file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #ddcib-;h4htm or #ddcib-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#ddcib_/pg#ddcib-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#dd cib_/ddcib-;h4zip7 ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,the ligature oe is represented by oe4 ,the signs cross and dagger have been marked as cross and dagger4 ,a carat character is used to denote superscription4 ,a single character following the carat is superscripted 7,compa74 ,multiple superscripted characters are enclosed by curly brackets 7example3 ,,delineavit74 a represents a letter 7in this instance a lower case a7 with a macron above it4 ,illustration3 ,frontispiece ,,saint ,,francis ,the ,world of ,art ,series ,,the ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,of ,,older ,,spain by ,,leonard ,,williams ,corresponding ,member of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy1 of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy of ,history1 and of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy of ,fine ,arts2 ,author of ,the ,land of the ,dons2 ,toledo and ,madrid2 ,granada1 etc4 ,in ,three ,volumes1 ,illustrated ,,volume ,,ii ,chicago ,a4 ,c4 ,mc,clurg ,co4 ,edinburgh3 ,t4 ,n4 ,foulis #aijh ,american ,edition ,published ,october #aj1 #aijh ,,contents ,,of ,,volume ,,two ,,pages ,,furniture #a-hf ,,ivories #hi-ajh ,,pottery #aaa-bbj ,,glass #bbc-bfc ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,volume ,,two ,,furniture ,,plate ,,page ,st ,francis of ,assisi2 ,toledo ,cathedral ,frontispiece ,i4 ,medival ,chair #aj ,,ii4 ,gothic ,chair #ab ,,iii4 ,spanish ,arcn or ,baggage-,chest #af ,,iv4 ,arca of ,cardinal ,cisneros #ah ,v4 ,armchair2 ,museum of ,salamanca #bj ,,vi4 ,chair and ,table2 ,salamanca ,cathedral #bb ,,vii4 ,chairs upholstered with ,guadameciles #bd ,,viii4 ,the ,sala de la ,barca2 ,alhambra1 ,granada #bf ,,ix4 ,door of the ,hall of the ,abencerrajes2 ,alhambra1 ,granada #bh ,x4 ,moorish ,door2 ,detail of ,carving2 ,hall of the ,two ,sisters1 ,alhambra1 ,granada #cj ,,xi4 ,door of the ,saln de ,embajadores2 ,alczar of ,seville #cb ,,xii4 ,the same #cd ,,xiii4 ,alczar of ,seville2 ,faade and ,principal ,entrance #cf ,,xiv4 ,door of the ,capilla de los ,vargas1 ,madrid #ch ,,xv4 ,mudejar ,door2 ,palacio de las ,dueas1 ,seville #dj ,,xvi4 ,celosa2 ,alhambra1 ,granada #db ,,xvii4 ,carved ,alero #dd ,,xviii4 ,carved ,zapatas2 ,casa de las ,salinas1 ,salamanca #df ,,xix4 ,carved ,zapatas2 ,museum of ,zaragoza #dh ,,xx4 ,alero and ,cornice of ,carved ,wood2 ,cuarto de ,comares1 ,alhambra1 ,granada #ej ,,xxi4 ,elijah ,sleeping2 ,statue in ,wood1 by ,alonso ,cano #eb ,,xxii4 ,saint ,bruno1 by ,alonso ,cano2 ,cartuja of ,granada #ed ,,xxiii4 ,saint ,john the ,baptist2 ,san ,juan de ,dios1 ,granada #ef ,,xxiv4 ,choir-,stalls2 ,santo ,toms1 ,avila #eh ,,xxv4 ,carved ,choir-,stall2 ,toledo ,cathedral #fj ,,xxvi4 ,choir-,stalls2 ,burgos ,cathedral #fb ,,xxvii4 ,choir-,stalls2 ,san ,marcos1 ,len #fd ,,xxviii4 ,detail of ,choir-,stalls2 ,len ,cathedral #ff ,,xxix4 ,choir-,stalls2 ,plasencia ,cathedral #fh ,,xxx4 ,detail of ,choir-,stalls2 ,convent of ,san ,marcos1 ,len #gj ,,xxxi4 ,samson2 ,carved ,choir-,stall2 ,len ,cathedral #gb ,,xxxii4 ,esau2 ,carved ,choir-,stall2 ,len ,cathedral #gd ,,xxxiii4 ,retablo2 ,seville ,cathedral #gf ,,xxxiv4 ,retablo of ,seville ,cathedral2 ,detail of ,carving #gh ,,xxxv4 ,detail of ,retablo2 ,museum of ,valladolid #hj ,,xxxvi4 ,detail of ,retablo2 ,chapel of ,santa ,ana2 ,burgos ,cathedral #hb ,,ivories ,,xxxvii4 ,ivory ,box2 ,madrid ,museum #ij ,,xxxviii4 ,ivory ,casket2 ,pamplona ,cathedral #ib ,,xxxix4 ,ivory ,box2 ,palencia ,cathedral #id ,,xl4 ,hispano-,moresque ,ivory ,casket2 ,royal ,academy of ,history1 ,madrid #if ,,xli4 ,ivory ,crucifix2 ,madrid ,museum #ih ,,xlia4 ,back ,view of same #ih ,,xlii4 ,byzantine ,crucifix #ajj ,,xliii4 ,the ,virgin of ,battles2 ,seville ,cathedral #ajb ,,xliv4 ,spanish ,medival ,baculus #ajd ,,xlv4 ,a ,tournament #ajf ,,xlvi4 ,ivory ,diptych2 ,the ,escorial #ajh ,,pottery ,,xlvii4 ,amphoraic ,vases and other ,pottery2 ,museum of ,tarragona #aaf ,,xlviii4 ,dish2 ,museum of ,granada #aah ,,xlix4 ,hispano-,moresque ,tinaja #abj ,l4 ,coarse ,spanish ,pottery 7,modern7 #abf ,,li4 ,door of the ,mihrab2 ,cordova ,cathedral #acd ,,lii4 ,mosaic of the ,patio de las ,doncellas2 ,alczar of ,seville #ach ,,liii4 ,andalusian non-lustred ,ware2 ,osma ,collection #adj ,,liv4 ,cuenca ,tiles2 ,alczar of ,seville #adb ,,lv4 ,altar of the ,catholic ,sovereigns2 ,alczar of ,seville #adh ,,lvi4 ,the ,gate of ,wine2 ,alhambra1 ,granada #aed ,,lvii4 ,tiles of the ,decadent ,period #aeh ,,lviii4 ,hispano-,moresque ,lustred ,plaque #afh ,,lix4 ,hispano-,moresque ,lustred ,vase2 ,alhambra1 ,granada #agj ,,lx4 ,hispano-,moresque ,lustred ,vase2 ,madrid ,museum #agb ,,lxi4 ,lustred ,tiles2 ,osma ,collection #agd ,,lxii4 ,hispano-,moresque ,lustred ,ware2 ,osma ,collection #agf ,,lxiii4 ,hispano-,moresque ,lustred ,ware2 ,osma ,collection #agh ,,lxiv4 ,hispano-,moresque ,lustred ,ware2 ,osma ,collection #ahj ,,lxv4 ,hispano-,moresque ,lustred ,ware2 ,osma ,collection #ahb ,,lxvi4 ,hispano-,moresque ,lustred ,ware2 ,osma ,collection #ahd ,,lxvii4 ,hispano-,moresque ,lustred ,ware #ahf ,,lxviii4 ,dish2 ,osma ,collection #aij ,,lxix4 ,an ,alfarera or ,potter's ,yard2 ,granada #aib ,,lxx4 ,talavera ,vase #aih ,,lxxi4 ,ornament in ,porcelain of the ,buen ,retiro #bjh ,,lxxii4 ,room decorated with ,porcelain of the ,buen ,retiro2 ,royal ,palace of ,aranjuez #bad ,,lxxiii4 ,porcelain of the ,moncloa ,factory #bah ,,glass ,,lxxiv4 ,vessels of ,cadalso ,glass #bcd ,,lxxv4 ,vessels of ,catalan ,glass #bcf ,,lxxvi4 ,glass of the ,factory of ,san ,ildefonso #bed ,,lxxvii4 ,glass of the ,factory of ,san ,ildefonso #beh ,,furniture ,whether the primitive ,iberians ate as well as slept upon their cave or cabin floor1 or whether--as some classics call upon us to believe--they used a kind of folding-chair 7dureta7 and 7more advanced and comfort-loving than the ,andalusian rustics of this day7 devoured their simple meal from benches or supports constructed in the wall1 is not of paramount importance to the history of ,spanish furniture4 ,the statements of those early authors may be granted or rejected as we please2 for not a single piece of furniture produced by prehistoric1 or1 indeed1 by ,roman or by ,visigothic ,spain1 has been preserved4 ,but if we look for evidence to other crafts1 recovered specimens of her early gold and silver work and pottery show us that ,roman ,spain grew to be eminently ,roman in her social and artistic life4 ,this fact1 together with the statements of ,saint ,isidore and certain other writers of his day1 would seem to prove that all the usual articles of ,roman furniture were commonly adopted by the subjugated tribes1 and subsequently by the ,visigoths2--the ,roman eating-couch or lectus triclinaris1 the state-bed or lectus genialis1 the ordinary sleeping-bed or lectus cubicularis1 made1 in prosperous households1 of luxurious woods inlaid with ivory1 or even of gold and silver2 lamps or candelabra of silver1 copper1 glass1 and iron#a2 the cathedra or chair for women1 the bisellium or seat for honoured guests1 the solium or chair for the head of the house1 the simpler chairs without a back1 known as the scabellum and the sella1 and the benches or subsellia for the servants4 ,further1 the walls were hung with tapestries or rendered cheerful by mural painting2 while the fireplace#b and the brasier 7foculus7 have descended to contemporary ,spain4 #a ,documents1 quoted by the ,count of ,clonard1 of ,alfonso the ,second1 ,san ,genadio1 ,froylan1 and the ,infanta ,urraca4 #b ,according to ,miquel y ,bada1 the focus of the ,romans is the present clar de foch of ,catalua2 a square platform of brick or stone raised somewhat from the ground1 surrounded by a bench 7esc71 and large enough to serve for roasting beasts entire4 ,swinburne wrote from ,reus in #agge2--we here for the first time saw a true ,spanish kitchen1 viz41 an hearth raised above the level of the floor under a wide funnel1 where a circle of muleteers were huddled together over a few cinders4 ,advancing to a period well within the reach of history1 we find that early in the ,middle ,ages ,spain's seigniorial mansions and the houses of the well-to-do were furnished in a style of rude magnificence4 ,roman models1 derived from purely ,roman and ,byzantine sources through the ,visigoths1 continued to remain in vogue until the tenth or the eleventh century4#c ,then1 as the fashion of these declined1 the furniture of ,christian ,spain was modified in turn by ,moorish1 ,gothic1 and ,renaissance art2 or two of these would overlap and interact1 or even all the three4 ,during the ,middle ,ages the furniture of the eating1 sleeping1 and living room which formed the principal apartment in the mansion of a great seignior1 was very much the same throughout the whole of ,christian ,europe4 ,viollet-le-,duc has described it in the closest detail4 ,the dominant object1 looming in a corner1 was the ponderous bed1 transformed into a thing of beauty by its costly canopy and hangings4#d ,throughout the earlier medival times the ,spanish bedstead was of iron or bronze4 ,wood1 plain at first1 then richly carved1 succeeded metal towards the fourteenth century1 and with this change the bed grew even vaster than before4 ,often it rose so high above the level of the flooring that the lord and lady required a set of steps to clamber up to it4 ,these steps were portable1 and sometimes made of solid silver4#e ,i quote herewith a full description of a medival ,spanish bed1 extracted from an inventory of the ,princess ,juana which was made upon her marriage with the ,count of ,foix1 in #acib4 ,the same bed had formerly belonged to ,juana's mother1 the ,princess ,martha1 at her marriage with ,king ,juan the ,first4 ,it had a velvet canopy with lions of gold thread1 and a dove and a horse confronting every lion4 ,and each of the lions and doves and horses bears a lettering2 and the lettering of the lions is ,estre por voyr1 and that of the doves and horses aay1 and the whole is lined with green cloth4 ,item1 a counterpane of the said velvet1 with a similar design of doves and lions1 and likewise lined with green cloth4 ,item1 three curtain-pieces of fine blue silk1 with their metal rings and cords of blue thread4 ,item1 three cushion-covers of blue velvet1 two of them of large size1 bearing two lions on either side1 and four of them small1 with a single lion on either side1 embroidered with gold thread2 with their linen coverings4 ,item1 a cloth of a barred pattern1 with the bars of blue velvet and cloth of gold upon a red ground2 which cloth serves for a state-chair or for a window1 and is lined with cloth4 ,item1 another cloth made of the said velvet and cloth of gold1 which serves for the small chair 7reclinatorio7 for hearing ,mass1 and is lined with the aforesaid green cloth4 ,item1 two large linen sheets enveloping the aforesaid canopy and counterpane4 ,a pair of linen sheets1 of four breadths apiece1 bordered on every side with a handbreadth of silk and gold thread decoration consisting of various kinds of birds1 leaves1 and letters2 and each of the said sheets contains at the head-end about five handbreadths of the said decoration4 ,item1 four cushions of the same linen1 all of them adorned all round with about a handbreadth of the aforesaid decoration of birds1 leaves1 and letters4 ,item1 two leather boxes1 lined with wool1 which contained all these objects4 ,item1 five canvas-covered cushions stuffed with feather1 for use with the said six coverings of blue velvet bearing the said devices4 ,item1 three large pieces of wall tapestry made of blue wool with the same devices of lions1 horses1 and doves1 made likewise of wool1 yellow and of other colours4 ,item1 five carpets made of the aforesaid wool1 bearing the same devices4 ,item1 three coverlets of the same wool1 and with the same devices1 for placing on the bed4 ,item1 a coverlet of red leather bearing in its centre the arms of the ,king and the ,infanta4 ,item1 another coverlet made of leather bars and plain red leather4 ,item1 a woollen coverlet with the arms of the ,infanta4#f #c ,the ,codex of the ,testaments1 preserved in ,oviedo ,cathedral1 contains some valuable illustrations of ,spanish furniture of the tenth century4 ,greatly interesting1 too1 is the chair of ,san ,raimundo 7#abth century7 preserved at ,roda in ,aragon4 ,it is of the scissors or folding form 7sella plicatilis1 ,ducange71 and the arms are terminated by heads of animals4 #d ,the early nomenclature of the clothes and other fittings of a ,spanish bed is bewildering4 ,we find in common use the canopy 7almocalla1 almuzala2 ,arabic1 al-mokalla1 i4e4 haven of refuge in all winds--not always1 possibly1 a judicious term in the case of a cama de matrimonio or marriage-bed72 the cloth-lined skins for chilly weather 7alifafe1 alifad2 ,arabic al-lifafh71 such as ,king ,juan the ,first of ,aragon provided for his daughter 7two leathers of ,morocco for the bed4 ,archive of the ,crown of ,aragon2 ,registro #aijf1 fol4 #db72 the parament or dosal2 the galnap or topmost of the bedclothes proper 7un lecho con guenabe2 ,fuero of ,cceres1 ,a4,d4 #abbi72 the counterpane 7fatel1 fatol1 alfatel1 facel1 farele1 fateye1 fatiro2 ,arabic fatla72 the linen sheets 7izares1 lentros1 lentos1 lintes1 lincas1 linteminas1 or lencios72 and the mattress1 pillow1 and bolster1 called1 all three of them1 plumazo1 plumario1 or plumaco4 ,nearly or quite identical in meaning with these last are clcita and almadraque4 ,clcita is corrupted into colcedra1 cocedra1 conzara1 colotra1 and other more or less barbaric variations2 while almohada1 almuella1 travesera1 almofadinha1 faseruelo1 and aljamar also signify a pillow or a cushion4 #e ,e due haber encara hla entegrament1 ses vestitz ses joyes un leyt ben garnit del misllors apereylltz que sien en casa1 una escala d'argent una cortina4 ,fuero of ,jaca1 ,a4,d4 #acca1 quoted by ,abad y la ,sierra and the ,count of ,clonard4 #f ,sanpere y ,miquel2 ,las costumbres catalanas en tiempo de ,juan ,i41 pp4 #hc1 #hd4 ,another corner of the room was occupied by the dining-table1#g spread at meal-times with a cloth denominated by ,saint ,isidore the mappa1 mpula1 mapil1 mantella1 or mantellia2 and laid with the mandbulas or jaw-wipers 7i4e4 napkins2 see ,du ,cange71 plates 7discos71 dishes 7mensorios1 messorios1 or misorios71 spoons 7cocleares1 culiares71 though not as yet with forks1#h cups of various shapes and substances1 with or without a cover 7copos1 vsculos1 and many other terms71 the water-flagon 7kana1 mikana1 almakana71 the cruet-stand 7canatella71 and the salt-cellar 7salare74 #g ,miquel y ,bada believes that the ,spaniards abandoned the ,roman usage of reclining at their meals towards the sixth century4 #h ,forks were not introduced till later4 ,it has even been questioned whether they were known in ,spain as late as the sixteenth century4 ,but ,ambrosio de ,morales mentions one in #aeia1 while another is recorded in #afjg as belonging to the monastery of ,san ,jernimo de ,valparaiso1 near ,cordova4 7,see vol4 i41 p4 #hd47 ,this table also served to write upon1 while in its neighbourhood would stand the massive sideboard1 piled with gold and silver plate1 and vessels of glass or ivory1 wood or alabaster4 ,besides the bed and table in their several corners1 the chamber would contain a suitable variety of chairs and stools1 mostly surrounding the capacious fireplace4 ,members of the household also sat on carpets spread upon the floor4 ,the great armchair of the seignior himself was more ornate than any of the rest1 and was provided somewhat later with a lofty ,gothic back 7,plates i4 and ii474 ,a chair with a back of moderate height was destined for distinguished visitors4 ,the back of ordinary chairs reached only to about the sitter's shoulder1 and coverings of cloth or other stuffs were not made fast1 but hung quite loosely from the wooden frame4 ,this usage lasted till the sixteenth century1 when the upholsterers began to nail the coverings of the larger chairs and benches4 ,owing to the oriental influence brought back from the ,crusades1 the furniture of ,europe1 not excluding ,spain1 grew ever more elaborate and costly1 while further1 in the case of this ,peninsula1 the native ,moorish influence operated steadily and strongly from ,toledo1 ,seville1 ,cordova1 ,valencia1 and elsewhere4 ,tapestries of ,eastern manufacture 7alcatifas7 were now in general use for decorating floors and walls4 ,the bed grew more and more gigantic1 and its clothes and curtains more extravagantly sumptuous1 until the florid ,gothic woodwork harmonized with canopies and curtains cut from priceless skins1 or wrought in gold and silver thread on multicolor satin and brocade4 ,and at the bed's head1 like some jewel marvellously set1 rested1 in every noble home1 the diptych or the triptych with its image of the ,saviour or the ,virgin ,mary4 ,under the influence of the ,renaissance this love of luxury continued to increase among the royal and the noble families of ,spain4 ,in #aegd an inventory of the estate of ,doa ,juana1 sister of ,philip the ,second1 mentions a silver balustrade1 weighing one hundred and twenty-one pounds1 for placing round a bed4 ,the inventory 7#aefj7 of the ,dukes of ,alburquerque contains a great variety of entries relative to the furniture and chamber-fittings of the period4 ,we find here mentioned1 ,turkey carpets and the celebrated ,spanish ones of ,alcaraz1 linens of ,rouen1 green cloth of ,cuenca1 ,toledo cloths1 hangings of ,arras and elsewhere1 tablecovers of damask and of velvet1 gold-fringed canopies 7doseles7 of green or crimson velvet or brocade1 a canopy for a sideboard1 of red and yellow ,toledo cloth1 with the arms of the ,la ,cuevas in embroidery1 together with stripes and bows1 and repetitions of the letter ,i 7for ,isabel ,giron1 the duchess71 also embroidered fringes of the same cloth1 and cords of the aforesaid colours4 ,we also read of a sitial or state-chair of crimson satin brocade1 and a small walnut table covered with silver plates1 bearing the arms of my lord the duke and of my lady the duchess1 and edged with silver stripes4#i ,the bedstead1 fitted with hangings of double taffeta and scarlet cloth1 was no less sumptuous than the other objects4 #i ,this kind of furniture was prohibited by a sumptuary pragmatic of #aeid4 ,no silversmith or other craftsman1 or any person whatsoever1 shall make1 or cause to be made1 or sold1 or sell himself or purchase1 whether openly or privately1 buffets1 writing-desks1 chests1 brasiers1 pattens1 tables1 letter-cases1 rejillas or foot-warmers1 images1 or any other object that has silver fittings1 whether the silver be beaten1 stamped1 wrought in relief1 carved1 or plain4 ,suma de todas las leyes 7,a4,d4 #afbh71 p4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,i ,,medi,,val ,,chair 7,carved with the arms of ,castile and ,len7 ,a popular and even an indispensable piece of furniture in every medival ,spanish household was the caja de novia or bride's chest4 ,the use of this1 as well as of a smaller kind of box1 was common both to ,moors and ,christians4 ,no matter of what size1 these objects were essentially the same4 ,they served innumerable purposes2 were made of all dimensions--from the tiniest casket 7arcellina1 capsula1 or pyxide2 see vol4 i41 p4 #de et seq47 to the ponderous and vast arcn1--and almost any substance--ivory or crystal1 mother-of-pearl or glass1 gold1 silver1 copper1 silver-gilt1 jasper1 agate1 or fine wood2 and we find them in every part of the ,peninsula1 from the dawn of the ,middle ,ages till very nearly the end of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,ii ,,gothic ,,chair 7#aeth ,century7 ,according to the ,marquis of ,monistrol1 the larger boxes or arcones constitute by far the commonest article of ,spanish furniture all through the earlier portion of this lengthy period4 ,the same authority divides them broadly into seven classes1 thus3-- 7#a7 ,burial-chests4 7#b7 ,chests for storing chasubles1 chalices1 candelabra1 and other objects connected with the ceremonies of the church4 7#c7 ,archive-chests1 for storing documents4 7#d7 ,chests for storing treasure 7huches74 7#e7 ,brides' chests4 7#f7 ,chests for storing arms4 7#g7 ,arcones-trojes1 or chests of common make1 employed for storing grain in country dwellings or posadas4 ,the decorative richness of these quaint arcones varies according to their date of manufacture1 or the purpose they were meant to serve4 ,commonly1 in the earliest of them1 dating from the sixth or seventh century1 the iron clamps or fastenings form the principal or only ornament4 ,such are reported to have been the two chests which the ,cid ,campeador loaded with sand and foisted as filled with specie on his dear friends ,rachel and ,vidas1 the ,jewish though trustful usurers of ,burgos1 in return for six hundred marks of gold and silver4 ,tradition says1 moreover1 that the chest now shown at ,burgos as the coffer of the ,cid is actually one of these4 ,it is certain that the archives of the cathedral have been deposited in this chest for many centuries4 ,evidently1 too1 it dates from about the lifetime of the ,cid1 while the rings with which it is fitted show it to have been a kind of trunk intended to be carried on the backs of sumpter-mules or horses4 ,after the ,roman domination in this country1 the ,latin term capsa was applied to every kind of chest2 but at a later age sepulchral chests or coffins were denominated urns1 in order to distinguish them from arcas and arcones1 which were used for storing clothes or jewellery4 ,excellent examples of ,spanish medival burial-chests are those of ,doa ,urraca1 preserved in the ,sagrario of the cathedral of ,palencia1 and of ,san ,isidro1 patron of ,madrid4 ,the former1 mentioned by painstaking ,ponz1 and by ,pulgar in his ,secular and ,ecclesiastical ,annals of ,palencia1 is of a plain design1 and really constitutes a coffin4 ,the sepulchral chest of ,san ,isidro1 dating from the end of the thirteenth century1 or the early part of the fourteenth1 and kept at ,madrid in a niche of the camarn of the parish church of ,san ,andrs1 is in the ,romanic style1 and measures seven feet six inches in length4 ,it has a gable top1 and is painted in brilliant colours on plaster-coated parchment1 with miracles effected by the saint1 and other scenes related with his life2 but much of the painting is effaced4 ,another interesting sepulchral chest would probably have been the one presented in #ajeb by ,ferdinand the ,first1 together with his royal robe and crown1#aj to the basilica of ,saint ,john the ,baptist at ,len1 to guard the remains of ,saint ,isidore4 ,this chest was covered with thick gold plates studded with precious stones1 and bore1 in enamel and relief1 the figures of the apostles gathered round the ,saviour1 and medallions containing figures of the ,virgin1 saints1 and martyrs4 ,according to ,ambrosio de ,morales1 the gold plates were torn off by ,alfonso the ,first of ,aragon1 who replaced them by others of silver-gilt4 ,the same monarch1 regardless of the church's fierce anathema pronounced on all who dared to touch her property1#aa is accused by his chronicler of having appropriated a box of pure gold studded with gems1 enshrining a crucifix made of the true ,cross1 and which was kept in some town or village of the kingdom of ,len4 ,doubtless as a chastisement for ,alfonso's impiety1 this precious box was captured from him by the ,moors at the battle of ,fraga4 #aj ,describing how the monarch made these presents to the church when lying at the point of death1 the ,chronicle of the ,monk of ,silos says3 exuit regalem clamydem1 qua induebatur corpus et deposuit gemmatam coronam1 qua ambiebatur caput4 #aa ,the formula is worded thus3 ,quisquis ille fuerit qui talia commiserit1 sit maledictus coram ,deo et ,angelis ejus1 mendicitas et lepra prosapiam teneat suam et extraneus persistat a sancta communione1 quatenus cum ,juda1 ,christi proditore1 ardendus permaneat in terna damnatione4 ,among the reliquary chests1 the oldest specimen extant in ,spain is the arca santa of ,oviedo cathedral4 ,this object1 which is purely ,byzantine in its style1 is believed to have been made at ,constantinople4 ,it was improved by ,alfonso the ,sixth1 who added repouss plates to it1 with ,arabic ornamentation in the form of meaningless inscriptions of a merely decorative character1 but which are interesting as showing the kinship existing at this time between the ,spanish ,christians and the ,spanish ,moors4 ,equally important is the coffer which was made by order of ,don ,sancho el ,mayor to enshrine the wonder-working bones of ,san ,millan1 and which is now at ,san ,millan de la ,cogulla1 in the province of ,la ,rioja4 ,the author of this chest1 which dates from ,a4,d4 #ajcc1 is vaguely spoken of as ,master ,aparicio4 ,the chest itself consists of a wooden body beneath a covering of ivory and gold1 further enriched with statuettes and studded with real and imitation stones4 ,it is divided into twenty-two compartments carved in ivory with passages from the life and miracles of the saint1 and figures of princes1 monks1 and benefactors1 who had contributed in one way or another to the execution of the reliquary4 ,i have said that the coffer of the ,cid was made for carrying baggage4 ,a very interesting ,spanish baggage-chest1 although more modern than the ,cid's by several centuries1 is now the property of ,seor ,moreno ,carbonero 7,plate iii474 ,this very competent authority believes it to have belonged to ,isabella the ,catholic1 and says that it was formerly the usage of the sovereigns of this country to mark their baggage-boxes with the first quartering of the royal arms and also with their monogram4 ,such is the decoration1 consisting of repeated castles and the letter ,y 7for ,ysabel71 upon this trunk4 ,the space between is painted red upon a surface thinly spread with wax4 ,strips of iron1 twisted to imitate the girdle of ,saint ,francis1 are carried over all the frame1 surrounding the castles and the letters4 ,this box was found at ,ronda4#ab #ab ,to keep the dust or rain from entering these trunks1 they were covered1 when on the march1 with stout square cloths called reposteros1 which were often richly worked and bore the owner's arms or monogram4 ,the same word subsequently came to mean the tapestried or other decorative cloths displayed in ,spain on gala days from balconies of public edifices1 or the mansions of the aristocracy2 but dictionaries which were printed at the close of the eighteenth century still define the repostero as caparison1 a square cloth with the arms of a prince or lord on it1 which serves to cover a led-horse1 or sumpter-horse4 ,illustration3 ,,iii ,,arc,n 7#aeth ,century7 ,a handsome arcn1 dating from the same period as this baggage-chest of ,isabella the ,catholic1 namely1 the end of the fifteenth century1 is stated by its owner1 ,don ,manuel ,lopez de ,ayala1 to have belonged to ,cardinal ,cisneros 7,plate iv474 ,the material is wood1 covered inside with dark blue cloth1 and outside with red velvet1 most of the nap of which is worn away4 ,the dimensions are four feet six inches in length1 two feet in height1 and twenty inches in depth4 ,the chest1 which has a triple lock1 is covered with repouss iron plates representing twisted columns and other architectural devices1 combined with ,gothic thistle-leaves4 ,a coat of arms is on the front4 ,such is an outline of the history of these ,spanish chests4 ,most of the earlier ones are cumbersome and scantily adorned4 ,then1 as time proceeds1 we find on them the florid ,gothic carving1 unsurpassed for purity and charm2 then the ,renaissance1 with its characteristic ornament of urns1 and birds1 and intertwining frond and ribbon2 and finally1 towards1 and lasting through the greater portion of1 the eighteenth century1 the tasteless and decadent manner of ,baroque4 ,yet even in the worst and latest we descry from time to time a flickering remnant of the art of ,moorish ,spain4 ,illustration3 ,,iv ,,arca ,,of ,,cardinal ,,cisneros ,these ,spanish ,moors1 obedient to the custom of their fellow-,mussulmans throughout the world1 employed but little furniture4 ,they loved1 indeed1 bright colours and ingenious craftsmanship1 but rather in the adjuncts to their furniture than in the furniture itself2 in costly carpets1 or worked and coloured leather hung upon the wall1#ac or spread upon their alhamies and alhanas2 in fountains bubbling in the middle of their courts and halls2 in doors1 and ceilings1 and celosas exquisitely carved1 and joined with matchless cunning2 in flower-vases placed in niches2 in bronze or silver perfume-burners rolling at their feet2 but not 7within the ordinary limit of the term7 in furniture4 ,upon this theme the ,reverend ,lancelot ,addison discourses very quaintly4 ,the host here1 he wrote of ,west ,barbary in #affc1 is one ,cidi ,caffian ,shat1 a grandee1 reported to be an ,andalusian1 one of the race of the ,moors bansht 7sic7 ,spain4444 ,we were called to a little upper ,room1 which we could not enter till we had put off our shoes at the threshold3 not for ,religion1 but ,cleanliness1 and not to prevent our unhallowing the floor1 but defiling the carpets wherewith it was curiously spread4 ,at the upper end of the ,room was laid a ,velvit ,cushion1 as large as those we use in our ,pulpits1 and it denoted the most ,honourable part of the ,room4 ,after we had reposed about an hour1 there was brought in a little oval ,table1 about twenty ,inches high1 which was covered with a long piece of narrow linnen2 and this served for ,diaper4#ad ,for the ,moors1 by their law1 are forbidden such superfluous ,utensils as napkins1 knives1 spoons1 etc4 ,their ,religion laying down the general maxim1 that meer necessaries are to be provided for2 which caused a precise ,moor to refuse to drink out of my dish when he could sup water enough out of the hollow of his hand4 #ac ,the wood-carving and decorative leather-work of older ,spain will be described a little later on4 ,as to the use of decorated leather by the ,moors1 in the small chamber of the ,alhambra opening into the ,mirador of ,daraxa1 and known as the ,sala de los ,ajimeces1 is a bare space about nine feet in height1 which runs the whole way round beneath the copious ornament of the remainder of the wall4 ,contreras says that the ,moorish sultans used to hang these spaces with decorated leathers1 tapestry1 and armour4 ,sometimes the tapestry or leather would be worked or painted with hunting-scenes 7tardwahsh--the chase of the lion1 panther1 or wild boar71 or even with portraits of the sultans4 ,among these latter is the celebrated painting on the ceiling of the ,hall of ,justice1 executed1 as are its companions at each side of it1 upon a leather groundwork with a plaster coating4 #ad ,i think this shows why to this day a ,spaniard who professes to be an educated person will often wipe his or her mouth upon the tablecloth4 ,not many weeks ago ,i saw the elegantly dressed daughter of a ,spanish member of ,parliament perform this semi-oriental feat in an hotel at ,granada4 ,montaigne would judge this seorita with benevolence2 not so1 ,i fear1 my compatriots4 ,similarly1 it is considered rude in ,spain to stretch yourself2 but not to spit upon the dining-room floor1 or pick your teeth at table4 ,the same author proceeds to relate his experiences at bed-time4 ,having supp'd and solaced ourselves with muddy beverage and ,moresco music1 we all composed ourselves to sleep3 about twenty were allotted to lodge in this small chamber1 whereof two were ,christians1 three ,jews1 and the rest ,moors2 every one made his bed of what he wore1 which made our ,english constitutions to wish for the morning4 ,illustration3 ,v ,,armchair 7#agth ,century4 ,museum of ,salamanca7 ,among the ,mussulmans all this has undergone no change4 ,do we not find their present furniture to be identical with that of distant centuries8--a characteristic scarcity of portable articles of wood2 the isolated box 7arqueta or arcn7 which serves the purpose of our clumsier chest of drawers or wardrobe2#ae carpets and decorated leathers2 the tiny1 indispensable table2 the lack of knives and spoons2 ornaments to regale the eye rather than commodities which the hand might seize upon and utilize8 ,such was1 and is1 and will continue to remain ,mohammedan society throughout the world2 and these descriptive passages of life in seventeenth-century ,morocco might have been penned with equal truth in reference to the ,spanish ,muslim of a thousand years ago4 #ae ,mr4 ,cunninghame ,graham1 visiting a ,caid's house in present-day ,morocco1 noted1 as the only furniture1 leather-covered cushions1 the cover cut into intricate geometric patterns2 the room contained a small trunk-shaped box4 ,the furniture of the ,moorish mosques was also of the scantiest4 ,they are1 to quote once more from ,lancelot ,addison's amusing little brochure1 without the too easy accommodations of seats1 pews1 or benches4 ,the floor of the ,gimma is handsomely matted1 and so are the walls about two feet high4 ,if the roof be large and weighty1 it is supported with pillars1 among which hang the lamps1 which are kept burning all the night4 ,at one point of his expedition the reason for such paucity of furniture was vividly expounded to our tourist4 ,a ,moor indignantly exclaimed to him that it was a shame to see women1 dogs1 and dirty shoes brought into a place sacred to ,god's worship1 and that men 444 should have chaires there to sit in with as much lascivious ease as at home4#af #af ,west ,barbary1 p4 #aej4 ,nevertheless1 a pulpit in the mosque1 and a seat of some kind in the palace or the private house1 were not to be dispensed with4 ,we learn from ,ibn-,khaldoun and many other writers1 that the throne of the ,mussulman sultans was the mimbar1 takcht1 or cursi4 ,each of these objects was a wooden seat4 ,the first of the sultans to use a throne was ,moawia1 son of ,abu-,sofyan4 ,the princes who came after him continued the same usage1 but displayed a constantly increasing splendour in the decoration of the throne4 ,this custom spread1 in course of time1 from east to west throughout almost the whole dominion of the ,muslims4 ,the ,beni-,nasr princes of ,granada are also known to have used a throne1 but this is believed to have consisted simply of some cushions piled one upon another4 ,this inference is drawn by ,eguilaz ,yanguas and other ,arabists from the old ,vocabulary of ,fray ,pedro de ,alcal1 who renders a throne or royal seat by martaba1 a word equivalent to cushion4 ,illustration3 ,,vi ,,chair ,,and ,,table 7#agth ,century4 ,salamanca ,cathedral7 ,cushions1 too1 became symbolic1 even with the ,christian ,spaniards1 of a seat of honour2 both because they lent themselves to rich embroidery or leather-work1 and because they raised their occupant above the level of the persons seated positively on the carpet or the floor4 ,in the painting on the ceiling of the ,hall of ,justice in the ,alhambra1 ten men are congregated in ,mohammedan costume1 each of them seated on a cushion4 ,some writers1 including ,argote de ,molina1 ,diego ,hurtado de ,mendoza1 and ,hernando del ,pulgar1 believed these figures to be actual portraits of the sultans2 others maintain that they depict the ,mizouar or royal council4 ,in either case1 however1 the cushion here is clearly an honourable place4 ,we have1 besides1 abundant evidence that the ,spanish ,christians viewed the cushion with as marked a liking as their rivals4 ,alvarez de ,colmenar relates that at the very close of the seventeenth century the ,spanish women sat at meals in ,moorish fashion4 ,un pre de famille est assis seul table1 et toutes les femmes1 sans exception1 mangent par terre1 assises sur un carreau avec leurs enfants1 et leur table dresse sur un tapis tendu4 ,the same work says elsewhere that lorsque les dames se rendent visite1 elles ne se donnent ni sige ni fauteuil1 mais elles sont toutes assises par terre1 les jambes en croix1 sur des tapis ou des carreaux4#ag #ag ,annales d',espagne et de ,portugal1 vol4 iii41 pp4 #cbd1 #cbg4 ,therefore1 until two centuries ago1 the women of ,christian ,spain were suffered to take their seat on cushions of brocade or damask4 ,only the men made use of stools or chairs1 according to their rank4 ,to give a chair 7dar silla7 to a visitor of the male sex was to pay him a valued courtesy2#ah and even now the wife of a grandee of ,spain goes through the honourable though irksome ceremony1 at the palace of ,madrid1 of taking the cushion4 #ah ,hnrale el ,sr ,roberto1 alma del ,rey1 y le ha dado ,silla1 y le tuvo su lado4 ,lope de ,vega's comedy1 ,the ,key of ,honour4 ,illustration3 ,,vii ,,chairs ,,upholstered ,,with ,,guadameciles 7#agth ,century7 ,another usage with the ,spaniards of the seventeenth and immediately preceding centuries was the dais of honour or estrado de cumplimiento4 ,this was a platform very slightly raised1 and separated by a railing from the rest of the room4 ,the curious manuscript discovered by ,gayangos1 descriptive of court-life at ,valladolid in #afje1 contains the following account of one of the occasions when the ,queen1 following a common custom of a ,sunday1 dined alone1 in sight of all the aristocracy4 ,the table was laid upon the dais 7estrado alto71 beneath a canopy of brocade that overhung the whole of it4 ,the queen sat at the head of the table1 and three ladies1 standing1 waited on her2 two uncovering the dishes as they came1#ai and the third carving4 ,the dishes were brought from the dining-room door by the meninos1 who handed them to the ladies4 ,other ladies of the royal household1 wives or daughters of grandees1 stood leaning against the wall in company with gentlemen who1 on such occasions1 sue for leave beforehand to attend on ,lady ,so and ,so1 or ,so and ,so4 ,commonly there are two such cavaliers to every dame4 ,if the queen asks for water1 one of these ladies takes it to her1 kneels1 makes an obeisance1 kisses the goblet1 hands it to her majesty1 and retires to her appointed place4 ,behind the queen was one of her chamberlains4 ,many of the ,englishmen were witnessing the meal4 ,they always put the ,english first on such occasions2 and as they are such hulking fellows 7,god bless them67 ,i1 who was at their back1 scarce noted anything of what was passing1 and only saw that many plates went to and fro4 #ai ,the covers would be fastened by a lock and key1 as a defence1 not against poison1 but against theft4 ,a little afterwards ,don ,federico de ,cardona1 who had gone out to see how matters were proceeding1 returned1 bearing a large silver vessel1 the cover of which was secured by a lock and key1 as is the custom in ,spain4--,countess d',aulnoy's ,travels4 ,as late as the year #agib1 ,townsend1 in his ,directions to the ,itinerant in ,spain1 recommends 7vol4 i41 p4 #b7 that the vessel to boil the traveller's meat should be provided with a cover and a lock4 ,solid and expensive furniture continued to be used in ,spain throughout the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries2 the ponderous chest1 the ponderous brasier1 ponderous stools1 ponderous armchairs with massive nails and coverings of velvet or of decorated leather 7,plates v41 vi41 and vii474 ,upon the wall1 the tapestry of earlier times was often replaced by paintings of a sacred character1 or family portraits4 ,the comedy titled ,la ,gardua de ,sevilla1 written about the middle of the seventeenth century by ,alonso del ,castillo ,solorzano1 describes the interior of a rich man's dwelling of this period4 ,upstairs ,rufina noted delicate summer hangings1 new chairs of ,moscovy cowhide1 curiously carved buffets1 and ebony and ivory writing-desks2 for ,marquina1 though a skinflint towards others1 was generous in the decoration of his own abode4444 ,when dinner was over1 he took her to a room embellished with fine paintings1 and with a bed whose canopy was of some ,indian fabric4444 ,paintings by famous masters were plentifully hung about the house1 together with fine ,italian hangings1 various kinds of writing-desks1 and costly beds and canopies4 ,when they had visited nearly all the rooms1 they opened the door of one which contained a beautiful altar and its oratory4 ,here were a great array of costly and elaborate ,roman vessels1 agnuses of silver and of wood1 and flowers arranged in various ways4 ,this chamber1 too1 was full of books distributed in gilded cases4 ,illustration3 ,,viii ,,the ,,sala ,,de ,,la ,,barca 7,before the fire of #ahij4 ,alhambra1 ,granada7 ,a characteristic piece of ,spanish furniture was at this time the solid-looking cabinet known as the vargueo1 so denominated from the little town of ,vargas1 near ,toledo1 formerly a well-known centre of their manufacture4 ,these cabinets1 whose origin1 according to the ,marquis of ,monistrol1 may be traced to a fifteenth-century form of huche1 or chest provided with drawers for guarding articles of value1 and which opened in the centre1 are commonly made of walnut4 ,the front lets down upon a massive wooden rest supported by the legs1 and forms a folding writing-table containing at the back a number of drawers or compartments for storing documents1 or other things of minor bulk4 ,the woodwork of these cabinets is often without carving2 but generally in such cases their bareness is relieved by massive and elaborately ornamented iron fastenings and a decorative key4 ,the ,ordinances of ,granada tell us that in #afaf the making of defective furniture had grown to be a scandal in that town4 ,the cause1 it seems1 was partly in the wood itself1 proceeding from the ,sierra de ,segura1 ,pinar del ,duque1 and the ,sierra de ,gor4 ,divers of our carpenters and joiners cut their walnut and other woods while yet the moon is crescent1 whereby the wood decays and spoils4 ,others there be that make and sell chairs1 desks1 beds1 and other furniture of green unseasoned wood which warps and loosens1 insomuch that within some days the article is worthless4 ,therefore we order that all walnut wood and other woods for making furniture be only cut at the time of the waning moon1 and be not used until they shall have seasoned thoroughly1 so as not to warp2 and that they be approved by the inspectors of this trade1 under a penalty of six thousand maravedis for each of the aforesaid ,ordinances that be not complied with4 ,illustration3 ,,ix ,,door ,,of ,,the ,,hall ,,of ,,the ,,abencerrajes 7,alhambra1 ,granada7 ,the municipal laws of the same city relative to the chair-makers who make hip-chairs to sit in1 and leather-covered chests1 were cried1 in #aeae and #aecf1 in the street of the chairmakers and carpenters4 ,fettered by irksome regulations of this kind1 we cannot wonder that the arts and crafts of ,christian ,spain were fated to decline4#bj ,owing to the false and faulty workmanship prevailing in ,granada1 it is provided by these statutes that the wood employed in making chairs must be bought by the manufacturers in public auction only1 held in the little square where dwell the chairmakers4 ,it must be thoroughly dry and free from flaws1 and of sufficient stoutness to sustain the decorative marquetry4 ,the chair which lacks these requisite conditions must be seized and burnt4 ,the four nails which fasten the seat of the chair to the legs must traverse the frame completely and be hammered back upon the other side1 unless the surface of the chair be inlaid1 in which case they need not pass completely through4 ,the leather for the seats and backs of chairs must be good in quality and well prepared and dressed1 besides being strongly sewn with flaxen thread4 ,chairs of all sizes must bear the official city mark1 stamped by the authorities at a charge of one maravedi for each of the large chairs and a blanca for each of the small4 #bj ,the purpose of these ,spanish city laws was in its essence unimpeachable2 namely1 to guard the intensely ignorant ,christian populace--the same which fugitive ,moriscos of the kingdom of ,valencia had readily prevailed upon to barter tons of brass and pewter trash for sterling gold and silver coin--from being imposed upon by manufacturers and merchants4 ,but the power of discriminating between a genuine or well-made object and a piece of counterfeit or worthless rubbish is1 among all peoples1 better sought for and developed by experience than by legislation2 and there was something noxiously prosaic in a code of city ordinances which forbade the craftsman to prepare his own design1 or choose his own material1 or establish his own prices4 ,how violently1 or at least how primitively1 hostile to the sense of art must not have been these ,christian sons of ,spain to need--or think they needed--so impertinent and tyrannous a system of protection6 ,makers of the leather-covered chests are ordered to use the hides of horses1 mares1 or mules1 and not the hides of oxen1 cows1 or calves1 because1 if covered with this latter1 the chests grow moth-eaten and are destroyed much sooner4 ,the craftsman who transgresses this command must lose the faulty piece of furniture1 and pay four hundred maravedis1 while under a further penalty of two hundred maravedis the hinges must be fixed inside the chest1 and not to its exterior4 ,illustration3 ,x ,,moorish ,,door1 ,,detail ,,of ,,carving 7,hall of the ,two ,sisters1 ,alhambra1 ,granada7 ,i have omitted hitherto all mention of the furnishing of humbler ,spanish houses in the olden time4 ,the following passage from the ,ordinances of ,granada shows us1 referring to an inn1 an unpretentious lodging of about four hundred years ago3-- ,item4 ,if the innkeeper have a parlour or alcove that fastens with a lock1 and therein a bed of the better class1 with hangings round about it1 and a canopy above1 and on the bed a counterpane1 friezed blanket1 and pillows2 also a bench with its strip of carpet or striped benchcloth1 a table with its service of tablecloths and all that be needful1 besides a lamp of brass or ware1 all of the best that he is able to provide--for such a bed and room he may demand twelve maravedis each day2 whether the room be taken by one guest1 or two1 or more4#ba #ba ,ordenanza de ,mesoneros1 titulo #ed4 ,nor was the ,spanish inn more comfortable in the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries than in the sixteenth4 ,on entre d'ordinaire dans les ,htelleries par l'curie1 du moins dans de certaines ,provinces2 on vous mne dans quelque chambre1 o vous trouvez les quatre parois1 quelquefois un bois de lit2 pour chandelle on allume un grand nombre de petites bougies1 qui font assez de lumire pour voir ce que vous mangez2 et afin que l'odeur and la fume de tant de bougies n'incommode pas1 on vous apporte1 si vous le souhaitez1 un brasier de noyaux d'olives en charbon4 ,quand on monte1 on trouve au haut de l'escalier1 la ,seora de la ,casa1 qui a eu le tems de prendre ses beaux habits de dimanche pour vous faire honneur et s'en faire elle-mme4 7,alvarez de ,colmenar1 in #agae47 ,it is interesting to compare these passages with ,lancelot ,addison's account of a ,morocco inn towards the middle of the seventeenth century2 bearing in mind that fonda1 the current ,spanish term for hostelry1 is common both to ,spain and to ,morocco3-- ,in later years1 every town of traffic hath erected a sort of ,inns called ,alfndach1 which affords nothing but ,house-room for man and beast1 the market yielding provision for both4 ,those that farm these fandchs cannot exact above a ,blankil a night both for man and beast1 which is in sterling money about two pence4 ,the horses lodging costing equally with his ,rider's4#bb #bb ,west ,barbary1 p4 #abi4 ,similarly1 the keeper of the older ,spanish inn was not allowed by law to traffic in provisions4 ,nothing but house-room was available for wayfarers1 and the weary visitor1 as soon as ever he arrived1 must sally forth to do his marketing4 ,illustration3 ,,xi ,,door ,,of ,,the ,,salon ,,de ,,embajadores 7,alczar of ,seville7 ,quand on arrive aux ,htelleries1 fut il minuit pass1 l'on n'y trouve rien de prt1 non pas mme un pot sur le feu4 ,l'htel ne vous donne que le couvert et le lit1 pour tout le reste1 il le faut envoyer chercher1 si vous ne voulez prendre la peine d'y aller vous-mme4 ,on donne l'argent ncessaire1 et l'on va vous chercher du pain1 du vin1 de la viande1 et gnralement tout ce que l'on souhaite1 si tant est qu'on le puisse trouver4 ,il est vrai que cette coutume a son bon ct4 ,le prix de toutes ces choses est rgl1 l'on sait ce qu'il faut payer1 et un hte ne peut pas friponner4 ,on vous apprte votre viande1 et l'on donne une rale et demie1 ou deux raux pour le servicio1 comme ils parlent1 et autant pour le lit1 ce qui revient environ quinze sous de ,france4 ,si l'on se trouve dans quelque grande ville1 on aura une nappe grande comme une serviette1 et une serviette grande comme un mouchoir de poche2 dans d'autres endroits il faut s'en passer4 ,les lits ne sont pas fort ragoutans2 quelque matelas1 ou quelque paillasse1 ou tout au plus une couverture de coton2 la campagne il faut passer la nuit sur le carreau1 ou bien sur quelque botte de paille1 qu'on doit avoir soin de faire bien secouer1 pour en chasser la vermine4 ,the statements in this passage relative to the lack of food in ,spanish hostelries are confirmed1 nearly a century later1 by ,townsend1 who records that on reaching a certain village his first proceeding was to turn his steps1 not to the fonda or posada where he would engage his bed1 but to the butcher's1 wine-seller's1 and so forth1 to see what was to be had1 as ,i had travelled all day fasting4 ,it is beyond the province of this work to dwell upon the foreign taste in furniture which invaded ,spain from ,france upon the advent of the ,bourbon dynasty1 and so ,i limit my notice of the eighteenth century to quoting from ,laborde the following comprehensive passage3-- ,if the ,spaniards1 this traveller wrote in #ahji1 take many precautions against heat1 they take scarcely any against cold2 it is very uncommon to find doors or windows that shut close1 and the rooms are very little and very ill-warmed4 ,the use of chimneys even is very uncommon1 and only prevails in the houses of such ,spaniards as have travelled4 ,brasiers of copper or silver are generally employed1 which are set in the middle of the apartment1 filled with burning charcoal1 and round which the family place themselves4 ,illustration3 ,,xii ,,door ,,of ,,the ,,salon ,,de ,,embajadores 7,alczar of ,seville7 ,the beds in ,spain are hard4 ,they are only made of mattresses1 more or fewer1 laid on paillasses which rest upon a boarded bottom2 for neither sacking nor feather beds are known4 ,no bolsters are used1 but in their place little1 short1 flat pillows are heaped up1 sometimes to the number of six or eight4 ,the sheets are in general short and narrow2 and napkins scarcely as big as a small pocket handkerchief4 ,the furniture of the houses is usually very simple4 ,the floor is covered with a matting of esparto in winter1 and of rushes or palm leaves in summer4 ,a matting of the same kind1 a painted cloth1 or painting in panels1 covers the walls from the floor to the height of four or five feet2 above1 the wall is bare1 painted white1 and adorned with pictures of saints and a kind of ornamented metal chandeliers2 these are covered with a glass1 surrounded with a border of gilt ornaments2 and a little branch of gilt copper proceeds from them forming zig-zags or festoons1 on which the candles are placed2 they are called cornucopias2 they are from one to three feet in height1 and give the apartment the air of a coffee room1 or billiard room4 ,mirrors are placed between the windows1 and a lustre of clear glass in imitation of crystal is suspended from the middle of the handsomest saloons4 ,the chairs have straw bottoms2 in some provinces1 as ,murcia1 ,andalusia1 and ,valencia1 they are of different heights2 those on one side of the room being of the common height1 and the others one third lower4 ,the latter are intended for the ladies4 ,in some of the principal cities one also sees chairs and sofas of walnut wood1 the backs of which are bare1 and the seats covered with damask2 usually crimson or yellow4 ,luxury begins1 however1 to show itself in these objects4 ,in the chief cities many hangings are of painted paper or linen2 even hangings of brocades1 of one and of three colours1 and of various other kinds of silk2 large and beautiful mirrors1 and a number of sofas may be seen4 ,the houses of the grandees in ,madrid are magnificently furnished1 but usually with more cost than taste4 ,hangings of silk1 velvet1 and damask1 adorned with rich fringes and gold embroidery1 are very common1 and the seats are of corresponding magnificence4 ,many houses in ,barcelona1 ,cadiz1 ,valencia1 and ,madrid are decorated with equal study and elegance4 ,the custom of painting the walls is of late introducing itself into ,spain4 ,they are covered with representations of men and animals1 with trees1 flowers1 landscapes1 houses1 urns1 vases1 or history pieces1 divided into compartments1 adorned with pillars1 pilasters1 friezes1 cornices1 and arabesques2 the effect of the whole is often very agreeable4 ,this kind of decoration was imported from ,italy4#bc #bc ,vol4 v41 pp4 #cja-cjd4 ,illustration3 ,,xiii ,,alc,,zar ,,of ,,seville 7,faade and principal entrance7 ,in this account we clearly trace each various and successive influence that had permeated older ,spain1 leaving her1 at the close of every period1 a nation that produced illustrious artists1 but never a nation deeply versed in1 or devoted to1 the arts4 ,the beds and brasiers of these modern ,spaniards were derived from ancient ,rome2 their general dearth of comfortable furniture1 together with the lower1 and therefore more humiliating1 seats for women1 from the ,spanish ,moors2 the typically ponderous hangings from medival ,spain herself2 the fresco wall-paintings1 such as may still be seen in many a ,spanish country home1 from classic or ,renaissance ,italy2 and the finicking gilt1 rococo cornucopias from ,france2 while the use of mirrors and of lustres in hideous combination with straw-bottomed chairs1 almost reminds us of the days of ,visigothic barbarism4 ,,leather ,guadamacilera1 or the art of decorating leather with painting1 gilding1 and impressions in relief1 is commonly believed to have crossed from ,africa to ,spain at some time in the ,middle ,ages4 ,according to ,duveyrier1 the word guadamec or guadamecil is taken from ,ghadames1 a town in ,barbary where the craft was practised long ago2 but ,covarrubias gives it an origin directly ,spanish1 supposing that the title and the craft alike proceeded from a certain town of ,andalusia4 ,however this may be1 the preparation of these leathers grew to be a most important industry in various parts of ,spain1 and spread1 as time went on1 to ,italy1 ,france1 and other ,european countries4#bd #bd ,spain lays claim to the invention of the art of gilding leather2 it is asserted that1 after being discovered there1 the secret was carried to ,naples by ,peter ,paul ,majorano4--,laborde1 vol4 v41 p4 #bca4 ,in the ,peninsula1 the principal centres of this work were ,cordova1 ,seville1 ,lerida1 ,barcelona1 ,ciudad ,real1 and ,valladolid4 ,cordova1 however1 was so far ahead of all the rest that leathers decorated in this style were known throughout the world as cueros de ,crdoba1 or ,cordova leathers4 ,another name for them is said to have been cordobanes2 but possibly the application of this latter word was less restricted4 ,bertaut de ,rouen wrote in the seventeenth century of ,ciudad ,real3--,c'est une ville situe dans une grande plaine1 et dont l'enceinte est assez grande1 qui estoit mesme fort peuple autrefois1 mais elle est quasi deserte present4 ,il ne luy reste plus rien sinon que c'est l o l'on appreste le mieux les peaux de ,cordouan1 dont on fait les gans d',espagne4 ,c'est del aussi d'o elles viennent pour la pluspart ,madrid4 ,j'en achetay quelques-unes4 ,illustration3 ,,xiv ,,door ,,of ,,the ,,capilla ,,de ,,los ,,vargas 7,madrid7 ,in #aaig ,alfonso the ,ninth presented the town of ,castro de los ,judos to ,len ,cathedral and its bishop1 confirming at the same time the tribute which the ,jews who occupied that town were bound to render upon ,saint ,martin's day in every year1 and which consisted of two hundred sueldos1 a fine skin1 and two guadamecs4 ,this tribute had existed since the reign of ,ferdinand the ,first3 that is1 towards the middle of the preceding century4#be #be ,count of ,clonard2 ,memorias para la historia del traje espaol4 ,none of these primitive leathers now exist1 and consequently the details of their workmanship have perished with them4 ,ramrez de ,arellano mentions two small coffers in the ,cluny ,museum1 which date from about the fourteenth century and are decorated with the forms of animals cut from leather and overlaid on velvet4 ,other guadamecs1 though not of the oldest1 are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,the earliest guadamecileros1 says ,ramrez de ,arellano1 speaking particularly of this art at ,cordova1 were accustomed to imitate brocade upon their leathers1 employing beaten silver together with the colours red1 green1 blue1 black1 white1 and carmine1 applied in oils1 or sometimes 7although the law prohibited this7 in tempera4 ,gold was not used till #aebi1 when ,charles the ,fifth confirmed the ,ordinances of this industry4 ,the leather-workers tanned the hides themselves1 stamping the pattern from a wooden mould1 and then 7if we may call it so7 engraving on them4 ,the hides were those of rams4 ,the spaces between the decoration were either coloured red or blue1 or simply left the colour of the skin2 or else the pattern would be wrought in colours on the natural hide4 ,gold1 which at a later epoch almost totally replaces silver1 was introduced between #aebi and #aedc1 and was applied as follows4 ,the artists smeared with oil the parts they wished to figure in raised or sunk relief1 and laid the beaten gold upon the oil4 ,they then applied a heated iron or copper mould2 the pattern in relief was stamped2 and the gold1 superfluous shreds of which were wiped away with lint1 adhered upon the leather4 ,the irons required to be moderately hot1 because if overheated they would burn the hide1 or1 if not hot enough1 the fixing of the gold would not be permanent4 ,illustration3 ,,xv ,,mudejar ,,door 7,palacio de las ,dueas1 ,seville7 ,the importance of this industry in ,spain may be judged of from the fact that towards the close of the ,middle ,ages the guadamacileros of ,seville occupied nearly the whole of an important street--the ,calle ,placentines4 ,similarly1 at ,cordova they filled the quarter of the city known as the ,ajerqua4 ,so many guadameces are made here1 wrote ,ambrosio de ,morales1 that in this craft no other capital can compare with her2 and in such quantities that they supply all ,europe and the ,indies4 ,this industry enriches ,cordova and also beautifies her2 for since the gilded1 wrought1 and painted leathers are fixed upon large boards and placed in the sun in order to be dried1 by reason of their splendour and variety they make her principal streets right fair to look upon4 ,we owe to ,rafael ,ramrez de ,arellano most valuable and recent information respecting this ancient ,spanish-,moorish craft4#bf ,he has discovered the names of nearly forty guadamacileros who lived and worked at ,cordova1 principally in the sixteenth century4 ,it is not worth while to repeat these names alone1 but one or two particulars connected with a few of them are interesting4 ,in #aeeg four of these artificers1 named ,benito ,ruiz1 ,diego de ,san ,llorente1 ,diego de ,ayora1 and ,anton de ,valdelomar1 signed a contract to prepare the cut and painted guadamaciles for decorating a palace at ,rome4 ,this contract1 which is most precise and technical1 is published in ,no4 #aja of the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones4 ,the only further notice which ,seor ,ramrez de ,arellano has discovered relating to any of these four craftsmen1 tells us that nine years after the signing of the document just mentioned1 ,diego de ,ayora leased some houses in the ,calle de la ,feria for a yearly rental of twenty-two ducats and three pairs of live hens4 #bf ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones1 ,nos4 #aja1 #ajb2 ,art4 ,guadamaces4 ,another interesting contract is dated ,april #agth1 #aehg4 ,by it the guadamacilero ,andrs ,lopez de ,valdelomar agreed1 in company with ,hernando del ,olmo of ,marchena1 and with ,francisco de ,gaviria and ,francisco ,delgado1 painters1 of ,cordova1 to make a number of pieces of guadamec for the ,duke of ,arcos4 ,the work was to be terminated by ,july of the same year4 ,valdelomar was to receive from the duke's agent three reales for each piece1 and the painters two reales and a half2 this money to be paid them by instalments as the work proceeded4 ,illustration3 ,,xvi ,,celos,a 7,alhambra1 ,granada7 ,on ,august #bfth1 #aefg1 before the mayor of ,cordova and the two inspectors of this trade1 ,pedro de ,blancas was officially examined and approved in cutting1 working1 and completing a guadamec of red damask with gold and silver borders on a green field1 and a cushion with green and crimson decoration and faced with silver brocade4 ,the ,ordinances of ,cordova also tell us much about this industry4 ,the oldest of these city laws which deal with it are dated #aebi4 ,those of #aedc were ratified by a ,crown pragmatic early in the seventeenth century1 and at this later date we learn that the craft had much declined1 the leather being by now of wretched quality1 the colouring imperfect1 and the pieces undersized4 ,the ,ordinances published in the sixteenth century provide that every applicant for official licence to pursue this craft and open business as a guadamacilero1 must prove himself1 in presence of the examiners1 able to mix his colours and design with them1 and to make a canopy together with its fringe1 as well as a cushion of any size or style that were demanded of him2 nor shall he explain merely by word of mouth the making of the same1 but make it with his very hands in whatsoever house or place shall be appointed by the mayor and the overseers of the craft aforesaid4 ,it was also provided by these ,ordinances that the pieces of leather were to be dyed1 not with ,brazil-wood1 but with madder1 and that their size1 whether the hide were silvered1 gilt1 or painted1 was to be strictly uniform1 namely1 the size of the primitive mould1 or three-quarters of a yard in length by two-thirds of a yard1 all but one inch1 in width4 ,the standard measures1 made of iron and stamped with the city seal1 were guarded under lock and key2 and the ,ordinances of #aefg establish the penalty of death for every guadamacilero who shall seek1 in silvering his wares1 to palm off tin for silver4 ,illustration3 ,,xvii ,,carved ,,alero ,these leathers served a great variety of purposes1 public or private1 sacred or profane4 ,they were used upon the walls and floors of palaces and castles1 as table-covers1 counterpanes1 bed-hangings1 cushions1 curtains for doors1 linings for travelling-litters1 coverings of chests and boxes1#bg and seats and backs of chairs and benches 7,plate vii474 ,in churches and cathedrals1 especially throughout the sixteenth century1 we find them used as tapestry and carpets1#bh altar-fronts 7such as one which is preserved in the chapel of ,san ,isidro in ,palencia cathedral71 or crowns for images of the ,virgin4#bi ,as time advanced1 gold and a coat or so of colour was succeeded by elaborate painting4 ,thus painted1 they were often cut into the forms of columns1 pilasters1 or friezes in the ,plateresco or ,renaissance style1#cj until the growing popularity of wall-pictures1 together with the importation of ,french fashions at the death of ,charles the ,second1 crippled and ultimately killed the decorative leather industry of ,spain4 #bg ,the ,poem of the ,cid tells us of the two chests1 covered with red guadamec1 which the hero filled with sand to cheat the ,jewish money-lenders3-- ,con vuestro consejo bastir quiero dos archas4 ,incamosla d'arena1 c bien sern pesadas1 ,cubiertas de guadamec bien enclavadas2 ,los guadamecs bermeios los clavos bien dorados4 ,nevertheless1 the coffer of the ,cid at ,burgos 7see p4 #ab7 does not appear to have been thus fitted4 #bh ,the same usage obtained in ,morocco4 ,lancelot ,addison wrote in #affi that on the first day of their ,little ,feast the ,moors across the ,strait spread the floor of their ,giammas with coloured leather4--,west ,barbary1 p4 #bac4 #bi ,an inventory of effects belonging to the ,hospital of ,san ,jos at ,jerez de la ,frontera mentions1 in #aehi1 clothes and trimmings for the image of ,our ,lady4 ,a crown of gilded guadamec4--,gestoso1 ,diccionario de ,artfices ,sevillanos1 vol4 i41 p4 xxii1 note4 #cj ,a hall1 says ,ramrez de ,arellano1 would often be embellished by surrounding it with arches wrought of leather in relief and superposed on leather4 ,as a rule the arches were gilt and silvered1 and rested upon pilasters or columns4 ,when pilasters were used1 their centres would be ornamented with ,italian devices such as flowers1 trophies1 imitated cameos1 and foliage4 ,landscapes with a far horizon and no figures1 known as boscaje or pintura verde were painted on the space between the arches1 so that the general effect was that of a pavilion with arches on all sides1 displaying everywhere a wide expanse of fertile country4 ,the arches rested on a broad bordering of guadameces1 and running round the lower part was a zcalo or socle1 commonly made of tiling4 ,such is the kind of decoration which was most in vogue in ,spain throughout the latter half of the sixteenth century2 that which was exported to ,rome2 and that which was commissioned by the ,duke of ,arcos4 ,,carpentry ,,and ,,wood-,,carving ,the artistic carpentry of older ,spain produced as its most typical and striking monuments1 three groups of objects which may be included generally under ,furniture4 ,these are the celosa or window-lattice1 the door of lazo-work1 and the artesonado-ceiling which adorns a hall or chamber1 corridor or staircase4 ,illustration3 ,,xviii ,,carved ,,zapatas 7,casa de ,salinas1 ,salamanca7 ,these happy and effective styles of decoration came originally from the ,east4 ,their passage may be traced along the coast of ,africa from ,egypt into ,spain2 and they flourished in ,spain for the same reason which had caused them to flourish at ,cairo4 ,when we remember1 says ,professor ,lane-,poole1 how little wood grows in ,egypt1 the extensive use made of this material in the mosques and houses of ,cairo appears very remarkable4 ,in mosques1 the ceilings1 some of the windows1 the pulpit1 lectern or ,koran desk1 tribune1 tomb-casing1 doors1 and cupboards1 are of wood1 and often there are carved wooden inscriptions and stalactites of the same material leading up to the circle of the dome4 ,in the older houses1 ceilings1 doors1 cupboards1 and furniture are made of wood1 and carved lattice windows1 or meshrebiyas1 abound4 ,in a cold climate1 such employment of the most easily worked of substances is natural enough2 but in ,egypt1 apart from the scarcity of the material1 and the necessity of importing it1 the heat offers serious obstacles to its use4 ,a plain board of wood properly seasoned may keep its shape well enough in ,england1 but when exposed to the sun of ,cairo it will speedily lose its accurate proportions2 and when employed in combination with other pieces1 to form windows or doors1 boxes or pulpits1 its joints will open1 its carvings split1 and the whole work will become unsightly and unstable4 ,the leading characteristic of ,cairo wood-work is its subdivision into numerous panels2 and this principle is obviously the result of climatic considerations1 rather than any doctrine of art4 ,the only mode of combating the shrinking and warping effects of the sun was found in a skilful division of the surfaces into panels small enough1 and sufficiently easy in their setting1 to permit of slight shrinking without injury to the general outline4 ,the little panels of a ,cairo door or pulpit may expand without encountering enough resistance to cause any cracking or splitting in the surrounding portions1 and the ,egyptian workmen soon learned to accommodate themselves to the conditions of their art in a hot climate4#ca #ca ,the ,art of the ,saracens in ,egypt1 pp4 #abd1 #abe4 ,illustration3 ,,xix ,,carved ,,zapatas 7,museum of ,zaragoza7 ,these valuable and interesting observations apply with equal justice to the decorative woodwork of the ,spanish ,muslims4 ,a further point of interest lies in the fact that window-grilles and ceilings of the kind referred to1 grew to be extremely fashionable through the whole ,peninsula4 ,carried by ,moorish or ,mudejar craftsmen far beyond the frontiers of the ,mussulman sultans of this ,european land1 we find to-day surviving specimens in every part of ,spain--most of them1 it is true1 in sultry ,andalus2 but many also in the old seigniorial mansions of ,castile1 or even in the cold and humid towns and cities of ,cantabria4 ,the man who did this kind of work was not a common carpenter4 ,such work was largely practical and prosaic1 but also it was largely decorative and poetical4 ,probably1 both in his own and in his customer's regard1 the decorative quality was set before the practical4 ,therefore1 beyond the dry1 comparatively facile details of technique1 this workman studied1 with an artist's reverence and zeal1 the inner1 subtler1 sweeter mysteries of line and form2 harmonies of curve and angle2 patterns1 now geometrical1 now floral1 now these two combined with magic ingenuity2 steeping himself in the sthetic sense2 making1 indeed1 his work the literal fact or fitting of prosaic application that was indispensable2 but also1 and as if upon some loftier initiative of his own1 a miracle of art for people of a later day to come and stand before and wonder at4 ,illustration3 ,,xx ,,alero ,,and ,,cornice ,,of ,,carved ,,wood 7,cuarto de ,comares1 ,alhambra1 ,granada7 ,indeed1 whether because ,our ,lord had practised it1 or from some other motive1 carpentry was always well esteemed among the ,spaniards4 ,the ,ordinances of ,seville eulogize it1 in conjunction with its sister-work of masonry and building1 as a noble art and self-contained1 that increaseth the nobleness of the ,king and of his kingdom1 that pacifieth the people1 and spreadeth love among mankind1 conducing to much good4#cb ,the same ,ordinances divide these honourable craftsmen into half a dozen classes and sub-classes2 carvers or entalladores1 carpenters who kept a shop 7carpinteros de tienda71 carpinteros de lo prieto1 and carpinteros de lo blanco4 ,the latter are the class we are considering here1 and these1 in turn1 were subdivided into lazeros or makers of lazo-work1 non-lazeros or those who did not make it1 and jumetricos or gemetricos4 ,the statutory examination was severe in all these branches4 ,thus1 the lazero-carpenters of ,seville were required to make a chamber of octagonal lazo-work1 including its pendentives at the corners2 while the wood-carvers of the same city were required to be experienced draughtsmen and to make and carve artistic altar-screens with decorated columns1 pedestals for images1 and tabernacles 7i4e4 the part of an altar where the cibory and the ,host are kept71 as well as tombs and chambranles with their covering1 tabernacles of the utmost art 7de grande arte71 and rich choir-stalls4 #cb ,es noble arte1 complida en s2 acrescienta la nobleza del rey y del reyno1 si en ella pararen mientes1 como deuen2 pone paz en el pueblo y amor entre los omes1 onde es carrera para muchos bienes4--,ordenanzas de ,sevilla1 ,part #a1 p4 #ada4 ,nor was the making of artistic ceilings1 doors1 and window-gratings carried out exclusively by men of ,moorish blood4 ,tutored by these1 the ,christians practised it with great success4 ,prominent among these last we find1 early in the seventeenth century1 the name of ,diego ,lopez de ,arenas1 a ,christian-,spaniard and a native of ,marchena1 who held the licensed title of master-carpenter and lived for many years at ,seville4#cc ,in a lucky moment it occurred to ,lopez de ,arenas to write and publish for the benefit of his fellow-craftsmen a book upon this decorative oriental woodwork that had passed into the ,spanish national life4 ,this book1 ,carpintera de lo ,blanco1#cd appeared at ,seville in #afcc1 and fresh editions were printed at the same city in #agbg1 and at ,madrid in #ahfg4 ,as in the ,ordinances of ,granada1 ,seville1 and ,toledo1 ,arabic terms1 too copious and too complicated for elucidation here1 are constantly repeated in this book4#ce ,much of the general information which we gather from it is1 however1 of great interest4 ,thus1 we are told that with the ,spanish artists1 as in ,egypt1 the wood most often used1 no doubt as being the cheapest1 was pitch pine1 parcelled and put together in the most elaborate decorative schemes4 ,such was the characteristic alfarge#cf ceiling of the ,moorish1 ,morisco1 and ,spanish-,christian carpintero de lo blanco4 ,its many fragments were secured upon the frame by long1 small-headed nails1 or by these nails combined with glue4 ,if we observe the ceilings from close by1 as when1 for instance1 they are taken down to be restored1 the workmanship appears to be coarse1 inaccurate1 and hasty2 the myriad pieces to be clumsily and loosely joined2 the nails to be driven in without method1 or even awry4 ,nevertheless1 this false effect betrays the calculating genius of the craftsman4 ,he planned his work for contemplation by a certain light and at a certain elevation2 and therefore1 as the ceiling is removed again to its appointed distance1 it seems to re-create itself in proud defiance of an error of our own1 and grows at once to its habitual delicacy1 harmony1 and richness4 #cc ,gestoso finds no record of him in the city archives2 but from a rough portrait of ,arenas prefixed to his treatise1 we judge that he was born about the year #aehj4 #cd ,arenas himself defines a carpintero de lo blanco as he who prepares and works upon the wood employed in building2 also1 he who fashions tables1 benches1 etc41 in his workshop4 #ce ,his language abounds in ,arabic words and phrases of uncertain origin1 whose meaning 7since he wrote for men familiar with this work7 he makes no effort to explain4--,editor's introduction to the third edition of ,carpintera de lo ,blanco4 #cf ,arabic al-farx1 a carpet1 piece of tapestry1 or anything that covers and adorns4 ,illustration3 ,,xxi ,,elijah ,,sleeping 7,statue in wood1 by ,alonso ,cano7 ,i have said that the decoration of these ceilings is sometimes floral1 sometimes geometrical1 sometimes a combination of the two4#cg ,sometimes the wood is plain1 or sometimes silvered1 gilt1 or painted4 ,sometimes it is employed alone1 or sometimes variegated and inlaid with plaster points and patches4 ,by far the commonest motive is the lazo--an ornamental scheme composed of infinite strips that turn1 and twist1 and intersect1 describing in their mazy passage many polygons4 ,one of these polygons determines1 in a way1 the scheme of the entire ceiling1 which is denominated as consisting of a lazo of eight1 of ten1 of twelve1 etc41 from this particular4 ,the most attractive and most frequent is the scheme of eight4 ,among the decorative details used to brighten and enhance the lazo proper are mocarabes or wooden lacery for relieving cubes and joists or surfaces1 and rcimos or clusters2 that is1 hollow or solid wooden cones or prisms1 disposed along the side and centre panels of the ceiling like 7in ,arenas' ingenious phrase7 the buttons on a jacket1 and contributing to the massive aspect of the whole4 ,these clusters1 too1 were sometimes in the stalactite and sometimes in a simpler form1 and show1 both in the quantity and richness of their ornament1 a limitless diversity4 #cg ,this mingled decoration is extremely common2 and may be studied in our country1 in the carved panels at ,south ,kensington which are believed to proceed from the pulpit of the mosque of ,kusun2 or in the thirteenth-century panels of the tomb of ,es-salih ,ayyub4 ,illustration3 ,,xxii ,,saint ,,bruno 7,by ,alonso ,cano4 ,cartuja of ,granada7 ,magnificent ,spanish-,moorish1 ,spanish1 and ,mudejar ceilings still exist in ,spain4 ,such are the marvellous domed ceiling in the ,hall of ,comares 7or of ,ambassadors7 in the ,alhambra1 those of the ,castle of the ,aljafera at ,zaragoza and of the archbishop's palace at ,alcal de ,henares1 the ,arab alfarge ceilings in the churches of ,san ,francisco and ,santiago of ,guadix1 that of the ,hall of ,cortes in the ,audiencia of ,valencia1 that of the ,sala ,capitular of ,toledo ,cathedral1 that of the ,chapel of the ,holy ,spirit of the ,cathedral of ,cuenca 7considered by many to be the finest artesonado ceiling in all ,spain71 or those of the churches of ,jesus ,crucificado1 ,el ,carmen1 and ,san ,pablo at ,cordova4 ,the ceiling of the ,sala de la ,barca1 in the ,moorish palace of the ,alhambra1 was almost totally destroyed by fire in #ahij1 but a good photograph had previously been taken1 and ,i reproduce it here 7,plate viii474 ,one of the later artesonado ceilings is at ,cordova1 in the parish church of ,santiago4 ,covered with a bveda or vault of cane1 it is in excellent preservation1 and was made in #afce by the master-carpenter ,alonso ,muoz de los ,ros1 who received for his labour fourteen thousand reales4#ch ,the artesonado ceilings which ,diego ,lopez de ,arenas tells us in his treatise that he made for the church1 the choir1 and the sobreescalera of the monastery of ,santa ,paula at ,seville1 as well as a ceiling which he made for the church of ,mairena1 are all extant to-day4 ,other remarkable examples of this craft are the ceilings of the rooms constructed to the order of1 and which were actually occupied by1 ,charles the ,fifth1 within the precincts of the old ,alhambra4 ,upon these half-,italian1 half-,morisco ceilings and their frieze we read the words1 ,plus ,oultre2 and the inscription1 ,imperator ,csar ,karolus ,v4 ,hispaniarum rex semper augustus pius foelix invictissimus4 ,in one of the same apartments1 known as the chamber of the fruits1 the ceiling has octagonal artesones of superb effect1 though even richer is that of what is called the ,second ,sala de las ,frutas1 conspicuously influenced by ,italian art1 and believed by ,gmez ,moreno to have been designed by ,pedro ,machuca and executed by ,juan de ,plasencia4 #ch ,cordova was a famous centre of this craft for many centuries4 ,ramrez de ,arellano has found and published a notice relative to ,lope de ,liao and ,garca ,alonso1 two artificers of this city who signed1 on ,january #gth1 #aegb1 a contract with the prior of the monastery of the ,holy ,martyrs to build a ceiling for one of the chapels of the same4 ,the document1 which is quoted in extenso in the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones for ,november1 #aijj1 abounds in technical expressions1 many of them partly or entirely ,moorish4 ,the same writer publishes the names 7hitherto completely unrecorded7 of thirteen other artist-carpenters who worked at ,cordova in the latter half of the sixteenth century and early in the seventeenth4 ,the craft1 in fact1 died hard1 and ceilings of this kind1 replete with ,moorish detail1 were made in certain parts of ,southern ,spain until the closing moments of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,xxiii ,,saint ,,john ,,the ,,baptist 7,san ,juan de ,dios1 ,granada7 ,marvellous in conjunction with the thousand lighted lamps which served to manifest its beauties1 must have been the primitive ceiling 7as-sicafes7 of the mosque of ,cordova1 of which an ,arab poet sang2 ,look at the gold on it1 like the kindled flame1 or like the lightning-stroke that darts across the heavens4#ci ,our notices of this ceiling1 barbarously hacked to pieces by ,christian architects1 are neither numerous nor clear4 ,we are told1 however1 that it was nearly finished in the reign of ,abd-er-,rhaman the ,first1 and terminated altogether by his son ,hixem4 ,new ceilings were added on the enlarging of the mosque by ,abd-er-,rhaman the ,second1 while fresh additions were made by ,al-,hakem the ,second and ,al-,manzor4 ,ambrosio de ,morales gives a quaint description of the earliest1 or an early1 ceiling of this temple4 ,the roof of the whole church1 made of wood painted and adorned in divers ways1 is of incredible richness1 as will be seen from what ,i am about to say4 ,it is of larch throughout1 odorous1 resembling pine1 which is not found in any part but ,barbary1#dj whence it is brought by sea4 ,and every time that a part of this temple was thrown down for new constructions to be added1 the wood removed was sold for many thousand ducats for making guitars and other delicate objects4 ,the ceiling was built across the church upon the nineteen naves thereof1 and over it1 covered likewise with wood1 the roofs1 nineteen in number also1 each with its ridge atop1 drooping to one and other side4#da #ci ,that the ,moors were proud of their mastery in woodwork is proved by an inscription in the ,torre de la ,cautiva at ,granada1 saying2 ,in the plaster and the tiles is work of extreme beauty1 but the woodwork of the roof has vanquished them in elegance4 #dj ,morales was probably mistaken4 ,on entering ,aragon one sees whole forests of ',spanish ,cedar' or alerce1 some of the trees so thick that they measure four feet in diameter4--,bowles' ,natural ,history of ,spain1 p4 #ajb4 #da ,antigedades de las ciudades de ,espaa 7,a4,d4 #aege71 p4 #abc4 ,three pieces made of common pine1 and which are thought to have belonged to the original ceiling of this mosque or to an early replica1 are now in the ,national ,museum at ,madrid1 but the carving of these fragments is so simple that in the opinion of ,rodrigo ,amador de los ,ros the decoration of the wood itself was purposely subordinated in this instance to the richness and variety of the painting4 ,illustration3 ,,xxiv ,,choir-,,stalls 7,santo ,toms1 ,avila7 ,three types of decorative doors were made in older ,spain4 ,in the earliest and simplest 7lacera en talla71 the lacera or lazo-work is carved directly on and from the solid plank which forms the body of the door4 ,in the second type1 the carver's art is delicately blended with the joiner's--lazo-work with ensamblaje4 ,in the third type the lazo-work is sobrepuesta--that is1 attached to1 not elaborated from1 the planking4#db #db ,jos ,amador de los ,ros mentions1 as a good example of the first of these types1 a thirteenth-century door of the claustrilla in the monastery of ,las ,huelgas at ,burgos4 ,other doors in the same monastery are illustrative of the second type2 while all three types are represented by the doors1 described herewith1 which close the principal entrance to the misnamed ,hall of ,ambassadors in the ,alczar of ,seville4 ,as in the case of ceilings1 many and excellent examples of these doors exist to-day in ,spain4 ,among the most remarkable are several in the ,moorish palace of the ,alhambra1 such as the two 7dating from the end of the fourteenth century or early in the fifteenth7 belonging1 respectively1 to the famous ,hall of the ,abencerrajes 7,pl4 ix471 and to the ,hall of the ,two ,sisters 7,pl4 x474 ,apparently it was the former of these doors which ,bertaut de ,rouen wrote of in the seventeenth century as une porte aussi grande et aussi paisse comme celles de nos plus grandes glises4 ,elle s'ouvre des deux costez1 et est toute de pieces rapportes1 et d'un bois de differentes couleurs1 comme les beaux cabinets et les belles tables qui coustent si cher4#dc #dc ,journal du ,voyage en ,espagne1 p4 #he4 ,an early ,mudejar door proceeding from the church of ,san ,pedro at ,daroca in ,aragon is now in the ,national ,museum4 ,this door1 which is of larch1 and measures nearly fourteen feet in height by nine in breadth1 is of a simple design and represents a horse-shoe door described within the door itself4 ,it was originally painted vermilion1 with other decorative painting of a simple character in black1 white1 and red1 and is fortified with massive iron braces4 ,it is believed to date from earlier than the fourteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,xxv ,,carved ,,choir-,,stall 7,toledo ,cathedral7 ,the mighty doors of the ,hall of ,ambassadors1 in the medival royal residence of ,seville 7,plates xi4 and xii471 are quite the finest to be seen in ,spain4 ,although a widespread superstition assigns their manufacture to a period close upon the ,moorish conquest1 it has been proved conclusively that they were made by ,mudejar craftsmen of ,toledo at the time when the whole ,alczar was erected more or less upon the ruins of the old1 by ,pedro the ,first of ,castile1 denominated1 according to the prejudice with which we view his character1 the ,cruel1 or the ,just4#dd #dd ,the following words record the date of the construction of this place and its doors1 and may be read 7,plate xiii47 upon the scroll of tiles or alizares crowning the principal faade3-- cross ,,el ,,muy ,,alto ,,et ,,muy ,,noble ,,et ,,muy ,,poderoso ,,et ,,muy ,,conqueridor ,,don ,,pedro ,,por ,,la ,,gracia ,,de ,,dios ,,rey ,,de ,,castiella ,,et ,,de ,,leon ,,mand ,,facer ,,estos ,,alc,,zares ,,et ,,estos ,,palacios ,,et ,,estas ,,portadas ,,que ,,fu ,,fecho ,,en ,,la ,,era ,,de ,,mill ,,et ,,quatro,,ientos ,y ,,dos ,the observant ,swinburne was not misled1 like many travellers of to-day1 into believing the ,alczar to be of purely ,moorish origin4 ,having read that the ,moors built one part of this palace1 ,i concluded ,i was admiring something as old as the ,mahometan kings of ,seville2 but upon closer examination was not a little surprised to find lions1 castles1 and other armorial ensigns of ,castille and ,leon1 interwoven with ,arabesque foliages2 and still more so1 to see in large ,gothic characters1 an inscription informing me that these edifices were built in the fourteenth century1 by the most mighty king of ,castille and ,leon1 ,don ,pedro4 ,these doors1 which under a pretence of restoration have been mutilated more than once1 are made of larch1 and measure sixteen feet in height by thirteen feet 7including both the leaves7 in width4 ,the upper part of either leaf consists of geometrical and floral ornament in exquisitely tasteful combination1 executed in the scheme known technically1 from the angles at the central polygon1 as lazo de doce--lazo-work of twelve4 ,the decoration of the lower part is more minute1 and in the scheme of lazo de diez--lazo-work of ten4 ,inscriptions in ,arabic and ,latin1 many of which are quoted from the ,psalms1 are distributed on both sides of the woodwork1 and confirm our other evidence that the doors were made during the reign and in obedience to the orders1 of ,don ,pedro4 ,the ,plateresco sixteenth-century doors of the ,capilla de los ,vargas at ,madrid 7,plate xiv47 are attributed by ,cean ,bermudez and by ,ponz to an artist named ,giralte1 who carved them in walnut with various military and other scenes from ,scripture1 alternating with shields and floral ornament2 the whole surrounded by an exquisitely delicate and tasteful border4 ,lamprez remarks that the errors of perspective recall the similar productions of ,ghiberti4 ,illustration3 ,,xxvi ,,choir-,,stalls 7,burgos ,cathedral7 ,the celosa or decorative wooden window-grating1 imported by the ,mussulman conqueror from ,egypt and the ,east1 extended to all parts of ,christian ,spain1 and was particularly used in convents4 ,these gratings1 identical in form and workmanship with those of ,cairo1#de were attached to projecting windows1 so that the women of a household could look into the street without themselves being seen1 a custom which the ,spanish woman still recalls to us by peering1 for hours at a time1 between the lowered persiana of her balcony4#df ,by the seventeenth century1 which may truthfully be called the age of ,spanish jealousy1 and when the ,othello-like revenge of the ,moor had eaten into the very entrails of society1 the celosa had become as indispensable to houses as the door or window4 ,la1 wrote ,bertaut de ,rouen of a residence on the outskirts of ,madrid1 and obviously alluding to these gratings1 il y avoit bien des ,dames dans l'appartement d'enhaut qui y demeurerent caches1 se contentant de nous voir promener dans le jardin par les fentres4 #de ,the windows1 which are chiefly composed of curious wooden lattice-work1 serving to screen the inhabitants from the view of persons without1 as also to admit both light and air1 commonly project outwards1 and are furnished with mattresses and cushions4--,lane's ,arabian ,nights1 vol4 i41 p4 #aib4 #df ,it is strange that ,ford should have confounded the reja with the celosa 7,handbook1 vol4 i41 p4 #aec74 ,however1 he opportunely quotes the ,spanish proverb1 ,muger ventanera tuercela el cuello si la quieres buena 7,the remedy for a woman who is always thrusting her head from the casement is to twist her neck74 ,we know from the stone coat of arms which is carved above the doorway of the ,house of ,castril at ,granada that in the olden time the balconies of the ,hall of ,comares in the ,alhambra were fitted with projecting wooden celosas2 and ,contreras says that in the ,torre de los ,puales of the same palace there used to be a kind of wooden mirador or menacir1 covered with celosas like those of ,cairo1 and many of which were still to be seen in ,granada early in the nineteenth century4 ,i am not aware of any ,moorish celosa remaining to this day outside a ,spanish building4 ,in such exposed positions weather and the natural delicacy of the woodwork seem to have destroyed them all4 ,as an interior ornament1 a single one 7,pl4 xvi47 exists in the ,alhambra4 ,nevertheless1 ,i hesitate to call this celosa purely ,moorish4 ,perhaps it is the work of a ,morisco1 or even of a ,christian-,spaniard1 for we know that decorative wooden fittings for the ,alhambra were made in the sixteenth century by ,antonio ,navarro and other craftsmen4 ,the grating1 which is well preserved1 covers a window over the archway leading from the ,hall of the ,two ,sisters into the ,sala de los ,ajimeces and the ,mirador de ,daraxa1 and consists of minute prisms and turned pieces in the typical ,egyptian style4 ,illustration3 ,,xxvii ,,choir ,,stalls 7,san ,mrcos1 ,len7 ,other fittings for a building1 wrought in wood by ,moorish artists and by these communicated to the ,christian-,spaniards1 were balustrades and cornices1 aleros 7decorative bands beneath the eaves of a roof1 ,plate xvii47 and zapatas 7gargoyle-looking figures1 often in human form1 used to support a roof or gallery74 ,in the so-called ,patio de las ,asas of the convent of ,santa ,catalina de ,zafra1 at ,granada1 exists an interesting ,moorish balustrade#dg that seems almost untouched by time4 ,i reproduce an outline of it as the tailpiece to the present chapter1 and am glad to append the little sketch in question1 copied from a photograph ,i took upon the spot three years ago1 because it is almost impossible to obtain admission to this convent4 ,beautiful or uncouth and quaint zapatas may be seen in the ,casa de los ,tiros at ,granada1 and in many other places 7,plates xviii4 and xix474 ,much of the ,moorish woodwork of the palace of the ,alhambra was destroyed by the fire of #aeij1 but there yet remain the ample cornice and carved alero of the faade of the ,cuarto de ,comares 7,plate xx471 which is often called in error the ,court of the ,mezquita4 ,this alero bears the following inscription1 allusive to the ,sultan ,mohammed the ,fifth3--,i am the place where the crown is guarded1 and on my doors being opened the regions of the west believe the east to be contained within me4 ,algami ,billah charged me to keep guard upon the doorway4 #dg ,almagro ,cardenas calls it part of a celosa 7,museo ,granadino1 p4 #gi72 but as it can never have been a window-grating1 this term is incorrect4 ,gmez ,moreno calls it1 not too lucidly1 a wooden balustrade forming squares and rectangular figures in the manner of a celosa 7,gua de ,granada1 p4 #dba74 ,valladar 7,gua de ,granada1 edition of #aijf1 p4 #aag7 calls it simply a balustrade1 and this1 it seems to me1 is the only term which truthfully describes the object4 ,other remarkable aleros are in the ,generalife and in the ,court of ,lions of the ,alhambra1 while1 also in this last-named mansion1 genuine ,moorish woodwork of elaborately inlaid ebony and larch is in two niches near the entrance to the ,sala de ,embajadores4 ,,sacred ,,statuary1 ,,siller,,as ,,or ,,choir-,,stalls1 ,,and ,,retablos ,the genius of the wood-carvers of older ,spain is manifested chiefly in three groups of objects--sacred statuary1 choir-stalls1 and retablos4 ,among this people1 and probably by reason of its cheapness1 plain1 or gilt1 or polychrome painted wood has always been a favourite material for the statues of their temples1 whether such statues were employed alone1 or as an accessory to a larger article of sacred furniture1 such as a pulpit1 or a sillera1 or an altar-screen4 ,so powerful1 in fact1 has been the vogue of this material here1#dh that even to-day the ,spanish people1 making1 in ,symonds' happy phrase1 representation an object in itself1 independently of its spiritual significance1 attempt to elevate the most remarkable of their wooden1 and by preference their coloured wooden1 statuary 7typically defended by ,pacheco's indigested tome71 to rank beside the noblest and the purest monuments of bronze and marble2 denoting1 by this reckless and uneducated partiality1 a positively national misconception of the true domain of art4 #dh ,my readers are no doubt aware that every ,spanish hamlet has its wooden image of the ,virgin1 badly executed as a rule1 and rendered doubly hideous by a gaudy gown4 ,most of these local images are believed to hold the power of working miracles1 or at least to have been fashioned and conducted to their present shrine by supernatural agency--on which account the populace and their pastors call these latter imagenes aparecidas1 as distinct from manufactured images4 ,such are the ,virgins of ,montserrat1 ,granada1 and numerous other cities1 towns1 or villages of this illiterate and ill-starred ,peninsula4 ,the curious may refer for every kind of detail to ,villafae's ,compendious ,history of the ,wonder-working ,images of ,spain1 which numbered in this author's day 7his book was published in #agdj7 one hundred and eighty-nine4 ,but the most extraordinary miracle of all was that which is recalled1 with pious gravity1 by ,bertaut de ,rouen4 ,speaking of the gilt-wood image of ,nuestra ,seora del ,pilar at ,zaragoza1 he says3--,on y void quantit de lampes d'argent et on m'en raconta un miracle qu'il me fut impossible de ne pas croire4 ,c'est d'un pauvre homme qui ayant eu la jambe coupe pour une blessure1 et s'estant bien recommand ,nostra ,seora del ,pilar1 il se trouva un jour avec sa mesme jambe qu'il avoit dja fait enterrer4 ,y'ay sceu l'histoire du chirurgien mesme qui coupa cette jambe et de quantit de tmoins de veu4 ,il n'y a que quinze ans que cela est arriv1 mais l'homme est mort depuis peu4--,journal du ,voyage en ,espagne1 p4 #bjc4 ,illustration3 ,,xxviii ,,detail ,,of ,,choir-,,stalls 7,len ,cathedral7 ,it is outside the scope of such a work as this to deal at any length with ,spanish figure-sculpture4 ,however1 it is only fair to recognize that ,spain produced a couple of score or so of admirable carvers of wood-statuary4 ,among the greatest of these craftsmen or imagineros were ,becerra1 ,berruguete1 ,juan de ,juni1 author of the ,mater ,dolorosa 7,our ,lady of the ,knives71 of ,valladolid2 ,gregorio ,hernndez the ,galician1 author of ,simon the ,cyrenian1 ,santa ,veronica1 and the ,baptism of our ,lord2 ,martnez ,montaes1 author of ,san ,jernimo and of the ,cristo del ,gran ,poder2#di ,solis1 ,gaspar de ,ribas1 ,juan ,gmez1 author of the ,jesus of ,puerto de ,santa ,maria2 ,pedro ,roldan1 with whom1 according to ,tubino1 the art of ,seville closed its eyes2 and ,alonso ,cano1 master of ,pedro and ,alonso de ,mena1 ,ruiz del ,peral1 ,jos de ,mora1 and ,diego de ,mora1 and who carved the exquisite ,elijah ,sleeping 7,pl4 xxi47 now at ,toledo1 and also 7as it is believed7 the famous statuette 7,frontispiece to the present volume7 of ,saint ,francis of ,assisi4 #di ,it is due to ,martnez ,montaes to mention that in many of his contracts he stipulated that the painters of his statuary should be chosen by himself1 so as not to corrupt the outline and the sentiment of the figures4 ,illustration3 ,,xxix ,,choir-,,stalls 7,plasencia ,cathedral7 ,the earliest centre of this branch of wood-carving was ,valladolid1 where lived and laboured ,juni and ,hernndez4 ,nevertheless1 although so popular in every part of ,spain1 it had a short-lived prime1 originating in the two ,castiles towards the reign of ,philip the ,second1 declining steadily 7with ,seville for its centre now7 all through the seventeenth century1 and flickering out1 despite the perseverance and the genius of the ,murcian ,susillo1 in the century succeeding4 ,in decorative silleras or sets of choir-stalls1 ,spain has produced examples worthy to be set beside the masterpiece of ,vitry in the abbey of ,sainte-,claude1 the best productions of ,drer and his followers in ,germany1 or those of ,donatello1 ,brunelleschi1 ,valdambrino1 ,vechietta1 and ,verrochio in ,italy4 ,nevertheless1 her most distinguished sillera-makers were at almost every moment inspired and directed by the foreigner4 ,germans or ,flemings were her first preceptors in this craft4 ,these artists had been sent for1 or proceeded of their own accord1 to ,spain1 and settling in this country rapidly spread the technics of their art among the ,spaniards4 ,in the ,peninsula the origin of this school or movement may be traced to ,burgos4 ,here1 just as the fifteenth century was drawing to its close1 and just before the breath of the ,renaissance crossed the ,spanish frontier at its eastern side1 was gathered a small though influential group of eminent workers in more crafts than one2 painters and sculptors1 architects1 embroiderers1 carvers of wood1 reja-makers1 and painters of cathedral glass4 ,prominent among them all was a foreigner named ,philip ,vigarny1#ej who is described by ,diego de ,sagrado as singular above all others in the art of making statuary and sculpture2 a man of vast experience1 general in his mastery of the liberal and mechanic arts1 and no less resolute in all that is related with the sciences of architecture4 #ej ,in ,spanish he is called ,felipe de ,borgoa1 but ,mart y ,mons says that the proper spelling of the surname is ,biguerny4 ,illustration3 ,,xxx ,,detail ,,of ,,choir-,,stalls 7,convent of ,san ,marcos1 ,len7 ,burgundy is said to have been the birthplace of ,felipe de ,borgoa1 but of his early history we have no tidings4 ,in documents which bear his signature he styles himself imaginario1 resident at ,burgos4 ,three such documents exist4 ,on ,august #ast1 #aeje1 he agrees1 for #acj1jjj maravedis1 to make such images as may be necessary for the altar of the high chapel of ,palencia cathedral1 he with his own hand to carve the hands and faces1 out of good smooth walnut1 without painting4 ,this document is dated from ,palencia4 ,the other two are dated severally1 ,burgos1 ,december #fth1 #aejf1 and ,corcos1 ,september #fth1 without the addition of the year4#ea ,we also know this craftsman to have made the great retablo of ,burgos cathedral4 ,such1 from the fragmentary semblance we can trace of him1 was ,philip ,vigarny1 the pioneer of the wood-carvers of older ,spain1 and who1 aided by other craftsmen from abroad1 communicated all the secrets of his art to ,spaniards such as ,gil de ,siloe1 ,ruy ,sanchez1 ,diego de la ,cruz1 ,alonso de ,lima1 and ,berruguete4 #ea ,zarco del ,valle1 ,documentos ,inditos para la ,historia de las ,bellas ,artes en ,espaa1 pp4 #afa1 #afb4 ,the typical sillera consists of two tiers2 the sellia or upper seats1 with high backs and a canopy1 intended for the canons1 and the lower seats or subsellia1 of simpler pattern and with lower backs1 intended for the beneficiados4 ,at the head of all is placed the presidential throne1 larger than the other stalls1 and covered1 in many cases1 by a canopy surmounted by a tall spire4 ,when the sillera belongs to a monastery1 the higher stalls are for the profesos1 and the lower for the novices and legos4 ,commonly the part that forms the actual seat is hinged and rises to a vertical position1 being so contrived that when the occupant rises to his feet1 there remains a narrow ledge projecting from the under surface4 ,this ledge is called the seat of pity or of patience1 because the worshipper is able to incline himself on it and give his limbs some measure of repose without appearing to be seated4 ,there also is commonly another piece1 intended for him to rest his hands upon in rising1 which projects from the sides of the stall and forms a part of the decorative carving1 as well as1 somewhat higher still1 the carved support to rest his arms while he is on his feet4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxi ,,samson 7,carved ,choir-stall of ,len ,cathedral7 ,the earliest ,spanish silleras date from the fourteenth century2 but it is not until the century succeeding that we find them at their very best4 ,gothic or ,plateresco silleras of marvellous design and workmanship are those of the ,seo of ,zaragoza 7begun in #adab71 the ,cartuja de ,miraflores of ,burgos 7#adhi71 the monastery of ,oa1 ,santa ,mara de ,njera 7#adie71 the church of ,santa ,mara del ,campo1 in the province of ,burgos1 ,santo ,toms of ,avila 7finished in #adic71 and the cathedrals of ,oviedo1 ,segovia 7#adfa-adig71 ,ciudad ,rodrigo1 ,tarragona 7#adgh71 ,tarazona1 ,toledo 7begun in #adid71 ,zamora1 ,astorga1 ,barcelona 7#adec-adhc71 and ,seville 7finished in #adgh74 ,the ,gothic choir-stalls of the ,seo of ,zaragoza have lofty backs with arabesque ,mudejar ornamentation1 small ,gothic columns1 and medallions containing figures upon the arms of every stall4 ,the material is ,flemish oak4 ,the carving was begun in #adab by the ,moors ,al ,arrondi1 ,muza1 and ,chamar1 who earned a daily wage of four sueldos4 ,in #addf ,juan ,navarro and the brothers ,antonio and ,francisco ,gomar were working at the same stalls1 and also1 in #addi1 ,francoy4 ,the stalls of the ,cartuja de ,miraflores at ,burgos were carved by ,martin ,snchez1 who received in #adhf1 and for the mano de obra alone1 the sum of #abe1jjj maravedis4 ,the material1 which was presented by ,luis de ,velasco1 ,seor of ,belorado1 is dark walnut4 ,the sillera of ,santa ,mara de ,njera1 the work of ,maestro ,andrs and ,maestro ,nicols1 is ,gothic merging into the ,renaissance4 ,that of ,santo ,toms of ,avila 7late ,gothic7 consists of sixty oaken stalls1 besides two larger ones resembling thrones 7,plate xxiv471 intended to be occupied by ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 founders of this monastery1 and whose arms they bear in lace-like carving4 ,the rest of the decoration is composed of thistles1 vines1 trefoils1 and pomegranates4 ,owing to the fact that not a single cross appears on any part of the sillera 7although this circumstance is not unusual in sacred ,gothic woodwork71 there is a superstition that these stalls were wrought anonymously by some ,jew1 condemned to execute them by the ,inquisition as a form of punishment4 ,this fable has no value4 ,although the author's name is not upon the stalls1 they are identical in nearly every detail with those of the ,cartuja de ,miraflores at ,burgos1 known to have been carved by ,martin ,snchez in #adhf4 ,hence it is extremely probable that this craftsman was the author of both silleras4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxii ,,esau 7,carved ,choir-stall of ,len ,cathedral7 ,on many ,spanish silleras we find most spirited reproductions of the life and manners of their time2 satirical allusions to contemporary vices1 allegories and caprices as fantastic1 in the phrase of ,vargas ,ponce1 as one of ,bosch's nightmares1 hunting-scenes or love-scenes1 banquets1 tournaments1 dances1 battles1 sieges1 and even bull-fights4 ,thus1 on the stalls of the cathedrals of ,zamora1 ,oviedo1 ,plasencia1 ,astorga1 and ,len are carved such subjects as the following4 ,a fox dressed as a friar1 preaching to a group of hens but slyly abstracting their chicks 7,zamora71 men fighting with their fists 7,zamora71 a hog playing the bagpipes 7,len71 the ,devil in the garb of a confessor1 tempting a penitent 7,len71 a woman suckling an ass 7,len71 a man armed with a lance1 fighting a woman 7,astorga71 a bird of prey struggling with a crocodile 7,astorga71 card-players 7,astorga71 a warrior on all-fours1 whipped by a woman 7,plasencia71 an auto-de-f 7,plasencia71 swine praying and spinning 7,ciudad ,rodrigo71 a fight between a tiger and a bull 7,ciudad ,rodrigo71 a monkey beating a drum 7,ciudad ,rodrigo71 and a monkey wearing a mitre 7,ciudad ,rodrigo74 ,the style of the lower stalls of ,toledo cathedral is good ,plateresque4 ,they were begun in #adid by ,maese ,rodrigo1 one of the very best of ,spain's entalladores1 and portray1 in each successive stall1 the phases of the last campaign against ,granada 7,plate xxv472 the sieges or battles of ,altora1 ,melis1 ,xornas1 ,erefran1 ,alminia1 ,baza1 ,mlaga 7two stalls71 ,salobrea1 ,almuecar1 ,comares1 ,beles1 ,montefro1 ,mocln1 ,illora1 ,loja1 ,cazarabonela1 ,coyn1 ,cartama1 ,marbella1 ,ronda1 ,setenil1 ,alora1 ,alhama1 ,nixar1 ,padux1 ,vera1 ,huscar1 ,guadix1 ,purchena1 ,almera1 ,rin1 ,castil de ,ferro1 ,cambril1 ,zagani1 ,castul1 ,gor1 ,canzoria1 ,moxacar1 ,vlez el ,blanco1 ,gurarca1 ,vlez el ,rubio1 ,soreo1 and ,cabrera4 ,the upper tier of the same stalls belongs to a later period1 and will1 in consequence1 be noticed subsequently4 ,the sillera of ,barcelona cathedral was begun in the middle of the fifteenth century by ,matias ,bonaf1 at the same time that the ,german ,michael ,locher and his pupil ,john ,frederic worked at the canopies4 ,it was finished thirty years later4 ,upon the back 7which otherwise is plain7 of every stall is a coat of arms distinct from all its neighbours1 marking the seat of one of the princes or nobles summoned by ,charles the ,fifth to the ,chapter of the ,order of the ,golden ,fleece1 ,march #eth1 #aeai4eb ,illustration3 ,,xxxiii ,,retablo 7,seville ,cathedral7 ,the splendid sillera of ,seville cathedral is a mingling of the ,gothic with the ,mudejar and ,plateresque4 ,the material is oak and fir1 and the number of the seats one hundred and seventeen4 ,the sellia are surmounted by a graceful running guardapolvo4 ,each seat is carved distinctly from the rest1 and further decorated in the ,mudejar style with inlaid woods of various kinds and colours1 imitating stone mosaic4 ,among this labyrinth of design are groups of people1 angels1 animals1 and scenes from ,scripture1 as well as1 on the lower stalls1 the ,giralda tower1 which forms the arms of the cathedral4 ,the sillera is further embellished with two hundred and sixteen statuettes1 seventy-two of which are ranged along the canopy or dosel1 the remainder being distributed between the seats4 #eb ,the stalls of the choir are neatly carved1 and hung with escutcheons of princes and noblemen1 among which ,i remarked the arms of our ,henry the ,eighth4--,swinburne4 ,the authors of this splendid work of art 7judiciously restored some years ago by ,boutelou1 ,fernandez1 and ,mattoni7 were ,nufio ,sanchez1 ,dancart1 and several other craftsmen1 concerning whom we know but very little4 ,snchez' name is carved upon the second stall of the upper row1 and on the side of the ,evangelist1 as follows3-- ,illustration ,the above inscription states that this choir was made by ,nufio ,sanchez1 entallador 7,god guard him#ec71 and finished in the year one thousand four hundred and seventy-eight4 #ec ,this kind of parenthetical remark or prayer is one of the many ,muslim phrases that have passed into the regular service of the ,spanish ,christian4 ,with the dawn of the sixteenth century1 the ,gothic style runs rapidly into that of the ,renaissance4 ,at about this time1 and as ,baron ,davillier pointed out1 we sometimes find a triple influence1 namely1 the ,burgundian1 the ,italian1 and the native ,spanish4 ,vigarny may be called the champion of the first of these1 ,berruguete 7who studied in ,italy7 of the second1 and ,guillermo ,doncel of the third4 ,after this the purer ,renaissance gives place to the decadent1 as in the stalls of ,santiago1 ,mlaga1 ,cordova1 and ,salamanca4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxiv ,,retablo ,,of ,,seville ,,cathedral 7,detail of ,carving7 ,sixteenth-century silleras of note are those of ,burgos cathedral 7,plate xxvi471 carved by ,vigarny1 ,avila cathedral1 the ,pilar of ,zaragoza1 the ,minor ,friars of the ,cartuja of ,burgos1 ,pamplona cathedral1 ,san ,marcos of ,len1 ,huesca1 the alta sillera of ,toledo1 and the walnut stalls--carved in #aebf by ,bartolom ,fernandez de ,segovia1 and now in the ,madrid ,museum--of the ,parral of ,segovia4 ,the sillera of ,avila cathedral is believed to have been begun in #aebg by ,juan ,rodrigo1 although the greater part of it was probably executed between #aecf and #aedg by ,cornelis de ,holanda1 who took for his model the stalls of ,san ,benito of ,valladolid4 ,the cost of the walnut wood and of its workmanship amounted to #cc1ffi reales4 ,the upper stalls of ,toledo cathedral were carved by ,vigarny and ,alonso ,berruguete in collaboration1 so that we find in them the northern and ,italian styles effectively and interestingly united4 ,the ,plateresque-,renaissance sillera1 described as genuinely ,spanish1 of the old convent of ,san ,marcos of ,len1 containing statuettes of biblical personages and of fathers of the ,church--,saint ,isidore among them1--was finished in #aedb by ,guillermo ,doncel1 who added the inscription ,magister ,guillermus ,doncel me fecit ,,mdxlii 7,plate xxvii474 ,we know1 however1 nothing more about this excellent ,spanish artist1 except that 7on the unsupported testimony of ,cean7 he worked at the faade of this convent between the years #aecg and #aedd4 ,the intricate sillera of the ,pilar of ,zaragoza1 containing almost every kind of subject--beasts1 birds and fishes1 allegories1 incidents of the chase1 or scenes of popular life--was designed by ,esteban de ,obray1 a ,navarrese1 and executed by him and his assistants1 ,juan ,moreto ,florentino and ,nicolas de ,lobato1 between #aedb and #aedh4 ,that of the ,minor ,friars of the ,cartuja of ,burgos was carved at a cost of eight hundred and ten ducats by ,simn de ,bueras1 in #aeeh4 ,that of ,pamplona cathedral dates from about the middle of the century1 and is the work of one ,ancheta1 who had visited ,italy and gathered inspiration from the masterpieces of ,siena4 ,the material is ,english oak4 ,the stalls of ,huesca1 carved from oak proceeding from an older sillera which had been removed1 were begun in #aehg and finished in #aeid4 ,the craftsmen were ,nicols de ,verstegui and ,juan ,verrueta de ,sangesa4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxv ,,detail ,,of ,,retablo 7,late #aeth century4 ,museum of ,valladolid7 ,seventeenth-century silleras are those of ,santiago1 carved by ,juan de ,vila in #afjc2 ,salamanca1 in #afea1 by ,alfonso ,balbs2 ,orihuela1 in #afib1 by ,juan ,bautista ,borja2 and ,segorbe1 carved in the same year by ,nicols ,camarn2 while dating from the eighteenth century--a period of manifest decadence in this beautiful but short-lived craft--are the stalls of ,lerida1 by ,luis ,bonifar y ,mas 7born in #agcj71 and ,cordova1 executed between #agdh and #ageg1 at a cost of #iac1hhi reales1 by ,pedro ,ciriaco ,duque y ,cornejo1 a son of ,seville and a pupil of the ,sevillano ,roldan4 ,the least imperfect of these later and decadent silleras is that of ,mlaga1 whose author1 ,pedro de ,mena1 was1 like his master1 ,alonso ,cano1 a native of ,granada4 ,mena's contract with two canons of the cathedral1 nominated by the bishop to prepare and sign the stipulations1 will be found in ,no4 #acd of the ,boletn de la ,sociedad de ,excursiones4 ,the stalls of ,mlaga number a hundred and one1 carved in walnut1 larch1 cedar1 and the heavy ,indian wood called granadillo4 ,as happens with many of the silleras of this country1 the costumes of the figures are of great historical value4 ,among the saints is ,san ,roque1 in pilgrim's garb1 attended by the dog who brought him day by day a loaf of bread while men refused to succour him4 ,no less magnificent than these sets of choir-stalls are the carved retablos or altar-screens1#ed a gradual excrescence from the primitive and unpretentious altar of the early days of ,christianity4 ,several kinds of craftsmen worked upon these altar-screens1 such as tallistas1 entalladores1 imagineros1 and even architects4 #ed ,wood is the usual material for these altar-screens1 though sometimes marble was employed1 or stone1 or silver4 ,of ,genoese marble is the retablo 7end of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth century7 of the ,cartuja del ,paular in the ,lozoya valley2 of stone1 those of the parish church of ,san ,nicols at ,burgos 7end of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century71 and of the chapel of the tailors in ,tarragona ,cathedral2 while a silver retablo1 in the ,renaissance style1 was that of the church1 now demolished1 of ,santa ,mara at ,madrid4 ,the ,golden ,age of the retablo embraces the end of the fifteenth century and the whole of the sixteenth4 ,notable examples belonging to this period are the screens of the monastery of ,santo ,toms at ,avila1 ,san ,martin of ,segovia1 the ,cartuja de ,miraflores1 the ,colegiata of ,covarrubias in the province of ,burgos1 the cathedrals of ,avila1 ,toledo1 ,tudela1 and ,tarazona2 several in the churches of ,toledo1 two in the church of ,san ,lesmes 7,burgos71 two in ,burgos ,cathedral 7,plate xxxvi471 and three1 including those of ,reyes and of ,buena ,mariana1 in the church of ,san ,gil in the same city4 ,not one of these1 however1 has the grandeur or variety of the altar-screen of ,seville 7,plates xxxiii4 and xxxiv471 which is carefully described in ,cean's monograph4 ,the style is ,gothic2 the material1 undecaying larch2 and the screen1 which reaches nearly to the vaulting1 is the largest in the country1 although at first it spanned the presbytery only1 not including either side4 ,it was designed in #adhb by ,dancat or ,danchart1 who began work upon it as soon as his sketches were approved1 and worked at it till #adib1 in which year he seems to have died4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxvi ,,detail ,,of ,,retablo 7,chapel of ,santa ,ana1 ,burgos ,cathedral7 ,dancat was succeeded by ,master ,marco and ,bernardo de ,ortega1 whose carving reached1 by #aeje1 the canopy or viga1 and who were followed in their turn by ,francisco1 ,bernardo's son1 father and teacher of ,bernardino and ,nufrio de ,ortega1 his assistants4 ,some of the statues were carved by ,micer ,domingo4 ,the rest of the imaginera was finished in #aebf2 and the gilding and painting were done by ,alejo ,fernndez1 his brother1 and ,andrs de ,covarrubias4 ,so the screen remained till #aeej1 when the ,chapter decided to extend it1 without altering the style of decoration1 to the sides of the presbytery4 ,by this time ,spanish sculpture had improved1 and many of our best-known sculptors lent their aid1 of whom the earliest were ,roque ,balduc1 ,pedro ,becerril1 el ,castellano1 ,juan de ,villalva1 ,diego ,vazquez1 and ,pedro ,bernal4 ,in #aeec the ,chapter appointed1 to inspect the work of these artists1 ,juan ,reclid and ,luis de ,aguilar1 both of whom lived at ,jaen4 ,henceforth the master-craftsmen working at the screen were ,pedro de ,heredia1 ,gomez de ,orozco1 ,diego ,vazquez the younger1 ,juan ,lopez1 ,andrs ,lopez del ,castillo1 and his sons1 ,juan de ,palencia1 and ,juan ,bautista ,vazquez4 ,by #aefd the screen was quite concluded4 ,the ,gothic work is of incomparable richness4 ,ten groups of tall and narrow columns1 resting upon two pedestals or socles1 divide the retablo into nine spaces1 crossed by horizontal bands of complicated carving1 forming a series of thirty-six niches1 in four rows4 ,statues a little less than life-size represent1 in the first row1 the creation and fall of our first parents1 and the mysteries of the infancy of ,christ2 in the second1 ,his preaching and miracles2 in the third1 ,his passion and death2 and in the fourth1 ,his resurrection1 appearance to the disciples1 and ascension2 also the coming of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,upon the altar-table1 and resting in its niche1 is the statue1 covered with silver plates1 of ,nuestra ,seora de la ,sede1 presented to this temple by ,saint ,ferdinand4 ,above the viga1 which has an artesonado ceiling1 rises a frontispiece containing thirteen canopied niches with statues of the apostles1 and in the centre niche that of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,crowning the whole retablo are statues larger than life-size1 and a ,calvary standing in free space4#ee #ee ,descripcin de la ,catedral de ,sevilla1 pp4 #bg1 #bh4 ,throughout these ,spanish altar-screens the influence which predominates is that of ,germany4 ,they are essentially distinguished by a ,northern art 7,plates xxxv41 xxxvi471 not sentimental but material1 not tender but robust1 not 7like the art of the ,italians7 retrospective or prospective1 but prosaic1 realistic1 actual4 ,curiously enough1 their presence seems incongruous in ,spain1 and yet they made themselves at home here2 for ,spanish art was ever realistic1 so probably on this account two widely different nations found1 at least in this particular craft1 a common bond of sympathy4 ,certainly the ,renaissance1 while it seemed to cherish and encourage1 really undermined and killed this branch of ,spanish wood-carving4 ,a similar phenomenon attends the art of the ,alhambra4 ,in either case the plenitude of power and of beauty is even more ephemeral than the term of human life2 and thus1 deluded by so brilliant and majestic a decay1 we fail to apprehend1 or seek to grow oblivious of1 the imminence of their ruin4 ,illustration ,,ivories ,the story of ,spanish ivory-work is shortly told1 for probably no craft1 excepting glass1 has been so little practised in this country4 ,the older ,spanish writers rarely mention it1 although from time to time this substance may have been employed for carving diptyches and boxes1 and ,roderick is stated to have entered the battle of the ,guadalete in an ivory car1 by which is meant1 perhaps1 a chariot of ,byzantine make or pattern1 covered with ivory plates4 ,however1 properly speaking1 the history of this art as exercised in ,spain begins in the eleventh century1 attains its prime towards the fourteenth century1 and ceases altogether at the time of the ,renaissance4 ,among the ivory objects now preserved in ,spain1 and which were wrought by artists other than ,mohammedan1 none is more interesting or important than the consular diptych of ,oviedo cathedral4 ,although this valuable diptych was not made in ,spain1 but manifests ,byzantine art in all its purity1 it well deserves to be described4 ,it consists of two ivory tablets measuring sixteen inches and a half in height by twelve inches and a half across both leaves4 ,each leaf has a simple border of a triple form1 and just inside each corner is a circular floral ornament in relief1 with a lion's head in the centre4 ,another ornament1 also circular1 is in the centre of each leaf1 and contains1 carved within a graceful ,s-shaped border1 a half-length portrait of the ,consul1 who is represented in the act of throwing down into the amphitheatre his mappa or handkerchief#ef with his right hand1 while in his left he holds the sceptre 7scipio imaginifer71 crowned with a small bust4 ,his hair is curled in the ,byzantine fashion1 and his costume is a richly decorated toga4 #ef ,i4e4 as a signal to begin the sport4 ,the same usage 7except that the handkerchief is waved1 and not thrown down7 is followed at this moment in the ,spanish bull-ring4 ,an inscription runs along the top of either tablet1 between the border and the circular devices carved with flowers4 ,it says3-- ,flavius ,strategius ,apion--,strategius ,apion4 ,vir inlustris ,comes ,devotissimorum ,domesticorum et ,consul ordinarius4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxvii ,,ivory ,,box 7#ith ,century4 ,madrid ,museum7 ,we gather1 therefore1 that this magnate was a chamberlain at court1 as well as ordinary consul4 ,diptyches were used among the ,romans for all kinds of purposes1 such as to convey love-messages1 as invitations to a banquet1 or to notify the celebration of feasts and games4 ,we find the diptych also used in ,christian temples from the time of ,constantine1 serving to record church festivals or names of saints and martyrs1 as covers for a copy of the gospel 7diptycha evangeliorum71 or as reliquaries 7thecae reliquiarum74 ,sometimes these diptyches were wrought expressly for the church1 or sometimes they were consular diptyches that had been preserved from former ages4 ,this latter class1 when cleansed from pagan usage and devoted to the ceremonies of the ,christian faith1 was known as diptycha mixta4 ,such early objects as were wrought in ivory by ,spanish hands1 consisting as a rule of circular or oblong1 square or oval caskets1 were principally carved by ,moors or ,mudejares4 ,among the ,spanish-,moorish boxes which are still preserved are several of the greatest interest and beauty 7,plates xxxviii41 xxxix41 xl474 ,one of them1 made from pieces of an older casket believed to date from earlier than the ,moorish conquest1 is in the ,national ,museum4 ,the decoration in its present form consists of ,arabic inscriptions in relief1 together with figures of the apostles4 ,this casket1 which proceeds from the ,colegiata of ,saint ,isidore at ,len1 measures seven inches in length by five in depth and six in height1 and has been used as a reliquary4 ,another1 dating from the middle of the eleventh century and proceeding from the same temple as the one just noticed1 is also in the ,national ,museum4 ,it was a present from the ,emir ,mohammed ,almotamid-,aben-,abed to his second wife1 ,al-,badir 7the ,moon71 and includes among the decoration dogs and doves1 symbolic of affection and fidelity4 ,the style of carving is what is known as ,persian-,arabic4 ,we do not know1 however1 whether the box was imported from the ,east1 or whether it was made in ,spain by somebody of ,persian parentage or skilled in ,persian art4 ,the material is a delicate taracea of sandal1 aloe1 and cypress woods inlaid on larch4 ,the box1 which was used at ,len as a reliquary1 has bronze clasps1 and is inscribed along the top with sentences from which we learn that it was made by ,aben-,as-,serag4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxviii ,,ivory ,,casket 7,moorish2 #aath ,century4 ,pamplona ,cathedral7 ,in the cathedral of ,pamplona is a magnificent ivory box 7,plate xxxviii47 which was originally at ,sangesa in ,navarre4 ,it measures1 says ,riao1 fifteen inches long by nine and a quarter inches wide4 ,it is completely covered with carvings in relief1 within circular cusped medallions1 with figures in the centres representing different subjects2 men seated1 hawking1 or struggling with wild beasts1 and numerous single figures of lions1 stags1 and other animals4 ,the intermediate spaces contain an ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to the geometrical style of ,saracenic art4 ,round the upper part of this box appears an ,arabic inscription in fine ,cufic characters3--',in the name of ,god4 ,the blessing of ,god1 the complete felicity1 the happiness1 the fulfilment of the hope of good works1 and the adjourning the fatal period 7of death71 be with the ,hagib ,seifo daula 7sword of the ,state71 ,abdelmalek ben ,almansur4 ,this 7box7 was made by the orders 7of the said ,hagib71 under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch1 ,nomayr ben ,mohammad ,alaumeri1 his slave1 in the year of #cie 7,a4,d4 #ajje74' ,in the centre medallion1 on the opposite side to the lock1 is represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions4 ,he holds on his arm a shield1 upon which is engraved an inscription1 with the following religious formula3 ',there is no god but ,god1' or a similar one1 for the characters are very illegible and confused4 ,in the centre of this shield may be read the words1 ',made by ,hair1' undoubtedly one of the artists who made the box4 ,another artist's name may be read with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears on one of the medallions on the left side2 it is written on the thigh of a stag1 which is attacked by a lion3 ',it was made by ,obeidat4' ,three other inscriptions of a similar character appear in other parts of this box1 which probably give the names of other artists1 but ,i have been unable to decipher them4 ,other interesting boxes dating from the same period are that of ,santo ,domingo de ,silos at ,burgos1 and several which are in the ,national ,museum at ,madrid4 ,the box which is preserved at ,burgos is made of ivory1 and measures thirteen inches and a quarter in length by seven inches and a half in width and height4 ,the decorative work consists of hunting scenes1 and also of an inscription in ,cufic characters which says3 ,permanent felicity for the owner 7of this box74 ,may ,god lengthen his days4 ,it was made at ,medina 444#eg in the year four hundred and seventeen 7,a4,d4 #ajbe74 ,it is the work of his servant ,mohammed-ibn-,zeiyan4 ,may ,god glorify him4 #eg ,at this break in the inscription ,riao professed to discover the beginning of the word ,cuenca4 ,there is also in the provincial museum of ,burgos a handsome ivory diptych which was formerly at the convent of ,santo ,domingo de ,silos4 ,it bears at each extremity--that is1 four times repeated--the following inscription3--,this was ordered to be made by the ,iman1 servant of ,god1 ,abd-er-,rhaman1 prince of believers4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxix ,,ivory ,,box 7#aath ,century4 ,palencia ,cathedral7 ,among the rectangular boxes in the ,national ,museum is one of carved ivory1 with an inscription recording it to have been a gift from ,prince ,ali to one of the favourites of his harem1 and another of the same material which was once upon a time at ,carrion de los ,condes1 in the province of ,palencia4 ,this box is painted with a decorative pattern in carmine and dark green4 ,the lid1 which is imperfect1 contains the following inscription in ,cufic characters1 standing boldly out against a green ground3--,in the name of ,allah1 the ,merciful1 the ,compassionate4 ,the protection of ,allah and an impending victory for the servant of ,allah 444 and his wali ,maad ,abu-,temim--the ,iman ,al-,moez 444 prince of believers 7the blessing of ,allah be upon him and his sons the good74 7,this7 was commanded to be made for 7celebrating7 the fortunate victory4 ,it was made by 444 ,jorasani4 ,the length of this box is eighteen inches1 and its height nine inches4 ,a fine ,moorish box 7,plate xxxix471 now in the cathedral of ,palencia1 is covered with elaborately engraved and perforated ivory plates upon a ground of gilt leather backed by wood1 and further ornamented with enamel-work upon a copper surface4 ,this box is fourteen inches long1 and has a gable top4 ,the decoration on the sides and lid consists of palm-leaves1 birds1 and men engaged in combating and chasing antelopes and lions in the characteristic manner of ,assyrian art4 ,a lengthy ,cufic inscription tells us that the box was made at ,cuenca 7,medina ,cuenca7 by ,abd-er-,rahman ben ,ziyan1 to the order of the ,moorish princes of ,toledo1 and that it dates from the year #dda of the ,hegira4#eh ,vives has pointed out that ,cuenca was evidently a principal centre of this industry1 and that caskets executed here about this time exist in ,perpignan cathedral and in the provincial museum of ,burgos4 #eh ,detailed accounts of this casket will be found in the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones for ,june #ahic1 and in the ,boletn de la ,real ,academia de la ,historia1 vol4 xx4 ,riao mentions seven ivory boxes of particular interest1 which were probably made in ,spain by ,spanish ,arabs1 or else by ,eastern craftsmen who had emigrated to this country4 ,on all their carving1 he adds1 the names of ,spanish historical persons appear1 and it is hardly possible that they were ordered in remote countries1 especially as some of these objects are small and comparatively unimportant4 ,illustration3 ,,xl ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,ivory ,,casket 7#acth ,century4 ,royal ,academy of ,history1 ,madrid7 ,two of these boxes are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,the one which is cylindrical in shape and has a domed cover is thus described by ,maskell in his ,ivories1 ,ancient and ,medival1 in the ,south ,kensington ,museum3--,this beautiful box is carved throughout1 except the bottom of it1 with interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils1 in which1 on the cover1 are four eagles4 ,these have spread wings and stand erect2 well designed and most delicately executed4 ,a small knob serves to lift the lid4 ,round the side1 each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf ornament4 ,the same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the larger quatrefoils on the cover4 ,the whole is carved in pierced work1 except a band which forms the upper upright portion of the box1 round the side of the lid4 ,this band has an ,arabic inscription3 ',a favour of ,god to the servant of ,god1 ,al ,hakem al ,mostanser ,billah1 commander of the faithful4' ,he was a ,caliph who reigned at ,cordova1 ,a4,d4 #ifa-igf4 ,the other box is oblong and rectangular4 ,the cover and sides are carved with scroll foliated ornament2 the hinges and clasp are of chased silver inlaid with niello4 ,round the sides1 immediately below the lid1 is the following ,arabic inscription in ,cufic characters3--',in the name of ,god4 ,this 7box7 was ordered to be made by ,seidat ,allah1 the wife of ,abd-er-,rahman1 prince of the believers4 ,god be merciful and satisfied with him4' ,this inscription1 adds ,riao1 must allude to ,abd-er-,rahman the ,third1 the first ,caliph of ,cordova who bore the title of ,emir1 el ,mumenin4 ,the formula ',god be merciful1' etc41 denotes that he was dead when it was written4 ,he died ,a4,d4 #ifa4 ,illustration3 ,,xli ,,ivory ,,crucifix 7#aath ,century4 ,madrid ,museum7 ,another ,spanish-,moorish casket1 also at ,south ,kensington1 and dating from the eleventh century1 is described by ,maskell as richly carved in deep relief with foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing one another1 and forming larger and smaller circles4 ,the top and each side is a single plaque of ivory2 the sloping lid at the front and back has two panels4 ,on the two are two animals1 like doves2 a large bird stands at the back of each1 attacking it with his beak4 ,the sloping sides have1 in the large circles1 men on horseback1 and animals fighting4 ,the intermediate spaces are completely filled with foliage1 and smaller beasts4 ,similar subjects are repeated in the circles on the panels forming the lower sides of the casket1 and among them are two groups of men and women sitting2 one blowing a horn1 another playing on a guitar1 another holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other4 ,riao adds3 ,there is no inscription on this casket1 but in one of the medallions on the lid there is a bust1 which is carried on the back of a horse1 and which is probably a representation of the prince for whom the casket was made4 ,illustration3 ,,xli 7a7 ,,ivory ,,crucifix 7#aath ,century4 ,back view4 ,madrid ,museum7 ,the ,letter of ,testament setting forth the various objects bequeathed by ,ferdinand the ,first and his consort ,sancha to the church of ,saint ,john the ,baptist 7or of ,saint ,isidore7 at ,len1 mentions an ivory cross 7which will be noticed presently71 an ivory box fitted with gold1 and two ivory boxes fitted with silver1 one of them containing three other silver boxes1 similarly decorated4 ,one of these boxes is described by ,ambrosio de ,morales1 and from his words we conclude it to be the one which was adorned with gold1 of which metal1 he wrote in #aegb1 it has even more than of ivory1 adding that it measured more than half a yard in length1 and enshrined the body of ,saint ,vincent of ,avila4 ,he also tells us that it bore the following inscription1 carved upon a golden frieze3-- ,,arcula ,,sanctorum ,,micat ,,haec ,,sub ,,honore ,,duorum ,,baptistae ,,sancti ,,johannis ,,sive ,,pelagii ,,ceu ,,rex ,,fernandus1 ,,reginaque ,,santia1 ,,fieri ,,jussit4 ,,era ,,millena ,,septena ,,seu ,,nonagena4#ei #ei ,a4,d4 #ajei4 ,this arca has been much mutilated1 and stripped of all the precious metal4 ,morales' description is therefore of especial value1 as are the ivory tablets 7eleventh century71 carved with ,christian themes1 which yet remain upon the body of the box4 ,illustration3 ,,xlii ,,byzantine ,,crucifix ,dating from the thirteenth century is a ,moorish casket 7,plate xl471 preserved in the ,academy of ,history at ,madrid1 and proceeding from the ,carthusian monastery of ,val de ,cristo at ,segorbe4 ,it measures a foot in length by eight inches in height and four and a half inches in depth4 ,the lid is deeply bevelled1 and contains on each of the bevelled sides shields with the bars which constitute the arms of ,aragon1 painted upon a gold ground1 together with imperial eagles painted in black upon a carmine ground4 ,a decorative device of leaves and stems is also painted on the ivory4 ,rodrigo ,amador de los ,ros believes that this casket was captured in war by ,jayme the ,first of ,aragon1 remaining with successive princes of his line until the reign of ,don ,martin1 by whom it was presented to the monastery4 ,the shields would thus be added to the primitive ,moorish casket by some ,christian-,spanish painter4 ,the ivory crucifix 7,plates xli4 and xli4 7a771 of ,ferdinand the ,first and ,doa ,sancha1 made in the first half of the eleventh century1 and offered by these sovereigns to the church of ,saint ,john the ,baptist 7or of ,saint ,isidore7 at ,len1 measures twenty-one inches in length by thirteen inches and a half in height4 ,the figure of ,christ recalls the rigidness and rudeness of ,byzantine craftsmanship1 such as is found in ancient crucifixes still preserved in ,spain 7,plate xlii474 ,the pupils of the enormous1 expressionless eyes are made of jet4 ,we see the wound upon each foot1 with wavy marks to imitate the flowing blood1 but no trace of a nail4 ,nails1 however1 transfix the hands4 ,the arms are separate from the trunk1 but the suppedaneum on which the feet are resting is of a single piece with the body of the figure4 ,the surface of the cross1 especially about the borders1 contains elaborate decoration1 including animals and foliage4 ,above the ,saviour's head is the inscription3-- ,,ihs ,,naza ,,renvs ,,rex ,,ivdeorvm ,above this is another figure of ,christ seated1 crowned with a cruciform nimbus and holding a ,greek processional cross4 ,beneath the feet of the larger figure is ,adam in an uncouth posture1 turning his head to gaze upward1 and at the lower extremity of the cross are carved the words3-- ,,ferdinandvs ,,rex ,,sancia ,,regina ,the lateral arms are carved with numerous devices forming an effective whole1 including animals upon a tessellated band which seems to imitate a groundwork of mosaic4 ,other subjects represented are the ,resurrection of the ,flesh1 the ascent of the blessed to ,heaven1 and the fall of the wicked to ,hell4 ,illustration3 ,,xliii ,,the ,,virgin ,,of ,,battles 7#acth ,century4 ,seville ,cathedral7 ,upon the obverse side are pairs of quadrupeds1 birds1 and serpents1 among a maze of foliage1 together with the eagle1 lion1 lamb1 and ox1 as symbols of the evangelists4 ,the lion and the ox have wings1 and at the foot of the cross is an angel4 ,the carving of the ,saviour's form is clearly inferior to that of the decoration which surrounds it4 ,amador de los ,ros seeks to account for this by declaring that the difficulty from the point of view of art increases in proportion as the size of the figure is required to be larger--a statement with which ,i wholly disagree4 ,i believe1 in fact1 that in this cross the figure of ,christ and the surrounding ornamentation are not by the same hand1 and that the carver of the decorative detail was simply the better craftsman of the two4 ,many of the statuettes of the ,virgin which are preserved in ,spain were probably made in ,france4 ,one that is typically and unquestionably ,spanish is the celebrated ,virgin of ,battles 7,plate xliii471 now guarded1 together with other relics of ,saint ,ferdinand 7see ,vol4 ,i41 ,plate xi471 in the ,chapel ,royal of ,seville cathedral4 ,these statuettes1 the use of which originated with the ,greek emperors1 and which were called by the ,byzantines socia belli1 consist of a seated figure of the ,virgin with a small door opening underneath her throne1 and served as reliquaries1 and also as a kind of talisman4 ,boutelou says that the ,spanish warriors of the ,middle ,ages were accustomed to carry these images to war with them1 fitted upon a pin protruding from the left side of the saddle-bow4 ,the ,virgin of ,battles1 made in ,spain in the early part of the thirteenth century1 was thus carried by ,king ,ferdinand the ,saint1 resting between his shield or rodela and his left arm1 and so protected1 and protecting1 in the brunt of war4 ,illustration3 ,,xliv ,,spanish ,,medi,,val ,,baculus ,the image is of ivory1 and measures seventeen inches in height4 ,the style is primitive ,gothic1 not as yet emancipated from ,romanic and ,byzantine art2 and the expression of the ,madonna and her ,babe is marked by an engaging sweetness4 ,through lapse of centuries1 myriads of diminutive cracks have opened on the surface of the ivory1 and this has turned1 in colour1 to a brightish yellow4 ,the right arm of the ,virgin was broken off at some time prior to the sixteenth century1 and has been replaced by another one4 ,mother and ,child wear crowns of silver-gilt which probably were added later1 and the hair1 lips1 and eyes have been badly painted or repainted with discordant colouring4 ,a four-sided hole bored deep into the ivory served for holding the image to the perno which projected from the monarch's saddle-bow4 ,a few elaborate baculi or pastoral staves 7,plate xliv47 exist in ,spain1 including one of the fourteenth century1 in ivory1 which belonged to the late ,marquis of ,monistrol1 and is carved with the ,crucifixion and also with the ,virgin contemplating the ,holy ,infant as ,he is offered cups by angels4 ,another interesting ,spanish baculus1 though not of ivory1 but copper decorated with turquoises and bright blue enamel1 belonged to ,bishop ,pelayo de ,cebeyra of ,mondoedo 7,a4,d4 #aaii-abah71 and has been preserved1 together with that prelate's gilded shoes4 ,in the celebrated processions of ,santiago1 at which ,alfonso the ,sixth was personally present1 magnificent ivory baculi were borne1 not only by the archbishop 7eburnea virga pontificali decoratus71 but even by the choristers4 ,between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries1 ,spanish craftsmen produced a fair quantity of ivory boxes1 reliquaries1 diptyches1 triptyches1 combs1 and other less important objects4 ,a fifteenth-century ivory spoon1 ten inches long1 whose handle is carved with six crocodiles1 is in the ,national ,museum1 and may be ,spanish work4 ,in the same collection are one or two ivory diptyches and leaves of diptyches1 and a wooden box 7fourteenth century71 with figures of carved ivory representing passages from the life of ,saint ,george upon the body of the box1 and from the ,old ,testament upon the lid4 ,a carved ,renaissance temple of the same material1 with the ,virgin and ,child in its interior1 is probably ,italian4 ,illustration3 ,,xlv ,a ,,tournament 7,carved lid of box in ivory2 #adth ,century7 ,in the fortieth volume of ,espaa ,sagrada it is stated that four ivory diptyches 7quatuor dictacos eburneos7 were offered in ,a4,d4 #hig to ,lugo cathedral by ,alfonso the ,third and his queen ,jimena4 ,other ivory diptyches were presented in ,a4,d4 #ajfc by ,ferdinand the ,second to the church of ,saint ,isidore at ,len4 ,jos ,villa-amil1 in his study of an ivory statuette of the ,virgin1 belonging to the nuns of ,allariz 7,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones2 nos4 #gf and #gg71 mentions a carved ivory box 7capsa eburnea7 made in the year #aabb for ,santiago cathedral by order of ,archbishop ,gelmirez2 another which existed in the sixteenth century in the church of ,santa ,mara at ,finisterre2 and a third1 used as a reliquary1 which in #aegb was opened by the monks of ,samos in presence of ,ambrosio de ,morales4 ,during the ,middle ,ages portable altars 7altares porttiles7 were widely used in ,spain1 and some were made of ivory4 ,it was the custom to open them at the time of prayer1 and as a rule they rested upon reclinatorios or hung upon the wall4 ,the imagen abriente or opening image was also popular in ,spain throughout the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,as the name implies1 these images opened in the manner of a triptych1 and were very often used as reliquaries4 ,specimens are preserved in many parts of ,europe1 but only one or two exist in ,spain and ,portugal4 ,that which belongs to the nuns of ,allariz dates from the end of the thirteenth century1 and was a present from ,queen ,violante4 ,it is described fantastically by ,morales1 and accurately by ,villa-amil1 but the quaintest account is by the chronicler ,jacobo de ,castro4 ,it measures1 ,castro tells us1 about half-a-yard in length and is one of the fairest ever seen1 since it opens downward from the neck1 discovering1 on plates of half-relief1 the principal mysteries of ,christ and of ,our ,lady4 ,the devotion towards it of the people in this neighbourhood exceeds description1 and ,god has wrought a quantity of miracles through the intercession thereof4 ,a fourteenth-century triptych carved in bone with scenes from ,scripture is in the ,national ,museum4 ,it proceeds from ,aragon1 and is said to have belonged to ,jayme the ,conqueror4 ,the ,escorial possesses a handsome ivory diptych 7,plate xlvi47 which is either ,spanish or ,italian--probably the former4 ,it measures exactly a foot in height by nine inches across both leaves1 and is deeply carved with passages from the life of ,christ4 ,the style is late ,romanic merging into ,gothic1 and points to the second half of the thirteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,xlvi ,,ivory ,,diptych 7#acth ,century4 ,el ,escorial7 ,,pottery ,,ancient ,quantities of ancient common pottery have been1 and are continually being found in many parts of ,spain4 ,prehistoric cups1 shaped with the fingers and dried and hardened by the sun1 are preserved in the ,museum of ,history at ,barcelona4 ,they were discovered at ,argar4 ,similar objects have been extracted from the caves of ,segbriga1 ,lbrega in ,old ,castile1 and ,el ,tesoro in the province of ,mlaga4 ,those which were found at ,segbriga are divided by ,capelle into six groups1 one of which includes a vessel resembling the ordinary ,spanish pitcher of to-day4 ,villa-amil y ,castro has described in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades pieces of prehistoric sun-dried ware discovered in ,galicia1 roughly decorated with patterns imprinted by the finger4 ,in other instances a double spiral has been described with a pointed instrument about the vessel's neck4 ,similar fragments have been found by ,gngora in ,andalusia4 ,celtic pottery was found in #ahfb by ,captain ,brome on ,windmill ,hill at ,gibraltar1 in #ahff by ,m4 ,lartet in the caves of ,torrecilla de ,cameros1 and by ,casiano de ,prado in a cave near ,pedraza1 as well as at ,navares de ,ayuso and elsewhere4 ,in central ,spain1 vessels of the ,celtiberian era have been found in tombs at ,prdena1 and pieces of red ,saguntine ware1 with dark red decoration1 at ,otero de ,herreros1 close to vestiges of a ,roman mine4 ,lecea y ,garca describes in his work on ,old ,segovian ,industries a ,celtiberian plate of reddish clay covered with black varnish1 which was dug up some years ago in a garden at that town4 ,this plate1 measuring no less than four feet in diameter1 and containing two inscriptions in characters believed to be ,celtiberian1 as well as the figure of a warrior armed with a lance and three javelins1 was submitted to ,heiss1 who wrote of it in the ,gazette ,archologique and pronounced it to be genuine4 ,i have not seen the plate in question4 ,i have1 however1 met with cleverly executed forgeries1 also varnished black1 of primitive ,spanish pottery4 ,in #ahii quantities of ,celtic ware1 believed to date from the time of the ,phoenicians1 or even earlier1 were unearthed by ,m4 ,bonsor from tumuli in the ,guadalquivir valley4 ,these objects are ornamented in relief with complicated patterns paler than the ground1 obtained by using lighter-coloured clay4 ,as similar ,celtic pottery has been found in ,portugal1 it will be understood that the ,celtic influence1 having crossed the ,pyrenees1 reached the south by the western seaboard4 ,it will thus be seen that long before the arrival of the ,romans a relatively high degree of civilisation had been reached at least in the south of ,spain4#fj #fj ,martin ,hume1 ,the ,spanish ,people1 p4 #ae 7note74 ,in the summer of #aije two ,german archologists1 ,messrs4 ,schulten and ,knen1 who had obtained permission from the ,spanish ,government to explore the site of old ,numancia1 filled four large cases with the ,celtiberian pottery they extracted from the ruins4 ,these cases were forwarded to the ,university of ,gttingen4 ,i understand1 however1 that they have been returned1 or are to be returned immediately1 to ,spain4 ,long before the ,christian era1 ,greek colonies existed on the ,spanish coast at ,rhodas1 ,denia1 ,emporium 7,ampurias71 ,saguntum 7,murviedro71 and elsewhere4 ,pottery of good design and workmanship was manufactured at these towns1 and strongly influenced native art4 ,bowls and other objects showing such an influence were discovered by ,m4 ,bonsor in his recent excavations4 ,another powerful influence was that of ,rome4 ,roman potteries existed in the suburb of ,seville called ,triana1 and in the provinces of ,cceres and ,badajoz4 ,mrida was also an important centre of this industry1 and vessels which were used in sacred rites1 such as the aquiminarium1 the prefericulum1 the simpulum1 and the urnula1 were discovered here not long ago4 ,the name ,saguntine ware was given by the ,romans to a kind of pottery which seems to have been made along the ,spanish littoral extending southward from ,saguntum4 ,fragments of this pottery1 which closely resembles the ,arezzo ware1#fa are found in shoals upon the sites of ,roman towns1 particularly ,tarragona4 ,these barros saguntinos1 or 7as ,hbner prefers to call them7 barros tarraconenses1 have been divided into four classes1 namely1 white1 grey1 red 7covered with a dark red varnish71#fb and yellow striped with red4 ,this ware is commonly adorned with garlands1 animals1 hunting-scenes1 divinities1 games1 or religious ceremonies1 and also bears1 in nearly every case1 the potter's name or mark2 e4g4 ,,albinvs ,f 7,albinus fecit7 or ,,of4 ,,albin 7officina ,albini74 ,more than two hundred marks have been discovered which were used by potters of ,ampurias alone4 #fa ,a ware exactly like that of ,arezzo1 called by some the red ,roman ware1 and by others ,samian1 distinguished by its close grain composed of a fine clay1 and presenting1 when broken1 edges of an opaque light red colour1 whilst the inner and outer surfaces are quite smooth1 and of a brighter and darker red1 is found in all places of the ancient world to which the ,roman arms or civilisation reached4 ,it is distinguished from the ,aretine by its darker tone1 stronger glaze1 and coarser ornamentation4 ,possibly1 the whole passage of ,pliny in which he speaks of the earthenware of his day refers to this red ware4 ,thus1 for dishes he praises the ,samian and the ,aretine ware2 for cups1 that of ,surrentum1 ,asta and ,pollentia1 ,saguntum and ,pergamus4 ,tralles and ,mutina had their manufactories4 ,cos was most esteemed2 ,hadria produced the hardest ware4 ,that one of these1 that of ,saguntum1 was a red ware1 is clear2 that of ,cum was also of the same colour4444 ,that the red ware is found amidst the dense forests of ,germany and on the distant shores of ,britain1 is a remarkable fact in the civilisation of the old world4 ,it was apparently an importation1 being exactly identical wherever discovered1 and is readily distinguished from the local pottery4--,birch1 ,history of ,ancient ,pottery1 pp4 #efj1 #efa4 #fb ,it belongs to the class of tender lustrous pottery1 consisting of a bright red paste like sealing-wax1 breaking with a close texture1 and covered with a siliceous1 or1 according to some1 a metallic glaze4 ,this glaze is exceedingly thin1 transparent1 and equally laid upon the whole surface1 only slightly augmenting the colour of the clay4--,birch1 p4 #efa4 ,there seems to be no doubt that ,saguntum and ,emporium were principal centres of this industry1 and possibly1 since these towns were old ,greek settlements1 the barros saguntinos were of ,grecian origin4 ,pella y ,forgas1 describing in his ,history of the ,ampurdan the fine red ware of this locality1 says that parts of the decoration were fashioned on the wheel1 others directly by the potter's hand1 and others from a mould1 while the ornament of dotted lines was made by the wheeled roulette4 ,among the commoner objects dating from this time are amphor and small earthen lamps 7,pl4 xlvii474 ,these lamps have been discovered in great numbers1 and1 owing to the dryness of the ,spanish soil1 in excellent preservation4 ,they measure about the size of the hand1 and have two holes1 one in the spout or beak1 to hold the wick1 and the other at the top1 for pouring in the oil4 ,the top1 which as a rule is slightly concave1 is often ornamented with devices in relief1 such as a chariot and its driver1 or the emblem of a deity4 ,illustration3 ,,xlvii ,,amphoraic ,,vases ,,and ,,other ,,pottery 7,museum of ,tarragona7 ,the typical amphora was a long1 narrow vessel 7usually of earthenware2 less frequently of brass or glass71 with an elongated handle at either side of the neck1 and tapering nearly to a point4 ,it served for storing honey1 oil1 or wine1 and in order to keep it upright the pointed lower end was stuck into the soil1 or rested on a perforated wooden stand4 ,in the spring of #ahic some fishermen drew up in their nets1 just off the coast of ,alicante1 three large intact amphor thickly cased with shells1 and sold them for eight dollars each4 ,other fine amphor1 now in the collection of the ,marquis of ,cerralbo1 were washed upon the beach at ,torrevieja1 and many more are in museums4 ,vessels of this kind are known to have been made at ,rhodas 7,rosas7 and ,saguntum1 and their use continued in ,spain until the downfall of the second empire4 ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,non-,,lustred ,,pottery ,the statements of ,saint ,isidore1 confirmed by one or two discoveries in southern ,spain1 prove that the pottery in use among the ,visigoths was principally ,roman4 ,probably in this1 as in so many of her arts1 the ,moorish conquest brought about a radical and rapid change4 ,remains of pottery dating from this period are extremely rare4 ,the provincial museum of ,granada contains some bowls and plates1 all more or less imperfect1 which are ascribed by experts to about the year #ajjj4 ,these objects1 which were dug up in #ahgh on the slopes of the ,sierra ,elvira1 a few miles from ,granada1 are coloured black and green upon a white or whitish ground4 ,the most important is a dish which measures fourteen inches in diameter1 and is decorated with a falcon on a horse's back 7,plate xlviii474#fc ,all of this pottery shows the double influence of ,byzantium and the ,east4 ,among the designs upon the other pieces are hares and stags surrounded by a bordering of primitive arabesques4 ,riao remarks that it is almost impossible to assert whether this pottery was made in or imported into ,spain4 ,nevertheless1 ,persians are stated to have settled in this region early in the days of ,muslim rule1 while these dilapidated specimens of ancient ware are greatly similar in colouring and substance to the common dishes and barreos which are still produced throughout the province of ,granada4 #fc ,the falcon is one of the commonest devices on all ,persian pottery1 and was1 in fact1 the national emblem of the chase4 ,its importance for the purpose of pursuing and securing game is well described in ,sir ,john ,malcolm's ,sketches in ,persia4 ,moorish potteries producing lustred or non-lustred ware existed from an early date at ,mlaga1 ,valencia1 ,toledo1 ,calatayud1 ,murviedro1 ,murcia1 and ,barcelona4 ,another centre of this craft was probably ,granada2 for though she is not mentioned in this sense by any of the ,moorish authors1 the late ,seor ,contreras discovered here the vestiges of two ancient potteries1 while one of the old entrances was known as ,bab ,alfajjarin1 or the potters' gate4 ,illustration3 ,,xlviii ,,dish 7,about ,a4,d4 #ajjj4 ,museum of ,granada7 ,the ,ordinances of ,granada contain provisions which were evidently copied from the ,spanish ,moors1 relating to the almadraveros or tilemakers1 the tinajeros or makers of tinajas1 and the olleros or potters generally4 ,the ,ordinances which concern the tilemakers are dated between #aebh and #aedj4 ,the restrictions imposed upon these craftsmen were irksome1 foolish1 and unnecessary4 ,all bricks and tiles were to be stamped in three places with the city mark1 and were only permitted to be made between the first of ,april and the thirty-first of ,october in each year1 since what is made at other seasons is not good or perfect1 owing to the rain1 and cold1 and frost4 ,another ,ordinance1 illustrating the lawlessness prevailing at ,granada in the times succeeding the reconquest1 complains that many persons1 including labourers and hodmen1 go forth into the roads and streets1 and seize the tiles and bricks by violence from those who are conveying them1 and bear them to their houses1 or to the work which they are paid to do4 ,a picturesque1 though cheap and unluxurious1 vessel of a thoroughly eastern character1 and which was very largely manufactured by the ,spanish ,moors1 is the terra-cotta tinaja or gigantic jar for storing wine1 or olive oil1 or grain 7,plate xlix474 ,the use of these receptacles extended through the whole ,peninsula1 and has continued undiminished to this day4 ,the principal centres of tinaja-making were ,toledo1 ,seville1 and ,granada4 ,the ,ordinances of the latter town embody ,moorish rules relating to this branch of pottery4 ,these laws1 revived in #aebf1 provide that all tinajas must contain two kinds of earth1 one red1 the other white1 thoroughly compounded in a trough of water4 ,before the potter removes the clay from the trough1 he must call the city supervisor or veedor to look into the quality and mixing of the mass4 ,the vessel as it leaves the oven must be white2 otherwise1 even although it have no flaw1 the inspector is to break it4 ,the potter is forbidden to coat his tinajas with a glaze composed of eggs1 blood1 chalk1 and other strange ingredients2 nor may he fire the glaze with torches1 because the smell of the smoke clings to the tinaja1 and the wine or stum deposited therein grows redolent of it1 and it stays within the jar perpetually4 ,illustration3 ,,xlix ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,tinaja ,owing doubtless to their plain1 domestic purpose and their trifling market cost1 early tinajas are not often met with4 ,a fine example in excellent preservation is at ,south ,kensington1 and is described by ,riao as a wine jar1 amphora-shaped1 and ornamented with an incised pattern of vine leaves1 and stamped diaper of a ,gothic character4 ,several good tinajas have been discovered of late years at ,seville4 ,gestoso mentions six1 five of which are glazed4 ,the first of these was found in #ahic1 and has a bright green glaze upon a ground of reddish earth4 ,both handles and nearly all the neck are wanting4 ,the decoration consists of various bands or fajas round the body of the jar1 a series of archways1 another of leaves1 and a central band of stars1 three deep1 strongly imprinted from a mould4 ,in every ninth arch are stamped symbolic hands1 such as we see upon the ,gate of ,justice of the ,alhambra4 ,the second tinaja is similar to the one just mentioned1 except that it has the neck4 ,it was discovered in #ahie1 and is now in ,seville museum4 ,the third tinaja is also in this museum1 and was discovered in #aija4 ,it is in a very poor condition1 and ,gestoso believes that it was originally covered with a honey-coloured glaze4 ,the fourth tinaja was found in a drain1 in the same year as the preceding one1 and is inscribed with words1 including ,blessing and ,felicity1 in ,cufic characters4 ,gestoso is unable to decide whether this vessel was made at ,seville or elsewhere4 ,the fifth tinaja is in the collection of ,don ,jos ,morn1 and possesses greater interest than the others1 both because it is in excellent condition1 and also because the decoration is entirely in the ,spanish-,christian style1 without a trace of ,saracenic ornament4 ,small ,gothic-looking shields surround the body of this vessel1 which is stamped with pomegranates1 and with the arms and emblems of the ,ponce de ,len and other families4 ,between each pair of shields is an oval-shaped medallion containing human figures4 ,the sixth tinaja is unglazed4 ,it was found in ,june of #ahic1 and is adorned with repetitions of the words ,prosperity and ,blessing1 as well as with a series of deer and other animals in the act of running2 some of them with birds upon their backs4 ,these designs are very uncommon1 and ,gestoso has seen no other tinaja1 proceeding from this region1 similarly decorated4 ,tinajas are still made in large quantities at ,toboso1 ,lucena1 ,colmenar de ,oreja1 and other ,spanish towns and villages4 ,other large objects of a thoroughly oriental character were earthenware glazed brocales or brims of wells1 which1 like the tinajas1 were largely manufactured at ,seville and ,toledo4 ,specimens of these brocales exist in the museums of ,toledo and ,cordova4 ,riao describes one which is at ,south ,kensington4 ,it was bought at ,toledo for three guineas at a shoemaker's shop4 ,it is made of glazed white and green earthenware1 with ornamental ,cufic characters in high relief all round1 which appear to be of the fourteenth century4 ,the inscription1 which is repeated1 is imperfect1 and all that ,i can decipher are the words 'the power1 the excellence1 and the peace4' ,gestoso describes two brocales and the fragments of a third4 ,all these objects were found at ,seville4 ,the two which are intact1 or nearly so1 are cylindrical1 and of a white ware4 ,one of them has a simple leaf decoration1 and seems to have been covered with a green glaze4 ,the other1 which was discovered in #ahid1 is surrounded by a triple band of inscription in ,african characters which are illegible4 ,gestoso also describes some interesting baptismal fonts1 a class of object which he pronounces to have been the most important of all that were produced in the potteries of ,triana1 by reason both of their large dimensions and of their elaborate ornamentation4 ,he states that three methods were employed to decorate these fonts4 ,the first consisted in attaching to their surface small moulded plates which bore the likeness of a saint1 flowers1 monograms1 or other devices4 ,by the second method the decoration was moulded directly on the font2 while the third method consisted in a combination of the other two4 ,splendid examples of these ,spanish fonts exist in various churches of ,andalusia and in private collections4 ,one of the finest is in the parish church of ,nuestra ,seora de la ,concepcin1 at ,laguna1 ,tenerife4 ,it is suggested by ,gestoso that this pila of ,laguna was made at ,seville and sent to the ,canaries in the year #adgi1 when orders were issued by ,ferdinand and ,isabella for the completion of the monasteries in those islands4 ,pilas were also manufactured at ,toledo1 although ,gestoso says that the workmanship of those produced at ,seville was in every way superior4 ,nevertheless1 he has only found the maker's name upon a single font1 which is inscribed with that of ,juan ,sanchez ,vachero1 and is now preserved in the church of ,san ,pedro at ,carmona4 ,another remarkable pila is that of the hospital of ,san ,lzaro at ,seville4 ,in course of time the ,spanish ,church forbade the use of pilas made of glazed earthenware1 and ordered their substitution by fonts of stone or marble4 ,one of these dispositions1 included among the ,constituciones ,sinodales of the bishopric of ,mlaga1 and dated #afga1 is quoted by ,gestoso4 ,it enacts that the pila be of stone and not of earthenware1 and that if any of this latter class remain1 they are to be consumed 7i4e4 destroyed7 within two months4 ,returning to the ,ordinances of ,granada1 those which concern the potters or olleros generally are dated #aecj1 and inform us of the price of glazed and unglazed articles in common use1 such as ollas or pots 7with and without glaze71 cazuelas or earthen vessels for cooking meat1 plates of many colours and dimensions1 jarros 7jugs71 alcuzas 7vials71 cantaros castellanos 7,castilian water-pitchers71 cantaros moriscos 7,moorish water-pitchers#fd71 morteros 7mortars71 lebrillos 7earthen tubs71 candiles 7lamps with a green1 white or yellow glaze71 orzas 7gally pots71 botijas 7narrow-necked jars71 and salseras 7saucers74 #fd ,the watersellers' ,ordinance of #aeaf enacts that each of these vendors shall carry a minimum load of six cntaros1 and that the cntaros themselves shall be of the round shape1 and not the ,moorish ones1 as these have long spouts2 each cntaro to be closed with a cork4 ,the latter is the typical pitcher of ,morocco4 ,as we were talking1 neighbours dropped in1 in the familiar ,eastern way1 and sat quiet and self-contained1 occasionally drinking from one of the two long-necked and porous water-jars1 known as ',baradas' or the 'coolers1' which stand1 their wooden stoppers tied to them with a palmetto cord1 on each side the divan4--,cunninghame ,graham1 ,mogreb-el-,acksa1 p4 #hh4 ,the shape and colouring of many of these common articles have been continued till to-day1 especially in ,andalusia4 ,i reproduce a photograph of some 7,plate l471 in which the influence of the ,east is unmistakable4 ,the smaller of the two unglazed jars is used for carrying and cooling water1 and is made at ,loja4 ,the other1 which is often used for storing honey1 is from ,guadalajara4 ,the spherical vessel is a kind of bottle for aguardiente4 ,it is glazed a brightish green1 and is made in various parts of ,andalusia1 as are the gourd-shaped calabazas1 which have a yellow glaze4 ,the smallest vessel1 or that which has a funnel-shaped and bulging mouth1 is coated with a coarse metallic glaze coloured in white and blue1 and proceeds from ,granada4 ,illustration3 ,l ,,coarse ,,spanish ,,pottery 7,modern7 ,so is the influence of the ,spanish ,moors1 linking the present intimately to the past1 and handed down by early craftsmen to the moderns1 and from ,mussulmans to ,christian ,spaniards1 maintained and kept alive1 not only by the city ordinances ,i have quoted1 but also by the more occult yet no less permanent and cogent force of local and unchronicled tradition4 ,in the historic quarter of ,granada which is called the ,albaycin1 survive a few alfareras to this hour 7,plate lxix474 ,here1 on the potter's wheel or ranged about his yard1 may yet be seen the red ,granada earth that is believed to have inspired the vase of the ,alhambra1 applied to-day to common crockery that notwithstanding has a subtle1 unfamiliar charm4 ,and towards the time of sundown1 when the master turns indoors to supper and his workmen have gone home1 when the last of the red light is colouring the ancient city wall until it too looks like a mammoth monument of the potter's art of old ,granada1 it is a strange experience to wander through these desolate yards1 among the files of ruddy ,granadino ware kindling with vivid memories of the vanished ,mussulmans of ,spain1 and bringing back to us that spirited old poet of the ,east who also sang of pottery3-- ,listen again4 ,one ,evening at the ,close ,of ,ramazan1 ere the better ,moon arose1 ,in that old ,potter's ,shop ,i stood alone ,with the clay ,population round in ,rows4 ,and strange to tell1 among that ,earthen ,lot ,some could articulate1 while others not3 ,and suddenly one more impatient cried-- ',who is the ,potter1 pray1 and who the ,pot8' ,then said another--',surely not in vain ,my substance from the common ,earth was ta'en1 ,that ,he who subtly wrought me into ,shape ,should stamp me back to common ,earth again4' ,,mosaic-,,work ,,and ,,tiles ,the art of colouring and glazing earthenware was practised by various peoples of the ancient eastern world1 and passed1 in course of time1 through ,egypt to ,phoenicia1 ,greece1 and ,rome1 and1 later still1 to ,mussulman peoples of north-western ,africa4 ,glazed earthenware was possibly produced in ,roman ,spain1 although the specimens of it which have been discovered are singularly and1 indeed1 significantly few4 ,their colour is commonly green or lightish yellow4 ,gestoso makes particular mention of a small jar now preserved in the museum of ,seville1 describing it as of an ordinary shape1 but finely made4 ,he admits1 however1 that no trace of glaze exists in any of the broken ,visigothic vessels 7copied1 as ,saint ,isidore tells us1 from the ,roman-,spanish pottery7 that were found some years ago among the ruins of ,italica4 ,thus it is not decided whether the ,spanish potters learned to glaze1 or whether this development of their craft remained familiar to the ,spaniards of that period through imported objects merely4 ,as with glazed earthenware1 the origin of mosaic must be looked for in the ,east4 ,greece1 who had doubtless borrowed it from ,egypt1 communicated it to ,rome at least two centuries before the ,christian era1 and from this time the ,romans used it freely in the decoration of their buildings4 ,the ,greek mosaic was composed exclusively of stone4 ,the ,romans modified this usage by the introduction of diminutive cubes of clay1 painted and baked like porcelain2 and later1 in the reign of ,claudius1 dyed these cubes with various colours4 ,roman mosaic-work 7commonly in the tessellated style and not the opus sectile7 has been unearthed in many parts of the ,peninsula4 ,such are the two mosaics of the ,muses1 discovered at ,italica on ,december #abth1 #agii1 and ,june #abth1 #ahci2fe other mosaics1 to the number of some thirty1 discovered from time to time among the same ruins2 another1 discovered at ,majorca in #ahcc2 that of the ,calle ,batitales at ,lugo 7the ,roman ,lucus ,augusti71 discovered in #ahdb2 those of ,palencia1 ,gerona1 ,merida1 ,milla del ,rio 7near ,len71 ,rielves 7near ,toledo71 ,duratn1 ,aguilafuente1 and ,paradinas 7near ,segovia71 and ,carabanchel1 three miles from ,madrid4 ,the mosaic found at ,lugo is believed to have formed part of a temple dedicated to ,diana4 ,the decoration is partly geometrical1 and consists of the head of a man between two dolphins1 with other fishes swimming along the border4 ,laborde describes another mosaic which existed1 early in the nineteenth century1 in a hall of the archbishop's palace at ,valencia4 ,the pavement of this hall demands particular attention2 it is formed of antique pavements1 discovered in the month of ,february1 #aggg1 three hundred paces north-east of the town of ,puch1 between ,valencia and ,murviedro2 some were entire1 others were only fragments4 ,they were separated with care1 and placed on the floor of this hall1 where they are carefully preserved4 ,they are different mosaics1 formed by little stones of three or four lines in diameter1 curiously enchased4 ,they are distributed into seven squares in each of which medallions and divers designs have been drawn3 their compartments are of blue on a white ground4 ,we observe in one of these squares an imitation of the pavement of ,bacchus1 discovered at ,murviedro1 and of which there remained but very few vestiges2 it was copied in a drawing-book which a priest of this town had preserved2 it is executed with such art and exactness1 that no difference can be observed between this modern work and that of the ,romans4 ,in another we see ,neptune seated in a car1 in one hand holding a whip1 and in the other a trident and the reins of the horses by which his car is drawn3 these appear to be galloping4 #fe ,the latter1 which was the finer of the two1 was dug out by ,don ,ivo de la ,cortina4 ,it has subsequently been allowed to go to pieces1 but a coloured plate depicting it will be found in the first volume of the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades4 ,in the same hall are also seen other pavements1 of which only fragments could be preserved4 ,some serve for borders and ornaments to the preceding pavements4 ,on these are represented a tiger1 fishes1 birds1 houses1 flowers1 and garlands1 well executed4 ,there are particularly five stuck on wood and shut up in a closet2 on these are birds1 fruits1 and flowers1 figured in different colours1 the execution of which is very curious2 they are perhaps the most precious of the whole4 ,the same author says elsewhere3 ,in digging to make a road from ,valencia to ,murviedro in #agee1 at the entrance of the latter town a mosaic pavement was discovered2 it was entire1 and of such beauty that it was thought worthy of preservation4 ,ferdinand the ,sixth caused it to be surrounded with walls2 but the king's intentions were not properly fulfilled2 the gates were suffered to remain open1 and every one carried away some part of the pavement1 which consequently soon became despoiled2 it was rectangular1 and measured twenty-four feet by fourteen4 ,there are still some fragments of it in several houses at ,murviedro4 ,a priest of that town1 ,don ,diego ,puch1 an antiquarian1 took a drawing of it1 which he afterwards had painted at ,valencia on the tiles fabricated there1 and paved an apartment of his house with them4 ,it was likewise copied with the greatest exactness1 with small stones perfectly similar1 in an apartment of the library belonging to the archiepiscopal palace1 as we have already stated4 ,swinburne also mentions a mosaic pavement which he saw at ,barcelona1 upon the site of what he believed to have been a temple of ,neptune4 ,in it were represented two large green figures of tritons1 holding a shell in each hand2 between them a sea-horse1 and on the sides a serpent and a dolphin4 ,in ,october of #aija a very important and beautiful mosaic was discovered at ,italica4 ,it is known as the mosaic of ,bacchus1 the worship of which deity1 says ,seor ,quintero1 was probably general in ,andalusia1 owing to her wealth of vines4 ,this mosaic was found at a depth of six feet six inches below the surface of the soil1 and measures twenty-one feet square4 ,it is believed to have formed the pavement of a ,roman dining-chamber4 ,mosaic in the manner of the ,greeks and ,romans seems in ,spain to have disappeared with the ,visigoths4 ,that it was known to these is told us by ,saint ,isidore3--,pavimenta originem apud graecos habent elaboratae arte picturae1 litostrata parvulis crustis ac tesselis tinctis in varios colores4#ff #ff ,tessela and crusta are defined by him as follows3 ,tesselae sunt e quibus domicilia sternuntur a tesseris nominata1 id est quadratis lapillis1 per diminutionem4 ,crustae sunt tabulae marmoris4 ,unde et marmorari parietes et constati dicuntur4 ,qui autem marmora secandi in crustas rationem excogitaverunt non constat4 ,fiunt autem arena et ferro serraque in praetenui linea premente arenas1 tractuque ipse secante3 sed crassior arena plus erodet marmoris4 ,nam tenuis fabricis et polituris accomodata est4 ,illustration3 ,,li ,,door ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab 7,showing mosaic-work4 ,cordova ,cathedral7 ,it is impossible to affirm with any confidence that glazed earthenware1 whether in the form of tiles or other objects1 was manufactured by the ,spanish ,moors during the ,cordovese ,caliphate1 or the period of the kinglings of ,taifa4 ,no trace of it has been discovered among the scanty ruins of ,medina ,az-zahar#fg and ,az-zahira--ancient palaces of ,cordova--or in the marvellous mosque4 ,we know1 however1 that towards the seventh century the ,arabs borrowed from ,byzantium the mosaic-work of tessons known as psephosis fsefysa1 and this1 or something similar1 was used1 though probably to a small extent1 among the ,muslims of the ,spanish ,caliphate4 ,although1 towards the middle of the thirteenth century1 the historian ,aben-,said1 a native of ,granada1 recorded that in ,al-,andalus is made a kind of mofassass which is called in the ,east alfoseifesa1 remains of this elaborate product only exist to-day at ,cordova1 where patches may yet be seen lining the dome of the mirhab in the vast aljama 7,plate li474 ,the mosaic in question is stated to have been a gift from the ,byzantine emperor to the sultan ,al-,hakem1 and was set in place by a skilled workman1 a ,greek1 who1 like the offering itself1 proceeded from ,constantinople4 #fg ,among these ruins1 at five miles' distance from the city1 pieces of common brick have come to light2 but no glazed pottery of any kind1 whether as foseifesa1 azulejos1 or mosaic4 ,during his stay at ,cordova this ,greek was helped by certain of the ,sultan's slaves1 who thus acquired the secrets of the craft1 and practised it thereafter4#fh #fh ,dozy's version of ,the ,history of ,almagreb1 by ,ibn-,adzar the ,moor2 p4 #bec4 ,rodrigo ,amador de los ,rios contends1 however1 that this decoration is in no sense a true mosaic1 but just a tempera painting executed on the wall and overlaid with cubes of glass4 ,in any case1 no other specimen of such work has been discovered in any part of the ,peninsula4 ,by the time of the ,almohade invasion or very shortly after--that is1 towards the twelfth century1--the ,spanish ,moors had grown acquainted with glazed earthenware4 ,indeed1 the ,almohades are believed by some authorities to have actually introduced it4 ,gestoso1 on the contrary1 suggests that ,spain may have transmitted it to ,africa4 ,however this may be1 the ,almohades used it largely in the decoration of their homes and public buildings in ,andalusia2 first as aliceres or bands composed of smallish pieces running round a room1 and subsequently in the more effective and more useful form of azulejos proper4 ,the ,spanish ,moors employed the word almofassass to designate both aliceres and azulejos4 ,nevertheless1 the two were not identical1 although ,riao takes them to be so4 ,he says3 ,the earliest tiles or azulejos made in ,spain are composed of small pieces let into the wall1 forming geometrical patterns4 ,these1 in fact1 were aliceres4 ,it is not so easy to define an azulejo4 ,we read in ,aben-,said1 quoted by ,al-,makkari3 ,there is another kind of work employed for paving houses4 ,it is called azzulech and resembles mofassass4 ,it has wonderful colouring1 and replaces the coloured marble used by the people of the ,east to decorate their chambers4 ,this definition is not completely clear4 ,those of the ,christian-,spanish writers are not more satisfactory4 ,covarrubias calls these objects small bricks1 square and of other shapes1 used for lining chambers in the mansions of the wealthy1 or in garden paths4 ,nebrija calls them tessela pavimenticia1 adding that they bear the name of azulejos because the earliest ones were of a blue colour--a statement which ,dozy supports by instancing the ,persian-,arabic zaward or blue stone4 ,gestoso resolves the question sufficiently for our purpose by showing that the term azulejo is usually applied to square tiles of a largish size1 the length of whose sides varies between eleven centimetres and eighteen centimetres1 aliceres being properly the smaller strips or pieces 7technically known as cintas or verduguillos7 used in a bordering or frieze4 ,other decorative pieces of small dimensions1 invented in the fifteenth century1 were called olambres or olambrillas1 and served to lend variety to the red or yellow brickwork of a pavement or a floor4 ,the production of azulejos in ,spain may thus be traced to as far back as the twelfth century4 ,by far the most important centre of the craft was ,seville4 ,here1 from the twelfth until the fourteenth century1 was made the glazed and decorative tiling which consisted of small pieces of monochrome earthenware--black1 white1 green1 blue1 or yellow--cut one by one1 and pieced together in the manner of a true mosaic4 ,this process1 says ,gestoso1 was lengthy1 difficult1 and dear4 ,in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the same mosaic would often take the form of a series of narrow1 white1 ribbon-like strips1 with coloured interspaces4 ,specimens of this ribbon-work tiling exist to-day in the ,patio de ,las ,doncellas of the ,alczar 7,plate lii474 ,towards the sixteenth century the ,sevillano potters discovered a simpler way of making effective and artistic azulejos1 which they called the cuerda seca process4 ,this novel method consisted in pressing a wood or metal mould upon the unbaked tile1 in such a manner that the outline of the pattern remained in slight relief4 ,this outline was next brushed over with a mixture of manganese and grease1 which turns1 in baking1 very nearly black4 ,the body of the pattern was then filled in with the various colours1 which the greasy line completely separated1 and thus prepared1 the tile was rendered permanent by firing4 ,illustration3 ,,lii ,,mosaic ,,of ,,the ,,patio ,,de ,,las ,,doncellas 7,alczar of ,seville7 ,this process1 in which the patterns are nearly always geometrical1 remained in general use until about the year #aeej1 when it began to be superseded by two others1 known respectively as the processes of cuenca and ,pisano4 ,the cuenca tile was simple and of excellent effect4 ,the pattern1 stamped from a metal mould1 remained in bas-relief1--a characteristic which caused these objects to be also known as azulejos de relieve4 ,the shelving border of each hollow stamped into the tile thus formed a kind of natural barrier which kept the colour there deposited from mingling with its neighbours4 ,when of a larger size1 and joined in pairs to form between each two a single motive 7ladrillo por tabla71 these azulejos were often employed for decorating roofs and ceilings4 ,the tiles which bear the name of their inventor1 ,francesco ,niculoso ,pisano the ,italian1 who lived and worked for many years at ,seville1 date from about the same time as the cuenca azulejos4 ,in the case of the ,pisano tile1 there is no indentation caused by the imprint of a mould1 the surface being merely coated with a monochrome glaze1 painted upon and fired1 the decoration thus remaining flat all over4 ,commonly the ground is white or yellow1 with the colour of the pattern shaded blue1 or black1 or deepish purple4 ,this process1 which lent itself to most elaborate and effective schemes of ornament1 remained in vogue until the eighteenth century1 and was practised1 not only by ,pisano himself1 but by a long succession of his pupils1 followers1 and imitators4 ,illustration3 ,,liii ,,andalusian ,,non-,,lustred ,,ware 7,a4,d4 #adhj-adie4 ,osma ,collection7 ,such were the processes in use among the azulejo-makers of old ,seville4 ,specimens of their craftsmanship which yet survive and illustrate the various styles and epochs may be thus enumerated3-- 7#a7 ,mosaic tile-work1 such as appears in ,seville at the time of the ,almohade invasion4 ,a fragment of this kind of work forms part of the collection of ,seor ,osma1 and proceeds from the church of ,san ,andrs4 ,tiles and smaller pieces of mosaic-work1 coloured in malachite green and white1 were also found in #ahii and #aijj1 in the upper walls of the renowned ,torre del ,oro1 or ,golden ,tower1 erected in the year #abbj1 and which is popularly thought to derive its venerable title from the sparkle of the sun upon its azulejos4 ,another piece of primitive mosaic1 measuring rather less than a yard square1 and containing star-shaped geometrical devices1 was found in #ahij beneath the floor of the cathedral2 while mosaics of a later age1 including the more elaborate lacera patterns that resemble ribbon1 are preserved in the ,patio de las ,doncellas of the ,alczar1 in the ,casa de ,olea1 and in the parish churches of ,san ,estban1 ,san ,gil1 and ,omnium ,sanctorum4 7#b7 ,a small group of curious tiles1 believed to be anterior to the reign of ,pedro the ,first1 has come to light some years ago1 in the churches of ,san ,andrs and ,santa ,marina1 and in the ,claustro del ,lagarto of the cathedral4 ,those of ,san ,andrs are of white earthenware1 glazed in the same colour and stamped from a mould with the figures of two wolves in fairly bold relief 7see tailpiece to this chapter74 ,traces of a glaze of malachite green are on the bodies of these wolves4 ,the azulejos of the church of ,santa ,marina1 also discovered recently1 are examined by ,seor ,osma in his pamphlet ,azulejos sevillanos del siglo xiii 7,madrid1 #aijb74 ,they measure about three and a half inches square1 and bear devices of a castle and an eagle1 stamped in the diagonal direction of the tile1 showing that this was fixed upon the wall in lozenge fashion4 ,the tiles are bathed upon their surface with what is termed by ,osma the semi-transparent1 caramel-coloured glaze peculiar to the pottery of ,moorish ,spain4#fi ,upon this ground is stamped the decoration1--the eagles in the blackish purple of baked manganese1 the castles without additional colour1 so as to be distinguished only by their outline from the yellowish surface of the tile4 #fi ,according to ,gestoso1 the colours in use among the ,almohades consisted of green1 black1 caramel or honey1 and deep purple4 ,these colours underwent no change until the sixteenth century4 ,the azulejos of the ,claustro del ,lagarto of the cathedral are three in number1 and were found in #ahhh4 ,two of them are stamped with a castle of a single tower described within a shield1 and the third with a ,greek cross4 ,these are considered by ,osma to be the only tiles existing at this moment which date from the latter third of the thirteenth century4 ,in fact1 he places their manufacture between the years #abeb and #abfi4 ,illustration3 ,,liv ,,cuenca ,,tiles 7,alczar of ,seville7 7#c7 ,cuerda seca tiles4 ,handsome zocalos or dadoes of these tiles are in the ,casa de los ,pinelos1 and in the chapels of the palaces of the ,dukes of ,alba and ,medinaceli4 ,gestoso attributes them to the end of the fifteenth century or the beginning of the sixteenth4 ,detached cuerda seca tiles are preserved in the municipal museum of archology1 while a fine pair 7,plate liii47 of this class of azulejos belongs to ,seor ,osma1 who considers they were made between #adhj and #adie4 ,they are thus coeval with the no less interesting dish of the time of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 of which a reproduction is given opposite page #aij4 7#d7 ,cuenca tiles4 ,quantities of these1 dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 may yet be seen in many parts of ,seville2 for instance1 in her churches or her convents1 in her superb ,alczar1 or in the mansions of her old nobility4 ,probably the most remarkable of all are those in the gardens of the ,alczar1 and lining the walls of the ,pavilion of ,charles the ,fifth4 ,the devices on these polychrome azulejos 7#afth century2 ,plate liv47 are very numerous1 including men and animals1 centaurs and other monsters1 the ,pillars of ,hercules1 and imitations of elaborate dress fabrics4 7#e7 ,pisano tiles4 ,although some facts have been unearthed concerning the ,italian ,francesco ,niculoso ,pisano1 we do not know precisely in what year he came to ,seville1 or in what year he died4 ,davillier thought it probable that he had studied at ,faenza or at ,caffagiolo4 ,at all events1 it was ,pisano who broadly launched the art of the ,sevillian potters on the stream of the ,renaissance4#gj ,i have stated that the tiles which bear his name are painted on a white or yellow ground4 ,consequently their surface is flat1 without the ridges and depressions of the cuenca or the cuerda seca methods4 ,we find ,pisano tiles applied to various objects1 such as tombs1 altars1 friezes1 and archivolts4 ,this artist1 says ,gestoso1 further introduced the use of two new colours1--violet and rose4 ,several of his best productions are still intact1 including the doorway of the church of the monastery of ,santa ,paula 7in which he was assisted by a ,spanish master1 ,pedro ,millan71 and the altar of the ,catholic ,sovereigns in the ,alczar4 ,both these masterpieces were executed in the year #aejd1 and bear ,pisano's signature4 ,the doorway of ,santa ,paula is described by ,gestoso as consisting of a single body of masonry1 distinct from that of the building itself1 though resting against it1 and constructed of bricks of uniform size1 which show us1 by their perfect symmetry1 how skilful were the masons of that time1 with whom the ,moorish craftsmanship was yet a living power4 ,the doorway is formed by a series of concentric ,gothic arches resting on slender pillars4 ,the space which forms the outer archivolt is most remarkable4 ,upon a ground of azulejos which copy the colour of the brickwork1 we see a number of ,plateresque designs of exquisite beauty1 painted in white and blue1 with occasional touches of other colours4 ,among the devices are chimeras1 war-trophies1 volutes1 chaplets1 parapegms1 antelopes1 masks1 and others which are characteristic of the ,florentine ,renaissance4 ,upon this ground1 and enclosed by circular garlands in high relief1 consisting of polychrome fruits and flowers1 are seven medallions containing figures of male and female saints1 except the one which is upon the keystone1 and which represents the birth of ,christ4 ,in this medallion the figures are enamelled in white upon a cobalt-blue ground1 recalling1 as also do the garlands1 the work of the celebrated della ,robbia4#ga ,in the rest of the medallions the figures are glazed in brilliant colours4 ,in the three medallions upon the left1 beginning with the lowest one1 we see1 upon the first1 ,saint ,helen2 upon the second1 two saints in monkish dress2 and upon the third1 ,saint ,peter and ,saint ,paul4 ,on the medallions of the other side are another saint dressed as a monk1 ,san ,cosm1 ,san ,damin1 and ,san ,roque4 ,the spaces on either side of the archivolt are covered with tiles which represent a landscape4 ,in each of the upper angles is an angel holding a large tablet with ,,ihs in ornamental ,gothic character upon a black ground4 ,these letters1 and also the angels and the frames of the tablets1 are enamelled in gold4 ,beneath each tablet is an angel standing with extended wings upon a bracket of lustred earthenware1 and holding an open book4 ,the brickwork of the door is closed by a plain impost supporting a small battlement covered with cuenca tiles1 and crowned with a cornice of flamboyant ornaments alternating with the heads of cherubs glazed in white1 and with a white marble cross in the centre4 ,the tympanum is embellished by a superb shield carved in high relief upon white marble with the arms of ,castile1 ,len1 ,aragon1 and ,sicily1 surmounted by a royal crown and the eagle with the nimbus4 ,beside this shield are two smaller ones of azulejos painted with the yoke and sheaf of arrows1 and the motto ,t,a,,to ,m,o,,ta4 ,the ground on which are executed these three shields occupies the whole tympanum1 and is covered with ,plateresque devices including two tablets1 on one of which we read the letters ,s4,p4,q4,r41 and on the other1 ,,pisano4 ,above the first of these tablets is another of an oval shape1 bearing the word ,,niculoso4 ,lastly1 at the base of the archivolt1 and on the left-hand side of the spectator1 is a very small rectangular tablet with this inscription3-- ,,nicvloso ,,francisco-,i- ,,taliano-,,mef ,,ecit ,,inelagno ,,dei #aed #gj ,gestoso says that florid ,gothic and ,renaissance motives are found occasionally in the older cuenca tiles4 ,this was1 however1 quite exceptional4 #ga ,a plaque belongs to ,seor ,gestoso which proceeds from the demolished ,mudejar church of ,san ,miguel at ,seville4 ,it measures fifteen inches high by ten wide1 and is decorated with a representation1 in bas-relief1 of the ,coronation of the ,virgin4 ,the eyebrows1 eyelids1 and lips of the figures are executed in cobalt upon a thick layer of white glaze1 and strongly recall the method of ,lucca della ,robbia4 ,gestoso considers that this plaque was made in the latter part of the fourteenth century4 ,if so1 it is antecedent to the work of della ,robbia 7whose ,resurrection upon one of the doors of the ,duomo of ,florence dates from #adch7 by a good many years4 ,a similar example1 also by an unknown hand and representing the ,coronation1 is in the chapel of the ,sagrario of ,seville ,cathedral4 ,the altar in the ,alczar of the same city1 and which is known as that of the ,catholic ,sovereigns 7,plate lv471 is entirely covered with ,pisano azulejos measuring sixteen centimetres square4 ,imbedded in the centre is a picture1 also of painted tiles1 representing the visit of the ,virgin to ,saint ,elizabeth4 ,this picture measures five feet in height by three feet eight inches in breadth4 ,beneath it is the figure of a patriarch resting his head upon his hand4 ,boughs with large flowers issue from his breast1 and among the flowers are half-length figures of the prophets1 together with those of ,jesus and the ,virgin1 the whole of this decoration forming a frame to the central picture4 ,the rest of the altar is profusely decorated with designs in the ,renaissance style1 consisting of vases1 animals1 genii1 and the emblems of ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,in the centre of the tiling which forms the altar-front is a circular picture made of azulejos surrounded by a garland of fruits and laurel leaves1 and representing the ,annunciation1 garland and picture being supported by two monsters with the tails of dragons and the upper parts of women4 ,large flaming torches rest between the out-stretched arms of the monsters1 and round about or springing from them are flowers1 animals1 cornucopias1 and other decoration4 ,the entire retablo is painted lightish blue and white upon a yellow ground1 except the larger picture and its decorative border1 which is of a deeper blue4 ,a small tablet beneath the ,virgin's feet contains the words ,,niculoso ,,francesco ,,italiano ,,me ,,fecit1 and on the pilaster represented on the left hand of the same picture is added the date1 #aejd4 ,as ,gestoso1 ,davillier1 and others have remarked1 it is evident that while the rest of the altar is pure ,renaissance-,plateresque1 the pictures copied on the tiles are of a northern school4 ,probably they were designed for ,niculoso by one of the various ,german or ,flemish masters who at that time were resident in ,seville4 ,illustration3 ,,lv ,,altar ,,of ,,the ,,catholic ,,sovereigns 7,alczar of ,seville7 ,another altar which was formerly in the same palace1 but which has disappeared1 was also painted by this craftsman4 ,it was described by ,cean ,bermudez as containing scenes from the life of the ,virgin1 the ,trinity1 and the two ,saints ,john1 and bore the same date as the altar which is yet existing1 namely1 #aejd4 ,among the other works of ,niculoso are the altar of the church of ,tentudia1 the tomb of ,iigo ,lopez in the church of ,santa ,ana in the quarter of ,triana1 and a tile-picture representing1 similarly to the one which forms the centre of the altar in the ,alczar1 the ,virgin's visit to ,saint ,elizabeth4 ,this picture formerly belonged to the kings of ,portugal1 and is now in the museum of ,amsterdam4#gb #gb ,certain azulejos1 signed by ,niculoso and dated #aejj1 were formerly existing in the palace of the ,counts of ,el ,real de ,valencia in the city of this name4 ,these tiles were executed in relief1 and proved that ,niculoso did not work exclusively in the ,italian style4 ,such were the decorative azulejos which made the potteries of ,seville famous throughout ,europe1 and which are known to have been exported to ,italy1 ,portugal1 and even ,england4#gc ,the names of several hundred medival and post-medival makers of these ,seville tiles have been exhumed and published by ,gestoso4 #gc ,in ,portugal1 tiles which ,gestoso believes to have been made at ,seville1 exist in ,coimbra cathedral1 the church of ,san ,roque at ,lisbon1 and the two palaces of ,cintra4 ,in our own country1 ,seville tiles are stated by ,marryat and ,demmin to line the walls of the ,mayor's ,chapel at ,bristol1 whither they were doubtless conveyed by one of the numerous ,english merchants who traded between ,spain and ,england1 and who are known to have made their home at ,seville in the sixteenth century4 ,another tile of ,seville workmanship1 proceeding from ,haccombe ,church1 ,devonshire1 is in the ,british ,museum4 ,the general title of the ,spanish potter was ollero1 a comprehensive term which reaches from the most ambitious azulejero to the maker of the meanest kitchen-ware4 ,the olleros of older ,seville produced for centuries1 not only glazed and coloured tiling by the processes already indicated1 but countless other objects such as brims of wells1 apothecary's jars1 baptismal fonts1 and dishes of every shape and size4 ,they used a general mark 7the tower of the ,giralda7 to stamp their pottery2 but private marks are nearly always absent4 ,the facts that have appeared in recent years concerning these artificers are seldom interesting4 ,the mere mention of a name is meaningless1 or even perplexing1 seeing that a ,moor or ,mudejar would frequently assume the name and surname of a ,christian4 ,nevertheless1 ,gestoso has brought to light important notices concerning one or two1 and in particular a document dating from the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 relating to a celebrated potter of that period named ,fernan ,martinez ,guijarro4 ,this document1 which is dated #adgi1 describes ,martinez as a very great master in the art of making azulejos1 fonts1 and all the things pertaining to his trade1 insomuch that none other in all this kingdom is like unto him1 and subsequently1 considering him to be so excellent a craftsman that persons come hither from ,portugal and other parts to purchase and to carry off his ware4 ,it is further stated that ,martinez ,guijarro was in wealthy circumstances 7hombre rrico e de mucha rrenta e fasyenda74 ,his talleres or workshops were in the barrio of ,triana1 and included 7as we learn from one of the documents copied by the same investigator7 a separate department for the manufacture or storage of lustred ware4 ,unfortunately1 even ,gestoso is unable to point to any piece of tiling or other pottery now existing1 as being unquestionably executed by this master4 ,another ,sevillian potter of exceptional merit was ,cristbal de ,augusta1 who worked in the latter half of the sixteenth century1 and left his name upon the azulejo dadoes of the ,halls of ,charles the ,fifth in the ,alczar4 ,the style of these most brilliant tiles is pure ,renaissance1 and forms a worthy continuation of the splendid work of ,niculoso4 ,augusta1 indeed1 is termed in the ,archives of the ,alczar master of making tiles in the ,pisano manner 7del pisano74#gd ,some tilemakers of little note succeeded him1 but even the names of these are carefully recorded by ,gestoso4 #gd ,the pisano process is believed by ,gestoso to have succumbed before the cuenca4 ,he says he is aware of no pisano tiling which can be dated from as late as the second half of the seventeenth century4 ,seville was thus the principal centre of the craft of decorative tile-making4 ,azulejos were also made at ,barcelona and other towns in ,catalua1 at ,talavera de la ,reina1 ,burgos1 ,toledo1 ,granada1 and ,valencia1 in several towns of ,aragon1 and probably at ,cordova4 ,riao quotes a letter written about the year #adbb1 from the wife of the ,admiral of ,castile to the abbess of the nunnery of ,santo ,domingo at ,toledo1 requesting that a number of azulejos be sent to her4 ,she alludes1 in the same letter1 to painted tiles1 and says she was expecting a master potter from ,seville to place the tiles in their proper places4 ,this shows us 7continues ,riao7 that it was only in the province of ,andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into geometrical sections and mosaic patterns4 ,the meaning of this passage is obscure4 ,riao speaks of painted tiles and azulejos as though they were distinct objects1 and yet they are essentially the same4 ,again1 if only ,andalusia was able to produce such tiles1 why did the ,almirante's wife order them from ,toledo8 ,perhaps the faulty ,english of ,riao's handbook is responsible1 but1 as it stands1 this passage tells us practically nothing4 ,in any case1 abundant evidence exists to show that large quantities of ,mudejar and ,renaissance tiles were manufactured at ,toledo4 ,in general appearance1 they are similar to those of ,seville4 ,ramrez de ,arellano believes that decorative tiles were manufactured at ,cordova in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 and quotes1 in proof of this1 the names of maestros de hacer vidriado or makers of glazed ware1 who resided at this ancient capital4 ,one of these craftsmen was ,alonso ,rodriguez the younger1 who1 on ,june #gth1 #aegd1 sold to a canon of the cathedral ten thousand white and green tiles of a common kind 7ladrillos71 probably employed for roofing4 ,the price was three ducats the thousand4 ,on ,april #ajth1 #aeih1 ,juan ,sanchez engaged to supply the same temple with the same quantity of glazed tiles 7tejas7 for roofing1 coloured white1 green1 and yellow1 at sixteen maravedis each tile4 ,azulejos were certainly made at ,granada in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 and probably earlier4 ,illustration3 ,,lvi ,,the ,,gate ,,of ,,wine 7,showing polychrome tiling4 ,alhambra1 ,granada7 ,in a passage of the ,alhambra palace leading from the ,patio de la ,alberca to the ,cuarto ,dorado1 a space was laid bare not many years ago1 containing the original mostagueras or small tiles used for flooring1 glazed in two colours2 and in the same building1 although in constantly diminishing quantities1 are large numbers of tiles which date from the time of the ,spanish ,moors4 ,there has been a good deal of discussion as to whether the roofs of the ,alhambra were originally covered with decorative tiles4 ,swinburne 7who must not1 however1 be taken as the safest of authorities7 wrote that in ,moorish times the building was covered with large painted and glazed tiles1 of which some few are yet to be seen4 ,indifferent ,renaissance tiles1 made in the reign of ,philip the ,fifth1 are still preserved in parts of the ,alhambra4 ,excellent polychrome cuerda seca tiles 7fourteenth century71 in white1 green1 yellow1 blue1 and black1 are over the horseshoe archway of the ,gate of ,wine of the ,alhambra 7,plate lvi474 ,according to ,gmez ,moreno1#ge they were manufactured here1 as were the ,moorish azulejos1 yellow1 black1 white1 violet1 and sky-blue1 in the ,mirador de ,daraxa4#gf ,the archives of the ,moorish palace also state that towards the close of the sixteenth century ,antonio ,tenorio1 whose pottery was situated in the ,secano1 and consequently within a stone's-throw of the ,casa ,real1 made several sets of azulejos for the ,hall of the ,abencerrajes4 ,good ,morisco tiles1 dating from the same period and wrought by craftsmen such as ,gaspar ,hernandez1 ,pedro ,tenorio1 and the members of the ,robles family1 are in the ,sala de ,comares1 and in one of the rooms of the ,casa de los ,tiros4 #ge ,gua de ,granada2 pp4 #ce1 #cf4 #gf ,pure red is the rarest of the colours employed in ,moorish tile-work4 ,it is1 however1 found in a single part of the ,alhambra2 namely1 among the superb tile-decoration of the ,torre de la ,cautiva4 ,gestoso says that red was practically unknown among the ,seville potters4 ,sometimes1 however1 in coats of arms1 a space that should have properly been gules was left uncoloured in the actual making of the tile1 and painted red with oil-colour after firing4 ,from the thirteenth century until the eighteenth1 excellent azulejos were made in ,catalua4 ,specimens of every period exist in the collections of ,don ,francisco ,rogent and ,don ,jos ,font y ,gum1 of ,barcelona1 and ,don ,luis ,santacana1 of ,martorell4 ,the tiles belonging to these gentlemen proceed from the cathedral and other temples of ,barcelona1 and from the monasteries or castles of ,poblet1 ,santas ,creus1 ,montserrat1 ,marmell1 ,san ,miguel de ,ervol1 ,centellas1 ,torre ,pallaresa1 ,san ,miguel del ,fay1 and ,vallpellach4#gg #gg ,coloured plates of ,catalan and other ,spanish azulejos are published with ,garca ,llans's text in the ,historia ,general del ,arte2 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,another region which has long been celebrated for its azulejeria is the kingdom of ,valencia4 ,even in the eighteenth century1 when this craft was generally in a state of great decadence1 ,valencian tiles were thoroughly well made1 although the patterns on them were defective4 ,laborde pronounced them the best executed and most elegant in ,europe1 and further said of this locality2 the painted earthenware tiles or azulejos are used in the country1 but only a small part of them2 a great many are sent into the interior of ,spain as well as to ,cadiz1 where they are shipped for ,spanish ,america1 and to ,marseilles1 whence they are conveyed into ,africa4 ,the same writer inserts an interesting account of the manufacture of these azulejos4 ,it is at ,valencia that the tiles of earthenware are made1 with which they incrust walls and pave apartments3 those tiles are of a clayey earth1 which is found in the territories of ,quarte near ,valencia2 they harden the earth long after soaking it in water2 the tiles are formed in moulds1 and are dried in the sun2 they are then beaten with a piece of square wood of the dimensions of which they are wanted4 ,they are then put into the oven1 where they undergo a slight baking4 ,as soon as they are done they are glazed1 and are afterwards painted in water colours with whatever subject is intended to be represented4 ,the tiles are then replaced in the oven so as not to touch one another1 and that the action of the fire may penetrate them all equally3 as the colours change by baking1 the workmen apply them anew in proportion to the changes that take place2 the red alone alters entirely4 ,the varnish with which they are glazed is made with lead1 tin1 and white sand4 ,these three substances are ground in a mill to powder1 which is mixed with water1 to form a paste1 and baked in the oven2 it is again pounded and put into the oven1 where it crystallises3 being once more reduced to powder and diluted with water1 it becomes varnish4 ,there are two kinds of it2 one is whiter than the other1 though the same materials are used3 the mode of mixing alone makes the difference2 the whiter1 the clearer the tiles4 ,it takes a certain number of tiles to form a picture3 they are of different dimensions2 the smallest are three inches nine lines1 the largest seven inches nine lines4 ,the price varies according to the size of the tile1 the beauty of the varnish1 and the variety of the drawings3 the lowest price is eight pesos 7#bes47 a thousand1 and the highest #ajj pesos or #ae1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,there is a considerable demand for them2 they are superior both in beauty and strength to those used in ,holland4 ,illustration3 ,,lvii ,,tiles ,,of ,,the ,,decadent ,,period ,bourgoing1 author of the ,nouveau ,voyage en ,espagne1 described1 in #aghi1 the same product in the following terms3 ,l'industrie des ,valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les productions de leur sol4 ,il contient une espce de terre dont ils font ces carreaux de faence colore1 connus sous le nom d',azulejos1 et qu'on ne fabrique qu' ,valence4 ,on en pave les appartements1 et on en revt leurs lambris2 on y peint les sujets les plus compliqus1 tels par exemple qu'un bal masqu1 une fte de taureaux4 ,la couleur rouge est la seule qui ne puisse tre fixe sur cette espce de faence2 elle s'altere entirement par la cuisson4#gh #gh ,vol4 iii41 p4 #ef4 ,for the amusement of my readers1 ,i insert an illustration of common ,spanish tiles of the decadent period 7,plate lvii471 displaying considerable liveliness combined with reckless ignorance of draughtsmanship4 ,a class of these degenerate tiles1 made in large quantities at ,seville in the eighteenth century1 is known as azulejos de montera or hunting-tiles1 since episodes of the chase form one of the favourite themes of their design4 ,although it passed through a long period of prostration1 embracing the greater part of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 at no time has the manufacture of decorative ,spanish tiles succumbed completely4 ,of recent years it has revived surprisingly at ,seville1 ,barcelona1 and ,segovia2 and at the first of these cities the older azulejos1 and particularly those in the cuenca style1 are imitated to perfection4 ,in the cheapest kinds of modern tiling1 such as is used for corridors and kitchens1 a common device is a series of repeated curves and dots which evidently has its source in ,arabic lettering4 ,indeed1 the ornamental and attractive written characters of the ,spanish ,moors1 rendered familiar to their rivals through long centuries of intercourse1 seem to have constantly found favour with the ,christian ,spaniards4 ,the fuero of ,jaca1 dated ,a4,d4 #ajfd1 tells us that a ,christian prince of ,spain1 ,don ,sancho ,ramirez1 was accustomed to write his signature in ,arabic lettering4 ,meaningless inscriptions in the same language1 and evidently executed by a ,christian hand1 are engraved on objects in the ,royal ,armoury2 and ,seor ,osma describes in an interesting pamphlet 7,los letreros ornamentales en la cermica morisca del ,siglo ,,xv47 how1 in the pottery of older ,spain1 a word in ,arabic such as alafia 7prosperity or blessing7 would often be corrupted by ,morisco craftsmen into a motive of a purely ornamental character1 and which would only in this sense be comprehended and appreciated by the ,christian4#gi #gi ,alafia is written in ,neshki1 ,illustration1 which word1 says ,seor ,osma1 by suppressing the diacritical points and prolonging some of the lines1 was converted by the potter into the conventional and exclusively decorative device3-- ,illustration ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,pottery ,probably no pottery in the world possesses greater loveliness or interest than the celebrated1 yet even to this day mysterious1 lustred ware of ,moorish ,spain4 ,our knowledge of the early history of this ware is still imperfect4 ,in modern times1 attention was first drawn to the lustre process by ,m4 ,riocreux1 of the ,svres ,museum4 ,in spite1 however1 of the subsequent monographs and researches of ,davillier and other authorities1 the origin of lustred pottery is yet a problem which awaits solution4 ,until some years ago it was believed to have had its source in ,persia1 where many specimens have been discovered in the form of tiles and other objects2 but this belief was afterwards shaken by ,fouquet1 who unearthed at ,fostat in ,egypt1 in the year #ahhd1 specimens of lustred ware which are known to date from the eleventh century4 ,saladin1 too1 affirms that he has seen upon the mosque of ,kairuan lustred plaques with inscriptions recording them to have been presented1 between ,a4,d4 #hfd and #hge1 by the emir ,ibrahim ,ahmed-ibn-el-,aglab4 ,whatever these facts may signify1 it appears from a statement by the geographer ,edrisi that lustred ware was made in ,spain as early as the twelfth century4 ,here1 said the writer1 speaking of ,calatayud1 is produced the gold-coloured pottery which is exported to all countries4 ,the next allusion to it is by the traveller ,ibn-,batutah1 who visited certain parts of ,spain in the middle of the fourteenth century4 ,at ,mlaga1 he wrote1 is made the beautiful golden pottery which is exported to the farthest countries4 ,these passages refer respectively to ,aragon and ,andalusia4 ,the same ware was produced in ,murcia4 ,ibn-,said1 quoted by ,al-,makkari1 mentions the glazed and gilded porcelain of ,murcia1 ,mlaga1 and ,almera1 calling it strange and admirable4 ,it was also manufactured1 probably in larger quantities than in any other part of ,spain1 in many towns and villages of the kingdom of ,valencia1 such as ,carcer1 ,alaquaz1 ,moncada1 ,quarte1 ,villalonga1 ,traiguera1 and ,manises4 ,in the ,excellencies of the ,kingdom of ,valencia1 written by ,eximenes and published in #adii1 we find it stated that surpassing everything else is the ware of ,manises1 gilded and painted with such mastery that all the world is enamoured thereof1 insomuch that the pope1 the cardinals1 and princes send for it1 astonished that objects of such excellence can be made of earth4#hj #hj ,sobre tot es la bellessa de la obra de manizes daurada maestriuolment pintada que ja tot lo mon ha enamorat entat que lo papa1 los cardenals lo princeps del mon per special gracia la requeren stan marauellats que d'terra se puxa fer obra axi excellent noble4 ,other writers on the same locality1 such as ,diago and ,escolano1 author of the ,historia de la insigne y coronada ciudad y reino de ,valencia 7,valencia1 #afaj1 #afaa71 confirm this eulogy of ,eximenes4 ,according to ,escolano1 ,valencian ware was of such loveliness that in return for that which the ,italians send us from ,pisa1 we send them boatloads of it from ,manises4 ,one of the most recent of authorities on lustred ware remarks that in the fifteenth century ornamental vases in the 7,spanish-,moorish7 wares appear to have been commanded from ,spain by wealthy ,florentines1 as is evident from the ,medici arms and impresa in fig4 #dj2 others bearing the ,florentine lily 7fig4 #da7 seem to have been ordered from the same city4 ,the illustrations to which the author of this monograph#ha refers1 depict a vase and a boccale1 both in lustred ware1 and which it is extremely probable were manufactured at ,manises4 #ha ,wallis1 ,the ,oriental ,influence on ,italian ,ceramic ,art4 ,london2 #aijj4 ,the same ware was also possibly made in ,catalua1 where pieces of it have been found among the ruins of the village of ,las ,casas4 ,la ,alhambra1 a small magazine which is published at ,granada1 contains1 in the number dated ,september #cjth1 #aija1 an account of these fragments by their finder1 ,joaqun ,vilaplana4 ,some years ago the ,balearic ,islands were also thought to have produced this pottery4 ,one of the earliest and most fervent champions of this theory1 now definitely shown to be erroneous1 was ,baron ,davillier4 ,this gentleman1 in some respects an excellent authority on ,spanish ceramics1 relied too strongly on certain assurances made him by a ,seor ,bover1 and ended by declaring that in the museums of ,paris and ,london he had himself seen lustred plates which bore the arms of ,ynca in the ,balearics1 proving them to have been manufactured at that town4 ,however1 a ,majorcan archologist1 named ,alvaro ,campaner1 refuted one by one ,davillier's points of argument1 and showed beyond all question that both the plates of ,ynca and the arms which decorated them were simply nonexistent1 and that the term ,majolica1 deriving from ,majorica1 applies to pottery in general1 and not with any preference to lustred ware4 ,campaner also suggested very ingeniously that the word ,majolica was probably applied by the ,italians to ,catalan or ,valencian pottery conveyed to ,italy in vessels themselves belonging to the ,balearics1 and which were in the habit of completing their cargoes in the ports of ,barcelona and ,valencia1 and he added that this suggestion is supported by the fact that specimens of lustred ware are far more often met with on the ,balearic coast than in the towns and villages of the interior4 ,it is only fair to state that ,davillier frankly and fully recognized the value of ,campaner's refutation4 ,as to the methods of producing lustred pottery1 the chemical investigations practised by ,riocreux1 ,brogniart1 ,carand1 and others1 have shown that the metals used to produce the characteristic reflex which gives the ware its name were copper and silver1 entering into the composition of an extremely thin glaze extended over the surface of the pottery1 and employed1 sometimes together1 and sometimes separately4 ,it is obvious that the lustre produced by copper would be deeper1 redder1 and less delicate than that produced by silver1 while varying gradations would be obtainable by the mixture of both metals4 ,it is also beyond doubt that the oldest specimens of this pottery extant to-day are those which contain the palest and most pearly lustre1 and consequently the largest quantity of the costlier metal4 ,in those of later date there is an evident inferiority1 both in colour1 lustre1 and design4 ,in fact1 two separate1 or nearly separate1 epochs of this branch of ,spanish pottery are pointed out by ,seor ,mlida1 who gives the name of ,mudejar to lustred objects manufactured at an earlier time by ,moorish artists working in the cities captured by the ,christians1 and that of ,morisco to the second or inferior class produced by ,morisco craftsmen after the reconquest1 and distinguished by the coarser and degenerate lustre1 colouring1 and draughtsmanship4 ,the rarest and most beautiful examples of this ware are naturally those which belong to the former class1 and consist of various kinds of plates and other objects in which elaborate devices such as lions1 antelopes1 and shields of heraldry1 often combined with foliage and inscriptions in ,gothic lettering1 are coloured in bistre or pale blue1#hb and rendered doubly beautiful by the delicate nacreous lustre4 #hb ,in lustred pottery these colours1 and particularly blue1 are far the commonest4 ,it has been found that other colours1 such as green and black1 were ill adapted to the lustre process4 ,in nearly every case it is extremely difficult to determine with any certainty the date of manufacture of these objects1 as well as the locality4 ,wallis says he is aware of no example of ,spanish lustre pottery antecedent to those in the class to which the large ,palermo jar belongs1 and they are not likely to be much earlier than the end of the fourteenth century4 ,happily the celebrated plaque 7,plate lviii47 formerly belonging to ,fortuny1 and now in the possession of ,excmo ,sr4 ,don ,g4 ,j4 de ,osma1 furnishes an early date1 which1 according to its owner1 is between ,may #adjh and ,november #adag4 ,those who know the original will remember that it is no less remarkable for the quality of its golden lustre than for the grace and elegance of its fanciful ,oriental design4 ,it is also believed by ,seor ,osma that this plaque was manufactured in the kingdom of ,granada2 i4e4 either at ,granada or ,mlaga4 ,illustration3 ,,lviii ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,plaque 7,early #aeth ,century4 ,osma ,collection7 ,a specimen of ,spanish lustred ware more celebrated even than ,fortuny's plaque is the vase of the ,alhambra 7,plate lix471 which rests to-day in a corner of the ,sala de las ,dos ,hermanas4 ,the history of this mighty jar is interesting4 ,popular superstition affirms it to have been discovered1 filled to the brim with gold1 by the ,marquis of ,mondejar1 first of the ,christian governors of the fortress of ,granada4 ,exposed for many years to every stress of weather and to every mutilation at the hands of passers-by1 it stood1 in company with other vases of enormous size1 upon a rampart which is now the garden terrace known as the ,adarves4 ,several of the older travellers have described these vessels or alluded to them4 ,marmol wrote of them as far back as the sixteenth century1 while the journal of ,bertaut de ,rouen contains the following notice2--,sur la premire terrasse par o l'on entre1 et d'o l'on a de la peine regarder en bas sans estre bloy1 il y a deux fontaines jaillissantes1 et tout du long des murs du chasteau1 des espaliers d'orangers et de grenadiers1 avec de grands vases de terre peinte1 aussi belle que la porcelaine1 o il n'y avoit pour lors1 sinon quelques fleurs en quelques-uns3 mais o l'on dit que le ,marquis de ,mondejar trouva quantit d'or que les ,mores avaient cach dans la terre1 quand il y ft estably par ,ferdinand4 ,the priest ,echeverra1 who forged the relics of the ancient ,alcazaba of ,granada1#hc was careful to repeat this fable in the twenty-sixth chapter of his ,paseos por ,granada4 ,the first edition of this work was published in #agfd1 under the assumed name of ,joseph ,romero ,yranzo4 ,there were then two vases and part of a third1 all lacerated1 peeled1 and maltreated4 ,the ,englishman ,swinburne wrote in #aggf that below the ,towers of the ,bell1 on the south-side1 on a slip of terrace1 is the governor's garden1 a very pleasant walk1 full of fine orange and cypress trees and myrtle hedges1 but quite abandoned4 ,the view it commands is incomparable4 ,two large vases enamelled with gold and azure foliages and characters are the only ornaments left3 these were taken out of the vaults under the royal apartments4 ,in the second edition of ,echeverra's ,paseos1 which was republished in #ahad1 it is added in a footnote that only a single vase remained1 in a room that overlooks the ,court of ,myrtles4 ,lozano1 however1 in his ,antigedades ,arabes1 mentions two vases as existing at the same period4 ,argote de ,molina 7,nuevos ,paseos por ,granada1 published about #ahjh7 describes1 together with the wretchedly executed marble statues in the ,sala de las ,ninfas1 the two or three great porcelain jars whereof some pieces only now remain1 and reminds us that according to the old tradition these statues looked continually towards the vases1 which were full of treasure4 ,argote1 nevertheless1 takes ,echeverra sharply to task for his absurdities upon this theme2 and ,washington ,irving1 a diligent gleaner in ,echeverra's somewhat scanty field1 makes use of the same material for his well-known story4 #hc ,i have fully described these forgeries in ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iii of ,granada3 ,memories1 ,adventures1 ,studies1 and ,impressions4 ,illustration3 ,,lix ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,vase 7,alhambra1 ,granada7 ,in the time of ,owen ,jones the one surviving vase1 now standing with a wooden rail before it in a corner of the ,hall of the ,two ,sisters1 still occupied the room that looks upon the ,court of ,myrtles4 ,jones wrote of it in #ahdb3--,this beautiful vase was discovered1 it is said1 full of gold in one of the subterranean chambers of the ,casa ,real4 ,it is at present to be seen in a small chamber of the ,court of the ,fish-pond1 in which are deposited the archives of the palace4 ,it is engraved in the ,spanish work by ,lozano1 ,antigedades ,arabes de ,espaa1 with another of the same size1 which was broken a few years ago1 and the pieces sold to a passing traveller4 ,the vase is executed in baked clay1 with enamelled colours and gold similar to the mosaics4 ,a more precise description is the following4 ,the vase1 which measures four feet six inches in height by eight feet two inches and a half in circumference1 is of common earthenware painted with intricate devices fired after painting4 ,this was a difficult operation in a vessel of such size2 and here1 in consequence1 the colours have slightly run and mingled4 ,besides these technical flaws1 the belly of the vase is broken clean in half1 and one of the handles is missing4 ,the shape is amphoraic1 with a moderate downward curve4 ,about the middle1 surrounded by leaf and stem and geometrical devices effectively intertwined1 are two antelopes4 ,the vase is coloured blue and caramel upon a delicate yellow ground1 and has a faint metallic lustre4#hd ,an ,arabic inscription is repeated several times1 and consists of the words ,felicity and ,welcome4 #hd ,this lustre is faint but quite distinguishable1 and ,rada y ,delgado was clearly in error in supposing that there is none4 ,this vase is believed to date from the fourteenth century2 and if we judge from the colour and composition of the earth employed1 it appears probable that it was made at ,granada4 ,together with the other vases which have disappeared1#he it was doubtless meant to serve as a receptacle for water1 and for decorating the chambers of the palace1 where it would rest in amphora-fashion on a perforated stand1 while smaller vases containing flowers would fill the niches which may yet be seen in various inner walls of the ,alhambra4 ,the belief of ,argote#hf and many other writers that these niches were intended to receive the slippers of the ,moors is utterly unfounded4 #he ,the lost jar mentioned by ,owen ,jones1 of which a drawing has been made1 was of the same shape as the one which now remains2 but in its decoration were included the arms of the ,nasrite dynasty of ,granada4 ,it is this circumstance which has induced ,gmez ,moreno to suppose that these vases were the work of ,granadino artists4 #hf ,los nichos para chinelas1 as he calls them1 in describing the ,sala de ,comares4 ,until quite recently all published illustrations of the great jarrn de la ,alhambra were inaccurate1 and as a rule grotesquely so4 ,among the very worst are those inserted in the handbooks of ,riao and ,contreras4 ,i am glad to be able to reproduce an excellent photograph1 which both corrects the atrocious cuts ,i have observed elsewhere1 and relieves me from giving a prolix and possibly a wearisome description of the decoration on the vase4 ,illustration3 ,,lx ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,vase 7,madrid ,museum7 ,several other lustred vases of large size are still preserved in ,spain and other countries4 ,one1 proceeding from a ,sicilian church1 is in the museum of ,palermo4 ,wallis1 who inserts an illustration1 describes it as amphora-shaped1 with two large flat handles2 pear-shaped body1 long neck1 ribbed at lower part1 canellated above1 moulded lip4 ,whitish body1 tin glaze4 ,ornament painted in gold lustre on white ground1 the pattern in parts almost obliterated4 ,hispano-,moresque4 ,height1 one metre1 seventeen centimetres4 ,another of these great vases belonged to the painter ,fortuny1 and was sold at his death to ,prince ,basilewsky1 for thirty thousand francs4 ,it was found by ,fortuny at the village of ,salar1 near ,granada1 and purchased by him at a low price4 ,the neck and mouth resemble those of the ,alhambra vase4 ,the ornamentation is distributed about the body of the vase in four zones2 one of the two central zones has tangent circles1 and the other an inscription4 ,illustration3 ,,lxi ,,lustred ,,tiles 7,osma ,collection7 ,another large lustred vase is in the museum of ,madrid 7,plate lx474 ,it was found by a labourer at ,hornos in the province of ,jaen1 and passed into the hands of the village priest1 who placed it in his church to support the font of holy water4 ,in course of time a dealer in antiquities1 by name ,amat1 happened to pass that way1 observed the vase1 and made an offer for it to the padre4 ,this latter at first refused1 but subsequently1 stimulated by an ignorant though well-intentioned and disinterested zeal for bettering the temple1 he stipulated that if the dealer provided a new support of marble for the font1 and paid for white washing the church1 he might bear off the coveted jarrn4 ,fulfilling these conditions at all speed1 he mounted the precious vessel on an ass1 and briskly strode away4 ,when he had gone a little distance the villagers1 missing their cherished vase1 though unaware1 of course1 of its artistic worth1 swarmed angrily about the purchaser1 flourished their knives and sticks at him1 and pelted him with stones4 ,at this he called upon the mayor for protection2 the mayor provided him with two armed men for bodyguard1 and1 thus defended1 the indomitable dealer reached ,madrid and sold his jar to government for fifteen hundred dollars4 ,its present value is estimated at not less than thirty thousand4#hg #hg ,j4 ,r4 ,mlida1 ,jarrones arbigos de loza vidriada2 published in the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursionistas4 ,one of the earliest and most interesting notices relating to the preparation of this lustred ware is contained in a description by one of the royal archers1 named ,henry ,cock1 of the progress1 performed in #aehe1 of ,philip the ,second from the court of ,spain to ,zaragoza4#hh ,cock wrote of ,muel1 in ,aragon3--,almost all the inhabitants of this village are potters1 and all the earthenware sold at ,zaragoza is made in the following manner4 ,the vessels are first fashioned to the required shape from a certain substance extracted from the earth of this locality4 ,they are next baked in a specially constructed oven1 and when removed from this are varnished with white varnish and polished1 after which they are washed with a mixture of twenty-five pounds of lead1 three or four pounds of tin1 and as many pounds of a certain sand which is found there4 ,all these ingredients are mixed into a paste resembling ice1 which is broken small1 pounded like flour1 and kept in powder4 ,this powder is mixed with water1 the dishes are passed through it1 and after being rebaked they keep their lustre4 ,next1 in order to gild the pottery1 they take the strongest vinegar mixed with about two reales of powdered silver1 vermilion1 and red ochre1 and a little wire4 ,when all is thoroughly mixed they paint the patterns on the dishes with a feather1 bake them again1 and their gold colour is now quite permanent4 ,i was told all this by the potters themselves4#hi #hh ,relacin del viaje hecho por ,felipe ,,ii4 en #aehe4 ,madrid1 #ahgf4 #hi ,the village of ,muel continued to be a centre of this craft4 ,townsend1 who travelled in ,spain in #aghf and #aghg1 wrote of it3--,there are many potters1 who turn their own wheels1 not by hand1 but with their feet1 by means of a larger wheel concentric with that on which they mould the clay1 and nearly level with the floor4 ,illustration3 ,,lxii ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,ware 7,a4,d4 #adfj-adhj4 ,osma ,collection7 ,another most interesting account of the manufacture of lustred ware was discovered in manuscript by ,riao in the ,british ,museum1 and1 although it belongs to a later date 7#aghe71 is well worth quoting fully4 ,it consists of a report upon the later gilded pottery of ,manises1 and was drawn up by order of the ,count of ,floridablanca3-- ,after the pottery is baked1 it is varnished with white and blue1 the only colours used besides the gold lustre2 the vessels are again baked2 if the objects are to be painted with gold colour1 this can only be put on the white varnish1 after they have gone twice through the oven4 ,the vessels are then painted with the said gold colour and are baked a third time1 with only dry rosemary for fuel4 ,the white varnish used is composed of lead and tin1 which are melted together in an oven made on purpose2 after these materials are sufficiently melted1 they become like earth1 and when in this state the mixture is removed and mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand3 fine salt is added to it1 it is boiled again1 and when cold1 pounded into powder4 ,the only sand which can be used is from a cave at ,benalguacil1 three leagues from ,manises4 ,in order that the varnish should be fine1 for every arroba1 twenty-five pounds of lead1 six to twelve ounces of tin must be added1 and half a bushel of finely-powdered salt3 if a coarse kind is required1 it is sufficient to add a very small quantity of tin1 and three or four cuartos worth of salt1 which in this case must be added when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the vessel4 ,five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour3 copper1 which is better the older it is2 silver1 as old as possible2 sulphur2 red ochre2 and strong vinegar1 which are mixed in the following proportions3 of copper three ounces1 of red ochre twelve ounces1 of silver one peseta 7about a shilling71 sulphur three ounces1 vinegar a quart2 three pounds 7of twelve ounces7 of the earth or scori1 which is left after this pottery is painted with the gold colour1 is added to the other ingredients4 ,illustration3 ,,lxiii ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,ware 7,a4,d4 #adfj-adhj4 ,osma ,collection7 ,they are mixed in the following manner3 a small portion of sulphur in powder is put into a casserole with two small bits of copper1 between them a coin of one silver peseta2 the rest of the sulphur and copper is then added to it4 ,when this casserole is ready1 it is placed on the fire1 and is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed1 which is evident when no flame issues from it4 ,the preparation is then taken from the fire1 and when cold is pounded very fine2 the red ochre and scori are then added to it2 it is mixed up by hand and again pounded into powder4 ,the preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with enough water to make a sufficient paste to stick on the sides of the basin2 the mixture is then rubbed on the vessel with a stick2 it is therefore indispensable that the water should be added very gradually until the mixture is in the proper state4 ,the basin ready prepared must be placed in an oven for six hours4 ,at ,manises it is customary to do so when the vessels of common pottery are baked2 after this the mixture is scratched off the sides of the basin with some iron instrument2 it is then removed from there and broken up into small pieces1 which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar with the quantity of vinegar already mentioned1 and after having been well ground and pounded together for two hours the mixture is ready for decorating4 ,it is well to observe that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured mixture which is required for every object can only be ascertained by practice4 ,nevertheless1 the gilded ware of the kingdom of ,valencia had by this time deteriorated very greatly4 ,formerly1 from as far back as the reign of ,jayme the ,conqueror1 the other towns or villages of this region which produced the lustred and non-lustred pottery were ,jtiva1 ,paterna1 ,quarte1 ,villalonga1 ,alaqua1 ,carcer1 and ,moncada4 ,early in the fourteenth century fourteen potteries were working in the town of ,biar1 and twenty-three at ,traiguera4 ,manises1 however1 maintained the lead for many years4 ,the notices of ,eximenes and other writers concerning the pottery of this town have been already quoted4 ,the same ware is mentioned in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by ,diago 7#afac71 ,francisco ,jvier ,borrell1 ,beuter1 and ,martin de ,viciana4 ,marineus ,siculus1 the chronicler of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 adds that similar or identical pottery 7desta misma arte7 was made in ,murcia1 whose manufacture of it had been praised in earlier times by ,ibn-,said4 ,toledo also manufactured gilded ware with blue or bistre colouring4 ,garca ,llans says that in the sixteenth century this capital produced plates which contain the arms of ,spain in the centre1 the rest of the plate being completely covered with minute geometrical or floral ornamentation4 ,illustration3 ,,lxiv ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,ware 7,a4,d4 #adfj-adhj4 ,osma ,collection7 ,it is certain that during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries large quantities of lustred pottery were produced in many parts of ,andalusia1 ,castile1 ,aragon1 and ,valencia4 ,the oldest and most valuable specimens of this pottery are those which have the palest and most purely golden lustre1 combined with blue or bluish decoration in the form of animals1 coats of arms1 or foliage4 ,the lustred ware of ,manises began to deteriorate about the time of the expulsion of the ,moriscos1 when the leaves and fronds of a clean gold tone upon a lightish ground are replaced by commoner and coarser patterns1 and the gold itself by the coppery lustre which is still employed4 ,after the seventeenth century the further decline of this once famous industry may be traced from the accounts of travellers4 ,towards the middle of this century ,bowles wrote that two leagues from the capital 7,valencia7 is a fair-looking town of only four streets1 whose occupants are nearly all potters4 ,they make a copper-coloured ware of great beauty1 used for common purposes and for decorating the houses of the working-people of the province4 ,they make this ware of an argillaceous earth resembling in its colour and composition that portion of the soil of ,valencia which produces native mercury4444 ,the objects they fashion of this earth possess a glitter and are very inexpensive1 since ,i purchased half a dozen plates for a real4 ,nevertheless1 this is not the ware which has the highest reputation in the kingdom of ,valencia4 ,the factory which the ,count of ,aranda has established at ,alcora is not surpassed in ,europe1 and is ahead of many in fineness of substance1 hardness of the varnish1 and elegance of form4 ,it would be perfect of its kind if the varnish did not crack and peel off so easily4 ,according to ,laborde1 early in the nineteenth century ,manises contained two potteries of considerable extent1 which employ seventy workmen4 ,the people occupied in these possess the art of producing a gold bronze colour which they carefully keep a secret1 never communicating it to any person4 ,elsewhere in the same book ,laborde is more explicit4 ,manises is a village situated a league and a quarter north of ,valencia4 ,it is seen on the left coming from ,new ,castile4 ,it is noted for its manufactories of earthen ware1 which employ thirty kilns1 and occupy a great part of the inhabitants4 ,the women are employed in forming the designs and applying the colours4 ,there are two large manufactories of a superior kind1 the earthen ware of which is tolerably fine1 of a beautiful white1 and a moderate price4 ,they also make here vases worked with a great degree of delicacy4 ,illustration3 ,,lxv ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,ware 7,late #aeth ,century4 ,osma ,collection7 ,the society of these workmen possess the secret of the composition of a colour which in the fire takes the tint and brightness of a beautiful gilt bronze4 ,it has been unsuccessfully attempted to be imitated2 the heads of the society compose the colour themselves1 and distribute it to the masters who take care of it2 it is a liquid of the colour of ,spanish tobacco1 but a little deeper4 ,the quantity of ,hispano-,moresque lustred pottery preserved in the public and private collections of various countries is far from small1 although to classify it according to the place and date of its production is nearly always a matter of extreme difficulty4 ,among the earliest specimens are the vase of the ,alhambra1 those which are now in the museums of ,palermo and ,madrid1 that which belonged to ,fortuny1 and the plaque which once was also his1 and now forms part of the ,osma collection4 ,lustred ,spanish tiles are scarce4 ,a few exist at ,seville#ij and ,granada1 chiefly in altar-fronts1 along the archivolts of doorways1 or1 with heraldic motives1 on the inner walls of houses of the aristocracy4 ,invariably1 says ,gestoso1 such tiles are coloured with combinations of white1 blue1 and gold1 since in the lustre process other colours--black1 or green1 or deepish yellow--proved unsatisfactory4 ,other lustred tiles of exquisite beauty are owned by ,seor ,osma1 7,plate lxi471 and seem to have even gained in brilliance by the centuries that have passed over them4 ,riao gives a list of the specimens of this pottery which are at ,south ,kensington1 consisting of bowls1 vases1 and plates4 ,one of the vases is particularly beautiful4 ,it dates from the fifteenth century1 and is described by ,fortnum as having a spherical body on a trumpet-shaped base1 with a neck of elongated funnel form1 flanked by two large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular holes4 ,the surface1 except the mouldings1 is entirely covered with a diaper-pattern of ivy or briony leaves1 tendrils1 and small flowers in brownish lustre and blue on the white ground4 #ij ,no direct proof has been found that lustred ware was ever made at ,seville2 but a document copied by ,gestoso1 and which ,i have already mentioned 7p4 #aeb71 records that the famous ollero of the time of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 named ,fernan ,martinez ,guijarro1 reserved a department 7tiendas del dorado7 of his premises for making or for storing lustred pottery4 ,illustration3 ,,lxvi ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,ware 7,late #aeth ,century4 ,osma ,collection7 ,through the courtesy of ,seor ,osma ,i am able to give illustrations of a few of the finest specimens of lustred ware in his magnificent collection 7,plates lxii4-lxvi474 ,the three small vessels facing pages #agf1 #agh1 and #ahj are of ,valencian workmanship1 and date1 according to their owner1 from between #adfj and #adhj4 ,the two plates are also ,valencian4 ,the one with a bull in the centre dates from between #adhj and #aejj2 and that which has a greyhound from slightly earlier--say #adgj to #adij4 ,,pottery ,,of ,,seville1 ,,puente ,,del ,,arzobispo1 ,,talavera ,,de ,,la ,,reina1 ,,toledo1 ,,and ,,barcelona2 ,,porous ,,ware2 ,,porcelain ,,of ,,alcora ,,and ,,the ,,royal ,,factory ,,of ,,the ,,buen ,,retiro4 ,we have seen that ,seville was an early and important centre of the potter's craft in ,spain4 ,her potteries were celebrated even with the ,romans1 and probably have at no moment been inactive4 ,fifty1 established in the suburb of ,triana1 were mentioned in the sixteenth century by ,pedro de ,medina1 and documents which tell of many more have recently been discovered by ,gestoso4 ,the excellence of the ,seville tiles has been described in a preceding section of this chapter4 ,their production still continues upon a large scale2 and the ware of the ,cartuja factory1 which reached the zenith of its fame towards the end of the eighteenth century1 is considered by ,jacquemart and other authorities to rival with the ,italian wares of ,savona4 ,pottery made in other parts of the ,peninsula--particularly that of ,talavera de la ,reina--is known to have been imitated by the ,seville potters with embarrassing perfection4 ,in the case of the so-called loza de ,puente del ,arzobispo1 it is the ,seville ware itself which seems to have been imitated4 ,puente del ,arzobispo is a small village near ,toledo4 ,mendez wrote of it in the seventeenth century3--,fine pottery is manufactured in about eight kilns1 which produce more than #dj1jjj ducats yearly4 ,in #agee1 says ,riao1 thirteen pottery kilns existed at this place2 they still worked in #agia1 but their productions were very inferior in artistic merit4 ,illustration3 ,,lxvii ,,hispano-,,moresque ,,lustred ,,ware ,not many years ago the name of ,puente del ,arzobispo was connected by ,baron ,davillier with certain polychrome non-lustred plates and other vessels which are greatly esteemed for their rarity1 and of which a few specimens exist in the ,south ,kensington and other museums1 as well as in one or two private collections1 such as that of ,seor ,osma4 ,gestoso says that the usual diameter of these plates is either twenty-three centimetres or forty-two centimetres4 ,their decoration1 betraying at a glance the ,saracenic influence1 consists of leaves and flowers1 together with animals of a more or less fantastic character3 lions1 rabbits1 and birds4 ,in other specimens the centre is occupied by a heart1 fleurs-de-lis1 or other fancy devices1 or yet1 in some few cases1 with the head of a man or woman4 ,these central designs are surrounded with leaves and flowers4 ,the draughtsmanship upon these plates is of the rudest1 and the process of their colouring was as follows4 ,the figures were drawn upon the unfired surface in manganese ink mixed with a greasy substance2 and after this the aqueous enamel or glaze was allowed to drop from a hogshair brush into the spaces which the black had outlined4 ,this will be recognized as the cuerda seca process1 so extensively employed in making ,seville tiles4 ,nevertheless1 judging by certain marks upon this pottery1 ,baron ,davillier declared it to proceed from ,puente del ,arzobispo4 ,the marks in question consist in one or two examples of what appears to be the letters ,a4,p4 or ,p4,a4#ia ,davillier1 however1 affirmed that he had seen a plate fully inscribed as follows3-- ,illustration #ia ,these1 says ,seor ,osma1 are doubtful in every case1 and are only found on plates which bear the figure of a lion4 ,two plates in this gentleman's possession are thus marked ,illustration1 and another ,illustration4 ,the existence of this plate is now discredited2 at least1 no trace of it can be discovered at this day4 ,upon the other hand1 ,gestoso points to various objects manufactured by the cuerda seca method1 and which undoubtedly proceed from ,seville4 ,among them are three shields1 one of which1 containing the arms of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 is of exceptional interest1 for it is accompanied by an inscribed slab1 evidently coeval with the shield itself1 recording it to have been made in the year #aejc1 and by ,jernimo ,suarez4 ,this shield and slab were removed from a courtyard of the old ,alhndiga to ,seville ,museum1 where they now remain4 ,of the two other shields1 one belongs to ,seor ,osma1 and the second1 which is still at ,seville1 adorns the tomb of ,don ,len ,enriquez in the church of ,santa ,paula2 and since it is unquestionable that all these cuerda seca shields1 as well as quantities of cuerda seca tiles1 were made at ,seville1 ,gestoso prudently suggests that we should designate as cuerda seca ware that pottery which has hitherto passed as specially belonging to ,puente del ,arzobispo4 ,in fact1 towards the end of the fifteenth century this pottery is found extending northward from ,seville to ,toledo1 and ,seor ,osma assures me that ,toledo specimens are of a somewhat later manufacture than those which were produced at ,seville4 ,one of the rarest and most interesting cuerda seca plates in this gentleman's collection is reproduced herewith 7lxviii474 ,no other plate of similar pattern is known to exist4 ,its date may be placed between #adhj and #adie1 and it gives a curious illustration of the masculine headdress and headwear in the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,the pottery of ,talavera de la ,reina was at one time much esteemed4 ,the earliest mention of it1 says ,riao1 occurs in #aefj1 in a manuscript history of this town1 while another notice1 dated #aegf1 says that here was produced fine white glazed earthenware and other pottery1 which supplied the country1 part of ,portugal1 and ,india4 ,more explicit are the observations of ,father ,alonso de ,ajofrn1 who wrote1 in #afea1 a history of ,talavera4 ,he says that her pottery is as good as that of ,pisa1 while quantities of azulejos are made here to adorn the front of altars1 churches1 gardens1 alcoves1 saloons1 and bowers1 and large and small specimens of every kind4 ,two hundred workmen work at eight separate kilns4 ,four other kilns produce the commoner kinds of ware4 ,red porous clay vessels and drinking-cups are baked in two other kilns in a thousand shapes to imitate birds and other creatures2 also brinquios for the use of ladies1 so deliciously flavoured that after drinking the water they contained1 they eat the cup in which it was brought them4 ,illustration3 ,,lxviii ,,dish 7,andalusian non-lustred ware in the ,cuerda seca style4 ,a4,d4 #adhj-adie4 ,osma ,collection7 ,the following most interesting notice relating to this town is also quoted by ,riao3 ,the earthenware pottery made here has reached a great perfection2 it is formed of white and red clay4 ,vases1 cups1 bucaros and brinquios are made of different kinds1 dishes and table centres1 and imitations of snails1 owls1 dogs1 and every kind of fruits1 olives1 and almonds4 ,these objects are painted with great perfection1 and the imitations of porcelain brought from the ,portuguese ,indies are most excellent4 ,everyone is surprised that in so small a town such excellent things should be made4 ,the varnish used for the white pottery is made with tin and sand1 and is now found to be more acceptable than coloured earthenware2 so much so1 that persons of importance who pass by this town1 although they have in their houses dinner-services of silver1 buy earthenware made at ,talavera1 on account of its excellence4 ,the sand which was used to make the white varnish was brought from ,hita1 and is now found at ,mejorada1 near ,talavera4 ,this sand is as fine and soft as silk4 ,the red pottery made at ,talavera is much to be commended1 for besides the great variety of objects1 and the different medals which they place upon them1 they have invented some small brinquios of so small and delicate a kind1 that the ladies wear them4 ,rosaries are also made of the same material4 ,a certain scent is added in the manufacture of this pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women1 who eat the pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their confessors to check this custom4 ,illustration3 ,,lxix ,,an ,,alfarer,a ,,or ,,potter',s ,,yard 7,granada7 ,this porous pottery for keeping water cool had been imported from ,america1 and was chiefly made in ,andalusia1 ,portugal1 and ,extremadura4 ,it is still produced at ,andujar and elsewhere4 ,nearly all travellers in ,spain describe it1 and insist upon the curious circumstance that it was eaten by the ,spanish women4 ,i have mentioned elsewhere1 wrote ,countess d',aulnoy1 the longing many women feel to chew this clay1 which often obstructs their bodies internally4 ,their stomachs swell1 and grow as hard as stone1 while their skin turns yellow as a quince4 ,i also felt a curiosity to taste this ware1 that is so highly yet so undeservedly esteemed2 but ,i would devour a grindstone rather than put it in my mouth again4 ,nevertheless1 if one wants to be agreeable to the ,spanish ladies1 one has to present them with some bucaros1 which they themselves call barros1 and which1 as many deem1 possess such numerous and admirable qualities1 since they claim for the clay that it cures sickness1 and that a drinking vessel made of it betrays the presence of a poison4 ,i possess one which spoils the taste of wine1 but greatly improves water4 ,this liquid seems to boil and tremble when it is thrown into the cup in question2 but after a little while the vessel empties--so porous is the clay of which it is composed--and then it has a fragrant odour4 ,similar accounts are given by travellers of a later time4 ,i wish1 wrote ,swinburne1 ,i could contrive a method of carrying you some of the fine earthen jars1 called buxaros1 which are made in ,andalusia4 ,they are remarkably convenient for water-drinkers1 as they are light1 smooth1 and handy2 being not more than half-baked1 they are very porous1 and the outside is kept moist by the water's filtering through2 though placed in the sun1 the water in the pots remains as cold as ice4 ,the most disagreeable circumstance attending them is1 that they emit a smell of earth refreshed by a sudden shower after a long drought4#ib #ib ,travels through ,spain2 p4 #cje4 ,swinburne could have been no lover of nature to speak in such terms of the smell of earth4 ,laborde1 who wrote a few years later1 seems to have copied some of his information from ,bowles4 ,the ,murcians1 he said1 use in their houses little jars called ,bucaros1 the same as those which in some parts of ,andalusia are called ,alcarrazas4#ic ,they have handles open at the top1 are smaller at the bottom than above1 and bulge in the middle2 they are slight1 porous1 smooth1 and half-baked2 they are made of a peculiar kind of clay4 ,when water is put into them1 they emit a smell like that sent up by the earth after a shower of rain in summer4 ,the water makes its way very slowly through the pores1 and keeps them constantly moist on the outside2 they are used to cool water for drinking4 ,the windows and balconies of all the houses have large iron rings1 with a flat surface1 on which they are placed at night1 and the water1 oozing incessantly1 becomes very cool4#id ,in ,andalusia some of these jars are white1 and others red2 in ,murcia they have only white ones4 ,they appear to be in every respect of the same nature as the evaporating vases of ,africa1 ,egypt1 ,syria1 and ,india1 of which so much has been said by travellers1 and on which the learned have made so many dissertations4 #ic ,one of the prettiest of the popular ,spanish coplas has the alcarraza for its theme2-- ,alcarraza de tu casa chiquilla1 quisiera ser1 para besarte los labios cuando fueras beber4 ,dearest1 ,i would be the alcarraza in your house2 so should ,i kiss your lips each time you drank from me4 #id ,laborde's translator adds3 ,these jars are very common in ,jamaica2 they are of different sizes1 from a pint to three pints4 ,a number of them are ranged at night in the balconies1 to furnish a supply of cool water4 ,coolers of a similar kind have been lately introduced in ,england4 ,the same vessels are noticed by ,ford in his description of a ,spanish posada4 ,near the staircase downstairs1 and always in a visible place1 is a gibbous jar1 tinaja1 of the ancient classical amphora shape1 filled with fresh water2 and by it is a tin or copper utensil to take water out with1 and often a row of small pipkins1 made of a red porous clay1#ie which are kept ready filled with water1 on1 or rather in1 a shelf fixed to the wall1 and called la tallada1 el taller4 ,these pots1 alcarrazas1 from the constant evaporation1 keep the water extremely cool4 ,they are of various shapes1 many1 especially in ,valencia and ,andalusia1 being of the unchanged identical form of those similar clay drinking-vessels discovered at ,pompeii4 ,they are the precise trulla4 ,martial speaks both of the colour and the material of those made at ,saguntum1 where they still are prepared in great quantities2 they are not unlike the ckool'lehs of ,egypt1 which are made of the same material and for the same purposes1 and represent the ancient ,canobic ,greek3 statika4 ,they are seldom destined to be placed on the table2 their bottoms being pointed and conical1 they could not stand upright4 ,this singular form was given to the vasa futilia1 or cups used at the sacrifices of ,vesta1 which would have been defiled had they touched the ground4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as they are drunk off1 they are refilled and replaced in their holes on the shelf1 as is done with decanters in our butlers' pantries4#if #ie ,those of the finest quality1 adds ,ford1 are called ,bucaros2 the best come from ,south ,america--the form is more elegant1 the clay finer1 and often sweet-scented2 many women have a trick of biting1 even eating bits of them4 #if ,handbook2 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bf4 ,i am only aware of one author who derides the statement that this porous clay was eaten by the ,spanish women4 ,according to ,bowles1 who certainly describes and comments on it with intelligence and scholarship1 the neighbourhood of ,andujar contains large quantities of the white argil of which are made the jars or alcarrazas which serve in many parts of ,spain for cooling water in the summer-time4 ,in other parts of ,andalusia is found a red variety of this clay1 employed in making the vessels known as bcaros1 which serve to freshen the water as well as for drinking it out of--a thing the ,spanish ladies love greatly4 ,both the white alcarrazas and the bcaros as red as the blood of a bull are thin1 porous1 smooth1 and half-baked4 ,when filled with water they emit a pleasant smell like that of dry earth rained upon in summer1 and as the water filters through the outer surface1 remain continually damp4 ,the same writer adds that at that time 7#ageb7 the bcaros proceeding from the ,indies were of finer workmanship1 and had a more agreeable smell than those of ,spanish manufacture4 ,in the ,encyclopdia1 he continues1 and in the ,dictionary of ,natural ,history1 we read that ,spanish ladies are for ever chewing bcaro1 and that the hardest penance their confessors can inflict upon them is to deprive them for a single day of this enjoyment4 ,bowles1 however1 quotes these observations in a scornful tone1 and deprecates the habit of believing writers who without inquiring into things1 concoct and publish novels to divert the populace and rid them of their money4 ,turning our attention once again to the finer kinds of ,talavera ware1 ,gestoso adduces proofs that this as well as ,chinese porcelain was faultlessly and freely imitated in the potteries of ,seville4 ,here1 therefore1 is a source of fresh confusion2 and probably a great proportion of the polychrome ware which goes by the name of ,talaveran is really of ,sevillian origin4 ,it is further known that at one period1 which seems to begin with the second half of the sixteenth century1 potters who were natives of ,talavera were hired to work in ,seville4 ,illustration3 ,,lxx ,,talavera ,,vase ,it has not been ascertained when ,talavera herself grew celebrated for this industry4 ,garca ,llans supposes that at first1 before it felt the influence of ,italy and ,france1 her pottery was partly ,mudejar1 and vestiges of oriental art survive in fairly late examples4 ,the characteristic colour-scheme was either blue on white1 or else the decoration is more variegated4 ,riao says3--,although we find by the remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors that earthenware of every description was made at ,talavera1 the specimens which are more generally met with may be divided into two groups1 which are painted on a white ground1 either in blue1 or in colours1 in the manner of ,italian maiolica4 ,the most important examples which have reached us consist of bowls of different sizes1 dishes1 vases 7,plate lxx471 tinajas1 holy-water vessels1 medicine jars1 and wall decoration4 ,blue oriental china was imitated to a vast extent3 the colouring was successful1 but the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the time1 and the figures1 landscapes1 and decoration follow the bad taste so general in ,spain in the eighteenth century4 ,the imitations of ,italian maiolica are effective4 ,the colours most commonly used are manganese1 orange1 blue1 and green4 ,talavera maintained her reputation for pottery till nearly the middle of the eighteenth century1 supporting more than six hundred workmen employed in eight large potteries4#ig ,from then onwards the trade declined1 and by the close of the same century was practically dead1 owing1 ,larruga tells us1 to the constantly increasing cost of prime materials4 ,nevertheless1 the ,crown made efforts to revive the craft1 and met with some success till #aggg1 in which year four establishments 7locally known as barreras7 for making common pottery were opened in the same town1 and speedily crushed their rivals4 ,the potteries of ,talavera1 wrote ,laborde soon after this1 were greatly celebrated for many years1 and supplied a lucrative and important branch of commerce4 ,they are evidently on the decline4 ,the manufactories are reduced to seven or eight4 ,these productions no longer exhibit the same delicacy of execution4 ,their designs are also lamentably defective4 ,the material employed in them is a certain earth which is found near ,calera1 three leagues from ,talavera4 #ig ,on y fait1 wrote ,alvarez de ,colmenar1 des ouvrages vernisss d'une faon ingnieuse1 avec des peintures varies de bon got2 on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de ,pise et des ,indes ,orientales1 et on en fournit plusieurs provinces4 ,ce ngoce rend plus de cinquante mille ducats par an4--,annales d',espagne et de ,portugal2 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #ahg4 ,this work is dated #agdj1 but my copy is reprinted from another edition published earlier in the century4 ,the older ,talavera ware1 decorated1 as a rule1 with horses1 birds1 hunting-scenes1 or coats of arms1 is seldom met with nowadays4 ,although it is not particularly choice1 the drawing is firm1 and the colouring vigorous and agreeable4 ,i have said that pottery continued to be made in ,aragon1 at ,muel1 ,villafeliche1 and other places4 ,in course of time these local industries were also suffered to decay4 ,laborde says that early in the nineteenth century the ,villafeliche factory employed thirty-eight workmen4 ,the ware is of a very inferior sort4 ,this article might be carried to a greater extent4 ,in several parts of the province1 earth is found of an excellent quality for earthenware1 particularly in ,zaragoza and in ,tauste2 the latter affords the best1 which is very fine1 and of three colours1 and would answer for the making of porcelain4 ,in the eighteenth century ,toledo1 upon the initiative of ,don ,ignacio ,velasco1 produced good imitations of ,genoese ware1 while other kinds of pottery were made at ,teruel1 ,valladolid1 ,jaen1 ,zamora1 ,segovia1 ,puente del ,arzobispo1 and in the ,balearic ,islands4 ,another region which continued to be a most important centre of the potter's craft was ,catalua1 where it had always been encouraged by this thrifty and art-loving people4 ,as early as the year #abeg two potters occupied a place upon the municipal council of ,barcelona1 while the potters' guild was strictly regulated from the beginning of the fourteenth century4#ih ,at the same time two whole streets in the centre of the town1 as well as others in the suburbs1 were occupied by potters4 ,the ancient names of these streets are yet retained in the ,calles ,escudillers1 ,escudillers ,blancs 7white varnished pottery71 ,obradors 7where many of the potteries were situated71 and ,tallers 7i4e4 the potteries for producing common ware74 #ih ,for a sketch of the origin and growth of the ,spanish trade guilds1 see ,appendix ,h4 ,the pottery of ,catalua generally was largely exported to ,sicily1 ,alexandria1 and other parts4 ,among the places in this region which produced it were ,tarragona1 ,tortosa1 and ,villafranca4 ,in #aebh the municipal council of the capital herself forbade1 as a protective measure1 the introduction into ,barcelona of local pottery made at ,malgrat1 ,la ,selva1 and other towns and villages of this neighbourhood4 ,in #aedf the ,portuguese ,barreyros declared in his work ,chorografa de algunos lugares that the ,barcelona ware surpassed all other classes made in ,spain1 including the ,valencian4 ,she continued to produce good pottery all through the sixteenth century1 and excellent common ware until considerably later4#ii #ii ,historia ,general del ,arte4--,vol4 ,,ii43 ,cermica1 by ,garca ,llans4 ,about the beginning of the eighteenth century ,laborde mentioned as working centres of this craft manufactories of delf-ware at ,avils1 ,gijn1 ,oviedo1 ,nava1 and ,cangas de ,onis1 in the ,asturias2 at ,segovia in ,old ,castile2 at ,puente del ,arzobispo and ,talavera de la ,reina in ,new ,castile2 at ,seville in the kingdom of that name2 at ,villafeliche in ,aragon2 at ,onda1 ,alcora1 and ,manises1 in the kingdom of ,valencia2 at ,san ,andero in ,biscay2 and at ,tortosa in ,catalua4444 ,the most important of these potteries is the one at ,alcora1 the delf of which is tolerably fine1 though not of the first quality4 ,no china is made1 except at ,alcora and ,madrid3 that of the former place is very common1 and inconsiderable as to quantity4 ,the china manufactured at ,madrid is beautiful1 and without exaggeration may be considered as equalling that of ,svres4 ,it is a royal pottery2 but it is impossible to give any description of its state1 because admission to the interior of the manufactory is strictly prohibited4 ,ricord states in his pamphlet relative to ,valencian industries that in #agia factories of high-class pottery were working in the kingdom of ,valencia1 at ,onda1 ,alcora1 ,ribesalves1 ,manises1 ,eslida1 and ,bech2 and of common ware at ,san ,felipe1 ,morella1 ,manises1 ,murviedro1 ,alicante1 ,moncada1 ,orihuela1 ,segorbe1 and other towns and villages of this locality4 ,in all1 there were throughout the province eighty-seven of these latter potteries1 besides two hundred and twenty tileries1 and four factories of artistic tiles or azulejos established at ,valencia4 ,the yearly output of these azulejerias was #aej1jjj tiles1 #bj1jjj of which were exported to ,andalusia and ,castile4 ,although the pottery of ,alcora only achieved distinction at a later age1 this craft had long been practised in the neighbourhood4 ,this circumstance induced the ,count of ,aranda to found here1 in #agbf1 a large factory for producing costly and artistic ware4 ,riao obtained permission to examine the archives of the family of ,aranda1 with their mass of documents relating to this enterprise4 ,his notice of ,alcora ware is therefore most complete and valuable1 and has been copied1 frequently without acknowledgment1 by almost every writer on the subject4 ,it appears from these archives that the cost of building and opening the factory of ,alcora amounted to about #aj1jjj4 ,the works were placed beneath the supervision of ,don ,joaqun ,joseph de ,sayas1 at the same time that a ,frenchman named ,ollery was engaged at a good salary and brought from ,moustiers to act as principal draughtsman4 ,a couple of years later ,count ,aranda paid ,ollery the high compliment of saying that the fine and numerous models which he has designed1 have contributed to make my manufacture the first in ,spain4 ,he seems to have retired in #agcg1 when the ,count rewarded him with a yearly pension of five hundred francs besides the amount of his salary1 for his especial zeal in the improvement of the manufactory1 and his great skill in directing the construction of every kind of work4 ,riao adds that from this date until the manufacture of porcelain in #agfd1 only ,spanish artists worked at ,alcora4 ,the products of this factory continued to improve1 and reached1 in course of time1 a yearly total of about three hundred thousand objects4 ,the ordinances1 which are dated between #agcb and #agcc1 tell us that in these works of ours no pottery should be made except the very finest1 similar to the ,chinese1 and of as fine an earth4 ,the models and wheels should be perfect1 the drawing first-rate1 the varnish and colours excellent1 and the pottery light and of the highest quality1 for it is our express wish that the best pottery should only be distinguished from that of an inferior kind by the greater or less amount of painting which covers it4 ,not less interesting are certain communications1 copied by ,riao1 which passed in #agdf between the ,spanish ,tribunal of ,commerce and the ,count of ,aranda1 in which it is stated that the perfection of the earthenware of ,alcora consists in the excellent models which have been made by competent foreign artists1 as well as in the quality of the earth and the recipes brought at great cost from abroad4 ,we learn from the same document that from the earliest period of the manufacture1 pyramids with figures of children1 holding garlands of flowers and baskets of fruits on their heads1 were made with great perfection2 also brackets1 centre and three-cornered tables1 large objects1 some as large as five feet high1 to be placed upon them1 chandeliers1 cornucopias1 statues of different kinds1 and animals of different sorts and sizes4 ,the entire ornamentation of a room has also been made here2 the work is so perfect that nothing in ,spain1 ,france1 ,italy1 or ,holland could equal it in merit4 ,it is not necessary to follow in close detail all the modifications and vicissitudes 7extending over quite a hundred years7 which affected the ,alcora factory4 ,i therefore only take some general notices from ,riao4 ,in #agej ,count ,aranda transferred the works to a private company1 which remained in possession of them until #agff4 ,in #agda a ,frenchman named ,franois ,haly was engaged for ten years1 and with a yearly salary of rather more than a thousand francs1 under the following conditions3-- ,that the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given him1 and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the ,director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which he had undertaken to make4 ,haly agreed to surrender his recipes1 and it was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter working by his side1 and that if in one year his porcelain were satisfactory1 the ,count would make him a present of a thousand tornoises4#ajj #ajj ,riao2 ,handbook2 pp4 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,porcelain was first produced at ,alcora towards the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,a contract was drawn up on ,march #bdth1 #agfd1 with a ,german called ,john ,christian ,knipfer1 who had already worked there in the pottery section4 ,by the original agreement1 which exists in the archives1 we find he was to prepare works of porcelain and painting similar to those made at ,dresden1 during a period of six years1 under the following conditions3-- ,that the said ,knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices the composition and perfection of porcelain paste1 its varnishes1 and colours1 and whatever he may know at the present time1 or discover during this period of six years2 he is not to prevent the ,director of the ,works from being present at all the essays made4 ,the said ,knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain1 and to employ gold and silver in its decoration1 and in that of the ordinary wares2 likewise the colours of crimson1 purple1 violet1 blues of different shades1 yellow1 greens1 browns1 reds1 and black4 ,that ,knipfer will give up an account of his secrets1 and the management and manner of using them1 in order that in all times the truth of what he has asserted may be verified4 ,illustration3 ,,lxxi ,,ornament ,,in ,,porcelain ,,of ,,the ,,buen ,,retiro ,in #aggd a ,frenchman named ,franois ,martin was engaged to make hard paste porcelain1 ,japanese faence1 ,english paste 7pipeclay71 and likewise to mould and bake it3 the necessary materials to be provided by the ,count of ,aranda4 ,riao says that the combined assistance of ,knipfer and ,martin went far to better the products of the factory4 ,martin died in #aghf1 and ,knipfer left soon afterwards4 ,a ,frenchman was now engaged1 whose services proved also beneficial to the works4 ,this was ,pierre ,cloostermans1 a skilful man1 well versed in the manufacture of porcelain pastes1 as well as in painting and decorating them4 ,cloostermans1 however1 was much molested by the envy of the ,spanish workmen at ,alcora1 as well as by their typical intolerance in matters of religion1 although the ,count1 his master1 behaved towards him with the utmost kindness4 ,under his supervision1 the quality of ,alcora ware was notably improved4 ,figures and groups of many kinds were attempted1 and even ,wedgwood jasper ware was creditably imitated4 ,in #aghi1 among other pottery that was sent to ,madrid were two hard paste porcelain cups1 adorned with low relief in the ,english style4 ,the most important one was moulded by ,francisco ,garcs1 the garlands and low reliefs by ,joaqun ,ferrer1 sculptor1 the flowers on the covers by an apprentice1 helped by ,cloostermans4 ,dated in the same year 7#aghi71 ,riao quotes an interesting letter from the ,count of ,aranda to ,don ,pedro ,abadia1 his steward4 ,i wish1 he said1 to export the porcelain of my manufactory1 but chiefly in common objects1 such as cups of different kinds1 tea and coffee services1 etc4 ,these may be varied in form and colour1 the principal point being that the paste should bear hot liquids1 for we ,spaniards above everything wish that nothing we buy should ever break4 ,by no means let time be wasted in making anything that requires much loss of time4 ,the chief object is that the pastes should be of first-rate excellence and durability4 ,in #agic ,cloostermans was driven from the country by political disturbances2 but he was allowed to return in #agie1 and resumed his duties at the factory4 ,all through these years ,alcora continued to make most excellent pottery4 ,essays were made with foreign earths1 as well as with the best that could be found in ,spain4 ,about this time kaolin was discovered in ,catalua1 and the ,count was particularly anxious that this native product should be utilised at ,alcora4 ,the kaolin of ,catalua1 he wrote in #agij1 may be good or bad1 but it is acknowledged to be kaolin1 and if we do not employ it ,i must close my works4 ,the ,count of ,aranda and ,pierre ,cloostermans both died in #agih1 and in #ahjj the ,duke of ,hijar became the manager and proprietor of the potteries4 ,two hundred workmen were employed1 and pottery of every description was made1 common earthenware1 pipeclays in imitation of the ,english ones1 and porcelain in small quantities2 common wares were made in large quantities2 the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the ,english in brilliancy1 but were so porous that they were easily stained4 ,a large number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this period4--7,riao47 ,in the early years of the nineteenth century ,alcora ware deteriorated not a little4 ,this decline was further aggravated by the ,french invasion2 and although an attempt was subsequently made to revive the industry by bringing craftsmen from the porcelain factory of ,madrid1 it suffered fresh relapses and produced henceforward little but the commonest kinds of ware4 ,this system1 says ,riao1 continued until #aheh1 when the ,duke of ,hijar sold the manufactory to ,don ,ramn ,girona1 who brought over ,english workmen from ,staffordshire in order to improve the wares4 ,many imitations of the older styles have also been made at ,alcora of late years4 ,riao appends instructive tables1 which ,i copy in ,appendix ,i1 of every kind of pottery manufactured at ,alcora4 ,he also believes that a great deal of pottery which was formerly thought to proceed from ,french or ,english factories is really of ,alcora make1 including a great quantity of objects of white pipeclay porcelain which have been found of late years in ,spain4 ,they have hitherto been classified by amateurs as ,leeds pottery4 ,we find1 in papers relating to ,alcora1 that a decided distinction is made between white and straw-coloured pottery4 ,this indication may be sufficient to distinguish it from ,english wares4 ,the celebrated ,royal ,porcelain ,factory of the ,buen ,retiro at ,madrid1 formerly situated in the public gardens of that name and popularly known as the ,fabrica de la ,china1 was founded in #agei by ,charles the ,third1 who erected a vast edifice for this purpose1 and filled it with a multitude of workmen and their families1 including two hundred and twenty-five persons whom he brought over from his other factory of ,capo-di-,monte in ,italy4 ,he also transferred a great part of the material4#aja ,the cost of the new works amounted to eleven and a half millions of reales1 and they were terminated in #agfd4 ,the cost of keeping up the factory is stated by ,larruga to have amounted to three millions of reales yearly4 ,the first directors were ,juan ,toms ,bonicelli and ,domingo ,bonicelli1 and the first modellers-in-chief and superintendents1 possessing the secrets of the fabrication 7secretistas71 were ,cayetano ,schepers and ,carlos ,gricci4 #aja ,on ,september #aath1 #agei1 the king wrote to his ,secretary of ,state1 ,richard ,wall3--,the workmen and utensils of the ,royal ,porcelain ,manufactory of ,capo-di-,monte must also be sent from ,naples to ,alicante1 in the vessels prepared for this purpose1 in order to proceed from ,alicante to ,madrid4 ,the necessary conveyances are to be provided1 and the expenses to be charged to his ,majesty's account4 ,riao says that every kind of porcelain was made at the ,buen ,retiro1 hard and soft paste1 white china1 glazed or unglazed1 or painted and modelled in the style of ,capo-di-,monte4 ,a great many objects existed imitating the blue jasper ware of ,wedgwood1 and they also made flowers1 coloured and biscuit1 groups 7,pl4 lxxi471 and single figures1 and painted porcelain of different kinds4 ,great quantities of tiles for pavements were also made there1 which may still be seen at the ,casa del ,labrador at ,aranjuez3 they are mentioned in the accounts which exist at the ,ministry of ,finance for #ahjg and #ahjh4 ,we find in these same accounts interesting details of the objects made monthly4 ,in ,january1 #ahjh1 a large number of figures were made1 including #aea heads for the table centre which was made for the king1 #cjf objects ornamented with paintings1 #bejf tiles1 #egg objects of less artistic importance1 such as dishes1 plates1 etc4 ,the finest specimens which exist are in the ,neapolitan style1 and are two rooms at the palaces of ,madrid and ,aranjuez1 of which the walls are completely covered with ,china plaques and looking-glasses1 modelled in the most admirable manner with figures1 fruits1 and flowers4 ,the room at ,aranjuez is covered with a bold ornamentation of figures in the ,japanese style1 in high relief1 painted with colours and gold with the most exquisite details4 ,the figures unite the fine ,italian modelling with the ,japanese decoration4 ,the chandelier is in the same style 7,plate lxxii474 ,upon a vase on the wainscot to the right of the entrance door is the following inscription3-- ,,joseph ,,gricci ,,delineavit ,,et ,,sculit #agfc4 ,this same date is repeated in the angles1 and in some shields near the roof we find1 ,a,o #agfe2 probably the year the work was terminated4 ,illustration3 ,,lxxii ,,room ,,decorated ,,with ,,porcelain ,,of ,,the ,,buen ,,retiro 7,royal ,palace of ,aranjuez7 ,the earliest mark upon the ,buen ,retiro porcelain was a blue fleur-de-lis1 to which were subsequently added the letter ,m and a royal crown4 ,still later1 in the reign of ,charles the ,fourth1 the mark used was a fleur-de-lis with two crossed ,c's4 ,the object of the ,buen ,retiro ,factory was almost wholly to supply the ,crown with costly ware1 and would-be visitors were jealously excluded4 ,townsend wrote in #aghf3 ,i tried to obtain admission to the china manufacture1 which is likewise administered on the king's account1 but his ,majesty's injunctions are so severe1 that ,i could neither get introduced to see it1 nor meet with anyone who had ever been able to procure that favour for himself4 ,i was the less mortified upon this occasion1 because from the specimens which ,i have seen1 both in the palace at ,madrid and in the provinces1 it resembles the manufacture of ,svres1 which ,i had formerly visited in a tour through ,france4 ,laborde also complained that the factory was wholly inaccessible3 all entrance to it is interdicted1 and its existence is only ascertained by the exhibition which is made of its productions in the royal palace4 ,the same writer refers to another class of work which was produced here1 namely1 stone mosaic4 ,the process by which stone is wrought into pictures is as delicate as it is curious3 a selection is made from marble fragments of various shades and dimensions1 which are found1 by judicious assimilation1 to produce no bad resemblance to painting4 ,jean ,franois de ,bourgoing1 ,french ,minister at ,madrid1 was lucky enough1 in #aghb1 to penetrate into the factory and view the process4 ,le ,monarque actuel1 he wrote1 a tabli dans leur intrieur une fabrique de porcelaine1 dont l'entre est jusqu' prsent interdite tout le monde4 ,on veut sans doute que ses essais se perfectionnent dans le silence1 avant de les exposer aux regards des curieux4 ,ses productions ne peuvent encore se voir que dans les ,palais du ,souverain1 ou dans quelques ,cours d',italie1 auxquelles il les envoie en prsens4 ,on travaille dans le mme difice certains ouvrages de marqueterie1 qui sont encore peu connus en ,europe4 ,j'y pntrai un jour1 sous les auspices d'un tranger distingu en faveur duquel le ,roi avoit lev la prohibition rigoureuse1 qui en exclut tout le monde4 ,je suis tmoin de la patience and de l'adresse avec lesquelles on taille and on rapproche divers petits morceaux de marbre color1 pour en former des tableaux assez compliqus1 qui en faisant -peu-prs le mme effet que la peinture1 ont sur elle l'avantage de braver par leur couleur immortelles les ravages du temps1 qui n'pargnent pas les plus belles productions de cet art4#ajb #ajb ,nouveau ,voyage en ,espagne2 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #bcb1 #bcc4 ,this factory was not long-lived4 ,until #ahjc it followed the styles of the older establishment at ,capo-di-,monte1 uniting neo-classic motives with the manner of ,baroque4 ,in that year it began to produce porcelain imitating that of ,svres1 and two ,frenchmen1 ,vivien and ,victor ,perche1 were brought from ,paris to superintend this change4 ,among the finest specimens of this period1 says ,riao1 are a splendid clock and four vases1 two mtres high1 with porcelain flowers1 which exist in one of the state rooms of the ,palace of ,madrid4 ,the vases are placed in the four corners of the room4 ,the clock is ornamented with large biscuit figures4 ,a large number of vases of ,retiro china exist at the royal palaces of ,madrid1 ,aranjuez1 and the ,escorial4 ,they are often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers4 ,the blue of the imitations of ,wedgwood is not so pure1 nor is the biscuit work so fine as the ,english4 ,gold is often added to these specimens4 ,illustration3 ,,lxxiii ,,porcelain ,,of ,,the ,,moncloa ,,factory ,nevertheless1 this manufacture was by now decadent4 ,it had suffered severely from the death of ,charles the ,third1 and upon the ,french invasion in #ahjh was seized by the enemy and occupied by them for several months4 ,during the reign of the intruso1 ,joseph ,buonaparte1 porcelain was still produced to some extent2 but by the time of the ,peninsular campaign the works had practically ceased4 ,near this quarter1 wrote ,ford1 describing the ,retiro gardens1 towards the middle of last century1 was ,la ,china1 or the royal porcelain manufactory1 that was destroyed by the invaders1 and made by them into a fortification1 which surrendered1 with two hundred cannon1 ,august #adth1 #ahab1 to the ,duke4 ,it was blown up ,october #cjth1 by ,lord ,hill1 when the misconduct of ,ballesteros compelled him to evacuate ,madrid4 ,now ,la ,china is one of the standing ,spanish and afrancesado calumnies against us1 as it is stated that we1 the ,english1 destroyed this manufactory from commercial jealousy1 because it was a rival to our potteries4 ',what can be done 7as the ,duke said7 with such libels but despise them4 ,there is no end of the calumnies against me and the army1 and ,i should have no time to do anything else if ,i were to begin either to refute or even to notice them8' 7,disp41 ,oct4 #af1 #ahac47 ,these china potsherds and similar inventions of the enemy shivered against his iron power of conscious superiority4 ,the real plain truth is this4 ,the ,french broke the ollas1 and converted this ,svres of ,madrid into a ,bastile1 which1 and not the pipkins1 was destroyed by the ,english1 who now1 so far from dreading any ,spanish competition1 have actually introduced their system of pottery2 and accordingly very fair china is now made at ,madrid and ,seville1 and by ,english workmen4 ,at the latter place a convent1 also converted by ,soult into a citadel1 is now made a hardware manufactory by our countryman1 ,mr ,pickman4 ,ferdinand the ,seventh1 on his restoration1 re-created ,la ,china1 removing the workshops and warerooms to ,la ,moncloa1 once a villa of the ,alva family on the ,manzanares4 ,this factory of ,la ,moncloa was founded in #ahaf1 and it continued working until #ahdi4 ,a specimen of the ,moncloa ware is reproduced in ,plate lxxiii4 ,outside the royal palaces of ,spain1 the ,buen ,retiro porcelain is scarce4 ,the choicest collections which are not the property of the ,crown belong1 or have belonged till recently1 to the ,marquis of ,arcicollar1 the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan1 and ,don ,francisco ,laiglesia4 ,illustration ,,glass ,small vessels of uncoloured glass1 belonging to the ,celtic period1 have been discovered in ,galicia2 so that the origin of this industry in ,spain is possibly pre-,roman4 ,after the conquest glass was made here by the ,romans1#ajc who built their ovens with a celebrated argil 7potter's earth7 extracted from the neighbourhood of ,valencia or ,tortosa4 ,the ,roman glass was doubtless imitated by the native ,spaniards3 at least we know from observations by ,saint ,isidore that this substance was quite familiar to the ,visigoths4 ,olim fiebat et in ,italia1 et per ,gallias1 et ,hispaniam arena alba mollissima pila mola qua terebatur4 ,the same author speaks with admiration of coloured glass-work imitating precious stones4 ,tingitur etiam multis modis1 ita ut hyacinthos1 saphirosque et virides imitetur et oniches vel aliarum gemmarum colores2 and again2 ,fingunt enim eas ex diverso genere nigro1 candido1 minioque colore4 ,nam pro lapide pretiosissimo smaragdo quidam vitrum arte inficiunt1 et fallit oculos sub dolo quadam falsa irriditas quoadusque non est qui probet simulatum et arguat3 sic et alia alio atque alio modo4 ,neque enim est sine fraude ulla vita mortalium4 ,we gather from these statements that coloured glass in imitation of the genuine precious stone was freely manufactured by the ,visigoths4 ,such imitations1 justifying by their excellence ,saint ,isidore's assertion that vera a falsis discernere magna difficultas est1 may still be seen upon the crowns and other ornaments discovered at ,guarrazar 7see ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #ae-bi71 as well as upon triptyches and weapons4 ,indeed1 a taste for imitation jewels forms an inherent trait of ,spanish character1 and is discoverable at all moments of the national history4 ,travellers have constantly observed it1 and the remarks1 already quoted1 of ,countess d',aulnoy1 are confirmed by other authors4 ,in the broken banks south of the river1 wrote ,swinburne of the ,manzanares at ,madrid1 are found large quantities of pebbles1 called ,diamonds of ,saint ,isidro4 ,they cut them like precious stones1 and ladies of the first fashion wear them in their hair as pins1 or on their fingers as rings4 ,they have little or no lustre1 and a very dead glassy water4 ,the value of the best rough stone does not exceed a few pence4 #ajc ,jam vero et per ,gallias ,hispaniasque simili modo haren temperantur4--,pliny1 ,bk4 xxxvi2 ,chap4 #ff4 ,the chief centres of glass-making were ,tarragona1 several towns of ,betica 7,andalusia71 and the ,balearic ,islands4 ,it is chiefly in the form of imitation gems that specimens of the earliest ,spanish glass have been preserved until our time1#ajd although the characteristic of old ,roman glass which is known in ,italian as the lattocinio or milk-white ornament1 in the form of a thread or line carried all over the surface of a vessel1 remains until this day a common feature of the glass of ,spain1 besides being found in ,spanish-,moorish glass-work4 #ajd ,the distinction which ,riao attempts to draw between glass and glass paste is unsatisfactory4 ,he remarks1 too1 that the manufacture of glass may have existed in ,spain at an earlier period than the last three centuries1 but continues3 ,the earliest mention of glass-works in ,spain will be found in ,pliny1 who1 while explaining the proceedings which were employed in this industry1 says that glass was made in a similar manner in ,france and ,spain4 ,rico y ,sinobas says that the rules for cutting glass by means of a diamond or naife 7as it was once called7 are embodied in a treatise titled ,el ,lapidario1 originally written 7perhaps in the fourth1 fifth1 or sixth century7 in ,hebrew1 and which was brought to ,spain some two or three hundred years later4 ,this treatise was translated into ,arabic by one ,abolais1 who lived at some time previous to the thirteenth century1 and subsequently 7in the year #abdh1 and by command of ,alfonso the ,learned7 into the ,castilian language4 ,mixed up with a great deal of fabulous and fantastic matter1 this treatise contains instructive and interesting notices of the composition and the colouring of old glass1 including that of ,spain4 ,one of such notices is the following4 ,of the eleventh degree of the sign of ,sagittarius is the glass stone1 containing a substance which is a body in itself 7sand71 and another which is added to it 7salt71 and when they clean these substances and draw them from the fire1 they make between the two a single body4 ,the stone thus made 7glass7 has many colours4 ,sometimes it is white 7and this is nobler and better than the others71 or sometimes it is red1 or green1 or xade 7a dark1 burnt colour71 or purple4 ,it is a stone which readily melteth in the fire1 but which1 when drawn therefrom1 turneth again to its former substance3 and if it be drawn from the flame unseasonably1 and without cooling it little by little1 it snappeth asunder4 ,and it receiveth readily whatever colour be placed upon it4 ,and if an animal be hurt therewith1 it openeth as keen a wound as though it were of iron4 ,the treatise also describes a stone called ecce1 which was used in glassmaking1 saying that it was found in ,spain1 in a mountain1 not of great height1 which overlooks the town of ,arraca1 and is called ,secludes4 ,and the stone is of an intense black colour1 spotted with yellow drops4 ,it is shiny and porous1 brittle1 and of light weight 444 and if it be ground up with honey1 and the glass be smeared with it and submitted to the fire1 it dyes the glass of a beautiful gold colour1 and makes it stronger than it was before1 so that it does not melt so readily1 or snap asunder with such ease4 ,i have said that the power of a diamond to cut glass is referred to in the same work1 which further tells us that this gem breaketh all other kind of stones1 boring holes in them or cutting them1 and no other stone is able to bruise it2 nay more1 it powdereth all other stones if it be rubbed upon them 444 and such as seek to cut or perforate those other stones take portions of a diamond1 small and slender and sharp-pointed1 and mount them on slips of silver or of copper1 and with them make the holes or cuttings they require4 ,thus do they grave and carve intaglios4 ,all these branches of glassmaking were therefore practised by the ,spaniards from an early period of their history4 ,this people were also familiar with the use of emery powder1 of talc applied to covering windows1 and of rock crystal4 ,we read in the translation of ,abolais that crystal at that time was found in many parts1 albeit the finest is that of ,ethiopia4 ,the substance which composes it is frozen water1 petrified4 ,and the proof of this is that when it is broken1 small grains are discovered to be within1 that made their entry as it was becoming stone 7crystallizing72 or again1 in some of it is found what seems to be clear water4 ,and it possesses two qualities in which it is distinct from every other stone3 for when crystal is heated it receiveth any colouring that is applied to it1 and is wrought with greater ease1 besides being melted by fire2 insomuch that it can be made into any shape desired2 and if this shape be round1 and the stone be set in the sun1 it burneth anything inflammable that be set before it3 yet does it not effect this by any virtue of its own1 but by the clearness of its substance1 and by the sunbeams which beat upon it1 and by the roundness of its form4 ,we seem to foreshadow here1 clearly enough1 the application of this substance to making glasses to assist the sight1 especially when the author of the treatise adds that on looking through the crystal1 the human eye discovers details of the greatest beauty1 and things that are secreted from the simple 7i4e4 the unaided7 vision4 ,rico y ,sinobas 7who possessed a fine collection of antique glass1 ,spanish and non-,spanish7 inclined to think that in the time of the ,romans the finest and strongest glass1 as well as the costliest and the most sought after1 was that which was manufactured in ,spain4 ,in early times the chief centres of ,spanish glass-making were situated in the heart of the ,peninsula 7where now is ,new ,castile71 in the neighbourhood of ,tortosa1 and in certain districts lying between the ,pyrenees and the coast of ,catalua1 though subsequently the practice of this craft extended through the kingdoms of ,valencia and ,murcia1 and the valleys of ,ollera1 ,salinas1 ,busot1 and the ,rio ,almanzora1 forming a zone which reached from ,cape ,creus to ,cape ,gata4 ,other regions in which the craft was introduced1 apparently at a later epoch1 were those of the ,mediterranean littoral1 ,cuenca1 ,toledo1 ,avila1 ,segovia1 and other parts of ,new ,castile1 as far as the slopes of the ,sierra de ,guadarrama4 ,in the rest of the ,peninsula there is not the slightest indication 7excepting an obscure reference by ,strabo1 to vessels and receptacles of wax7 that glass was made during the ,roman domination of the country1 either in ,andalusia1 ,lusitania 7,portugal71 or in the northern regions of ,cantabria4 ,rico y ,sinobas has described a ,spanish glass-oven of those primitive times4 ,he says that such as were used for making objects of a fair size consisted of three compartments resting one upon the other2 the lowest cylindrical1 to hold the fire and ashes1 the next with a domed top1 for concentrating the heat1 and the third and uppermost1 which also had a domed top1 for holding the pieces of glass that were set to cool by slow degrees4 ,the wall of the oven contained a number of openings1 which served1 according to the level at which they were situated1 for controlling the fire1 adjusting the crucibles1 or extracting1 by means of metal rods1 the lumps of molten glass1 previously to submitting them to the action of the blowpipe4 ,the dimensions of such of these primitive ovens as have been found in ,spain or ,italy1 are nine feet in height by six feet in diameter1 and the material of which they are built is argil1 of a kind insensible to heat1 and carefully freed by washing from all foreign1 soluble1 or inflammable substances4 ,the crucibles1 which were fitted in the oven two1 four1 or at most six at a time1 were of this argil also1 wrought and purified with even greater care4 ,ovens and crucibles of a smaller size were used for making diminutive objects such as beads and imitation precious stones4#aje #aje ,rico y ,sinobas1 ,del ,vidrio y de sus artifices en ,espaa 7,almanaque del ,museo de la ,industria1 #ahgj74 ,almera was probably the most important centre of ,spanish-,moorish glass-making1 and is mentioned in connection with this craft by ,al-,makkari4 ,the oriental shape of the older vessels which were made in this locality is still preserved in certain objects such as jars1 bowls1 flasks1 and aguardiente-bottles1 which are still manufactured1 or were so until quite recently1 throughout a region extending from ,almera to the slopes of the ,alpujarra4 ,all these objects1 says ,riao1 are decorated with a serrated ornamentation of buttons1 trellis-work1 and the lines to which ,i have already alluded1 which were placed there after the object was made1 in the ,roman style4 ,the paste is generally of a dark green colour1 and when we find these same features in vessels of clear white glass1 we may affirm that they are contemporary imitations made at ,cadalso or elsewhere1 for they are very seldom to be met with in the provinces of ,almera and ,granada1 and are generally found at ,toledo and other localities2 it is1 moreover1 a common condition of oriental art that its general form complies with a geometrical tracery1 and we never find1 as in ,italian works of art1 forms and capricious ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the general lines1 and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole4 ,none of the original ,moorish glass of the ,alhambra has survived till nowadays4 ,most of it was destroyed by the explosion1 in the year #aeij1 of a powder factory which lay immediately beneath the palace and beside the river ,darro4 ,in the ,alhambra archives1 particular mention is made of the circular glass windows or eyes1 only the corresponding holes of which remain1 in the baths of the same palace4 ,this glass1 which may have been in colour1 was also destroyed by the explosion1 as were the windows1 painted in colour with fancy devices and ,arabic lettering1 of the ,sala de ,embajadores1#ajf those of the ,hall of the ,two ,sisters1 and certain windows1 painted with many histories and royal arms1 belonging to the church of the ,alhambra4 #ajf ,oliver1 ,granada y sus monumentos rabes4 ,excellent glass1 reported by some authors to have equalled that of ,venice1 was made at ,barcelona from as early as the thirteenth century4 ,an inventory of the ,crown of ,aragon1 dated ,a4,d4 #achi and quoted by ,garca ,llans1 mentions as manufactured here1 glass sweetmeat-vessels1 cups1 and silver-mounted tankards blazoned with the royal arms4 ,the guild of ,barcelona glassmakers was founded in #adee1 and later in the same century ,jernimo ,paulo wrote that glass vessels of varying quality and shape1 and which may well compete with the ,venetian1 are exported to ,rome and other places4 ,similar statements are made by ,marineus ,siculus and ,gaspar ,barreyros4 ,other centres of ,spanish glass-making were ,caspe in ,aragon1 ,seville1 ,valencia1#ajg ,pinar de la ,vidriera1 ,royo ,molino 7near ,jaen17 ,el ,recuenco 7,guadalajara71 ,cebreros 7,avila71 ,medina del ,campo1 ,venta del ,cojo1 ,venta de los ,toros de ,guisando1 and ,castiel de la ,pea in ,castile4 ,the glass-works of ,castiel de la ,pea were founded by the intelligent and indefatigable ,hernando de ,zafra1 secretary to the ,catholic sovereigns1 ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,it has been calculated1 says ,riao1 that about two tons of sand were used at these glass-works every month4 #ajg ,the inventory 7,a4,d4 #aefj7 of the ,dukes of ,alburquerque mentions a white box with four small bottles of ,valencia glass containing ointment for the hands4 ,other objects specified in this inventory are a large glass cup1 with two lizards for handles1 and two more lizards on the cover2 three glass cocoanuts1 partly coloured and with gold blown into them1 together with their covers2 and a large glass cup1 of ,barcelona1 blown with gold4 ,the value of these cups1 if they existed now1 would not be less than two or three hundred pounds apiece4 ,more important than the foregoing was the famous factory of a village in ,toledo province called ,cadalso1 or sometimes1 from the nature of its only industry1 ,cadalso 7or ,cadahalso7 de los ,vidrios4 ,the glass made here is mentioned in terms of high praise by various writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 such as ,marineus ,siculus and ,mendez ,silva4 ,the former of these authors says in his work upon the ,memorable ,things of ,spain3 ,glass was produced in several towns of ,castile1 the most important being that of ,cadalso1 which supplied the whole kingdom4 ,ewers and bottles of ,cadalso glass are mentioned in the ,alburquerque inventory4 ,mendez ,silva says that the number of ovens was originally three1 and that their coloured glass was equal to ,venetian 7,plate lxxiv474 ,this was towards the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,larruga tells us that by the end of the eighteenth this local industry was languishing4 ,one of the three ovens had been abandoned4 ,the other two produced inferior glass1 as well as in diminished quantities4 ,illustration3 ,,lxxiv ,,vessels ,,of ,,spanish ,,glass 7,south ,kensington ,museum7 ,the glass of ,catalua maintained its ancient reputation all through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and part of the seventeenth1 and at this time was still compared with the ,venetian by observant travellers 7,plate lxxv474 ,besides the capital1 the principal glass-works in this province were at ,almatret1 ,moncada1 ,cervell1 and ,matar4 ,in #adhi a ,barcelonese1 by name ,vicente ,sala1 and his sons applied to the ,city ,council for leave to construct an oven at ,moncada in order to pursue the craft of glass-making1 lo qual a present aci se obre axi bellament e suptil com en part del mon 7seeing that the glass we manufacture in this neighbourhood competes with any in the world for subtlety and beauty74 ,a document is extant from which we learn that the ,city ,councillors of ,barcelona made strenuous efforts to prevail upon ,ferdinand the ,catholic to abolish a certain monopoly or other form of exclusive privilege which he had conceded to a local glass-maker4 ,the result of this appeal is not recorded4 ,in #aejc ,ferdinand presented his consort with two hundred and seventy-four glass objects made at ,barcelona1 and ,philip the ,second possessed a hundred and nineteen pieces proceeding from the same locality4 ,illustration3 ,,lxxv ,,vessels ,,of ,,catalan ,,glass 7,from ,drawings by the ,author7 ,an important development of this craft was the manufacture of coloured glass for churches and cathedrals4 ,in the ,peninsula1 the earliest introducers of this branch of glass-making were principally natives of ,germany1 ,france1 and ,flanders1 who came to ,spain at the beginning of the fifteenth century4#ajh ,many of the oldest windows executed by these foreigners1 or by the ,spaniards who were taught by them1 are still existing in the cathedrals of ,len1 ,toledo1 ,burgos1 ,barcelona1 and the ,seo of ,zaragoza4 ,len has several windows which date from as far back as the thirteenth century1 and in which the glass is in small pieces1 arranged as though it were mosaic4 ,some of the later and larger windows in the same cathedral are thirty-five feet high1 and one1 dating from the sixteenth century1 is believed to have been presented to this temple by ,mary of ,england1 prior to her marriage with ,philip the ,second4 #ajh ,before this time1 however1 ,aymerich had written1 in or about the year #aajj1 that sixty large windows in ,santiago cathedral were closed by glass1 which probably was coloured4 ,we also hear of ,francisco ,socoma1 who made or fitted windows of coloured glass at ,palma1 in the island of ,majorca1 in #achj1 and of ,guillermo de ,collivella1 who1 in #acia1 fitted at ,lerida the glass which had been coloured for the cathedral of that town by ,juan de ,san-,amat4 ,it was1 however1 in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that the custom became general1 in ,spain as in other lands1 of colouring the surface of white glass by partial fusing--a process which is mentioned in the treatise of ,abolais1 to which ,i have referred repeatedly4 ,between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries the coloured windows of ,spanish temples were still composed of pieces of glass united in the manner of mosaic1 forming ornamental patterns of stars and similar devices2 but subsequently to this period the decorative themes are said to be painted en caballete1 and consist of figures1 or the representation of scenes from ,scripture4 ,in ,spain1 and dating from the twelfth century1 the workshops for preparing this coloured glass were commonly situated within the precincts of important temples1 such as ,toledo cathedral1 or else1 as was the case at ,burgos1 in separate buildings and dependencias4 ,here1 in the square ovens characteristic of that age1 and before it was mounted in the ponderous leaden frame1 the glass was coloured with exquisite solicitude and patience by the hand of the master-craftsman1 sometimes with a colour upon one of its surfaces alone1 sometimes with the same colour upon both1 or sometimes with a different colour upon either surface4 ,the cartoons from which such windows were constructed1 and which were often designed by painters of renown1 were usually three in number4 ,the first contained1 upon a reduced scale1 a coloured outline of the window2 the second1 drawn to the exact scale of the window as it was to be1 was composed of all the pieces cut out and numbered according to the various colours2 and the third1 also of the projected size of the window1 was kept complete1 to serve as a pattern in case the window should suffer any accident1 and require to be restored or mended4 ,not one of these cartoons is known to be preserved to-day1 but ,rico y ,sinobas points out that from the strong and simple character of their colouring and outline1 the illuminated illustrations of ,spanish thirteenth century manuscripts1 such as the ,cantigas1 and the ,book of ,chess of ,alfonso the ,learned1 may well have been utilized for1 or else be copied from1 glass windows of that period4 ,as soon as the cartoon was finished1 the window-painter traced it upon the surface of the glass4 ,this was in square pieces1 fitted conveniently together1 with sufficient space between the pieces to allow the passage of the leads4 ,before being laid upon the glass and being submitted to the fixing action of fire1 the colours were mixed with honey1 urine1 vinegar1 and other fluids or substances which served as mediums to attach the colour to the glass4 ,thus prepared1 and in the form of powder1 the colours were allowed to dry for two or three days before the glass was placed in the oven4 ,yellow1 which was the strongest colour1 and that which penetrated deepest beneath the surface of the glass1 was made from certain combinations of silver and nitrate of potash1 while oxides or other forms of copper1 lead1 iron1 tin1 silver1 and manganese1 were used for making black1 white1 red1 green1 blue1 purple1 violet1 or flesh-colour4 ,these colours penetrated the glass to the depth of about half a millimetre2 but sometimes1 after the colour had been applied1 the craftsman would submit the glass to friction by a wooden polisher or wheel1 thus giving it an appearance of greater clearness and transparency at any spot he might desire4 ,among the artists who produced the coloured windows of ,len cathedral were ,master ,joan de ,arge 7,a4,d4 #adbd71 ,master ,baldovn1 and ,rodrigo de ,ferreras4 ,those of ,toledo date from early in the fifteenth century1 and were made by ,albert of ,holland1 ,vasco ,troya1 ,luis ,pedro ,francs1 ,juan de ,campos1 and others1 including the eminent ,dolfn1 who1 according to ,cean1 began to work here in #adah1 by order of the archbishop1 ,don ,sancho de ,rojas4 ,the documents collected and published for the first time by ,zarco del ,valle tell us that on ,march #bbnd1 #adbd1 ,dolfn received from ,alfonso ,martinez1 treasurer and superintendent of works1 two hundred gold florins and certain other moneys on account of his total payment of four hundred gold florins for the eighth window he is making for the head of the cathedral4 ,other certificates of payment relating to ,maestre ,dolfn 7as he always signed himself7 are included in the same collection4 ,by #adbg he was defunct1 ,god pardon him6 and the windows he had left unfinished were terminated by his assistant ,lois 7,louis74#aji #aji ,documentos ,inditos para la ,historia de las ,bellas ,artes en ,espaa1 p4 #bhb et seq4 ,in #adeh1 and also at ,toledo1 a friar named ,pablo began to repair the painted windows of the crucero4 ,his pay was fixed by the abbot and superintendent of works at fifty maravedis each day1 and that of his lads1 ,ximeno and ,juanico1 at one half of this amount4 ,other artists engaged in the same work were ,pablo 7not the friar just referred to71 ,peter1 a ,german1 and ,master ,henry1 who was also ,german4 ,pablo received authority to purchase ten and a half quintales and thirteen pounds of coloured ,flemish glass1 at two thousand maravedis for each quintal4 ,by a contract dated #adhe 7he died between #adhg and #adic71 ,master ,henry was handed by the cathedral authorities a sum of #aej1jjj maravedis to proceed to ,flanders or any other part he may desire1 and where good glass is to be found1 white1 blue1 green1 scarlet1 purple1 yellow1 or blackish 7prieto71 equal in thickness to the sample which he bears1 and bring us thence such quantity as he has need of for the windows of our cathedral4 ,it is evident from this notice that ,spain was then unable to produce the finest quality of glass4 ,with such as he brought with him from abroad1 ,henry engaged to fashion every kind of figure1 image1 scroll1 and other object whatsoever be commanded him1 according to the place it is to fill2 the colours of the glass to be well mingled and distributed4 ,he was also to make the leaden casings stout and deep1 so as to embrace and hold the glass aforesaid1 that it may resist the air and wind4 ,in return for this1 he was to be supplied with an erected scaffolding1 with all the chalk and iron he might require1 and with the proper number of assistants1 receiving1 in payment of his labour1 one hundred and fifteen maravedis for every square palm of glass the preparation of which should satisfy the superintendent and examiners of works4 ,one of the witnesses to this document was ,henry's wife1 ,mara ,maldonada1 who came forward to affix her signature with the license and pleasure of the aforesaid ,master ,enrique1 her husband4 ,in #adcc1 ,master ,juan 7perhaps the same as ,joan de ,arge1 already mentioned7 began to work at the windows of ,burgos1 where1 later in this century1 he was succeeded by ,juan de ,valdivieso and ,diego de ,santillana4 ,we learn from the ,documentos ,inditos 7pp4 #aei1 #afj7 that ,santillana lived at ,burgos1 and that1 on ,may #cast1 #aeab1 he contracted to make three historical windows for the monastery of ,san ,francisco1 at a price of ninety-five maravedis for each palm of glass1 this to be of good colours and shades1 and measured by the ,burgos standard4 ,two other contracts are preserved1 signed by the same craftsman and both relating to ,palencia4 ,by one of them ,santillana is to receive for six storied windows1 the subjects of which are specified1 ninety-five maravedis the palm1 besides the scaffolding and his house and coals4 ,arnao de ,flandes 7,arnold of ,flanders7 was appointed master glass-painter to ,burgos cathedral in #aeab4 ,other glass-painters who worked here in the sixteenth century were ,francisco de ,valdivieso1 ,gaspar ,cotin1 ,juan de ,arce1 his son ,juan and grandson ,pedro1 and1 in the seventeenth century1 ,valentin ,ruiz1 ,francisco ,alonso1 ,simon ,ruiz1 and ,francisco ,alcalde4 ,most of the windows made by all these men have been destroyed by time and weather1 and have been replaced by barren panes of white2 but a few fine specimens of the original work may yet be seen in the chapels of the ,presentation1 the ,constable1 and ,san ,jernimo4 ,perhaps the most remarkable of any is the rose-window1 above the ,puerta del ,sarmental4#aaj #aaj ,in the monastery of ,miraflores1 near this city1 the queen of ,ferdinand the ,catholic built1 at her expense1 a rich pantheon to guard the ashes of her parents and her brother4 ,the coloured glass was made by ,simon of ,cologne4 ,one day1 while visiting ,miraflores1 ,isabella noticed upon the windows of this sanctuary the shield of a gentleman named ,martin de ,soria4 ,furious at the liberty thus taken with a fabric of her own1 afferte mihi gladium she called in ,latin to one of her attendants1 and1 raising the sword1 dashed the offending window into a thousand pieces1 crying that in that spot she would allow no arms but those of her father4 ,other good cathedral windows prior to the sixteenth century are those of ,avila1 which date from about the year #adig1 and were executed by ,diego de ,santillana1 ,juan de ,valdivieso1 and other artists2 those of the ,seo of ,zaragoza1 by the ,catalans ,terri and ,jayme ,romeu 7#addg72 and some at ,barcelona1 painted in #adid by ,gil ,fontanet4 ,it is1 however1 in the sixteenth century that ,spanish ecclesiastical window-glass attains its highest grade of excellence4#aaa ,dating from this century are windows in ,toledo cathedral1 painted in #aejc by ,vasco de ,troya1 in #aeji by ,alejo ,jimnez1 in #aeac by ,gonzalo de ,crdoba 7these are considered by competent judges to be the finest of any71 in #aeae by ,juan de la ,cuesta1 in #aebb by ,juan ,campos1 in #aebe by ,albert of ,holland1 in #aecd by ,juan de ,ortega1 and in #aedb by ,nicols ,vergara the elder4#aab ,in #aecg ,ortega was engaged to repair the damaged or broken panes at a yearly salary of #aa1bej maravedis4 ,where the panes were wanting1 he was to replace them by new ones painted by his hand1 receiving1 for each palmo of new glass so painted1 an extra payment of ninety maravedis4#aac #aaa ,seor ,lzaro1 who has recently made at ,madrid windows for ,len cathedral imitating those of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 remarks that with the sixteenth century the process grew more complicated1 patterns composed with pieces of a single colour being replaced by glass containing a variety of tints4 ,he has also discovered the following usage of the older ,spanish craftsmen3 ,by way of furnishing a key to their arrangement1 all the pieces used to be marked with the point of a diamond1 and this mark indicates the tone the glass requires for such and such a part of the design4 ,the signs most often employed were three1 namely ,x1 ,l1 and ,v1 for red1 blue and yellow respectively1 intermediate tones being shown by combinations of these letters--,,xl1 ,,lv1 ,,xv1 with lines of unities placed before or after to indicate the necessary gradation in the tone4 #aab ,this artist painted a series of magnificent windows representing scenes from the life of ,san ,pedro ,nolasco1 for the convent of ,la ,piedad1 at ,valencia4 #aac ,zarco del ,valle1 ,documentos ,inditos1 etc41 pp4 #cci et seq4 ,in the same century the windows of ,seville cathedral1 begun some years previously 7,cean says in #aejd7 by ,micer ,cristbal ,alemn 7,master ,christopher the ,german71 were continued by ,masters ,jacobo1 ,juan ,juan ,vivan1 ,juan ,bernai1 ,bernardino de ,gelandia1 ,juan ,jaques1 ,arnold of ,flanders 7#aebe71 ,arnao de ,vergara 7#aebe71 ,charles of ,bruges1 7#aeeg71 and ,vicente ,menandro 7#aeeg74aad ,in #aefb ,diego de ,valdivieso1 and in #aegj ,pedro de ,valdivieso and ,gerald of ,holland1 painted windows for ,cuenca cathedral4 ,in #aedb the same work was done at ,palencia by ,diego de ,salcedo1 and in #aecc ,george of ,burgundy1 master in the art of glass1 then resident at ,burgos1 proceeded to the same town and engaged to renew the cathedral windows at a cost of a hundred maravedis for every palm of coloured glass1 and fifty for every palm of plain4#aae #aad ,according to ,cean 7,la ,catedral de ,sevilla71 ,menandro painted in #aefj the conversion of ,saint ,paul on a window in the ,chapel of ,santiago1 in #aefg another window with the scene of the ,annunciation1 over the gate of ,san ,miguel1 and in #aefi the companion to it1 representing the ,visitation1 over the ,puerta del ,bautismo4 ,in all these windows1 wrote ,cean1 prejudiced1 as was customary in his day1 in favour of the strictly classic style1 the drawing1 pose1 and composition are good1 although in the draperies and figures we observe the influence of ,germany4 ,in ,cean's own time--that is1 towards the close of the eighteenth century--the coloured windows of ,seville ,cathedral amounted to ninety-three1 five of which were circular1 and the rest with the pointed ,gothic arch4 ,the dimensions of the latter are twenty-eight feet high by twelve feet broad1 and the subjects painted on them include the likenesses of prophets1 patriarchs1 martyrs1 confessors1 and virgins1 or scenes from the ,new ,testament1 such as the rising of ,lazarus1 ,christ driving the merchants from the temple1 the ,last ,supper1 and the anointing by ,mary ,magdalene4 #aae ,zarco del ,valle1 ,documentos ,inditos1 p4 #aei ,in #aedd1 sixty-two windows in the nave of ,segovia cathedral were filled with painted glass prepared chiefly at ,valladolid and ,medina del ,campo1 though some was brought from ,flanders4 ,the remaining windows were left unfilled till #afgf1 in which year a canon of the cathedral1 named ,toms de la ,plaza ,aguirre1 succeeded in rediscovering a formula for the practise of this craft1 and the panes yet needed were made and coloured at ,valdequemada by ,juan ,danis1 under ,plaza ,aguirre's supervision4 ,thirty-three additional windows were completed from this factory4 ,according to ,lecea y ,garca1 the chapter of ,segovia cathedral possess1 or possessed for many years1 two curious manuscripts relating severally to ,the painting of glass windows1 by ,francisco ,herranz1 and ,glass-making1 by ,juan ,danis--the same who owned and worked the factory at ,valdequemada4 ,these interesting treatises were examined by ,bosarte1 who has described them4 ,he says that the one on glass-making consisted of twenty-three sheets of clear writing1 and the one on glass-painting of eight sheets2 both manuscripts being in quarto size4 ,the latter contained1 distributed beside the text1 sketches of the various instruments required for this craft4 ,the other and longer monograph consisted of the following chapters3--7#a7 ,how to draw upon glass4 7#b7 ,how to cut glass4 7#c7 ,how to paint and shade glass4 7#d7 ,of the substances and ingredients for painting glass4 7#e7 ,how to give a flesh-colour to glass4 7#f7 ,how to give a yellow or golden colour to white or pale blue glass1 but no other4 7#g7 ,how to fire glass4 7#h7 ,how to make the glass-oven4 ,windows were painted in the cathedral of ,palma de ,mallorca by ,sebastin ,dangls in #aeff and by ,juan ,jord in #aeii1 in that of ,mlaga by ,octavio ,valerio in #aegi1 and in those of ,tarragona and ,avila respectively1 by ,juan ,guasch in #aega1 and by ,pierre de ,chiberri in #aedi4 ,this craftsman was undoubtedly a foreigner4 ,the following entry which concerns him is quoted by ,rosell de ,torres from the ,libro de ,fbrica of ,segovia cathedral3 ,by order of the ,canon ,juan ,rodriguez1 on the twelfth day of ,august1 ,i paid to ,pierre de ,chiberri1 master-maker of window-glass1 the sum of #ef1efj maravedis1 #cd1ifj for the casings of seven large windows with their side-windows--in all twenty-one casings--besides ten casings for the windows of the lower chapels1 containing altogether ,,mmmccccxcvi palms1 amounting at ten maravedis the palm to the aforesaid #cd1ifj maravedis3 also #ai1abe maravedis for ,,ccclxxii palms of glass for the said chapels at a real and a half each palm1 plus #bdgf maravedis for certain glass which had yet to be measured because it was in the skylights4 ,the total sum amounts to the aforesaid #ef1efj maravedis4#aaf #aaf ,isidoro ,rosell de ,torres1 ,las ,vidrieras pintadas en ,espaa 7published in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades74 ,during the seventeenth century1 glass-work of various kinds continued to be produced upon a large scale at ,barcelona1 ,matar1 ,gerona1 ,cuenca1 ,toledo1 ,valmaqueda1 and ,seville4 ,in #afhj the ,duke of ,villahermosa established a glass factory at ,san ,martin de ,valdeiglesias1 and placed it under the direction of a native of ,namur named ,diodonet ,lambot1 aided by various other artists from the ,netherlands4 ,in #afhc ,lambot was succeeded by ,santiago ,vandoleto1 who proved incompetent1 and caused1 in #afib1 the total stoppage of the factory4 ,i have said that glass was made at ,medina del ,campo1 in the province of ,valladolid4 ,pinheiro da ,veiga's ,pincigraphia1 written at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 contains an interesting notice of this glassware4 ,really1 the glass-work of ,valladolid is most beautiful1 and worth going to see if only for the pleasure of its contemplation4 ,there are objects of considerable size1 such as 7glass7 pitchers of every form and colour4 ,others are called penados1 and are of a syphon shape1 pouring out water in small quantities4#aag ,besides this there are all manner of cunningly contrived retorts such as we never see in ,lisbon1 and yet in ,valladolid their cost is only moderate4444 ,the principal shops for selling these and porcelain are two in number1 and the prices are the same as in ,portugal4 #aag ,penado4 ,a narrow-mouthed vessel that affords the liquor with scantiness and difficulty4 ,connelly and ,higgins' ,dictionary2 ,a4,d4 #agih4 ,two very important ,spanish glass factories were founded in the eighteenth century4 ,the first1 which was under ,crown protection1 was established by ,don ,juan ,goyeneche in the year #agbj at a place called ,nuevo ,baztn1 in the province of ,toledo4 ,the royal privilege allowed this factory to produce all articles of glass up to a height of twenty inches1 working and polishing the same1 embellishing1 and coating them with metal2 to make looking-glasses and similar ornaments1 glass vessels of all descriptions1 white glass for window-panes1 and glass objects of any kind or shape1 whether already known to us1 or that may be invented in the future4 ,the factory of ,nuevo ,baztn continued working for some years1 and turned out excellent glass for exportation to ,america and other parts2 but it was killed eventually by the rising price of fuel1 and above all by competition from abroad4 ,when the foreigners1 says ,larruga in his ,memorias polticas y econmicas1 saw that the factory was in full swing1 they conspired to bring about its ruin1 and begged their ambassadors to communicate against it with the ministers2 but finding this of no avail1 and recognising the importance to themselves of overthrowing this manufacture1 they decided to sell glassware at a price at which it would be impossible to sell the products of ,nuevo ,baztn4 ,the amount of this reduction was the one-third part of the entire value4 ,by this means the foreigners made it impossible for the factory to support itself1 since the objects it produced were laid away and found no purchaser for years4 ,this1 and the cost of the wood required to keep the ovens burning day and night1 not excepting feast-days 7for to stop the fires for a moment would have meant the spoiling of the oven71 induced the downfall of this celebrated factory1 as soon as the fuel of all the neighbouring forests had been consumed4 ,nevertheless1 upon the closing of these works1 one of the experts who had been employed there1 a ,catalan named ,ventura ,sit1 attracted by the forests of ,valsain and the excellent and abundant sand obtainable in this locality--principally from near the villages of ,espirdo and ,bernuy de ,porreros--decided to open another glass-works at ,la ,granja4 ,here is the royal summer residence of ,san ,ildefonso1 and ,sit was fortunate enough to secure at the outset--that is1 in #agbh--the firm protection of ,philip the ,fifth and of his consort1 ,isabel ,farnese4 ,instructed by the sovereigns to make some mirrors1 he produced these objects of a moderate size at first1 increasing it1 after the year #agcd1 to a maximum length of #ade inches by #he in breadth4 ,larruga says that these mirrors were the largest produced anywhere at that time1 and they continued to be made until very nearly the end of the century4 ,they are often referred to in the narratives of travellers4 ,swinburne wrote in #aggf3 ,not far from ,carthagena is a place called ,almazaron1 where they gather a fine red earth called ,almagra1 used in the manufactures of ,saint ,ildephonso1 for polishing looking-glasses4 ,in ,seville1 it is worked up with the tobacco1 to give it a colour1 fix its volatility1 and communicate to it that softness which constitutes the principal merit of ,spanish snuff4 ,describing the royal palace at ,madrid1 the same author says that the walls of the great audience-chamber are incrustated with beautiful marble1 and all round hung with large plates of looking-glass in rich frames4 ,the manufactory of glass is at ,saint ,ildefonso1 where they cast them of a very great size2 but ,i am told they are apt to turn out much rougher and more full of flaws than those of ,france4 ,according to ,townsend 7#aghf71 ,the glass manufacture is here carried to a degree of perfection unknown in ,england4 ,the largest mirrors are made in a brass frame1 one hundred and sixty-two inches long1 ninety-three wide1 and six deep1 weighing near nine tons4 ,these are designed wholly for the royal palaces1 and for presents from the king4 ,yet even for such purposes the factory is ill-placed1 and proves a devouring monster in a country where provisions are dear1 fuel scarce1 and carriage exceedingly expensive4 ,laborde wrote of the same factory a few years later3 ,there is also a glass-house1 in which bottles are wrought of a superior quality2 and white glasses1 which are carved with much ingenuity 7,plates lxxvi4 and lxxvii474 ,near this glass-house has been founded a manufactory for mirrors1 in a large and well-arranged edifice4 ,there are two furnaces1 and a considerable number of stoves1 in which the plates are left to cool after they have been precipitated4 ,they are of all dimensions1 and the largest that have yet been fabricated4 ,they are sometimes from a hundred1 a hundred and thirty1 or a hundred and thirty-five inches in height1 to fifty1 sixty1 or sixty-five inches in breadth3 they are expanded in the hand4 ,the process for polishing them is performed by a machine2#aah they are then transported to ,madrid1 for the purpose of being metallised4 ,it is not uncommon to see tables of bronze1 on which mirrors are extended1 a hundred and sixty inches in length1 and ninety in breadth4 #aah ,this machine was invented by a ,catalan named ,pedro ,fronvila4 ,these tables are described by ,bowles3 ,the largest measures a hundred and forty-five inches in length by eighty-five in breadth1 and weighs four hundred and five arrobas4 ,the smallest measures a hundred and twenty inches in length1 and seventy-five in breadth1 and weighs three hundred and eighty arrobas4 ,illustration3 ,,lxxvi ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,factory ,,of ,,san ,,ildefonso ,the best account of any is contained in the ,nouveau ,voyage en ,espagne 7#aghi7 of ,bourgoing4 ,this author wrote3 ,a ct de cette ,fabrique naissante de premire ncessit 7i4e4 the royal linen factory at ,la ,granja7 il y en a une de luxe qui remonte au regne de ,philippe ,v2 c'est une ,manufacture de glaces1 la seule qu'il y ait en ,espagne4 ,on s'toit d'abord born une ,verrerie qui subsiste encore1 et donne des bouteilles d'une assez bonne qualit1 et des verres blancs qu'on y cisele avec assez d'adresse4 ,j'en ai rapport quelques-uns o l'on a grav des chiffres1 des lettres1 et jusqu' de jolis paysages4 ,cette ,verrerie toit un acheminement une entreprise plus brillante4 ,la ,manufacture de glaces de ,saint ,ildephonse est comparable aux plus beaux tablissements de ce genre2 on en peut voir les dessins dans les ,planches de l',encyclopdie4 ,l'difice est vaste et trs bien distribu2 il contient deux fourneaux et une vingtaine de fours o l'on fait refroidir lentement les glaces aprs les avoir coules4 ,on y en coule dans toutes les dimensions depuis les carreaux de vitres jusqu'aux plus grands trumeaux4 ,elles sont moins blanches et peut-tre moins bien polies que celles de ,venise et de ,st-,gobin2 mais nulle part on n'en a encore coul d'aussi grandes4 ,l'opration du coulage s'y fait avec beaucoup de prcision et d'ensemble4 ,monseigneur ,comte d',artois eut la curiosit d'y assister2 la glace qu'on y coula devant lui avoit1 autant que je puis m'en souvenir1 cent trente-trois pouces de long1 sur soixante-cinq de large1 et l'on m'a assur qu'il y en avoit encore de plus grandes4 ,on les dgrossit mains d'hommes dans une longue galerie qui est attenante la ,fabrique1 et il y a un quart de lieue une machine que l'eau fait mouvoir1 et o on acheve de les polir2 on les porte ensuite ,madrid pour les tamer4 ,le ,roi consacre les plus belles la parure de ses appartements2 il en fait des cadeaux aux ,cours qui ont des relations intimes avec lui4 ,en #aghc1 ,s4,m4,c4 en fit joindre quelques-unes aux prsens qu'il envoyoit la ,porte ,ottomane1 avec laquelle elle venoit de conclure un trait4 ,c'est une ide agrable pour un cosmopolite tolrant1 de penser qu'en dpit des prjugs de religion et de politique qui divisoient autrefois les ,nations1 la main des arts a tabli entr'elles un change de jouissances d'un bout de l',europe l'autre1 et que les beauts du serrail se mirent dans les glaces coules ,saint-,ildefonse1 tandis que les tapis de ,turquie sont fouls par des pieds ,franois4 ,ce qui sort d'ailleurs de la ,manufacture de ,saint-,ildefonse est vendu1 pour le compte du ,roi1 ,madrid et dans les provinces2 mais on sent bien que ce profit est trop mince pour couvrir les frais d'un tablissement aussi considrable qui1 le bois except1 est loign de toutes les matires premires qu'il employe1 qui est situ fort avant dans l'intrieur des terres1 au sein des montagnes1 et loin de toute rivire navigable2 aussi doit il tre compt parmi ces fondations de luxe qui prosperent l'ombre du ,trne1 et qui ajoutent son clat4#aai #aai ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #add-adg4 ,a few more details are added by ,swinburne3 ,below the town is the manufactory of plate-glass belonging to the crown1 carried on under the direction of ,mr ,dowling2 two hundred and eighty men are employed4 ,the largest plate they have made is one hundred and twenty-six ,spanish inches long2 the small pieces are sold in looking-glasses all over the kingdom2 but ,i am told the king makes no great profit by it2 however1 it is a very material point to be able to supply his subjects with a good commodity1 and to keep in the country a large sum of money that heretofore went out annually to purchase it from strangers4 ,they also make bottles and drinking-glasses 7,plates lxxvi41 lxxvii472 and are now busy erecting very spacious new furnaces to enlarge the works4 ,to provide fuel for the fires1 they have put the pinewoods under proper regulations and stated falls2 twenty-seven mule-loads of fir-wood are consumed every day2 and four loads cost the king1 including all the expenses of cutting and bringing down from the mountains1 about forty reals4 ,illustration3 ,,lxxvii ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,factory ,,of ,,san ,,ildefonso ,in #agcf1 the first factory which had been established at ,san ,ildefonso was nearly destroyed by fire2 but the damage was repaired1 and the factory placed under state control4 ,its finances were at no time prosperous4 ,in #agfb ,charles the ,third granted a privilege reserving to it the exclusive sale of glass within a radius of twenty leagues from ,madrid and ,segovia2 but the sales did not improve4 ,in spite of this1 the monarch1 a few years later1 erected a new and costly factory from designs by ,villanueva and ,real4 ,there were two departments in this ample building4 ,one1 for the manufacture of the plainest glass1 was directed by a ,hanoverian1 named ,sigismund ,brun2 and the other1 devoted to smaller and more elaborate articles1 by ,eder1 a ,swede4 ,the greater number of the objects made at these important works were of transparent1 colourless glass1 possessing a marked ,french style1 and were either richly engraved and cut1 or gilded1 or sometimes 7though less often7 they were made of coloured and enamelled glass4 ,at this time1 too1 were manufactured mirrors for the royal palaces1 as well as candlesticks and chandeliers of great beauty1 following the ,venetian method1 and embellished with coloured flowers4#abj #abj ,breosa and ,castellarnau2 ,guide to ,san ,ildefonso 7#ahhd71 p4 #ec4 ,rico y ,sinobas observes that in the objects produced at the factory of ,la ,granja1 the glass itself is inferior to the engraving or cutting with which it is adorned4 ,this leads him to infer that the foreigners brought over by the kings of ,spain to superintend the factory1 were cutters and engravers of glass1 rather than skilled glass-makers4 ,he also draws attention to the fact that the ,spanish monarchs chose these foreign craftsmen from too limited a class1 entrusting the most important posts at all the royal factories to ,frenchmen who were stated to descend from the old nobility of their native country4 ,in this manner the progress and welfare of the craft itself was sacrificed to an insane prejudice in favour of the aristocratic origin of the craftsman4 ,in spite of all these efforts1 the works at the dawn of the nineteenth century were in a moribund condition4 ,in #ahbi they passed into the hands of private persons1 who also failed to make them pay1 and subsequently1 owing to the ineptitude of ,spanish governments and the severity of foreign competition1 have definitely closed their doors4 ,in ,catalonia1 wrote ,laborde1 towards the year #ahjj1 are two glass houses2 but the glass blown in them is dark1 and destitute of lustre4 ,aragon has four1 one at ,alfamen1 one at ,pealva1 one at ,utrillas1 and one at ,jaulin1 which is the largest2 but the quality of the glass is not superior to that of ,catalonia4 ,the glass-house at ,utrillas produces both flint and common glass4 ,glass houses are also established at ,pajarejo and at ,recuenco in ,castile1 which manufacture the most beautifully white and transparent glass4 ,in #agia there were six glass-ovens in the kingdom of ,valencia1 situated at ,valencia1 ,alicante1 ,salines1 ,olleria1 and ,alcira4 ,they turned out #bajj pieces in this year1 some of which were exported to ,castile and ,aragon4#aba #aba ,ricord2 ,noticia de las varias y diferentes ,producciones del ,reyno de ,valencia1 etc43 segun el estado que tenan en el ao #agia4 ,valencia1 #agic4 ,early in the eighteenth century the glass of ,barcelona was praised by ,alvarez de ,colmenar 7,il s'y fait de belles verreries71 and we know that all through this period her forns de vidre continued to produce good work1 including holy-water vessels of uncoloured glass relieved with blue or with the fine white latticinio1 the local arruixadors or borrachas1 and the typical porrn4 ,the former of these vessels is of small size1 and has several spouts4 ,commonly it is filled with scented water for gallants to sprinkle on girls at dances in the public square4 ,the porrn invariably excites the curiosity of foreigners1#abb and is often thought to be of purely ,spanish origin4 ,this is not so4 ,upon a ,roman lampstand in ,naples museum is a figure of ,bacchus riding on a tiger and holding in his hand the horn from which the ancients drank1 using it as1 among some other peoples1 do the modern ,catalans--that is1 not placing the vessel in their mouth1 but holding it aloft and thus imbibing it2 a method which requires no small amount of practice4 ,in fact1 there is reason to believe that the porrn is derived from a similar vessel in use among the ancient ,persians1 who poured their liquor from it into the hollow of the hand1 and thence imbibed it in the fashion called1 in ,catalua and ,valencia1 al gallet4 ,for just as a certain class of ,american displays his marksmanship in spitting1 so does the ,catalan who is accomplished in the art1 amuse himself and others by causing the ruby wine to spout from his porrn on to the very apex of his nose1 continuing from this point1 in the form of a fine and undulating rivulet1 over his upper lip and down his throat4 #abb ,the mode of drinking in this country is singular2 they hold a broad-bottom'd glass bottle at arm's length1 and let the liquor spout out of a long neck upon their tongue2 from what ,i see1 their expertness at this exercise arises from frequent practise2 for the ,catalans drink often and in large quantities1 but as yet ,i have not seen any of them intoxicated4--,swinburne4 ,windows of ,spanish houses were seldom glazed until about one hundred years ago4 ,when ,bertaut de ,rouen travelled here in #afei1 this fact impressed him disagreeably4 ,even in the royal palace at ,madrid he found that there were chambers qui n'ont point du tout de fenestrs1 ou qui n'en ont qu'une petite1 et d'o le jour ne vient que d'enhaut1 le verre estant fort rare en ,espagne1 et la pluspart des fenestrs des maisons n'ayant pas de vitres4 ,in #aghg1 ,arthur ,young was no less horrified at the glassless condition of the houses in ,catalua4 ,reach ,scull2 the inn so bad that our guide would not permit us to enter it1 so he went to the house of the ,cur4 ,a scene followed so new to ,english eyes1 that we could not refrain from laughing very heartily4 ,not a pane of glass in the whole town1 but our reverend host had a chimney in his kitchen2 he ran to the river to catch trout2 a man brought us some chickens which were put to death on the spot4444 ,this town and its inhabitants are1 to the eye1 equally wretched1 the smoke-holes instead of chimneys1 the total want of glass windows--the cheerfulness of which1 to the eye1 is known only by the want4 ,however1 as an exception to this doleful rule1 the town of ,poeblar had some good houses with glass windows1 and we saw a well-dressed young lady gallanted by two monks4 ,,printed ,,by ,,neill ,,and ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,,edinburgh4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,the original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have been maintained4 ,inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as an misprint4 ,the table below lists all corrections applied to the original text4 p4 x3 ,,lix - ,,lix4 p4 #bj3 ,mr ,cunninghame ,graham - ,mr4 p4 #bc3 avec leurs enfans - enfants p4 #cb3 feu4 ,l'hte - ,l'htel p4 #cc3 choses est rgl - rgl p4 #ci3 fort peuple autresfois - autrefois p4 #ga3 pp4 #afa1 #afb - pp4 #afa1 #afb4 p4 #gb3 ,len ,cathedral - ,len ,cathedral7 p4 #if3 peintures varies de bon gut - got p4 #ih3 on the cover4 - on the cover4 p4 #ajd3 7see ,vol4 ,i4 ,plate xi47 - 7see ,vol4 ,i41 ,plate xi47 p4 #acb3 appear to be galloping4 - galloping4 p4 #aci3 and ,pisano4 - and ,pisano4 p4 #aci3 de relieve4 - de relieve4 p4 #aei3 les plus compliqes - compliqus p4 #aei3 qu'un bal masqe - masqu p4 #afi3 the journal of ,bertant - ,bertaut p4 #ahj3 ,quarte1 ,vilallonga - ,villalonga p4 #ahc3 degree of delicacy4 - delicacy4 p4 #ahh3 says ,seor ,osmo - ,osma p4 #ahh3 and another ,illustration - ,illustration4 p4 #bac3 style of ,capo-di-,monte4 - ,capo-di-,monte4 p4 #bbe3 in ,france and ,spain4 - ,spain4 p4 #bbh3 albeit the the - albeit the p4 #bcf3 ,,vessels ,,of ,,catalan ,,glass - ,,lxxv ,,vessels ,,of ,,catalan ,,glass p4 #bed3 ,,glass ,,of ,,the - ,,lxxvi ,,glass ,,of ,,the