of a high mountain in 
the village of ,arenas1 in        the   
parish of ,val de ,soto4 ,the former is 
found in slate1 and looks        like   
wood3 but when broke1 the nodules       

discover a white crust1        inclosing
 yellow amber1 bright and transparent4  
,jet and a species        of kennel     
coal1 abounding with marcasites1        
universally accompany        the amber4 
,specimens of this work are in the      
,british and ,cluny ,museums1 and in the
 ,archological ,museum at ,madrid4 ,an  
interesting jet figure of the apostle on
 horseback belonged to the late ,count  
of ,valencia de ,don ,juan4 ,jet        
processional crosses 7twelfth and       
thirteenth century71 studded with       
enamel1 and which were used at funerals1
 are preserved in the cathedrals of     
,oviedo and ,orense4 ,rings1 rosaries1  
and amulets were also carved from this  
material4  ,as to ,spanish processional 
crosses generally 7the use of which was 
undoubtedly borrowed from the standard  
borne at the head of pagan armies71 ,i  
may say that they are commonly fitted   
with a handle1 called the cruz baja or  
lower cross1 though sometimes this      
handle is dispensed with1 as1 for       

instance1 at the funerals of infants4   
,according to ,villa-amil y ,castro1 the
 typical shape of the ,spanish          
processional cross has always been that 
denominated the immissa1 consisting of  
four arms terminating in straight edges4
 ,the same authority says that within   
this broader definition the primitive   
form was the ,greek cross1 that is1     
having four arms of equal length4       
,another early form was the ,oviedo     
cross 7see ,vol4 ,i41 ,plate ,,ii471    
with the four arms in the shape of      
trapezia1 united at the centre by a     
disc4 ,of this latter shape are1 or     
were1 the crosses of ,guarrazar and     
those which were presented by ,alfonso  
the ,second and ,alfonso the ,third to  
the cathedrals of ,oviedo and ,santiago4
  ,a later form was the potenzada cross1
 which had a cross-piece fixed at the   
extremity of each arm4 ,as time         
advanced1 this ,t-shaped termination to 
the arms assumed such decorative and    
capricious forms as the trefoil and the 

fleur-de-lis4 ,early in the history of  
the ,spanish church the processional    
cross consisted often of a wooden core1 
covered with more or less profusely     
ornamented silver plates1 and having1   
between the handle and the upper part1  
an enamelled bulb or noeud4 ,the image  
of ,christ1 converting the cross into   
the crucifix1 was not attached until a  
later period1 because1 as ,villa-amil y 
,castro has remarked1 the primitive     
,christians considered the essential    
glory of their faith1 rather than1 as   
yet1 the perils and the pains to which  
they were exposed by clinging to that   
faith4 ,the cross was thus the symbol of
 the ,christian's glory2 the crucifix1  
of his suffering4#fj    #fj ,as for the 
clothing of sacred images in ,spain1    
even these are        subject to changes
 in the fashion of costume4 ,ford makes 
merry over        the ,saviour in a     
court-dress1 with wig and breeches4     
,swinburne        wrote in #agge1 from  
,alicante3 ,we have been all the morning

 in        great uneasiness about ,sir  
,t4 ,g4's valet de chambre1 who1 till   
within this hour1 was not to be found in
 any of the places he        usually    
frequents4 ,his appearance has quieted  
our apprehensions2        and it seems  
he has been from sunrise till           
dinner-time locked up        in the     
sacristy of the great church1 curling   
and frizzling the        flaxen periwig 
of the statue of the ,virgin1 who is    
to-morrow to be        carried in solemn
 procession through the city4         ,a
 similar passage occurs in one of the   
letters of ,lady ,mary ,wortley         
,montagu4 ,i was particularly diverted1 
she wrote from ,nuremberg in            
#agaf1 in a little ,roman ,catholic     
church which is permitted here1         
where the professors of that religion   
are not very rich1 and                  
consequently cannot adorn their images  
in so rich a manner as their            
neighbours4 ,for1 not to be quite       
destitute of all finery1 they have      

dressed up an image of our ,saviour over
 the altar in a fair1                   
full-bottomed wig1 very well powdered4  
,,appendix ,c           ,,description   
,,of ,,the ,,custodias ,,of ,,seville   
,,and ,,cordova  ,the custodia of       
,seville cathedral is described by its  
author1 ,juan de ,arfe1 in the following
 terms3--  ,the shape is circular1 with 
projecting friezes and bases4 ,the      
custodia is four yards high1 and is     
divided into four orders of symmetrical 
proportions1 the second order being     
smaller by two-fifths than the first1   
the third smaller by the same fraction  
than the second1 and the fourth than the
 third4 ,each order rests upon          
four-and-twenty columns1 twelve of which
 are of a larger size1 and wrought in   
relief4 ,the other and the smaller      
twelve are striated1 and serve as       
imposts to the arches4 ,all these orders
 are of open work1 containing twelve    
vistas 7prospects7 apiece4 ,six are of  
full dimensions1 and the other six      

spring from half-way up the larger ones1
 as is shown in the appended design1    
which ,i will not explain further1 as   
the proportion and harmony can be judged
 of from the plan 7see ,vol4 ,i41 ,plate
 xvii474                                
,,first ,,order  ,the first order is in 
the ,ionic style4 ,the columns and      
frieze are adorned with vines containing
 fruits and foliage1 and some figures of
 children holding spikes of wheat1 to   
signify bread and wine4 ,in the centre  
of this1 the largest order1 is ,faith1  
represented by the figure of a queen1   
seated on a throne1 holding in her right
 hand a chalice with the host1 and in   
the other a standard such as is seen in 
certain ancient medals of the emperors  
,constantine and ,theodosius4 ,beneath  
her feet is a world1 and behind her1    
overthrown and bound with chains1 a     
monster with the face of a beautiful    
woman and the trunk or body of a dragon1
 to represent ,heresy1 which seems to   
attract by pleasantness of shape1 being 

at bottom poison and deceit4  ,at one   
side is the figure of a youth with      
wings1 and a bandage over his eyes1     
representing ,intelligence4 ,his hands  
are shackled1 and he is kneeling1 as one
 that surrenders himself captive to     
,faith in all her mysteries1 and        
particularly in this one4               
,corresponding to this figure1 on the   
opposite side1 is that of a beautiful   
woman1 likewise kneeling1 crossing her  
hands before her breast1 and holding a  
book1 to represent ,human ,wisdom1 which
 acknowledges the majesty of the        
,catholic ,faith1 and is subservient    
thereto4  ,on the right hand of ,faith  
is ,saint ,peter1 seated1 holding his   
keys on high1 and on her left ,saint    
,paul1 with naked sword1 that is1 the   
preaching of the word of ,god4 ,high up1
 about the spring of the vault1 is the  
figure of the ,holy ,spirit1 assistant  
in the church4  ,between the six        
asientos of the base are the four       
doctors of the ,church1 together with   

,saint ,thomas and ,pope ,urban the     
,fourth1 who instituted the festival of 
the ,holy ,sacrament4  ,all these       
figures are half a yard in height2 that 
is1 one half the height of the larger   
columns belonging to this order4  ,in   
the six niches that are between the     
arches1 are the figures of six          
,sacraments1 in this wise3--  7#a7      
,baptism1 represented by the figure of a
 youth holding in one hand a bunch of   
lilies1 signifying purity and innocence1
 and in the other a beautiful vessel1   
showing the act of washing the soul1    
that is the particular virtue of this   
,sacrament4 ,over the arch is a scroll  
containing the word ,,baptismus4  7#b7  
,confirmation is a damsel of spirited   
mien1 armed with a helmet4 ,in one hand 
she has some vessels of holy oil4 ,her  
other hand is raised1 while with the    
index finger she expresses firm         
determination to confess the name of    
,christ4 ,inscribed upon her is the word
 ,,confirmatio4  7#c7 ,penitence holds  

in her right hand a wand1 denoting      
spiritual jurisdiction1 like the wand   
wherewith they smite the excommunicated 
at his absolution4 ,in her left hand is 
a ,roman javelin1 that was the symbol of
 liberty1 to signify the free estate of 
the captive's soul1 and how1 through    
absolution1 sin is made a slave2        
together with the word ,p,,oe,,nitentia4
  7#d7 ,extreme ,unction is represented 
by an aged woman1 holding a vase whence 
issueth an olive bough1 and in her other
 hand a candle1 as token that this      
,sacrament is a succour to those that be
 in the last agony4 ,the word inscribed 
is ,,unctio4  7#e7 ,order is a priest   
with his vestments1 holding an          
incensory1 together with a chalice and  
the host1 signifying ,oration and       
,sacrifice4 ,the word inscribed is      
,,ordo4  7#f7 ,matrimony is the figure  
of a youth1 holding in one hand a cross 
with two serpents twined about it1 in   
imitation of ,mercury's wand4 ,in his   
other hand he bears a yoke1 and the     

inscription ,,matrimonium4              
99       99       99       99       99  
,the ,holy ,sacrament of the ,eucharist1
 as being most excellent of all1        
occupies a loftier place than all these 
other ,sacraments4  ,the basement of    
this order1 forming1 as it were1 a      
boundary and bordering to this holy     
edifice of the ,church1 has twelve      
pedestals beneath the columns1 making   
six and thirty sides1 which are adorned 
with six and thirty scenes1 eighteen    
whereof are taken from the ,old         
,testament1 and the other eighteen from 
the ,new ,testament1 or relating to the 
present state of the ,church4  7#a7 ,the
 first scene represents how ,god formed 
,eve from one of ,adam's ribs4 ,an      
inscription at the foot of the pedestal 
says1 ,humani generis auspicia4  7#b7   
,next to the preceding is an image of   
our ,saviour with two angels supporting 
him by the arms1 while from his wounded 
side issue seven rays of blood1         
signifying the ,church and ,sacraments4 

,the inscription says1 ,felicior        
propagatio4  7#c7 ,the tree of ,life1   
with ,adam and ,eve partaking of its    
fruit1 and the inscription1 ,peritur    
gaudia vit4  7#d7 ,a cross adorned with 
branches and with blades of wheat1      
surmounted by a chalice and the host1   
and round about it a few prostrate      
figures1 eating this holy fruit1 and the
 inscription1 ,vit melioris origo4  7#e7
 ,the angel with the flaming sword1     
driving our fathers from ,paradise1     
without suffering them to reach the tree
 of ,life4 ,the inscription says1       
,procul1 procul esse prophani4  7#f7    
,the parable of the banquet1 from which 
was driven out the man that had no      
wedding garment4 ,the inscription says1 
,non licet sanctum dare canibus4  7#g7  
,the stream of water that issued from   
the rock smitten by the rod of ,moses1  
and the thirsty people1 drinking4 ,the  
inscription says1 ,bibebant de          
spirituali petra4  7#h7 ,beside the     
preceding1 the figure of ,christ1 from  

whose side issues a stream of blood1 of 
which some sheep are drinking4 ,the     
inscription says1 ,petra autem erat     
,christus4  7#i7 ,the manna which fell  
from ,heaven4 ,the inscription says1    
,manducaverunt et mortui sunt4  7#aj7   
,the miracle of the five loaves1 with   
the inscription1 ,qui manducat vivit in 
ternum4  7#aa7 ,the raven bringing bread
 and meat to ,elijah4 ,the inscription  
says1 ,non turpat dona minister4  7#ab7 
,next to this1 an angel conveying a     
chalice and the host to the saints in   
the desert1 with the inscription1       
,sacerdos ,angelus ,domini est4  7#ac7  
,elisha throwing flour in the pot to    
sweeten the bitterness of the colocynth4
 ,the inscription says1 ,vit solamen    
acerb4  7#ad7 ,christ turning the water 
into wine1 with the inscription1 ,vertit
 tristes in gaudia curas4  7#ae7 ,tobias
 frightening away the ,devil with the   
smoke from the liver of a fish4 ,the    
inscription says1 ,fumum fugit atra     
caterva4  7#af7 ,devils flying from an  

altar containing a chalice and the host1
 with the inscription1 ,fugiunt         
phantasmata lucem4  7#ag7 ,lot          
inebriated1 sleeping with his daughters4
 ,the inscription says1 ,de vinea       
sodomorum vinum eorum4  7#ah7 ,a group  
of virgins prostrating themselves before
 the ,sacrament upon the altar1 with the
 inscription1 ,hoc vinum virgines       
germinat4  7#ai7 ,abraham harbouring the
 angels and washing their feet4 ,the    
inscription says1 ,non licet illotos    
accedere4  7#bj7 ,christ washing the    
feet of his disciples before a table4   
,the inscription says1 ,auferte malum   
cogitationum vestrarum4  7#ba7 ,the     
supper of the paschal lamb1 with the    
inscription1 ,antiqua novis misteria    
cedunt4  7#bb7 ,the supper of ,christ1  
with the inscription1 ,melioris fercula 
mens4  7#bc7 ,the throne of ,god1 before
 which stands the prophet ,isaiah1 and  
an angel whose mouth is smitten by a    
lighted brand4 ,the inscription says1   
,purgavit filios ,levi4  7#bd7 ,a priest

 before an altar1 in his robes1         
administering the communion to the      
,christian people4 ,the inscription     
says1 ,probet se ipsum homo4  7#be7     
,elijah reclining in the shade of the   
tree1 with an angel bringing him bread  
and a vessel4 ,the inscription says1 ,in
 pace in idipsum4  7#bf7 ,a sick man in 
his bed1 with a priest administering the
 ,sacrament to him4 ,the inscription    
says1 ,dormiam et requiescam4  7#bg7    
,habbakuk borne by the angels to the den
 of lions1 to carry food to ,daniel4    
,the inscription says1 ,adjutor in      
opportunitatibus4  7#bh7 ,an angel with 
a chalice and the host1 which he        
administers to the souls in ,purgatory4 
,the inscription says1 ,emissit vinctos 
de lacu4  7#bi7 ,noah sleeping beneath  
the vine1 holding a vessel1 with his    
sons gathered about him4 ,the           
inscription says1 ,human ebrietatis     
ludibria4  7#cj7 ,christ with a chalice 
in his hand1 and angels round him1      
holding clusters of grapes1 and a cross 

surrounded with a vine4 ,the inscription
 says1 ,calix ejus inebrians quant      
prclarus est4  7#ca7 ,a queen adorned   
profanely1 crowned with a snake4 ,she   
holds a vessel in her hand1 and rides   
upon a dragon with seven heads1 some of 
which are drooping1 as though they were 
inebriated4 ,the inscription says1      
,hretic impietatis ebrietas4  7#cb7 ,the
 figure of a virtuous lady wearing a    
royal crown4 ,she holds a chalice in her
 hand1 and rides in a car borne by the  
figures of the four evangelists4 ,the   
inscription says1 ,ecclesi ,catholic    
veritas4  7#cc7 ,the table with the     
loaves of propitiation1 before the      
tabernacle1 with ,moses and ,aaron      
standing beside it1 and the inscription1
 ,umbram fugit veritas4  7#cd7 ,a       
custodia1 with a chalice and the host1  
borne by angels4 ,the inscription says1 
,ecce panis angelorum4  7#ce7 ,david and
 his soldiers1 who receive bread from   
the priest's hand4 ,the inscription     
says1 ,absit mens conscia culp4  7#cf7  

,a priest1 administering the ,sacrament 
to two persons1 each of whom has an     
angel beside him4 ,the inscription says1
 ,sancta sanctis4                     99
       99       99       99       99    
,and since all ,sacraments have virtue  
and efficacy from the passion of ,christ
 our ,saviour1 which passion is         
perpetually commemorated by this holiest
 of ,sacraments1 ,i placed upon the     
summit of the twelve columns belonging  
to this order twelve child-angels1      
naked1 bearing the signs and instruments
 of the ,passion1 as voices to announce 
this sacred mystery4  ,on the tympanums 
of the arches are angels bearing grapes 
and ears of wheat1 and in the middle of 
the six sides of the frieze are graven1 
upon some ovals1 the following images   
and devices1 the inscription            
corresponding to them being on the      
largest scroll of the architrave4  7#a7 
,a garland of vine-tendrils and ears of 
wheat1 and in the midst thereof an open 
pomegranate1 signifying1 by the number  

and cohesion of its grains1 the ,church1
 guarded within the fortress of this    
holiest of ,sacraments4 ,the inscription
 says1 ,posuit fines tuos pacem4  7#b7  
,a hand among clouds1 extended over a   
nest of young ravens that have their    
beaks open and raised1 with the         
inscription ,quanto magis vos4 ,this    
signifies1 that the ,lord who taketh    
care to sustain the infidels and pagans1
 taketh also especial care to sustain   
,his ,church with abundance of this     
celestial food4  7#c7 ,a fair stalk of  
wheat1 whence issue seven ears of great 
fatness1 with the inscription1          
,sempiterna satietas2 showing that1 not 
as in the seven years in ,egypt1 but for
 ever1 shall spiritual abundance abide  
in the ,church of ,christ1 owing to this
 holy table of ,his body and ,his blood4
  7#d7 ,a stork upon a nest woven of    
wheat-ears and vine-tendrils1 with the  
inscription1 ,pietas incomparabilis4    
,showing the piety and fatherly love    
that ,god affordeth to us in this       

,sacrament4  7#e7 ,a hare smelling at a 
bough and some ears of wheat1 with the  
inscription1 ,vani sunt sensus hominis4 
,the hare signifies the senses1 which   
are deceived by the appearance of the   
bread and wine1 unless they be fortified
 by faith4  7#f7 ,a hand bearing a wand1
 the end whereof is turning to a        
serpent1 with this inscription1 ,hic    
vita1 hic mors2 because this ,sacrament 
is the judgment and condemnation of all 
that receive it unworthily1 but life for
 such as receive it with a clean spirit4
 ,the device has reference to the rod of
 ,moses1 that gave health to the people 
of ,israel1 affording them a passage    
through the midst of the sea1 and making
 streams of sweet water to gush from the
 rock1 but that was ruinous to the      
,egyptians1 causing among them terrible 
sickness and destruction4               
,,second ,,order  ,the second order is  
in the ,corinthian style1 the columns   
and frieze adorned with foliage in the  
upper and lower thirds1 and the other   

one with fluted columns4 ,this order    
contains the ,holy ,sacrament in a      
circular viril ornamented at its ends4  
,round it are the four evangelists with 
the figures of the lion1 bull1 eagle1   
and angel1 adorning the majesty of the  
,lord that is within the ,sacrament1    
whereof they gave true testimony1       
according to these words upon a tablet  
which each one holdeth in his hand3--   
,saint ,matthew1 ,hoc est corpus meum4  
,saint ,mark1 ,hic est sanguis meus4    
,saint ,john1 ,caro mea vere est cibus4 
,saint ,luke1 ,hic est calix novi       
testamenti4  ,on the outside are placed 
these figures1 in pairs3--,saint ,justa 
and ,saint ,rufina1 patron saints of    
,seville2 ,san ,isidro and ,san         
,leandro1 archbishops of the same city2 
,san ,hermenegildo and ,san ,sebastian2 
,san ,servando and ,san ,germano1       
martyrs2 ,san ,laureano1 archbishop of  
,seville1 and ,san ,carpforo1 priest2   
,saint ,clement1 pope1 and ,saint       
,florence1 martyr4  ,on the six running 

pedestals of the columns of this order  
are six scenes or figures of ancient    
sacrifices1 symbolic of this holiest    
sacrifice of the ,eucharist1 as showing 
how this one is the consummation and    
perfection of all sacrifices1 and that  
the light thereof dispersed the shadows 
of the others4 ,and these be in the     
following wise3--  7#a7 ,the sacrifice  
of ,abel4  7#b7 ,that of ,noah1 on his  
leaving the ark4  7#c7 ,that of         
,melchisidech4  7#d7 ,that of ,abraham1 
when he sought to sacrifice ,isaac4     
7#e7 ,that of the lamb which was found  
in the thornbush and placed upon the    
altar4  7#f7 ,solomon's sacrifice at his
 dedication of the temple4              
99       99       99       99       99  
,on the tops of these columns are twelve
 figures representing the twelve gifts  
and fruits of this most holy ,sacrament1
 as they are told of by ,saint ,thomas  
in his treatise on this mystery3--  7#a7
 ,the conquest of the ,devil1           
represented by a maiden beautified and  

adorned with a palm and a cross4 ,the   
inscription on the pedestal says1 ,fuga 
dmonis4  7#b7 ,spiritual cheerfulness   
and delight1 in the form of another     
maiden1 holding a wand wreathed with    
boughs and tendrils of the vine1 and in 
her other hand some ears of wheat4 ,the 
inscription says1 ,hilaritas4  7#c7     
,purity of soul1 represented by a heart 
among flames1 suspended over a crucible4
 ,the inscription1 ,puritas4  7#d7      
,self-knowledge1 represented by a figure
 of ,reason1 holding in one hand a      
mirror1 in which she regards herself1   
and in the other hand a leafy bough4    
,the inscription says1 ,cognitio sui4   
7#e7 ,peace1 and the appeasing of the   
wrath of ,god1 represented by a figure  
holding in one hand an olive bough1 and 
in the other a cornucopia filled with   
grapes and wheat4 ,the inscription1     
,reconciliatio4  7#f7 ,inward quiet and 
control of the affections1 represented  
by a figure holding some poppies in one 
hand1 and in the other a lamp1 the lower

 wick of which is being extinguished4   
,the inscription says1 ,animi qui est4  
7#g7 ,charity1 and profound love for    
,god and for our neighbours1 represented
 by a figure holding in one hand a      
lighted heart that has two wings1 and   
with the other pouring from a           
cornucopia4 ,the inscription says1      
,charitas4  7#h7 ,increase of true      
worth1 represented by a figure holding  
in one hand a bough of mustard1 that is 
wont to grow and multiply exceedingly   
from a tiny grain1 and in the other hand
 a half-moon1 receiving greater         
brightness as it waxes4 ,the inscription
 says1 ,meritorum multiplicatio4  7#i7  
,firmness and constancy in well-doing1  
represented by the figure of a woman    
holding an anchor in one hand1 and in   
the other a palm4 ,the inscription says1
 ,constantia4  7#aj7 ,the hope that     
guides us to our celestial home1        
represented by a figure holding in one  
hand a bunch of flowers 7denoting the   
hope of the fruit that is to come71 and 

in the other hand a star1 as one that   
guideth to a haven4 ,the inscription1   
,deductio in patriam4  7#aa7            
,resurrection1 represented by the figure
 of a beautiful woman1 holding in one   
hand a snake1 and in the other an eagle2
 creatures that renew themselves by     
casting off the slough of their old age4
 ,the inscription says1 ,resurrectio4   
7#ab7 ,life ,eternal1 represented by a  
figure holding a palm in one hand1 and a
 crown in the other4 ,the inscription   
says1 ,vita terna4                      
99       99       99       99       99  
,the devices contained in this order1   
and in the middle of the frieze1 are as 
follows3--  7#a7 ,a bunch of grapes upon
 a wand1 surrounded with ears of wheat4 
,the inscription says1 ,coelestis patri 
specimen4 ,this signifies that1 as the  
great bunch of grapes that was borne by 
,joshua and ,caleb on their shoulders   
was a token of the fertile land of      
promise1 so the greatness and the       
sweetness of this admirable ,sacrament1 

which is afforded to us in the guise of 
bread and wine1 is the living sign and  
earnest of the abundance reigning in the
 kingdom of the blessed4  7#b7 ,a hand  
extending the index-finger1 pointing to 
a chalice and the host1 with the        
inscription1 ,digitus ,dei hic est4     
,this means that the miracle of this    
holiest of ,sacraments is the work of   
the eternal wisdom1 that cannot be      
attained by any wisdom of us humans4    
7#c7 ,a rainbow1 and above it a chalice 
with the host1 and the inscription1     
,signum foederis sempiterni4            
,signifying1 that as in the olden time  
,god vouchsafed the rainbow to ,noah in 
sign of friendship and alliance1 so does
 ,he now vouchsafe ,his own flesh and   
blood as a true and effective token of  
,his lasting association with mankind4  
7#d7 ,two rays1 crossed1 and in their   
midst an olive bough1 with the          
inscription1 ,recordabor foederis mei   
vobiscum4 ,these are the words that were
 spoken by ,god to ,noah1 when ,he made 

the said alliance with him1 giving to   
understand the clemency wherewith ,god  
treateth mankind in the lesson of this  
divinest ,sacrament1 forgetting their   
errors1 and establishing perpetual peace
 and amity with them4  7#e7 ,the pelican
 feeding her young with the life-blood  
issuing from her breast4 ,the           
inscription says1 ,majorem charitatem   
nemo habet4  7#f7 ,a dead lion1 from    
whose mouth issueth a swarm of bees1    
with the inscription1 ,de forti dulcedo4
 ,giving to understand1 that as from the
 mouth of so brave a creature there     
issued a substance so sweet as honey1 so
 did the ,god of vengeance1 the brave   
,lion of the tribe of ,judah1 concert   
such love and peace with man1 that ,he  
offered ,his very body for man's food4  
,,third ,,order  ,the rest of the third 
order1 as far as the summit of the      
custodia1 represents the ,church        
triumphant3 wherefore was placed in the 
midst of this order 7which is in the    
composite style7 the history of the     

,lamb that is upon the throne1 and round
 about it the four beasts that are full 
of eyes1 as the ,apocalypse relateth4   
,upon the six continuous pedestals of   
the columns of this order are graved the
 following six scenes3--  7#a7 ,the     
saints who wash their stoles in the     
blood that issues from the ,lamb1 as is 
told in the ,apocalypse4  7#b7 ,god the 
,father1 with a sickle in ,his hand1 and
 angels gathering grapes in the vat1 and
 corn in the granary1 after winnowing   
out the chaff2 signifying the reward    
accorded unto men in sowing1 and in the 
harvest of the vine4  7#c7 ,the saints  
in joyful procession1 each with his     
sheaf of wheat4  7#d7 ,the virgins1     
crowned with vine-tendrils and ears of  
wheat1 that follow the ,lamb4  7#e7 ,the
 five prudent virgins1 that with their  
lighted lamps go in to the feast of the 
,bridegroom4  7#f7 ,the banquet of the  
blessed4                     99       99
       99       99       99  ,between   
the arches of this order are the six    

hieroglyphs following1 with their       
inscriptions above1 upon tablets4  7#a7 
,a burning phoenix1 with the            
inscription1 ,instauratio generis       
humani4  7#b7 ,two cornucopias crossed1 
with a cross in their midst4 ,the       
cornucopias are full of vine-tendrils   
and ears of wheat4 ,the inscription     
says1 ,felicitas humani generis4  7#c7  
,a kingfisher brooding over her young in
 a nest of vine-tendrils and blades of  
wheat1 with the inscription1            
,tranquillitas immutabilis4 ,this       
signifies the calm state of the blessed1
 whereof a token is the nest of the     
kingfisher1 which bird1 when it crosses 
the water1 causes all storms to cease4  
7#d7 ,a car with flames1 rising to      
heaven1 with the inscription1 ,sic itur 
ad astra4 ,signifying that this divinest
 ,sacrament is the harbinger of those   
that travel heavenward1 in that ,elijah 
was so swept away1 after ,god had sent  
him bread by the angel and the raven4   
7#e7 ,two dolphins1 whose tails are     

crossed1 and in the middle a chalice and
 the host1 with the inscription1 ,deliti
 generis humani4 ,by this device is     
signified the love and the delight      
bestowed by ,god on men by means of this
 ,sacrament4  7#f7 ,an altar adorned    
with festoons of vine-tendrils and      
blades of wheat1 with flames upon it1   
and bearing the inscription1 ternum     
sacrificium4                            
,,fourth ,,order  ,in this order is     
represented the ,holy ,trinity upon a   
rainbow1 surrounded by many rays of     
splendour1 and in the fifth order is a  
bell1 surmounted by a simple cross4     
,thus are all the parts of the custodia 
adorned with the foregoing beautiful    
decoration1 having regard to their      
proportions and their symmetry1         
according to the rules of good          
architecture1 and to the movements and  
position of the statuary1 designed after
 nature1 as was prescribed by the       
inventor of histories4 ,et in his       
omnibus sensum matris ,ecclesi sequimur1

 cujus etiam juditium reveremur4  ,such 
is the description1 written by ,arfe    
himself1 of this wonderful masterpiece  
of silver-work4 ,unfortunately1 since   
his time the custodia has been much     
meddled with by profane hands1 and has  
been subjected to various impertinent   
restorations and improvements4 ,thus1   
the original statuette of ,faith1 seated
 on her throne1 has been replaced by    
another of the ,virgin1 and the twelve  
child-angels1 holding the instruments of
 the passion1 by the same number of     
figures of a larger size and far        
inferior workmanship4 ,further1 some    
simple pyramids which crowned the fourth
 order were foolishly replaced by badly 
executed statuettes of children1 and the
 ,egyptian obelisk1 resting on four     
small spheres1 which surmounted the     
whole custodia1 by an unwieldy statue   
representing the ,catholic ,faith4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,description ,,of ,,the ,,custodia ,,of
 ,,cordova ,,cathedral                  

7,from ,crdoba1 by ,,pedro ,,de         
,,madrazo7  ,as ,i have stated in ,vol4 
,i41 p4 #ih1 the author of this custodia
 was ,enrique de ,arfe1 ,juan de ,arfe's
 grandfather4 ,the base1 supported on   
small wheels placed in the interior1 is 
in the form of a regular dodecagon1 each
 side of which measures a foot4 ,on the 
twelve-sided plate which forms the base 
and which has well executed heads of    
seraphs at each corner1 is an order     
consisting of three tiers4 ,the first1  
which has projecting and receding       
angles1 leaves1 about six sides of the  
dodecagon1 a free space for the handles 
by which the custodia is raised4 ,the   
first tier forms a kind of socle with   
six buttresses1 on the surface of which 
are represented allegorical scenes1     
alternated in rows with graceful designs
 in relief1 grotesque and pastoral      
dances1 and scenes from ,bible history  
relative to the carriage of the         
,tabernacle4 ,this tier is surmounted by
 a gilded balustrade of elegant design4 

,the bas-reliefs are wrought alternately
 in gold and silver4  ,the second tier  
is formed by a small socle1 crowned by a
 band of leaves and diminutive figures4 
,over this is a gilded balustrade1 and  
finally another and a broader frieze    
containing gilded figures1 together with
 delicate foliage wrought in dull       
silver4 ,this second tier grows         
gradually narrower1 and sustains the    
third1 whose base projects1 serving as  
cornice to the frieze of the tier below1
 and decorated with a gilded balustrade4
 ,upon it rises a mass or body with     
twelve sides1 following the same        
arrangement of projecting and receding  
angles as the lower tiers4 ,in each of  
its receding spaces this order contains 
three compartments1 and in each of its  
salient faces it has a small tower or   
buttress1 which springs from the base   
and rests upon a delicate plinth carved 
with a gilded ornamental band4 ,thus1   
the order we are describing has six     
salient faces behind the six towers or  

buttresses1 and six spaces containing   
three open compartments4 ,in these      
compartments1 separated one from another
 by diminutive buttresses with delicate 
pinnacles1 there is the same number of  
sunken spaces1 one inch deep1 on which  
are represented1 in high relief1 scenes 
of the life and passion of our ,lord4   
,the figures1 admirably executed1 are   
two inches high4 ,above this order is a 
projecting cornice1 decorated along its 
lower part with a band of dull silver4  
,it should be noted1 that as the        
custodia narrows gradually as it rises1 
the receding spaces grow proportionally 
larger1 thus affording room for the     
spacious inner order on which is raised 
the viril4 ,this order is formed by a   
crystal cylinder 7containing the host7  
resting on a base which is also         
cylindrical1 the lower part of which is 
decorated with a broad hexagonal band1  
narrower at the top than at the bottom1 
and wrought with delicate foliage and   
figures1 as are the bands which lie     

beneath it4 ,above the transparent      
cylinder enclosing the viril rises a    
,gothic vault1 drooping over in the     
manner of a plume1 and resting on the   
buttresses which fill the projecting    
spaces on the base of the principal     
order4 ,these buttresses have a similar 
arrangement to1 and coincide with1 the  
other ones which spring from the base of
 the third tier of the first order1 and 
are joined one to another by means of   
fine cross-buttresses surmounted by     
statuettes4 ,the circular vault which   
holds the crystal cylinder containing   
the viril1 and which resembles that of  
the rotunda dedicated as a sepulchral   
chapel by the emperor ,constantine to   
the memory of his daughter1 saint       
,constance1 supports other and finer    
buttresses1 alternated with those       
beneath2 but instead of rising from the 
salient spaces of the base1 these rise  
from the receding spaces and support    
another vault1 of smooth open-work1     
beneath which is a graceful statuette of

 ,nuestra ,seora de la ,asuncin4 ,over  
this vault is a kind of open-work dome1 
consisting of an effective series of    
pinnacles and buttresses in the shape of
 segments of a circle1 which bridge over
 the summits of the pinnacles4 ,upon the
 dome is a crown surmounted by a        
statuette of ,christ triumphant1 with   
the cross4 ,the two vaults--that which  
encloses the viril1 and the other one   
above it1 enclosing the image of the    
,virgin--are masked on the outside by   
arches of elegant design1 crowned by an 
elaborate balustrade4 ,the turrets or   
buttresses which rise upon the lowest   
and the principal orders are decorated  
with numerous statuettes1 resting on    
plinths of exquisite design1 covered by 
open-work canopies4  ,this masterpiece  
of art is made of gold1 and polished and
 unpolished silver4 ,the weight is #ecb 
marks4444 ,unfortunately1 it lacks its  
original purity of style1 having been   
restored in the year #agce1 when it is  
probable that certain details were added

 which now disfigure it4                
,,appendix ,d           ,,the ,,imperial
 ,,crown ,,of ,,the ,,virgen ,,del      
,,sagrario1 ,,toledo  ,this was the most
 elaborate and costly crown that had    
ever been produced in ,spain for        
decorating an image of the ,virgin4 ,the
 following is a sketch of it3--         
,illustration  ,before it was enlarged  
to the imperial shape1 this crown was   
executed by a silversmith named         
,fernando de ,carrin1 who finished it in
 the year #aeef1 and was paid for his   
labour #gfj1jjj maravedis4 ,it then     
consisted of a gold diadem adorned with 
rows of pearls1 emeralds1 rubies1 and   
enamelled devices of various colours1 in
 the style of the ,renaissance4  ,the   
superstructure1 which converts it into  
what is known as an imperial crown1 was 
added by ,alejo de ,montoya1 another    
silversmith of ,toledo1 who began it in 
#aegd1 and completed it twelve years    
later4 ,the addition consisted of a     
number of gold statuettes of angels1    

covered with enamel1 measuring in height
 from two inches to two and a half1     
distributed in pairs1 and supporting    
decorative devices attached to the body 
of the crown4 ,from behind these angels 
sprang gold bands thickly studded with  
precious stones1 and terminating towards
 their union at the apex of the crown in
 seated allegorical figures grouped     
about a globe surmounted by a cross4    
,this globe consisted of a single       
emerald1 clear1 perfect both in colour  
and in shape1 and measuring an inch and 
a half in diameter4 ,the inside of the  
hoop was covered with enamels           
representing emblems of the ,virgin1    
disposed in a series of medallions1 and 
the dimensions of the entire crown were 
eleven inches high by nine across the   
widest part4  ,the crown was examined   
and reported upon by two goldsmiths of  
,madrid1 who declared it to contain the 
following precious stones3--      ,two  
balas rubies1                valued at  
#aej1jjj maravedis     ,twelve rubies1  

#djc1ebh           ,twelve emeralds1    
#bcg1ejj           ,fifty-seven         
diamonds1                     #eee1cif  
,one hundred and eighty-two pearls1     
#cig1hch        ,the precious stones    
were thus valued at a total of          
#a1gdd1bfb maravedis4 ,besides this1 the
 value of the gold and silver contained 
in the crown was estimated to amount to 
#dje1bbg maravedis1 while #c1jig1gej    
maravedis were allowed for the          
workmanship4 ,these figures relate to   
the part which was made by ,alejo de    
,montoya only4 ,that which had          
previously been executed by ,fernando de
 ,carrin was valued at #a1ied1aef       
maravedis1 making a grand total1 for the
 whole jewel1 of #g1bja1cie maravedis4  
,at the present day the intrinsic value 
of the crown would be from nine to ten  
thousand pounds sterling4  ,in #ahfi    
this splendid specimen of ,renaissance  
jewellery was stolen from a cupboard in 
the cathedral of ,toledo1 sharing thus  
the fate of many other precious objects 

which have been entrusted to the slender
 vigilance or slender probity of        
,spanish church authorities4            
,,appendix ,e                           
,,gold ,,inlay ,,on ,,steel ,,and ,,iron
  ,the inlaying of iron or steel with   
gold is often thought to be a craft     
particularly ,spanish1 and to have been 
inherited directly by the ,spanish      
,christians from the ,spanish ,moors4   
,this work1 however1 although we may    
assume it to have been of ,eastern      
origin in a period of remote antiquity1 
was quite familiar to the ancient       
,romans1 including1 probably1 such as   
made their home in ,spain4 ,the ,memoirs
 of ,benvenuto ,cellini contain the     
following notice of the work in         
question3--  ,i met with some little    
,turkish daggers1 the handles of which  
were of iron as well as the blade1 and  
even the scabbard was of that metal4 ,on
 these were engraved several fine       
foliages in the ,turkish taste1 most    
beautifully filled up with gold4 ,i     

found ,i had a strong inclination to    
cultivate this branch likewise1 which   
was so different from the rest2 and     
finding that ,i had great success in it1
 ,i produced several pieces in this way4
 ,my performances1 indeed1 were much    
finer and more durable than the         
,turkish1 for several reasons3 one was1 
that ,i made a much deeper incision in  
the steel than is generally practised in
 ,turkish works2 the other1 that their  
foliages are nothing else but chicory   
leaves1 with some few flowers of        
echites3 these have1 perhaps1 some      
grace1 but they do not continue to      
please like our foliages4 ,in ,italy    
there is a variety of tastes1 and we cut
 foliages in many different forms4 ,the 
,lombards make the most beautiful       
wreaths1 representing ivy and           
vine-leaves1 and others of the same     
sort1 with agreeable twinings highly    
pleasing to the eye4 ,the ,romans and   
the ,tuscans have a much better notion  
in this respect1 for they represent     

acanthus leaves1 with all their festoons
 and flowers1 winding in a variety of   
forms2 and amongst these leaves they    
insert birds and animals of several     
sorts with great ingenuity and elegance 
in the arrangement4 ,they likewise have 
recourse occasionally to wild flowers1  
such as those called ,lions' ,mouths1   
from their peculiar shape1 accompanied  
by other fine inventions of the         
imagination1 which are termed grotesques
 by the ignorant4 ,these foliages have  
received that name from the moderns1    
because they are found in certain       
caverns in ,rome1 which in ancient days 
were chambers1 baths1 studies1 halls1   
and other places of a like nature4 ,the 
curious happened to discover them in    
these subterranean caverns1 whose low   
situation is owing to the raising of the
 surface of the ground in a series of   
ages2 and as these caverns in ,rome are 
commonly called grottos1 they from      
thence acquired the name of grotesque4  
,but this is not their proper name2 for1

 as the ancients delighted in the       
composition of chimerical creatures1 and
 gave to the supposed promiscuous breed 
of animals the appellation of monsters1 
in like manner artists produced by their
 foliages monsters of this sort2 and    
that is the proper name for them--not   
grotesques4 ,in such a taste ,i made    
foliages filled up in the manner above  
mentioned1 which were far more elegant  
and pleasing to the eye than the        
,turkish works4  ,it happened about this
 time that certain vases were           
discovered1 which appeared to be antique
 urns filled with ashes4 ,amongst these 
were iron rings inlaid with gold1 in    
each of which was set a diminutive      
shell4 ,learned antiquarians1 upon      
investigating the nature of these rings1
 declared their opinion that they were  
worn as charms by those who desired to  
behave with steadiness and resolution   
either in prosperous or adverse fortune4
  ,i likewise took things of this nature
 in hand at the request of some         

gentlemen who were my particular        
friends1 and wrought some of these      
little rings2 but ,i made them of steel 
well tempered1 and then cut and inlaid  
with gold1 so that they were very       
beautiful to behold3 sometimes for a    
single ring of this sort ,i was paid    
above forty crowns4                     
,,appendix ,f                           
,,old ,,spanish ,,pulpits  ,the earliest
 pulpits of the ,spaniards were similar 
to those of other ,christian nations4   
,one of them was the tribuna or         
tribunal1 so called1 according to ,saint
 ,isidore1 because the minister delivers
 from it the precepts for a righteous   
life1 wherefore it is a seat or place   
constructed upon high1 in order that all
 he utters may be heard4 ,the ambo1 too1
 although it is not mentioned by ,saint 
,isidore1 was probably not unknown among
 the ,spaniards4#fa ,then there were    
various desks1 such as the analogia1    
legitoria1 or lectra1 on which the      
scriptures were deposited in church1 or 

carried in procession1 and from which   
the latter were read aloud by the       
priest4 ,saint ,isidore remarks of the  
analogium2 ,it is so called because the 
word is preached therefrom1 and because 
it occupies the highest place4#fb       
,ducange1 quoting from old authors1     
remarks in his ,glossary that these     
desks were often adorned with gold and  
silver plates or precious stones4 ,thus 
it is extremely probable that ,tarik's  
celebrated table 7see ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #ca
 et seq47 was merely some elaborate and 
bejewelled analogium of the ,christians2
 such as was1 in fact1 the predecessor  
of the modern lectern or hand-pulpit4   
#fa ,ambo1 pulpitum ubi ex duabus       
partibus sunt gradus4 ,ugutio1          
quoted by ,ducange4    #fb ,originum1   
,book ,,xv41 ,chap4 iv4  ,according to  
,amador de los ,ros1 sermons in those   
early times were delivered from the     
analogium only4 ,towards the twelfth    
century1 the ,isidorian liturgy was     
abolished in ,spain1 and the furniture  

of ,spanish temples underwent some      
change4 ,in the same century and        
throughout the century following1 the   
,spanish ,peninsula was invaded by the  
,order of ,preachers1 while1 coinciding 
with1 or closely consequent upon1 this  
movement1 the primitive ambo was        
succeeded by the jub1 and wood1 as the  
material of which the pulpit was        
constructed1 by marble1 iron1 stone1 or 
plaster4  ,two ,mudejar pulpits of great
 interest are preserved at ,toledo1 in  
the church of ,santiago del ,arabal     
7thirteenth century71 and in the        
convent1 erected in the reign of ,pedro 
the ,cruel1 of ,santo ,domingo el ,real4
 ,the substance of these ancient objects
 is a brick and plaster foundation1 with
 panels of the stucco known as obra de  
yesera1 produced from wooden moulds4    
,the pulpit of the church of ,santiago  
is traditionally affirmed to be the one 
from which1 in #adaa1 ,saint ,vincent   
,ferrer delivered a sermon to the       
,toledan ,jews4 ,whether this be so or  

not1 the date of its construction is    
undoubtedly the second half of the      
fourteenth century1 or early in the     
fifteenth4 ,the shape is octagonal--a   
very common form with ,gothic pulpits4  
,it is divided into four cuerpos or     
orders1 including the sounding-board4   
,the decoration1 which is chiefly       
floral1 is a combination of the ,gothic 
and the ,moorish styles4  ,the pulpit of
 ,santo ,domingo el ,real stands in the 
refectory of that convent4 ,it dates    
from the same period as the one         
belonging to the church of ,santiago1   
but unlike this latter1 bears no trace  
of former gilding1 painting1 or         
enamelling upon the surface of the stone
 or plaster4 ,it has three tiers or     
compartments1 and1 as in the other      
pulpit1 the decoration consists of      
leaves and flowers1 blended with        
geometrical patterns and ,moorish       
lacera4  ,the ,moorish mimbar or pulpit 
of the mosque of ,cordova was very      
wonderful4 ,according to ,sentenach1 its

 situation was near the archway leading 
to the mihrab1 and on its desk rested   
the sacred copy of the ,koran which had 
belonged to the ,caliph ,othman1 and    
which was stated to be stained with his 
blood4  ,this mimbar1 sacrificed long   
years ago to ,christian barbarism and   
neglect1 was the richest piece of       
furniture in all that mighty building1  
seven years of unremitting labour being 
exhausted by ,al-,hakem's craftsmen in  
constructing it of the richest and most 
aromatic woods1 inlaid with silver1     
ivory1 gold1 and precious stones4       
,ambrosio de ,morales called it ,king   
,almanzor's chair1 describing it        
quaintly as a four-wheeled car of       
richly-wrought wood1 mounted by means of
 seven steps4 ,a few years since1 he    
adds1 they broke it up1 ,i know not     
wherefore4 ,so disappeared this relic of
 an olden time4                         
,,appendix ,g                           
,,spanish ,,cutlers  ,in former times   
excellent cutlery1 such as knives1      

scissors1 daggers1 spearheads1 and      
surgical instruments1 was made in       
,spain1 at ,seville1 ,albacete1 ,toledo1
 ,valencia1 ,pamplona1 ,ronda1 ,pescola1
 ,guadix1 ,ripoll1 ,mora1 ,olot1 and    
,tolosa4 ,rico y ,sinobas has given an  
interesting description of the workshop 
and apparatus of one of these old       
,spanish cutlers--his graduated set of  
hammers1 weighing from a few ounces to  
five pounds1 his hand-saws1 bench-saw1  
chisels1 pincers1 files1 and drills1 his
 forge1 measuring from a yard square to 
a yard and a half1 his two anvils of the
 toughest iron1 the larger with a flat  
surface of three inches by ten inches1  
for ordinary work1 the smaller          
terminated by conical points for making 
the thumb and finger holes of           
scissors4#fc ,the method of tempering   
and forging practised by these cutlers  
was much the same as that of the ,toledo
 swordsmiths4    #fc ,noticia ,histrica 
de la ,cuchillera y de los ,cuchilleros 
,antiguos        en ,espaa 7,almanaque  

de ,el ,museo de la ,industria1 ,madrid1
 #ahgj74  ,rico y ,sinobas also embodied
 in his essay the following list of     
cutlers and cutler-armourers1 who       
manufactured knives1 penknives1         
scissors1 parts of firearms1 or heads   
and blades for lances1 halberds1 and the
 like4 ,the following is a summary of   
the list in question3--                 
----------------------------------------
-------------------------------         
,,name4             ,,date4             
,,worked ,,at                           
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------   ,acacio 
#agth century         8 ,he made        
spearheads and                          
fittings for crossbows4                 
,aguas1 ,juan de      ,early in #ahth   
century,guadix4                         
,alanis              ,late #afth century
    8 ,maker of fittings for            
crossbows4                              
,albacete            ,late #ahth century
    ,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4         

,ambrosio            ,late #ahth century
    ,mora4 ,maker of large              
scissors for                            
sheep-shearing4                         
,arbell1 ,ramn       #agth century 787  
,olot4 ,knife-maker4                    
,azcoitia 7the elder7,late #aeth century
    ,guipzcoa 7874 ,a celebrated        
and early #afth       maker of pieces   
for                                     
crossbows4                              
,azcoitia 7,cristbal7#afth century      
8 ,also a maker of pieces for           
crossbows4 ,he was the                  
fourth descendant of the                
family who worked at this               
branch of the cutler's                  
craft4                                  
,azcoitia 7,juan7     #afth century     
8 ,perhaps a member of the              
same family4 ,he also made              
pieces for crossbows4                   
,beson1 ,manuel       #ahth century     
,madrid4 ,knife-maker4                  
,bis1 ,francisco      #ahth century     

,madrid 7see ,vol4 ,i41                 
p4 #bgc74 ,maker of knives and          
arquebuses4                             
,blanco1 ,juan        #afth century     
,maker of crossbows1 and of             
pieces for the same4                    
,castellanos 7the    #ahth century      
,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4   elder7    
,castellanos 7the    ,late #ahth century
    ,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4         
younger7            and early #aith     
,castillo1 ,gregorio  ,late #afth       
century    ,catalua 7874                
,scissors-maker4                        
,cerda1 ,miguel de la ,late #afth       
century    ,madrid and ,segovia4 ,he    
made                                    
scissors and other                      
cutlery4                                
,criado1 ,juan        ,early #agth      
century   ,madrid 7874 ,maker of pieces 
for crossbows4                          
,diaz1 ,pedro         ,early #ahth      
century   ,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4   
,escobar1 ,cristbal  ,late #afth century

    ,madrid 7874 ,maker of pieces       
and early #agth       for crossbows4    
,escobar1 ,juan       #agth century     
,madrid 7874 ,son of the                
preceding1 and also a maker             
of pieces for crossbows4                
,fernandez ,manso     ,late #ahth       
century    ,guadalajara4  ,a            
,portuguese1   de ,payba1 ,jos          
naturalized in ,spain4  ,he             
was a scissors-maker of                 
considerable fame4                      
,fuente1 ,pedro de la ,late #aeth       
century    ,madrid 7874 ,maker of       
or early #afth        crossbows and     
their pieces4                           
,garca1 ,domingo     ,late #agth century
    ,madrid4 ,arquebus-maker and        
cutler4                                 
,garca de la ,torre1 ,early #ahth       
century   ,guadalix and ,alcorcn4       
,teodoro                                
,cutler4 ,in company with               
,manuel ,beson1 he invented a           
method of converting iron               

into steel4                             
,garijo              #ahth century      
,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4             
,garro1 ,martn       ,early #aeth       
century   ,pamplona4 ,cutler and        
swordsmith4 ,a letter dated             
,october #cast1 #adjf1 records          
that he was paid five                   
escudos for making a                    
sword1 and one escudo for               
a dagger4                               
,gomez1 ,mateo        ,late #agth       
century    ,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4  
,grajeras            #agth century      
,madrid 7874 ,maker of pieces           
for crossbows4                          
,grande1 ,juan        #agth century     
,madrid 7874 ,maker of                  
lanceheads4                             
,gutierrez           ,late #agth century
    ,chinchilla4 ,scissors-maker4       
,hernandez1 ,juan     #afth century     
,madrid 7874 ,maker of pieces           
for crossbows4                          
,herraez1 ,andres     ,late #afth       

century    ,cuenca4 ,arquebus-maker and 
cutler4                                 
,herrezuelo 7the     ,late #afth century
    ,baeza4 ,cutler4   elder7           
and early #agth                         
,herrezuelo 7the     ,early #agth       
century   ,baeza4   younger7            
,scissors-maker4                        
,horbeira1 ,angel     ,late #agth       
century    ,madrid4 ,cutler2 a native of
                                        
,galicia1 and reputed to be             
one of the best craftsmen of            
his time4 ,he was known as              
,el ,borgoon1 and passed                
his early life in ,flanders4            
,hortega             ,early #afth       
century   8 ,maker of pieces for        
crossbows4                              
,lallabe1 ,juan de    ,early #aith      
century   8 ,cutler1 locksmith1 and     
maker of surgical                       
instruments4                            
,lastra1 ,juan        #agth century     
,madrid 7874 ,maker of pieces           

for crossbows4 ,he was one              
of the latest and most                  
celebrated of these                     
craftsmen4                              
,leon                ,early #ahth       
century   ,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4   
,llorens1 ,pablo      ,late #agth       
century    ,olot4 ,cutler4              
,marcoarte1 ,simon    ,late #afth       
century    ,madrid4 ,arquebus-maker and 
and early #agth       cutler4 ,he was   
the son of                              
another craftsman of the                
same name1 who settled in               
,spain in the reign of                  
,charles the ,fifth                     
7see ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bgc74               
,martinez1 ,juan      ,early #afth      
century   8 ,maker of darts and lances  
for crossbows4                          
,mendoza1 ,francisco  ,early #ahth      
century   ,trigueros 7,old ,castile74   
and ,manuel                             
,cutlers4                               
,moreno1 ,luis        ,late #aeth       

century    ,madrid 7874 ,maker of pieces
                       or early #afth   
for crossbows4                          
,moro1 ,el            ,late #ahth       
century    ,madrid4 ,cutler4            
and early #aith                         
,muoz of ,getafe     #afth century and  
8 ,maker of pieces for                  
early #agth             crossbows4      
ipa1 ,juan                 8            
,madrid4 ,maker of crossbows4           
,perez de ,villadiego1#afth century     
,madrid 7874 ,maker of pieces   ,juan   
for crossbows4                          
,perez1 ,julian       ,early #agth      
century   ,madrid 7874 ,maker of darts  
and lances for crossbows4               
,puebla 7the elder7  ,early #afth       
century   ,madrid4 ,maker of parts of   
crossbows4                              
,ramirez1 ,juan       ,late #afth       
century    8 ,cutler4 ,he emigrated to  
the city of ,puebla de los              
,angeles1 in ,mexico1 where             
he continued to make                    

knives1 scissors1 and                   
weapons of good quality4                
,renedo 7the elder7  ,early #afth       
century7878 ,maker of darts and lances  
for crossbows4                          
,renedo 7the younger7 ,late #afth       
century   8 ,son of the preceding4 ,he  
and early #agth  made the               
same objects as his                     
father4                                 
,romero              ,late #ahth century
    ,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4         
,rosel                        8         
,mora4 ,scissors-maker4                 
,san ,jos1 ,brother   ,late #agth       
century    ,jaen4 ,scissors-maker4      
,antonio                                
,santamara          ,late #afth century 
,madrid 7874 ,maker of pieces           
and early #agth       for crossbows4    
,selva1 ,juan         ,late #ahth       
century    ,cartagena and ,madrid4      
,cutler                                 
and iron-founder4                       
,segura              ,late #ahth century

    ,mora4 ,scissors-maker4             
and early #aith                         
,sierra1 ,juan        #ahth century     
,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4             
,soler1 ,isidro       ,late #ahth       
century    ,madrid4  ,arquebus-maker1   
and early #aith  cutler1 and            
author of ,an ,historical               
,essay on making ,arquebuses4           
,sosa                #agth century      
,madrid 7874 ,maker of weapons1         
especially the heads of                 
lances4                                 
,targarona1          ,late #ahth century
    ,madrid4  ,arquebus-maker to        
,francisco                              
,charles the ,third and                 
,charles the ,fourth1 and one           
of the most skilful                     
craftsmen of his day4                   
,tijerero1 ,el                 8        
,toledo4 ,maker of swords and           
7,domingo ,sanchez7                     
scissors4                               
,torres              ,early #agth       

century   ,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4   
,ucedo               ,late #afth century
 and8 ,maker of pieces for              
perhaps early #agth     crossbows4      
,v4444               #afth century 787  
,toledo 7874  ,scissors-maker4          
,the rest of this craftsman's           
name is not known4                      
,valderas1 ,pedro de  #afth century     
,madrid and ,valladolid4 ,maker         
of pieces for crossbows4                
,vicen-,perez1 ,pedro  ,late #agth      
century    ,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4  
,vilarasa1 ,antonio   ,late #agth       
century    8 ,cutler and razor-maker4   
444 ,emt441 ,julian   ,early #ahth      
century   ,albacete4 ,scissors-maker4   
,only a fragment of his name            
has been preserved upon a               
blade4 ,rico y ,sinobas                 
suggests thatthe entire                 
surname may have been                   
,vicen-,perez4                          
,zeruantes1          ,late #agth century
    ,toledo4 ,maker of blades for       

,francisco                              
halberds4                               
,zamora 7the deaf7 ,late #afth century  
,castile4 ,cutler1                      
and early #agth                         
----------------------------------------
-------------------------------         
,,appendix ,h                           
,,spanish ,,trade-,,guilds  ,the gremios
 of ,spain were copied from the guilds  
of ,france and other countries1 and may 
be traced originally to the corpora and 
collegia of the ,romans and ,byzantines4
 ,the earliest which were formed in the 
,peninsula were those of ,barcelona#fd  
and ,soria1 succeeded1 not long after1  
by ,valencia1 ,seville1#fe and ,toledo4 
,prior1 however1 to the institution of  
these trade-guilds proper1 whose purpose
 was pre-eminently mercenary1#ff there  
existed1 in the case of several cities1 
cofradas or religious brotherhoods1 that
 is1 associations of a philanthropic    
character1 composed of tradesmen or     
artificers who pledged themselves to    

assist each other in poverty or         
sickness1 or to defray the burial       
expenses of such members as should die  
without resources4    #fd ,see ,prez    
,pujol1 ,condicin social de las personas
  principios del        siglo ,v4 ,the  
ironsmiths of ,barcelona1 says ,riao1   
formed an        extensive guild in the 
thirteenth century2 in #abeg1 four of   
its        members formed part of the   
chief municipal council2 this guild     
increased in importance in the following
 centuries4    #fe ,the history of the  
,sevillian trade-guilds begins properly 
with the        fifteenth century1      
although ,gestoso states in his         
,diccionario de        ,artfices        
,sevillanos that he has found a few     
documents which seem        to point to 
their existence in the century          
preceding4         ,when the ,spanish   
,christians pitched their camp before   
this city1        prior to their        
victorious assault upon its walls1 the  
besieging        army was divided       

according to the various trades of its  
component        soldiery3 the spicers  
in one part of the camp1 the            
apothecaries in        another1 and so  
forth4 ,it is therefore probable that   
the ,sevillian        trade-guilds were 
instituted shortly after the            
re-conquest4 ,the        wages of       
smiths1 shoemakers1 silversmiths1       
armourers1 and other        craftsmen   
were decreed by ,pedro the ,first in his
 ,ordenamiento de        ,menestrales4  
,the ordinances of the silversmiths1 in 
particular1        are so old that      
,gestoso believes them to have been     
renewed and        confirmed by ,juan   
the ,second1 in the year #adaf4 ,however
 this may        be1 it is certain that 
the ,seville guilds were regularly      
constituted in the reign of ,ferdinand  
and ,isabella4    #ff ,barzanallana     
defines the word gremio as it came to be
 understood        in ,spain1 as any    
gathering of merchants1 artisans1       
labourers1 or        other persons who  

practised the same profession1 art1 or  
office2        and who were bound to    
comply with certain ordinances1         
applicable to        each individual of 
their number4         ,it is well1      
however1 to distinguish broadly between 
actual        manufacturers or producers
 7menestrales de manos7 and merchants   
or shopkeepers 7mercaderes de tienda y  
de escriptorio71 who        merely      
trafficked in what was executed by      
another4  ,the formula of admission to a
 ,spanish brotherhood was very quaint in
 its punctilious and precise severity4  
,a notice of this ceremony1 relating to 
the ,cofrada of ,saint ,eligius1 or     
,silversmiths' ,brotherhood of          
,seville1#fg is quoted by ,gestoso from 
the venerable ,regla de ,hermandad or   
statutes of the members1 preserved in a 
codex dating from the first half of the 
sixteenth century4 ,it was required that
 the candidate for admission should be a
 silversmith1 married in conformity with
 the canons of the church1 a man well   

spoken of among his neighbours1 and not 
a recent convert to the ,christian      
faith4 ,the day prescribed for choosing 
or rejecting him was that which was     
consecrated to ,saint ,john the         
,baptist1 coinciding with the festival  
of ,saint ,eligius or ,san ,loy1 patron 
and representative of silversmiths1 and 
who in life had been a silversmith      
himself4 ,the regulations of the        
,cofrada decreed the following method of
 election4 ,in the chest belonging to   
the ,brotherhood shall be kept a wood or
 metal vessel with space sufficient to  
contain some fifty beans or almonds2 and
 the said vessel shall be set in our    
chapter-room1 in a spot where no man is4
 ,each of the brothers that are present 
shall next be given one of the beans or 
almonds1 and1 rising from his seat1     
arrange his cloak about him so as to    
conceal his hands1 in order that none   
may witness whether he drops1 or does   
not drop1 the almond or the bean into   
the vessel4 ,then1 with due             

dissimulation1 he shall proceed to where
 the vessel lies1 and if he deem that he
 who seeks to be admitted as our brother
 be an honourable man1 and such as shall
 contribute to the lustre of our        
,brotherhood1 then shall he drop in a   
bean or almond1 and return to his seat1 
still covering his hands with his cloak4
 ,but if1 upon the contrary1 he deem    
that the said candidate be a sinner1 and
 a riotous fellow and bad ,christian1   
that should prove a source of evil and  
vexation to our chapter1 or that hath   
wronged another of our brethren1 then   
shall he not cast in the bean or almond1
 but secretly reserve the same1 and once
 more seat himself4 ,lastly1 when all   
shall have crossed over to and from the 
vessel1 they shall bear it to the table 
where the officers sit1 and void it in  
the sight of all the company1 and count 
the beans or almonds2 and if the number 
of these be full1 then is it clear that 
we do receive the other for our         
,hermano4 ,but if there be a bean or    

almond wanting1 in that a brother hath  
retained it in his fingers1 then shall  
our ,alcaldes speak to this effect4     
',seores3 here wants a bean or almond'  
7or two1 or any number1 as may be74     
',within eight days from now let him    
that kept it back present himself to us1
 or to any one of us1 and give account  
why he that sought admission to our     
,brotherhood deserves to be rejected4'  
,and if the brother that kept back the  
bean or almond should not present       
himself within the appointed time1 then 
shall the ,brotherhood admit the other3 
but if he appear1 and state a lawful    
cause against the other's entry1 then   
our ,alcaldes1 when this last presents  
himself to learn their resolution1 shall
 urge him to have patience1 in that not 
all the brothers are content with him1  
albeit1 if such cause consisteth in a   
quarrel between a brother and the       
candidate for entry1 peace may be       
brought about between the two1 and      
afterward the ,cofrada may admit him of 

their number4    #fg ,this guild1 as all
 the others1 held an annual convocation 
of its        members1 and possessed a  
chapel of its own in the convent of ,san
        ,francisco4 ,it exercised a     
strict and constant supervision upon the
        gold and silver work produced   
throughout the city4 ,on ,april #aeth1  
#aefg1 the inspectors appointed and     
salaried by the guild visited        the
 shop of ,antonio de ,cuevas1 and seized
 an ,agnus ,dei and a        faultily   
executed cross1 both of which objects   
were destroyed        forthwith4 ,on    
,february #hth1 #aefi1 they repeated    
their visit to the        same          
silversmith1 and seized an apretador1   
which was likewise        broken up4 ,on
 ,february #ith1 #afjb1 they entered the
 shop of ,antonio        de ,ahumada1   
and took away two rings1 a gold         
encomienda1 a cross        of ,saint    
,john1 some small cocks1 a toothpick1   
and a ,san ,diego of        silver4     
,similar notices of fines1              

confiscations1 and other                
punishments exist in great abundance1   
and may be studied in        ,gestoso's 
dictionary4 ,see also ,vol4 ,i41 p4     
#aad1 of the present        work4       
,similar ceremonies and customs were    
observed in old ,toledo 7see the        
,ordinances of this city1 dated ,june   
#bdth1 #adbc1 renewed and amplified in  
#aebd74fh ,here also the silversmiths   
agreed to meet and celebrate the        
festival of their patron saint upon one 
day in every year1 for ever and for ever
 7para siempre jams74 ,on these         
occasions the image of the saint was    
carried in procession1 and a repast was 
given to the brothers themselves1 as    
well as to all persons who were willing 
to receive it for the love of ,god4     
,every brother who failed to present    
himself at this solemnity was fined one 
pound of candle-wax2 but if he were     
merely unpunctual1 and arrived after the
 singing of the first three psalms1 the 
fine was only half a pound4 ,a pound of 

candle-wax was also the statutory       
tribute for admission to the            
,brotherhood1 together with a hundred   
maravedis and other unimportant sums in 
cash4  ,the history of the gremios of   
,valencia has been traced in an         
instructive essay by ,luis ,tramoyeres  
,blasco4 ,early in the fifteenth century
 guilds were established here of nearly 
thirty trades1 including tailors1       
millers1 carpenters1 shoemakers1        
silversmiths1 weavers1 tanners1 dyers1  
swordsmiths1 and bonnet-makers4 ,these  
guilds developed greatly in the         
sixteenth century1 expanding into       
powerful and wealthy bodies1 who        
practically controlled the entire       
commerce and commercial products of     
their native town4 ,among the gremios   
instituted at a later date were those of
 the firework-makers1 basket-makers1    
twisters of silk1 stiffeners of dress   
fabrics1 bell-founders1 and painters of 
chests and boxes1 each of these         
corporations being enrolled by law1 and 

possessing a code of regulations for the
 government and guidance of its members4
 ,sometimes1 however1 owing to          
diminution in its trade1 a guild became 
extinct1 as happened with the           
guadamacileros 7see ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #ch
 et seq471 and with the clothmakers1 of 
whom1 in #aeie1 but three remained in   
all ,valencia4 ,or else a gremio would  
purposely amalgamate with1 or merge     
insensibly into1 another4 ,thus in #affh
 the tailors and the makers of          
trunk-hose united in a single           
corporation1 just as1 at other times1   
the glovers and the parchment-dressers1 
the clog-makers and the shoemakers4     
#fh ,the foremost in importance of the  
gremios of ,toledo was that of          
the silk-weavers 7arte mayor de la      
seda71 whose earliest        ordinances 
date from ,a4,d4 #aecc4                 
,interesting particulars of the old     
,toledan gremios generally will         
be found in the municipal archives of   
this city1 in the ,ordenanzas           

para el buen rgimen y gobierno de la muy
 noble1 muy leal         imperial ciudad
 de ,toledo 7reprinted in #aheh72 in    
,martn ,gamero's        ,history of     
,toledo2 and in the ,count of ,cedillo's
 scholarly        monograph1 ,toledo in 
the ,sixteenth ,century4  ,those of the 
,valencian guilds which possessed the   
greatest influence and resources1 and   
enjoyed the highest privileges from the 
city or the crown1 were called          
colegiados4 ,among them were the        
velvet-makers1 hatters1 bronze-founders1
 wax-makers1 confectioners1 dyers1 and  
makers of silk hose4 ,the earliest to   
obtain this coveted and honourable title
 were the booksellers1 in #aeci1        
followed by the wax-makers in #afcd1 the
 confectioners in #afdd1 the            
velvet-makers also in this year1 and    
others in succession1 terminating with  
the dyers in #agfc1 the hatters in      
#aggj1 the bell-founders in #aggb1 and  
the makers of silk stockings in #aggd4  
,according to ,tramoyeres1 most of the  

,valencian trade-guilds owned a building
 in fee-simple1 and often gave the title
 of their craft to the entire street in 
which that edifice was situated4 ,nor   
did the gremios1 in their evolution from
 the simpler and less mercenary form of 
brotherhood or cofrada1 wholly abandon  
the religious ceremonies of their       
prototype4 ,in almost every instance the
 guild erected and maintained a chapel  
within its private domicilio1 chose a   
particular saint to be its patron1 and  
held1 with fitting pomp and liberality1 
a yearly celebration of that patron's   
holy-day4  ,on these occasions masses   
and other services were said or sung1   
and the embroidered banner of the guild1
 together with the image 7which was     
often of silver7 of its tutelar saint1  
was carried in procession through the   
streets of this bright city of the      
south1 abounding at all seasons in      
flowers and sunshine1 and famed1 from   
the remotest days of ,spanish history1  
for the splendour and munificence of her

 public festivals4  ,our earliest record
 of the formal attendance of the gremios
 of ,valencia at one of her fiestas1    
goes back to the visit to this capital  
of ,king ,pedro the ,second1 in #accf1  
when the guilds were marshalled in      
military fashion1 company by company1   
each headed by its pennon  la saga dels 
primers1 that is1 next to the group or  
company immediately in front of it4 ,in 
#acib1 upon the visit of another        
monarch1 ,juan the ,first1 who was      
accompanied by his queen1 ,violante1 a  
more elaborate character was given to   
the welcome4 ,jongleurs and dancers were
 hired to perform1 while several of the 
gremios constructed decorative scenes or
 allegorical tableaux on a platform or a
 waggon1 which was wheeled along the    
street in slow procession1 surrounded by
 the marching members of the guild4 ,one
 of these structures represented the    
winged dragon or drach-alat which       
figures so conspicuously in the records 
of ,valencia 7see ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #baj71  

and was attacked and overcome in mimic  
combat by a body of knights armed       
cap--pie4 ,the mariners of the port     
built two large galleys1 also moved on  
wheels and simulating an attack1 and the
 freneros or bit-makers presented a     
gathering of folk disguised as savages4 
,nor was the bullfight--that most       
characteristic of ,spanish              
sports--omitted from the entertainment1 
judging from the following entry in the 
city archives3 ,item4 ,sien aemprats los
 prohomens carnicers a procurar e haver 
toros e fer per sos dies feta la dita   
entrada joch ab aquells specialment en  
lo mercat com sia cert quel ,senyor ,rey
 se agrada e pren plaer de tal joch4  ,a
 typical fiesta and procession of these 
trade-guilds is described by            
,tramoyeres4 ,formed in two long lines1 
the members of the guild advanced along 
the tortuous and narrow highways of the 
town1 adorned with tapestries and       
altars4 ,each gremio was preceded by a  
band of cymbal-beaters1 pipers1 and     

jongleurs1 sometimes accompanied by a   
comparsa allusive to the ceremony now   
being celebrated4 ,next came the        
standard of the master-craftsmen and    
apprentices1 each group of whom attended
 its divisa or distinguishing emblem4   
,close after followed the banner of the 
craft in general1 carried by one or two 
of the oficiales1 who made display of   
their dexterity and strength by         
supporting the staff of the banner upon 
their shoulder1 the palm of the hand1 or
 the under-lip4 ,the cords of the banner
 were held by the officers of the guild1
 denominated mayorales1 clavarios and   
prohombres2 behind these came the       
masters1 and last of all1 a triumphal   
car on which were represented scenes    
relating to the craft4 ,thus1 in the    
year #afee1 at the commemoration of the 
second centenary of the canonization of 
,saint ,vincent ,ferrer1 the gremios    
showed particular ingenuity and novelty 
in these devices4 ,don ,marco ,antonio  
,ort1 who wrote an account of the       

festival in question1 thus describes a  
few of them4 ,the millers were preceded 
by a waggon drawn by four mules and     
covered with boughs and flowers4 ,on it 
was the imitation of a windmill1 wheel  
and every other part1 contrived so      
cunningly that although the wheel went  
round at a great speed1 the artifice    
which caused it to revolve was kept from
 view1 and in the time that the         
procession lasted1 it ground to flour a 
whole caliz of wheat4 ,another          
invention1 says the same chronicler1 was
 that of the masons4 ,the scene devised 
by these was a triumphal car1 handsomely
 adorned1 on which was borne the great  
tower 7of the cathedral71#fi imitated so
 skilfully that it seemed to have been  
rooted from its foundation1 and         
replanted in the car aforesaid2 and so  
enormous was its size that a special    
spot required to be chosen in which to  
set it up4 ,this was in the garden of   
,la ,punta2 and when the tower was      
finished and ready to be taken forth1 a 

breach for its passage had to be opened 
in the garden wall4 ,it even contained a
 peal of bells1 which rang by turning   
round and round1 and this invention of  
the bells1 besides its ingenuity1 was   
rarely fitted to this festival1 seeing  
that the clock-bell of the cathedral    
7that is the greatest of them all7 was  
given1 when it was baptized1 the name of
 ,san ,vicente's bell1 as well as of    
,saint ,michael the ,archangel2 whence  
the tower itself is called the ,micalet1
 this1 in the language of ,valencia1    
being the diminutive for ,michael4 ,it  
were impossible to imagine the stir and 
the applause excited in all quarters of 
the city by the passage of this tower4  
#fi ,that is1 the ponderous structure   
known as the ,miguelete1 which          
stands unfinished to this day4  ,the    
same writer describes the decorative car
 or waggon of the flax-weavers4 ,upon it
 were a woman seated beneath a canopy1  
weaving at a frame1 and representing    
,santa ,ana1 the child ,jesus making    

caillas1 and an aged man1 for ,san      
,antonio1 dressed as a hermit1 with a   
live sucking-pig at his side4 ,before   
these went ,our ,lady riding on a       
jennet1 with a child in her arms1 her   
right hand held by a man of venerable   
age representing ,saint ,joseph4 ,this  
artifice was symbolic of the weavers'   
trade1 receiving for this reason great  
applause1 as well as for the lavish     
decoration of1 and curious details that 
were in1 the car4  ,tramoyeres further  
explains that the guild which took first
 place in the procession was that which 
had been most recently created1 the     
oldest and most honoured coming last4   
,at ,valencia this proud position was   
held from the remotest period by the    
clothmakers2 but from time to time1 when
 these for any cause were absent from   
the festival1 their place was taken by  
one or other of two companies almost as 
ancient and as honourable--the tanners  
or the tailors4  ,each guild selected an
 official dress or livery1 distinguished

 from the others by its colour or       
design3--the tailors1 purple and white2 
the weavers1 rose with black sleeves2   
the cutlers1 crimson with green sleeves 
and sprinkled with golden roses2 the    
millers1 white with crimson-striped     
sleeves2 the silversmiths1 crimson with 
silver trimming2 and so forth4 ,their   
banners1 too1 were quite in harmony with
 the rich apparel of the vain           
agremiados4 ,according to an author of  
the seventeenth century1 these flags    
were not of war1 but of a different     
workmanship1 and greatly larger4 ,all   
are of damask1 most being coloured      
crimson1 and the poles sustaining them1 
and terminated by an image of the       
sainted patron of the guild1 are longer 
than the longest pike of war4 ,truly1 a 
splendid show these banners make1       
displayed with fringes of drawn gold1   
and shields embroidered with the same   
material4  ,the image in which the pole 
of the banner concluded was not1        
however1 invariably that of a saint1 or 

of a saint alone4 ,in the case of the   
cask-makers it was a golden tun         
surmounted by a cross1 with figures of  
,saint ,helen and the ,emperor          
,constantine standing on either side of 
it4 ,that of the armourers was a bat    
7the rat-penat or winged rat contained  
in the escudo of ,valencia72 that of the
 cloth-shearers1 a pair of scissors with
 a golden crown and the image of ,saint 
,christopher2 of the fishermen1 a boat  
containing ,saint ,peter and ,saint     
,andrew2 of the clothmakers1 a sphere   
inscribed with the name of ,jesus2 of   
the stonemasons1 a silver millwheel and 
a silver image of the ,virgin4          
,similarly1 each gremio displayed upon  
its coat-of-arms some kind of emblem    
such as the implement1 or implements1   
associated with its trade3--the         
silversmiths1 a square and compass2 the 
carpenters1 a hatchet and a saw2 the    
lock-smiths1 a pair of hammers and an   
anvil4  ,quaintly instructive are the   
dispositions of the guilds relating to  

apprenticeship4 ,the maestro of a trade1
 described by the ,count of ,torrenaz as
 the principal worker in the workshop1  
agreed to feed1 clothe1 and instruct his
 apprentice or discpulo1 and treat him  
generally as a member of his own family4
 ,he was permitted to punish his        
apprentice for misconduct1 but not to   
employ excessive physical violence2 and 
a law of ,jayme the ,first decreed that 
if the apprentice lost one or both of   
his eyes from a blow inflicted by his   
master1 the latter was to make good the 
injury 7sia tengut del mal que li haura 
feyt74  ,the number of apprentices      
allowed in any one workshop was often   
7and subsequently to the fifteenth      
century1 nearly always7 regulated by the
 law4 ,the first disposition of this    
kind discovered by ,tramoyeres dates    
from the year #adea1 and refers to the  
shoemakers1 whose apprentices might not 
outnumber three to each maestro4#gj     
,similarly1 by provisions issued at a   
later date1 the mattress-makers and the 

builders were allowed no more than two  
apprentices1 and the silk-weavers three1
 although sometimes the master might    
admit an extra aprenent or so1 on       
payment of a certain sum per head4#ga   
,the term of the apprenticeship was also
 often fixed by law4 ,in most of the    
trades it was four years2 but in the    
case of the makers of ribbons and of    
boxes it was five years2 while          
stocking-makers were apprenticed for    
six1 and wax-makers and confectioners   
for eight years4    #gj ,the ,count of  
,torrenaz quotes an earlier instance1   
relative to        another city1 from   
the shoemakers' ordinances of ,burgos1  
confirmed        by the emperor ,alfonso
 in ,a4,d4 #abgj4 ,these laws decreed1  
obviously        with the purpose of    
limiting the number of apprentices1 that
 every        master-craftsman who      
engaged an apprentice was to pay two    
thousand        maravedis for the       
service of ,god and of the hospital4    
,similar        legislation1 lasting    

many centuries1 was in force elsewhere1 
for        ,larruga says that at        
,valladolid1 although the city produced 
fourteen thousand hats yearly1 most of  
the master-hatters had no               
apprentices in their workshops1 and only
 one oficial4    #ga ,e4g41 the         
silk-weavers 7,statute of #agja74 ,que  
ningun collegial        de dit collegi  
puixa matricular francament mes de tres 
aprenents y        si volgus tenirne    
mes1 hatja de pagar  dit collegi deu    
lliures1        moneda real de ,valencia
 per casc dels que excedir de dit       
numero4  ,before the father or the      
guardian of a lad could sign his papers 
of apprenticeship1 it was required      
7during and after the sixteenth century7
 to prove before the guild1 by means of 
his certificate of baptism1 or on the   
declaration of witnesses1 that he was   
the child of parents who were old       
,christians1 and not the offspring of   
,moor1 ,jew1 slave1 convert1 or 7in the 
fierce expression of the                

stocking-makers7 any other infected     
race4 ,still more absurd and savage was 
an ordinance1 dated #aeig1 of the       
shoemakers1 prohibiting any master of   
this trade from admitting to            
apprenticeship in any form1 a black boy1
 or one of the colour of cooked quince1 
slave or ,moor 444 so as to avoid the   
harm which might befall our brother     
shoemakers from the ridicule that would 
be stirred among the populace1 if they  
should see in our processions and other 
public acts1 a slave1 or the son of a   
black slave1 or a lad of the colour of  
cooked quince1 or a ,moor2 as well as   
the rioting and scandals that would be  
caused by the spectacle of creatures of 
this nature mixing with decent1         
well-dressed people4  ,these statutes   
are selected from the mass of local     
legislation which concerned ,valencia   
only4 ,turning to ,spanish guilds at    
large1 the study of these institutions  
throws considerable light upon the      
customs of the ,spanish nation in the   

past1 and more especially upon the      
social and financial standing of the    
older ,spanish craftsman4 ,as in other  
countries1 the principal and primal     
object of the gremio was to organize a  
system of defence against the military  
and nobility1 or even against the crown4
 ,presently1 however1 and long before   
their evolution is completed1 errors    
become apparent in the statutes or      
proceedings of these bodies which       
denote1 very instructively and very     
plainly1 the typical defects or         
weaknesses of the ,spanish character4   
,foremost of all was thriftlessness4    
,although it is a fact that several of  
the ,spanish guilds owned houses or even
 land1 none of them 7except the         
silversmiths of two or three large      
towns7 were really affluent2#gb and     
indeed1 in a country racked by incessant
 foreign wars or civil strife1 there was
 every reason why they should not be    
affluent4 ,yet1 notwithstanding this1 in
 celebrating any kind of public         

festival1 the poor agremiado made no    
scruple to vie in prodigal disbursements
 with the moneyed aristocracy1 clothing 
himself in fanciful and costly          
stuffs1#gc constructing shows and       
spectacles on wheels1 raising elaborate 
altars in the streets1 contracting for  
expensive services1 performances1 and   
tableaux4 ,more than once1 the gremios  
were obliged to borrow funds to         
celebrate the festival of their patron  
saint4#gd ,so also with regard to dress4
 ,the costumes of the guildsmen of      
,valencia have been already noticed4 ,an
 equal recklessness and foppery         
prevailed in other ,spanish towns2 for  
instance1 at ,barcelona1 where1 on a    
visit of ,ferdinand and ,isabella in    
#adha1 the silversmiths formed part of  
the procession dressed in the richest   
manner1 with robes and mantles all      
covered with silver1 and some of them   
with bonnets that were all of silver    
plate with jewels and silver foliage1   
while others wore silver chains about   

their necks4    #gb ,it is not often1   
for instance1 that we meet with notices 
of ,spanish        craftsmen such as    
,miguel ,jernimo ,monegro1 a silversmith
 of        ,seville1 who at his death1  
towards the middle of the sixteenth     
century1 was in a position to bequeath  
the following money and        effects3 
#ae1jjj maravedis to his servant1       
,catalina ,mexia1 #fjjj        maravedis
 to ,juan ,ortiz1 a boy that was in my  
house1 that he may        learn a trade1
 #fjjj maravedis yearly to his          
slavewomen1 ,juana        and ,luisa1   
and a black mule to his executor1       
,hernando de        ,morales4--,gestoso1
 ,diccionario de ,artfices ,sevillanas1 
,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bef4    #gc ,this did  
not happen only at ,valencia4 ,the      
,cortes assembled at        ,valladolid 
in #aecg complained that it was         
tolerable that costly        stuffs     
should be worn by lords1 gentlemen1 and 
wealthy persons2 but        such is     
become our nation1 that there is not an 

hidalgo1 squire1        merchant1 or    
oficial of any trade1 but wears rich    
clothing2        wherefore many grow    
impoverished and lack the money to pay  
the        alcabalas and the other taxes
 owing to ,his ,majesty4                
,fernandez de ,navarrete stated1 in     
#afbf1 that the wives of common         
mecnicos 7i4e4 craftsmen7 furnish their 
dwellings more        luxuriously than  
titled personages of the realm were wont
 to        furnish theirs some few years
 ago1 and that hangings of taffeta      
or ,spanish guadameces were now regarded
 with contempt1 being        replaced1  
even in the homes of the moderately     
well-to-do1 by        sumptuous fabrics 
of ,florence and ,milan1 and by the     
costliest        ,brussels              
tapestry4--7,conservacin de ,monarquas1 
p4 #bdf74    #gd ,larruga1 in ,vol4     
,,xviii4 of his ,memorias1 inserts an   
account of        the heavy debts       
incurred by the gremios of ,valladolid1 
upon the        celebration of various  

of their festivals4  ,two of the most   
conspicuous faults among the ,spanish   
race are pride and envy4 ,yet these     
defects may be explained without much   
puzzling1 and1 in a measure1 pardoned4  
,spaniards1 through all the process of  
their national development1 have clung  
by preference to the calling of the     
soldier or the priest2 that is1 the only
 occupations which directly dissipate   
the revenue of the commonwealth4 ,since1
 therefore1 they were thus inclined from
 earliest antiquity1 as well as tutored 
by a crafty priesthood to believe that  
might or violence alone is right1 the   
haughtiness of the ,spanish people is a 
logical1 and indeed inevitable1 outcome 
of their history4 ,moreover1 side by    
side with this erroneous theory that the
 only prowess and decorum of a people   
must consist in armed aggressiveness1 as
 well as in a truculent and militant    
intolerance in matters of religion 7or  
rather1 of superstition71 there arose   
the equally as mischievous and erroneous

 theory that the arts of peace were     
venal1 despicable1 and effeminate1 or1  
in the current phrase of our            
contemporaries1 unworthy of a gentleman4
 ,the ,spaniards1 wrote ,fernndez de    
,navarrete1 are so proud-hearted that   
they do not accommodate themselves to   
servile labour4 ,therefore this people  
chose their favourites and heroes in a  
semi-savage freebooter2 never in a      
craftsman of gigantic merit1 like the   
elder ,berruguete1 or ,juan de ,arfe1 or
 ,alonso ,cano4 ,sometimes1 as happened 
with the reja of the ,chapel ,royal of  
,granada1 they did not even trouble to  
record the surname of her best          
artificers4 ,these men1 in fact1        
exceptions to her universal rule1 were  
coldly looked upon1 or even             
persecuted4#ge ,abundant proof is yet   
extant of this humiliation of her       
merchants1 craftsmen1 shopkeepers1 as   
distinguished from her soldiery and     
clergy1 gentry and nobility4            
,undoubtedly1 beneath such scorn the    

former of these groups were sensitive to
 their position1 and all the more       
acutely sensitive because of their      
inherent ,spanish pride4 ,in fact1 so   
sensitive were they1 that now and then  
the crown esteemed it prudent to appease
 their wounded vanity by certain        
declarations or emoluments4 ,thus1 the  
,repartimiento de ,sevilla tells us that
 in the year #abee ,alfonso the ,tenth  
rewarded several craftsmen of his       
capital of ,seville with the title of   
,don1 a dignity1 says ,amador1 rarely   
bestowed at that time4#gf ,in #aeef     
,charles the ,fifth resolved1 in favour 
of the corporation of artistas-plateros 
or artist-silversmiths1 that the masters
 of this craft1 together with their     
wives1 might dress in silk1 in that it  
was an art they exercised1 and not an   
office 7,gestoso1 ,diccionario de       
,artfices ,sevillanos1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4    
lx471 while ,philip the ,fourth decreed 
that they should not be forced to       
contribute to the equipment of his      

troops1 but should only be invited to   
contribute1 just as with the nobles4    
,nevertheless1 ,rico y ,sinobas points  
out 7,del vidrio y de sus artfices en   
,espaa7 that ,philip the ,fifth and     
,ferdinand the ,sixth1 on founding the  
royal glass factory of ,san ,ildefonso1 
did not dare to ennoble the ,castilian  
workmen4    #ge ,the treatment of       
distinguished craftsmen by the ,spanish 
church was        often sheerly         
villainous4 ,a document1 inserted by    
,zarco del ,valle        among his      
collection of ,documentos ,inditos para 
la ,historia de        las ,bellas      
,artes en ,espaa1 p4 #cfb1 and in the   
handwriting of        ,maestre ,domingo 
7see ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #adh1 #adi71 states 
that after        making the choir-reja 
for ,toledo cathedral1 so richly        
wrought1        that in the elegance and
 rarity thereof it far surpasseth all   
that        has been witnessed in our   
time1 whether in his majesty's dominions
        or abroad1 and expending on it  

all the money ,i had earned in my       
youth1 this eminent rejero found himself
 by now owing a great        quantity of
 maravedis1 seeing that ,i am utterly   
without        resources1 concluding by 
an appeal to the archbishop to take heed
        how that ,i shall not perish    
through such poverty1 and my wife and   
children in the hospital4         ,in   
another document the same artificer     
complains that in producing        the  
aforesaid reja1 he had sacrificed not   
only my labour1 but my        property  
to boot1 having been compelled to sell  
my house and my        inheritance to   
compensate me for my losses1 adding that
 the        cathedral authorities had   
violated their engagement with him4     
,in answer to a series of petitions such
 as this1 the archbishop        tardily 
gave orders for the payment to ,domingo 
of a lump sum of        fifteen thousand
 maravedis and a pension for the rest of
 his life        of two silver reales of
 ,castilian money1 to aid him to support

        himself4 ,this was in ,a4,d4    
#aefc4 ,by #aefe death had ended the    
miseries of the master-craftsman1 and   
again we find his widow and             
children knocking at the archbishop's   
door1 pleading that extreme        is   
our necessity1 and declaring that       
,domingo had succumbed                  
overburdened with debt1 affirming on his
 deathbed that the        cathedral owed
 him three thousand ducats1 being half  
the value of        a reja he had made4 
,in answer to this terrible appeal1 the 
thrifty prelate ordered that            
since it was found to be true that      
,master ,domingo had lost his           
maravedis in making the rejas of the    
choir1 his widow and children           
should receive a daily pension of one   
real1 and that a suit of        clothes 
should be given to each of his sons and 
his two daughters4    #gf ,so rarely1   
that ,salazar de ,mendoza affirms in his
 book upon        ,castilian ,dignities 
that this high prenomen 7alto prenombre 

,don7 might properly be used by none but
 kings1 infantes1        prelates1 and  
the ricos-homes of the realm4           
,in ,a4,d4 #afbf1 ,fernndez de          
,navarrete complained of the tendency   
prevailing among the ,spaniards         
generally to usurp the title ,don4      
,nowadays in ,castile1 he wrote         
7,conservacin de ,monarquas1        p4  
#ga1 etc471 exists a horde of turbulent 
and idle fellows that so        style   
themselves1 since you will hardly find  
the son of a craftsman        7oficial  
mecnico7 that does not endeavour by this
 trick to filch        the honour that  
is owed to true nobility alone2 and so1 
impeded and        weighed down by the  
false appearance of caballeros1 they are
        unsuited to follow any          
occupation that is incompatible with the
        empty authority of a ,don4      
,some of the reasons why these rogues or
 pseudonobles 7as        ,fernndez de   
,navarrete called them71 attempted to   
pass for        hidalgos or sons of     

somebody1 are disclosed by ,townsend1   
writing a century and a half later4     
,numerous privileges and                
immunities enjoyed by the hidalgos or   
knights1 sometimes called        hijos  
dalgo1 have contributed very much to    
confirm hereditary        prejudices to 
the detriment of trade4 ,their          
depositions are taken        in their   
own houses4 ,they are seated in the     
courts of justice1 and        are placed
 near the judge4 ,till the year #aghd1  
their persons1 arms1        and horses  
were free from arrest4 ,they are not    
sent to the common        jails1 but are
 either confined in castles or in their 
own houses on        their parole of    
honour4 ,they are not hanged1 but       
strangled1 and        this operation is 
called garrotar1 from garrote1 the      
little        stick used by carriers to 
twist the cord and bind hard their      
loading4 ,they cannot be examined on the
 rack4 ,they are1 moreover1             
exempted from the various taxes called  

fechos1 pedidos1        monedas1        
martiniegas1 and contribuciones reales  
and        civiles3 that is1 from       
subsidies1 benevolence1 and poll tax1 or
        taille paid by the common       
people1 at the rate of two per cent41 in
        this province1 but in others at 
the rate of four4 ,they are free        
from personal service1 except where the 
sovereign is1 and even then        they 
cannot be compelled to follow him4 ,none
 but the royal family        can be     
quartered on them4 ,to conclude1 the    
noble female conveys all        these   
privileges to her husband and her       
children1 just in the same        manner
 as the eldest daughter of the titular  
nobility transmits the        titles of 
her progenitors4         ,the proportion
 of hidalgos in the kingdom of ,granada 
is not        considerable2 for out of  
six hundred and fifty-two thousand nine 
hundred and ninety inhabitants1 only one
 thousand nine hundred and              
seventy-nine are noble2 whereas1 in the 

province of ,len1 upon        little    
more than one-third that population1 the
 knights are        twenty-two thousand4
 ,in the province of ,burgos1 on four   
hundred and        sixty thousand three 
hundred and ninety-five inhabitants1 one
        hundred and thirty-four thousand
 and fifty-six are entitled to all      
the privileges of nobility2 and in      
,asturias1 of three hundred and         
forty-five thousand eight hundred and   
thirty-three1 nearly        one-third   
enjoy the same distinction4--7,journey  
through ,spain in        the years #aghf
 and #aghg3 ,vol4 ,,iii41 pp4 #gi1 #hj47
  ,i bestow the name of craftsmen in    
silver 7artfices plateros71 not upon all
 who handle silver or gold1 but only    
upon such as draw1 and grave1 and       
execute in relief1 whether on a large or
 small scale1 figures and histories from
 life1 just as do the sculptors4 ,these 
words are quoted from a book1 the whole 
of which was written with the aim of    
proving that certain classes of ,spain's

 older craftsmen were less abject than  
the rest4#gg ,it is not so long ago that
 the expression viles artesanos 7vile   
artisans7 was banished from the legal   
phraseology of ,spain4 ,that prejudice1 
wrote ,laborde1 which regards the       
mechanic arts as base1 is not           
extinguished in ,spain1 but only abated3
 hence it happens that they are         
neglected or abandoned to such unskilful
 hands that they are wonderfully        
backward in these matters4 ,the         
influence of this cause is striking3 in 
,catalonia1 laws1 customs1 and opinions 
are favourable to artisans1 and it is in
 this province that these arts have made
 the greatest progress4    #gg          
,licentiate ,gaspar ,gutierrez de los   
,ros1 ,noticia general para la          
estimacin de las ,artes y la manera en  
que se conocen las liberales        de  
las que son mecnicas y serviles4        
,madrid1 #afjj4 ,i again have           
occasion to mention this curious work in
 my chapter on ,spanish                 

tapestries4  ,townsend commented as     
follows on what he called the national  
prejudice against trade4 ,whilst the    
,jews were merchants1 and the mechanic  
arts were left either to the ,moors or  
to the vilest of the people1 the        
grandees or knights were ambitious only 
of military fame4 ,after the conquest of
 ,granada1 the ,moors continued to be   
the principal manufacturers1 and        
excelled in the cultivation of their    
lands4 ,when these1 with the ,jews1 were
 banished1 a void was left which the    
high-spirited ,spaniard was not inclined
 to fill4 ,trained for many centuries to
 the exercise of arms1 and regarding    
such mean occupations with disdain1 his 
aversion was increased by his hatred and
 contempt for those whom he had been    
accustomed to see engaged in these      
employments4 ,he had been early taught  
to consider trade as dishonourable2 and 
whether he frequented the theatre1 or   
listened to the discourses of the pulpit
 orators1 he could not fail to be       

confirmed in his ideas4 ,even in the    
present day1 many1 who boast their      
descent from noble ancestors1 had rather
 starve than work1 more especially at   
those trades by which1 according to the 
laws1 they would be degraded1 and       
forfeit their nobility4--7,journey      
through ,spain in #aghf and #aghg1 pp4  
#bdj1 #bda47  ,laborde endorsed these   
assertions by uncharitably remarking    
that the ,spaniard had always fortitude 
enough to endure privations1 but never  
courage enough to encounter work4 ,in   
our time judgments of a still severer   
kind have been passed upon the          
,spaniards by various of their own      
countrymen--among others1 ,unamuno1     
,ganivet1 and ,pompeyo ,gener4  ,it is  
evident1 too1 that the cause of the     
relentless exclusion1 by the ,spanish   
guilds1 of ,moors1 ,moriscos1 ,jews1 or 
converts--men who1 owing to the         
unsubstantial taint of heresy1 were     
hated and derided by the ,spanish nation
 almost to a man--resided also in this  

morbid sensitiveness4 ,had not the      
,moorish prisoner been formerly         
considered as the merest chattel1       
legally equivalent to a beast of        
burden8#gh ,how1 then1 should he be ever
 equalled with the ,christian ,spaniard8
 ,these haughty and extravagant notions 
operated1 in the seventeenth century1 to
 bring about the general ruin of        
,spanish trades and manufactures4       
,bertaut de ,rouen wrote at this        
time3--,l'acotumance qu'avoient les     
,espagnols de faire travailler les      
,morisques1 qui estoient libres parmi   
eux1 et les ,mores esclaves1 dont il y a
 encor quelques-uns qu'ils prennent sur 
leurs costes et sur celles d',afrique1  
les a entretenus dans la faineantise et 
dans l'orgueil1 qui fait qu'ils         
ddaignent tous de travailler4 ,ce qui   
achve de les y plonger1 c'est le peu de 
soucy qu'ils prennent de l'avenir1 et   
l'galit du menu peuple et de tous les   
moindres marchands et artisans qu'ils   
nomment officiales1 avec les            

gentilshommes1 qui demeurent tous dans  
les petites villes4    #gh ,it is stated
 in the ,fuero of ,njera 7,a4,d4 #ajgf7 
that the price of        the blood of a 
,moorish slave was twelve sueldos and a 
half1 while        the ,fuero ,viejo of 
,castile 7,book ,,ii41 ,tit4 ,,iii41    
,ley ,,iv47 contains        the         
significantly contemptuous phrase1 ,if a
 man demand of another        a beast or
 a ,moor 7si algn ome demanda  otro     
bestia  moro74        ,the ,countess    
d',aulnoy wrote in #afgi2--,there are   
here 7at ,madrid7 a        large number 
of ,turkish and ,moorish slaves1 who are
 bought and sold        at heavy prices1
 some of them costing four hundred and  
five hundred        escudos4 ,until some
 time ago the owners of these slaves    
possessed        the right to kill them 
at their pleasure1 as though they had   
been        so many dogs2 but since it  
was remarked that this usage tallied but
        poorly with the maxims of our   
,christian faith1 so scandalous a       

license was prohibited4 ,nowadays the   
owner of a slave may often        break 
his bones without incurring censure4    
,not many1 however1        resort to so 
extreme a chastisement4  ,in the same   
century the ,countess d',aulnoy recorded
 comical instances of the pride of the  
tradesmen of ,madrid4 ,one morning1 she 
says1 we stopped awhile in the ,plaza   
,mayor to await the return of a servant 
whom my aunt had sent with a message to 
some place not far away4 ,just then ,i  
saw a woman selling some slices of      
salmon1 crying them aloud and           
proclaiming their freshness in tones    
which positively molested the           
passers-by4 ,presently a shoemaker came 
up 7,i knew him to be such1 because they
 called him the seor zapatero71 and     
asked for a pound of salmon2 since here 
they sell everything by the pound1 even 
to coal and firewood4 ',you have not    
been through the market1' cried the     
woman who sold the fish1 'because you   
fancy that my salmon is cheap to-day2   

but let me tell you that it costs an    
escudo the pound4' ,furious that his    
poverty should thus be hinted at in     
public1 the shoemaker exclaimed in angry
 tones3 ',it is true that ,i was not    
aware of the price of fish to-day4 ,had 
it been cheap1 ,i would have bought a   
pound of it2 but since you say it is    
dear1 give me three pounds4' ,with these
 words1 he held out his hand with the   
three escudos1 jammed his hat upon his  
eyebrows 7tradesmen in this town wear   
small hats1 and persons of quality hats 
of great size71 and then1 twisting the  
ends of his mustachios1 and clapping his
 hand to his rapier1 the point of which 
bobbed upward1 carrying with it a fold  
of his ragged cloak1 caught up his      
purchase and strode home1 looking at us 
with an arrogant air1 as though he had  
performed some heroic deed and we had   
witnessed it4 ,yet the drollest part of 
it all was that beyond doubt the fellow 
had no money left at home1 but had spent
 his week's wages upon the salmon1 so   

that his choleric and haughty act would 
keep his wife and children famishing for
 all those days1 after supping once upon
 abundant fish4 ,such is the character  
of this people2 and there are gentlemen 
here who take the feet of a fowl and    
hang them so as to show beneath the hem 
of their cloak1 to make it appear as    
though they really bore a fowl4 ,but    
hunger1 in truth1 is all they carry with
 them4  ,you never see a shopman here   
who does not clothe himself in velvet1  
silk1 and satin1 like the king2 or who  
is not the owner of a mighty rapier1    
which dangles from the wall1 together   
with his dagger and guitar4 ,these      
fellows work as little as they may1 for1
 as ,i said1 they are by nature         
indolent4 ,only in case of extreme      
necessity do they work at all1 and then 
they never rest1 but labour even        
throughout a feast-day2 though when they
 have finished what was needed to       
procure them money1 they deliver the    
product of their toil1 and with its     

value relapse into fresh idleness4 ,the 
shoemaker who has two apprentices1 and  
who has only made one pair of shoes1    
hands to his lads a shoe apiece and     
makes them walk before him as though    
they were his pages2 he that has three  
apprentices is preceded by all three2   
and when occasion rises1 the            
master-zapatero will hardly condescend  
to fit upon your feet the shoes which   
his own hands had put together4  ,it    
seems that the shoemakers of ,madrid    
were distinguished for their insolence  
and vanity above the rest of her        
tradespeople4 ,in #afei ,bertaut de     
,rouen wrote of the two corrales or     
theatres of this town1 that they were   
toujours pleines de tous les marchands1 
et de tous les artisans1 qui quittant   
leur boutique s'en vont l avec la cappe1
 l'pe1 et le poignard1 qui s'appellent  
tous cavalleros jusques au apateros2 et 
ce sont ceux qui dcident si la comedie  
est bonne ou non1 et  cause qu'ils la   
sifflent ou qu'ils l'applaudissent1 et  

qu'ils sont d'un cost et d'autre en     
rang1 outre que c'est comme une espce de
 salve1 on les appelle ,mosqueteros1 en 
sorte que la bonne fortune des autheurs 
dpend d'eux4  ,the foregoing narratives 
sound absurd1 and are particularly prone
 to be considered so from being of      
foreign authorship4 ,their tenor1       
notwithstanding1 is supported by the    
following declarations1 gravely set down
 in writing by a ,spaniard1 within some 
half a dozen years of the visit to      
,madrid of the ,countess d',aulnoy4 ,the
 name of this author is ,alonso ,nuez de
 ,castro1 and the title of his work     
7published towards the close of the     
reign of ,philip the ,fourth71 ,el      
,cortesano en ,madrid4 ,what man1       
demands this madrileo of a bygone       
century1 eminent in any of the arts1 has
 belonged to other nations1 but has     
sought in ,madrid the applause and gain 
which his native country would not1 or  
could not1 bestow upon him8 ,thus1      
either he in person1 or else his        

master-works1 visit with frequency this 
court of ours1 wherein they meet a      
better fate than in their birthplace1   
since only at ,madrid is properly       
esteemed the value of illustrious       
effort4 ,let ,london manufacture as she 
may her famous cloths1 ,holland her     
cambrics1 ,florence her satins1 ,india  
her castors and vicunas1 ,milan her     
brocades1 ,italy and the ,netherlands   
the statues and oil-paintings which seem
 to breathe the very life of the        
original3 our ,court enjoys these       
products one and all1 proving hereby    
that other nations generate artists for 
,madrid1 who is1 in sooth1 the supreme  
,court of ,courts1 seeing that she is   
served by all1 yet in her turn serves   
none4  ,yet not at slight expense does  
she enjoy this sovereignty1 showering   
upon other hands her gold and silver1   
that they may recreate her mouth with   
choicest drinks and viands1 her nostrils
 with delicious essences1 her eyes with 
wondrous works of painting and of       

statuary1 her hearing with the skill of 
world-renowned musicians1 her luxury    
with expensive fabrics and with precious
 stones2 albeit these disbursements mark
 her1 not as prodigal1 but as prudent in
 discovering the proper use of gold1    
together with the fitting aim and       
purpose of all riches4 ,who was         
possessor of more gold than             
,midas8--seeing that not he alone1 but  
all he laid his hand upon1 was gold2 or 
who so wretched8--seeing that he was    
powerless to keep himself alive on gold1
 though all he touched was golden4      
,truly that man is rich that maketh gold
 to minister to his wants1 and he a     
miserable pauper that to gold himself is
 slave1 not knowing how to turn its uses
 to his good4 ,therefore let other      
peoples accumulate wealth at ease1      
heaping up the gold wherewith ,madrid   
repays their ministration to her needs4 
,whereas her courtiers prove possession 
of their gold1 in that they amassed it  
formerly1 those foreigners show the evil

 and the mischief of their own by       
jealously confining it with lock and    
key3 nay1 who shall even tell if it be  
theirs1 seeing that they enjoy it not1  
although they seem to be the lords      
thereof8  ,you will declare that other  
courts enjoy the same conveniences with 
less expense1 because their magistrates 
are stricter to restrain the tradesman  
from establishing his prices at caprice4
 ,truly1 it may happen that elsewhere   
the price of foods and luxuries be less 
than in ,madrid2 yet it is certain that 
,madrid makes fair comparison in        
cheapness with the other cities of      
,castile4 ,nay1 more1 without there     
seeming to be cause1 her courtiers daily
 find that by a marvel articles are     
cheaper here than in the soil which     
generated them1 or in the town where    
they were wrought4 ,the fact that in    
comparison with other kingdoms ,madrid  
is in some ways the dearer1 proves that 
she hath the money for rewarding labour2
 and that in other capitals the sweat of

 the artificer is worthless1 because    
money is worth more4 ,always have ,i    
remarked that the province or the realm 
that is awarded the name of happy1      
because all things are purchasable there
 at next to no expense1 is wrongly      
titled so1 since here is evidence1      
either that money lacks1 or that there  
is no purchaser4#gi    #gi ,to further  
show the extravagant way of thinking and
 behaving of the        ,spaniard of the
 seventeenth century1 the same author   
sets aside the        sneering objection
 justly made by foreign writers to the  
river        ,manzanares at             
,madrid--namely1 that it has no         
water--by remarking        with         
exquisite complacency1 that here        
precisely lies the crowning        merit
 and advantage of the ,manzanares over  
rival streams2 in that        it amuses 
people without endangering their lives4 
,in the reigns of        ,philip the    
,fourth and ,charles the ,second1 a     
favourite promenade of        the       

,madrid aristocracy was the waterless   
channel of this river1 in        which1 
according to this work1 coaches and     
carriages do duty for        a gondola1 
and form a pleasant imitation of the    
boats and palaces        of ,venice4    
,in the eighteenth century1 when better 
sense prevailed among the statesmen and 
economists of ,spain1 the greedy and    
corrupt administration of her guilds    
began to be awarded greater notice4     
,among the enlightened and progressive  
,spaniards who outspoke their minds upon
 this theme1 were ,florez ,estrada and  
the ,count of ,campomanes4 ,these1 among
 others of less mark1 saw and proclaimed
 that the harm inflicted by the gremios 
in some directions was incalculable1    
while the good they were supposed to    
bring about in others was rather nominal
 than real4#hj ,apart1 however1 from the
 judgment uttered by these two          
authorities1 men of acknowledged probity
 and consequence who held the public    
ear1 as well as by the patriotic        

,jovellanos in his spirited appeal in   
favour of the libre ejercicio de las    
artes1 a number of causes1 such as the  
propagation of the principles of        
individual liberty by the ,french       
,revolution1 contributed to give the    
gremios an archaic air1 and finally to  
bring about their downfall4 ,the views  
concerning them which gradually filled  
the popular mind1 prior to their        
extinction as an act of government in   
the year #ahcd1ha are well expressed by 
,townsend4 ,in all the trading companies
 or gremios1 wrote this traveller1      
religious fraternities are formed1 some 
incorporated by royal authority and     
letters patent1 others by connivance of 
the crown1 but both in violation of the 
laws4    #hj ,the object avowedly       
pursued by ,campomanes was not1 however1
 the        absolute suppression of the 
,spanish trade-guilds1 but merely their 
reconstruction upon a sounder basis4 ,he
 still believed that        admission to
 a guild should be preceded by a formal 

period of        apprenticeship1 as well
 as that the title and the privileges of
 the        master of a trade should be 
hereditary4 ,an instance of the grossly 
fraudulent methods employed by the      
gremios in order to retain the          
privilege of manufacture in a certain   
family1 is quoted by ,larruga           
7,memorias1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bja71 who  
states that the silk-cord        makers 
of ,madrid conferred the title of       
master-craftsman on a        babe only  
twenty-two months old4    #ha           
,barzanallana says that the earliest    
sign of a movement in the               
direction of emancipating the ,spanish  
people from the thraldom of        the  
gremios is contained in the royal cedula
 of ,may #agth1 #agij1        abolishing
 several of the noxious prerogatives    
which had hitherto        been enjoyed  
by the families of master-craftsmen4 ,a 
further crown        decree1 dated the  
same month and year1 empowered the      
,audiencias and        ,chancilleras to 

authorize persons to pursue a craft     
7provided they        were reasonably   
competent7 without the necessity of     
approval from        the gremios and    
their veedores4 ,three years later1 the 
same        monarch 7,charles the       
,fourth7 suppressed the gremios and     
colegios of the silk-twisters1 and      
declared this craft to be open        to
 all such persons1 of either sex1 as    
wished to practise it4 ,in        #agig 
it was permitted to all foreigners who  
should be competent in        any art or
 industry 7except ,jews7 to establish   
themselves in ,spain        or her      
dominions1 nor were they to be molested 
in their religious        theories if   
they should happen not to be ,roman     
,catholics4         ,at a later time the
 ,cortes annulled1 or very nearly so1   
the        ordenanzas of the gremios1   
and allowed the exercise of any         
lawful trade or craft to everybody1     
,spaniards and foreigners alike1        
without the requisite of special license

 or examination1 or        approval by  
the officers of the guilds 7decree of   
,june #hth1 #ahac74        ,this measure
 was revoked in #ahae1 but again became 
law in #ahcf1 and        two years      
before this latter date was issued the  
decree of ,queen        ,mara ,cristina 
prohibiting associations which1 under   
the semblance        of a gremio1 should
 aim at converting any craft or office  
into a        monopoly4         ,the    
,spanish gremios still exist1 but all   
their sting has        departed4 ,to-day
 they may be said to spring from the    
natural and        beneficial           
interdependence of persons working      
together in the same        groove1 and 
seeking mutual support by means of      
peaceable        association4 ,thus the 
abuses which rendered them so terrible  
and        evil in the olden time are   
fortunately now no more4  ,every        
fraternity is governed by a mayor and   
court of aldermen1 who make laws1 sit in
 judgment on offenders1 and claim in    

many cases exemption from the common    
tribunals of the country4 ,none but the 
members of these communities may        
exercise mechanic arts1 or be concerned 
in trade2 and to be admitted as a member
 is both attended with a heavy fine1 and
 entails upon each individual a constant
 annual expense4  ,this1 however1 is not
 the greatest evil1 for the mayor and   
officers1 during their year of service1 
not only neglect their own affairs1 but 
from vanity and ostentation run into    
expenses1 such as either ruin their     
families1 or at least straiten them     
exceedingly in trade4  ,these           
corporations1 being established in the  
cities1 banish1 by their oppressive     
laws1 all the mechanic arts from towns  
and villages4 ,in the cities likewise   
they tend only to monopoly1 by limiting 
the numbers in every branch of business1
 and fixing within unreasonable bounds  
the residence of those who are concerned
 in trade4 ,this they do either by      
assigning the distance between shop and 

shop1 under pretence that two shops     
vending the same commodities must not be
 so near together as to interfere1 or by
 assembling all the mechanics of the    
same profession1 such as silversmiths1  
and confining them to one street or     
quarter of the city1 under the plausible
 pretext that thus the proper magistrate
 may with ease pay attention to their   
work1 and see that the due standard be  
observed4#hb    #hb ,this custom was    
borrowed from the ,east1 and explains   
why1 in many        of the older        
,spanish cities1 a number of their      
streets have taken        their title   
from the trades that formerly were plied
 in them1 or        7in some instances7 
that still are so4 ,especially was this 
the case        at ,valencia and        
,toledo4 ,in the latter capital there   
are1 or used to        be1 the streets1 
plazas1 or barrios1 of the silversmiths1
        armourers1 bakers1 old-clothes  
vendors1 potters1 esparto-weavers1      
dyers1 chairmakers1 and many more4      

,martn ,gamero1 in his excellent        
,history of ,toledo 7,introduction1 p4  
#fj71 says that in the centre        of 
the city were located the quiet crafts1 
such as those of the        jewellers1  
silversmiths1 chandlers1 and            
clog-makers1 as well as        the shops
 of the silk1 brocade1 and              
tissue-vendors4 ,noisy trades1          
such as the swordsmiths'1 tinsmiths'1   
boiler-makers'1 chairmakers'1        and
 turners'1 were practised on the        
outskirts of the town4  ,in many cases  
the various gremios bear hard upon each 
other4 ,thus1 for instance1 the         
carpenter must not employ his industry  
on mahogany1 or any other wood but deal1
 nor must he invade the province of the 
turner4 ,the turner must confine his    
ingenuity and labour to soft wood1 and  
must not presume to touch either ivory  
or metals1 even though he should be     
reduced to poverty for want of work4    
,the wheeler1 in similar distress1 must 
not1 however qualified1 extend his      

operations beyond the appointed bounds1 
so as to encroach on the business of the
 coach-maker1 who is equally restrained 
from either making or mending either    
cart or waggon wheels4 ,the barber may  
shave1 draw teeth1 and bleed1 but he    
must not fill up his leisure time with  
making wigs4#hc ,as mechanics are       
obliged to keep exactly each to his     
several line1 so must shopkeepers       
confine themselves to their proper      
articles in trade1 and under no pretence
 must the manufacturer presume to open  
magazines1 that he may sell by retail4  
#hc ,colmeiro has published memoriales  
presented by the hatters of             
,zaragoza1 in which they pray to be     
allowed to line1 by their own           
hands1 or by those of their wives1 the  
hats which they had        manufactured1
 instead of being required to give up   
this finishing        and accessorial   
process to the makers of silk           
cord4--,historia de        la ,economa  
,poltica en ,espaa1 and ,biblioteca de  

los economistas        espaoles de los  
siglos ,,xvi41 ,,xvii41 y ,,xviii4  ,but
 neither are these abuses the only evils
 which call for reformation4 ,many      
corporations have been impertinently    
meddling1 and have absurdly bound the   
hands of the manufacturer by regulations
 with respect to the conduct of his     
business and the productions of his art1
 such as1 being too rigidly observed1   
would preclude all improvements1 and    
would be destructive to his trade1 by   
giving to foreigners a manifest         
advantage in favour of their            
merchandise4#hd    #hd ,this            
meddlesomeness almost exceeds belief4   
,it was at its worst1        perhaps1 in
 the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 
who decreed that        the wicks of    
candles were to be made of the same kind
 of tow1 and        horse-shoes and     
nails to be of the same weight in every 
part of        their dominions4 ,it was 
required that machines1 which might have
        been to great advantage moved by

 mules or horses1 should only be        
worked by the hand of man1 however      
lengthy and exhausting this        might
 prove4 ,the ,count of ,torrenaz1 who   
quotes these ridiculous                 
dispositions from the ,libro de bulas y 
pragmticas of ,juan        ,ramrez1     
further recalls that1 as late as the    
middle of the        eighteenth century1
 costly woven stuffs of ,seville and    
,valencia        used to be confiscated 
because1 although the ground of the     
fabric        was of a colour which the 
law allowed1 the flowers or other       
devices        which formed the         
decoration were of a forbidden shade4   
,on one        occasion the chief       
lady-in-waiting of the queen was        
prohibited from        wearing a dress  
which she had ordered from a weaver of  
,valencia1        because the flowered  
pattern was contrary to the ordenanzas4 
,the incorporated fraternities in the   
kingdoms of ,castile and ,aragon are    
#be1eha1 and their corporate expenses   

amount to #aa1fhg1hfa reals4 ,their     
revenue is not altogether consumed in   
feasting1 nor in salaries to officers1  
nor in pensions to their widows1 nor yet
 in lawsuits1 which are said to be both 
numerous and expensive2 but considerable
 sums are expended for religious        
purposes1 in procuring masses to be     
said1 either for departed spirits and   
the souls in ,purgatory1 or for the     
benefit of the fraternity in which each 
individual has a proportionable         
interest4 ,for this reason1 these       
communities enjoy the protection of the 
ecclesiastical courts1 to which1 in     
cases of necessity1 they frequently     
appeal4  ,the chartered corporations    
claim their exclusive privileges by     
royal grant1 and on this plea they      
resist a formation1 not considering1 as 
,count ,campomanes with propriety       
remarks1 the essential condition of     
these grants1 ,sin perjuicio de tercero1
 or that nothing therein contained shall
 be to the prejudice of others1 or      

injurious to the citizens at large4     
,,appendix ,i                           
,,classes ,,of ,,pottery ,,made ,,at    
,,alcora                 7,from         
,,ria,o's ,industrial ,arts in ,spain7  
,towards the middle of the eighteenth   
century3--    ,vases of different       
shapes4    ,small pots 7,chinese        
fashion74    ,teapots and covers        
7,chinese fashion74    ,cruets1 complete
 sets 7,chinese style74    ,entre       
dishes4    ,salt-cellars 7,chinese      
style74    ,escudillas 7bowls71 of      
,constantinople4    ,barquillos 7sauce  
bowls71 ,chinese style4    ,bottles 7in 
the ,chinese manner74    ,cups1 plates1 
and saucers of different kinds1 with    
good painted borders   in imitation of  
lace-work 7puntilla74 ,some were        
designed in the   ,chinese manner1 and  
especial care was taken with            
fruit-stands1   salad-bowls1 and dishes4
    ,trays and refrigerators4  ,a       
document1 discovered by ,riao1 and dated
 #aggg1 says that in that year the      

following kinds of pottery were         
manufactured at ,alcora3--              
,figures of ,demi-,porcelain4           
,figures of tritons4          of        
soldiers 7two sizes74          of       
soldiers1 one-third of a palmo high4    
of the four seasons 7two sizes74        
of dancers4          of tritons in the  
form of children4          with         
brackets4          of different animals4
          of gardener and female        
companion in the ,dresden style4        
,dancing figures in the ,german style4  
,figures of ,neptune4          of       
shepherd and shepherdess4          of   
the ,moorish king1 ,armenius4           
of the four parts of the world 7two     
sizes74          of peasant and his     
wife4   ,small figures holding musical  
instruments4   ,figures representing    
different monarchies4                   
representing historical personages4     
representing the history of ,alexander  
the ,great 7two sizes74                 
representing ,martius ,curtius 7two     

sizes74          of elephants4          
of a man mounted on an elephant4        
representing ,chinese figures4          
of ,heliogabalus4          of a general 
on horseback4          of a grenadier   
supporting a candlestick4   ,large      
figures representing ,julius ,csar4     
,figures representing the different     
costumes worn in ,spain1 on brackets4   
,groups of ,chinese figures4            
,snuff-boxes1 sugar-basins1 inkstands4  
,rabbits1 horns1 and pug-dogs for       
holding scent4   ,small scent-bottles4  
,needle-cases4   ,large vases with foot 
and cover4   ,brackets4   ,walking-stick
 handles4   ,knife handles4             
,figures of white ,biscuit ,china4      
,figures representing ,spanish costumes 
7two sizes74   ,groups of two figures4  
,large and small figures of the four    
parts of the world4   ,figures of the   
four seasons 7two sizes74  ,we find     
also1 says ,riao1 the following figures 
of painted and glazed porcelain3--      
,four seasons 7two sizes74   ,groups of 

two figures4   ,figure of a ,moorish    
king4         of musicians and huntsmen4
         of peasants4         of        
,chinese4   ,small figures of a gardener
 and female companion4   ,figures of    
soldiers in the ,german style4  ,from   
#aghi to #agig1 continues ,riao1 the    
following kinds of pottery were made at 
,alcora3--    ,hard paste porcelain     
7,french74   ,porcelain of three        
different kinds called ,spanish4        
,porcelain of pipeclay 7,english74      
,blue pipeclay porcelain4   ,marbled    
pipeclay porcelain4   ,bucaros1 painted 
and gilt4   ,strasburg ware4            
,porcelain painted en froid4   ,marbled 
and gilt wares1 hitherto unknown4       
,porcelain 7,frita74    ,porcelain      
painted with gilt lines4                
painted without gold4                   
7frita71 canary colour4   ,boxes in     
relief4           plain4   ,porcelain   
7frita71 painted with marble wares4     
,plain boxes of the same kind4          
,porcelain 7frita71 of blue and brown   

ground4   ,cups and saucers of a similar
 kind4                                  
,biscuit ,porcelain4    ,figures4       
,vases4   ,pedestals4   ,white porcelain
 7frita7 cups of different kinds4       
porcelain1 ornamented and plain4        
,boxes with busts4   ,boxes with        
ornamentations in relief4   ,vases for  
holding flowers1 plates1 etc4   ,large  
figures of the four seasons4   ,flower  
vases with rams' heads4   ,plain boxes4 
,boxes with ornaments in relief4        
,white ,porcelain4    ,plates1 cups1    
etc4   ,figures of different kinds4     
,painted ,porcelain4    ,cups1 saucers1 
plates1 etc4   ,cream-pots4   ,plain    
snuff-boxes1 or in the shape of a dog4  
,fruit-stands in relief4                
,,bibliography  ,the following is a     
fairly complete list of the works ,i    
have consulted for the preparation of   
these volumes4  ,,abd,n ,,de ,,paz4 ,la 
,espaa de la ,edad ,media4  ,,academia  
,,de ,,san ,,fernando1 ,,real4 ,coleccin
 de ,antigedades ,arabes de ,granada y  

,crdoba2 #b vols4  ,,alba1 ,,duchess    
,,of ,,berwick ,,and4 ,catlogo de las   
colecciones expuestas en las vitrinas   
del ,palacio de ,liria4  ,,alderete4    
,antigedades de ,espaa4  ,,alzola ,y    
,,minondo1 ,,pablo4 ,el ,arte           
,industrial en ,espaa4 ,bilbao1 #ahib4  
,,amador ,,de ,,los ,r,,os4 ,el ,arte   
,latino-,bizantino en ,espaa y las      
,coronas ,visigodas de ,guarrazar4      
,madrid1 #ahfa4  ,,ant,n1 ,,francisco4  
,estudio sobre el ,coro de la ,catedral 
de ,zamora2 #aijd4  ,,argote ,,de       
,,molina4 ,nuevos ,paseos ,histricos1   
,artsticos1 ,econmico-,polticos por     
,granada y sus ,contornos4  ,,arphe ,y  
,,villafa,e4 ,varia ,conmensuracin para 
la ,escultura y ,arquitectura4 ,seventh 
edition2 ,madrid1 #agie4  ,arte en      
,espaa1 ,el2 #h vols4  ,arts italiens en
 ,espagne1 ,les1 ou histoire des        
artistes italiens qui contribuerent     
embellir les ,castilles4 ,rome1 #ahbe4  
,,balsa ,,de ,,la ,,vega4 ,las          
,industrias ,artsticas en ,madrid       

7,lace1 etc474 ,articles published in   
,el ,liberal1 #aijg4  ,,barrantes4      
,barros emeritenses4 ,madrid1 #ahgg4    
,,bertaut ,,de ,,rouen4 ,journal du     
,voyage d',espagne4 ,paris1 #affi4      
,,birch1 ,,samuel4 ,history of ,ancient 
,pottery4 ,london1 #ahgc4  ,,bock4 ,die 
,kleinodien des heil4 rmischen ,reichs  
deutscher ,nation1 nebst den            
,kroninsignien ,bhmens1 ,ungarns1 und   
der ,lombardei4 ,vienna1 #ahfd4         
,geschichte der liturgischen ,gewnder   
des ,mittelalters4 ,bonn1 #ahga4        
,,bonsor1 ,,georges4 ,les ,colonies     
pre-,romaines de la ,valle du ,btis4    
,paris1 #ahii4  ,,bourgoing1            
,,jean-,,fran,,ois ,,de4 ,nouveau       
,voyage en ,espagne4 #c vols42 ,paris1  
#aghi4  ,,bre,,osa ,y ,,castellarnau4   
,gua y ,descripcin del ,real ,sitio de  
,san ,ildefonso4 ,madrid1 #ahhd4        
,,caballero ,,infante1 ,,francisco4     
,aureos y barras de oro y plata         
encontrados en el pueblo de ,santiponce4
 ,seville1 #ahih4  ,,campos ,,munilla1  

,,manuel4 ,mosaicos del ,museo          
,arqueolgico ,provincial de ,sevilla4   
#ahig4  ,,capmany ,y ,,montpalau1       
,,antonio4 ,memorias histricas sobre la 
marina1 comercio1 y artes de la ciudad  
de ,barcelona4 ,madrid1 #aggi4          
,,carrasco ,y ,s,,inz1 ,,adolfo4        
,catlogo de los recuerdos histricos     
existentes en el ,museo de ,artillera4  
,part ,i42 ,madrid1 #ahic4  ,,cascales1 
,,francisco4 ,discursos histricos sobre 
,murcia4 ,murcia1 #afbd4  ,,cean        
,,bermudez1 ,,juan ,,agustin4           
,descripcin ,artstica de la ,catedral de
 ,sevilla4 ,seville1 #ahfc4             
,diccionario de las ,bellas ,artes en   
,espaa4  ,,cedillo1 ,,count ,,of4       
,toledo en el siglo ,,xvi4 ,madrid1     
#aija4  ,,clonard1 ,,count ,,of4        
,memorias para la historia del traje    
espaol2 published in the ,memorias de la
 ,real ,academia de la ,historia1 ,vol4 
,,ix4 ,madrid1 #ahgi4    ,conferencias  
leidas en el ,ateneo ,barcelons sobre el
 estado de la   cultura espaola y       

particularmente catalana1 en el siglo   
,,xv4   ,barcelona1 #ahic4  ,,cole1     
,,alan ,s4 ,ornament in ,european       
,silks4 ,london1 #ahii4  ,,contreras1   
,,rafael4 ,recuerdos de la ,dominacin de
 los ,arabes en ,espaa4 ,granada1 #ahhb4
  ,,cox4 ,l',art de dcorer les ,tissus4 
,,cruzada ,,villaamil4 ,los tapices de  
,goya4 ,madrid1 #ahgj4  ,,danvila ,y    
,,collado4 ,trajes y ,armas de los      
,espaoles4 ,madrid1 #ahgg4  ,,davillier1
 ,,baron4 ,recherches sur l'orfvrerie en
 ,espagne4 ,paris1 #ahgi4    ,les arts  
decoratifs en ,espagne au moyen ge et   
la ,renaissance4   ,paris1 #ahgi4       
,nota sobre los cueros de ,cordoba1     
,guadameciles de ,espaa1 etc4           
7,spanish edition47 ,gerona1 #ahgi4     
,,diaz ,y ,,perez1 ,,nicol,s4 ,historia 
de ,talavera la ,real4 ,madrid1 #ahgi4  
,,dozy4 ,histoire des musulmans         
d',espagne4 ,leyden1 #ahha4             
,,dupont-,,auberville4 ,l',ornement des 
,tissus4 ,paris1 #ahgg4  ,,echeverr,a4  
,paseos por ,granada y sus ,contornos4  

#b vols42 ,granada1 #ahad4  ,,eguilaz   
,,yanguas1 ,,leopoldo4 ,resea ,histrica 
de la ,conquista del ,reino de ,granada 
por los ,reyes ,catlicos4 ,granada1     
#ahid4  ,,errera1 ,,madame ,,isabelle4  
,collection d',anciennes toffes         
7,catalogue74 ,brussels1 #aija4         
,,fernandez ,y ,,gonzalez1 ,,francisco4 
,estado social y poltico de los mudjares
 de ,castilla4 ,madrid1 #ahff4          
,,florez4 ,espaa ,sagrada4 7#bnd        
edition74 ,madrid1 #ahbd4  ,,ford1      
,,richard4 ,handbook for ,travellers in 
,spain4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahde4        
,,gayangos1 ,,pascual ,,de 7edited by74 
,history of the ,mohammedan ,dynasties  
in ,spain4 ,london1 #ahdc4    7annotated
 by74 ,chronicle of ,rassis the ,moor4  
,madrid1 #ahej4  ,,gayet4 ,l',art       
,persan4  ,,gestoso ,y ,,perez1 ,,jos4  
,documentos relativos  la historia de la
 ,armera de ,sevilla4 ,seville1 #ahhg4  
,ensayo de un ,diccionario de los       
artfices que florecieron en ,sevilla    
desde el siglo ,,xiii al ,,xviii        

inclusive4 #b vols42 ,seville1 #ahii4   
,historia de los barros vidriados       
sevillanos desde sus orgenes hasta      
nuestros das4 ,seville1 #aijc4          
,curiosidades antiguas sevillanas4      
,seville1 #ahhe4  ,,goblet              
,d',,alviella1 ,,comte4 ,la ,migration  
des ,symboles4 ,paris1 #ahia4  ,g,,mez  
,,moreno1 ,,manuel4 ,apuntes que pueden 
servir de historia del bordado de       
imaginera en ,granada 7published in the 
magazine ,el ,liceo de ,granada2 #fth   
year1 ,no4 #ah74    ,gua de ,granada4   
,granada1 #ahib4  ,g,,ngora4            
,antigedades ,prehistricas de ,andaluca4
 ,madrid1 #ahfh4  ,,granada1            
,,ordinances ,,of4 ,titulo de las       
,ordenanas que los muy ,ilustres y muy  
magnficos ,seores ,granada mandaron que 
se guarden para la buena governacion de 
su ,repblica4 ,las quales mandaron      
imprimir para que todos las sepan y las 
guarden4 #aeeb4    ,ordenanzas que los  
,muy ,ilustres y ,muy ,magnificos       
,seores ,granada   mandaron guardar1    

para la buena governacion de su         
,republica1 impressas   ao de #aeeb4    
,que se han buelto a imprimir mandado de
 los ,seores   ,presidente1 y ,oydores  
de la ,real ,chancilleria de esta ciudad
 de ,granada1   ao de #afgj4 ,aadiendo  
otras que no estauan impressas4         
,impressas en   ,granada4 ,en la        
,imprenta ,real de ,francisco de ,ochoa1
 en la ,calle de   ,abenamar4 ,ao de    
#afgh4  ,,guillen ,,robles1 ,,francisco4
 ,mlaga musulmana4 ,mlaga1 #ahhj4       
,,gutierrez ,,de ,,la ,,hacera1         
,,pascual ,,ramon4 ,descripcin ,general 
y ,cronolgica de ,espaa4 #b vols42      
,madrid1 #agga4  ,h,,bner4              
,inscriptiones ,hispani latin4 ,berlin1 
#ahib4    ,inscriptionum ,hispani       
latinarum supplementum4 ,berlin1 #ahib4 
,,jones1 ,,owen4 ,the ,alhambra4        
,london1 #ahdb4  ,,lane-,,poole1        
,,stanley4 ,the ,art of the ,saracens in
 ,egypt4 ,london1 #ahhh4    ,the ,moors 
in ,spain4 ,london1 #ahig4  ,,larruga4  
,memorias polticas y econmicas sobre los

 frutos1 comercio1 y minas de ,espaa4   
,madrid1 #aghh4  ,,le ,,breton1         
,,gaston4 ,cramique espagnole4 ,le salon
 en porcelaine du ,palais ,royal de     
,madrid et les porcelaines de ,buen     
,retiro4 ,paris1 #ahgi4  ,,lecea ,y     
,,garcia4 ,recuerdos de la antigua      
industria ,segoviana4 ,segovia1 #ahig4  
,,lopez ,,de ,,arenas1 ,,diego4         
,carpintera de lo ,blanco y ,tratado de 
,alarifes4 7#crd edition47 ,madrid1     
#ahfg4  ,,madrazo1 ,,pedro ,,de4        
,crdoba4 ,barcelona1 #ahhd4  ,,martorell
 ,y ,,pe,a1 ,,juan4 ,apuntes            
arqueolgicos de1 ordenados por ,salvador
 ,samper y ,miquel4 ,barcelona1 #ahgi4  
,,medina1 ,,pedro ,,de4 ,primera y      
,segunda parte de las grandezas y cosas 
notables de ,espaa4 ,alcal de ,henares1 
#aeie4  ,,menendez ,y ,,pelayo1         
,,marcelino4 ,historia de las ,ideas    
,estticas en ,espaa4 ,madrid1 #ahhf and 
following years4  ,,morales1 ,,ambrosio 
,,de4 ,la crnica general de ,espaa del  
,maestro ,florin de ,ocampo1 continuada 

con el libro de las antigedades de      
,espaa4  ,,moreno ,,de ,,vargas1        
,,bernab4 ,historia de la ,ciudad de    
,mrida4 ,merida1 #afcc2 reprinted at    
,merida1 #ahib4  ,,murgu,a1 ,,manuel4   
,el ,arte en ,santiago durante el siglo 
,,xviii41 y noticia de los artistas que 
florecieron en dicho ciudad y centuria4 
,madrid1 #ahhd4  ,museo ,espaol de      
,antigedades 7many articles in the74    
,madrid1 #ahgb and following years4     
,noticia de la ,fbrica de ,espadas de   
,toledo que por tantos siglos existi    
hasta fines del ,,xvii en que acab1 y   
del mtodo que tenan aquellos artfices   
,armeros para forjarlas y templarlas1   
aceros de que usaban1 y otras           
particularidades que las hicieron tan   
famosas en todo el ,mundo como          
apetecidas al presente1 y de la que por 
el ,rey ,n4,s4 que ,dios gue4 se        
estableci en esta ,ciudad ao de #agfj2  
por ,francisco de ,santiago ,palomares  
,escriuano mayor de primeros remates de 
,rentas decimales de ,toledo y su       

,arzobispado4 ,,ms4 in the ,library of  
the ,royal ,academy of ,history1        
,madrid2 in the volume inscribed ,varios
 de ,historia1 #h1 ,e1 #ada4            
,ordenanzas de la muy noble  muy leal   
,cibdad de ,sevilla  su tierra1 assi de 
las tocantes al ,cabildo y regimiento   
della1 que se contienen en la primera   
parte1 como de todos los oficios        
mecnicos1 de que es la segunda parte4   
,impressas con mucha diligencia en la   
dicha ,cibdad de ,sevilla por ,juan     
,varela de ,salamanca1 vezino della4    
,acabronse de imprimir  catorze dias del
 mes de ,febrero1 ao de ,nuestro        
,redemptor ,iesu ,christo de mil        
quinientos  veynte y siete aos 7#aebg74 
,the second edition was published1 also 
at ,seville1 in #afcb4  ,ordenanzas para
 el buen regimen y gobierno de la muy   
noble1 muy leal  imperial ciudad de     
,toledo4 ,reprinted by the ,town        
,council4 ,toledo1 #aheh4  ,,ortega     
,,rubio4 ,los ,visigodos en ,espaa4     
,madrid1 #aijc4  ,,osma1 ,,guillermo ,j4

 ,,de4 ,azulejos sevillanos del siglo   
,,xiii4 ,madrid1 #aijb4    ,los letreros
 ornamentales en la cermica morisca del 
siglo ,,xv4  ,p,,rez ,,de               
,,villa-,,amil4 ,espaa ,artistica y     
,monumental4 ,paris1 #ahdb-ahej4        
,p,,rez ,,villaamil1 ,,manuel4 ,artes   
,industrias del ,buen ,retiro4 ,madrid1 
#aijd4  ,,picatoste1 ,,felipe4 ,ultimos 
escritos4    ,estudios sobre la grandeza
 y decadencia de ,espaa4  ,,pigal4      
,collection de ,costumes des diverses   
,provinces de l',espagne4 ,paris1 about 
#ahaj4  ,,ponz1 ,,antonio4 ,viaje de    
,espaa4 #ah vols42 ,madrid1 #aghg4      
,,ram,,rez ,,de ,,arellano1 ,,rafael4   
,ciudad ,real ,artstica4 ,ciudad ,real1 
#ahid4  ,,ria,o1 ,,juan ,,facundo4 ,the 
,industrial ,arts in ,spain 7,south     
,kensington ,museum ,art ,handbooks74   
,london1 #ahgi4  ,,ricord1 ,,tom,s4     
,noticia de las varias y diferentes     
,producciones del ,reyno de ,valencia1  
etc43 segun el estado que tenan en el ao
 #agia4 ,valencia1 #agic4  ,,rodr,,guez 

,,villa1 ,,antonio 7edited by74 ,la     
,corte y ,monarqua de ,espaa en los aos 
de #afcf y #afcg4 ,madrid1 #ahhf4       
,,sanpere ,y ,,miquel4 ,la ,plateria    
catalana en los siglos ,,xvi y ,,xv     
7article published in the ,revista de   
,ciencias ,histricas2 ,vol4 ,i474       
,las ,costumbres ,catalanas en tiempo de
 ,juan ,i4 ,gerona1 #ahgh4  ,,sempere4  
,historia del lujo en ,espaa4 ,madrid1  
#aghh4  ,,simonet1 ,,francisco ,,javier4
 ,descripcin del ,reino de ,granada1    
sacada de los autores arbigos4 ,granada1
 #ahgb4  ,,stirling1 ,,william4 ,annals 
of the ,artists of ,spain4 ,london1     
#ahdh4  ,,strabo4 ,geography4  ,,street4
 ,some ,account of ,gothic ,architecture
 in ,spain4 ,london1 #ahfe4             
,,swinburne1 ,,henry4 ,travels through  
,spain4 ,london1 #aggi4  ,,townsend1    
,,joseph4 ,journey through ,spain4 #c   
vols42 ,london1 #agib4  ,,valladar1 ,f4 
,,de ,,paula4 ,gua de ,granada4         
,granada1 #ahij and #aijf4  ,,van ,,de  
,,put4 ,hispano-,moresque ,ware of the  

,fifteenth ,century4 ,london1 #aijd4    
,,vargas ,y ,,ponce4 ,correspondencia   
epistolar en materias de ,arte4         
,collected by ,cesreo ,fernndez ,duro4  
,madrid1 #aijj4  ,,villa-,,amil ,y      
,,castro4 ,antigedades prehistricas y   
clticas de ,galicia4 ,lugo1 #ahgc4      
,arqueologa ,sagrada4 ,lugo1 #ahfg4     
,,vi,,aza1 ,,count ,,of ,,la4 ,adiciones
 al ,diccionario de ,cean ,bermudez4    
,goya4  ,,viollet-,,le-,,duc4           
,dictionnaire raisonn du mobilier       
franais de l'poque ,carlovingienne  la  
,renaissance4  ,,wallis1 ,,henry4 ,the  
,oriental ,influence on the ,ceramic    
,art of the ,italian ,renaissance4      
,london1 #aijj4  ,,young1 ,,arthur4     
,tour in ,catalonia4 ,dublin1 #agic4    
,,zarco ,,del ,,valle4 ,documentos      
inditos para la ,historia de las ,bellas
 ,artes en ,espaa4 ,madrid1 #ahgj4      
,,index    ,abd-al-,azis1 ,i4 #ca4      
,abd-er-,rhaman the ,first1 ,,ii4 #eg4  
,abd-er-,rhaman the ,second1 ,,ii4 #eg2 
,,iii4 #bj4   ,abd-er-,rhaman the       

,third1 ,,ii4 #ih4   ,aben-,said1 ,i4   
#bbe2 ,,ii4 #ace1 #acf4   ,abolais1     
,,ii4 #bbf et seq41 #bcg4   ,abreviador1
 the ,casa del1 ,,iii4 #aej4            
,abu-,said1 ,,iii4 #cg4   ,adargas1 ,i4 
#bda1 #bdb4   ,addison1 ,lancelot1 ,,ii4
 #ah et seq41 #cb1 #de 7note74          
,alberoni1 ,cardinal1 ,,iii4 #aej       
7note74   ,albuquerque1 the inventory of
 the ,dukes of1 ,i4 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bgi1   
#bhc1 #bhd2     ,,ii4 #i1 #aj4          
,alcaicera of ,granada1 the1 ,i4 #gh2   
,,ii4 #aid et seq4   ,alcarrazas1 ,,ii4 
#aid et seq4   ,alczar of ,seville1 the1
 ,,ii4 #fj et seq41 #ach1 #ada1 #adc1   
#adh1 #aej1 #aeb4   ,alcora1 pottery of1
 ,,ii4 #bjc et seq4   ,alcoy1 cloths of1
 ,,iii4 #abd4   ,aleman1 ,cristbal1     
,,ii4 #bde4   ,aleros1 ,,ii4 #fe1 #ff4  
,alfarge ceilings1 ,,ii4 #eb et seq4    
,alfonso the ,second1 ,,iii4 #ahc4      
,alfonso the ,third 7the ,great71 ,i4   
#dd1 #eg 7note72 ,,ii4 #ajf2 ,,iii4     
#ahc4   ,alfonso the ,sixth1 ,i4 #de    
7note71 #bgf2 ,,ii4 #ae1 #ajf2 ,,iii4   

#ajf4   ,alfonso the ,ninth1 ,,ii4 #ci4 
,alfonso the ,tenth 7the ,learned71 ,i4 
#fa1 #fb1 #abi1 #bje2 ,,ii4 #bbf1 #bci2 
,,iii4 #aa1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #ajf1 #bch4  
,alfonso the ,eleventh1 ,i4 #fh2 ,,iii4 
#ab1 #gj4   ,alfonso the ,eleventh1 the 
,chronicle of1 ,i4 #bjg1 #bji1 #bfh1    
#bfi1     #bhj 7note74   ,alfonso the   
,thirteenth1 ,i4 #db 7note74   ,alfonso 
the ,first of ,aragon1 ,,ii4 #ad4       
,algeciras1 the siege of1 ,i4 #bfi4     
,al-,hakem the ,first1 ,,ii4 #ace2      
,,iii4 #bac4   ,al-,hakem the ,second1  
,,ii4 #eg4   ,alhambra1 the1 ,,ii4 #ed1 
#ef1 #ei1 #fd et seq41 #hf1 #aba1 #aed  
et seq41 #afh     et seq41 #ahc1 #bcb1  
#bcc4   ,aliceres1 ,,ii4 #acf4          
,al-,jattib1 ,i4 #gg 7note71 #bbf1 #bfh4
   ,aljofar1 ,i4 #fg2 ,,iii4 #aa et     
seq41 #cc4   ,al-,khattib1 ,,iii4 #cc1  
#ci4   ,almagro ,cardenas1 ,,ii4 #fe    
7note74   ,almagro1 lace of1 ,,iii4     
#afj4   ,al-,makkari1 ,i4 #cb1 #gf2     
,,ii4 #acg1 #afc1 #bca2 ,,iii4 #a1 #b1  
#ba1 #cc1 #ce4   ,al-,manzor1 ,i4 #bbg2 

,,ii4 #eg4   ,almexa1 ,,iii4 #h4        
,almohades1 the1 ,,ii4 #acf2 ,,iii4 #bc4
   ,almoravides1 the1 ,,iii4 #bb4       
,almotalefes1 ,,iii4 #eh et seq4        
,altar-screens 7see ,retablos74         
,alvarez de ,colmenar1 ,i4 #aaj 7note71 
#bfg2 ,,ii4 #bc1 #bd1 #ca1 #aii 7note71 
#bfj2 ,,iii4 #ej et seq41 #gd4   ,amador
 de los ,ros1 ,jos1 ,i4 #ag1 #bc1 #bh2  
,,ii4 #ei 7note74   ,amador de los ,ros1
 ,rodrigo1 ,i4 #cf1 #dh1 #di1 #fa1 #fb1 
#abh1 #abi1 #agf1 #agi1     #ahc1 #ahe2 
,,ii4 #eh1 #aja1 #ajc1 #ace1 #acf2      
,,iii4 #bab1 #bch4   ,amphor1 ,,ii4     
#aaf1 #aag4   ,analogia1 ,,iii4 #baa1   
#bab4   ,ancheta1 ,,ii4 #hj4   ,andino1 
,cristbal de1 ,i4 #aea et seq4          
,angels1 the ,cross of1 ,i4 #da et seq41
 #eh4   ,apocalypse1 the ,codex of the1 
,i4 #bbc4   ,arabian ,nights1 ,the1     
,,ii4 #fb1 #fc 7note74   ,aranda1 the   
,count of1 ,,ii4 #ahb1 #bjd et seq4     
,arca ,santa of ,oviedo1 the1 ,i4 #dd4  
,arenys de ,mar1 lace of1 ,,iii4 #agb4  
,arenys de ,munt1 lace of1 ,,iii4 #agb4 

,arfe1 ,antonio de1 ,i4 #ih4   ,arfe1   
,enrique de1 ,i4 #ig1 #aja2 ,,iii4 #bja4
   ,arfe1 ,juan de1 ,i4 #he1 #if et     
seq42 ,,iii4 #ahe1 #bja4   ,argote de   
,molina1 ,,ii4 #bc4   ,armouries of     
,spain1 private1 ,i4 #bdc1 #bdd4        
,armoury1 ,madrid1 the ,royal1 ,i4 #ag1 
#baj1 #bad 7note71 #bag et seq41        
#bbi 7note71 #bca 7note71 #bce et seq41 
#bdh et seq41 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bgf1         
#bgh1 #bhb4   ,arnao de ,flandes1 ,,ii4 
#bdc4   ,arquetas1 ,i4 #dh et seq4      
,arras cloths 7see ,paos de ,ras74      
,artesonados1 ,,ii4 #dg1 #ee et seq4    
,ash ,shakandi1 ,,iii4 #c1 #d4          
,augusta1 ,cristbal de1 ,,ii4 #aeb4     
,axorcas1 ,i4 #gg1 #gi4   ,azulejos 7see
 ,tiles74    ,baculi1 ivory1 ,,ii4 #aje1
 #ajf4   ,balconies1 ,spanish1 ,i4 #aed 
et seq4   ,balearics1 slingers of the1  
,i4 #bjj1 #bja4   ,ble1 the ,council of1
 ,,iii4 #aaj1 #aaa 7note74   ,balsa de  
la ,vega1 ,,iii4 #afc4   ,banyolenchs1  
,,iii4 #abc 7note74   ,barcelona1 silk  
of1 ,,iii4 #ih et seq4   ,barros        

,saguntinos 7see ,saguntine ware74      
,barros tarraconenses 7see ,saguntine   
ware74   ,bartholomew1 ,master1 ,i4 #adi
 et seq4   ,barzanallana1 ,,iii4 #bbb   
7note71 #bdi 7note74   ,bayan           
,almoghreb1 ,i4 #cb4   ,becerra1 ,,ii4  
#fh4   ,becerriles1 the1 ,i4 #id1 #ie4  
,bedclothes1 ,spanish medival1 ,,ii4 #d 
7note74   ,benvenuto ,cellini1 ,,iii4   
#bjh et seq4   ,berruguete1 ,i4 #ahi2   
,,ii4 #fh1 #ga1 #gi1 #hj4   ,bertaut de 
,rouen1 ,i4 #c1 #ch1 #hb1 #ig1 #aja1    
#ajb1 #aji1 #aed1 #aee1 #bjc2     ,,ii4 
#ci1 #ei1 #fj1 #fc1 #fg 7note71 #afi1   
#bfb2 ,,iii4 #ej1 #ea1 #ajh1 #aji1 #adj1
     #ada1 #afd1 #afe 7note71 #bdb1     
#bdc1 #bde4   ,boabdil el ,chico1 ,i4   
#ge1 #bbg et seq42 ,,iii4 #cf1 #cg4     
,bocairente1 cloths of1 ,,iii4 #abd4    
,bonsor1 ,,ii4 #aac1 #aad4   ,bourgoing1
 ,,ii4 #aei1 #aha1 #baf1 #bag2 ,,iii4   
#gd1 #gf et seq4   ,bowles1 ,william1   
,i4 #d et seq41 #bc 7note71 #ef 7note71 
#bfc et seq42     ,,ii4 #eh 7note71 #aif
 et seq41 #bed1 #bee4   ,brihuega1      

cloths of1 ,,iii4 #aaj1 #aae 7note74    
,brims of ,wells 7see ,brocales74       
,brinquios1 ,,ii4 #aia1 #aib4   ,british
 ,museum1 ,the1 ,,ii4 #agg2 ,,iii4 #ahc4
   ,brocade1 ,,iii4 #ih1 #ii 7note74    
,brocales1 ,,ii4 #abc1 #abd4   ,bronzes1
 ,moorish1 ,i4 #afi et seq4   ,brun1    
,sigismund1 ,,ii4 #bei4   ,bcaros1 ,,ii4
 #aia1 #aic4   ,buckram1 ,,iii4 #e1 #g4 
,buen ,retiro1 pottery of the1 ,,ii4    
#bjc1 #bab et seq4   ,buonaparte1       
,joseph1 ,,ii4 #bah4   ,burel1 ,,iii4   
#abb4    ,cadalso1 glass of1 ,,ii4 #bcb4
   ,cadinas1 ,,iii4 #abc 7note74        
,campomanes1 ,count1 ,,iii4 #bdh1 #bec4 
,candil1 the1 ,i4 #afg1 #afh4   ,cannon1
 early ,spanish1 ,i4 #bfh et seq4       
,cano1 ,alonso1 ,,ii4 #fi1 #ha4         
,cntigas de ,santa ,mara1 the1 ,i4 #bhb4
   ,capmany1 ,,iii4 #f1 #abc 7note71    
#afi4   ,carpentry1 artistic1 ,,ii4 #df 
et seq4   ,carpintera de lo blanco1     
,,ii4 #eb1 #ec4   ,carpinteros de lo    
blanco1 ,,ii4 #ej4   ,carrin1 ,fernando 
de1 ,,iii4 #bjf1 #bjg4   ,casa de los   

,tros1 ,granada1 the1 ,,ii4 #fe1 #aef4  
,casiri1 ,,iii4 #ce1 #ci4   ,catalua1   
cloths of1 ,,iii4 #abc 7note74          
,catalua1 lace of1 ,,iii4 #afi et seq4  
,catherine of ,lancaster1 ,,iii4 #ajg1  
#abi4   ,cato1 ,i4 #e4   ,cean          
,bermudez1 ,i4 #hh1 #adh 7note71 #ahe2  
,,ii4 #fb1 #hj1 #hc et seq41 #adi1      
#bdf 7note72 ,,iii4 #aca1 #afh 7note74  
,cedillo1 ,count of1 ,,iii4 #gj 7note71 
#bbe 7note74   ,celosas1 ,,ii4 #dg1 #fb 
et seq4   ,celtiberians1 the1 ,i4 #aie1 
#aif4   ,cendal1 ,,iii4 #e1 #f4         
,chair-makers of ,granada1 the1 ,,ii4   
#bh et seq4   ,chamelot1 ,,iii4 #e1 #f1 
#ad4   ,charles the ,second1 ,i4 #ajg1  
#bgc1 #bgd2 ,,ii4 #df2 ,,iii4 #bg1 #ajg1
 #acd1     #bdh 7note74   ,charles the  
,third1 ,i4 #aae1 #bce 7note72 ,,ii4    
#bab1 #bah1 #beh2 ,,iii4 #df4   ,charles
 the ,fourth1 ,,ii4 #bae2 ,,iii4 #bdi   
7note74   ,charles the ,fifth1 ,i4 #abi1
 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bce et seq41 #bec1 #bgc1  
#bhc2     ,,ii4 #dj1 #ef1 #gg2 ,,iii4   
#ae1 #ca1 #dj1 #ajg1 #aec1 #afi1 #agd1  

#bch1 #bci4   ,chests1 makers of1 ,,ii4 
#cj4   ,ciclaton1 ,,iii4 #e1 #f4   ,cid1
 the1 ,,ii4 #ab4   ,cid1 the ,chronicle 
of the1 ,i4 #bjg4   ,cid1 the ,poem of  
the1 ,i4 #bjc1 #bjg 7note72 ,,ii4 #de   
7note74   ,cisneros1 ,cardinal1 ,,iii4  
#abf4   ,ciudad ,real1 ,,ii4 #ci4       
,clemencin1 ,,iii4 #ac1 #ad4   ,clonard1
 ,count of1 ,i4 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bac1 
#bae 7note71 #bfh2 ,,ii4 #b 7note71     
#e 7note71 #ci 7note72 ,,iii4 #ad       
7note74   ,cloostermans1 ,,ii4 #bji et  
seq4   ,cloth of ,gold1 ,,iii4 #g4      
,cloths1 ,spanish1 ,,iii4 #aje et seq4  
,cluny1 the ,museum of1 ,,ii4 #dj2      
,,iii4 #ahc4   ,coaches1 ,spanish1 ,i4  
#bhc4   ,cofradas1 ,,iii4 #bbb et seq4  
,commercial ,company of ,extremadura1   
the1 ,,iii4 #fe4   ,compaia ,real de    
,comercio y ,fbricas de ,granada1 the1  
,,iii4 #fa et seq4   ,contrayes1 ,,iii4 
#abb4   ,contreras1 ,,ii4 #agc4         
,cordellate1 ,,iii4 #abb4   ,cordova1   
cloths of1 ,,iii4 #abb4   ,cordova1     
embroiderers of1 ,,iii4 #aca et seq4    

,cordova leathers1 ,,ii4 #ch1 #ci4      
,cordova1 rejeros of1 ,i4 #ade1 #adf4   
,cordova1 the ,council of1 ,,iii4 #ab4  
,cordova1 the mosque of1 ,,ii4 #eg1 #eh1
 #ace4   ,cordova1 the ,ordinances of1  
,,ii4 #dc1 #dd4   ,covarrubias1 ,,ii4   
#ch1 #acg2 ,,iii4 #abh4   ,crossbows1   
,spanish1 ,i4 #bbj et seq4   ,crosses1  
iron1 ,i4 #ach4   ,crown of ,spain1     
tapestries of the1 ,,iii4 #aeb et seq4  
,cueros de ,crdoba1 ,,ii4 #ch et seq4   
,cunninghame ,graham1 ,i4 #aca1 #acb1   
#bce 7note71 #bgg 7note72 ,,ii4 #bj     
7note71     #abf 7note74   ,cursi1 the1 
,,ii4 #bb4   ,custodia of ,cordova1 the1
 ,,iii4 #bja et seq4   ,custodia of     
,seville1 the1 ,,iii4 #ahe et seq4      
,custodias1 ,i4 #ie et seq4   ,cutlers1 
,spanish1 ,,iii4 #bad et seq4           
,dagobert1 ,i4 #bi1 #cj4   ,dancart1    
,,ii4 #gg1 #hc4   ,danis1 ,juan1 ,,ii4  
#bdg1 #bdh4   ,d',aulnoy1 ,countess1 ,i4
 #ajg et seq42 ,,ii4 #be 7note71 #bbd2  
,,iii4 #acd1 #ace1     #ada1 #adb1 #afb1
 #bdb et seq4   ,davillier1 ,baron1 ,i4 

#gb1 #hg1 #bhj 7note72 ,,ii4 #gh1 #add1 
#bdi1 #afb1 #afe1     #aff1 #ahf et     
seq42 ,,iii4 #adi4   ,diago1 ,,ii4 #afc1
 #ahj4   ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,i4 #aii4  
,diptyches1 ivory1 ,,ii4 #hi et seq4    
,dolfin1 ,,ii4 #bdj1 #bda4   ,domingo1  
,maestre1 ,i4 #adh1 #adi2 ,,iii4 #bcg1  
#bch 7note74   ,doncel1 ,guillermo1     
,,ii4 #gi1 #hj4   ,don ,quixote1 ,i4    
#bhf 7note72 ,,iii4 #afj4   ,dozy1 ,,ii4
 #ace 7note71 #acf4   ,drach-alat1 the1 
,,iii4 #bbh4   ,drury ,fortnum1 ,,iii4  
#ahb4   ,ducange1 ,,iii4 #baa4   ,duque 
y ,cornejo1 ,,ii4 #ha4    ,echeverra1   
,father1 ,i4 #hb4   ,eder1 ,,ii4 #bei4  
,edrisi1 ,i4 #bbd2 ,,ii4 #afb2 ,,iii4   
#acg1 #ach4   ,egilona1 ,i4 #cj1 #ca4   
,eguilaz ,yanguas1 ,,ii4 #bb2 ,,iii4    
#cf1 #cg 7note74   ,el ,nubiense1 ,,iii4
 #d4   ,embroidery1 ,spanish1 ,,iii4    
#abe et seq4   ,ena of ,battenberg1     
,princess1 ,,iii4 #agc4   ,enguera1     
cloths of1 ,,iii4 #abd4   ,entalladores1
 ,,ii4 #ej1 #gf1 #gh4   ,escolano1 ,,ii4
 #afc1 #afd4   ,escorial1 the1 ,i4 #ih4 

,eximenes1 ,,ii4 #afc1 #afd1 #ahj4      
,ferdinand and ,isabella1 ,i4 #fe1 #fi  
et seq41 #beb1 #bec2 ,,ii4 #gd1 #abe1   
#adc1     #ahd 7note71 #aij1 #bcd2      
,,iii4 #ad1 #ca1 #ci1 #abc1 #abh1 #abi  
7note71 #aeb1 #bcf1     #beb4           
,ferdinand the ,catholic1 ,i4 #bbi1 #bec
 et seq42 ,,ii4 #bcf2 ,,iii4 #abc       
7note74   ,ferdinand the ,first1 ,i4 #de
 7note72 ,,ii4 #ac1 #ci1 #ii1 #ajd4     
,ferdinand the ,second1 ,,ii4 #ajg4     
,ferdinand the ,third 7,san ,fernando71 
,i4 #abh1 #abi1 #bej1 #beb1 #bgf2 ,,ii4 
#he2     ,,iii4 #ah4   ,ferdinand the   
,sixth1 ,,iii4 #dd1 #bdj4   ,ferdinand  
the ,second of ,aragon1 ,i4 #baj4       
,fernandez de ,navarrete1 ,,iii4 #aji   
7note71 #add1 #aii 7note71 #bce 7note71 
#bcg et seq4   ,fernandez y ,gonzalez1  
,,iii4 #ag 7note74   ,fez1 ,,iii4 #ej4  
,florez ,estrada1 ,,iii4 #bdh4          
,floridablanca1 ,count of1 ,,ii4 #agg2  
,,iii4 #ij1 #ia4   ,fonseca1 ,i4 #hj1   
#ha4   ,fonts1 baptismal1 ,,ii4 #abd1   
#abe4   ,ford1 ,i4 #dj1 #ec1 #ef 7note71

 #ei1 #hc 7note72 ,,ii4 #fc 7note71 #ahd
 7note71     #aie1 #aif1 #bah1 #bai4    
,fortuny1 ,i4 #aga2 ,,ii4 #afh1 #agd1   
#ahc4   ,fouquet1 ,,ii4 #afb4   ,foz1   
,manuel1 ,,iii4 #hc1 #hd1 #ic1 #id4     
,francs1 ,juan1 ,i4 #adj et seq4        
,francis the ,first1 ,,iii4 #abc 7note74
   ,frisleva1 ,cristbal1 ,i4 #bgc4      
,fuero ,viejo of ,castile1 the1 ,,iii4  
#bdb 7note74    ,gamero1 ,martin1 ,,iii4
 #bbe1 #bea 7note74   ,ganivet1 ,,iii4  
#bdb4   ,garca ,llans1 ,,ii4 #aef       
7note71 #ahj1 #aih1 #bjb 7note71 #bcc4  
,gates1 bronze1 ,i4 #aha4    ,gayangos1 
,pascual de1 ,i4 #ajb1 #ajd1 #abg1 #aee1
 #bcb2 ,,ii4 #bd2 ,,iii4 #ce1     #ga   
7note71 #ace 7note74   ,gelmirez1       
,bishop1 ,i4 #ec1 #ed4   ,gener1        
,pompeyo1 ,,iii4 #bdb4   ,george1       
,master1 ,i4 #fa4   ,gestoso1 ,i4 #gb1  
#gc 7note71 #hd 7note71 #aad 7note71    
#aej 7note71     #ahg 7note71 #bdg      
7note72 ,,ii4 #de 7note71 #ea 7note71   
#aba et seq41     #acf et seq41 #adb    
7note7 et seq41 #adi et seq41 #aeb      

7note7     et seq41 #aee1 #ahg1 #ahi1   
#aih2 ,,iii4 #bg1 #bba et seq41 #bce    
7note71     #bci1 #bdj4   ,giralda1 the1
 ,i4 #agg 7note71 #ahc1 #ahf1 #ahg2     
,,ii4 #gg1 #aea4   ,goblet d',alviella1 
,,iii4 #ga 7note74   ,gomez ,moreno1    
,,ii4 #ef1 #eg1 #fe 7note71 #aee1 #agb  
7note72 ,,iii4 #acc4   ,gonzalo de      
,cordova1 ,i4 #beg1 #beh4   ,goya1 ,i4  
#aac2 ,,iii4 #aeg4   ,goyeneche1 ,juan1 
,,ii4 #bej4   ,granada1 cloths of1      
,,iii4 #aba et seq4   ,granada1 silk of1
 ,,iii4 #adi et seq4   ,granada1 the    
,alcaicera of1 ,,iii4 #di et seq4       
,granada1 the ,ordinances of1 ,i4 #c1 #d
 7note71 #ace1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #bdg 7note71 
#bdh2 ,,ii4 #bg et seq41 #eb4   ,granas 
treintenas1 ,,iii4 #abb4   ,gricci1     
,,ii4 #bac1 #bad4   ,guadalajara1 cloths
 of1 ,,iii4 #aaj1 #aab et seq4          
,guadalete1 the battle of1 ,i4 #cj4     
,guadamacileros1 ,,iii4 #bbf4           
,guadamacileros of ,cordova1 the1 ,,ii4 
#db1 #dc4   ,guadameciles1 ,,ii4 #ch et 
seq4   ,guarrazar1 the treasure of1 ,i4 

#af et seq4   ,guise1 ,duke of1 ,,iii4  
#ga4   ,gutierrez1 ,pedro1 ,,iii4 #ade  
et seq41 #adi1 #aej4    ,hannibal1 ,i4  
#g4   ,harness for horses1 war1 ,i4     
#bai1 #bbj4   ,henry1 ,master1 ,,ii4    
#bda1 #bdb4   ,henry the ,first1 ,i4    
#fh4   ,henry the ,second1 ,,iii4 #cd   
7note74   ,henry the ,eighth of         
,england1 ,,iii4 #ajg4   ,hernndez1     
,gregorio1 ,,ii4 #fh1 #fi4   ,herranz1  
,francisco1 ,,ii4 #bdg4   ,hita1        
,archpriest of1 ,i4 #fg4   ,hixem1 ,,ii4
 #eg4   ,hbner1 ,,ii4 #aae4   ,hurtado  
de ,mendoza1 ,,ii4 #bc1 #cg4    ,ibn    
,abdo-l-,haquem1 ,i4 #ce4   ,ibn        
,alwardi1 ,i4 #ca1 #cb4   ,ibn ,batutah1
 ,,ii4 #afb1 #afc4   ,ibn ,hayyan1 ,i4  
#cc1 #cd4   ,ibn ,hud1 ,,iii4 #cf1 #cg4 
,ibn ,khaldoun1 ,,ii4 #bb2 ,,iii4 #ba1  
#cc1 #cf4   ,ibn ,said1 ,,ii4 #afc1     
#ahj2 ,,iii4 #cc et seq4   ,illiberis1  
,i4 #agc1 #agd4   ,inlay on steel and   
iron1 gold1 ,,iii4 #bjh et seq4   ,inns1
 furniture of ,spanish1 ,,ii4 #cj et    
seq4   ,irving1 ,washington1 ,i4 #hb2   

,,ii4 #agj1 #aga4   ,isabel ,farnese1   
,i4 #bgd2 ,,ii4 #beb4   ,isabella the   
,catholic1 ,i4 #bed2 ,,ii4 #af1 #bdd    
7note72 ,,iii4 #ac1 #ad1 #acc1     #afa4
   ,isabella the ,second1 ,i4 #be4      
,isidore1 ,saint1 ,i4 #ab 7note71 #ae1  
#bg1 #aff 7note71 #aih1 #bja2 ,,ii4 #b1 
#g4    ,jacquemart1 ,,ii4 #ahf4         
,jaeces colgantes1 ,i4 #bha1 #bhb4      
,jaen1 cloths of1 ,,iii4 #abb4   ,jayme 
the ,first of ,aragon 7the ,conqueror71 
,i4 #baj et seq42 ,,ii4 #aja1     #ajh2 
,,iii4 #e1 #aa1 #ah1 #dg 7note71 #bcb4  
,jewellery in ,spain1 ,roman1 ,i4 #aa1  
#ab4   ,jewellery1 ,moorish1 ,i4 #gc et 
seq4   ,jewellery1 ,morisco1 ,i4 #gg et 
seq4   ,jones1 ,owen1 ,,ii4 #aga1 #agb  
7note74   ,jovellanos1 ,,iii4 #bdi4     
,juana1 ,doa1 ,,iii4 #ae4   ,juan of    
,aragon1 ,i4 #bab2 ,,ii4 #e4   ,juan the
 ,first1 ,i4 #bae2 ,,iii4 #ac1 #cj1     
#bbg1 #bbh4   ,juan the ,second1 ,i4    
#acj1 #bhj 7note72 ,,iii4 #cd4   ,juni1 
,juan de1 ,,ii4 #fh1 #fi4    ,kersey1   
,,iii4 #abb4   ,keys of ,seville1 the1  

,i4 #abf et seq4   ,keys1 ,spanish1 ,i4 
#abd et seq4    ,laborde1 ,i4 #g et     
seq41 #aaf et seq41 #acc1 #acd1 #bff1   
#bfg2 ,,ii4 #cd     et seq41 #ch 7note71
 #aca et seq41 #ahb1 #ahc1 #aid1 #aie1  
#bjj1 #bja1     #bjc1 #baf1 #bed1 #bfj2 
,,iii4 #dd et seq41 #ee1 #fg et seq41   
#id et seq41     #ajh1 #aji1 #abb et    
seq41 #adb1 #adc1 #aea1 #aeb 7note71    
#afh et seq41     #bdj et seq4   ,lace1 
,spanish1 ,,iii4 #aei et seq4   ,la     
,granja 7or ,san ,ildefonso71 the glass 
factory of1 ,,ii4 #beb et seq42         
,,iii4 #bdj4   ,la ,higueruela1 the     
battle of1 ,i4 #bah4   ,lalaing1 ,,iii4 
#ej4   ,lambot1 ,diodonet1 ,,ii4 #bdi4  
,la ,milanesa1 ,,iii4 #ia1 #aje4   ,la  
,moncloa1 the porcelain factory of1     
,,ii4 #bai1 #bbj4   ,lamprez1 ,vicente1 
,,ii4 #fb2 ,,iii4 #aeh 7note74   ,lamps1
 ,roman1 ,i4 #afe et seq4   ,lamps1     
ware1 ,,ii4 #aaf4   ,lane-,poole1       
,stanley1 ,,ii4 #dg1 #dh2 ,,iii4 #i     
7note71 #ba 7note74   ,la ,payessa1     
,joseph1 ,,iii4 #ia1 #ib4   ,larruga1   

,,ii4 #bjj1 #bac1 #bce1 #bea1 #beb2     
,,iii4 #ff 7note71 #aaa 7note71 #aah1   
#aai 7note71 #bcc 7note71 #bce 7note71  
#bdh1 #bdi 7note74   ,lasteyrie1 ,i4    
#ba4   ,latticinio1 ,,ii4 #bbe1 #bfa4   
,lazo-work doors1 ,,ii4 #dg1 #eh et seq4
   ,leather1 ,spanish decorative1 ,,ii4 
#ch et seq4   ,lefort1 ,,iii4 #aeg4     
,lenger1 ,antoine1 ,,iii4 #aea4   ,len1 
the ,synod of1 ,,iii4 #ae4   ,lerma1    
,duke of1 ,i4 #ajb1 #ajc1 #bai1 #bbj4   
,libros de ,pasanta1 ,i4 #gb1 #gc4      
,locks and keys1 ,i4 #ace4   ,lope de   
,vega1 ,i4 #hf2 ,,ii4 #bc 7note74       
,lopez de ,arenas1 ,diego1 ,,ii4 #ea et 
seq41 #ef4   ,lugo1 exhibition of1 ,i4  
#da4   ,luis de ,len1 ,fray1 ,,iii4 #ii 
7note74   ,luna1 ,alvaro de1 ,i4 #ahi1  
#baf4   ,lustred pottery1               
,hispano-,moresque1 ,,ii4 #afa et seq4  
,machuca1 ,pedro1 ,,ii4 #eg4   ,madrid1 
the ,gremios of1 ,,iii4 #de1 #aai1 #abj 
7note74   ,madrid1 the ,national        
,museum1 ,,ii4 #eh1 #fj1 #gi1 #ia1 #id  
et seq41 #ajh2     ,,iii4 #bi4          

,majolica ware1 ,,ii4 #afe1 #aff4       
,manillas1 ,i4 #gh4   ,mantilla1 the1   
,,iii4 #afd et seq4   ,marckwart1 the   
brothers1 ,i4 #bgc4   ,mara ,cristina1  
,queen1 ,,iii4 #bdi 7note74   ,mara de  
,padilla1 ,,iii4 #ada4   ,marineus      
,siculus1 ,i4 #bed2 ,,ii4 #ahj1 #bcc1   
#bcd2 ,,iii4 #ej4   ,marmol1 ,,ii4 #afi4
   ,martial1 ,i4 #aii4   ,martinez de la
 ,mata1 ,,iii4 #dh4   ,martinez         
,guijarro1 ,fernan1 ,,ii4 #aea1 #aeb4   
,martinez ,montaes1 ,,ii4 #fh4   ,martin
 ,hume1 ,,ii4 #aac 7note74   ,martin of 
,aragon1 ,i4 #bab2 ,,iii4 #g4   ,mary of
 ,england1 ,,ii4 #bcg4   ,maskell1 ,,ii4
 #ig et seq4   ,medias lanas1 ,,iii4    
#abc 7note74   ,medina del ,campo1      
cloths of1 ,,iii4 #abb4   ,medina1      
,pedro de1 ,i4 #ee2 ,,ii4 #ahe4         
,mlida1 ,,ii4 #afg1 #age 7note74        
,mena1 ,alonso de1 ,,ii4 #fi4           
,menandro1 ,vicente1 ,,ii4 #bdf4        
,mena1 ,pedro de1 ,,ii4 #fi1 #ha4       
,mendez ,silva1 ,i4 #adg1 #bhd2 ,,ii4   
#bcd1 #bee4   ,mendoza1 the guin of     

,cardinal1 ,i4 #fe4   ,micerguillo1 ,i4 
#bgc4   ,mimbar of the ,mosque of       
,cordova1 the1 ,,iii4 #bac4   ,mimbar1  
the1 ,,ii4 #bb4   ,mines1 gold and      
silver1 in ,spain1 ,i4 #a et seq4       
,mines of ,spain1 the iron1 ,i4 #abc4   
,miquel y ,bada1 ,,ii4 #b 7note71 #g    
7note72 ,,iii4 #g1 #h1 #aj1 #ah1 #ai1   
#bb1 #bf1     #dg 7note71 #gj 7note71   
#acc4   ,moawia1 ,,ii4 #bb4             
,mocarabes1 ,,ii4 #ed4   ,mohammed the  
,third of ,granada1 ,i4 #gd4            
,mondejar1 the ,marquis of1 ,i4 #bhf4   
,monistrol1 the ,marquis of1 ,,ii4 #bg4 
,montague1 ,lady ,mary ,wortley1 ,,iii4 
#ahd 7note74   ,monte-,fuerte1 the      
,marquis of1 ,,iii4 #adi 7note74        
,montoya1 ,alejo de1 ,,iii4 #bjf1 #bjg4 
,montserrat1 ,,ii4 #aef4   ,monzn1 the  
,cortes of1 ,,iii4 #afi4   ,morales1    
,ambrosio de1 ,i4 #ed1 #ee1 #eh 7note72 
,,ii4 #g 7note71 #ad1 #da1 #eg1     #eh 
7note71 #ajj1 #ajg1 #ajh2 ,,iii4 #bac4  
,morel1 ,bartolom1 ,i4 #ahc et seq4     
,morella1 cloths of1 ,,iii4 #abd4       

,moriscos1 the1 ,,ii4 #bi 7note72 ,,iii4
 #dj4   ,moriscos1 the expulsion of the1
 ,i4 #hj et seq4   ,mosaic-work1        
,spanish1 ,,ii4 #abh et seq4   ,mntz1   
,,iii4 #ach1 #adj 7note71 #adi1 #aee    
7note71 #aef4   ,murcia1 cloths of1     
,,iii4 #abb4   ,murcia1 silk of1 ,,iii4 
#fg et seq41 #ajc et seq4   ,muza1 ,i4  
#ca1 #cd1 #ce4   ,muzquiz1 ,miguel de1  
,,iii4 #ib 7note74    ,nails1           
decorative1 ,i4 #acd1 #ace4   ,napoleon1
 ,i4 #ada 7note74   ,navagiero1 ,,iii4  
#ej4   ,nebrija1 ,,ii4 #acg4   ,ney1    
,marshal1 ,i4 #ef4   ,nuevo ,baztn1 the 
glass-factory of1 ,,ii4 #bej et seq4    
,olivares1 ,damian de1 ,,iii4 #gj4      
,olivares1 the ,count-,duke of1 ,,iii4  
#aei4   ,ollery1 ,,ii4 #bje4            
,onteniente1 cloths of1 ,,iii4 #abb1    
#abd4   ,opening images1 ,,ii4 #ajg1    
#ajh4   ,order of ,preachers1 the1      
,,iii4 #bab4   ,ordinances of           
,barcelona1 the1 ,,iii4 #abc4           
,ordinances of ,burgos1 the1 ,,iii4 #bcc
 7note74   ,ordinances of ,cordova1 the1

 ,,ii4 #dc1 #dd4   ,ordinances of       
,granada1 the1 ,i4 #gh1 #gi1 #acb1 #acc2
 ,,ii4 #bg et seq41 #eb1     #aai et    
seq41 #abe1 #abf2 ,,iii4 #ci1 #eb et    
seq41 #aba1 #abb4   ,ordinances of      
,seville1 the1 ,,ii4 #ej et seq42 ,,iii4
 #ca 7note74   ,ordinances of ,toledo1  
the1 ,,ii4 #eb2 ,,iii4 #ca1 #bbe4       
,ortiz de ,ziga1 ,i4 #abg1 #abh4        
,ortiz1 ,lorenzo1 ,,iii4 #aji1 #aag1    
#aah4   ,osma1 ,,ii4 #adj et seq41 #afj1
 #afa 7note71 #afh1 #ahc et seq41       
#ahh 7note71 #ahi4   ,othman1 the       
,caliph1 ,,iii4 #bac4    ,pacheco1 ,,ii4
 #fh4   ,palencia1 cloths of1 ,,iii4    
#abb4   ,pallia aquilinata1 ,,iii4 #h4  
,pallia leonata1 ,,iii4 #h4   ,pallia   
rotata1 ,,iii4 #h1 #ah4   ,palmillas1   
,,iii4 #abb4   ,pannemaker1 ,william1   
,,iii4 #aee1 #aef4   ,paos de ,ras1     
,,iii4 #aci1 #adj1 #aeb4   ,pardillos1  
,,iii4 #abb4   ,passo ,honroso1 the1 ,i4
 #bah4   ,pedro the ,cruel1 ,i4 #bgj2   
,,ii4 #fj1 #fa2 ,,iii4 #ac1 #cg1 #ada1  
#bba4   ,pedro the ,second1 ,,iii4 #bbg4

   ,pedro the ,fourth of ,aragon1 ,i4   
#baj et seq42 ,,iii4 #cj4   ,pelayo1 ,i4
 #dc4   ,petronius1 ,i4 #afe4   ,philip 
the ,first1 ,i4 #bcg1 #bch4   ,philip   
the ,second1 ,i4 #hf1 #abi1 #bfe1 #bhj  
7note72 ,,ii4 #fi1 #age1 #bcf1 #bcg2    
,,iii4 #bg1 #dj1 #ga1 #ajg1 #ade1 #adi1 
#aec4   ,philip the ,third1 ,i4 #bda2   
,,iii4 #dj4   ,philip the ,fourth1 ,i4  
#ajb1 #bdc2 ,,iii4 #da1 #bdj1 #bde1     
#bdh4   ,philip the ,fifth1 ,i4 #bgd2   
,,ii4 #beb2 ,,iii4 #dc1 #bdj4           
,pinheiro da ,veiga1 ,,ii4 #bej2 ,,iii4 
#cc1 #ada et seq4   ,pisano1 ,francesco 
,niculoso1 ,,ii4 #aci1 #adj1 #adc et    
seq4   ,pizarro1 ,i4 #beg et seq4       
,plato1 ,i4 #afe4   ,pliny1 ,i4 #aff1   
#aie1 #bja2 ,,ii4 #bbc 7note71 #bbe     
7note74   ,poblet1 the monastery of1    
,,ii4 #aef4   ,poem of the ,cid1 the1   
,,ii4 #de 7note74   ,polybius1 ,i4 #bja4
   ,ponz1 ,,ii4 #ac1 #fb4   ,porous     
pottery1 ,,ii4 #aij et seq4   ,porrn1   
the1 ,,ii4 #bfa4   ,potosi1 the silver  
mines of1 ,i4 #hh4   ,pottery1          

prehistoric ,spanish1 ,,ii4 #aaa et seq4
   ,primavera1 ,,iii4 #h4   ,procaccini1
 ,,iii4 #aea1 #aeg4   ,processional     
crosses1 ,spanish1 ,i4 #aha1 #ahb2      
,,iii4 #ahc1 #ahd4   ,procopius1 ,i4    
#bja4   ,psephosis fsefysa1 ,,ii4 #ace4 
,ptolemy1 ,i4 #aie4   ,puente del       
,arzobispo ware1 ,,ii4 #ahf et seq4     
,pulgar1 ,hernando del1 ,,ii4 #ac1 #bc4 
,pulpits1 iron1 ,i4 #aci et seq4        
,pulpits1 old ,spanish1 ,,iii4 #baa et  
seq4   ,punto de oro1 ,,iii4 #afc4      
,rcimos1 ,,ii4 #ed4   ,ramrez de        
,arellano1 ,i4 #eb1 #hd1 #ia et seq41   
#ade2 ,,ii4 #dj1 #db1     #df 7note71   
#ee 7note71 #ef 7note71 #aed2 ,,iii4    
#aca1 #ade 7note71 #adg4   ,ramrez1     
,sancho1 ,,ii4 #afj4   ,rapiers1 ,i4    
#bei et seq4   ,rassis1 ,,iii4 #b et    
seq4   ,reboul1 ,,iii4 #ia1 #ib 7note74 
,recared1 ,i4 #bj4   ,recceswinth1 ,i4  
#ag4   ,red flands1 ,,iii4 #afj4        
,rejas1 ,i4 #ada et seq4   ,relicarios1 
,i4 #de et seq4   ,renaissance1 the1 ,i4
 #ie et seq4   ,reposteros1 ,,ii4 #af   

7note72 ,,iii4 #adf et seq41 #aec4      
,retablo of ,gerona ,cathedral1 the1 ,i4
 #fc1 #fd4   ,retablos1 ,,ii4 #hb et    
seq4   ,ret ,catal1 ,,iii4 #agc4        
,riao1 ,i4 #i1 #ab1 #ac1 #ag1 #dj1 #dd1 
#dg1 #fa 7note7 et seq41 #gb1 #hh1 #ie1 
#ajg1 #aae1 #abc1 #abf 7note71 #abi1    
#aci1 #agd1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahe 7note72    
,,ii4 #ic et seq41 #aah1 #aba1 #abc1    
#acf1 #aec1 #agc1 #agg1 #ahd1 #ahf1     
#aij1     #aia1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjd et     
seq41 #bac1 #bag1 #bbe1 #bca1 #bcb2     
,,iii4 #bj1 #bc1     #ge1 #abf 7note71  
#abh et seq41 #ach1 #aci1 #adg 7note71  
#adh1 #aed 7note71     #afa1 #bba1 #bed 
et seq4   ,ricord1 ,,ii4 #bjc1 #bfj     
7note72 ,,iii4 #gd1 #ge1 #bjc4   ,rico y
 ,sinobas1 ,,ii4 #bbe1 #bbh et seq41    
#bch1 #bei 7note72 ,,iii4 #bdj4         
,riotinto1 the mines of1 ,i4 #f4        
,roderick1 ,i4 #cj1 ,,ii4 #hi4          
,rodrigo1 ,maese1 ,i4 #bag2 ,,ii4 #gf4  
,roldan1 ,pedro1 ,,ii4 #fh1 #fi1 #ha4   
,rosmithal1 ,i4 #cg2 ,,iii4 #cd 7note74 
,roulire1 ,jean1 ,,iii4 #dd1 #de4       

,rubens1 ,,iii4 #aei4    ,sagrado1      
,diego de1 ,,ii4 #gj4   ,saguntine ware1
 ,,ii4 #aad et seq4   ,saint ,ferdinand 
7see ,ferdinand the ,third74   ,saint   
,isidore1 ,,ii4 #aag1 #abi1 #acd1 #bbc  
et seq42 ,,iii4 #a1 #baa4   ,saint      
,isidro1 diamonds of1 ,,ii4 #bbd1 #bbe4 
,saint ,vincent ,ferrer1 ,,iii4 #bab1   
#bbi1 #bcj4   ,samit1 ,,iii4 #e1 #f4    
,sanchez1 ,martin1 ,,ii4 #gc1 #gd1 #gg1 
#gh4   ,sancho the ,fourth1 ,,iii4 #ade4
   ,sancho the ,great1 ,i4 #ea4         
,sandoval1 ,cardinal1 ,,iii4 #abi1 #acj4
   ,san ,fernando1 cloths of1 ,,iii4    
#aad4   ,san ,isidro1 the burial chest  
of1 ,,ii4 #ac4   ,san ,miguel in        
,excelsis1 the legend of1 ,,iii4 #agi et
 seq4   ,santa ,barbara1 the tapestry   
factory of1 ,,iii4 #aej et seq41 #aef4  
,santa ,isabel1 the tapestry factory of1
 ,,iii4 #aej et seq41 #aef4   ,santiago 
,cathedral1 the treasure of1 ,i4 #ec et 
seq4   ,santiago1 jet-work of1 ,,iii4   
#ahb et seq4   ,santas ,creus1 the      
monastery of1 ,,ii4 #aef4   ,sculpture  

in wood1 ,spanish1 ,,ii4 #fh et seq4    
,segovia1 cloths of1 ,,iii4 #ajf et     
seq41 #abb4   ,segovia1 woollens of1    
,,iii4 #aag et seq4   ,sentenach1 ,,iii4
 #bac4   ,seplveda1 the ,fuero of1      
,,iii4 #ajf4   ,serrano ,fatigati1      
,,iii4 #abg1 #abh4   ,seville1 the      
,ordinances of1 ,i4 #bdg2 ,,ii4 #ej et  
seq4   ,shields1 ,spanish1 ,i4 #bjg1    
#bjh1 #bci et seq4   ,ships1 silver1 ,i4
 #fe1 #ff4   ,silk1 ,spanish1 ,,iii4 #ch
 et seq4   ,silleras1 ,,ii4 #fi et seq4 
,silos1 the ,chronicle of the ,monk of1 
,,ii4 #ac 7note74   ,sisenand1 ,i4 #bi4 
,sit1 ,ventura1 ,,ii4 #beb4   ,soria1   
cloths of1 ,,iii4 #ajf4   ,south        
,kensington ,museum1 the1 ,,ii4 #dj1 #ec
 7note71 #ig1 #ih1 #aba1 #abc1 #ahd2    
,,iii4 #afa4   ,stalactite decoration1  
,,ii4 #ed4   ,stirling1 ,i4 #ach4       
,strabo1 ,i4 #aie1 #aif1 #aih1 #bjj4    
,street1 ,i4 #fd 7note71 #aci4   ,stuck 
family1 the1 ,,iii4 #aeb4               
,superstitions1 ,andalusian1 ,i4 #afh1  
#afi4   ,susillo1 ,,ii4 #fi4            

,swinburne1 ,i4 #hb1 #ajd1 #aje1 #afh   
7note71 #agb 7note71 #bce 7note71       
#bdj 7note71 #bgd1 #bhe 7note72 ,,ii4 #b
 7note71 #fa 7note71 #gg 7note71 #acc1  
#aee1 #agj1 #aic1 #aid1 #bbd1 #bec1     
#beg1 #beh1 #bfa 7note72 ,,iii4 #dg     
7note71     #ff1 #aba1 #afh1 #agj1 #ahd 
7note74   ,swinthila1 ,i4 #bb1 #bi4     
,swords1 ,spanish1 ,i4 #bjc et seq41    
#bci1 #bdd et seq4   ,swords1 spurious  
,spanish1 ,i4 #bfe1 #bff4   ,symonds1   
,john ,addington1 ,i4 #b2 ,,ii4 #fg4    
,tabis1 ,,iii4 #e1 #f4   ,takcht1 the1  
,,ii4 #bb4   ,talavera de la ,reina1    
pottery of1 ,,ii4 #ahf1 #aij et seq41   
#aih et seq4   ,talavera de la ,reina1  
silk of1 ,,iii4 #hg4   ,talavera de la  
,reina1 the silk-factories of1 ,,iii4   
#dd et seq4   ,tapestry1 ,spanish1      
,,iii4 #acg et seq4   ,tardwahsh1 ,,ii4 
#ah 7note74   ,tarik1 ,i4 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1
 #ce4   ,tarik's table1 ,i4 #ca et seq42
 ,,iii4 #bab4   ,tartaricas1 ,,iii4 #af1
 #ag4   ,tavira de ,durango1 cloths of1 
,,iii4 #abb4   ,teniers1 ,,iii4 #aeg4   

,testaments1 the ,codex of the1 ,,ii4 #c
 7note74   ,thimbles1 ,moorish1 ,i4     
#agh1 #agi4   ,throne of ,don ,martin1  
the silver1 ,i4 #fj1 #fd1 #fe4   ,tiles1
 ,spanish1 ,,ii4 #acf et seq4           
,tinajas1 ,,ii4 #abj et seq41 #aie1     
#aii2 ,,iii4 #ee4   ,tiraz1 ,,iii4 #a1  
#ag1 #bj et seq41 #ch4   ,tirso de      
,molina1 ,i4 #bhb4   ,toledo1 silk of1  
,,iii4 #gj et seq4   ,toledo1 the       
,ordinances of1 ,,ii4 #eb4   ,toledo1   
the trade-guilds of1 ,,iii4 #bbe4       
,torrenaz1 the ,count of1 ,,iii4 #aai   
7note71 #bcb1 #bcc 7note71 #beb1        
#bec 7note74   ,torre del ,oro1 the1    
,,ii4 #adj1 #ada4   ,townsend1 ,i4 #ie1 
#bce 7note71 #bff1 #bge1 #bgf 7note72   
,,ii4 #ag1 #be 7note71     #cc1 #cd1    
#agf 7note71 #bae1 #bec1 #bed2 ,,iii4   
#gc1 #gd1 #gi 7note71 #aae 7note71      
#aah et seq41 #aea 7note71 #afe1 #agj1  
#ahb1 #ahc 7note71 #bci1 #bdj 7note71   
#bej et seq4   ,trade-guilds1 ,spanish1 
,,iii4 #bba et seq4   ,tramoyeres       
,blasco1 ,luis1 ,,iii4 #bbe et seq4     

,triptych reliquaries1 ,i4 #fj et seq4  
,turismund1 ,i4 #bi4    ,ulloa1 ,martin 
de1 ,,iii4 #ch et seq41 #dg   ,unamuno1 
,,iii4 #bdb4    ,valencia1 cloths of1   
,,iii4 #aba4   ,valencia1 lace of1      
,,iii4 #afi et seq4   ,valencia1 silk   
of1 ,,iii4 #ff1 #gd et seq4   ,valencia1
 the trade-guilds of1 ,,iii4 #bbe et    
seq4   ,valencia1 woollens of1 ,,iii4   
#abd1 #abe4   ,valencia de ,don ,juan1  
the ,count of1 ,,iii4 #bg1 #aed 7note71 
#aei1 #ahc4   ,valladar1 ,,ii4 #fe      
7note74   ,valladolid1 the ,council of1 
,,iii4 #ae4   ,van der ,goten1 ,adrian1 
,,iii4 #aea4   ,van der ,goten1         
,cornelius1 ,,iii4 #aea4   ,van der     
,goten1 ,francisco1 ,,iii4 #aea4   ,van 
der ,goten1 ,jacob1 ,,iii4 #aej1 #aea4  
,van der ,goten1 ,jacob 7the younger71  
,,iii4 #aea4   ,van ,eyk1 ,,iii4 #aef4  
,vargas y ,ponce1 ,,iii4 #afh 7note74   
,vargeos1 ,,ii4 #bg4   ,vaucanson1      
,,iii4 #hf et seq4   ,veintiseiseno1    
cloths1 ,,iii4 #abb4   ,velarte1 ,,iii4 
#abb4   ,velazquez1 ,i4 #ajb1 #aac2     

,,iii4 #aej4   ,veln1 the1 ,i4 #afg1    
#afh4   ,vergara1 cloths of1 ,,iii4     
#abb4   ,vermay1 ,jan1 ,,iii4 #aed4     
,victory1 the ,cross of1 ,i4 #da1 #dc4  
,vigarny1 ,philip1 ,,ii4 #gh et seq4    
,villa-amil y ,castro1 ,i4 #adj 7note71 
#adc 7note71 #afg2 ,,ii4 #aaa2          
,,iii4 #ahb et seq4   ,villalpando1     
,francisco de1 ,i4 #adg1 #adh1 #ahi4    
,villamediana1 the ,count of1 ,,iii4    
#ace 7note74   ,viollet-le-,duc1 ,i4    
#baa2 ,,ii4 #c 7note74   ,virgen del    
,sagrario1 ,toledo1 the1 crown of the1  
,,iii4 #bje et seq4   ,virgen del       
,sagrario1 ,toledo1 the mantle of the1  
,,iii4 #abi1 #acj4   ,virgin of         
,battles1 the1 ,,ii4 #ajd4   ,visigothic
 jewellery1 ,i4 #ae et seq4    ,wallis1 
,,ii4 #afd1 #afg1 #afh1 #agc1 #agd4     
,washington ,irving1 ,i4 #hb2 ,,ii4     
#agj1 #aga4   ,weathercocks1 ,moorish1  
,i4 #ahh4   ,witiza1 ,i4 #bgf4          
,woollens1 ,spanish1 ,,iii4 #aje et seq4
    ,xelizes1 ,,iii4 #eh et seq4        
,young1 ,arthur1 ,,ii4 #bfb1 #bfc2      

,,iii4 #aga1 #agb4   ,yusuf of ,granada1
 ,i4 #bhj 7note74    ,zafra1 ,hernando  
de1 ,,ii4 #bcd4   ,zaragoza1 cloths of1 
,,iii4 #abb4   ,zaragoza1 silk of1      
,,iii4 #ajc1 #ajd4   ,zarco del ,valle1 
,i4 #hg 7note71 #ada 7note71 #adh       
7note72 ,,ii4 #ga 7note71      #bde     
7note71 #bdg 7note72 ,,iii4 #g1 #bcg4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,printed ,,by ,,neill ,,and ,,co41     
,,ltd41 ,,edinburgh4           99       
99      99      99      99      99      
,transcriber's note3  ,the original     
spelling and minor inconsistencies in   
the spelling and formatting have been   
maintained4  ,inconsistent hyphenation  
and accents are as in the original if   
not marked as a misprint4  ,the table   
below lists all corrections applied to  
the original text4    p4 #f3 ,cortes of 
,monzon - ,monzn   p4 #h3 ,almexia -    
,almexa   p4 #ae3 edging of the same2 - 
edging of the same2   p4 #cc3           
,al-,makkari1 ,al-,kattib - ,al-,khattib
   p4 #cg3 in the form of a scarf4 - in 

the form of a scarf4   p4 #dh3 il est en
 indiennne4 - indienne4   p4 #ea3 qui   
croist assez prs - prs   p4 #ea3 prs de 
deux cens - cent   p4 #ea3 qui est une  
espece - espce   p4 #ea3 ,ses habitans -
 habitants   p4 #ajh3 il y avoit        
autresfois - autrefois   p4 #aji3 quatre
 heures aprs - aprs   p4 #abc3 ,chalons1
 ,beziers1 and ,rheims - ,reims   p4    
#abi3 it to the church4 - it to the     
church4   p4 #aea3 invitation ,john     
,vergoten - ,dergoten   p4 #aed3        
,madrid1 the ,pardo - ,prado   p4 #afe3 
,journal du ,voyage d ,espagne -        
d',espagne   p4 #aff3 de rubans         
l'extremit - l'extrmit   p4 #aff3 sur la
 tte attache - attachs   p4 #afg3 autre 
les divers dgrs - degrs   p4 #afg3 elle 
ne depasse - dpasse   p4 #bjj3          
inscription1 ,aeternum - ternum   p4    
#bag3 ,sebastian4 ,early - ,early4   p4 
#bag3 ,madrid4 ,cutler2 a native -      
native of   p4 #bag3 early life in      
,flanders - ,flanders4   p4 #bbj3 ,sosa1
 - ,sosa   p4 #bdb3 maxims of our       

,christain - ,christian   p4 #bdc3      
through the market1 - through the       
market1'   p4 #bde3 that they were      
tojours - toujours   p4 #bdi3 in the    
royal cdula - cedula   p4 #bfb3 ,die    
,kleinodien des heil - heil4   p4 #bfb3 
,nation1 nebst den ,kroninsignen -      
,kroninsignien   p4 #bfd3 la buena      
gouernacion - governacion   p4 #bfd3 que
 los ,mvy ,ilvstres - ,muy ,ilustres    
p4 #bfd3 mandaron gvardar - guardar   p4
 #bfd3 gouernacion - governacion   p4   
#bfd3 se han bvelto - buelto   p4 #bgc3 
,,iii4 #aca1 #af - #afh   p4 #bgf3      
,granada1 cloths of1 - ,granada1 cloths 
of1 ,,iii4   p4 #bgf3 ,juni1 ,juan de1  
#fh1 #fi4 - ,juni1 ,juan de1 ,,ii4 #fh1 
#fi4   p4 #bhj3 ,sepulveda - ,seplveda  
p4 #bha3 #bj et seq42 ,,iii4 - #bj et   
seq41   p4 #bha3 #bgf 7note71 - #bgf    
7note72 ,,ii4   p4 #bhb3 ,veintiseseno -
 ,vientiseiseno